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Liquid Detergents
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SURFACTANT SCIENCE SERIES CONSULTING EDITORS MARTIN J. SCHICK Consultant F...
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Liquid Detergents
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SURFACTANT SCIENCE SERIES CONSULTING EDITORS MARTIN J. SCHICK Consultant FREDERICK M. FOWKES (19151990) New York, New York 1. Nonionic Surfactants, edited by Martin J. Schick (see also Volumes 19, 23, and 60) 2. Solvent Properties of Surfactant Solutions, edited by Kozo Shinoda (see Volume 55) 3. Surfactant Biodegradation, R. D. Swisher (see Volume 18) 4. Cationic Surfactants, edited by Eric Jungermann (see also Volumes 34, 37, and 53) 5. Detergency: Theory and Test Methods (in three parts), edited by W. G. Cutler and R. C. Davis (see also Volume 20) 6. Emulsions and Emulsion Technology (in three parts), edited by Kenneth J. Lissant 7. Anionic Surfactants (in two parts), edited by Warner M. Linfield (see Volume 56) 8. Anionic Surfactants: Chemical Analysis, edited by John Cross (out of print) 9. Stabilization of Colloidal Dispersions by Polymer Adsorption, Tatsuo Sato and Richard Ruch (out of print) 10. Anionic Surfactants: Biochemistry, Toxicology, Dermatology, edited by Christian Gloxhuber (see Volume 43) 11. Anionic Surfactants: Physical Chemistry of Surfactant Action, edited by E. H. LucassenReynders (out of print) 12. Amphoteric Surfactants, edited by B. R. Bluestein and Clifford L. Hilton (see Volume 59) 13. Demulsification: Industrial Applications, Kenneth J. Lissant (out of print) 14. Surfactants in Textile Processing, Arved Datyner 15. Electrical Phenomena at Interfaces: Fundamentals, Measurements, and Applications, edited by Ayao Kitahara and Akira Watanabe 16. Surfactants in Cosmetics, edited by Martin M. Rieger (out of print) 17. Interfacial Phenomena: Equilibrium and Dynamic Effects, Clarence A. Miller and P. Neogi 18. Surfactant Biodegradation: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, R. D. Swisher 19. Nonionic Surfactants: Chemical Analysis, edited by John Cross
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20. Detergency: Theory and Technology, edited by W. Gale Cutler and Erik Kissa 21. Interfacial Phenomena in Apolar Media, edited by HansFriedrich Eicke and Geoffrey D. Parfitt 22. Surfactant Solutions: New Methods of Investigation, edited by Raoul Zana 23. Nonionic Surfactants: Physical Chemistry, edited by Martin J. Schick 24. Microemulsion Systems, edited by Henri L. Rosano and Marc Clausse 25. Biosurfactants and Biotechnology, edited by Naim Kosaric, W. L. Cairns, and Neil C. C. Gray 26. Surfactants in Emerging Technologies, edited by Milton J. Rosen 27. Reagents in Mineral Technology, edited by P. Somasundaran and Brij M. Moudgil 28. Surfactants in Chemical/Process Engineering, edited by Darsh T. Wasan, Martin E. Ginn, and Dinesh O. Shah 29. Thin Liquid Films, edited by I. B. Ivanov 30. Microemulsions and Related Systems: Formulation, Solvency, and Physical Properties, edited by Maurice Bourrel and Robert S. Schechter 31. Crystallization and Polymorphism of Fats and Fatty Acids, edited by Nissim Garti and Kiyotaka Sato 32. Interfacial Phenomena in Coal Technology, edited by Gregory D. Botsaris and Yuli M. Glazman 33. SurfactantBased Separation Processes, edited by John F. Scamehorn and Jeffrey H. Harwell 34. Cationic Surfactants: Organic Chemistry, edited by James M. Richmond 35. Alkylene Oxides and Their Polymers, F. E. Bailey, Jr., and Joseph V. Koleske 36. Interfacial Phenomena in Petroleum Recovery, edited by Norman R. Morrow 37. Cationic Surfactants: Physical Chemistry, edited by Donn N. Rubingh and Paul M. Holland 38. Kinetics and Catalysis in Microheterogeneous Systems, edited by M. Grätzel and K. Kalyanasundaram 39. Interfacial Phenomena in Biological Systems, edited by Max Bender 40. Analysis of Surfactants, Thomas M. Schmitt 41. Light Scattering by Liquid Surfaces and Complementary Techniques, edited by Dominique Langevin 42. Polymeric Surfactants, Irja Piirma 43. Anionic Surfactants: Biochemistry, Toxicology, Dermatology. Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Christian Gloxhuber and Klaus Künstler 44. Organized Solutions: Surfactants in Science and Technology, edited by Stig E. Friberg and Björn Lindman 45. Defoaming: Theory and Industrial Applications, edited by P. R. Garrett 46. Mixed Surfactant Systems, edited by Keizo Ogino and Masahiko Abe 47. Coagulation and Flocculation: Theory and Applications, edited by Bohuslav Dobiáš
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48. Biosurfactants: Production • Properties • Applications, edited by Naim Kosaric 49. Wettability, edited by John C. Berg 50. Fluorinated Surfactants: Synthesis • Properties • Applications, Erik Kissa 51. Surface and Colloid Chemistry in Advanced Ceramics Processing, edited by Robert J. Pugh and Lennart Bergström 52. Technological Applications of Dispersions, edited by Robert B. McKay 53. Cationic Surfactants: Analytical and Biological Evaluation, edited by John Cross and Edward J. Singer 54. Surfactants in Agrochemicals, Tharwat F. Tadros 55. Solubilization in Surfactant Aggregates, edited by Sherril D. Christian and John F. Scamehorn 56. Anionic Surfactants: Organic Chemistry, edited by Helmut W. Stache 57. Foams: Theory, Measurements, and Applications, edited by Robert K. Prud'homme and Saad A. Khan 58. The Preparation of Dispersions in Liquids, H. N. Stein 59. Amphoteric Surfactants: Second Edition, edited by Eric G. Lomax 60. Nonionic Surfactants: Polyoxyalkylene Block Copolymers, edited by Vaughn M. Nace 61. Emulsions and Emulsion Stability, edited by Johan Sjöblom 62. Vesicles, edited by Morton Rosoff 63. Applied Surface Thermodynamics, edited by A. W. Neumann and Jan K. Spelt 64. Surfactants in Solution, edited by Arun K. Chattopadhyay and K. L. Mittal 65. Detergents in the Environment, edited by Milan Johann Schwuger 66. Industrial Applications of Microemulsions, edited by Conxita Solans and Hironobu Kunieda 67. Liquid Detergents, edited by KuoYann Lai ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION Surfactants in Cosmetics: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Martin M. Rieger and Linda Rhein Powdered Detergents, edited by Michael S. Showell Enzymes in Detergency, edited by Jan H. van Ee, Onno Misset, and Erik J. Baas
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Liquid Detergents edited by KuoYann Lai ColgatePalmolive Company New York, New York
M ARCEL DEKKER, INC. N EW YORK • BASEL
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Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data Liquid detergents / edited by KuoYann Lai. p. cm. — (Surfactant science series ; v. 67) Includes index. ISBN 0824793919 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Detergents. I. Lai, KuoYann. II. Series. TP992.5.L56 1996 668'.14—dc20 9644787 CIP The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the address below. This book is printed on acidfree paper. Copyright © 1997 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 Current printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
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Preface Liquid detergents play very important roles in our daily lives for personal care, household surface care, and fabric care. We use these products just about every day from washing our hands, hair, dishes, clothes to cleaning various surfaces in our homes. In the last three decades, liquid detergents have gained an increasing popularity largely due to the convenience they offer over other forms. During this period, there have been significant advances in both science and technology in this area. Numerous papers have been published in professional journals and trade magazines, thousands of patents have been granted, and large number of new products have been introduced to the marketplace. The objective of this volume is to provide a comprehensive review of these advances. This is the first book specifically devoted to the review and discussion of liquid detergents. It is intended primarily for scientists and engineers working in the detergent industry and the detergent raw materials industry around the world. Researchers in other industries—such as those in the petroleum industry who are involved in enhanced oil recovery and those in textile processing—as well as those in academia will also useful information in this volume. Consistent with the overall aim of the Surfactant Science Series, this volume covers both theoretical and applied aspects of liquid detergents. There are a total of 14 chapters. Chapter 1 gives a concise account of the past, present, and future of liquid detergents. The rest of the volume is structured into two parts—theories and applications. Chapters 2–6 present an indepth discussion of theories of common importance to most liquid detergent systems including hydrotropy, phase equilibria, rheology, polymeric stabilizers, and nonaqueous surfactant systems. Chapters 7–13 cover the technological aspects of liquid detergents in various practical applications from light and heavyduty liquid
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detergents, liquid automatic dishwasher detergents, liquid soaps, shampoos and conditioners, and fabric softeners to specialty liquid household surface cleaners. Chapter 14 focuses on the manufacturing aspects of liquid detergents. It is hoped that this volume will not only serve as a handy reference to researchers but also stimulate many new innovations in the detergent field. I want to take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks to Colgate Palmolive Company for permitting me to undertake this project and to the leadership team at its Global Technology Division for their strong support. Special thanks also go to all the contributors of this book not only for sharing their expertise and extensive experience but also for patiently enduring the unavoidable delays of a multiauthored book. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Martin Schick, the consulting editor of this series, for his valuable suggestions, encouragement and patience; and to the publisher, Marcel Dekker Inc., in particular, Ms. Anita Lekhwani, Associate Acquisitions Editor, and Mr. Joseph Stubenrauch, Production Editor, for their patience and invaluable help. Finally, I want to thank my wife, Jane, and my children, Melody, Amy, and Peter for their endurance and support in the last several years. It was with their love and understanding that I was able to devote numerous evenings and weekends to complete this task. KUOYANN LAI
Contents Preface Contributors 1. Liquid Detergents: An Overview Arno Cahn 2. Hydrotropy Stig E. Friberg and Chris Brancewicz 3. Phase Equilibria Guy Broze 4. Rheology of Liquid Detergents R. S. Rounds 5. Polymeric Stabilizers for Liquid Detergents Madukkarai K. Nagarajan and Hal Ambuter 6. Nonaqueous Surfactant Systems Marie Sjöberg and Torbjörn Wärnheim 7. LightDuty Liquid Detergents KuoYann Lai, Elizabeth F. K. McCandlish, and Harry Aszman 8. HeavyDuty Liquid Detergents Amit Sachdev and Santhan Krishnan 9. Liquid Automatic Dishwasher Detergents Philip A. Gorlin, KuoYann Lai, and Nagaraj Dixit
10. Shampoos and Conditioners Clarence R. Robbins 11. Liquid Soaps Richard E. Reever 12. Fabric Softeners Alain Jacques and Charles J. Schramm, Jr. 13. Specialty Liquid Household Surface Cleaners Karen Wisniewski 14. Manufacture of Liquid Detergents R. S. Rounds Index
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Contributors Hal Ambuter Specialty Chemical Division—Product Development, The BFGoodrich Company, Brecksville, Ohio Harry Aszman Research and Development, Global Technology, Colgate Palmolive Company, Piscataway, New Jersey Chris Brancewicz Department of Chemistry and Center for Advanced Materials Processing, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York Guy Broze Advanced Technology Department, ColgatePalmolive Research and Development, Inc., Milmort, Belgium Arno Cahn Arno Cahn Consulting Services, Inc., Pearl River, New York Nagaraj Dixit Research and Development, Global Technology, Colgate Palmolive Company, Piscataway, New Jersey Stig E. Friberg Department of Chemistry and Center for Advanced Materials Processing, Clarkson University, Potsdam, New York Philip A. Gorlin Research and Development, Global Technology, Colgate Palmolive Company, Piscataway, New Jersey Alain Jacques Fabric Care, ColgatePalmolive Research and Development, Inc., Milmort, Belgium Santhan Krishnan Research and Development, Global Technology, Colgate Palmolive Company, Piscataway, New Jersey
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KuoYann Lai Global Materials and Sourcing (AsiaPacific Division), Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, New York, New York Elizabeth F. K. McCandlish Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, Piscataway, New Jersey Madukkarai K. Nagarajan Specialty Chemical Division—Product Development, The BFGoodrich Company, Brecksville, Ohio Richard E. Reever Richard Reever and Associates, Inc., Minnetonka, Minnesota Clarence R. Robbins Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, Piscataway, New Jersey R. S. Rounds Fluid Dynamics, Inc., Piscataway, New Jersey Amit Sachdev Research and Development, Global Technology, Colgate Palmolive Company, Piscataway, New Jersey Charles J. Schramm, Jr. Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, Piscataway, New Jersey Marie Sjöberg Institute for Surface Chemistry, Stockholm, Sweden Torbjörn Wärnheim* Institute for Surface Chemistry, Stockholm, Sweden Karen Wisniewski Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, Piscataway, New Jersey *Current affiliation: Pharmacia & Upjohn, Stockholm, Sweden
1 Liquid Detergents: An Overview ARNO CAHN Arno Cahn Consulting Services, Inc., Pearl River, New York I. Introduction II. LightDuty Liquids III. HeavyDuty Liquids IV. Liquid Automatic Dishwasher Detergents V. Shampoos and Conditioners VI. Liquid Soaps VII. Fabric Softeners VIII. Specialty Liquids IX. Manufacture and Raw Materials References
I. Introduction Liquid detergents are convenience products. Compared with powdered detergen dissolve more rapidly, particularly in cold water, they generate less dust, and they dose. It is not surprising, therefore, that liquid forms of household cleaning produ developed by manufacturers. With the exception of fabric softeners and shampoos, the solid form of cleaning p preceded the liquid form. This is true of manual and automatic dishwashing, laund general personal washing products. As a result,
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the technical history of liquid detergents is to a large extent one of emulating the performance features of the powder models. All other factors—soil, water hardness, and temperature—being equal, cleaning performance is a function of the concentration and type of the active ingredients that are delivered into the cleaning bath. Almost by definition, the liquid form involves a dilution of the active ingredients, that is, a given volume of a powdered detergent can generally deliver more active ingredients than an equal volume of a liquid detergent. The task to provide performance equality with powders is therefore not insignificant. It is made even more difficult when inorganic salts are used to provide certain specific performance features. These salts often pose problems of solubility and compatibility with the organic surfactants of the formulation. Finally, formulation problems are most severe when the active component is less stable in an aqueous environment than in a solid matrix. These considerations apply principally to the heavyduty liquids, the largest of the liquid detergent categories, but they also come into play with liquid automatic dishwasher detergents. The situation is different for products designed for lightduty, hand dishwashing and for softening fabrics. These liquids are generally superior in performance to their powdered counterparts to the extent that these existed in the first place. This is also true of shampoo formulations, for which there is no common solid equivalent. This chapter gives an essentially historical overview of the various categories. Historically, soapbased shampoos and the liquid potassium oleate formulations found in washroom dispensers were probably the earliest commercial liquid detergents. II. LightDuty Liquids On a truly commercial scale, the age of liquid detergents can be said to have begun in the late 1940s when the first liquid detergent for manual dishwashing was introduced. This liquid consisted essentially of a nonionic surfactant: alkylphenol ethoxylate. In use, it produced only a moderate amount of foam in the dishpan. This proved to be a serious detriment. To be successful, consumer product innovations must show a large measure of similarity to the conventional products they are intended to displace. In this case, copious foam was the essential performance attribute that needed to be as close to that which could be generated from powders and soap chips. The requirement for copious foam levels has a technical basis and is more than a mere emotional reaction to a visual phenomenon. With soapbased products, the appearance of a permanent foam signaled that all hard water ions had
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been removed by precipitation as calcium and magnesium carboxylates and that excess soap was now available to act as a surfactant. The foaming requirements for lightduty liquids were met by the next series of product introductions in the early 1950s. These formulations were based on highfoaming anionic surfactants. They were capable of maintaining adequate levels of foam throughout the dishwashing process and possessed sufficient emulsifying power to handle the load of grease in the dishpan to produce “squeaky clean” dishware. In practice, this was accomplished by a mixture of anionic surfactants— alkylbenzenesulfonate, alcohol ether sulfate, and alcohol sulfates—sometimes in combination with nonionic surfactants. To maintain foam stability, alkanolamides were incorporated. In some products, alkanolamides were subsequently replaced by longchain amine oxides. The formulation of lightduty liquids overcame a second major technical hurdle inherent in the formulation of all liquid detergents: to maintain homogeneity in the presence of significant levels, about 30% or more, of moderately soluble organic surfactants. Coupling agents or hydrotropes were introduced for this purpose, specifically the shortchain alkylbenzenesulfonates, such as xylene, cumene and toluenesulfonates, as well as ethanol. Lightduty liquids have maintained a significant market volume to this day. This is somewhat surprising because the primary function of these products is to wash dishes. In newer homes and apartments, this function has been taken over by automatic dishwashing machines and the special detergents developed for use in these machines. Both have expanded greatly since their introduction in the late 1950s. Some part of the persistence of lightduty liquids is no doubt a result of their use as finefabric detergents for washing delicate laundry items by hand. Over the years, minor additives have been incorporated into lightduty liquid formulations, principally to support marketing claims for special performance features. For a period of time in the 1960s, antimicrobials were incorporated into some products designed to prevent secondary infections of broken skin during dishwashing. After an absence of some 30 years, antimicrobials are again appearing in lightduty liquids. Their return is no doubt connected with increasing awareness of the possible presence of bacteria in foods, especially in chicken. Other commercial products contained protein as a skin benefit agent. Improving the condition of skin as a result of exposure to lightduty liquid solutions proved to be technically very difficult. Exposure times are relatively short, about 20 minutes, three times a day under the best of circumstances, and use concentrations are low, about 0.15%. The combination of low use levels and short exposure times makes it difficult to overcome the adverse effects of skin exposure to other inimical influences, such as dry air in heated homes and strong household chemicals.
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Generally speaking, lightduty liquid compositions are relatively nonirritating to skin. Mildness to skin could therefore be claimed by these products with reasonable justification. During the 1960s and 1970s, the cosmetic image was further enhanced by opacifying lightduty liquids and conferring upon them a lotionlike appearance. In more recent years, dishwashing efficacy—effective emulsification of grease—combined with persistent foam, has been the main objective of technical product improvement. In line with cleaning efficacy, solid particles have also been incorporated into some lightduty liquid formulations with the objective of raising the effectiveness of the products in removing solid cakedon soil from dishes. III. HeavyDuty Liquids Once lightduty liquid products had established an attractive market position, the development of heavyduty liquids could not be far behind. Here, too, the requirement of similarity to the existing products had to be met, in this case powdered laundry detergents. The powdered laundry detergents of the 1950s were characterized by the presence of high levels of builder, specifically pentasodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), and relatively low levels, about 15%, of surfactants. In formulating a heavyduty liquid, therefore, the major technical objective was to find ways of stably incorporating maximum levels of builder salts. The first commercially important heavyduty liquid was introduced into the U.S. market in 1958. The product was built with tetrapotassium pyrophosphate, which is more soluble than STPP. Even so, in the presence of a surfactant system of sodium alkylbenzenesulfonate and a mixture of alkanolamides, the formulation could tolerate only 15–20% of tetrapotassium pyrophosphate. Incorporation of an antiredeposition agent, another ingredient present in laundry powders, proved to be another major technical hurdle. Antiredeposition agents, generally carbohydrate derivatives, such as carboxymethylcellulose, had been introduced into laundry powders to prevent greying after a number of repeat wash cycles. In one product, the patented solution to this problem consisted of balancing two antiredeposition agents of different specific gravity such that the tendency of one to rise in the finished product was counterbalanced by the tendency of the second agent to settle out of the product [1]. Even though the first major commercial heavyduty liquid composition was formulated with a builder system, the concentrations of builders and surfactants it delivered into the washing solution were lower than those provided by the conventional detergent powders. As a liquid, however, the product possessed a unique convenience in use, particularly for fullstrength application to specific soiled areas of garments. Convenience was accompanied by effectiveness,
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because the concentration of individual ingredients in the neat form approached that of a nonaqueous system. This is illustrated by the following consideration. Recommended washing product use directions lead to washing solutions with a concentration of about 0.15% of the total product. At a surfactant level of about 15% in the product, the final concentration of surfactant in the wash liquor is about 0.0225%. The efficacy of surfactant in providing observable cleaning at such low concentration attests to the power of the interfacial phenomena that underlie the action of surfactants. By contrast, a heavyduty liquid containing 20% surfactant, applied full strength, leads to a surfactant concentration of 20%, some three orders of magnitude larger than in the earlier case. At these—almost nonaqueous— concentrations, solution phenomena, such as those operating in nonaqueous dry cleaning, are likely to be responsible for cleaning efficacy. The popularity of heavyduty liquids for pretreating stains was thus based not only on convenience but also on real performance. In the mid1960s, the branchedchain surfactants were replaced by more biodegradable analogs in all laundry products. In heavyduty liquids, sodium alkylbenzenesulfonate, derived from an alkylbenzene with a tetrapropylene side chain, was replaced by its straightchain analog, referred to as sodium linear alkylbenzenesulfonate (LAS). The conversion to more biodegradable surfactants was prompted by the appearance of foams on river. The appearance of excessive algal growth on stagnant lakes prompted a second environmental development that proved to be beneficial to the expansion of heavyduty liquids: the reduction or elimination of the sodium tripolyphosphate builder from laundry detergents. Restrictions on the use of phosphate in laundry detergents were imposed by a number of states and smaller administrative agencies beginning in 1970. Because no totally equivalent phosphate substitute was immediately available, the performance of heavyduty laundry powders was adversely affected. As the wholewash performance differential between powders and liquids narrowed, the usage of heavyduty liquids for the whole wash expanded, markedly so in areas where phosphate had been banned. In the first nonphosphate version of the commercial product, phosphate was replaced by NTA (trisodium nitrilotriacetate), a powerful builder, comparable to the condensed phosphates in its efficacy in sequestering calcium ions in the washing solution. Because of reports of adverse teratogenic effects in laboratory experiments, this builder was withdrawn from the market late in 1971. It was replaced by sodium citrate, an environmentally more acceptable but inherently less powerful calcium sequestrant. At the same time, surfactant levels were increased by a factor of about 3. What had happened in practice (if not in theory) was that higher levels of surfactants had been introduced to compensate
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for the loss in the building contribution to washing efficacy provided earlier by phosphate. The 1970s saw the introduction of several heavyduty liquids that carried this substitution to its ultimate, being totally unbuilt and consisting solely of surfactants at levels ranging from 35% to about 50%. These compositions were distinguished from lightduty liquids by the presence of surfactants with longer hydrophobes and, of course, by the presence of laundry auxilaries, such as fluorescent whiteners and antiredeposition agents. With the exception of a few products based on surfactants only, most heavyduty liquids are formulated with a mixture of anionic and nonionic surfactants, with anionics predominating. The steady expansion of phosphate bans across the United States, accompanied by an expanding perception of the convenience and efficacy of heavyduty liquids, led to an expansion of this product category in the two decades beginning 1970. This expansion was fueled not only by the publicity that normally accompanies the introduction of new brands but also by some significant product improvements. The first of these to appear late in the early 1980s was the incorporation of proteolytic and, later, amylolytic enzymes. In liquid detergents, with their relatively high level of water, proteolytic enzymes must be stabilized to prevent degradation during storage [2,3]. Enzymes make a significant and demonstrable contribution to washing efficacy, not only in the removal of enzymespecific stains, such as grass and blood, by proteinases, but also in an increase in the level of general cleanliness. The latter effect is the result of the ability of a proteolytic enzyme to act upon proteinaceous components of the matrix that binds soil to fabric. Enzymes had been used in detergent powders in the United States and Europe as early as 1960. They were subsequently withdrawn in the United States, but not in Europe, when the raw proteinase of the time proved to have an adverse effect on the health of plant workers. Improvements in the enzymes, specifically encapsulation, eliminated their dustiness and made it possible to use these materials in detergent plants without adverse health effects. The second product innovation was the incorporation of a fabricsoftening ingredient. Again, a powdered version of a “softergent” that had been on the market for some time served as the model product. In the powder, the mutually antagonistic anionic surfactants and cationic softening ingredients could be kept apart so that they would not neutralize their individual benefits in the wash cycle. In a liquid, this proved to be unattainable. As a result, the choice of surfactants in liquid softergents was restricted to nonionics. Although the incorporation of enzymes and fabric softeners strengthened the market position of heavyduty liquids, it did not solve the basic problem of limited general detergency performance in normal washing. As noted earlier, heavyduty liquids came close to the performance of the first nonphosphate laundry powders. With time, however, the performance of nonphosphate laundry
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powders improved as new surfactant systems and new nonphosphate builders, notably zeolite in combination with polycarboxylate polymers, were introduced. The last decade saw a partial conversion of some major brands from unbuilt to built compositions. The first of these products employed a builder system consisting of sodium citrate in combination with potassium laurate [2]. In the most recent versions, potassium laurate has been replaced by a smallmolecule ether polycarboxylate sequestrant, a mixture of sodium tartrate monosuccinate and sodium tartrate disuccinate [3]. In these built products, the stabilization of enzymes is technically more difficult than in unbuilt systems. A combination of lowmolecularweight fatty acids, lowmolecularweight alcohols, and very low levels of free calcium ions proved to be the solution to this problem. At the height of their popularity, heavyduty liquids accounted for 40–45% of the heavyduty laundry products category in the United States. Not unexpectedly, the market share of heavyduty liquids has declined somewhat as new developments in laundry powders, notably the introduction of a bleaching function and of concentrated, higher density detergent powders, has reinvigorated this product category. If the emulation of the performance of laundry powders is to continue in the future, and there is no reason to doubt this trend, the incorporation of a stain removal and bleaching function into heavyduty liquids should be the next technical improvement in these products. Indeed, the first product claiming a bleaching ingredient has made its appearance at this writing. In laundry powders, effective bleaching has been attained in the last decade by incorporating a combination of sodium perborate and an activator. In Europe, sodium perborate has been used for many decades as a major (about 20%) ingredient of laundry detergents. At temperatures near 100°C, sodium perborate alone provides effective bleaching. As washing temperatures have decreased over the past 15 years, a need has arisen for an activator that reacts with sodium perborate to form unstable peroxy intermediates, which in turn can effect bleaching at the lower temperatures. To prevent premature reaction with the oxygen source, usually sodium perborate, the activators can easily be encapsulated in powdered detergent products. In an aqueous environment, this is technically much more difficult. One approach toward the incorporation of activated perborate into heavyduty liquids is to remove the aqueous environment and formulate nonaqueous systems [5]. To attain product homogeneity, these formulations require significant levels, about 20%, of organic solvents, such as propylene glycol and/or ethanol. Nonaqueous systems have been patented extensively, particularly in Europe, but so far have not been reflected in major new product introductions. Nonaqueous liquids could be considered “superconcentrated” and as such are in tune with the recent trend to concentrated laundry powders. However, the
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need for organic solvents combined with the high level of surfactants present in these formulations represents a burden on the environment and adds to the cost of such products. In Europe, specifically in Germany, discharge into the environment is a serious problem that is likely to inhibit expansion of both aqueous and nonaqueous heavyduty liquids. Such superconcentrated, nonaqueous heavyduty liquids have not made an appearance in the marketplace, but “concentrated” products have been introduced, in consonance with a general trend toward compaction initiated by the introduction of compact or concentrated detergent powders. Two technical approaches toward more concentrated products have been followed. The first, originating in Europe, results in an opaque product containing relatively high levels of builder salts in suspension. A stable suspension is achieved by salting out the surfactant system by an excess of electrolyte (which includes the builder salts) to form lamellar or spherulitic surfactant aggregates that are capable of suspending builder in excess of its solubility in the formulation. The relatively high builder levels contribute to improved wholewash performance, especially in the European liquids, which contain sodium tripolyphosphate as the builder [4]. A second approach toward compaction yields clear, isotropic liquids that appear to be preferred by U.S. consumers. Technically, this involves a difficult balancing act because conventional hydrotroping agents, such as cumeneor xylenesulfonates, may lose their efficacy in a system enriched in organic components. As the system becomes more organic in nature, higher levels of solvents, such as ethanol, are required in combination with neutralization of acidic functionalities (LAS or citric acid) with alkanolamines, such as mono and triethanolamine. In general, the phase stability of the system becomes more sensitive to changes in active levels because the stable operating region of the phase diagram is narrowed relative to more dilute systems. IV. Liquid Automatic Dishwasher Detergents The development of liquid automatic dishwashing detergents continued the pattern of emulating the composition of solid products in a liquid form. Liquid automatic dishwashing detergents were first introduced in 1986 at a time when the market penetration of heavyduty liquid laundry detergents was on a pronounced upswing, without an upper limit in sight. A liquid version of the automatic dishwashing detergent powders therefore appeared to be attractive and timely. These liquid detergent products are suspensions rather than true solutions. Nonetheless, the technical problems of formulating thick but flowable suspensions are considerable. Again, the primary task was to incorporate as much of
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the important ingredients—principally builders in this case—as possible. Even approaching the levels of sodium tripolyphosphate and sodium carbonate present in the powdered versions gives rise to a very thick suspension that can be coaxed out of the container only with considerable difficulty. Making the suspension thixotropic by incorporation of the appropriate clay materials and, optionally, polycarboxylate polymers provides a solution to the flow problem [6]. Before use by the consumer, the product must be shaken to reduce viscosity and promote flow. Another major technical problem is the inadequate stability in an aqueous environment of chlorinated isocyanurates, the organic chlorine source used in powders. Sodium hypochlorite satisfies the stability requirements but, on the other hand, reacts with the surfactant types used in powder formulations. The specification of surfactants for use in liquid automatic dishwashing products therefore includes not only the universal requirement of low foam levels (and ideally the capability of destroying the foams generated during the dishwashing process by proteinaceous soil) but also stability to sodium hypochlorite. To a large extent, these requirements have been met by the alkyldiphenyl oxide disulfonate surfactants. In some commercial liquid automatic dishwashing formulations, the surfactant is omitted altogether. In practice, this is a possible solution because detergency in hard surface cleaning, such as dishwashing, is accomplished primarily by the phosphate builder. However, in the absence of surfactant there is little defoaming of natural soils and no contribution to the “sheeting” of water just before drying. Such sheeting minimizes the formation of water spots on dishes that have gone through the dishwashing process. V. Shampoos and Conditioners Shampoos are liquid detergents designed to clean a particular substrate, that is, hair and scalp. They bear some resemblance to hand dishwashing liquids in that they are essentially unbuilt surfactant solutions. Esthetic properties, such as appearance (clear or pearlescent), viscosity, and fragrance, are perhaps more important in this product group than in any other product category discussed in this book. Development and maintenance of an adequate foam level is at once a performance property and also a esthetic property in that it is noticed and evaluated by the user. Shampoos almost always contain additives with activity in areas other than cleaning and foaming, designed to provide specific performance attributes that confer such properties as luster, manageability to hair, and elimination of dandruff. The concentration in use of shampoos is estimated as near 8%. This is an order of magnitude greater than the use concentrations of laundry and dishwashing
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liquids. Mildness to skin and low irritation to eyes are therefore important requirements for shampoos. Salts, generally sodium but also triethanolammonium, of longchain alcohol sulfates and alcohol ether sulfates are the most widely used surfactants in shampoo formulations. Alkanolamides act as viscosity regulators as well as foam stabilizers. The most general benefits associated with the use of conditioners is a reduction in static charge on hair and hence a greater ease of combing, that is, improved manageability. Cationic, quaternary surfactants and cationic polymers provide these benefits as a result of electrostatic adsorption on hair. In analogy with “softergents,” the mutual antagonism of the cationic conditioners and the anionic surfactants that provide the primary shampoo function of removing oily soil presents a problem in the development of conditioning shampoos. Some anionic surfactants, notably carboxylated nonionics, have been found to be more tolerant toward cationic surfactants than the alcohol sulfates or alcohol ether sulfates. The history of shampoos is long, beginning well before the days of synthetic surfactants. The advent of the latter greatly expanded options for the formulator and at the same improved the esthetics of the products. VI. Liquid Soaps Liquid soaps is the popular description given to this product category. This definition is technically not quite accurate. These products may contain some fatty acid salts, but they are predominantly solutions of (synthetic) surfactants rather than of soap. Apart from the potassium oleate solutions mentioned earlier, the history of liquid soaps is relatively short. It offers a relatively representative illustration of the development of a product category or subcategory in the U.S. market. The first liquid soap was first introduced by a smallish U.S. company in the late 1970s. The product proved to be sufficiently attractive to U.S. consumers to capture a significant market share in the personal washing category. In short order, many competitive brands were introduced that saturated the field and, it seemed, stunted the growth of the category. In the most recent stage, the field reduced to fewer, larger brands and the category has reached a relatively firm level from which slow and steady growth can be anticipated. Liquid soaps can be stored and dispensed with the convenience characteristic of all liquids. Beyond these generic attractions, they possess an esthetic advantage over conventional personal washing bars in that during use, and particularly during occasional use, they are not subject to the visual and physical deterioration in appearance of personal washing bars. Stored in an aqueous
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matrix (residual water from washing), bars tend to slough and crack to various degrees. The cracks, in turn, can collect soil, which leads to a less than attractive appearance. Liquid soaps can be considered successors to the potassium oleate solutions noted earlier. Presentday products, however, are formulated principally with nonsoap surfactants, including olefinsulfonate, alkyl sulfates, and alkyl ether sulfates. Some products, however, still depend on potassium salts of fatty acids as the principal constituent. As in other personal products, specialty surfactants also find application in liquid soap formulations. These include alkyl phosphate esters, sarcosinates, and sulfosuccinates. As expected from consumer products that contact skin, a number of specialty ingredients can be found in products making specific marketing claims. These ingredients include glycerin, aloe vera, and antimicrobial phenolics. Small levels of calcium sequestrants, such as EDTA, and sodium citrate, are also present. VII. Fabric Softeners Fabric softeners or conditioners, as the name implies, are products that confer softness to washed textile goods. They first made their appearance in the U.S. market in the 1950s. The major active ingredient in fabric softening compositions is a cationic surfactant, a di(longchain)alkyldimethylammonium halide or methosulfate. The positive charge on the nitrogen atom, combined with the high molecular mass associated with the long alkyl chains, ensured adsorption of the compound on the substrate and a soft feel of the conditioned fabric. In contrast to most other liquid detergent categories, fabric softeners are not true solutions. The longchain quaternary salts do not dissolve to form an isotropic solution. Cotton is the primary target substrate for fabric softeners. On repeated washing, the fine structure of cotton at the surface of the fabric becomes dendritic, that is, many fine spikes of cotton fibers are formed that protrude from the surface of the textile. Electrostatic repulsion holds these spikes in place, but in the presence of the cationic softening agent, they are smoothed out. Synthetic fabrics, such as polyester and nylon, are not subject to this phenomenon. Much of the “softening” with these substrates is provided by the mechanical flexing action in the drier. However, the mechanical action causes a buildup of static electricity on synthetic fabrics, which can result in considerable sparking when garments made of synthetic fibers are withdrawn from a clothes drier. Fortunately, the agents that confer softening to cotton fibers also reduce the buildup of static charges on synthetics.
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In a conventional fabric softener formulation, the level of the quaternary surfactant is about 5%. Low concentrations of “leveling agents” can also be present. These materials, often nonionic surfactants, assist in uniform deposition of the softening quaternary. In addition, a buffering system is used to assure an acidic pH. Finally, a solvent, such as isopropanol, present at levels of about 10–15%, assures a viscosity range suitable for easy dispensing from the bottle. As an additive to improve ease of ironing and to reduce the wrinkling tendencies of the treated textile, silicone derivatives, such as polydimethyl siloxanes, have been incorporated into liquid fabric softener compositions [7]. As an alternative softening quaternary, imidazolinium compounds have been introduced with a claim of superior rewet performance. This can be a useful performance feature because with continuing usage and buildup of cationics on the substrate, the water absorption of the substrate can be adversely affected. The use of anionic detergents in the main wash can mitigate this phenomenon because the anionic surfactant can combine with the cationic fabric softener to form a combination that is removed as part of the oil on the fabric. Since the late 1970s, concentrated fabric softener products have been marketed in the United States and in Europe. In these products, the concentration of the softening cationic is about three times as high as in the conventional products. In the most recent past, the environmental acceptability of the dialkyldimethyl ammonium quaternary has been questioned, particularly in Western Europe. In response, the nature of the alkyl group has been modified and a moderately extensive patent literature has arisen covering these modifications. For the most part, the patented structures include an ester linkage, generally at the third carbon atom, which makes for a more rapid biological breakdown of the parent compound [8]. The liquid fabric softeners just described are also referred to as rinse cycle softeners. The reason is that these products are added to the rinse cycle of the wash when no or very little of any anionic residue from the detergent used in the main wash can be expected to be present. As in all textile treatments, fabric softening and conditioning are inherently more effective when they are carried out in a liquid bath, that is, when a rinse cycle softener is employed. Adding a product to the rinse cycle softener represents a measure of inconvenience to the user. Before special ports for the automatic addition of rinse cycle became a widespread feature of washing machines, the use of a rinse cycle softener usually required an appropriately timed second trip to the washing machine. It is not surprising, therefore, that alternative means of softening products were sought and developed. Here, however, the usual situation was reversed, in that now greater convenience rested with “solid” products, that is, flexible sheets treated with a fabric softening compositions that performed their softening
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and static reducing functions in the clothes drier rather than in the washing machine. Softergents, mentioned earlier in connection with heavyduty liquids, can be viewed as representing the ultimate in convenience. These products require no additional effort beyond laundering. As noted, this convenience is bought at some cost in both the washing and softening performance. VIII. Specialty Liquids In addition to the major liquid detergent categories discussed earlier, several more specialized liquid product categories have been marketed for a number of years. In terms of function, character, and formulation ingredients, this is the most fragmented group of products considered here. The largest group comprises the “general” hard surface cleaners. In addition, there is a large variety of specialties within specialty liquids, such as window cleaners, bathroom cleaners, and toilet bowl cleaners. The major category of general hard surface cleaners has evolved into two principal types: allpurpose cleaners and solvent cleaners. Allpurpose liquids are essentially dilute versions of heavyduty liquids. Again, a solid product that required dissolution before use was the model for the liquid cleaners. Early versions of the liquid cleaners were based on low levels of tetrapyrophosphate builder and surfactant and, additionally, auxiliaries, such as alkanolamide and a sufficient amount of hydrotrope, to keep the composition homogeneous. For sanitizing products, the auxiliaries include compounds with antimicrobial efficacy, such as pine oil or antimicrobial cationics. With the advent of phosphate bans, sodium citrate has emerged as the most common phosphate replacement in these products. For increased efficacy in removing particulate soil adhering to the substrate, some generalpurpose cleaners incorporate a soft abrasive, such as calcium carbonate. The resulting products are milky suspensions with about 40–50% of suspended calcium carbonate [9]. Keeping these compositions homogeneous through extended storage is a technical challenge. One approach to solving this problem is to provide “structure” to the liquid medium. Surfactants present as a lamellar phase are capable of structuring liquids. Most recently, a composition containing both soft abrasive and bleach has been introduced [10]. These hard surface cleaners have not escaped the recent trend toward compaction. Here, the approach toward “ultra” products is based on the use of shorter chain surfactants that combine the soil penetration efficacy of solvents with the grease emulsification of traditional surfactants. These surfactants are also said to require no builders because their performance is not affected by water hardness.
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Solvent cleaners are generally free of builder salts and depend for their efficacy on solventtype compounds, such as glycol ethers. Solvent cleaners are less effective on particulate soil, such as mud tracked into the house from the outside, but target their efficacy against oily soils, particularly on oily soil on modern plastic surfaces. Window cleaning products constitute a specialty within the solvent cleaner category. Because any residue left on glass after drying leads to streaking or an otherwise undesirable appearance, these products are highly dilute aqueous solutions containing extremely low surfactant levels—most often nonionic surfactants—and a combination of glycol ethers and isopropyl alcohol as the solvent system. Bathroom cleaners, sometimes referred to as tubtileandsink cleaners, represent “subspecialty” liquids that must be effective against a combination of sebum soil deposited from skin detritus during bathing or showering and the hardness deposits deriving from hard water itself or from its interaction with soap, that is, calcium salts of fatty acids. One subset in this group depends on acids for removing this combination. The acids contained in the products range from the strong hydrochloric and phosphoric acids to moderately strong organic acids, such as glycollic acid. Other products are formulated at a basic pH, incorporating an calcium sequestrants, such as the sodium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), surfactants, and, in the case of products with disinfecting action, antimicrobial quaternaries. Like bathroom cleaners, toilet bowl cleaners are formulated to remove mineral deposits, principally iron salts, that form an unsightly deposit at the water level. Again, acids ranging in strength from hydrochloric to citric are found in these products. Another subsegment of the specialty liquids is that of the drain cleaners. These are strongly basic products based on combinations of sodium hydroxide and sodium hypochlorite. IX. Manufacture and Raw Materials In principle, the manufacture of liquids is simple, involving only the formulation of a generally aqueous solution or suspension. For light and heavyduty liquids, which contain sodium salts of surfactant acids, neutralization can be carried out in situ, that is, as a first step in the mixing process. The heat of neutralization must be dissipated before addition of the more temperaturesensitive ingredients, such as the fragrance. Heat must also be dissipated in the production of products that require heat input to solubilize individual ingredients. The raw materials for the liquid household products discussed in this book are relatively few in number, including the “workhorse” surfactants, builders,
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hydrotropes, and a small number of special function ingredients. Cost constraints on the finished products are one of the important limiting factors. The situation is different for the personal liquid detergents and liquid soaps and especially so for shampoos and conditioners. Cost constraints are relaxed, and the range of performance claims based on specific and unique ingredients is now very much expanded. Although the variety of the essential surfactants is still manageable, the number of specialty surfactants and special function ingredients is very much greater. A detailed discussion of these ingredients is beyond the scope of this chapter. Details of the characteristics, properties, and manufacture of the raw materials can be found in other reference works [11]. In the following, the raw materials found in liquid detergent compositions are listed to provide a convenient summary for further reference. For the large scale categories of light and heavyduty liquids, for automatic dishwasher detergents, and for fabric softeners, the list is fairly complete. For specialty liquids, shampoos and conditioners, and to a lesser extent for liquid soaps, only limited examples of special functional ingredients have been selected. I. Lightduty liquids A. Surfactants 1. Alkylbenzenesulfonate (linear alkylate sulfonate, LAS) salts 2. Alkyl ether sulfate salts 3. Alkyl sulfate salts 4. Betaines 5. Alkylpolyglycosides B. Foam stabilizers 1. Fatty acid alkanolamides (mono and di) 2. Alkyldimethylamine oxides C. Hydrotropes 1. Shortchain alkylbenzenesulfonates (xylenesulfonate salts) 2. Ethanol II. Heavyduty liquids A. Surfactants 1. Alkylbenzenesulfonate salts 2. Alkyl ether sulfate salts 3. Alkyl sulfate salts
A. Surfactants 1. Alkylbenzenesulfonate salts 2. Alkyl ether sulfate salts 3. Alkyl sulfate salts 4. Alcohol ethoxylates 5. Nmethylglucamides
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B. Builders 1. Sodium citrate 2. Sodium salts of tartrate mono and disuccinate mixture C. Hydrotropes 1. Salts of shortchain alkylbenzenesulfonates (xylenesulfonate, cumenesulfonate, toluenesulfonate) 2. Ethanol D. Bases: Alkanolamines E. Other special functional ingredients 1. Enzymes (proteinase, amylase, lipase): stain remover 2. Borax (cleaning aid) 3. Sodium formate, calcium chloride (enzyme stabilizing system) 4. Hydrogen peroxide (bleach) 5. Propylene glycol (solvent) III. Liquid automatic dishwasher detergents A. Surfactants 1. Alkyldiphenyl oxide disulfonate salts 2. Hydroxyfatty acid salts B. Builders: 1. Pentasodium tripolyphosphate 2. Tetrasodium pyrophosphate 3. Sodium carbonate 4. Sodium silicate C. Bases: Sodium and potassium hydroxide D. Other special functional ingredients 1. Sodium hypochlorite (bleach) 2. Clay (smectite, bentonite): viscosity regulator, suspending agent 3. Polyacrylate sodium salts (viscosity regulator) 4. Monostearyl acid phosphate (suds depressant) IV. Shampoos and conditioners
2. Clay (smectite, bentonite): viscosity regulator, suspending agent 3. Polyacrylate sodium salts (viscosity regulator) 4. Monostearyl acid phosphate (suds depressant) IV. Shampoos and conditioners A. Surfactants 1. Alkyl sulfate salts 2. Alkyl ether sulfate salts 3. Acylaminopropyl betaines 4. Olefinsulfonate salts B. Foam stabilizers/viscosity regulators: Fatty acid alkanolamides
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C. Other special functional ingredients 1. Polyquaternium 7 (cationic conditioner) 2. Glycol monostearate (opacifier) 3. Aloe vera (luster promoter) 4. Jojoba (luster promoter) 5. Derivatives of hydrolyzed keratin (skin and hair conditioner) V. Liquid Soaps A. Surfactants 1. Alcohol sulfate salts 2. Alkyl ether sulfate salts 3. Olefinsulfonate salts 4. Fatty acid salts B. Sequestrants 1. EDTA 2. Sodium citrate C. Foam stabilizers/viscosity regulators: Fatty acid alkanolamides D. Other special functional ingredients 1. Phenolic antimicrobials 2. Glycerin VI. Fabric conditioners A. Surfactants 1. Dialkyldimethylammonium halide or methosulfate salts 2. Monoalkyltrimethylammonium halide salts 3. Alkylimidazolinium salts 4. Alcohol ethoxylates 5. Alkyl (ethylene oxide/propylene oxide) nonionics B. Solvents 1. Isopropanol 2. Ethanol C. Other special functional ingredients: Polydimethylsiloxanes (leveling agent)
B. Solvents 1. Isopropanol 2. Ethanol C. Other special functional ingredients: Polydimethylsiloxanes (leveling agent) VII. Specialty liquids A. Surfactants 1. Alkylbenzenesulfonate salts 2. Alcohol sulfate salts
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3. Alkanesulfonate salts 4. Alkyl ether sulfate salts 5. Alkylphenol ethoxylates 6. Alcohol ethoxylates B. Builders/sequestrants 1. Sodium carbonate 2. Sodium sesquicarbonate 3. Sodium citrate 4. EDTA C. Acids/alkalis 1. Hydrochloric acid 2. Phosphoric acid 3. Glycollic acid 4. Sodium hydroxide 5. Sodium metasilicate 6. Alkanolamines D. Hydrotropes: Shortchain alkylbenzenesulfonate salts (toluene, cumene) E. Bases: Alkanolamines F. Other special functional ingredients 1. Pine oil (disinfectant) 2. Benzalkonium cationics (antimicrobials) 3. Sodium hypochlorite (bleach) 4. Calcium carbonate (soft abrasive) 5. Alumina (suspending aid) 6. Alkyl glycol ethers (solvents) 7. Isopropanol (solvent) References 1. I. Reich and H. Dallenbach, U.S. Patent 2,994,665 to Lever Brothers Company (1963). 2. J. C. Letton and M. J. Yunker, U.S. Patent 4,318,818 to the Procter &
References 1. I. Reich and H. Dallenbach, U.S. Patent 2,994,665 to Lever Brothers Company (1963). 2. J. C. Letton and M. J. Yunker, U.S. Patent 4,318,818 to the Procter & Gamble Company (1982). 3. R. D. Bush, D. S. Connor, S. W. Heinzman, and L. N. Mackey, U.S. Patent 4,663,071 to the Procter & Gamble Company (1987). 4. B. J. Akred, E. T. Messenger, and W. T. Nicholson, British Patent 2,153,839 A to Albright & Wilson Limited (1985). 5. G. Broze, D. Bastin, and L. Laitem, U.S. Patent 4,749,512 to Colgate Palmolive Company (1988). 6. M. Julemont and M. Marchai, British Patent 2,116,119 A to Colgate Palmolive Company (1982).
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7. R. J. Dumbrell, J. P. Charles, I. M. Leclerq, R. M. A. de Bakker, P. C. E. Goffinet, B. A. Brown, R. E. Atkinson, and F. E. Hardy, British Patent 1,549,180 to the Procter & Gamble Company (1979). 8. J. C. Letton, U.S. Patent 4,228,042 to the Procter & Gamble Company (1980). 9. U.S. Patent 4,129,527, F. P. Clark, R. C. Johnson, and J. Topolewski to the Clorox Company (1978). 10. C. K. Choy, F. I. Keen, A. Garabedian, and C. J. Spurgeon, U.S. Patent 4,695,394 to the Clorox Company (1987). 11. G. Barker, in Surfactants in Cosmetics (M. M. Rieger, ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1985.
2 Hydrotropy STIG E. FRIBERG and CHRIS BRANCEWICZ Department of Chemistry and Center for Advanced Materials Processing, Clarks Potsdam, New York I. Introduction II. Historical Review III. Fundamentals IV. Cleaning and Washing V. Summary References
I. Introduction Liquid detergent concentrates commonly contain hydrotropes to avoid excessive the formulation and to improve their detergency. Both functions rely on the funda properties of hydrotropes. In this chapter, historical knowledge about the function of hydrotropic molecules i reviewed, followed by a description of hydrotropic action in liquid detergents usi commercial hydrotrope with an unusual structure. II. Historical Review The term “hydrotropy” was coined in 1916 by Neuberg [1,2], who found that aq solutions of certain salts possessed the ability to enhance the solubility in water of otherwise waterinsoluble substances. He found that the alkali metal salts of benz salicylic acid, benzenesulfonic acid and its
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many derivatives, naphthoic acid, and various other hydroaromatic acids displayed hydrotropic activity. In his study, Neuberg investigated a large number of organic solutes, such as carbohydrates, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons, esters, ethers, lipids, fats, and oils. The second phase or period of activity started 30 years later, with an emphasis on chemical engineering and industrial applications. McKee [3] showed that concentrated aqueous solutions of very soluble neutral salts of organic acids, such as sodium benzoate (NaB), salicylate (NaS), benzenesulfonate (NaBS), ptoluenesulfonate (NaPTS), xylenesulfonate (NaXS), cumenesulfonate (NaCS), and cymenesulfonate (NaCyS), increased the solubility of a wide variety of organic and some inorganic compounds in water. He noted that most hydrotropic solutions precipitated the solubilized solute on dilution with water and showed that this permits easy recovery of the hydrotrope for further use. Lumb [4] studied the ternary phase diagrams of systems consisting of water octanolpotassium alkanoates and, based on their similarities, postulated that the hydrotropy exhibited by the lower alkanoates (e.g., butyrate) and surfactant solubilization were essentially the same phenomenon. On the other hand, Licht and Wiener of the University of Cincinnati [5] agreed with McKee [3]. They attributed the increase in solubility to a “saltingin” effect rather than by a similarity in structure to surfactants. The final comparison with surfactant phase equilibria was made two decades later when Lawrence [6], Friberg and Rydhag [7], and Pearson and Smith [8] presented phase diagrams for hydrotropes. These phase diagrams demonstrated hydrotropic solubilization as an extension of surfactant solubilization into less ordered systems. In modern times, hydrotropes have found many applications. Their use includes the pharmaceutical field, with solubilization of drugs, specifically temazepam [9] and the coronary vasodilator nifedipine [10]. Hydrotropes have shown promise in enhancing the action of drugs with such combinations as theophylline with insulin [11] and have been utilized to improve transdermal delivery systems [12]. In chemical engineering, the original McGee [3] approach was recently continued in such processes as catalysis and extraction [13,14]. It is also used in the paper and pulp industry [15–19]. The application in liquid detergents is a direct consequence of the fundamentals of hydrotropic solubilization. Hence, in this chapter we first describe hydrotropic action in general, followed by a treatment of an unusual hydrotropic agent in the context of detergency. III. Fundamentals There are two essential features of hydrotrope solubilization: comparatively large concentrations of hydrotrope are required to initiate solubilization, and the
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maximum amount solubilized into the aqueous hydrotrope solution is large compared with what is found in an aqueous micellar solution of a surfactant. These two characteristics are illustrated in Fig. 1 [7]. The dashed line shows the strongly enhanced solubility of octanoic acid in a sodium xylene sulfonate solution at concentrations in excess of 20% by weight of the hydrotrope. The contrast between a solubility of less than 1% for concentrations at 15% of the hydrotrope and the rapid increase to more than 30% by weight of octanoic acid at higher concentrations illustrates the typical properties of hydrotrope mediated
Fig. 1 The solubility of octanoic acid into an aqueous solution of a hydrotrope sodium xylene sulfonate, dashed line, requires high concentrations of the hydrotrope to initiate solubilization (~20%), but the solubilization increases steeply to large values for small increases in hydrotrope concentrations above those values. The surfactant (sodium octanoate), on the other hand (solid line), requires lower concentrations to start the solubilization (~5%) but the maximum solubilization is limited.
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solubilization. The contrast between the values for the dashed and solid lines illustrates the distinction of hydrotrope solubilization from that by a surfactant, in this case sodium octanoate. The solubilization of the octanoic acid with the surfactant is initiated at a much lower concentration than with the hydrotrope, but the maximum amount of the acid solubilized remains at a modest level of less than 8%. The comparison with surfactant solubilization offers an immediate explanation for the high concentration of hydrotrope required to initiate the solubilization. It has been well known for many years [20] that a surfactant with a shorter hydrocarbon chain has an increased value of the critical micellization concentration (CMC). The CMC is the concentration at which solubilization begins. Hence, the high hydrotrope concentration for initial solubilization (Fig. 1) is reasonable and expected because the phenyl group is analogous to only three to four carbons in a straight chain. The very high hydrotrope concentration for initial association of the molecules and the accompanying solubilization are given a rational explanation. The much higher values of solubilized material for the hydrotrope in comparison with the values for the surfactant (Fig. 1) are understood first after a more complete phase diagram is considered for the two compounds. Figure 2 reveals the essential features of the two solubilized mechanisms. Increased amounts of octanoic acid in the surfactantwater solution give rise to several phases, four of which are illustrated in Fig. 2. Area a in Figure 2 consists of an aqueous solution of normal micelles, the structure of which is shown in Fig. 3a. At higher surfactant concentrations a liquid crystalline phase containing cylindrical surfactant associations stacked in a close packed hexagonal array is formed. This region is labeled area d in Fig. 2, and its structure is shown in Fig. 3d. At increasing concentrations of octanoic acid, a lamellar liquid crystal is formed, as shown in Fig. 2, region c. This phase has a structure of “infinite” bilayers of surfactant interlaced with layers of water, as shown in Fig. 3c. A further increase in the content of the solubilizate results in the formation of an octanoic acid solution of inverse micelles, which contain water solubilized in their cores. This region is shown as area b in Fig. 2, and the structure of an inverse micelle is depicted in Fig. 3b. The essential feature of the phase diagram is the presence of the lamellar liquid crystal region, which separates the normal micellar solution (Fig. 3a) from the solution of inverted micelles (Fig. 3b). This is in strong contrast to the conditions with hydrotrope (Fig. 2) for which only one solubility region (Fig. 2) of significance is found with increasing
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Fig. 2 When water and octanoic acid (solid lines) are combined with sodium octanoate, four phases are obtained: a and b are micellar solutions (Fig. 3a and b), and c and d are liquid crystals (Fig. 3c and d). The combination with a hydrotrope sodium xylene sulfonate, dashed line, gives a single area of an isotropic solution (e).
Fig. 3 The amphiphile organization in a normal micelle (a), in an inverse micelle (b), in a lamellar liquid crystal (c), and in a liquid crystal of hexagonally packed amphiphile cylinders (d).
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amounts of octanoic acid. As shown by the dashed line, a continuous isotropic liquid phase reaches from the aqueous corner to 80% octanoic acid without interruption. With this information, the reason for the “anomalously” high solubilization by the hydrotrope is obvious. Its solubility region is not interrupted by the formation of a liquid crystal; the shift from water continuous to octanoic acid continuous solution now takes place without a phase transition. It is essential to realize that the phase changes when octanoic acid is added to the watersodium octanoate combination are not a question of solubility. The octanoic acid is certainly soluble in the liquid crystalline phase, region c (Fig. 2) and infinitely so in its own solution, region b (Fig. 2). The different phases found in the surfactant system are only a matter of molecular organization of the system components, not of their mutual solubility. The similarity between the solubilization action of surfactant and hydrotrope (Fig. 4) is now immediately evident. The surfactant and hydrotrope solubility regions are analogous with the surfactant requiring lower concentrations because of its greater hydrophobic character. Hence, the difference between regions in Fig. 2 is not a distinction in solubility; numerous phases in the surfactant system in Fig. 2 are a result of packing restrictions imposed by the length of the hydrocarbon chains. The transition between normal and inverse micelles requires a lamellar packing for two hydrocarbons chains of eight carbons each. As the structures in Fig. 5 suggest, a combination of the bulky hydrotrope and the long hydrocarbon chain of a solubilizate does not stabilize a lamellar packing, and the transition from normal to inverse association structures takes place via disordered aggregates, as shown in Fig. 4b. IV. Cleaning and Washing These processes are mainly concerned with the removal of “oily dirt,” depending to a high degree on the complex phase equilibria encountered in the surfactantwater“oily dirt” system [21]. Two treatments have been published [22,23] on the action of a nontraditional hydrotrope structure in such systems. Instead of the usual bulky molecule (Fig. 5), this compound [24] is a dicarboxylic acid of considerable chain length (Fig. 6). The fundamental phenomena have been investigated of the action of this hydrotrope in a liquid cleaner. In such an application, the hydrotrope functions in the formulation concentrate by preventing gelation. In addition, under the dilute conditions in the washing process, the hydrotrope facilitates the removal of oily dirt from the fabric. In the following section these two functions are related to the phase equilibria of wateramphiphile systems. The formula for the dicarboxylic acid (Fig. 6) has a hydrophilic lipophilic balance similar to that of octanoic acid, but the influence of the two acids on
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Fig. 4 The total solubility region in the surfactant system (a) is similar to that of the hydrotrope (b); the only difference is that the change from normal to inverse association structures takes place via an ordered lamellar liquid crystal (a phase separation) in the surfactant case (a), and in the hydrotrope system the transition takes place over disordered aggregates within the solution (b).
amphiphilic association structures is entirely different, as can be seen in Fig. 7 [25]. The octanoic acid causes the formation of a liquid crystal when added to a solution of water in hexylamine. The size of the lamellar liquid crystalline region is large (Fig. 7a). Addition of the dicarboxylic acid, on the other hand, gives no liquid crystal, and it may be concluded that its action in con
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Fig. 5 The reason for the difference in transition structures, Fig. 4, is that the carboxylic acid and the surfactant (octanoic acid and sodium octanoate) are of similar chain length and a lamellar packing is easily stabilized. The difference in structure in the hydrotrope and fatty acid combination (sodium xylene sulfonate and octanoic acid), on the other hand, results in a disordered structure.
centrated systems is similar to that of the common shortchain hydrotropes despite its long hydrocarbon chain (Fig. 7b). Activity in dilute systems was investigated using a model system from Unilever [26] in which octanol mimicks the oily dirt. A lamellar liquid crystal was present at low concentration of the oily dirt [23], in the absence of the hydrotrope (Fig. 8). After addition of the hydrotrope, the amount of model oily dirt solubilized without liquid crystal formation was greatly enhanced. Clearly, this hydrotrope functions not only as a destabilizer of liquid crystals in the formulation concentrate but also as a destabilizer of liquid crystals under the dilute conditions of the washing process.
Fig. 6 The dicarboxylic acid hydrotrope has an elongated structure.
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Fig. 7 The combination of water and hexylamine with octanoic acid (a) gives a huge area of a lamellar liquid crystal (LC); the combination with the dicarboxylic acid in Fig. 6 results in an isotropic liquid solution only (b).
The molecular mechanism behind the destabilization of liquid crystals was clarified later [27]. The specific disordering brought forward by the hydrotrope in the watersurfactantoily dirt liquid crystal was first determined, followed by an investigation into the conformation of the diacid molecule itself [22]. The order of the hydrocarbon chains in a liquid crystal is directly obtained from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra using amphiphiles with deuteriated chains. Each methylene group and the terminal methyl group give a NMR signal doublet, and the difference in frequency between the two signals is proportional to the order parameter [27]. Using a lamellar liquid crystal model system of “oily dirt,” surfactant, and water, the influence of the hydro
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Fig. 8 The solubilization of a model compound for oily dirt was small in a surfactant solution at concentrations below the CMC () because of the formation of a liquid crystal. A combination of hydrotrope and surfactant gave an increased solubilization (—) caused by the hydrotrope destabilization of the liquid crystal.
trope on the structure could be directly determined using NMR. Addition of the hydrotrope molecule resulted in a narrowing of the difference between the NMR signals due to a disordering of the liquid crystal, as shown in Fig. 9 [26]. It was assumed that this was the primary factor in the destabilization of the liquid crystal. Next, the diacid conformation was determined after it was added to the oily dirt liquid crystalline phase. Figure 10 shows two possibilities for the conformation of the hydrotrope in the liquid crystal. In one form of the diacid (Fig. 10b), both polar groups are located at the interface between the amphiphile polar groups and the water; the other possibility is that only the terminal carboxylic group is found at this site (Fig. 10a). The two conformations result in different interlayer spacing (Fig. 10), and a determination of this dimension was used to distinguish between the two alternatives. Lowangle xray diffraction gives the interlayer spacing directly from the maxima in the diffraction pattern. Interpretation of the results is straightforward; if addition of the diacid to a lamellar liquid crystal model dirt system did not increase the interlayer spacing, the conformation in Fig. 10b is correct; if an increase took place, then Fig. 10a would describe the structural organization of the diacid molecule. The interlayer spacing with the diacid added was very close to the host liquid crystal (Fig. 11), and the first conformation (Fig. 10b) is obviously the one encountered in the liquid crystal. As a comparison, the addition of oleic acid with one polar group located at the interface, gave the expected increase in interlayer spacing, as shown in Fig. 11. Destabilization of the lamellar liquid
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Fig. 9 Addition of a hydrotrope, Fig. 6, to a lamellar liquid crystal gave a reduction of the order parameter of the surfactant hydrocarbon chain ( ); addition of a surfactant gave no change in order ( ).
Fig. 10 A hydrotrope, Fig. 6, conformation with only one polar group at the water/amphiphile interface (left) results in an enhanced interlayer spacing d compared with the value d for a conformation with both polar 1
2
groups at the interface (right).
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Fig. 11 The lowangle xray values for interlayer spacing in a lamellar liquid crystal (×) was unchanged with the addition of a hydrotrope ( ), Fig. 6. Addition of a longchain compound, oleic acid, gave the expected increase ( ).
crystalline phase is not only affected by the diacid; it appears to be a general property shared by other hydrotropes, such as alkanols, shortchain quaternary ammonium salts, xylenesulfonates, and glycols, as shown by Pearson and Smith [8] and Darwish et al. [28]. In some cases, the oily dirt is less polar than the model system by Kielman and Van Steen [26]; for less polar fatty oils the concept of hydrotropic breakdown of a liquid crystal is also useful [29]. V. Summary The function of hydrotropes in the detergency is discussed against their interaction with lyotropic liquid crystals. The main activity of the hydrotrope as a part of a liquid detergent is to avoid gelation in both concentrated and dilute surfactant systems. This ability is directly related to a detergent's phase equilibria with hydrophobic amphiphiles. These phase equilibria illustrate and explain the two basic characteristics of hydrotropes: that is, their high association concentration and their pronounced solubilizing power.
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References 1. C. Neuberg, Biochem. Z., 76:107 (1916). 2. C. Neuberg, J. Chem. Soc., 110(II):555 (1916). 3. R. H. McKee, Ind. Eng. Chem. Ind. Ed., 38:382 (1946). 4. E. C. Lumb, Trans. Faraday Soc., 47:1049 (1951). 5. W. Licht and L. D. Wiener, Ind. Eng. Chem., 41:1528 (1949). 6. A. S. C. Lawrence, Nature (London), 183:1491 (1959). 7. S. E. Friberg and L. Rydhag, Tenside, 7:80 (1970). 8. J. T. Pearson and J. M. Smith, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 26:123 (1974). 9. A. D. Woolfson, D. F. McCaffer, and A. P. Launchbu, Int. J. Pharm., 34:17 (1986). 10. N. K. Jain, W. Patel, and L. N. Taneja, Pharmazie, 43:254 (1988). 11. T. Nishihata, J. H. Rytting, and T. Higuchi, J. Pharm. Sci., 70:71 (1981). 12. D. W. Osborne, Colloids Surf., 30:13 (1988). 13. V. G. Gaikar and M. M. Sharma, Solvent Extr. Ion Exch., 4:839 (1986). 14. A. Mahapatra, V. G. Gaikar, and M. M. Sharma, Sep. Sci. Technol., 429:23 (1988). 15. G. E. Styan and A. E. Bramhall, Pulp Puu. Can., 80:725 (1979). 16. D. E. Bland, Res. Rev. Aust. CSIRO Chem. Technol., 27 (1976). 17. P. J. Nelson, Appita, 31:437 (1978). 18. D. E. Bland, J. Skicko, and M. Menshun, Appita, 31:374 (1978). 19. E. L. Springer and L. L. Zoch, Pap. 6:815 (1979). 20. K. Shinoda, Colloidal Surfactants, Academic Press, New York, (1963), pp. 9–15. 21. K. H. Raney and C. A. Miller, J. Coll. I. Sc., 119:539 (1987). 22. T. Flaim and S. E. Friberg, J. Coll. I. Sc., 97:26 (1984). 23. J. M. Cox and S. E. Friberg, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 58:743 (1981). 24. B. F. Ward, Jr., C. G. Force, A. M. Bills, and F. E. Woodward, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 52:219 (1975). 25. T. Flaim, S. E. Friberg, C. G. Force, and A. Bell, Tenside Detergents, 20:177 (1983). 26. H. S. Kielman and P. J. F. Van Steen, Faraday Disc., 191 (1979).
24. B. F. Ward, Jr., C. G. Force, A. M. Bills, and F. E. Woodward, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 52:219 (1975). 25. T. Flaim, S. E. Friberg, C. G. Force, and A. Bell, Tenside Detergents, 20:177 (1983). 26. H. S. Kielman and P. J. F. Van Steen, Faraday Disc., 191 (1979). 27. S. E. Friberg, S. B. Rananavare, and D. W. Osborne, J. Coll. I. Sc., 109:487 (1986). 28. I. A. Darwish, A. T. Florence, G. M. Ghaly, and A. M. Saleh, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 40:25 (1988). 29. S. E. Friberg and L. Rydhag, J. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc., 48:113 (1971).
3 Phase Equilibria GUY BROZE Advanced Technology Department, ColgatePalmolive Research and Developm Milmort, Belgium I. Introduction II. What is a Phase Diagram? A. Twocomponent phase diagrams B. Threecomponent phase diagrams C. Recording phase diagrams III. Phase Diagrams for Ionic SurfactantContaining Systems A. Ionic surfactant: water B. Ionic surfactant, water, and organic material ternary systems C. Ionic surfactant, water, protondonating material, and hydrocarbon quaternary systems IV. Phase Diagrams for Nonionic SurfactantContaining Systems A. Nonionic surfactant and oil B. Nonionic surfactant and water C. Nonionic surfactant, water, and oil D. Effects of system parameters on phase behavior References
I. Introduction All liquid detergents contain at least one surfactant in the presence of other materi electrolytes, oily materials, and other impurities. Unlike academic research, the fo work with industrialgrade raw materials
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containing significant amounts of molecules, the properties of which differ from those of the main product. The understanding of how a given property of a give “pure” system is affected by “impurities” is accordingly of essential practical importance. Understanding the principles by which a given product behaves (as is or under use conditions) allows us to replace counterproductive trial anderror by more efficient methods with a broader range of potential applications. II. What Is a Phase Diagram? A phase diagram is a graphic representation of the phase behavior of a system studied. The solidliquidvapor behavior of a single compound as a function of temperature and pressure can be represented by a phase diagram. Phase diagrams usually involve more than one component. They are very useful tools for formulation, because they allow the formulator to define not only the acceptable composition of a product but also the order of addition of the different raw materials. A. TwoComponent Phase Diagrams 1. Temperature and Composition Whether a given proportion of two (liquid) compounds will mix is defined by thermodynamics. Although, in regular systems, the entropy of mixing is always positive and accordingly favorable to mixing, the enthalpy of mixing can be positive or negative depending on the energy of formation of the heterocontacts at the expense of the homocontacts. An exothermic mixture usually leads to mixing in all proportions. If the mixing is endothermic, the number of coexisting phases and their composition depend on temperature. Increasing temperature usually results in an increase in the mutual solubilities of the two compounds, eventually leading to complete miscibility above a critical temperature, the upper consolute temperature (UCT). Note that some abnormal systems can also present a lower consolute temperature (LCT). Both UCT and LCT are thermodynamic critical points. At a critical point, the compositions of the two phases in equilibrium become identical. Figure 1 is a schematic representation of a twocomponent phase diagram characterized by UCT. The left axis corresponds to pure A, and the right axis corresponds to pure B. the abscissa corresponds to different AB compositions. It is very common to express the compositions in weight fractions, although not compulsory. Mole fractions or volume fractions can also be used. The central, shaded area corresponds to the twophase domain. The clear zone around it is single phase.
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Fig. 1 Phase diagram of two substances that are only partly miscible at low temperature and become fully miscible above the “upper consulate temperature.”
2. Tie Lines and Lever Rule When a mixture separates in two phases, it is important to know the compositions and the amounts of the two phases in equilibrium. A tie line links the two compositions in equilibrium. This means that any composition located on the same tie line will separate in two phases, the compositions of which are defined by the points of contact of the tie line with the phase boundary. The relative amounts of the two phases is determined according to the lever rule (Figure 2). If the compositions are expressed in weight fractions, the weight fraction of phase A is CB/AB and the weight fraction of phase B is AC/AB. B. ThreeComponent Phase Diagrams Practical systems involve more than two components. A threecomponent system can be represented in an equilateral triangle (Figure 3). A corner of the triangle represents a pure component, a side represents binary mixtures of the components represented by the adjacent corners, and any point in the triangle represents one and only one tricomponent composition.
Fig. 2 Lever rule, allowing quantification of the proportion of the two coexisting phases in a twophase domain of a phase diagram.
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Fig. 3 Method of determining the composition of a threeingredient mixture.
The weight fraction of component A in the composition represented by P in the triangle is given by the ratio of the lengths of the segments perpendicular to the sides Pa/(P b + Pb + Pc). Similarly, the amount of B is given by Pb/(P a + Pb + Pc) and the amount of C by Pc/(P a + Pb + Pc). Of course, such a phase diagram is isothermal. The effect of temperature on a threecomponent phase diagram can be visualized in three dimensions, with temperature at the elevation axis. The phase diagram looks like a triangular prism, with every horizontal slice corresponding to one temperature. 1. Fields and Densities There is an important difference among the thermodynamic functions of state as far as phase equilibria are concerned. Some thermodynamic functions of state, such as temperature and pressure, have the same value in all the phases of a system at equilibrium. They are actually the forces driving a system to its equilibrium. Such functions are referred to as fields [1]. The other thermodynamic functions of state generally present different values in the different phases of a system at equilibrium. Typical examples are the volumes of the phases and their composition. Such functions are densities. A thermodynamic expression of functions of state can be expressed as a sum of field variables multiplied by their conjugated density. For example, G = U + PV TS + ini where U is the internal energy, PV is the product of the field variable pressure and the density variable volume, TS is the product of the field variable temperature and the density variable entropy; and ini is the product of the field variable chemical potential of i and the density variable number of moles of i.
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The chemical potentials are the field functions conjugated with the concentrations. 2. Phase Rule For a multicomponent system, the phase rule [2] allows us to know the number of independent variables necessary to define completely (from a compositional point of view) a system. This number is called the number of degrees of freedom or the variance of the system. The variance ƒ is given by the relation ƒ = C + 2 where C is the number of chemically independent ingredients in the system, is the number of coexisting phases at the equilibrium, and the last term takes care of temperature and pressure. For isobar systems, such as all systems under atmospheric pressure, the last term should be 1. Similarly, isobar and isotherm systems have 0 as the last term. A direct implication of the phase rule is that a threecomponent system in one phase at atmospheric pressure and at 25°C has a variance equal to 2. This means that two dimensions are necessary to describe such a system. Another implication is that such a system could show a maximum of three coexisting phases. A system based on five components will need, according to the phase rule, a fourdimension hyperspace to be completely described. To represent such a system, some variables are usually grouped. The accuracy of the representation is, of course, imperfect. A more accurate procedure is to set a variable to a constant value. This is impossible with a composition because it is a density and is different in each of the coexisting phases. The phase rule determines the number of independent variables a system needs to be represented but does not introduce any restriction on the choice of the independent variables. It is accordingly much better to fix a field variable to reduce a system of one dimension. Instead of using concentrations (density variables), a representation as a function of the chemical potentials is easier to read and is more accurate. The problem is that, in practice, it is very complicated to work at defined chemical potentials. 3. Tie Lines and Critical Points Let us consider two liquids A and B that are not very soluble in each other. Addition of liquid C increases the miscibility of B in A and of A in B. C behaves like increasing temperature in the binary phase diagram. The major difference is that the tie lines are no longer parallel to the baseline, and the critical end point is no longer at the maximum of the miscibility gap (Figure 4). This is because C does not partition evenly between the two coexisting phases.
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Fig. 4 A Winsor II ternary phase diagram.
In the present case, it goes preferably in B. The critical end point is located near the A corner. An isothermal critical end point is usually referred to as a plait point. 4. ThreePhase Domain In some cases a threephase region can be observed (Figure 5). The coexistence of three phases in equilibrium in an isothermal threecomponent phase diagram is a zerovariant situation. Of course, an infinity of different compo
Fig. 5 A Winsor III ternary phase diagram.
Page 41
sitions fall inside the threephase triangle, but the compositions of the three coexisting phases do not change with the initial composition. They are represented by the three corners of the threephase triangle. All that change are the relative amounts of the three phases. C. Recording Phase Diagrams There are basically two methods of recording phase diagrams: the titration technique and the constant composition method. Both have advantages and drawbacks. 1. Titration Method In the titration method, a mixture is titrated by another. Typically, a mixture of two of the ingredients is titrated by the third. The weight of titrant to reach a phase boundary is carefully recorded and plotted on the phase diagram. The process is then repeated to cover the whole domain to be investigated. Such a method is relatively quick and can give a good idea of the phase boundaries. There are nevertheless two major drawbacks to this method. First, this method gives the phase diagram at one temperature only. To determine the phase diagram at another temperature, the process must be repeated. The temperature domain practically available with the titration method is limited, because everything must be kept at the same temperature. The second drawback of the titration method is that it is usually used in an out ofequilibrium condition. In some systems, such as those involving lyotropic liquid crystals, the time needed to reach equilibrium can be very long; besides, metastable phases can also be encountered. A phase diagram recorded by the titration method should be used as a guide only and should never be applied to longterm stability prediction. 2. Constant Composition Method In the constant composition method, a series of compositions, covering the composition range to be studied, are prepared in test tubes, which are closed. The test tubes are shaken thoroughly and allowed to stand in a thermostatic bath. The test tubes containing turbid solutions are allowed to stand until they separate into two or more completely clear phases. The number of clear phases can be reported on the phase diagram, and the phase domains can be mapped. This method is very long, but it allows one to approach the true equilibrium conditions, and the tubes can be used at other temperatures. Another advantage of this method is that, when a system gives more than one phase, it is possible to analyze the phases and to know exactly where the phase boundaries are, as well as the orientation of the tie lines.
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III. Phase Diagrams for Ionic SurfactantContaining Systems A. Ionic Surfactant: Water 1. Krafft Point The Krafft point can be defined as the temperature Tk above which the amphiphile solubility in water greatly increases [3]. The reason is that the water solubility of the amphiphile, which increases with the temperature, reaches the amphiphile critical micelle concentration (CM in Figure 6). When the solubility curve is above CM, the dissolved amphiphile is forming micelles and the amphiphile activity in water solution no longer increases. There is accordingly no longer a limitation to solubilization. The Krafft point is a triple point because at this temperature, three “phases” coexist [4]: hydrated solid amphiphile, individual amphiphile molecules in solution (monomers), and amphiphile molecules involved in micelles. Tk increases as the hydrophobic chain length increases. The Krafft points of the sodium salts of the classic amphiphiles (alkyl sulfates, sulfonates, and benzenesulfonates) are below room temperature. The Krafft point is also a function of the counterion, the alkalineearth cations giving higher Krafft points: sodium laurylsulfate, Tk = 9°C; Ca salt, 50°C; Sr salt, 64°C; and Ba salt, 105° C. Because the Krafft point imposes a limitation in formulation processes, the following rules to reduce Tk can be of essential interest: Chain branching and polydispersity reduce Tk. Complexation of Mg and Ca reduces Tk.
Fig. 6 The Krafft point is the temperature at which the solubility of the amphiphile becomes higher than its critical micelle concentration.
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The presence of an unsaturation decreases Tk. A very efficient way to reduce Tk is to incorporate two or three oxyethylene monomers between the hydrophobic chain and the polar head group (alcohol ethoxy sulfates). Of course, in each case, other properties of the amphiphile, such as the surface activity, can be consequently be modified. 2. Phase Diagram The phase diagram of sodium dodecyl sulfate/water is representative of many ionic systems (Figure 7) [5]. Liquid (L1) is the aqueous micellar phase; Ha is the hexagonal lyotropic liquid crystal, sometimes called the middle phase; and La is the lamellar lyotopic liquid crystal, sometimes called the neat phase. On the surfactantrich side, several hydrated solid phases are present. As a general rule, in any (real) phase diagram, at any point representative of a region and on its boundaries, the number of phases and their nature are similar. A tie line is the line joining the points representative of two coexisting phases. If the total composition of a mixture C falls in a twophase region, it separates in the two phases located at both sides of the tie line that passes the formulation point (A and B). The weight distribution of the two phases is given by the lever rule.
Fig. 7 Typical phase diagram of a wateranionic surfactant system.
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B. Ionic Surfactant, Water and Organic Material Ternary Systems 1. Organic Material = Hydrocarbon Let us consider an isotherm of a waterionic amphiphile binary mixture above the Krafft point (for example, watersodium octanoate) [6]. At an amphiphile concentration of 7% (the critical micellar concentration), the micellar isotropic solution L1 appears and lasts up to 41%. Between 41 and 46% is the miscibility gap between L1 and H1, the hexagonal phase, which lasts up to 52%. Above 52% is the miscibility gap between H1 and the hydrated crystal. If a nonpolar component (aliphatic hydrocarbon or tetrachloromethane) is added, almost nothing happens (Figure 8a). The solubility of decane in either the micellar solution or the liquid crystal is very limited. This is true of any molecule exhibiting only dispersion cohesive forces. 2. Organic Material = Polar but Not ProtonDonating Material The solubility of a molecule exhibiting dipoledipole cohesive forces and low H bonding cohesive forces, such as methyl octanoate, is higher than that of a hydrocarbon, but nothing special happens in the center of the phase diagram. 3. Organic Material = ProtonDonating Material If the third component is a nonwatersoluble alcohol (five carbons or more), amine, carboxylic acid, or amide, the phase topography is profoundly modified. The phase diagram presented in Figure 8b [7] shows in addition to L1 and H1 a huge lamellar phase, a narrow reverse hexagonal phase H2, and, even more important, a “sectorlike” area of reverse micelles L2. This means that the solubility in ndecanol of a sodium octanoatewater mixture containing between 25 and 62% amphiphile is by far more important (30–36%) than pure water (4%) and pure sodium octanoate (almost nil). This phase is essential to obtain water in oil (w/o) microemulsions. The solubility of ndecanol in the L1 phase is also important (up to 12% at the “end” of the L1). The L1 phase is responsible for the observation of oilinwater (o/w) microemulsions. The La domain, generally located in the middle of the diagram, points toward the water side for a critical surfactant/cosurfactant ratio. (A 1:2 sodium octanoate to ndecanol ratio leads to a lamellar phase with as little as 17% surfactantcosurfactant.) In some cases, such as octyl trimethyl ammonium bromidehexanolwater, the lamellar phase already exists for 3% hexanol + 3% OTAB! The practical interest of a lamellar liquid crystal lies in its suspending capability. A lyotropic liquid crystal exhibits a viscoelastic behavior that allows
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Fig. 8 (a) Typical ternary phase diagram of water, an amphiphile (sodium octanoate), and a hydrocarbon (octane). (b) Typical ternary phase diagram of water, an amphiphile (sodium octanoate), and a coamphiphile (decanol). This phase diagram was established by Ekwall in 1975.
suspension of solid particles for a very long time. The lamellar phase is additionally characterized by an ideal critical strain to provide the suspension with good resistance to vibrations and convections, without impairing its flowability by a slimy aspect.
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C. Ionic Surfactant, Water, ProtonDonating Material, and Hydrocarbon Quaternary Systems The solubilization of an oil, such as decane, in the micellar isotropic solution L1 or in the reverse micellar isotropic solution L2 can be very important. L1 leads to water in oil (w/o) microemulsions and L2 to oilinwater (o/w) microemulsions. Note that the “cosurfactant” is an amphiphile with (generally) a lower molecular weight than the “main” amphiphile, the “surfactant.” 1. WaterinOil Systems As illustrated by Figure 9, the L2 phase is able to solubilize a very large amount of an hydrocarbon, such as decane or hexadecane. In fact, a composition containing up to 75% decane and water/surfactant/cosurfactant proportions corresponding to the L2 phase is still clear, fluid, and isotropic, forms spontaneously, and is thermodynamically stable. The structure of this microemulsion can be (to some extent) regarded as a dispersion of tiny water droplets (reverse micelles) in a continuous phase of the hydrocarbon. The surfactant and cosurfactant are at the water/oil interphase. This type of system is often referred to as a waterinoil microemulsion. The term “microemulsion” to qualify such systems is not well chosen: it conveys the idea of an actual emulsion characterized by submicrometer (below 0.1 m) droplets. As is well known, an emulsion is not thermodynamically stable and cannot be represented by a single phase domain in a thermodynamic phase diagram. On the other hand, the socalled microemulsions must be considered real micellar solutions containing oil in addition to water and surfactants.
Fig. 9 A “waterinoil” microemulsion.
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These solutions, although very far from “ideal” in the thermodynamic sense, are nevertheless always real in the thermodynamic sense. Another great difference between the microemulsions and the emulsions is that, in the very general case, a microemulsion requires significantly more surfactant than an emulsion. These waterinoil microemulsions exhibit other important characteristics: The domain of existence is large. Significant compositional changes can occur without crossing a phase boundary. Such behavior is particularly important for manufacturing processes, because it tolerates some “freedom” during formulation. They are very stable in a large temperature range, usually from the Krafft point up to the boiling point. Moreover, the phase boundaries are almost insensitive to temperature. The phase topography remains almost unchanged even up to 75% of the ionic amphiphile is replaced by a nonionic amphiphile. To obtain a wide waterinoil microemulsion, it is essential to adjust carefully the cosurfactant structure (usually its chain length) and its relative amount. Although trial and error is still the most commonly used method of obtaining microemulsions, a tentative rule is to combine a very hydrophobic cosurfactant (ndecanol; C10OH) with a very hydrophilic ionic surfactant (alcohol sulfates) and a less hydrophobic cosurfactant (C6OH) with a less hydrophilic ionic surfactant (octyl trimetyl ammonium bromide). For very hydrophobic ionic surfactants, such as dialkyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, even a watersoluble cosurfactant, such as butanol or isopropanol, is adequate (this rule derives at least partially from the fact that an important feature of the cosurfactant consists of readjusting the surfactant packing at the solvent/oil interface). 2. OilinWater Systems We stated earlier that the solubility of decane in the L1 phase is almost nil. For a welldefined surfactant/cosurfactant ratio, huge quantities of decane (or any hydrocarbon) can be solubilized from the L1. A thin, snakelike single phase domain develops toward the oil pole (Figure 10). This phase can be regarded as amphiphile micelles swollen with oil. Generally, the oilinwater microemulsion phases are only metastable systems. As every metastable system, o/w microemulsions need an activation energy to separate, and sometimes this activation energy is so large that the separation almost never occurs. Such systems are not thermodynamically stable and could accordingly not be considered in a phase diagram. On the other hand, they form spontaneously and are stable (because of the high activation energy for separation) for a very long time.
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Fig. 10 An “oilinwater” microemulsion.
A typical example of a very stable metastable system is a mixture of one volume of oxygen with two volumes of hydrogen. The mixture is spontaneous and stable for a very long time, without being thermodynamically stable. The final thermodynamically stable state is obtained by adding a catalyst (platinum foam) or a flame to the mixture. Although not thermodynamically stable, o/w microemulsions form spontaneously and are accordingly useful (ease of manufacture). Nonthermodynamic stability implies some constraints: The position of a o/w microemulsion can depend on the order of mixing of the raw materials and on the shear imposed on the system. Their domain of existence is generally narrow. The system can be sensitive to freeze and thaw cycles. IV. Phase Diagrams for Nonionic SurfactantContaining Systems The phase topography of a ternary system involving water, a hydrocarbon, and a polyethoxylated fatty alcohol depends on the hydrocarbon chain length, branching, degree of insaturation, aromaticity, and so on, on the amphiphile structure (hydrophobic and hydrophilic chain length), and also on temperature, which exerts a very strong influence on the configuration (and accordingly on the solubility) of the polyoxyethylene segments in water solution. A review has been presented by Kalhweit et al. in a series of papers [8–11].
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The phase topography is strongly influenced by the more elementary behavior of the binary amphiphileoil and amphiphilewater systems. A. Nonionic Surfactant and Oil Polyethylene oxide is not soluble in a hydrocarbon, such as hexane or decane. If a fatty chain is attached to a short segment of polyethylene oxide (4–8 EO units), the nonionic amphiphile obtained exhibits a solubility profile in oil depending on temperature. At low temperatures, a miscibility gap is obtained, translating the nonsolubility of the polyethylene oxide chain in the oil. At high temperatures, the effect of the energy is preponderant and the amphiphile is soluble in all proportions in the oil. As predicted by the FloryHuggins theory, such a system shows a lower miscibility gap characterized by an upper critical point, the temperature Ta which depends on both the oil and the amphiphile structure (Figure 11a). The critical composition is usually not far from the pure oil side. Figure 11b shows the lower miscibility gap between some nalkanes and C6E5 (nhexanol ethoxylated with 5ethylene oxide molecules). The upper critical temperature Ta rises with increasing the oil chain length (its hydrophobicity). The critical temperature Ta is often referred to as the haze point temperature, and the miscibility gap between oil and amphiphile plays an essential role in the ternary phase diagram.
Fig. 11 (a) The haze point temperature. (b) Set of phase diagrams showing how the haze point temperature is affected by the structure of the oil.
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B. Nonionic Surfactant and Water 1. Cloud Point The phase diagram of the binary system nonionic amphiphilewater is more complicated (see Figure 12). A “classic” upper critical point exists, but usually below 0°C. At higher temperatures, most nonionic amphiphiles show an upper miscibility gap, which is actually a closed loop with an upper as well as lower critical point. The lower critical point Tb is often referred to as the cloud point temperature. The upper critical point often lies above the boiling temperature of the mixture (at 0.1 MPa pressure). The position and the shape of the loop depend on the chemical nature of the amphiphile. The cloud point temperature Tb plays an essential role in three component phase diagram topography. The closed loop can be regarded as a vertical section through a “nose” in the concentrationtemperaturepressure space, at constant pressure (see Figure 13a). When the pressure rises, the surface covered in the temperature concentration phase by the phase separation loop decreases and vanishes at a critical pressure P*. The shrinking of the loop of the system waterC4E1 with increasing pressure is given in Figure 13b. The critical conditions for the loop to vanish are T* = 95° C, P* = 80 MPa, and C* = 28 wt%. To show the multidimensional nature of these phenomena, note that similar effects (shrinking of the loop, f.i.) can be achieved by the addition of “hydrotropic” electrolytes at constant pressure or by increasing the hydrophilicity of the amphiphile. Figure 13c exhibits the loop areas of butanol (C4EO), ethylene glycol butyl ether (C4E1), and diethylene glycol butyl ether (C4E2). The last does not exhibit a loop at 0.1 MPa (± 1 atm), but the system behaves actually as if the nose were “lurking.” Although no phase separation occurs in
Fig. 12 The phase behavior of a waternonionic amphiphile system.
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Fig. 13 (a) The effect of pressure on the size of the “closed loop.” (b) Closed loop of the system waterethylene glycol butyl ether at different pressures. (c) Effect of the hydrophilic group of the amphiphile on the shape of the closed loop. (From Ref. [16], with permission.)
water, the lurking nose exerts some influence on the threecomponent phase diagram. Another way to look at the same phenomenon is to consider that, in conditions close to T = 90°C and C = 30 wt%, the C4E2water system is such that the mixing entropy is just high enough to maintain the molecules in a single phase, the enthalpic term being positive (endothermic). As soon as a third incompatible ingredient (the oil f.i.) is incorporated, the entropy is no longer able to maintain the molecules in a single phase, and phase separation occurs.
Page 52 TABLE 1
Amphiphile
HLB
min (wt%)
C4E1
10.3
58.9
48.7
29.0
C6E3
12.7
47.4
45.4
13.5
C8E4
12.6
29.6
39.6
6.9
C10E5
12.5
19.7
40.3
3.5
C12E6
12.4
10.6
48.0
2.2
b
(°C)
Cb (wt%)
In Table 1, the HLB is calculated according to the empirical equation HLB = 20 MH/M where MH is the molar mass of the hydrophilic group and M the total molar mass of the product. g min is the minimum amphiphile concentration required for the homogenization of a 1:1 mixture of water and ndecane at around 40°C (wt%). Tb and Cb are the coordinates of the lower critical points (cloud point). Although the HLB seems to be correlated with the cloud point, it cannot give any information on the amphiphile efficacy (g min). Even if the HLB remains constant, increasing both the polar part and the nonpolar part of a surfactant molecule significantly improves its efficacy (at least its wateroil compatibilizing efficacy). 2. Liquid Crystals The closed loop is not the only characteristic of the nonionic surfactantwater binary phase diagram. Like the ionic surfactantwater mixture, the nonionic surfactants, at a higher concentration in water, exhibit lyotropic mesophases. Figure 14 shows a typical binary phase diagram exhibiting the full lyotropic mesophase sequence: I1: cubic, isotropic phase H1: direct hexagonal phase (middle phase) V1: special cubic (viscous phase) La: lamellar phase (neat phase) Note the presence of the twophase domains surrounding each mesophase, the critical point on top of each, and the zero variant threephase situation. Although very difficult to determine with accuracy, the miscibility gaps always exist, as well as the threephase situations. Of course, the critical temperatures and concentrations corresponding to each mesophase depend on the chemical nature of the amphiphile, the pressure, and the optional presence of an electrolyte.
critical point on top of each, and the zero variant threephase situation. Although very difficult to determine with accuracy, the miscibility gaps always exist, as well as the threephase situations. Of course, the critical temperatures and concentrations corresponding to each mesophase depend on the chemical nature of the amphiphile, the pressure, and the optional presence of an electrolyte.
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Fig. 14 Binary phase diagram of a waterethoxylated nonionic amphiphile phase diagram, including lyotropic liquid crystal domains. (From Ref. [11], with permission.)
Figure 15 shows some examples of nonionic amphiphilewater binary phase diagrams [10,12]. As a rule, amphiphiles with hydrocarbon chain length of 8 or fewer carbon atoms exhibit only the loop (in a domain depending on the ethoxylation) and no mesophase. Longer chain amphiphiles show one or more mesophases, one being preponderant. The type of main mesophase (the one exhibiting the highest critical temperature) depends on the relative volumes of the EO and hydrocarbon chains. If the volumes are similar, the lamellar phase is preponderant. This is the case with C12E6. If the volume of the EO chain is significantly higher than the volume of the hydrocarbon chain, the hexagonal phase will melt at higher temperature (C12E7); if the volume of the EO chain is much higher than the volume of the hydrocarbon chain, the cubic phase I1 may appear. In some cases, such as C12E5, the lamellar phase La (or the H1) interferes with the loop (with the cloud point curve) and induces the socalled critical phase, L3. L3 is an isotropic, often lactescent phase, exhibiting a zerovariant three phase critical point at its lower temperature of existence. The nature of the three phases in presence at the critical conditions are W (water with a minute amount of amphiphile), L3 and La. The L3 phase seems to have a beneficial action on cleaning performance, maybe because of the presence of the critical point. C. Nonionic Surfactant, Water, and Oil From the phase behavior of both binary mixtures (wateramphiphile and oil amphiphile), it is now possible to account, at least qualitatively, for the three component phase diagram as a function of temperature. The presence of a haze point on the oilamphiphile phase diagram (critical point a) at temperature Ta shows that the surfactant is more compatible with the oil at high temperature
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Fig. 15 Real examples of waterethoxylated nonionic amphiphile binary phase diagrams. (From Ref. [10], with permission.)
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than at low temperature. The presence of a cloud point on the water amphiphile phase diagram (the lower critical point ) at temperature Tb shows that (at least in the neighborhood temperature domain) the amphiphile is less compatible with water at high than at low temperatures. As a consequence (the other parameters being kept constant), the amphiphile behavior depends on temperature. At low temperature, these mixtures are more compatible with water than with oil. The phase diagram corresponding to this situation is illustrated in Figure 16, a1 or a2. The tie line orientation is directly deduced from the partitioning of the amphiphile between water and oil: because under the current conditions the surfactant is more compatible with water than with oil, the majority of the amphiphile is in the water phase and only a limited amount of amphiphile is present in the oil. Accordingly, the tie lines point in the direction of the oil corner. Diagrams a1 and a2 (Figure 16) are referred to as Winsor I (WI). If the temperature at which the phase diagram is recorded lies above Ta (the haze point), a critical point CPa is present near the oil corner (although pure amphiphile and pure oil are miscible, the presence of a small amount of water “recalls” the lack of compatibility between amphiphile and oil). On the other hand, if the temperature lies below Ta, no critical point appears in the three component phase diagram (it seems to lie for a negative water concentration). At high temperatures, these mixtures are more compatible with oil than with water. The phase diagram corresponding to this situation is c1 or c2 in Figure 16. The amphiphile partitioning now favors the oil, and the tie lines point in the direction of the water corner. c1 and c2 are referred to as Winsor II (WII). A critical point CPb is found if the temperature lies below the cloud point
Fig. 16 Evolution of waterethoxylated nonionic amphiphileoil ternary phase diagrams with temperature (rising from a to c).
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Tb but more often, the critical point lies outside the Gibbs triangle (T > Tb ). In WI and WII representations, the critical point CPb or CPa is called a plait point. If the temperature difference between the temperature T at which the phase diagram is recorded and the critical point of the binary mixture. Tb or Ta, increases, the distance from the plait point to the oilamphiphile axis for CPb and wateramphiphile for CPa increases, too. An important characteristic of a ternary system is the line that links the plait points as a function of temperature. The plait point curve is really the trace of the partitioning of the amphiphile between oil and water. The closer to the oil is the plait point, the amphiphile is more in the water, and vice versa. At low temperatures, the amphiphile is more compatible with water because water interacts strongly with the hydrophilic head group. Accordingly, the hydrodynamic volume of the head group is greater than the hydrodynamic volume of the hydrocarbon tail. At high temperatures, head group hydration is reduced and so is hydrodynamic volume, which becomes smaller than the hydrodynamic volume of the hydrocarbon tail. There is necessarily a temperature at which the hydrodynamic volumes of the two antagonistic parts of the amphiphile molecule are equal. This particular temperature, represented by , is the phase inversion temperature (also called the HLB temperature). The phase inversion temperature is a characteristic (and is accordingly a function) of the nature of the oil, the amphiphile, and the brine (if electrolytes are present). If the pressure can vary (as in oil recovery), it also changes . It is important to realize that can be higher than both CPb and CPa when the amphiphile solubility is very small in water and total in oil. The topography of the phase diagram at the phase inversion temperature depends on the mutual incompatibilities between oilamphiphile, water amphiphile, and wateroil. Even with a polar oil and water containing a chaotropic (hydrotropic) electrolyte, the wateroil incompatibility is high enough to guarantee a miscibility gap from 0 to 100°C. With the amphiphile, the situation is not as simple. We showed that, at , the amphiphile is equally compatible with water and oil, but no assumption is made about the degree of compatibility. Two limit cases can occur: 1. The amphiphile is either very compatible with both water and oil or not very incompatible. The phase diagram will look like Figure 16 b1, with a plait point only for an equal amount of oil and water and with the lines parallel to the wateroil side. (equal partitioning). This plait point corresponds to the merger of the CPa and CPb lines, and the projection of the plait point curves on the oil watertemperature phase diagram should look like Figure 17a or b. 2. The amphiphile is equally (and significantly) incompatible with both water and oil. The phase diagram will now look like Figure 14 b2. A threephase triangle (3PT) appears.
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Fig. 17 Transition from an infratricritical situation (a and b) to a supertricritical situation (d and e) through a tricritical point (c). (From Ref. [11], with permission.)
Three phases are now in equilibrium: 1. A waterrich phase (W) 2. An oilrich phase (O) 3. An amphiphilerich phase (S) The amphiphilerich phase is also called the surfactant phase or the middle phase. The last terms, due to Shinoda, results from the physical appearance of a threephase body: 1. A dense, waterrich phase at the bottom 2. A light, oilrich phase at the top 3. A phase containing most of the amphiphile in the middle It is worth noting that with higher molar volume amphiphiles, such as C12E4, a significant amount of the amphiphile can be present in the oil phase, even at . Here, too, the plait points CPa and CPb will be or will not be inside the Gibbs triangle depending on the relative positions of , Ta, and Tb . If the phase diagram exhibits a threephase triangle, it is called a Winsor III (WIII) system. In such a situation, the plait point curves do not merge but “cross” each other and stop at two terminal critical points (see Figure 17d or e). The sequence of the evolution of a threecomponent system when temperature has risen can be summarized as follows. If the amphiphile is strongly incompatible with oil and water, WI
WIII
WII
If the amphiphile is compatible or is weakly incompatible with oil and water, WI
WII
A way to modify amphiphile compatibility with oil and water is to change its molecular weight, keeping the proper balance between oleophobicity and hydro
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phobicity. A highmolecularweight amphiphile like C12E6 will show a WIWII WII sequence, although a lowmolecularweight amphiphile like C4E2 will show (with decanol acetate as the oil) a WIWII sequence. By varying the amphiphile (in)compatibility through its molecular weight, it is possible to pass from a WIWII to a WIWIIIWII sequence. At a certain point, a situation as illustrated in Figure 15c will occur: the plait point curves just merge critically and the threephasetriangle (3PT) collapses. This situation corresponds to a tricritical point, an essential concept in theoretical thermodynamics. When the system is such that a 3PT appears (by far the most common case), the 3PT exists from a temperature T1 lower than to a temperature Tu above . To some extent, the difference between T1 and Tu is a measure of how far the system is from the tricritical conditions. (Note that is not necessarily the average of Tu and T1.) The thermal evolution of a typical system, with broken critical lines (see Fig. 18), can be summarized as follows: At T < T1, the phase diagram is a typical WI. T1 is the temperature of the critical end point of the CPb curve. At T = T1, the phase diagram is still a WI, but with a critical tie line from which the three phase triangle will appear a fraction of Kelvin above. For T1 < T < , the corner of the threephase triangle corresponding to the amphiphile phase remains close to the water side but moves “clockwise” in the Gibbs triangle. For T = , the amphiphile corner of the threephase triangle reaches “12 o'clock” (phase inversion temperature). For < T < Tu the corner of the threephase triangle corresponding to the amphiphile phase keeps on “moving clockwise” to the oil phase. Tu is the temperature of the critical end point of the CPa curve. At T = Tu, the amphiphile corner of the threephase triangle merges with its oil corner and the threephase triangle collapses in a critical tie line of a WII phase topography. At T > Tu, the phase diagram is a typical WII. It is important to remark on the shape of the line joining the three corners of the threephase triangle (G lines). It is a single, gauche line, with a minimum at T1 on the water side of the critical tie line and a maximum at Tu on the oil side of the critical tie line. These branches can be identified (Ga, Gb , and Gg), each corresponding to the compositions of each corner of the threephase triangle. It is important to note that Ga has nothing to do with CPa and that Gb has nothing to do with CPb . Gi are composition curves, and CPi are critical point curves. At a critical end point, however, the critical point curve meets the extreme of
u
the critical tie line. These branches can be identified (Ga, Gb , and Gg), each corresponding to the compositions of each corner of the threephase triangle. It is important to note that Ga has nothing to do with CPa and that Gb has nothing to do with CPb . Gi are composition curves, and CPi are critical point curves. At a critical end point, however, the critical point curve meets the extreme of the composition curve (CPa meets Ga at Tu and CPb meets Gb at T1).
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Fig. 18 Detailed evolution of the phase diagram of a wateroilethoxylated nonionic amphiphile (low molecular weight) with temperature. (From Ref. [11], with permission.)
Another important characteristic of these systems is that the best compatibility capacity is achieved at T = , when the hydrodynamic volumes of both parts of the surfactant are equal. Under phase inversion conditions, the amount of amphiphile needed to compatibilize a mixture of equal amounts of oil and water is minimal. The phase inversion conditions are accordingly looked for to minimize the amphiphile quantity needed to achieve a given task. Winsor behavior is not the only characteristic of wateroilnonionic amphiphile systems. The lyotropic mesophases appearing on the wateramphiphile binary phase diagrams expand to some extent in the Gibbs triangle (Figure 19). Amphiphiles based on alcohols lower than C8 do not generate liquid crystal at all (amphiphiles based on C4 and less do not even give micelles). C10 and above alcoholbased nonionic amphiphiles exhibit lyotropic liquid crystals, at least usually up to Tu. Figure 19 shows the typical and general behavior of ternary system with an amphiphile giving liquid crystals. At temperature below T1, each lyotropic mesophase appearing on the wateramphiphile binary
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Fig. 19 Ternary phase diagrams involving nonionic amphiphiles generating lyotropic liquid crystals with water. (From Ref. [11], with permission.)
phase diagram expand in the Gibbs triangle. At a temperature close to , generally only the lamellar liquid crystal phase is present, and points toward the amphiphile corner of the threephase triangle. Above Tu, all the liquid crystals are molten. D. Effects of System Parameters on Phase Behavior 1. Nonionic Surfactant Structure Tu, T1, and increase if more and more hydrophilic amphiphiles are used. This is easily explained by the HLB concept: a more hydrophilic amphiphile will remain in water up to a higher temperature. Another fundamental effect of the amphiphile is a result of its molecular weight (or molar volume): increasing the molecular weight of an amphiphile at constant HLB results in the fact that much less amphiphile is required to compatibilize equal amounts of water and oil, as illustrated by Figure 20. 2. Effect of Oil (a) Molar Volume. Increasing the oil molar volume results in an increase in Tu, T1 (if they exist), and . This is illustrated in Figure 21 for aliphatic
Pag
Fig. 20 Effect of the molecular weight of the amphiphile on the shape of the ternary phase diagra (From Ref. [10], with permission.)
hydrocarbons, alkyl benzenes, and alkanol acetate mixtures with water and diethylene glycol monobutyl ether (C4E2). Increasing the oil molar volume corresponds to increasing the oilwater incompatibility: another result is the increase in the temperature difference betwee Tu and T1. This is illustrated by the alkyl benzene series, which presents a tricritica point for an alkyl chain length between 6 and 7. (b) Polarity. Because increasing the oil polarity (by shifting from aliphatic hydrocarbons to alkyl benzenes to alkanol acetates) decreases the wateroil incompatibility, it is not surprising that the Winsor transitions (Tu, T1, and ) occu at lower temperatures and the supertricriticality decreases. The polarity of the oil can be estimated from Hansen's threedimensional solubilit parameters. Hansen separated Hildebrand's solubility parameter into three independent components: d for the dispersion contribution, p for the polar contribution, and h for the H bonding contribution. As an estimation of the oil polarity, we define Dph as the square root of the square of the polar
Fig. 21 Effects of oil molar volume and polarity on the characteristics of ternary phase diagrams obtained with water and diethylene glycol butyl ether.
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component plus the square of the H bonding component of the solubility parameter, using the table published by Barton [13]. For ternary mixtures of alkanes, alkyl benzenes, or alkanol acetates with water and C4E2, the phase inversion temperature can be satisfactorily expressed as (°C) = 1.016V 0.00121V2 44.72Dph + 4.747D2ph 2.74 (1) V is the oil molar volume in ml/mol and Dph is the oil polar character in MPa½ . The effects of the molar volume and that of the polarity appears to be independent, at least in this specific case. 3. Effect of Electrolytes It is possible to modify the behavior of water by adding electrolytes. Electrolytes usually reduce the solubility of uncharged organic ingredients in water. Although the great majority of electrolytes exert a saltingout action, several exceptions exist, such as perchlorates and thiocynates. These salts are saltingin. The saltingout or in characteristics of electrolytes were discovered at the end of the nineteenth century by Hofmeister [14] and remain a mystery. It has been established that this effect has nothing to do with ionic strength: different salts at the same ionic strength present different saltingout or in characteristics. Besides, unlike a classic electrostatic effect, it is almost linear with salt concentration (at least in the low concentration range). In water, the effects of anions are much more pronounced than the effects of cations. The sequence of anions of increasing salting out character in aqueous solutions is as follows: Nitrate < chloride < carbonate < chromate < sulfate On the other hand, perchlorates and thiocyanates are saltingin electrolytes. A saltingout electrolyte strengthens the structure of water and makes it less available to hydrate organic molecules; saltingin electrolytes would, on the other hand, disrupt the structure of water, creating “holes.” It is noteworthy that saltingin electrolytes usually have a positive enthalpy of solubilization in water (endothermic solubilization). In practice, saltingout electrolytes make water even more incompatible with oil. The result is a decrease in the Winsor transition temperatures and an increase in the supertricritical character. The amount of amphiphile necessary to compatibilize water and oil generally increases in the presence of a salting out electrolyte. Of course, all these tendencies are inverted with a saltingin electrolyte. Figure 22 illustrates the effects of different electrolytes on a C4E2 C13 acetatewater system.
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Fig. 22 Effect of the nature of the electrolyte and its concentration on the characteristics of ternary phase diagrams obtained with water, diethylene glycol butyl ether, and tridecanol acetate.
4. Effect of LowMolecularMass, WaterSoluble Organic Molecules Water can be made less incompatible with oil by adding small, uncharged, watersoluble organic molecules, such as amides and substituted ureas [15]. High saltingin performance is obtained with organic molecules with the following characteristics: Amphiphilic structure Hydrophobic segment short enough to prevent aggregation Concentration well below the solubility limit Typical examples are urea derivatives, especially butyl urea. 5. Emulsions Unlike the systems described above, emulsions are not thermodynamically stable systems. They are dispersions of one liquid phase within another, helped with a surfactant. Oilinwater emulsions are dispersions of oil droplets in a continuous aqueous phase and waterinoil emulsions are dispersions of water in an oily continuous phase. Multiple emulsions may also exist: an aqueous core surrounded by an oil phase, itself dispersed in an aqueous continuous phase. The size of the dispersed droplets ranges from a fraction of a micron to 50 microns. Accordingly, emulsions are milky, nontransparent systems. They are also subject to phase separation on aging, and their behavior does not depend only on their composition, but also on the process of producing. To date, the formulation of emulsions remains highly empirical.
