Metaphors in Grass' Die Blechtrommel

Metaphors in Grass’ Die Blechtrommel

Antoinette T. Delaney

PETER LANG

Metaphors in Grass’ Die Blechtrommel

american university studies

Series I Germanic Languages and Literature Vol. 111

PETER LANG New York ! Washington, D.C./Baltimore ! Bern Frankfurt am Main ! Berlin ! Brussels ! Vienna ! Oxford

Antoinette T. Delaney

Metaphors in Grass’ Die Blechtrommel

PETER LANG New York ! Washington, D.C./Baltimore ! Bern Frankfurt am Main ! Berlin ! Brussels ! Vienna ! Oxford

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Delaney, Antoinette T. Metaphors in Grass’ Die Blechtrommel / Antoinette T. Delaney. p. cm. — (American university studies, Ser. I: Germanic languages and literature; vol. 111) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Grass, Günter, 1927– . Blechtrommel. 2. Metaphor. I. Title. II. Series PT2613.R338B55328 833’.914—dc20 96-33038 ISBN 0-8204-3474-4 ISSN 0721-1392

Die Deutsche Bibliothek-CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Delaney, Antoinette T.: Metaphors in Grass’ Die Blechtrommel / Antoinette T. Delaney. −New York; Washington, D.C./Baltimore; Bern; Frankfurt am Main; Berlin; Brussels; Vienna; Oxford: Lang. (American university studies, Ser. I: Germanic languages and literature; Vol. 111) ISBN 0-8204-3474-4

The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the Council of Library Resources.

© 2004 Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York 275 Seventh Avenue, 28th Floor, New York, NY 10001 www.peterlangusa.com All rights reserved. Reprint or reproduction, even partially, in all forms such as microfilm, xerography, microfiche, microcard, and offset strictly prohibited. Printed in Germany


To my parents, Theresa Gratz Stoerlein and Joseph W. Stoerlein, and my uncle George B. Stoerlein in loving memory; To my family, Larry and Sandra, Joe, Ellen, Kane, Peter and Elizabeth, John and Michelle, Gene, Chris and Anne and Christopher, and especially my husband Larry, for their emotional support and constant encouragement. I am grateful to Marie Bridy and Roxanna Riegel for their assistance with the manuscript.

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Contents


I

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Grass-research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 The Function of Grass’ Metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

II

The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Language as Discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22 The Cognitive Theory—Ten Theses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24 The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

III

Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Summary_Previous Grass-research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Basic Grammatical Structures and Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Grass’ Metaphorical Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

IV

Stylistic Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49 Root Metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 The Function of Names and Naming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 Cultural Characteristics and Religious Observances . . . . . . . . .56 Idiomatic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

V

Three Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 A Conceptual Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Tensive Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73 Familiar Themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78

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VI

“Der weite Rock” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 Chapter One, Book I: “Der weite Rock” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90 Book I Chapter 1 “Der weite Rock” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100

Table of Contents

VII Schopenhauer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103 Schopenhauer’s Philosophy_Ten Theses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104 VIII Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Grass’ Language_Schopenhauer’s Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Grass’ Metaphors_Schopenhauer’s Thought . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 IX

From Selfish Love to Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 Selfish Love . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 Egoism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .132 Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140 Caritas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141 Asceticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143

X

The Metaphorical Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167

1

Introduction


“Schreiben deckt Schichten auf.” —Günter Grass1 Günter Grass’ first novel, Die Blechtrommel (1959), is considered by most critics to be his greatest literary achievement. Ranked among the classic novels of the 20th century, both international as well as German, it has been translated into more than 24 languages and so far, at least 4 million copies are in print. Grass rapidly achieved worldwide recognition and acclaim with the appearance of his first novel, an accomplishment quite unique among German authors, except perhaps Goethe and Thomas Mann. It continues to be his most popular novel. Grass is internationally considered one of the most significant German authors of our time. Many contemporary international novelists such as John Irving, Salmon Rushdie, and Umberto Eco claim his influence and inspiration. Awarded the 1999 Nobel Prize for Literature, the announcement singles out his first novel as “one of the enduring literary works of the 20th century,” the publication of which granted German literature “a new beginning after decades of linguistic and moral destruction.” Volker Neuhaus states, “Wie kein anderer lebender Autor ist Günter Grass Repräsentant der deutschen Literatur nach 1945 mit weltweiter Wirkung” (Schreiben inside cover). Grass has provoked controversy and polarization since the appearance of Die Blechtrommel (hereafter, Bt). He has acquired an unpopular image at home, a Markenbild that so far, he is unable to shake off. This is reflect-