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The general principle behind emulsion formulation is that one must generate a large surface of contact between water and oil. It is easier to do this if the interfacial tension between water and oil is as low as possible. Surfactants are accordingly very helpful. The choice of the surfactant depends on the nature of the oil and the desired structure of the emulsion. Oilinwater emulsions should be formulated with surfactants exhibiting a hydrophilic head group larger than their lipophilic tail, and reciprocally. The physical stability of emulsions depends on a lot of internal and external factors. The size of the droplets is very important, as it directly conditions the rate of separation , according to Stokes' law 126290064a.gif
Where is the difference of density between the solid particle and the liquid, r is the radius of the droplet and is the viscosity of the continuous phase. It has to be pointed out that Stokes' law is valid only in the case of a single droplet not interacting with the continuous phase. The observed separation rate may be very different than the one predicted; nevertheless, it is important to keep it in mind. The dispersed droplets necessarily collide with each other. The collisions can be elastic (they just bounce) or inelastic. In such a case, they can just stick together and form a cluster. This is called “flocculation” and it usually induces viscosity modifications long before visible phase separation is observed. When two droplets stick together, the film separating them may break and the droplets can join to form a larger droplet. This is called “coalescence.” One may think that better emulsion stability would be obtained with higher surfactant quantity. This is not true. Optimum stability is obtained with an optimum amount of surfactant. One possible explanation of emulsion destabilization with too much surfactant is that the surfactant in excess forms micelles, which bombard emulsion droplets, due to Brownian motion. If two droplets happen to be close together, even if they do not attract each other, they are pushed into contact by the no longer balanced collisions, as there are less micelles between the two droplets than in the bulk. References 1. Griffiths, R. B., and Wheeler, J. C., Phys. Rev., A2, 1047–1064 (1970). 2. Ricci, J. E., The Phase Rule and Heterogeneous Equilibrium. Van Nostrand, New York, 1951. 3. Krafft, F., Ber. Deutsche Chem. Ges., 32, 1596–1608 (1899). 4. Shinoda, K., Solvent Properties of Surfactant Solutions, Vol. 2, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1967, pp. 12–16.
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5. Kekicheff, P., GabrielleMadelmont, C., and Ollivon, M., J. Colloid Int. Sci., 131, 112–132 (1989). 6. Ekwall, P., Mandell, L., and Fontell, K., Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst., 8, 157– 213 (1969). 7. Friman, R., Danielsson, I., and Stenius, P., J. Coll. Interface Sci., 86, 501–514 (1982). 8. Kalhweit, M., Lessner, E., and Strey, R., J. Phys. Chem., 87, 5032 (1983). 9. Kalhweit, M., Lessner, E., and Strey, R., J. Phys. Chem., 88, 1937 (1984). 10. Kalhweit, M., Strey, R., and Haase, D., J. Phys. Chem., 89, 163 (1985). 11. Kalhweit, M., and Strey, R., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl., 24, 654 (1985). 12. Mitchell, D. J., Tiddy, G. J. T., Waring, L., Bostock, T., and McDonals, M. P., J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans., 1, 79, 975–1000 (1983). 13. Barton, A. F. M., Handbook of Solubility Parameters and Other Cohesion Parameters, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1983. 14. Hofmeister, F., Arch. Exp. Patol. Pharmackol., 24, 247 (1888). 15. Broze, G., Comm. J. Com. Esp. Deterg., Barcelona, 20, 133 (1989). 16. Schneider, G., J. Phys. Chem. (Munich), 37, 333 (1963).
4 Rheology of Liquid Detergents R. S. ROUNDS Fluid Dynamics, Inc., Piscataway, New Jersey I. Introduction II. Patent Survey of Liquid Detergent Formulations III. Rheological Measurements A. Steady Shear Viscometry B. Dynamic Mechanical Spectroscopy C. Extensional Viscometry IV. Product Delivery Vehicles A. Dispersed Systems B. Highly Concentrated Dispersions C. Gels and Microgels D. Stability V. Fundamental Research in Liquid Detergents A. Surfactant Solutions B. Surfactant Liquid Crystal Gels C. PolymerSurfactant Interactions VI. Conclusions References
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I. Introduction Common household liquid detergent products can exhibit remarkable rheological properties, depending on the structured or unstructured delivery system selected for a specific formulation. Whether solution, dispersion, or gel, these products can display rich rheological attributes, including solidlike properties in the quiescent state with transitions to fluid flow, allowing flow through dispensers, and facile application to intended organic and inorganic surfaces. Thixotropy is a commonplace property, as are yield stresses and pseudoplasticity, and dilatancy and rheopexy are also observed. The most general survey of the rheology of commercial liquid detergents shows clearly that these fluids span the entire range of the viscoelastic spectrum, including both personal and home care products. Consumers have a wide range of product selections within most product categories, ranging from low viscosity solutions to highly elastic gel compositions, depending on individual preferences. Rheology design and control is a difficult task, however, considering the complexity of many of these formulations, consisting of surfactants, surfactant mixtures, electrolytes, hydrotropes, polymers, various conditioners, builders, fragrances, pigments and dyes, and so on, with many potential associative interactions. Fundamental rheological research has provided insight into various mechanisms available to product formulators to regulate rheological attributes of these complex fluids. The complex nature of the rheology of surfactant systems has been known and studied for many decades. The elasticity of specific surfactants in the presence of electrolytes was deduced initially from simple observations of elastic recoil and steady shear viscosity measurements. In 1926, for example, Hatschek and Jane [1] determined ammonium oleate, in excess ammonia, to have a highly structured order, with both significant elastic and timedependent properties. Similar results were reported by Winsor for potassium oleate in the presence of potassium salts, such as potassium acetate or carbonate [2]. Research continued to determine the nature of this phenomena, exploring the morphology of the surfactant in aqueous solutions in the presence of various additives. The existence of viscoelastic surfactant systems in the dilute regime sparked interest in defining the organization of the micelles in these systems. In 1954, Pilpel speculated about the presence of long, interlinked cylindrical micelles forming coherent, yet transient network structures as the basis for the formation of viscoelastic surfactant gels [3,4]. His research was directed at gels formed from soaps in the presence of fatty alcohols, perfluoro compounds, and various simple electrolytes. Further, Nash [5,6] investigated conditions of gel formation in dilute, twocomponent, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)/naphthol solutions, also proposing the formation of long, cationic filaments resulting in polymerlike viscoelastic behavior.
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These early research efforts were a preface to the extensive rheology research of surfactant systems currently in progress. Interest in the rheology of surfactant systems and multicomponent liquid detergent products has continued to grow, playing a more comprehensive role in the characterization of these complex fluids and guiding product development research in the academic and industrial sectors. Both steady shear and dynamic mechanical measurements elucidate the structure and morphology of surfactant micelles and their corresponding mechanical properties, in concert with other characterization techniques, leading to fundamental structureproperty relationships. In addition, a considerable effort has been directed towards theoretical modeling of the observed rheological behavior. Much of the growing emphasis on the rheology of liquid detergents and their product components has been advanced by the development of sophisticated, programmable, rheological testing instrumentation with highsensitivity transducers, required for the characterization of these fluid systems. This chapter broadly summarizes the technical literature and reviews the fundamentals of rheological measurements relevant to detergent systems. Rheological profiles of various commercial liquid detergents and their components will also be presented from personal care and household care product categories, emphasizing product delivery vehicles and including both steady shear and dynamic mechanical and extensional properties. The principles of rheology, with definition of terms and derivation of appropriate mathematical expressions, are not included, however, because excellent references are available in these subject areas [7–26]. II. Patent Survey of Liquid Detergent Formulations The importance of the rheology of liquid detergents is well reflected in the patent literature. Frequently, mechanical properties such as viscosity, yield stresses, thixotropy, and various viscoelasticity parameters are the principle objects of the invention, reflecting the importance of these properties in defining product aesthetics and consumer experience in product usage. Rheology or, at least, consistency, is a dominant liquid detergent patent theme. Several examples include a thickened aqueous abrasive cleanser with “use favorable” rheology [27], a thickening colloidal suspension stabilized through association with surfactant for incorporating whitening agents in a bleach composition [28], stable, lowviscosity liquid detergents consisting of lamellar dispersions or vesicles within an aqueous continuous phase [29], and acrylic maleic acid builder copolymers as dispersion stabilizers and viscosity modifiers for structured and unstructured liquid detergents [30]. One patent
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discloses a liquid detergent composition that increases viscosity upon dilution to provide benefits to the consumer during use [31]; another presents viscosity improvers for aqueous solutions of nonionic surfactants for applications in shampoos, hand soaps, fabric care, and hard surface care detergents [32]. The patent literature teaches many methods of rheology modification and control throughout product shelf life, although full rheological characterizations are not typically provided. The recent patent literature has seen a new emphasis on the viscoelastic nature of liquid detergents. One example is a linear viscoelastic automatic dishwasher detergent composition with improved physical stability and flow properties incorporating a polymeric thickening agent [33,34], providing an alternative to claythickened dispersions. Whereas many previous patents describe viscosity or yield stress values within the product definition, this patent defines the viscoelastic nature of the liquid detergent product through dynamic mechanical properties, including the strain dependence of the storage and loss modulus. Viscoelastic gel detergent compositions are also the subject of a patent issued to Lever Brothers Co., with creep compliance data provided to support evidence of gel formation [35]. A lowfoaming automatic dishwashing detergent composition gel is also the subject of a patent issued to the Drackett Company. “Gel” characteristics are supported only by the presence of a yield stress, extrapolated from Brookfield viscosity data [36]. Gelled or thickened laundry detergents and hard surface cleaners containing bleach compounds have seen considerable growth during the past few years. Thickened aqueous bleach compositions formed through the addition of a viscoelastic surfactant system, comprised of surfactant ions and organic counterions, have also been proposed [37], suitable as hard surface cleaners, with delivery through manual spray nozzle dispensers. Advantages include reduced misting as a result of the viscoelastic nature of the solution, as well as suitable rheology for adherence to vertical surfaces [38], good phase stability, bleach stability, and stable viscosity. The Proctor and Gamble Company has patented liquid or gel laundry compositions containing amido peroxy acid bleach showing good stability in the presence of perfume ingredients [39], stable cleansers containing chlorine bleach and phytic acid [40], and a stable thickened aqueous bleach composition formulated with hypochlorite and a mixture of highmolecularweight polycarboxylate polymer and amine oxide surfactant, applicable to toilet bowl cleansers, bathroom tiles, and shower walls. Akzo Nobel NV has also been granted a patent for a stable yet pourable aqueous bleachcontaining composition with waterinsoluble peroxy acid suspended in a mixture of two or more polymers. The preferred organic peroxy acid is cited as 1,12diperoxydodecanedioic acid [41]. Additional patents have also been granted for various thickened hard surfaces cleaners and drain clearing compositions [42–45]. Viscoelasticity is highlighted,
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formed through association of quaternary ammonium compounds with suitable counterions, for example, providing consumeracceptable pour properties. Of particular interest is a patent issued to the Clorox Co. for viscoelastic formulations, citing a Trouton ratio of greater than 50 for select compositions [46]. An unusual gel delivery vehicle for a detergent composition based on the phase behavior of surfactant systems is described in another patent issued to Procter and Gamble, containing ethoxylated alkyl sulfate surfactant in hexagonal liquid crystal form [47]. We have reviewed only a small segment of the vast liquid detergent patent portfolio, yet the emphasis on product rheology, viscoelasticity, and extensional flow behavior is noteworthy. A significant industrial focus is directed toward the development of liquid detergents with tailored rheological attributes appropriate for the intended application. III. Rheological Measurements Rheological and viscometric measurements relevant to the study of commercial liquid detergent compositions and their many components are very diverse, and selection of the appropriate measurement tool is dependent on (1) the objective of the measurement and (2) the nature of the fluid under investigation. The nature of the liquid composition or the delivery system is an important consideration in the selection of rheological test methods, and this is addressed in greater detail in the following sections. A. Steady Shear Viscometry Viscosity is a very obvious material property requiring specification in the design of a liquid detergent product. It is one design element that directly influences the acceptability of the complete product formulation, its ease of manufacture, the package and dispenser orifice design, product appearance, and numerous consumerperceived product attributes. As such, it is necessary to complete viscosity measurements accurately within the appropriate shear rate or shear stress range of interest. Process engineers, for example, may require constitutive equations describing the steadystate viscosity function at shear rates and temperatures experienced during manufacture, for specification of process equipment and determination of process conditions and process simulations. These requirements are quite distinct from those concerned with transient viscosity behavior or the flow resistance of products encountered by the consumer throughout product usage, such as dispensing from a container, pouring, application to a surface, and drainage. If a product is being evaluated for dispensability through a packaging orifice, the shear rate to be used in the viscometric study must be estimated from
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the geometry of the orifice and the discharge rate or linear velocity of the fluid through the orifice. The objective of this measurement is very clearly to define fluid response, under conditions simulating product dispense. This is a transient, converging flow, occurring very rapidly, and flow resistance at the inception of flow, or + = ƒ(t), or during an accelerated flow, = ƒ(d /dt) for short flow durations, may be the most appropriate testing format. A creep measurement is a reasonable alternative if estimates of the forces involved are available. A summary of several viscometric tests commonly applied to the characterization of liquid detergents and their raw materials is provided in Figure 1, with examples of typical fluid responses. Viscosity measurements require a fundamental understanding of the definition of viscosity describing the proportionality between the stress tensor and the rate of deformation tensor : = Viscosity, a scalar, is a function of the invariants Ii of the rate of deformation tensor . For viscometric flow of incompressible fluids, = ƒ(I2) I2 = ( : ) =
i
j
ij ji
Viscometric measurements require simple, unidirectional flow in restricted geometries such that analytic solutions of the differential equations describing the flow exist, directly enabling viscosity calculations [48]. Rotation viscometers, especially those equipped with computer control and data acquisition firmware, can very effectively be used to generate flow curves or determine viscosity functions, = ƒ( ), for most fluid systems. Newtonian fluids can be readily distinguished from nonNewtonian fluids and time dependent shear effects can be easily quantified. Many liquid detergents and their components are not simple Newtonian or nonNewtonian fluids but exhibit either thixotropy or rheopexy. These timedependent shear effects can significantly complicate the generation of flow curves, because an additional variable, duration of shear, that is, = ƒ( ,t), must be considered. In addition to viscosity measurements of both Newtonian and nonNewtonian fluids, rotational viscometry is often used to evaluate yield stresses, normal stress differences, timedependent properties, and structural parameters. Steady shear viscometers are commercially available with normal force transducers, needed to calculate normal stress differences. These measurements are of critical importance in viscometry to define completely the rheological state of a fluid, because practical implications of normal stress effects can occur in processing liquid detergents. The Weissenberg effect in mixing, for example,
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FIG. 1 Experimental test methods frequently applied to the characterization of liquid detergents, with examples of typical fluid responses.
is perhaps the best known. These measurements, however, are difficult to complete for low viscosity fluids. If we assume simple unidirectional flow between a cone and plate testing geometry, as shown in Fig. 2, the expressions for viscosity and primary nor
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FIG. 2 Cone and plate viscometric fixture with derivation of equations for the calculation of viscosity and first normal stress coefficient.
mal stress coefficient, 1, in terms of experimental variables are provided. Normal force is the sole experimental parameter generally measured in commercial viscometric instruments, leaving the secondary normal stress coefficient, 2, undetermined. For liquid detergents that are simple, isotropic, Newtonian solutions, viscosity determinations are sufficient to fully characterize resistance to flow, if normal stresses are not present. Examples of such products include most liquid hand dishwashing detergents and certain personal care, hard surface cleaners and laundry detergent products. Linear Newtonian flow curves, = ƒ( ), for several commercial products, selected from household hard surfaces cleaners marketed in the United States, are shown in Fig. 3. We have included one concentrated detergent that shows obvious deviation from Newtonian behavior, in the shear rate range of 0–25 s1. Hard surface cleaners, hard surface cleaners containing bleach, liquid laundry detergents, and shampoos are among products that can occur as simple, isotropic, Newtonian fluids or as unstructured systems. It is interesting to note that products that are represented as “gels” are frequently viscous Newtonian fluids, although there are occasional exceptions. Many consumer products exhibit more complex flow behavior in viscometric evaluations, depending on the composition and physical form of the liquid composition and more rigorous rheological characterizations are required fully to
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FIG. 3 Viscosity as a function of shear rate for a representative sampling of U.S. home care liquid detergent products, determined at 25°C using the Rheometrics Scientific RFSII with parallel plate test geometry.
appreciate flow resistance in a manufacturing environment, flow behavior during product use, physical product appearance, and so on. These products, including dispersions and gellike fluids, are generally nonNewtonian, viscoelastic, and may also exhibit time dependent mechanical properties. Figure 4 contains representative flow curves, = ƒ( ), for several personal care products which exhibit nonlinear viscosity functions, that is, nonNewtonian fluids. Liquid detergent products fully embrace the full viscoelastic spectrum, as we see when representative commercial detergents are characterized in oscillatory measurements. Thixotropy, a decrease in viscosity occurring with increasing time of shear at constant shear rate, is a wellknown viscometric property often displayed by various structured liquid detergent products, especially dispersed systems; rheopexy is a more novel response. Figures 5 and 6, for example, show the viscosity as a function of time for two commercial personal care products during stress growth measurements at 0.05 s1, for a 60 s time interval. These two liquid detergents, both dispersions, exhibit very different responses to the same
Pa
FIG. 4 Viscosity as a function of shear rate for several randomly selected personal care cleansers, determined at 25°C using the Rheometrics Scientific RFSII with parallel plate tooling.
FIG. 5 Viscometric behavior, = ƒ(t) of a commercial skin cleanser in response to a constant shear rate of 0.05 s1 at 25°C. Data obtained using the Rheometrics Scientific RFSII with parallel plate tooling. +
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FIG. 6 Rheopectic behavior of a commercial conditioning shampoo, determined through stress growth measurements, + = ƒ(t) at 0.005 s1 and 25°C using the Rheometrics RFSII and parallel plate geometry.
applied deformation. In Fig. 5, we see thixotropy following a stress overshoot; while the second detergent (Fig. 6) appears to be thickening, or rheopectic, under identical experimental conditions. In further experimentation, the product exhibiting rheopexy showed no equilibration to an equilibrium shear stress following an increase in shear duration to 6000 s. The ease with which the internal physicochemical microstructure is eroded in shear and the kinetics of the structural reformation following shear are characteristics of structured fluids that can be investigated using rotational viscometry. Such products, for example, may appear to be very thick and rich in composition yet relatively easy to dispense. For these complex fluids, phenomenological characterizations have attempted to define structural parameters predictive of the timedependent viscosity functions [49–52]. A review of various models attempting to model thixotropic behavior is provided by Ultrecht et al. [53]. Thixotopy is a truly complex phenomenon, involving longrange interactions between product components yielding threedimensional network structures, or coagulation structures, with potential reversible transitions. In the structured state, such fluids may exhibit significant elasticity and timedependent inelastic flow when exposed to a sufficient external force. Equations predictive of time and
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sheardependent flow behavior for thixotropic fluids, with and without yield stress, are unavailable at this time, although limited empiricisms have been developed for specific dispersions. B. Dynamic Mechanical Spectroscopy When detergents are formulated as structured viscoelastic fluids, dynamic mechanical spectroscopy can be an essential tool in the definition of the strength and cohesiveness of the internal ordering, in addition to susceptibility to strain. Measurements of storage and loss modulus as a function of strain can easily quantify the facility with which the structure can be degraded, the ability of that internal microstructure to reform, and the extent of reformation. The same measurements, completed as a function of deformation period, define the “architecture” of the fluid in the most general sense. Dramatic differences occur between unstructured versus structured liquid detergents, solutions versus gels, dilute versus concentrated dispersions, and so on. Both measurements, G', G'' = ƒ( ) and G', G'' = ƒ( ), are valuable in defining the structured state. Oscillatory rheometers are now designed under controlled strain or controlled stress modalities, capable of applying a sinusoidal strain or stress to the fluid under test. Under controlled strain operating conditions, the two independent variables are the frequency and the amplitude of the applied deformation 0, shown in Fig. 7, with examples of typical responses of ideal fluids, both viscous, elastic, and a representative viscoelastic substance. There are two dependent variables: the amplitude 0 of the fluid response and the phase angle between the applied deformation and the measured oscillatory response. It is typically assumed that the oscillatory response is sinusoidal, similar to the applied deformation, although there are fluid systems for which this assumption may be incorrect. The harmonics associated with these measurements and the resulting errors have been discussed in the literature [54]. For structured fluids exhibiting yielding behaviors, nonlinear waveforms are frequently encountered [55,56]. Figure 8 com+pares the storage and loss modulus as a function of strain for two shampoo products, one which is unstructured in its commercial form A, a simple viscous solution, and the other, a structured viscoelastic gellike fluid B. As we would expect, for the unstructured shampoo, G " > G', and both parameters are independent of strain or deformation amplitude. The structured gel, however, exhibits a noticeably different response: G' > G " and G', G " = ƒ ( ). For structured elastic detergents, it is often observed that the elastic modulus, G', decreases appreciably with increasing strain, reflecting the sensitive nature of the internal structure. Figure 9 summarizes the dynamic mechanical properties of a gelled laundry spot remover. This product exhibits a clearly defined linear viscoelastic region and a retarded frequency dependence in the frequency range of 0.01–100 rad/s
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FIG. 7 Sinusoidal strain and the corresponding responses of a purely elastic, a viscous, and a viscoelastic fluid.
FIG. 8 Storage and loss modulus as a function of strain for two liquid detergent products determined at a frequency of 10 rad/s and 25°C.
Pag
FIG. 9 Viscoelasticity of gel laundry strain remover. (a) Complex moduli as a function of strain at 10 rad/s; (b) complex moduli as a function of frequency at a strain of 0.02. Measurements were completed at 25°C using the Rheometrics Scientific RFSII and parallel plate geometry: 50 mm diameter and 0.9 mm plate spacing.
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similar to the structured shampoo and reflecting gellike behavior. In this range, G' > G", or tan <1, where tan is defined as G "/G'. To demonstrate further the breadth of the viscoelastic spectrum embraced by liquid detergents, Fig. 10 summarizes tan = ƒ( ) and tan = ƒ( ) for body cleansing shower and bath personal care products. Although many of these products appear to be quite similar in their viscometric properties under certain shear conditions, many consumer perceived product attributes indicate significant differences, which are well captured in dynamic mechanical rheological characterizations [57]. C. Extensional Viscometry Very limited research has been published on the elongational flow properties of surfactant solutions, yet elongational or “stretching” flows are frequently encountered by liquid detergents in process environments and in use by the consumer. During manufacture, elongational flow may be experienced during spray drying or atomization, mixing, flowthrough pumps and pipeline transport, converging flows, filling, high shear dispersing, and other mechanisms. During consumer use, examples include the simple act of dispensing a liquid detergent from an orifice, application of a liquid detergent to a surface through a spray nozzle and rubbing or coating a surface with the detergent. Extensional flows represent a very important area of study for commercial liquid detergents and diluted aqueous solutions, representing consumer usage conditions. Research has shown that polymeric systems experience conformational changes in extensional flows. In certain cases, dilatancy and chain scission can occur [5863]. Recently, research has been extended to include surfactant systems. For example, relative elongational viscosity as a function of elongational rate has been determined for a cationic surfactant, C16TASal, in an aqueous solution at a concentration at 600 and 900 ppm, with evidence of a shearinduced structuring [64]. The effect of preshearing on the elongation viscosity is also determined at preshearing rates of 203600 s1. For example, preshearing at 80 s1 produces the greatest increase in elongational viscosity at a surfactant concentration of 900 ppm, attributed to the formation of a shear induced structured state. At the higher preshearing rates, the elongation viscosity is reduced and the relative elongation viscosity appears to be a decreasing function of elongation strain rates. Data are also presented for dilute polyethylene oxide solutions. Extensional viscosity measurements have been completed for dilute polyacrylamide and xanthan gum solutions in flowthrough opposing jets [65,66], showing the difference in flexible chain versus rigid rodlike polymer conformations. A commercial instrument based on this design is available from
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FIG. 10 Comparison of the strain and frequency dependence of tan for a representative sampling of shower and bath body cleansers from the U.S. and European markets. Data obtained at 25°C using the Rheometrics Scientific RFSII and parallel plate test geometry. (a) Unstructured Newtonian or nearly Newtonian products. (b) Highly structured elastic formulations. (c) Comparison of the frequency dependence of both structured and unstructured products determined at = 0.02 and 25°C using the Rheometrics Scientific RFSII and parallel plate geometry.
Rheometrics Scientific, Inc. (Piscataway NJ), believed to be the only commercially available extensional viscometer. Other flow configurations for extensional viscosity measurements have been proposed in various academic communities [67–70]. Spinnability and viscoelasticity for aqueous solutions of alkyl and oleydimethylamine oxides and sodium alginate have also been investigated [71]. Both ductile failure and polymeric viscoelasticity are reported. Equally significant are interfacial elongational viscosities, also known as dilational viscosities, referring to the elongational viscosity of an interface. This is a critical parameter in foam stability, a very important characteristic for many liquid detergents [72,73]. A comprehensive theoretical review of surface rheology is provided by Edwards and Wason [74–77].
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IV. Product Delivery Vehicles Liquid detergent products can be broadly divided into three distinct delivery systems: (1) isotropic, clear, unstructured solutions, (2) structured opaque or translucent dispersion, and (3) structured transparent gels, as shown in Fig. 11. As we can see, there is overlap in this systems definition, as concentrated particulate dispersions can exhibit gellike behavior, although differentiation is provided by the clarity of the vehicle. Each of these three delivery systems has unique rheological characterization requirements to define effectively their rheological states in a process environment, throughout shelflife and during consumer use. In rheological measurements, the second classification, opaque or translucent dispersions, is the most difficult to characterize. Depending on the volume fraction of the immiscible phase(s), the particle size distribution, shape of particulates, surface charge, presence of adsorbed components, and degree of flocculation, such systems can be highly elastic fluids, with both time and sheardependent properties. The importance of the product delivery vehicle and its influence on rheology is summarized very effectively by Goodwin for dispersions in Fig. 12 [78]. From the perspective of the product development scientist, the product delivery vehicle, composition and internal ordering of product components, determines rheological behavior. Our discussions regarding the rheological properties of commercial liquid detergents is based on fundamental product delivery systems, that is, solutions, dispersions, or gels. Dispersions include both solid
FIG. 11 Representation of the three major product delivery systems used in liquid detergent formulations and corresponding rheological features.
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FIG. 12 Generalized structure/property diagram of dispersions. (From Ref. 78.)
inliquid colloidal and large particulate suspensions, in addition to liquidliquid emulsions. A. Dispersed Systems Fundamental rheological studies of controlled model systems provide an excellent overview of the rheological behavior of these complex systems. For dispersions, comprehensive theoretical and experimental studies have been completed, providing very basic evaluation of both material and process variables influencing product rheology. Although it is well beyond the scope of this chapter to provide a detailed review of the rheology of dispersions, a brief overview of the technology is provided. For liquid detergents, dispersions are a very common type of delivery system, because of insolubility or immiscibility of vital product components in aqueous solvents, such as inorganic solids used as builders in heavyduty liquid detergents and conditioning oils formulated into shampoos. It becomes a formidable task to the product development scientist to generate acceptable rheological properties of colloids, large particulate suspensions, or emulsions while ensuring longterm stability against phase separation or sedimentation. From a rheological and physicochemical perspective, the primary distinction between these dispersed systems is in the size, volume fraction, surface chemistry, and deformability of the dispersed phase. For example, foams, in fact, may also be considered dispersions, similar to emulsions, with a low density, gaseous dispersed phase [79–82].
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The introduction of an immiscible phase into a solvent system frequently alters the rheological characteristics of the solvent carrier fluid, the modification of properties being a function of the size and shape of the dispersed phase, its volume fraction, and the physical chemistry of both the continuous (solvent) and dispersed (particulate) medium. Flow of dispersions is governed by a multitude of thermodynamic and spatial steric factors, including Brownian, hydrodynamic, gravitation, van der Waals, and electrostatic forces [83,84]. The viscosity of a dispersion is frequently described in terms of the relative viscosity r, which is the ratio of the suspension viscosity, , to the viscosity of the continuous phase, 0, as a function of the volume fraction of the dispersed phase n:
The dramatic influence of the volume fraction of the dispersed phase on the relative viscosity of a dispersion is shown in Fig. 13. As one approaches the maximum packing fraction of the immiscible dispersed phase, the viscosity increase is appreciable, reflecting the solidlike behavior such highly concentrated systems can develop. To demonstrate further the influence of dispersion characteristics on the relative viscosity of dispersions, the effect of particle aspect ratio is well illustrated in Fig. 14 [85]. At constant volume fraction, particles with higher aspect ratio produce the highest relative viscosity. Similarly, the same relative viscosity can be obtained at lower volume fraction with higher aspect ratio particles. In detergent systems, anisotropic particulates are
FIG. 13 Functional representation of the dependence of the relative viscosity on the volume fraction of the dispersed phase.
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FIG. 14 Relative viscosity of suspensions as a function of particle aspect ratio at constant volume fraction. (From Ref. 85.)
common product components, influencing the flow characteristics of the full formulation. To control product viscosity, aspect ratio is clearly a most significant variable. The impact of median particle size on the critical shear rate at which thickening occurs, compiled from a survey of colloids and large particulate suspensions, is summarized in Fig. 15 [86]. Many semiempirical models have been derived expressing the dependence of the relative viscosity as a function of volume fraction. One example, suggested by Krieger and Dougherty [87], represents the relative viscosity as
where the reduced shear stress is r is given by
where d is the particle diameter and the subscripts refer to the relative viscosity in the zero shear and high shear rate limits, 0 and , respectively. In a further extension of the KriegerDoughtrty model, the relative viscosity function has been proposed as
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FIG. 15 Critical shear rate producing shear thickening of colloid and large particulate dispersed systems as a function of mean particle size. (From Ref. 86.)
where of m .
m
is maximum packing volume fraction and the exponent a is a function
Because of the prevalence of solidinliquid suspensions throughout many industries and the need to process and formulate these dispersions efficiently, particulate suspensions have been studied extensively [88–108]. For both colloidal dispersions and large particulate suspensions, the influence of many material variables has been studied, such as volume fraction of the dispersed phase, n, particle size distributions, particle geometry, particleparticle interactions, polymer additives, presence of surfaceactive agents, and the nature of the continuous phase. The emphasis of these studies has been very broad, capturing steady shear properties, dynamic mechanical properties, relaxation phenomena, and transient flow phenomena at flow inception and cessation. Timedependent shear effects have also been investigated, including shear thinning and shear thickening under numerous deformation conditions. Rheooptics has been also effectively applied to the evaluation of structural changes in dispersions during flow. For example, the dynamics of colloidal particles in sheared, nonNewtonian fluids and structured liquid detergent systems has been examined using birefringence and dichroism [109,110]. An introduction to the general rheological properties solidliquid dispersions is provided by Onogi and Matsumoto [111]. The existence of the second plateau in dynamic mechanical measurements, noted for dispersions but absent for
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polymer solutions and melts, is discussed, attributed to relaxation process as a result of internal particulate ordering, and is strongly dependent on particle content, and related to the presence of “apparent” yield stresses. This secondary plateau is apparent in numerous commercial liquid detergent products, with further decreases in dynamic moduli with decreasing frequency, bringing to question the existence of yield stress phenomena. Experimental data are reviewed for dispersions whose flow behavior is governed by attractive Londonvan der Waals forces and those with strong repulsive forces caused by particle surface charge. An extensive review of various rheological models proposed for twophase flows, including the composition of colloidal and large particle suspensions used in numerous studies, with experimental details, is provided by Utracki [112]. Although the compositions of the dispersions used in these studies are quite distinct from those used in detergent formulations, they provide fundamental knowledge and various empiricisms governing the flow characteristics of twophase composites. Although admittedly limited, studies have also been completed in systems more directly applicable to the detergent industry. In one example, the interaction of alcohol ethoxylates, sodium ether sulfate, sodium alcohol sulfate, and linear sodium alkylbenzene sulfonate with aluminabased thickening agents has been determined as a function of surfactant composition, surfactant concentration, pH, and temperature in 5 wt% alumina dispersions in steady shear viscometry [113]. Studies have also been completed showing the complex rheological features dispersions can exhibit, especially when polymer surface modification occurs [114–118]. Built heavyduty liquid detergents have also been evaluated, especially those containing particulate sequestration agents [119– 123]. In a further example, Papenhuijzen examines the influence of particle interactions in the rheology of dispersed liquid detergent systems, with models of the breakage and reformation of network chains [124]. Proposed is a chain like model of dispersed phase particles forming a network structure through the medium. A recent theoretical derivation of suspension relative viscosity functions in generalized Newtonian media has included liquid detergent suspensions in the data analysis of the proposed model for the Einstein coefficient [125,126]. Normal stress differences have also been determined for an anionic viscous isotropic detergent solutions in the presence of electrolyte [127]. The microstructure and viscosity of liquid detergents comprised of highly concentrated multilayered vesicles, or lamellar droplets, a novel suspension medium, has been described by Jurgens and van de Pas [128,129]. The effect of shear and shear history is addressed, with thixotropic and rheopectic shear effects evident and the effect of shear history on the dispersed phase photodocumented through electronic microscopy. Rheopexy is found for shear
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rates in excess of 1 s1, with no equilibration following a 24 h shearing interval. Good correlation of the viscosity behavior of these complex dispersions is cited with the following viscosity relationship:
assuming K
p
>> 1, such that
where the consistency index K' and the parameter p is as defined by Sisko [130]. Volume fractions were estimated from conductivity measurements using the Bruggeman equation for dispersions of spheres [131]. In concentrated dispersions, both dilatancy and rheopexy can occur. Because these are flow properties that can influence product performance and handling characteristics, there may be a need either to eliminate or further enhance these attributes in a product formulation. A broad review of shear thickening in nonaggregating solid particulate suspensions in Newtonian liquids is provided by Barnes [86], with a summary of parameters controlling shear thickening behavior. Shear thickening of concentrated colloidal dispersions is well documented [132–135]. Further, the influence of soluble polymers in the presence of surfactants on the rheology of suspensions has been evaluated, showing the effect of polymer adsorption, bridging, flocculation, depletion flocculation, and stability [136–141]. Although most commercial products in dispersion form are truly complex systems containing multiple solid components with dissimilar aspect ratios, one or more immiscible liquid elements, and perhaps, aeration, fundamental studies of the rheology of well defined systems provide mechanisms for optimization, when product rheology requires modification. Colloidal dispersions comprised of finely divided, submicron particulates in Newtonian and nonNewtonian fluids have been the subject of considerable research in theoretical and experimental rheology [142–149], including normal stress measurements [150–153]. Phase diagrams of colloidal dispersions determined from rheological measurements as a function of dispersed phase volume fraction detect distinct sol/gel transitions, which significantly impact overall rheological properties as a function of particle concentration and ionic strength [154]. For specific application to liquid detergents, the transitions from liquid to solid behavior of charged particle colloids are most critical [155]. Research has further evaluated the effect of dispersed phase geometry, including anisotropic rods and disks, applicable to the evaluation of various rheology modifiers, such as clays, in product formulations [156–161]. In one study, a correlation scaling model is proposed for the temperature dependence of the relative viscosity of colloids containing both electrically charged and neutral
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dispersed phases, as shown in Fig. 16, applied to unpurified and purified bentonite clays, in the temperature range of 20–40°C. A single master curve is obtained at each concentration for the unrefined clay, while the purified clay does not follow this scaling analysis at higher volume fraction, indicating a clear change in interactive forces driven by temperature and concentration [162]. Although the influence of particle anisotropy is not well understood or systematically investigated, the influence of particle size distribution is more recognized as a mechanism for modification of rheological behavior [163,164]. A
FIG. 16 Rheogram of (a) unpurified bentonite and (b) purified bentonite as a function of temperature. (From Ref. 108.)
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very broad overview of the rheology of clay dispersions, including dynamic mechanical and steady flow behavior, is provided by Amari and Watanabe [165]. A general overview of the physical chemistry of colloidal systems (d < 1 m) and large particulate suspensions (d > 1 m) is available in the following references, including stability [166], depletion stabilization and depletion flocculation [167], steric stabilization [168], chemical complexation at solid/liquid interfaces [169], interparticle van der Waals forces in concentrated suspensions [170], electrostatic stabilization [171], polymerically stabilized particles [172,173], and adsorbed highmolecularweight polyelectrolytes [174]. Liquidliquid suspensions, or emulsions, have not been neglected in rheological research studies [175–189], and comprehensive theoretical and experimental studies have been completed defining the shear modulus G, yield stress y , and effective viscosity e in concentrated systems [190]:
where is the interfacial tension, R32 the Sauter mean drop radius the volume fraction of dispersed phase, n the maximum packing volume fraction, and m the viscosity of the continuous phase, and Ca is the capillary number, defined as mR32g /s. For those formulating emulsified liquids for personal and household care detergents, volume fraction, particle size, surface chemistry and interfacial tensions determine rheological behavior. As in all dispersions, adsorbed species at the interface is an important factor, because this directly influences the volume fraction of the dispersed phase. For those faced with the technical challenge of developing liquid detergents with tailored rheological properties, a vast portfolio of research is available to support that activity. Many of the primary variables influencing the rheological behavior of dispersions have been determined, at least providing numerous options for product modification to effect the necessary changes in mechanical properties. Although many surfactantbased dispersions exhibit unique rheological properties, mechanical behavior nevertheless remain functionally dependent on the geometry of the dispersed phase, surface charge, volume fraction, the nature of the continuous phase, and associativity of all components and the nature of the applied flow field.
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B. Highly Concentrated Dispersions At volume fractions approaching the maximum packing fraction for mono and polydisperse solidliquid and liquidliquid dispersions, solidlike behavior is frequently observed in the quiescent state. The high viscosity of these systems, the ability to retain their shape under the influence of gravitational forces, and the ability to suspend particulates without sedimentation indicates the presence of a yield stress. Methods have been reviewed for the measurement of yield stresses in these complex fluids [193–200]. Fluids that exhibit yield stress values frequently display additional anomalous flow behavior, such as wall slippage. This significantly complicates all rheological measurements, and effective corrections must be applied [200,201]. Nonlinear torque waveforms in response to sinusoidal strain deformations have also been observed, and a model has been developed that predicts the response of an elastic Binghamtype fluid to oscillatory shear for high volume fraction ( = 0.92) oilinwater emulsions [202]. Other structural constitutive equations have been developed based on network theory [203– 205]. Of particular interest is the extension of the CoxMerz rule proposed for concentrated suspensions and gels exhibiting yield stress behavior [206]. A good correlation has been developed for steady shear viscosity and complex dynamic viscosity in terms of an effective shear rate. For the experimentalist, rheological measurements of concentrated and highly structured dispersions can be quite difficult. Reproducible measurements in even simple shearing flows are often complicated by the disturbance of fluid structure in normal handling, such as loading in the selected test fixture. As a result, various methods are applied either to preshear the test fluid before testing or to allow a restructuring interval before testing following sample loading, for example. The dependence of rheological profiles on fluid shear history is one of the overwhelming difficulties in effectively characterizing these structured materials. C. Gels and Microgels There has been a dramatic increase in the use of gels as the delivery vehicle of liquid detergent products, especially in the personal care category, because of an increased understanding of the viscoelasticity of various gelling and thickening agents. Gels can be formed by various mechanisms, including interactive solid particulates, physically or chemically crosslinked polymers, and ordered surfactants or anisotropic surfactant phases. The fundamental criterion is that connectivity through chemical or physical association occurs with sufficient strength, forming a continuously defined network structure. One of the best known is the
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electrostatically stabilized gels formed from refined clays, forming the “house of cards” structure. Others include polysaccharides, such as xanthan guns, strongly dependent upon the conformation of the polymer in solution and additional physical interactions through hydrogen bonding, for example [210]. Polymers are often used as rheology modifiers or gelling agents for liquid detergent systems, and understanding of the characteristics of these aqueous polymeric solutions, solutions versus gel behavior, in various ionic solution environments and in the presence of surfactants is easily obtained through rheological measurements. The steady shear and dynamic mechanical properties of numerous gelling and thickening agents frequently used in the formulation of liquid detergents are well documented in the literature under general conditions frequently occurring in product compositions [211]. The utility of dynamic mechanical measurements in defining the fundamental properties of solutions and gels is well illustrated in Fig. 17, describing the change in the frequency dependence of the storage modulus, G' and the loss modulus G'' during gelation as a function of temperature [212]. Beginning with a simple solution we see the influence of a growing crosslink density on both components of the complex modulus, with complete gelation at Fig. 17d. The transition from solution to a true gel network structure is most apparent.
FIG. 17 Gelation of polystyrene in carbon disulfide with G' and G'' as a function of frequency. (From Ref. 212.)
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The rheology of microgel solutions, frequently used in liquid detergent formulation comprised of carbomers, for example, has been determined, including dynamic mechanical characterizations as a function of polymer concentration, with an evaluation of creep behavior and steady shear viscosity [213]. The dynamic mod of Carbopol 941, as a function of concentration, is summarized in Fig. 18. Typic of many commercial gel structures, concentrated microgel rheology is compared t a cellular, deformable spheric model, equally applicable to emulsions and foams. These polyacrylate gelling agents are known to be tolerant to hypochlorite bleach lending their use to various household care liquid detergents [214]. As an example of an additional gelling mechanism, carboxymethylcellulose in free acid form (HCMC), less hydrophilic than sodium carboxymethylcellulose, can als form rheological gels as a result of quasicrystalline microaggregation of HCMC detected by electron microscopy and dependent on the degree of substitution of t NaCMC [215]. Gelation is observed for a degree of substitution (DS) of 0.8 as function of aging time, but none is found for DS = 2. Gelling for this system proceeds for a 60 day interval.
FIG. 18 Dynamic mechanical characterization of Carbopol 941 at concentrations of 0.53 to 6.16% as a function of frequency. (a) G' = ƒ( ). (b) G' = ƒ( ). (c) G" = ƒ( ). (d) G" = ƒ( ). (From Ref. 213.)
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Discussions of the gelation would be incomplete without reference to the relationship between the storage modulus of a gel G' and the crosslink density n [216]: G' = gnKT + Gen where: K = Boltzmann constant T = temperature K g = constant < 1 and Gen is the influence of entanglements on the elasticity. This expression has been used to determine gelation kinetics from measurement of time rate of change in the storage modulus G'/ t during the gel formation process, as shown in Fig. 19 [217]. Dynamic mechanical measurements are quite sensitive to the internal ordering within the fluid composition. Through carefully designed experiments, not only can the development of a continuous network structure be effectively monitored through measurements of the elastic modulus G' as a function of time, leading to an understanding of factors controlling gelation kinetics, but the integrity of the final state can be well represented by such determinations, related to the physics of the final gel. Both qualitative and quantitative measure, dynamic mechanical spectroscopy is an increasing effective probe of the rheology of liquid detergents and their various product components.
FIG. 19 Gelation kinetics determined from the change in storage modulus, G', as a function of gelling time. (From Ref. 217.)
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D. Stability Dispersion stability is a critical subject for those processing and formulating liquid detergents. Such formulations can be difficult to stabilize effectively throughout the shelf life of the product and shelf life monitoring can be labor and time consuming. Predictive methods and accelerated product aging studies are generally employed with varying degrees of success. This may include such techniques as thermal cycling, incubation, centrifugation, vibration or simulated shipping tests, in addition to rheological characterizations. Although progress has been made in the development of stability criteria for polydisperse model suspensions, accurate predictive tools for commercial formulations are generally unavailable. Recent developments have occurred in rheology, however, to assist in the prediction of product stability. The most significant contribution is the realization that the dynamic mechanical properties of these complex fluids may be indicative of long term stability [218]. Studies have shown that the strength of the internal microstructure as determined from the strain and frequency dependence of the storage and loss modulus as a function of temperature may be predictive of incipient product failure. Dynamic mechanical measurements as a function of strain, frequently used to identify the linear viscoelastic region, have been isolated as one potential indicator of dispersion stability. A review of the technical literature has been included in the following section demonstrating the importance of surfactant phase behavior, component interactions, and effect of electrolytes and total solution environment on the rheological properties of liquid detergent systems. Such fundamental studies can lead to a greater understanding of the rheology of commercial consumer products, expanding into new and more effective product delivery vehicles. V. Fundamental Research in Liquid Detergents In research, rheology is a very useful tool and highly effective probe of the internal microstructure of surfactant systems. Viscometric and oscillatory rheometry can explore the architecture of surfactant solutions, especially when coupled to other analyses, such as smallangle neutron scattering, microscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and flow birefringence. Fundamental research of liquid detergents using dynamic mechanical measurements can probe the quiescent versus sheared physical state of the fluid as a function of many material variables determining the kinetics of structural formation or degradation and definition of the physical state of the fluid. Viscometric measurements have also been used to investigate micelle geometry and structural transitions. Another important industrial application of the rheological sciences is in the investigation of interactions between product components through appropriately
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designed rheological measurements, with counterions, polymers, cosurfactants, and so on, identified to modify or tailor rheology for a given consumer function. A. Surfactant Solutions Solution viscosity is a most basic structureproperty measurement as defined by the relationship between the stress tensor and the rate of deformation tensor . In surfactant solutions, the viscosity depends on the tensioactive agent concentration, solvent, presence of ionizable groups, surface charge density, ionic strength of the carrier fluid, pH, and temperature. In addition, viscosity behavior depends on surfactant molecular weight and geometry, showing a strong dependence on micelle shape and size. Critical primary transitions such as micellar spheretorod configurations can often be identified from viscosityconcentration determinations in the dilute regime. Table 1 summarizes common viscometric parameters generally used to describe solution behavior as a probe of surfactant micelle architecture. Hydration is an important factor in the viscosity behavior of dilute surfactant solutions because water bound to the micelles, forming the hydration layer, contributes to the size of the micelles. It also determines the effective concentration of surfactant partitioning the aqueous phase into the free and bound water of hydration. This is demonstrated by Mukerjee [219], for example, estimating the hydration of micelles of sodium lauryl sulfate and dodecyl, tetradecyl and trimethylammonium chlorides from reduced and intrinsic viscosity data, using appropriate corrections for electroviscous effects. The viscosity of dilute surfactant solutions in the spherical micelle region can be described by a modified form of the Einstein viscosity equation [220,221]:
where is the volume fraction of solvated micelles and c m c represents the viscosity of the solution at the CMC. This is accurate for uncharged, dilute, TABLE 1 Definition of Viscosity Functions Viscosity/function Reduced viscosity Relative viscosity Specific viscosity Intrinsic viscosity
Definition =
red
r
= /
/c
sp
0
= rl
sp
[ ] = [(ln r)/c] c = 0
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noninteractive dispersions. The viscosity of ionic surfactants is strongly dependent on the surface charge density. For micellar solutions, a modification of the Einstein equation for this first electroviscous effect [222] is given as
When hydrodynamic factors become relevant at higher concentrations, a second electroviscous effect becomes operative because of the electrostatic repulsion between micellar aggregates, creating an additional resistance to flow with further increases in bulk solution viscosity. The isotropic phase of any surfactant solution is typically Newtonian, although there are exceptions. Throughout the isotropic region, viscometric behavior is dependent on micelle size, micelle concentration, geometry, and various intra and intermicellar interactions, and in keeping with this functionality, viscosity is not constant throughout the isotropic phase. This is represented comprehensively by Schafheutle and Kinkelmann [223]. Lines of constant reduced viscosity within the isotropic phase of a novel surfactant with rigid rodlike hydrophobic moiety terminally substituted with monodisperse oligo (ethylene glycol) units is provided in Fig. 20. The reduced viscosity (ml/g) varies significantly throughout the isotropic phase and along the phase boundaries of the various phases. This shows quite definitively the complex dependence of viscometric behavior on micellar dimensions and dispersion characteristics within
FIG. 20 Reduced viscosity isocontours within the isotropic phase. (From Ref. 223.)
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the isotropic phase. This aqueous surfactant system exhibits Newtonian behavior at shear rates from 0 to 60 s1 at all temperatures and concentrations included in this study. In the following sections, various examples are provided of rheological studies of nonionic, anionic, cationic and mixed surfactant solutions. These studies were selected to exemplify the critical relationship between surfactant morphology and viscometric or rheological behavior. 1. Nonionic Surfactants Because the rheology of liquid detergents is inherently dependent on surfactant architecture, or phase, rheology can be a useful tool in developing phase diagrams. For example, the phase diagram of a ternary nonionic surfactant, [p (1,1,3,3tetramethylbutyl)phenyl]poly(oxyethylene) (Triton X100), dioctylphthalate, and water system has been determined by Otsubo and Prud'homme [224]. For this system, the isotropic phase is Newtonian within the broad shear rate range of 0.1250 s1 and pseudoplastic behavior occurs within the anisotropic phase. Viscosity measurements of the binary surfactant water system as a function of concentration identify three distinct regions. Below 33 wt% surfactant, a micellar microemulsion occurs and for concentrations greater than 58 wt% surfactant, an inverse microemulsion has been identified. At intermediate concentrations, rheological measurements identify a liquid crystalline phase with typical nonNewtonian viscosity behavior. This extensive study further documents the abrupt change in flow properties at phase boundaries. The reduced viscosity as a function of micellar concentration for polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers of the type CH2[CH2]m1[OCH2CH2]1.25mOH has been determined for several carbon chain lengths ranging from C8–C14 and from E10–E19 [225] and there is a linear increase in viscosity with increasing polyoxyethylene concentration. For the same surfactant, the intrinsic viscosity as a function of alkyl chain length for various ethylene oxide/carbon chain length ratios reveals an abrupt discontinuity between C16 and C18. It is speculated that this is a result of the intrusion of anhydrous polyoxyethylene into the micellar core, altering hydration within the micelle mantle. Many additional viscometric studies of surfactant solutions have addressed the dependence of bulk solution viscosity on micelle geometry. Robson and Dennis, for example, calculate the size, shape, and hydration of a commercial grade of the nonionic surfactant micelle, [p (1,1,3,3tetramethylbuytyl)phenyl] poly(oxyethylene), from intrinsic viscosity data [226]. Several of the major difficulties associated with these calculations are demonstrated: the coupling of both hydration and shape factors. Based on geometric considerations and viscosity data, they argue against the presence of spherical micelles and support the formation of an oblate micelle. A spherical micelle could occur, however,
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if several ethylene oxide groups are embedded into the hydrophobic core. The deviation from spherical micelle geometry is also suggested by Wright [227] from birefringence data, and Tanford et al. [228] also argue the nonspherical geometry of polyoxyethylene ethers in aqueous solutions from sedimentation and intrinsic viscosity data. Calculations indicate a disklike globular micelle with random coil polyethylene oxide chains in the outer micelle mantle. 2. Anionic Surfactants Alkylbenzene sulfonate is a very important industrial surfactant. It is a common lowcost surfactant in household detergents. With the increasing emphasis on concentrated liquid detergents, an awareness of the phase behavior of this surfactant and resulting rheology is critical. Sulfonation conditions, reaction pathways, byproducts, and impurities can have a significant impact on the rheology and phase behavior of linear (LAS) and branched (ABS) alkylbenzene sulfonate. Because this surfactant is frequently processed at high active ingredient concentrations, the relationship between specific reaction conditions and final surfactant rheology is important for processing and controlling product formulations. The viscosity of caustic sodaneutralized sodium linear alkylbenzene sulfonate is found to be strongly dependent on the molar ratio of SO3/alkylbenzene and also the sulfonation process, HF versus A1C13[229]. The tetralin content appears to control and actually reduce the viscosity of 25% active LAS solutions. Although this study includes very limited viscosity data, it demonstrates the influence of both process and material variables on surfactant viscosity at concentrations frequently encountered during the manufacture of this surfactant. Similarly, Rybicki investigated the dilute solution viscosity of sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate as a function of various commercial detergent builders, on the partial molar volume of hydrated micelles [230]. The relative viscosity of one commercial linear sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate, average molecular weight of 343.9 g/mol, is presented in Fig. 21, and two transitions are noted. The first CMC is the micellar monomersphere transition and the second attributed to a further, as yet unidentified, structural change in the micelle. Figure 22 summarizes micellar hydration volume as a function of temperature and sodium metasilicate concentration showing the influence of electrical doublelayer thickness on viscosity. It is also shown that the partial molar volume of hydrated micelles depends on ionic strength, independently of the type of electrolyte. Figure 23 shows the effect of electrolyte concentration for several salts, (NaPO3)6, Na2SiO3, and Na2SO4, on A3, a coefficient of the Vand equation, related to the partial molar hydrated micelle volume at 293 K [231]. The effect of salt on the double layer as a function of temperature is very clear. With increasing salt concentration, the electroviscous effect is reduced and partial
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FIG. 21 Reduced viscosity sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate as a function of surfactant concentration at 25°C. (From Ref. 230.)
molar volume of the hydrated micelle is similarly reduced for this anionic surfactant. This alters the effective volume fraction of the dispersed phase, consisting of spherical micelles, with a significant influence on solution viscosity. The alkyl sulfates are also important industrial surfactants used in a very broad range of consumer products. Similar to the sulfonates, reaction byprod
FIG. 22 Micelle hydration volume of sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate for several sodium metasilicate concentrations as a function of temperature. (From Ref. 230.)
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FIG. 23 Coefficient of the Vand equation, A3 as a function of electrolyte concentration at 25°C. (From Ref. 230.)
ucts of the alcohol sulfates, including sodium chloride and sodium sulfate, influence the viscosity behavior of sodium lauryl sulfate solutions [232]. Each of the salts and the free oil, primarily unreacted alcohol, has a very clear impact on surfactant viscosity. A micelle model illustrating the increase in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) viscosity with inorganic salts and free oil is also provided and in each case, the increase is attributed to the increase in effective volume fraction of the dispersed phase. With inorganic salts, this is caused by the sodium cation association with the sulfate groups through electrostatic interactions at the micelle surface; the free oil does not appear to interact at the surface. It is thought that the free oil acts as a “cosurfactant,” participating in the micelle itself. This increases the effective volume fraction of the micelles producing a similar increase in solution viscosity. This is, however, energetically unfavorable, and thought to be a precursor to the formation of a microemulsion. Akhtar and Alauddin [223] investigated the viscometric properties of sodium dodecyl sulfate in simple aqueous solutions and aqueous solutions containing cyclohexanol, investigating changes in micelle size and shape and also the micellar location of the solubilized alcohol. Viscosity measurements of the aqueous detergent as a function of SDS concentration identify a transition at 0.2 mol/kg, attributed to a postmicellar transition from spherical to rodshaped micelles. The temperature and concentration dependence of the average aggregation number of SDS have been investigated with smallangle neutron scatter
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ing experiments. The increase in SDS aggregation number, quantifying the number of monomers per micelle, at this transition concentration necessitates a change in shape [234]. The effect of simple electrolytes, both NaCl and HCl, on the relative viscosities of SDS as a function of concentration has been determined by Gamboa and Sepulveda [235]. Na+ counterions appear to produce a greater increase in viscosity than H+, because it is a more strongly bound counterion, and all solutions demonstrate highly nonlinear viscometric behavior. The lengths of the rodlike micelles are calculated from the viscosity data for both sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) and cetyltrimethylammonium salts. Soap solutions have long been known for their interesting viscometric behavior. This is evident from isoviscometric contours for potassium laurate and potassium carbonate solutions, further demonstrating the complexity of the isotropic phase [236]. Within the isotropic phase, there is a dramatic variation in viscosity values initially attributed to the formation of complex emulsions from dispersed anisotropic liquid crystalline surfactants in isotropic surfactant solution. Pilpel derives expressions from geometric and energy considerations of soap aggregation to support long interlinked rodlike or cylindrical micelle formation in soap gels in an attempt to clarify the observed rheological behavior [237]. The systems in this investigation include sodium oleate, elaidate and oleylsulfate and the introduction of longchain alcohols and other compounds. The development of viscoelastic effects is thought to occur through a cascade of intermediate micellar stages as suggested by Philippoff [238]. Pilpel estimates that the van der Waals energy per molecule decreases nearly 90% in the transition from spherical to cylindrical micelles for specific soap gels, with a corresponding Coulombic energy decrease of approximately 5%. This decrease in both van der Waals and Coulombic energy in the micellar transitions supports the stability of the rodlike micelles at higher salt concentrations. He proposes one geometry of a cylindrical micelle to be approximately 9 Å, with a length of 200 Å. Early xray diffraction studies of soap systems support the speculation that cylindrical elongated structures occur. 3. Mixed Surfactants: Anionic/Nonionic Systems The flow behavior of SDS and alkyl polyoxyethylene ethers, C12–18 and E10–40, has been determined by Uchiyama and Abe [239]. Although the relative viscosity of the alkyl polyoxyethylene ether is greater than that of SDS, for the mixed surfactant system there is a maximum in the relative viscosity at an SDS mole fraction of 0.3. Increasing the ethylene oxide content has a significant effect in both the single Cm En and mixed surfactant solutions. A maximum also occurs at the same molar ratio, 0.3, with the exception of the C16E40 system.
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In addition, the effect of sodium chloride on the relative viscosity of the SDS/C18E20 mixed surfactant system as a function of SDS mole fraction has also been investigated by Uchiyama and Abe. The relative viscosity is found to be a decreasing linear function of SDS mole fraction, and no effect is observed on the relative viscosity of the single nonionic surfactant solutions. In the mixed surfactant system, salt addition is presumed to decrease the electroviscous effect with a decrease in the CMC and an increase in aggregation number. Addition of the nonionic surfactant increases the degree of ionic dissociation of the mixed micelle. The degree of ionic dissociation also increased with increasing alkyl chain lengths and decreasing EO groups. The maximum in the relative viscosity is assumed to be a result of the electroviscous effect of the mixed micellar solution, which is greatest at the SDS molar ratio of 0.3. Zwitterionic surfactants, such as alkydimethylamine oxides, can exhibit complex viscometric properties individually and in the presence of ionic surfactants. At low concentrations, viscoelastic rodlike entangled networks are thought to occur [240]. The zero shear viscosity of the nonionic surfactant is very strongly dependent on concentration and surfactant molecular weight. For example, oleyldimethylamine oxides are known to form rodlike micelles and viscoelasticity is observed at concentrations as low as 1% by weight. The uncharged surfactant in aqueous solution appears to behave as a simple Maxwell fluid with a single shear modulus and structural relaxation time. The influence of both cationic and anionic surfactants has been determined from rheology, light scattering, and electric birefringence measurements. The zero shear viscosity of a mixed oleyldimethylamine oxide (ODMAO) system is strongly influenced by the amount of ionic surfactant. Both SDS and tetradeyltrimethylammonium bromide are evaluated for their influence on the flow behavior of the uncharged surfactant. A comparison of the C14DMAO and SDS influence on the zero shear viscosity of ODMAO is provided in Fig. 24. The anionic surfactant has a considerably greater influence in the surfactant mixture. In dynamic mechanical measurements, it is observed that SDS has the effect of decreasing the frequency dependence of the elastic modulus. A highly structured composition is evident at the 46:4 concentration, as shown in Fig. 25. In the concentration regime used in this study, the shear modulus remains fairly constant and is not affected by the anionic surfactant and the primary influence is through the structural relaxation time. It is suspected that the introduction of charge to the nonionic surfactant stiffens the rodlike network and that adhesive hydrophobic interaction occur at micellar interfaces. The zero shear viscosity and structural relaxation time are determined by the intermicellar bond energy, which is sensitive to charge density, surfactant chain length, and electrolyte concentration. This study also evaluates the effect of other cationic
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FIG. 24 Effect of SDS and tetradecyltrimethylammonium salt on the zero shear viscosity of oleyldimethylamine oxide at 25°C and surfactant concentrations of 50 mM. (From Ref. 240.)
surfactants, such as tetra and hexadecyldimethylamine oxide, on the viscoelasticity of the zwitterionic surfactant solutions. The rheology of a mixed zwitterionic and anionic surfactant, hexadecyldimethylammonioprophane sulfone, SDS, and water, has been studied by Saul et al. [241], including both isotropic and hexagonal phases. Rheological results
FIG.25 Storage modulus G' as a function of frequency for oleyldimethylamine oxide/SDS aqueous mixtures at overall concentrations of 50 mM and 25°C. (From Ref. 240.)
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are interpreted in terms of the coexistence of both spherical and cylindrical micelles. Both viscosity and first normal stress difference data are presented for various regions of the phase diagram and high shear rate viscosity data are also provided in the shear rate range of 428, 1235, and 2570 s1. The phase diagram of this surfactant mixture is provided as determined from both NMR and rheological measurements. 4. Cationic Surfactants Cationic surfactants in dilute solutions can form long rodlike micelles that produce very unusual rheological properties. These elongated micellar structures can mimic entangled polymers and crosslinked gellike systems, depending on the surfactant head group, concentration and electrolyte, additive environment. The dramatic elasticity of these very dilute solutions has been well documented, and research in the rheological behavior of dilute cationic surfactants spans a number of decades [242–253]. This includes comprehensive examples of dynamic mechanical characterizations, steady shear viscosity functions, stress growth and stress relaxation behavior, and modulus and normal stress measurements. For example, Nash investigates conditions whereby naphthol and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) interact to form elastic gels using a simple qualitative rheological test and fluorescence technique [254]. The formation of very long filaments is identified as a plausible mechanism for elasticity, and estimates are given for a 1 mM solution forming a filament length of nearly 30,000 km. His detailed study investigating the micelle “polymerization” mechanism covers the effect of many additives to the cationic surfactant. Dilute aqueous solutions of specific cationic surfactants can develop sheared induced structures. This has been observed in stress growth steady shear viscometric measurements of dilute aqueous solutions of CTASal [255]. Within the shear rate range of 0.59–0.99s1, the viscosity is Newtonian and no time dependence is observed. At 1.35s1, however, following a considerable induction time period, we see dramatic rheopectic behavior. Equally remarkable is the very broad range of rheological properties exhibited in the dilute solutions. In a narrow concentration range, 3–5 mmol/dm3, Gravsholt identifies rheopectic, thixotropic, nonNewtonian power law, and Newtonian viscosity behavior. Although Newtonian in the unsheared quiescent state, these dilute cationic solutions develop a metastable supramolecular structure under mechanical stress, forming novel viscoelastic systems. The counterion or ion pair is critical in forming viscoelasticity in dilute cationic detergents and the development of longrange order. An example is provided by Gravsholt using CTAx ( = substituted benzoic acid) [256]. Salicylate, m chlorobenzoate, and p chlorobenzoate give rise to viscoelastic behavior, whereas ochlorobenzoate, mhydroxybenzoate, and p hydroxybenzoate
Page 1 TABLE 2 Viscoelastic Cationic Surfactant Systems Surfactant
Counterion
Cetylpyridinium chloride
Nasalicylate
Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
Nasalicylate
Cetyltrimethylammonium chloride
NaSCN
Cetrytrimethylammonium chloride
2Amimobenzenesulfonate
C8F17SO3NA
(C2H5) 4NOH
C9F19CO2Na
(CH3) 4NOH Surfactant
Tetradecyldimethylaminoxide
Sodium dodecyl sulfate
Tetradecyldimethylaminoxide
C7H15CO2Na Uncharged compound
Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
Chloroform
Cetylpyridinium chloride
4Propylphenol
Source: From Ref. 257.
have no apparent impact on micellar structure. The CMC and minimum or critical concentrations needed to develop viscoelasticity are noted as well. Table 2 summarizes several cationic surfactant systems exhibiting viscoelastic properties [257]. The unusual viscometric behavior of the cationic surfactants containing mainly pyridinium or trimethylammonium head groups at dilute concentrations has been attributed to the formation of rodlike micellar structures of length L and mean separation distance D, leading to a dynamic threedimensional network structure [258]. Simply stated, viscoelasticity occurs when L > D. The zero shear viscosity of dilute rodlike solutions can be calculated from Doi Edwards [259] as
where ˆc is the number of rods/unit volume and L represents rod length. The critical overlap condition occurs at
Table 3 summarizes length of rodshaped micelles for cetylpyridinium salicylate (CPySal) as a function of temperature and concentration [260].
critical overlap condition occurs at
Table 3 summarizes length of rodshaped micelles for cetylpyridinium salicylate (CPySal) as a function of temperature and concentration [260].
Page 1 TABLE 3 Length (Å) of Rodlike Micelles as a Function of Temperature and Concentratio for Cetylpyridinium Salicylate Solutions c (mmol/dm)
20°C
30°C
40°C
50°C
1
120
70
40
—
2
210
140
90
60
4
430
270
160
150
6
640
400
280
200
7
750
460
315
240
Source: From Ref. 260.
Surfactant systems are dynamic systems with constant redistribution of monomeri species. This exchange leads to a lack of permanence to any entanglement or crosslink site and the evolution of the “living network” model. The rodshaped micelles can undergo a continuous process of bond formation and cleavage, distinguishing long micellar rodshaped surfactants from polymers. It is known that anionic cosurfactants, specific organic counterions, and nonionic compounds, including esters and aromatic hydrocarbons, induce viscoelasticity in cationic solutions [261,262]. The efficiency of these compounds in favoring specific micellar aggregate structures, rodlike micelles, is critical in the development of supermolecular structures capable of significant viscoelastic effects. The specific architecture of the interactions between the micelle and additive and their orientation is also critical. Research has demonstrated, for example, the importance of molecular orientation in determining the overall rheological response. This is shown quite clearly through the influence of para, meta, and orthotoluic acid on the steadystate zero shear viscosity of CPyCl [257]. The largest increase in viscosity occurs with p toluic acid: it is suspected that the COO group orients perpendicularly to the micellar interface, providing a mechanism for micellemicelle linkage, or “micelle polymerization,” similar to the effect observed for sodium salicylate [263]. This study and others highlight the importance of surfactant architecture on rheological properties and a micellar chai model for the origin of viscoelasticity in cetyltrimethylammonium bromide solution has been presented, based on the premise that the counterions serve as “crosslin agents” capable of building micellar chain structures. The orientation of sodium salicylate, sodium mchlorobenzoate, and mhydroxylbenzoic acid has been investigated, and results from Fourier transform NMR studies suggest that the orientation of the COO carboxylic group is likely the key to the origin of viscoelasticity. Only when the COO projects out of the micellar surface are conditions favorable for chain formation and viscoelasticity favored. Cryo transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
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and both steady shear and dynamic rheological measurements of cetyltrimethylammonium chloride in the presence of sodium salicylate as the binding counterions support the premise that threadlike or wormlike elongated micellar structures occur [264]. In addition, polar and hydrophobic interactions are critical in the increased viscosity exhibited by cationic surfactants in the presence of salts and other surfactants. It has been proposed that the increased solution viscosity is a result of increased ion pair stability [265]. It has been speculated by Hoffmann and his colleagues that only two parameters are needed adequately to define the rheology of these cationic detergents. These are the shear modulus, representative of the structure of the detergent, and the relaxation time, representative of the dynamic nature of the system, both calculated from the zero shear viscosity. Using this hypothesis, four distinct zones as a function of detergent concentration are identified [266]. The nonlinear viscoelasticity of aqueous CTAB solutions with excess sodium salicylate has been determined by Shikata et al. [267,268]. The nonlinear properties were found to be dependent on the concentration of excess salicylate. A 1:1 complex of CTAB and NaSal molar ratio form rodlike micelles, and three behavior modes are described. When the NaSal concentration is significantly less than CTAB, dilute flexible polymer solution behavior is observed and the relaxation spectrum is found to follow the Rouse theory of polymer solutions without entanglement. At higher concentration of NaSal but still below the 1:1 ratio, full entanglement behavior typical of concentrated polymer solutions occurs. When NaSal concentration exceeds CTAB, the viscoelastic behavior is quite different. Unlike polymer systems, Maxwell behavior with the single relaxation time is evident. The relaxation time does not appear sensitive to CTAB concentration and temperature but is highly dependent on the free salicylate concentration in solution. It is speculated that the free salicylate ion is a prerequisite for scission reaction and that micellar relaxation occurs not through reptation but as a result of micellar monomer exchange kinetics. Although there are similarities to polymer solutions at lower ratios, the dynamic nature of the “living” network [269] becomes evident at higher mole ratios of salicylate. Stress growth measurements at the inception of flow completed by Shikata et al. indicate the presence of shearinduced structures for dilute CTAB/NaSal solutions at low shear rates. Dramatic rheopectic behavior is documented in Fig. 26 at a shear rate of 0.481. Viscometric measurements at various salt concentrations and shear rate ranges are summarized with evidence of damping oscillation. The long induction period for shearinduced structuring of cationic surfactants solutions in simple shearing flows appears to follow a simple scaling law for CTABsodium salicylate solutions in which the induction time is inversely proportional to the applied shear rate [270]. There also appears to be a critical shear rate at which shear thickening occurs for 2 mM CTAB sodium salicylate within the temperature range of 10–36°C. The critical shear rate for
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FIG. 26 Stress growth behavior of dilute aqueous CTAB/NaSal solutions at low shear rates and concentrations C = 0.1 and C = 0.15 M. D
s
(From Ref. 268.)
the development of the nonequilibrium metastable micellar shearinduced ordering increase with increasing temperature. One could conclude that there is a critical strain required to induce the reorganization of micelles in this surfactant system. 5. Mixed Surfactants: Anionic/Cationic Systems The effect of salts on the rheology of cationic surfactants has been actively investigated, yet little research on mixed surfactant systems has been completed to date. Tetradecyldimethylaminoxide (TDMAO) and sodium dodecyl sulfate do not individually exhibit timedependent nonNewtonian viscosity functions in solution, yet mixed solutions of these surfactants are known to show rheopectic and dilatant characteristics [271–273]. This is evident from the stress growth behavior of the TDMAO/SDS solution in the presence of sodium chloride at a shear rate of 50 s1 [274]. Following a lengthy induction interval, shear thickening occurs at a moderate shear rate of 50 s1, for this anionic/cationic surfactant pair containing sodium chloride. For this system, it appears that induction time follows a simple scaling law, inversely proportional to shear rate. For the same surfactant system, dilatancy is exhibited as well. The steadystate viscosity increases with increasing shear rate, reaching a maximum at approximately 60 s1, and timedependent and shear thickening behavior is attributed to the shear induced coagulation of rodlike micelles.
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Theoretical and experimental research has been extensive in cationic surfactant systems. This is undoubtedly a result of the complexity of these systems and the dynamic nature of the micellar matrix with a continuous exchange of surfactant monomers from solution to micelle and the shear induced structural states that can be achieved. Theoretical models have been proposed [275– 278] and there is good experimental evidence that relaxation processes are dominated by the kinetics related to micellar chain scission and reformation. This is seen from the exponential stress decay. If dominated by reptation, as noted by Cates, a nonexponential stress decay would be operative. Diffusion would be the ratecontrolling factor. B. Surfactant Liquid Crystal Gels Both isotropic and microemulsion phases of liquid detergent systems are typically Newtonian. Hexagonal, cubic, and lamellar phases, however, exhibit distinct nonNewtonian behavior. At these higher concentrations, within mesomorphic phases, mechanical properties can be nonlinear and time dependent. Gellike properties, similar to those of crosslinked polymers, may also occur with formation of yield stresses. In general, thixotropy, rheopexy, dilatancy, and pseudoplasticity have been demonstrated in the surfactant literature within the anisotropic phases. Lyotropic liquid crystals are particularly interesting surfactant phases because of the high fluidity of these systems, the apparent yield stresses they can exhibit and the various shear effects that can occur. These are also difficult systems to characterize because of the orientation of the micelles in the test geometry and the dependence of rheological properties on defects occurring within the liquid crystal matrix [279]. 1. Nonionic Surfactant Systems Repetitive flow curves for C12E4(60 wt%) demonstrate significant thixotropy in qualitative thixotropic loop measurements [280]. One might suspect that this thixotropy is associated with a loss of structure with shear at this shear rate. This obvious shear effect is most likely a result of realignment, orientation, and reduction of defects within the liquid crystal in simple shear. Disruption of the liquid crystal lamellar geometry in shear results in both dilatant and rheopectic behavior caused by the transition from twodimensional order to a highly irregular surfactant dispersion. Defects in the liquid crystalline morphology can significantly influence viscometric flow properties [281]. It has been shown that viscosity increases significantly with a high incidence of internal defects. This phenomenon complicates measurement and interpretation of the rheology of these systems. The rheology of ternary phosphated polyoxyethylene nhexane, and water lyotropic liquid crystals have been determined in qualitative thixotropic loop
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measurements using a FerrantiShirley cone and plate viscometer and a Deer variable stress rheometer [282], with measurements completed within the lamellar and hexagonal phases of both phosphated nonylphenol ethoxylate and phosphated fatty alcohol ethoxylate at 25°C. Qualitatively, thixotropic loop measurements within the considerable shear rate range show rheopectic hysteresis for specific segments of the lamellar liquid crystal phases and a thixotropic response within the hexagonal and intermediate amorphous gel phase. A comparison of the lamellar, hexagonal, and gel phases as a function of water content at a shear rate of 90.45 s1 shows the lamellar liquid crystal phase to be the most viscous under these experimental conditions, coupling both time and shear rate variables. The maximum exhibited by the hexagonal liquid crystal at 40% water represents a phase boundary. Such thixotropic loop measurements are difficult to interpret because of the combined effects of both time of shearing and shear rate and constant shear rate experiments, or stress growth measurements, are better suited to characterize these ordered systems. 2. Anionic Surfactants Lamellar liquid crystals can exhibit shear effects in various concentrations within this anisotropic phase. Stress growth measurement at 0.05 s1 for an alkyl ether sulfate, C12E7SO4Na, at a concentration of 70% by weight is presented in Fig. 27. Following a stress overshoot, significant viscosity reduction occurs with increasing time of shear. Note that following a shearing interval of 600 s, a shear steady viscosity has not been achieved. In simple shear, this lamellar liquid crys
FIG. 27 Stress growth behavior at 25°C and 0.5 s1 of aqueous C12E7SO4Na gels (70% weight active) using 25 mm parallel plate geometry.
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tal appears to be thixotropic. The cause of this time dependent shear effect, however, is not fully understood. This may be the result of reduction in liquid crystal defects, slippage along the twodimensional planar matrix, or other experimental anomalies. Dynamic mechanical properties for the same alkyl ether sulfate as a function of strain are summarized in Fig. 28. This liquid crystal appears to be highly elastic and gellike because the storage modulus is nearly frequency independent and exceeds the loss modulus by nearly an order of magnitude for strains greater than 0.1. The strain dependence of the storage and loss modulus indicates the presence of a yield stress. A comparative study of the thermotropic and lyotropic mesophases of ammonium dodecanoate at 30, 40, and 50°C shows both systems to be Bingham plastics with high yield stresses within the lamellar phases [283]. The activation energy for viscous flow for the thermotropic mesophase consisting of a ternary system of ammonium laurate, water, and noctanol was found to be more than an order of magnitude greater than that for lyotropic mesophase. Sodium soap mesophases also exhibit unusual behavior in thixotropic loop measurements [284]. Ternary sodium caprylate, decanol and water systems in various anisotropic phases were evaluated using a FerrantiShirley viscometer including both lamellar and hexagonal phases. The most unusual behavior was observed for the lamellar phases, strongly dependent upon water concentration. As in previous surfactant lamellar liquid crystal studies, the distribution of water within the liquid crystal matrix plays a key role in the overall rheological behavior of these aqueous surfactants. 3. Cationic Surfactants The ternary lamellar liquid crystal of hexadecyltlrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), hexanol, and water was determined in couette flow at 25°C and varying water concentration from 30–80% [285]. Viscometric measurements were obtained through constant shear rate experiments applied as a series of shear rate pulses with the shear stress response obtained for samples containing 30, 40, and 50% water. An increase in water content to 60% produces markedly differing results. This sample, also within the lamellar liquid crystal phase, exhibits rheopexy while subjected to a train of shear rate pulses at 77.5 s1. This is attributed to the formation of a nonequilibrium metastable microstructure. Xray diffraction shows no change in the repeat distance of the lamellar liquid crystal, and it is hypothesized that shearing creates large oriented domains as evidenced from polarized microscopy. In steady shearing flow, Newtonian behavior is observed at low shear rates and twofold cooperative coordination at higher shear rates.
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FIG. 28 (a) Storage and loss modulus at 25°C and 10 rad/s of aqueous C12E7SO4Na gels (70% weight active) at 25°C and a strain of 0.005 using 25 mm parallel plate geometry. (b) Storage and loss modulus of aqueous C12E7SO4Na lamellar liquid crystal gels (70% weight active) at 25°C and a strain of 0.005 using 25 mm parallel plate geometry.
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C. PolymerSurfactant Interactions Most commercial detergent preparations contain both polymers and surfactants and these components can be interactive [286]. Complexation can have a significant influence on rheological behavior, depending on the topology of the association, and several associative complexes are represented in Fig. 29 [287]. Type 3 contains a surfactant species, a divalent cationic surfactant capable of physically crosslinking the polymer chain. Depending on the concentration of
FIG. 29 Representation of polymersurfactant complexes. (From Ref. 287.)
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both surfactant and polymer, this can lead to gel formation, depending on the flexibility of the polymer backbone, the geometry of the micelle, and the polarity and charge distribution. Viscosity measurements provide an excellent tool to study polymersurfactant interactions. This is demonstrated very effectively for various polymer surfactant pairs [288–291]. Nagarajan and Kalpakci have studied polyethylene oxide and dextran in the presence of cationic, anionic, and nonionic surfactants [292]. Polyethylene oxide with a flexible backbone shows a significant interaction with anionic micelles, including sodium dodecyl sulfate, sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate, and 8phenyl hexadecane benzene sulfonate, and minimal complexation with cationic systems, such as dodecyl amine hydrochloride, didodecyl dimethyl ammonium bromide, and ethyl hexadeyl dimethyl ammonium bromide. It appears that polymers with rigid backbones, such as dextran, do not favor complexation with either anionic or cationic surfactants. The absence of surface binding has also been confirmed through surface tension measurements. Hydrogels have been formed from nonionic surfaceactive graft copolymers and unmicellized anionic surfactants [293]. It is suspected that comicelles are formed between surfactant monomers and polymer hydrocarbon side chains for hydrophobically modified hydroxyethylcellulose and sodium dodecyl sulfate with gel formation at critical concentrations of the polymer and surfactant. Dynamic mechanical rheology properties are presented supporting the formation of a gel network structure. Further, Goddard et al. have studied the interaction of a cationic cellulosic ether polymer with anionic, cationic and nonionic surfactants [294]. Gelation occurs with anionic surfactants, especially SDS; higher chain length cationic surfactants, such as C12–C14 TAB, show no interaction with the polymer. In addition, interactions are not apparent with nonionic surfactants although surface tensions measurements indicate the contrary. Many other references are available to the reader to explore fully the implications of polymersurfactant interactions in liquid detergent systems [295–304]. Various physical and electrochemical methods, such as sedimentation, light scattering, viscometry, potentiometry, polarography, conductivity, and ultracentrifugation, are combined to evaluate hydrodynamic properties and conformation of the complexed pair. This includes both polymeric acids and bases and their salts and nonionic watersoluble polymer solutions, both dilute and concentrated systems. For example, the interaction of lowmodularweight polymers in concentrated aqueous surfactant systems has been reported by Mast and colleagues [305]. Their research, involving both polyethylene oxide and hydrophobically modified polyethylene oxide in high surfactant and salt concentrations, demonstrates the importance of viscometric measurements and rheological characterizations in exploring polymersurfactant complexation.
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VI. Conclusions The rheology of liquid detergents is a fascinating research area because of the breadth of rheological properties that can occur. Depending on the chemistry and morphology of the surfactant micelles, and the various interactions that can develop in the presence of additives, even dilute solutions well below the CMC, can exhibit nonNewtonian flow behavior. Many types of flow anomalies have been documented, including dilatancy, pseudoplasticity, rheopexy, and thixotropy, and yield stresses are also not uncommon. Further, rheological characterizations are complicated by the dependence of these flow anomalies on the magnitude of the applied external flow field. Systems that appear Newtonian can exhibit nonNewtonian behavior within relatively narrow ranges of shear rates and strains. This is further complicated by the time scales of these effects, because shearinduced structural transitions occur following induction periods that vary in duration depending on the composition of the surfactant system. Characterization of commercial liquid detergent products can be relatively straightforward. Interpretation of these rheological characterizations, however, is a challenge. Data analysis requires a more fundamental understanding of the internal mechanisms binding the surfactant system under investigation. Coupling of rheological characterizations with other analytical techniques such as microscopy, CryTEM, xray diffraction, SANS, NMR, and flow birefringence, a greater understanding of the morphology of the liquid detergent and resulting rheology can be obtained. There has been an increasing emphasis in this area, leading to greater insight into the structureproperty relations of liquid detergents. References 1. E. Hatschek and R. S. Janes, Kolloid Z.38:33(1926). 2. P. A. Winsor, Trans. Faraday Soc. 58:88 (1954). 3. N. Pilpel, Trans. Faraday Soc. 60:779 (1956). 4. N. Pilpel, Trans. Faraday Soc. 62:1015 (1966) 5. T. Nash, J. Appl. Chem. 6:300 (1956). 6. T. Nash, J. Appl. Chem. 6:539 (1956). 7. R. B. Bird, R.C. Armstrong, and O. Hassager, Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids, Vols. 1 and 2, John Wiley & Sons, New York 1977. 8. R. I. Tanner, Engineering Rheology, Oxford, New York, 1985. 9. R. G. Larson, Constructive Equations for Polymer Melts and Solutions, Butterworths Series in Chemical Engineering, Butterworths, Boston, 1988. 10. J. D. Ferry, Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York 1980. 11. H.A. Barnes, Rheometry: Industrial Applications, Detergents, Mater Sci Res Stud Serl, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1980).
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5 Polymeric Stabilizers for Liquid Detergents MADUKKARAI K. NAGARAJAN and HAL AMBUTER Specialty Chemical Division—Product Development, The BFGoodrich Compan Ohio I. Introduction II. Carbomer Resin Usage History A. Automatic machine dishwashing gel B. Liquid cleaner with abrasives C. Liquid laundry detergents D. Specialty liquid cleaner products III. The Technology of Carbomer Resins A. Chemistry of carbomer resins B. Powder properties C. Dispersion properties D. Carbomer microstructure properties E. Carbomer thickening mechanisms IV. Handling Carbomer Resins A. Wetting time B. Dispersion viscosity C. Dispersion techniques D. Formulating with carbomer resins E. Stability evaluations References
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I. Introduction The market share of liquid detergents steadily increased during the 1980s and 1990s. Their consumer popularity is due in part to ease of handling and dispensing from the packaging container, better dissolution properties in comparison with powders, and perceived performance benefits. However, the conversion from a powder detergent to a liquid or a gel is not without its difficulties for the formulator. First, although the selection of the performance active materials remains more or less the same, the liquid formulator needs to achieve product phase stability over the trade life of the product. Second, the formulator must also consider the rheological behavior of the product (i.e., viscosity, flow characteristics, etc.) to meet the product's and customer's inuse application requirements. Much research and development effort has been spent in investigating and employing solvents, hydrotropes, and complex surfactant combinations to achieve these ends. However, these functional ingredients generally are not suitable for systems that require suspension of insoluble materials and do not deliver the appropriate rheological profile for some applications. For some of these applications, a rheological modifier or additive is required. The use of highly cost efficient polymeric resins in liquid detergents spurred much commercially fruitful formulation technology research in the 1980s and 1990s. Enhanced stability of liquid detergents and new application concepts were achieved and marketed with the incorporation of a small quantity of lightly crosslinked polyacrylic acid network polymers known to the industry as carbomers [1]. Due to their multifunctionality (they thicken, suspend, and provide emulsion stabilization), unique rheological profile, broad compatibility, and high weight efficiency, carbomer resins have become the predominant polymer used in the industry for stabilization of liquid detergents. The history of carbomer usage, carbomer resin chemistry, properties of carbomer powder and aqueous dispersions, carbomer microstructural properties, rheology of carbomercontaining systems, carbomer thickening mechanisms, influence of electrolytes on carbomer properties, and handling of carbomer resin in practical liquid detergent formulations are reviewed in this chapter. II. Carbomer Resin Usage History A. Automatic Machine Dishwashing Gel The automatic machine dishwashing gel (ADG) is a unique formulation in terms of its product requirements. The product requires the thickening of a high ionic strength continuous phase (silicates, carbonates, metal hydroxides) and the suspension of a significant level of insolubles (phosphates). It must also have
a rheological profile that will (1) allow the product to flow easily under normal dis pressures, (2) not splash or splatter upon dispensing, and (3) rapidly regain its str dispensing and exhibit a “yield value” such that the product will not leak out of th dishwasher cup. A typical recipe, with and without a polymeric stabilizing agent, f laboratory, is given below. Weight percent Ingredient
Control
Sodium hydroxide (dry basis) Carbopol 674 resin (BFGoodrich)
Exp
20.0 0
Sodium tripolyphosphate (anhydrous)
13.0
Fatty alcohol ethoxylate (HLB:10)
1.0
Demineralized water
67.0
100.0
The control formulation phase separated, with solids settling to the bottom of the container, within 1 day. On the other hand, the experimental formulation was ho stable for over 3 months, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
FIG. 1 Alkaline slurry detergent stabilized by carbomer resin. Left: Control; solids settled with phase separation. Right: Experimental; homogeneous emulsion, stable for over 3 months.
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During the early ADG formulation development, use was made of high levels (5–15%) of linear polyacrylic acid in the preferred molecular weight range of 85,000–95,000 [2]. The researchers discovered that high total solids levels (65–80%) could easily be stabilized in industrial warewashing machine slurry detergents through the use of linear polyacrylates. The linear polyacrylate also increased the water softening capacity, thus enabling the reduction of phosphate levels to comply with antieutrophication legislation. Subsequent patents disclosed similar high solids slurries or gels but with the incorporation of low (e.g., 0.5%) levels of carbomer resins for improved stability, improved aesthetics, and much greater formulation flexibility. Moreover, significantly higher (to 98%) cup retention was noticed for ADLs stabilized with carbomer resins than with the linear polyacrylic acid alone. Bush and Braun [3] were among the early researchers to note that gelled dishwashing detergents employing carbomer resin(s) as stabilizing agents leaked less from the dishwashing machine's dispenser cups than even granular solid dishwashing detergents and also described procedures for measuring “cup retention” values. Their investigations showed that the degree of cup retention was not dependent on the viscosity but more on the degree of cohesiveness of the gel, i.e., its ability to hold together or its gelatinousness. Such a property is “yield value,” which indicates the minimum shearing stress to produce continuous deformation or flow. They measured yield value of their gels as
where the viscosity is measured using a Brookfield viscometer. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the research and patent activity in the use of carbomer resins to stabilize and modify the rheological profile of ADGs became intense. Gabriel and Roselle [4], for example, used a binary mixture of carbomer resins to adjust the yield value and hence the degree of stability of ADL formulations. On the other hand, Koring et al. [5] employed layered clays such as laponite XLS as costabilizers for carbomer resins to achieve improved product phase and active chlorine stability in bleachcontaining ADL systems. Elliot and Kiefer [6] recommended the use of specially synthesized carbomer thickeners wherein the crosslinking agent contained saturated hydrocarbon or aromatic structures to improve both the phase and active chlorine stability. Dixit et al. [7] suggest using, in addition to carbomer stabilizer, a potassium/sodium weight ratio of about 1 to minimize the amount of undissolved solid particles. They further recommend controlling the bulk density of the ADL formulation through the incorporation of air such that the bulk density of the entire composition is approximately equal to the bulk density of the continuous phase.
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B. Liquid Cleaner with Abrasives Another good example to illustrate the stabilization benefits from the use of carbomer resins in liquid detergents is the abrasivecontaining cleaner products used for cleaning hard surfaces such as washbasins and bathtubs. Commercially available powder abrasive cleaners are composed of finely divided mineral substances (such as silica, calcite, and pumice), surfactants, bleaching agents, and small amounts of optional specialpurpose ingredients such as defoamers. In the early liquid analogs of abrasive cleaner products, higher fatty acid alkanolamides and ethoxylated higher fatty acid alkanolamides were often used as dispersion stabilizers for the insoluble abrasives [8]. The viscosities of these liquid abrasive cleaner products were made extremely high, often higher than 5000 mPa. s, to maintain product phase stability over a long period of time. As a result, these products had poor fluidity and were difficult to dispense from a bottle. Moreover, the insoluble abrasive particles often settled to the bottom of the container, necessitating instructions to shake the bottle before use in order to achieve a homogeneous product during use. Imamura and Shiozaki, in their patent on liquid abrasivecontaining cleanser composition [9], describe the use of small amounts (0.3%) of carbomer resin to stabilize liquid cleaners containing abrasive, nonionic surfactant, and hydrotrope. The pH was adjusted to be between 5 and 9 using mono or triethanolamine as a pH regulator. The viscosity of such a composition was in the range of 1500 mPa. s, easily pourable and stable for long period of time under varied storage temperatures. In addition to providing dispersion stability, the liquid abrasivecontaining cleaner product with polymeric carbomer thickener also possessed vertical cling or antisag properties that are desirable in hard surface cleaning situations. C. Liquid Laundry Detergents 1. Industrial Liquid Laundry Detergent A highly concentrated heavy duty, built liquid laundry detergent product for mechanically metered industrial and institutional (I&I) use is described by Borgerding and Claus [10]. Its composition consists of alkali metal hydroxide, surfactants, sodium aluminosilicate (zeolite 4A) builder and/or complex phosphates, sodium (linear) polyacrylate of molecular weight 50,000–200,000 as a cobuilder, sodium carboxymethylcellulose as an antiredeposition agent, and small amounts of a carbomer resin as a suspending aid. Rek [11] describes the use of carbomer resins to stabilize high alkaline slurry detergents employing a mixture of complex phosphates and silicates and specially selected nonionic surfactants. Sodium salts of carbomer resins are also used to ensure phase stability in an interesting invention by Boskamp [12,13]. In his compositions,
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Boskamp recommends certain combinations of borax, polyols (such as glycerol), or dicarboxylic acid salts and an antioxidant (such as sodium sulfite) to achieve enzyme and physical stability. Stable, homogeneous, aqueous built laundry detergents stabilized by linear alkalisoluble (e.g., Acrysol ASE95 from Rohm and Haas Company) or crosslinked, alkaliswellable (e.g., Acrysol ASE108) acrylic emulsions are described by Jones and Brabant [14]. In general, an acrylic emulsion polymer is used at 3–10 times the concentration of a carbomer resin to obtain equivalent physical stability. 2. Consumer Liquid Laundry Detergent The industrial laundry detergents just discussed tend to employ high levels of either insoluble (e.g., zeolite) or only partly soluble (e.g., complex phosphate salts) builders, whereas consumer liquid laundry detergents employ water soluble detergent builders such as sodium citrate, sodium nitrilotriacetate, sodium laurate, alkali metal silicates, sodium (linear) polyacrylates, and sodium tetrapotassium pyrophosphate (to some extent). These formulas therefore have a higher ionic strength in the aqueous phase and present new challenges for the formulator. Structured liquid detergent formulations have been described [15] in which carbomertype resins were used to achieve product stability and, curiously enough, to provide a “viscositylowering” characteristic. The overall benefit from the use of carbomer stabilizers, in this instance, is that pourable liquid detergent compositions are obtained with viscosities in the range of 600–7500 mPa. s. Certain interesting formulating ideas useful for making concentrated liquid laundry detergents with total surfactant concentration as high as 60 wt% but with low viscosities (i.e., 40–200 mPa. s at room temperature) have been described by Nagarajan et al. [16]. In such formulating scenarios, carbomer resins incorporated at 0.1–2.0% enable the lowering of viscosities of highly concentrated surfactant solutions and also provide soil antiredeposition properties. The carbomer concentrations are generally lower in predominantly nonionic surfactant formulations (e.g., 0.05–0.20%) than in anionic surfactant systems (0.20–0.50%). This is due to the additional thickening provided by cooperative structures formed via hydrogen bonds between the carboxyl group of the carbomer resin and the polyol groups of the nonionic surfactants. Other formulating approaches have been used in (1) liquid cleaning products with skin feel additives by Hoskins and Kessler [17], who used a mixture of carbomer resin and guar gum as stabilizers or viscosity modifiers in liquid cleaner products containing up to 30 wt% anionic, nonionic, cationic, and zwitterionic surfactants; (2) liquid cleanser compositions for toilet bowls by Tagata et al. [18], who used anionic synthetic and fatty acid based surfactants and carbomer resins as viscosity modifiers; and (3) liquid detergents mild to the skin by Deguchi et al. [19], who described alkyl glycoside (40 wt%) based
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products with a mixture of synthetic carbomers, natural gums, and polyvinyl alcohol as viscositymodifying agents. D. Specialty Liquid Cleaner Products In the carbomer usage examples reviewed above, the term “polymeric stabilizer” had a very restricted and narrow meaning. In these early research formulations, the carbomer resin was included primarily to suspend insoluble or sparingly soluble detergent ingredients to minimize or prevent phase separation. As more and more liquid formulators become familiar with how to incorporate carbomer resins in their formulations and with their function, they are also enlarging the scope and meaning of the term polymeric stabilizer. We have already seen this somewhat in earlier examples: vertical cling, cup retention, viscosity lowering, viscosity building, viscosity control, rheology modifier, and structure building are some of the terms gradually being introduced into the liquid detergent literature under the general blanket of “polymer stabilizer.” Ambuter [20] has formulated several stable specialty liquid detergent products that accentuate the multitude of functions and roles that the carbomer resins can provide. Carbomer resins provide thickening, shear thinning with quick viscosity regain, and antisagging properties in laundry prespotters. The use of carbomer resins can provide “no drip” vertical cling characteristics to glass and generalpurpose cleaners. The thickening provided by carbomer resins can reduce splashing in high alkalinity and bleachcontaining formulas such as oven cleaners and mold and mildew cleaners. Another unique function of carbomers, especially those that include a hydrophobic comonomer, is to stabilize oilin water emulsions such as solventbased hand cleaners and degreasers. The ability of carbomer resins to hydrogen bond also makes possible thickening formulations containing organic acids. We are of the opinion that more functionrelated benefits from the use of carbomer polymer stabilizers will be added in the future by liquid detergent formulators to enlarge the scope of what is meant today by “polymeric stabilizers in liquid detergents.” III. The Technology Of Carbomer Resins A. Chemistry of Carbomer Resins Brown of The BFGoodrich company is credited with the invention of the original carbomer resin [21]. Carbomer resins are prepared by the precipitation polymerization of acrylic acid, which forms the polymer backbone, and small amounts of a crosslinking agent possessing polyallyl functionality [22]. The International Cosmetic Ingredient Dictionary of the Cosmetics, Toiletries and Fragrance Association (CTFA) defines a homopolymer carbomer as a lightly
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crosslinked polymer prepared from acrylic acid and a polyalkenyl polyether crosslinking agent. A schematic diagram of a segment of homopolymer carbomer resin is given in Fig. 2. While the acrylic acid and polyallyl cross linking agent have different degrees of unsaturation, the resulting carbomer resin is a fully saturated entity with no unsaturation or double bonds. It is also known [23] that the organic solvent used in the polymerization process has much influence on the quality, performance, and environmental acceptability of carbomer resins. Recent developments [24–26] in carbomer resin technology include hydrophobically modified copolymer carbomer resins in which small amounts of a C10–C30 alkyl acrylate are included in the polymerization step as a comonomer. In the schematic diagram of a segment of copolymer carbomer structure (Fig. 3), these hydrophobic surfactant comonomer moieties are incorporated into the homopolymer carbomer resin structure shown in Fig. 2. The homopolymer and copolymer carbomer resins are threedimensional network polymers. The corresponding twodimensional carbomer structures shown in Figs. 2 and 3 are only illustrative and not exact. Also, like most polymeric materials, there will be a distribution of molecular structures with a most probable or average structure for any given carbomer resin. The ultimate chemical structure of any particular carbomer is very sensitive to a large number of factors in the polymerization process such as crosslinker type, allylic functionality, crosslinker level, polymerization solvent, total solids in the solvent during polymerization, polymerization temperature, drying temperature,
FIG. 2 Schematic structure of a segment of homopolymer carbomer resin. Monomer: acrylic acid. Crosslinking agent: polyalkenyl polyether.
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FIG. 3 Schematic structure of segment of hydrophobically modified copolymer carbomer resin. Monomer: acrylic acid. Comonomer: C –C alkyl acrylate. 10
30
Crosslinking agent: polyalkenyl polyether.
extent (time) of polymerization and drying, and a host of other processrelated factors. These varied threedimensional structures or physical morphologies may lead to large or sometimes subtle differences in the performance of the resin during end use. However, the differences in chemical composition between several carbomer resin types or grades are small and in many instances insignificant. In the following sections, commercial carbomer resins are used as examples for the discussion of physicochemical properties. Carbopol® 941, 940, and 934 are carbomer resins polymerized in benzene. Carbopol® ETD™ 2020 and Carbopol® Ultrez™ 10 are “easytodisperse” resins [27–29] polymerized in a cyclohexane and ethyl acetate cosolvent system. B. Powder Properties 1. Glass Transition Temperature Eisenberg et al. [30] report that the glass transition temperature (Tg) of linear polyacrylic acid is on the order of 103°C. The Tg varies with moisture content and reaches an extrapolated value of 140°C for the pure linear anhydride. The viscosity average molecular weights (Mv) of the linear polyacrylic acid samples used in Eisenberg's work ranged between 18,000 and 313,000 daltons (implied by Mv). The anhydride formation is primarily by an intramolecular
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process. The simultaneous dehydration and decarboxylation are both first order reactions. The decarboxylation is a much slower process than the dehydration process in the overall drying process of polyacrylic acid chemistry. The Tg of most grades of carbomer resins, determined by differential scanning calorimetry, is in the range 103–110°C. The Tg of carbomer resins falls very sharply with the addition of water and is expected to be at or below room temperature for dilute carbomer dispersions in water. The small differences in the Tg's of several carbomer resins is consistent with the differences between their chemical compositions. The lower Tg for wet carbomer or dilute aqueous carbomer dispersions suggest rapid molecular movements of polyacrylic acid backbones leading to chain entanglements—a characteristic feature of carbomers and important in determining the rheological behavior of dilute carbomer dispersions. 2. Particle and Bulk Density Carnali and Naser [31] used pycnometry in noctane to determine a particle density of 1.449 g/mL for purified (dialyzed) Carbopol 941 and 940 resins. The particle densities of several commercially available carbomer resins were determined, without any purification steps, employing standard pycnometric methods [32] in 2,2,4trimethylpentane and are given in Table 1. The available data suggest that the polymerization solvent and process lead only to small differences in the carbomer resin's particle density. In Table 1 we also include the bulk densities of the carbomer resins reported by their manufacturers. 3. Particle Size A typical scanning electron microscopy photomicrograph of carbomer resin power, at 20,000× magnification, is shown in Fig. 4. Visual examination of the photomicrographs gave the following results [33]:
Size range ( m) :Smallesta
Average
:Largest
Carbopol934
0.043
0.20
0.25
Carbopol 940
0.046
0.20
0.24
Carbomer
a
Only a few particles of this size were observed.
Cohen [33] also obtained independent confirmation of 0.18–0.20 m being the smallest particle diameter in typical carbomer resin powder from B,E,T surface area (20–23 m2/g) and particle density (1.42 g/mL). Carbomer powder, as manufactured, consists of aggregates of primary particles generated
Page 139 TABLE 1 Particle and Bulk Densities for Some Carbomer Resins Particle density (g/mL)
Bulk density (g/cm3
Carbopol 940
1.448
0.23
Carbopol 934
1.444
0.23
Carbopol Ultrez 10
1.396
0.28
Carbopol ETD 2020
1.333
0.30
Carbomer
Carbopol 941
1.427
no data
during the initial stages of its precipitation polymerization. In these secondary particle agglomerates, the constituent primary particles are held together by rather strong coulombic and van der Waals forces. The size distribution of secondary particle agglomerates in carbomer resin powder is generally determined by automated Coulter counter apparatus. Employing the Coulter counter procedure, the average particle sizes (diameters) of the Carbopol 934 and Ultrez 10 resins were found to be 2–6 and 3–10 m; respectively. 4. Solubility Carbomer resin powders are not soluble in commonly used solvents, including water. However, the secondary particle agglomerates, upon dispersion in water, swell to many times their original volume and disperse through the break
FIG. 4 Scanning electron photomicrograph of carbomer resin × 20,000. White bar is 1 m.
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down of the interparticle forces originally holding the secondary particle aggregates together. In many instances the aqueous carbomer resin dispersions exhibit remarkable clarity, but the resins are not soluble. 5. Hygroscopicity Carbomer resin powders are hygroscopic and pick up moisture easily when left open to the atmosphere. The following moisture uptake data were collected when Carbopol 934 powder, contained in a petri dish, was left open to a laboratory atmosphere at 70% relative humidity: Time (h)
% Weight gain
1.00
5.6
1.50
7.6
2.00
9.0
4.00
13.5
6.00
15.6
0.67
4.0
The equilibrium moisture content at 50% relative humidity and room temperature is reported to be 8–10 wt% for most carbomer resin powders. 6. Molecular Weight The weight average molecular weight (Mw) of uncrosslinked linear polymer (Carbopol 907, for example), polymerized under the same process conditions as for the crosslinked carbomer grades, is 603,300 daltons as determined by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) using polyacrylic acid standards. For Carbomer 907 linear polymer, the number average molecular weight (Mn) is 146,300, giving a value of 4.124 for the polydispersity index (Mw/Mn). The viscosity average molecular weight (Mv) of the Carbomer 907 linear polymer is 524,700 as calculated from the above GPC data. The weight percent of low molecular weight linear polymer impurities in the Carbomer 907 linear carbomer is 1.7, 0.26, and 0.005 for the molecular weight cuts below 20,000, 1000, and 500, respectively. Since carbomer resins do not dissolve in water or any organic solvents, their molecular weight determination by standard physicochemical methods is an intractable problem. To date, the molecular weights of carbomer resins have not been unequivocally determined. In addition to the overall molecular weight, carbomer resins can be characterized by microstructural features like the molecular weight between adjacent
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crosslink sites (Mc). The calculation of Mc is dependent on both the experimental method and data used and the theoretical model used for deriving Mc values. Thus for the Carbopol 941 resin, Taylor and Bagley [34] reported an Mc of 5 × 106 calculated from shear modulus data, whereas Carnali and Naser [31] determined a value of 237,600 from the viscometric determination of the equilibrium swelling ratio. (See also Section III.D in this chapter.) With Mc values on the order of several hundred thousands, the overall molecular weight of carbomer resins may be estimated to be in the billions. Cohen [33] calculated the molecular weight of carbomer resin from the estimated dimensions of its primary particle (see Section III.B.3) and the polymer's particle density (see Section III.B.2) to be on the order of 4.5 × 109 daltons. Nae and Reichert [22] proposed an approach for the theoretical calculation of Mc based on the network structure and the stoichiometry of the polymerization reaction. They assumed that the reaction went to 100% completion and that there were no loops, side chains, or unreacted chain ends in the carbomer structure. The values of Mc calculated using this approach are far too small and do not reflect the complexities of the precipitation polymerization reaction or the actual final structure. 7. Acid Dissociation Constant Carbomer resin is a week acid. The total carboxyl content in 1 g of carbomer is approximately the same as in the acrylic acid monomer from which it is made, with a stoichiometrically negligible amount of crosslinking agent. The carbomer's total carboxylic content, on weight basis, is therefore determined as
In the absence of unequivocal molecular weight information for carbomer polymers, Charman et al. [35] reported an apparent pKa for carbomers as 6.8. This value was estimated from a first derivative plot of pH versus the volume of added sodium hydroxide solution to a known weight of hydrated carbomer resin [i.e., d(pH)/d(volume)]. The pKa values obtained for five different carbomer resins were similar. The pKa of 6.8 for carbomer resins is greater than the pKa of linear polyacrylic acid (5.3) and acrylic acid monomer (4.3) [36, 37]. These data indicate that the acidity of the crosslinked polymeric species is approximately 100fold less than in monomeric form. This decrease in apparent acidity of the polymeric species is primarily due to the weakening inductive effects that affect the ionization potential of neighboring carboxylic acid groups. Therefore, it is fair to surmise that the carboxyl functional groups within the network polymer are dissimilar and that the acidity of carbomer resin
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is a function of the degree of ionization. The pHdependent viscosity of carbomer dispersions is a function of the degree of ionization of the polymeric species and reflects the carbomer's apparent pKa value. Thus, carbomer resins exhibit a pHindependent viscosity region of pH 5–9 (Fig. 4 in Ref. 26). Similarly, the decrease in viscosity of carbomer dispersions at high pH values is due to the increased counter ion concentrations (which disturb the electrostatic repulsion between the ionized carboxyl groups placed randomly along the polyacrylic backbone) and an overall decrease in the hydration of the cross linked polymer. It is interesting to note that Charman et al. [35] also found that the apparent pKa of carbomer resins reverts to that of monomer acrylic acid, 4.3, when determined in the presence of 0.05–0.20% calcium chloride in the titrating solution. Apparently, the binding interaction of calcium with ionized carboxylate sites in the polymer was sufficient to significantly reduce the induction effects due to ionized carboxylate moieties on adjacent carboxylic acid sites in the polymer backbone. In a practical sense, carbomer resins possess 100fold more acidity in the presence of calcium ions, which are commonly found in liquid detergent use situations. The use of added reserve alkalinity or buffering agents in liquid detergent formulations containing carbomer resins therefore seems prudent. C. Dispersion Properties 1. Intrinsic Viscosity High molecular weight polymers possess the unique capacity to greatly increase the viscosity of the liquid they are dissolved or dispersed in, even when present at concentrations that are quite low. In carbomer resins, the viscosity increase is due to the voluminous character of the waterswollen carbomer microgels [37]. The capacity of a polymer to enhance the viscosity is characterized by its “intrinsic viscosity,” a structurerelated parameter introduced by Staudinger and Heuer [38]. The units in which intrinsic viscosity is expressed, dL/g, originate from Einstein's rigidsphere model, which relates a polymer's specific volume and its specific viscosity [39]. Factors affecting the intrinsic viscosity of a carbomer resin include 1. pH, which also influences the degree of neutralization of the carbomer and hence the ionic strength. 2. Ionic strength, including any ionizable additive in the detergent formulation, such as EDTA or ionic surfactants. 3. Electrolyte type, including both cations and anions. 4. Carbomer type.
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5. Nonaqueous solvent ingredients, which influence the ionic strength via changes in the dielectric constant of the medium. The same factors influence the molecular confirmation and the resultant specific volume of the swollen polymer. The influence of pH on the intrinsic viscosity of several types of carbomer resins is discussed in a paper by Ishikawa et al. [40]. Generally, the intrinsic viscosity increases with an increase in pH and reaches an asymptotic value above pH 6–7. Ishikawa et al. determined the intrinsic viscosity of carbomers using dilute solution capillary viscometry and the Huggins relationship, discussed later in this chapter. Carnali and Naser [31], using dilute solution viscosity measurements, determined the intrinsic viscosities of unneutralized Carbopol 940 and 941 (pH about 3) resins as a function of ionic strength. They found a linear relationship between the intrinsic viscosity and the inverse square root of ionic strength at very low salt concentrations, which leveled off at higher ionic strengths. We have also determined the intrinsic viscosities of several carbomer resins by dilute solution viscometric procedures [41]. We chose a TrisHClNaCl buffer [42] as the background electrolyte. The buffer was prepared using Tris (hydroxymethyl)aminomethane and HCl buffer solution at pH 7.60 with additional sodium chloride to bring the ionic strength to 0.171 (equivalent to 1.0 wt % sodium chloride). To this, an appropriate amount (00.04 dL/g) of carbomer resin was added, and the solution was neutralized to pH 7.3–8.2 with sodium hydroxide. The viscosities of these dilute polymer solutions were then measured using a Physica LS100 low stress rheometer. The viscosity obtained was constant (Newtonian behavior) to within 2% in the shear rate range of about 50–200 s1, and the relative viscosity varied between 1.03 and 1.29, which is well within Flory's recommendations [37]. The specific viscosity was then plotted as a function of polymer concentration, referred to as Huggins plots [43] (Fig. 5). The intrinsic viscosity was then obtained using the equation
(1) where = / 0 1
sp
where = specific viscosity
sp
solvent viscosity
0
solution viscosity [ ] intrinsic viscosity c = polymer concentration
solution viscosity [ ] intrinsic viscosity c = polymer concentration
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FIG. 5 Huggins plot for Carbopol 940 resin (in 1% TrisNaCl buffer; pH 7.6).
The intrinsic viscosities, determined as the viscosity at zero concentration, for several carbomer resins are summarized in Table 2. 2. Intrinsic VolumeSwelling Ratio Einstein [39] (see also Ref. 31) showed that the viscosity of a fluid in which small rigid spheres are dilutely and uniformly dispersed (i.e., random close TABLE 2 Intrinsic Viscosities for Some Carbomer Resins Intrinsic viscosity (dL/g)
Slopea K' (dimensionless)
Carbopol 934
3.85
8.3
Carbopol Ultrez 10
2.60
9.9
Carbopol ETD 2020
1.89
43.6
Carbomer
Conditions: Ionic strength 0.171; TrisNaCl equal to 1.0 g/dL NaCl; pH 7.60. aSlope calculated from Huggins equation [see Eq. (1)].
Carbopol 941
7.59
35.0
Carbopol 940
4.49
12.8
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packing model) is related to the volume fraction occupied by all the rigid spheres. We specify here Qi as intrinsic volumeswelling ration, which is given by the volume of the swollen polymer divided by the volume of the dry polymer. The following relation then holds:
(2) where Qi intrinsic swellability particle density
p
[ ] intrinsic viscosity With the particle densities given in Table 1, Eq. (2) can be used to calculate Qi. The results of these calculations are given in Table 3. 3. Overlap Concentration Taylor and Bagley [44] were the first to explain the extraordinary viscosity building properties of carbomer resins, even at low concentrations, in terms of a twophase microgel model. According to their model, carbomer resin dispersions consist of swollen, deformable gel particles closely packed in intimate contact [45]. Under high dilution or at high ionic strength conditions, the gel particles are no longer tightly packed, the (interstitial) solvent is present in excess, the viscosity drops precipitously, and the thickening action almost disappears. Steeneken [46] further developed this model by taking into account the existence of two concentration regimes (Fig. 6). In the dilute regime, the dispersion is essentially nonhomogeneous with a low viscosity governed by the polymer volume fraction of the swollen microgel. The swollen microgels are farther apart, and the dispersion is either already unstable (i.e., separated in two TABLE 3 Intrinsic Volume Swelling Ratio for Some Carbomer Resins Particle density (g/mL)
Intrinsic volume swelling ratio (dimensionless)
Carbopol 934
1.444
214.1
Carbopol Ultrez 10
1.396
142.2
Carbopol ETD 2020
1.333
101.5
Carbomer
Conditions: Ionic strength 0.171; TrisNaCl equal to 1.0 g/dL NaCl; pH 7.60.
Carbopol 941
1.427
446.6
Carbopol 940
1.448
263.8
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FIG. 6 Thickening mechanism for carbomer dispersions. (Adapted from Fig. 3 in Ref. 46.)
phases) or will become unstable over time. This dilute dispersion is Newtonian and does not have a yield value [47]. In the higher concentration regime, the dispersion becomes homogeneous with a high viscosity governed by the rigidity of the microgel. Here, the swollen microgels are compressed, and the dispersion is stable. This system is now viscoelastic and has a definite yield value. Between these two limiting cases, a broad transition region exists where the viscosity is governed by both the polymer volume fraction and the rigidity of the microgel. At a critical concentration in this transition region, the microgels are fully swollen and just touch each other. The resin concentration at this point is called the “overlap concentration” (c*. At c*, the viscosity of the system rises sharply (Fig. 7 and Table 4). Assuming Einstein's rigidsphere model (nondraining case) and a random closepacking volume fraction of 0.637 [48], the critical overlap concentration is calculated employing the equation
(3) where c* = critical overlap concentration and = volume fraction = 0.637 for hard spheres. The resin parameters [ ], Qi, and c* are all indicative of the thickening (or viscositybuilding) efficiency of a polymer resin in a chosen environment (i.e., the solvent or background electrolyte). Thus,
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FIG. 7 Viscosity building by carbomer resins (in 1% TrisNaCl Buffer; pH 7.6).
[ ]
Qi
c*
Relative thickening efficiency
Low
Low
High
Low
High
High
Low
High
Table 4 summarizes the results of such calculations for several carbomer resins. Since c* is derived from the polymer's intrinsic viscosity, it is also depen TABLE 4 Overlap Concentration for Some Carbomer Resins
Carbomer
Overlap concentration (g/dL)
Carbopol 934
0.41
Carbopol Ultrez 10
0.61
Carbopol ETD 2020
0.84
Conditions: Ionic strength 0.171; TrisNaCl equal to 1.0 g/dL NaCl; pH 7.60.
Carbopol 941
0.20
Carbopol 940
0.35
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FIG. 8 Microgel model for aqueous carbomer dispersions. After shear stops, the original high viscosity is recovered quickly (i.e., viscoelastic behavior).
dent on the pH, ionic strength of the electrolytes present, type of electrolyte, carbomer type, and the presence of nonaqueous solvents in the detergent formulation. 4. Viscosity Most carbomer resin dispersions show pseudoplastic flow behavior and exhibit a shear thinning character to a varying degree (Fig. 8). The rheological data obtained for a 1 wt% carbomer resin mucilage, neutralized to pH 7–8, using a controlled stress rheometer, are shown in Figs. 9–11. All three ways of representing the flow curve data—viscosity vs. shear rate, viscosity vs. shear stress, and shear stress vs. shear rate—are equivalent.
FIG. 9 Viscosity versus shear rate flow curves for carbomer resins.
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FIG. 10 Viscosity versus shear stress flow curves for carbomer resins.
Carbomer resin manufacturers usually specify singlepoint viscosities of various grades of their products, where the viscosity is measured using a Brookfield spindle viscometer. With the advent of more and more sensitive modern computerized rheometers, it has been our experience that the instrumental error is usually high at low shear rates (e.g., > 20% standard error) and low
FIG. 11 Shear stress versus shear rate flow curves for carbomer resins.
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at high shear rates(<5% standard error at high shear rates). Therefore, reporting viscosities measured at two or three shear different rates might be a better option for quality control and product specification purposes. 5. Yield Value An examination of Figs. 9 and 10 graphically illustrates the carbomer resin's plastic flow behavior with a definite yield stress. Many researchers have developed and proposed test methods and procedures to calculate the yield value. Almost 40 years ago, Meyer and Cohen [49] drew attention to the ability of carbomer resins to exhibit yield values even at low concentrations such as 0.1 wt%. They used an empirically derived yield value determination procedure based on a Brookfield spindle viscometer. They also semiquantitatively related the yield values of carbomer suspensions to their ability to produce “permanent” suspensions in practically useful systems. Voet and Brand [50] describe a procedure based on a plate plastometer that became the basis for the British Pharmacopea (B.P.) plastometer test method (as in B.P. 1980 Appendix YJ, A79). An elegant and visually demonstrative, although time consuming, suspended sphere test method for yield value determination has been described by a carbomer resin manufacturer [51]. Data on equilibrium strain vs. stress behavior of “atrest” carbomer dispersions, obtained by employing stress rheometry, were used by Ketz and coworkers [45] to estimate the yield stress in these systems. Controlled shearstress flow curves (rotational tests) were used by Farooq et al. [52] in determining the yield stress of automatic machine dishwashing liquid detergent formulations containing carbomer and inorganic alumina in their study on synergistic interactions in polyacrylatealumina gel dispersions. Magnin and Piau [53], from their detailed study using different experimental approaches for determining yield value, found that several artifacts arise from surface roughness, slip moisture evaporation, and other experimental conditions used in the test. We summarize here some important aspects of the yield value concept as applied to systems containing carbomer resins: 1. Yield value is the initial resistance to applied stress. 2. Yield value (rather than viscosity) is the dominant factor in determining the suspending ability of carbomer resin. 3. The actual units in which yield value is expressed are dependent on the measurement method. Hence, only the relative magnitude of yield value, determined by the same experimental procedure, is important when discussing the role of carbomer resins in liquid detergents. The general units are force per unit area, the same as for shearing stress. 4. The yield behavior in carbomer resincontaining systems begins only after the overlap concentration of the resin is exceeded.
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5. Like other carbomer resin properties, the yield value is affected by pH, ionic strength, ion type, carbomer type, and solvents, if any, in the liquid detergent formulation. 6. Yield value, in general, decreases linearly with the inverse square root of the total ionic strength in the dispersion at low ionic strengths and reaches a plateau value at higher ionic strengths. Typical yield values of some carbomer resins are given in Table 5. The data were determined by applying the Casson rheology model [47] to a controlled stress flow curve using internally standardized run parameters. The Casson rheology model relationship is given by the equation
(4) where = shear stress (Pa) = yield stress (Pa)
o
h = infinite shear viscosity (Pa. s) g = shear rate (s1) 6. Microviscosity Davidson and Collins [54] determined the viscosity of the continuous phase in carbomer dispersions by an elegant morphological technique involving photographic diffusion coefficient measurements in a neutralized carbomer mucilage doped with monosized polystyrene latex particles. They used Einstein's equation for Brownian motion of spherical particles to derive these waterlike or microviscosities. Lockhead et al. [26] used a quasielastic light scattering technique to measure the StokesEinstein microdiffusion coefficient of gelsol particles in the interstitial waterlike fluid in carbomer resin thickened systems. TABLE 5 Rheology Profile Data for Some Carbomer Resins Viscosity at 2.041 s1
Rigidity(Pa)
Thixotropy (Pa/s/cm3)
Yield point(Pa)
(mPa s)
Carbopol 941
25.5
4.6
13.5
10,700
Carbopol 941
425.0
42.9
13.5
75,800
Carbopol 934
736.9
304.9
94.5
74,500
Carbopol Ultrez 10
983.3
309.0
108.1
84,300
Carbopol ETD 2020
325.8
11.5
147.2
63,200
Carbomer
Conditions: 1.00 wt% neutralized carbomer mucilages; pH 7.38.2; temperature 25** C
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FIG. 12 Macro and microviscosity curves for carbomer microgel. (Microviscosity data from Refs. 26 and 54.)
Figure 12 illustrates this macro vs. microviscosity concept in a typical neutralized (pH 7–8) carbomer resin mucilage. The limiting high shear rate viscosity obtained in the Casson rheology model fit for controlled shear stress flow curve data, calculated via Eq. (4), can be considered as an approximate (or proportional) measure of microviscosity. The microviscosity in neutralized carbomer resin systems is affected by, among other factors, the soluble linear polyacrylic polymer impurities and the amount of linear polyacrylic acid segments attached to the particlelike carbomer microgel. Pertinent microviscosity data extracted from Casson rheology model analysis of controlled stress flow curve data of several carbomer resins are also included in Table 5. 7 Thixotropic Index Thixotropy is defined as a decrease in viscosity under shear stress, followed by a gradual recovery to the original viscosity when the stress is removed. Thixotropy is dependent upon the shearstress history of the sample and time. It is measured by the hysteresis loop area (in Pa/s) or relative hysteresis volume (in Pa/s/cm3) from the combined “up” and “down” flow curve (see Fig. 13). A conceptual analog for understanding thixotropy can be drawn from the readily
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FIG. 13 Thixotropic loop for carbomer resins.
observable differences between ordinary Jello and wet sand. Jello has low thixotropy, and wet sand has high thixotropy. From this analogy, we can relate low thixotropy in carbomer resins (like Jello) to high gel strength, fast release of bound actives (if any), rapid relaxation after a brief stress period (a quick recovery to the original state), smaller (microgel) particle size, and good (optical) clarity. Similarly, a high thixotropy in carbomer resins (like wet sand) signifies low gel strength, slow active release, slow relaxation, large particle size, and poor clarity or cloudiness. Thixotropic indexes for several carbomer resins are included in Table 5. 8. Microgel Rigidity (or Compliance) A vast amount of published literature supports the fact that neutralized carbomer resin dispersions consist of two phases: a discontinuous phase of (water) swollen carbomer particles (“microgels”) dispersed in a waterlike continuous phase (“interstitial fluid”) [26,31,34,44–46, 54]. It is known [31, 40, 45, 46, 52] that these highly swollen carbomer microgels are deformable under stress and can be characterized by steadystate compliance or its reciprocal, the rigidity coefficient (total shear modulus, G0). Creep relaxation curves for some carbomer resins are shown in Fig. 14 and may be used to determine the microgel rigidity coefficients (Table 5). The data reported in Fig. 14 were obtained using a controlled stress creep test on 1 wt % neutralized carbomer mucilages and adjusting the run parameters so that the maximum strain reached was well
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FIG. 14 Creep relaxation curve for carbomer resins (in 1% TrisNaCl buffer; pH 7.6). Resins were subjected to 5 Pa stress for 20 s, followed by 0 Pa stress for 180 s.
within the linear viscoelastic range (<10–15% deformation) of the particular test sample. Microgel rigidity is another dimension, quite apart from polymer swelling, of the viscosifying effect due to carbomer resins. It is also directly responsible for the elastic component in carbomer rheology. This particle nature of carbomer resins is particularly useful at the high electrolyte concentrations normally found in liquid detergents. D. Carbomer Microstructure Properties The internal microstructure properties of carbomer resins such as molecular weight between adjacent crosslink sites (Mc) and the crosslink density ( c) were calculated from the corresponding intrinsic volumeswelling ratios (Qi), the application of FloryHuggins' swelling thermodynamics, and rubber elasticity theory. When a network polymer, such as carbomer resin, swells in a fluid medium, there are two opposite and equal forces operating: (1) a favorable mixing due to increased entropy as the fluid spreads through the added volume, with a driving force favoring swelling [55; see also Ref. 37, p. 52, Eq. (41)], Gmix = RT [In (l c) + c + c2] (5) where
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= Flory's chi parameter = 0.44 c = 1/Qi and (2) an opposing elastic retractive force [56] because the polymer chains between network junctions are required to assume elongated conformations:
(6) where Mc = molecular weight between adjacent crosslink sites V1 = molar volume of the fluid (18.01 for water) R = gas constant T = temperature in Kelvin When equilibrium is established, the following holds:
(7) Mc can now be calculated from Eq. (7). The appropriate units for Mc are g/mol, which can be converted to other required units such as Mc in g/mol × 1/72 = Mc in number of acrylic acid monomer units per link, where 72 is the formula weight for acrylic acid monomer. The crosslink density ( c) of the carbomer is calculated from the corresponding Mc values as
or
where Nav is the Avogadro number, 6.022 × 1023. Table 6 summarizes the abovementioned microstructure parameters. E. Carbomer Thickening Mechanisms Carbomer resin is a special case of nonlinear, branched polymer chains that interconnect to form a threedimensional network structure. In dispersions consisting of network polymers the dominant structural feature are (water)
E. Carbomer Thickening Mechanisms Carbomer resin is a special case of nonlinear, branched polymer chains that interconnect to form a threedimensional network structure. In dispersions consisting of network polymers the dominant structural feature are (water)
TABLE 6 Microstructure Parameters for Some Carbomer Resins
Carbomer
Molecular weight between adjacent crosslinks (× 103 monomer units/link)
Crosslink de networ
Carbopol 941
156.7
7.
Carbopol 940
63.7
19
Carbopol 934
44.5
27
Carbopol Ultrez 10
20.8
54
Carbopol ETD 2020
11.4
97
Conditions: Ionic strength 0.171; TrisNaCl equal to 1.0 g/dL NaCl; pH 7.60.
swollen microgels. Polymer microgel particles viscosify a solution essentially thro mechanisms. At concentrations below c*, the viscosity increases in direct propor magnitude of polymer swelling. In this region, the most efficient carbomer resins h rigidity compressible microgels, high intrinsic viscosity, and high intrinsic swellabili Carbopol 941 and 940). This concept is supported by experimental data as sho which is a magnification of Fig. 7 at the lower carbomer concentrations. Above c governing factor in building viscosity is the microgel rigidity. It is seen that the rigi concentration behavior illustrated in Fig. 16 parallels the viscosityconcentration ( behavior of carbomer resins. In this regime, the viscosity of the system increases i proportion to the microgel particle rigidity.
FIG. 15 Viscosity building by carbomer resins (in 1% TrisNaCl buffer; pH 7.6).
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FIG. 16 Rigidity building by carbomer resins (in 1% TrisNaCl Buffer; pH 7.6).
It is interesting to note here that both high crosslink density and high microgel rigidity (as in Carbopol Ultrez 10) yield the most efficient resins for viscosity building beyond c*. The Carbopol ETD 2020 resin, though exhibiting a high crosslink density, is less efficient than the Carbopol Ultrez 10 resin at low ionic strengths because of its lower rigidity. Carbomer
Crosslink density
Rigidity
Carbopol 934
27.1
736.9
Carbopol ETD 2020
97.7
983.3
Carbopol Ultrez 10
54.6
325.8
At considerably higher ionic strengths, the Carbopol ETD 2020 resin can be expected to outperform other resins because it is hydrophobically modified to provide better electrolyte tolerance. Because of the dual mechanism of viscosity building by carbomer resins, an interesting crossover phenomenon occurs. Lowswelling carbomer resins (e.g., Carbopols Ultrez 10 and 934) have a lower viscosity at low polymer concentrations; however, at higher polymer concentrations, this situation is reversed (see Figs. 7 and 15). This illustrates the unique rigidparticle nature of the Carbopol Ultrez 10 resin as compared to Carbopol 940 and 934. In fact, the fundamental data given in this chapter show that the Carbopol Ultrez 10 resin
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is capable of replacing either Carbopol 940 or 934 in certain liquid detergent product formulations. IV. Handling Carbomer Resins A. Wetting Time Significant time and money can be saved by using the Carbopol ETD 2020 and Ultrez 10 resins rather than traditional carbomer resins [27–29]. The surface modification of these resins with high molecular weight surfactants is responsible for the dramatic reduction in powder wetting times. Wetting time data for these carbomer resins are compared with data for other carbomer resins in Table 7. The wetting time is determined as follows. Dry 2.5 g of Carbopol resin in a vacuum oven at 80°C and 29 in. mercury for 1 h to remove any superficial moisture in the sample. Add all of the resin onto the surface of 500 mL of demineralized water without any agitation. The Carbopol Ultrez 10 polymer will begin to wet in seconds and incorporate into the water. Note the time when the dry power is no longer visible on the water surface. This time is the wetting time. The shorter the wetting time, the easier it is to disperse the carbomer resin in water. B. Dispersion Viscosity One of the unusual features of the Carbopol ETD 2020 and Ultrez 10 resins are their lower dispersion viscosities (viscosity of unneutralized carbomer in water) (Table 8), giving them several important processing and/or costsaving advantages. Unlike other carbomer resins, it is possible to prepare a very concentrated dispersion stock solution. Pumpable concentrations as high as 5 wt % can be easily made, saving valuable production time and freeing up water TABLE 7 Wetting Times for Some Carbomer Resins Wetting time Carbomer
(min)
Carbopol 941
>50
Carbopol 940
>50
Carbopol 934
>50
Carbopol Ultrez 10
5
Carbopol ETD 2020
15
TABLE 8 Dispersion Viscosities for Some Carbomer Resins Weight percent concentration of the resin Carbomer
0.50
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
Carbopol 941
2,970
4,630
5,560
6,980
16,450
Carbopol 940
680
4,150
10,580
26,350
57,600
Carbopol 934
17
105
2,820
7,260
19,750
Carbopol Ultrez 10
7
9
41
164
1,130
Carbopol ETD 2020
17
108
740
3,410
7,010
Conditions: Units, mPa. s; Brookfield viscometer, 20 rpm; pH 2.53.5; temperature 23°C.
for use in other parts of the process. Additionally, because of the lower viscosity concentrated Carbopol Ultrez 10 resin stock dispersions, foam created during th of mixing will dissipate faster. The low dispersion viscosity of high concentrations of the Carbopol ETD 2020 a resins is primarily due to the enhanced particle behavior of these resins. These tw thicken systems more because of their higher rigidity than because of their swellin (see Section III.C.2). With other carbomer resins, the situation is exactly the reve accounts for their higher dispersion viscosities. C. Dispersion Techniques Carbomer resins owe much of their exceptional utility to their hydrophilic nature for water. These dry powder resins are highly hygroscopic and hydrate very rapi added to water or polar solvents. Similar to other hygroscopic powders, carbom clump or incompletely wet out when haphazardly dispersed into polar media. The the wet agglomerates quickly solvate and form a tough exterior layer that prevent wetting of the interior particle. When this occurs, the mixing time required to achi hydration of each polymer particle is governed by the slow diffusion of the solven solvated layer to the dry interior. This also will result in dispersion defects such as texture, reduced viscosity, or the presence of partially wet agglomerates resembli in the final product. Therefore, to avoid lengthy mixing times and to prepare high reproducible carbomer resin dispersions, good dispersing techniques must be ap The method by which a carbomer resin should be incorporated into a formulation on a number of factors such as the carbomer type, quantity and concentration of being prepared, type of process equipment available, and the formula compositio
1. Direct Batch Dispersions Dispersions from 200 g to several thousand kilograms can be prepared by slowly resin into the vortex of a rapidly stirred solution. To take advantage of the resin's size, techniques or devices that sprinkle the powder as discrete particles are the effective, for example, a coarse sieve or a noncorrosive 20 mesh screen (since th form of the resin is acidic). The ideal method should efficiently sprinkle the resin a controlled rate as well as break up the soft agglomerates of dry powder formed electricity or humid conditions. This allows each particle to wet out in the water v Agitation enhances the rate of solvation of the resin. In general, high shear rates d resin very rapidly; however, extremely high shear mixers such as Waring Blendor homogenizers should be employed carefully because they can break down the po molecularly, resulting in permanent viscosity loss. Moderate agitation equipment i preferred choice. The primary consideration is to incorporate the resin so that lar wet agglomerates do not form. Orifices with an openblade impeller are the most Conventional impellers such as propellers or turbines do not impart excessively hi rates, and mucilages can be mixed for extended periods of time with virtually no polymer efficiency [1]. Impeller type
Comments
Cowles blade
Not recommended due to high shear.
Paddle blade
Frequently used when blending operations follow the initial carbomer.
Threeblade marine
Preferred choice for dispersing carbomer and making emulsi
Foddler impeller
Poor mixing due to low shear.
Hi lift impeller
High shear; use with caution.
When preparing dispersions with high carbomer resin concentrations and in mixin with a large vessel heighttoimpeller diameter ratio, two impellers on one comm recommended. The top impeller serves to rapidly disperse the resin before undes partially hydrated lumps are formed, while the bottom blade provides dispersion i The mixer should be positioned in the vessel so that a vortex of 1–1.5 impeller di generated. It is also best to angle the impeller so that the dry resin will come in co the impeller blades rather than the impeller shaft. Adjust the agitation speed and a of the resin to avoid the formation of a continuous film of the dry resin on the surf layer
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could lead to the formation of lumps of nonhydrated resin. Also, be sure to scrape any resin from the sides of the beaker and impeller shaft throughout the dispersion process. Continue the agitation for about 20 min or until a lumpfree dispersion is attained. Once a homogeneous dispersion is obtained, air entrapment (foaming) can be avoided or minimized by eliminating or reducing the vortex. Elimination of the vortex can be accomplished by repositioning the mixer. If the mixer cannot be repositioned, the vortex can be reduced by decreasing the motor speed. 2. Large Quantity Batch Dispersions An eductor or a flocullant disperser (Fig. 17) can quickly prepare batch dispersion quantities of up to hundreds of liters with reduced dusting. Liquid flows through the venturi of the eductor throat, causing an increase in the liquid velocity and a decrease in pressure, the Bernoulli effect. This exerts a partial vacuum on the powder inlet, pulling the particles of resin from the eductor funnel or hose into the turbulent liquid stream. This process rapidly wets out the resin and minimizes lumping. The resulting liquid polymer slurry is then directed into an agitated mix tank. The flow of liquid is continued until the desired solution concentration is reached. Note that an eductor that is capable of solid particle dispersion must be used.
FIG. 17 Diagram of an eductor.
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3. Large Quantity Continuous Dispersions A mechanical inline powder disperser can continuously produce large quantities of resin dispersion [1]. Mechanical dispersers couple the principle of a highvelocity eductor with the mechanical working configuration of an inline homogenizer. Each polymer particle is instantaneously dispersed, wetted, and expelled prior to swelling. This highly turbulent, highshear mixer operates at such a rate that lump formation and polymer degradation from mechanical shearing are eliminated. The valved powder hopper feed of the mechanical disperser can significantly reduce the level of air entrapment or foaming. Dispersed particles are expelled directly into a tank with low to moderate agitation. If inline mixers such as colloid mills or homogenizers are used, the resin should be initially wetted out with moderate agitation. Therefore, mixing time using the highshear mixers will be minimized. If a homogenizer is employed, strive to use the lowest shear rate and the shortest mixing time to achieve a homogeneous mixture. 4. Dispersing Resin in Nonpolar Liquids The addition of the resin can be greatly simplified if the formulation contains a solvent that does not swell the carbomer polymer. In a pure solvent or at high solvent concentrations in water, the resin can be directly added with minimal agitation. Concentrations of carbomer in solvent can reach as high as 10% using this method. Note that if the resinsolvent slurry is to be added to water, vigorous mixing should be used. Premixing or wetting the resin with a nonpolar liquid (such as mineral oil, mineral spirits, kerosene, or silicone oil) or low HLB nonionic surfactant is also often an easy method of incorporating the powder. This is a preferred technique for using carbomers to stabilize oilinwater emulsions [1]. For example, the resin can be added directly into the oil phase with minimal agitation. This mixture may then be added to the aqueous phase, or vice versa, with vigorous mixing. In some cases, heated oils will plasticize the resins and cause agglomeration. If this occurs, repeat the procedure at a reduced temperature or add a separate, lowtemperature oilresin slurry to the emulsion. 5. Other Dispersion Techniques To reduce agitation and mixing time, carbomer resin can be initially dry blended with other dry ingredients such as mineral fillers or abrasives. Doing so separates the resin particles from each other so that they do not form a swollen “skin” when exposed to water. The blend is usually freeflowing and free of lumps if the polymer constitutes less than half of the total dry weight. Avoid blending carbomer resin with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), cellulosic polymers, or other gums. These blends may give waterinsoluble complexes or may prevent proper swelling of the resin.
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If a persistent foam is generated, it can be broken by partially collapsing the resin with the addition of a very low level of a strong acid before neutralization. This reduces the viscosity and yield value of the slurry and allows the entrapped air to escape. HCI is effective at 0.5% of the weight of the resin. A 1.0% weight dispersion would require approximately 0.005 wt % or 50 ppm HCI. This level of acid does not result in a significant contribution of salt when neutralizing the resin and does not significantly affect the viscosity of the end product. It is best to use deionized water, distilled water, or deaerated tap water. If fresh tap water is used, you may produce a cloudy gel due to the presence of tiny air bubbles. The bubbles can actually be observed forming on the soft gel clusters prior to neutralization. After neutralization, the bubbles are trapped by the gel's yield value so that the only way to remove them is by centrifuge or vacuum. 6. Dispersing Carbopol ETD, Ultrez, and EZ Resins The development and commercialization of easier dispersing carbomer technology has greatly improved the dispersibility of carbomer resins, especially in water. These resins behave differently in their dispersion as well as hydration rates (see Sections IV.A and IV.B) and need to be processed and handled in a slightly different manner [57]. The appearance of these resins in water (before neutralization) is much different from that of traditional resin dispersions. When a Carbopol ETD resin is first added to nonagitating water, the powder begins absorbing water. Within a few seconds, soft clusters of hydrated resin begin to settle to the bottom of the vessel. Within several minutes, all of the dry powder particles will wet out, and most of the polymer will be below the surface in the form of these clusters. The total wetting time is dependent upon the amount of resin added, vessel geometry, and, most important, water temperature. Unlike traditional resins, Carbopol ETD resins can be dispersed more quickly by increasing the temperature of the water to which they are added (Fig. 18). In fullscale production, a Carbopol ETD resin may be added to water by any of the following techniques. 1. No Agitation. The resin can be added onto the surface of the water without any agitation. The powder will wet out without lumping. 2. Moderate Agitation. In this case, a steep vortex pulls powder from the water surface into the agitator blades. Large quantities of Carbopol ETD resin can be quickly dispersed by such equipment without lumping. In production, control the mixing time from batch to batch, as long periods of highshear mixing can lower the final product viscosity. Note that under highshear agitation, dispersions of Carbopol ETD resins can foam if
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FIG. 18 Carbopol Ultrez 10 wetting time as a function of temperature (1 gm dropped into 200 ml of water at rest).
quantities of air are entrained. Low levels of an antifoaming agent can be added to the water prior to the addition of the resin to minimize or eliminate foaming. 3. Mild Mixing. In this mixing scenario, a very shallow vortex is created, but the powder is not pulled into the agitator blades. Instead, the powder is trapped in one mass at the water surface and coagulates around the agitator shaft. Dispersing a Carbopol ETD resin under these mixing conditions could result in lump formation. For best results, scatter the Carbopol ETD powder onto the water surface over several minutes while mixing, using a small scoop. Although the Carbopol ETD resins wet at a much faster rate than other resins, they have been found to have a slower rate of hydration. This may manifest itself as a lower initial viscosity, higher formulation texture and graininess, and, in some high ionic systems, a lower final viscosity. To avoid these potential issues, a partial neutralization of the mucilage to pH 3.5–4.0 has been found to be of great benefit. The gel clusters will then relax, and the viscosity will build slightly while other ingredients are being added.
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D. Formulating with Carbomer Resins Among the myriad of detergent formulations and types, detergent formulations can be grouped into three categories: 1. Aqueous systems 2. Polar solvent and nonaqueous systems 3. Liquid emulsion systems The performance and role of carbomer resins in each of these matrices is very different. Additionally, the method of incorporating the resin into the final formulation can be quite different. Some general guidelines are provided below; note that some formulations may require different processing methods. 1. Aqueous Systems In aqueous systems, the best method to achieve the maximum thickening and suspending properties of carbomer resins is to neutralize the resin with an inorganic base (metal hydroxide) or an organic base (low molecular weight amines) before adding the other raw materials. This procedure is quite common and can be used for a wide variety of detergent formulations such as automatic dishwashing gels, abrasive cleaners, and laundry prespotters [20]. Procedure 1A 1. Disperse the resin into all of the available formulation water. Concentrations of carbomer resin in water can be as high as 6–7% with certain resins. 2. Using moderate agitation (avoid vortex formation), add the neutralizing agent (s) and/or any other high pH or alkaline materials (silicates, etc.). Thickening will occur immediately. 3. Continue moderate agitation and add in any insoluble materials that require suspension (such as phosphates, zeolites, carbonates, and abrasives). Heating and the selective use of some high shear mixing may be required during this step to achieve the complete dispersion hydration of some materials (especially phosphates). 4. Under low agitation, add in any surfactants and/or other minor components. 5. Under low agitation, add in any oxidizing agents (chlorine bleach, hydrogen peroxide) followed by any aesthetics. This procedure is very straightforward and has three major advantages: (1) The process can be completed in one mixing vessel, (2) elaborate mixing or processing equipment is not required, and (3) the insoluble materials are added to the formulation after the polymer has been neutralized, when the formulation
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has a high enough yield value to be able to suspend these particles. However, there are two major drawbacks or limitations of this procedure. First, the viscosity at step 2 may reach a level higher than that of the final formulation, requiring the use of a higher horsepower motor. This is due to the ionic strength profile during the batch cycle. The formula will reach its maximum viscosity with the addition of the first alkaline material. With the subsequent addition of more alkaline materials, the ionic strength will continue to increase and result in a gradual reduction in the volume of each microgel, resulting in a lowering of the product viscosity. Second, after neutralization, the polymer can be subjected to high shear rates, which can reduce its efficiency. Nonetheless, this is the most frequently used procedure for product formulations with carbomers. A variation on Procedure 1A is to vary the addition point of the carbomer slurry [58,59]. Procedure 1B 1. Using the abovementioned procedures, create a 5–6 wt % dispersion of the resin in water. 2. With the remaining water, formulate a “premix” of carefully selected raw materials, usually composed of the neutralizing agents and any other high pH or alkaline materials. 3. Add the polymer slurry to the premix by either (a) slowly adding the polymer slurry to the premix under moderate to high agitation or (b) simultaneously combining the polymer slurry and premix through a static mixer (or another type of singlepass, inline high shear mixer) and into an agitated third vessel. 4. Under low agitation, add in any surfactants, minor components, oxidizing agents, and aesthetics. The use of this procedure addresses the two major deficiencies of Procedure 1A. First, temporary high viscosities are avoided as the carbomer microgels are neutralized at their final product ionic strength. Second, the amount of high shear the polymer is subjected to after neutralization is minimized, especially if an inline static mixer is employed. The drawback of this procedure is the requirement for more, and more complex, processing equipment. The use of two vessels is required if the polymer slurry is created in one vessel and then added to another vessel containing the premix. Three vessels are required if the polymer slurry and premix are created in separate vessels and combined through a static mixer into a third vessel. Additionally, since the premix does not contain any carbomer resin, any insolubles will settle to the bottom of the premix vessel if it is left unagitated. A third variation on this method is to first dry blend the carbomer resin with another one of the powder raw materials in the formula.
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Procedure 1C 1. Dry blend the carbomer resin with another powder raw material (i.e., an abrasive, noting the recommended procedure and limitations described earlier). 2. Disperse this powder blend into all or some of the water, using the above mentioned procedures. 3. Proceed using either Procedure 1A or 1B by (a) sequentially adding the remaining raw materials (starting with the high pH and high alkaline materials) to the polymer slurry created in step 2 or (b) creating a premix of the remainder of the water and selected raw materials—add the polymer slurry of step 2 to this premix using the procedures described in 1B. 4. Under low agitation, add in any surfactants, minor components, oxidizing agents, and aesthetics. The primary advantage of this method is to improve the initial dispersibility of the carbomer resin into the water phase. This procedure does require the use of more complex processing equipment to perform the initial dry powder blending step. 2. Polar Solvent and Nonaqueous Systems Polar and some nonpolar solvents can be thickened with neutralized carbomer resins. Key in this procedure is the selection of an appropriate amine to form a solventsoluble salt of the resin. The amine salt must be soluble in the solvent system; if not, the carbomer salt will precipitate and no thickening will occur. The theory governing solvent thickening is complex and is based on matching solubility parameters, hydrogen bonding, and dipole moment properties of the solvent and the solute [57,60,61]. Less polar or nonpolar solvents may be thickened by neutralizing the carbomer resin with a longchain nonpolar amine that is soluble in the solvent. An alternative approach is to modify the solvent system by adding 5–25% of a more polar solvent that is miscible with the major solvent. This enables the use of a more polar amine or, in some cases, inorganic bases. Procedure 2A: Nonaqueous Thickening with Neutralization 1. If there are more than two solvents, disperse the carbomer resin in the least polar solvent. 2. Add the amine to the most polar solvent. 3. With moderate agitation, add the carbomer resin (or carbomer dispersion if more than two solvents are used) to the solventamine premix. 4. Continue mixing until the mucilage is uniform. This method can be used to thicken a wide variety of solvents for a wide variety of detergent applications. For example, ethanol can be thickened for use
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as a solid fuel or as a handsanitizing gel. Mineral spirits can be thickened via a blend with methanol for use as a hand cleaner [60]. There are two mechanisms that govern the mechanism of carbomer properties. The predominant one for most formulations is the use of neutralization to achieve ionization of the carboxyl groups and swell the microgel structure through ionic repulsion. A second thickening mechanism involves the use of a hydroxyl donor in conjunction with a carbomer resin. The combination of the hydroxyl compound(s) and the carboxyl groups on the carbomer will result in thickening through the formation of hydrogen bonds. To thicken polar solvents without neutralization in an aqueous or nonaqueous matrix, the following procedure can be used. Procedure 2B: Nonaqueous Hydrogen Bonding 1. Combine the hydroxyl donor(s) and any water. 2. Slowly disperse the carbomer resin into this solution using the techniques described above. 3. Continue stirring until thickening occurs; heating to 70°C usually hastens this process. 4. Cool product to room temperature. 5. Add in remaining materials (surfactants, builders, dispersants, aesthetics, etc.). This method can be used to thicken a wide variety of materials for a wide variety of detergent applications. For example, organic acids (citric, acetic, hydroxyacetic acids) can be thickened using this mechanism for use in bathtub and tile detergent applications. Nonaqueous formulations using a low molecular weight glycol carrier can be thickened and used to suspend builders, surfactants, enzymes, and peroxygen bleach (perborate, percarbonate) for laundry and automatic dishwashing gels. 3. Liquid Emulsion Products Carbomer resins can act as emulsifiers and emulsion stabilizers in oilinwater emulsions and as emulsion stabilizers in waterinoil emulsions. The resin can function as emulsifiers via dual neutralization with an inorganic base and an oil soluble amine. This sets up a bridge between the oil phase and the water phase by forming salts soluble in both phases. The portion of the molecule neutralized with the inorganic base is soluble in the water phase, and the portion neutralized with the amine is soluble in the oil phase. The bridging of both phases forms an emulsion with excellent chemical and physical stability. When carbomer resins are neutralized with an inorganic base or an amine, they impart viscosity and yield value to the water phase of an emulsion. The oilinwater emulsion is then stabilized because the yield value permanently suspends
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the oil droplets. Carbomer resins build viscosity in oilinwater emulsions by thickening the continuous phase. Carbomer resins can be used to stabilize emulsions in a number of detergent applications. Several oils can be emulsified in water to be used in such applications as hand cleaners and solvent degreasers (such as dlimonene and mineral spirits). There are two methods to produce stable waterbased emulsions using carbomer resins: direct and indirect. In the direct method, the polymer is added carefully to the water phase. Procedure 3A 1. Disperse the carbomer into the water, following the above recommendations. 2. Add all other waterphase ingredients. 3. Combine all oils and slowly add to the polymer slurry with rapid mixing. 4. Neutralize using an inorganic acid and/or an amine. 5. Controlled homogenization may be useful, but emulsion instability could result from prolonged exposure to a high shear rate. Emulsions prepared in this manner result in large oil droplets, which in some oils causes instability. In these instances, the particle size of the oil droplets can be reduced using ~0.5% of a nonionic surfactant containing aromatic groups such as nonylphenoxypolyethyleneoxy. The surfactant can be added as a separate phase at step 3 or combined originally in the oil phase. In the indirect method, the polymer is first added to the oil phase. The advantage of this approach is that the polymer will disperse easily in this non swelling medium. In some cases, however, this method is less successful for creating stable emulsions, especially when the carbomer resin begins swelling in the oil phase after several minutes or has poor dispersibility in the oil phase. Procedure 3B 1. Disperse the carbomer resin in the oil phase; continue mixing until a smooth and homogeneous dispersion n obtained. 2. Under vigorous agitation, add the oil phase to the water phase. 3. Any nonionic surfactant required can be added at this point. 4. Add a suitable amount of an appropriate neutralizing base. 5. Continue mixing until the desired emulsion consistency is achieved. E. Stability Evaluations It has been said that the first purchase of a product is achieved through marketing and advertising; subsequent purchases are made as a result of product
5. Continue mixing until the desired emulsion consistency is achieved. E. Stability Evaluations It has been said that the first purchase of a product is achieved through marketing and advertising; subsequent purchases are made as a result of product
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performance. However, not only does the product have to meet its cleaning performance targets, but also the product must be delivered to the consumer in the same product form and consistency with the same level of actives regardless of the product age or its storage history. Product that is separated into many phases (on a macroscopic or microscopic level) will decrease product performance, drive consumer dissatisfaction, erode consumer confidence and brand loyalty, create potential safety issues during product usage, and result in major expense to the formulator if a product recall is required. The determination and assessment of the physical stability of a formulation is very timeintensive and, overall, a very subjective and inexact science. Consumer products can be exposed to static temperatures from below 0°C to over 50°C for varying lengths of time but most often with extreme temperature cycles (i.e., freezing at night to warm in the day to refreezing at night). The goal of the R&D formulator becomes one of trying to predict a product's stability profile in the trade without having to conduct a fullscale trade stability study, as the latter is very costly and consumes vast amounts of time. The formulator must attempt to duplicate or imitate every possible temperature and storage condition in a laboratory setting that the product will observe in the trade, and in a short period of time. Many different stability test designs and methods have been developed to decrease the complexity and streamline this required phase in a product formulation cycle. 1. Visual Inspection Upon initial observation of a formula, most skilled formulators can ascertain and observe signs of impending instability. Such observations as incomplete dispersion and suspension of particulates, immediate formation of a surface layer, and product striations throughout the bulk can be made by the formulator. The skill and experience of the formulator play a large role in observing instability issues at this point in the product's life. A relatively quick and easy method to assess stability, especially that of an emulsion, is to analyze a portion of the product under a microscope. A wide range in the size of the particles is a good indication of potential instability. The more uniform the particle size, the more stable an emulsion. Also, the smaller the particle size, the more stable the emulsion. These observations can be made both on “fresh product” and on product that has been allowed to age under various temperature profiles. 2. Static Temperature Testing The majority of formulators will employ some base level of static temperature testing and usually several freezethaw cycles. This is the formulators' closest tool to imitating realworld conditions. As a first step, the formulator needs
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to determine the temperature range that the product will be exposed to in the trade. This can easily be obtained for the geographies that the product will be sold in through the use of various weather reporting services. Product should then be placed into containers and stored at temperatures throughout this range, ideally at 10°C intervals from the product's freezing point to the maximum trade temperature. Ideally, the product should be stored in its final trade package to eliminate or pick up any packaging incompatibilities with any of the raw materials in the formulation. If the package container is clear, the stability testing should be conducted in lighting conditions similar to those encountered in the trade to explore and examine any instability issues due to UV light. In order to best conduct visual observations on the product, it is best to have clear packaging containers. This will enable observations to be made without having to pour the product out of the container. Pouring the product out of one container and into another results in the product being remixed (potentially eliminating any signs of instability), exposed to the air, and potentially contaminated. Therefore, it is best to conduct stability testing in clear containers (with and without UV exposure) as well as in their final opaque container. Also, the product should be placed in the container with as little headspace as possible. The water in the product may evaporate and recondense, forming a liquid layer on the surface that may be mistakeningly identified as a broken emulsion or phase separation. There are numerous tests that can be conducted on aged product. Of foremost importance is a visual observation of the product. The stability tester should observe the product for phase separations, crystal growth, precipitation, flocculation, color and clarity, rheology, form transitions (i.e., liquid to gel), etc. If viscosity stability over time is a concern or observed to be an issue (especially with products containing chlorine bleach), several samples should be placed in testing. One of the samples can then be taken from the test for rheological analysis without creating the problems of sampling out of a bulk storage container. If the stability of key actives (bleach, enzymes, perfume, dyes, pigments, etc.) is a potential issue, then the sample for rheology testing could also be used to analyze for the percent retained activity of these materials. The frequency of observations is an important consideration and variable. The product ideally should be observed on a weekly basis for the first 2 months, followed by biweekly observations until the sixth month, and then on a monthly basis thereafter. This protocol will allow the tester to observe any extreme changes in stability that will usually occur within the first few weeks and build up a history of and familiarity with the product for those changes that occur only over a prolonged period of time. An advantage that a liquid formulation has over its powder/granule equivalents in the realm of stability testing is that humidity is not a factor that needs
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to be assessed, because most liquids are stored in tightly closed plastic containers. However, the formulator may want to assess the effect on product stability of a cap that is not placed tightly back on the bottle or in the correct manner. In terms of using static stability testing to predict trade life stability, the generally accepted rule of thumb is that 1 month at 50°C is generally equal to 1–2 years of shelf life. 3. Cycle Temperature Cycling Since it is unrealistic to assume that a product in the trade will be subjected to only a static temperature, the use of temperature cycling has become a vital supplement to static stability testing. The purpose of the cycling is to evaluate the effect of alternating temperatures on the product stability, especially the formation of crystals in lowtemperature cycling and supersaturation in elevated temperature cycling. Lowtemperature cycling is most commonly performed—especially freeze— thaw cycling. In lowtemperature cycling, the product is allowed to freeze at least two different temperatures: at the product's freeze point and at a temperature significantly below this temperature. The use of both a slow and a rapid freeze will examine two different types of stresses on the system causing the formation of different types and structures of crystals. The product is allowed to freeze at this temperature for either a prescribed duration of time (e.g., 8 h) or until the product is completely frozen (which could be 2–3 days at the product's actual freezing point). The product is then cycled to a warmer temperature. This temperature is usually room temperature (25°C) but can be just slightly above the freezing point, or gradually warmed to room temperature, or at a very elevated temperature (e.g., 40°C). After the product has “thawed,” it is placed again at the colder temperature and the cycle is repeated, usually for three to five cycles. Observations are made at each temperature, and the time required for the product to regain its flow characteristics is recorded. The use of carbomer resins in detergent formulations provides a definite advantage in terms of freezethaw stability. The volume of the carbomer microgel is not very sensitive to changes in temperature over the temperature range that most detergent products experience in the trade. Because the microgel's volume remains constant, there is little change in product viscosity as a function of temperature (Fig. 19). The yield value provided by the carbomer microgel structure also serves to keep any developing crystals isolated so that large networks will not be formed. This could be thought of as inhibiting or prohibiting crystal growth. Elevated temperature cycling is the reverse of the above. Here the product is exposed to elevated storage temperatures for a prescribed period of time and
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FIG. 19 Viscosity versus temperature for carbomer resins (neutralized to pH 7 with sodium hydroxide).
then cycled back to room temperature. Three to five cycles are normally performed with observations at each temperature. Again, the purpose of the static temperature and temperature cycling is to attempt to imitate the conditions that the product will be exposed to in the trade and observe how the product responds to these conditions. However, this testing is timeconsuming due to the quantity of product required and the resources required to monitor the stability on a periodic basis. In an attempt to reduce these resource and time constraints, much research has been devoted to finding other ways to predict longterm storage stability. 4. Centrifugation The use of a centrifuge to separate a product into density layers, remove entrapped air, force precipitation for various analytical techniques, etc., is well known and widely practiced. This technique has therefore been used to help determine the stability of a product, especially high solids suspensions and emulsions. The principle is to increase the gravitational force on any suspended particles to accelerate instability. If the product does not separate or precipitate when subjected to the applied centrifugal force, it is more likely to be phasestable. The selection of the amount of centrifugal force and the time of application of this force is critical. Virtually all suspended solids will eventually precipitate at high centrifugal forces. The best correlations of the use of centrifugation with actual product instability have been found at a speed of 500
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rpm for 5 min. Additionally, the results of this test are usually used as a tool to screen for instability rather than stability. If the product separates or precipitates, the product will most likely not be stable over time. However, if the product passes this test, it is not a guarantee of stability. Therefore, this tool becomes very useful to rapidly screen several samples prior to placing them in a large temperature stability test. 5. Rheological Testing The use of rheological tools to indicate and predict instability has become increasingly of interest to R&D formulators. Reboa and Fryan [62] presented a paper on the use of dynamic and oscillatory testing to predict the physical stability of concentrated dispersions containing particulates. The advantage in oscillatory testing versus other rotary rheological testing is the fact that this test does not lead to structural breakdown by forcing particles to flow past each other. This rheological testing probes the atrest structure of the matrix without breaking it as in conventional shear viscometry. This method is composed of two parts. First, a strain sweep test (vary dynamic strain level at a constant frequency) is performed to determine the linear viscoelastic region. Second, a frequency scan is performed in the viscoelastic region over a temperature range. These two tests generate the elastic (G') and viscous (G'') moduli of the product. Plotting the ratio of the elastic to viscous moduli (G'/G'') as a function of frequency and temperature generates a three dimensional surface that is a fingerprint of the dispersion's colloidal stability. To suspend solid particles, G' must be greater than G " or sedimentation will occur. Therefore, plotting the response of this ratio as a function of frequency and temperature will give an indication as to the stability and robustness of the formulation to various stresses. Acknowledgments We thank John J. Kovacs for much of the original experimental data reported in this chapter. We also thank The BFGoodrich Company, Cleveland, Ohio, for encouragement, support, and permission to publish this material. References 1. Carbopol—High performance polymers for detergents; (Detergent Technical Binder) The BFGoodrich Company, Specialty Chemicals, Cleveland, OH. 2. P. M. Sabatelli and D. E. Daugherty, U.S. Patent 4,147,650 to Chemed Corporation (1979). 3. W. G. Bush and V. D. Braun, U.S. Patent 4,226,736 to The Drackett Company (1980).
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4. S. Gabriel and B. J. Roselle, U.S. Patent 4,859,358 to The Procter & Gamble Company (1989). 5. R. J. Koring, M. Goedhart, S. P. Christiano, K. J. Krupa, and H. S. Kielman, Eur. Patent Appl. 407187, to Unilever NV (1990). 6. D. L. Elliot and L. A. Kiefer, U.S. Patent 4,867,879 to Lever Brothers Company (1989). 7. N. Dixit, M. Shevade, and R. Round, U.S. Patent 5,053,158 to Colgate Palmolive Company (1991). 8. T. G. Jones and D. W. Stephens, U.S. Patent 3,281,367 to Lever Brothers Company (1966). 9. T. Imamura and R. Shiozaki, U.S. Patent 4,284,533 to Kao Soap Co., Ltd. (1981). 10. J. F. Borgerding and R. T. Claus, U.S. Patent 4,215,004 to Chemed Corporation (1980). 11. J. H. M. Rek, U.S. Patent 4,556,504 to Lever Brothers Company (1985). 12. J. V. Boskamp, Br. Patent Appl. GB 2,079,305 to Unilever PLC (1981). 13. J. V. Boskamp, U.S. Patent 4,532,064 to Lever Brothers Company (1985). 14. C. E. Jones and B. J. Brabant, U.S. Patent 4,597,889 to FMC Corporation (1986). 15. D. Machin and J. C. Van DePas, CA 113(18):154831k, Jpn. Patent JP 02133498 to Unilever N. V. (1990). 16. M. K. Nagarajan, F. J. Wherley, and J. W. Frimel, U.S. Patent 5,004,557 to The BFGoodrich Company (1991). 17. J. H. Hoskins and A. Kessler, U.S. Patent 4,491,539 to The Procter & Gamble Company (1985). 18. H. Tagata, A. Kaji, M. Takemura, and K. Deguchi, Jpn. Patent JP 01242697 to Kao Corporation (1989). 19. K. Deguchi, K. Saito, and H. Saijo, Jpn. Patent JP 01223193 to Kao Corporation (1990). 20. Detergent Formulary (Technical Brochure), The BFGoodrich Company, Specialty Chemicals, Brecksville, OH. 21. H. P. Brown, U.S. Patent 2,798,053 to The BFGoodrich Company (1957). 22. H. N. Nae and W. W. Reichert, Rheol. Acta 31:351–360 (1990). 23. Z. Amjad, W. J. Hemker, C. A. Maiden, W. M. Rouse, and C. E. Sauer, Cosmetics & Toiletries 107(5): 81 (1992).
21. H. P. Brown, U.S. Patent 2,798,053 to The BFGoodrich Company (1957). 22. H. N. Nae and W. W. Reichert, Rheol. Acta 31:351–360 (1990). 23. Z. Amjad, W. J. Hemker, C. A. Maiden, W. M. Rouse, and C. E. Sauer, Cosmetics & Toiletries 107(5): 81 (1992). 24. R. K. Schlatzer, U.S. Patent 3,940,351 to The BFGoodrich Company (1976). 25. C. C. Hsu, U.S. Patent 4,996,274 to The BFGoodrich Company (1991). 26. R. Y. Lochhead, J. A. Davidson, and G. M. Thomas, in Polymers in Aqueous Media (Adv. Chem. Ser. 223), (J. E. Glass, ed.), American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 1989, Chapter 7, pp. 113–150. 27. C. J. Long, Z. Amjad, W. F. Masler, and W. H. Wingo, U.S. Patent No. 5,288,814 to The BFGoodrich Company (1994). 28. D. J. Adams, Z. Amjad, S. Lemma, and C. J. Long, U.S. Patent No. 5,468,797 to The BFGoodrich Company (1995). 29. Carbopol Ultrez, The Polymer as Universal as Water, (Technical Brochure), The BFGoodrich Company, Specialty Chemicals, Brecksville, OH. 30. A. Eisenberg, T. Yokoyama, and E. Sambalido, J. Polymer Sci., Part A1 7:1717–1728 (1969).
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31. J. O. Carnali and M. S. Naser, Colloid Polym. Sci. 270:183–193 (1992). 32. N. Bauer and S. Z. Lewin, in Physical Methods of Organic Chemistry, Vol.I, Part One (A. Weissberger, ed.), Interscience, New York, 1959, Chapter IV, p. 178. 33. L. Cohen (The BFGoodrich Company), Personal communication. 34. N. W. Taylor and E. S. Bagley, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 21:113 (1971). 35. W. N. Charman, D. P. Christy, E. P. Geunin, and D. C. Monkhouse, Drug Develop. Ind. Pharm. 17(2):271–280 (1991). 36. H. Nishide, N. Oki, and E. Tsuchida, Eur. Polym. J. 18:799–802 (1982). 37. P. J. Flory, Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY, 1953, p. 308. 38. H. Staudinger and W. Heuer, Ber. 63:222 (1930). 39. A. Einstein, Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement, Dover, New York, 1956, Chap. III. 40. S. I. Ishikawa, M. Kobayashi, and M. Samejima, Chem. Pharm. Bull. 36 (6):2127 (1988). 41. J. F. Swindells, R. Ullman, and H. Mark, in Physical Methods of Organic Chemistry, Vol. I, Part One (A. Weissberger, Ed.), Interscience, New York, 1959, Chap. XII, p. 700. 42. J. A. Dean (ed.), Lange's Handbook of Chemistry, 12th ed., McGraw Hill, New York, 1979, Table 5–23, p. 5–77. 43. M. L. Huggins, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 64:2716 (1942). 44. N. W. Taylor and E. B. Bagley, J.Appl.Polym.Sci. 18: 2747 (1974). 45. R. J. Ketz, R. K. Prud'homme, and W. W. Graessley, Rheol. Acta 27: 531–539 (1988). 46. P. A. M. Steeneken, Carbohydr. Polym. 11: 23–42 (1989). 47. N. Casson, in Rheology of Disperse Systems (C. C. Mill, ed.), Pergamon, New York, 1935. 48. H. A. Barnes, J. F. Hutton, and K. Walters, An Introduction to Rheology, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1989. 49. R. J. Meyer and L. Cohen, J. Soc. Cosmetic Chem. 10(3):1–11 (1959). 50. A. Voet and J. S. Brand, Am. Inker 9: 28–91 (1950). 51. Yield Value and Suspending Ability of Carbopol Polymers, (Tech. Brochure IS10), The BFGoodrich Company, Brecksville, OH. 52. A. Farooq, A. Mehreteab, G. Broze, N. Dixit, and D. Hsu, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 72:(7)843–852 (1995).
50. A. Voet and J. S. Brand, Am. Inker 9: 28–91 (1950). 51. Yield Value and Suspending Ability of Carbopol Polymers, (Tech. Brochure IS10), The BFGoodrich Company, Brecksville, OH. 52. A. Farooq, A. Mehreteab, G. Broze, N. Dixit, and D. Hsu, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 72:(7)843–852 (1995). 53. A. Magnin and J. M. Piau, J. NonNewtonian Fluid Mech. 36:85–108 (1990). 54. J. A. Davidson and E. A. Collins, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 55:163–169 (1976). 55. E. VasheghaniFarahani, J. H. Vera, D. G. Cooper, and M. E. Weber, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 29:554 (1990). 56. P. J. Flory and R. Rehner, Jr., J. Chem. Phys. 2:521 (1943). 57. Anon., Industrial Specialties Binder, The BFGoodrich Company, Specialty Chemicals, Cleveland, OH, 1995. 58. S. Gabriel, T. Glasco, H. Ambuter, and E. Fitch, World Patent WO 93/21298 to The Procter & Gamble Company (1993). 59. C. Choy, B. Argo, K. Brodbeck, and L. Hearn, U.S. Patent 5,470,499 to The Clorox Company (1995).
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60. Carbopol Water Soluble Resins (Technical Brochure GC67), The BFGoodrich Company, Specialty Chemicals, Brecksville, OH. 61. Solvent Thickening (Technical Data Sheet 41), The BFGoodrich Company, Specialty Chemicals, Brecksville, OH. 62. P. Reboa and M. Fryan, (The Clorox Company), Rheological prediction of the physical stability of concentrated dispersions containing particulates, presented at Am. Oil Chem. Soc. Natl. Meeting, April 1990.
6 Nonaqueous Surfactant Systems MARIE SJÖBERG and TORBJÖRN WÄRNHEIM* Institute for Surface Chemistry, Stockholm, Sweden I. Introduction II. Micellar Aggregation III. Concentrated Surfactant Systems A. Liquid crystals B. Microemulsions IV. Concluding Remarks V. Nomenclature References
I. Introduction The interest in studying surfactant aggregation in polar solvents other than water h quite recently; indeed, much of the advances in the field are less than 10 years ol majority of have been published during the last years. The research can be motivated, mainly, by two different types of arguments. First consideration of amphiphile aggregation, such as a description of the hydrophobi leading to micelle and liquid crystal formation, for example. What can be learned comparing water with other po *
Current affiliation: Pharmacia & Upjohn, Stockholm, Sweden.
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lar solvents? Much work has been performed to elucidate the properties of the solvent that are essential to obtain a hydrophobic (or “solvophobic”) interaction. Comparisons of critical micelle concentrations in different solvents with parameters characterizing the solvent are numerous in the literature [1,2]. Second, there are technical applications in which amphiphile aggregates and structures are needed to promote a specific effect but circumstances may prevent the particular use of water because of certain reactions, corrosion problems, and so on. Of particular interest in this context are alcoholbased systems for cleaning purposes [3]; another interesting area is chemical reaction in an aprotic solvent, such as formamide [4–6]. This review deals with the first, fundamental point, in particular the formation of micelles and the mapping of phase equilibria. This is a logical starting point, because a prerequisite for most applied work is some knowledge of the relevant phase diagrams. Methodological questions have often been raised when studying nonaqueous systems: many early studies on micellization were performed using indirect methods for detecting aggregation [7–10]. This has caused considerable confusion as a result of apparently irreconcilable results. Also, recently, several studies have pointed out the difference between a proper micellization process and ordinary aggregation. As discussed later, depending on combination of solvent and surfactant [11–14], it is possible to have a cooperative aggregation (micelle formation) as well as a more gradual aggregation process. II. Micellar Aggregation Micellization has long been studied in a large number of nonaqueous polar solvents, such as different alcohols, formamide, fused salts [15,16], hydrazine, and hydrogen fluoride [17]. However, most early investigations used indirect methods for the detection of surfactant aggregation. Not until recently have studies more directly, using, for example, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation rate measurements (Fig. 1), proved the existence of aggregates in the solution phase of polar solvents other than water. Hydrazine is a solvent that has many properties similar to water. Studies of surfactant aggregation in hydrazine have shown that the free energy G for the micellization of sodium alkylsulfates is close to that of water [18]. The enthalpic and entropic contribution's H and S, however, are very different in these two solvents: in water, the entropic contribution favors aggregation; in hydrazine, the enthalpic contribution predominates. The conventional view of the micellization process in water, often stated as if the structural properties of water would be necessary to obtain a driving force for aggregation, was challenged. It was concluded that the structure of water was not determining the aggregation process [18].
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Fig. 1 HNMR frequency variable relaxation rate measurements in the system deuterated C16TABrsolvent. (a) MFA show no variation of the relaxation rate with frequency, suggesting no slow (aggregate) motions of the surfactant. In contrast, the data from (b) FA and (c) EG show a clear frequency dependence. A fit of the relaxation data to a motional model suggests similar micellar radii in FA and EG, around 14 Å, in contrast to approximately 20 Å in water. (From Ref. 14.) 2
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The nonaqueous polar solvent that has been studied most extensively in this context is probably formamide. Lattes et al. have thoroughly studied the aggregation of surfactants in formamide [19–22]. They started by observing the aggregation of longchain phosphonium salts in formamide and found the critical micelle concentration (CMC) to decrease with increasing chain length, as anticipated [19]. They have also investigated the sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)formamide and the C16TABrformamide systems. A sharp rise in solubility of the surfactant with increasing temperature was noted in these systems and was interpreted as a Krafft point, that is, the temperature at which the monomeric solubility of the surfactant exceeds the CMC. The CMC as well as the Krafft point for both surfactants was found to be considerably higher in formamide than in water. They noted that other studies of surfactant aggregation in formamide, in which aggregates were not found, have been performed at temperatures below the Krafft point [23–25]. The C16TABrformamide system has been widely studied with a number of different techniques, such as NMR relaxation and selfdiffusion [14,22,26,27], xray smallangle scattering [21], positron annihilation [25], or Raman spectroscopy [28]. Most studies agree that aggregates start to form at considerably higher surfactant concentration than in water and that they are considerably smaller than in water. An aggregate radius of 9 Å was found at a concentration close to the CMC [21] and it was found to be ~ 15 Å at five times the CMC [14]. This corresponds to an aggregation number of approximately onethird that in water. An aggregate growth with concentration has been verified both in a study of solvent binding to aggregates [26] and in a study of conterion binding [27]. An increase in micellar size with increasing surfactant concentration was also found in the SDSformamide system [29]. An investigation of counterion binding of a cationic surfactant, C16TAF, in formamide, ethylene glycol, and water showed that the degree of counterion binding is very different in the different solvents, depending on the dielectric constant of the solvent [27]: high in water and ethylene glycol but lower in formamide. Calculations confirmed that the effects of the dielectric constant (Table 1) could account for this trend [27]. This observation supports the study of BinanaLimbele [11], who found the micelles to be small and highly ionized in formamide and therefore not suitable for conductivity investigations. Micelles of cationic surfactants have been found to form both in glycerol [30] and in ethylene glycol [14]. The micelle formation of C16PyBr in ethylene glycol and glycerol was studied with surfactantselective electrodes [31]. The monomer concentration could in this way be measured at different total surfactant concentrations, and it was concluded that there is some premicellar aggregation and that the CMC is not very well defined. The dissociation of C16PyBr micelles in mixtures of water and ethylene glycol has been studied, and it was
Page 1 TABLE 1 Interfacial Tension Between Solvent and Hydrocarbon and Dielectric Constant for the Solvent Solvent
Interfacial tension (mN/m)a
Dielectric constant
50b
78
Glycerol
29.7c
42
Formamide
27.3c
109
Ethylene glycol
17.2c
37
Nmethylformamide
12.5c
182
Water
a
At 20°C.
b
Against hexadecane.
c
Against dodecane.
Source: Ref. 56.
concluded that the degree of counterion association decreases with increasing amount of ethylene glycol in the solvent [32]. This is consistent with earlier estimations of the counterion binding in the waterethylene glycol system, where conductivity measurements suggested a decrease in counterion association when ethylene glycol was added to the water [58]. The solvent Nmethylsydnone have some interesting features; it has a high cohesi energy but is not hydrogen bonding. The results from this system are to some extent contradictory. Evans et al. found no aggregates of C16PyBr using a number of different techniques [33], but Auvray et al. found aggregates in the solution phase of the C16PyBrNmethylsydnone system using smallangle xray scattering [34]. Aggregation of nonionic surfactants in these nonaqueous solvents could, in principle, be more energetically favorable than for ionic surfactants because, at least in water, the repulsive interaction between the polar head groups is smaller. The CMC of different polyethylene glycol alkyl ethers (CiEj ) has been determine in different nonaqueous solvents [13,35–38]. Different CiEj formamide systems have been investigated using NMR selfdiffusion [13]. Micelles formed but were concluded to be smaller than in water. In contrast to what is found in water, no micellar growth occur at high temperatures, at high surfactant concentration, or when approaching the lower consolute temperature. The same systems were late examined in a calorimetric study [12], and it was found that the enthalpies of micelle formation of CiEj in formamide are much smaller and not as temperature dependent as in water. The aggregation numbers were found to be smaller, and f the C12Ej surfactants, the smooth titration curves indi
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cate that the micelle formation extends over a significant concentration region [12]. The kinetics of micelle formation of nonionic surfactants in formamide has been studied using ultrasonic relaxation measurements. The data were consistent with a multistep bimolecular scheme of the type previously used for ionic surfactants in water, and polydispersity of the micelles and rate constants for the equilibrium could be obtained [39]. The results showed that the polydispersity decreases with increasing alkyl chain length, and the association of a monomer to the micelle was found to be diffusion controlled, in line with earlier findings for ionic surfactants in water. The aggregation of fluorinated surfactants in nonaqueous solvents has also been studied. These surfactants form aggregates at lower concentrations than ordinary hydrogenated surfactants in water. Chrisment et al. studied nonionic fluoroalkyl lipopeptides in DMSO and found progressive and very limited aggregation in this solvent [40]. In addition, the lithium salt of nonadecafluoro decanoic acid has been studied with 19FNMR in formamide, N methylformamide, and ethylene glycol [41]. It is evident from all these investigations that micelles are formed in non aqueous, polar solvents but that the aggregates, comparing the same surfactant, are generally smaller than in water. Small micelles, with a large part of the hydrocarbon chain of the surfactant in contact with the solvent, are very unfavorable in water because the interfacial tension between water and hydrocarbon is high; the contact area between the solvent and the hydrocarbon chain of the surfactant must consequently be minimized. In the nonaqueous solvents investigated the interfacial tension between solvent and hydrocarbon is smaller (Table 1) and smaller aggregates are thus less energetically unfavorable from this point of view. III. Concentrated Surfactant Systems A. Liquid Crystals The first report of a nonaqueous lyotropic liquid crystal in a polar solvent appeared in 1979, in which Friberg and coworkers revealed the existence of a lamellar (D) phase in the lecithin (dialkylphosphatidylcholine)ethylene glycol system [42]. In a series of papers, a large number of lecithindiol systems have been characterized, and detailed structural properties of the systems have been elucidated [43–50]. The interlayer distance in the D phase with ethylene glycol, is shorter than in water, indicating an enhanced disorder in the lipid layers [42]. It was suggested that the primary solvation shell of the phosphatidylcholine group contains one bound solvent molecule per polar head group, with several more
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loosely associated as determined by 2HNMR measurements [43,45]. The similarities to interactions in the aqueous systems have been probed by comparative NMR measurements [45]. 1H and 31PNMR were employed to determine qualitatively the dynamics of the acyl chain and the polar head group [46]. It has also been noted that the D phase under certain conditions may align in the magnetic field of the NMR [47]. Extensive phase studies reveal that lecithin readily form D phases with the homologous series of , diols, from ethylene glycol up to 1,7heptanediol, although the swelling decreases with increasing molecular size of the solvent [44]. Oligomers and polymers of ethylene oxide [48], and polyethylene glycol alkyl ether also form D phases with lecithin, the latter as mixed lamellae containing the acyl part of the lecithin and the alkyl chain of the ethers [49]. Solubilization of alcohols and hydrocarbons in the D phase formed with ethylene glycol has been studied [50]. The similarity of the interactions in the aqueous and the ethylene glycol systems, respectively, is emphasized by forcedistance curves derived from osmotic pressure measurements, which are similar for lecithin bilayers in water and ethylene glycol [51]. The existence of lamellar phases with lecithin has also been demonstrated for ethylammonium nitrate [52]. For lecithin and formamide, Nmethylformamide, or N,Ndimethyl formamide, respectively, full phase diagrams have been determined [53] showing a gradual disappearance of liquid crystalline phases with increasing methylation of the solvent (Fig. 2). The lamellar phase is stable with Nmethylformamide but disappears with N,Ndimethylformamide. To summarize, lecithin studies give a quite complete picture of how the solvent affects the phase behavior of a zwitterionic surfactant with a large hydrophobic moiety. Lecithin forms lamellar lyotropic liquid crystals with a wide variety of solvents; a sufficiently hydrophilic solvent—and indeed even amphiphilic compounds with a hydrophilic moiety—stabilizes lamellar phases. The mechanism for stabilization of the lamellar phase in aqueous zwitterionic systems is still controversial, however, leading to difficulties in pursuing the theoretical interpretation. Full and partial phase equilibria have been determined in a large number of systems with ionic surfactants, and there are numerous combinations of surfactant and solvent that form liquid crystals. The first report of a liquid crystal formed in a binary system containing a single alkylchain ionic surfactant dealt with the C16TABrformamide system. C16TABr forms a hexagonal and a lamellar phase in formamide, in analogy to the aqueous system [54]. Later, the formation of a cubic phase between the E and D phases was reported [55,56]. The phase diagram has been revised [56,57], and there is now a consensus that the phase sequence is E I D
Fig. 2 Phase diagrams of dioleyllecithin and (a) water, (b) formamide, (c) methylforma dimethylformamide. (From Ref. 53.)
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(with increasing concentrations of surfactant) and that the liquid crystals form at higher temperatures and melt at lower temperatures than in water. C16TABr and the homologous series of alkyltrimethylammonium bromide have been extensively characterized (Fig. 3), and there are reports of liquid crystals formed in glycerol [56], ethylene glycol [56], and mixtures of ethylene glycol and water [58], as well as in Nmethylsydnone [59]. Also, xray scattering techniques have been used to probe in more detail the structures of the cubic phases in formamide systems [57]. An extensive comparison between the aggregation of C16TABr and C16PyBr in a series of solvents, formamide, Nmethylformamide, N,Ndimethyl
Fig. 3 Phase diagrams of C16TABr and different solvents: (a) water, (b) glycerol, (c) formamide, (d) ethylene glycol, and (e) methylformamide. For notations, see Sec. V. (From Refs. 55 and 56.)
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formamide, glycerol, ethylene glycol, or Nmethylsydnone, revealed some interesting differences between the surfactants. With formamide, ethylene glycol, and glycerol, the phase sequence was E I D for both surfactants, and with N,Ndimethylformamide, the least polar solvent, only D phases formed. However, only C16PyBr showed the sequence E I D with N methylformamide and Nmethylsydnone [59]. Thus, in general, if liquid crystals form, the phase sequence for an ionic surfactant in water, L I E I D with increasing surfactant concentration, is also followed in other polar solvents. (This overall picture does not give a detailed accurate representation of either aqueous or nonaqueous systems [59,60] but accounts for most available observations.) In systems in which the forces promoting amphiphile association are weaker, there still may occur a lamellar phase at a very high concentration of surfactant. It should be noted that this bilayer packing resembles the fully crystalline lattice of a nonsolvated ionic surfactant [61], suggesting that a low concentration of ionic surfactant in a particular solvent may be misleading if taken as a more absolute sign that the solvent promotes surfactant association. Considering solely the phase diagram, the main effects of exchanging water for another more weakly polar solvent in these systems is to decrease their existence regions. In addition, there are also more subtle phenomena in nonaqueous systems. It has been demonstrated that for alkylpyridinium chlorides and bromides in glycerol and formamide, cubic phases can occur intermediate to the L1 and E phase region, where they are not stable in water [60]. E, I, and D phases have been observed in an SDSformamide system. In other solvents—ethylene glycol, glycerol and Nmethylformamide—only a lamellar phase is formed [62]. Finally, binary phase diagrams of the homologous series of potassium soaps (with alkyl chain length C12–C22) and ethylene glycol, butylene glycol, or glycerol, respectively, have been determined [63]. They essentially confirm the conclusions pointed out previously; the phase diagrams for soaps with glycerol show large, qualitative similarities to the aqueous systems, with a decrease in the regions where the liquid crystalline phase exists. Nonaqueous systems also form liquid crystals analogous to aqueous systems in ternary systems, with an added weakly hydrophilic component. SDS has been extensively employed in studies of ternary systems and quaternary systems with glycerol or formamide, a longchain alcohol, and, sometimes, hydrocarbon [64]. In the SDSglyceroldecanol system, the lamellar phase swells extensively, even more so than in water. 2HNMR order parameters showing the conformational freedom of the alkyl chain are considerably reduced compared with the aqueous system [64], suggesting a tilted structure of the surfactant alkyl chains or a general decrease in order. The SDSformamide decanol system shows simi
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lar features in the phase diagram [64]. Measurements of NMR quadrupolar splittings of the solvent and the counterion have been performed, suggesting a similar interface between the lamellar surface and the solvent, as in water. Added toluene seems to penetrate the bilayer to some extent [64]. Addition of longchain alcohols increases the stability of the aggregated surfactant relative to the crystalline surfactant in aqueous systems (i.e., lowers the Krafft point). This occurs in nonaqueous systems as well as in the ternary systems C16TABrethylene glycoldecanol [65] or SDSglyceroldecanol [64]. Although no liquid crystals form at room temperature in the binary systems, a D phase occurs when decanol is added. Finally, aerosol OT (sodium diethylhexylsulfosuccinate) is another extensively studied ionic surfactant. The surfactant is reported to form a thermotropic liquid crystalline phase in the pure state (of inverse hexagonal structure) [66], and it forms in addition a lamellar and cubic phase with formamide [67] and glycerol [68] as with water. With ethylene glycol and Nmethylformamide, no liquid crystals except the inverse hexagonal occur [67]. Formation of liquid crystals by nonionic surfactants of the polyethylene glycol alkyl ether type, CiEj , with nonaqueous solvents has to our knowledge only been considered in a single paper [13], in which the phase diagrams of C12E3, C12E4, C16E6, and C16E8, respectively, with formamide as solvent have been determined. No liquid crystals are stable for the C12Ej surfactants; however, there is a clouding, a lower consolute temperature, in the C12E3 system [69]. The C16Ej series follows the same trend as the aqueous systems [70]: C16E4 gives a D phase, C16E6 an E phase, and C16E8 and I phase, most likely of the I1 type (Figs. 4 and 5). As with ionic surfactants, the regions where the liquid crystalline phase exist are smaller, and fewer phases are present, comparing formamide with water as solvent [13,70]. Monoglycerides form an inverse hexagonal phase with glycerol, as in water [71]. Mixtures of triethanolamine and oleic acid form a nonaqueous lamellar liquid crystal with a surfactant bilayer of soap and acid and with intercalated ionized and unionized alkanolamine as solvent [72]. The lamellar phase also solubilizes other polar compounds, such as glycerol and ethylene glycol [72]. Liquid crystals form in a similar way with dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid and triethanolamine [73]. These and other systems reported to contain a nonaqueous liquid crystalline phase are listed in Table 2. B. Microemulsions The first reports of nonaqueous microemulsions, isotropic solutions containing a hydrophilic and a lipophilic component stabilized by a surfactant, were made
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Fig. 4 Phase diagrams of nonionic surfactants in formamide: (a) C16E4formamide, (b) C E formamide, (c) C E formamide. 16 6
16 8
For notations, see Sec. V. (From Ref. 13.)
by Palit and McBain in 1946 [74] and by Winsor in 1948 [75]. Both groups used glycols as polar solvent. The microemulsion regions were only observed visually, so that no structural information could be obtained. Three groups reported independently the observation of microemulsions with nonaqueous polar solvents in 1984. The group headed by Lattes found microemulsions in the C16TABrformamidecyclohexane system with butanol as cosurfactant [76–78], and Friberg and Podzimek detected a narrow microemulsion
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Fig. 5 Phase diagrams of nonionic surfactants in water: (a) C16E4water, (b) C E water, (c) C E water. For notations, see Sec. V. 16 6
16 8
(From Ref. 13.)
region in the lecithinethylene glycoldecane system (Fig. 6) [79]. The third group, Robinson et al., investigated glycerol in heptane microemulsions with AOT as surfactant [80] using dynamic light scattering to study the aggregation. Systems reported to contain some sort of nonaqueous microemulsion are listed in Table 3. Lattes et al. investigated the C16TABrformamidebutanol system with cyclohexane or isooctane, respectively, as the oil component [6,76–78]. In both systems, conductivity measurements could give indications of percolation. When an xray scattering study was conducted on the latter system, no discrete droplets could be detected. When increasing the hydrocarbon volume of the surfactant to didodecyldimethylammonium bromide [(C12)2DABr], microemulsions form without cosurfactant in formamide and in ethylene glycol using dodecane and toluene as the oil [65]. The microemulsion region formed in the (C12)2DABrwaterdodecane system was investigated as the water was gradually replaced by formamide, resulting in a very small microemulsion region in
TABLE 2 Nonaqueous Lyotropic Liquid Crystalline Phases Reported in the Literaturea Surfactant
Solvent
Additive
Phases detectedb
Lecithin
EG
D
Lecithin
1,3Propanediol
D
Lecithin
1,4Butandiol
D
Lecithin
1,5Pentanediol
D
Lecithin
1,6Hexanediol
D
Lecithin
1,7Heptanediol
D
Lecithin
(EG)1–4
D
Lecithin
PEG
D
Lecithin
C12Ej
D
Lecithin
EAN
D
Lecithin
FA
D, I, F
Lecithin
MFA
D, I, F
Lecithin
DMF
I, F
Lecithin
EG
Methanol
D
Lecithin
EG
Decanol
D
Lecithin
EG
Decane
D
C16TABr
FA
E, I, D
C16TABr
G
E, I, D
C16TABr
EG
E, I, D
C16TABr
MFA
D
C16TABr
NMS
D
C16TABr
EG
Decanol
D
C16TACl
FA
I, E, …
C16TASO4
EG
E, D
C14TABr
G
E, I, D
C14TABr
EG
E, D
C20PyBr
FA
…I…
C18PyBr
FA
…I…
C14TABr
G
E, I, D
C14TABr
EG
E, D
C20PyBr
FA
…I…
C18PyBr
FA
…I…
C16PyCl
FA
I, E, I …
C16PyCl
G
E, I, D
C16PyCl
MFA
E, I, D
C16PyCl
DMF
D
C16PyCl
EG
E, I, D
C16PyCl
NMS
E, I, D
SDS
FA
E, I, D
SDS
FA
Decanol
D
SDS
FAH2O
Decanol
D (E)
SDS
FA
Decanol + toluene
D
SDS
G
D
SDS
EG
D
TABLE 2 Continued
Surfactant
Solvent
Additive
Phases detectedb
R
SDS
MFA
D
6
SDS
G
Decanol
D
6
KC22
G
E, D
6
KC18
G
E, I, D
6
KC16
G
E, D
6
KC14
G
E, I, D
6
KC12
G
E, D
6
KC22
EG
E, D
6
KC18
EG
E, I, D
6
KC22
BG
D
6
KC18
BG
I, D
6
AOT
FA
D, I, F
6
AOT
G
Decanol
D …
6
AOT
G
Decane
D …
6
AOT
G
p Xylene
D …
6
TEAO
TEA
G, EG
D
7
DBSA
TEA
G, EG, TEG
D
7
C16E4
FA
D
1
C16E6
FA
E
1
C16E8
FA
I, E
1
a
For notations, see Sec. V.
b
Dots indicate that the entire phase diagram has not been investigated.
Fig. 6 Phase diagram of the system lecithinethylene glycoldecane at 25°C, showing a narrow microemulsion region. (From Ref. 79.)
TABLE 3 Nonaqueous Microemulsion Phasesa
Surfactant
Solvent
Hydrocarbon
Cosurfactant
Referenc
C16TABr
FA
Cyclohexane
Butanol
76–78
C16TABr
FA
Isooctane
Butanol
6, 21, 77,
CTbPB
FA
Cyclohexane
Butanol
76–78
KC10(F)
FA
Fluorinated decene
Fluorinated hexanol
77, 78, 96
KC10(F)
FA
Fluorinated decene
Fluorinated hexanol
77, 78, 97,
(C12) 2DAB
FA, EG
Dodecane, toluene
65
C16TABr
G
nHeptane, chloroform
81
C11NH 3Cl
EG
Cyclohexane
75
NaO1
PG
Benzene
74
TEAO1
G
p Xylene
Oleic acid
99
SDS
FA
Toluene
Hexanol
83
SDS
FA
Toluene
Decanol
84
SDS
FA
Pentanol, hexanol, heptanol, octanol
24, 86
SDS
FA
p Xylene
Pentanol, hexanol, octanol
24, 86
SDS
MFA, DMF
Xylene
Pentanol, octanol
24
SDS
FA, EG, PG, PC, DMSO, acetonitrile
Dodecane
Alcohols
100
SDS
G
Hexanol
87
SDS
G
p Xylene
Hexanol
89
SDS
G
Decane
Hexanol
88
SDS
G
Decanol
64
SDS
EG
Toluene
Decanol
101
AOT
DMF, MFA, FA, EG
Toluene, dodecane
67
AOT
G
Decanol
68
AOT
G
Decane, p xylene
68
AOT
G
nHeptane
80, 90
AOT
DMF, MFA, FA, EG
Toluene, dodecane
67
AOT
G
Decanol
68
AOT
G
Decane, p xylene
68
AOT
G
nHeptane
80, 90
AOT
G
Isooctane
102
AOT
EG
Benzene
75
AOT
EG, PG
Toluene
103
TABLE 3 Continued
Surfactant
Solvent
Hydrocarbon
Cosurfactant
Referen
Triton X114
DMSO
Dodecane
Pentanol
106
Triton X114
Acetonitrile
Dodecane
Pentanol
106
C12E4
FA
Dodecane
91
CiEj
G + PG
Alkanes
104
CiEj
EG, PG
Alkane with > 17 carbons
105
Lecithin
EG
Decane
79
a
Isotropic solution phases, containing both a nonpolar and a polar component together wi surfactant, reported in the literature. F, denotes fluorinated surfactant; for other notations
the pure formamide system. When comparing the formamide and the ethylene gl toluene systems, it was found that the formamide system needs considerably less to form microemulsions than ethylene glycol (Fig. 7). NMR selfdiffusion measur were carried out in the formamide microemulsion, and the diffusion pattern was f resemble that of a bicontinuous aqueous one. In the ethylene glycol microemulsio at higher surfactant content), there were no indications of nonpolar and polar do 8). Robinson et al. have investigated the glycerolinoil microemulsion stabilized by using a mixture of nheptane and chloroform as oil with dynamic light scattering, hydrodynamic radius of the droplets and an area per surfactant head group, and measurements [81]. A similar study was also conducted on the AOTglycerolhe system and reversed micelles with glycerol was found in both systems [80]. Turning to the anionic surfactants, SDS is the one that has been most frequently i Friberg et al. have studied a number of SDSstabilized formamide microemulsion different hydrocarbons and cosurfactants [82–84]. The system containing toluen hexanol showed a microemulsion region, but from light scattering studies it was c be a nonstructured solution [83]. When increasing the alkyl chain length of the alc decanol, however, two isotropic solutions could be observed; the formamide sol no indication of an organized structure, but in the decanol solution, some kind of i micelles were found [84]. Lindman et al. examined different microemulsions using SDS and formamide but the oil to p xylene and using alcohols of different alkyl chain length, going from pe octanol [24,85,86]. Both ternary and quaternary systems were investigated with t different NMR techniques, selfdiffusion and frequency variable relaxation measu The selfdiffusion study gave no
Page 196
Fig. 7 Phase diagrams of the systems (a) (C12) 2 TABrformamidetoluene and (b) (C12) 2TABrethylene glycoltoluene at 25°C, showing the microemulsion regions (L) in the systems. (From Ref. 65.)
indication of any organized structures, but from relaxation measurements, a fraction of the SDS molecules was observed to aggregate into some sort of interface when octanol was used as cosurfactant. Microemulsion regions were observed when using methylformamide and dimethylformamide as polar components and octanol as cosurfactant, but these phases were found to be nonaggregated solutions [24,85]. Another polar solvent that has been used in SDSstabilized microemulsions is glycerol. Hexanol or decanol has been used as cosurfactant, and systems both with and without oil have been studied. The ternary system with hexanol as cosurfactant was examined with smallangle neutron scattering and NMR self
Page 197
Fig. 8 NMR selfdiffusion measurements in the systems (a) (C12) 2TABrformamidetoluene and (b) (C12) 2 TABrethylene glycoltoluene at varying mass ratio = (toluene/toluene + polar solvent). D/D0 is the ratio of the diffusion coefficient of the polar solvent (open circles) or toluene (closed circles) in the microemulsion to the diffusion coefficient of the pure component. (From Ref. 65.)
diffusion measurements by two different groups, and both found the microemulsions to be structureless solutions [87,88]. The same result was found from a selfdiffusion study of quaternary systems with p xylene or decane as the oil component [88,89]. AOT is another widely used anionic surfactant in aqueous microemulsions. AOTglycerol microemulsions have been carefully studied by two different groups, that of Friberg and that of Robinson. Friberg studied ternary phase diagrams with decanol, decane, or p xylene as the third component, and isotropic solution phases were detected in all systems [68]. Robinson et al. studied two other ternary systems with heptane or octane as the third component
Page 198
[80,90]. They found inverse micelles with glycerol in both systems using dynamic light scattering in the heptane system and quasielastic neutron scattering in the octane system. The latter study gave information about the lateral diffusion coefficient of AOT in the micelles, and it was found to be half that in the corresponding aqueous system, even though glycerol has a viscosity that is ~ 1500 times larger than water. These facts led to the conclusion that the AOT molecules cannot be anchored to any large extent in the dispersed phase. Finally, we report on the work that has been accomplished on nonaqueous microemulsions with nonionic surfactants. The C12E4 surfactant was found to stabilize microemulsions of formamide and dodecane [91]. The ternary phase diagrams were studied at different temperatures and the solubilization of hydrocarbon shown to be very temperature dependent (Fig. 9). It was also observed
Fig. 9 Phase diagrams of the system C12E4formamidedodecane at (a) 30°C, (b) 40°C, and (c) 50°C, showing the growth of the threephase region in which a solution phase is formed at the lowest possible surfactant concentration. (From Ref. 91.)
Page 199
that the temperature intervals of the threephase regions are dependent on the hydrocarbon used; larger aliphatic hydrocarbons give threephase regions at higher temperatures, observations completely analogous to the corresponding aqueous systems. In a smallangle neutron scattering study, Schubert and Strey [92] investigated the order/disorder transition in microemulsions of nonionic surfactants, water formamide mixtures, and oil. As the water content of the systems was decreased, a more disordered microstructure was observed. Even with pure formamide as polar solvent, however, the existence of internal interfaces, although uncorrelated, could be detected. As a brief conclusion it can be noted that many nonaqueous microemulsions reported do not contain an organized structure: they are simply molecular solutions. Because the degree of organization already in many aqueous microemulsion is low, in particular for quaternary systems containing ionic surfactant and cosurfactant, this is not really surprising. In some systems, however, more structured microemulsions have been found, but this may require other surfactants and cosurfactants than in the aqueous systems. IV. Concluding Remarks Evidently, the mapping of surfactant aggregation in nonaqueous polar solvents is extensive, and investigations of many different combinations of surfactants and solvents are available in the literature. Furthermore, a wide range of experimental techniques have been used. The results from different studies are quite consistent and most of the authors agree on some basic trends. Qualitatively, the general aggregation behavior is similar to water. That is, surfactant aggregation in the form of micelles, liquid crystals, or microemulsions is possible in polar solvents other than water. However, there are indeed quantitative differences between these nonaqueous systems and aqueous systems. For example, the Krafft temperatures of ionic surfactants and CMC values are higher and the aggregation numbers of the micelles are lower in these nonaqueous solvents. The existence regions for liquid crystal phases in nonaqueous solvents are reduced and the phase diagrams are less complex than in water. Also, the microemulsions formed in nonaqueous solvents often have a more disordered microstructure than in water. It is tempting to, in a qualitative manner, ascribe these differences to the less extensive solvophobic interaction in polar solvents other than water. There are, of course, other ways of expressing and discussing this solvophobic interaction than, for example, comparing interfacial tensions between solvent and hydrocarbon, as in Table 1. The nonaqueous solvents that have been reported to promote the aggregation of surfactant molecules have one property in common: they all have high cohesive energy. That is, the net at
tractive interactions between the solvent molecules are strong. Hildebrand et al. [ derived a cohesive energy parameter from the heat of vaporization of the solvent. measure of the cohesive energy is the Gordon parameter [94], /V1/3 ( = surfac V = molar volume). This parameter has the advantage that it can be used for both fused salts. Different authors [11,95] have tried to determine a limiting value for the cohesive which a certain solvent should be able to promote surfactant aggregation. Howev curiously often overlooked that the hydrophobicity of the surfactant must also be account in this context. A surfactant with a long hydrocarbon chain or a fluorinate hydrocarbon chain is able to aggregate in solvents in which a less hydrophobic su remain in monomeric form, just as in water. V. Nomenclature AOT
aerosol OT (sodium diethylhexylsulfosuccinate)
BG
butylene glycol
(C12) 2DAB
didodecyldimethylammonium bromide
CiEj
nonionic surfactant of the polyethyleneglycol alkyl ether type; alkyl contains i carbon atoms and the polar group j ethylene glycol units
CMC
critical micelle concentration
CxNH3Br
cationic surfactant of the alkylammonium bromide type; alkyl chain carbon atoms
CxPyBr
cationic surfactant of the alkylpyridinium bromide type; alkyl chain carbon atoms
CxTABr
cationic surfactant of the alkyltrimethylammonium bromide type; alk contains x carbon atoms
CxTASO4
cationic surfactant of the alkyltrimethylammonium sulfate type; alkyl contains x carbon atoms
CTbPB
cetyltributylphosphonium bromide
D
lyotropic liquid crystalline phase with lamellar structure
DBSA
dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid
DMF
N,Ndimethylformamide
D
lyotropic liquid crystalline phase with lamellar structure
DBSA
dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid
DMF
N,Ndimethylformamide
DMSO
dimethysulfoxide
E
lyotropic liquid crystalline phase with hexagonal structure
EAN
ethylammonium nitrate
EG
ethylene glycol
F
lyotropic liquid crystalline phase with reverse hexagonal structure
FA
formamide
G
glycerol
I
general notation for lyotropic liquid crystalline phase with cubi
KCx
potassium soap with x carbon atoms in the alkyl chain
MFA
Nmethylformamide
NaOl
sodium oleate
NMS
Nmethylsydnone
PC
propylene carbonate
PEG
polyethylene glycol
PG
propylene glycol
SDS
sodium dodecyl sulfate
TEA
triethanolamine
TEAO
triethanolammonium oleate
TEG
triethylene glycol
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67. B. Bergenståhl, A. Jönsson, J. Sjöblom, P. Stenius, and T. Wärnheim, Progr. Colloid Polym. Sci. 74:108 (1987). 68. S. E. Friberg and Y. C. Liang, in Microemulsion Systems (H. L. Rosano and M. Clausse, eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1987, p. 103. 69. T. Wärnheim, J. Bokström, and Y. williams, Colloid Polym. Sci. 266:562 (1988). 70. D. J. Mitchell, G. J. T. Tiddy, L. Waring, T. Bostock, and M. P. Mcdonald, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1(79):975 (1983). 71. Larsson K., in Lipid Handbook (F. D. Gunstone, J. L. Harwood, and F. B. Padley, eds.), Chapman and Hall, New York, 1986. 72. S. E. Friberg, P. Liang, F. E. Lockwood, and M. Tadros, J. Phys. Chem. 88:1045 (1984); S. E. Friberg, C. S. Wohn, and F. E Lockwood, J. Pharm. Sci. 74:771 (1985). 73. S. E. Friberg, C. S. Wohn, Y. J. Uang, and F. E. Lockwood, J. Disp. Sci. Techn. 8:429 (1987). 74. S. R. Palit and J. W. McBain, Ind. Eng. Chem. 38:741 (1946). 75. P. A. Winsor, Trans. Faraday Soc. 44:451 (1948). 76. I. Rico and A. Lattes, Nouv. J. Chim. 8:429 (1984). 77. I. Rico and A. Lattes, in Surfactants in Solution (K. L. Mittal and P. Bothorel, eds.), Plenum Press, New York, 1986, Vol. 6, p. 1397. 78. I. Rico and A. Lattes, in Microemulsion Systems (H. Rosano and M. Clausse, eds.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1987, p. 357. 79. S. E. Friberg and M. Podzimek, Colloid Polym. Sci. 262:252 (1984). 80. P. D. I. Fletcher, M. F. Galal, and B. H. Robinson, J. chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1(80):3307 (1984). 81. P. D. I. Fletcher, M. F. Galal, and B. H. Robinson, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1(81):2053 (1985). 82. G. Rong and S. E. Friberg, J. Disp. Sci. Tech. 9:401 (1988). 83. S. E. Friberg and G. Rong, Langmuir 4:796 (1988). 84. S. E. Friberg, G. Rong, and A. J. I. Ward, J. Phys. Chem. 92:7247 (1988). 85. A. Ceglie, M. Monduzzi, O. Söderman, and B. Lindman, Progr. Colloid Polym. Sci. 76:308 (1988). 86. K. P. Das, A. Ceglie, and B. Lindman, J. Phys. Chem. 91:2938 (1987); A. Ceglie, M. Monduzzi, and O. Söderman, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 142:129 (1991). 87. S. B. Ranavare, A. J. I. Ward, D. W. Osborne, S. E. Friberg, and H.
85. A. Ceglie, M. Monduzzi, O. Söderman, and B. Lindman, Progr. Colloid Polym. Sci. 76:308 (1988). 86. K. P. Das, A. Ceglie, and B. Lindman, J. Phys. Chem. 91:2938 (1987); A. Ceglie, M. Monduzzi, and O. Söderman, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 142:129 (1991). 87. S. B. Ranavare, A. J. I. Ward, D. W. Osborne, S. E. Friberg, and H. Kaiser, J. Phys. Chem. 92:5181 (1988). 88. S. E. Friberg and Y. C. Liang, Colloid Surf. 24:325 (1987). 89. K. P. Das, A. Ceglie, B. Lindman, and S. E. Friberg, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 116:390 (1987). 90. P. D. I. Fletcher, B. H. Robinson, and J. Tabony, J. Chem. Soc., Faraday Trans. 1(82):2311 (1986). 91. T. Wärnheim and M. Sjöberg, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 131:402 (1989). 92. K. V. Schubert and R. Strey, J. Chem. Phys. 95:11 (1991). 93. J. H. Hildebrand, J. M. Prausuitz, and R. L. Scott, Regular and Related Solutions, New York, 1970.
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94. J. E. Gordon, The Organic Chemistry of Electrolytes Solutions, Wiley, New York, 1975. 95. D. F. Evans, Langmuir 4:3 (1988). 96. I. Rico and A. Lattes, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 102:285 (1984). 97. M. Gautier, I. Rico, A. AhmahZadeh Samii, A. de Savignac, and A. Lattes, J. Colloid Interface Sci. 112:484 (1986). 98. I. Rico, A. Lattes, K. P. Das, and B. Lindman, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 111:7266 (1989). 99. S. E. Friberg and C. S. Wohn, Colloid Polym. Sci. 263:156 (1985). 100. H. D. Dörfler and C. Swaboda Colloid Polym. Sci. 271:586 (1993). 101. S. E. Friberg and W. M. Sun, Colloid P olym. Sci. 268:775 (1990). 102. Z. Saidi, C. Boned, and J. Peyrelasse, Progr. Colloid Polym. Sci. 89:156 (1992). 103. R. Aveyard, B. P. Binks, P. D. I. Fletcher, A. J. Kirk, and P. Swansbury, Langmuir 9:523 (1993). 104. A. Martino and E. W. Kaler, J. Phys. Chem. 94:1627 (1990). 105. A. K. Murthy, Colloid Polym. Sci. 271:209 (1993). 106. H. D. Dörfler and E. Borrmeister, Tenside Surf. Det. 29:154 (1992).
7 LightDuty Liquid Detergents KUOYANN LAI Global Materials and Sourcing (AsiaPacific Division), Global Technology, Colg Company, New York, New York ELIZABETH F. K. McCANDLISH and HARRY ASZMAN Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, P New Jersey I. Introduction II. Typical Composition and Ingredients A. Typical composition B. Ingredients III. Hand Dishwashing A. Variables B. Mechanism of cleaning C. Factors affecting dishwashing detergent performance IV. Test Methods and Performance Evaluation A. Evaluation of cleaning performance B. Evaluation of foam performance C. Evaluation of mildness D. Other tests V. Formulation Technology A. Formulation B. Guidelines and examples VI. New Products and Future Trends A. Line extensions B. Clear, colorless products
VI. New Products and Future Trends A. Line extensions B. Clear, colorless products C. Increased use of nonionics D. Environmental and regulatory concerns E. Dish liquids with added benefits F. Concentrates References
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I. Introduction Lightduty liquid detergents (LDLDs) are primarily used for washing dishes and pots and pans by hand. They are also used for washing delicate fabrics, cars, and, to a lesser extent, general household cleaning. The first LDLD was developed in the late 1940s. Like other liquid detergents, LDLDs offer the advantage of convenience and are well accepted by consumers in the developed countries and some developing countries. Despite the increasing popularity of automatic dishwashing machines and the continuing growth of automatic dishwasher detergents in the developed markets, LDLDs for hand dishwashing continue to grow slowly in these markets. The estimated tonnage in 1992 was 1.3 million ton in Europe, 550,000 ton in the United States, and 270,000 ton in Japan [1]. The annual growth rate was estimated at 2% for Europe, 1.5% for Japan, and 0.5% for the United States. Similar growth rates are predicted for the future. Although commercial hand dishwashing liquids available in the marketplace vary greatly in AI (active ingredient) level, esthetics, and positioning, they typically exhibit physical and chemical characteristics as summarized in Table 1. Literature articles specifically devoted to the discussion of LDLDs are limited [2–9]. The advances in technology in this area are primarily documented in patents. This chapter attempts to review LDLDs, focusing on hand dishwashing applications: typical composition and ingredients, the hand dishwashing process and chemistry involved, the test methods and performance evaluation, the formulation technology, and new products and future trends. II. Typical Composition and Ingredients A. Typical Composition A lightduty liquid detergent consists of ingredients for cleaning, foaming, solubilization, preservation, fragrance, color, and other additives, such as thick TABLE 1 Typical Physical and Chemical Characteristics of LightDuty Liquid Detergents Characteristic Viscosity, cps
Typical value 100–500
pH
6–8
Cloud point, °C
<5
Clear point, °C
<10
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eners, antiirritants, and antibacterial agents. A typical composition of an LDLD is shown in Table 2. B. Ingredients 1. Surfactants Surfactants are the primary ingredients that provide the cleaning performance for an LDLD. They also provide foams that are an important sensory signal to consumers. Therefore, the cleaning and foaming capabilities of a surfactant are the key considerations for LDLD usage. The other factor that has become increasingly important in many developed markets in recent years is the mildness of a surfactant to human skin. Among the four classes of surfactants, anionic, nonionic, and amphoteric surfactants all have been used in LDLDs in varying degrees. Cationic surfactants as a class have not been found suitable for use in LDLDs. Historically, anionic surfactants [10] have been the predominant surfactants of choice for LDLDs. This is a result in part of their good cleaning and excellent foaming properties and in part their availability and economy. The anionic surfactants most commonly used in LDLDs are linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), alkyl polyoxyethylene sulfate (also referred to as alkylethoxy sulfate, AEOS), paraffin sulfonate (PS, also referred to as secondary alkane sulfonate, SAS) [11], fatty alcohol sulfate (FAS), and olefin sulfonate (AOS). The anionic surfactants tend to be two of the following: LAS, AEOS, and SAS. In the United States, LAS and AEOS are the main anionic surfactants; in Europe, SAS is more commonly used than LAS [2]. Nonionic surfactants [12] have been used to a much lesser extent in LDLDs than anionic surfactants. This is primarily because of their low foaming properties and higher cost. Recently, however, nonionic surfactants have been used increasingly [1], recognizing the many advantages they offer over anionic sur TABLE 2 Typical Dishwashing Detergent Composition Ingredient
%
Surfactants
10–50
Foam stabilizers
0–5
Hydrotropes
0–10
Salts Preservatives
<0.1
Fragrance
0.1–1
Dyes
<0.1
Other additives
0–3
Water
<3
Balance
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factants, such as mildness, higher active level, better compatibility with other ingredients, and some synergistic effects with certain anionic surfactants. Additionally, technology has been developed for boosting and stabilizing foams of nonionic surfactant systems [13]. Nonionic surfactants used in LDLDs are primarily ethoxylated alcohols with varying degrees of ethoxylation. Alkylpolyglycosides (APGs) [14–16] and fatty acid glucamides [17–20] have also become important new surfactants for LDLDs in recent years. Major manufacturers, such as ColgatePalmolive, Henkel, Kao, and Procter & Gamble, started using these new classes of nonionic surfactants in their products in the early 1990s. These are further discussed in Sec. VI. Amphoteric surfactants [21] typically exhibit good cleaning and foaming properties. More importantly, they offer excellent mildness. Because of their higher cost, however, amphoteric surfactants have not been used in LDLDs to a significant extent. In the last few years, with the increased attention to the mildness aspect of the product, amphoteric surfactants have gained popularity for use in LDLDs. The most widely used amphoteric surfactants are betaines, especially cocoamidopropylbetaine. Table 3 lists the surfactants commonly used in LDLDs and their chemical structures. 2. Foam Stabilizers Foam is an important visual signal for LDLDs. There is no direct correlation between foam and cleaning, but consumers in general use foam volume and foam persistence to judge the performance of an LDLD. There are wide varieties of stabilizers for foams [22]. Among the most commonly used in LDLDs are the following: 1. Fatty alkanol amides, such as LMMEA (lauric/myristic monoethanol amide), LMDEA (lauric/myristic diethanol amide), CDEA (cocodiethanol amide), and CMEA (cocomonoethanol amide) 2. Amine oxides, such as DMDAO (dimethyldodecyl amine oxide) and DMMAO (dimethylmyristyl amine oxide) Fatty alkanol amides and amine oxides commonly used as foam stabilizers in LDLDs can be found in the literature [22,23]. 3. Hydrotropes Hydrotropes are often added to an LDLD to help solubilize surfactants or other materials to ensure its stability. The fundamental properties of hydrotropes and their hydrotropic action in liquid detergents are discussed in Chap. 2. The hydrotropes most widely used in LDLDs are sodium xylene sulfonate (SXS),
TABLE 3 Surfactants Commonly Used in LightDuty Liquid Detergentsa Chemical description
Chemical structure
Anionic surfactants
Alkylbenzene sulfonate
Paraffin sulfonate
Na+
Alkyl sulfate
ROSO3
Alkylethoxy sulfate
R(OCH2CH2) nOSO3
Olefin sulfonate Nonionic surfactants Alcohol ethoxylate
Na+
Na+
H3C(CH2) mCH=CH(CH2) nSO3
R(OCH2CH2) nOH
Fatty acid glucamide
Alkylpolyglycoside
Amine oxide
Amphoteric surfactant
Cocoamidopropyl betaine
a
R = alkyl group.
sodium cumene sulfonate (SCS), sodium toluene sulfonate (STS), urea, and etha shown in Table 4. Isopropanol, propylene glycol, and polyethylene glycol ethers used as hydrotropes for LDLDs. SXS, SCS, and ethanol are hydrotropes used for LDLD formulation as a result of nearly colorless and odorless properties. Ure effective and cheap hydrotrope. Two concerns raised by some formulators using hydrotrope [9,24] are as follows: 1. Formulations containing urea usually tend to be of higher pH and exhibit ammo Storage at higher temperature worsens this problem. 2. Because of its high nitrogen content, urea is a good nutrient for bacteria. There adequate bacteriostats or bactericides are needed to avoid problems. These concerns, however, can be overcome with proper pH adjustment and pre The addition of hydrotrope to an LDLD affects its viscosity, and clear and cloud obviously depends on the type and quantity of the hydrotrope used. TABLE 4 Hydrotropes Commonly Used in LightDuty Liquid Detergents Hydrotrope
Chemical structure
Sodium xylene sulfonate (SXS)
Sodium toluene sulfonate (STS)
Sodium cumene sulfonate (SCS)
126290212c.gif
Urea
Ethanol
CH3CH2OH
4. Minor Ingredients Minor ingredients are added to an LDLD mostly for esthetic reasons. These inclu fragrances, dyes, preservatives, chelators, and viscosity modifiers. They are adde at less than 1% of the formula. The fragrance and color of an LDLD are of critical importance to its success. Th of the fragrance types and colors creates the image for the product. Fragrances a must be compatible with other ingredients in the product and compatible with the materials to be used for the final product. They must also not adversely affect the performance of the product and not cause other problems, such as skin irritation. Preservatives are often needed to prevent microbial growth in LDLDs. Preservati commonly used are formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, ethanol, benzoic acid, Kathon Dowicil®, Bronopol®, and various esters of hydroxybenzoic acid and others. Chelators are also used to assure no precipitation occurs on aging. The most co problem is iron, which is introduced as an impurity from surfactants and salts. Th used most often in LDLDs are ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), hydroxyethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (HEDTA), and citrate. Viscosity modifiers are used to achieve the desired product viscosity of an LDL include alcohols, salts, and polymers. Hydrotropes as just discussed also serve a modifiers. Among the most commonly used viscosity modifiers are ethanol, sodiu potassium chloride, sodium sulfate, magnesium salts, urea, and various celluloses polymers (see Chap. 5). 5. Special Additives Other additives may also be added to an LDLD to provide additional benefits to Table 5 lists some examples [25–32] of additives that can be incorporated into a TABLE 5 Special Additives for LightDuty Liquid Detergents Special additive
Benefits
Protein
Mildness to skin
Opacifier
Product esthetics
Abrasives
Cleaning tough soils
Lemon juice
Enhanced cleaning
Polymers
Rinsing and feel to hands
Bleach (oxygen based)
Prevents discoloration
Antibacterial ingred.