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Introduction

ed in the familiar hostile scenario that inevitably occurs between him and the critics with the release of each new work: it begins with anticipation and high expectations, followed by harsh criticism and finally, bitter rejection. He faced a storm of criticism and devastating reviews following the appearance of the long-awaited Ein weites Feld. Walter Jens criticized this reaction in a 1995 interview in “Stern” asserting that understanding an author such as Grass requires much time and serious, meticulous reading (31 August; 60). Timm Boßmann argues that critics do not consider the literary and artistic merits of the novel; rather, the controversy is about Grass’ political activities and opinions (153). Some critics attribute this reaction to his international fame and reputation while others cite his strong condemnation of German unification. Gertrude Cepl-Kaufmann believes Grass’ contemporaries respond negatively because of his constant accusations of guilt in suppressing WWII atrocities (“Döblin” 25). Though Grass has published many literary works in the years following Bt, each subsequent work is invariably measured and compared to his first novel, even those works having no connection to the Danzig time. It continues to be the starting point of many critical studies. To this day, he is primarily referred to as the author of Bt. The following statement still holds true: “Wer Grass sagt, meint Blechtrommel” (Arnold, Blech 11). The vitality of Grass’ language has long been a source of interest and praise: “Mit einer Hellhörigkeit für sprachliche Nuancen begabt, organisiert er sein Erzählen von der genauen Kenntnis der lebenden Sprache her und setzt virtuos eine Fülle von Stilmitteln ein . . .” (Büscher 508). Manfred Jurgensen claims that the key to understanding Grass’ works is found in an exploration of his language (Untersuchungen 7). Die Blechtrommel is the object of this analysis because it demonstrates Grass’ gifted use of language and his unique style.2 He has developed his own individual Bilderkosmos and Bildsprache, an abundance of familiar metaphors, favorite objects and personalities. Furthermore, the novel is especially significant because the core of the author’s themes and symbols, previously introduced in his poetry, drama, and graphic art, come together in the form of Bt. Most critics agree the themes are so central and fundamental for him, that he recycles them in his works.3 Grass employs narrative techniques in his works, enabling him as a writer to “cultivate hiding places” and to hide behind his books. The metaphor, because of its characteristic of indirect language, is one of the most significant. Although Grass does not seem to have articulated his own theory of the metaphor, nevertheless, it is a predominant stylistic feature of Bt. This study is an exclusive and comprehensive analysis of Grass’ metaphorical expressions in Bt. The purpose is to determine his mode of thought.

Introduction


3

A cognitive theory of metaphor is employed, based on the comprehensive study of the hermeneutic philosopher, Paul Ricoeur (b. 1913), The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies of the Creation of Meaning in Language (1977).4 The metaphoric process is a conceptual one, an essential element of thought, revealing new information, as opposed to the ornamental role of metaphor in the classical, rhetorical sense, where the metaphor has to do with denomination, substituting one name or noun for the word used in the usual way. The metaphor is a “semantic innovation of discourse.” In the act of predication, two or more referents, not normally combined in the language process, are creatively joined, causing tension. The words and the context of the statement interact, resulting in new meaning. The literal interpretation gives way to a figurative interpretation. In the metaphoric process, both the word-metaphor and the statement-metaphor are valid, compatible points of view because of the interplay between the word and the context. A metaphor is a “poem in miniature” (90–94), and just as there is a reciprocal relationship between word and context in the metaphorical statement, in like manner, in a poetic narrative, an interaction exists between the metaphors of a text and the text itself: the context of an entire work contributes to the meaning of the individual metaphors and in turn, all the metaphorical statements contribute to the meaning of the text. Metaphoric analysis, therefore, is an effective method of literary interpretation. This study supports Ricoeur’s theory of text interpretation, expressed in Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning (1976)5, of which metaphorical analysis is an essential element. He integrates two approaches to interpretation: explanation and understanding. In the first level, structural analysis, the “partial meanings” of a text are systematically explained, leading to the second hermeneutic level, in which the reader deciphers the extra-linguistic, poetic dimension of language. At this point, the world-of-the-work is disclosed, providing the opportunity for a deeper understanding on the part of the reader of being-in-the-world. Both methods of interpretation are legitimate, compatible and necessary, reflecting a process that occurs in the normal workings of discourse. In this analysis, the two approaches to interpretation are integrated in this way: In the first approach, the metaphors or metaphorical expressions (the terms in this study are used interchangeably) are identified and each one is presented within the context of the narrative. Because the metaphors are not viewed isolated from the text, the metaphor is apprehended and understood more clearly, demonstrating effectively the interrelatedness and connectedness of the metaphors in the entire narrative. The expressions

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Introduction

are broken down into the words used metaphorically, including the primary and secondary referents or domains, and the grammatical structures and stylistic characteristics are determined. The isolated words are later located in the “Synopsis of Categories” of Roget’s International Thesaurus (xvii–xxiv), which is a unique collection of the “great ‘semantic’ domains” (xv) of eight large classes of conceptual headings. This task expands the possibilities of linguistic research by enabling the linguist to locate the domain accurately. Philip Wheelwright’s concept of tensive symbols (Metaphor 68), or “concrete images,” are identified and classified, as are Grass’ predominant themes, which are expressed in one word. The findings yield scientific data depicted in graphs. These results lead to the second approach to interpretation: further scrutiny reveals another level of meaning underlying Grass’ metaphorical language. The reader understands Oskar’s world more completely and concludes that Grass’ metaphors disclose his feelings and opinions. The results clearly indicate that the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) has a significant influence on Grass’ way of thinking.