Antibacterial on hands
R
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III. Hand Dishwashing A. Variables 1. Mechanical Action Mechanical action is very important in hand dishwashing. When people wash dishes they actively rub the surface. This mixes the surfactant with the soil and accelerates the cleaning. It also physically removes soil. The amount of mechanical action used in hand dishwashing is extremely variable and hard to quantify. This is illustrated by the wide range of dishwashing performance tests (see Sec. IV). Consumers may soak items that are difficult to clean in a very low mechanical action environment. Under these conditions, surface chemistry is very important. Consumers may also scrub vigorously directly on the soiled area, break up the soil particles, and suspend them. At this point interfacial processes become important again. All individuals have their own techniques. Individuals vary the amount of effort they use depending on the type and distribution of the soil on the item. However, they usually do not use enough sustained mechanical action to make a stable oilin water emulsion. As is true in automatic dishwashing machines, much of the cleaning occurs from water and mechanical action alone. Large food particles, sugars, many starches, and some protein soils are readily removed by rinsing with plain water. Some food soils, such as bakedon starches or polymerized fats, are extremely resistant. These require vigorous, direct mechanical action. In some cases, vigorous chemical action is used, as in oven cleaners, but this mechanism is not within the scope of LDLDs. 2. Washing Methods Dishwashing methods are extremely diverse. A single person may use different methods depending on the number of dishes, the soil load, the availability of water, and local tradition. (a) Neat Dishwashing. Neat dishwashing refers to the practice of placing the dishwashing liquid directly on the item to be washed or directly on the washing tool (sponge, brush, rag, and so on). The item is usually rinsed first. In neat dishwashing, the surfactant concentration ranges from a few percent to 30% or more, depending on the active ingredient level of the product. In developed countries, neat dishwashing is used when there are only a few dishes to wash or when one particular item is especially soiled. Neat dishwashing is also a common habit in Brazil, India, and Japan [33]. (b) Dilute Methods. Dilute dishwashing is the widely used practice of filling a tub, sink, or pot with water and adding the dishwashing liquid (1–10 g) [34]. The dishes are either submerged in the bath all at once or submerged one
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at a time and then washed. Typical surfactant concentrations range from 0.1 to 0.3% for U.S. consumers and from 0.06 to 0.3% for European consumers. The sinks range in size from 5 to 20 L [17]. (c) Dip and Dab Methods. The dip and dab method is intermediate between dilute and neat usage. Dip and dab consists of adding product (10100 g) [33] to a small bowl and filling the bowl with water. The soiled item is then washed with this solution, but not submerged as in the dilute method. The dip and dab method generally has much higher concentrations (1–3%) than the dilute method (0.1–0.3%) [17]. (d) Rinsing. Once plates are washed, they are generally rinsed with clean water. This is especially important when higher concentrations of dishwashing liquid are used. Some consumers in Germanspeaking countries do not rinse. They scrape the plates extremely thoroughly so there is a minimum soil load, wash in very dilute solutions, and dry with a towel. 3. Soils The principal type of soil encountered in dishwashing is oily soil. Proteins, carbohydrates, and mixed soils (bones and large particles) are relatively easily removed. Bakedon soil requires more vigorous treatment, either mechanical or chemical [35]. The type of oily soil is almost exclusively triglycerides. The hydrocarbon chains in food triglycerides are predominantly C12–C16, although higher and lower chains are present. Siliceous particles or clays are not of interest to hand dishwashing, although they are to laundry. An important consideration in applying the theory of surfactants to hand dishwashing is that triglycerides are considerably more polar than hydrocarbons and considerably higher in molecular weight. The theory has been developed for hydrocarbons, and the fundamental physical chemistry has been focused on them. As a result, the chemistry of dish cleaning presents interesting opportunities for further research. 4. Surfaces Dishwashing must consider soil and surfactant adsorption to both polar and nonpolar surfaces. Metals (aluminum, stainless steel, carbon steel, cast iron, silver, and tin), siliceous surfaces (china, glass, and pottery), and organics (polyethylene, polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and wood) present a wide variety of surface characteristics. They span the range of high interfacial free energy (metals) to low interfacial free energy (hydrocarbon polymers) surfaces [36,37]. 5. Water (a) Water Temperature. The water temperature used in hand dishwashing is highly variable and depends on the climate and the availability of hot water. In tropical places the ambient temperature of water is 30–37°C. Many
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edible fats are at least partly liquefied at this temperature. In temperate zones the water can be close to 0°C, depending on its source and time of year. A source of hot water is essential under these conditions. A typical wash temperature is 32–43°C [2]. The maximum temperature at which dishes are washed is about 50°C. Above this temperature the water becomes dangerously hot. Hotter water is used for tough jobs, but the items are left to soak and are not handled, unless perhaps gloves are used. Raising the washing temperature can markedly increase the amount of cleaning [38]. (b) Effect of pH. Although the pH is an important variable in formulating dish liquid, the pH is not an major variable in dishwashing. Because most consumers do not generally wear gloves, only pH values near neutral are mild enough to the skin to be used. Some dish liquids have a pH as low as 5 or as high as 8, but the majority are close to 7. Hydrolysis of fatty soils is not an appreciable cleaning method under these circumstances, especially at temperatures under 40°C. (C) Effect of Water Hardness. As discussed later, increasing the water hardness generally increases the efficacy of LDLDs. Increased hardness increases grease removal and increases the number of plates washed with a given amount of surfactant. Water hardness has a variable effect on foam [13] depending on the range of hardness and the anionic or nonionic nature of the surfactant. If dishes are washed and then air dried, hard water increases the likelihood of getting spots on the dishware. B. Mechanism of Cleaning Aside from mechanical action, there are several mechanisms of cleaning dishes. These mechanisms operate differently depending on whether the soil is solid or liquid. Solid soil (from solid fats or other solids) is broken up and suspended in the bath. Liquid soil is usually removed by (1) rollup, (2) emulsification, and (3) direct solubilization. It is possible, using heat or surfactants, to liquefy solid oils, thereby making them candidates for rollup and better candidates for emulsification[39]. There may be a fourth mechanism: the formation of microemulsion or liquid crystalline phases. 1. Rollup The first mechanism of cleaning hard surfaces is the rollup of liquid soils or soils that have been liquefied by heat or surfactant penetration [40]. The theory of wetting of hard surfaces by soils and of adsorption of surfactant is described in detail elsewhere [36,41–44]. Only a brief overview, from a dishwashing perspective, is given here. An unwashed dish presents the classic picture of an oily soil in air on a solid substrate (see Fig. 1). In this situation, the equilibrium contact angle is re
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Fig. 1 Oily soil on an unwashed plate in air.
lated to the surface tensions (or, alternatively, surface free energies) by the YoungDupree equation =
plateair
cos +
oilair
plateoil
When the soiled plate is placed in a detergent bath, all the interfaces undergo changes. The surfactant begins to modify the soil and the plate by adsorbing to surfaces and penetrating the soil. A new equilibrium is established after a few minutes: =
platebath
cos +
oilbath
plateoil
The equation can be rearranged to give
In the presence of a detergent, the interfacial tensions tend to be very low. In general, platebath and oilbath are less than plateoil. As a result, plateoilbath becomes larger than plateoilair (see Fig. 2). In the ideal situation is 180°. Now the soil does not wet the plate at all. There is essentially no contact area between the plate and the oily soil. Minor currents in the bath lift the droplet; other surfactant molecules emulsify it and suspend it in solution. If plateoilbath is less than 180°, however, even though
Fig. 2 Oily soil on an unwashed plate in a detergent bath.
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Fig. 3 Removal of an oil droplet by hydraulic forces when the contact angle is between 90° and 180°.
greater than 90°, mechanical forces can still remove the droplet of soil from the surface (see Fig. 3). If the contact angle is greater than 90°, it is theoretically possible for hydraulic currents to reduce the area of contact to zero while maintaining the contact angle [45]. If the contact angle is less than 90°, the droplet cannot be removed completely by hydraulic currents. A neck forms in the drop so that part of the drop pulls away and a small amount of material is left behind (see Fig. 4). The remainder can be removed by emulsification or solubilization. As a practical matter, contact angles of 180° are very rare. In practice it is extremely difficult to remove all the oil from the plate by rollup, even if the contact angle is high. When the contact angle is high, even though it is not 180°, agitation keeps a large portion of the oil off the surface and suspended in the bath. This produces effective cleaning if the plate is promptly rinsed [45]. 2. Emulsification Emulsification is probably the primary mechanism of cleaning in hand dishwashing. An emulsion is a suspension of liquid particles in a second liquid phase. The particles are much larger, about 500 nm or greater, than micelles. The suspension is not thermodynamically stable [46]. Depending on the food soil and the state of liquefaction of the fats, solidinwater suspensions are also formed during dishwashing. That these emulsions and suspensions are rather
Fig. 4 Removal of oily soil when the contact angle is less than 90°.
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unstable is not important because, by and large, people drain the dirty suspension and rinse the dish. 3. Solubilization Solubilization is the spontaneous dissolving of a normally insoluble substance in a relatively dilute surfactant solution [46]. The soil goes directly into or around the micelles. The solution is thermodynamically stable. Because the micelles in a dilute solution are generally too small to scatter light, the final solution looks very much like the initial solution (unless the solute is colored). The size of the micelle is determined mainly by the length of the carbon chain. Micelles range between 5 and 100 nm in diameter and typically contain about 50–100 monomers [47]. Anionic micelles are partly neutralized by counterions and carry only 50–70% of the theoretical charge [48]. The location of the soil within the micelle depends on the type of soil. Alkanes are thought to wedge themselves between the surfactant tails. They do not form a pool of oil in the middle. In contrast, amphiphiles with polar head groups tend to solubilize with their heads in the hydrophilic region of the micelle. It is not clear where benzene and the aromatics fit in a micelle [49]. The oily soils encountered in dishwashing are overwhelmingly triglyceride and relatively polar compared with alkanes. Triglycerides are also considerably higher in molecular weight than typical hydrocarbon or polar fatty soils. It is not clear where triglycerides fit in a micelle. The amount of soil that can be solubilized depends in part on the micelle shape. For a given number of surfactant molecules, the transition from spherical micelles to rods is thought to decrease the amount of polar organics that can be solubilized. In contrast, the solubility of alkanes increases in going from spheres to rods [49]. In a typical cleaning situation there is not usually enough surfactant to solubilize all the oils, especially if the surfactants are mainly anionic. A greater portion of the oil is solubilized if the surfactants are nonionic. High solubilizing power is an important factor in good detergency [13]. Although in general detergency reaches a maximum when the critical micelle concentration (CMC) is reached (after accounting for surfactant adsorbed to the soil and the substrate), for some surfactantsoil combinations detergency continues to increase above the CMC [50]. 4. Formation of SurfactantRich Liquid Crystal Phases A recent review [42] describes several cases in which the maximum soil removal occurs when the soil is incorporated into an intermediate phase, such as a microemulsion or liquid crystal. These intermediate phases form at the interface between the soil and the washing bath. The intermediate phases grow up to a point and then, as a result of agitation, break off into the bath, where they are emulsified into the aqueous solution.
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The soils for which this occurs extensively are mainly hydrocarbons, polar fatty soils, or mixtures of hydrocarbons with triglycerides. The surfactants used are ethoxylated alcohols. It is much harder to form these intermediate phases using triglyceride soils. Relatively high (65°C) temperatures are required. Because triglycerides are the main fatty soil in dishwashing and dish detergents rely mainly on anionics, it is not clear that these phases form to an appreciable extent in hand dishwashing. However, practical triglyceride soils are always contaminated with polar components (such as hydrolysis products, proteins, and polar lipids). Also, increasingly, nonionics of various sorts are being used in dish liquids. Last, undiluted or slightly diluted (more than 1% surfactant) washing methods are used by many consumers. Thus it is possible that this mechanism is relevant under certain circumstances. C. Factors Affecting Dishwashing Detergent Performance 1. Effect of Surfactant Type Detergents in general do a better job of cleaning if they contain a mixture of surfactants. It is best if the mixture includes a variety of types of surfactants as well as a variety of chain lengths. This can be illustrated in Fig. 5, which shows performance for secondary alkane sulfonate (SAS) and mixtures as a function of carbon chain length.
Fig. 5 Miniplate test of SAS (and mixtures) as a function of the C chain length. Concentration: 0.3 g/L of active substance. (Source: From Ref. 11, reproduced by permission.)
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Micelle formation with different chain lengths is energetically favored compared with micelle formation with the same chain length [51]. It is also an advantage to mix anionic and nonionic surfactants. The mixture shows a reduction in CMC compared with the individual components because the nonionic allows the mutual repulsion between the anionic head groups to decrease. A practical advantage to having mixtures of surfactants is that in dishwashing there is a wide variety of soils and surfaces. A mixture has the right surfactant for any given soilsubstrate combination. 2. Effect of Carbon Chain Distribution Several authors describe the effect of alkyl chain length on performance. For linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), a widely used surfactant in LDLDs, the most important factor in the performance is the carbon chain distribution [52]. The optimum chain length of LAS for foam stability in a typical LDLD formulation varies depending on water hardness. This is illustrated in Table 6 for a formulated product of 24% LAS, 6% alkylpolyoxyethylene sulfate (AEOS), and 2% amide (LMMEA). The location of the phenyl group on the alkyl chain (within the limits of commercially available LAS) had little effect on the performance [52]. For SAS, an anionic surfactant widely used in European LDLDs, more plates are cleaned in the C14–C15 region than at longer or shorter lengths. This is true for SAS alone and for SAS/AEOS mixtures (see Fig. 5) [11]. As stated earlier, alcohol ethoxylate surfactants were historically used to a limited extent in LDLDs because they are low foamers. In recent years, their use has increased. They provide an example of the effects of carbon chain length. In this case both carbon chain and ethylene oxide content have an effect on detergency. It is thought that reducing the carbon chain increases the solvency of the surfactant and improves its ability to penetrate soil [53]. The best performance varies with the surfactant concentration, as shown in Table 7. The best ethylene oxide level was found to be 50–60% by weight for all chain lengths [53]. TABLE 6 Optimum Chain Length of LAS as a Function of Hardness Hardness (ppm)
Optimum foam stabilitya
0
C13
50–150
C11–C12
>150
C10–C11–C12
a
Product formulation: 24% LAS, 6% AEOS, and 2% LMMEA.
Page 222 TABLE 7 Optimum Chain Length as a Function of Concentration Concentration (%)
Optimum chain length in alcohol ethoxylate surfactants
>1
C6–C8
0.1–1
C8–C10
<0.1
C10–C12
3. Effect of Inorganic Ions An important effect in the formulation of dish liquids is the presence of inorganic ions. These come in as impurities in all commercial surfactants. They are present as calcium and magnesium carbonates, sulfates, and chlorides in hard water. They are deliberately added as viscosity modifiers of concentrated product in the bottle and as important performance boosters. In the last capacity, the calcium or preferably magnesium can be added either as an inorganic salt, such as MgSO4, or as the counterion of an anionic surfactant. One of the effects of increased electrolyte concentration is lowering of the CMC. This has direct implications for detergency. Electrolytes do this for ionic surfactants, mainly anionics in dish liquids, by “screening” the ionic head groups in a micelle from each other. Adding salts decreases the CMC in the following order for lauryl sulfate: Li > Na > K > Cs > N(CH3)4+ > N(C2H5)4+ > Ca, Mg The larger the polarizability of the ion and the larger the valence, the greater is the decrease in the CMC. The smaller the radius of the hydrated ion, the greater is the decrease in the CMC [54]. A similar effect occurs in the electrical double layer that surrounds the surface of an object to be cleaned. Items with a relatively highly charged surface, such as glass, ceramics, and metals with oxide coatings, first repel surfactants with a like charge and attract surfactants with an opposite charge. Adding salts causes a decrease in the adsorption of the oppositely charged surfactant and an increase in the adsorption of the likecharged surfactant. In dishwashing liquids, many of the surfaces to be cleaned are negatively charged. Because the principal surfactants used in dishwashing detergents are anionic, adding salts increases the adsorption of anionics onto a negatively charges surface [55]. In the nonpolar items, such as those of polypropylene or polyethylene, electrolytes also increase the adsorption of ionic surfactants because the mutual repulsion between the head groups is decreased [56]. There is also an effect of ionic strength of the stability of the emulsions formed as the dishes are cleaned. Emulsions in general decrease in stability with increasing electrolyte concentration. Oil droplets in water are surrounded by an
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electrical double layer because these droplets generally carry a negative surface charge. Emulsions that are stabilized by charged particles, for example those formed by ionic surfactants, are stabilized by having a low electrolyte concentration. In the presence of electrolyte, the thickness of the electrical double layer is decreased. This decreases the stability of the emulsion [51]. Fortunately, the emulsions formed in dishwashing need not last very long. If the stability of the emulsion is too low, then redeposition of soil can be a problem. Some modern patent technology of dishwashing includes substantial amounts of both anionic and nonionic surfactants. Nonionic emulsions are much less affected by ionic strength. The most important effect of electrolytes is the effect of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions on dishwashing performance. Numerous patents teach the beneficial effects of both ions on dishwashing performance [18,20,57]. It is thought that Mg2+ ions form a complex with anionic surfactants. This complex allows the anionic surfactant to adsorb more readily on surfaces with a surface negative charge. A preferred mode of adding magnesium to a dish liquid is to use the MgO or Mg (OH)2 to neutralize the surfactants after they are formed by sulfonation or sulfation. This method is preferred because adding magnesium using salt generally requires adding additional hydrotrope. Magnesium is preferred over calcium because the calcium surfactant salts are much less soluble. It is also possible to add divalent metals to the formula as simple salts, such as MgSO4 [9]. A similar effect was found using a formulation of 24% LAS, 6% AEOS, and 2% LMMEA (amide). The maximum number of plates washed (see Sec. IV for performance evaluation) at 0 ppm was only about 7; the maximum number of plates for 50 and 150 ppm was 17 and 20 respectively (see Fig. 6) [52]. It should be noted that hardness ions are generally undesirable in laundry applications because they are detrimental to detergency [29,58]; however, this is not invariably true [55]. This is particularly not true for dishwashing, as illustrated in Fig. 7. 4. Effect of Raw Material Variations Some LAS mixtures appear to be selfhydrotroping; others need extra hydrotrope [59]. Commercial LAS contains various amounts of the 2phenyl isomer and dialkyltetralin sulfonates. The 2phenyl content significantly affects the solubility, and the tetralins considerably reduce the viscosity. This variation in 2phenyl isomer and tetralin content is a result of the industrial process used to make the linear alkylbenzene. Linear alkylbenzene sulfonate is made from the three primary processes that use different catalysts, AlCl3, HF, and DETAL, resulting in different amounts of 2phenylalkanes and dialkyltetralins. Material from the AlCl3 process is considered high in 2phenyl content and high in dialkyltetralins, material from the HF process is considered low in 2 phenyl
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Fig. 6 Effect of water hardness on the foam stability optimum (24% LAS, 6% ES, and 2% amide). (Source: From Ref. 52, reproduced by permission.)
Fig. 7 Impact of water hardness ions on dishwashing performance for LAS/FES = 4:1 (plate test, 2 ml beef tallow per plate). Index 100% = 285 ppm (tapwater); 45°C; 0.15 g/L of surfactant. (Source: From Ref. 9, reproduced by permission.)
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content and low in dialkyltetralins, and material from the DETAL process is considered high in 2phenyl content and low in dialkyltetralins. Another consideration is the source of the hydrophobic end of the surfactant. It is well known that oleochemical fatty alcohols have even numbers of carbons and petrochemical fatty alcohols have odd and even numbers. As discussed earlier, the carbon chain length has an effect on dishwashing performance. However, when alkyl sulfates, alkylpolyoxyethylene sulfates, and dishwashing compositions were made out of laurylrange hydrophobes, there was no difference in performance or physical properties between those from oleochemical and petrochemical sources [60]. IV. Test Methods and Performance Evaluation There is no universally accepted single test method for the performance evaluation of dishwashing detergents. This is because of the wide variations in soils, washing conditions, and consumer habits in dishwashing. Numerous test methods for performance evaluations exist in the literature. These test methods can essentially be classified into four categories: 1. Evaluation of cleaning performance 2. Evaluation of foam performance (volume and stability) 3. Evaluation of mildness 4. Other tests Discussed here are some of these tests. It is by no means inclusive of all available tests. Rather, these are only a few examples to illustrate the wide variations that exist for the evaluation of the various performance attributes of a dishwashing detergent. A. Evaluation of Cleaning Performance Cleaning performance is the most important characteristic of a dishwashing detergent as consumers purchase the product for cleaning dishes. Greasy soils are the most common consumer complaint regarding washing dishes. The literature is replete with formulations directed at efficacious grease cleaning. Consequently, test methods for cleaning performance are generally focused on greasy soils. The three basic means for measuring the cleaning performance of LDLDs are as follows: 1. Gravimetric measurements 2. Turbidity measurements 3. Plate counts
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1. Gravimetric Measurements Gravimetric tests are probably the most common for evaluating the cleaning of dishwashing products. Examples are (1) the cup test, (2) the grease removal test, and (3) the static soaking test. (a) The Cup Test. The cup test [18] measures the product's ability to remove greasy soils chemically from surfaces under normal use conditions of temperature, water hardness, and concentration. It is important that the temperature of the solution in the cup be below that of the melt temperature of the greasy soil or combination of soils. Otherwise, a true reading of the product's performance is not obtained because the soil will melt. The procedure consists of melting the greasy soil and pouring it into a beaker or by smearing it onto the sides of a beaker. Combinations of greases can also be used. The solution of the test product is made, poured into the beaker, and allowed to stand in contact with the grease for a fixed time. The amount of grease remaining in the beaker after the solution is poured off is determined. Results are reported as percentage soil removed by the following formula:
Obviously, higher percentage soil removal reflects better greasy soil cleaning. (b) Grease Removal Test. Another gravimetric grease evaluation is the grease removal test [61]. In this test a solid greasy soil is applied to microscope slides or test tubes by dipping into the melted greasy soil. After allowing the grease to solidify, the substrates are repeatedly dipped into solutions of test compositions under specific conditions of temperature, water hardness, and concentration for the intended market. The substrates are dried and weighed and the percentage soil removal calculated following the same formula as just outlined. (c) Static Soaking Test [13]. This test measures the amount of soil (Crisco, vegetable shortening derived from cottonseed and soybean oils and manufactured by Procter & Gamble) removed from a plate after soaking for a fixed time in a test solution under specific conditions. The plates are transferred to an ice bath following immersion in the warm test solution to stop the soil removal. The plates are dried and weighed and the percentage soil removal is calculated as
Similarly, a higher percentage of soil removal reflects better greasy soil cleaning ability.
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2. Turbidity Measurements Turbidity measurements involve measuring turbidity using a light source, usually transmission, colorimetry, or a turbidimeter, as a means to measure the product's ability to emulsify grease. (a) Emulsion Stability Test [62]. This test measures a liquid detergent composition's ability to keep greasy soils emulsified. It is performed by placing an oil, like corn oil, into a vial containing a solution of detergent. The vial is agitated for a fixed number of rotations at a fixed rate and allowed to stand for a fixed time. Readings are taken with a turbidimeter or colorimeter at given time intervals. Higher tubidity values or lower colorimetry values indicate more stable emulsions [62]. (b) The Cup Test [63]. Tubidity measurements can also be used in this test. Here, a fiber optic probe is used to measure percentage transmission as the solution is mixed at a constant rate. Measurements are taken as a function of time. The lower the transmission values as time progresses, the better is the greasy soil removal capability of the test product. 3. Dishwashing Test (Plate Count) Dishwashing tests provide the best performance information about the entire product because they use soils and wash conditions as close as possible to those encountered by consumers under normal conditions. The foam end point is usually the indicator of the product's performance. This is consistent with consumers' expectations: they usually equate a product's performance with its foaming ability. Dishwashing tests that use foam as the end point are discussed later in this section under Foam Stability Tests. Another indicator of a product's performance is the number of plates washed to the cleaning end point. In this test [64], the product is placed directly on a sponge and soiled plates are washed until plates can no longer be cleaned. Performance is equated with the number of plates washed, with the greater the number of plates washed indicating the better the cleaning ability. Although the plate wash test provides a more accurate account of a product's performance, it has some drawbacks. This type of test usually takes a long time to complete. Less timeconsuming tests are used to screen potential formulations before conducting actual plate wash tests. An example is the miniature dishwashing test that is discussed later. Another limitation of this test is that it is subjective and thus can vary from operator to operator. B. Evaluation of Foam Performance Foam volume and foam stability tests are widely used for evaluating LDLDs. Foam volume tests measure the amount of foam a composition can generate with and without soil. Foam stability, sometimes referred to as foam mileage,
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measures the ability of a detergent to maintain its foam with soil present or while oil is introduced. 1. Foam Volume Tests Foam volume is an important characteristic of lightduty dishwashing detergents, higher foam heights being desirable because consumers generally equate foaming with cleaning performance [3]. An ASTM method [65] for the evaluation of foam volume of light duty dishwashing liquids is more commonly known as the RossMiles foam test. This method is widely used for evaluating the foaming ability of a detergent or surfactants in general. Numerous other foam volume tests are cited in the patent literature that differ significantly from the RossMiles test. These test methods are faster and easier for foam volume evaluation [61,66]. Foam volume tests can be conducted with soil or without soil. One foam volume test without soil [67] is conducted by placing a solution of a composition into a cylinder. The cylinder is shaken or inverted a fixed number of times or for a set amount of time. The foam height is measured in centimeters or milliliters. A foam volume test with soil is conducted the same way but with soil added to the test solution. The soil can either be added with the solution initially or added after foam is generated. 2. Foam Stability Tests Various types of foam stability or foam mileage tests are found in the literature. All use the same basic theme of generating a foam under constant agitation followed by the addition of soil to the solution until the foam collapses. Foam mileage tests measure the product's ability to resist foam depletion in the presence of soil. The amount of soil needed to break the foam is an indication of the product's ability to retain the foam while soiled dishes are washed. The more soil it takes to break the foam, the better is the product's performance. Examples of some foam mileage tests are briefly described here. (a) Soil Titration Method (STM). The STM test [68] involves generating a foam under constant agitation, followed by titrating with a soil at a constant mass flow rate until a foam end point is reached. The amount of soil needed to collapse the foam is measured. Products requiring more soil have better foam stability. A foam performance ratio (FPR) is calculated by
This test was developed to screen potential formulas because hand dishwashing tests are time consuming and are operator dependent. This test was found to correlate with a hand dishwashing test [68]. Figure 8 shows the good correla
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Fig. 8 Correlation between the hand dishwashing and the foam performance ratio. (Source: From Ref. 68, reproduced by permission.)
tion between foam performance ratio and number of plates washed at ambient and elevated temperatures. (b) Tergotometer Test. The Tergotometer test is commonly used in evaluating the detergency of laundry products. It was modified [63] for the evaluation of LDLDs. The Tergotometer provides constant agitation in which a dilute solution of test composition is added and foams are generated. Small metal plates covered with soil are periodically added until the foam height is reduced to a foam end point or a fixed foam height. The number of small metal plates added to the foam end point reflects the foam stability of a composition. (c) Piston Plunger Test. Another foam mileage test is referred to as the piston plunger test [69]. In this test, similar to the Tergotometer test, foams are generated and soil is added until the foam is depleted. The soils used in this test are commercial foods, such as Crisco shortening and Ragu spaghetti sauce. The amount of soil needed to break the foam is an indication of the product's efficacy. (d) Dishwashing Test (Foam End Point). An ASTM method [70] exists for the evaluation of the performance of hand dishwashing detergents based on foam stability. The objective of this test is to provide a standard test for the formulator and suppliers, a screening test for formulations, and quality control. One method described uses a dishcloth to wash the front and back of each dish at a fixed time interval. Dishes are continually washed to a foam end point as determined by a thin layer of foam covering half the surface. Standard soils are described, an example being a mixture of oils (Wesson and corn), grease (lard), oleic acid, gelatin, salt, flour, and water. Another example of a dishwashing test [69] consists of soiling dishes with
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Crisco by spreading a fixed amount on the dish. A basin of water is prepared in which the temperature, water hardness, and product concentration are adjusted to meet the habits and practices for the intended market. Foam is generated by a mixer or by manual agitation. The plates are washed using standard washing implements, such as sponges or cloths. It is common to fix the time and number of strokes used to wash the plates to minimize variability. The cleaned plate is then stacked, and the process continued until the foam end point is reached. Again, the foam end point is when half the surface of the water is covered with foam. The plates washed are counted and used as a relative measure of the product's performance. (e) Miniature Dishwashing Test. A miniature dishwashing test [71] was developed as a means to reduce the time required for actual washing tests. Instead of using actual plates, “miniplates” (small watch glasses) are used. This test still uses foam end point as a means of determining a product's performance, but it scales down the number and size of the plates washed, thus reducing the time for completing an evaluation. (f) Modified SchlachterDierkes Test. In the modified SchlachterDierkes test [72], product is placed in a graduated cylinder and inverted to generate foams. Soil increments are added at fixed intervals until the foam collapses. The results are recorded as the number of soil increments, the higher value being better foam stability. (g) Total Foam and Foam Mileage. In the total foam and foam mileage test [18], graduated cylinders are charged with test solution consistent with conditions for the intended market. The cylinders are stationed side by side and rotated to generate a foam, and initial foam heights are measured. Soil is added and the cylinders are again rotated. The foam height is again recorded. Soil is repeatedly added to a low foam height. A control is tested with each run and compared with the test product. Total foam and foam mileage is determined by the following:
C. Evaluation of Mildness Mildness has become an increasingly important product attribute of lightduty dishwashing detergents. Mildness assessments typically involve clinical and sensory evaluations of skin irritation. Clinical irritation is usually evaluated by trained clinicians on the observable changes of the skin caused by exposure to
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an LDLD. Erythema (redness), dryness, and flaking are most commonly evaluated. Sensory irritation is the consumer or panelist evaluation of the product's mildness. Common sensory signals are feelings of dryness, tightness, or roughness, lack of softness or smoothness, and red appearance. Mildness evaluations are usually conducted in both in vitro and in vivo testing. 1. In Vivo Tests Hand immersion and patch tests are the two common types of in vivo testing used for evaluating the mildness of LDLDs. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages, as discussed here. (a) Hand Immersion Tests. Hand immersion tests consist of panelists immersing their hands into a solution of the test composition or commercial product for a given period of time. The test conditions are generally those encountered by the consumer during regular dishwashing. Temperature, water hardness, product concentration, and time must all be properly controlled. After immersion, the hands are rated during and after use for different attributes, such as skin smoothing, hand feel (sticky or slimy), hand roughening, and redness. The rating can be done by the panelist comparing the feel between two test compositions or can be evaluated by a trained observer. Patel et al. [73] used hand immersion testing to measure the skinsmoothing properties of a dishwashing detergent that incorporates a skinsmoothing compound. In this test, panelists immersed their hands in a solution of test composition at a fixed temperature for short periods of time, rinse under tap water, and towel dry. The panelists evaluated their hands for smoothness as they dried them. The hand immersion test is analogous to dishwashing tests in that the test composition is evaluated under close to realistic conditions as experienced by consumers and provide a more accurate account of a product's mildness. The same drawbacks are encountered with the hand immersion test as with dishwashing tests: it usually takes a long time to complete and is subjective. In addition, only two products can be compared by panelists at one time. (b) FroschKligman Soap Chamber Test. The FroschKligman soap chamber test [74] is designed to evaluate the mildness of surfactant compositions on individuals with hypersensitive skin. An individual is considered hypersensitive if the treated site appears confluently red 24 h after occlusion with 0.75% sodium lauryl sulfate for 6 h. Once screened, a panelist is exposed for 5 weekdays to a solution of product or test composition. The exposure time varies from 24 h on the first day to 6 h on days 2–5. On the following Monday, the panelist is evaluated for scaling, redness, and fissuring based on the rating scales shown in Table 8. The total score is determined by summing the averages of the three parameters. The advantages of the FroschKligman test are that multiple products can
TABLE 8 Rating System for the FroshKligman Soap Chamber Test Erythema
Scaling
Fissures
1+ slight redness, spotty or diffuse
1+ fine
1+ fine cracks
2+ moderate, uniform redness
2+ moderate
2+ single or multiple bro
3+ intense redness
3+ severe with large flakes
3+ wide cracks with hem or exudation
4+ fiery red with edema
be evaluated at once (up to eight), predicting erythema and dryness, and it takes to complete the evaluation and thus is a good screening test. The disadvantage wi that the exposure is unrealistic and is expensive. Consumers do not have their han with the wash solution for 24 h periods or even 6 h per day. (c) Patch Test. Similar to the FroschKligman test, this test is generally used to s potential compositions. In this type of test, a “patch” or chamber is used to keep of diluted product against the skin for a given period of time. The arms are the ar used. The solution usually used for this test is one that consumers normally use fo dishes. The duration of product contact to the skin can vary from one application repeated applications for longer than 24 h. In one variation [69], plastic disks are keep a solution of test product on the forearm for a 24 h period. The arms are th after another 24 h without contact with product. Scores are then given with the le product having the lowest score. In another variation [75], a sealing “Finn chamber” (aluminum disk) is used for 24 h and the skin is evaluated 1 h after rem disk. This process is repeated for a second time. An overall rating is determined the rating for the degree of reaction by the rating for the observed symptom. The used and the symptoms with their rating are shown in Table 9. The total irritation is calculated by summing the scores of all the observed sympto example, redness is observed with slight reaction and dryness with moderate rea total irritation for that area is then (3 x 2) + (1 x 3) = 9. (d) Human Repeat Insult Patch Test (HRIPT). HRIPT is similar to FroschKli chamber and patch testing because the product is patched onto skin. This test is used for cosmetic products to determine allergic reaction. Manufacturers of LDL beginning to use this type of testing as
TABLE 9 Reaction Rating Scale and Symptoms Ratings for Patch Test Reaction
Rating
Symptom
No visible reaction
0
Vesicles
Reaction only just visible
1
Edema
Slight reaction
2
Redness
Moderate reaction
3
Flaking
Serious reaction
4
Dryness
Wrinkles
Semitransparency
Glasslike
R
such products as Palmolive Sensitive Skin (ColgatePalmolive) and Clear Ivory ( Gamble, P&G) are becoming borderline cosmetic products. This test is conducte patching product at a high concentration (5%) three times a week for 3 weeks, f a rest period without patching for 2 weeks. The product is again patched at the s concentration on a site not previously used. The new sites are evaluted for erythe (redness) and edema (swelling) after 48 and 72 h of exposure and are compared initial patching. The panelist is considered to have an allergic reaction if the levels erythema and edema are higher than the initial values. (e) 21 Day Cumulative Patch Test. The 21 day cumulative patch test [76] uses patches made of nonwoven fabric impregnated with the test liquid that are place back and occluded with tape. The patches are removed after every 24 h period after 30 minutes, and a new patch is applied. Testing continues for 21 days or unt maximum reading occurs. A numeric score or cumulative irritation index is calcula each test liquid according to Table 10. This is done on a daily basis and totaled after 21 days. The lower the reading, the irritating is the liquid. Variations in this test include varying the concentration and testing (a petrolatum ring is used instead of a patch that confines the liquid). TABLE 10 21 Day Cumulative Patch Test Numeric Score Index Index
Description
0
Negative reading (questionable erythema not covering entire patch area)
1
Definite erythema covering entire patch area
2
Erythema and induration
3
Vesiculation
4
Bullous reaction
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2. In Vitro Tests In vitro tests are generally used to screen formulations because this type of testing is relatively easy to perform, is inexpensive, and can be correlated with an in vivo test. The most common type of in vitro test as evidenced in the patent literature is protein denaturation. (a) Protein Denaturation. Protein denaturation by surfactants is considered one of the major causes of skin irritation and roughness induced by surfactants [77]. Consequently, simple and reproducible methods for evaluating protein denaturation by surfactants have been developed. These tests work by measuring the amount of protein that has been denatured after the protein and test composition have been in contact with each other for a given period of time. Prottey et al. [78] have developed a method that can be used to predict the mildness of surfactants and thus dishwashing liquids. They found a correlation between the changes observed in the stratum corneum phosphatase specific activity during normal dishwashing conditions and dryness and flakiness. Figure 9 shows the correlation of hand dryness and acid phosphatasespecific activity after hand immersion in various surfactants. A commercial manufacturer of LDLDs used this method to show that a liquid detergent composition exhibited good mildness [79]. In the protein denaturation test developed by Prottey et al. [78], the interaction of detergents with acid phosphatase enzyme is performed on skin. Others have developed a protein denaturation test that uses wheat germ [80]. Another protein denaturation method mixes an aqueous protein solution of egg yolk albumin and detergent [81]. The mixture is subjected to chromatography and
Fig. 9 Correlation of hand dryness and acid phosphatase. (Source: From Ref. 78, reproduced by permission.)
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compared with the chromatogram of the egg yolk solution alone. Mildness is determined by the amount of denaturation: the milder the composition, the less the percent denaturation. Yet another method uses ovalbumin and human serum albumin and measures protein denaturation via gelpermeation chromatography (GPC) [82]. Figure 10 is an example of a chromatogram using this type of method. Percentage denaturation is then calculated as
Where: H0 = peak height of GPC elution of protein Ht = peak height of GPC elution of protein after mixing with surfactant (b) Zein Test. The zein test [83] is based on the principle of the correlation between the skin compatibility of a surfactant and its solubilization potential for zein (Indian corn protein). The test actually determines the solubility of the zein in the presence of anionic surfactants. Zein is insoluble in water, but surfactant solutions cause part of the zein to dissolve. It has been shown [83] that there is a correlation between the surfactant's ability to dissolve zein and its irritation potential: the higher the solubility of zein, the more irritating the surfactant. The method is based on mixing the surfactant or test composition in water and zein at 25°C under constant stirring for 2 h. The solution is filtered and processed in a centrifuge. The zein value is calculated as
Fig. 10 GPC elution curve protein, surfactant, and mixtures of protein. (Source: From Ref. 82, reproduced by permission.)
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where A is the amount of nitrogen measured in the filtered solution using a microKjeldahl method and B is the amount of nitrogen in the surfactant solution without zein. The proposed irritation potential based on zein value is shown in Table 11. (c) Collagen Swelling Test. The collagen swelling test [84] is used to determine the irritation potential of anionic surfactants and products containing anionic surfactants. In this test, a correlation was found between the swelling of a collagen film and the irritation potential. The more the collagen films swell, the higher is the irritation potential. The test is conducted by treating the collagen film with the test surfactant or composition and placing it into a vial with a buffer and tritiated water. After incubating for 24 h, the collagen films are rinsed to remove any tritiated water and placed in a scintillation vial. The films are digested and treated and then analyzed for radioactivity. The swelling is defined as milliliters water uptake per gram dry collagen. The example shown in Fig. 11 illustrates that LAS and SLS exhibit a high irritation potential compared with AEOS (3EO), Tween 20, and water because they produce a high level of swelling. Similar results for LAS and SLS were reported by Putterman et al. [85] for isolated stratum corneum. (d) Other In Vitro Tests. Other in vitro tests have been developed for evaluating the irritation potential of surfactants or compositions, for example the following: 1. Extraction of Coomassie Brillant Blue R 250 dye from a matrix of gelatin [86]: more dye extracted is an indication of a surfactant's irritancy 2. Swelling of guinea pig stratum corneum [85], in which swelling is an indication of irritation potential D. Other Tests Various other tests are used by formulators to aid formulation or to evaluate some specific benefits. Interfacial tension measurements, the drainage test, and the rinsing test are among the examples. (a) Interfacial Tension Measurement. The emulsification capability of surfactant systems is often screened using interfacial tension measurements. Low TABLE 11 Irritation Potential Based on Zein Value Irritation classification Nonirritant
Zein value (mg N2/100 ml) 0–200
Slight irritant
200–400
Severe irritant
>400
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Fig. 11 Water uptake as a function of surfactant concentration using the collagen swelling test. (Source: From Ref. 84, reproduced by permission.)
interfacial tensions are usually an indication of the surfactant's effective ability to emulsify grease and oily soils [18]. (b) Drainage Test. Faster drying and spotfree utensils may be other consumerdesired benefits of LDLDs. A test method to measure the draining of lightduty liquids was described in U.S. Patent 5,154,850 [66]. In this test plates are immersed in a solution of product for a fixed number of times, removed, and dried under ambient conditions. This cycle is repeated, with the final dipping followed by rinsing. The plate is allowed to dry and the water spots are counted. A product that provides good drainage leaves few or no spots on the utensils. In another drainage test [87], various regular kitchen utensils, such as drinking glasses, glass dinner plates, and ceramic dinner plates, are washed in test compositions under controlled conditions. The utensils are then rinsed and placed in a rack to dry. The time at which drainage begins and the percentage area dried by this drainage are recorded. (c) Rinsing Test. Although copious and longlasting foams are desirable for LDLDs, consumers also want the foam to be easily rinsed away from the dishes so as not to leave residue that could appear as spots. A test method was disclosed in U.S. Patent 5,154,850 for the evaluation of the rinsability of foam generated for an LDLD [66]. This involves making a solution of product, charging it to a container and stirring. The solution is discharged from bot
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tom of the container, leaving residual foam in the container. Tap water is added to the container with residual foam and stirred again. The stirring and draining steps are repeated until no foam remains in the container. The product that needs fewer additions of water is considered to have better rinsing characteristics. V. Formulation Technology A. Formulation Formulating an LDLD is both a science and an art. It requires a good balance among product performance, esthetics, safety, and cost. From the consumer point of view, the important attributes for a liquid hand dishwashing detergents are listed in Table 12. Consequently, liquid dishwashing detergents are formulated to deliver against these consumerrelevant attributes. Formation of LDLDs typically involves (1) selecting appropriate raw materials for the desired performance, (2) developing formulas and optimizing for performance, (3) optimizing product esthetics, (4) testing product safety, (5) optimizing product cost, and (6) aging for product stability, and (7) validating with consumers. The following section presents a review on formulation against these performance attributes with the intent of providing some guidelines. B. Guidelines and Examples 1. Formulating for Effective Cleaning The most important performance attribute of a LDLD is cleaning. As discussed earlier, cleaning of dishes with an LDLD relies primarily on the interfacial properties provided by the surfactants. Various surfactants exhibit different interfacial properties and thus varying ability in removing different soils from TABLE 12 Important Attributes of a Hand Dishwashing Liquid Detergent
Effective cleaning
Copious and longlasting foam
Mildness to hands
Pleasant fragrance
Convenient to use
Safe to humans
Safe to dishes and tableware
Storage stability
Economic to use
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various surfaces. In general, a combination of surfactants is necessary for an LDLD to be effective against the wide spectrum of soils encountered in the real world. A significant number of patents on LDLDs have been issued in the United States, Europe, and Japan in recent years. Listed in Table 13 are recent U.S. patents [27,28,29,62,88–110] on LDLD formulated for effective cleaning. The technology utilized in these patents ranges from special surfactants, surfactant mixtures, salts, and microemulsions to the use of special additives, such as lemon juice and abrasives. 2. Formulating for High and LongLasting Foam It is wellrecognized that foam is the most important visual signal consumers use to judge the performance of an LDLD. This is despite the lack of direct correlation between the foaming and cleaning properties of an LDLD, as discussed earlier. Therefore, it is critically important that the formulators create an LDLD with copious and longlasting foam. Copious foam usually requires the use of highfoaming surfactants, typically anionic or amphoteric surfactants [10,21,111] or a mixture of surfactants. Longlasting foam often requires foam stabilizers [22] in addition to a proper surfactant mixture. Table 14 is a summary of recent U.S. patents [26,72,112– 132] on LDLDs formulating for good foaming properties. The technologies involved are either using novel surfactants or surfactant blends or novel foam stabilizers. 3. Formulating for Mildness For some consumers, mildness to skin is an important attribute of a LDLD, especially those who have sensitive skins. There are essentially two approaches to formulate an LDLD for mildness: (1) use mild surfactants, such as nonionic surfactants, zwitterionic surfactants, or a combination; and (2) use additives that are antiirritants, such as modified proteins or polymers. Recent U.S. patents [13,25,30,66,133–151] on LDLDs claiming a mildness benefit are summarized in Table 15. 4. Formulating for Desirable Esthetics The esthetic attributes of LDLDs are just as important as their performance. This includes color, fragrance, cloud and clear points, viscosity, and product stability. Color, fragrance, and viscosity are usually chosen based on consumer preference. The cloud and clear points must be adequate for the temperature to which the product is likely to be exposed. (a) Cloud and Clear Points. The cloud point is the temperature at which the product begins to turn cloudy or hazy upon cooling. The clear point is the temperature at which the cloudy product turns clear again upon warming. In
Pa
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North America and Europe, it is desirable that the cloud point be below 5°C and the clear point not exceed 10°C. The cloud and clear points of an LDLD can be adjusted using hydrotropes [6,15 such as sodium xylene sulfonate, sodium cumene sulfonate, alcohols, or urea. Fig 12 shows the significant effect of SXS on the clear point of an LDLD formulation is hypothesized that hydrotropes act by destabilizing liquid crystalline phases that might form and separate from the bulk mixture [153]. (b) Viscosity. The viscosity of an LDLD is very important for its consumer acceptability and its dispersibility on dilution [154]. The viscosity of an LDLD is typically in the range of 100–500 CPS. In some markets, such as Malaysia and Hong Kong, consumers like much thicker product with viscosity in the range of 2000–3000 CPS. The viscosity of an LDLD is a strong function of its active ingredient level, the isomer distribution in the surfactant, the relative amount of different surfactants, and the salt levels. Salt can be both a viscosity builder and a viscosity reducer. An example of a simple system is sodium AEOS (2.8 EO) at 15% concentration. The viscosity first increases with the addition of NaCl and th decreases as the amount of NaCl increases [155]. AEOS with narrow EO distribution thickens much more than AEOS
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with a conventional, broad EO distribution. Other factors that affect salt thickenin are carbon chain legnth and carbon chain distribution [155]. Salt also has a significant effect on the viscosity of LAS. Depending on the cation of the LAS, salt in the range 0–2% can have a modest or great effect on the viscosity [154].
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Fig. 12 Effect of sodium xylene sulfonate on clear point of a premium LDL blend. (Source: From Ref. 6, reproduced by permission.)
Fatty alkanolamides are mainly used as foam stabilizers, but they can also have a significant effect on the viscosity of an LDLD formulation. Other viscosity modifiers include hydrotropes, such as alcohol, SXS, SCS, urea, and water soluble polymers. (c) Physical Stability. Physical stability is another important product attribute that cannot be overlooked. Consumers do not want to purchase a product that changes physically over time. This may include precipitation, phase separation, or microbial contamination. Aging studies are typically conducted to achieve physical stability of product at market age. Various aging conditions are necessary to simulate the conditions the product may encounter from warehousing and transportation to storage in stores and at home. This includes elevated temperature, such as 50°C, and low temperature—just above the freezing point. The other standard aging study normally conducted is to expose the product to sunlight to simulate storage of product at home near a kitchen window for color and fragrance stability. During aging, periodic examinations of product are made to check for pH, color, fragrance, appearance and containers for any changes and deviations from room temperature samples. Any unacceptable changes and deviations need to be investigated to identify the cause and to determine corrective measures. The
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entire series of aging studies must be repeated when corrections are made to the formula. To be sure that the product can withstand microbial contamination, adequacy of preservation studies must be conducted. If the product is not able to control the growth of microorganism, incorporation of a suitable preservative is necessary. (d) Product Safety. In addition to performance and esthetics, already discussed, the safety of the final product cannot be overlooked in formulating a dishwashing detergent. This includes safety to humans, safety to surfaces it cleans, and safety to the environment. Typically, eye and skin irritation tests are required. The safety testing and product labeling requirements may vary from country to country. It is important to ensure that all safety testing is conducted in accordance with government regulatory requirements. 5. Other Formulation Technology Other formulation technology may include ways to concentrate an LDLD product and formulating for cost effectiveness and improved odor stability. Table 16 lists recent U.S. patents [31,156–165] on these formulation technologies. VI. New Products and Future Trends Liquid hand dishwashing detergents have gone through continued evolution in recent years. Many new products have been introduced to the marketplace. There are also some significant formulation changes as a result of the advances in new technologies and the changes in consumer habits and practices. A. Line Extensions A perennially popular way of expanding the market for a product is to produce line extensions. In a line extension, the same brand name is applied to a different form of the product. Sometimes there is an alternative physical form, such as a concentrate, powder, or liquid. Sometimes the line extension has new esthetics, such as new color, degree of translucency, or opacity or fragrance. Last, there might be other new features, such as increased mildness, antibacterial efficacy, or presence of a special ingredient. This trend continued to be strong in the early 1990s because of the expense in introducing a new brand name and the difficulties of attracting customer attention in a crowded market [166]. In the United States competition is particularly keen because of a trend to slow growth in the overall LDLD volume. The cooking and eating habits of consumers are changing to lower fat, easier, simpler meals and increased use of prepared food, all of which translates into less dish liquid use [167]. Line extensions are a way of combating this trend.
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B. Clear, Colorless Products Since 1990 there has been a broad trend in the consumer market to clear, water white products. Colorless products present the consumer with a new esthetic experience. Colorless detergent connotes mildness, purity, and safety to the environment. Products as diverse as beer and deodorant have been formulated a clear variants [168,169]. As part of this trend, at least three clear dishwashing liquids have appeared in the United States and spread to Europe (Palmolive Sensitive Skin from
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Colgate and Ivory and Dawn Free from P&G). Ivory was formerly an opacified product. One method was developed [31] to enhance the stability of colorless detergent compositions. It involves the addition of 0.05–0.5% oxygen bleach, preferably H2O2, and 0.01–2% chelating agent, preferably citric acid, as a way to keep the percentage transmittance at 97% after 6 months at 140°F. Table 17 shows two LDLD compositions utilizing such technology for a stable colorless LDLD. Also, there are recent patents on the use of purer and lighter colored raw materials [170,171]. C. Increased Use of Nonionics The appearance of dishwashing liquids using more nonionic surfactants is another recent trend. Small amounts of nonionics, such as amides and amine oxides, have long been used as foam boosters. As discussed earlier, nonionics have not been widely used traditionally because of their low foaming characteristics. By proper formulation, it is possible to have a satisfactorily foaming dish liquid that contains at least 50% ethoxylated fatty alcohol [13]. Examples of nonionic surfactant based compositions having foaming properties equal to or better than those of a conventional anionic surfactantbased dishwashing liquid are listed in Table 18. New nonionics are becoming available that are relatively high sudsing. Alkylpolyglycosides (APGs) are a prime example [172]. Although APGs are not as foamy as anionics, such as ethoxylated alcohol sulfates, they are much foamier TABLE 17 Examples of Stable Colorless Liquid Dishwashing Detergent Compositions Using H2O2
Ingredient
A (%)
B (%)
NH 4C12–13alkylEO1sulfate
15.5
28.5
NH 4C12–13alkylEO6.5sulfate
12
Tetronic 704
0.1
Cocoamidopropylbetaine
0.9
C12dimethylamine oxide
5
2.6
NaCl
1
MgCl2
3.3
Ammonium xylene sulfonate
4
3.0
Ethanol
5.5
4
Perfume
0.09
0.18
Citric acid
0.1
Disodiumdiethylene pentaacetate
0.1
H2O2
0.18
0.17
Pa TABLE 18 Examples of HighFoaming Nonionic SurfactantBased Liquid Dishwashing Detergent Compositions Ingredient
A (%)
B (%)
C (%
Neodol 918
16
19
Neodol 916
19
Ammonium lauryl sulfate
6
6
6
Cocoamidopropylbetaine
4
4
4
LMMEA
3
5
5
Ethanol
5
5
5
SXS
7
7
7
Water, fragrance, color
Balance
than nonionics. By the RossMiles foam method (0.1% solution, 49°C, after 5 minutes), a C12 alcohol sulfate would have 18.5 cm foam, a C12 alkyl polyoxyethy (6.5 EO) alcohol would have 2.5 cm foam, and a C12 APG would have 15 cm fo [173]. APGs of varying hydrophobes and degrees of polymerization are availabl least three commercial dishwashing detergents contain APGs, one in Europe, one the United States, and one in Japan [174,175]. In addition to being relatively high foamers, APGs have some other useful properties. They are completely biodegradable, ecologically safe, and mild to the skin and offer wetting properties similar to those of anionic surfactants. Both the hydrophile and hydrophobe come from oleochemical resources [176]. Table 19 shows examples of LDLDs formul with APGs [116]. Polyoxyalkalenes and fatty acid glucamides are also part of the trend to the incre use of nonionics in dish liquids. Fatty acid glucamides interact strongly with anioni surfactants to give suds boosting, interfacial tension lowering, and irritancy reducti [177]. The glucamides are completely and rapidly biodegradable in the Sterm tes They are highly removed in activated sludge sewage treatment [178]. A partial p diagram has been reported. There are two crystal structures of polymorphs, one extended and one bent [179]. Examples of LDLDs formulated with fatty acid glucamides are listed in Table 20 [18,20]. D. Environmental and Regulatory Concerns Products with an environmental positioning are a continuing trend, especially in Europe [180]. In 1992, Pril, a leading German brand, was reformulated to have mildness and environmental friendliness platform. One feature of both
TABLE 19 Examples of Liquid Dishwashing Detergent Compositions Using Alkyl Polygly Ingredient
A (%)
B (%)
Ammonium C11–12alkylbenzene sulfonate
17.5
—
Magnesium C11.4alkylbenzene sulfonate
6.4
—
Ammonium C12–13alkylpolyoxyethylene (EO0.8) sulfate
6.1
—
Ammonium C12–13alkylsulfate
—
15.7
Sodium C12–16 olefin sulfonate
—
10.4
Cocomonoethanolamide
—
5.5
C12–13alkyl polyglycoside1.7
5.0
5.9
C12alkyl dihydroxyethylamine oxide
—
—
MgCl2∙6H2
—
5.6
Ammonium xylene sulfonate
3.0
—
Ethanol
3.7
4
Water, perfume, minors
Balance
APG and fatty acid glucamides is that both hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends ca “naturally derived” or from “renewable resources.” Neither is a natural product. are intensively processed. There is considerable debate over whether oleochemic petrochemical sourcing is better for the environment [181]. Government regulations are a continuing source of challenge to the makers of con detergent products. For example, in Europe, the Directive on the Classification, Labeling of Dangerous Substances of the European Economic Community (EEC published [182]. Since then, the directive has been amended to require manufact consumer products TABLE 20 Examples of Liquid Dishwashing Detergent Compositions Using Methyl Ester Glucamide Surfactant
A (%)
B (%)
C12–14alkyl EO8
16
AEOS
15
Amine oxide
4
Glucamide
8
10
Betaine
2
3
C9–11EO8
8
4
Mg
0.025
0.25
Glucamide
8
10
Betaine
2
3
C9–11EO8
8
4
Mg
0.025
0.25
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according to the hazards posed to the consumer (toxic, corrosive, carcinogenic, eye or skin irritant, and so on) and package and label them accordingly [183,184]. The member states of the EEC had to incorporate the directive into their laws by October 1993. The method of classification is basically either directly to test the final composition or to estimate the hazards by using a calculation (called the conventional method). The calculation depends on the sum of the hazards of the individual components and their percentage in the final composition. The products must be classified according to their concentration when they are sold to the public. LDLDs with concentration above 20% AI must be sold in packages with irritant warning labels, even though the the LDLD is mild when diluted for use. Labeling requirements affect the composition of dish liquids by accelerating the incorporation of milder surfactants. E. Dish Liquids with Added Benefits Another trend is the addition of new benefits. This is in part a reflection of the overall trend of making consumer products multipurpose [185]. An example is the introduction of a combination dishwashing liquid and antibacterial hand soap by Colgate Palmolive in 1994. About twothirds of the people who wash their hands in the kitchen use dish detergent [186], possibly because it is handy. This product has the benefit that, in addition to washing dishes, when used undiluted it kills possibly pathogenic germs on hands. Colgate's product was quickly followed by Dial dishwashing liquid, which also claimed antibacterial hand soap properties. The interest in antibacterial properties fits a growing concern about germs on the part of the public [187]. F. Concentrates Dish detergents in developed markets have become more concentrated as part of a general trend that can also be seen in laundry detergents and hard surface cleaners [188–190]. The trend toward dish liquid concentrates in formerly dilute markets started in Europe in 1992. In Germany (previously a 20–25% AI market), the market was evolved into concentrated products with the introduction of Unilever's Sunlight Progress, Colgate's Ultra Plus, Henkel's Pril Supra, and P&G's Fairy Ultra. It remains to be seen whether products with even higher active levels (40–50%) will be accepted by consumers in the United States and Europe. References 1. H. Andree and B. Middelhauve, in Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Detergents: Global Perspectives (A. Cahn, ed.), AOCS Press, Illinois, 1994, pp. 95–98.
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(1984). 127. K. Y. Lai, R. C. Pierce, J. Dupre, and H. S. Killam, U.S. Patent 4,454,060 to ColgatePalmolive Co. (1984). 128. J. Gerritsen, R. E. Atkinson, A. F. Martin, and M. R. Atkins, U.S. Patent 4,435,317 to Procter & Gamble Co. (1984). 129. N. Ootani, T. Ishii, and H. Ikeda, U.S. Patent 4,486,338 to Kao Corp. (1984). 130. I. R. Schmolka, U.S. Patent 4,490,279 to BASF Wyandotte Corp. (1984). 131. K. Tsujii, N. Saito, and M. Kawai, U.S. Patent 4,277,378 to Kao Soap Co. (1981). 132. B. Rossall and J. D. Hampson, U.S. Patent 4,235,752 to Lever Brothers Co. (1980). 133. S. T. Repinec, G. S. Gomes, and R. Erilli, U.S. Patent 5,385,696 to ColgatePalmolive Co. (1995).
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8 HeavyDuty Liquid Detergents AMIT SACHDEV and SANTHAN KRISHNAN Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, P New Jersey I. Introduction II. Physical Characteristics of HDLDs A. Structured liquids B. Unstructured liquids C. Nonaqueous liquids III. Components of HeavyDuty Liquid Detergents and Their Properties A. Surfactants B. Builders C. Enzymes D. Bleaches E. Optical brighteners F. Detergent polymers G. Miscellaneous ingredients IV. Product Evaluation Methods A. Physical properties B. HDLD detergency evaluation V. Future Trends Appendix References
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I. Introduction Heavyduty liquid detergents (HDLDs) were introduced into the laundry market much later than powder detergents. The first commercial heavy duty liquid detergent appeared in the United States in 1956. Liquid detergents were introduced in the Far East/Pacific countries and Europe only in the 1970s and 1980s, respectively (Fig. 1). Heavyduty liquids have several advantages over powder detergents. The liquid detergents readily and completely dissolve in water, especially cool or cold water. They can be easily dispensed from the bottle or refill package with relatively less messiness than powder detergents, and they do not tend to cake
FIG. 1 Commercial North American (above) and European and Asian/Pacific HDLDs.
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in storage as powders often do when exposed to moisture. Furthermore, liquid detergents lend themselves to pretreatment at full strength directly on stains and thus provide a convenient way to remove tough stains. A typical heavyduty liquid detergent consists of all or some of the following components: surfactants, builders, optical brighteners, enzymes, polymers, and fragrance. In addition, it may contain other special ingredients designed for specific functions. Both anionic and nonionic surfactants are used in the formulation of liquid detergents. Surfactants are primarily responsible for wetting the surfaces of fabrics as well as the soil, helping to lift the stains off the fabric surface and to stabilize dirt particulates or emulsify grease droplets [1–4]. The main anionic surfactants are sodium alkylbenzene sulfonate, alkyl sulfate, and alkyl ethoxylated sulfate. Nonionic surfactants used are primarily ethoxylated fatty alcohols. Other surfactants are also used in HDLDs and are discussed in a subsequent section. Builders are formulated into detergents mainly to sequester the hardness of the water as well as to disperse the dirt and soil particulates in the washwater. Common builders used are sodium and potassium polyphosphates, silicates, carbonates, aluminosilicates, and citrates [5]. Optical brighteners are colorless dyes that absorb ultraviolet radiation and emit bluish light, making fabrics look whiter and brighter. Most detergents contain brighteners in their composition, their content adjusted more or less to reflect regional consumer preferences and marketing claims. The enzymes in HDLDs usually consist of a protease and an amylase. In addition, the detergent may also contain lipase and cellulase enzymes. The function of the protease is to digest protein stains such as blood and proteinaceous food stains, while the amylase acts on starchy stains. Lipase attacks fatty chains in greasy stains and is good at cleaning certain oily soils. Cellulase is an enzyme that acts on cellulase and is being used in detergents for removing prills in cotton fabrics, thereby restoring reflectance of the fabric surface and making colors look brighter [6]. Liquid laundry detergents may be classified into two main types: unstructured liquids and structured liquids. Unstructured liquid detergents typically are isotropic, have a large and continuous water phase, and are the most widespread type of liquid detergents in the U.S. market. Structured liquid detergents are those consisting of multilamellar surfactant droplets suspended in a continuous water phase. These structured liquids are capable of suspending insoluble particles such as builders (phosphates, zeolites). These liquids are in use in Europe and in Asian and Pacific countries. A further type of liquid is one where the continuous phase is nonaqueous. Only one commercial example of this type of liquid detergent is known.
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The sections that follow describe the physical characteristics of heavyduty liquids, followed by detailed descriptions of typical formulation components of liquid detergents and their functions. A brief section on evaluation methodologies follows. Finally, emerging trends in the formulation and detergency of heavyduty liquids are discussed. A comprehensive tabulation of the patents relevant to HDLDs is given in the Appendix at the end of this chapter. II. Physical Characteristics of HDLDs The physical form and appearance of laundry liquids can vary greatly among various regions of the world. These differences in types of liquid detergents from region to region is largely dictated by the laundry habits and personal choices of the consumers in that particular market. HDLDs can be broadly classified into two main types: structured and unstructured liquids. A third type, nonaqueous liquids, have been actively studied and are also discussed in this chapter. Structured liquids are opaque and usually thick and are formed when surfactant molecules arrange themselves as liquid crystals [7–9]. This form of liquid detergent is largely marketed in Europe and the Asian/Pacific regions. Unstructured liquids, on the other hand, are usually thin, clear, or translucent and are formed when all ingredients are solubilized in an aqueous medium. Figure 2 gives examples of unstructured and structured HDLDs. Nonaqueous liquids, in which the continuous medium consists of an organic solvent, can be either structured or unstructured. A. Structured Liquids 1. Introduction The general tendency of liquids containing high levels of anionic surfactants and electrolytic builders is to structure themselves with the formation of liquid crystalline surfactant phases [7–12]. This trend can be accelerated with the use of longer or branched chain alkyl groups and by using a higher electrolyte level [13]. The resulting liquid is opaque, extremely thick, unpourable, and frequently physically unstable. It may also subsequently separate into two or more layers or phases: a thick, opaque surfactantrich phase containing the flocculated liquid crystals and a thin, clear electrolyterich phase. The challenge, therefore, in developing such a liquid is to not only to prevent phase separation of the product but also to reduce the viscosity to a pourable level. A pourable level depends, of course, on the preferences, requirements, and convenience of the consumer. Viscosities of commercially available structured liquids vary from 500 to 9000 cps.
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FIG. 2 Examples of an unstructured (left) and a structured (right) HDLD.
2. Lamellar Structures The liquid crystalline phase in a structured liquid is frequently in the form of spherical lamellar bilayers or droplets [14–18]. The internal structure of these droplets is in the form of concentric alternating layers of surfactant and water. This configuration is often compared to the structure of an onion, which has a similar concentric shelllike structure (Fig. 3). It has been determined that the physical stability of these types of liquids is achieved only when the volume fraction of the bilayer structures is high enough to be spacefilling. This corresponds to a volume fraction of approximately 0.6 [7,8,19]. An excessively high value of this volume fraction, however, will lead to flocculation, high viscosity, and an unstable product. A stable dispersion of the lamellar droplets makes it possible to suspend solids and undissolved particles between the lamellae and in the continuous electrolyte phase. This capability allows the use of relatively high builder/electrolyte levels. Many patents have been issued for structured liquids that have the capability of suspending undissolved solids. The suspended solids include bleaches [20,21], builders such as zeolites [22], and softeners [23,24]. There are a number of factors that determine whether or not a lamellar droplet can form. As a general rule these bilayer structures will develop if the surfactant headgroup is smaller than twice the trans crosssectional area of the alkyl chains of the surfactants [8,13]. This ratio of the areas of the alkyl chain and the surfactant headgroup is referred to as the packing factor of the surfactant system. Among the elements that can accelerate the formation of these struc
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FIG. 3 Schematic diagrams of a nonflocculated lamellar dispersion, a lamellar droplet, and the internal structure of a lamellar droplet. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 10.)
tures is the use of longer chain alkyl chains, branched alkyl groups, dual alkyl groups, and higher levels of electrolytes. Conversely, by using short, straight chain alkyl groups, lower electrolyte levels, or hydrotropes, the onset of the liquid crystalline phase can be delayed. A lamellar droplet is held together by an intricate balance of various interand intradroplet forces [10,11]. Any alteration or imbalance in these forces can have a direct impact on the stability of the structured liquid. Electrostatic repulsion between the charged headgroups of the anionic surfactants is compensated by attractive van der Waals forces between the hydrophobic alkyl chains of the anionic and nonionic surfactants. In addition, there are also osmotic and steric forces between the hydrated headgroups of the nonionic surfactants. These particular interactions can be either attractive or repulsive depending on the “quality” of the solvent [8]. The resultant force has a direct influence on the size of the water layers, the size of the droplet, and eventually the stability of the liquid. 3. Stability of Structured Liquids The balance of attractive forces between the surfactant layers and the compressive/repulsive forces due to steric and/or osmotic interactions makes highly concentrated formulations possible. But a singlephase structured liquid, by its
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very nature, is never in a state of complete equilibrium. However, for practical purposes a stable structured liquid is achieved when the inter and intralamellar forces are manipulated in such a way that phase separation is minimized or avoided. Depending on the extent of concentration of the ingredients, various methods can be employed to stabilize these structured liquids (Fig. 4). The most basic means of achieving stabilization and viscosity reduction is by the addition of electrolytes. The addition of cations in the form of electrolytes such as sodium citrate has the effect of screening out some of the repulsive forces between the negatively charged anionic headgroups. Also, the electrolytes in the continuous layer provide an element of stability by giving it ionic strength. This screening out process reduces the size of the intralamellar water layer and consequently the size of the entire droplet. This reduction of the lamellar size frees up some extra volume in the continuous phase and therefore provides an additional element of stability. Increasing the amounts of citrate works only up to a certain point beyond which there is a greater amount of undissolved salt that will be have to be suspended between the lamellar droplets and can lead to excessive thickening. Another consequence of adding large
FIG. 4 Schematic diagrams depicting the stability of (a) unstable and (b) stable structured HDLDs.
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amounts of electrolyte is the further erosion of the intralamellar water layer. This water layer has to be maintained at a level that is sufficient to hydrate the headgroups of the nonionic surfactants. Saltingout electrolytes [25], of which sodium citrate is an example, also hydrate and therefore compete with the nonionics and other ingredients for the water. Excessive shrinkage of the water layer can therefore result in product instability. (a) Free Polymers. The addition of electrolytes assists in lowering viscosities and in stabilizing the structured liquid only up to a certain degree [26–28]. Polyethylene glycol and polyacrylates are examples of free polymers. These polymers are nonstructuring, and consequently they do not have the capability of adsorbing onto the lamellar dispersions. Instead they function by means of osmotic compression, which results in shrinkage of the lamellar droplet. The consequence of this reduction in the volume of the individual droplets is a higher void fraction in the liquid. This polymer can therefore be used only up to the point at which the optimum void fraction is achieved. Further increases in the free polymer often lead to depletion flocculation, which is also accompanied by large increases in viscosity as well as phase separation. Concentrating the structured liquid by merely forming thinner lamellar layers and increasing the volume fraction of the lamellae can have implications for the rheology and pourability of the product. The best pourability characteristics are obtained when the volume fraction of the lamellar phase is as low as possible and the lamellae are relatively large. A compromise between these two pathways or strategies has to be achieved in order to formulate a stable, concentrated liquid with acceptable rheological traits. This task becomes increasingly difficult at even higher concentrations. With only a limited void fraction available, the lamellar droplets, even though they are reduced in size, begin flocculating. (b) Deflocculating Polymers. Free polymers are effective in reducing the size of the lamellar dispersion and thereby imparting stability. However, at ever increasing concentrations of surfactants and builders, simply reducing the intralamellar water layer is not sufficient to prevent flocculation. The problem was successfully addressed by researchers at Unilever, who were able to prevent flocculation by altering the interlamellar forces [13,19,29–31]. This was achieved by means of a deflocculating polymer that could be considered to be bifunctional. These polymers consisted of a hydrophilic backbone attached to a hydrophobic side chain. The hydrophilic component is fundamentally like a free polymer or copolymer in both structure and function. The hydrophobe side chain is typically a long alkyl chain. Figure 5 shows a schematic of an example of a Unilever deflocculating polymer—an acrylate lauryl methacrylate copolymer. The unique aspect of this polymer is its ability to not only utilize its hydrophilic component to induce osmotic compression within the lamellar bilayers
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FIG. 5 An example of a Unilever deflocculating polymer. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 13.)
but also to employ its hydrophobic side chain to adsorb onto the surfactant layers. This hydrophobicity also permits the deflocculating polymer to attach itself to the outer surface of the lamellar droplet and consequently be able to influence the interlamellar interactions. This trait prevents or at least lessens the likelihood of flocculation occurring. The stability of these structured liquids, therefore, is obtained when the lamellae are not only smaller, but also well separated (Fig. 4). This results in not only a singlephase, stable liquid but also a product with good flowability characteristics. Table 1 shows the list of ingredients typically found in a structured HDLD. B. Unstructured Liquids 1. Introduction Heavy duty liquids on the current U.S. market are predominantly in the thin, clear, and unstructured form. All manufacturers market laundry liquids that are
TABLE 1 Example of Structured HDLD Formation Ingredient
Function
Sodium linear alkylbenzene sulfonate
Anionic surfactant
Sodium alkyl ether sulfate
Anionic surfactant
Alcohol ethoxylate
Nonionic surfactant
Sodium carbonate
Builder
Zeolite
Builder
Sodium perborate
Bleach
Polymer
Stabilizer
Protease
Enzyme
Fluorescent whitening agent
Brightener
Boric acid
Enzyme stabilizer
Preservative
Fragrance
Colorant
unstructured, thin, and clear. Besides the obvious differences in the physical appe properties between the structured and unstructured liquids, there are other dissim the formulation of these liquids that can have a direct impact on the cleaning perfo the product. Unstructured liquids are commonly formulated with higher amounts surfactants in conjunction with lower builder levels (see Table 2). This is in contra structured liquids, which need more builders and electrolytes to sustain the struct TABLE 2 Example of Unstructured HDLD Formulation Ingredient
Function
Sodium linear alkylbenzene sulfonate
Anionic surfactant
Sodium alkyl ether sulfate
Anionic surfactant
Alcohol ethoxylate
Nonionic surfactant
Sodium citrate
Builder
Monoethanolamine
Buffer
Soap
Defoamer
Protease
Enzyme
Fluorescent whitening agent
Brightener
Boric acid
Enzyme stabilizer
Ethanol
Solvent
Sodium xylene sulfonate
Hydrotrope
Preservative
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phase. The physical appearance and stability of structured liquids are very dependent on surfactant ratios, whereas the clear, unstructured liquids allow far greater flexibility in choosing surfactant ratios as long as a single phase is maintained. The main advantage in structured liquids is their ability to suspend undissolved and insoluble solids. The unstructured, clear liquids, on the other hand, by their very nature do not permit the use of insoluble materials. This results in the use of only soluble builders, and at relatively low levels, and precludes the use of other useful builder ingredients such as zeolites. It cannot be said that one form of liquid has a distinct advantage over the other. The formulation and marketing of either form may be dependent on such factors as efficacy targets, consumer preferences and habits, choice and availability of raw materials, and cost considerations. 2. Stability of Unstructured Liquids Unlike structured liquids, unstructured, thin, clear liquids can be developed only if the onset of the formation of liquid crystals is delayed or broken up. This can be accomplished by two different methods: (1) by adding hydrotropes and solvents that can disrupt or prevent any liquid crystal formation and also aid in solubilizing the other components in the formulation or (2) by increasing the water solubility of the individual components. More than likely a combination of the two techniques is used to develop a stable liquid. The respective costs of these approaches ultimately determines their use in the final formulation. Some of the methods used to formulate stable, singlephase, thin, clear, unstructured liquids are summarized below. Compounds such as sodium xylene sulfonate (SXS), propylene glycol, and ethanol are useful in disrupting and preventing the formation of lamellar structures that can opacify and thicken the liquid. SXS is especially useful in solubilizing LAS. Propylene glycol and ethanol have the additional benefit of contributing to enzyme stability. The main drawback of using these compounds is that they do not contribute to the detergency performance of the product. Their principal function is to aid in achieving the thin, clear appearance by solubilizing various ingredients and preventing precipitation and phase separation. It is possible to form concentrated liquid detergents that do not require additional ingredients to assist in the maintenance of a clear appearance. This is usually accomplished by minimizing the use of LAS and electrolytes and maximizing the use of nonionics. The use of ingredients with increased water solubility is probably the most effective tool for producing a singlephase thin, clear liquid. Potassium salts generally tend to be more soluble than their sodium cation counterparts. In these formulations, a higher level of potassium citrate than sodium citrate can be successfully incorporated. Detergency performance is not affected by replacing the Na+ cation with K+.
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Citrate compounds are saltingout electrolytes—they may tie up water molecules in the liquid and as a result help force the formation of liquid crystals or lamellar structures. It is sometimes possible to reverse this trend by adding saltingin electrolytes, compounds with high lyotropic numbers (>9.5) that can raise the cloud point of the liquid formulation [25]. This permits increased concentration without the onset of structuring. Ethanolamines such as monoethanolamine (MEA) and triethanolamine (TEA) can also be invaluable in enhancing the solubility of the ingredients. These compounds are bifunctional in that they have characteristics common to both alcohols and amines. As a result, salts of MEA and TEA are more soluble than those prepared with Na+. Neutralizing sulfonic acid with MEA is a very effective way of freeing up additional water to allow for further concentration. In addition, any free alkanolamine that is not tied up as a salt behaves like an alcohol and can aid in solubilizing other ingredients. These compounds also provide detergency benefits by buffering the washwater. C. Nonaqueous Liquids Nonaqueous liquids may be classified as structured or unstructured depending on the level of surfactants and other components in their formulation [32]. These detergents have several advantages over aqueous formulations. Nonaqueous detergents can contain all the primary formulation components, including those that are not compatible with or are difficult in aqueous systems. The liquid matrix is a nonionic surfactant or a mixture of nonionic surfactants and a polar solvent such as glycol ether [33–36]. Builders such as phosphates, citrates, or silicates can be incorporated, although zeolites containing about 20% water are not generally recommended [37]. Phosphatefree formulations have also been reported [38]. Bleaches, such as tetraacetyl ethylenediamine (TAED) activated sodium perborate monohydrate, can be included in these formulations. Since these formulations do not contain water, enzymes may be added with minimal need for stabilizers. Softening ingredients can also be included [39,40]. Furthermore, excellent flexibility in the concentration of the detergent can be attained because only the active cleaning ingredients can be included in the formulation. The density of the finished product can be as high as 1.35 g/mL for structured liquids, requiring low dosages for equivalent cleaning. However, the two major challenges facing this technology are physical stability of the product and dispensability and solubilization in the washing machine. III. Components of HeavyDuty Liquid Detergents and Their Properties Heavyduty laundry liquid formulations vary enormously depending upon the washing habits and practices of the consumers in a given geographic region.
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The degree of complexity can range from formulations that contain minimal amounts of cleaning ingredients to highly sophisticated compositions consisting of superior surfactants, enzymes, builders, and polymers. This section describes the ingredients found in typical HDLD formulations. A. Surfactants Surfactants are the major cleaning components of HDLD formulations throughout the world. Unlike powder detergents, physical and phase stability considerations greatly limit the use of other cleaning ingredients, chiefly builders. Surfactants contribute to the stain removal process by increasing the wetting ability of the fabric surface and stains and by assisting in the dispersion and suspension of the removed soils. An HDLD formulator has a vast array of surfactants from which to choose [41]. A comprehensive listing and description of these surfactants are beyond the scope of this article. The choice and levels of surfactants used in commercial HDLD products depend not only on their performance and physical stability characteristics but also on their cost effectiveness. This section briefly describes the anionic and nonionic surfactants commonly used in commercial HDLD formulations. Cationic surfactants, though also used on a large scale, are mostly used in fabric softener products. Linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS), alcohol ethoxylates, and alkyl ether sulfactes are three of the most widely used types of surfactants in liquid laundry detergents [42]. Recently, various external considerations, such as environmental pressures, have prompted manufacturers to change their surfactants mix to include newer natural types of surfactants [43–45]. 1. Linear Alkylbenzene Sulfonate (LAS) The excellent costperformance relationship of linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (LAS) makes them the dominant surfactants used in laundry detergents [46]. Recent trends in Europe and North America indicate a gradual reduction in their use in HDLDs. Nevertheless, their use in laundry liquids globally is still substantial, especially in the developing regions of the world. De Almeida et al. [47] and Matheson [48] provide a comprehensive examination of the processing, production, and use of linear alkylbenzene in the detergent industry. Linear alkylbenzene sulfonates are anionic surfactants and are prepared by sulfonating the alkylbenzene alkylate and subsequently neutralizing it with caustic soda or any other suitable base. The alkylate group is typically a linear carbon chain of length ranging from C10 to C15, with a phenyl group attached to one of the secondary carbons on the alkyl chain (Fig. 6). The alkylate portion of the molecule is hydrophobic, whereas the sulfonate group provides the water solubility and the hydrophilicity. Most commercial alkylates are mixtures of various phenyl isomers and carbon chain homologs [49]. The
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FIG. 6 Structures of typical HDLD surfactants.
position of the phenyl group depends on the manufacturing method. Systems using AlCl3 or HF catalysts are the most common. Table 3 lists a typical isomeric and homolog distribution in linear alkylbenzene produced using the HF process. The length of the carbon chain and the isomeric distribution strongly influence the formulatability and performance of the surfactant. It has been determined that the surface activity of this surfactant increases with longer carbon chain lengths [50]. A longer alkyl chain increases the hydrophobicity of the molecule, lowers its CMC, and generally provides better soil removal charac
TABLE 3 Homolog and Isomeric Distribution of Linear Alkylbenzene Prepared Using the Percent
Compound
C10
C11
C12
C13
5Phenyl decane
29.8
0.06
C10–13 ØC11.5
4Phenyl decane
26.6
0.05
3Phenyl decane
22.7
0.09
2Phenyl decane
20.1
0.2
6/5Phenyl undecane
0.4
43.1
4Phenyl undecane
0.2
21.4
3Phenyl undecane
0.2
17.6
2Phenyl undecane
0.1
14.9
6Phenyl dodecane
0.6
22.2
0.07
5Phenyl dodecane
0.6
28.0
0.06
4Phenyl dodecane
0.9
15.5
0.1
3Phenyl dodecane
0.3
12.9
0.2
2Phenyl dodecane
0.1
12.0
0.5
6/7Phenyl tridecane
0.06
33.2
5Phenyl tridecane
0.05
22.2
4Phenyl tridecane
0.02
15.3
3Phenyl tridecane
13.3
2Phenyl tridecane
9.4
2Phenyl isomer
20.2
15.2
12.0
9.9
Source: Ref. 4.
14.8
2Phenyl tridecane
9.4
2Phenyl isomer
20.2
15.2
12.0
9.9
14.8
Source: Ref. 4.
teristics [51–54]. LAS offers superior and very cost effective detergency perfor especially on particulate soils. However, due to its high sensitivity to water hardn best utilized only with an accompanying builder [55]. Figure 7 shows the increase to hardness ions for LAS with longer carbon chain lengths. Without the assistanc builders, the soil removal efficacy of LAS drops rapidly with increasing water har [4,56] (Fig. 8). The amount and type of LAS in HDLDs depend largely on the physical form of t liquid—unstructured or structured. In unstructured liquids, solubility consideration the use of shorter carbon chain lengths ( C11). The choice of cations can also en solubility. Potassium and amine cations such as MEA and TEA can be used inste sodium ions to improve stability [57]. An increase in the proportion of the 2phen the LAS can also increase solubility [58] and sometimes improve the hardness tol the surfactant [59]. In structured liquids, on the other hand, a longer alkyl chain c desirable for the formation of surfactant lamellae. The choice of
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FIG. 7 Ca2+LAS precipitation boundary diagrams. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 55.)
FIG. 8 Soil removal data for LAS as a function of water hardness. Results are shown for surfactant with builder (STPP) and electrolyte. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 4.)
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the counter ion can also affect stability because ions such as Na+ and K+ have different electrolytic strengths, which can also impact phase stability. A disadvantage of using LAS in HDLDs is their detrimental effect on enzymes. With the increasing use of enzymes it becomes necessary to devote a sizable portion of the formulation space and cost to enzyme stabilization. Alternative approaches using surfactants more compatible with enzymes can be employed. 2. Alcohol Ethoxylates Figure 6 shows the general structure of a nonionic alcohol ethoxylate surfactant. Its hydrophobic group is linear with the carbon chain length ranging typically from C10 to C15. The hydrophilic ethoxylate group can vary in size from an average of 5 to 7 mol of ethylene oxide [60–62]. Alcohol ethoxylates are marketed commercially under the trade names Neodol (Shell Chemical Co.), Genapol (Hoechst AG), Tergitol (Union Carbide Co.), and Alfonic (Vista Chemical Co.). The feedstocks for the alcohol can be derived from natural coconut oil sources as well as from petroleum feedstocks. These surfactants are sold in a 100% concentration and are typically in liquid form. Alcohol ethoxylate usage in HDLDs depends on the type or the physical form of the liquid detergent. Its high aqueous solubility makes it a useful ingredient in unstructured liquids. This solubility can be further enhanced by increasing the degree of ethoxylation and decreasing the carbon chain length. However, these modifications can sometimes have negative ramifications for cleaning performance. The choice of carbon chain length and the degree of ethoxylation depend on the physical stability and cleaning requirements of individual formulations. Structured liquids, on the other hand, can tolerate only a limited amount of the nonionic alcohol ethoxylate surfactant, as the stability of these liquids is dependent on the optimum distribution of the size and packing configuration of lamellar droplets. Excessive use of nonionic surfactants can disturb this somewhat delicate equilibrium and cause phase separation of the HDLD. Nonionic surfactants like alcohol ethoxylates demonstrate superior tolerance to hard water ions. This characteristic is especially useful in unstructured HDLD formulations because solubility constraints limit the amount of builder that can be incorporated. They also provide excellent cleaning benefits and are commonly used in conjunction with LAS in HDLD formulations [54,63]. Studies have shown that in LAScontaining products, alcohol ethoxylates can lower the critical micelle concentration (Fig. 9) as well as provide improvements in the detergency [63]. Superior cleaning is observed, especially on oily soils such as sebum on polyester fabrics [64]. The presence of alcohol ethoxylates in an LAScontaining formulation was found to improve detergency, especially at higher
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FIG. 9 Critical micelle concentration (CMC) as a function of nonionic surfactant content in a LAS/NI solution. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 63.)
hardness levels (Fig. 10). Improvements have also been detected when narrow EO range surfactants (Fig. 11) are used [65]. This insensitivity to calcium ions also provides a very important benefit in the stabilization of enzymes (see Sec. III.C). It has been shown that these surfactants are not as detrimental to the preservation of enzymes in HDLDs as NaLAS. With increasing reliance on the use of enzymes in the laundry cleaning process, nonionic surfactants like alcohol ethoxylates play an important role in enhancing enzyme stability. 3. Alkyl Ether Sulfates (AEOS) Alkyl ether sulfates are also anionic surfactants that are manufactured by sulfating alcohol ethoxylate surfactants [66]. Figure 6 shows the structure of the molecule, which consists of the alcohol ethoxylate connected to a sulfate group. The EO groups typically range in size from 1 to 3 moles. These surfactants provide numerous benefits that make them an attractive option to HDLD formulators. They are commonly used in both structured and unstructured liquids. Their high water solubility makes it possible to use a wide range of levels in unstructured liquids. They can also be successfully incorporated in structured liquids. Unlike NaLAS, alcohol ether sulfates are more tolerant to hardness ions and as a result do not require an accompanying high level of builder in the formulation. Figure 12 shows the relative insensitivity of alkyl ether sulfates to hardness ions. The addition of small amounts of NaAEOS to LAS was found to improve interfacial properties. They are more friendly to enzymes, which can also reduce the cost of enzyme stabilizers in the formulation. They are also milder to the skin and as a result are used in hand dishwashing formulations. The
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FIG. 10 Detergency performance at 100°F of LAS and LAS/AE blends. Formulation also contained 25% STPP, 10% silicate, and 35% sodium sulfate. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 63.)
superior detergency performance of this surfactant is demonstrated by its superior efficacy in most stain categories. 4. Alkyl Sulfates Alkyl sulfates are anionic surfactants (Fig. 6) that are used primarily in Europe as a substitute for LAS [43]. Environmental considerations have prompted manufacturers to use surfactants of this type, which can be derived from oleochemical sources. The carbon chain length can range from C10 to C18. Tallow alcohol sulfate is a common form used in HDLDs. It provides excellent detergency and good foaming and solubility characteristics.
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FIG. 11 Typical ethoxylate adduct distribution in narrowrange and broadrange C alcohol surfactants with similar 12–14
cloud points. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 62.)
FIG. 12 Data showing the hardness tolerance of alkyl ether sulfate surfactants. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 4.)
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5. Polyhydroxy Fatty Acid Amides (Glucamides) Polyhydroxy fatty acid amides (Fig. 6) are currently used in light duty and heavy duty laundry liquids. Recent advances in the technology for the manufacture of these surfactants has made their use economically feasible [67– 69]. The use of natural or renewable raw materials improves their biodegradation characteristics. Several patents have been filed for detergent formulations containing glucamides that claim superiority in cleaning efficacy for oily/ greasy and enzymesensitive stains [70–73]. Synergies with other anionic and nonionic surfactants have been reported [72,73]. Their improved skin mildness qualities can be useful in lightduty liquid applications [74]. Enzyme stabilization characteristics in glucamide formulations are also enhanced relative to LAScontaining HDLDs. 6. Methyl Ester Sulfonates Methyl ester sulfonates are anionic surfactants (Fig. 6) that are also derived from oleochemical sources and have good biodegradability characteristics. They are currently used in only a limited number of markets, primarily in Japan [44]. Their good hardness tolerance characteristics (Fig. 13) and their ability to also function as a hydrotrope makes these surfactants a good candidate for liquid detergents [74]. They have also been found to be good cosurfactants for LAScontaining formulations. They can only be used in products with low alkalinity due to the likelihood of hydrolytic cleavage of the ester linkage under high pH conditions. 7. Other Surfactants Once used as a major surfactant in detergent formulations, soap is now used only as a minor ingredient in HDLDs. Its function is primarily to provide foam
FIG. 13 Detergency as a function of water hardness in methyl ester sulfonate/LAS formulations. Conditions: 25°C, surfactant 270 ppm, Na2CO3 135 ppm, silicate 135 ppm. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 44.)
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control in the washing machine. European liquid formulations contain higher soap levels than their counterparts in North America because of increased foaming tendencies in European machines. Soap also aids in the cleaning process. However, it can leave behind an encrustation of soap scum on fabric surfaces. A variety of other surfactants are also used, primarily for specialty applications [76]. They include amine oxides, amphoterics, and betaines. B. Builders The primary function of builders in the detergency process is to tie up the hardness ions Ca2+ and Mg2+. They also provide other valuable benefits including maintaining the alkalinity of the wash solution and functioning as antiredeposition and soildispersing agents and, in some cases, as corrosion inhibitors [77–81]. The level of builders used in liquid formulations depends largely on three main criteria: (1) the aqueous solubility of the builder, (2) the physical form of the liquid, and (3) the cost effectiveness of the ingredient. Due to inherent solubility constraints in formulating stable liquid detergents, the usage level of builders in HDLDs is significantly lower than in granulated detergents. This is especially true in the case of unstructured liquids, where the solubility limitations of the builder largely dictate its level in the formulation. In structured liquids, however, a certain amount of electrolytic builder is necessary to induce structuring, which allows the incorporation of significantly higher amounts of builder. Insoluble builders can also be added by suspending them in the liquid. Builder ingredients such as zeolites, phosphates, silicates, or carbonates can account for 20% or more of the total formulation. 1. Mechanisms Builder compounds decrease the concentration of the washwater hardness by forming either soluble or insoluble complexes with the calcium and magnesium ions. The mechanisms by which these ingredients function can be broadly grouped into three classes: (1) sequestration, (2) precipitation, and (3) ion exchange. All three methods have the ultimate effect of lowering the concentration of hardness ions that could interfere with the cleaning process by rendering the surfactants less effective. In sequestration (chelation), the hardness ions Ca2+ and Mg2+ are bound to the builder in the form of soluble complexes. Phosphates, citrates, and NTA are examples of this class of builder compound. Table 4 lists the calciumbinding capacities of various builders. Other strongly chelating compounds exist, phosphonates and EDTA for example, but they are generally not extensively used in HDLDs. The most efficient builder is sodium tripolyphosphate. Unfortunately, tripolyphosphate has been identified as a possible cause of eutrophi
TABLE 4 Sequestration Capacity of Selected Builders
Structure
Ch Sodium diphosphate
Sodium triphosphate
1Hydroxyethane1,1dip
Amino tris methyleneph
Nitrilotriacetic acid
TABLE 4 Continued
Structure
Chemical name N(2Hydroxyethyl)im
Ethylenediamine tetra
1,2,3,4Cyclopentane
(table continued on next page)
(table continued from previous page)
Structure
Chemical name Citric acid
OCarboxymethyl tartr
Carboxymethyl oxysuc
Source: Ref. 82.
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cation of lakes and rivers. It is severely controlled and even banned in several countries. As a result, most countries in North America and Europe have converted to nonphosphate formulations. Other regions are also gradually imposing restrictions on the use of phosphates. Carbonates are examples of builders that precipitate out the calcium ions in the form of calcium carbonate. Precipitation builders, however, can leave behind insoluble deposits on the clothes and washing machine parts. Aluminosilicates such as zeolites are ionexchange compounds: they remove calcium and magnesium ions and exchange them with sodium ions. Most builders also contribute significantly to detergency by providing alkalinity to the washwater. A high pH (>8) solution aids in the removal of oily soils such as sebum stains by saponifying them. Insoluble fatty acids found in oily soils are converted to soluble soap in the presence of alkalinity. 2. Builder Classes (a) Inorganic. In regions where phosphorus compounds are still permitted in detergent products, polyphosphates such as tripolyphosphates and pyrophosphates are unsurpassed in their cost effectiveness and cleaning ability. These ingredients are not only very good chelating agents but also provide a soilsuspending benefit. Stains, once removed from the fabric, can be suspended in the washwater by electrostatic repulsion, thereby preventing soils from redepositing onto the clothes. To a certain extent phosphates also buffer the washwater. The solubility of tripolyphosphates can be enhanced by using the potassium salt. This would be the more appropriate for unstructured liquids. In structured liquids, the sodium salt can be incorporated at much higher levels. Carbonate compounds offer an economical means of reducing the calcium content and also raising the alkalinity of the washwater. They lower the concentration of the calcium by precipitating it in the form of calcium carbonate. This could lead to fabric damage in the form of encrustation, which becomes especially apparent after repeated washing cycles. Fortunately, this is not a major problem in unstructured HDLDs, because the amount of carbonate used in the formulation is limited by solubility restrictions. Compounds such as sesquicarbonates and bicarbonates that are less likely to lead to the formation of calcium carbonate precipitates have better solubility characteristics and can be used to a greater extent in unstructured liquids. On the other hand, structured liquids offer the potential of incorporating much higher amounts of these compounds. Carbonates are also good washwater buffers and can provide the alkalinity needed for improved efficacy. Another class of ingredients that are effective at providing alkalinity are the sodium silicates [83]. Although they can also be good sequestrants and are used as such in powder formulations, they provide this benefit only at higher con
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centrations. Once again, the solubility restrictions prevent the incorporation of any substantial amounts in unstructured liquids. At the low levels at which they can be used, they are valuable as alkaline buffers. The use of sodium silicates in HDLDs is limited to the liquid silicates, which have SiO2/Na2O ratios from 3.2 to 1.8. Aluminosilicates [Mz (zAlO2: y SiO2)] are another type of builders, of which zeolite A is a common example [84]. Zeolite A is a sodium aluminosilicate with an Al/Si ratio of 1:1 and a formula of Na12(SiO2∙ A O2)12∙ 27H2O. It acts as a builder by exchanging sodium ions inside the lattice with calcium ions from the washwater. Zeolites are not effective in providing alkalinity and are normally used in conjunction with carbonates. They are insoluble in water and are therefore not suitable for formulating unstructured liquids. In structured liquids, zeolites are suspended as solid particles. (b) Organic. The restrictions placed on the use of phosphate compounds in detergent formulations have led to a variety of organic compounds that could function as builders but must also be readily biodegradable. Although some of these compounds do approach the sequestration level of phosphates, they are not as costeffective [85]. Various polycarboxylate compounds, those with at least three carboxylate groups, have now become widely used as replacements for phosphates as the builder component of HDLDs. In liquid detergent formulations, citrate compounds have become commonplace. Though their chelating ability is relatively low (Fig. 14), citrate compounds are used in HDLDs for a variety of reasons. Citrate's high aqueous solubility makes it useful in unstructured liquids, whereas in structured liquids its high electrolytic strength can aid in salting out and stabilizing the formulation. In addition, it is used in enzymecontaining formulations where maintenance of the pH at less than 9.0 is crucial to the stability of the enzyme. Citric acid itself has also been patented as an ingredient in protease stabilization systems [87]. Ether polycarboxylates have been determined to provide improvements over the calcium and magnesiumchelating ability of citrates. In a series of patents assigned to Procter & Gamble, it has been claimed that a combination of tartrate monosuccinates and tartrate disuccinates (Fig. 15) delivers excellent chelating performance [88–90]. Data shown in Fig. 16 indicate a high level of calciumbinding capacity. Salts of polyacetic acids, e.g., ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) and nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), have long been known to be very effective chelating agents [91]. The chelating ability of NTA has been found to be comparable to that of TPP. Unfortunately, questions regarding the toxicity of this compound have all but prevented any largescale use in HDLDs. Currently, NTA usage is primarily limited to a few powder formulations in Canada. The high chela
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FIG. 14 Sequestration of water hardness ions by detergent builders. ( ) Sodium polyacrylate M w = 170,000; ( ) STPP; (
) NTA; (
) EDTA; (
) sodium citrate; (
)
CMOS; ( ) sodium carbonate; ( ) zeolite A. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 86.)
FIG. 15 Ether polycarboxylate builders.
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FIG. 16 Effect of builder level on calcium ion concentration. (From Ref. 89.) CMOS, sodium carboxymethoxysuccinate; ODS, sodium oxydisuccinate; STP, sodium tripolyphosphate; TMS, tartrate monosuccinate; TDS, tartrate disuccinate.
tion power of EDTA has been used in compositions where metal impurities of iron and copper can be detrimental to the product stability, as, for example, in peroxide bleachcontaining liquids. Polymeric polyelectrolytes have also found applications as builder ingredients [92,93]. High molecular weight polyacrylates and acrylic maleic copolymers can be very effective in tying up calcium ions in the wash (Fig. 17). However, concerns about their biodegradability and aqueous solubility have significantly limited their use in liquid formulations. These polymer systems can also aid in soil dispersion and in antiredeposition. In products containing carbonates, these polymers can disrupt calcium carbonate crystallite formation and as a result prevent encrustation on clothes. Fatty acids such as oleic and coco fatty acid (saturation level) added to HDLDs can serve a multifunctional role. Though they primarily provide a foam suppression capability, they can also precipitate out some of the calcium ions in the wash by forming calcium soap. This could, however, pose a problem because soap scum is insoluble and may impact the overall cleaning result. C. Enzymes Enzymes have become integral components of most liquid detergent compositions as they continue to play an increasingly larger role in the stain removal
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FIG. 17 Sequestration of water hardness ions by sodium polyacrylate polymers. ( ( (
) M w=2100; (
)M w=5100; )M w=20,000; ( )M w=60,000; ( )M w=170,000, ) M =240,000. (Reproduced with permission from w
Ref. 86.)
process. This has come about because of many recent advances in enzyme technology and has resulted in more efficient and effective strains. The ability of these enzymes to target specific classes of stains can provide the formulator with the flexibility to tailor the development of products for consumers with different requirements and preferences. In addition, enzymes are especially effective when the liquid detergent is used as a prespotter. There are four types of enzymes currently being used in HDLDs: protease, lipase, cellulase, and amylase [6,94]. They are all proteins and are derived from various living organisms. Their role is to catalyze the hydrolysis of large biological molecules into smaller units that are more soluble and as a result are washed away relatively easily. The optimum conditions for the functioning of these enzymes depend on individual strains or types. Generally, the rates of these enzymatic reactions rise with increasing temperatures and are usually optimum within an alkaline pH range of 9–11.
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Proteases are by far the most widely used of all detergent enzymes. Introduced in the 1960s, they have since become one of the more important components of the detergent formulation [6]. Proteases aid in the removal of many soils commonly encountered by the consumer such as food stains, blood, and grass. These enzymes hydrolyze or break up the peptide bonds found in proteins, resulting in the formation of smaller and more soluble polypeptides and amino acids. Since most enzymes have to function at high pH conditions, subtilisin, a bacterial alkaline protease, is commonly used in laundry detergents. This particular protease does not hydrolyze any specific peptide bond in the proteinaceous stain but cleaves bonds in a somewhat random manner. Amylase enzymes work on food stains of the starchy variety, like rice, spaghetti sauce, and gravy. These enzymes hydrolyze the 1–4glucosidic bonds in starch, which leads to the formation of smaller watersoluble molecules. Amylase randomly hydrolyzes the bonds in the starch polymer to form dextrin molecules. Amylase, on the other hand, cleaves the maltose units that are situated at the end of the starch polymer. The use of lipases in detergents is a relatively recent occurrence. The first commercial detergent lipase was introduced in 1988 [(6,94]. These enzymes target the oily/greasy stains that are some of the most difficult stains to remove. The major components of most oily stains encountered in households are triglycerides. Lipases catalyze the hydrolysis of mostly the C1 and C3 bonds in the triglyceride molecule, yielding soluble free fatty acids and diglyceride (Fig. 18). In practice, it has been determined that lipases work best subsequent to the first wash (Fig. 19). It is believed that the temperatures encountered in a typical drying process are needed to activate the enzyme. Though most oily stains can also be cleaned using traditional surfactant methods, the main benefit of lipases is their ability to perform at relatively low concentrations and low temperatures. With greater emphasis given to the care of the fabric, cellulase enzymes have become increasingly important in detergent products [94]. Repeated washing often leads to cotton fabrics looking faded and worn. This appearance is attributed to the damaged cellulose microfibrils on the fabric surface. Cellulase en
FIG. 18 Lipasecatalyzed conversion of insoluble oily (triglyceride) soils.
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FIG. 19 Effect of lipase enzyme (Lipolase) on lard/Sudan Red stains as a function of the number of wash cycles. Conditions: Powder detergent, temp 30°C, Tergotometer, pH 9.7. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 6.)
zymes are able to hydrolyze the (1–4) bonds along the cellulose polymer, resulting in smaller units that are carried away in the wash (Fig. 20). The removal of these damaged microfibrils or pilling gives the clothing a less faded appearance (Fig. 21).
FIG. 20 Hydrolysis of cellulose fibers by cellulase enzyme.
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FIG. 21 Effect of cellulase on the color clarity and pilling tendency of a cotton fabric. European machine at 40°C using a new black cotton fabric. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 6.)
1. Enzyme Stabilization Enzymes are highly susceptible to degradation in heavy duty laundry liquids. With increasing emphasis on the use of enzymes as cleaning agents, it becomes all the more important that these enzymes be protected against premature degradation or at least maintain their performance throughout the shelf life of the product. Many factors contribute to the denaturation of the enzymes in HDLDs. They include free water, alkalinity, bleaches, and calcium ion concentration. The presence of free water in the formulation is a major cause of enzyme degradation. This process is greatly accelerated at increasingly alkaline conditions. Generally, enzymecontaining commercial HDLDs are maintained within a pH range of 7–9 (Fig. 22). However, this constraint can affect the detergency, as most enzymes attain their optimum efficacy at pH ranges of 9– 11. Certain additional ingredients, especially bleaches, can also have a major detrimental effect on enzyme stability. It is believed that ingredients that are capable of depriving the enzyme's active site of calcium ions are detrimental to enzyme stability. It is hypothesized that calcium ions bind at the bends of the polypeptide chain, resulting in a stiffer and more compact molecule [96–98]. Builders and surfactants that have affinities toward calcium ions are examples of such ingredients. The degree of stability also varies greatly with the type of surfactant or builder used. Linear alkylbenzene sulfonate and alkyl sulfate surfactants have been found to be more detrimental to enzymes than alcohol ethoxylates or alkyl ether sulfates [95]. The
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FIG. 22 Effect of product pH on protease stability in an HDLD containing alcohol ethoxylate and alcohol ethoxy sulfates. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 95.)
degree of ethoxylation also affects the status of the enzyme. In ether sulfates, improved stability is observed with increasing EO groups up to five to seven EO groups [96]. LAS is more likely to bind with the calcium ions in the product than other more hardnesstolerant surfactants such as alkyl ether sulfates or the nonionic alcohol ethoxylate surfactants. This has been considered a possible cause of faster enzyme degradation in LAScontaining HDLDs (Fig. 23). Similarly, in formulations with builders or chelants, additional calcium is sometimes added to shift the equilibrium to favor the enzyme's active sites and prevent premature deactivation. Other mechanisms for enzyme denaturation in the presence of surfactants have also been proposed. One hypothesis is that the high charge densities of the ionic surfactants increase the probability of their binding strongly onto protein sites. This causes conformational changes of the enzyme, which subsequently lead to further enzyme deactivation [95,99]. The task of stabilizing enzymes is further complicated by the fact that increasingly HDLD formulations contain more than one enzyme (e.g., protease, lipase, and cellulase) system. In such systems, not only do the enzymes have to be protected against denaturation, but also enzymes such as lipase and cellulase, which are themselves proteins, have to be shielded from the protease.
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FIG. 23 Effect of surfactant type on protease stability. AE, Alcohol ethoxylate; AE253S, Alcohol ethoxy sulfate; LAS, linear alkylbenzene sulfonate. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 95.)
(a) ProteaseOnly HDLDs. All stabilization systems function either by binding to the active site of the enzyme or by altering the equilibria of the formulation to favor the stable active sites. The system is effective in protecting the enzyme only if the stabilizing molecule binds strongly to the enzyme while in a formulation but easily dissociates from the enzyme's active sites when it encounters the dilute conditions in the wash. Letton and Yunker [100] and Kaminsky and Christy [101] describe protease stabilization systems composed of a combination of a calcium salt and a salt of a carboxylic acid, preferably a formate. These ingredients are moderately effective in enzyme stabilization and are relatively inexpensive. Care has to be taken, however, when adding divalent ions such as calcium to HDLDs to prevent the possibility of precipitation. An improvement over this earlier system was attained with the addition of boron compounds such as boric acid or borate salts [102–104]. It has been hypothesized that boric acid and calcium form intramolecular bonds that effectively crosslink or staple an enzyme molecule together [103,104]. The use of polyols such as propylene glycol, glycerol, and sorbitol in conjunction with the boric acid salts has further enhanced the stability of these enzymes [105–107].
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The patent art contains numerous examples of enzyme stabilization systems that use borates, polyols, carboxylate salts, calcium, and ethanolamines or combinations thereof [87,108–111]. (b) Mixed Enzyme HDLDs. In HDLD formulations with additional enzymes besides protease, it becomes increasingly difficult to stabilize all the enzymes. Amylases, lipases, and cellulases are themselves proteins and hence are susceptible to attack from the protease. Various approaches to stabilizing a mixed enzyme system have been documented in the patent literature. One approach attempts to extend the stabilization techniques developed to stabilize proteaseonly formulations and apply them to mixed enzyme liquids [112– 114]. Compounds that bind even more tightly to the protease active sites and as a result inhibit this enzyme's activity in the product during shelf storage have been identified. However, this method is effective only if the enzyme inhibition can be reversed under the dilute conditions of the washwater. Various boronic acids [115–119] (e.g., arylboronic acids and amino boronic acids), peptide aldehyde [120], peptide ketone [121], and aromatic borate ester [122] compounds have been found that deliver this type of performance. It is believed that boronic acids inhibit proteolytic enzyme by attaching themselves at the active site. A boronserine covalent bond and a hydrogen bond between histidine and a hydroxyl group on the boronic acid apparently are formed [118]. The patent literature also describes methods of stabilizing the cellulase enzymes in mixed enzyme systems with hydrophobic amine compounds such as cyclohexylamine and nhexylamine [123]. Recently, alternative methods have also been developed to stabilize these complex enzyme systems. The technique of microencapsulation [124] is designed to physically prevent the protease enzyme from interacting with the other enzymes (Fig. 24). This is accomplished by a composite emulsion polymer
FIG. 24 Enzyme microencapsulation. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 6.)
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system that has a hydrophilic portion attached to a hydrophobic core polymer. The protease is stabilized by trapping it within a network formed by the hydrophobic polymer. D. Bleaches Bleaches play a significant role in detergent formulations because they can affect cleaning efficacy, which is easily perceived by consumers. Bleaching action involves the whitening or lightening of stains by the chemical removal of color. Bleaching agents chemically destroy or modify chromophobic systems and degrade dye compounds, resulting in smaller and more watersoluble molecules that are easily removed in the wash. Typical bleachsensitive stains include food, coffee, tea, fruits, and some particulate soils. Bleaches can also aid in minimizing “dinginess,” which gives clothes a gray or yellow tint caused by a combination of fabric fiber damage and dirt buildup. There are two types of bleaches used in the laundry process: hypochlorite and peroxygen bleaches. Although hypochlorite bleaches by themselves are effective bleaches, they lead to color fading and fabric damage and are difficult to incorporate into detergent formulations. Peroxygen bleaches, on the other hand, though not as effective, can be formulated into detergents and cause minimal color fading or fabric damage. They also bleach out food stains as the chromophores found in these stains are susceptible to peroxide bleaches. Fabric dyes, however, are not as active as food dyes and are therefore not easily affected by the peroxygen compounds. Most detergents with bleach formulations are in the powder form. Unfortunately, the aqueous nature of the HDLDs does not easily permit the formulation of bleach components. This is especially true in unstructured liquids, where the stability of the peroxygen components is severely compromised. Nevertheless, attempts have been made to produce HDLDs that also contain bleaches. 1. Peroxygen Bleaches Detergent formulations containing peroxide bleach contain either hydrogen peroxide or compounds that react to form hydrogen peroxide in the wash. The most direct source for peroxide bleaching is hydrogen peroxide. Numerous attempts have been made to develop stable HDLDs containing hydrogen peroxide [125–127]. The stability of this ingredient in aqueous formulations, however, is of concern. Hydrogen peroxide is very susceptible to decomposition in aqueous environments, largely because trace impurities of metal ions such as iron, manganese, and copper can catalyze its decomposition [128]. Alkalinity also accelerates this process. For these reasons HDLDs containing hydrogen peroxide are maintained at an acidic pH and usually also contain a strong chelating agent to sequester metal ions. A free radical scavenger is also sometimes
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added to further enhance stability. Polyphosphonate compounds and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) are examples of chelating agents and free radical scavengers, respectively, that are used in hydrogen peroxidecontaining formulations [129]. Still, the bleaching performance of these products is inadequate, especially at low temperatures. These limitations have prompted manufacturers to look to other methods to develop bleach HDLDs. Inorganic peroxygen compounds such as sodium perborate tetrahydrate or monohydrate and sodium percarbonate can also be used as sources of hydrogen peroxide. These insoluble compounds release hydrogen peroxide on contact with the washwater. The challenge is to stabilize them within an HDLD formulation. The ability of structured liquids to suspend solids between the surfactant lamellae or spherulites can be made use of in these products [130– 133]. It is possible to suspend sodium perborate in highly concentrated structured liquids. The minimization of contact with water prevents the peroxygen compounds from decomposing prematurely. It has also been found that the use of solvents further improves their stability [134]. Hydrophobic silica can enhance stability in unstructured liquids [135]. The most effective method of formulating with perborates and percarbonates is with nonaqueous liquids. The complete absence of water and a high level of solvents significantly enhance the stability of bleaches in the product. 2. Peracid and Activated Peroxygen Bleaches Peroxy carboxylic acids or peracids are far more effective bleaching compounds than peroxygen molecules, especially at low and ambient temperatures. The high reactivity and low stability of these compounds have so far prevented them from being used in commercial detergent bleach formulations. Peracids are somewhat stable in aqueous solutions of neutral pH, and they equilibrate with water in the acid pH range to form hydrogen peroxide and carboxylic acids. However, in alkaline conditions these compounds undergo accelerated decomposition. Nevertheless, attempts have been made to develop HDLDs that take advantage of the ability of structured liquids to suspend insoluble solids. Patents have been issued for liquid detergent formulations that incorporate peroxy acids such as diperoxy dodecane dioic acid [136,137] and amido and imido peroxy acids [138,139]. These product formulations are also maintained at acidic pH to reduce the premature reaction of the peracid. An alternative and more desirable method of bleaching is by forming the peracid in the washwater. This is accomplished by reacting a bleach activator compound with a source of hydrogen peroxide such as perborate, percarbonate, or hydrogen peroxide itself in an aqueous environment. In this reaction, referred to as perhydrolysis (Fig. 25), the bleach activator undergoes nucleophilic attack from a perhydroxide anion generated from hydrogen peroxide, resulting in the formation of percarboxylic acid. This formulation strategy is used effec
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FIG. 25 Bleach activator (nonanoyloxybenzene sulfonate) reactions. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 94.)
tively in powder detergents where perborate and percarbonate compounds are used along with activators such as tetraacetyl ethylenediamine (TAED) and sodiu nonanoyl oxybenzene sulfonate (NOBS). Unfortunately, in liquid detergents the challenge is to incorporate hydrogen peroxide and an activator compound in an aqueous formulation and prevent thes two components from reacting prematurely in the product itself. A novel method uses emulsions formed by nonionic surfactants with varying HLB values to protec a soluble activator, acetyl triethyl citrate, from other ingredients, including hydrog peroxide, in the product [140–142]. An acidic pH and the addition of a strong chelating compound aid in achieving product stability. Other patents using NOBS [143], glycol and glycerin esters [144], and a lipaseanhydride combination [14 have been issued. E. Optical Brighteners It has been found that fabrics, especially cotton, begin to appear yellowish after repeated washing cycles. Virtually all modern liquid detergent formulations contai very small amounts (<1.0%) of optical brighteners or fluorescent whitening agent that absorb ultraviolet light (300–430 nm) and reemit it as fluorescent visible blu light (400–500 nm) [146–149]. This visible blue light offsets some of the yellow hues from the fabric and as a result provides a whitening/brightening effect.
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The most widely used class of fluorescent whitening agents (FWA) are known as cyanuric chloride diaminostilbene or CC/DAS types. The chromophore in these molecules is triazinylaminostilbene (Fig. 26). The basic molecule can be altered by the addition of various substituent groups including alkoxy, hydroxy, or amino groups. The choice of these substituent groups can control the solubility, substantivity, and overall performance of the brightener. These brightener molecules are highly susceptible to electrophilic attack. As a result, they are ineffective and unstable in the presence of chlorine bleach. For this reason, it is common for detergent manufacturers to recommend that users wait to add chlorine bleach until at least 5 min into the wash. Another class of brighteners have been developed that are more resistant to chlorine bleach (Fig. 27). These include distyrylbiphenyl derivatives such as disodium 4,4'bis (2sulfostyryl)biphenyl, and triazolylstilbene. F. Detergent Polymers 1. Soil Release Agents Greasy and oily soils on polyester or polyestercontaining fabrics are among the more difficult stains to displace. Removal of these soils from cotton fabrics is far easier. This difference in cleaning can be attributed to the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups on the cellulosic fibers that give the surface of the cotton a hydrophilic nature and subsequently permit surfactants and water to more easily wash away adsorbed soils. The surface of polyester fabrics, on the other hand,
FIG. 26 CC/DAS or DASCbistriazinyl derivatives of 4,4'diaminostilbene2,2'disulfonic acid. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 146.)
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FIG. 27 Chlorinestable fluorescent whitening agent: disodium 4,4'bis(2sulfostyryl) biphenyl and a triazolylstilbene type. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 146.)
is hydrophobic, because they are essentially composed of copolymers of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol. This hydrophobicity not only creates an affinity toward oily soils but also makes them more difficult to remove. The use of soil release agents in liquid laundry detergents is meant to address some of these issues [150]. These ingredients are usually polymeric and are composed of hydrophilic as well as hydrophobic segments. The hydrophobic functionality of the polymer allows it to be deposited and remain adsorbed during the washing and rinsing cycles onto the hydrophobic fibers of the polyester fabric. Once adsorbed the polymer can also hydrophilize the surface of the fabric. In this way the polymer can not only make it easier for water and other cleaning agents to diffuse into the soil/fabric interface but also prevents soils from adsorbing strongly onto the fabric. Consequently, soil release polymers are most effective only after the fabric has been treated with them. For this reason the greatest impact is observed after the first wash cycle. A typical soil release polymer consists of segments of hydrophobic ethylene terephthalate and hydrophilic polythylene oxide (Fig. 28). A major drawback initially with these polymers was their limited aqueous solubility. This in turn led to lower performance, especially in particulate soil removal, due to weaker adsorption on fabric surfaces. The low solubility also limited the use of soil release polymers in unstructured liquids and sometimes led to instability of the product. Some of these obstacles have been overcome by using lower molecular weight polymers and by introducing endcapping groups [94,151]. These changes have led to improved solubility and better soil removal characteristics (Fig. 29).
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FIG. 28 Segments of a PETPOET soil release polymer. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 94.)
2. Dye Transfer Inhibition: Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) Colorsafe detergents are becoming a significant portion of the detergent market worldwide. Few technologies have been able to demonstrate real color safety in washing. Inhibition of dye transfer is one way whereby the color freshness of the fabric can be maintained after repeated washing. Polymers such as PVP are employed that inhibit the transfer of fugitive dyes from colored fabrics onto other items in the washing machine [152,153]. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) is a nonionic watersoluble polymer that interacts with watersoluble dyes to form watersoluble complexes with less fabric substantivity than the free dye. Additionally, PVP inhibits soil redeposition and
FIG. 29 A soil release polymer with endcapping groups. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. 94.)
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is particularly effective with synthetic fibers and synthetic cotton blends. The polymer comprises hydrophilic, dipolar imido groups in conjunction with hydrophobic, apolar methylene and methine groups. The combination of dipolar and amphiphilic character make PVP soluble in water and organic solvents such as alcohols and partially halogenated alkanes and will complex a variety of polarizable and acidic compounds. PVP is particularly effective with blue dyes and not as effective with acid red dyes. G. Miscellaneous Ingredients A variety of other ingredients also serve valuable functions in HDLD formulations. 1. Buffers An alkaline pH in the washwater can greatly improve the cleaning ability of the detergent. Certain oily or greasy soils can be removed from the fabric surface by saponification at high pH. In addition, enzymes reach an optimum performance level within a pH range of 8–11. Examples of buffering compounds used in HDLDs include carbonates, liquid silicates, borates, and amines such as monoethanolamine (MEA) and triethanolamine (TEA). However, in enzymecontaining formulations, care should be taken to prevent the product pH from exceeding a level that could lead to enzyme degradation. 2. Antiredeposition Agents Compounds that prevent soils from redepositing onto the fabric surface from the washwater are known as antiredeposition agents. These molecules can prevent redeposition either by suspending or dispersing the soil in the wash or by forming a barrier on the fabric surface. High molecular weight polyacrylates can be used as soil suspension agents. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) has been widely used as an antiredeposition agent for cotton fabrics. It functions by forming a protective layer on the surface of the cellulosic fibers. Low aqueous solubility, however, greatly limits its use in unstructured liquids. 3. Defoamers Soap is extensively used to minimize excessive foaming in washing machines. Siliconebased defoamers are also highly effective. 4. Hydrotropes It is sometimes necessary to use hydrotropes to solubilize all ingredients in an unstructured liquid. Examples of hydrotropes include sodium xylene sulfonate (SXS), sodium cumene sulfonate (SCS), and sodium toluene sulfonate (STS). An extensive description of these ingredients is presented elsewhere in this volume (Chapter 2).
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5. Minor Ingredients A number of ingredients, though used in small amounts, serve very important roles. For example, preservatives are needed to inhibit the growth of germs in the aqueous product. Fragrances and dyes help cover the odor and color of the base liquid and enhance the aesthetics of the product. IV. Product Evaluation Methods A. Physical Properties The acceptability and formulation success of a laundry liquid can depend on several important physical properties. Foremost among these characteristics is the physical stability of the product. The consumer expects the final product to be uniform and singlephase. Accelerated aging tests at temperatures the product is likely to encounter in its lifetime are conducted to test the storage stability. In addition, a test is generally carried out to check the ability of the liquid to withstand repeated freezethaw cycles and still remain a single phase. Rheology and flowability tests are especially crucial in characterizing structured liquids. The LADD section in this volume provides a good description of the basic rheological concepts (Chapter 9). HDLDs have to maintain desirable pouring characteristics in order to be considered acceptable by the consumer. The stability of the fragrance is also of utmost importance to the product. Fragrance characteristics are analyzed in conjunction with the accelerated physical stability tests. The importance of preserving enzymes has been discussed earlier in this chapter. The activity of enzymes is usually measured by performing an assay specific to the enzyme being tested. It is also recommended that wash tests be conducted over an extended time range on enzymesensitive stained fabrics to determine the extent of enzyme loss as a function of time. B. HDLD Detergency Evaluation The mechanisms underlying the detergency and soil removal process have been reviewed by many other authors [154–162]. This section briefly summarized the test methods used to characterize the performance of liquid laundry detergents. There are typically three stages of testing during product development: (1) laboratory evaluation, (2) practical evaluation, and (3) consumer tests. 1. Laboratory Tests (a) Soil Removal. Soil removal testing on a laboratory scale is conducted in laundrometers, such as Tergotometers, which are designed to simulate the actual laundry process. The Tergotometer consists of a series of 1 liter stain
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less steel buckets, each with an agitation mechanism. Soiled fabric swatches are placed in the wash solution to measure stain removal and other attributes of the detergent product. These instruments offer the advantage of providing a controlled environment in which the effects of various variables can be measured. The effects of water temperature, water hardness, agitation rate, detergent concentration, etc., can then be determined. Table 5 shows the categories and typical examples of soils that are artificially deposited on a range of fabrics such as cotton, polyester, and blends. These soils represent stains that can be removed by physical as well as by chemical mechanisms. The removal of stains in the watersoluble and particulate categories is largely dependent on mechanical agitation and the interfacial forces created by the detergent surfactants. Bleachable or oxidizable and enzymatic stains are examples of soils that are more responsive to the chemical nature of the wash liquor. The detergency can be evaluated either visually by an expert panel that rates the degree of soil removal or by instrumental techniques [163–165]. In the latter method, the stain removal factor R is expressed as R = 100 [(Lc Lw)2 + (ac aw)2 + (bc bw)2]½ (1) where L = reflectance a = redness/greenness b = yellowness/blueness c = unstained fabric washed in treatment conditions w = stained fabric washed in treatment conditions (b) Brightening. The brightening performance of detergent formulation is determined by washing a set of large unsoiled swatches representing various types of fabrics. This can include swatches of cotton, nylon, cotton blends, terry towels, and polyester fabrics. The swatches are washed for one to three cycles, and their brightness is subsequently measured by using the reflectometer. The b component (blue/yellow) of the light reading is measured for this test. (c) Soil Release. Clean swatches are first prewashed, typically for one to three cycles, using the detergents to be tested. After the prewash, the swatches are stained with a variety of soils, usually greasy particulate and food stains. Subsequently, the swatches are washed again. At each stage, the reflectance reading of the fabric swatches is recorded. (d) Antiredeposition. Once soil is removed from the fabric, the possibility exists that this soil can redeposit onto the fabric. The likelihood or the extent of this occurring for a particular detergent product can be measured by an
TABLE 5 Listing of Laundry Soils Used in Detergent Evaluations Watersoluble soils
Particulate soils
Proteins sourc Fats/oils
Inorganic salts
Metal oxides
Animal fats
Bloot
Sugar
Carbonates
Vegetable fats
Eggs
Urea
Silicates
Sebum
Milk
Perspiration
Humus
Mineral oils
Cutaneous scales
Carbon black
Waxes
Source: Ref. 4.
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antiredeposition test. In this test, clean swatches along with typical soils are added to the wash solution. Representative particulate soils include vacuum cleaner dirt and Bandy Black clay; a mixture of triolein and mineral oil and an artificial sebum composition serve as oily/greasy soils [166,167]. The washing experiments can be conducted in a laboratoryscale Tergotometer or in a commercial washing machine. Generally, approximately one to three cycles for a laboratory scale and 5–10 wash cycles for a washing machine are necessary for the entire test. The degree of soil deposited is measured instrumentally by the reflectance readings. (e) Color Loss or Color Transfer. Colored fabrics tend to lose color and fade after repeated detergent washes. In addition, white or undyed fabrics can sometimes acquire a small degree of color from the transfer of dyes when washed with colored fabrics. Test methods have been developed to measure the contribution of detergents to this color loss. Detergent manufacturers perform these tests on a laboratory scale as well as on a practical level. In a typical laboratoryscale test [168,169] conducted in a Tergotometer, a nylon fabric dyed red and cotton fabrics dyed at different levels of blue are added to the wash bucket along with a clean undyed white cotton fabric. The white cloth is meant to be a scavenger of dyes lost in the wash and provides an indication of color transfer. Various detergents can be tested and ranked according to their color loss properties. After the wash, the fabric swatches are instrumentally evaluated with a colorimeter. The E value provides the degree of colorfastness of the fabric in a particular detergent. E = [(Lw L0)2 + (aw a0)2 + (bw b0)2]½ (2) where L = reflectance, and the subscripts w and 0 signify after the wash and before the wash, respectively. The practical evaluations use commercial washing machines and actual colored clothing materials in the test. The clothes are washed repeatedly with detergent over a 10–50 cycle range. The clothes are then evaluated visually by an expert panel. Instrumental measurements can also be taken. 2. Practical Evaluation Further performance evaluations are also conducted in commercial washing machines. Although this method does not permit testing in as controlled a fashion as with the laundrometers, it can be used to predict more consumer relevant behavior. Soiled fabric swatches added to commercial washing machines need to be accompanied by additional clothing as ballast to provide more realistic clothestodetergent and clothestowashwater ratios. Fabric bundle tests are also an effective and realistic method of evaluating the detergency of HDLDs. In this test, articles of clothing are distributed among
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volunteers to be used in their normal manner. They are periodically returned to be washed and evaluated. The evaluation can be conducted visually or instrumentally. 3. Consumer Tests The final and most important component of the analysis of laundry detergents is the consumer test. A select group of consumers are provided with product and instructed to use it with their normal laundry loads. Their feedback on various aspects of cleaning and product aesthetics is collected and analyzed. These data play a significant role in any decision regarding the composition of the liquid laundry detergent. V. Future Trends There are several current and emerging trends in the laundry detergent industry, and liquid detergents have been or are a part of each of them. Over several years the trend in detergents has been toward concentration, first in powder detergents and later in liquids. Concentration refers to reduction in dosage that is required for equivalent cleaning; therefore, the detergent itself becomes more efficient. Concentration also has other benefits such as reduced packaging waste, consumer convenience, and economy to the manufacturer (distribution, package costs, amount of fillers, etc.). Another trend that is emerging via the use of more efficient surfactants, polymers, and enzymes, either individually or in combination, is better and faster cleaning at ambient temperatures. The rapid expansion of the detergent market in developing countries is focusing attention on cleaning at ambient or low temperature conditions. Furthermore, in developed countries the increasing pressure to reduce energy in washing machine use also points to the need to clean better at lower temperatures. The focus on less energy use has also placed more importance on such cleaning parameters as redeposition of soils, faster cleaning, foaming characteristics of the detergent, and rinseability of the detergent and soils from the fabric surface. Manufacturers and consumers have recently been emphasizing the care aspects of the washing process. This includes the care of fabrics, of fabric colors, of the environment, and also of the hands where hand washing is predominant. Detergents have been introduced worldwide with claims that address these aspects directly. An other emerging trend has been the increasing use of enzymes in liquid detergents, especially the use of enzyme cocktails. Mixtures of protease, amylase, lipase, and cellulase in several combinations are being used to address the removal of specific categories of stains, ambient temperature cleaning, and soaking practices of the consumers and to promote fabric protection and care. The
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patent literature has many references to stabilization of mixed enzyme systems (see Appendix Table A). Appendix Recent patents related to heavyduty laundry liquids are tabulated in Tables A–J.
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9 Liquid Automatic Dishwasher Detergents PHILIP A. GORLIN and NAGARAJ DIXIT Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, P New Jersey KUOYANN LAI Global Materials and Sourcing (AsiaPacific Division), Global Technology, Colg Company, New York, New York I. Introduction II. Mechanics and Chemistry of Automatic Dishwashing A. Components of automatic dishwashing machines B. Mechanical cleaning C. Thermal cleaning D. Chemical cleaning III. Components and Their Functional Properties A. Builders B. Surfactants C. Defoamers D. Oxidizing agents E. Enzymes F. Thickening agents IV. Rheology and Stability of LADDs A. Flow properties B. Dynamic properties V. Evaluation of Performance A. Spotting and filming B. Soil removal
V. Evaluation of Performance A. Spotting and filming B. Soil removal C. Stain removal D. Foaming E. Fine china overglaze
VI. Formulation Technology VII. Auxiliary Products A. Liquid prespotters B. Rinse aids VIII. Future Trends A. Nonphosphate products B. Nonhypochloritecontaining products C. Enzymatic products D. Concentrated products E. Lowtemperature cleaning References
I. Introduction The concept of using mechanical devices for dishwashing was documented as ear with the issuance of a U.S. patent to Houghton [1]. Since then, several companie manufacture and market automatic dishwashing machines for home as well as for use [2,3]. However, it was not until the early 1950s that both mechanical dishwa detergents became widely available to consumers. Today, an estimated 50% of t in the United States, 25% in Europe, and 8% in Japan have automatic dishwashe The automatic dishwasher detergents (ADDs) originally introduced into the U.S. powder form. These products have subsequently undergone major changes in co deliver better cleaning performance. Typical compositions of powder automatic d detergents sold in the United States and Europe are shown in Table 1. Even today, powders continue to dominate the United States market, commandi of the market share [5]. Recently, the marketplace has seen the advent of liquid f automatic dishwasher detergents (LADDs). Clarification of what constitutes a “li mentioning here. Commercially, the products are marketed under different names liquids, liquigels, liquid gels, or gels. Technically these products are concentrated The liquid matrix predominantly comprises an aqueous phase and thickening agen are typically either a swellable clay or waterdispersible polymer and optionally a The mechanical properties of these products are such that the product can be dis the container without prior shaking. Automatic dishwasher detergents in the liquid form offer the following advantages powders:
are typically either a swellable clay or waterdispersible polymer and optionally a The mechanical properties of these products are such that the product can be dis the container without prior shaking. Automatic dishwasher detergents in the liquid form offer the following advantages powders:
Page 327 TABLE 1 Conventional Machine Dishwashing Powder Formulation Ingredient
% by Weight
Sodium TPP
15–45
Sodium silicate
15–60
Sodium carbonate
0–25
Chlorocyanurates
0–7
Nonionic surfactant
0–6
Sodium sulfate
0–40
Water
Balance
Source: From Ref. 4.
1. They offer convenience in dispensing and dosing. 2. They dissolve quickly in the wash water. 3. They are free from lumping or caking during storage. 4. They do not release irritating dust upon handling. The market entry of firstgeneration automatic dishwasher liquids dates to 1986 in the United States and to 1987 in Europe with the introduction of Palmolive Automatic and Galaxy, respectively, by ColgatePalmolive [6]. Soon afterward, Procter & Gamble and Lever Brothers introduced similar liquid products. The category has since been steadily growing. Today, LADDs account for about 30 and 15% of total sales of the ADD market in the United States and Europe, respectively [7]. The firstgeneration LADDs were essentially powder compositions in the liquid form, in which functional components were suspended or dispersed in a structured liquid matrix. The liquid matrix consisted of water, and the common structuring additives used were bipolar clays and a cothickener comprising a metal salt of a fatty acid or hydroxy fatty acid. These liquid products, although minimizing some of the shortcomings of the powders, suffered from two major disadvantages. First, the rheological properties of these products were such that the bottle needed to be shaken before dispensing the product. Second, the shelf life stability of the products did not meet consumer expectations. This problem was soon recognized by the manufacturers, and esthetically superior, nonshake, stable, and translucent products were introduced to the market in 1991 as “gels.” All the liquid products marketed today in the United States are essentially in gel form using polymeric thickeners. The discussion in this chapter focuses on the technology behind the development of currently marketed liquid automatic dishwasher detergents. Powder ADDs, which in most areas utilize analogous technology, are not discussed except in comparison.
The discussion in this chapter focuses on the technology behind the development of currently marketed liquid automatic dishwasher detergents. Powder ADDs, which in most areas utilize analogous technology, are not discussed except in comparison.
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II. Mechanics And Chemistry Of Automatic Dishwashing Cleaning in an automatic dishwasher is accomplished by a combination of three types of energy: mechanical, thermal, and chemical. In general, a combination of machine (mechanical), hot water (thermal), and detergent (chemical) is necessary for complete cleaning of dishware. Before these effects can be discussed in more detail, the basic components and mechanics of an automatic dishwasher must be described. A. Components of Automatic Dishwashing Machines In keeping with LADDs, automatic dishwashers have been improving over time to offer the consumer greater convenience and performance. Two views of a typical automatic dishwashing machine sold in the North America is shown in Fig. 1. European machines are similar except for some minor but important differences. These differences allow the use of different detergent technologies in the two markets. One difference is in the materials used to manufacture the interiors of the machines. Machines sold in North America contain allplastic interiors. In contrast, European machines contain stainless steel interiors. This difference is important not only because plastic can tolerate a more corrosive detergent but it is also more economical than stainless steel. Automatic dishwashing machines typically contain two racks that hold the items to be washed. All machines contain at least one spray arm, which spins as a result of the pressurized wash solution being pumped through the arm nozzles. This allows an even distribution of the wash liquor over all the items being washed. The main spray arm is located underneath the bottom rack and directs the water pumped upward through it. In some machines, a second and even a third spray arm are located below and above the top rack, respectively. The wash liquor is recycled throughout the complete cycle by means of a pump that continually circulates it through the spray arms. A strainer in the wash tank removes large soil particles throughout the recirculation process. For each program cycle (wash or rinse) a new water supply is introduced. Machines generally contain two detergent dispensing cups, one of which has a lid and is therefore closed through part of the machine cycle. A significant difference between American and European machines is that the latter contain a gasketed closed cup. This prevents the detergent from prematurely leaking out of the cup. Many American machines lack such a gasket. Instead, the detergent is formulated as a viscous gel that does not flow unless stressed. All European machines, and some American, also contain a rinse aid dispenser, which provides a does of rinse aid during the final cycle. These dispensers must be filled only about once a month. Rinse aids are especially useful in hard water areas (see Sec. VII). A typical dishwashing program consists of several cycles of differing function. The number of each type of cycle and their order depends on the brand
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FIG. 1 Front and side views of an automatic dishwasher. (Courtesy of the General Electric Company.)
of machine and the wash program selected. Typically, two or three programs are available, corresponding to heavy, normal, and light wash loads. All programs consist of a rinse, a main wash, at least one rinse after the main wash, and a drying cycle that is optionally heated. In addition, a shorter prewash before the initial rinse can be selected. The rinse cycles are mechanically similar to the wash cycles, except that no detergent is present. In programs containing two wash cycles (heavy or potscrubber cycle), both dispensing cups are filled with detergent. If only a main wash cycle is to be used (normal or light cycle), only the closed cup is filled. In either case, it is essential that the detergent be structured so that it does not leak out of the closed cup before the cup opens. Otherwise, the main wash is underdosed, resulting in ineffective cleaning. Proper structuring of gel detergents is discussed later (Sec. IV).
Page
The most important differences between European and North American machine designs are in the condition of the incoming wash water. As discussed later, the presence of hardness ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+) in the wash decreases the overall effectiveness of cleaning. This is especially a problem in hard water areas and can only be overcome by softening of the water. Table 2 lists the typical water hardn conditions encountered in the major countries that use automatic dishwashers [9]. European machines circumvent this problem by softening the water before it is introduced into the wash. This is accomplished by a builtin ion exchanger that works by replacing the hardness ions with sodium ions. Regeneration of the ion exchanger with sodium chloride is required periodically. In contrast, North Ameri machines contain no watersoftening device and must therefore rely on the deterge for sequestration of the hardness ions. The presoftening of the wash water by European machines allows detergents that contain lower builder levels to be formulated. Another difference between the North American and European dishwashing programs concerns the temperature of the incoming water. In North America, the wash water is preheated by the household water heater and is introduced into the machine at temperatures of 110–140°F. In contrast, European machines receive cold water and heat it via machine heating coils during the wash and rinse cycles. The final temperature the water reaches in this manner is therefore higher than in American machines, reaching 140–160°F. Schematic pro TABLE 2 Typical Water Hardness Levels in Different Countries
Hardness (ppm CaCO3)
Country
0–90
90–270
>27
United States
60a
35
5
Japan
92
8
0
Western Europe (total)b
9
49
42
Austria
1.8
74.7
23.
Belgium
3.4
22.6
74
France
5
50
45
Germany
11
42
47
Great Britain
1
37
62
Italy
9
Switzerland
2.8
79.7
17.
Spain
33.2
24.1
42.
75
16
a
Including 10% with home watersoftening appliances.
b
These values are calculated from the data for the countries indicated below with regard to their individual population figures. Source: From Ref. 9.
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files of water temperature versus time for U.S. and European machines are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. B. Mechanical Cleaning Probably the most important cleaning component of cleaning in automatic dishwashing is the mechanical component, which primarily arises from the kinetic energy of the water being pressurized through the rotating spray arm nozzles. As the wash water is pumped through the spray arms, the water jets sprayed from the rotor arms help to dislodge soils that adhere to the dishware. Therefore, an increase in kinetic energy, which can be accomplished by either more water or higher pressure, results in more efficient removal of soils from substrates [10]. It has been suggested that the mechanical energy of the machine itself is responsible for 85% of the soil removal during the cleaning cycle; the detergent contributes the other 15% [11]. C. Thermal Cleaning Most soil removal during an automatic dishwashing cycle is positively affected by thermal energy, which is delivered by the hot water. Thermal energy is in a sense a secondary effect, contributing to the effectiveness of both the mechanical and chemical components of cleaning. Typical machine dishwashing tem
FIG. 2 Typical U.S. dishwashing cycle.
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FIG. 3 Typical European dishwashing cycle.
peratures in the United States are 110–140°F. The water temperature is dictated by the household hotwater heater, which supplies the water. In contrast, the wash temperature in Europe approaches 160°F. This is because the machine itself contains a heating element that heats the water. High temperatures have some advantageous effects on chemical processes involved in cleaning. For example, the solubility of slightly soluble salts increases with temperature. Otherwise, the deposition of such salts on glassware is the cause of much of the inorganic filming observed in hard water regions. Thermal energy also aids in the removal of fatty soils from items being washed. Above their melting point, fats are more easily removed because the intermolecular forces binding them to the dishware and the cohesive forces of the soil are both lower. The activity of most oxidizing agents also increases with temperature. D. Chemical Cleaning A typical washload consists of several types of soils that must be solubilized or degraded by a combination of the detergent and machine. Detergents must control both food soils introduced by the items washed and inorganic scale produced by hardness ions in the wash water. Food soils consisting of proteinaceous, starchy, or fatty materials not only must be effectively removed from the dishware, but they must also be prevented from redepositing on items be
ing washed. Redeposition on glasses is of particular importance because it leads t undesirable spotting and filming. Soils that produce stains are also a problem in a dishwashing. For example, coffee, tea, wine, and tomato sauce leave highly visibl wash items unless properly treated during the wash. Removal of food soils from wash surfaces can only be accomplished once the att forces between surface and soil are overcome. Generally, dehydrated soils intera strongly with surfaces as a result of stronger van der Waals interactions between surface [10]. On the other hand, the soilsurface interaction decreases as the surfa becomes more hydrophobic because of fewer available polar sites. Exceptions ar hydrophobic soils, such as fats, which interact strongly with hydrophobic surfaces III. Components And Their Functional Properties Liquid automatic dishwasher detergents are chemically complex mixtures, consisti variety of components working in unison to clean the items placed in the dishwas machine. Each component performs a vital function, either alone or in conjunction others. LADD ingredients can be broadly classified into two categories: those tha cleaning function and those that modify the rheology or esthetics of the liquid. In t the typical components found in LADDs are discussed. A typical LADD compos the functions of the individual components are listed in Table 3. TABLE 3 Typical Compositions and Functions of LADD Products Component
Function
Builder
5–30
Sequestration, soil suspensio emulsification
Silicate
3–15
Anticorrosion, alkalinity, sequ
Surfactant
0–2
Spot/film prevention, sheeting dispersion
Bleach
0.5–2
Caustic
1–5
Alkalinity
Defoamer
0–1
Foam prevention
Thickener
0.5–2
Gel structure
Color/fragrance
<0.5
Esthetics
Water
Amount (%)
Balance
Stain removal, soil removal, disinfectant
Solubilizer, flow properties
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A. Builders Builders as a class perform several essential functions in the automatic dishwashing process. Ideally, a builder should possess the following properties: a high and rapid sequestration capacity for hardness ions in the wash water, soildispersing properties, chemical stability and compatibility with other detergent components, low toxicity, high biodegradability, and low cost. The chemical structures of some common builders are shown in Fig. 4. The presence of alkaline earth (Ca2+ and Mg2+) ions during an automatic dishwashing cycle can lead to undesirable spotting and filming on items being washed. This occurs through the formation of insoluble metal complexes with proteinaceous soils, fatty acids, anionic surfactants, and carbonate. Research in the field has led to a better understanding of the causes of spotting and filming on items being washed, especially glassware [12,13]. Fatty soils, in combination with calcium ions, result in filming of glasses. However, organic soils do not deposit film in soft water. In addition, inorganic filming (as CaCO3) is also a problem under hard water conditions. Both types of film can be controlled or even prevented by efficiently sequestering the hardness ions in the incoming wash water. This problem is obviously of greater concern in hard
FIG. 4 Chemical structures of selected builders.
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water areas. Spotting, in contrast, cannot be controlled by sequestration of hardness ions. Both fatty and proteinaceous soils can deposit as spots under all water conditions. Because of the different mechanisms responsible for soil deposition on glassware, formulations of LADD products rely on two different approaches to control this problem. First, compounds that sequester the hardness ions (builders) are used. I this manner, the calcium and magnesium form watersoluble complexes and are removed with the wash water. In general, Ca2+ sequestration is of greater importance than that of Mg2+. This is not only because Ca2+ is generally present i higher concentrations in water supplies, but also because Casoil and CaCO3 complexes are more stable and less soluble than the magnesium analogs. An important factor in the selection of builders is therefore their clacium binding affini KCa, usually reported as the pK Ca [14]. The equilibrium present in solution is show in the equation:
> where L is the complexing ligand. The pK Ca of builders typically used in LADDs are listed in Table 4. Also listed are the calcium binding capacities in terms of mg CaO per g builder [15]. Of course, for two molecules with equal binding constants, that with the lower molecular weight is more efficient. The second approach to spot or film prevention involves the use of compounds that either inhibit the deposition and precipitation of Ca2+ complexes by slowing crystallizati or reduce the growth of existing crystallites, known as the threshold effect. TABLE 4 p K Ca Values for Typical ADD Builders Builder
Ca binding capacity (mg Ca2+/g) [15]
Sodium TPP
6.0
198
Nitrilotriacetic acid
6.4
448
Sodium citrate
3.6
400
Sodium carbonate
286
LMW polyacrylate
4.5
440
Acrylate/maleic copolymers
4.5
480
Zeolite A
pK Ca
198
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Generally, combinations of builders are used in LADD products, the reason being that some builders are more effective sequestrants of calcium, others more effectively bind magnesium, and yet others provide soil dispersion. Studies have also shown synergistic effects in many cases. For example, Lange has reported that interactions between silicate and phosphate show surface activity greater than what each component alone would contribute [16]. Experiments have shown that combinations of lowmolecularweight polyacrylates and soda ash tolerate higher concentrations of Ca2+ in the wash water than equal amounts of either sequestrant individually [14,17]. Builders also work synergistically with surfactants to increase the detergency of the liquid. By tying up free hardness ions, they prevent the formation of insoluble Casurfactant complexes. 1. Phosphates Details of the chemistry of phosphorous compounds pertinent to detergent applications are discussed in a comprehensive review by van Wazer [18]. Phosphates are the universal builder in LADDs because of their high performance tocost ratio. The term “phosphate,” when used in reference to LADDs, actually refers to oligophosphate ions, most common being the tripolyphosphate pentaanion (TPP), the pyrophosphate tetraanion, and the cyclic trimetaphosphate trianion. The structure of TPP is shown in Fig. 4. All polyphosphates hydrolyze to simple orthophosphate over time. The rate of hydrolysis increases with increasing temperature or decreasing pH [18]. For tripolyphosphate in typical LADD conditions, the hydrolysis halflife is very slow, on the time scale of years [18], and is thus of little concern for typical alkaline LADD compositions. These builders are generally available as sodium, potassium, or mixedmetal salts, the last two being more soluble in water but also more costly. The wide spread use of sodium TPP (STPP) in LADD formulations can be attributed to the many functions it performs during the wash cycle. Besides its efficient sequestration of hardness ions, STPP works to disperse and suspend soils, enhance the surface action of anionic surfactants, solubilize proteinaceous soils, and provide alkalinity and buffering action. Pyrophosphates have been included in some LADD formulations because of their better solubility properties relative to tripolyphosphate [19]. Phosphates are currently the primary builder in all LADD products sold in North America, although various regulations limiting their use have been in place for the past 20 years. The concern with phosphates is that large amounts in the wastewater results in the eutrophication of lakes and ponds, leading to excessive algal growth. Because of this concern, government regulations banning their use in laundry detergents and limiting their use in ADD products were passed in the early 1970s.
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2. Silicates After phosphates, silicates are the most ubiquitous builders in use in LADD formulations. Like tripolyphosphate, silicates are multifunctional. A combination of phosphate and silicate is therefore generally used in ADD formulations. In addition to their sequestering properties, silicates provide alkalinity, soil suspension, and anticorrosion properties. A detailed treatment of the synthesis, chemistry, and applications of silicates has been undertaken by Iyler [20]. Other reviews are also available [21,22]. Silicates used in detergents vary according to the SiO2/Na2O ratio present. They are synthesized by the reaction of sand and sodium carbonate at elevated temperatures. Commercially, ratios of 0.5–4 are available, depending on the ratios of starting materials used [23]. An important transition occurs at a mole ratio of about 2. Below a mole ratio of SiO2/Na2O of 2, monomeric or dimeric silicate tetrahedra exist [22]. In contrast, mole ratios greater than 2 result in higher molecular weight silicates because of polymerization. The equilibrium between monomeric and polymeric silicate is affected by the pH of the solution. As the solution becomes more alkaline, the amount of monomeric species increases. For LADD formulation purposes, disilicates with an SiO2/Na2O ratio of 1:2–3 are generally used. At lower ratios, metasilicates form that render the detergent too alkaline, at which point safety problems because of their corrosiveness may become a concern. 3. Zeolites A related class of siliceous builders are the aluminosilicates (zeolites). Zeolite A, in particular, has been studied as a builder in detergent formulations, generally as a phosphate replacement. It consists of alternating SiO2 and AlO2 building blocks forming a threedimensional cage structure, with sodium ions balancing the charge. It works by ion exchange, replacing Ca2+ in solution with Na+. This is a different mode of action compared with the other builders, which form soluble complexes with calcium and magnesium. Because of the relatively small pore size of zeolite A (4.2 Å), the larger, hydrated Mg2+ dications cannot be efficiently exchanged.
Studies have shown zeolites to be slower than STPP in removing Ca2+ from the wash solution [24]. In addition, their insolubility in aqueous solutions has limited use to powder detergents, especially in the laundry industry. A comprehensive review of the chemistry of aluminosilicates in detergent compositions is available [25]. Recently, patents for LADD products utilizing zeolites have appeared in the literature [26–28]. The attraction is a result of their low cost and low toxicity.
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4. Carbonate Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) has been used in detergent formulations for many years both to sequester calcium ions (at pH > 9) in the wash water and as an alkalinity source. The structure of the carbonate dianion is shown in Fig. 4. Currently, all powder ADDs contain high levels of sodium carbonate (15– 40%), mainly as a source of alkalinity. In LADDs in which caustic can be incorporated into the compositions, the need for sodium carbonate is less important. Because complexation with Ca2+ results in the insoluble CaCO3, which deposits on items being washed, carbonate alone is not an effective builder system. In contrast, tripolyphosphate forms a soluble calcium salt, preventing the deposition of insoluble salts. Sodium sesquicarbonate (Na2CO3∙NaHCO3∙2H2O) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) have not been used in LADD formulations, except when buffering action is needed. 5. Citrate A builder that was recently studied as a possible phosphate replacement is sodium citrate. The structure of the citrate trianion is shown in Fig. 4. Several properties of sodium citrate restrict its use in LADD formulations. First, it is incompatible with hypochlorite, precluding its use in most LADD compositions. It is also inferior to STPP in its sequestration efficiency for calcium ions. Finally, it is almost three times more expensive than STPP. This combination renders citrate unsuitable as a replacement for STPP. In Europe, where the different wash conditions allow the use of milder peroxygen bleaches or enzymes and the water is presoftened, citratebuilt products are possible. 6. Organic Polymers Polymers of carboxylic acids are being increasingly used in LADD formulations because they can perform several functions necessary to ADD components. Lowmolecularweight polycarboxylates (<250,000 amu) are useful as both builders and soildispersing agents. Because these two functions in LADD formulations are usually performed by sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), much effort has been directed toward the use of lowmolecularweight polycarboxylates as phosphate replacements. In particular, the soildispersing properties of lowmolecularweight polycarboxylates make them very attractive in LADD formulations because other builders, such as carbonate, silicate, aluminosilicates, nitrilotriacetate, citrate, and even tripolyphosphate, act mainly as sequestrants. The most often used polycarboxylates consist of acrylic, maleic, and olefinic monomers, either as homo or copolymers. Modifications to the side groups can be made to alter the hydrophobicity of the polymer. In addition, the relative ratios of monomers in copolymer structures can be varied to control the properties of the polymer. Both acrylic acid homopolymers and acrylic acid/maleic
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anhydride copolymers are commercially available in a wide range of molecular weights (1000–250,000 amu). The structures of both types are shown in Fig. 4. They are sold under the trade names Acusol (Rohm & Haas) [29] and Sokalan (BASF) [30], among others. As calcium sequestering agents, the copolymers are generally better than analogous acrylic homopolymers because of their greater concentration of COO groups per monomeric unit. The differences are rather small, though. In addition, the calcium binding capacity increases with increasing molecular weight [17]. The degree to which the carboxylate groups are ionized also affects the polymer properties. Polycarboxylates that exhibit only partial ionization in the wash have been found to be better sequestrants [31]. The degree of ionization determines the amount of association between COO groups and the degree to which the polymer coils. Two mechanisms have been proposed for sequestration of Ca2+ and Mg2+ by polycarboxylic acids [32]. Through electrostatic binding, the hardness ions interact with electrostatic fields created by the polymer. In contrast, site binding relies on preferential binding of large cations (e.g., Ca2+) over smaller cations (e.g., Na+ or K+) along specific binding sites [32]. Capolycarboxylate complexes are not very soluble and will precipitate and deposit on glassware under high Ca2+ concentrations. In fact, research at BASF [14] has shown that a combination of soda ash and lowmolecular weight polycarboxylates works better at preventing filming on glassware than either soda ash or the polymer alone. This is because soda ash binds the calcium but is not deposited as CaCO3 because of the dispersing properties of the polymer. In this manner, a higher concentration of Ca2+ can be tolerated. In addition to their role as calcium sequestrants, polycarboxylates perform two other major functions [14]. In fact, because they are usually used in combination with other sequestrants (phosphate, carbonate, and citrate), which behave more as sequestrants of hardness ions, it is these properties that make them so important. First, they prevent the crystal growth of calcium precipitates, especially CaCO3 (threshold effect). They also reduce the growth of crystallites already formed. In general, lowmolecularweight polycarboxylates (<10,000 amu) are more effective than higher molecular weight polycarboxylates. Equally important, polycarboxylates are effective dispersants of particulate soils. In this role, lowmolecularweight polymers are again more efficient than higher molecular weight analogs. 7. Other Builders A very effective STPP replacement not used in LADD compositions is nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), commonly manufactured as the monohydrate. Its structure is shown in Fig. 4. It is superior to STPP in sequestration of hardness ions, contribution to the alkalinity of the detergent, and solubility under highpH conditions. Because of these properties, it was once considered for use in no
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P LADD products. However, concerns about its toxicity have prevented widespread use. There is some controversy regarding its possible role as a carcinogen [33,34]. Only sporadic use in the laundry detergent category is now observed in Canada and parts of Europe. The last class of builder to be mentioned here is the ether carboxylates, or oxydicarboxylates. These have not found use in marketed LADD products, mainly because of their high cost and incompatibility with hypochlorite. Nonetheless, some favorable characteristics have been identified for effective Ca2+ binding [35]: 1. A pK Ca > 5 is desired with minimum molecular weight. 2. Carboxylate and ether oxygens on carbons are preferred. 3. Ether oxygens are preferred over ketal oxygens. 4. The order of preference is substituted malonate > malonate > succinate > acetate > propionate. 5. The total ionic charge should be >2 but <5, except for 2:1 complexes. 6. A close steric fit of >4 donor oxygens around Ca2+ is desired. 7. A minimum number of degrees of freedom in the carbon backbone is desired. B. Surfactants The role of surfactants in the automatic dishwashing process is very different from their role in the hand dishwashing process. In contrast to lightduty liquid detergents (LDLDs; see Chap. 7), which consist mainly of and rely on a combination of surfactants for foaming, grease cutting, and soil removal, LADDs contain surfactants only as a minor additive. The grease and soil removal is instead accomplished by the high alkalinity and bleach present. In addition, the high wash temperature helps to melt fatty soils and to denature proteinaceous soils. Surfactants provide sheeting action on the items being washed to prevent soils from depositing as spots or film. However, their tendency to produce a large amount of foam is detrimental to the automatic dishwashing process. The reason is that dishwashing machines work by pumping the wash solution through spray arms, which spin because of the water pressure. Foam decreases the water pressure and therefore the cleaning efficiency of the machine (see Sec. II). In surfactantcontaining compositions, defoamers are often used which reduce foaming by interfering with the formation of micelles (next section). Surfactants suitable for LADD formulations must be low foaming. In addition, if the product is to contain chlorine bleach, the surfactants must be resistant to oxidation. In LADD formulations, only anionic and nonionic surfactants have found use. Cationic or amphotheric surfactants have not been used because of
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their relatively high cost and/or incompatibility with other detergent ingredients. Anionic surfactants are available as alkali metal salts that dissociate in aqueous solution. Typical hydrophilic “head groups” useful in LADD formulations include carboxylates, sulfonates, sulfates, phosphates, and phosphonates. These surfactants are bleach stable unless the hydrophobic tail is oxidizable. A drawback to the use of anionics in LADDs is that they produce too much foam. Nonetheless, because of their bleach stability, alkyl ether sulfonates, such as the Dowfax line (Dow Chemicals), have been used at low concentration in LADD products. The bleach compatibility of a series of anionic surfactants is reported by Rosen and Zhu [36] and in a Dow Chemical bulletin [37]. Nonionic surfactants have also been investigated as components of LADD compositions. The hydrophilicity of nonionic surfactants arises from the polar linkages within the molecule. Typical nonionic surfactants include polythylene glycol ethers, fatty acid alkanol amides, amine oxides, and ethylene oxide/propylene oxide (EO/PO) block polymers. The last is especially effective in LADD formulas, although their incompatibility with chlorine bleach has restricted their use to powder or bleachfree gel formulas. The relative hydrophobicity of the EO/PO polymeric surfactants can be controlled by variations in the EO/PO ratio, hydrophobicity increasing with PO content. Nonionic surfactants possess several advantages over anionics as far as automatic dishwashing is concerned. At temperatures above their cloud points, foaming is reduced nearly to zero. In addition, nonionics are much more effective in lowering the surface tension of water and are therefore much better detergents. C. Defoamers The formation of foam during the automatic dishwashing cycle is detrimental to the mechanical washing efficiency of the machine. To prevent foaming, LADD products often contain defoamers. The most commonly used hypochlorite stable defoamers in LADDs are anionic surfactants, such as alkyl phosphate esters and ethoxylated esters [38–40] and silicone oils [41]. The structures of the first two types are shown in Fig. 5. Also described in the patent literature is the use of aliphatic alcohols or acids as defoamers [42]. The wash temperature has a significant effect on foaming because of its effect on the solubility of the defoaming surfactant. Nonionic surfactants are effective only above their cloud points. Careful consideration must therefore be taken when formulating with nonionics. Water hardness also plays a role in foam formation. In hard water, Ca2+ and Mg2+ form complexes with fats or anionic surfactants. These insoluble complexes interact with the foam, breaking up the micellar structure.
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FIG. 5 Chemical structures of phosphate ester defoamers. R refers to an alkyl group.
D. Oxidizing Agents The primary role of bleach in automatic dishwashing is in the removal of food based stains by oxidation of the responsible molecules. These include anthocyanins (berries), humic acid polymers (coffee and cocoa), tannins (tea and red wine), and carotinoid dyes (carrots and tomatoes). In addition, bleaches contribute to overall cleaning and disinfecting of dishware. They accomplish this by oxidizing food soils, thereby solubilizing them. Several factors contribute to the bleaching activity in the automatic dishwashing process. The most important are listed here [43]: 1. All bleaches work faster with increasing temperature. 2. Trace amounts of metal impurities dramatically increase the rate of catalytic decomposition of bleaches. 3. The rate of bleaching increases with increasing bleach concentration. However, bleach selfdecomposition also increases. 4. The bleach activity is often dependent on pH. Two general types of bleaches have been used in automatic dishwashing detergents: hypochorite and peroxygen bleaches. “Chlorine bleaches” refer here to complexes that either contain or deliver hypochlorite (OCl) in solution. The compounds used in detergent products are typically alkali or alkaline earth hypochlorites, liquid sodium hypochlorite being the most common. Solid calcium hypochlorite has also received attention, although its low solubility and its contribution of Ca2+ to the wash liquor has limited its use in LADD products. Generally, NaOCl is added in amounts resulting in 1–2% active chlorine. One drawback to the use of chlorine bleaches is that in addition to oxidizing soils, the bleach also oxidizes some ingredients often used in the formula
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tions. Because of these unwanted side reactions, care must be taken when formulating with chlorine bleach. For example, enzymes, nonionic surfactants, sodium citrate, and other useful LADD components are easily and rapidly oxidized by hypochlorite. A study of the stability of sodium hypochlorite in the presence of surfactants has been published by Rosen and Zhu [36]. Even when using only bleachstable detergent ingredients, the bleach present decreases over time as a result of autodecomposition. Two different pathways contribute to bleach degradation [43]: 2NaOCl *** 2NaCl + O2 3NaOCl *** NaOCl3 + 2NaCl The first pathway accounts for about 95% of the consumption of OCl in the absence of metallic catalysts [44]. The decomposition is affected by pH, concentration, temperature, salt content, and photolysis [36,44] and can lead to loss of product performance upon prolonged storage. The peroxygen bleaches, typically perborate or percarbonate salts, produce peroxide in aqueous solutions. The effectiveness of peroxide as an oxidizing agent at relatively low wash temperatures (120–140 °F) is unfortunately minimal. Peracids [RC(O)OOH], which can be generated by the activation of carboxylic acids by peroxide or can be added directly, have not found use in LADD compositions despite their relatively high oxidation potentials because of their instability in aqueous solution. As mentioned earlier, European wash conditions are somewhat different from those encountered in the United States. In particular, the water temperature during wash cycles is higher in Europe. This difference has important consequences regarding the formulation of detergents. The higher wash temperatures present in European dishwashing allow the use of milder oxygen bleaches in place of chlorine bleaches. As bleaching agents, the activity of peroxides and peracids increases with temperature. Under typical North American conditions, they are not suitable replacements for hypochlorite. However, they are more effective under European conditions. The use of peroxygen bleaches allows more freedom in formulations because many LADD components are incompatible with hypochlorite but not with peroxide. Because of the instability of peroxide in alkaline aqueous systems, their use is limited to nonaqueous LADDs. E. Enzymes The use of enzymes in detergent formulations became a practical matter in the mid1960s, when Novo Industry began production of proteinases by microbial fermentation. These enzymes were stable at the high temperatures and alkalinity encountered in dishwashing.
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Several types of enzymes have found uses in LADD compositions [4,45]. Most common are proteinases, amylases, and lipases, which attack proteinaceous, starchy, and fatty soils, respectively. Proteinases work by hydrolyzing peptide bonds in proteins. Proteinases differ in their specificity toward peptide bonds. The typical proteinase used in LADD formulations, bacterial alkaline proteinase (subtilisin), is very nonspecific. That is, it attacks all types of peptide bonds in proteins. In contrast to proteinases, amylases catalyze the hydrolysis of starch. They attack the internal ether bonds between glucose units, yielding shorter, watersoluble chains called dextrins. Lipases work by hydrolyzing the ester bonds in fats and oils. Often, combinations are used because of the specificity of each kind of one type of soil. The commercially available enzymes are listed in Table 5. F. Thickening Agents LADD products currently in the marketplace are not real liquids but are, in fact, gels thickened by a structuring agent. Two main kinds of thickeners are used in LADD products currently available to consumers: these are water swellable, highmolecularweight (HMW) crosslinked polyacrylates (MW > 1,000,000) and clays, such as bentonite or laponite. Cothickeners are often added to improve the stability of the gel. For example, colloidal alumina or silica [46–48], fatty acids or their salts [47,49–59], and others have been described in the patent literature as effective additives. It has also been found that incorporated air bubbles can also contribute to the stability of polyacrylatethickened gels [67–70]. The effect of such thickening systems is to make the gel viscoelastic and thixotropic. This means that the gel is viscous when unstressed, but the TABLE 5 Commercially Available Detergent Enzymes Type
Trade name
Manufacturer
Proteinase
Esperase Savinase Durazym Alcalase
Novo
Maxapem
Gistbrocades
Optimase Opticlean
Solvay
Amylase
Termamyl
Novo
Maxamyl Maxatase
Gistbrocades
Lipase
AmylaseLT Lipolase
Solvay Novo
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viscosity decreases because of shear thinning upon application of an applied stress. The rheological properties of LADD products are discussed in the next section. Currently, products on the market are thickened mainly by polyacrylic acids, although some use a mixture of polymer and a clay. This is in contrast to the early LADD products, which used exclusively clay thickeners and therefore suffered from stability problems [6]. The products, because they were clay suspensions in an aqueous medium, tended to separate in a relatively short period of time. The introduction of bleachcompatible polymeric thickeners in the early 1990s corrected this problem [71]. IV. Rheology And Stability Of Ladds As discussed earlier, LADDs are complex, multicomponent mixtures consisting of both organic and inorganic compounds dispersed in a liquid matrix. Such compositions can exhibit a broad range of rheological characteristics, from simple Newtonian to complex pseudoplastic flow. Shown in Figs. 6 and 7 are flow and viscosity profiles of Newtonian and nonNewtonian fluids as a function of applied shear rate. A number of mathematical models have been proposed [72] to describe the flow characteristics of various systems. These are called constitutive equations and are used to predict flow behavior in complex systems.
FIG. 6 Generic examples of shear stress versus shear rate plots for different rheological systems. (Reproduced by permission from Ref. 72.)
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FIG. 7 Generic examples of viscosity versus shear rate plots for different rheological systems. (Reproduced by permission from Ref. 72.)
Clearly, the response of fluids to an applied shear can be linear or nonlinear and depends on two major factors: shear rate and structural or mechanical properties of the system, which in turn depend upon the interaction between the components, including the rheological additives. It is the latter that primarily determine the flow properties of LADDs. The intent of this section is to discuss various rheological properties and test methods pertinent to LADDs. Interested readers may refer to Chap. 4, which deals with the rheology of complex liquids and suspensions, and other books [72–75] and review articles [76–78] covering this subject. Heywood [79] discusses the criteria for selecting various commercial viscometers. The ideal rheological characteristics of LADDs from the consumer point of view are as follows: 1. The product must be homogeneous and phase stable. 2. The flow properties of the product should be such that it can be readily dispensed to the dishwasher cup from the bottle without dripping. 3. Once the product is in the dishwasher cup, it should recover its structure and viscosity such that the product stays in the cup until the wash cycle begins. The third attribute is the most important for dishwashers sold in the United States because a majority of dishwasher cups are primarily designed for powders. They are therefore ungasketed and do not prevent improperly structured gel products from leaking prematurely.
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A. Flow Properties 1. Viscosity This is a fundamental rheological property that is universally measured and reported for all liquid products. Different types of viscometers are used to measure these properties. A major disadvantage of determining the viscosity for complex fluids is that the value obtained depends on instrument, type of spindle, and rotational speed. Therefore, one should be extremely careful when comparing the viscosities of the liquid products described in the literature. 2. Yield Value Another rheological attribute of LADDs commonly referred to in the patent literature is yield value (also referred as yield stress). The significance of the yield value is that it indicates shear stress or shear rate necessary to induce flow, which is a characteristic of the system. This is only an apparent yield stress, because everything flows even at zero stress if given enough time. Several methods based on viscometers [80,81] and stress rheometers [82,83] have been proposed and described for measuring this parameter. One of the methods described [84] utilizes a Brookfield RVT model viscometer and a T bar spindle. The viscometer readings are recorded at 0.5 and 1.0 rpm after 30 s or after the system is stable. Shear stress at zero shear is equal to two times the 0.5 rpm reading minus the reading at 1.0 rpm. The yield value is then calculated as Yield value = 18.8 × stress at zero shear According to this patent, the yield value for LADDs should be in the range 50– 350 dyn/cm2. Another method described in the literature [81] is based on Brookfield viscosity measurements at two different shear rates, and the yield value is calculated according to the equation
where is the shear rate and 1 and 2 are viscosities at shear rates at 1 and 2 1, respectively. 3. Thixotropy The most desirable type of flow encountered in LADDs is thixotropy. Such systems follow a shear thinning pattern very similar to pseudoplastic systems, but when the shear is removed the structure rebuilds in a timeindependent manner instead of instantaneously. A rheological profile of a thixotropic liquid shows a characteristic hysteresis loop, the size of which is related to the
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degree of thixotropy and structure recovery time. A typical thixotropic loop shows the relationship between the viscosity or stress versus shear rate. An example for a commercial LADD is shown in Fig. 8. Such flow curves are typically obtained by plotting viscosity or shear stress with increasing shear rate (up curve), followed by decreasing shear rate (down curve). Some systems exhibit flow behavior opposite of thixotropic systems, that is viscosity increases with increasing shear rate. Such fluids are referred to as dilatant or rheopectic. This type of behavior is not common for liquid products containing a low concentration of the dispersed phase. B. Dynamic Properties The vast majority of concentrated dispersions, such as LADDs, exhibit both viscous and elastic properties. These systems are therefore referred to as viscoelastic. The flow properties discussed in the previous section are not sufficient for complete rheological characterization of visoelastic fluids. Dynamic mechanical properties, characterized by the storage modulus G' and loss modulus G'', are normally measured to quantify viscoelastic properties. The storage modulus represents the mechanical energy stored and recovered and is a direct measure of the elasticity of the fluid. The loss modulus is a measure of mechanical energy lost thermodynamically as heat. This type of energy dissipation occurs when the sample is undergoing viscous flow. For predominantly elastic materials G' > G'', and for predominantly viscous materials G' > G".
FIG. 8 Shear stress versus shear rate for a commercial LADD. The rheograms were recorded on a CarriMed CSL 100 stresscontrolled rheometer using a 4 cm acrylic parallel plate configuration with gap setting of 1000 m.
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Both G' and G " are related to the complex modulus G* and complex viscosity * by the following relationships:
where is the angular frequency of the oscillation. The relative magnitudes of the two moduli provide significant information regarding the strength of internal association or structure in fluids and dispersions. These moduli are measured as a function of strain, frequency, or time. For some dispersions, the magnitudes of G' and G " may remain constant as a function of either frequency or strain. Such materials are referred to as linearly viscoelastic. Plots of G' and G " versus % strain for the three major commercial gel LADDs sold in the United States are shown in Figs. 9–11. In this experiment, a strain is applied to the sample and the stress response is measured. The elasticity and viscosity of a gel are essential criteria for ease of dispensing and cup retention in the dishwasher. For example, a patent issued to Corring and Gabriel [85] claims that viscosities of 1000–20,000 cP under 51 shear, 200–to 5000 cP under 21 s1 shear, and a steadystate viscoelastic deformation compliance value of at least 0.01 are ideal for product dispensability and cup
FIG. 9 G' and G" versus % strain for a commercial LADD. The rheograms were recorded on a CarriMed CSL 100 stresscontrolled rheometer using a 4 cm acrylic parallel plate configuration with gap setting of 1000 m.
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FIG. 10 Plots of the G' and G" vs % strain for a commercial LADD. The rheograms were recorded on a CarriMed CSL 100 stresscontrolled rheometer using a 4 cm acrylic parallel plate configuration with gap setting of 1000 m.
retention (as measured on a Haake Rotovisco RV100 viscometer). A series of patents issued to Dixit and coworkers [51,52,55,67,68] emphasizes the importance of linear viscoelasticity as defined by tan as an important rheological characteristic for LADDs.
FIG. 11 Plots of the G' and G" vs % strain for a commercial LADD. The rheogran were recorded on a CarriMed CSL 100 stresscontrolled rheometer using a 4 cm acryl parallel plate configuration with gap setting of 1000 m.
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V. Evaluation of Performance Essential to the development of new LADD products is the evaluation of their performance. It is important that the test conditions closely reproduce the conditions encountered by the consumer under typical household situations; therefore, prototype formulas are usually tested in actual dishwashing machines using real food soils. Typically, performance evaluation tests are run using a variety of soiled items, because a combination of soils are typically encountered by consumers. For example, spotting and filming on standard glass tumblers are run in conjunction with plates and cutlery soiled with egg, oatmeal, spinach, tomato sauce, and various other common food soils. In addition, the ability of the ADD product to remove tough stains, such as coffee, tea, and blueberry, is assessed on a variety of substrates during these multisoil test cycles. Ideally, testing should be conducted using machines from all major manufacturers, because differences exist in detergent dosing amounts, water fill amounts, and lengths and order of cycles. It is also important that performance tests be carried out at different water hardnesses, because regional variations exist. Water hardness for testing purposes can be controlled by the addition of simple salts of calcium and magnesium to deionized water. A 2:1 mole ratio commonly is used because this is the Ca2+/Mg2+ ratio encountered in most water supplies. A. Spotting and Filming The standard method for the testing of ADD products in the area of spot or film prevention on glassware is described in ASTM D3556 [86]. The test entails the washing of glass tumblers using commercial automatic dishwashing machines. Initially the glasses are coated with whole milk, and a soil consisting of margarine and powdered, nonfat milk (40 g in an 8:2 ratio) is added before starting the cycle. The soil can be introduced by spreading on dinner plates or by adding directly to the wash. This combination of soils provides the fats and proteins generally present during typical household wash cycles. Optionally, a similar soil mixture that also contains cooked cereal can be added, providing a source of starch. For completeness, a combination of dinner plates, dessert plates, and silverware is placed in the machine for ballast. It is recommended that at least five complete cycles be run during a test, coating the glasses with milk and adding the soil at the beginning of each cycle. This is to ensure that product performance remains acceptable after repeated cycles. Detergents that are underbuilt, for example, lead to heavy filming on the glasses only after several cycles. The two test parameters that are typically varied during spot/film tests are the water temperature and hardness. To dis
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criminate between similar products, it is often useful to run the tests under stress conditions, that is, low temperature and high water hardness. In contrast, to determine how a detergent might perform under normal household conditions, higher temperatures and lower water hardnesses should be used. The ASTM procedure also describes a rating method for judging the spotting and filming on glasses. The readings are done visually using a fluorescent light box to highlight spotting and filming on the glasses being inspected. The performance of a product is rated on a 1–5 scale for both spotting and filming, as shown in Table 6. The use of photometry to rate the spotting and filming on glassware eliminates the possibility of subjective judging by humans. Several systems have been described in the literature that take advantage of this technique [87]. B. Soil Removal When testing the performance of ADD products, it is often useful to determine the ability of the detergent to remove tough food soils from items being washed. In selecting the soils to be used, the following criteria must be met. The soils must be representative of what consumers encounter in their kitchen, but they must not be removed so easily that all products are rendered equal in cleaning efficiency. The soils can be roughly divided into two classes: water soluble or dispersible and waterinsoluble. Examples of the former are sugars, starch, flour, or egg whites; the latter soils might be animal or vegetable fats. Egg yolks have proven to be an especially useful soil for performance testing of ADD products. They contain a very high protein content and thus are not saponified by the heat and alkalinity during the wash cycle as are fatty soils. Their efficient removal from dinner plates can only be accomplished by detergents that target proteinaceous soils. Often, CaCl2 is mixed into the egg mixture to make a cohesiveadhesive egg complex capable of remaining on the dishes throughout the complete cycle [88]. Otherwise, the mechanical energy from the water jets alone removes the egg from the plate. Typically, 2–3 g CaCl2/25 g egg yolk are added. This more closely stimulates typically soiled plates, which might derive a small amount of calcium from milk or salts TABLE 6 Rating Scale for Spotting and Filming of Glassware Rating
Spotting
Filming
1
No spots
None
2
Random spots
Barely perceptible
3
¼ surface covered
Slight
4
½ surface covered
Moderate
5
Virtually completely covered
Heavy
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present. A known weight of the egg soil should be spread on dinner plates. The degree of egg removal after the cycle is determined either visually or by weight difference. An added bonus of this test is that it provides a proteinaceous soil to the wash liquor, making the spotting and filming scores more realistic. Studies have shown proteinaceous soils to be a source of spotting on glasses [12]. It is important to place the egg plates consistently in the same position in the dishwasher to minimize spray arm effects. The Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers has published a set of standards for testing of the automatic dishwashing process [89]. A multisoil test is described for testing of detergents. The items to be washed are soiled as listed in Table 7. The test procedure also describes how to load the items into the dishwasher and other test parameters. Variations in the types and number of soils and items used for a multisoil test are permissible. It is desirable, though, to use a soil combination that contains the major types of soils (proteinaceous, fatty, and starchy), because some ADD products might effectively remove some soils but not others. This is especially true of formulas that contain enzymes. C. Stain Removal Besides the prevention of spots and film and the removal of food soils from items being washed, LADD products must also effectively remove stains. For TABLE 7 Recommended Multisoil Test Item
Soil
Quantity
Dinner plates
Mashed potato
1 tsp
Raspberry preserves
1 tsp
Ground beef
½tsp
Egg yolk
1 tsp
Coffee grounds
1/8 tsp
Butter plates
Cream corn
¼tsp
Oatmeal
¼ tsp
Flatware
Knives
Peanut butter
¼ tsp
Spoons
Cream corn
Coated
Forks
Egg yolk
Coated
Serving spoon
Cream corn, potato
Coated
Serving fork
Egg yolk
Coated
Coffee cups
Coffee
Coates
Saucers
Coffee
Coated
Glasses
Tomato juice
Coated
Egg yolk
Coated
Coffee cups
Coffee
Coates
Saucers
Coffee
Coated
Glasses
Tomato juice
Coated
Serving bowls
Cream corn
1 tsp
Mashed potato
1 tbsp
Serving fork
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this purpose, LADDs often employ bleaching agents that act by oxidizing the chromophore responsible for the stain color. Generally, as the oxidizing potential of the bleach increases, its effectiveness also increases. The common method employed to gauge stain removal is to allow either coffee or tea to dry in a porcelain, plastic, or glass cup. The cups are then run in a standard soil test [89]. D. Foaming The minimization of foam generated by detergent and food soils during wash cycles in the automatic dishwashing process is a prerequisite for efficient mechanical cleaning by the machine spray arms. Foam decreases the water pressure pumped through the rotors, decreasing the kinetic energy of the water jets. As stated in Sec. II, mechanical action has been estimated to be responsible for 85% of the cleaning in a machine dishwashing cycle. Lowering of the wash pressure therefore has a noticeable effect on overall cleaning. Because of this, ADD formulations, especially those containing anionic surfactants, often contain defoamers. A standard test method has been developed for the measurement of foam during an automatic dishwashing cycle. This method is described in the CSMA Compendium, Method DCC001 [90]. The test involves the measurement of the machine spray arm rotational velocity (rpm) at 1 minute intervals over a 10 minute wash cycle. The rotor rpm decreases in the presence of foam because the water pressure being pumped through the spray arm is lower. To measure the revolutions per minute, a magnetically activated “Reed” switch is used and the spray arm is fitted with a magnet. The detergent is dosed normally, and a highfoaming soil is added before the cycle begins. The recommended soil is nonfat powdered milk (10 g) or a powdered milk and egg white combination (1:1). The efficiency score for a particular detergent is obtained by taking the average of the arm speed readings and dividing by the average reading for the control. In this experiment, the control is the same experiment without the detergent or soil. As in other performance tests, it is good practice to use the same machine for all comparative experiments to eliminate variations due to the use of different machines. Different machines have slightly different motors, which produce slightly different rotor velocities. E. Fine China Overglaze Fine china is often decorated with colored patterns made from various metal salts or oxides. Two methods are commonly used: underglaze, in which the color is applied before the glaze, and overglaze, in which it is applied after the glaze. The overglaze pattern on fine china is incompatible with the high alka
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linity characteristic of ADD products. Unless the china is somehow protected from hydroxide ions during the wash, the overglaze and color are attacked and destroyed. To protect against this, LADDs are generally formulated with sodium silicate, which acts by coating the china with a protective siliceous layer, preventing the alkali from coming in contact with the overglaze itself. Silicate works in a similar manner to protect metal machine parts from corrosion. A procedure has been developed to test the effectiveness of ADD products in fine china overglaze protection. This method is described in ASTM D3565 [91]. Segments of a china plate are soaked in a 0.3% ADD solution held at 96.0–99.5°C in a steam bath. Two controls are also set up, consisting of a sodium carbonate solution and water only. The segments of the china plate are placed in supporting wire mesh to avoid contact with the bottom of the steel beakers used. The solutions are heated for 6 h, after which the china segments are removed and rubbed vigorously with a 1.5 inch square of muslin. The plate segment is then washed, dried, and visually inspected for fading. An effective detergent should prevent any sign of wear. VI. Formulation Technology The formulation of LADDs comprises a balance among performance, esthetics, and cost. For the consumer to accept the product, it must possess several attributes, listed in Table 8. In formulating LADDs, the components used must not only clean the dishware effectively but must also yield a stable, physically attractive product with specific rheological characteristics. As far as cleaning is concerned, the product must prevent spotting and filming on glass items and remove food soils encountered under typical conditions. To meet these criteria, LADDs utilize a combination of components. The bulk of food removal from soiled dishes is accomplished by two mechanisms. Fatty soils are removed by a combination of the high temperature and alkalinity present, which melts and saponifies fats. Proteinaceous and starchy soils, on the other hand, are attacked by oxidation and hydrolysis. The removal of tough stains, such as coffee or tea, can only be accomplished by strong TABLE 8 Important Attributes of LADDs
Effective cleaning
Convenient to use
Safe to dishes and tableware
Safe to dishwasher
Stable upon storage
Safe to humans
Economical to use
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bleaching agents, such as hypochlorite. Hypochlorite also has a sanitizing effect on the washed items. More effective soil removal is accomplished by the use of enzymes, which selectively and efficiently attack fats, starches, or proteins. Listed in Table 9 are relevant patents that disclose novel cleaning technologies in LADDs. Equally important when formulating LADDs is making a product that is stable and easy to handle. LADDs are concentrated suspensions that must be properly structured to prevent separation upon storage. The product must also be thickened for two reasons: to prevent it from prematurely leaking out of the machine dispenser cup and to make it easier to control when dosing. However, the product must be shear thinning so that it easily flows under an applied stress. Early LADDs were thickened by clay thickeners. More recently, the use of highmolecularweight polymeric thickeners, optionally with fatty acid or other surfactant cothickeners, has solved the separation problems. Patents in this area are listed in Table 10. Patents that disclose processing or manufacturing methods used in LADD production are listed in Table 11. Other important considerations must be taken into account when formulating LADDs. Because of the corrosiveness of typical LADDs, ingredients must be added that protect both the machine itself and fine items, such as china and silverware. Generally, silicate is added for this purpose, but its inherent alkalinity in aqueous solutions is not always desired. In Table 12, several patents are listed that describe other anticorrosion agents. As previously mentioned, a hurdle in formulating bleachcontaining LADD products is that many useful ingredients are not stable toward hypochlorite. Table 13 lists patents that claim bleachstable nonionic surfactants, and Table 14 lists patents relating to the stabilization of LADD components. VII. Auxiliary Products A. Liquid Prespotters The automatic dishwasher detergents in today's marketplace, both liquid and powder versions, deliver cleaning performance acceptable to most consumers. However, one area in which consumers would like to see product improvement is in cleaning of bakedon, cookedon, and driedon food soils. These soils are tenaciously stuck to the surfaces and are hard to remove unless strong mechanical forces are applied. To make the cleaning task of such hard toremove soils easier, special liquid formulations, often referred to as “prespotters,” have been developed. The idea of a prespotter is to spray the product onto the soiled surface and allow it to stand at ambient temperature over a period of 30–60 minutes before they are cleaned in the dishwasher. This process allows the soil to soften and debond or the adhesive forces between the soil and the substrate to loosen. The
TABLE 14 Patents Relating to Stabilization of LADD Components Patent and year
Inventor(s) and company
Technology
US 5384061 (1995) [128]
Wise (Procter & Gamble)
Chlorine bleach ingredient, phytic stabilizing agent
US 5258132 (1993) [129]
Kamel et al. (Lever Bros.)
Wax encapsulation of bleach, enz catalysts
US 5230822 (1993) [130]
Kamel et al. (Lever Bros.)
Wax encapsulation of bleach, enz catalysts
US 5225096 (1993) [131]
Ahmed et al. (Colgate Palmolive)
Alkali metal iodate
US 5185096 (1993) [132]
Ahmed (ColgatePalmolive)
Alkali metal iodate
US 5229027 (1993) [133]
Ahmed (ColgatePalmolive)
Watersoluble iodide/iodine mixtu
US 5200236 (1993) [134]
Lang et al. (Lever Bros.)
Solid core particles encapsulated
EP 533239 (1993) [135]
Tomlinson (Unilever)
Encapsulated bleach reducing age
US 5141664 (1992) [136]
Corring et al. (Lever Bros.)
Encapsulation of bleach, bleach p surfactants, or perfumes
EP 414282 (1991) [137]
Behan et al. (Quest)
Encapsulation of perfume in micr
US 4919841 (1990) [138]
Kamel et al. (Lever Bros.)
Blend of hard and soft waxes for perfumes, enzymes, or surfactant encapsulation
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conditioned soiled substrate can be easily removed by mechanical and chemical forces in the dishwasher. Several prespotter formulations are disclosed in the patent literature. Acidic compositions that contain a mixture of nonionic surfactants and hydrotropes [139], thickened alkaline products with hypohalite bleaches [140,141], and enzymecontaining formulas [142] have all been developed for use as prespotters. Although these products are effective at cleaning tough soils, no product has made it to the marketplace, possibly because of economic factors. However, LADD products can be used as prespotters by applying them directly to soiled items. B. Rinse Aids As discussed earlier, consumers judge the performance of the automatic dishwasher detergents based on overall cleaning, filming, and spotting on dishware, glasses, and utensils. Spots and film on glass surfaces are readily noticeable because of differences in the refractive indices of the glass and the deposits. It is generally recognized that deposits on glasses are predominantly water soluble minerals, such as salts of alkaline earth ions present in the water, with proteins and fats of the soil as minor components. Clearly, the condition of the final rinse cycle water largely determines the degree of spotting and filming on glasses. Laboratory assessment indicates that water hardness exceeding 200 ppm as CaCO3 results in poor performance on glasses and silverware unless the calcium ions are sequestered. To minimize the mineral deposits and surfaceactive soil components on articles cleaned in the dishwasher, special formulations called rinse aids are often used for both home and institutional dishwashers. In the United States, an estimated 40% of households use rinse aids [143]. Rheologically, the rinse aid liquids are Newtonian, with viscosities in the range of 50–200 cP. Their role is to reduce the interfacial tension between the dishware and glassware and the wash water. In this way, a uniformly draining film of wash water is acheived on the items. Otherwise, uneven wetting results in spotting and filming on the items being dried. Typically, rinse aid formulations for household dishwashers are composed of aqueous solutions containing nonionic surfactant(s), a complexing agent, such as citric acid or polyphosphate, hydrotropes (also known as coupling agents), fragrance, and color. Suitable preservatives are also added to the formulations to prevent the product from bacterial and fungal growth [144]. The pH of the formulations span from acidic to alkaline. Normally the rinse aid solution is injected during the final rinse cycle of dishwashing. A typical dosage of the product per rinse is about 0.3–1.0 g/L, depending upon the level of nonionic surfactant in the formulation. Most rinse aids contain between 20 and 40%
surfactant levels. Excessive or underdosage may have an adverse effect on the sp and filming on glasses. 1. Ingredients for Rinse Aids (a) Nonionic Surfactants. The heart of the rinse aid formulation is the surfactant, virtually all formulations contain nonionic surfactants. The primary function of the surfactant is to produce rapid sheeting action, achieving a quick and uniformly dr film that prevents the nonuniform drying of the hard water minerals on the utensil Systematic studies have shown that the nonionic surfactants must satisfy the criter rinse aid applications, the most important of which are discussed here: 1. The nonionic surfactant must be an efficient wetting agent with low foaming characteristics, because excessive foaming influences not only the cleaning but als rinsing effectiveness. 2. The foaming properties of the nonionic surfactants depend upon the temperatu because of their inverse solubility temperature relationship. Above the cloud poin are nonfoamers, and some nonionic surfactants may even function as defoamers their cloud point temperature. Therefore, the nonionic surfactant selected for rins formulations must have a cloud point below the temperature of the rinse water. 3. The aqueous surface tensions of the surfactant solutions must be low, in the ra 40 dyn/cm2. The surface tensions should be preferably measured at temperatures to rinse water temperatures. The nonionic surfactants commonly used in the rinse aid formulations along with t structures are shown in Table 15. (b) Sequestering Agents. Sequestering agents, such as polyphosphates, are add rinse formulations to condition the rinse cycle water (deactiva TABLE 15 Nonionic Surfactants for Rinse Aids Surfactant
Structure
Alkyl phenoxy polyethenoxy ethanol [145]
R(C6H4)O(CH 2CH2O)nCH2CH3
Block polymers of ethylene and propylene oxide [146– 148]
RO(CH2CH2O)n(CH2CH[CH3]O)
Alkyl phenoxy polyethenoxy benzyl ethers [149]
R(C6H4)O(CH 2CH2O)nCH2C6H5
Alkyl polyethenoxy benzyl ethers [150]
R(CH2CH2O)nCH2C6H5
Ethoxylated alcohols
R(OCH2CH2) nOH
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tion of alkaline earth metal ions) and to prevent or delay the formation of waterinsoluble compounds, such as calcium bicarbonate or carbonate. These insoluble precipitates may deposit on glasses and appear as spots or film. The addition of acidic additives, such as citric acid, is very popular in European formulations. The theory behind their use is that if sufficient acid is present in the final rinse solution, the acid converts the carbonate and bicarbonate ions into water and carbon dioxide, preventing the formation of insoluble salts. Citric acid formulations may also keep the dishwasher surfaces and nozzle of the spray arms free of limestone deposits. It is also believed that citrate may contribute to the brilliancy or shiny appearance of siliceous surfaces [151]. (c) Hydrotropes. Hydrotropes (Chap. 2) or coupling agents play an important role in formulating rinse aid products. Their main functions include increasing the solubility of the nonionic surfactant in water and thus maintaining the clarity of the formulations. Judicious selection of the hydrotropes is important since they may contribute to the foaming and potentially reduce the sheeting efficiency of the nonionic surfactant. Most effective are certain alkylnaphthalene sulfonates and sulfosuccinate esters, since they increase the solubility of the nonionic surfactants without leading to excessive foaming. Other hydrotropes utilized in the rinse aid formulations include propylene glycol, isopropanol, and urea. In general, alcohols are not effective solubilizers in rinse aid formulas [151]. 2. Typical Rinse Aids Typical examples of rinse aid formulations are shown in Table 16 [8]. Several patents describing rinse aid compositions have been issued. These are listed in Table 17. TABLE 16 Examples of Rinse Aid Formulations
Ingredients
II
(wt/wt %)
(wt/wt %)
Plurafac RA 30a
50
17.5
Plurafac RA 40a
1
17.5
Isopropanol
24
12
Citric acid, dehydrated
—
25
Deionized water
16
28
a
BASF Corporation
Source: From Ref. 8.
I
TABLE 17 Patents Relating to Rinse Aids
Patent and year
Inventor(s) and company
Technology
WO 94/07985 (1994) [152]
De Smet et al. (Procter & Gamble)
Lime soap dispersant, lipase enzym
US 5294365 (1994) [153]
Welch et al. (BASF)
Hydroxypolyethers
US 5104563 (1992) [154]
Anchor et al. (Colgate Palmolive)
Lowmolecularweight polypropyle interacts with anionic or nonionic surfactants
GB 2247025 (1992) [155]
van Dijk et al. (Unilever)
Phospholipase A1 and/or A2
EP 252708 (1988) [156]
van Dijk et al. (Unilever)
Nonplateshaped colloids, such as silica
US 4443270 (1984) [157]
Biard et al. (Procter & Gamble)
Ethoxylated nonionic, organic chel agent, watersoluble Mg, Zn, Sn, Bi salts
US 4416794 (1983) [158]
Barrat et al. (Procter & Gamble)
Ethoxylated nonionic, organic chel agent, aminosilane
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VIII. Future Trends The majority of LADDs marketed today deliver performance that is acceptable to consumers. However, economic, environmental, or regulatory pressures necessitate formulators of LADDs to continue to improve products. Several trends in LADD development appear to be evolving. A. Nonphosphate Products The low costperformance ratio of phosphates, especially alkali metal tripolyphosphates, make them the “workhorse” of detergents. Although phosphate builders are safe for human beings, they are unfortunately beneficial to algae growth. Therefore, large amounts of phosphate in waste streams lead to eutrophication of lakes and streams. For this reason there have been concerns, especially in Europe, about the heavy use of phosphates in detergent products. In certain states of the United States, the quantity of phosphates used in LADDs is regulated by the local governments. Therefore, one of the challenges to automatic dishwasher detergent manufacturers today is finding a substitute for polyphosphate. Ideally, the phosphate substitute must satisfy several criteria including the following: 1. Free of phosphorus and nitrogen 2. Soluble in water with readily biodegradable characteristics 3. Chemically stable and compatible with oxygen and/or chlorine bleach 4. Performance characteristics equal to phosphates 5. Safe to humans 6. Economically practical Although many builder systems meet most of these criteria, they provide inferior performance attributes. In particular, filming and spotting on glasses is a concern in hard water areas. This is probably the primary reason that nonphosphate liquid products have not found their way into the marketplace. The search for an alternative to phosphates will continue, as evident from the patent activity in the last 5–10 years. Many reviews have appeared that compare the characteristics of the more heavily studied alternatives [17,26,35,159–168]. Table 18 lists the recent patents on phosphatefree LADD formulations. B. NonHypochloriteContaining Products Another trend appears toward products containing no hypochlorite bleach. The reason is that the strong oxidizing nature of hypochlorite makes it incompatible with easily oxidized components, such as nonionic surfactants, fragrances, and enzymes. There is also some concern regarding the possible formation of chlorinated organics [7]. Oxygen bleaches, such as perborates or percarbonates,
TABLE 18 Patents Relating to PhosphateFree LADDs
Patent and year
Inventor(s) and company
Technology
WO 94/29428 (1994) [159]
Ambuter et al. (Procter & Gamble)
Concentrated, enzymes and stabilizi system
WO 94/05763 (1994) [160]
Rattinger et al. (Unilever)
Pyridine carboxylates
EP 561452 (1993) [169]
van Dijk et al. (Unilever)
Biodegradable polyamino acid
US 5169553 (1992) [170]
Durbut et al. (Colgate Palmolive)
Binary mixture of proteinase and am nonaqueous
WO 91/03541 (1991) [26]
Beaujean et al. (Henkel)
Aluminosilicate, stabilizing electrol and system
EP 476212 (1990) [161]
Boutique et al. (Procter & Gamble)
Citrate, C10–C16 alkylor alkenyl substituted succinic acid
DE 3832478 (1988) [171]
Dixit (ColgatePalmolive)
Aluminosilicate, polycarboxylates
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which liberate peroxide in solution, are being studied to replace chlorine bleach. Being weaker oxidizing agents than hypohalite bleaches, they are compatible with some oxidizable LADD components. However, there are two main disadvantages of peroxide bleaches. First, they display acceptable performance only at elevated temperatures. Second, they are difficult to formulate in liquid products because of chemical stability problems. The search for chlorine bleach alternatives, as well as development of technologies for stabilizing peroxide bleaches, will continue. Microencapsulation technology for formulating the LADDs containing chlorine bleaches has shown limited success [129,130,134,138]. C. Enzymatic Products Although they are incorporated into powder automatic dishwashing detergents, the use of enzymes into LADDs is a relatively unexplored area. Cleaning action by enzymes is highly selective and occurs only under specific wash conditions. Formulating LADDs with enzymes is challenging because of the chemical incompatibility of most of the enzymes in aqueous products containing chlorine bleach and caustic. Considerable progress has been made in improving the compatibility of different types of enzymes. Research will continue to develop superior enzymes that are effective and efficient, providing cleaning action under broad range of washing conditions. It is also possible that innovative packaging based on compartmentalization will be developed to overcome the chemical incompatibility of enzymes with other LADD components. D. Concentrated Products Although compact ADD powders are marketed in the United States, compact liquids have not yet been introduced. Following the trend set by other cleaning products in the marketplace, LADDs are expected also to evolve into concentrated products. For example, the patent literature reveals that concentrated LADDs can be developed using a nonaqueous solvent system [92,96–98,105,170,172]. Two nonaqueous ultraconcentrated LADDs appeared in Great Britain in the early 1990s. Two variants were marketed by Marks and Spencer, one with enzymes and one without. The recommended dosage for these products was onequarter the normal amount. Other markets have not yet followed suit. E. LowTemperature Cleaning In an average U.S. machine dishwasher cycle, water temperature ranges from 110 to 140°F; in Europe it is around 160°F. Typical wash cycles last from 5 to 20 minutes, and two wash cycles are generally incorporated into the washing process. In addition, from two to five heated rinse cycles are also gener
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ally present. Clearly, in mechanical dishwashing a good amount of energy is utilized. Energy can be conserved by lowering the temperature of the wash water. At present, technology does not exist that delivers consumeracceptable performance at lower wash temperatures. The detergent industry may be forced to develop cleaning technology at reduced wash temperatures, though, if government regulations mandate the lowering of wash temperatures. This could be a challenge and an opportunity for detergent manufacturers to develop LADDs that meet both regulatory demands and consumer satisfaction. References 1. J. Houghton, U.S. Patent No. 7,365 (1865). 2. D. A. Meeker, The Story of The Hobart Manufacturing Co., Newcomer Publications in North America, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1960. 3. D. H. Morrish, History of Dishwashers, General Electric Co., Louisville, KY, 1967. 4. D. H. Cater, M. H. Flynn, and P. F. Frank, Inform 5:1095 (1994). 5. T. Branna, HAPPI 18:56 (1990). 6. G. R. Whalley, HAPPI 23:71 (1995). 7. R. F. Lake, in Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Detergents: Global Perspectives, Montreaux, Switzerland, 1993. 8. H. Heitland and H. Marsen, in Surfactants in Consumer Products (J. Falbe, ed.), SpringerVerlag, Heidelberg, 1987, pp. 321–332. 9. B. Werdelmann, Soap Cosmet. Chem. Spec. 50:36 (1974). 10. W. G. Mizuno, in Surfactant Science Series, Vol. 5, Part III, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1981. 11. T. M. Oberle, Detergents in Depth, SDA, New York, 1974. 12. J. E. Shulman, HAPPI 20:130 (1992). 13. J. E. Shulman and M. S. Robertson, Soap Cosmet. Chem. Spec. 68:46 (1992). 14. F. H. Richter, E. W. Winkler, and R. H. Baur, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 66:1666 (1989). 15. G. T. McGrew, HAPPI 14:66 (1986). 16. K. R. Lange, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 45:487 (1968). 17. A. P. Hudson, F. E. Woodward, and G. T. McGrew, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 65:1353 (1988). 18. J. R. van Wazer, in Phosphorous and its Compounds, Interscience, New York, 1958.
16. K. R. Lange, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 45:487 (1968). 17. A. P. Hudson, F. E. Woodward, and G. T. McGrew, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 65:1353 (1988). 18. J. R. van Wazer, in Phosphorous and its Compounds, Interscience, New York, 1958. 19. C. Y. Shen, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 45:510 (1968). 20. R. K. Iyler, The Chemistry of Silica, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1979, p. 21. 21. J. S. Falcone, (ed.), Soluble Silicates, ACS Symposium Series 194, Washington, D.C., 1982. 22. R. Coffey and T. Gudowicz, Chem. Ind. 6:169 (1990). 23. The PQ Corp., MultiFunctional Characteristics of Soluble Silicate, 17–101/1291, 1991.
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54. M. Prencipe, E. F. McCandlish, and F. J. Loprest, U.S. Patent 5188752 to ColgatePalmolive (1993). 55. N. S. Dixit and T. Davan, U.S. Patent 5, 098,590 to ColgatePalmolive (1992). 56. J. Drapier, C. Gallant, F. Wouters, and L. Laitem, U.S. Patent 5,057,237 to ColgatePalmolive (1991). 57. N. S. Dixit, U.S. Patent 4,836,946 to ColgatePalmolive (1989). 58. G. Chazard, J. Drapier, C. Gallant, and D. van De Gaer, U.S. Patent 4,801,395 to ColgatePalmolive (1989). 59. J. Drapier, C. Gallant, D. van De Gaer, and J. Delvenne, U.S. Patent 4,752,409 to ColgatePalmolive (1988). 60. R. M. Wise, U.S. Patent 5,169,552 to Procter & Gamble (1992). 61. D. L. Elliot and R. M. Sisco, U.S. Patent 5,135,675 to Lever Brothers (1992). 62. M. J. Prince and T. H. Glassco, U.S. Patent 5,130,043 to Procter & Gamble (1992). 63. C. B. Donker, WO Patent 89/04359 to Unilever (1989). 64. M. Julemont and M. Marchal, U.S. Patent 4,740,327 to Colgate Palmolive (1988). 65. F. A. Taraschi, UK Patent GB 2168377 A to Procter & Gamble (1986). 66. E. R. Kolodny and E. Liebowitz, WO Patent 83/03621 to American Home Products (1983). 67. N. S. Dixit, U.S. Patent 5,368,766 to ColgatePalmolive (1994). 68. N. S. Dixit, U.S. Patent 5,298,180 to ColgatePalmolive (1994). 69. N. S. Dixit, U.S. Patent 5,205,953 to ColgatePalmolive (1993). 70. B. J. Roselle, U.S. Patent 4,824,590 to Procter & Gamble (1989). 71. R. Y. Lockhead, C. E. Sauer, and M. K. Nagarajan, Hypochlorite Tolerant Polymeric Rheology Modifiers, presented to the Am. Oil Chem. Soc., Baltimore, MD, 1990. 72. D. Laba (ed.), Cosmetic Science and Technology Series, Vol. 13, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1993. 73. J. D. Ferry, in Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980, pp. 40–42. 74. P. Sherman, in Industrial Rheology, Academic Press, London, 1970. 75. K. Walters, in Rheometry: Industrial Applications, Wiley, New York, 1980.
73. J. D. Ferry, in Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1980, pp. 40–42. 74. P. Sherman, in Industrial Rheology, Academic Press, London, 1970. 75. K. Walters, in Rheometry: Industrial Applications, Wiley, New York, 1980. 76. T. F. Tadros, Colloids Surfaces 18:137, 1986. 77. W. B. Russell, J. Rheol. 24:287 (1980). 78. J. W. Goodwin, in Surfactants (T. F. Tadros, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1984. 79. N. Heywood, Chem. Eng. (Rugby, England) 415:16 (1985). 80. N. Q. Dzwy and D. V. Boger, HaakeBuchler Instruments, Inc., Technical Bulletin PB856. 81. R. L. Bowles et. al., Modern Plastics 32:142 (1955). 82. N. Casson, in Rheology of Dispersed Systems (C. C. Miles, ed.), Pergamon Press, New York, 1959. 83. A. W. Asbeek, Official Digest 33:65 (1961). 84. S. M. Gabriel and J. Roselle, U.S. Patent 4,859,358 to Procter & Gamble (1989).
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85. R. Corring and R. Gabriel, U.S. Patent 5,141,664 to Lever Brothers (1992). 86. ASTM Method D 355685 (reapproved 1989), 357. 87. M. Mausner and M. Schlageter, Household and Personal Products Industry Jan. 1982, 59. 88. M. V. K. Peart, Ph.D. Thesis, Purdue University, 1969. 89. Assoc. of Home Appliance Manuf. ANSI/AHAM DW11992. 90. Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Associations, Inc., Detergents Division Test Methods Compendium, 1985. 91. ASTM Method D 356589, p. 362. 92. S. Krishnan, U.S. Patent 5,318,715 to ColgatePalmolive (1994). 93. E. S. Sadlowski, WO Patent 94/25557 to Procter & Gamble (1994). 94. W. R. van Dijk and E. Khoshdel, WO Patent 94/17170 to Unilever (1994). 95. D. E. Adler, T. F. McCallum, J. E. Shulman, and B. Weinstein, U.S. Patent 5,308,532 to Rhom & Haas (1994). 96. F. U. Ahmed, P. Durbut, and J. Drapier, U.S. Patent 5,240,633 to ColgatePalmolive (1993). 97. F. U. Ahmed and K. Bochis, U.S. Patent 5,164,106 to ColgatePalmolive (1992). 98. F. U. Ahmed, C. E. Buck, and G. Jakubicki, U.S. Patent 5,094,771 to ColgatePalmolive (1992). 99. F. U. Ahmed and K. Bochis, U.S. Patent 5,076,952 to ColgatePalmolive (1991). 100. F. U. Ahmed and C. E. Buck, U.S. Patent 4,970,016 to Colgate Palmolive (1990). 101. F. U. Ahmed and C. E. Buck, U.S. Patent 4,968,446 to Colgate Palmolive (1990). 102. F. U. Ahmed and C. E. Buck, U.S. Patent 4,968,445 to Colgate Palmolive (1990). 103. H. Frankena, U.S. Patent 4,931,217 to Lever Brothers (1990). 104. W. R. van Dijk, European Patent 271155 A2 to Unilever (1988). 105. L. Laitem, M. Delvaux, G. Broze, and D. Bastin, U.S. Patent 4,753,748 to ColgatePalmolive (1988). 106. M. Goedhart, F. H. Gortemaker, H. C. Kemper, and H. S. Kielman, U.S. Patent 4,597,886 to Lever Brothers (1986).
104. W. R. van Dijk, European Patent 271155 A2 to Unilever (1988). 105. L. Laitem, M. Delvaux, G. Broze, and D. Bastin, U.S. Patent 4,753,748 to ColgatePalmolive (1988). 106. M. Goedhart, F. H. Gortemaker, H. C. Kemper, and H. S. Kielman, U.S. Patent 4,597,886 to Lever Brothers (1986). 107. J. J. M. de Ridder, M. W. Hollingsworth, and I. D. Robb, U.S. Patent 4,539,144 to Lever Brothers (1985). 108. T. M. Kaneko, U.S. Patent 4,306,987 to BASF Wyandotte (1981). 109. W. S. Bahary and M. P. Hogan, U.S. Patent 5,336,430 to Lever Brothers (1994). 110. P. H. Kreischer, European Patent 304328 A2 to Unilever (1989). 111. D. J. Fox, D. van Blarcom, and F. K. Rubin, U.S. Patent 4,260,528 to Lever Brothers (1981). 112. W. G. Bush and V. D. Braun, U.S. Patent 4,226,736 to Drackett (1980). 113. R. Corring, U.S. Patent 5,366,653 to Lever Brothers (1994). 114. R. Broadwell, M. Shevade, and D. Kenkare, U.S. Patent 5,246,615 to ColgatePalmolive (1993). 115. S. M. Gabriel, T. H. Glassco, H. Ambuter, and E. P. Fitch, WO Patent 93/21298 to Procter & Gamble (1993).
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116. N. S. Dixit and T. Davan, U.S. Patent 5,075,027 to ColgatePalmolive (1991). 117. R. J. Colarusso, U.S. Patent 4,927,555 to ColgatePalmolive (1990). 118. P. A. Angevaare and R. G. Gary, U.S. Patent 5,374,369 to Lever Brothers (1994). 119. M. J. Dolan and F. P. Jakse, U.S. Patent 4,992,195 to Monsanto (1991). 120. W. A. Cilley and R. M. Wise, U.S. Patent 4,933,101 to Procter & Gamble (1991). 121. S. M. Gabriel and B. J. Roselle, U.S. Patent 4,859,358 to Procter & Gamble (1989). 122. H. S. Bunch, T. Groom, F. R. Grosser, M. Scardera, T. S. Targos, and A. R. Vanover, WO Patent 94/22800 to Olin (1994). 123. G. C. Kinstedt and S. L. Myers, U.S. Patent 4,988,452 to Procter & Gamble (1991). 124. R. Gabriel, M. P. Aronson, and P. L. Steyn, European Patent 337760 A2 to Unilever (1989). 125. J. G. Otten, E. J. Parker, and M. G. Kinnaird, U.S. Patent 5,073,286 to BASF (1989). 126. R. J. Scott, U.S. Patent 4,438,014 to Union Carbide (1984). 127. R. J. Scott, U.S. Patent 4,436,642 to Union Carbide (1984). 128. R. M. Wise, U.S. Patent 5,384,061 to Procter & Gamble (1995). 129. A. A. Kamel, D. J. Lang, P. A. Hanna, R. Gabriel, R. Theiler, and A. S. Goldman, U.S. Patent 5,258,132 to Lever Brothers (1993). 130. A. A. Kamel, D. J. Lang, P. A. Hanna, R. Gabriel, R. Theiler, U.S. Patent 5,230,822 to Lever Brothers (1993). 131. F. U. Ahmed and M. Shevade, U.S. Patent 5,225,096 to Colgate Palmolive (1993). 132. F. U. Ahmed, U.S. Patent 5,185,096 to ColgatePalmolive (1993). 133. F. U. Ahmed, U.S. Patent 5,229,027 to ColgatePalmolive (1993). 134. D. J. Lang, A. A. Kamel, P. A. Hanna, R. Gabriel, and R. Theiler, U.S. Patent 5,200,236 to Lever Brothers (1993). 135. A. D. Tomlinson, European Patent 533239 A2 to Unilever (1993). 136. R. Corring and R. Gabriel, U.S. Patent 5,141,664 to Lever Brothers (1992). 137. J. M. Behan, R. A. Birch, and K. D. Perring, European Patent 414282
Patent 5,200,236 to Lever Brothers (1993). 135. A. D. Tomlinson, European Patent 533239 A2 to Unilever (1993). 136. R. Corring and R. Gabriel, U.S. Patent 5,141,664 to Lever Brothers (1992). 137. J. M. Behan, R. A. Birch, and K. D. Perring, European Patent 414282 A1 to Quest International (1991). 138. A. Kamel, L. C. Hurckes, and M. M. Morelli, U.S. Patent 4,919,841 to Lever Brothers (1990). 139. T. Altenschoepfer, P. Jeschke, and K. Wisotzki, U.S. Patent 4,818,427 to Henkel (1989). 140. L. A. Rupe, L. B. Tuthill, and J. W. Leikhim, U.S. Patent 4,116,851 to Procter & Gamble (1978). 141. J. W. Leikhim, U.S. Patent 4,116,849 to Procter & Gamble (1978). 142. E. McCandlish, Canadian Patent 2,093,783 to ColgatePalmolive (1993). 143. G. Roberts and M. C. Welch, Soap Cosmet. Chem. Spec. 71:58 (1995). 144. H. Stache, in TensidTaschenbuch (H. Stache, ed.), Hanser, Munchen Wien, 1981, p. 484.
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10 Shampoos and Conditioners CLARENCE R. ROBBINS Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, P New Jersey I. Introduction II. General Formulas III. Structures of Ingredients A. Structures of shampoo ingredients B. Structures of hair conditioner ingredients IV. Safety Concerns and Considerations, Including Hair Damage A. General safety considerations B. Damage to hair from shampoos, grooming, and weathering V. Different Types of Shampoos and Conditioners VI. Cleaning Hair A. Types of hair soils B. Soils from hair preparations C. Environmental soils D. Detergency mechanisms E. Transport of hair lipid F. Methods of evaluating hair cleaning G. Cleaning efficiency of shampoos VII. Adsorption onto Hair A. General characteristics B. Kinetics of ionic reactions with keratin fibers
VII. Adsorption onto Hair A. General characteristics B. Kinetics of ionic reactions with keratin fibers C. Binding of ionic ingredients to hair D. Reactions of neutral materials with human hair
VIII. Shampoo Lather IX. Viscosity Control in Shampoos and Conditioners References
1. Introduction According to legend, the word shampoo is derived from a Hindustani word mea squeeze.” Shampoos have a long and varied history. However, hair conditioners widely used until the midtwentieth century following the introduction of “cold” pe types of products that created combing problems and damaged hair. The primary function of shampoos is to clean both the hair and the scalp of soils primary function of hair conditioner products was and is to make the hair easier t Nevertheless, shampoos and conditioners have important secondary functions, su control, extra mildness, static control, conditioning in a shampoo, and even fragra satisfaction, that have either created new market segments or have become prima purchase. The two principal actions of shampoos and hairconditioning products involve cle varied types from the hair and the sorption or binding of conditioning ingredients t most important for both these products are interactions that occur at or near the f near the first few cuticle layers (see Fig. 1).
FIG. 1 Structure of a human hair fiber.
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The first section of this chapter describes general shampoo and hair conditioner formulations. The second part is concerned with chemical structures of the main types of ingredients used in shampoos and hair conditioners. A brief discussion of some safety concerns and considerations for these types of products including damaging effects to hair caused by shampooing and by the actions of combing and brushing follows. Cleaning of hair and the different types of soil found on hair, including their origin and the ease or difficulty in their removal and methods to evaluate hair cleaning, are then described. The next section is concerned with deposition or the attachment and the affinity of conditioning ingredients to hair, including both wholefiber and surface binding. Foam properties and their measurement and viscosity control and evaluation are also described. II. General Formulas Shampoos consist of several types of ingredients that usually include many of the following types of components: Primary surfactant for cleaning and foaming Secondary surfactant for foam and/or viscosity enhancement Viscosity builders: gums, salt, amide Solvents to clarify or lower the cloud point Conditioning agents Opacifier for visual effects Acid or alkali for pH adjustment Colors (D&C or FD&C colors) for visual effects Fragrance Preservative UV (ultraviolet) absorber, usually for products in a clear package Specialty active ingredients, such as antidandruff agents and conditioning agents Hair conditioners, on the other hand, are very different compositionally from shampoos. These are usually composed of many of the following types of ingredients: Oily and/or waxy substances, including mineral oil, longchain alcohols, and/or triglycerides or other esters, including true oils and waxes, silicones, and/or fatty acids Cationic substances: monofunctional quaternary ammonium compounds or amines or polymeric quaternary ammonium compounds or amines Viscosity builders, usually gums Acid or alkali for pH adjustment
Cationic substances: monofunctional quaternary ammonium compounds or amines or polymeric quaternary ammonium compounds or amines Viscosity builders, usually gums Acid or alkali for pH adjustment Colors Preservatives
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III. Structures of Ingredients A. Structures of Shampoo Ingredients The principal primary surfactant used in the United States for shampoos is ammonium lauryl sulfate; in many other countries, sodium or ammonium laureth sulfate (with an average of 2 or 3 mol ethylene oxide) is the current leader. These two surfactants are used alone or blended together for shampoos because of their ability to clean sebaceous oil and because of their excellent lathering properties.
Olefin sulfonate has been used to a limited extent in lower priced shampoos. This surfactant is represented by the following structures:
Olefin sulfonate consists of a mixture of these four surfactants in about equal quantities. The commercial shampoo material is 14–16 carbon atoms in chain length; therefore, R = 10–12 carbon atoms. Generally a carbon chain length of 12–14 carbon atoms or a cocotype distribution, which is approximately 50% C12, is used for the primary surfactant in shampoos. This chain length is preferred because of the excellent foam character of C12 systems. Longer or shorter chain length surfactants are used only in specialty systems. Secondary surfactants are used for foam modifiers, for added cleaning, or even for viscosity enhancement. The principal secondary surfactants used in shampoos are amides, such as cocodiethanolamide, lauric diethanolamide, or cocomonoethanolamide. Betaines are excellent foam modifiers. They are becoming more popular, and cocoamidopropylbetaine is the most widely used betaine in shampoos today. Baby shampoos and some light conditioning shampoos employ nonionic surfactants, such as PEG80 sorbitan laurate, and amphoteric surfactants, such as cocoamphocarboxyglycinate or cocoamphopropylsulfonate, to improve the
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mildness of anionic surfactants through surfactant association and at the same time to provide cleaning and improved lather characteristics.
Conditioning agents for shampoos are varied and may generally be classified as follows: Lipid type Soap type or salts of carboxylic acids Cationic type including cationic polymers Silicone type, including dimethicone or amodimethicones (see structures later) Opacifiers, such as ethylene glycol distearate, or soaptype opacifiers are often used for visual effects and to provide the perception that something is deposited onto the hair to condition it. The pH is usually adjusted with a common acid, such as citric acid or even mineral acid or ordinary inexpensive alkaline materials. For additional details on product compositions, consult Refs. 1–3, product ingredient labels, and the books by Hunting [4,5]. B. Structures of Hair Conditioner Ingredients Cream rinses, on the other hand, are basically compositions containing cationic surfactant in combination with longchain fatty alcohol or other lipid components. Distearyl dimethylammonium chloride and cetyl trimethylammonium chloride are typical cationic surfactants used in many of today's hairconditioning products. Amines like dimethyl stearamine or stearamidopropyl dimethylamine are other functional cationics used in these products. Hype compounds, such as proteins, placenta extract, and vitamins, which are usually nonfunctional, are also used.
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Typical lipids used in these products are cetyl alcohol and/or stearyl alcohol, glycol distearate, or even silicones like dimethicone or amodimethicones.