Grass-research Any Germanist undertaking a study of Günter Grass is greeted with a staggering number of discussions and interpretations of his works in secondary literature. With the appearance of each newly published Grasswork, the number of discussions increases. George Everett’s 1974 bibliography lists over 750 critical writings on Grass’ works; his 1995 novel, Ein weites Feld criticizing German reunification provoked such an outrage, that more than 10,000 articles appeared in the media. Because of the vast number of studies and the obvious limitations of time and space, this analysis will include the significant studies directly related to the topic at hand. In 1979, Volker Neuhaus argued that so far, the studies “spiegeln die allgemeine Orientierungslosigkeit in der Grass-Forschung wieder, da in der Regel darauf verzichtet wird, über Einzelanalysen der Texte und Zusammenfassungen von bereits Gesagtem hinaus das Werk von Grass in größere Zusammenhänge einzuordnen und die Forschung zu systematisieren” (Grass vii). Furthermore, in the 20 years since Bt was released, there seems to be no consensus on how the novel is to be read (10). In 1987, Neuhaus published his ten-volume Grass-edition with the primary intent to discover “den inneren Zusammenhang des gesamten Werkes” and to make clear “die Einheit in der Vielfalt” (Werkausgabe I, 5; hereafter Wa).

Introduction


5

Thomas Kniesche includes a survey of secondary literature in his 1991 study of Die Rättin; he claims that Neuhaus’ description of Grass-research still holds true. Kniesche argues that the key to understanding all Grass’ works and the reasons behind the recurring symbols and metaphors in his works are found in a psychological reading based on the themes of guilt and loss (21–22). He analyzes the guilt complexes in the novel and sees the influence of Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud in Grass’ works (87–119). He points out that Oskar, for example, has been interpreted as a Nietzsche figure (94). In 1993, Neuhaus’ evaluation of Grass-research changes. He asserts that Grass’ works are no longer “prinzipiell interpretationsfeindlich” as Klaus Wagenbach stated in 1963, and claims: Je intensiver sich die Forschung, des Grass-Oeuvres angenommen hat, desto mehr erweist sich das einzelne Werk ‘als Bruchstück einer großen Konfession,’ als Fragment im romantischen Sinne, das über sich hinausweist, vor und zurück in einen größeren Zusammenhang, den es selbst nur dunkel erahnen läßt. (Grass 2: 1).

Throughout the years, there has been an abiding interest in Grass’ Bildwelt and his individuelle Bildsprache in Grass-research. Harald Hartung maintains, “[i]n seinen Motiven . . . besteht die Kohärenz des Werkes. Sie werden gefunden, variert, paraphrasiert, erweitert oder verengt—sie werden ausgewertet, so lange sie für Denken und Phantasie noch etwas hergeben”(151). In his 1994 analysis, Dieter Stolz includes an informative review of Grassresearch focusing on the most significant analyses of Bt, in particular, those discussing Grass’ Bildwelt (13–22). He examines Grass’ personal Motivkomplex in selections of his poetry, drama and prose in order to discover the philosophical foundation underlying all Grass’ texts (20–21). Regarding Bt, he concludes: “Fazit: Oskars Lebensgeschichte ist von Grass so angelegt worden, daß sie den mannigfaltigen Anforderungen eines ‘philosophischen Romans’ im Sinne Camus’ genügt” (291). Grass acknowledges in a 1984 television interview having read Camus as a young man (Auskunft 45–46). Grass belongs to the younger generation of post WWII authors, whose wartime experience as young soldiers greatly influenced the formation of their concept of history. When faced with “eine[r] der großen Fragestellungen des europäischen Geschichtsdenkens”— to side with the Enlightenment, the positive idea of progress and humanity, or with Camus’ concept of the world and history as hopeless and absurd—this generation unavoidably chose Camus (Hensing 94). Nevertheless, Hensing claims that Camus’ influence in Grass’ early works