For additional details on product compositions, consult Refs. 1–3, product ingredient labels, and the books by Hunting [4,5]. IV. Safety Concerns and Considerations, Including Hair Damage A. General Safety Considerations Shampoos and conditioners are among the safest consumer products, if used for their intended purpose and according to the directions on the package label. Cautionary eye warning labels appear on most medicated products and on some cosmetic brands because many of these products can cause eye irritation if product accidentally flows into the eyes. Warnings against internal consumption also appear on many shampoo labels and on a few cream rinses or hair conditioners. Many conditioners contain no cautionary warnings because they are so mild and of such low toxicity, primarily because they are formulated at such low concentration (generally less than 2% by weight of surfactant). Bergfeld [6] has reviewed the most frequent adverse effects of hair products from patients at the Cleveland Clinic Dermatology Department over a 10 year period and has found relatively few adverse effects from shampoos; the majority of these are a result of sensitization, an immunological reaction, rather than irritation or hair breakage. Furthermore, Bergfeld attributes these few adverse effects either to preservatives or medicated ingredients of these products rather than to the surfactant active ingredients. Ishihara [7] surveyed five large hospitals in Japan for contact dermatitis in 1970. Only 0.2% of the cases of the total number of outpatients at all derma
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tologic clinics were caused by adverse reactions to all hair preparations. Only 0.008% of these adverse reactions were caused by shampoos, and these few cases involved contact dermatitis. From these results, Ishihara concluded that most cases of contact dermatitis from shampoos are not serious enough to be treated in a hospital. B. Damage to Hair from Shampoos, Grooming, and Weathering Chemical and physical damage to hair results from shampooing, combing and brushing, and normal exposure of scalp hair to sunlight, and the changes that are ultimately detected in hair can be detected at the morphological level by electron microscopy. These effects may be viewed as aging of hair (not the person) or of weathering damage. Weathering effects include damage to hair by environmental factors, such as sunlight, air pollutants, wind, seawater, or even chlorine in pool water. Damage by hair grooming is produced by combing and brushing or even blow drying, the use of curling irons, and other physical processes that are used in grooming hair. Sunlight, pool water, and cosmetic products, such as permanent waves, bleaches, hair straighteners, and even some hair dyes, chemically alter or damage the hair. These chemical modifications generally increase hair's propensity to physical damage manifested by progressive cuticle erosion and fiber splitting resulting from the combination of chemical action and the abrasive effects of hair grooming aids and the procedures described earlier [8]. A detailed description of hair damage from rubbing actions is described by Robbins [9]. Virtually every time a person shampoos or conditions the hair, he or she combs or brushes it or uses grooming aids and procedures. Therefore, combing and brushing of air is a fundamental part of the shampoo and hairconditioning processes. Furthermore, Okumura [10] has suggested that a large amount of cuticle damage occurs in the lathering step during the actual shampooing of hair. Kelly and Robinson [11] have concluded that shampooing and towel drying of hair damage hair. However, these scientists conclude that combing and brushing damages hair more than the lathering step of shampooing, and furthermore, brushing is more damaging than combing. Garcia et al. [12] have developed a mathematical model to predict cuticle wear, and these scientists conclude that cuticle erosion from grooming accelerates as one moves closer to the tip end of the hair. Gould and Sneath [13] examined root and tip end sections of scalp hair by transmission electron microscopy and observed holes or vacancies in the thin cross sections. These holes were greater (more frequent and larger) in tip ends
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than in root ends. These scientists attribute these holes to damaging effects by shampooing. It is becoming increasingly clear that shampooing and combing or brushing of hair over time actually produces cuticle erosion, and ultimately normal cleaning and grooming practices contribute to cortical damage as evidence by fiber splitting [9]. In addition, sunlight [14] and cosmetic damaging treatments, such as bleaches, permanent waves, and some hair dyes or even chlorinated water, can accelerate these physical damaging effects to hair. V. Different Types of Shampoos and Conditioners Shampoos can be classified in many different ways; for compositional considerations, however, perhaps the best classification is according to the following four types: 1. Cleaning shampoos 2. Conditioning, including two in one shampoos 3. Baby or mild shampoos 4. Medicated shampoos Cleaning shampoos generally consist of one or more detergents along with an amide or amphoteric type of foam booster combined with a polymeric thickening agent and salt to control the viscosity. Obviously, other additives, such as color additives, fragrance, and preservative, are generally also used, although there is a movement in many environmentally conscious countries to make product without the addition of preservatives. Nevertheless, preservatives are still an important component of shampoos and conditioners and are added to prevent microbial contamination and degradation. Conditioning shampoos usually consist of similar ingredients: as indicated earlier, however, soaptype conditioners, cationic ingredients, or neutral ingredients like silicones are usually a part of these products. Baby shampoos generally contain milder surfactants, such as nonionics, and they also contain less anionic detergent along with amphoterics that associate with anionics to moderate the potential irritation of the anionic surfactants. Medicated shampoos, such as antidandruff products, usually contain zinc pyrithione, selenium sulfide, or even salicylic acid or coal tar (see Table 1). The OTC monograph on dandruff recommends three classes of potential antidandruff ingredients [15]: Category I. Active ingredients considered safe and effective for use for dandruff, seborrheic dermatitis, and psoriasis. Category II. Ingredients not recognized as safe and effective or misbranded. Category III. More data are required.
Actually, at this time only two categories are recognized: category I, as defined h category II. All other ingredients are not recognized as safe and/or effective in thi recent classification. Five ingredients are currently recognized as safe and effective for use against dan United States, and these are listed in Table 1. The OTC monograph recommend ingredient at specific concentration levels for specified purposes (products and a as listed in Table 1. Other ingredients either reported or shown to be effective against dandruff and d the OTC monograph, the published literature, or the patent literature include alkyl isoquinolinium bromide, allantoin, benzethonium chloride, magnesium omadine, cli [1imidazopyl1(p chlorophenoxy)3,3dimethylbutan2one], octopirox [1hy methyl6(2,4,4trimethylpentyl)2(1H)pyridine], ethanolamine, and ketoconazol last ingredients have not been described in category I by the OTC monograph. Conditioners may be classified as cream rinses, deep conditioners, and other typ include combination products, such as conditioning mousses or setting lotions. Th products contain gums or resins in addition to conditioner additives. Cream rinse conditioners generally consist of monofunctional cationic ingredients, described previously, along with such lipids as longchain alcohols and other fatty ingredients, such as mineral oil, longchain esters, amides, or even waxes. Deep c may be similar compositionally; however, these tend to be formulated at a higher and contain more fatty or waxy substances. Silicone or amodimethicones are also three types of conditioner products. VI. Cleaning Hair Cleaning hair and requirements for a shampoo arise from the fact that dirty huma contains different soils, although the predominant soil is lipid, primarily sebaceous Hair contains both internal and external lipid; however, we have demonstrated th and dirty hair contain the same TABLE 1 Active Ingredients for Antidandruff Products Ingredient
Use spec
Coal tar preparations
0.5–5.0
Shampoos
Salicylic acid
1.8–3.0
Body and scalp
Selenium sulfide
Concentration specified (%)
1
Topical use
Sulfur
2.0–5.0
Topical use
Zinc pyrithione
1.0–2.0
Shampoos
0.1–0.25
Hair groomers
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quantity of internal lipid; therefore, the hair soils are located at or near the fiber surface, and cleaning of hair involves removing soils at or near the fiber surface. Cleaning ingredients must be safe, requiring low toxicity, low sensitization potential, and low skin and eye irritation potential. Low temperatures (35–45° C) are used to shampoo hair, and short cleaning or reaction times (minutes) are employed in the shampoo process. Low substantivity of the detergent for hair is generally preferred, except in conditioning, for which adsorption is necessary (see later). Essentially no degradation of the hair substrate by the cleansing system is desirable, and the cleansing system should be capable of removing a variety of different soils without complicating interactions between shampoo ingredients and the soils. The most common test criteria used to assess the cleaning efficiency of shampoo products relate to the amount of soil left on the hair surface. However, the rheological and other physical properties of the soil have recently been shown to be important, too. Specific properties of hair fibers versus assemblies, attributes of the product (fragrance, later, and viscosity), and the rate of resoiling are also relevant to haircleaning efficacy. The next section is concerned primarily with the different types of soil found on hair, their origin, and their removal by existing surfactant systems. A. Types of Hair Soils Hair soils may be classified as one of four types: 1. Lipid soils are the primary hair soil and are principally sebaceous matter. For a more complete description of the chemical composition of sebaceous soil, see Table 2. 2. Soils from hair preparations represent another important group consisting of a variety of different cationic ingredients, polymers, and lipophilic ingredients. Lipid soils are either sebaceous in origin or from hair products. They may exist on hair surfaces either as neutral lipid (oils, waxes, and silicones) or as calciumbridged fatty acids or neutralized or free fatty acids. 3. Protein soils are from the skin but probably in most cases do not constitute a serious soil removal problem. 4. Environmental soils vary and consist of particulate matter from air (hydrocarbons and soot) and minerals from the water supply. B. Soils from Hair Preparations A variety of different soils from hair products may be found on hair surfaces, and it is essential for a good shampoo to remove these soils without complicating interactions between the surfactant and the soil. Hair products provide
Page 391 TABLE 2 (Spangler) Synthetic Sebum with Essential Components of Natural Sebum Lipid ingredient
%
Olive oil (TG)
20
Coconut oil (TG)
15
Palmitic acid (FFA)
10
Stearic acid (FFA)
5
Oleic acid (FFA)
15
Paraffin wax (P)
10
Squalene (S) Spermaceti (WE) Cholesterol (C)
5 15 5
lipid soils, cationic soils, polymeric soils, silicone soils, and metallic ions or fatty acids that can bridge metallic ions to hair. Neutral lipids are found in many different types of hair products, including some conditioners, pomades, and men's hair dressings. As indicated earlier, monofunctional cationic ingredients, such as stearalkonium chloride and cetyl trimethylammonium chloride, are the primary active ingredients of creme rinses and other hairconditioning products, and the increased usage of such products over the last decade makes this soil type even more common. Cationic polymers, such as polymer JR (polyquaternium10), a quaternized cellulosic material [16], Merquat polymers (polyquaternium6 and 7), copolymers of dimethyl diallyl ammonium chloride and acrylamide [17], and Gafquat polymers (polyquaternium11), a copolymer of polyvinyl pyrrolidone and dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate) [18], have all been used and are currently being used in conditioning shampoos, setting lotions, or mousses. Neutral and acidic polymers, such as polyvinyl pyrrolidone, copolymers of polyvinyl pyrrolidone, and vinyl acetate and copolymers of methyl vinyl ether and halfesters of maleic anhydride, are all used in hairstyling and hairsetting products. Fatty acids, such as lauric, myristic, or palmitic, have in the past been commonly used conditioning ingredients in conditioning shampoos. Fatty acids interact with calcium and magnesium ions in the water supply and deposit on the hair. It is believed that at least part of this type of conditioning agent binds to the hair through metal ion bridges [19]. The “harder” the water, the greater is the amount of deposition of fatty acid conditioner on the hair [20]. Thus the primary sources of calciumbridged fatty acids on hair are conditioning shampoos and soap bar products that react with metal ions in the water supply. In
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moderate to high hard water areas, fatty acids from sebum may also be a source of metal ionbridged fatty acid on the hair fiber surface. C. Environmental Soils Hair is an excellent ionexchange system. Therefore, other metallic ions, such as copper (2+) [21], can adsorb to hair, especially after frequent exposure to swimming pool water. It has been suggested that metallic ions, such as chromium, nickel, and cobalt, may also sorb to hair from swimming pool water [22]. Sorption of metallic ions, such as calcium or magnesium, occurs even from low concentrations in the water supply. However, fatty acids present in hair products enhance the adsorption of most of these metallic ions to the hair surface, as described earlier. Heavy metals, such as lead and cadmium, have been shown to collect in hair from air pollution [23], and other metals, such as zinc, are available from antidandruff products. Other soils that shampoos must remove are proteinaceous matter arising from the stratum corneum, sweat, and other environmental sources. We have already described metallic ion contamination from the water supply, from swimming pools, and from sweat. In addition, particulate soils from the environment include hydrocarbons, soot, and metal oxide particles, which should also be removed by shampoos [21]. D. Detergency Mechanisms Although mechanical action is involved in shampooing or cleaning hair, it may be assumed to be constant for any given person. Therefore, detergency mechanisms are the main approach in producing differences in hair cleaning, that is, in removing soils at or near the fiber surface. Detergency mechanisms include emulsification, solubilization, and rollup [24] and generally consider soils as either oily (liquid soils) or particulate (solid soils). The removal of oily soils involves diffusion of water to the soil/fiber interface and rollup of the soil, which generally determines the rate of soil removal, although solubilization, emulsification, and soil penetration are also involved. Rollup of oil on a fiber surface is caused by interfacial tensions of (oil on fiber) fo, and (water on fiber) fw, and between (oil and water) ow, and the oily soil rolls up when the combination of these interfacial tensions R is positive in the expression, where is the contact angle of the oil droplet on the fabric or substrate: R = fo
+
fw
cos
ow
In other words, to clean oily soils from hair involves emulsification, solubilization, and rollup of the oily soil. This includes emulsification and solubili
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zation of the lipids of Table 2 and oil soil rollup. To maximize rollup, the detergent must make the fiber surface more hydrophilic [24]. Thus, the removal of lipid soil from hair is controlled by the hydrophilicity of the fiber surface, and anything that can be done to make the fiber surface more hydrophilic, such as bleaching or washing with anionic surfactants in water, should facilitate oily soil removal. This is one of the reasons that damaged hair, which is generally more hydrophilic at the surface, is so sensitive to oil removal. On the other hand, the removal of particulate soils is not controlled by the hydrophilicity of the fiber surface. Particulate soil removal depends on the bonding of the particle to the surface and the location of the particle [24]. When the soil particle consists of nonpolar components, its adhesion depends mainly on van der Waals forces, for example waxes or polymeric resins or even some cationic polymer deposits. The removal of these soils is easier for noncationic polymers because adhesive binding for cationics can include a combination of ionic and van der Waals forces. Some soils (e.g., conditioners containing cationic surfactant plus oily substances or some plasticized resins) are intermediate in classification, and their removal may involve a more complicated cleaning mechanism. E. Transport of Hair Lipid After shampooing, the surface of hair is relatively free of lipid, or at least its concentration is considerably reduced. Sebum (produced by the sebaceous glands) and epidermal lipid (produced by the cells of the horny layer of the scalp) are transferred to the hair because of its greater surface area and absorptive capacity. Creeping of sebum along the hair has also been suggested [25], although Eberhardt [26] has shown that creeping does not occur along single hair fibers. Eberhardt suggests that transport occurs primarily by mechanical means, that is, by contact of hair with scalp (pillows and hats), rubbing (combing and brushing), and haironhair contact. Distribution of sebum along the fibers by combing and brushing is very important, and wicking as occurs in textile assemblies might also be involved [27,28]. The net result is that the rate of accumulation of lipid is fastest for oily hair; after the lipid accumulates beyond a given level, it interferes with the appearance and overall esthetics of the hair, causing fibers to clump or to adhere together. The composition of the lipid itself may influence its transport, because ingredients that either lower the surface tension of the sebum or increase its fluid nature (make it less viscous) can facilitate transport and even increase the perception of oiliness. In addition, other ingredients left behind on the hair surface, such as conditioning agents, may exacerbate oiliness in an analogous manner.
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Hair characteristics, such as fineness, degree of curvature, and length, are also relevant to the transport of lipid and to the influence of lipid on hair assembly properties. For example, fine, straight mediumlength hair provides optimum characteristics for the transport of sebum. This type of hair provides the maximum amount of hair clumping by a given amount of lipid. On the other hand, curly, coarse, long hair tends to inhibit transport and also minimizes the influence of tress compacting. Among all hair properties, increasing fiber curvature provides the greatest influence against the cohesive forces of hair lipid and the resultant compacting of tresses [29]. F. Methods of Evaluating Hair Cleaning Several methods have been described to evaluate the ability of different shampoos or detergents to clean soil from the hair [11,21,22,30–37]. Most of these methods have been developed to evaluate the removal of lipid soil from the hair [21,31,32,38]. Some of these methods are soil specific [31] or are more sensitive with specific soil types [21,34]; others work for most soils [33]. Haircleaning methods may be classified according to the following categories: chemical and physical properties, microscopic methods, or subjective or sensory evaluation procedures. Chemical or physical methods may involve either direct analysis of the hair itself [21,34] or analysis of hair extracts [30,31]. For direct analysis of hair, chemical methods, such as ESCA [35] or infrared spectroscopy, may be used. Physical methods, such as fiber friction [34] or light scattering [33] or examination of interfiber spacings [21], on the other hand, are less soil specific than chemical methods and offer the ability to look at a variety of soil types, but sometimes these methods are less distinguishing in so doing. Microscopic methods have also been used to evaluate hair cleanliness [30]. However, sensory evaluation of hair greasiness on hair swatches [36] and subjective assessments from halfhead and consumer tests are also useful. The latter evaluations are in a sense the final word in the estimation of cleanliness by shampoos. Most procedures involve evaluation of either single soils (primarily hair lipid) or shortterm effects of different products. One area of concern that has received relatively little attention is longterm effects that might result from gradual buildup or from gradual interactions between different hair products or between hair lipid and different hair products. This is an important area for future research for shampoos. G. Cleaning Efficiency of Shampoos To evaluate shampoo efficiency, one must consider the different soil types separately and then together and also attempt to distinguish between cleaning
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soil from hair and the deposition of ingredients from the shampoo formulation itself. 1. Cleaning Lipid Soil For efficiency in removing lipid soil from hair, the literature does not provide a consensus. For example, Shaw [30] concludes that a onestep application of anionic shampoo removes essentially all the hair surface lipids and that differences in cleaning efficiencies cited (for different surfactants [30]) reflect differences in the amount of internal hair lipid removed. To support this conclusion, Shaw cites results from scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of hair washed with anionic surfactant (monoethanolamine lauryl sulfate) compared with SEM photographs of hair washed with ether. In addition, Shaw cites in vitro studies showing that various shampoos remove 99% of an artificial lipid mixture deposited on the hair. Robbins [39] independently arrived at a similar conclusion, suggesting that shampoo surfactants in a normal twostep shampoo operation are very effective in removing “surface” lipid; although because of their limited penetration into hair, they are less effective in removing internal lipid. Table 3 offers some evidence for the effectiveness of current shampoos for removing a sebaceous soil from wool fabric in moderately soft water (80 ppm hardness). These data show that a cocomonoglyceride sulfate (CMGS) shampoo at only 5% concentration (5% shampoo, when diluted provides only 1% AI) under these laboratory conditions nearly approaches the efficiency of boiling TABLE 3 Shampoo Versus Chloroform Extraction of Animal Hair: % Synthetic Sebum Removeda % Shampoo concentration
CMGS formula
Soap CTG formula
0.5
63
18
2.0
86
53
5.0
91
77
a
Percentage values were obtained by extracting the same wool swatches in boiling chloroform for 4 h in a Soxhlet after shampooing and comparing the residue weight versus total soil deposited. For practical purposes, boiling chloroform for 4 h is 100% sebum removal. Test procedure: Preweighed wool swatches were soiled with synthetic sebum and reweighed to determine the amount of soil deposited. These swatches were washed in a tergitometer with CMGS and soapcontaining (conditioning) shampoos at varying concentrations. The swatches contained approximately 10% sebum, an exceptionally large amount of soil. The temperature was 105–110°F, time 30 s, and a 200:1 solution to wool ratio and 2–30 s water rinsings were used.
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chloroform in a 4 h Soxhlet extraction for removing lipid soil from wool swatches. On the other hand, the soapcontaining shampoo of Table 3 is not very effective in removing this lipid from hair. The normal usage concentration of shampoos is 20–25%. The solutionhair ratio in normal usage is lower than in this experiment; however, this probably does not make a substantive difference. Wool swatches were used in this experiment instead of hair, because most shampoos are too effective to provide distinctions in removing sebum from hair under these conditions. There are recent publications [40,41] showing that fatty acids, paraffin waxes, and certain triglyceride components of sebum are more difficult to remove from hair than the other components, although a detergent like sodium laureth2 sulfate is highly effective in removing virtually all sebaceous components. There are only limited published data with regard to the removal of other nonsebaceous types of soils by shampoos. However, there are data showing incomplete removal of monofunctional cationics by anionic detergents [42], and although limited data are available, the removal of polycationic soil should be even more difficult. 2. Cleaning Other Soils The original hair spray lacquers of the 1950s were more difficult to remove from hair than the anionic and neutral polymers of today's hairsetting products. However, no systematic study of the ease or difficulty in removing these ingredients from hair could be found. Gloor [41] has examined the influence of hair spray on reoiling; however, no systematic study of the effects of hair spray on the ease of removal of hair lipid has been reported. Calciumbridged fatty acid may be deposited onto hair even in shampoos containing anionic surfactant. It is also well known that acid rinses may be used to remove calciumbridged fatty acid from hair, and anionic sulfate surfactants appear to remove fatty acid deposits from hair. However, copper (cupric ion) adsorbs strongly to hair and is reported to be resistant to removal by anionic surfactant [22]. Published literature regarding the efficacy of anionic surfactant systems for removing particulate soils, such as soot and hydrocarbons, could not be found. One may speculate that two important variables with this kind of soil are particle size and the type of chemical bonding between the particle and the hair. As particle size decreases below the region of about 1 m, the resistance to removal should increase. However, when van der Waals attractive forces are the primary adhesive forces, removal probably occurs. When hydrogen bonding and/or ionic bonding are involved, the particle is more resistant to removal.
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VII. Adsorption Onto Hair A. General Characteristics The binding of ingredients to hair fibers is fundamental to the action of conditioning agents whether from a shampoo or a conditioner medium. The amount of sorption or uptake of an ingredient by hair from an aqueous solution is governed by its attraction or binding interactions to the keratin, its hydrophilicity or binding interactions to the aqueous phase, and the diffusability of the ingredient into the hair. It is useful to consider deposition onto hair as represented by two distinct driving forces. The first involves chargecharge interactions, which cationic ingredients are attracted to a negatively charged hair fiber surface. This mechanism has been studied to the greatest extent. The second important driving force for deposition onto human hair involves hydrophobic interactions, which a neutral hydrophobic material, like a silicone polymer, is driven from an aqueous medium onto a hair fiber surface primarily by entropy. The binding interactions to keratin are influenced by the charge of the ingredient, its molecular size, the isoelectric point of hair, the pH of the surrounding medium, other salts or components in the formulation, and ingredients that are attached to the fiber surface. The attraction to the aqueous phase is governed primarily by the charge of the ingredient and the ratio of polar to nonpolar substituent groups. Penetration into the fibers or diffusion rates are governed primarily by molecular size, the condition of the hair, pH, and reaction temperature. Because the isoelectric point of hair is so low, approximately 3.67, its surface bears a net negative charge near neutral pH, at which most shampoos are formulated. Although anionic surfactants bind to the hair surface, the number of sites is comparatively small, relative to sites for cationic ingredients. Lauryl and laureth sulfate salts and salts of olefin sulfonate are also moderately hydrophilic. They appear to rinse well (but not completely) from hair and therefore serve as good cleaning agents. More anionic surfactant binds to hair with decreasing pH, suggesting that low pH shampoo formulations leave more anionic surfactant behind after shampooing than neutral pH shampoos. The diffusion of anionic surfactants into hair is slow, and it takes days for an averagesized surfactant to completely penetrate cosmetically unaltered hair. Although some penetration of surfactant can and does occur, the major interactions and effects of the active ingredients of shampoos and conditioners occur at or near the fiber surface, that is, near the first few micrometers of the periphery of the hair.
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One objective of highcleaning shampoos is to minimize sorption and/or deposition of its ingredients. On the other hand, the effects caused by conditioning shampoos and creme rinses are primarily a result of adsorption of ingredients at or near the fiber surface, and so the objective with conditioning is to maximize the deposition of the conditioning agents. Soaps and surfactants, lipids, cationic ingredients, and even polymers or polymer association complexes have been used as conditioning ingredients in shampoos and/or conditioning products. Soaps deposit their hydrophobic salts on the hair or bind by metal bridging. Cationic surfactants and polymers attach substantively to hair by ionic bonds enhanced by van der Waals attractive forces. On the other hand, the substantivity of most polymer association complexes or silicones is probably a result of their hydrophobic nature, enhanced by van der Waals forces and possibly by ionic bonds and entropy. Cream rinses are analogous to conditioning shampoos in causing hair effects chiefly by the adsorption of ingredients to hair. Above its isoelectric point (pH 3.67 for undamaged hair), more cationic than anionic surfactant binds to the hair surface, and cationics are difficult to remove by rinsing. As a result, cationic surfactants are said to be substantive to hair. Similar to anionic surfactants, diffusion of cationic surfactants into hair is slow. The more important interactions occur at or near the fiber surface (first few micrometers of the fiber periphery), accounting for the low surface friction and the ability of creme rinses to make hair comb more easily. More modern cream rinse conditioners contain a high concentration of a fatty alcohol, such as cetyl alcohol, or a similar fatty material in addition to a cationic surfactant. Dye binding studies suggest that conditioning alcohols binds to hair along with cationic ingredient (absorption maximum shifts), resulting in easier combing and more effective conditioning than by the cationic surfactant alone. The condition of the hair also affects the uptake and the diffusion of cream rinse and shampoo ingredients. Diffusion is faster into altered or damaged hair than into unaltered hair. Bleaching (oxidation) also lowers both the isoelectric and the isoionic points of hair, thereby attracting more cationic surfactant to the hair. Thus, although diffusion occurs more easily into cosmetically altered hair, the more important hair effects are produced by conditioner and conditioning shampoo ingredients binding at or near the fiber surface. Only in severely damaged tip ends might internal binding be more important, and even here the distinction may be essentially semantic. B. Kinetics of Ionic Reactions with Keratin Fibers 1. Summary Reactions of hair fibers with solute in solution may be considered a multistep process:
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1. Diffusion through solution 2. Adsorption or interaction at the fiber surface 3. Diffusion or transport into the fibers 4. Reaction at internal sites in the fibers Whenever diffusion through solution is rate determining, reactant concentrations are generally low, the rate is dependent on agitation, and the reaction is usually characterized by low activation energies (3–5 kcal/degree mol). Fiber surface adsorption is generally rapid for ionic ingredients, and the surface becomes filled (with respect to solute) during the first few minutes of reaction. Diffusion into the fibers is generally the ratedetermining step of most hair fiber reactions and is usually characterized by higher activation energies (10–30 kcal/degree mol). Because ionic reactions are generally more rapid than diffusion, they are usually not rate determining. However, reactions that involve breaking and formation of covalent bonds can sometimes be slower than diffusion into the fibers and therefore can be rate determining, for example, reduction of the disulfide bond by mercaptans at acidic pH. Penetration into the fibers is governed by the following factors: Reaction temperature Molecular size Crosslink density of fibers Fiber swelling Reaction time The rate of penetration generally increases with increasing temperature and fiber swelling, whereas it decreases with increasing crosslink density and molecular size of the penetrating species. Obviously, the extent of penetration increases with time. Liquid water at room temperature penetrates across the entire fiber in less than 15 minutes and in less than 5 minutes at 92°F [43], whereas more than 6 h is required for single fibers to equilibrate in a humid atmosphere, and even longer for a fiber assembly. Such dyes as methylene blue (molecular weight 320) and orange II (molecular weight 350) generally require over an hour to penetrate through the cuticle layers to the cortex. Similar penetration times are expected for the typical anionic and cationic surfactants used in shampoos and hair conditioners. 2. Transcellular and Intercellular Diffusion Two pathways have been described for diffusion into human hair [45]: (1) transcellular diffusion and (2) intercellular diffusion. The transcellular route involves diffusion across cuticle cells through both high and low crosslinked
hair conditioners. 2. Transcellular and Intercellular Diffusion Two pathways have been described for diffusion into human hair [45]: (1) transcellular diffusion and (2) intercellular diffusion. The transcellular route involves diffusion across cuticle cells through both high and low crosslinked proteins. Intercellular diffusion involves penetration between cuticle cells
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through the intercellular cement and other proteins low in cystine content (low crosslinked density regions). Transcellular diffusion is the generally accepted route because of the much greater amount of surface area available for this type of penetration. Intercellular diffusion was first proposed as far back as 1937 by Hall [46] and was recently demonstrated clearly by Leeder et al. [47] for metal complex dyes; a large cationic dye (rhodamine B, 479 daltons); triphenyl pyrazine, a neutral molecule (311 daltons); and for the highmolecularweight anionic oligomeric Synthappret BAP (>3000 daltons). For shampoos and conditioners, both diffusion routes probably occur in most circumstances. The intercellular route, is probably preferred for larger molecules, however, because the lowsulfur, nonkeratinous proteins are more easily swollen than the highly crosslinked regions. With decreasing molecular size, the transcellular route probably becomes increasingly important because of the much greater surface available for this type of diffusion. C. Binding of Ionic Ingredients to Hair The interactions of ionic ingredients (i.e., acids, alkalies, and neutral salts) with keratin fibers are of major importance to shampoos, cream rinses, ionic conditioners, and the group of hair dyes referred to as rinses. In this section, we consider the acidcombining capacity, which relates to the total number of basic groups in the fibers and defines the capacity for the fiber to bind anionic detergent ionically, and the basic binding capacity, which defines the capacity for the fiber to bind cationic detergent ionically. Unexpectedly, the surface of the fiber is essentially negatively charged and has a greater capacity for cationic binding than the fiber interior, as reflected in the isoelectric point near pH 3.67 and the isoionic point of about 6.5–7. 1. Maximum AcidCombining Capacity The acidcombining capacity provides indirect information about the combination of highmolecularweight organic anions with whole or total hair fibers, and organic anions are the primary ingredient of shampoos. The maximum acidcombining capacity of human hair fibers, from reaction with simple acids, such as hydrochloric, phosphoric, or ethyl sulfuric acids, is approximately 0.75 mmol/g for unaltered human hair and about 0.82 mmol/g for wool fiber [48]. This value approximates this number of dibasic amino acid residues in the fibers [49], that is, the combined amounts of arginine, lysine, and histidine. The primary sites for interaction with acid (protons) are probably the carboxylate groups of aspartic and glutamic acids (ionized by interaction with the dibasic amino acid residues) and the dibasic amino acid groups themselves. This acidbase reaction involves protonation of a basic site on or in the fiber, forming a positive charge on the fiber that attracts a negative ion to it.
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Steinhardt and Harris [48] have shown that the uptake of chloride ion by wool corresponds to the uptake of hydrogen ions during reaction with hydrochloric acid, and we in our laboratories have shown the same to be true of human hair. Maclaren [50] has taken advantage of this counterion effect and has developed a test for the acidcombining capacity of keratin fibers by measuring the uptake of the anion of orange II dye (p hydroxy1naphthyl azobenzenesulfonic acid) from formic acid solution. We have used this test to study the variation in the acidcombining capacity of hair among individuals, by cosmetic treatments, and from environmental effects (next section). 2. Variation in the AcidCombining Capacity of Unaltered Hair Hair samples were collected from 20 female Whites ages 10–30 who had never bleached, dyed, or permanentwaved their hair. These hair samples were analyzed by Maclaren's method for the acidcombining capacity. The average uptake was 0.70 mmol/g. Analysis of variance indicated significant differences among these hair samples beyond the = 0.01 level. This tells us that there are differences in the ability of undamaged human hair to take up anionic surfactants from shampoos. 3. Variation in the AcidCombining Capacity of Altered Hair Bleaching decreases the acidcombining capacity of both human hair [51] and wool fibers [52]. Analysis of hair samples bleached to different extents shows that the acidcombining capacity decreases with increased bleaching (see Table 4). This result shows that bleached hair takes up less anionic surfactant from shampoos than nonbleached hair and that there is a continued decrease in the ability of hair to adsorb anionic surfactant with increased bleaching. On the other hand, bleached hair should pick up more cationic surfactant, and the adsorption of this type of species should increase with increased bleaching. Amino acid analysis of these same hair samples shows no change in the basic amino acid residues. Therefore, the decrease in acid combination (anionic sur TABLE 4 AcidCombining Capacity of Bleached Hair Acidcombining capacitya (mmol/g hair)
Cysteic acid (mmol/g hair)
Control (unbleached)
0.67
0.03
One bleach
0.60
Two bleaches
0.52
Three bleaches
0.48
Four bleaches
0.43
Frosted hair
0.30
.066
Sample description
a
By the method of Maclaren [50].
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factant combination) must be a result the formation of cysteic acid in the fibers, which forms a strong ionic bond with the basic amino acid residues and inhibits their interaction with weaker acids, such as formic acid, thus decreasing the uptake of orange II dye or anions of high affinity, such as lauryl sulfate. Because the exocuticle and its A layer are highly crosslinked with cystine [53] and are near the fiber surface, one would expect a large increase in cysteic acid in the cuticle and in all probability a decrease in the isoelectric point of hair. This should produce a decrease in aciddye combination and an increase in the combination of cationic conditioning agents at or near the fiber surface with increased bleaching or oxidative weathering. In our laboratories, we have shown that the acidcombining capacity of human hair decreases with weathering [54], although only to a small extent, and this change results in a decrease in the ability of hair to take up anionic surfactant from shampoos. This study involved a comparison of root and tip ends of five samples of long hair (longer than 18 inches) that was visually lighter in the tip ends than the root ends. The acidcombining capacity varied from approximately 3 to 13% less in the tip ends. The most severely affected sample was hydrolyzed and analyzed for amino acids and found to contain significantly less lysine and histidine and a larger amount of cysteic acid in the hydrolyzates of the tip ends. This result is presumably from reaction with the elements. Such hair reacts more strongly with cationic conditioning agents than nonweathered hair, so that weathered hair should show more reaction with cationic surfactants in the tip ends than the root ends, and it does. In addition, weathered hair also shows more reaction with anionic detergents because of the increased penetration rate from the degradation reactions of the oxidizing agent. 4. Reaction with Hydrogen Ions and Cationic Surfactants In neutral dyeing or surfactanthair interactions, competition of cations with hydrogen ions plays a role. When the concentration of hydrogen ions is low and cations of low affinity are present, the adsorption of anion is influenced by the concentration and affinity of cations for hair. If the cation affinity is high enough that it is adsorbed, a counterion must accompany it to maintain electrical neutrality. In the presence of lowaffinity cations, such as sodium or potassium hydrogen ions can be taken up until quite high pH values are reached [55]. However, competition between hydrogen ions and other cations occurs at high concentrations or when cations of high affinity are employed. 5. Base Binding Capacity and Cationic Binding The base binding capacity of human hair is approximately 0.4 mmol/g or about onehalf the acidcombining capacity of human hair. This demonstrates the difference between the whole fiber and the fiber surface with regard to the ratio
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of acidic to basic amino acid side chains and is an index of the relative reaction of the whole fiber to cationic surfactants that occurs via ionic bonding. Longchain quaternary ammonium compounds, such as surfactants or conditioner additives, have a high affinity for human hair, and they compete quite effectively with hydrogen ions for sites on hair, even at acid pH in many cream rinse formulations. Furthermore, greater binding of cationic surfactants occurs to hair with increasing pH, because of the increased ionization of carboxyl side chain groups that occurs with increasing pH, creating additional sites for ionic binding with the cationic surfactant. 6. Influence of Cations on the Combination of Hydroxide Ions with Keratin Fibers Quantiative cation affinities have not been determined for human hair; however, Steinhardt and Zeiser [56] have shown that for a series of quaternary ammonium halides, as with anions, the affinity for keratin increases with increasing molecular weight. Organic ions of small size (below 150 daltons) differ very little in affinity and are similar to inorganic alkali metal cations, but above 150 daltons, the affinity of organic cations increases rapidly. The high affinity of hexadecyl trimethylammonium and larger cations (conditionertype actives) is a result of the ionic bond, van der Waals attractive forces, and the relatively low hydrophilic nature of the molecule. Scott et al. [57] have shown a similar phenomenon for human hair by comparing the sorption behavior of hexadecyl and dodecyl trimethylammonium bromides. These scientists found that under similar conditions of adsorption and desorption, greater amounts of the larger hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide combined with hair, attesting to its greater affinity. This is probably an entropyrelated phenomenon (see later). Cations of low affinity, at high concentrations, increase the interaction of hydroxide ion with keratin. This has been described by Steinhardt and Zeiser [56] as an effect of salt on the base binding behavior of keratin. Cations of high affinity also produce a greater effect in increasing the interaction of hydroxide ion with keratin [56]. 7. LowMolecularWeight Organic Bases Similar to the interactions of lowmolecularweight carboxylic acids with hair, the interactions of lowmolecularweight organic bases involve more than simply the backtitration of conjugate acids. Barnett [58] has described the interaction of mono, di, and triethanolamines at 25% concentration and higher with human hair. The reactions of these species with hair involve extensive swelling and ultimately lead to decomposition and disintegration of the hair.
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8. Interactions of Salts Near Neutrality and Effect on Surfactant Interactions The interactions of surfactants and ionic dyes with keratin fibers, near neutral pH (5–8), have not been studied as thoroughly as acid and basic dyeing. However, Vickerstaff [59] suggests that the mechanisms for neutral dyeing is analogous to the action of surfaceactive agents at an air/water interface, where they orient with the hydrophobic tail extending into the air and the hydrophilic group in the water. Another analogy is the electrophoresis of proteins in sodium dodecyl sulfate, where the hydrophobic portion of the surfactant binds to the protein and the charged group projects toward the solvent or gel. Thus, a mechanism for neutral interactions of surfactants with keratin fibers depicts the surfactant attaching to the fiber by its hydrophobic tail and the hydrophilic group (e.g., the sulfonate group) projecting toward the solution [60]. Evidence for a change in mechanism for the binding of surfactants to human hair as the pH of the system changes from acid to neutral has been provided by Robbins and Fernee [61]. A “leading ion mechanism” has also been proposed by Peters [55] for interactions near neutrality. For this mechanism, the fiber surface bears a net negative charge because of its low isoelectric point (pH 3.7). Positively charged ions are attracted to the negatively charged surface, thus helping it to overcome the electrical barrier for anions. This view elevates the importance of the counterions (cations in particular) in neutral dyeing or surfactant binding to hair near neutral pH. The effect of salt addition on dye uptake is consistent with this mechanism, because the addition of electrolyte near neutral pH increases the amount of dye [62] or surfactant [63] that combines with keratin fibers. Most surfactant interactions with hair are above the critical micelle concentration, and aggregation introduces complexities to the mechanisms. However, because sorption of sodium lauryl sulfate continues to increase above the critical micelle concentration [64], higher concentrations of aggregate near the fiber surface may be capable of providing higher concentrations of monomer for diffusion into the fiber, because it is probably monomer rather than aggregate that diffuses into the fiber. D. Reactions of Neutral Materials with Human Hair Reactions of neutral materials with human hair have been studied to a lesser extent than ionic ingredients. However, the deposition of waterinsoluble dispersed silicones as occurs from modern two in one shampoos onto human hair is most likely driven by a hydrophobic mechanism rather than by an ionic mechanism. This is therefore an entropydriven process which greater randomness in the products versus reactants favoring the deposition onto the hair as opposed to a highly structured alignment to keep the waterinsoluble particles
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dispersed. This phenomenon is largely responsible for the greater binding of anionic and cationic surfactants to hair with increasing molecular weight. Interestingly, nonionic surfactant has been shown to decrease the sorption of sodium lauryl sulfate, probably by decreasing the concentration of monomer available at the surface. Ethoxylation to sodium lauryl sulfate decreases the sorption, too, although it is not clear at this time whether this action is simply an effect on diffusion rate or on the anion affinity or both these parameters. VIII. Shampoo Lather Shampoo lather does not directly influence the physical behavior of hair fibers. However, shampoo lather can influence the consumer's perception of hair characteristics. Lather is so important to consumers preferences that it is a fundamental property of shampoos. The most useful work leading to the present understanding of shampoo lather was described by Neu [65] and by Hart and colleagues [66–68]. Neu pointed out that the traditional RossMiles [69] shampoo foam evaluation using an active concentration of about 0.1–0.2% is unrealistic and does not simulate consumer preferences for shampoo lather. He suggested lather testing at an order of magnitude greater in active surfactant concentration than used in the RossMiles test. Neu used a kitchen food mixer to generate shampoo lather for laboratory evaluation. Lather produced from this type of apparatus is more similar to that obtained on hair under shampooing conditions than provided by cylinder shake test methods, as in RossMiles. Hart and DeGeorge [66], following the lead of Neu, used a Waring blender to generate shampoo lather and measured drainage rates to provide an index of lather viscosity. Hart and DeGeorge [66] distinguished between foam and lather for shampoo evaluation, pointing out that “foam” is a broad generic term consisting of “any mass of gas bubbles in a liquid film matrix,” whereas lather is a special type of foam formed during shampooing and other processes and “consists of small bubbles that are densely packed,” thus resisting flow. It has been shown that the foam drainage test produces results that relate better to actual inuse salon testing [70]. Conclusions from Hart's work are as follows. A synthetic sebum load lowers lather quality. This is consistent with the known observation that the second shampoo application lathers better than the first shampoo application because more sebaceous soil is encountered in the first application. Hart also demonstrated that the traditionally known “foam booster” additives, such as lauramid DEA or cocamidopropyl betaine, should more correctly be called lather modifiers (amides modify lather feel and tend to make a thicker, creamier lather) but these additives do not boost lather; they tend to suppress shampoo
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lather. These foam modifiers actually associate with surfactant to strengthen the film structure of the lather. Other structuring agents not typically thought of as foam modifiers are polymeric gums, such as methylcellulose or hydroxyethylcellulose, that have been traditionally added to thicken shampoos. Such a polymer at a level as low as 0.2% can often create a nice thick creamy lather from a loose largebubble foam, presumably by enhancing the film strength of the lather. It is hoped that this summary provides a useful beginning to a better understanding of shampoo lather and lather testing. However, it should be understood that lather drainage rates are only one of the important parameters of shampoo lather. Lather feel and the rate of lather generation are two other important components of shampoo lather, for which reliable quantitative predictive methods are not yet available. IX. Viscosity Control in Shampoos and Conditioners To control the viscosity of many shampoos, salt is added to the surfactant system, and the interaction between salt and the longchain surfactants tend to form a lamellar or liquid crystalline structure that helps to stabilize or control the consistency of the shampoo. If one plots the salt concentration versus the viscosity in such a system, one typically finds an optimum above which additional salt decreases the viscosity. In developing such a system in which viscosity is controlled by salt addition, it is recommended that one select the appropriate salt concentration on the ascending part of the viscositysalt concentration curve. The selection of surfactant, amide, and other components are critical to the viscositysalt concentration control in such a system. Furthermore, impurities, such as salt contaminants in surfactants, must be carefully controlled to obtain the appropriate viscosity when salt control of viscosity is employed. Polymeric gums, such as methylcellulose or hydroxyethylcellulose, have also been used in shampoos to help control viscosity. In such systems, the salt concentration is also critical to viscosity control. Solvents, such as propylene glycol, glycerine, carbitols, or other alcohols, are sometimes used in shampoos to help solubilize, to clarify product, or to lower cloudclear points. Such ingredients often tend to lower product viscosity, presumably by interfering with surfactant association. References 1. D. Powers, Cosmetics, Science and Technology. Chap. 17 (Sagarin (ed.), Interscience, New York, 1957. 2. T. Gerstein, Cosmet, Perfumery 90, 35 (March 1975).
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3. C. Radar and W. Tolgyesi, Cosmet. Perfumery 90, 29 (March 1975). 4. A. L. L. Hunting, Encyclopedia of Shampoo Ingredients, Micelle Press, Cranford, NJ, 1983. 5. A. L. L. Hunting, Encyclopedia of Conditioning Rinse Ingredients, Micelle Press, Cranford, NJ, 1987. 6. W. F. Bergfeld, in Hair Research (Orfanos, Montagna, and Stuttgen, eds.), SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1981, p. 507. 7. M. Ishihara, in Hair Research (Orfanos, Montagna, and Stuttgen, eds.), SpringerVerlag, Berlin, 1981, p. 536. 8. J. A. Swift and A. C. Bews, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 23, 695 (1972). 9. C. Robbins, in Chemical and Physical Behavior of Human Hair, 3rd ed., SpringerVerlag, 1994, pp. 211–226. 10. T. Okumura, 4th Int. Hair Sci. Symp., Syburg, Germany, November 1984. 11. S. C. Kelly and V. N. E. Robinson, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 33, 203 (1982). 12. M. L. Garcia, et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 29, 155 (1977). 13. J. G. Gould and R. L. Sneath, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 36, 53 (1985). 14. E. Tolgyesi, Cosmet. Toiletries 98, 29 (October 1983). 15. Federal Register 47FR54646 (December 3, 1982). 16. J. A. Faucher and E. Goddard, J. Colloid and Interfac. Sci. 55, 313 (1976). 17. A. R. Sykes and P. A. Hammes, Drug Cosmet. Ind. 62 (February 1980). 18. B. Idson and W. Lee, Cosmet. Toiletries 98, 41 (October 1983). 19. J. Koch et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 33, 317 (1982) 20. F. Schebece, Private communication. 21. M. Breuer, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 32, 437 (1981). 22. G. Ramachandran Bhat et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 30, 1 (1979). 23. M. Milosevic et al., Arh Hig. Rad. Toksikol. 31(3), 209 (1980). 24. E. Kissa, Textile Res. J. 51, 508 (1981). 25. M. Gloor, Dermatol. Monatsschr. 160, 730 (1974). 26. H. Eberhardt, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 27, 235 (1976). 27. M. Gloor, in Cosmetic Science (Breuer, ed.), Vol. 1, Academic Press, New York, 1987, p. 218.
24. E. Kissa, Textile Res. J. 51, 508 (1981). 25. M. Gloor, Dermatol. Monatsschr. 160, 730 (1974). 26. H. Eberhardt, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 27, 235 (1976). 27. M. Gloor, in Cosmetic Science (Breuer, ed.), Vol. 1, Academic Press, New York, 1987, p. 218. 28. F. Minor et al., Textile Res. J. 29, 931 (1959). 29. C. Robbins and C. Reich, 4th Int. Hair Sci. Symp., Syburg, Germany (November 1984). 30. D. A. Shaw, Int. J. Cosmet. Sci. 1, 317 (1979). 31. D. Thompson et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 36, 271 (1988). 32. M. Ludec et al., Proc. 10th IFSCC Congr., Australia, 1978, p. 693. 33. R. Stamm, et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 28, 571 (1977). 34. G. V. Scott and C. R. Robbins, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 31, 179 (1980). 35. C. R. Robbins and M. K. Bahl, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 35, 379 (1984). 36. G. C. Dobinson and P. J. Petter, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 27, 3 (1976). 37. C. R. Robbins and R. Crawford, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 35, 369 (1984). 38. C. A. Knott et al., Int. J. Cosmet. Sci. 5, 77 (1983). 39. C. R. Robbins, in Chemical and Physical Behavior of Human Hair, Van NostrandReinhold, New York, 1979, p. 107.
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40. J. Clarke et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 40, 309–320 (1989). 41. D. Thompson et al. J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 36, 271–286 (1985). 42. C. Robbins, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem 205–214 (1989). 43. V. Wilkerson, J. Biol. Chem. 112, 329 (1935–1936). 44. H. Eberhardt, Res. Rep. No. 1868 (1961). 45. J. D. Leeder and J. A. Rippon, J. Soc. Dyers Col. 99, 64 (1983). 46. R. O. Hall, J. Soc. Dyers Col. 53, 341 (1937). 47. J. D. Leeder et al. Tokyo Wool Res. Conf. (1985). 48. J. Steinhardt and M. Harris, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 24, 335 (1940). 49. C. R. Robbins and C. Kelly, Textile Res. J. 40, 891 (1970). 50. J. Maclaren, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 86, 175 (1960). 51. C. R. Robbins et al., Textile Res. J. 38, 1130 (1968). 52. J. Sagal, Textile Res. J. 35, 672 (1965). 53. A. Smith and M. Harris, J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand. 19, 81 (1937). 54. J. Swift and B. Bews, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 27, 289 (1976). 55. R. H. Peters, Ciba Rev. 2 (1964). 56. J. Steinhardt and E. Zeiser, J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 789 (1949). 57. G. V. Scott et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 20, 135 (1969). 58. G. Barnett, M.S. Thesis, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, Brooklyn, New York, 1952. 59. T. Vickerstaff, The Physical Chemistry of Dyeing, Interscience, New York, 1954, p. 413. 60. M. J. Rosen, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 49, 293 (1971). 61. C. R. Robbins and K. M. Fernee, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 34, 21 (1983). 62. T. Vickerstaff, The Physical Chemistry of Dyeing, Interscience, New York, 1954, p. 397. 63. J. Faucher and E. Goddard, Soc. Cosmet. Chem. Sem., May 1977. 64. E. Goddard and R. B. Hannah, J. Colloid Interfac. Sci. 55, 73 (1976). 65. G. E. Neu, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 11, 390 (1960). 66. J. R. Hart and M. T. DeGeorge, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 31, 223 (1980). 67. J. R. Hart and M. T. DeGeorge, Drug Cosmet. Indust. 134, 46 (1984).
64. E. Goddard and R. B. Hannah, J. Colloid Interfac. Sci. 55, 73 (1976). 65. G. E. Neu, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 11, 390 (1960). 66. J. R. Hart and M. T. DeGeorge, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 31, 223 (1980). 67. J. R. Hart and M. T. DeGeorge, Drug Cosmet. Indust. 134, 46 (1984). 68. J. R. Hart and E. F. Levy, Soap Cosmet. Chem. Spec. 53(8), 31 (1977). 69. J. Ross and G. D. Miles, Oil and Soap 18, 99 (1941). 70. F. J. DomingoCampos and R. M. Druguet Toutina, Cosmet. Toiletries 98 (9), 121 (1983).
11 Liquid Soaps RICHARD E. REEVER Richard Reever and Associates, Inc., Minnetonka, Minnesota I. Introduction II. Formula Market Trends A. Formulation systems B. Market size and dynamics III. Anatomy of Liquid Soap Formulas A. Skincleaning agents B. Skinconditioning agents C. Product physical property regulators D. Preservative systems E. Product esthetic regulators F. Special additives IV. Antibacterial Liquid Soaps V. Mildness A. Sensitive skin products B. Mildness testing VI. Future Category Trends for BodyCleansing Products References
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I. Introduction The mass market liquid soap personal cleansing category in the United States has evolved from rather simple beginnings. In the 1960s and early 1970s, “liquid soap” cleansing products consisted of institutional and hospital health care handwash products—many based on medicated formulas, some using simple liquid fatty acid coco soaps and some using the forerunners of today's blended detergent formulations. In Europe the liquid cleansing category for personal cleansing was continuing to grow and become accepted as a popular choice especially in the shower area. Some smaller companies would stimulate this new category in the United States responding to different set of consumer trends. In 1982, Frank wrote an early overview of the formulation technology and the market trends that accompanied the beginning of this new market category [1]. In 1992, Lundmark added a very complete update on the technology as well as the market growth that accompanied the now substantial category [2]. It is interesting that both authors were key individuals in small companies thought to be responsible for stimulating growth in the new liquid soap category: Frank in 1982 with Jovan, Inc. and Lundmark in 1982 with Minnetonka, Inc. These were two of the small companies known at the time as innovators and astute readers of new consumer trends. In 1977, Minnetonka, Inc. developed a liquid soap product to be sold through specialty department stores called the Incredible Soap Machine, an artistically decorated liquid pump dispenser containing a rich pearly sodium lauryl sulfate, cationic, and glycerin conditioning skin cleanser formula. At a retail price of $4.95 for a 16 ounce container, this single item became the largest single sales growth item in the company. During 1978 and 1979, Minnetonka reworked the specialty product with a revised decorate package (improved formula) and in 1980 nationally launched Softsoap brand liquid soap. The product entered the market with a 10.5 fluid ounce package at a retail price of $1.59 and achieved first year reported sales of $35 million [3]. The primary consumer drivers for the success of this products were as follows: Decorator package designs A “no soap bar mess” advertising campaign An inexpensive highquality formula II. Formula Market Trends To describe product formulas it is first important that the category of liquid soaps be technically defined. In fact, most early products were not and are not
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today technically “soaps.” In the early 1980s there was correspondence between industry and the FDA that aided in clarifying the acceptance of using the term “soap” in a statement of identity for a liquid skin cleaning product that contained primarily synthetic detergent ingredients. Because a soap for the purposes of the FD&C act was considered to be comprised primarily of alkali salts of fatty acids and soaps were exempt from certain cosmetic labeling requirements and were instead regulated by the Consumer Product Safety Commission, the FDA allowed these synthetic detergentbased products to be labeled as liquid soaps as long as they were “properly qualified as cosmetics.” It became the custom of the industry that “properly qualified” meant using proper ingredient labeling disclosure and using the FDAapproved colors [4]. The trade and probably more importantly the consumer seemed to accept that liquid soaps became any liquid formulas used to clean skin and generally dispensed from pump dispensers. A. Formulation Systems Initially, all liquid soap products marketed from 1980 to 1985 had to meet only very simple requirements: Attractive packaging Pleasant aesthetic qualities: fragrance, color, feel on the skin Good cleaning: good lather, cleaned well, gentle to skin Ease of use: pump dispenser Good value: priced in line with bar soaps Many of the early liquid formulas were based upon shampoo technologies. The raw materials were in abundant supply, and methods of manufacture allow small batch processes with simple turbine mixers in a wide variety of acceptable mixing vessels. Many companies rapidly entered the market. It was estimated in 1982 that over 50 different products entered the market [1]. Many of these included established large companies with longstanding brand names but also included many lowprice regional and private label brands; many of these were shortlived. B. Market Size and Dynamics The Softsoap brand continued to hold the lead market share, primarily because of its highquality formula and decorator design image. As the segment evolved, competitors focused on adding product benefits and, when possible, leveraging these benefits with the wellestablished “equity” of their brand names. Procter & Gamble entered the market with Ivory, one of the only fatty acid soapbased formulas with the same Ivory Clean position as the well established
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bar soap. Jergens added a lotionenriched formula based on the skin lotion equity of the company. In 1988, Dial entered the market with its own special germkilling equity, to be discussed shortly. The financial size of the market had grown to an estimated “stagnated” $115 million by 1988, primarily driven by product formulations and claim positions that offered only basic simple cleaning and skinconditioning properties [5]. By the end of 1993, with the successful boost from the antibacterial germkilling claim, the market grew to over $289 million, exceeding 10% of the total soap market, and included market shares as follows: ColgatePalmolive Softsoap (28%), Dial liquid (21%), liquid Neutrogena (10%), Jergens (8%), and Liquid Dove by Lever (7%), with new or reformulated entries from Ivory (Procter & Gamble), liquid Safeguard (Procter & Gamble), and liquid Lever 2000 (Lever) [6,7]. By mid1993, all major liquid soap producers were beginning to emphasize new formula technologies with emphasis on special consumer skin care needs as well as a new packaging response to an ever increasing environmental and cost and valueaware consumer. All major brands started to offer a larger package or series of larger sizes, with better cost value to the consumer and a major emphasis on refilling the pump container. General estimates proposed that sales of refill packages were estimated to become nearly 50% of the total sales for some of the liquid soap brands. III. Anatomy of Liquid Soap Formulas Many good references exist that provide detailed starting formulas for a wide variety of liquid soaps. A good overview of starting formulas for a wide variety of liquid soap compositions appears in the text by Flick [8]. The most concise way to simplify the structural parts of these compositions from the formulator's point of view is as follows: Skincleaning agents (surfactants) Skinconditioning agents Product physical property regulators (pH, viscosity) Preservative systems Product esthetic regulators (color, fragrance) Special additives (antibacterial additives; see Tables 1–7) A. SkinCleaning Agents As illustrated by Flick, the skincleaning portion of the formulas is most usually comprised of mixtures of surfactants, with a primary “deepcleaning” surfactant, usually anionic, blended with lower levels of nonionic and ampho
TABLE 1 ColgatePalmolive Regular Liquid Soaps: Key Ingredients and Functions Ingredients
Softsoap original (aloe) [67]
Surfactants (cleansing agents/emulsifiers)
Sodium C14–16 olefin sulfonate (AOS) Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) Sodium lauriminodipropionate Sodium cocoamphodiacetate Lauramide DEA
Humectants (conditioning agents)
Glycerin Polyquaternium7 Quaternium22 Silk peptide hydrolyzed Silk protein (aloe vera extract)
Pearlescent agents
Glycol stearate
Preservative system
DMDH hydantoin
Color system
FD&C Green No. 3 D&C Yellow No. 10
pH adjuster
Citric acid
Viscosity adjuster
Sodium chloride
TABLE 2 ColgatePalmolive Antibacterial Soaps: Key Ingredients and Functions Ingredients
Softsoap regular [69]
Surfactants (cleaning agents/emulsifiers)
Sodium C14–16 olefin sulfonate (AOS) Cocamidopropyl betaine Lauramide DEA
Humectants (conditioning agents)
Glycerin Polyquaternium7 Aloe vera gel Silk peptide hydrolyzed Silk protein
Pearlescent agents
Preservative system
DMDM hydantoin Tetrasodium EDTA
Color system
FD&C Yellow No. 5 D&C Red No. 33 FD&C Red No. 40
Antibacterial active ingredient
Triclosan
pH adjuster
Citric acid
Viscosity adjuster
Sodium chloride
TABLE 3 Dial Antibacterial Soaps: Key Ingredients and Functions Ingredients
Dial Regular [70]
Surfactants (cleaning agents/emulsifiers)
Ammonium lauryl sulfate (ALS) SLES Lauramide DEA
AL SLE Lau
Humectants (conditioning agents)
Glycerin
PE
Isostearamidopropyl morpholine lactate
Iso La Gly PEG Vita Gua chl
Pearlescent agents
Gly
Preservative system
DMDM hydantoin Tetrasodium EDTA
DM Tetr
Color system
FD&C Yellow No. 5 FD&C Red No. 5
FD FD
Antibacterial active ingredient
Triclosan
Tric
pH adjuster
Citric acid
Citri
Viscosity adjuster
Sod
TABLE 4 Lever Regular Liquid Soaps and Antibacterial Liquid Soaps: Key Ingredients an Dove Beauty Wash (face and hands Ingredients Surfactants (cleansing agents/emulsifiers)
Sodium cocoyl isethionate Sodium Isethionate SLES Sodium alkyl benzene sulfonate Sodium tallowate Sodium cocoate
Disodium cocamido MEA sulfosuc Disodium oleamido MEA sulfosuc
Humectants (conditioning agents)
Propylene glycol Stearic acid
Pearlescent agent
Stearic acid
Preservative system
Quaternium15 Trisodium EDTA Methylparaben Propylparaben
Antibacterial active ingredient
Viscosity adjuster
Sodium chloride Hectorite
TABLE 5 Kao/Jergens Regular Liquid Soaps and Antibacterial Liquid Soaps: Key Ingredie Ingredients
Jergens Antibacterial Plus [18]
Jergens
Surfactants (cleansing agents/emulsifiers)
ALS AOS Cocamidopropyl betaine Cocamide DEA Sodium stearate
AOS ALS Cocamid Cocamid Sodium
Humectants (conditioning agents)
Polyquaternium7 (plus Jergens Lotion)
Polyqua Lotion)
Pearlescent agents
Glycol distearate
Glycol di
Preservative system
DMDM hydantoin Tetrasodium EDTA
DMDM Tetrasod
Color system
Antibacterial active ingredient
Triclosan
Viscosity adjuster
Sodium chloride
Sodium
teric materials. The most common early liquid soap formulas used true fatty acid anionic. Extensive research was presented in a number of patents, most often by larger soap marketers. Some representative patents of this work can be seen in e ColgatePalmolive and a superfatted saturated and unsaturated potassium soap s Stiros of Procter & Gamble [9,10]. For a company with TABLE 6 Procter & Gamble Regular Liquid Soaps: Key Ingredients and Functions Ingredients
IVORY Skin LiquiG
IVORY Regular [72]
Surfactants (cleansing agents/emulsifiers)
SLES SLS Cocamidopropyl betaine Lauramide DEA Octoxynol9
SLES SLS Lauramide DE Cocamidoprop
Humectants (conditioning agents)
Pearlescent agents
Styrene/acrylate copolymer
Preservative system
DMDM hydantoin Tetrasodium EDTA
DMDM hydan Tetrasodium E
Color system
pH adjuster
Citric acid
Citric acid
Viscosity adjuster
Sodium chloride
Sodium chlori
TABLE 7 Procter & Gamble Antibacterial Liquid Soaps: Key Ingredients and Functions Ingredients
Safeguard Regular [73]
Safegu
Surfactants (cleansing agents/emulsifiers)
SLS SLES Cocamidopropyl betaine Lauramide DEA
SLS SLES Cocamidopr Lauramide
Humectants (conditioning agents)
Guar hydro chloride
Pearlescent agents
Glycol diste
Preservative system
DMDM hydantoin Tetrasodium EDTA
DMDM hy Tetrasodiu
Color system
FD&C Red No. 4 FD&C Yellow No. 5
FD&C Red FD&C Yello
Antibacterial active ingredient
Triclosan
Triclosan
pH adjuster
Citric acid
Citric acid
Viscosity adjuster
Sodium sulfate
Sodium sulf
extensive raw material and manufacturing emphasis in the soap area, these formul economies of scale. They suffered from certain chemical and physical deficiencies synthetic detergent systems, most notably in pH, flash foam in hard water, and, in fragrancing with a wide latitude of light fragrances. Procter & Gamble and Neutr few major companies to launch “true soap” formulas, and in later years Procter formula for liquid Ivory from a potassium soap system to a sodium lauryl sulfate, sulfate system (Table 6). In the following analysis of general classes of liquid soap ingredients, the form of ingredient names as listed in the most recent edition of the International Cosmet Dictionary [11]. Some of the most widely used anionic surfactants are the alkyl and alkyl ether sul sulfate (SLS), sodium laureth sulfate (SLES), and the various other anionic salts triethanolamine, and magnesium—all offered ease of formulation, ease of manufa for value if purchased in large quantities. Sodium lauryl sulfate is typically supplie solution and can be easily blended with simple manufacturing equipment and at m when blended properly, can allow systems that provide excellent cleaning, copio rinsing. Many formulas use a blended surfactant system to allow optimizing performance, manufacturing ease. AOS ( olefin sulfonates), such as the ingredient sold with t sodium C14–16 olefin sulfonate, or
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a trade name example, Witconate AOS (Witco Corporation), is one of these coanionics that is widely used. Typically supplied in a cost effective 40% solids solution, the material has been reputed to have interesting cleaning and mildness properties while offering a reduction in cost of formula per anionic active ingredient level [12]. The types of anionic surfactants listed here generally create a type of lather with an “open structured frothy” foam. Nonionic surfactants in the alkanolamide class, such as the CTFA names lauramide DEA or cocamide DEA, are usually included at a lower ratio concentration of active anionic for the functions of viscosity builders, flash foam enhancers, and foam stabilizers. Examples of amphoteric surfactants that are also commonly coblended with the aforementioned anionic and nonionics are such compounds as cocamidopropyl betaine (Mackam 35, Mcintyre Group, Ltd.) to reduce skin irritation and at carefully controlled ratios to increase the “creamy character” of the lather. Ideal liquid soap formula ranges for optimizing foam building, rinsing, mildness, and viscosity building (with a lower requirement for inorganic salts) can be obtained with AOS anionics, lauric alkanolamides, and cocamidopropyl betaine at solids ratios of 9:1:1 [12]. The first performance evaluation the consumer makes in using a liquid soap is the degree of flash foam, initial development of foam volume. The next is generally foam volume, followed by a creamy or silky character depending on the desired claim or product position. A typical liquid soap formula, such as the original SoftSoap brand formula as listed in Table 1, is generally comprised of a mixture of these different types of cleaning agents to achieve the desired performance. Typical laboratory tests have been designed to measure the level of flash foam and foam volume and are usually calibrated to a laboratory individual's personal means of testing. Such methods as the carefully repeated shaking of a fixed concentration of product in a graduated cylinder, with a resultant measurement of foam rate, volume, and stability, can be quick and reliable. A long standing laboratory method for foam volume is the method detailed by Ross and Miles [13]. Possibly the most reliable consumer data come from actual use of the product under home use conditions or in controlled clinical settings. B. SkinConditioning Agents As the cleaning process continues, the user begins to focus on the feel of the product on the skin. Generally it is desirable to have a feeling of lubricity and smoothness during the cleaning and rinsing process but not an excessive feeling of a sticky feeling or a feeling of residual material on the skin after rinsing. The degree of a clean skin feeling to a soft or smooth skin feeling is balanced toward the product positioning or claim and is adjusted by the use of skin conditioning ingredients. Classes of ingredients used for skin feel include
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humectants, such as glycerin, proteins, and skin refatting agents, such as PEG 7 glyceryl cocoate. Another widely used class of materials that imparts skin feel is the class of watersoluble anioniccompatible cationic salts and polymeric compounds. Much of the research experience for these materials comes from many years of application research in the hair care area. Many researchers have studied the similarity of substantivity of these materials to skin and hair proteins from both a theoretical and an experimental basis [14,15]. Examples of this class are such materials as the polyquaternium7 series (Merquat 550, Calgon Corporation). Numerous formulas in Tables 1, 2, 3, and 5 show the wide use of this material. One of the key benefits of this material appears to be the high degree of skin feel provided at a very low formula concentration used. This is particularly useful to produce a smooth skin feel without a sticky negative afterfeel on product rinsing. Other classes of cationic salts compatible with high levels of anionics are represented by the research of Gesslein et al. in a U.S. patent issued to the Inolex Chemical Company covering alkyl or alkylamido dimethyl 2, 3dihydroxypropyl ammonium salts sold under the trade name Lexquat series [16]. For all these materials care must be used to select concentrations of additives that balance the skin feel desired with the possible suppression of lather. C. Product Physical Property Regulators Liquid soaps are typically dispensed from pump dispensers directly onto wet skin. In this use they must possess a thickness or viscosity sufficient not to appear “runny” to the user or not to slip through the fingers but at the same time must have the ability to disperse quickly into foam with only a minimum amount of rubbing. This rheology is well known to those skilled in the art of formulation and is very dependent on selection and blending of the surfactant portions of the formula with auxiliary additives, such as polymers, nonionics, cationics, and electrolytes. Typically an electrolyte viscosity response titration curve is conducted on the finished base formula with the electrolyte of choice, commonly sodium chloride, and a safe margin is determined that allows normal process adjustments without the product becoming too stringy (too low in viscosity). Great care in final formula selection is critical because this relationship can be highly sensitive to seemingly minor ingredients, such as product pH, fragrance types and levels, conditioning additives, natural extracts based on glycols, and of course the key cleaning surfactants and their manufacture. The product pH requires a separate study to ascertain not only the desired range and limits (per the previous reference) but also a study to ascertain the product pH stability with age, raw material variations, and interdependence of such items as finished product color over a range of product pH.
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D. Preservative Systems General laboratory testing by this writer has established that typical liquid soap formulas for use in handwashing will be in the range of 75–85% water. The remaining solids are organic materials that are sensitive to microbiological contamination: generally the lower the level of solids the higher the potential for possible contamination. To fortify the product against contamination during manufacture and extended age in use, it is necessary to add antimicrobial preservatives. Formaldehyde, once widely used as very effective preservative, has been largely discontinued as a pure additive, but various formaldehyde donor materials, such as DMDM hydantoin, are now commonly used [17]. Other additives that enhance preservative effectiveness, such as tetrasodium EDTA, are also found. Care must be taken with proper selection of ingredient and concentrations because some known consumer skin sensitivities exist. Also, proper care on selection, age, and challenge testing is a standard procedure. E. Product Esthetic Regulators As with most toiletries, the esthetics of the product fragrance, color, clarity, or pearly appearance can be as important to consumer perception as the base formula chemistry. The fragrance of a product must be carefully developed to enhance the overall product position. In the author's opinion, this element should be treated as a critical development step and researched thoroughly. The fragrance must be selected with emphasis that the ultimate consumer will attempt to smell the product in the bottle (at the point of purchase), then of course as it is used, will likely want or not want it to have residual fragrance on the skin (depending on the product claims or concept), and finally will make an evaluation as he or she leaves the washing area on how much or little is “fragrancing the air” around the washing area. In kitchen use the fragrance must be clean, fresh, and not in conflict with the food preparation process. For a moisturizing product the fragrance must emphasize skin softness and not be in conflict with this concept. A very interesting range of fragrances is represented by the currently marketed products and ranges from very light subtle floral of the SoftSoap family to the fruity green almond floral of the Jergens lotion product to the woody, lavender herbal floral of liquid Dial. Colors are also an important part of product positioning and have become almost a part of functionality, with the color family of gold and amber representing germ killing (see Tables 2, 3, and 7) to a complete freedom of color representing the ultramild sensitive skin formulas (see Tables 1, 3, and 6).
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The addition of glycol stearate to provide an opaque and “pearled” look has been an established part of certain marketed formulas, for example, the original SoftSoap formula in Table 1. In early testing before the initial market decision, formulations with this pearled appearance were actually rated superior in skin conditioning to an otherwise equivalent formula series in consumer testing. Certain currently marketed liquid soaps with strong skin conditioning product positions use a pearled or opaque appearance to fortify this position. F. Special Additives Each product formulation contains a number of special additives to fortify certain product or advertising claim positions or appeal to certain consumer preferences. One interesting claim was made on the package and in advertising by Jergens Liquid Antibacterial Plus in 1991 [18]. The claim was that the product not only kills germs on hands but also “eliminates odors that linger on your hands, like onions, diapers and cleaning products” (see Table 5). From general consumer work done in the fragrance and product concept area, it was well known that in food preparation areas, such as kitchen use of liquid soaps, a product that had a fragrance that was too sweet or strongly floral could be in conflict with the intended use. Apparently, to overcome this possible objection of the original sweet floral almond fragrance of the original Jergens liquid lotion soap, a change in fragrance was made to a cleaner, more neutral “malodor counteractant” scent, along with a strong claim that would appeal to kitchen users. Chemical components of the fragrance of a liquid soap capable of counteracting kitchen malodors can be comprised of certain aromatic compounds, such as the acetic and propionic acid compounds represented in the patent work of Schleppnik [19,20]. IV. Antibacterial Liquid Soaps As previously mentioned, the antibacterial ingredients and claims have been the most important new additives responsible for a significant boost in sales of the category since 1990. At the time of this writing, there are extensive discussions taking place between U.S. manufacturers and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration that could have a significant impact on the category. This chapter does not deal in detail with these issues: interested readers are directed to the historical and pending record of industry and FDA Federal Register references for the proposal to establish a Monograph for overthecounter antimicrobial products (1974 and 1978–1994 [21–23]. The current pending discussions in summary relate to the following issues:
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All leading liquid hand soap products use for the active ingredient (2,4,4' trichloro2'hydroxydiphenyl ether) (Triclosan in the United States; Irgasan DP300, Ciba Geigy Corporation; see Tables 2–5 and 7). The FDA has expressed some concerns regarding the need for more information on the safety and effectiveness of this material for these intended products and has listed this ingredient as category III [23]. The FDA has expressed to industry that the category term “antimicrobial soaps” or “antibacterial soaps” not be included in the tentative final monograph (TFM), in obvious conflict with the fact that this is the consumer category that has been established by the industry since these products were introduced in 1989, instead, FDA proposed “antiseptic handwash” for this category [23]. The FDA in their current TFM has used professionally directed soaps, such as health care personnel handwash and surgical scrub products, to establish the types of effectiveness tests for the category. Currently it has been reported that a joint industry task force has been established with the Soap and Detergent Association (SDA) and Cosmetic Toiletry and Fragrance Association (CTFA), and feedback meetings are being held with FDA to try to resolve many of these issues surrounding the OTC topical antiseptic TFM and the existing antimicrobial soap category [24]. Extensive discussions covering such topics as methods for testing the efficacy of these products seem to be opening up the opportunity to have different methods of testing established for the different product types—mass market everyday use soaps versus health care professional handwash and surgical scrub products—and such tests as the following are being indicated for the mass “handwashes”: the cup scrub test, the “agar patch test,” the modified CADE technique, and modified forms of the general health care handwash test [24]. The comment period for the currently pending June 1994 TFM has been extended to June 1995, with the deadline for any new data currently extended to December 15, 1995 at the time of this writing [24]. A number of good reference publications have demonstrated in vivo tests that are helpful to researchers both in the rapid evaluation of the effectiveness of antimicrobial formulas, including handwash products, as well as part of the final clinical efficacy documentation [25–28]. In 1992, Lever Brothers Company positioned Liquid Lever 2000 Antibacterial Soap with package claims that stated for the Triclosan formula “…not only kills germs but actually keeps them from coming back—all day” (Table 4) [29]. An interesting new crosscategory approach to antibacterial liquid soaps occurred in 1994, when both the ColgatePalmolive Company through the Palmolive brand and the Dial Corporation through the Dial brand introduced
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a combined dishwashing liquid and antibacterial handsoap in one formula, both using Triclosan as the active ingredient and labeled as OTC drugs [30]. V. Mildness The addition of antibacterial ingredients and germkilling claims created significant growth in the category, but probably the most significant formulation trend to cross over the entire category in the 1990s has been the trend toward improved skin mildness. In a recent review of current population trends, it was stated that as the nation's elderly population grows, so will the demand for much milder cosmetics, softer colors, and treatment and care for aging skin [31]. Much of the direction from cosmetic raw material supplier formularies as well as the patent art in this area of liquid skin cleansing is directed at more skincaring materials and compositions. The Lever Brothers Company has long incorporated a blended isethionate chemistry with fatty acid tallowate/cocoate soap chemistry to achieved improved mildness to skin; a simple representation of this chemistry is reviewed in a 1987 patent [32]. Much of the Lever patent art is aimed at varying ratios of fatty acid soaps and sodium isethionate/sodium cocoyl isethionate to provide clinically verified reductions in irritation. A number of these patents speak to compositions that create physical products from solids to liquid cream to transparent gel structures, and many are aimed at emphasizing their mildness benefits toward consumer facial cleansing [33–36]. In 1991, Lever Brothers entered the U.S. bodycleansing category with Liquid Dove Beauty Wash for face and hands with a creamy liquid dispenser formula based on sodium cocoyl isethionate/sodium isethionate chemistry blended with sodium laureth sulfate and disodium sulfosuccinates and low levels of sodium tallowate and sodium cocoate fatty acid soaps (Table 4). The primary new package claim for this product in 1991 was that Liquid Dove “doesn't dry like soap” and was “milder than any liquid soap on the market” [37]. In 1992, Lever introduced similar isethionate/sodium laureth sulfate chemistry but eliminated the fatty acid soaps and used polyquaternium10 (a polymeric cationic) and cyclomethicone for skin conditioning (Table 4). One of the package claims emphasized the skin mildness of the formula as “won't dry your skin like the leading antibacterial liquid” [29]. In 1994, the Lever 2000 Antibacterial formula package was revised to showed some modification in label claim to “unique formula includes special skin care ingredients so it's better for your skin.” The formula also reflected revisions to replace sodium laureth sulfate and ammonium laureth sulfate and the replacement of cyclomethicone/polyquaternium10 skin conditioners with polyquaternium39 and guar hydroxypropyltrimonium chloride [38]. To reinforce skin mildness, many of the early
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leading formulas in the liquid soap category, especially those that added antibacterial formulations, added at least two distinct antibacterial formula variations, generally a “regular” and an “extra conditioning formula.” Colgate with SoftSoap, Dial, and Procter & Gamble with the Safeguard brand introduced a second moisturizing or extra conditioning formula that usually contained the same basic surfactant system but then used a pearlescent agent, usually from the family of glycol stearates, along with an increased concentration of skin substantive conditioners from the higher molecular weight polymeric cationics (Tables 2, 3, and 7). Most of the technology for these formula variations were previously publicly disclosed through previously marketed similar conditioning hair shampoo formulas or was widely disclosed publicly by formularies of raw material suppliers but two interesting Procter & Gamble patents illustrate the dual benefit of materials like the cationic guar series to skincleansing products [39,40]. U.S. Patent 4,812,253 by Small et al. discusses the benefit of mild surfactants and polymeric skin feel ingredients like cationic guar in both clinically verified skin mildness and panelisttested improvements in smooth skin feel [39]. General claims of these extra conditioning antibacterial formulas are as follows: Extra softeners for dry skin [41] With moisturizer, helps protect against dry skin [42] Kills germs and moisturizes, a combination of moisturizers and naturally derived skin conditioners that leave hands feeling soft and smooth [43]. A. Sensitive Skin Products One of the most recent trends in formula liquid soap formulations between 1992 and 1995 was the addition of clear, waterwhite colorless formulas positioned as ultramild for people with sensitive skin (Tables 1, 3, and 6). Colgate's Softsoap brand launched a product in 1992 with claims that the formula was “free of colors, soaps and other harsh ingredients that can irritate sensitive skin” [44]. This formula uses a gentle cleansing surfactant blend of anionic and a new category of nonionic (alkyl polyglucoside) material that has the capability for good, is gentle in skin cleansing, and has a good viscosity build and easy rinse properties (Table 1) [68]. A survey article by Salka et al. provides a good overview of the chemical and physical and positive dermatological properties of these materials [45]. The naturally sourced origin (positive for environmental concerns), along with their mildness and high activity of supply, gives these materials a high opportunity for growth across household and personal care categories [30].
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IvoryProcter & Gamble launched a waterwhite variant in 1994 based upon its previous SLES/SLS formula, with general claims that it was “so gentle you could use it on your face” (Table 6) [46]. Dial Corporation in 1995 has extended its antibacterial liquid soap line with a waterwhite formula based on SLES/cocamidopropyl betaine and decyl polyglucose, claiming the following: Free of dyes Free of harsh perfumes Dermatologist approved Hypoallergenic (Table 3) [47] B. Mildness Testing In his review of Sensitive Skin, Simion points out that although consumer surveys indicate that 50% or more female consumers believe they have sensitive skin, cosmetic researchers and dermatologists and consumers are not always in agreement as to what constitutes sensitive skin [48]. Simion goes on to describe some very good strategies as guidance for the formulator of sensitive skin products, emphasizing two important key directives: (1) the avoidance of known irritants and allergens and (2) the product should be subjected to a series of tests including “inuse” testing to confirm acceptance to a sensitive skin population [48]. In describing hypoallergenic claim support, Jackson et al. also reinforced that although no legal or regulatory definition exists for “hypoallergenic” products, it is imperative for the formulator to provide products by composition and a carefully designed battery of tests that produces a “lower than typical rate of allergic contact dermatitis” [49]. It is therefore imperative that the product development team be continually updated on published dermatological profiles on all formula raw materials as well as the current status on all testing methods both in vitro and in vivo for all similar products in the desired category. It is wise to continue to review the published experience of even commonly used materials. A common ingredient in most of the leading liquid soaps is the amphoteric cocamidopropyl betaine. Several recent references are listed here that voice different opinions but possibly leave some questions about the complete safety of this ingredient in sensitive skin formulas [50,51]. Much of the original comparison data for irritancy testing of skincleansing products continue to use certain benchmark tests, such as the Frosh and Kligman soap chamber test [52]. However, the articles by Simion and Jackson along with the following represent good overview publications for additional perspectives [53–56].
Pa
VI. Future Category Trends for BodyCleansing Products The most significant growth of the liquid soap category could be in the near future trends of the growth of the body cleansing or shower gel segment if the U.S. consumer will adopt their use. Advertising Age has listed the category growth at $158 million in sales (mid1995) up from just over $50 million in 1994, with And Jergens spending over $50 million in advertising to launch Jergens Body Shampo 1994 [57,58]. Recent articles listed the major entries of Procter & Gamble, Unil and Coty in addition to Dial and Colgate's Softsoap, one of the early U.S. entran [57,49]. As another potential measure of growth, Zimmerman states that in some countries liquid body cleansers account for up to 86% of the liquid soap category [58]. As yet another perspective on the potential usage levels of the products and how may relate to the potential size of the segment, many of the currently marketed products have label directions that state that containers have of the order of 5 ml use, or 5–6 showers per fluid ounce. This would create 40–50 showers per 8 ou container or usage that would be comparable to hair shampoos, a market size tha could become two to three times the current liquid handwash market (Tables 8– and product label directions). The currently marketed products have a total solids level (measured as ovendried nonvolatiles) in the range of 26–50%, nearly twice that of the liquid handwash products [60]. It is believed that this higher active level is needed to develop satisfactory foaming levels in use. In addition, all the newest entries include either sponge or polymer/foam applicator or “pouf” to increase the foaming performanc The major claim positions of the products are summarized in Table 12. Clearly, a these products emphasize skin care claims. With the high level of solids and the hi portion of surfactants to create lather, much of the empha TABLE 8 Key Ingredients and Functionsa Function
Ingredient
Surfactants (cleansing agents)
Cocamidopropyl betaine Sodium cocoyl isethionate Sodium laureth sulfate Ammonium laureth sulfate
Conditioning agents
Dimethicone Guar hydroxypropyltrimonium chloride
a
Category: Body. Product: Caress Moisturizing Body Wash by Lever Bros. Co., Dove Moisurizing Body Wash. Source: From Ref. 74.
P TABLE 9 Key Ingredients and Functionsa Function
Ingredient
Surfactants (cleansing agents)
Sodium magnesium laureth sulfate Sodium lauroamphoacetate
Conditioning agents
Soybean oil PEG6 caprylic/capric glycerides Glycerin Maleated soybean oil Polyquaternium10
a
Category: Body. Product: Oil of Olay Moisturizing Body Wash by Procter & Gamble.
Source: From Ref. 75.
TABLE 10 Key Ingredients and Functionsa Function
Ingredient
Surfactants (cleansing agents)
Conditioning agents
Potassium C9–15 alkyl phosphate (MAP) Sodium laureth sulfate Sodium cocoamphoacetate Polyquaternium 10 Sucrose octaacetate Propylene glycol
a
Category: Body. Product: Jergens Body Shampoo, Andrew Jergens Company.
Source: From Ref. 76.
TABLE 11 Key Ingredients and Functionsa Function
Ingredient
Surfactants (cleansing agents)
Lauramide DEA Sodium laureth sulfate Sodium cocoamphoacetate Sodium myreth sulfate
Conditioning agents
PEG7 glycery cocoate Glycerin Isostearamidopropyl morpholine lactate Linoleamidopropyl PGdimonium chloride Phosphate
Special additives
Triclocarban (active ingredient)
a
Category: Body. Product: Dial Plus Moisturizing Antibacterial Body Wash, Dial Corp.
Source: From Ref. 77.
TABLE 12 Body Cleansing Products: Key Product Claims Product
Key claim
Caress Moisturizing Body Wash
Moisturizes as you shower Leaves skin silky soft, smooth
Dove Moisturizing Body Wash
Adds moisture, leaves skin feeling soft
Oil Of Olay Moisturizing Body Wash
Leaves skin feeling soft and moisturized in one step may not need a body lotion
Jergens Body Shampoo
pH balanced, enables your skin to retain more of its moisture
Dial Plus Moisturizing Body Wash
Incredible softening of skin, trusted antibacterial protection
sis in the formulas is on the mildness of the surfactant blends selected as well as a skinconditioning chemistry. Fox, in a 1995 patent survey article, lists a number o covering the mild surfactant and skinconditioning systems and references the pas on mildtoskin monoalkyl phosphate surfactants, also illustrated in their currently Body Shampoo product (Table 10) [61]. Kao has a number of research activitie cleansing arena, covering various types of blended surfactant systems represente patents, including alkyl saccharide surfactants with cationic polymers [62], alkyls and silicone additives [63], and nonionic saccharide surfactants with enhanced an skin and hair cleansing [64]. Dove and Caress brand moisturizing body wash products use a 1992 patented c a mild surfactant blend in combination with a cationic guar derivative and an insol emulsified silicone (dimethicone) [65]. Dial Corporation currently has the only marketed body wash with an antibacterial and a shower claim position for “antibacterial protection” (Tables 8–12). Clearly, important consumer claim and if regulatory action is quiet in this area, others may to enter this arena. Abamba in a 1993 article may have also projected some addi European concepts that, if this new category is well received in the United States, new innovative products [66]. If one looks at the true market age of the liquid soap market, (a little over 15 yea category with other established categories, such as hair care, at over twice that a wash market, still in its U.S. infancy, one can only envision many exciting years of product activity ahead.
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Acknowledgment The author thanks Mr. Joseph Mabee, Technical Service Manager, Colgate Palmolive Company for his assistance in providing thoughtful and stimulating discussions as well as a creative outline for some of the key tables in this chapter. References 1. E. M. Frank, Cosmet. Toil. 97(7), 49–54 (1982). 2. L. Lundmark, Cosmet. Toil. 107(12), 49–53 (1992). 3. Business Week, 1/12/81. 4. CTFA Labeling Manual, 5th ed., Cosmetic Toiletry and Fragrance Association, Washington, D.C., 1990, pp. 8, 147, 166. 5. Soap and Cosmet. Chem. Spec. 6, 22 (1989). 6. S. J. Ilgenfritz, Wall Street Journal (B8) 8/26/93. 7. C. Canning, HAPPI 30(12), 38–46 (1993). 8. E. Flick, Cosmetic and Toiletry Formulations, 2nd ed., Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1989. 9. Straw, US 4,387,040 to Colgate Palmolive (1983). 10. Stiros, US 4,310,433 to Procter and Gamble (1982). 11. International Cosmetic Ingredient Dictionary, 5th ed. Vol. 1 (J. Wenninger and G. N. McEwen, eds.), CTFA, Washington, D.C., 1993. 12. R. Reever, presented at Am. Oil. Chem. Soc. Spring Meeting, Philadelphia, PA, May 1985. 13. J. Ross and G. D. Miles, Oil Soap, 18, 99 (1941). 14. G. V. Scott et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 20, 135–152 (1969). 15. G. D. Goddard et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 26, 539–550 (1975). 16. B. Gesslein, J. Guth, et al., US 4,978,526 to Inolex Chemical Company (1990). 17. Cosmet. Toil. 108(10), 88 (1993). 18. Commercial package label, Jergens Antibacterial Plus Liquid Soap, 1991, AndrewJergens Company. 19. A. Schleppnik, US 4,187,251 (1980). 20. A. Schleppnik, US 4,310,512 to Bush, Boake and Allen, Inc. (1982). 21. Food and Drug Administration, OTC topical antimicrobial products, Fed. Reg. 39(179), 33103–33141 (1974).
AndrewJergens Company. 19. A. Schleppnik, US 4,187,251 (1980). 20. A. Schleppnik, US 4,310,512 to Bush, Boake and Allen, Inc. (1982). 21. Food and Drug Administration, OTC topical antimicrobial products, Fed. Reg. 39(179), 33103–33141 (1974). 22. Fed. Reg. 43(4), 1243–1244 (1978). 23. Fed. Reg. 59(116), 31402–31452 (1994). 24. FDC Reports—The Rose Sheet 16(14), 1–3 (1995). 25. M. Casewell, and N. Desai, J. Hosp. Infect. 4, 350–360 (1983). 26. S. Selwyn, J. Hosp. Infect. 6(Suppl.), 37–43 (1985). 27. M. Finkey, H. Maibach, et al., J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 35, 351–355 (1984). 28. F. Yackovich and J. Heinze, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 36, 231–236 (1985). 29. Commercial package label, Lever 2000 Antibacterial Liquid Soap, 1992 Lever Bros. Co.
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30. Chemical Week 156(3), 40–44 (1995). 31. U.S. Industrial Outlook 1994, U.S. Dept. CommerceInternational Trade Association, Chap. 33, Cleaning Preparations and Cosmetics, 1994. 32. M. Caswell et al., US 4,695,395 to Lever Brothers Company (1987). 33. D. Rosser et al., US 4,975,218 to Lever Bros. Co. (1990). 34. A. Greene et al., US 5,132,037 to Lever Bros. Co. (1992). 35. A. Greene et al., US 5,234,619 to Lever Bros. Co. (1993). 36. A. Greene et al., US 5,290,471 to Lever Bros. Co. (1994). 37. Commercial package label, Liquid Dove Beauty Wash, 1991, Lever Bros. Co. 38. Commerical package label, Liquid Lever 2000 Antibacterial Soap, 1994, Lever Bros. Co. 39. L. Small et al., US 4,812,253 to Procter and Gamble (1989). 40. R. Metcalf et al., US 4,820,447 to Procter and Gamble (1989). 41. Commercial package label, Softsoap Extra Conditioning Antibacterial Soap, 1992, SoftSoap Enterprises, Inc. 42. Commercial package label, Safeguard Antibacterial Liquid Soap, 1992, Procter and Gamble. 43. Commercial package label, Liquid Dial Plus Moisturizing Antibacterial Soap, 1995, Dial Corp. 44. L. Kintish, Soap Cosmet. Chem. Spec. 68(12), 34–36 (1992). 45. T. Forster, H. Hensen, B. Salka, et al., Cosmet. Toil. 110(4), 23–28 (1995). 46. Commercial package label, Ivory Skin Cleansing LiquiGel, 1994, Procter & Gamble. 47. Commercial package label, Dial Sensitive Skin Antibacterial Liquid Soap, 1995, Dial Corp. 48. F. A. Simion and A. H. Rau, Cosmet. Toil. 109(2), 43–50 (1994). 49. E. M. Jackson, T. J. Stephens, and L. A. Rhein, Cosmet. Toil. 109(7), 83–85 (1994). 50. P. D. Pagetto et al., Am. J. Contact Derm. 5(1), 13–16 (1995). 51. J. E. Hunter and K. L. Hintze, presented at 51st Scientific Conference CTFA, San Francisco, CA, October 1994. 52. P. J. Kauffman and M. J. Rappaport, in Cosmetic Safety (J. Whittam, ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1987, pp. 179–204.
50. P. D. Pagetto et al., Am. J. Contact Derm. 5(1), 13–16 (1995). 51. J. E. Hunter and K. L. Hintze, presented at 51st Scientific Conference CTFA, San Francisco, CA, October 1994. 52. P. J. Kauffman and M. J. Rappaport, in Cosmetic Safety (J. Whittam, ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York, 1987, pp. 179–204. 53. B. H. Keswick, K. D. Ertel, and M. O. Visscher, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 43(4), 187–193 (1992). 54. J. L. Lichtin and K. L. Gabriel, J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 43(6), 313–330 (1992). 55. M. Paye et al., Skin Res. Technol. 1(1), 30–35 (1995). 56. M. Reiger, Cosmet. Toil. 110(4), 31–50 (1995). 57. P. Sloan, Advertising Age 65(6), 48 (1994). 58. T. Zimmerman, Advertising Age (special supplement S6), June 26, 1995. 59. T. Branna, HAPPI 32(6), 91–92 (1995). 60. Private communication testing laboratory data, Minnetonka Research Institute, Inc., 1995. 61. C. Fox, Cosmet. Toil. 110(4), 59–73 (1995). 62. J. Kamegai et al., US 5,057,311 to Kao Corp (1991).
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63. H. Takamura, J. Kamegai, and H. Hirota, US 5,035,832 to Kao Corp. (1991). 64. J. Kamegai et al., US 5,234,618 to Kao Corp. (1993). 65. E. Reid and A. Murray, US 5,085,857 to ChesebroughPond USA Co. (1992). 66. G. Abamba, Cosmet. Toil. 108(11), 83–89 (1993). 67. Commercial package label, Softsoap Original Aloe, 1995, Colgate Palmolive Co. 68. Commercial package label, Softsoap Sensitive Skin, 1992, Colgate Palmolive Co. 69. Commercial package label, Softsoap Regular Antibacterial Liquid, 1995, ColgatePalmolive Co. 70. Commercial package label, Dial Regular Antibacterial Liquid, 1995, Dial Corp. 71. Commercial package label, Jergens Lotion Enriched, 1991, Andrew Jergens Co. 72. Commercial package label, Ivory Regular Liquid, 1993, Procter & Gamble. 73. Commercial package label, Safeguard Regular Antibacterial Liquid Soap, 1991, Procter & Gamble. 74. Commercial package label, Caress and Dove brands Moisturizing Body Wash, 1994, Lever Bros. Co. 75. Commercial package label, Oil of Olay Moisturizing Body Wash, 1994, Procter & Gamble. 76. Commercial package label, Jergens Refreshing Body Shampoo, 1995, Andrew Jergens Co. 77. Commercial package label, Dial Plus Moisturizing Antibacterial Body Wash, 1995, Dial Corp.
12 Fabric Softeners ALAIN JACQUES Fabric Care, ColgatePalmolive Research and Development, Inc., Milmort, Belgi CHARLES J. SCHRAMM, JR. Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, P New Jersey I. Introduction II. Commercial Applications A. Business aspects B. Product types III. Mechanism of Softening A. Softness B. Substantivity IV. Softening Compounds A. Organics B. Inorganics V. Aspects of Formulation and Industrial Manufacture A. Chemical factors B. Mechanical factors C. Case study VI. Environmental and Regulatory Aspects VII. Future Trends References
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I. Introduction Fabric softeners for domestic use are primarily designed to give a pleasant feel to garments, to impart freshness or another pleasant smell, and to control the static electricity that impairs the comfort of handling and wearing clothes when ambient humidity is low. The need for fabric softeners was prompted by the move from soaps to synthetic detergents and by the utilization of automatic washing machines. In the predetergent age, clothes were washed only with soap. The fibers were then covered with a thin film of insoluble calcium and magnesium soap formed from the water hardness. This film gave enough lubrication of the fibers to maintain an acceptable feel. The introduction of automatic washing machines together with more powerful synthetic detergents has changed the washing conditions for users and also for the clothes. The original feel and handle of fabrics is altered by the following: Higher mechanical friction in the washing machine High washing temperatures The ability of the detergents to remove original textile finishes, not only greasy stains The mineral incrustations formed from water hardness or from inorganic salts present in detergents The industry realized very quickly that cationic fatty materials can maintain or restore the original feel of fabrics. As a result, it was not long before domestic products appeared on the market [1–6]. Fabric softeners were introduced first on the U.S. market around 1955 and about 10 years later in Europe. This type of product is also widespread in Japan and is still expanding and growing worldwide. The data of worldwide rinse cycle fabric softeners growth shown in Table 1 exemplify the important growth of this category. They are an estimate based on United Nations published information. TABLE 1 Fabric Softener Worldwide Volume Growth Year
Worldwide volume (ton)
1966
160,000
1985
2,060,000
1991
3,700,000
Source: United Nations published data.
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II. Commercial Applications A. Business Aspects 1. Textile Market Treatment of fabrics and fibers with softeners and lubricants was standard practice in textile processing before becoming a part of the home laundering regimen. Softening imparts lubricity and flexibility, which minimizes damage during the processing of fabrics and fibers. Softening also provides a pleasant feel to enhance consumer acceptance of an item at the point of purchase. Some softener materials, cationic softeners, utilized in textile processing have also found application in the home. Application methods and desired end benefits of textile processing allow for the use of a much wider range of softener actives. In textile processing, concentrated softener suspensions or solutions can be sprayed or padded directly onto the cloth. Fabric treated in this manner eliminates the need for materials that exhibit high rates of exhaustion and substantivity. Thus, such anionics as soaps and fatty alcohol sulfates and nonionics, such as waxes, ethoxylated fatty alcohols, and ethoxylated fatty acids, are effective textile softeners. Although these materials have limited durability to home laundering, they are quite satisfactory for textile processing. 2. Home Market For fabrics of high synthetic fiber content, the buildup of static cling is a problem in areas of low humidity or where automatic clothes dryers are frequently used. Cationic softener materials with a wide range of structures have been used to meet the needs of the home market. Cationic softeners exhibit a high degree of fabric substantivity and high exhaustion rates from dilute solution. Effective softener materials have the general structure of one or two long hydrocarbon chains attached to a cationic hydrophilic group. Two longchain hydrocarbon groups each with 16–18 carbon atoms are preferred. Acceptable levels of softening may be achieved when deposition reaches 0.1– 0.2% by weight of fabric [5]. The most effective softener materials are virtually deposited quantitatively from the rinse solution. Thus, softening is quite economical, requiring roughly 3–6 g active softener per rinse. Consumer perception of fragrance is important. In the bottle, fragrance must be pleasant and not overwhelming. Fragrance must be sufficiently substantive to be perceived on wet and dry fabric. A pleasant fragrance to some extent makes up for reduced levels of fabric softening. Fragrance in the rinse is important where automatic dosing machines are not prevalent (such as the United States) because consumer perception of a pleasant fragrance is the first indication that the product is efficacious.
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3. Industrial and Institutional Market The industrial and institutional market utilizes many of the same materials used in the home market. Lowcost actives are more frequently utilized. Less emphasis is also placed in product esthetics, such as fragrance, color, and packaging. Softening efficacy, static reduction, and ease of handling are looked on as the primary benefits. B. Product Types The primary consumer benefits of fabric softeners are obviously softness and freshness. Table 2 lists some of the additional positive benefits delivered by fabric softeners. Static control is important to consumers utilizing electrical dryers or living in areas with a dry climate. Other benefits, such as ease of ironing and wrinkle reduction, are of less significance to consumers. Some misuse conditions can cause drawbacks. Fabric staining can result if the softener is placed directly onto a garment. Greasy feel may occur if they are strongly overdosed. Continued use of certain types of softener formulations may cause reduced water absorption and/or yellowing. Fabric softeners are available to consumers in many forms. 1. Rinse Cycle Liquid fabric softeners are typically added to the rinse water at the last rinse cycle after the main wash. This product form is the form most used by consumers. These products are offered to consumers in a wide range of concentration from regular strength to up to 10 times concentrated. Some products are intended for direct use; others (such as a 10 times concentrated product) require predilution before use. In the early 1980s, the concentrates were introduced primarily for cost and convenience reasons. Subsequently, they have been sold in socalled ecopacks to help to reduce packaging waste. This trend has occurred TABLE 2 Fabric Softener Effects on Fabrics Positive effects
Side effects
Softness, fluffiness
Occasional fabric staining
Fragrance
Reduced water absorption
Static control
Yellowing
Ease of ironing
Greasy feel
Fiber protection
Bacteriostat
Reduced drying time
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in both Europe and the United States. Rinse cycle softener products constitute the fabric softener form that delivers the greatest level of perceived softening efficacy. 2. Dryer Cycle Dryer sheets are added to the tumble dryer along with the damp laundry before drying. Where electrical dryers use is very high, such as the United States, dryer sheets are a very important segment. Dryer sheets are convenient and deliver effective antistatic properties with a low level of active ingredient. 3. Wash Cycle Wash cycle softeners are added to the main wash along with the detergent. These products are a compromise between convenience and efficacy. Products that would not be prohibitively expensive generally deliver a lower level of softening than rinse softeners or antistatic properties than dryer softeners. The products may be either a wash cycle additive fabric softener (WCFS) or softergent (detergent softener combination). Commercial WCFS products intended for use with the consumer's choice of detergent were not widespread. In the United States, a product called Rain Barrel by S. C. Johnson & Son, Inc. was marketed during the mid1980s as a WCFS. This product contained a low level of distearyldimethylammonium chloride softener. Interaction of softener with surfactants in detergent systems would be expected to have limited the efficacy of this type of WCFS. As indicated by Puchta et al. [7], a product for effective delivery of softening and antistatic benefits with a broad range of detergent systems would require a high use level of softener. The high cost associated with delivering perceptible consumer benefits may be the reason for the limited availability of this product form. Detergent systems incorporating a fabric softener material were quite popular in the United States between roughly 1981 and 1989. The combination product allowed controlled balancing of softening and detergency. These products delivered consumerperceptible softening and antistatic benefits while maintaining acceptable detergency. In the 1990s, the softergent product form has become a significantly lesser part of the U.S. market. This trend was the result of the industry increasing the softening efficacy of rinseadded softeners and increasing the detergency of detergent products. Softergents progressively became a less acceptable compromise between softening and detergency. Fabric softeners are probably the most cosmetic of the laundry products. This is why the right choice of color, fragrance, and even texture to fit the product concept is very important. In recent years, fabric softeners have become extraordinarily diversified in terms of colors and perfumes.
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III. Mechanism of Softening A. Softness There are many causes for the hardening of fabrics, as discussed earlier. Softeners counteract this harshening in several ways. One way to counteract the alteration of fabrics by the washing process is to coat the fibers with a protective film of a fatty material acting as a lubricant. Figure 1 shows the state of the fibers of a cotton bath towel after 12 cumulative wash cycles with and without using a fabric softener. The fabric treated with fabric softener shows fibers with a smooth surface and little surface residue. Fibers from fabric without softener treatment show significant surface residue that appears to connect adjacent fibers. The less damaged state of the fibers of the sample treated with fabric softeners leads to a more pleasant feel of the fabric. The use of a fatty lubricant material that reduces surface friction explains the ease of fabric ironing. Reduction of interfiber friction reduces some of the tendency for static electricity generation from the rubbing together of dissimilar materials when fabrics are tumbled in an automatic dryer. Another role of this fatty material is as a vehicle to carry perfume to the clothes.
FIG. 1 These electron micrographs show how the protective film left by fabric softeners prevented residue build up on fibers (a) with fabric softener and (b) without fabric softener.
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In hard water areas, the same type of lime scale buildup results on fibers as occurs on the heating element of European washing machines. To counteract this, it has been the usual practice of some consumers to add vinegar to the rinse water. In fact, the use of organic acids has received very little attention from the formulators of fabric softeners. Fabric softener use alone can to some extent counter the negative feel caused by lime scale buildup. Another approach to improve the feel of fabrics is to increase the flexibility of the fibers [1]. The simplest material that plasticizes the fibers is water. This is the basis for incorporating waterbinding materials, such as polyglycols, in softening compositions. To be effective, these components must be sufficiently small molecules to penetrate the fibers. In practice, the use of such materials has been of less importance than the use of organic fatty materials, which constitute the bulk of fabric softeners and which bind more readily to fabrics. As a result, the primary mechanism through which fabric softeners act is fiber lubrication. As far as dryeradded fabric softener is concerned, the transfer of the lubricating materials from the softener sheet onto the clothes results from the combination of temperature, humidity, and friction occurring in the dryer. B. Substantivity Several factors alter the deposition of rinseadded softeners onto the fabrics. Details are available from several papers by Bücking et al. [8], Hughes and Koch [9], Okumura et al. [10], Smith et al. [11], Hughes et al. [12,13], and Linfield et al. [14]. There is an agreement on the very high exhaustion rate of the rinse liquor and on the important uniform deposition of the softener on the fabrics. For instance, Linfield et al. [14] showed that softener exhaustion increases with pH increasing from 5 to 8 and with temperature increasing from 21 to 32°C. Higher levels of water hardness seems to improve the deposition. The presence of ethoxylated fatty alcohols [6,15] and of an excess of anionic surfactants [10,11] impairs deposition. Also, Okumura et al. [10] showed that reducing the particle size of the dispersion improves the deposition of the softener. Laughlin [16] analyzed the existing results to clarify the mechanism of the cationic softener deposition. He suggests an ionexchange reaction between the carboxylate groups of cotton (and the associated counterions) and the cationic salts coupled with physical adsorption. This is in agreement with the nonstoichiometric deposition of cationic softener versus the number of carboxylic groups [17] and deposition on more neutral fibers [7]. Recently, Crutzen has described a mechanism in which the driving force of deposition of ditallowdimethylammonium chloride onto cellulose is purely hydrophobic [18]. The hydrophobicity of the softener forces the softener out of
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the rinse water and causes it to deposit onto available surfaces. The softener binds to the fabric by weak London dispersion forces. The high level of deposition of softener onto cellulose relative to other fabric types results from the large specific surface area of cellulose. IV. Softening Compounds Softening materials used by the detergent industry fall into three classes: organics; inorganics; and silicones. Organic fabric softeners are the most frequently utilized form and are found in wash, rinse, and dryer products. Montmorillonite clays are the principle type of inorganic softener and are used in washcycle detergent products. Silicone softeners are used in small quantities and generally as a minor component in combination with organic softeners. A. Organics The preferred materials used in domestic fabric softeners are predominantly fatty quaternary ammonium cationic salts. A very large number of materials have been patented [19], but only a few of these have been of practical importance. Early fabric softener formulas were based on simple aqueous dispersions of di hard tallow dimethylammonium chloride (DHTDMAC), shown in Fig. 2, or of imidazolinium methosulfate (DHTIMS), shown in Fig. 3, at a level of around 5%. Hughes and Koch [1] have studied DHTDMAC deposition based on colorimetric and radiometric techniques, finding that better than 90% deposition onto cotton occurred over a wide range of pH and temperature. Early use of the DHTDMAC, DHTIMS, and other softener actives in textile manufacturing, for the control of friction during processing and improvement of final fabric feel, is discussed by Evans [2]. Foley [3] broadly reviewed early developments in fabric softener technology indicating that DHTDMAC and DHTIMS represented 95% of the cationic softeners in use and that these softeners are effective at a level of 0.1–0.2% by weight of the fabric treated. Fuller and Ackerman [4a]
FIG. 2 Dihydrogenated tallow dimethylammonium chloride.
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FIG. 3 Ditallow imidazolinium.
and Ackerman [4b] discussed factors for choosing which softener type was the appropriate choice under the different use conditions of wash, rinse, and dry. Milwidsky [5] reviewed recommendations for processing DHTDMAC and DHTIMS dispersions and the importance of controlling dispersion pH. He also discussed product esthetics, such as perfume, color, and the potential need to include fluorescent whitening agents. Egan [6] and Billenstein and Blaschke [20] report on synthetic procedures for the manufacture of DHTDMAC, DHTIMS, and other aminebased fabricsoftening materials. Puchta [19] has discussed the use of DHTDMAC and DHTIMS in dryer products, rinse cycle products, wash cycle products, and softenerdetergent combined products. His discussion demonstrates the wide application of these two softener actives. Laughlin also discusses DHTDMAC and DHTIMS at length in his review of fabric softeners [16]. He indicates that the importance of these two materials is based on the existence of straightforward manufacturing techniques for their preparation, as well as their softening effectiveness. The 1970s saw the commercial development of improved softening systems still based on the same quaternaries but used in synergistic combinations with other fatty materials. There are two groups of synergistic combinations, the cationicanionic systems and the cationicnonionic systems. Typical examples of the first group are the systems based on DHTDMAC and on fatty alcohols, ether sulfates, or alkyl sulfonates [21]. The second group is illustrated by compositions based on combinations of DHTDMAC with various cosofteners: glyceryl monostearate [22]; stearic acid [23,24]; tallow alcohol [25]; and lanolin derivatives [26]. In all these compositions, the weight ratio of DHTDMAC to the cosoftener was always higher than 1. Some compositions with lower levels of DHTDMAC, or even free of it have been commercialized. U.S. Patent 4,806,255 [27] describes mixtures of cyclic amines with a lower content of DHTDMAC. Patents U.S. 4,933,096 [28] and
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FIG. 4 Structure of one type of esterquat.
4,844,823 [29] refer respectively to ester cyclic amines and to mixtures of socalled esterquat with various cosofteners. These cationic materials with ester bonds allow the softener molecule to biodegrade more quickly than other cationic softeners. Figure 4 shows one form of esterquat and Fig. 5 the structure of ditallow ester imidazoline. B. Inorganics 1. Clays Clay fabric softening agents have been utilized principally in detergent fabric softener combination products. These softergent products combine a standard heavyduty built anionic detergent system with clay softeners. Commercial products include the heavyduty powders, such as Australian Fab [30] and U.S. Bold [31]. Clays of the smectite type are utilized in fabricsoftening systems. Sodium and calcium montmorillonite clays are the most frequently utilized smectite clays. Patents [32,33] have also included such forms of clay as hectorites and saponites and have claimed additional antistatic benefits for these clays. Mont
FIG. 5 Structure of ditallow ester imidazoline.