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Introduction

seems to be only in a general sense. The idea of a “joyful” Sisyphus figure in Bt, Oskar, freely choosing a way of life, is not present; optimism does not exist in Bt (95). Through Camus’ philosophy of the absurd, Grass first came in contact with Schopenhauer’s system of thought, comments Werner Frizen, and calls Grass “ein[en] Adept[en] der Philosophie Schopenhauers.” He claims, “Grass’ episches Frühwerk ist schopenhauerianisch, ohne manifest schopenhauerisch zu sein” (“Schopenhauer” 167–69). Although much has been written regarding the significance of Grass’ imagery and motifs, there does not seem to be an analysis devoted exclusively to his metaphors. In his insightful 1972 study, Georg Just includes a significant discussion of the predominance of metaphor in Bt; in particular, he identifies T. S. Eliot’s concept of the “objektiver Korrelate”: the significance of objects and the ideas and episodes they symbolize (110–49). Rainer Scherf (2000) in his chapter “Günter Grass und das Metaphernproblem” interprets greengrocer Greff ’s suicide episode in detail, focusing primarily on the potato metaphor and other familiar Grassmotifs, among them the futility of life in a nihilistic, fatalistic world, and the roles of nourishment and sexuality (87–120). Angelika Hille-Sandvoß cites Grass’ response to an American critic when asked if his use of the potato has a symbolic connotation. Grass responds, “Symbols are nonsense—when I say potatoes, I mean potatoes” (17). Citing Harald Weinrich’s definition of the metaphor as “ein Wort in einem Kontext, durch den es so determiniert wird, das es etwas anderes meint, als es bedeutet,” she concludes that this definition cannot be applied to Grass’ imagery, “denn Grass ‘meint’ zunächst einmal ausdrücklich, was er sagt und schreibt” (18). His response to the critic is misleading, however, because Grass places great significance on the potato as a symbol for nourishment. In a 1975 interview with Hans Jürgen Beck, he expresses his feelings regarding the important role that the introduction of the potato played in history to people who were heretofore starving: Die Einführung der Kartoffel in Preußen und damit die Ablösung der Hirse als Hauptnahrungsmittel für die Masse der Bevölkerung ist für mich ein geschichtlich weit größeres und folgenreicheres Ereignis gewesen als der gesamte Siebenjährige Krieg (Neuhaus, Wa X 191).

This feeling is visible in the imagery of his graphic art and poetry. It is also manifested in his metaphors. Nury Kim claims the metaphor has little relevance when analyzing Bt; she asserts the allegory is more effective: “Im Gegensatz zur Metapher ist die Beziehung zwischen Bild und Bedeutung willkürlich gewählt”; and the

Introduction


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purpose, “im Unterschied zur Metapher [ist] die gewollte, intendierte Anregung zur Reflexion (60, author’s emphasis). Walter Jahnke’s and Klaus Lindemann’s 1993 Modellanalyse is intended for the purpose of instruction in schools in analyzing and interpreting Bt. Their study is at the structural level of interpretation: the authors select six chapters and within that framework, they present a method of explaining how structural aspects and the main protagonists and motifs are interwoven throughout the narrative. Thomas Rahner calls attention to Hans Mayer’s comment on the inside jacket flap of the 1998 dtv edition of Bt. Mayer describes Bt as “Warnliteratur”: Oskar opposes “die Verführbarkeit, Selbstherrlichkeit, Arroganz und Brutalität eines Volkes und mahnt, die eigene Geschichte nicht leichtfertig zu vergessen” (59). Grass places a high value on his moral responsibility as a writer, and his purpose to arouse awareness among the readership, especially to become politically engaged in order to effect change. The recurring theme in all his novels is his remonstrance against the guilt and involvement of Germany in the atrocities of WW II (Cepl-Kaufmann, “Döblin” 38–44). Though Grass’ work may no longer be considered “prinzipiell interpretationsfeindlich,” his concept of the author who distances himself from his work is a factor, which challenges the reader to comprehend the underlying meaning of his works. He employs various narrative techniques and metaphorical language to accomplish this. Grass discusses his notion of the author in his essay, “Über meinen Lehrer Döblin”: “Soviel ist gewiß: . . . daß der Autor nur Mittel zum Zweck eines Buches ist und daß ein Autor Verstecke pflegen muß, die er verläßt, um sein Manifest zu sprechen, die er aufsucht, um hinter dem Buch Zuflucht zu finden” (Aufsätze 70–72). The author Grass hides by way of the many narrators he creates in his novels, such as Bruno Münsterberg, Schugger Leo, Gottfried von Vittlar, in Bt. At times, these narrators and Oskar, himself, cast doubt upon Oskar’s trustworthiness. In the Greff suicide episode, Scherf discusses the conflict between Grass the author and the other narrators; he claims there are three viewpoints: Grass,’ Greff’s and Oskar’s (98–100).On the other hand, the precise physical description of Langfuhr, the areas surrounding Danzig, and the Maritime Museum indicate the importance of maintaining the believability of the narrative (Botheroyd 49–50). Oskar’s constant interchange of first- and third-person singular in referring to himself creates additional confusion for the reader.6 This alternation of pronominal reference results in objectivization and estrangement; the traditionally subjective self of the first-person narrator becomes an “object,”

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Introduction

seen and described by the third-person narrator (Stanzel, Theory 105). “This ability to regard even the self as an object like any other suggests scientific detachment . . .”(Parry 109).7 The notion of objectification highlights the significant role objects play in Grass’s metaphors. The idea of estrangement points to Oskar’s need to create distance from the other figures and from the chaotic world. These traits are also present in Schopenhauer’s philosophy. Grass discusses his idea of “Rollenprosa” in a 1965 interview with Günter Gaus. He must identify himself with each figure he creates, “denn ich kann sonst keine Rollenprosa schreiben . . . Der Autor ist das ganze Buch, er teilt sich in unzählige Rollen auf, und viele Nebenrollen sind Ergänzungen der Hauptfigur” (Neuhaus, Wa X, 21). Because of this narrative technique, “kommen wir, ähnlich wie grundsätzlich im Drama, nie durch die ‘Rollen’ hindurch zur Sicht des Autors, können nie sein Sprachrohr dingfest machen” (Neuhaus, Grass 2, 1–2). Werner Frizen maintains, “Wer sich auf die raffinierte Erzählkonstruktion der Blechtrommel einläßt, kann unmöglich eine Position des Autors ausmachen” (Schopenhauer 173). Oskar exhibits many characteristics of the picaro in the picaresque novel where the protagonist functions as an outsider, enabling him to have a critical perspective on society (Kremer 381–92). This perspective is crucial for the author of a satirical novel, whose main endeavor is “den Romanhelden von seiner Umgebung genügend abzuheben” (382). Grass effectively achieves the aspect of distance and of alienation by employing the style of the satirical novel. Without a doubt, these narrative techniques and features along with his skillful use of the metaphor, “die konzentrierteste Form der Verfremdung” (Just 108), create problems for the interpreting reader in sorting out the author’s position. This analysis, however, demonstrates that Grass’ metaphors reveal an insight into the “Sicht des Autors.” The feelings of outrage evoked by the publication of Bt among the German readership is attributed to Oskar’s amoral, blasphemous behavior, the nihilistic point of view of the novel and the insulting treatment of the Catholic religion and the German heritage. Klaus Wagenbach attributes this response to Grass’ use of language and he concludes: “Diese Schreibweise— bildlich und präzis—und dieser Aspekt—ideologiefeindlich und außermoralisch—waren es, die die Umwelt provozierten” (121). Feelings and emotions are a significant part of the metaphoric process. Heiko Büscher explains Grass’ familiar style of demythologizing sacred biblical and religious expressions and symbols, such as the religious symbol of the cross: by skillfully repeating the word Kreuz in different contexts, the venerable concept of the crucifix is demeaned. Not just the Catholic reli-

Introduction


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gion, any ideology is questioned and comes under fire (527). Grass attributes his precise style of writing to the influence of Alfred Döblin citing Döblin’s emphasis on the precise description of events: “Das Ganze darf nicht erscheinen wie gesprochen, sondern wie vorhanden” (Aufsätze 72). Schopenhauer also expresses the importance of employing a vivid style of writing, and he creatively uses metaphorical expressions in his own writing. The significance of Grass’ focus on “things” has been well established. In a 1984 article entitled, “Bin ich nun Schreiber oder Zeichner?” Grass writes, “Die Konfrontation des Gegenständlichen ist mein Thema” (Görtz 72). In referring to Grass’ “Blickrichtung, die vornehmlich das Gegenständliche anvisiert,” Wagenbach introduced the term, Objektzwang to Grass-research (123). He traces the sachbezogene quality of Grass’ style back to his early poems in which he identifies the clock, the closet, and the photo album metaphors (121). In Grass’ 1960 poem, “Diana—oder die Gegenstände,” Theodor Wieser explains that Grass, “mit theoretischem Einschlag . . . die Rolle der Gegenständlichkeit in seiner Dichtung bestimmt [hat].” The poem confirms the pre-eminence of objects, and their significance in the writer’s creative process: “Gegenständlichkeit ist für ihn Dasein” (30); the writer receives his inspiration from normal every-day objects, which determine his point of view. Sensuous experiences become concrete. The soul of the artist, normally, an abstract concept, is objectified by Diana. Grass identifies ordinary objects as the source of his metaphors in a 1975 interview with Ekkehart Rudolph: “Es ist das, was um mich herum gruppiert ist, womit ich täglich Umgang habe und was in geschriebenen wie in gezeichneten Bildmetaphern sein Eigenleben erfährt . . .”(Neuhaus, Wa X, 182–83). The use of familiar objects in Grass’ metaphors symbolizes basic human desires and needs. Objects seem to possess a spiritual force independent of their physical being. Wagenbach states that Grass “verleiht den Dingen nicht nur die Kräfte des Fetisches (wie der Gallionsfigur in der Blechtrommel), sondern begründet diese Magie damit, daß die Gegenstände selbst in Bewegung gesetzt werden” (123). In the episode with Niobe in the Maritime Museum, objects act and react upon other objects through the use of verbs; they are in control. “Dies ist nicht nur ein Beleg für die außermoralische Erzählung, sondern auch für den außerästhetischen Aspekt” (124). Grass discusses the function of autonomous objects in the 1975 interview with Rudolph: “Das Kunstwerk...hat die Möglichkeit...die Vielzahl der Stimmen, die man hört, obgleich nur eine Person oder zwei Personen im Raum sind, das Dazwischensprechen der Gegenstände, die angeblich stumm