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morillonite clays are unique in their structure compared with typical soil clays. Montmorillonite clays, particularly the sodium forms, are highly dispersible to extremely small platelike particles with sizes in the range of a few hundredths of a micrometer to several micrometers. Each platelike particle is composed of several clay unit layers like a deck of cards. The clay particles have been shown by electrokinetic studies [34,35] to have a net negative surface potential. As a result, potential interaction between anionic surfactant and clay softener would be minimal, making the clay ideally suited for inclusion into anionicbased detergent systems. Extensive fundamental studies are available [36–38] involving sodium montmorillonite deposition onto and removal from cellulose. These studies demonstrated that low levels of sodium montmorillonite clay (0.04% by weight) were rapidly and irreversibly deposited onto cellulose at extremely low clay concentrations. Typical claycontaining softergents utilize high levels of clay softener, up to or exceeding 20% of the product. That high levels of clay are generally employed suggests that fabric softening by clay requires high levels of deposition (all the clay is depositing) or that deposition of clay is concentration dependent (only a fraction of clay employed deposits). High clay use levels are possible because the cost of most montmorillonites utilized as softeners are generally of the order of the sodium sulfate filler. Nonionic surfactants must be avoided in the formulation of effective clay softergents. Fundamental studies by Schott [39] indicated that ethoxylated alcohol surfactants were the most effective in removal of montmorillonite clays from cellulose. Even more critical was the observation by Schott [39] that the presence of the nonionic surfactants prevented the deposition of sodium montmorillonite onto cellulose. Lowcost clays utilized as softeners are colored by impurities, generally light brown or gray. This has not been reported to contribute to discoloration of the fabrics upon which they deposit. Colored, powdered clay intimately mixed with other detergent components before or after spray drying discolors the detergent powder, leading to an unesthetic product. For this reason, users of clay softeners have developed methods for agglomeration of clay powder into detergentsized aggregates. The agglomerates are added later to the detergent powder. They do not harm product esthetics, appearing as a few dark speckles in a mostly white powder. Softergents containing clay as the sole softening agent deliver lower softening levels than the combination detergent plus separate rinse cycle softeners. A limitation with clays is that they do not deliver antistatic benefits, particularly necessary in areas of high dryer use, such as the United States. The patent literature [40–46] contains numerous examples that address these deficiencies. These softergents combine separate clay softener and organic softening agents. This presents the added complication of potential interaction between organic softener and both clay softener and anionic detergent compo
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nents. One combination softergent minimizes the potential interaction between organic softener and other components by utilizing a neutral amine softener [44–46]. Another approach has been the preparation of a selfcontained cationic softener agglomerate [40–43]. The agglomerate contained agents that inhibit dispersal in the wash water. This prevents interaction of cationic softener with clay and detergent components both in the wash and in the product itself. Clay softeners are effective softening agents ideally suited for use in those areas of the world where antistatic benefits are of low importance and low cost of the active softener is critical. In the wash cycle, clay softenerorganic softener combinations are unique in their ability to approach the softening efficacy of the combination detergent plus separate rinse cycle softener. 2. Silicones Silicone softeners include both polydimethylsiloxane polymers as well as a wide range of organomodified polydimethylsiloxanes. The silicones were first utilized by the textile industry primarily as lubricants in fiber and fabric manufacture [47]. Silicone softeners are also applied with permanent press finishes to improve garment wear life and permanent press finish durability [48,49]. Organomodified polydimethylsiloxanes, particularly epoxy modified, were found to offer a significant improvement over conventional unreactive silicones [49,50]. The improvement was in terms of both a greater degree of softening and good durability of polymer to laundering. Aminofunctional polydimethylsiloxanes softeners were found to have the same advantages as reactive silicones [51,52]. Two additional benefits were found with aminofunctional silicone softeners. Knit fabrics became more elastic, with better stretch recovery. The softener also additionally delivered antistatic benefits and wrinkling resistance [53]. These two benefits and the fact that the amino functional silicone are readily adsorbed from dilute solution onto cotton fabrics in conjunction with traditional cationic organic softeners led to their use in rinse cycle softeners in the middle to late 1980s [54,55]. Although their use level was never high (0.1–1.0% by weight) as a result of their high cost, amine silicones did bring a consumerperceptible new dimension to rinse cycle fabric softeners. Changing market forces have resulted in the removal of silicone softeners from most consumer fabric softener products. V. Aspects of Formulation and Industrial Manufacture An important aspect of the formulation of liquid rinse cycle softener is control of the viscosity. It is desirable to deliver a product that displays some consistency. For the consumer this makes the dosage operation easier and acts as a signal of efficacy. It is equally desirable to stabilize the viscosity at a reason
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able level to avoid clogging troubles in the dispensers of the automatic washing machines. The complexity of this problem increases as the concentration of the softener increases. This section discusses the critical parameters governing the viscosity of concentrated liquid softeners and the involved structural changes in the product when a viscosity increase occurs. The major drawback to the preparation of concentrated aqueous dispersions of DHTDMAC is the sharp viscosity increase with concentration as reported by Hein [56] and shown in Fig. 6. Before discussing the formulation aspect, it is worth describing the structure of the DHTDMAC in aqueous dispersions. The dispersion phase of DHTDMAC consists of hydrated particles with a structure similar to that of multilayered liposomes, which are called vesicles. The DHTDMAC molecules form concentric bimolecular lamellar layers with entrapped water. According to Okumura et al. [10], the DHTDMAC vesicles range in size from below 1–10 m. The bimolecular layer has a width of 50 Å, and the intralamellar spacing is 100–400 Å. Okumura et al. [10] calculated that the water of hydration is around 7 mol H2O/mol DHTDMAC. Such results can vary with the conditions of the preparation of the dispersion. Controlling the viscosity of aqueous dispersions of DHTDMAC is possible by applying the principles of emulsification from the chemical and mechanical standpoints. The DHTDMAC aqueous dispersion is contemplated as an oilin water emulsion.
FIG. 6 Viscosity of an aqueous dispersion of DTDMAC according to Hein [56].
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A. Chemical Factors It is widely known that emulsifiers form an interfacial film around the droplets of the dispersed phase and protect the droplets against coalescence, provided the emulsifers are well located at the interface. The selection of the right emulsifier can be made according to the HLB system. ICI has published a list of applications and some suggested emulsifier blends and their HLB values [57]. Table 3 and Fig. 7 demonstrate the influence of the emulsifier HLB on the stability of DHTDMAC dispersion. Table 3 shows the dependence of the emulsifier viscosity on the HLB value of the emulsifier. In this specific case, two emulsifiers were used (SPAN and Tween). The required HLB value is around 16. Figure 7 shows the effect of the emulsifier concentration on the emulsion stability when using an optimized surfactant. In this specific case, nonylphenol ethoxylated 10:1 was used. Two concentrations of emulsifier lead to stable dispersions. The highest is preferred because it allows a higher formula flexibility. Another approach to producing stable dispersions of DHTDMAC vesicles is to take advantage of the vesicle structure itself. James and Ogden [58] suggested that the DHTDMAC bilayers of the vesicles work as a semipermeable membrane and that osmotic transfers are possible when electrolytes are used. Addition of electrolytes in the continuous phase (water) causes an osmotic transfer of water from inside the vesicles to the continuous phase. The net result is a reduction of the vesicle size, that is, the dispersed phase volume, and an increase in the continuous phase volume. This osmotic effect tends to “dilute” the dispersion, which decreases the viscosity and stabilizes the dispersion to separation. According to the DLVO theory [59], the use of electrolytes can decrease the emulsion stability by decreasing particle surface charge and thus reducing interparticle repulsion. Because of the two adversary effects of electrolytes, the TABLE 3 Determination of the Required HLB
Emulsifier mixture 3% by weight
Calculated HLB
SPAN 80 (%)
Tween 20 (%)
Viscosity after 24 h (cP)
14
22
78
Gel
15
14
86
670
16
6
94
230
17
100
280
18
4
96
Gel
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FIG. 7 Determination of the optimum emulsifier content. Viscosity of the fabric softener versus the content of emulsifier.
Curve of DHTDMAC dispersion stability versus electrolyte content exhibits a maximum of stability at finite electrolyte levels. Additional slight stability improvements can also be obtained by limiting the solvent content in the raw materials and by using hydrophilic polymers, such as polyethylene glycols (steric hindrance), to prevent coalescence. B. Mechanical Factors In addition to the osmotic phenomenon, particle size also drastically affects the stability and the rheological behavior of the emulsions. For concentrated fabric softeners, the influence is so strong that, with exactly the same composition, either thin liquids or nonpourable gels can be obtained by changing the particle size distribution. Mixing conditions are a key factor in setting the particle size of the product. The mixing conditions can be carefully optimized when defining the manufacturing procedure by scaleup experimentation. The mechanical energy imparted to the dispersion by the propeller can be split into shear and flow. The shear magnitude is related to the impeller head given by the equation H = K1N2D2 where H is the head developed by the impeller, K1 is a proportionality constant that varies with the shape of the impeller and of the mixing vessel, N is the
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speed of rotation, and D is the diameter of the impeller. The flow rate is defined by the equation Q = K1ND3 where Q is the flow rate, K1 is a constant determined by the shape of the impeller and of the mixing vessel, N is the rotation speed of the agitator, and D is the diameter of the impeller. The reader interested in more details about the mixing principles and their application to emulsification and to scaleup experimentation should refer to the books dedicated to this subject [60,61]. C. Case Study The magnitude of the flow and of the shear alters the particle size of the emulsion and consequently phase stability and rheological behavior. Table 4 lists the composition of a concentrated DHTDMAC emulsion stabilized with an emulsifier and with CaCl2 electrolyte. This formulation is used to illustrate the influence of mixing parameters on product stability. All experiments were performed in 200 kg size batch, using different types of impellers with different flow and impeller head values. The resulting particle size distributions were recorded with Coulter N4 (photon correlation spectroscopy) and particle concentration with a Coulter Counter. Rheology measurements were made by Rheomat 30, Rheometrics System 4 (oscillatory response), and Brookfield RVT. This emulsion, when prepared with the correct process parameters, exhibits excellent stability over aging (initial viscosity = 80 ± 20 cP; less than 200 cP after 6 week aging in the range of 4–43°C). The typical particle size distribution is bimodal, the first peak is around 0.2–0.3 m; the second is at TABLE 4 Fabric Softener Formulation Used for Case Study Material
% wt/wt
DHTDMAC
13.2
Tallow amine 15:1 EO
1.91
Stearic acid
0.59
Perfume
0.30 0.7–0.9
Calcium chloride (2H2O) Dyes
0.005 (0.25% of a 2% stock)
Preservative
0.05
Water Source: Ref. 54.
Balance
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1.0–2.0 m. The particle size distribution, as shown graphically in Fig. 8, is described by the mean diameter resulting in both populations and by the percentage of population of the small particles (around the first mode), both populations together being 100%. Under some conditions, this emulsion can exhibit two typical instability forms, thickening or clearing over aging. Of course, these product alterations are a result of a structural change. 1. Thickening The thickening phenomenon was observed for the samples prepared with highshear mixing devices. It is demonstrated here that the smaller particles induce flocculation of the emulsion. Therefore, the interaction between closely packed particles leads to higher viscosity of the emulsion. (The average distance between particles was estimated at 60% of the average particle diameter.) This was calculated according to the equation
where A m = average distance between particles; Dm = average diameter of particles; max = maximum ratio of phase volume = 0.74 for spheres; and = actual ratio of phase volume = 0.184 (assuming no water inside the vesicles).
FIG. 8 Typical DTDMAC aqueous dispersion particle size distribution containing two subpopulations.
Page 4 TABLE 5 Particle Size Distribution Versus Impeller Head Impeller head (M)
Average diameter ''Small particle'' (%) ( m)
0.11
1.24
31
0.21
0.80
36
0.36
0.77
48
0.77
0.73
50
1.18
0.69
51
1.82
0.68
65
3.24
0.48
58
5.05
0.30
67
As indicated in Table 5, the particle size is decreased with the increasing shear of the mixing device measured by the impeller head. The decrease in particle size does not significantly change the viscosity of the fres emulsions, as shown in Table 6, but allows the particles to draw nearer each othe and to interact upon aging. Table 7 reports the viscosity changes after accelerate aging (16 cycles from 0 to 50°C, 1°C/minute) versus initial particle size. More than a simple viscosity measurement is needed to describe the rheological changes in the samples. Measurements of shear stress versus shear rate (Rheoma 30) were made and the results are reported according to the power (OstwaldD Waele model) and Casson laws. TABLE 6 Viscosity of Liquid Softener After Making Versus Particle Size Distribution Average diameter ( m)
“Small particle” (%)
Viscosity (cP)
1.24
31
56
1.13
38
58
1.10
33
68
0.80
36
68
0.77
48
66
0.73
50
76
0.69
51
70
0.68
65
84
0.48
58
86
0.30
68
236
Page 451 TABLE 7 Dependence of Emulsion Stability of Viscosity on Initial Particle Size Distribution Averaged diameter ( m)
"Small" particles (%)
Viscosity after 16 cycles (cP)
1.24
31
216
1.13
38
156
1.10
33
308
0.80
36
708
0.77
48
860
0.73
50
490
0.69
51
558
0.68
65
Above 800
0.48
58
Above 800
0.30
68
Above 800
2. Power Law The measurements of shear stress versus shear rate, plotted on logarithmic scales, are represented by a linear expression over a limited range of shear rate (7–158 s1). The equation that represents this behavior is called the power law or the OstwaldDe Waele model: = m
n
where = shear stress; = shear rate; m = consistency; and n = flow index. For pseudoplastic (shear thinning) materials, n is less than 1. Obviously, for n = 1, the model reduces to the Newtonian. If the shear rate = 1 s1, then the consistency magnitude will represent the value of the apparent viscosity. Table 8 gives the values of the consistency and of the flow index after aging for different samples produced with various particle sizes. The results show TABLE 8 Power Law: Consistency and Flow Index Versus Particle Sizea M (poise)
N Flow index
1.24
0.32
0.73
0.89
0.60
0.68
0.69
0.90
0.58
0.48
2.20
0.46
0.30
3.30
0.41
Mean diameter ( m)
a
Shear rate 7158 s1.
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that the flow index n of aged samples decreases and that the consistency increases as the particle size decreases. The samples depart from Newtonian behavior upon aging, as the particle size decreases. This means that particles more strongly interact upon aging. This stronger interaction is responsible for the “thicker” aspect of the emulsion. 3. Casson Law Many materials which exhibit an apparent yield stress and which do not exhibit a linear shearstress rate relationship can be described by the Casson model. The representation of this flow behavior is 1/2
=
1/2c + c
for >
c
and = 0 for <
c
where c = yield stress and c = slope. The basis of the theory lies in a consideration of the rate of energy dissipation in a dispersion of relatively long chain aggregates. Under very high shear rate (“infinite”), one can assume that the bonds between particles are broken and that the aggregates are destroyed. Table 9 shows the dependence of the two main parameters of the Casson law; the yield stress and the viscosity under infinite shear rate, on the impeller head or the related particle size. The results showed that the higher the impeller head (or consequently the lower the particle size), the higher was the yield stress (or the stronger the interactions between particles). On the other hand, the change in the viscosity under infinite shear rate is very small and of the same order of magnitude as before aging. The high shear rate appears to break the bonds between the particles, and then the viscosity is only slightly reduced depending on the particle size. Overall, the rheological study indicates that when small particles are generated by a high shear mixing, they interact strongly to form a network floc that can be separated under high shear. TABLE 9 Casson Law: Yield Stress and Viscosity Under Infinite Shear Rate Versus Impeller Head (Aged Samples) Yield stress (Pa)
Viscosity under infinite shear rate (cP)
0.11
0.2
76
0.42
0.7
64
1.18
0.5
89
3.24
2.0
94
5.05
3.7
84
Impeller head (m)
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The following experiments confirmed the flocculation phenomenon. Different samples of concentrate were diluted to different concentrations ranging from 104 to 108 g oily phase (active ingredients)/100 g water. Effective mixing was used to deflocculate the samples. Suspensions were then allowed to flocculate under controlled conditions of time and temperature (15 minutes, 25°C). It was expected to find a lower degree of flocculation for the samples with higher dilution because the flocculation rate is proportional to the concentration of particles. When the flocculation rate is rapid, the number of particles should be greatest for the most diluted samples after the 15 minutes flocculation time. The flocculation phenomenon was monitored with a Coulter Counter. The Coulter Counter measures the number and size of particles in a set volume. In this study, the number of particles in 50 l was counted for each sample. Table 10 shows the number of particles counted in the different samples after 15 minutes flocculation at 25°C. Also shown is the relative particle count and the relative particle count corrected for concentration in reference to the most concentrated sample. As expected, the results showed that the most diluted sample has the lowest degree of flocculation. The flocculation phenomenon also allows us to explain another observation made during particle size measurement with the Coulter Counter. The concentration index recorded by the Coulter was increasing over the measurement time from around 5 to 10%. The concentration index is proportional to the weight percentage of solids in the sample volume measured. The concentration index is based on only those particles observed by the instrument. The increasing concentration index can be explained by the flocculation occurring during the time of the experiment. The 20 m tube aperture of the Coulter can detect particles with diameter ranging from 0.4 to 10 m. The typical particle size distribution of the concentrate is bimodal, with the lower distribution at around 0.2–0.3 m. These particles are not detected by the Coulter Counter at the beginning of the experiment, when the dispersion is deflocculated, because of the mixing used for the dilution of the sample required by the Coulter procedure. During measurement, the diluted sample is subjected to flocculation, leading to aggregates of larger size (the small particles flocculate first because TABLE 10 Flocculation: Particle Concentration Versus Dilution Concentration (g organic phase/ 100 g water)
Ratio of relative number of Number of particles Relative number of particles to dilution in 50 l particles factor
104
203,452
1
1
105
24,859
0.122
1.22
106
5,836
0.029
2.9
107
1,817
0.009
9
108
2,441
0.012
120
Page
of their more rapid Brownian motion), which can be detected by the Coulter Counter. The flocculation and formation of additional large particles result in an increase in the concentration index. 4. Phase Separation Another form of instability of concentrated softeners is a form of phase separatio we call clearing. In a product that shows clearing, two layers appear on aging, th bottom layer being more translucent and clearer than the top. The viscosity of ea layer remains quite stable and low. This phenomenon is reversible and disappears soon as the sample is gently moved. This instability is caused by the presence of a bimodal population. The small particles (submicrometer) remain evenly distributed; the larger particles move up, forming the top layer because of the difference in density between the dispersed the continuous phases. If the interactions between the particles are weak, the viscosity remains low and clearing occurs according to Stoke's law. Table 11 shows the typical average particle size of the two particle populations separately observed in the two layers of a sample exhibiting a noticeable clearing. The cationic matter concentration of each individual phase is also shown. VI. Environmental and Regulatory Aspects For more than 30 years, the most common softening material around the world h been the socalled ditallow dimethylammonium chloride. It has been extensively used, for example, in 1980, the annual consumption of this material was 27,000 t in Germany. Despite this high consumption for a long period of time, there has be no clear evidence of any negative impact on the environment (1981 Aachen Symposium, Cationic Surfactants and Environment). In 1991, the major manufacturers have been led to replace this conventional DHTDMAC by other materials exhibiting an improved environmental acceptability on the basis of standard testing procedures. The EEC Commission has published the criteria for classifying (risk phrase labeli dangerous substances on the basis of environmental effects in the 12th Commissi Amendment 91/325/EEC. They include acute aquatic toxicity and TABLE 11 Clearing: Population in the Two Layers
Layer
Population particle % Particles in each part of the (g/L) size ( m) bimodal population Cationic concentrati
Bottom
0.2
68
1.5
32
Top
0.3
38
1.8
62
75
150
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biodegradability limits and, in some cases, chronic toxicity effect limit, as well as the potential of the substance to accumulate. Testing procedures are recommended. Figure 9 shows the criteria used to determine the need to label a material as dangerous to the environment. The acute aquatic toxicity of the conventional DHTDMAC was found as low as less than 1 mg/L on the basis of a EC50 test on DAPHNIA MAGNA. The European industry progressively abandoned DHTDMAC during 1991 and 1992. This move has introduced some diversity in the formulations because the single DHTDMAC has been replaced by at least three other materials. The new molecules are all characterized by ester bonds, which makes them break down faster and more easily [28,29,62–64]. They are also designed to generate intermediates that are not toxic and fully biodegrade. Typical examples of these new molecules are NmethylN,Ndi(2(C16–18acyloxy) ethyl)N(2hydroxyethyl)ammonium methosulfate [32]; 2,3di(C16–18 acyloxy)propyltrimethylammonium chloride [61]; and 2(C16–18alkyl)3 (C16–18acyloxy)ethylimidazoline [65]. VII. Future Trends Table 12 lists patents [66–103] covering the years 1991–1995. These patents indicate some of the trends for future fabricsoftening products. Most of the
FIG. 9 EEC criteria for environmental labeling of raw materials.
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patents relate to rinse cycle liquid products, although there are several rinse cycle softener powders. In Europe there is much continued interest in new softening molecules. Some of the new molecules are intended solely to meet new biodegradability standards, although all new actives for Europe must meet the condition of good biodegradability. Until governmental regulations become more stringent outside Europe, changes in actives will be slower in the rest of the world. Many of the new molecules are intended to be more highly active softeners. The more highly active softeners enable products to be more cost effective or more easily concentrated. The interest in actives for highly concentrated products appears in all areas of the world. Several of the patents in Table 12 relate to softening systems that deliver benefits in addition to softening. Improved ease of ironing, reduced wrinkling, color protection, and soil release are all benefits claimed to be delivered with fabricsoftening systems. There are patents that claim to improve on one particular aspect of softening, such as resiliency. claims have been made for improved fragrance delivery. Patent activity indicates that fabric softeners are a product of continued interest to the detergent industry and the consumer. References 1. G. K. Hughes and S. D. Koch, Soap/Cosmetic/Chemical Specialties 42, 109 (1965). 2. W. P. Evans, Chemistry and Industry 893 (1969). 3. J. Foley, Soap/Cosmetic/Chemical Specialties 55, 25 (1978). 4. a. J. G. Fuller and J. A. Ackerman, JAOCS 60, 172 (1983). b. J. A. Ackerman, JAOCS 60, 1166 (1983). 5. B. Milwidsky, HAPPI 25(10), 40 (1987) 6. R. R. Egan, JAOCS 55, 118 (1978). 7. K. Brauer, H. Fehr, and R. Puchta, Tenside Detergents 17, 281 (1980). 8. Von H. W. Bücking, K. Lötzsch and G. Taüber, Tenside Detergents 16, 1 (1979). 9. G. K. Hughes and S. D. Koch, presented at 52nd Annual Meeting of the Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association, Washington, D.C., December 1965. 10. O. Okumura, K. Ohbu, K. Yokoi, K. Yamada, and D. Saika, JAOCS 60, 1699 (1983). 11. D. L. Smith, M. F. Cox, G. L. Russell, G. W. Earl, P. M. Lacke, R. L. Mays, and J. M. Fink, JAOCS 66, 718 (1989). 12. L. Hughes, J. M. Leiby, and M. L. Deviney, Soap/Cosmetics/Chemical Specialties 51, 44 (1974).
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13 Specialty Liquid Household Surface Cleaners KAREN WISNIEWSKI Research and Development, Global Technology, ColgatePalmolive Company, P New Jersey I. Introduction II. AllPurpose Cleaners A. Historical background B. Cream cleansers C. Liquid allpurpose cleaners D. Test methods III. Spray AllPurpose Cleaners A. Historical background B. Allpurpose spray cleaners C. Glass cleaners D. Glass and surface cleaners E. Test methods F. Bleach spray cleaners IV. Bathroom Cleaners A. General bathroom cleaners B. Mildew removers C. Test methods D. Toilet bowl cleaners V. Conclusion and Future Trends References
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I. Introduction Household hard surface cleaners are defined in this discussion as formulations, powder or liquid, used to clean hard surfaces in the home, excluding dishes. Also excluded from this discussion are household products that are used primarily as treatments rather than cleaners per se: polishes, floor waxes, tarnish removers, and drain cleaners (decloggers). Metal cleaners, surface descalers, and other such industrial liquid cleaners are not discussed. The formulation of liquid bleach products is an art in itself, so bleach is discussed here briefly as an adjunct to allpurpose cleaning. Household surface cleaners are now moving to added benefits beyond simple cleaning of the hard surface. Added benefits for cleaners are well established in other areas (e.g., conditioning with shampooing, softening with laundering, and tartar control in toothbrushing), but such advantages are arriving late in hard surface cleaning. The starting point for this discussion is the history of the development of household cleaners [1]. Powder cleaners are covered briefly as part of the evolution of this field of cleaners. In general, powder cleaners tend to have large market share in developing countries, liquid allpurpose cleaners and cream cleansers dominate in Western Europe, and liquid cleaners, especially those dispensed through trigger sprayers, enjoy popularity in North America and Australia and New Zealand. Therefore, this discussion focuses on developments in North America and Western Europe. The area of household cleaning may be seen as one of the most challenging for the formulator because the household cleaning regimen can be said to have the most varied chemistry of any cleaning field. This is in response to the variety of cleaning tasks in the home and the demands of the consumer. To illustrate the problem for the product developer, one has only to enumerate the soils and surfaces. The soils can vary from simple dust and hair to dirt, hard water spots, and fingerprints to hardened grease, soap scum, and excrement. Although the usual household cleaning tasks are concentrated in only two rooms of the house, kitchen and bathroom, the number of different surfaces encountered are many. In the United States, for example, there may be Formica, ceramic tile, grout, lacquered wood, vinyl flooring, painted surfaces, brass, stainless steel, enamel, porcelain, aluminum, chrome, glass, marble, methyl methacrylate, and other types of plastics. All these materials may occur within only two rooms of the same home! From a scientific point of view, one can see that these surfaces run the gamut from highenergy (ceramic and metal) to lowenergy (plastic) surfaces. Soils also can vary, from very nonpolar (motor oil) to very polar (lime scale). The tenacity of the soil adherence therefore varies according to the combination of soil and surface. In general, the better the soil wets the surface, the better is
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the adherence. It is a wellaccepted principle of adhesion that two substances in intimate contact with each other tend to adhere very well, this being a necessary (but not sufficient) condition. Highenergy surfaces tend to be easy to wet, making them generally easy to soil. An example is the relative tenacity of soap scum on ceramic as opposed to plastic surfaces. Once wetting has occurred, the soil can then “bond” to the surface. What is often forgotten in adhesion is that van der Waals forces can be strong enough to account for the adhesion of soils to surfaces. Simple dispersion forces are about 5 kcal/mol, and hydrogen bonds between 4 and 40 kcal/mol, whereas covalent bonds can be as weak as 15 kcal/mol [2]. It can be seen from these numbers that if good molecular contact is made between the soil and surface, a bond can be made. This is especially easy if the soil is liquid or is deposited from a liquid medium. Of course, the contribution of other mechanisms, such as electrostatic attraction, tends to strengthen the bond between soil and surface, if they are present. (Also, if the surface tends to be rough, then there exists the possibility of purely mechanical adhesion as well, with the soil physically located in nooks and crannies of the surface.) If an attempt is made to break the adhesive boundary, a likely course is that one or the other of the materials tends to break within itself. Therefore, in cleaning, the soil can be broken down into successively thin layers removed from the surface, unless the fundamental bond between the soil and the surface can be compromised. Very thin layers can be even more difficult to remove than the original thicker layer [3]. For household cleaning this implies that the most tenaciously held soil is that most intimately in contact with the surface, and this should be the target of truly efficacious cleaning. Upper layers of the soil are relatively easy, by this analysis, to remove compared with the fundamental layer. In the beginning of cleaning history, the soil was simply abraded off, which inevitably damaged the unsoiled areas of the surface. In recent times, the discovery of more chemical, rather than mechanical, means of removing soil has greatly improved this situation. A wellformulated modern cleaner avoids abrasion as a primary mechanism of cleaning and depends on more chemical than mechanical means. This is generally accomplished in three steps: wetting, penetration, and removal. In some ways, water may be looked upon as the primary cleaning element. Given enough time, enough volume, and the right temperature, water is capable of cleaning almost any soil/surface combination. However, the times involved can be of the order of days, or the temperatures required close to boiling. Cleaning solutions can be viewed as water with ingredients added to speed the cleaning action or lower the temperature at which effective waterbased cleaning takes place. Surfactants, of course, lower the surface tension of water, thereby increasing the wetting of the soil by the cleaning solution. This is
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especially important for hydrophobic soils like grease. Solvents help the cleaning solution to penetrate into the soil, softening it, sometimes even partially dissolving the soil. Other active ingredients, such as acids, bleaches, and alkaline compounds, can then more effectively react with the soil to change its composition to make it more liquid, less polymerized, or less tenacious, for example, and easier for the cleaning solution to remove. The surfactant then helps to emulsify or otherwise lift the soil from the surface into the cleaning solution. The mechanical action of wiping or scrubbing also aids the wetting, penetration, and lifting of the soil by spreading, roughening, and breaking up the soil. The cleaning solution is then removed, leaving a clean surface. The best cleaners are effective at performing these tasks on even the most fundamental layers of soil, restoring the surface to its original state. A cleaning task for the consumer is usually one or two soils on any one of the surfaces. Also, besides removing the soil, one must consider the safety of the chemical strategy used to remove the soil on the underlying surface. This has grown to become a more desired benefit in recent time [4]. Acid, as one example, may help to remove soap scum, but this would not be a good approach on a marble sink. Germ killing is also considered part of the household surface cleaning task by many consumers, especially on bathroom or food preparation surfaces [4]. To meet some of these target concerns, the chemistry of the cleaner may be focused, but this can also limit the useful scope of the product. As seen in this discussion, the evolution of cleaners develops from simple soap powders into liquid formulations to more specialized products. “Allpurpose cleaners” are the backbone of this development. Along with specialized formulas for specific cleaning problems, it is also seen that in some cases these products are augmented by specialized packaging. Generally, the packaging contributes more to the convenience of the product than the efficacy. The trend in the United States and Europe most recently has been to more “niche” products, such as toilet bowl cleaners and dedicated bathroom cleaners. These types of products tend to show the greatest growth and have maintained this high growth position for about 10 years [5,6]. This is shown in Fig. 1 for North America. However, liquid “allpurpose” cleaners continue to sell well. In Fig. 1, spray allpurpose cleaners and glass and surface cleaners are probably grouped with liquid cleaners. These spray versions can sometimes be considered niche products themselves and can account for as much as 33% of the allpurpose cleaner segment. In Europe also, special purpose cleaners, such as bathroom cleaners, are the largest growth segment [7]. The most recent trend in allpurpose cleaners per se is the entry of “ultras,” formulas that give double or triple the cleaning strength of the formulas already common in the marketplace. This has already happened in Europe and North America. These products use less packaging, occupy less storage space, and
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Fig. 1 Sales amounts for household cleaners in North America. (From Ref. 1.)
give consumers more flexibility in the dilution of the product. However, they also require more careful measuring on the part of the consumer if they are to reap the full value of the product. As seen in the section on allpurpose cleaners, the range of concentration of active ingredients in recent allpurpose cleaner patents is sufficient for these products to be formulated either as normal strength products or as ultras. Nevertheless, allpurpose cleaners are generally the beginning points for entry and for specialization in a given market. The niche products are the fastest growing part of household cleaning in mature markets, and yet they are starting to appear in developing markets as well. Strangely, allpurpose cleaners (APCs) can be considered specialty products themselves, growing out of the real allpurpose cleaner of the past, a heavyduty cleaning powder. This can still be true in less mature cleaning markets. II. AllPurpose Cleaners A. Historical Background 1. Powder Cleaners The evolution of household cleaners begins with allpurpose cleaners. Specialization to handle the multiple problems of household cleaning arose relatively recently. Before the 1930s [8], consumers had only soap powders with which to do all their household cleaning, which included not only kitchen and bath surfaces but also laundry and dishes. Glass windows were nearly the only sur
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face that could not be effectively cleaned with this product. This multiple use of a basic cleaning product continues in many developing regions of the world. In the 1920s, powdered products began to appear in the U.S. market that were formulated especially for general household cleaning. These were generally highly built, very alkaline formulations designed to dissolve in warm or hot water for such tasks as floor mopping, grease removal, and bathroom cleaning. “Built” formulas refer, of course, to the use of compounds like phosphates, silicates, and carbonates, which mitigate the effects of hard water and also buffer the system to high pH levels. At first they still used soap but later began to use the modern anionic surfactants (such as alkyl benzenesulfonates). A typical example of this kind of formula is given in Table 1. These cleaners were more effective than their predecessors, but they also required a large amount of rinsing. The builders that boosted cleaning efficacy also increased the amount of residue left behind when cleaning solution dried on a surface. Depending on water temperature and hardness, these cleaners could also be difficult to dissolve completely in a bucket of water. Being some what hygroscopic powders, they also tended to cake and solidify once the container, usually a cardboard box, was opened. 2. Cleansers As far back as the 1880s, a product was sold as a pressed cake of soap with abrasive [9]. However, modern powder cleansers also started to appear at roughly the same time as powder allpurpose cleaners (approximately 1930– 1935). The addition of abrasives to the basic cleaning product helped use mechanical as well as chemical energy to do cleaning, but obviously made these products unsuitable for general use. In this sense, cleansers can be thought of as some of the first “specialty” cleaners because the presence of abrasive made them appropriate for very tough cleaning jobs but also limited their usefulness because they could scratch softer surfaces. This tends to be the continuing theme of specialty cleaners: the formulation delivers more directed power at a par TABLE 1 Powdered AllPurpose Cleaner Formulas Ingredient
Examples
Anionic surfactant
Builder
Sodium sulfate Perfume, color, others
Amount (wt/wt %)
Soap, alkylbenzene sulfonate (usually one only)
1–10
Phosphates, carbonates, silicates (usually a mixture)
50–60
Processing and delivery aid
30–50 0.5–1.0
Page 469 TABLE 2 Powdered Cleanser Formulas Ingredient
Examples
Amount (wt/wt %)
Anionic surfactant
Soap, alkylbenzene sulfonate (usually one only)
1–5
Builder
Phosphates, carbonates, silicates (usually a mixture)
5–30
Abrasive
Silica, feldspar, calcite
60–90
Disinfectant
Usually hypochlorite generating compound (i.e., trichlorocyanuric acid)
Perfume, color, others
0–2
0.25–0.5
ticular cleaning problem and then disqualifies itself from other tasks because of this adaptation. A typical cleanser formula is shown in Table 2. Both powder allpurpose cleaner and powder cleansers are in the U.S. market still and maintain large shares of the market in developing areas of the world. Powder cleansers are still a major part of the abrasive cleaning subcategory, but powder allpurpose cleaners in the United States are represented only by one major brand (Spic and Span). The formulas have had to react to modern pressures, the largest of which was the limitations and bans of phosphates. These builders are usually not used or are used in very small quantities in most household cleaners outside of automatic dishwashing detergents. Usually carbonates, bicarbonates, and silicates are used along with more modern ingredients, such as citrates and polyacrylates. A small amount of nonionic surfactants may also be used, although alkyl benzene sulfonates now dominate as the surfactant of choice. Hydrotropes, such as sodium cumene sulfonate and sodium xylene sulfonate, may also be added to aid the dissolution and cleaning of the main surfactant. In these choices, household surface cleaner formulation has mirrored the developments in fabric care. Cleansers have also undergone some formulation changes that are specific to their group. One major change was the addition of bleach to major cleanser brands in the 1950s. Cleaners had been used in the past to “sand out” stains, with some degree of surface damage. With the introduction of such ingredients as the isocyanurates (like trichlorocyanuric acid, TCCA), usually in the range of 0.5% available chlorine, stains could be removed as a result of hypochlorite bleaching rather than muscle. This addition also opens the possibility of disinfectant claims for the product. However, this addition also brings with it more demands on the formulator because the formula is harder to stabilize. Such compounds as TCCA decompose with water to form hypochlorite bleach. This
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is good for the usual use conditions but confers water sensitivity on the formula. Usually small amounts (<5%) of waterabsorbing compounds are added to prevent the premature activation of the bleach. However, two factors work against the formulator. The normal packaging of cleansers is cardboard cylinders that are not able to be resealed tightly, and the product is usually stored under a sink. Under these conditions, prolonged storage of the product usually results in a loss of bleaching ability. The largest recent change in cleansers has come in abrasives. These have generally become softer as time goes on, going from sand originally to using calcium carbonate (calcite) now in the major brands. This constitutes a change on the Moh's hardness scale from about 7 to 3 [10]. This is a reaction to changing times: many household surfaces are now plastics of various kinds and are easily scratched by silica. For instance, where glazed ceramics in the bathroom could be scrubbed for years without seeing signs of wear, today's methyl methacrylate shower enclosures would show damage after a single vigorous use of a silica cleanser. The major exception to this trend is the increasing use of solid polymer countertop, such as Corian, which encourages the use of strong abrasives to rub out nicks and stains in the surface. B. Cream Cleansers Both cleansers and allpurpose cleaners are now also available in liquid forms, which were the next stage of their evolution. The liquid form has two main advantages. Liquids can be formulated in a concentrated form that can be diluted by the consumer before use to the desired strength. This dilution operation is easier for the consumer because the liquid form mixes easier and dissolves better than the powder form that preceded it. The liquids can also be used straight from the container on heavily soiled areas; the powder cleaners had to be made into a paste for effective use. From the formulator's point of view, there is a mixed bag of advantages and disadvantages. Water is an even less expensive diluent than the sodium sulfate or abrasives that were used in powder forms. However, because all the ingredients are dissolved or dispersed, this makes possible more interactions between the ingredients than in a powder. Fortunately, the liquid form broadens the choice of surfactant because it need not be available in powder form. Liquid cleaners with suspended abrasives—cream cleansers—first started to appear in the United States and Europe in the 1980s. This chapter does not go into detail on the formulation of these products because although they are fluid household surface cleaners, they should be properly considered suspensions, not true liquid formulas. Their arrival on the market so recently is a result of the difficulty of producing stable suspensions of abrasive particles; the advancement
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of polymer science and clay technology during the last 30 years is a large part of the successful formulation of this product. Unlike their parent product, powder cleansers, the cream cleansers almost always use the gentler calcite abrasive. This, combined with their liquid form, helps to convey the image of less harsh cleaning to the consumer. This is especially important to consumers who have softer, plastic surfaces in their bathrooms, such as fiberglass (polymethyl methacrylate) shower enclosures, which are much more easily marred than the traditional vitreous materials [11]. The patent art for this kind of cleaner begins in the mid1960s [12–14], but there continue to be abundant patents written up to the present time. The main point of most art is the stable suspension of the abrasive particles, and this is achieved largely by raising the viscosity of the system. Imanura [15] uses crosslinked polyacrylic acid as an aid to suspending the abrasive. Another patent uses styrene/polysaccharides copolymers to thicken the formula [16]. On the other hand, Brierly and Scott's patent [17] gives an example of the use of clays to thicken the formula, their aim being the stabilization of the formula during high shear processing steps. Alternatively, the same inventors also give a method for stabilizing the cleanser at high shear using monoalkylolamides [18]. Other recent art uses colloidal alumina associated with a surfactant to suspend the abrasive [19,20]. Another approach is to use stearate soap to thicken a formula in which the aluminum oxide is used as the abrasive [21]. A somewhat novel approach by Straw et al. [22] uses neither of the usual approaches, but instead generates a liquid crystal phase to suspend the abrasive. In all cases the viscosity of the product is quite high, of the order of 500–5000 cP. The most challenging formulations also contain hypochlorite bleach as well as trying to suspend an abrasive. Because many suspending or thickening agents are sensitive to oxidation, it becomes difficult to assemble a product lacking syneresis. For cream cleansers, the most successful approach for bleach containing formulas seems to be alumina/surfactant thickening systems [23,24]. The alumina particle size is very small, and the calcium carbonate is used as the abrasive. Sometimes the abrasive is given as an optional ingredient in an otherwise completely liquid cleaning formula. In one example of this type, the abrasive is combined into a terpene/limonene solventbased cleaner while remaining stable [25]. A generalized formula for liquid cleaners is seen in Table 3. The evolution of cleansers more or less stops at this point, with only recent patent art on using “soluble abrasive” as the next step [26,27]. This is probably intended to defeat the largest consumer complaint about cleansers, either powder or liquid: the difficulty of completely rinsing away the abrasive after use. Cream cleansers can be even more difficult to rinse away because of the agents used to keep the
Page 472 TABLE 3 Cream Cleanser Formulas Ingredient
Examples
Amount (wt/wt %)
Anionic surfactant
Soap (stearate), alkylbenzene sulfonate
1–15
Nonionic surfactant
Ethoxylated alcohols, amine oxides
0–10
Builder
Phosphates, carbonates, silicates (usually mixture)
1–20
Solvent
Alcohol, glycol ether, limonene
0–7
Thickening agent
Polyacrylate polymer, clay, alumina
0–10
Abrasive
Usually calcite (CaCO3)
10–55
Bleach
Usually hypochlorite
0–1
Hydrotrope
Sodium cumene sulfonate, sodium xylene sulfonate
0–5
Perfume, color, others
0–1
Water
40–80
abrasive suspended, such as clays. Except for this, the new competitors in this area, such as thickened bleach cleaners, are being formulated without abrasive but in the same realm of viscosity. C. Liquid AllPurpose Cleaners 1. Historical Background Simple allpurpose cleaners were introduced in liquid form starting in the 1930s. Liquid allpurpose cleaners were for many years differentiated mainly by the specific “active” ingredient that they contained. The simplest liquid cleaner was ammonia with some added soap, which has been used for over 100 years. This is an effective grease cleaner but is very unpleasant and harsh to use. Simple household bleach solutions date back to the early 1900s [28]. This is an effective stain remover but not good for tough oily soils. Liquid disinfectant solutions go back to the 1870s [29], but these were targeted more to the elimination of germs than to soil removal. The closest products to modern formulations begin with pine oil formulas, dating back to 1929 [30]. These gave good grease cleaning with a more pleasant (and safer) odor. However, there are consumers who dislike pine odor and would prefer a different cleaner. Modern, nonpine formulas were introduced between 1955 and 1965 in the United States. Liquid allpurpose cleaners at that time still incorporated many of the characteristics of their dry predecessors. They still used the popular anionic surfactants, such as alkyl benzene sulfonate, and builders with high alkalinity to achieve their goals. However, they had three important differences. First, liq
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uids dissolve (or disperse) more quickly than powders. This means the cleaning solution can be prepared by the consumer quickly at ambient water temperatures. Second, they are not as limited by their solubility. Higher amounts can be added to the cleaning solution without the precipitation that could be encountered with the older powder cleaners. Last, they are neater to dispense and store. However, these advantages are not given without some drawbacks as well. Although they might have had a weakness on greasy soil, powder allpurpose cleaners were not particularly deficient in cleaning; they were deficient in convenience. In general, this tends to be the greatest component in the evolution of household cleaners. A major change in form or formulation is not motivated by claims of superior cleaning; these claims tend to be made among cleaners of the same form. The major motivation seems to be increasing convenience for the consumers while maintaining cleaning efficacy. This may be achieved by more convenient dispensing or shortening the number of steps in the cleaning process. It may be the transfer from muscular effort on the part of the consumer to chemical energy supplied by the cleaner. Part of the high efficacy of powder detergents was their high concentration of builder salts. To formulate the same level of builders into liquid detergents required even higher levels of surfactant. This usually results in higher foaming. Although high foam may be preferred in such applications as shampoos and dishwashing detergents, such a sustained foam is undesirable in household cleaning. Many surfaces that are washed with allpurpose cleaners are large and horizontal, such as floors and countertops. If a cleaner has a slowly collapsing foam, the consumer must laboriously rinse the surface. Even in areas where rinsing is relatively easy, such as a bath or shower enclosure, the extra effort and time spent rinsing a highfoaming product is undesirable to a consumer. The immediate “flash” foam produced when the cleaner is first used serves as a signal of its efficacy. Once this message is communicated, the foam should collapse to give easier rinsing. Continuing to use the high levels of builders used in powders would also have meant continuing another rinsing problem; residue if the cleaning solution is left to dry on surfaces. A consumer does not consider a surface clean unless it shines. Residue from the cleaner left on the surface, even if all the soil has been removed, diminishes a consumer's evaluation of the cleanliness of the surface. Residues from crystalline compounds, such as builder salts, tends to dull the native shine of a smooth surface. The degree of shine left on the surface is an important indicator to the consumer of the degree of cleanliness of the surface. In an effort to counteract the foaming and residue effects, formulators begin decreasing builders, using solvents, and exerting more effort in finding surfactant synergies.
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2. Solvents Solvents became useful when the product form changed to liquids. Their main role is to penetrate and soften grease to facilitate its removal by the surfactant. Their fluid form made them attractive to use in liquid formulations, although the solubility of good greasecutting solvents in water is very low. Some examples of these are pine oil and dlimonene. These are still very popular today as greasecutting solvents, not only for their efficacy, but more recently because of their “natural” origins. This reflects on the current marketing ploy of playing on some consumers' opinion that vegetableextracted chemicals are intrinsically safer or more ecologically sound than petroleumbased chemicals. Although the first pine cleaners appeared in the early part of the century, formulations built around pine oil still occur in the patent art, most recently as an alternative to more volatile organic solvents [31]. Much more common and more easily formulated because of their higher water solubility are the glycol ether solvents. This approach dates back as far as the early 1970s [32,33]. Earlier formulations made use of the simpler ethylene glycol monoalkyl ethers (Cellosolves), but this use has been largely discontinued because of health hazards [34]. The diethylene glycol monobutyl ether is most favored, although the use of the propylene glycols is increasing. As the chain length rises the health hazards decrease, but the solubility in water also decreases. This increases the difficulty of formulating stable products. However, stable products are made, as evidenced by recent patent art that touts the use of tripropylene glycols and their ethers for concentrated floor cleaning products [35]. In this case, the glycol ether is claimed not only as part of the cleaning system but also as a way of enhancing the shine on a vinyl floor surface. In Fig. 2, a comparison is made of the streaking and filming characteristics based on solvent changes alone. There is also mention in other art of longer chain lengths in the ether portion of the glycol ethers being used as well [36]. Alcohols are sometimes used in dilutable allpurpose cleaners, but they are usually tertiary or benzyl alcohols [37,38]. The greasecutting ability of the lower alcohols is inferior to these and to the glycol ethers. Lower carbon alcohols find their main use in glass and lightduty cleaners. The aim of modern formulation is to minimize builder concentration to alleviate the problems in rinsing and residue cited earlier. Part of this is done with the solvent choice and the other half with the surfactant synergies. 3. Surfactant Innovations One important area is actually surfactants working in negative synergy to give quickbreaking foams even with high total surfactant concentrations. This is most commonly done by including a small amount of soap in the formulation. Interest has also been shown in the counterion, a potassium soap combined with paraffin solvent, claimed to give a much reduced tendency for stable foam [39].
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Fig. 2 Streaking/filming as a function of glycol ether. (From Ref. 28.)
This brings up the point that the choice of counterion is also important for efficacy of the main anionic surfactants used in the cleaning formula. It has been known for some time now that divalent metal salts of alkyl benzene sulfonate, paraffin sulfonates, and the like are better grease cleaners than the analogous sodium salts [40]. These are more difficult to use because of their lower water stability, but they can be formulated with some of the more effective greasecutting solvents [41,42]. It has also been claimed that if ammonium salts of the anionic surfactants are used less residue is left on the surface [43]. Many formulations continue to depend mainly on anionic surfactants for detergency. However, there is a growing trend toward the use of other surfactants beyond the workhorse anionics that have served for so long [44]. There are, for example, allpurpose cleaners that depend more on nonionic surfactants [45]. Nonionics are less sensitive to water hardness, can be synthesized to target HLBs, and have lower foaming. Much of the pioneering work in this area was and is done by the primary suppliers of the materials, such as the work of Shell on primary alcohol ethoxylates [46], and the more recent work by Henkel and
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Kao on alkylpolyglycosides [47–49]. The sugarderived polyglucosides [50] show good surfactant qualities and are becoming favored because of the “environmental” claims that can be made for vegetable rather than petroleum feedstock material. They also show mildness to the consumer's skin. On the other hand, ethoxylated alkyl phenols are falling out of favor because of their low biodegradability [51]. Some formulators claim that is possible to achieve effective cleaning with nonionics while completely excluding anionic materials [52–55]. It is now claimed that some shortchain nonionics can give superior cleaning [56]. The claim in all nonionic formulas is that they are less sensitive to water hardness. There are also cases in which longer chain, block copolymer nonionics are used. In one particular case [57], the nonionic is used not only for its cleaning but for its residual spotting/filming characteristics. The general practice, however, is to use a combination of both anionic and nonionic components [58]. In part, this may be because nonionic surfactants have a lower tendency to foam, and foam is expected by consumers as a sign that the “active” is working. Therefore, including a certain amount of anionic surfactant helps to signal the consumer that the detergent is present [59]. As noted earlier, greasecutting solvent is included in nearly every allpurpose cleaning formula. These solvents are generally kept to low levels because of volatility and general safety considerations. It is interesting to note, therefore, that recent claims are being made for surfactants also to have solventlike cleaning functions [60]. A new subclass of formulations in this area is the microemulsion. These special phases were used in such areas as oil recovery as early as the 1970s and have been exploited more recently in organic synthesis and analytical extractions. However, microemulsions have come much more slowly to the household cleaning area. Much has been written recently on microemulsions [61,62], their advantages over regular emulsions being increased stability, spontaneous formation, and oilsolubilizing potential. They are also transparent, giving the esthetics of a true solution. There are examples in the literature that are formulas intended for industrial cleaning of computer components or metal parts [63,64]. In these formulas, the highly hydrophobic solvent (usually a chlorinated hydrocarbon) is delivered to the surface in an aqueous media. The clear advantage of the microemulsion in these cases is the ability to stabilize the solvent in a mixture with other hydrophilic components. A similar approach can be taken to deliver high amounts of a hydrophobic but more consumerfriendly, greasecutting solvent, such as pine oil or dlimonene. Examples may be found that use these insoluble grease removal solvents as the essential oily material in a microemulsion, sometimes with glycol ether solvents added as the cosurfactant [65,66]. All microemulsions formulated for household cleaning so far have far more hydrophilic components than hydro
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phobic, opposite to the industrial examples. Surfactant types vary, one of these examples using an anionic/nonionic mixture and the other all nonionic. Still another example uses an anionic/nonionic surfactant mix with glycol ether cosurfactant but uses the perfume as the oily material essential to form the microemulsion [67,68]. 4. Added Benefits The addition of any added benefits tends to narrow the scope of a cleaner, and so there are a few general types included in allpurpose cleaners. The most popular is the dimension of disinfection or antimicrobial action. An excellent overview of disinfectants in general is given in the Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology [69]. Biguanides, alcohols, aldehydes, and phenols, as well as quaternary ammonium compounds (“quats”) and oxidizing agents, are used [70]. The most commonly used of these are pine oil (included in the alcohol group), quats, and alkali metal hypochlorites (rather than oxygen bleaches, which are weaker disinfectants). Sometimes they can be combined, as in the quats and alcohols [71,72]. Pine oil gives the most freedom of formulation, bleach the least. The main restriction to using quats is, of course, that association of the quats in solution with most anionic surfactants inactivates the disinfecting action of this cationic compound. The action of quats is well known to be boosted by the addition of common chelating agents [73,74], the sodium salts of ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) the most common used. Pine oil can have a narrow spectrum of antimicrobial effectiveness that can be broadened by adjunct compounds, such as quats or some organic acids [75]. The broadest spectrum disinfection, at a low price, is delivered by bleach, which is often a compensating factor for the difficulty of formulation. Formulation with bleach usually prevents the use of most common nonionics, paraffin sulfonate, alkylbenzene sulfonates, betaines, longchain unsaturated quats, and so on. The surfactants most often used with hypochlorite bleach are amine oxides, soaps, and sodium alkyl sulfates. It has been known for some time that amine oxides interact with anionic surfactants at certain ionic strengths to generate liquids with dynamic viscosities from 10 to about 5000 cP [76– 79]. In this way, bleachcontaining formulas can be thickened by the use of the surfactants alone [80]. Therefore, bleach allpurpose cleaners can have three benefits in addition to the primary cleaning: removal of oxidizable stains, disinfection, and increased cling or residence on vertical surfaces. Most bleach cleaners, however, are simple, waterthin solutions. The most common formulations are a simple combination of hypochlorite bleach, sodium hydroxide (to achieve a pH of 10–12), amine oxide surfactant, and a low quantity of perfume. Despite their simplicity, however, these types of products are very effective stain removers and disinfectants.
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There is an interest in nonhypochlorite disinfection, as evidenced by patent art for institutional use. Examples can be focund that use peroxyacids to achieve antimicrobial effects [81]. The advantage of these formulas would be lack of the odor and corrosion that can be encountered in hypochlorite formulas. Besides disinfection, there are few other added benefits of major market importance. The next most important is the special class in which a polymer film is left behind on the surface. The most common example of this are really not allpurpose cleaners, but are the “mop and shine” products for floor cleaning. This subset is intended solely for floor cleaning and leave behind a film intended to mimic the shine and soil resistance of waxing a floor. Unlike waxes, however, these polymer films do not need to be buffed to make them glossy [82]. The only drawback to this kind of formula is the possible buildup of polymer on the surface. These polymer films tend to be slightly colored, and so repeated layers can yellow the surface. The aim of inventions in the field is therefore to give polymers that deposit on the surface readily in formulations that avoid buildup [83]. This concept of polymer adsorption for greater shine and soil resistance has since been extended to other household surfaces, going from specialized floor products back to allpurpose cleaners. These generally use nonionic polymers, such as polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, or other film formers [84,85]. One very interesting invention states that by the use of a polyalkoxylated alkylolalkane and vegetable oil surfactant a formula may be made that shines shiny surfaces but imparts no gloss to matte surfaces [86]. Another recent interesting invention is the formulation of an insect repellent into an allpurpose cleaner [87–89]. The key here is that the active ingredient is not an insecticide but simply a repellent that makes it possible to leave it behind routinely in the cleaning process without concerns about repeated human contact. 5. Formulation Technology Table 4 gives ranges for common ingredients for allpurpose cleaner formulation. Although it is not explicit from the previous discussion, “regular” allpurpose cleaners are intended to be dilutable. The consumer may use them full strength from the bottle for cleaning a very heavily soiled small area, or may dilute them in the range of 1:32 to 1:128, with a dilution rate of 1 part cleaner to 64 parts solution being most common. Recent allpurpose cleaners launched in North America and Europe are operating at the top of the dilution range; these are the ultra or concentrated products, similar in concept to the ultra laundry detergents. There are also some patents appearing for household surface cleaners that are touting the concentration of the formula [90,91]. If a such concentrated formula can be made stable, the manufacturer gains the advantages of less packaging, smaller shipping weights, and less storage space. The con
Page 479 TABLE 4 Liquid Dilutable AllPurpose Cleaner Formulas Ingredient
Examples
Amount (wt/wt %)
Anionic surfactant
Alkylbenzene sulfonate, paraffin sulfonate, ethoxylated alcohol sulfate, soap
0–35
Nonionic surfactant
Ethoxylated alcohol, amine oxide, alkanol amide fatty acid
1–35
Hydrotropes
Sodium cumene sulfonate, sodium xylene sulfonate
0–10
Builder or chelator
Carbonates (more rarely phosphates), silicates, citrates, EDTA sats, polyacrylates
0–10
pH adjustment
Ammonia, sodium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, alkanolamines
0–10
Solvent
Alcohol (pine oil, benzyl alcohol, or lower carbon number alcohols) glycol ether (Carbitol, Dowanol, others), dlimonene
0.5–50
Disinfectant
Hypochlorite bleach, pine oil, low carbon number alcohols quaternary ammonium compounds
0–15
“Shine” polymers
Polyacrylate, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl pyrrolidone
0–25
Perfume, color, others
0.1–3
Water
Q.S.
sumer gains advantages in more easily stored containers and less packaging to recycle while the absolute cleaning potential in its delivered form increases. These types of concentrated allpurpose cleaners should be considered as existing toward the top of the surfactant concentrations listed in Table 4. With higher concentrations of surfactant, the formulas also tend to become thicker. In most cases, the increase in viscosity is minor, but in some cases it can become significant. If the product is meant to be dilutable by a consumer, then the perception of pouring and dispersability of the product cannot be adversely affected by the viscosity. The ways to decrease the viscosity in these cases is to decrease the surfactant association that is responsible. Many of the commonly used solvents can affect the solubility of the surfactant and therefore redistribute the relative amount of monomer versus associated forms. Changes as a result of ionic strength can have the same effect, and so the addition of simple salts to the formula can also remedy the problem. Of course, if it is desirable to thicken the product, this can be done most easily through
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the addition of various polymers, such as polyacrylates, polethyleneoxides, cellulose gums, and polyglycols, depending on which is most compatible with the surfactant system. The pH of most allpurpose cleaners is between 8 and 12. Generally this is the best range for grease cleaning in that the alkalinity can (to a small degree) saponify some portions of a grease, thereby assisting the surfactant/solvent system in removing soil. However, high pH can also damage some sensitive surfaces, such as aluminum, as well as being irritating to skin. In the interest of giving consumers more advantages, formulators strive to work at pH values as close to neutral as possible to reduce these negative effects. That means that more care has to go into optimizing the surfactant system and sometimes more reliance on greasecutting solvents. For instance, pine cleaners tend to be acidic, but the pine oil, more than the pH, contributes to the grease cleaning. This approach also has its dangers, because some surfaces, such as paint and wallcoverings, can be sensitive to solvents. Fragrance is a very important part of household cleaners, often overlooked in the technological drive for formula performance. However, fragrance can often be the driving attribute in a consumer's evaluation of a product. Fragrance can sometimes be difficult to incorporate stably into a product because of its low solubility (oily nature) and chemical reactivity (presence of aldehydes, esters, ketones, and so on). One way of easing the addition of a perfume oil into a formula is to premix the fragrance with either surfactant (a lower HLB component) or with the solvent. Higher concentration formulas, rich in surfactant, often have enough solubilization power to make the addition of the fragrance less difficult than in more dilute products, such as glass cleaners. As can be seen from the preceding discussion, allpurpose cleaners started with the oldest surfactant, soap, and have progressed to more powerful surfactants and then further developed sophisticated surfactant synergies. As these developments are made, there is less and less reliance on the old inorganic “builders” and more interest in solvents, particularly those with greasecutting ability. Only concerns about human toxicity limit the choice of solvent. 6. Minor Ingredients In the course of formulating the allpurpose cleaner, there may be a need for other minor ingredients in addition to the main cleaners—the surfactant, solvent, or builder. These ingredients include hydroptropes, hard water control, and buffers. These ingredients do not include any added for special benefits, such as shine enhancement, disinfection, or soil release. When builders are used in a formula, they also fill the function of hard water controls and buffering agents. However, the high electrolyte concentration imparted by the use of these builders may make it necessary to use a hydrotrope. (See Chap. 2.) In general, hydrotropes are organic compounds that
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enhance the solubility of other species. In cleaning formulations they facilitate the dissolution and continued solubility of the main detergent surfactant in a liquid formula. Many times the solubility of the surfactant is limited by high salt content or other factors. Examples are given in Table 4. As the use of inorganic builders decreases over time, the use of the hydrotropes is also decreasing. However, hypochlorite bleaches also increase the electrolyte concentration, as can the inorganic thickeners in cream cleansers. In these cases, the use of a hydrotrope may also be required. When, as in many modern formulas, builders are excluded or limited to decrease visible cleaner residue, other means are necessary to control water hardness and buffer the formula. In some areas where the water hardness is very high (above 250 ppm as CaCO3), even modern anionic surfactants can be partially precipitated. Soap is very easily precipitated. The most common remedy is to add one of the salts of EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) or NTA (nitrilotriacetate) to chelate the water hardness ions and therefore maintain the anionic surfactant efficacy. Of course, this problem does not occur with nonionic or cationic surfactants. The other problem when builders are eliminated is stabilizing the pH of the formula. Many anionic surfactants can impart a slightly acid pH to the solution when dissolved. If the aim of the formula is largely grease cleaning, this is most efficiently done at basic pH. Therefore, the pH can be adjusted using common bases, such as ammonia or sodium hydroxide. Ammonia is useful in that it is volatile and therefore leaves no residue, but it also imparts a distinctive odor that is not pleasing to some consumers. However, neither of these choices are good buffering agents. If the pH of the formula is to be maintained in a lower range (pH 8–9) or if the formula pH tends to drift over time, then alkaline buffering agents, usually one of the alkanolamines, are used. D. Test Methods There are several key performance areas to test for allpurpose cleaners. As may be deduced from the previous discussion, these are cleaning, ability to foam, and residue/shine. Unfortunately, very few published standardized methods exist in this area, especially residue/shine. Although foam height and soil removal are easily quantitated, the impact of various amounts of residue and its distribution on a surface are not. Most residue/shine tests are based on the evaluation on scales from 1 to 10 by panels of observers of prepared samples. Usually the method is described in a corresponding patent. A usual general method is to apply the cleaning solution, either by wiping or by pipetting, onto a clean glossy surface, usually of a dark color. Black ceramic wall tile is convenient for this purpose. The solution is left to dry on the surface, and a panel of observers rates their impression of residue on the resulting pattern.
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1. Cleaning Tests For cleaning tests, the methods for applying soil, simulating the cleaning process, and judging the result are well estabilished [92,93]. What is not well established is the precise identity of the soil used. For allpurpose cleaning, the target soil usually investigated is “grease.” It is meant to replicate the soil left on kitchen surfaces from normal household cooking practices. Of course, the type of oil or fat used in cooking can vary widely around the world, from vegetable oils and margarine to beef fat, lard, and butter. Even among the vegetable oils, there can be differences between olive and corn oils, because of the distribution of chain lengths and unsaturation. These factors affect how the grease is changed by heating and exposure to the air in thin films [94]. In many cases, a pure grease soil is not used. Sometimes the soil is colored with carbon black to make it more visible. However, this also has the effect of introducing a solid particulate into the soil mix [95,96]. Other particulates have also been introduced, such as humus, clay, ferrous oxide, soot, and filtered vacuum cleaner dust [97,98]. However, the grease component of the soil usually predominates. If the grease soil is liquid (such as vegetable oil), then it can be sprayed on the surface neat. Mixtures of particulates with oils are also spread on surfaces using paint rollers. However, liquid soils usually require longer aging periods before they can be used. Soils can also be prepared by dissolving solid greases (tallow) in various solvents (napthenic hydrocarbons, chloroform, and others) and then spraying the solution or dispersion. The solvent flashes off, leaving a solid grease layer (usually without particulate). These soils need shorter aging times because their solid form makes them more difficult to clean than oily soils. However, there are two concerns with this type of procedure: (1) the proper protection of laboratory workers from these hazardous solvents, and (2) the contamination of the greasy soil with any residual solvent that might influence the cleaning process. The soil is applied to typical kitchen surfaces, such as vinyl floor tile, sections of Formica, ceramic tile, pieces of enamel, aluminum, stainless steel, and painted wall sections. The local point of sale is the determinant of the choice of surface, so knowledge of local materials of construction is necessary. It is sometimes necessary to alter the surface to make the soil tenacious. This is sometimes done with a light sanding of the surface to roughen it or with chemical etching, such as strong acid or strong base treatments of susceptible surfaces. It is preferred to alter the composition or aging of the soil to increase tenacity, although surface roughening is sometimes considered accelerated “aging” of a surface. Once the soil has been aged, usually at ambient temperature, cleaning experiments can be carried out. The usual apparatus for this testing is a Gardner abrader (Fig. 3). This consists of a testing platform and a carrier for holding cleaning utensils that is motor driven back and forth along the platform. Clean
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Fig. 3 Gardner straight line abrader machine.
ing utensils fitted in the machine are also chosen according to local habits and practices. They can be sponges, mohair, folded cloth, folded paper towel, or scrub brushes. Small pieces of sponge wrapped around solid blocks are the usual choice. The utensil holder is usually made to hold two separate sponges so that the cleaners can be tested side by side. Often, variations in the individual quality of a surface and its applied soil make it necessary to do direct comparisons of cleaners on the identical item. Also, a standard amount of weight is applied to the utensil holder to simulate the force a person employs in the wiping process. This force is usually in the range of 200–500 g per sponge, including the weight of the carrier and the loaded sponges. In some cases, such as spray cleaners, the test product can be applied directly to the surface and a wetted utensil used for cleaning, but for most general or more concentrated allpurpose cleaners the solution is loaded onto the utensil. The utensil is usually wetted so that it is wet but not dripping water. The cleaning solution can be used neat or dilute depending on the intention of use. If floor cleaning is simulated, the cleaner is diluted according to label instructions, usually in the range of 1:64. If tough soil spot cleaning is simulated, then the cleaner is used neat. It can be applied to the utensil in two ways. Either a specified amount of cleaner is poured or pipetted onto the sponge, or the utensil mounted in its holder is soaked in a shallow pool of the cleaner for a specified time. The utensil is then fixed in the holder on the abrader. The abrader is then set in motion, making reciprocal sweeps back and forth over the soiled surface, which is fixed on the testing platform. Cleaning can be done in two ways: a fixed number of strokes can be used, or the process continued until one or both sides of the testing surface is completely clean. The first method can be used to compare cleaners at different number of strokes to
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generate data on the “kinetics” of cleaning. The second method mimics the practice of the consumer, which is to wipe until the surface is clean. In this case, the number of strokes needed to give 100% cleaning is tallied for at least one cleaner. The slower cleaner can then be continued until it is completely clean and its higher number of strokes recorded or its amount of lesser soil removal tallied when the superior side reaches 100%. Soil removal can be judged by eye, but the more common methods use a reflectometer. First, the “new” surface is measured before soiling. Most conveniently this is done on a white surface. The surface is soiled, usually with a colored soil. As mentioned before, the soil may be colored with carbon black or other particulates giving a gray or brown appearance. It may also be colored with oil soluble dyes. After soiling, another reflectometer reading is made. The cleaning is done, and the surface is then usually rinsed to eliminate cleaner residues or loosely held soil. Then the final “cleaned” measurement is made. The percentage soil removal is calculated as
where: Rc = reflectance of the cleaned surface Rs = reflectance of the soiled surface Rn = reflectance of the surface before soiling Another method of grease testing was shown by a consumer organization [99]. Although the choice of ingredients for the grease soil in this test is not the most consumer relevant, depending on mineral oil and petroleum jelly rather than household kitchen grease, the method by which the grease was removed is interesting. In this test, the greasy soil was applied in a narrow strip perpendicular to the travel of the sponges in the abrader apparatus. Clean areas were on both sides of the soiled strip. In this way, these experimenters measured not only the soil removal from the greasy area but also the tendency of the cleaner to smear the soil onto previously clean areas, so that a cleaner that performs poorly on soil redeposition or one that adsorbs the soil poorly into the cleaning implement is judged inferior by this test. Other, special soils may also be tested. A “sticky” kitchen soil has been cited in the patent literature [100], consisting of vegetable shortening and allpurpose flour. This soil was baked on. For cleaners containing bleach, it is desirable to test the stain removal ability of the cleaner. In this case, a tea stain on an enamel surface is usually done. Enamel on steel plates are boiled in a concentrated tea solution. They are air dried, rinsed with deionized water, and then repeated until the uniformity and degree of staining desired is reached [101]. This soil is cleaned and evaluated in the same manner as the grease soil.
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Although grease is the main soil target, followed by particulate soil, for all purpose cleaners, they may also be tested against other nonkitchen problems, such as soap scum. Soap scum testing is described in the section on bathroom cleaners. 2. Foam Level Testing Foam tests of allpurpose cleaners are done similarly to other fields. One of the most common is the cylinder test. The cleaner may be placed, neat or diluted, in a glass graduated cylinder. The cylinder is then inverted a specified number of times, and the resulting foam height noted. This immediate reading is referred to as “flash foam.” The cylinder then may sit undisturbed for various lengths of time and the gradual collapse of the foam recorded in decreasing foam heights. Another test is the RossMiles foam test [102]. In this method the solution is dropped over a specified distance into a receiver. The foam produced by this fall is measured immediately and after 5 minutes. Different foam esthetics are preferred around the world, although generally it is preferable that the foam collapses because this is perceived to decrease the effort of rinsing. 3. Surface Safety Another area of investigation is surface safety. Households contain many different surfaces that may be soiled. If a consumer uses these products as true allpurpose cleaners, they are carried from room to room, encountering many of these surfaces. It is wise to test the effect of a cleaning formulation on various items, depending on local materials. This is done most simply by immersing a solid block of material in the cleaner or by allowing a pool of the cleaner to contact a representative surface. The length of time for the test is left to the experimenter's discretion. The compatibility of a cleaner with a variety of surfaces is part of the designation of an allpurpose cleaner. Evaluating surface safety becomes even more important when aggressive substances, such as strong solvents or bleach, are included in the formula. Inclusion of these types of ingredients tends to limit the formulation's use, relegating it to the category of a specialty cleaner in some consumer's minds. This is especially true of bleach cleaners, whose aggressiveness to many colored surfaces is well known. 4. Disinfectancy Disinfectancy tests are usually regulated by the local government. For example, in the United States, the rules and procedures for disinfectancy are set out by the Environmental Protection Agency, and in France they are given by AFNOR (Association Francaise de Normalisation). The usual test for disinfectancy, for both disinfectant compounds and cleaning formulations, is the use dilution test [103]. They usually consist of challenging a use dilution of the cleaner with specified microorganisms, followed by incubation. The disinfectancy of the
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formula is determined by the number of surviving cultures at the end of the incubation period. The usual score for successful disinfection is lack of subsequent growth in 59 of 60 tubes. U.S. regulations specify three different levels of disinfection claim, as well as a sanitization claim, depending on the organism(s) used in the test [104]. 5. Miscellaneous Testing If the product is not a disinfectant formula, it may be advisable to conduct adequacy of preservation tests. In these tests, the formula, as made for sale, is challenged with various microorganisms. This test sample is incubated for a time, and the amount of growth measured. Aging tests for the shelf life of the formula are also advisable, usually run for up to 12–18 weeks at both room temperatures and elevated temperatures. Other tests may be required by various governments. Eye irritancy warnings on the product, for example, may be required depending on the outcome of standard irritancy tests. There are also many regulations or labeling procedures regarding the biodegradability of cleaning formulas and their ingredients. In these ecologically aware days, many primary suppliers of surfactants and other active ingredients perform their own biodegradation tests. An excellent overview of the field of biodegradability and various testing methods is given in this surfactant series [105]. It is wise for the formulator to inquire about these tests, especially if the product is intended for use in Western Europe or other ecologically conscious areas. III. Spray AllPurpose Cleaners A. Historical Background Spray allpurpose cleaners began to emerge on the U.S. markets in the 1950s. In the beginning they were pump sprayers, but the late 1970s saw the development of the more ergonomic trigger sprayers. These are now coupled with bottles shaped to give convenient gripping (Fig. 4). These formulations extend the convenience of the liquid form by marrying it to a very convenient dispensing container. The trigger sprayers deliver more product to the surface than the older pump forms and with reduced hand fatigue [106]. The formula in the spray bottle is generally in readytouse concentration, as opposed to the formula in the regular bottle, which is meant to be diluted by the consumer. These spray cleaners are used predominantly for spot cleaning and special needs rather than for larger area cleaning (i.e., floors). They are also generally used for lighter soil loads (fingerprints or thin films of oil) than for tougher soils (thick layers of aged grease on range hoods), which are reserved for more concentrated products, the regular dilutable cleaners. This marriage of cleaning for
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Fig. 4 Modern spray trigger packaging: (a) allpurpose spray cleaners; (b) glass and glass and surface cleaners.
mula to specific package form, tailoring the action of the cleaner to the way it is dispensed, is an important trend in household surface cleaning. Allpurpose cleaners, as powders, were dispensed from boxes or bags. This could be a messy operation, and spills are difficult to clean. Liquid allpurpose cleaners are dispensed from bottles, usually equipped with screwoff caps. Therefore, these were not only less messy to dispense, but they were easier to
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close tightly to eliminate spills. The caps could also be used to measure the product so that the appropriate amount of cleaner could be specified by the formulator without the need of a measuring device separate from the container. The more convenient formula is accompanied by the more convenient dispensing system. Spray cleaners are also of this type. The formula is already at the concentration appropriate for use, and the dispenser easily spreads a small amount of cleaner. Aerosol packaging has played a smaller role in this area than in others, such as furniture polishes and hair care. It has survived most often when a thick foam meant to stick to vertical surfaces is needed, as in oven cleaning or bathtub enclosures. In the future it can be expected that as packaging innovation continues, specialized formulas will be matched to them to create more convenient and targeted cleaning systems for consumers to use. In theory, almost any dilutable cleaning formula—pine, disinfectant, grease cleaning, bleach, and so on—can be “watered down” to give an effective spray cleaner. The trigger sprayers used with these formulas tend to exaggerate the foaming qualities of the cleaner, so the surfactant levels are generally at the lower end of ranges given in Table 4. (Even at these concentrations, a spray cleaner is much more concentrated than the solutions generally used for floor cleaning, for which the cleaner has been diluted 30–60 times.) Also, these convenience cleaners are generally used without rinsing, so that minimum ingredients must be used to minimize residue. Any crystalline ingredients must also be minimized to reduce buildup on the trigger itself when residual cleaner dries on the nozzle. These are general restrictions on spray cleaners. About the same time that all purpose cleaners were developing into sprays, formulas were also becoming less all purpose. One of the first specialties to appear were glass cleaners. At the present time there are also formulas adapted for bathroom cleaning, stain removal, carpet cleaning, oven cleaning, and so on. These types of specialization also impose their own special restrictions. One of the largest areas of specialization is grease cleaning, which in very developed markets can be subdivided into three different soil loads. B. AllPurpose Spray Cleaners Most closely related to the dilutable cleaner packaged in bottles are the all purpose spray cleaners. These are used for the heaviest soil in spot cleaning: small greasy areas, such as stove tops, small spills, and sticky spots like drops of jelly on countertops. The small, quick nature of the job does not justify getting out a bottle and a bucket, and the difficulty of the soil load calls for something close to the concentration of the dilutable allpurpose cleaner. As a general trend, these spray formulations are richer in solvent and more poor in
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surfactant than their dilutable counterparts. Also in common with the dilutable cleaners, the main trends in formulation are greater emphasis on safer solvents, increasing use of nonionic surfactants, and decreasing use of builders and other salts. Typical formula ranges for this type of cleaner are given in Table 5. A survey of the literature reveals a preoccupation with streakfree cleaning when the allpurpose spray cleaners are in spray form [107,108]. One of the drawbacks of these spray cleaners is that even the low level of builders, chelators, buffers, and so on, still leave a residue that is perceptible on very shiny or transparent surfaces. The traditional answer to this problem was to then go back and clean these types of surfaces with a glass or window cleaner to remove the allpurpose cleaner residue. C. Glass Cleaners Glass cleaners are made to have the least possible residue. Formulas of this kind go back to the late 1960s [109]. However, this is usually accomplished by ultralow levels of ingredients, which results in very light duty cleaning. Glass cleaners have sufficient ingredients to remove common window soils, such as fingerprints, dust, and water spots. They are not intended for heavyduty soil loads like kitchen grease or sticky food spots. The main consideration for glass cleaners is that they deliver the minimum cleaning while leaving no streaks or TABLE 5 Spray AllPurpose Cleaner Formulas Ingredient
Examples
Amount (wt/wt %)
Anionic surfactant
Alkylbenzene sulfonate, paraffin sulfonate, ethoxylated alcohol sulfate
0–10
Nonionic surfactant
Ethoxylated alcohol, alkanol amide fatty acid, amine oxide
1–10
Builder or chelator
Carbonates (more rarely phosphates), silicates, citrates, EDTA salts, NTA
0–10
pH adjustment
Ammonia, sodium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, alkanolamines
0.1–10
Solvent
Alcohol (pine oil, benzyl alcohol, or lower carbon number alcohols), glycol ether (Carbitol, Dowanol, others), dlimonene
0.5–20
Disinfectant
Pine oil, C2–3 alcohol, quaternary ammonium compounds
0–5
Antistreak polymers
Polystyrene/maleic anhydride, polyethylene glycol, others
0–5
Perfume, color, others
0.1–2
Water
Q.S.
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residues that would be readily apparent on transparent surfaces. For this reason, volatile ingredients are desired in glass cleaners. This will be curtailed in the future because of volatile organic compound legislation. The trend previously noted for grease or allpurpose sprays continues for glass cleaners. Glass cleaners depend even more on solvent content and less on surfactants than the allpurpose sprays, which depend more on solvent and less on surfactant than the dilutable allpurpose cleaners. This is readily apparent if Table 6 is compared with Tables 4 and 5. Two other differences are also apparent. One is that the more powerful greasecutting solvents (e.g., pine oil and dlimonene) tend not to be used in glass cleaners because of their lower volatility and oily character. Volatility is an important consideration in glass cleaners. The solvents that are used in glass cleaners, especially the low carbon number alcohols, may not be the best greasecutting solvents, but they give very quick drying of the cleaner. If the cleaner does not dry quickly, the cleaner film may not be evenly rubbed out by the consumer, resulting in streaking. The streaks will not apparent until the cleaner completely dries, and so it is desirable that this happen while the consumer is engaged in the cleaning task, not later. The other difference noticeable from comparison of the tables is the use of different groups of surfactants: amphoterics [110,111] and amido nonionics. There seems to be advantages to these types of surfactants for less streaking. In the first example cited, it is claimed that because of the way the formula is constructed, it does not lose its performance (cleaning and lack of streaking) TABLE 6 Spray Glass Cleaner Formulas Ingredient
Examples
Amount (wt/wt %)
Anionic surfactant
Alkylbenzene sulfonate, paraffin sulfonate, ethoxylated alcohol sulfate
0–1
Nonionic surfactant
Ethoxylated alcohol, alkanol amide fatty acid, carbamates, amine oxide
Amphoteric surfactant
Betaines, sulfobetaines
0–10
Builder
Carbonates, silicates, citrates
0–2
pH adjustment
Ammonia, sodium hydroxide, alkanolamines, or acetic acid
0–5
Solvent
Lower carbon number alcohols, glycol ether (Carbitol, Dowanol, others)
0.5–40
Antistreak, antifog polymers
Silanes, ethoxylated silicones, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohols
0–1
Perfume, color, others
0.001–0.5
Water
Q.S.
0.01–3
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when perfume is added. It should be commented that perfume can be a source of streaking and residue problems in glass cleaners, and in most glass cleaners the perfume is kept to a minimum. Most glass cleaners are also alkaline, to aid in cleaning the most common window soil, greasy fingerprints. The alkalinity is usually produced by “fugitive” compounds, such as ammonia, which minimizes residue, obviously an important consideration in glass cleaning. However, the formula sometimes needs better buffering than ammonia can provide, so the use of alkanolamines and carbamates is also well established. The key is to avoid crystalline compounds (traditional builders) to avoid noticeable residue on the transparent glass surface. The only acid glass cleaners are those that contain acetic acid. These depend on the reputation for good cleaning developed by the home remedy of vinegar and newspaper for cleaning windows. Streaking is caused by the drying of the residual product on glass in droplets larger than 0.25 m, which can scatter visible light [112]. Only if there is no residue, or the residue breaks up into droplets smaller than this size, can streaking be avoided. Lubricity is also a factor in window cleaning. Unlike other cleaners, window cleaners are formulated to evaporate quite rapidly. This can cause some difficulty in wiping the cleaner in its final stages. Ammonia salts of surfactants and builders tend to be favored in window cleaners. Not only is ammonia a volatile compound that can conveniently be used to adjust the pH, it also seems that these ammonia salts increase the lubricity of the formula during wiping [113]. These cleaners are also trying to deliver added benefits. They usually fall in the category of antifogging, of which there is voluminous patent art [114,115]. Some of these claim that in addition to the antifogging effects, usually achieved through the deposition of a polymer film, there are also antisoiling benefits. Antisoiling benefits alone can be achieved with silanes [116], which can react with siliceous surfaces. Another patent claims the use of polyglycols as both adjuncts to the surfactant system as well as giving the antifogging and antisoiling benefits [117,118]. Another benefit claimed is the uniform draining of water from the glass surface [119], which tends to decrease water spotting. This was also achieved with a film using polyvinyl alcohol and/or cationic polymers. This is a major benefit when the cleaner is also intended to be used on automobile windshields or to clean outside windows. These cleaners, in common with the allpurpose sprays, are also delivered in trigger spray packages. They were at one time packaged as aerosol sprays, but protest against aerosol packaging has largely eliminated them. D. Glass and Surface Cleaners Another recent development in the marketplace is the introduction of “glass and surface” cleaners. These are cleaners that are presented as able to clean greasy
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soil and yet leave no residue. This gives the advantage to the consumer of having to only buy one product to do both the jobs of glass cleaner and all purpose cleaner. In practice, they cut grease less than allpurpose cleaners and streak more than window cleaners. However, they also streak less than the all purpose sprays and cut grease better than window cleaners. In general, their formulations are between those of the allpurpose cleaners and window cleaners. They share with the window cleaners high solvent levels and minimal builder concentrations. However, they also have surfactant levels closer to those of the allpurpose cleaners. There are some advantages claimed for betaines in the literature of these cleaners [120–122]. These inventions are usually synergistic mixtures of betaines and other surfactants that are claimed to give good grease cleaning while minimizing streaking or residue. Modified sulfobetaines have also been claimed in glass and general cleaning formulations [123], for which it is pointed out that the solvent/buffering system of the product also has a role with the surfactant in keeping filming and streaking to a minimum. More exotic surfactants have also been used, for the benefits of good cleaning with less streaking, such as amidesubstituted soaps [124]. Like the glass cleaners, glass and surface cleaners also may contain polymeric ingredients to decrease streaking [125]. They are also delivered in bottles equipped with trigger sprayers. E. Test Methods 1. Cleaning Methods The test methods for these spray cleaners are similar to those described for dilutable allpurpose cleaners. Grease cleaning is tested the same way with surfaces. Amounts of soil are sometimes adjusted to lower levels, especially for glass or glass and surface cleaners. Another adjustment that can be made is that the product may be sprayed directly on the soiled test surface rather than applied to the sponge. The cleaning tests may also use paper towels or mohair cloth instead of sponges, depending on the local consumer habit. For window or glass and surface cleaners, the test substrate is often glass. This allows not only for testing soil removal on the surface of interest, but the same surface may be evaluated for residue [126]. The soil tested may also be changed for glass cleaners. In this case, the main task is not cooking grease but the grease of fingerprints. Therefore, the soil is changed from animal or vegetable fat to synthetic sebum [127]. For glass and surface cleaners, either soil may be used because it is used for both glass and generalpurpose cleaning. 2. Streak and Residue Testing The major difference in this area, especially for any cleaner promoted for use on glass, is the emphasis on residue/streak testing. The most challenging sur
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face is glass mirror because of its reflectivity. Streaks or residues are readily apparent. A given amount of cleaner is wiped on the surface in a specified number of strokes, sometimes as low as one. If more than one stroke is used, all the strokes are done in the same direction: no perpendicular or circular wiping is done. The usual applicator is a soft, lintless cloth or paper towel [128]. The area is left to dry. A panel of observers rate the prepared surfaces, taking care to view the surface from several angles. Streaks or residue are not always apparent from a single lighting condition, and the surface should be tipped several ways for proper observation. Alternatively, streaking can also be evaluated using the product on black ceramic tiles and using a glossmeter to measure the residue on the surface [129]. 3. Other Testing Foam level becomes a question of the interaction of the formulation with the spray trigger. The inherent foaming character of the formulation can be tested by the methods used for other household cleaners. However, this foam profile may be changed by the trigger used. The degree of foaming should also be evaluated by spraying the product out of the trigger. There are other characteristics that are also caused entirely by being a sprayed product. Although some of these attributes are part of the testing of the actual packaging itself, they should also be done with the formulation. It is desirable to test the area covered by a single spray and the volume of product delivered. One could also measure the amount of time it takes the product to run down the surface or its “cling.” Surface safety is evaluated the same as for the dilutable cleaners, by allowing the product to sit on a surface for a predetermined amount of time. Safety profiles for spray cleaners can be quite different from dilutable cleaners because of the different proportions of solvent or surfactant generally used. F. Bleach Spray Cleaners Bleach spray cleaners for general household use have emerged with the bleachcontaining allpurpose dilutable cleaners. These constitute yet an even more specialized niche than the glass or glass and surface cleaners because of the sensitivity of many household surfaces to bleach. The majority of such sprays on the market are hypochlorite bleach based and are close or identical in formula to the dilutable bleach allpurpose cleaners. That is, they contain about 1–2% hypochlorite bleach, a low level of bleachcompatible surfactant (usually amine oxide), an alkalinity agent like sodium hydroxide, and possibly some builder salt, such as phosphate or silicate. These cleaners combine a medium level of grease cleaning with the obvious stainremoving properties of the bleach. The trigger sprayer used with the product can either deliver the usual aerosol or, more usually, a loose foam.
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IV. Bathroom Cleaners Bathroom cleaners, along with bleach cleaners, are the largest category of specialty liquid cleaners. These products are formulated and packaged with the specific soil and cleaning problems associated with modern bathrooms. All purpose cleaners are also used to clean bathroom surfaces, but they are not targeted at soils, such as soap scum, and so suffer some deficiency compared with the specialty products. As mentioned in the beginning, this specialization is a twoedged sword. Although these cleaners are very efficient on targeted soils, the ingredients to accomplish this often limit their use in other circumstances. Most often, as will be seen, the concern is with surface safety. Also, there are psychological barriers. There is no reason an acid toilet bowl cleaner could not be used to clean hard water stains from a kitchen sink, but very few consumers would be willing to do this. Three categories of bathroom cleaners are discussed here: general bathroom cleaners, mildew removers (with some crossover to bleach cleaners), and toilet bowl cleaners. “Automatic” toilet bowl cleaners are not discussed because of the dominance of solid, not liquid, forms in this group. A. General Bathroom Cleaners Around the world, there seems to be a consensus that the main problem in bathroom cleaning is soap scum, followed by the related problem of hard water deposits [130]. Allpurpose cleaners have some effect on soap scum, but tend to have difficulty with hard water spots. General bathroom cleaners tend to target these problems and tailor their chemistry accordingly. These types of cleaners are usually moderately alkaline or strongly acidic. Some make disinfectant claims, and others do not. Although worldwide bathroom cleaners are commonly packaged similarly to dilutable allpurpose cleaners in squared or handled bottles, in North America this particular subset of specialty cleaners is dominated by trigger spray packaging. 1. Alkaline Bathroom Cleaners Alkaline bathroom cleaners are direct descendants of the allpurpose cleaners. They tend to have somewhat higher builder levels than modern allpurpose cleaners, presumably to try to chelate some of the hard water ions that contribute so significantly to tough bathroom soils. Many of these types of cleaners also have disinfectant claims. Bleach bathroom cleaners fit this general description, but because of their destaining ability are discussed in a later section. This category includes general bathroom cleaners that use alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chlorides as their disinfecting agent. Use of this quat to achieve disinfectant places the constraint of nonanionic ingredients on the formulation. Generally nonionic surfactants are used. These cleaners, like their disinfectant
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and nondisinfectant allpurpose cleaning forerunners, have moderate soap scum removal abilities and poor water stain cleaning. However, they do find application in areas where many surfaces are acid sensitive [131], such as countries where many bathroom surfaces are marble. Still, the most activity in bathroom cleaners recently has been in acidic bathroom cleaners. 2. Acidic Bathroom Cleaners Acidic bathroom cleaners have some distinct advantages to common bathroom soils. First, the main matrix for the soil referred to as “soap scum” is soap that has been precipitated for water hardness ions. Embedded in this matrix may be skin flakes, lint, or dirt, for example (see Fig. 5), but the waxy precipitated soap serves to hold the mass together and make it adhere to surfaces. Acid can work to reverse this chemical reaction, turning some part of the soap fatty acids into liquid components (notably oleic acid). This would serve to soften the soil overall and thereby make it more easily removed. Second, if there were any ion bridging of the soil to a receptive surface (ceramic), similar to the bridging effects found in ore flotation, then strong acid could be used to disrupt this bonding, freeing the soil from the surface. Acid is also effective at dissolving hard water spots, stains, and encrustations, these being mostly CaCO3, Mg CO3, and similar salts.
Fig. 5 Photomicrograph of homegenerated soap scum. Magnified 50 times; visible are water spots (large circles), skin flakes (dark speckling), and fabric fibers within the soap scum matrix.
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There are also some minor advantages to acid cleaners. Although an acid cleaner can sting any open wound, in general moderate acid pH is kinder to skin than alkaline pH. Acids are generally more effective at removing rust or copper stains than alkaline products. The most effective of these acids, such as oxalic acid, have chelating effects that also aid in the cleaning action, similar to EDTA salts at high pH levels. Disinfectant quaternary ammonium surfactants are also compatible with acids, although the same restriction as to choice of cleaning surfactant holds at low pH as well as at high. It was long thought that the most effective pH for quaternary disinfectant action was high pH: hence its common use in alkaline bathroom and allpurpose cleaners. However, disinfection has been documented at a variety of pH levels depending on the organism [132]. However, acid also has one main disadvantage. Many bathroom surfaces may be acid sensitive. Certainly marble fixtures top the list; the beautiful shine of a wellpolished marble surface is easily destroyed by even one application of an acid cleaner. The cement grout between wall tiles is another sensitive surface. The modern addition of latex to the grout mixture helps resist acid attack but cannot stop it completely. In Europe, many ceramic tiles and enamel surfaces are also acid sensitive, prone to accelerated wear if an acid cleaner is used. As seen in the examples cited here, the use of more moderate pH values (in the range of 2.5–5) will slow the damage but it will not stop it completely. There is also a minor disadvantage to acids if used in trigger spray products. In these cases, the respirable mist produced by the sprayer may irritate the nose and throat of the consumer. This can be mediated to some extent by the delivery of the product, discussed later. The beginnings of this field are predictably centered around the kind of acid used. Very strong mineral acids are generally avoided in favor of better buffering organic acids. Indeed, several patents give claims that the performance of a higher pKa acid is superior to that of a strong acid at comparable pH levels [133]. A synergy between different acid mixtures [134] or the advantages of a particular acid are usually claimed [135,136]. The patent literature also gives examples in which this fundamental weakness of acids, their attack on certain surfaces, is claimed to be circumvented. Usually this includes the use of phosphoric acid or derivatives [137,138]. One recent invention cites the use of an esterase to generate acid under mild pH conditions to enhance cleaning performance [139]. Interestingly, many of these bathroom cleaning formulas began using zwitterionic, amide nonionic, and ethoxylated alkyl surfates just about the time that such surfactants were becoming popular in spray allpurpose and glass and surface cleaners [140–142]. They also use similar solvents to the all purpose
sprays, leaning heavily on the glycol ethers. Table 7 gives a comparison of alkalin bathroom cleaners. Figure 6 gives a general comparison of the soap scum cleanin types of formulas. One of the other problems of bathroom cleaning is that many of the surfaces with vertical. There should be an advantage to increasing the residence time of the cle One way to do this is to produce a thick foam with the cleaner by combining the right delivery system, usually a trigger spray or aerosol. The cleaner is formulated formed [143]. However, the foam cannot be too persistent or it becomes a rinsin Another way to increase the residence time is to thicken the product, usually with [145,146]. Once again, care must be taken to make sure that the thickened prod very interesting alternative approach gives a thixotropic gel that forms a waterim preventing the cleaner from drying out and thereby increasing the time of action o There are also cleaners that are formulated with polymer thickeners to reduce mi case, the object is to increase the particle size of the droplets formed upon sprayi number of droplets that continue to float in the air. The longer a particle floats, th TABLE 7 Spray Bathroom Cleaner Formulas
Ingredient
Examples
(
Anionic surfactant
Alkylbenzene sulfonate, paraffin sulfonate, ethoxylated alcohol sulfate
Nonionic surfactant
Ethoxylated alcohol, alkanol amide fatty acid, carbamates, amine oxide
Amphoteric surfactant
Betaines, sulfobetaines
Builder
Carbonates, citrates
Alkalinity
Sodium hydroxide, alkanolamines
Acid
Phosphoric, dicarboxylic, citric, sulfamic acetic
Solvent
Lower carbon number alcohols, glycol ether (Carbitol, Dowanol, others)
Disinfectant
Quaternary ammonium surfactants
Perfume, color, others
Water
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Fig. 6 Relative soap scum cleaning; experiments done with formulas at different pH values with and without glycol ether solvents.
consumer will breathe it. Considering the aggressive chemistry used in many bathroom cleaners, this can be irritating and unpleasant. Any cling given to the product on the surface then becomes a side benefit to reducing the irritation. However, thickening can also slow the diffusion of active ingredient to the soil or stain, thus counteracting the effect of increasing residence time. Therefore the benefits of reduced misting and increased residence must be balanced with rinsing ease and slowed diffusion. These properties can also be important for bleach sprays, as discussed later. Added benefits are also arriving in this field, paralleling their arrival in all purpose cleaning. The newest of these, as in allpurpose cleaning, is the inhibition of soiling [149]. One recent entry into the North American market claims to waterproof surfaces “to keep dirt from sticking and building up” [150]. This would be a desirable trait in bathroom cleaning: many soils are tenacious, the surface area to be cleaned is large, and the opportunity to resoil intrinsic to the use of the room. B. Mildew Removers Nonbleachcontaining cleaners generally show little effectiveness against the black stains caused by mold and mildew. Bleach cleaners are effective at removing this stain and usually have the added benefit that they tend to kill the
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offending organism at the same time. Oxygen bleach products are not apparent in this category, because they often lack the speed and effectiveness of hypochlorite bleach that the consumer is accustomed to using. Mildew removers are actually a subset of the general bleach cleaners described before, although they usually predate the bleach cleaners intended for general household use. The advantage of bleach cleaning specifically in the bathroom are that most of the major surfaces tend to be bleach resistant, the disinfectancy supplied by the bleach is highly desirable, and there is a prevalent, highly colored stain to be removed. Mildew removers are very closely related to the spray bleach cleaners discussed earlier. The main distinction between general household bleach cleaners and mildew removers is the concentration of bleach. In the household cleaners the bleach level rarely exceeds 2% available chlorine, but in mildew cleaners the level may reach as high as 3%. This is testament to the tenacity of the melanin stain that molds and mildews are able to produce, particularly in porous substrates like grout. Beyond this difference, the types and amounts of surfactants tend to be similar, as are the choice of alkalinity agent and the presence of any builders. These cleaners should not only be tested for their stainremoving ability but also for their soap scum cleaning. Although such alkaline products generally show poor soap scum cleaning compared with the acid bathroom cleaners, many consumers use them for general bathroom and tile cleaning. One of the main problems with these types of cleaners has been the mist produced by the trigger sprayer. The situation is similar to the irritation described for general bathroom cleaners. Although this mode of delivery contributes much to the convenience of the product, it also makes the product very unpleasant to use. The respirable particles produced with their high alkalinity and bleach can be very irritating to the consumer. One way to combat this is to thicken the product, and there is literature to show that this can be done with polymers [151] or with surfactants [152]. The important aspects to balance are reducing the mist produced by the product while still achieving a consumeracceptable spray pattern. If the product becomes very thick, the spray pattern often collapses to a narrow stream. For some uses, this kind of pinpoint application may be preferable, but for other consumers, a more broad spray pattern is expected. Newer products are also claiming not only to remove mildew stain or kill mildew but also to keep it from recurring. Once again, this is another incidence of the trend in household cleaners to give added benefits. Many products are so efficient at removing the mildew stains that a further step to ease the cleaning problem must be taken to differentiate new products. A commercial entry made using this claim also uses a packaging innovation relatively new to household cleaning—a dual bottle with a single trigger sprayer (Fig. 4b). Evidently the
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chemistries used in this product are not compatible on storage. One bottle contains the solution used to remove the mildew stain (bleach), and the other contains the ingredients used to keep the mildew from recurring. Both solutions are delivered simultaneously when the single trigger, with dual dip tubes, is pulled. Once again, packaging works with chemistry to give a new product benefit. C. Test Methods 1. Soap Scum and Hard Water Cleaning Methods The test methods for evaluating bathroom cleaners are very similar to those for evaluating allpurpose cleaners. The Gardner straight line abrader is still used, with sponges or other appropriate utensils for cleaning tests. The substrate usually used for evaluation is ceramic tile, this surface being generally representative of ceramic, porcelain, and enamel. The same equation is used to measure percentage soil removed after measurements with either a reflectometer or a glossmeter. In this case, as in allpurpose cleaning, the main discrepancy among cleaning methods is the choice of soil composition and application. Usually the soil is applied by being dissolved or dispersed in a solvent such as isopropanol or chloroform, and then sprayed on the surface. The soap scum is usually calcium stearate, calcium oleate, or calcium palmitate or a mixture of all three. It may or may not be mixed with other soil components. The most common is carbon black or charcoal, which also colors the soil so that it can be seen on a white tile [153]. Conversely, the pure white calcium fatty acid can be used on glossy black tiles. This last choice has the added advantage that glossy black tiles are often used for residue and shine tests. Hard water spotting is usually a much easier soil to clean than soap scum or mildew. It is related to soap scum in that it has the same root cause, hard water. Water spots may be produced by applying hard water (150 ppm as CaCO3, with a Ca/Mg ratio of 3:2) to a glossy tile surface. This should be allowed to air dry. Multiple applications of the hard water may be necessary to build a tenacious, visible soil. The ease of removal of the spots gives the strength of the cleaner. For more difficult hard water problems, such as lime buildup around water faucets, a quick test can be done. If a cleaner can dissolve a piece of chalk, it is a good indication that it can remove these kinds of scale. 2. Mold and Mildew Cleaning The last important bathroom soil is mold and mildew stain. A distinction must be made with regard to this soil. Cleaning tests are a measure of the cleaner's ability to remove the melanin stain produced by the organism. This is not necessarily a measure of the cleaner's ability to kill or retard the organism caus
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ing the stain. To do this, formal disinfection or mildicide test must be performed. The usual place for mold growth is the grout between wall tiles, so it is important that grout as well as tiles be included as the cleaning surface. A nutrient medium is applied to the surface, and this is inoculated with the organisms of interest (usually Aspergillus niger). The culture is incubated for several weeks, and then the surfaces are inspected for mildew growth. Cleaning tests may then be performed, with special attention going to the cleaning on the grout surfaces [154]. Alternatively, cleaners can also be tested for mold inhibition. In this case, the cleaners are applied to the surface before the introduction of the medium and microorganisms. The tiles are allowed to incubate, with periodic checks on the growth (or nongrowth) of the mold. For claims pertaining to killing mildew, controlling its growth, or general disinfecting action, local government regulations should be consulted. In the United States, this means following the tests set out by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [155]. The tests usually require production samples of cleaner to be used against test organisms grown according to specified methods. The application of the cleaner and the time of contact are usually also prescribed. 3. Other Tests The residue and shine, foam, disinfectancy, and surface safety tests are done as described in the section under allpurpose cleaning. Greasecleaning tests may also be performed with the bathroom cleaners because such bathroom soils as lipstick and bath oils have an oily component. The other nonperformance tests (eye irritancy and biodegradability, for example) are also outlined in the section on allpurpose cleaners. D. Toilet Bowl Cleaners Toilet bowl cleaners are also a product in which great specialization has taken place in the form of the dispenser. The most modern of the toilet bowl packages feature shaped necks that allow the product to be squirted directly under the rim of the toilet (Fig. 7). This allows consumers to keep themselves, and their hands, out of the toilet bowl. With more traditional packaging, the consumer would have to reach down in the toilet to squirt the product under the rim. Toilet bowl cleaners also include products placed in the toilet tank to be released on flushing into the toilet bowl. Many of these products are solid “pucks” or blocks and are beyond the scope of this review. Others are liquid formulas with very elaborate dispensing devices. The device can be built to release the cleaning liquid at the beginning or end of the flushing cycle. If delivered at the end of the flush, it usually is held with the water in the tank,
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Fig. 7 Modern toilet bowl cleaner packaging.
thereby imparting its benefits to the tank as well as the bowl. The cleaning liquids contained in the devices are generally very simple lowviscosity formulas. Their compositions are given in patents mainly devoted to the intricacies of the mechanical devices [156,157]. Typically they contain traditional anionic or nonionic surfactants (0.5–10%), perfume (0.01–1%), and high amounts of dye (1–10%). The concentrations are higher than might be expected because they are significantly diluted in use, either in the bowl or in the tank. The color of the water is used as a signal to the consumer that the cleaner is present (and is esthetically pleasing to some) and so is much higher than generally found in household cleaners. Sometimes disinfectant quaternary ammonium surfactants (0–5%) are used. Often, these kinds of products also make extended benefit claims (by virtue of their residence in the bowl) for inhibiting bacterial growth [158] or inhibiting stains [159]. Originally, toilet bowl cleaners, like allpurpose cleaners, were powders based largely on sodium bisulfate [160]. They were packaged in dispensers very much like powder abrasive cleaners. In fact, many products that have been mentioned in this review are used to clean the toilet. General bathroom cleaners, liquid and powder abrasive scourers, allpurpose cleaners, and even simple household bleach are used by consumers for this task. Modern cleaners specialized for toilet bowl cleaning, however, have one factor in common these other formulas generally lack: high viscosity. The viscosity of toilet bowl cleaners is generally between 300 and 1000 cP. Only cream cleansers have higher viscosities. When applied to the rim of the bowl, they gradually flow down the
sides. The high viscosity also increases the contact time of the cleaner with the su aiding in soil removal. The consumer need not spread the cleaner over the surfac scrubbing should be decreased. Other than this common denominator, toilet bow like general bathroom cleaners, are either acid or alkaline. 1. Acidic Toilet Bowl Cleaners Acidic toilet bowl cleaners are by far the largest group. The greatest cleaning pro outside of the obvious organic soils, is hard water buildup. Toilets function most as water storage tanks and therefore suffer the same evaporation and scale probl tanks. Acids are especially efficacious against this type of problem. The usual arr are used in this field (similar to those used in general bathroom cleaners), althoug levels are targeted. The use of oxalic acid, which is particularly good at removing be especially beneficial in this type of cleaner if rust stains are a local problem. A the formulas used for acidic toilet bowl cleaners is given in Table 8. Newer toilet bowl cleaner formulations are moving to the newer classes of surfac the rest of household cleaning [161]. More nonionic surfactants than anionic surfa used. These acid formulas are generally selfthickening, using a high concentratio electrolytes combined with the surfactant to produce the high viscosity. It is also i that toilet bowl cleaners give lower foam than allpurpose cleaners. It is desirable the foam disappear quickly. Nonionic surfactants are preferred over anionics for purposes. Thickeners, such as polyacrylates, are sometimes used to supplement t viscosity of the surfactant system. TABLE 8 Acid Toilet Bowl Cleaners Ingredient
Examples
Anionic surfactant
Alkylbenzene sulfonate, paraffin sulfonate, ethoxylated alcohol sulfate
Nonionic surfactant
Ethoxylated alcohol
Cationic surfactant
Quaternary ammonium
pH adjustment
Phosphoric, hydrochloric, oxalic, citric
Electrolyte
Nitrate, chloride
Bleach
Persulfate salts, hydrogen peroxide
Thickening agents
Polyoxyethylene, cellulose gums
Abrasive
Calcite, silica
Perfume, color, others
Water
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This is also one area in which peroxide compounds are widely used. Persulfate salts have long been used in powder toilet bowl cleaners, so that bleaching and acidic cleaning were combined in a single formula. Persulfate salts are now making appearance in liquid formulas as well. In one formula, it is claimed that the dilution on adding to the toilet bowl helps the cleaning because the pH level rises rapidly, destabilizing the bleach [162]. Disinfection is also a benefit desired by consumers in toilet bowl cleaning. This can be achieved with quaternary ammonium surfactants, as in bathroom and allpurpose cleaners. “Quats” are effective bactericides at both low (1–4) and high (8–12) pH values and so are compatible with very acid toilet bowl cleaners. One of the problems with disinfection is knowing whether the product has been used at the proper dilution, and one toilet bowl cleaner formula gives the signal via a pHdependent dye [163]. Similar to the technology used to produce cream cleaners, there are also formulas that can produce liquid toilet bowl cleaners with suspended abrasives [164]. The main difference between the cream cleansers and this type of product is that the suspending system should be acid stable instead of alkaline and/or bleach stable. 2. Bleach Toilet Bowl Cleaners The other category of popular toilet bowl cleaners are those containing bleach. The chemistry to produce these formulas is very similar to that for thickened bleach allpurpose cleaners. The most common examples uses amine oxide and anionic surfactant combinations to thicken the formula, sometimes supplemented by a polymer [165]. The formula can also be selfthickened, as in the acid systems, by the interaction of surfactant and electrolyte [166]. The same surfactants are used in these formulas as with other bleach formulas, and similar alkalinity agents. The bleach levels tend to be in the range of 0.5–5% available chlorine. New formulas have appeared in the patent art using oxygen bleaches instead of hypochlorite. These formulas have the advantage of low pH and therefore would be more useful for the typical toilet bowl problems, such as mineral, as well as having a bleaching ability that consumers find attractive. One of these formulas uses persulfate salts, long known as powerful oxidizing agents but difficult to stabilize as liquid systems [167,168]. Another approach is to use peroxyacids, such as peracetic acid, in which the bleaching agent and the lime scale remover are combined in the same compound, thereby combating the two most common toiletcleaning problems [169]. 3. Test Methods Not much is published on the subject of testing the efficacy of toilet bowl cleaners. References to “toilet soil” are made in some patent literature, but the details
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of the ingredients of the soil are not made clear. The efficacy testing is done by soil solubilization efficiency and, if bleach is present, soil discoloration. Tests can be made against hard water stains, as is described in the bathroom cleaning section. As with other household cleaners, the normal disinfectancy tests for a locality can be used. For intank automatic cleaners, the most important test is usually lifetime of the product. In the most brute force method, the product is installed in a real toilet. The toilet is then repeatedly flushed to determine how long the product will last, measuring either the persistence of some ingredient, such as color or bleach in the bowl water, or the physical remains of product in the tank. V. Conclusion and Future Trends The area of household hard surface cleaning has advanced at a rapid rate in 60 years. From its beginnings in simple soap powders, it has branched out into many types of specialized cleaners (see Fig. 8). It is at present a dynamic field,
Fig. 8 Lineage of specialty household cleaners.
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full of both formulation and packaging innovation. These advances tend to work in synergism, as in the development of trigger sprayers and spray all purpose cleaners. The following summarizes some of the highlights and future trends. In welldeveloped markets, the drive is to supply the consumer with greater convenience through added benefits, such as twoinone cleaners. Included in this trend is the combination of bleach with various allpurpose cleaners and cleansers. This is a recent development that gives the consumer more effective stain removal combined with traditional cleaning (solid soil removal). Although cleaning is always the main requirement, the household surface cleaners of the future will do more: prevent tenacious soil adhesion, reduce fogging, give more shine, and so on. Disinfection may be viewed either as an added benefit or as an integral part of cleaning. These kinds of added benefits are just making their appearance in household hard surface cleaning. Giving more benefits is at times at odds with the concomitant trend to give easier cleaning through greater chemical targeting of soils (grease or mildew) or special needs, that is, streakfree window cleaners. The chemistry needed to target these problems often limits the scope of their use in the household. An example is the inadequacy of window cleaners for overall grease cleaning in the household. Another example is the compromise of bleach cleaners: greater stain removal, but limited to use on bleachresistant surfaces. The overall direction is, however, to let the chemistry do more work and relieve the consumer of a mechanical contribution to the cleaning process. This is being achieved through continuing invention of new surfactants and solvents, studies of ingredient synergies, and the increasing use of polymeric ingredients for various added benefits. This, coupled with changing household surfaces, would account for the decrease in the consumers' use of abrasive cleaners. Liquid cleaners are now sufficient for nearly every cleaning job, leaving only special “tough” jobs for cleansers, such as very worn surfaces and bakedon soils. Dilutable allpurpose cleaners are also tending to become more concentrated, giving the consumer use and storage advantages. At the same time there is a proliferation of very dilute cleaners that exist as convenience spray products, largely as targeted cleaners mentioned earlier. Powder products for household cleaners are now in the minority of products and are decreasing every year. The household cleaning category in developed countries is dominated by the ease and convenience of liquid products. It is expected that the same trend will eventually emerge in developing countries. Packaging continues to evolve in this area in synergy with changing chemistries. Redesigns of toilet bowl cleaner bottles and the invention of the trigger sprayer have already greatly changed the array of products in the hard surface category. New dualchamber packages offer the most exciting possibili
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ties. Mixtures that have limited shelf life can be stored separately and dispensed simultaneously. These are prime examples of how new containers can augment the convenience, safety, or delivery of a cleaner to its target. The importance of packaging innovations to the field of household cleaners cannot be underestimated. More attention is being paid to the safety of household surface cleaners. There are at least three aspects of safety: less irritating to the consumer, less aggressive to the household surfaces, and more environmentally agreeable. The sheer volume and variety of chemistry in this field are challenging, and only promises to continue in that direction. Likewise, the increase in the number of products, and their overlapping claims should also continue. References 1. H. Heitland and H. Marsden, in Surfactants in Consumer Products (J. Falbe, ed.), SpringerVerlag, New York, 1987, pp. 333–349. 2. S. Wu, Polymer Interface and Adhesion, Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 343. 3. S. Wu, Polymer Interface and Adhesion, Marcel Dekker, New York, p. 347. 4. A. Somers, in Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Detergents: Global Perspectives (A. Cahn, ed.), AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 1994, p. 101. 5. Soap Cosmetic Chemical Specialties, September 1985, p. 43. 6. T. Branna, Household and Personal Products Industry, November 1994, pp. 71–72. 7. A. Somers, in Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Detergents: Global Perspectives (A. Cahn, ed.), AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 1994, p. 105. 8. H. Verbeek, in Surfactants in Consumer Products (J. Falbe, ed.), SpringerVerlag, New York, 1987, pp. 1–4. 9. Encyclopedia of Consumer Brands (J. Jorgensen, ed.), Vol. 2, St. James Press, Detroit, 1994, p. 66. 10. CRC Handbook of chemistry and Physics (R. C. Weast, ed.), CRC Press, West Palm Beach, FL, 1977, pp. B215–B219. 11. R. C. Odioso, in Detergents in Depth, 1980, Soap and Detergent Association, New York, 1980, p. 71. 12. B. J. Zmoda, US 3149078 (1964). 13. W. J. Gangwisch, US 3210285 (1965). 14. W. J. Gangwisch, US 3214380 (1965).