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Introduction

sind...all das verlangt nach Darstellung (Neuhaus, Wa X, 185). In this interaction among objects, the response of a person who could place things in perspective is missing, resulting in a lack of direction and participation, therefore, powerlessness. The author withdraws, leaving the perspective to the reader. The power of objects to act independently is “einer der wichtigsten Charakteristika der Oskar-Perspektive”: the subject interacts with things as if the objects were subjects; objects behave as if they were subjects; objects interact among themselves with autonomy (Just 118–19). This effect is achieved stylistically through the use of personification and verb-metaphors and the starting point is not with the abstract as was typical of the classical and medieval styles, but with objects and persons. Just states that Oskar’s interaction with ordinary objects performs a significant function in the novel, “die Auffassung des Erzählers von der Welt” (144). Just introduces T. S. Eliot’s concept of the “objektiver korrelate” (110–49) wherein a set of objects or a series of events is related to a particular emotion or feeling: The only way of expressing emotion in the form of art is by finding an ‘objective correlative’; in other words, a set of objects, a situation, a chain of events which shall be the formula of that particular emotion; such that when the external facts, which must terminate in sensory experience are given, the emotion is immediately evoked. (Elliot Selected Essays, “Hamlet” 145).

Objects such as Brausepulver, Kokosteppich, Aale, for example, which materialize the emotion of sexual passion, support Eliot’s idea (Just 124). It was Schopenhauer, however, who originated the concept of the objective correlative in his dissertation (Magee 107; 111), not Eliot. Hille-Sandvoß states that Sinnlichkeit is the motivation behind Grass’ “Sucht zum Gegenstand,” citing his well-known statement, “Ich bin auf Oberfläche angewiesen und gehe vom Betastbaren, Fühlbaren, Riechbaren aus.” This provides the opportunity, “auf die Umwelt direkt zu reagieren.” It also explains “die große Rolle, die Kochen und Essen sowie die Sexualität im Werk von Günter Grass spielen,” areas, which embody “die lebbare Sinnlichkeit” (15). David Roberts asserts that fire and food is the “metaphoric-symbolic complex at the heart of the novel’s grotesque vision of a fallen world of the guilty appetites” (46). He cites M. K. Sosnoski who states: “Images of food and eating, appear in all the crucial scenes of death and destruction. Accompanying these images of eating are images and incidents of perverse sexuality” (60). Elisabeth Pflanz claims the purpose of objects such as fizzpowder and

Introduction


11

nurse’s uniforms is to satisfy sexual needs (113). In the episode where Oskar feels Herbert’s scars, she explains, “Sexueller Fetischismus zeigt sich hier einmal der Reduktion des männlichen so wie des weiblichen Körpers auf ‘Teile’ die...sich so gleichsam aus dem Zusammenhang der menschlichen Gestalt herauslösen und zu Gegenständen verdinglichen” (107). There is a universal emphasis in the novel on the biological, reproductive function of sexuality: “Sexualität wird also vom Erzähler vorwiegend als triebhaft biologische Funktion dargestellt und kaum als integrierter Bestandteil einer menschlichen Interaktion” (123–25). Rahner highlights the various Dreiecksbeziehungen in Bt (7). He points to the overall Triebgebundenheit, the sexual frustration, loneliness and brutality, which many figures in the novel experience (53–54). Scherf interprets greengrocer Greff’s suicide and emphasizes the role potatoes play as his counterweight. People are like potatoes, Scherf explains, “sie werden—irgendwie—‘gefressen’ . . .” (101). Upon notification of the battlefield-death of a beloved boy scout, Scherf believes that Greff recognizes in his despair “die ‘ewige Wiederkehr’ dieses Fressen- und Gefressenwerdens . . .” (103). Greff’s love for the boy is the reason for his suicide. These traits, the pre-eminence of objects as autonomous and forceful beings, capable of reducing the human person to powerlessness and resignation, and the importance of cooking, eating and sexuality in the novel, point to Schopenhauer’s system of thought. He maintains that the subject learns primarily through his senses and that the human body is the first object from which he experiences the world. The primary pursuit of mankind, he asserts, is self-maintenance and propagation.

The Function of Grass' Metaphors The metaphor is the predominant and most important stylistic feature in Bt, according to Just (108). The verb-metaphor is the most dominant structure and “die eingliedrige Nominalmetapher” is also characteristic of Grass’ style (108–10). Although Grass uses the metaphor effectively in fulfilling the intent and the perspective, which is Verfremdung, the novel also has an ambivalent effect upon the reader: besides alienation, it also invites Verbindlichkeit (78–79). David Cooper discusses the aspect of intimacy, the common, emotional bond existing among people who speak the same language and who share similar cultural backgrounds (156). The idea of intimacy is demonstrated in Grass’ use of idiomatic expressions: “Durch seine ‘idiomatischen Balletts,’ seine Lust am sprachlichen Spiel, seine Fähigkeit, die Sprache weiterzubilden...wirkt Grass als einer der vital-

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Introduction

sten Sprachschöpfer der Gegenwart” (Fischer 376). Grass enlivens a particular scene by transposing and overturning idiomatic expressions and familiar symbols (Büscher 519–20). This style results in feelings of surprise and shock, because the expression is used in an uncustomary and at times, negative way. The idiomatic expression is a type of metaphor, and the notion of intimacy highlights the function of emotion in the metaphorical process. Grass’ use of metaphors demonstrates the characteristic of creative metaphors to expand language. His metaphors and symbols are not easily understood because they are highly personal and individual; they are not based on conventional reality (Geißler 173–74). Many of Grass’ symbols are complex and communicate ambiguous meanings. In order to comprehend this imagery, Geißler maintains: “Verstehen ist daher nicht als Symbolausdeutung zu leisten, vielmehr gilt es, die Bedeutung der individuellen Zeichen erst in perspektivischer Textanalyse zu bestimmen” (173). Rahner comments that in his metaphorical expressions, “verwendet Grass Bilder, die den Erfahrungs- und Erwartungshorizont des Lesers sprengen. Seine Bilder verfremden den dargestellten Sachverhalt, wirken provozierend und häufig auch schockierend” (30). Scherf maintains that “die Erklärungsinsuffizienzen der Metapher nicht eben neu sind,” and he asserts that Grass’ “Bildgebrauch allgemein problematisch ist . . .” (89). Interpretation of Grass’ metaphors reveals his opinions and feelings, in particular, those regarding Germany in the 1950s, which he has expressed in speeches and interviews. It is a time he describes as, “Die Zeit der großen Fälschungen” (Görtz 32). Ingeborg Hoesterey sees Grass’ Doppeltalent of artist and writer as the source of a conflict. She describes his turn from art to literature asserting that Grass, the graphic artist, experienced an identity crisis during the fifties (81). He felt so alienated from the abstract nature of modern art, its Gegenstandslosigkeit, he turned to literature. In his 1985 speech “Geschenkte Freiheit” cited by Hoesterey (72), he branded the fifties as a failed and misspent time for the new German republic not only in reference to the “miraculous” economic expansion, which occurred in Germany at the time, but also in regard to the art scene. He states, “Die fünfziger Jahre waren geprägt von Verdrängung. Die Abkehr von der Wirklichkeit als Stilprinzip” (81). CeplKaufmann claims Grass’ rejection of abstract art is based not only on an aesthetic principle, but also “gleichzeitig die Vergangenheit zu verdrängen, quasi ‘gegenstandslos’ zu machen” (“Döblin” 42). Grass’ metaphors reveal his familiar themes. Although Bt is not a factual historical novel, nevertheless, all Grass’ works are rooted in German

Introduction


13

history. Neuhaus emphasizes, Grass’ concern is “das Historisch-Werden” and the passage of time: no sooner is an atrocity committed than it quickly becomes history and is forgotten. This process “ist die bequemste Entlastung des Gewissens, die es gibt,” clearly benefiting the aggressor (“Schreiben” 83). Grass maintains it is the duty of the writer “gegen die verstreichende Zeit zu schreiben.” Oskar performs this task when he writes about passing the grave of Jan Bronski: he senses that the defense of the Polish Post Office has already become history, “ehe den Verteidigern das Fleisch von den Knochen gefallen war” (83). Oskar frequently recounts the senseless history of war, destruction and reconstruction in Poland, and he names the conquerors who left their mark on the city of Danzig throughout the centuries. The motion of the Karussell symbolizes the motion of history, and Oskar concludes that Poland is, “[b]ald verloren, schon verloren, wieder verloren” (CeplKaufmann, Analyse 54–55). To this day, Grass feels deeply the loss of his homeland, which he expresses in his 1989 speech, “Scham und Schande”: “Auch ich verlor 1945 eine durch nichts zu ersetzenden Teil meiner Herkunft, meine Heimatstadt Danzig. Auch ich konnte diesen Verlust nicht leichtnehmen....Und das bis heute” (Gegen 9). Schopenhauer originated the concept that history is an absurd process demonstrated by the eternal recurrence of war; it is an important tenet of his philosophy. He rejects Hegel and his progressive concept of history. Even the nature of life is a circular process, he maintains, where similar situations repeat themselves. Grass expresses his repudiation of any system of thought that becomes an “ideology” in a conversation with Cepl-Kaufmann: “Werden Verhaltensweisen aus einer Theorie abgeleitet in die Praxis, in die Wirklichkeit, dann kommt es zu diesen schrecklichen Übergriffen und Ausschließlichkeiten und alternativlosen Zuständen innerhalb einer Gesellschaft” (Analyse 303). When these circumstances lead to war and destruction, “Keine Ideologie, keine Begründung hat die Chance, sinnvoll zu sein” (54–55). Grass’ Theoriefeindlichkeit is grounded in his rejection of Hegel’s theory of history and of the state (110; 302). In his speech “Kurze Rede eines vaterlandslosen Gesellen,” Grass expresses his opposition to German reunification and reiterates his Theoriefeindlichkeit: So soll der Eindruck entstehen, daß Leipzig und Dresden, in Rostock und OstBerlin nicht das Volk der DDR, sondern auf ganzer Linie der westliche Kapitalismus gesiegt hat. Und schon wird Beute gemacht. Kaum hat die eine Ideologie ihren Griff lockern, dann aufgeben müssen, da greift die andere Ideologie wie altgewohnt zu” (Gegen 36).