Association, New York, 1980, p. 71. 12. B. J. Zmoda, US 3149078 (1964). 13. W. J. Gangwisch, US 3210285 (1965). 14. W. J. Gangwisch, US 3214380 (1965). 15. T. Imanura, US 4284533 (1981). 16. A. Allan and A. J. Fry, WO 9405757 (1994). 17. J. M. Brierly and M. Scott, US 4397755 (1983). 18. J. M. Brierley and M. Scott, US 4530775 (1985). 19. B. P. Argo and C. K. Choy, US 5279755 (1994). 20. C. K. Choy, F. I. Keen, and A. Garabedian, US 5298181 (1994). 21. F. E. Chapman, US 4240919 (1980). 22. A. Straw, E. Cropper, and A. Dillarstone, US 4302347 (1981). 23. B. P. Argo and C. K. Choy, US 5279755 (1994).
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24. B. P. Argo and C. K. Choy, US 5346641 (1994). 25. R. D. Faber, US 5281354 (1994). 26. A. J. Lancz, US 4784788 (1988). 27. T. Instone, D. P. Jones, K. L. Rabone, and M. Shana'a, EP 524762 (1993). 28. Encyclopedia of Consumer Brands (J. Jorgensen, ed.), Vol. 2, St. James Press, Detroit, 1994, p. 131. 29. Encyclopedia of Consumer Brands (J. Jorgensen, ed.), Vol. 2, St. James Press, Detroit, 1994, p. 348. 30. Encyclopedia of Consumer Brands (J. Jorgensen, ed.), Vol. 2, St. James Press, Detroit, 1994, p. 425. 31. V. L. Lazsarowitz and A. D. Urfer, US 5308531 (1994). 32. E. T. Clayton, US 3882038 (1975). 33. S. Hirano, J. Tsumura, I. Imaseki, and Y. Kawasaki, US 3935130 (1976). 34. V. K. Rowe, Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology (F. A. Patty, ed.), Vol. 2, Interscience, New York, 1962, pp. 1543–1547. 35. D. W. Michael, US 5290472 (1994). 36. M. L. Kacher, US 4749509 (1988). 37. M. Siklosi, US 4287080 (1981). 38. P. Goffinet, US 4414128 (1983). 39. P. R. Garrett, T. Instone, F. M. Puerari, D. Roscoe, and P. J. Sams, WO 9404639 (1994). 40. E. M. Demessemaaekers, G. Bognoto, and G. L. Spadini, US 4017409 (1977). 41. I. Herbots, J. P. Johnston, and J. R. Walker, EP 160762 (1989). 42. K. Tsukuda, M. Toda, M. Saito, and M. Tsumadori, US 5013485 (1991). 43. R. D. Ellis, Y. Demangeon, and A. Jacques, US 4486329 (1984). 44. S. J. Ainsworth, Chemical and Engineering News, January 23, 1995, p. 36. 45. F. B. Malihi and N. J. Sparacio, US 4921629 (1990). 46. E. F. Lutz, D. L. Wood, and H. E. Kubitschek, US 4474678 (1984). 47. JP 94031402 B2 (1994).
36. 45. F. B. Malihi and N. J. Sparacio, US 4921629 (1990). 46. E. F. Lutz, D. L. Wood, and H. E. Kubitschek, US 4474678 (1984). 47. JP 94031402 B2 (1994). 48. U. Hees, R. Jeschke, and M. Weuthen, WO 9422998 (1994). 49. H. D. Soldanski, M. Kalibe, and J. Noglich, WO 9420595 (1994). 50. B. Brancq, in Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Detergents: Global Perspectives (A. Cahn, ed. ), AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 1994, pp. 147–149. 51. M. J. Rosen, Surfactants and Interfacial Phenomena, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1989, pp. 21–22. 52. J. Wegneer, EP 17149 (1980). 53. S. Cardola, S. Scialla, P. R. J. Geboes, L. G. Scott, D. Rapisarda, and M. Trani, EP 598973 (1994). 54. S. Scialla and S. Cardola, EP 598973 (1994). 55. R. J. Geboesp and L. G. Scott, EP 600847 (1994). 56. M. J. Carrie, W. A. Cilley, P. R. J. Geboes, M. Morini, L. G. Scott, E. Vos, and R. A. Woo, EP 616028 (1994). 57. D. W. Michael and M. S. Maile, US 5382376 (1995). 58. L. G. Scott and P. R. J. Geboes, EP 600847 (1994). 59. M. S. Maile and D. W. Michael, US 5350541 (1994).
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60. W. A. Cilley and D. R. Brown, WO 9410272 (1994). 61. Microemulsions: Structure and Dynamics (S. E. Friberg and P. Bothorel, eds.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1987. 62. J. T. G. Overbeek, P. L. de Bruyn, and F. Verhoeckx, in Surfactants (T. F. Tadros, ed.), Academic Press, New York, 1984, pp. 111–132. 63. J. C. Gautier and J. Kamornicki, US 4540448 (1985). 64. J. Klier, G. M. Strandburg, and C. J. Tucker, WO 9423012 (1994). 65. I. Herbots, J. P. Johnston, and J. R. Walker, EP 160762 (1989). 66. R. D. Faber US 5281354 (1994). 67. C. Blanvalet, M. Loth, and B. Valange, US 5075026 (1991). 68. S. T. Adamy and B. J. Thomas, EP 620271 (1994). 69. KirkOthmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed., Vol 8, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1993, pp. 237–292. 70. H. Heitland and H. Marsen, Surfactants in Consumer Products (J. Falbe, ed.), SpringerVerlag, New York, 1987, p. 340. 71. M. V. Jones, CA 1315196 (1993). 72. D. Colodney and D. B. Kenkare, US 4597887 (1986). 73. A. J. Lancz, US 3965026 (1976). 74. R. A. Muia and N. S. Sherwood, AU 48983 (1993). 75. L. Spaulding, A. Rebarber, and E. Wiese, CA 1329103 (1994). 76. P. Carlton and D. Davison, EP 137871 (1985). 77. U. Schilp, US 4337163 (1982). 78. B. S. Stoddart, US 4783283 (1988). 79. R. Hynam, J. Wilby, and J. Young, US 3684722 (1971). 80. A. M. Citrone, and S. B. Pontin, US 4282109 (1981). 81. T. G. Boufford and T. R. Oakes, WO 9423575 (1994). 82. H. Heitland and H. Marsen, Surfactants in Consumer Products (J. Falbe, ed.), SpringerVerlag, New York, 1987, p. 346. 83. A. D. Connolly, J. M. Eshleman, and E. W. Knaub, US 4230605 (1980). 84. H. R. Baker, E. S. Thrower, and D. C. Simpson, US 4690779 (1987). 85. M. S. Maile and D. W. Michael, CA 2107203 (1994). 86. B. D. Becker, US 4822514 (1988).
83. A. D. Connolly, J. M. Eshleman, and E. W. Knaub, US 4230605 (1980). 84. H. R. Baker, E. S. Thrower, and D. C. Simpson, US 4690779 (1987). 85. M. S. Maile and D. W. Michael, CA 2107203 (1994). 86. B. D. Becker, US 4822514 (1988). 87. D. Colodney, T. C. Hendrickson, J. H. Puckhaber, and R. J. Steltenkamp, EP 525892 (1993). 88. R. J. Steltenkamp, R. L. Hamilton, R. A. Cooper, and C. Schal, J. Med. Entomol. 29(2), 141–149 (1992). 89. T. F. Connors, MNDA—Achieving Repellency Benefits in a Cleaning Product, August 29September 2, 1994, 5th European Congress of Entomology, University of York, York, United Kingdom, ISBN 145. 90. M. F. T. Evers, P. R. J. Geboes, D. W. Michael, M. Morini, N. J. Policicchio, V. Reniers, and L. G. Scott, EP 616027 (1994). 91. M. F. T. Evers, P. R. J. Geboes, M. Morini, V. Reniers, and L. G. Scott, EP 616026 (1994). 92. ASTM D 4488–89, Vol. 15.04, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1992.
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93. ASTM D 4828–92, Vol 06.01, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1992. 94. F. B. Malihi and N. J. Sparacio, US 4921629 (1990). 95. E. F. Lutz, D. L. Wood, and H. E. Kubitschek, US 4474678 (1984). 96. R. D. Ellis, Y. Demangeon, and A. Jacques, US 4486329 (1984). 97. W. L. Hartman, US 4005027 (1977). 98. D. W. Michael, US 5342549 (1994). 99. Consumer Reports, September 1993, p. 589. 100. F. K. Rubin, D. V. Blarcom, and D. J. Fox, US 4396525 (1983). 101. C. P. McClain, in Surfactant Science Series (W. G. Cutler and R. G. Davis, ed.), Vol. 5, Part II, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1975, p. 542. 102. Ross Miles Foam Test, ASTM D1173–53, Vol 15.04, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1992. 103. D. L. Fredell, in Surfactant Science Series (J. Cross and E. J. Singer, eds.), Vol. 53, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1994, pp. 36–38. 104. Code of Federal Regulations, Data Requirements for the Registration of Pesticides, 40CFR, Parts 152, 153, 156, 158, 162 and 163, U.S. Government Printing Office. 105. R. D. Swisher, in Surfactant Science Series, Vol. 18, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1987. 106. R. C. Odioso, in Detergents in Depth, 1980, Soap and Detergent Association, New York, 1980, p. 70. 107. D. E. Clarke, US 4508635 (1985). 108. H. R. Baker, E. S. Thrower, and D. C. Simpson, US 4690779 (1987). 109. M. E. Stonebraker and S. P. Wise, US 3463735 (1969). 110. A. Garabedian, C. S. Mills, and W. P. Sibert, US 5252245 (1993). 111. M. S. Maile and R. A. Masters, CA 2109188 A (1994). 112. D. Barby, D. E. Clarke, and J. L. Lloyd, and Z. Haq, US 4448704 (1984). 113. P. K. Church, US 4315828 (1982). 114. E. Kiewert, K. Disch, and J. Wegner, US 4343725 (1982). 115. P. Barone, M. T. Endres, and S. B. Patel, US 5254284 (1993). 116. D. C. Heckert and D. M. Watt, US 4005028 (1977).
113. P. K. Church, US 4315828 (1982). 114. E. Kiewert, K. Disch, and J. Wegner, US 4343725 (1982). 115. P. Barone, M. T. Endres, and S. B. Patel, US 5254284 (1993). 116. D. C. Heckert and D. M. Watt, US 4005028 (1977). 117. P. K. Church, US 4213873 (1980). 118. P. K. Church, US 4315828 (1982). 119. V. E. Alvarez and D. L. Conkey, US 4539145 (1985). 120. D. W. Michael, US 5108660 (1992). 121. R. A. Masters and M. S. Maile, CA 2109188 (1994). 122. D. W. Michael, US 5342549 (1994). 123. D. W. Michael and D. R. Bacon, WO 9111505 (1991). 124. M. S. Maile and R. A. Masters, EP 595383 (1994). 125. J. J. Burke and R. R. Roelofs, US 5126068 (1992). 126. D. W. Michael, US 5342549 (1994). 127. P. Barone, M. T. Endres, and S. B. Patel, US 5254284 (1993). 128. R. A. Master and M. S. Maile, CA 2109188 (1994).
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129. H. R. Baker, E. S. Thrower, and D. C. Simpson, US 4690779 (1987). 130. A. Somers, in Proceedings of the 3rd World Conference on Detergents: Global Perspectives (A. Cahn, ed.), AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, 1994, p. 99. 131. G. Blandiaux, M. Loth, and J. Massaux, US 5254290 (1993). 132. D. L. Fredell, in Surfactant Science Series (J. Cross and E. J. Singer, eds.), Vol. 53, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1994, p. 50. 133. R. L. Blum and S. B. Kong, EP 606712 (1994). 134. S. K. Casey, EP 0130786 (1984). 135. E. Vos, EP 0496188 (1992). 136. G. Blandiaux, M. Thomas, B. Valange, and T. Michel, US 5294364 (1994). 137. H. W. Aszman, C. E. Buck, and C. H. Everhart, US 4501680 (1985). 138. G. Blandiaux, M. Thomas, and B. Valange, US 5039441 (1991). 139. H. B. Kaiserman and M. T. Tallman, US 5308529 (1994). 140. W. A. Cilley and C. G. Linares, US 5061393 (1991). 141. M. J. Carrie, W. A. Cilley, R. A. Masters, D. W. Michael, and E. Vos, WO 941772 (1994). 142. R. A. Woo, M. J. Carrie, W. A. Cilley, R. A. Masters, D. W. Michael, and E. Vos, US 5384063 (1995). 143. C. H. Schramm, US 4692276 (1987). 144. A. B. Frusi, A. J. Fry, and D. P. Jones, WP 9409108 (1994). 145. M. J. Carrie, A. Koenig, and E. Vos, EP 0601990 (1994). 146. R. L. Blum and S. B. Kong, EP 0606712 (1994). 147. J. A. Bolan, US 4207215 (1980). 148. G. T. Bona, C. A. Keller, S. E. Lentsch, and V. F. Man, US 5364551 (1994). 149. R. H. Lohr and L. W. Morgan, US 4347151 (1982). 150. H. C. Carson, Household and Personal Products Industry, November 1993, p. 42. 151. C. K. Choy, and A Garabedian, EP 0606707 (1994). 152. C. K. Choy and P. F. Reboa, CA 2104817 (1994). 153. M. P. Siklosi, EP 179574 (1986).
1993, p. 42. 151. C. K. Choy, and A Garabedian, EP 0606707 (1994). 152. C. K. Choy and P. F. Reboa, CA 2104817 (1994). 153. M. P. Siklosi, EP 179574 (1986). 154. Consumer Reports, 56(9), 603–605 (1991). 155. Code of Federal Regulations, Data Requirements for the Registration of Pesticides 40CFR, Parts 152, 153, 156, 158, 162 and 163, U.S. Government Printing Office. 156. G. M. Gatarz, US 4302580 (1989). 157. A. Leardi, US 4296503 (1981). 158. R. Carmello, B. A. Salka, and G. G. Corey, US 3897357 (1975). 159. R. I. Kaplan, US 4861511 (1987). 160. R. C. Odioso, in Detergents in Depth, 1980, Soap and Detergent Association, New York, 1980, p. 72. 161. A. H. Malik and A. D. Urfer, US 4683074 (1987). 162. G. O. Bianchetti, S. Campestrini, F. DiFuria, and S. Scialla, EP 598694 (1994). 163. T. Stirling, CA 1329751 C (1994). 164. C. K. Choy and B. A. Sudbury, US 4561993 (1985). 165. L. M. Finley and S. H. Iding, US 5348682 (1994).
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166. C. K. Choy, US 5279758 (1994). 167. G. O. Bianchetti, S. Campestrini, F. DiFuria, and S. Scialla, EP 598694 (1994). 168. C. Overton and P. E. Figdore, EP 199385 (1986). 169. N. F. Cooper, GB 2273105 (1993).
14 Manufacture of Liquid Detergents R. S. ROUNDS Fluid Dynamics, Inc., Piscataway, New Jersey I. Introduction II. Structured and Unstructured Liquid Detergent Delivery Systems III. Liquid Detergent Process Patent Technology IV. Continuous Versus Batch Process V. Unit Operations in Liquid Detergent Manufacture A. Transport phenomena in agitated vessels B. Product shelf life VI. Summary References
I. Introduction Commercial liquid detergents are available to consumers as low, moderate, an Newtonian and nonNewtonian solutions, freeflowing or thick, opaque dispersio pastes. Despite the differences in composition and consistency of these diverse d systems, the manufacturing processes typically involve the same fundamental unit Viscous nonNewtonian dental creams and lowviscosity Newtonian hard surfac example, both require dispersive and distributive mixing, dissolution of various co heat transfer for heating and cooling, solids and liquids conveying, pipeline transp and filling. The primary differentia
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tion in the processing of these various products lies in the industrial equipment required for each unit operation and the difficulty of each operation. Many, if not all, transport functions and corresponding unit operations in the processing of liquid detergents are linked to rheology. This is most apparent from mathematical simulations and dimensional analyses used to describe these phenomena in manufacturing. Depending on the delivery system of a liquid detergent selected for a specific consumer application, mass transfer, heat exchange, and fluid flow or mixing characteristics can be cumbersome, and generally, manufacturing conditions are selected to minimize any obstacles created by adverse fluid dynamics. In this chapter, we review basic process requirements for both structured and unstructured liquid detergents. In addition to an overview of the process patent literature, a general review is provided for the manufacture and handling of both Newtonian and nonNewtonian fluid compositions. II. Structured and Unstructured Liquid Detergent Delivery Systems The physicochemical state of a liquid detergent frequently determines manufacturing requirements and, for the purposes of this review, we adopt the adopt the nomenclature of van de Pas [1] and broadly partition liquid detergents into two general material categories: structured versus unstructured liquid detergents. The unstructured fluid category includes both Newtonian and marginally nonNewtonian single and multiplephase detergents, in which the dispersed phases are not highly interactive and the volume fraction of the total dispersed phase is relatively low. These products may show minor deviation from Newtonian behavior but display neither significant elasticity nor time dependent shear effects. Fluids of this type can generally be processed as Newtonian fluids. This broad liquid detergent classification includes many but certainly not all personal and household care liquid detergents, including certain shampoos, conditioners, lightduty liquid laundry detergents, hard surface cleaners, and hand dishwashing detergents. The second category, structured detergents, refers to highly nonNewtonian, viscoelastic dispersions, including physically or chemically crosslinked gels, which is an increasingly popular form of both personal and household care products. These complex fluids may exhibit yield stresses and shear effects, such as thixotropy, rheopexy, pseudoplasticity, and dilatancy, and generally are viscoelastic products with appreciable elasticity. Dispersions and emulsions are common with this product segmentation. For example, dental creams exemplify the “structured detergent” category, in addition to phosphate and certain nonphosphate built heavyduty detergents, fabric softeners, and select shampoos, conditioning shampoos, conditioners, automatic dishwashing liquids, and so on.
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Experience has shown structured fluids to be more difficult to manufacture because of the complexity of their rheological profiles. In addition to elasticity, dilatancy, and rheopexy, certain structured fluid compositions may exhibit solidlike properties in the quiescent state and other flow anomalies under specific flow conditions. For emulsions and solid particulate dispersions, near the maximum packing volume fraction of the dispersed phase, for example, yield stresses may be excessive, severely limiting or prohibiting flow under gravity, demanding special consideration in nearly all unit operations. Such fluids pose problems in pumping, mixing, filling, and filtrations and in storage or holding vessels, with potential for a negative cumulative effect on both heat and mass transfer. In addition, impaired drainage characteristics can contribute to material loss during production, increasing operating costs substantially. It is understood that manufacturing of liquid detergents that are unstructured in their commercial form may involve intermediate streams that are, in fact, structured fluids, such as surfactant solutions at high active concentrations, within anisotropic mesophase boundaries, or concentrated polymeric solutions and gels. Whether the source is raw material, premix, or final product, manufacturing operations for each of these classifications are discussed with a focus on any specific requirements or limitations as a result of the physicochemical form. III. Liquid Detergent Process Patent Technology Patent activity is very aggressive in the personal and household care detergent industry, based on the total number of worldwide patents issued annually. A review of the current patent literature highlights the complexity of liquid detergent compositions and their manufacturing requirements. In process technology, the influence of process variables on product efficacy, stability, and viscosity control is common patent subject matter, disclosed for both structured and unstructured systems. Liquid detergent process patents frequently define both compositional and process requirements, such as raw material concentrations and specifications, order of addition of critical components, thermal history, premix or adjuvant preparation methods, product or process stabilizers, distributive and dispersive mixing requirements, and process instrumentation. These patents apply to the production of primary raw material constituents, such as surfactants, builders, conditioning agents, rheology regulators, hydrotropes, disinfectants, and bleach additives in addition to the specification of fully formulated detergent systems. One patent for the manufacture of a liquid detergent composition, containing surfactant and water insolubles, describes air injection for increased dispersion stability [2]. The preparation of admixtures is disclosed, in addition to the process for air incorporation. Also issued is a process patent for the produc
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tion of a pearlescent aqueous dispersion, containing fatty acid glycol ester and a wetting agent, for use in shampoos, hair rinses, cosmetics, and other detergents [3]. The primary advantage of the process described is pearlescence achieved in the absence of crystallization. In a further example, a patent has been granted for the production of an opalescent, stable dispersion obtained through multistage emulsion polymerization of nvinylpyrrolidone and styrene, using both anionic and nonionic emulsifiers, for use in bath foams, shampoos, and various cosmetic preparations [4]. Process requirements maximizing product stability are often disclosed in the liquid detergent patent literature. In one example, Neutrogena Corporation has been assigned a patent for a coal tar shampoo prepared with a novel, reproducible, and specific process whereby detergent clarity, color, and viscosity are maintained for extended periods of time [5]. A patent describing the process for the production of a stable liquid detergent containing surfactant, aluminosilicate, a watersoluble detergent builder, and a stabilizing agent discloses the partial gelatinization of an aqueous zeolite mixture to promote dispersion stability [6]. Dispersion stability is also the subject of a patent issued to the ColgatePalmolive Company for stable fabricsoftening heavyduty liquid detergents, including the process for the manufacture thereof [7,8]. Further, a patent has been issued to Lever Brothers for the process of making a colorfast heavyduty liquid detergent, whereby the sequence of addition of the builder is specified [9]. It is noted that the builder is required to be added to the batch process vessel before the neutralization of the anionic detergent, from acid to salt, by an alkalimetal hydroxide. Advantages include rapid neutralization, with a potential for reduced batch cycle time. A process for the preparation of an aqueous liquid detergent compositions formulated with clay as a fabric softener is described in a patent issued to Conopco, Inc., yielding a stable finished product with no undesirable increase in viscosity following clay incorporation [10]. In structured fluid detergent delivery systems, considerable effort is directed at maintaining or enhancing product shelf life and phase stability, and the patent literature teaches various methods intended to increase the physical stability of surfactantbased compositions. One technology presented in the patent literature imparts an integral physicochemical microstructure within the detergent system for the retardation of phase separation. For these detergent systems, processing requirements are frequently vital to the formation of the required internal ordering of product components. In this notable example, the use of aqueous dispersions of a multilayered lamellar liquid crystal phase to stabilize structured liquid detergent systems has been proposed and several patents issued [11–15]. In the proposed examples, which are anionic/nonionic surfactant paired compositions, both rheopexy and thixotropy are found to occur. High shear is required during detergent manufacture to obtain the appropriate lamellar
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liquid crystal particle size distribution, and it is suggested that a high shear device in a recirculation loop can be applied if the shear rate is greater than 1000 s1, preferably within the range of 4000–15,000 s1. As taught in these patents, mixing is the strategic engineering element to successfully producing this stable, internally structured liquid detergent. Several patents have also been assigned to the ColgatePalmolive Company for a linear viscoelasticity aqueous liquid automatic dishwasher detergent composition with exceptionally good physical stability [16,17] and a process for producing the linear viscoelastic detergent [18]. This patent discloses the dispersal of a crosslinked polyacrylic acid in water, neutralization and gelation with alkali metal hydroxide, addition of builder and silicate, and emulsification of fatty acid and detergent in an aqueous solvent. Further, air incorporation to the gel is disclosed further to promote dispersion stability. The importance of order of addition of detergent components throughout the mixing process as a critical process variable is demonstrated in a patent issued by Unilever for the incorporation of perfumes in liquid detergents in laundry and personal care products via a structured emulsified liquid crystalline or vesicle delivery vehicle [19]. The selective premixing of various components is further cited as a prerequisite for the process of manufacturing structured lamellar concentrated heavyduty liquid detergent compositions in an additional patent issued to the Lever Brothers Co. [20]. By strict adherence to component order of addition and premix compositions, viscosity can be reduced and draining characteristics improved. Steady shear viscosity data at 21 s1 is included in the patent, defining the criteria for stability. Lever Brothers Co. has also been assigned a patent for the process of producing an anticorrosion aqueous liquid detergent composition containing particulate alkalimetal silicate. This detergent contains 5–25% soap and/or synthetic detergent and 5–40% detergent builder [21]. A process patent has also been issued for the making of a siliconecontaining shampoo, detailing the thermal requirements of various adjuvants and the final mixing process [22]. Numerous patents exist for the manufacture of specific surfactants and other raw materials used in the formulation of liquid detergents. For example, a patent has been granted for the design of a reactor and process of saponification [23], claimed to the applicable to the preparation of various liquid detergent cleaning agents. In this patent, saponification is described for batch processing on a semicontinuous basis. Another example is a patent describing the efficient manufacture of an amphoteric surfactant for use in shampoos by reacting aminocontaining compounds with acid halide alkali salt [24]. Further, a patent has been issued for the production of a fatty acid monoglyceride monosulfate salt surfactant describing the complete sulfation of glycerol, reaction with fatty acid, hydrolysis, and neutralization [25]. Advantages of this process include reduced concentration of sulfating agent and high active concentration with low inor
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ganic sulfate concentration. The Procter & Gamble Company also holds a patent for the production of alkyl ethoxy carboxylate surfactant compounds through the reaction of an ethoxylated fatty alcohol with a hindered base and anhydrous chloroacetic acid or its salt [26]. Use of this surfactant is found in cleaning compositions, such as shampoos, laundry detergents, and liquid dishwashing products. An additional Procter & Gamble patent has been assigned for the cosulfation of ethoxylated and unsaturated fatty alcohols producing acid sulfate compounds that, upon neutralization, form mixed surfactant systems for use in heavyand lightduty liquid detergents, shampoos, and other cleaning compositions [27]. Liquid detergents contain many product components, including surfactants, salts, soluble and insoluble builders, polymers, viscosity modifiers, fragrances, colorants, stabilizers, hydrotropes, and other ingredients, which are often interactive and capable of affecting product efficacy and synergistically influencing rheological attributes. Throughout the process patent literature, the manufacture of liquid detergents appears to require a regimented order of addition of ingredients, with the appropriate shear and thermal history, to obtain the appropriate consistency, appearance, stability, and performance and minimize product aging following manufacture. IV. Continuous Versus Batch Process Structured and unstructured liquid detergents can be processed batchwise or continuously, depending on the specific production and volume requirements. Unstructured liquid detergents, especially those lacking significant solid components, are well suited for continuous versus batch processing. Examples of such detergents may include certain shampoos and liquid duty liquids, including hand dishwashing detergents. With the development of highprecision mass flow meters, proportional metering systems, and inline multiplestage dispersers, both dynamic and static, continuous processing is frequently the optimum process selection. If well designed, the process can be adequately controlled to ensure adherence to specifications, meeting high volume production demands with favorable manufacturing costs. There are various minor components in most liquid detergents, such as colorants, pH adjusters, and fragrance, and metering of these low concentration yet critical components can be achieved with good accuracy in continuous operations. For pH adjustment, which frequently controls product viscosity, adequate sensors and product controls are required to ensure consistent product quality. Continuous processes depend on various types of mixing devices, both static and dynamic, to disperse and/or blend formulation components. Several commercial examples of inline static mixers for both turbulent and lamellar flow are shown in Fig. 1, exposing the internal flow elements, and an example of
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a commercial flow configuration containing three inline static mixers is provided in Fig. 2. The primary advantage of such mixers, namely minimum space requirements, is clearly seen. Continuous processes are not restricted to unstruc
Fig. 1 (a) Turbulent flow configuration inline static mixer. (Courtesy of LIGHTNIN, a unit of General Signal Corporation.) (b) Inline static mixer with mixing elements. (Courtesy of Chemineer, Inc.)
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Fig. 2 Commercial application of three inline static mixers. (Courtesy of LIGHTNIN, a unit of General Signal Corporation.)
tured detergents, and applications exist for structured systems as well. A dynamic inline mixer, applicable to the blending of highviscosity fluids, containing a helical ribbon impeller, is shown in Fig. 3. The dynamic mixing element has been removed from the inline flanged assembly and positioned on supports in a horizontal position to show the mixer impeller. In operation, the mixer would be rotated 90° and installed in the pipeline. In industrial practice, commercial liquid detergent manufacturing processes may occur on a semicontinuous basis through a combination of both batch and in line static and/or dynamic mixers. This may be the result of special process requirements in the preparation of product intermediates:
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Fig. 3 Inline helical ribbon blender. (Courtesy of LIGHTNIN, a unit of General Signal Corporation.)
Inorganic solids dispersal and hydration Polymer hydration and swelling Surfactant neutralization Thermal gelation of select components Liquefaction of component(s) Emulsification
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Thermal and temporal equilibration Ion exchange An example of a complete continuous process suitable for liquid detergent manufacture is provided in Fig. 4. This flexible and continuous manufacturing process can produce multiple product variants. Viscosity measurements, pH adjustment, level control, feedback process control to the metering pumps from the level controller at the buffer tank feeding the filler line, and an inplace water flushing cleaning system demonstrate the advantages of such production systems, in addition to the limited space requirements. These metering systems have found successful application in the production of fabric softeners, shampoos, dishwashing detergents, and other liquid detergent products [28].
Fig. 4 Complete continuous manufacturing process. (Courtesy of Bran + Luebbe, Inc.)
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V. Unit Operations in Liquid Detergent Manufacture The manufacture of liquid detergents involves many of the basic engineering unit operations common throughout the chemical process industries. Depending on the specific detergent formulation, each unit operation can contribute significantly to the physical, mechanical, and visual properties of the finished product. For this reason, quality control and manufacturing process controls are important, particularly for structured detergents. For structured liquid detergents containing multiple dispersed phases, such factors as particle size distribution of both solid and immiscible liquid components, particle geometry, hydration kinetics and extent of hydration, interactions between components, kinetics governing each association under diffusioncontrolled static conditions and shear environments, and anisotropic surfactant phases can determine efficacy and many consumerperceived product attributes. Several critical unit operations are briefly reviewed with an emphasis on the process requirements of each liquid detergent classification, both structured and unstructured systems, emphasizing momentum, material, and energy transfer operations. A. Transport Phenomena in Agitated Vessels Mathematical simulation of heat, mass, or momentum transfer in agitated vessels is often untenable, because of the threedimensional components of the material and energy balances and the large number of material and process variables. In such cases, dimensional analysis is the preferred method of correlation. Numerous references are available for a review of dimensional analysis in engineering applications [29–31]. Dimensionless groups provide an excellent overview of the critical parameters influencing heat, mass, and momentum transfer, and several are defined here: Dimensionless number
Definition
Reynolds number NR
DV /
Froude number NFr
V2/gD
Brinkman number NBr Nusselt number (heat)
V2/k T hD/k
Nusselt number (mass) Prandtl number NP r
Cp m/ k
Peclet number NP e
NRNPr
Schmidt number NSc
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where: D = diameter V = velosity k x = masstransfer coefficient Cp = specific heat (constant pressure) k = thermal conductivity h = heattransfer coefficient = diffusivity of B in A Using such dimensionless groups, one can easily deduce the importance of fluid properties, namely, resistance to flow, on many of the production steps in the manufacture of a liquid detergent. For example, the power needed to provide agitation in a mixing vessel, known as the Power number Np, can be expressed as [32] Np = ƒ(NR,N Fr,S i) where Si are factors relating to the design of the agitation system, that is, single or multiple impellers, agitator placement, and design. In mixing, fluid viscosity is clearly a significant material variable, influencing the power drawn during mixing. Similarly, under nonisothermal conditions, as might be experienced in heat exchange by forced and free convection in an agitated vessel, the equations of change for the energy function can be expressed as
The time rate of temperature is a function of the dimensionless groups, which include resistance to flow or viscosity as one of the physical governing the heatexchange process. In mass transfer, the primary variables to be considered include all physical properties, including density of relevant phases, viscosity, diffusivity. When liquidsolid mass transfer in agitated vessels is the interest, factors related to particle geometry, such as shape and size, must be considered, as well as process design, including vessel geometry, agitator configurations, and speed [33]. Because fluid viscosity functions is the distinguishing feature between structured and unstructured fluids, it is clear that rheology is a major factor in the processing of liquid detergents. 1. Momentum Transfer Momentum transfer involves all unit operations in which fluid motion occurs. The most common examples of this operation include pipeline transport, mixing, and the filling operation. In liquid detergent manufacture, mixing is un
the processing of liquid detergents. 1. Momentum Transfer Momentum transfer involves all unit operations in which fluid motion occurs. The most common examples of this operation include pipeline transport, mixing, and the filling operation. In liquid detergent manufacture, mixing is un
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doubtedly the most important momentum transfer unit operation, occuring inline or in agitated batch vessels [34]. Mixing appears to be a very simple and straightforward procedure, but it can be extremely complex [35–39] and perhaps the most difficult of the unit operations used in liquid detergent manufacture. Each mixer configuration imposes a strain distribution to the fluid being processed, which may influence the overall characteristics of the final product. As such, mixing can be the critical production step determining the physical and mechanical characteristics of the finished product. The physical stability of the product, immediate and longterm aging effects, efficacy, texture, appearance, and rheology are some of the important product characteristics that can be altered by the total shear or strain history a product experiences during mixing. Scaleup from laboratory to pilot plant through to production volumes becomes a significant challenge, because it is difficult to reproduce exactly the fluid velocity profiles and residence times, or total strain, a fluid experiences during its process history. Equally important is the influence of fluid properties on the efficiency and power requirements of the mixing operation. This is especially true of structured liquid detergents with appreciable elasticity and shear sensitivity. For these structured systems, there is a strong interdependence between rheology and mixing efficiencies. A basic understanding of the flow characteristics of the finished liquid detergent product and all intermediate streams or product components is a key to the selection and optimization of the mixing process. Research devoted to the processing and mixing of complex nonNewtonian fluids has not been extensive. This is unfortunate because many commercial fluids, including structured liquid detergents, can be nonNewtonian fluids, with appreciable normal stresses, and guidelines or process design criteria for viscoelastic fluids are generally unavailable. Most dispersions at high solids content and gels fall within this category, creating significant challenges in the design of an efficient batch, continuous, or semicontinuous manufacturing process. (a) Mixing of Structured Versus Unstructured Liquid Detergents. Several common radial and axial flow open impellers used in batch mixing of lowto mediumviscosity unstructured or weakly structured liquid detergents, are provided in Fig. 5. In addition to the type of impeller, impeller diameter, vessel height and diameter, impeller locations, and baffles are design variables to be specified for a particular application. Placement of baffles to minimize vortexing and facilitate mixing and the type and location of impellers depend on the specific mixing needs. Because of the size and scale of most industrial mixing vessels, multiple impellers are generally needed to obtain an adequate degree of mixedness. A simple schematic of a batch mixer is provided in Fig. 6, showing all relevant engineering dimensions.
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Fig. 5 (a) Pitch blade impeller, (b) highefficiency impeller, (c) straight blade turbine impeller with stabilizer, (d) welded disk impeller. (Courtesy of Chemineer, Inc.)
For highviscosity structured and unstructured surfactant systems, one example of an alternative mixer design, consisting of three topentering coaxial agitators, surfacesweeping anchor, counterrotational blades and rotor/stator homogenizer, is provided in Fig. 7. Details of this turboemulsifier are provided in Fig. 8, showing the presence of a powder inductor through the vessel bottom near the highspeed homogenizer turbine, variablespeed drive, jacketing
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for heating and cooling, and provisions for vacuum or pressurized operation. For highviscosity systems, common marine propellers and turbines are generally unsuitable, providing limited bulk flow to the process fluid under normal operating conditions. The efficiency of the mixing operation and the effec
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Fig. 6 Batch mixing vessel with baffles and dual impellers with indicated engineering dimensions.
tiveness of the flow field that is generated in the bulk of the fluid have a significant impact on blending times and the kinetics of these operations that are governed by effective mass, heat, and momentum transfer. For reference, Fig. 9 broadly summarizes the viscosity limitations of most commonly used industrial agitators [40]. Large jacketed 316 stainless steel construction mixing vessels with variable drive agitators are expensive. Because of the high capital cost, space requirements, and high operating costs associated with such vessels in batch operations, they are typically required to be multifunctional and capable of performing many of the manufacturing elements of a liquid detergent. At large production batch volumes of 10–20 or larger, this places a great demand on the impeller/drive selections and placement of these impellers and baffles within the mixing vessel. Most industrial batch operations do not utilize single vessels for the manufacture of a liquid detergent, and multiple vessels of various sizes and specifications are used to perform discrete functions. Vessels with and without tem
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Fig. 7 Ross Turboemulsifier. (Courtesy of Charles Ross and Son, Hauppauge, NY.)
perature control, may be selected to prepare polymeric solutions or surfactant premixes or dissolve various solid components uniformly before the final blending operation. Further, intermediate product components may be prepared in sufficient bulk to support multiple production batches. This is generally desirable when production of intermediates is time consuming, excessively increasing
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Fig. 8 Detailed schematic of Turboemulsifier. (Courtesy of Charles Ross and Son, Hauppauge, NY.)
Fig. 9 Viscosity limitations of various impeller configurations. (From Ref. 88.)
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individual batch cycle times. In continuous operations, this approach may also be applied to various product intermediate streams metered through a final multistage inline dispenser. This may be achieved with static inline mixers or dynamic multiplestage dispersers, depending on the specific product requirements. Use of multiple supporting vessels, frequently of smaller size, can reduce cost by application of special requirements, such as heat transfer or high shear, only where needed. In batch mixers, impellers impose flow, or momentum transfer, to the fluid mass contained within the vessel. The power consumption during mixing for a given fluid viscosity and density is proportional to the rotational speed of the impeller and the impeller diameter, and flow is achieved by the momentum transferred to the fluid by the motion of the impellers. Placement of the agitator is determined by the mixing requirements when the vessel is fully charged and also by requirements during batch filling and discharge. Agitator placement is coordinated with ingredient order of addition to limit, for example, excessive foaming in the presence of surfactants. The order of addition of formulation components can also be balanced to limit undesirable rheological properties and promote the formation of the desired microstructural state. For unstructured liquid detergents, standard methods can generally be used to size and specify mixing equipment. Pseudoplastic behavior with low order of magnitude normal stresses would most likely not present serious mixing problems. Structured detergents, however, and intermediates may require special consideration. Significant deviation from Newtonian behavior cannot be ignored in the specification of a production agitation system, because this can produce significant errors in the estimation of power requirements for a particular application. This is especially true of fluids capable of developing solidlike mechanical properties in the quiescent state. The influence of elasticity on the mixing unit operation is well illustrated by Prud'homme and Shaqfeh [41]. A correlation of dimensionless mixing torque versus Reynolds number is provided for three Newtonian fluids, two of which exhibit significant elasticity, as determined by the magnitude of the primary normal stress differences. For Rushton turbines, the results indicate a fourfold increase in torque during mixing for fluids exhibiting high normal stress differences, indicating that the fluid rheology must be considered in the assessment of torque and power requirements for various agitation systems. Power consumption is an important mixing design parameter, dependent upon impeller diameter D, rotational speed N, and fluid properties, including viscosity and density r, and power consumption of impellers is usually provided as correlations of power number Np to Reynolds number NR. For fluids exhibiting timeindependent powerlaw viscosity functions. = Kgn the generalized Reynolds number in agitation can be expressed as
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Power characteristics for the mixing of nonNewtonian fluids have been determined for various impellers and other critical mixer design variables using pseudoplastic, dilatant, and Bingham slurries and polymeric solutions frequently encountered in the manufacture of liquid detergents, such as clay dispersions, cellulosic, and carbomer solutions [42,43]. This research has also provided correlations of the mean fluid shear rate and impeller speeds for various impeller geometries and fluid viscosity functions. Typical agitators used in these investigations include anchors, paddles, fan paddles, and turbines in agitated vessels with and without baffling. Results clearly indicate that power requirements for mixing of nonNewtonian fluids can be much greater than for Newtonian systems. Power consumption and blend times in the mixing and agitation of Newtonian and nonNewtonian fluids are not equivalent, and in fact, blend times can be much longer for nonNewtonian fluids when comparing fluids with comparable apparent viscosity values. Through dimensional analysis, the dimensionless blend or mix time m be expressed as m
= ƒ(NR, N Fr, S i)
Su and Holland report that power input per unit volume and mixing time are substantially higher for pseudoplastic fluids than for Newtonian counterparts [44]. Godleski and Smith [45] report blend times nearly 10–50 times longer for nonNewtonian aqueous dispersions of hydroxyethylcellulose compared with equivalent viscosity Newtonian fluids using flatblade turbine agitators. Blending times for the pseudoplastic, timeindependent cellulosic fluids are also noted to increase even further in baffled vessels. This study suggests a strong dependence of mixing efficiencies on fluid rheology. There have been contradictory results reported in the literature, however, regarding the influence of fluid elasticity on the mixing unit operation [46–49]. Further research is apparently required to define adequately the influence of viscoelasticity on mixing in agitated vessels for a broad range of fluid properties and mixer configurations. Carreau et al. [50] have investigated the behavior of Newtonian, inelastic, and elastic nonNewtonian highviscosity pastelike fluids in helical ribbon agitators, showing that the efficiency of mixing both pseudoplastic and viscoelastic fluids is lower than for Newtonian fluids, decreasing significantly with increasing fluid elasticity. Ranking the three fluid systems, the efficiency rating is such that Viscoelastic < pseudoplastic < Newtonian
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As with open impellers, elastic fluids are apparently more difficult to process in helical ribbon mixers. To quantify this effect, the mixing efficiency of a highly elastic Separan solution is only 20–40% that of glycerol, which is Newtonian. The effect of fluid rheology on the power consumption on helical ribbon agitators has also been evaluated [51] and power consumption as a function of generalized Reynolds number for shear thinning but inelastic fluids defined. When shear thinning effects are small and elasticity is negligible, deviations from the Newtonian power curve are slight. At low Reynolds numbers, this is also true for viscoelastic fluids. At higher fluid velocities, fluid elasticity begins to dominate the power curve. Further, it appears that shear thinning delays the effect of elasticity on mixing efficiency for structured fluids. The transient and extensional nature of the flow field is stressed as a key factor in the increased energy required to obtain a required degree of mixedness. Fluids that exhibit both shear thinning and elasticity show deviations from the Newtonian power curves at higher Reynolds numbers than viscoelastic fluids with minimal shear effects. Power needed to maintain mixing may not be the same as the power needed at the inception of flow when processing structured liquid detergents. An interruption in the process sequence can introduce a transient power requirement quite different from the steadystate design criteria. The rheology of structured liquid detergents systems are quite complex and can introduce many variables not applicable to unstructured systems. When yield stresses are significant and delays are expected at any part of the mixing process, slip drive couplings to the motor drive may be required. This may prevent damage to agitator motors and shaft assemblies when agitation is restarted. For pumping, mixing, and any fluid transport operations, fluids with yield stresses require shear stresses in excess of the yield stress to initiate and maintain flow. Depending on the magnitude of the yield stress, this can be problematic. In a batch mixer, a sufficient shear stress exceeding the yield stress may occur only near the impeller, producing flow in the immediate vicinity of the impeller but with stagnation zones throughout the remaining fluid bulk. This has an overwhelming impact on the efficiency of the mixing operation and can be further complicated in the presence of baffles. One solution is to utilize large surface sweeping agitators, such as gate, anchor, or pattern mixers to minimize regions experiencing stagnation. Discharging vessels containing these types of fluids can also be difficult, resulting in residual material on the vessel surfaces that cannot be fully evacuated. For example, in discharging a vessel under gravity, a film thickness (z, t) can be calculated remaining on the vessel wall as a function of draining time t and distance from the initial fluid height z, as shown in Fig. 10. For Newtonian fluids, from the unsteadystate mass balance, the film thickness can be expressed as [52,53]
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Fig.10 Film thickness on vessel wall during drainage.
where: = viscosity = density g = gravitational constant As we would expect, film thickness is directly proportional to fluid viscosity and inversely related to density.
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For a comprehensive overview of the mixing unit operation, for both structured and unstructured fluids, various references are available describing the specific requirements for the design and specification of complete mixing systems [54– 75]. A general discussion of the effects of elongational flow experienced by a fluid during processing on product rheology is also available [76]. (b) Dispersive Mixing. There are liquid detergents that require specific particle size distribution of certain components to maximize efficacy and substantivity, for both solidliquid and liquidliquid dispersions. Examples of such products include hair conditioners, shampoos, conditioning shampoos, bodycleansing bath gels, and fabric softeners. In conditioning shampoos containing silicone oils, substantivity and effective deposition on hair are functions of particle size, ionic charge of the particles, and silicone oil viscosity [77]. Formulation and processing of these systems can be extremely demanding. Emulsions are difficult to process batchwise if a strict control on particle size distribution is required. Processing may also be hindered by the complex rheological properties that emulsions can exhibit. Very strict mixing controls are therefore not unusual to ensure that product during manufacture, at the filling line, and on the market shelf is within specification. Fundamental mixing studies on simple twocomponent systems has provided insight into the effect of mixing parameters on critical emulsion properties, such as particle size distribution. For example, Nagata [78] has shown the distribution of sizes of the dispersed liquid phase as a function of agitator speeds. As we might expect, a normal distribution occurs at higher speeds. In a similar study, the effect of surface tension was determined for several liquid dispersed phases from benzene to paraffin oil [79]. Because of the very broad distribution of shear rates that fluids experience in batch mixers, control of particle size distributions may not be possible. There are, however, alternative agitation systems that can be used in tandem to achieve a more controlled distribution of emulsion droplets or particulate solids. These include colloid mills, inline dynamic dispersers in recirculating lines, and other high shear flowthrough devices. These devices can be very successful in tailoring emulsion and dispersion characteristics. An example of a colloid mill with optional rotor/stator options is provided in Fig. 11, capable of producing stable emulsions to the submicrometer range. This rotor/stator design provides fourstage shearing action for effective dispersion and deagglomeration. Figure 12 details a twostage tandem shear pipeline inline mixer with two turbines and mating stators on a single shaft to provide greater high shear dispersal. Use of external inline mixers positioned in batch mixer recirculation loops is an effective process method for achieving a high degree of dispersive mixing [80]. (c) Pumping of Newtonian and NonNewtonian Fluids. For liquid detergent products known to be shear sensitive or containing particulates, pump selec
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Fig. 11 (a) Greerco colloid mill. (b) Standard colloid mill rotor/stator combination with plain, smooth milling surfaces for most emulsions and dispersions. (c) Specialty rotor/stator with grooved miling surfaces for viscous emulsions. (Courtesy of Greerco Corp., Hudson, New Hampshire.)
tion is an important process variable. Whether driven by centrifugal force, volumetric displacement, mechanical impulse, or electromagnetic force, an understanding of fluid exposure to high shear in close clearances is required. An internal schematic of a rotary gear pump is shown in Fig. 13, showing the close clearances between impeller surfaces and pump casing, with two alternative rotary screw pumps illustrated in Figs. 14 and 15.
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2. Heat Transfer Forcedconvection heat transfer is a common unit operation in the production of liquid detergents. Whether experienced in jacketed process vessels, agitated vessels with immersion coils, or other forms of heat exchange, there are multiple causes for thermal regulation during detergent manufacture. Temperature may be controlled to increase the dissolution rates of various components, accelerate hydration, moderate phase behavior of the product intermediates, regulate viscosity, or reduce yield stresses, for example. Many liquid detergent products contain components that serve as product viscosity modifiers, added to achieve the desired consistency of the commercial product. Cellulosic polymers, for example, are an excellent example of such an additive, and various polysaccharides are capable of gelation under specific thermal conditions. In such cases, heat transfer during manufacture may be required to complete hydration and effect the necessary conformational change in the select polymer system [81] in the appropriate aqueous environment. Products requiring controlled heattransfer process may include various dental creams, shampoos, built liquid detergents, and hard surface cleaners. Heat transfer may also be required to maintain isothermal or adiabatic conditions in the presence of endothermic and/or exothermic reactions as the result of mixing product components, surfactant neutralization, and other chemical reactions. In these cases, heattransfer requirements may be severe to minimize exposure of the bulk fluid to high temperatures for extended time periods, resulting in irreversible thermal degradation.
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Fig. 12 (a) Greerco 4 inch twostage sanitary tandem shear pipeline mixer. (b) Exploded view of tandem shear turbine/stator assembly. (Courtesy of Greerco Corp., Hudson, New Hampshire.)
3. Mass Transfer Liquidsolid and liquidliquid mass transfer is highly dependent upon surface area or particle size. Mass transfer is involved in simple wetting, dissolution, hydration, swelling of product components, ion exchange, electric doublelayer formation, dispersion stabilization through adsorption or absorption, and sur
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Fig. 13 Gear pump. (From Ref. 60.)
Fig. 14 Tworotor screw pump. (From Ref. 60.)
Fig. 15 Singlerotor screw pump with elastomeric lining. (From Ref. 60.)
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factant phase equilibration, among others. Both momentum and heat transfer are frequently concurrent in the effectiveness and efficiency of most mass transfer operations. (a) Solids Hydration: Builders and Polymers. Solidliquid suspensions are frequently encountered in the production of liquid detergents. For example, the chelating agent sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP), in anhydrous form, is a common builder in both laundry and automatic dishwasher detergents, forming a hexahydrate when exposed to an aqueous environment. It is known that material and process variables can influence phosphate hydration kinetics [82– 86]. The shear exerted on the slurry during hydration, rate of phosphate addition, order of addition of various components, the electrolytic solution environment, temperature, tripolyphosphate characteristics, including phase I/ phase II crystalline form, particle size distribution, and pH, for example, can influence the rate and extent of STPP dissolution. Formation of the hexahydrate may result in an increase in consistency of the phosphate slurry, limiting the solids concentration during processing. The rheology of phosphate liquid detergents is critically dependent upon the characteristics of the anhydrous phosphate phase I/II ratio, which influences the rate and degree of hydration. Modification of the hydrating characteristics of form II phosphate to minimize undesirable processing effects is the subject of a patent issued to Lever Brothers Co. [87]. The agitation rate and solids suspension should be sufficient to maximize available surface area, especially when mass transfer is occurring. The dependence of the masstransfer coefficients on relative power is shown in Fig. 16 [88]. The masstransfer coefficient is much higher when complete off bottom
Fig. 16 Dependence of masstransfer coefficients on solids suspension. (Adapted with permission from Ref. 88.)
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solids suspension is achieved. Even when suspension of solids is the process objective, as in phosphate hydration, for example, it is necessary to determine whether complete solids suspension and uniformity throughout the continuous phase is required or offbottom suspension with a solids gradient throughout the vessel is adequate. A general review of mass transfer in mechanically agitated vessels involving both particulate suspensions is provided in Ref. 89. Phosphate hydration in the primary detergent mixing vessel represents a good example of the challenges facing a process development or manufacturing engineer in the specification of a multifunctional mixing vessel. If we assume that the phosphate hydration or other solids dispersal will occur early in the manufacturing process, the immediate requirements of the mixing vessel is that an agitator is adequately positioned to keep all solids suspended during the hydration process. If this occurs as a highly concentrated dispersion with a minimum of solvent, solids suspension may be difficult to achieve and the extent of hydration limited, placing constraints on the impeller selection and location within the mixing vessel. A major difficulty associated with solids dispersion and hydration is settling in the event of a process interruption. Depending on the duration of the interruption, redispersal of solids may be difficult to achieve. An excellent example of this is provided in Fig. 17, showing the agitation times required to redisperse solids after settling [90]. Depending on the nature of the solid being process
Fig. 17 Agitation requirements to redisperse settled solids. (From Ref. 88.)
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ing, particle size and shape, degree of compaction, and impeller location, redispersal may not be possible. Adequate characterization of the slurry during process development is needed to anticipate such difficulties. Depending on the impeller location relative to the compacted solids region, precautions may be necessary to protect the agitator motor drive. In certain instances, compaction may occur when agitator motion is reintroduced as a result of the forces exerted on the settled solids by the surrounding flow field. Polymer processing during the manufacture of a liquid detergent represents another difficult processing step because certain polymers may undergo rapid hydration when introduced to an aqueous solvent. This complicates the mixing operation and may require a predispersion of the polymer with a second inert powdered ingredient or predispersion of the polymer solid in a nonaqueous solvent or high shear dispersion. This can also be achieved in a dynamic inline mixer through a transfer or recirculating line attached to a mixing vessel, as previously discussed, or a powder inductor, as shown in Fig. 8. High shear dispersion reactors or mechanical dry powder dispersers are known to reduce blending times favorably, while increasing the concentration of polymer that can be dispersed, even for certain hydrophilic carbomer polymers [91]. When mixing hydrating species, the order of addition of components can again be significant. Polymer hydration, for example, can be significantly hindered in the presence of specific salts. In general, with liquid detergents of limited shelf life, the order of addition of ingredients can be critical in finished product attributes. This is especially true of structured high solids dispersions. The order of addition can influence phase stability, rheology, and many other product properties. B. Product Shelf Life Liquid detergents can be dynamic systems in a metastable thermodynamic state during and following manufacture. Depending on the complexity of the formulation and concentration of surfactants, polymers, and other additives, changes in consistency, texture, appearance, and color, for example, can be experienced following manufacture, and this is not unusual for many detergent systems. Controlling this effect, however, is necessary to ensure consistent product throughout shelf life and represents the underlying necessity of effective heat, mass, and momentum transfer during product manufacture. For example, a product may exhibit a Brookfield viscosity of several thousand centipoise at the filling line, yet viscosity may continue to increase or decrease following production for a period of time. Most undesirable is progressive thinning or thickening for extended time periods. Depending on the mechanism responsible for the thickening or thinning behavior, this may be
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accelerated through effective heat and mass transfer at the relevant manufacturing step. Possible causes of such phenomena include continuing hydration of polymeric and solid species, occlusion of solvent in porous solids, and surfactant phase equilibration. Heat transfer may well be used to increase the rate of each of these effects during manufacture, thereby moderating any changes in consistency following production, driving the product to a more stable pseudoequilibrium or steady state. Heat transfer can occur in both batch or continuous configurations. Both types of processes require fluid motion to obtain an effective heat transfer to the bulk of the fluid. In batch processing using jacketed vessels, helical coils, or coils in a baffle configuration, for example, sufficient agitation is required for heat transfer through the medium; continuous systems rely on flow rate to achieve effective heat transfer to satisfy process requirements. Effective heat transfer in batch operations for structured liquid detergents may require scrapers or anchortype impellers to increase heattransfer coefficients in jacketed vessels. Effective mass transfer is as important because product stability can be seriously compromised in colloids and suspensions, both liquidsolid and liquidliquid phases, if the morphology of the interface is not properly formed and interactions sufficiently developed. Phase separation is the major consideration in such complex systems and is easily affected by poor process history. VI. Summary Liquid detergents are seldom in equilibrium during processing or throughout shelf life. Few of the reactions are driven to completion during manufacture yet continue throughout product shelf life. Ion exchange, crystallization, phase equilibration, adsorption, absorption, diffusion, and so on may continue to occur from the point of manufacture to the point of use. If these proceed without significant change in physical properties, there may be little reason for concern, unless efficacy is impaired. Unfortunately, however, these can result in viscosity increases with product age, induce physical phase separation, shift particle size distributions, or alter color and fragrance, for example, leading to product changes that are consumer perceptible. With a rigorous statistical experimental design during process development, many of these characteristics can be understood and successfully controlled. Both structured and unstructured liquid detergents have process requirements and limitations. The order of addition of ingredients and the shear history experienced during processing can determine the physical state of the detergent and ultimate stability. Any additional unit operations, such as pumping, pipeline transfer, and filling, must be defined in a manner that does not irrevers
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ibly alter the structured phase. The objective throughout manufacturing is to deliver a consistent product to the consumer with minimal variability encountered during production. Specification of raw materials used in the manufacture of liquid detergents is critical to controlling process effects. Although some detergents are relatively insensitive to broad fluctuations in raw material characteristics, others are extremely sensitive to minor variability. Apparent in the patent literature, surfactant chemistry can be a critical component. For example, when manufacturing with a surfactant/solvent composition near a phase boundary, a minor change in electrolyte concentration, surfactant composition, and concentration can significantly alter product characteristics. Mixing is an important unit operation in the production of a liquid detergent. Effective mixing of liquid detergents requires a basic understanding of the rheology of the system being manufactured. A preliminary investigation of the fluid properties, such as viscosity behavior, normal stress differences, time dependence or shear effects, yield stresses, and structural kinetics, including deformation and recovery, are relevant and necessary in anticipation of specific agitation requirements. As we have seen, the elastic effects are particularly important to identify and monitor during processing, and processing of liquid detergents, depending on the physical form of the product, can be a significant engineering challenge. References 1. J. C. van de Pas, Tenside Surf. Det. 28, 158 (1991). 2. Japanese Patent 60,076,598 to the Lion Corp. (1985). 3. H. Yamamoto, M. Kinosita, and S. Konisi, Japanese Patent 61,268,797 to the Lion Corp. (1986). 4. H. Auweter, A. Nuber, C. J. Tschang, and A. Sanner, DE 3,818,868 to BASF AG (1989). 5. J. Fong, V. Noukarikia, and E. Jungermann, WO 8,603,679 to the Neutrogena Corporation 1986). 6. M. Kukzel and J. W. Leikhim, US Patent 4,405,483 to the Procter & Gamble Co. (1982). 7. P. A. Grand, and P. N. Ramachandran, US Patent 4,619,774 to the ColgatePalmolive Company (1984). 8. P. A. Grand and P. N. Ramachandran, US Patent 4,469,605 to the ColgatePalmolive Company (1982). 9. L. R. Mazzola, US Patent 4,800,037 to Lever Brothers Co. (1987). 10. R. J. Green and J. C. Van De Pas, US Patent 5,002,688 to Conopco, Inc. (1990). 11. P. L. Dawson, C. Upton, and J. C. Van de Pas, WO 91/09108 to Unilever PLC (1991).
9. L. R. Mazzola, US Patent 4,800,037 to Lever Brothers Co. (1987). 10. R. J. Green and J. C. Van De Pas, US Patent 5,002,688 to Conopco, Inc. (1990). 11. P. L. Dawson, C. Upton, and J. C. Van de Pas, WO 91/09108 to Unilever PLC (1991).
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12. S. G. Hales, E. Khoshdel, P. G. Montague, J. C. Van de Pas, and A. Visser, WO 91/09109 to Unilever PLC (1991). 13. C. J. Buytenhek, M. S. Mohammadi, J. C. Van de Pas, and C. L. De Vries, WO 91/09107 to Unilever PLC (1991). 14. J. C. Van de Pas, Tenside Surf Det. 28, 3 (1991). 15. A. Jurgens, Tenside Surf Det. 26, 3 (1989). 16. A. Delsignore, N. S. Dixit, R. Rounds, and S. Makarand, US Patent 5,252,241 to the ColgatePalmolive Company (1991). 17. N. S. Dixit, A. Farooq, R. S. Rounds, and S. Makarand, US Patent 5,232,621 to the ColgatePalmolive Company (1993). 18. A. Delsignore, N. Dixit, R. Rounds, and S. Makarand, US Patent 5,202,046 to the ColgatePalmolive Company (1993). 19. J. M. Behan, J. N. Nejss, and K. D. Perring, US Patent 5,288,423 to Unilever (1994). 20. J. Potocki, US Patent 5,397,493 to Lever Brothers Co. (1995) 21. J. V. Boskamp, US Patent 4,539,133 to Lever Brothers Co. (1984). 22. G. M. Fieler and L. V. Stacy, US Patent 4,728,457 to the Procter & Gamble Co. (1986). 23. B. A. Bereiter, US Patent 4,671,892 to the Henkel Corp. (1986). 24. Y. S. Matsumoto, Japanese Patent 63,012,333 (1988). 25. F. U. Ahmed, US Patent 4,832,876 to the ColgatePalmolive Company (1989). 26. T. A. Cripe, European Patent 399,751 to the Procter & Gamble Co. (1990). 27. R. S. Matthews and J. F. Ward, WO 9,113,057 to the Procter & Gamble Co. (1991). 28. J. Gray, Soap/Cosmetics/Chemical Specialties April 1986. 29. R. B. Bird, W. E. Stewart, and E. N. Lightrfoot, Transport Phenomena, Wiley, New York, 1960. 30. B. S. Massey, Units, Dimensional Analysis and Physical Similarity, Van NostrandReinhold, 1971. 31. A. Klinkenberg and H. H. Mooy, Chem. Eng. Proc. 44, 17 (1948). 32. J. M. Coulson and J. F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering. Vol. 1, 4th ed., Pergamon Press, New York, 1990. 33. R. E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd ed., McGrawHill, New York, 1980.
31. A. Klinkenberg and H. H. Mooy, Chem. Eng. Proc. 44, 17 (1948). 32. J. M. Coulson and J. F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering. Vol. 1, 4th ed., Pergamon Press, New York, 1990. 33. R. E. Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd ed., McGrawHill, New York, 1980. 34. J. Falbe (ed.), Surfactants in Consumer Products: Theory, Technology and Apoplication, SpringerVerlag, New York, 1986. 35. S. Nagata, Mixing: Principles and Applications, Wiley, New York, 1975. 36. J. Y. Oldshue, Fluid Mixing Technolog, McGrawHill, New York, 1983. 37. V. W. Uhl and J. B. Gray, Mixing: Theory and Practice, Academic Press, New York, 1966. 38. A. H. P. Skelland, NonNewtonian Flow and Heat Transfer, Wiley, New York, 1961. 39. H. J. R. Bourne and H. Butler, AIChEI Chem E Symposium Series No. 10, MixingTheory Related to Practice, 89 (1965).
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40. J. Y. Oldshue, Fluid Mixing Technology, McGrawHill, New York, 1983. 41. R. K. Prud'homme and E. Shaqfeh, AIChE J. 30, 485 (1984). 42. A. B. Metzner and R. E Otto, AIChE J. 3 3 (1957). 43. A. B. Metzner, R. H. Feehs, H. L. Ramos, R. E. Otto, and J. D. Tuthill, AiChE J 7, 3 (1961). 44. Y. S. Su and F. A. Holland, Chem Proc. Eng. September 1968. 45. E. S. Godleski and J. C. Smith, AiChE J. 8, 617 (1962). 46. V. V. Chavan, M. Arumugan, and J. Ulbrecht, AIChE J. 21, 613 (1975). 47. K. R. Hall and J. C. Godfrey, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. 46, 205 (1968). 48. A. H. P. Skelland, Handbook of Fluids in Motion (N. P. Cheremisinoff and R. Gulpta, eds.), Ann Arbor Sci., 1983. 49. V. V. Chavan and R. A. Mashelkar, Adv. Transport Proc. 1, 210 (1980). 50. C. Y. Yap, W. I. Patterson, and P. J. Carreau, AIChE J. 25, 516 (1979). 51. P. J. Carreau, R. P. Chhabra, and J. Cheng, AIChE J. 39, 1421 (1993). 52. R. B. Bird, W. E. Stewart, and E. N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, Wiley, New York, p. 69. 53. J. J. van Rossum, Appli. Sci. Res. A7, 121 (1958). 54. P. H. Calderbank, M. B. MooYoung, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. 39, 22 (1961). 55. W. I. Patterson, P. J. Carreau, and C. Y. Yap, AIChE J. 25, 508 (1979). 56. W. S. Meyer and D. L. Kime, Chem. Eng. September 27, 1976. 57. L. E. Gates, J. R. Morton, and P. L. Fondy, Chem. Eng. May 24, 1976. 58. J. Y. Oldshue, Chem. Eng. June 13, 1983, p. 87. 59. R. R. Rautzen, R. R. Corpstein, and D. S. Dickey, Chem. Eng. October 25, 1976. 60. Perry and Chixton. Chemical Engineers' Handbook, McGrawHill, New York. 61. R. L. Bates, P. L. Fonday, and R. R. Corpstein, I&EC Process Design and Development 2, 311 (1963). 62. J. B. Fasano and W. R. Penney, Chem. Eng. Prog. October 1991. 63. A. B. Metzner and R. E. Otto, AIChE J. Vol. 3, No. 1, March 1957. 64. A. B. Metzner and J. S. Taylor, AIChE J. 6:1 (March 1960).
and Development 2, 311 (1963). 62. J. B. Fasano and W. R. Penney, Chem. Eng. Prog. October 1991. 63. A. B. Metzner and R. E. Otto, AIChE J. Vol. 3, No. 1, March 1957. 64. A. B. Metzner and J. S. Taylor, AIChE J. 6:1 (March 1960). 65. A. B. Metzner, R. H. Fees, H. L. Ramos, R. E. Otto, and J. D. Tuthill, AIChE J. 7, 14 (1961). 66. N. P. Chemisinoff (ed.), Encyclopedia of Fluid Mechanics, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, 1986. 67. F. A. Holland and F. S. Chapman, Liquid Mixing and Processing in Stirred Tanks, Van NostrandReinhold, New York, 1966. 68. A. H. P. Skelland, NonNewtonian Flow and Heat Transfer, Wiley, New York, 1067. 69. J. J. Ulbrecht, Chemical Engineer 286, 347 (1974). 70. G. Astarita, J. NonNewtonian Fluid Mech. 4, 285 (1979). 71. J. M. Beckner, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. 44, 224 (1966). 72. M. F. Edwards, J. C. Godfrey, and M. M. Kashani, J. NonNewtonian Fluid Mech. 1, 309 (1976). 73. D. D. Kale, R. A. Mashelkar, and J. Ulbrecht, Chem. Eng. Tech. 46, 69 (1974). 74. L. W. Gates and T. L. Henley, Chem. Eng. December 9, 1975. 75. J. M. Coulson and J. F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Vol. 1, 4th ed., Chap. 7, Pergamon Press, New York, 1990.
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76. M. van den Tempel, Chem. Eng. February 1977. 77. R. Y. Lochhead, Soap/Cosmetics/Chemical Specialties October 1992. 78. S. Nagata, Mixing: Principles and Applications, John Wiley and Son, New York, 1975, p. 126. 79. S. Nagata, Mixing: Principles and Applications, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1975, p. 127. 80. M. R. Baker, Chem. Eng. Sci. 48, 3829 (1993). 81. R. Davidson, (ed.), Handbook of WaterSoluble Gums and Resins, McGrawHill, New York, 1980. 82. A. F. Guerrero, J. M. Rodriguez Patino, V. Flores, and C. Gallegos, Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. 5, 3 (1991). 83. A. F. Guerrero, J. M. Rodriguez Patino, L. Albea, V. Flores, and C. Gallegos, JAOCS 66, 261 (1989). 84. C. Y. Shen and J. S. Metcalf, Ind. Eng. Chem. Product Res. Dev. 4, 107 (1977). 85. H. D. Nielen, and H. Landgraber, Tenside Det. 14, 205 (1977). 86. F. V. Ryer, US Patent 3,056,652 to Lever Brothers (1962). 87. D. S. Corliss, H. A. Himpler, and P. P. Carfagno, SoapCosmetics/Chemical Specialties January 1987. 88. J. Y. Oldshue, Fluid Mixing Technology, McGrawHill, New York, 1983, p. 234. 89. B. N. Upadhyay and V. Kumar, Rev. Chem. Eng. 10, 1 (1994). 90. J. Y. Oldshue, Fluid Mixing Technology, McGrawHill, New York, 1983, p. 113. 91. A. E. Hodel, Chemical Processing July (1991).
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Index A Acetyl trimethyl citrate, 299 Acidcombining capacity of bleached hair, 401 Acrylatelauryl methaacrylate copolymer, 268 Acrylic/maleic copolymer, 334 Activated peroxygen bleaches, 298 Activator, 7 Acusol, 339 Adequacy of preservation tests, 486 Aerosol OT, 189 AFNOR (Association Francaise de Normalization), 485 Aging tests, 486 Alcohol ethoxylates, 277 Aldehydes, 477 Alfonic, 277 Alkalinity, 286 Alkanolamide, 10 Alkylate, 273 Alkyldiphenyl oxide disulfate, 9 Alkylether sulfate, 114, 278 dynamic mechanical properties of, 114 Alkylisoquinolinium bromide, 389 Alkylphosphate ester, 11, 341 Alkylpolyglycosides (APG), 201, 249 Alkylpolyoxyethylene oxide (AEOS), 209 Alkyl sulfate, 279 Allantoin, 389
Alkylpolyglycosides (APG), 201, 249 Alkylpolyoxyethylene oxide (AEOS), 209 Alkyl sulfate, 279 Allantoin, 389 All purpose cleaners (see also Liquid all purpose cleaners), 467 All purpose liquids, 13 All purpose spray cleaners (see also Spray liquid all purpose cleaners), 488 formulas, 489 Aloe Vera, 11 Aluminosilicates, 287 Amido peroxy acid, 298 Ammonium lauryl sulfate, 384 Amphiphile aggregation, 179 Amphiphile compatibility, 58 Amphiphile efficacy, 52 Amphiphilerich phase, 57 Amylase (see also Enzymes), 290291, 344 Amylolytic enzymes (see also Enzymes), 6 Anisotropic particulate, 86 Anthocyanins, 342 Antibacterial liquid soaps (see also Liquid soaps), 422 key ingredients & functions, 414418 Anticorrosion agents, 356 Antidandruff ingredients, 388
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Antidandruff shampoos, 388 active ingredients, 389 Antifogging, 491 Antimicrobial phenolic, 11 Antimicrobials, 3 Antimicrobial soaps, 423 Antiredeposition agents, 4, 6, 303 test for, 307 Antisagging, 135 Antiseptic handwash, 423 Antisoiling, 491 Apparent yield stresses, 89 Aromatic borate ester, 296 Aspergillus niger, 501 Association concentration, 32 Atomization, 81 Automatic dishwasher detergents (see also Liquid automatic dishwasher detergents), 326 powder formulation, 327 Automatic dishwashing: mechanics and chemistry, 328 Automatic dishwashing machines: components, 328 European dishwashing cycle, 332 European vs. American machines, 329330 U.S. dishwashing cycle, 331 B Baby shampoos (see also Shampoos), 384, 388 Batch mixing vessel, 528 Bathroom cleaners, 13, 14, 494
B Baby shampoos (see also Shampoos), 384, 388 Batch mixing vessel, 528 Bathroom cleaners, 13, 14, 494 acidic, 495 alkaline, 494 test methods, 500 Benzethonium chloride, 389 Benzoic acid, 213 Bernoulli effect, 161 Betaines (see also Cocoamidopropylbetaine), 210, 384 Biguanides, 477 Binghamtype fluid, 93 Biodegradability, 459, 486 Biodegradable analog, 5 Biodegradation, 281 Birefringence, 101 Bleach activator, 7, 298 Bleach cleaners, 477 Bleach degradation, 343 Bleaches, 265, 297 Bleaching function, 7 Bleaching ingredients, 7 Bleach spray cleaners, 493 Bleachstable surfactants, 356 Bleach toilet bowl cleaners, 564 Body cleansing products, 429 Boronic acids, 296 Brighteners, 263 Bronopol, 213 Brookfield spindle viscometer, 148, 347 Bruggeman equation for dispersion of spheres, 90 Buffers, 272, 303
Bronopol, 213 Brookfield spindle viscometer, 148, 347 Bruggeman equation for dispersion of spheres, 90 Buffers, 272, 303 Builder, 4, 16, 17, 263, 265, 282, 334 calcium binding capacities, 335 chemical structures, 334 classes, 286 mechanism of function, 282 patents, 312 pKCa values, 335 sequestration capability of selected builders, 283285 Built heavyduty liquid detergents, 89 Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), 298 C Calcite, 470 Calcium sequestrant, 5, 14 Carbomer dispersions: microviscosity, 151 thickening mechanism, 146, 155 viscosity of, 148, 158 Carbomer resins: chemistry of, 135 copolymer of, 136 for automatic machine dishwashing gel, 130 hygroscopicity, 140 particle density, 139 scanning electron photomicrograph, 139
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solubility of, 139 technology, 135 Carbomers, 130 acid dissociation constant of, 141 bulk density of, 138139 crosslink density, 155156 dispersion in nonpolar liquids, 162 dispersion properties, 142 dispersion technique, 159 formulating with, 165 glass transition temperature of, 137 handling of, 158 intrinsic viscosity, 142 factor affecting, 142 values, 144 intrinsic volume swelling ratio, 145 microrigidity, 153 microstructure properties, 154 molecular weight of, 140 overlap concentration, 145, 147 particle size of, 138 powder properties of, 137 thixotropy indexes, 151152 thixotropic loop, 153 viscosity building by, 156 wetting time, 158 yield value, 148, 150, 151 Carbonate, 334, 338 Carbopol, 95, 163164 Carboxylated nonionics, 10
yield value, 148, 150, 151 Carbonate, 334, 338 Carbopol, 95, 163164 Carboxylated nonionics, 10 Carboxymethylcellulose, 4, 303 Carotinoid dyes, 342 Casson law, 452 Casson rheology model, 151152 Cellosolves, 474 Cellulase (see also Enzymes), 290291 Centrifugation, 97, 173 Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), 68 Cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, 385, 386, 391 Chain scission, 81 Characterization of liquid detergents (see also Liquid detergents): experimental test methods, 73 Chemical cleaning, 332 Chlorinated isocyanurates, 9 Chlorine bleaches, 342 Chromophore, 300 Citrate, 334, 338 Clays, clay softeners, 442 Cleaning efficacy, 281 Cleaning shampoos (see also Shampoos), 388 Cleaning tests for APC, 482 Cleansers, 468 Clear point, 239, 243 effect of sodium xylene sulfonate, 246 Climbazole, 389 Cloud point, 50, 55, 56, 239, 243 Cocoamidopropylbetaine, 210 Cocoamidopropylhydroxysultaine, 385 Cocoamphocarboxyglycinate, 384385
Cloud point, 50, 55, 56, 239, 243 Cocoamidopropylbetaine, 210 Cocoamidopropylhydroxysultaine, 385 Cocoamphocarboxyglycinate, 384385 Cocoamphopropylsulfonate, 384 Cocomonoethanolamide (CMEA), 210 Cocomonoglyceride sulfate (CMGS), 395 Coefficient of the Vand equation, 103 Collagen swelling test, 236 Colloidal dispersions, 90 Colloid mills, 162 greerco, 536 standard, 536 Colorless products, 248249 Complex fluids, 93 Concentrated products: dishwashing detergents, 252 LADD, 372 Conditioning agents: types of, 385 Conditioning mousses, 389 Conditioning shampoos (see also Shampoos), 388 Cone and plate viscometric fixture, 74 Consumer tests, 308 Contact angle, 218 Continuous manufacturing process (for liquid detergents), 522 Continuous vs. batch process, 518 Corian, 470 Coronary vasodilator nifedipine, 22 Cosmetic Toiletry and Fragrance Association (CTFA), 423
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Cotton, 11 Coulter counter, 139 Coupling agents, 3 CoxMerz rule, 93 Cream cleanser, 470 formulas, 472 Creep measurement, 72 Critical micellization concentration (CMC), 24, 182, 219 Critical phase, 53 Critical points, 36, 39, 55 Crosslink density, 96, 154 Crosslinked polyacrylates, 344 Crosslinked polymer, 136 Crosslinker, 136 Crosslink sites, 154 Cubic isotropic phase, 52 Cumulative patch test, 233 Cup retention values, 132 The cup test, 226227 Cyanuric chloride diaminstilbene, 300 Cyclohexylamine, 296 Cylinder test, 485 D Dandruff, 9 Dandruff control, 282 Decarboxylation, 138 Deep conditioners, 389 Deer variable stress rheometer, 113 Defoamers, 303, 341 Defoaming, 9
Deep conditioners, 389 Deer variable stress rheometer, 113 Defoamers, 303, 341 Defoaming, 9 Deflocculating polymers, 268 Degree of flocculation, 84 Degree of substitution, 95 Depletion flocculation, 268 Detergency, 21, 222, 271, 272, 275, 277, 279, 281, 286, 304, 392 Detergent polymers, 300 Dextrins, 344 Diacid, 30 Dielectric constant for solvent, 183 Diethylene glycol monobutyl ether, 474 Differential scanning calorimetry, 138 Dilatant, 348 Dilatancy, 81 Dilational viscosities, 83 Di(long chain)alkyl dimethylammonium halide, 11 Dilute methods—dishwashing, 214 Dimensionless groups, 523 Dimethicone, 386 Dimethyldodecyl amine oxide (DMDAO), 210 Dimethylmyristal amine oxide (DMMAO), 210 Dimethyl steramine, 385 Dinginess, 297 Dip and dab methods—dishwashing, 215 Diperoxydodecanedioic acid, 70, 298 Direct batch dispersions (of carbomers), 161 Direct hexagonal phase, 52 Dishwashing detergents (see also Light duty liquid detergents): cleaning evaluation, 225227 compositions based on alkylpolyglucamides, 250
Direct hexagonal phase, 52 Dishwashing detergents (see also Light duty liquid detergents): cleaning evaluation, 225227 compositions based on alkylpolyglucamides, 250 compositions using methylester glucamide, 251 concentrates, 252 foam performance evaluation, 227230 mildness evaluation, 230236 nonionic surfactantbased compositions, 250 performance evaluation, 220, 225 test methods, 225238 typical composition, 209 Dishwashing test, 227, 229 Disinfectancy, 485 test for, 485 Disinfectants, 477 Disinfection, 504 Disinfection claim, 486 Disodium 4,4'bis(2sulfostyryl)biphenyl, 300 Disordered aggregates, 26 Dispensability, 72, 272 Dispersed systems, 85 Dispersion: stabilizer, 69 structure/property diagram, 85
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Dispersive mixing, 535 Distearyldimethylammonium chloride, 385, 386 Distyrylbiphenyl derivatives, 300 Ditallowdimethylammonium chloride, 439, 440 Ditallow ester imidazoline, 442 Ditallow imidazoline, 441 DLVO theory, 446 Dowfax, 341 Dowicil, 213 D phase, 184 Drainage test, 237 Dryer sheets, 437 Dye transfer inhibition, 302 Dynamic mechanical measurements, 96, 97 Dynamic mechanical properties, 70, 97, 114 Dynamic moduli, 95 E Edema, 233 Eductor, 161 EEC criteria for environmental labeling of raw materials, 455 Einstein coefficient, 89 Einstein viscosity equation, 98 Elasticity modulus, 78 Elastic modulus, 174 Elevated temperature cycling, 172 Elongational flow properties: of surfactant solutions, 81 Elongational rate, 81 Elongational viscosity, 81 Emulsification, 218
of surfactant solutions, 81 Elongational rate, 81 Elongational viscosity, 81 Emulsification, 218 Emulsifiers, 445 determination of optimum content, 447 Emulsions, 92, 218 oilinwater, 93 Emulsion stability tests, 227 Encapsulation, 6 Environmental protection agency, 485 Enzymes, 6, 263, 289, 343 commercially available detergent enzymes, 344 denaturation of, 293 stabilization of, 281, 293, 296, 309 types of, 290 Enzymespecific stains, 6 Equilibrium contact angle, 216 Erythema, 233 ESCA, 394 Ethanolamines, 272, 389 Ester quat, 442 Ether carboxylates, 340 Ether polycarboxylates, 287 Ethoxylated alcohols, 210 Ethoxylated phosphate diesters, 342 Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 287 Ethylene glycol monoalkyl ether, 474 Ethylene terephthalate, 301 European Economic Community (EEC), 251 Eutrophication, 336, 370 Extensional viscometry, 81 F
European Economic Community (EEC), 251 Eutrophication, 336, 370 Extensional viscometry, 81 F Fabric bundle tests, 307 Fabric conditioners: raw materials, 17 Fabric softeners, 11, 433459 effect on fabrics, 436 environmental & regulatory aspects, 454 formulation, 444, 448 future trends, 455 industrial manufacture of, 444 patents, 456458 product types, 436 Fatty acid glucamides, 211, 250 Fatty alcohol sulfate (FAS), 209 FerrantiShirley cone and plate viscometer, 113 Fiber friction, 394 Fields, 37 Filming, 354 Film thickness, 533, 534 Fine China overglazes: evaluation for LADDs, 354 “Finn chamber”, 232
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“Fish eyes”, 159 Flash foam, 419, 485 Flexibility, 435 Flocculant disperser, 161 Flocculation, 265, 453 FloryHuggins theory, 49 Flowability, 269 Fluorescent whiteners, 6 Fluorescent whitening agents (FWA), 299 Foam booster, 405 Foam end point, 227 Foaming of LADDs, 354 Foam level testing for APCs, 485 Foam mileage, 230 Foam performance: evaluation of, 227 Foam performance ratio (FPR), 228 Foam stability, 83 tests for, 228 Foam stabilizers, 10, 15, 16, 17, 210 Foam volume test, 228 Foam vs. lather, 405 Formaldehyde, 213 Free polymers, 268 FroschKligman soap chamber test, 231 “Fugitive” compounds, 491 G Gafquat polymers, 391 Gardener abrader machine, 482, 483 Gear pump, 539
G Gafquat polymers, 391 Gardener abrader machine, 482, 483 Gear pump, 539 Gel, 70, 74, 93 electrostatically stabilized, 94 Gelation, 26 kinetics, 96 of polystyrene carbon disulfide, 94 Gelling agents, 94 Gel Permeation chromatography (GPC), 140 Genapol, 277 Gibbs triangle, 57, 59 Glass and surface cleaners, 491 Glass cleaners, 489490 formulas, 490 Glass transition temperature, 137 Glucamides, 210, 211, 250 Glutaraldehyde, 213 Glycerin esters, 299 Gravimetric measurement, 225226 Grease emulsification, 13 Grease removal test, 226 Greerco colloid mill, 536 H Hair: acidbinding capacity of, 401 adsorption onto, 397 basebinding capacity of, 402 binding of ionic ingredients to, 400 breakage, 386 damage from shampoo, grooming and weathering, 387 diffusion into, 399
basebinding capacity of, 402 binding of ionic ingredients to, 400 breakage, 386 damage from shampoo, grooming and weathering, 387 diffusion into, 399 isoelectric point of, 397 manageability, 9, 10 reaction with cationic surfactants, 402 reaction with hydrogen ion, 402 reaction with neutral materials, 404 structure of, 382 Hair cleaning: methods of evaluation, 394 Hair conditioners, 383 structure of ingredients, 385 Hair lipid: transport of, 393 Hair setting, 391 Hair soils, 390, 392 Hair styling, 391 Hand dishwashing, 214 effect of pH, 216 test, 228 variables in, 214 washing methods, 214 Hand immersion tests, 231 Hard surface cleaners, 13 Haze point, 55 Heat transfer, 537 Heavyduty liquids: advantages over powder, 263 components, 272 detergency evaluation, 304
Heavyduty liquids: advantages over powder, 263 components, 272 detergency evaluation, 304 future trends, 308
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with mixed enzymes, 296 raw materials, 15 nHexylamine, 296 High foaming anionic surfactants, 3 HLB, 52, 446 HLB temperature, 56 Homogenizers, 162 Homopolymer, 136 Household hard surface cleaners, 464 “House of cards” structure, 94 Hugging plots, 143 Human repeat insult patch test, 232 Humic acid polymers, 342 Hydration, 97 Hydrazine, 180 Hydrogels, 115 Hydrophobic interaction, 179, 180 Hydrophobicity, 58, 269 Hydrotropes, 3, 15, 18, 21, 210, 303, 368 applications, 22 commonly used in LDLDs, 212 Hydrotropic activity, 22 Hydrotropic solubilization, 22 Hydrotropy, 2133 Hype compounds, 385 Hypoallergenic products, 426 Hypochlorite, 297 Hypochloritestable defoamers, 341 I Imidazolinium compounds, 12
Hypochlorite, 297 Hypochloritestable defoamers, 341 I Imidazolinium compounds, 12 Imidazolium methosulfate (DHTIM), 440 Imido peroxy acid, 298 Immunological reaction, 386 Impeller: high efficiency, 526 pitch blade, 519, 520 straight blade turbine, 526 Incompressible fluids: flow of, 72 Incubation, 97 Inline dynamic mixers, 521 Inline helical ribbon blender, 521 Inline mixers, 162 Inline static mixers, 519, 520 Inorganic ions—effect on dishwashing, 222 Insect repellent, 478 Intercellular diffusion, 399 Interfacial elongational viscometers, 83 Interfacial tension (solvent/hydrocarbon), 183 Interfacial tension measurement, 236 Interfiber spacing, 394 Interlamellar forces, 268 Interlamellar spacing, 30 Intrinsic viscosity, 100, 142, 143 Intrinsic volumeswelling ratio, 144 Inverse micelles, 24 Invitro tests, 231 Invivo tests, 234 Ionexchange, 282
Inverse micelles, 24 Invitro tests, 231 Invivo tests, 234 Ionexchange, 282 Isotropic liquid phase, 24 Isotropic liquid solution, 29 Isotropic phase, 99 Isotropic unstructured solution, 84 K Kathon, 213 Ketoconazale, 389 Kinetics of ionic reactions with keratin fibers, 398 Krafft point, 42, 44, 182 KriegerDougherty model, 87 L Lamellar bilayers, 265 Lamellar dispersion, 69 Lamellar droplets, 89, 265, 266 Lamellar liquid crystal, 29 Lamellar packing, 26 Lamellar phase, 52, 53, 184 Lamellar structures, 265 Large quantity batch dispersions (of carbomers), 161 Large quantity continuous dispersion (of carbomers), 162 Lather feel, 406 Lather vs. foam, 405 Lather modifier, 405 Laundry auxiliaries, 6 Laundry prespotter, 135
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Laundry soils, 306 Lauric/myristic diethanol amide (LMDEA), 210 Lauric/myristic monoethanol amide (LMMEA), 210 Leading ion mechanism, 404 Leveling agents, 12 Lever rule, 37 Lightduty liquid detergents, 207259 aging studies, 246 formulating for desirable esthetics, 239 formulating for effective cleaning, 238, 240 formulating for longlasting foam, 239, 242 formulating for mildness, 239, 244 formulation guidelines, 238 formulation technology, 238247 ingredients, 208 line extension, 247 minor ingredients, 213 new products and future trends, 247 physical stability, 246 product safety, 247 special additives, 213 typical composition, 207, 208 viscosity, 243 Lightduty liquids (see also Lightduty liquid detergents): raw materials, 15 dLimonene, 474 Linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), 209, 273 Linear Newtonian flow curves, 74 Lipase (see also Enzymes), 290, 291, 344 Liquid all purpose cleaners, 472
Linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), 209, 273 Linear Newtonian flow curves, 74 Lipase (see also Enzymes), 290, 291, 344 Liquid all purpose cleaners, 472 formulas, 479 formulation technology, 478 with insect repellent, 478 minor ingredients, 480 test methods, 481486 Liquid automatic dishwasher detergents (LADDs), 8, 325 advantages over powder, 326 concentrated products, 372 enzymatic products, 372 flow properties, 347 formulation technology, 355 future trends, 370 ideal rheological characteristics, 346 important attributes, 355 nonhypochloritecontaining products, 370 nonphosphate products, 370 performance evaluation, 351 raw materials, 15 thixotropy, 347 typical compositions, 333 thixotropy, 347 viscosity, 347 yield value, 347 Liquid cleaners with abrasives, 133 Liquid crystals, 28, 52, 184, 264 destabilizer, 28 disordering of, 30 Liquid crystal matrix, 112 Liquid crystal phase, 24, 264
destabilizer, 28 disordering of, 30 Liquid crystal matrix, 112 Liquid crystal phase, 24, 264 Liquid detergents: fundamental research, 97 manufacture of, 513 overview, 119 process patent technology, 515 rhelogy of, 67 stability evaluation, 169 Liquid laundry detergents (see also Heavyduty liquid detergents): consumer, 134 industrial, 133 Liquidliquid suspensions, 92 Liquid prespotters, 356 Liquid soaps, 10, 409432 antibacterial soaps, 414 formulas, 412 future trends, 427 key ingredients and functions, 413 mildness, 424 mildness testing, 426 preservative systems, 421 product esthetic regulators, 421 product physical property regulators, 420
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raw materials, 17 sensitive skin products, 425 Loss modulus, 78, 94, 348 as a function of strain, 79 Lower consolute temperature (LCT), 36 Lowswelling carbomer resins, 157 Light scattering, 394 Low temperature cycling, 172 Lubricity, 435, 491 Luster (of hair), 9 Lyotropic liquid crystals, 32, 110 Lyotropic mesophase, 59 M Magnesium omadine, 389 Manageability (of hair), 9, 10 Mass transfer, 538 Maximum acidcombining capacity (of hair), 400 Maxwell behavior, 110 Mechanical action (in hand dishwashing), 214 Mechanical cleaning, 331 Mechanism of cleaning—dishwashing, 216 Medicated shampoos, 388 Merquat polymers, 391 Mesophase, 53 Methyl ester sulfonates, 281 Micellar aggregation, 180 Micellar solution, 23 Micelle geometry, 97 Micelle polymerization, 109 Micelles, 24
Micellar solution, 23 Micelle geometry, 97 Micelle polymerization, 109 Micelles, 24 Micellization, 180 Microemulsion, 47, 189, 476 oilinwater, 47 waterinoil, 48 Microencapsulation, 296, 372 Microgel rigidity, 153, 154 Microgel rigidity coefficient, 153 Microgels, 93, 145, 146, 150, 153 Microscopy, 97 Microviscosity, 151 Middle phase, 52, 57 Mildew removers, 494, 498 Mildness to skin, 4 Mineral incrustation, 434 Miniature dishwashing test, 230 Miniplate test, 220 Miscibility gap, 49 Mixing of liquid detergents: structured vs. unstructured, 525 Model dirt, 29 Modified SchlachterDierkes test, 230 Moh's hardness scale, 470 Mold and mildew cleaning, 500 Momentum transfer, 524 Monoethanolamine (MEA), 272, 303 Montmorillonite clays, 443 Multilayered vesicle, 89 N Neat dishwashing, 214
Montmorillonite clays, 443 Multilayered vesicle, 89 N Neat dishwashing, 214 Neat phase, 52 Neodol, 277 Newtonian flow, 345 Newtonian fluid, 72 pumping of, 535 NMR, 30, 97, 185 NMR relaxation, 182 Nonaqueous liquids, 264, 272 Nonaqueous lyotropic liquid crystalline phase, 192 Nonaqueous microemulsions, 189 Nonaqueous system, 5, 7, 179 Nonflocculated lamellar dispersion, 266 Nonhypochloritecontaining LADDs, 370 Nonhypochlorite disinfection, 478 Nonionic surfactantbased dishwashing detergents, 250 NonNewtonian fluid, 72 pumping of, 535 Nonphosphate products—LADDs, 370 Nonsoap surfactants, 11 NTA (trisodium nitrilotriacetate), 5, 287, 334, 339 Nutralization, 14 Nylon, 11 O Oblate micelle, 100
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Olefin Sulfonate (AOS), 209 Oleophobicity, 58 Oleyldimethylamineoxide (ODMAO), 105 Oligophosphate ions, 336 Optical brighteners, 299 Organic peroxy acid, 70 Organic polymers, 338 Organic solvent, 7 Organomodified polydimethylsiloxanes, 444 Orthophosphate, 336 Oscillatory rheometers, 78 Osmotic compression, 268 Osmotic interactions, 266 OstwaldDeWaele model, 451 Overlap concentration, 146 Oxydicarboxylates, 340 P Paraffin sulfonate, 209 Patch test, 232 Patents: builders, 312 cleaning technology in LADDs, 357358 corrosion inhibition in LADDs, 363 detergents with bleach, 312 detergents with softener, 313 dye transfer, 317 enzyme stabilization, 309 fabric softeners, 456458 formulating LDLDs for effective cleaning, 240 formulating LDLDs for longlasting foams, 242
enzyme stabilization, 309 fabric softeners, 456458 formulating LDLDs for effective cleaning, 240 formulating LDLDs for longlasting foams, 242 formulating LDLDs for mildness, 244245 formulating LDLDs—miscellaneous examples, 248 LADD processing, 362 nonaqueous liquids, 315 phosphatefree LADDs, 371 rinse aids, 369 stabilization of LADD components, 365 structured liquid composition, 314 suds control, 317 surfactants for HDLDs, 311 surfactants for LADDs, 364 thickeners in LADDs, 359361 Peptide, 291 Peptide aldehyde, 296 Peptide ketone, 296 Peracids, 298, 343 Perborate salts, 343 Percarbonate salts, 343 Peroxygen bleaches, 297, 343 Phase behavior: effect of electrolytes, 62 effect of oil, 61 effect of organic molecules, 63 effect of polarity, 62 effect of system parameters, 60 effect of surfactant structure, 60 of LAS, 101 Phase diagrams, 22, 36, 100, 186, 190, 191, 193, 196, 198 of colloidal dispersions, 90
effect of surfactant structure, 60 of LAS, 101 Phase diagrams, 22, 36, 100, 186, 190, 191, 193, 196, 198 of colloidal dispersions, 90 of ionic surfactantcontaining system, 42 of nonionic surfactantcontaining system, 48 recording of, 41 three component, 37 topology of, 56 two component, 36 Phase equilibria, 35 Phase inversion temperature, 56 Phase rule, 39 Phase separation, 268, 454 Phase stability, 8 Phase topology, 48, 49 Phenols, 477 Phosphate diesters, 342 Phosphatefree LADDs, 370 Phosphate hydration, 541 Phosphates, 336 Pine oil, 474, 477 Placenta extract, 385 Plate counts, 225 Polyacrylamide, 81 Polyacrylates, 268
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Polyacrylic acid, 334 Polycarboxylate polymers, 7, 9, 287 Polycarboxylates, 338, 339 Polydimethylsilicone polymers, 444 Polyester, 11 Polyethylene glycol, 268, 478 Polyethylene oxide, 301 Polyglucosides, 476 Polymeric polyelectrolytes, 289 Polymeric surfactants, 341 Polymerization, 136 Polymer JR, 391 Polymer processing, 542 Polymer stabilizers (for liquid detergents), 130, 135 Polymersurfactant complexes, 114 Polymersurfactant interaction, 114 Polyoxyalkalenes, 250 Polypeptide, 291 Polysaccharides, 94 Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), 162, 302, 478 Positron annihilation, 182 Potassium oleate, 10 Potassium taurate, 7 Pourability, 268 Powder cleaners, 464, 467 Powdered all purpose cleaner: formulas, 468 Powdered cleanser: formulas, 469 Powdered laundry detergents, 4
formulas, 468 Powdered cleanser: formulas, 469 Powdered laundry detergents, 4 Power law, 451 Power number, 524 Precipitation, 282 Preservatives, 213 Preshearing rates, 81 Prespotter, 290 Principles of rheology, 69 Product delivery vehicles, 84 Product shelf life, 542 Product stability, 97 Propylene glycols, 474 Protease (see also Enzymes), 290, 291, 344 HDLDs, 295 Protease stabilization, 287, 295 Protein, 3 Proteinases, 6 Protein denaturation, 234 Proteolytic enzymes, 6 Pseudoplastic flow, 148, 345 Pyrophosphate, 286, 336 Q Quaternary ammonium compounds, 477 “Quats”, 477 R Raman spectroscopy, 182 Rate of deformation tensor, 72, 98 Raw material variation—effect on dishwashing, 223 Reduced viscosity, 100 Reflectometer, 305, 484
Raman spectroscopy, 182 Rate of deformation tensor, 72, 98 Raw material variation—effect on dishwashing, 223 Reduced viscosity, 100 Reflectometer, 305, 484 Regular liquid soaps: key ingredients and functions, 417 Relative viscosity, 86 Relaxation process, 89 Reynolds number, 531 Rheogram: of unpurified bentonite, 91 of purified bentonite, 91 Rheological characterization, 97 Rheological measurements, 71 Rheological models: review of, 89 Rheological studies: of anionic surfactants, 101 of cationic surfactants, 107 of mixed surfactants: anionic/cationic systems, 110 anionic/nonionic systems, 104 zwitterionic/anionic systems, 106 of nonionic surfactants, 100 Rheology: of LADDs, 345 of LAS and ABS, 101 principles of, 69 Rheopectic, 77, 88, 348 Rheopectic behavior: of a commercial conditioning shampoo, 77
Rheopectic, 77, 88, 348 Rheopectic behavior: of a commercial conditioning shampoo, 77
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Rheopexy, 72, 89 Rinse aids, 366 formulations, 368 ingredients, 367 Rinse cycle fabric softeners, 12 worldwide volume, 434 Rinsing in dishwashing, 215 Rinsing test, 237 Rodlike micelle, 111 Rollup, 216, 392 RossMiles test, 228, 485 Ross turboemulsifier, 529 Rotation viscometers, 72 Rubber elasticity theory, 154 S Salting electrolytes, 272 Saltingin effect, 22, 62 Salting out: 8, 62 electrolytes, 268, 272 Sanitization claims, 486 Sanitizing products, 13 Sarcosinates, 11 Scanning electron micrographs (SEM), 395 Screw pumps: single rotor, 539 tworotor, 539 Seborrheic dermatitis, 388 Sensitization, 386 Sequestering agents (see Sequestrants) Sequestrants, 17, 18, 367
Seborrheic dermatitis, 388 Sensitization, 386 Sequestering agents (see Sequestrants) Sequestrants, 17, 18, 367 Sesquicarbonates, 286 Setting lotions, 389 Shampoo (see also Shampoos and conditioners), 382408 baby shampoos, 384 efficiency, 394 general formulas, 383 lather, 405 safety considerations, 386 structures of ingredients, 384 types, 388 Shampooing: detergency mechanism, 392 Shampoos and conditioners (see also Shampoo), 9, 381408 raw materials, 16 viscosity control, 406 Shear stress vs. shear rate plots, 345 Shear thickening, 90 Shear thinning, 148 Sheeting, 9 Silicates, 337 Silicone oils, 341 Silicones, 444 Silicone softeners, 444 Simulated shipping tests, 97 Skin benefit agent, 3 Skin conditioners, 424 Skin conditioning agents, 419, 427, 428 Skin feel ingredients, 419 Sinusoidal strain, 79
Skin conditioners, 424 Skin conditioning agents, 419, 427, 428 Skin feel ingredients, 419 Sinusoidal strain, 79 Smallangle neutron scattering, 97, 199 Smoothness (of skin), 419 Soap aggregation, 104 Soap and detergent association (SDA), 423 Soap scum cleaning, 498 test methods for, 500 Soap solution, 104 Soda ash, 339 Sodium bicarbonate, 338 Sodium carbonate, 338 Sodium citrate, 5, 7 Sodium cumene sulfonate (SCS), 212 Sodium hypochlorite, 9 Sodium laureth sulfate, 384 Sodium linear alkylbenzenesulfonate (LAS), 5 Sodium nonanoyl oxybenzene sulfonate (NOBS), 299 Sodium perborate, 7 Sodium perborate tetrahydrate, 298 Sodium percarbonate, 298 Sodium sesquicarbonate, 338 Sodium silicates, 286 Sodium soap mesophase, 114 Sodium tartrate disuccinate (TDS), 7, 288 Sodium tartrate monosuccinate (TMS), 7, 288 Sodium toluene sulfonate (STS), 212 Sodium xylene sulfonate (SXS), 212
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Soft abrasives, 13 Softeners (see also Fabric softeners), 265 Softening (of fabrics): compounds, 440 mechanism, 438 “Softergents”, 6, 13, 437 Softsoap, 411 Soil release agents (see also Soil release polymers), 300302 Soil release polymers, 301 endcapping groups, 301 patents, 316 PETPOET, 302 Soil removal: evaluation for LADDs, 352 laboratory tests for HDLDs, 304 Soil titration method (STM), 228 Sokalan, 339 Solid hydration: builders and polymers, 540 Solubilization, 219, 272 Solubilizing power, 32 Soluble abrasives, 471 Solution phenomena, 5 Solution viscosity, 98 Solvent cleaners, 14 Solvents, 474 Solvophobic interaction, 180, 199 Spangler synthetic sebum, 391 Specialty liquid household surface cleaners, 13, 135, 463512 future trends, 505
Solvophobic interaction, 180, 199 Spangler synthetic sebum, 391 Specialty liquid household surface cleaners, 13, 135, 463512 future trends, 505 lineage, 505 Specialty liquids (see Specialty liquid household surface cleaners), Spherical micelles, 100 Spherulitic surfactant aggregates, 8 Spinnability, 83 Spotting and filming, 351 rating scale, 352 Spray all purpose cleaners, 486493 formulas, 489 streak and residue testing, 492 Spray bathroom cleaner: formulas, 497 Spray trigger packaging, 487 Stability, 97 of LADDs, 345 Stable structured liquid, 267 Stain removal: evaluation for LADDs, 353 Standard colloid mill, 536 Static soaking test, 226 Steady shear viscometers, 72 Stearalkonium chloride, 391 Stearamidopropyldimethyl amine, 385 Steric interaction, 266 StokesEinstein microdiffusion coefficient, 152 Storage modulus, 78, 94, 348 as a function of strain, 79 STPP, 4, 283, 314, 336 Strain sweep test, 174
Storage modulus, 78, 94, 348 as a function of strain, 79 STPP, 4, 283, 314, 336 Strain sweep test, 174 Streaking, 14, 491 effect of solvent, 475 Stress growth behavior, 113 Stress growth measurement, 110, 113 Stress overshoot, 77 Stress tensor, 72, 98 “Stretching” flow, 81 Structural relaxation time, 105 Structured HDLDs—examples, 270 Structured liquid detergents, 134, 263 manufacture of, 514 stability of, 266, 269 Structured viscoelastic fluid, 78 Structuring agents, 344, 406 Substantivity, 439 Sulfosuccinate, 11 “Super concentrated”, 7 nonaqueous heavyduty liquids, 8 Surface charge, 84 Surface free energy, 217 Surface rheology, 83 Surface safety, 485 Surfactant liquid crystal gels, 112 Surfactant morphology, 100 Surfactant phase, 57 Surfactantrich liquid crystal phase, 219 Surfactant types and dishwashing performance, 220
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Surfactants: for heavyduty liquid detergents, 274 for lightduty liquid detergents, 211 for liquid automatic dishwasher detergents, 340 for rinse aids, 367 surfactant viscosity, 103 Suspension, 8 Suspension viscosity, 86 T Tannins, 342 Temazepam, 22 Tergitol, 277 Tergotometer test, 229, 304 Tetraacetylethylenediamine (TAED), 299 Tetradecyldimethyl amine oxide (TDMAO), 111 Tetragenic effects, 5 Thermal cleaning, 331 Thermal cycling, 97 Thickened aqueous bleach composition, 70 Thickening agents, 344 Thixotropic index, 152 Thixotropic loop, 348 Thixotropy, 9, 72, 75, 152, 347 Threephase triangle, 57, 58 Threshold effect, 339 Tie line, 37, 39, 55 Toilet bowl cleaners, 13, 14, 494, 501 acidic, 503 bleach, 504 formulas, 503
Toilet bowl cleaners, 13, 14, 494, 501 acidic, 503 bleach, 504 formulas, 503 packaging, 502 test methods, 504 Total foam, 230 Total irritation, 232 Transcellular diffusion, 399 Transport phenomena in agitated vessels, 523 Triazinylaminostilbene, 300 Triazoylstilbene, 300 Trichlorocyanuric acid (TCCA), 469 Triclosan, 423 Triethanolamine (TEA), 272, 303 Triglyceride, 291 Tripolyphosphate (TPP) (see also STPP), 286, 334 Tripropylene glycol, 474 Trouton ratio, 71 Turbidimeter, 227 Turbidity measurements, 225, 227 Turboemulsifier: detailed schematic, 530 U Unit operations: in liquid detergent manufacture, 523 Unstructured heavyduty liquid detergents—examples, 270 Unstructured liquid detergents, 263, 269 manufacture of, 514 stability of, 271 Upper consolute temperature (UCT), 36 Urea, 212
manufacture of, 514 stability of, 271 Upper consolute temperature (UCT), 36 Urea, 212 V Vesicles, 69 Vibration, 97 Viscoelastic cationic surfactant systems, 108 Viscoelastic gel detergent, 70 Viscoelasticity, 70, 89, 109 of gel laundry stain remover, 80 Viscometers, 347 Viscometric measurements, 71 Viscometric properties of zwitterionic surfactants, 105 Viscometric tests, 72 Viscosity, 71, 72, 86 as a function of shear, 76 of ionic surfactants, 99 of lightduty liquid detergents, 243 steadystate, 71 transient, 71 Viscosity limitations of various impeller configurations, 530 Viscositylowering characteristics, 134 Viscosity modifier, 69 Viscosity regulator, 10, 16, 17 Viscosity vs. shear rate plots, 346 Viscous modulus, 174
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Viscous phase, 52 Vitamins, 385 W Wall slippage, 93 Wash cycle softeners, 437 Wash liquor, 5 Washwater buffers, 286 Water hardness: effect on dishwashing, 216, 224 effect on foam stability, 224 in different countries, 330 Waterinoil microemulsion, 47 Weissenberg effect, 73 Whitening agents (see Fluorescent whitening agents) Window cleaners (see also Glass cleaners), 13, 14 Winsor behavior, 59 Winsor II, 56 Winsor III system, 57 Winsor III ternary phase diagram, 40 Winsor transition temperature, 63 X Xanthan gum, 81 Xray scattering techniques, 187 Xray smallangle scattering, 182 Y Yield stress, 93 Yield value, 132, 347 YoungDupree equation, 217 Z
Yield stress, 93 Yield value, 132, 347 YoungDupree equation, 217 Z Zein test, 235 Zein value, 235 Zeolite, 7, 265, 287, 337 Zero shear viscosity, 105, 106 Zwitterionic surfactants: viscometric properties of, 105