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Introduction

Oskar’s world is chaotic and brutal. Wieser claims, “Die Dialektik von Schönheit und häßlich unheimlicher Wirklichkeit ist ein Grundmotiv der Dichtung von Grass...Trüber Stoff, Erde, das Unzulängliche ist in alles Menschliche gemischt” (18). All this results in the avowal that in this world, “Aber nichts ist rein” (18). Neuhaus focuses on this motif in Grass’ poetry and sees the background as that of “des leeren Horizonts, des flüchtigen Lebens, des Chaos der Welt . . .” (“Das Chaos” 31). Oskar’s nihilistic worldview is evident in Greff ’s suicide episode, and Oskar’s “Reflexionen um die Vorteile des Nicht-Geborenwerdens” is a theme which runs through the novel like a main thread (Scherf 99–101). Oskar’s response is to protest by refusing to grow. He causes chaos by drumming against “die Lebensbedingungen der Zeit” (Rothenberg 10). Oskar’s character is the opposite of the figures in the Bildungsroman. Peter Michelsen cites the Stirb und Werde characteristic of the Entwicklungsroman, in which the protagonists, “Wilhelm Meister, der grüne Heinrich, Hans Castorp...alle entwickeln sich, wandeln sich, sind am Ende andere, als sie am Anfang waren” (174–75). The only motion occurring in Oskar’s case is regression, not progress. He longs to seek the ultimate refuge in the womb from a cruel and brutal world (Botheroyd 43–45). Grass’ style of “Wortkoppelungen,” such as Kolonialwarenhändlerinsünde and the “enumerativen Katalogsätzen,” which he employs, create the notion of chaos: “Immer geht es darum, der Mannigfaltigkeit von Sachen, Menschen und Situationen, ihrer verwirrend bunten Fülle im Neben- und Durcheinander Ausdruck zu geben” (Büscher 520). The focus of Oskar’s story is his self-imposed task to remember and to record his past experiences. His description of the “aufeinanderfolgenden Phasen seines Lebens” is an exercise having an “existenzbestimmende Funktion” for Oskar (Cepl-Kaufmann Analyse 18). “Zu der erkenntnisbedingenden Erfahrung, daß sein Bemühen sinnlos ist, kommt er erst durch die einzelnen Phasen seines Lebens” (56). She cites Heinz Ide’s assertion that “Oskar kann sich nur verstehen von seinen Vorfahren” (56). The quality of resignation is the prevailing mood in Grass’ novels (165; 183). In Der Butt, the mood of resignation evolves “zum Weltprinzip. Das geschieht mit Hilfe der Kerngedanken Schopenhauers: Zeit und Raum sind illusionär” (Dierks 28). Everything that happens is cyclical, and therefore, identical. The starting point of Schopenhauer’s system of thought is the world of experience. The more the subject experiences life, the more he realizes the uselessness of his striving to live in a cruel world. He and others cause the turmoil and suffering in the world. The subject turns away from life to a state of indifference and resignation, i.e., asceticism.

Introduction


15

Up to this point, we have seen how Grass’ familiar themes, the predominance of everyday objects in Bt, and his individual style of imagery have been topics of numerous studies throughout the annals of Grass-research. Likewise, his creative use of unique symbols and metaphors is widely recognized; they effectively create distance and confusion, and arouse feelings of indignation among readers. Although Grass does not seem to have expounded his own approach to metaphorical theory, the metaphor plays a significant role in his writing technique. In the next chapter, a discussion of metaphorical theory leads us to the analysis of Grass’ metaphorical expressions.

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II

The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor


Introduction Aixo era y no era “It was and it was not” —(The Majorca Storytellers)1 The subject of the metaphor has been a topic of interest since Aristotle first articulated his theory of metaphor, which determined the orientation of Western thought. The discussions on the topic were few and superficial, until a burgeoning of interest in the metaphor took place among contemporary theorists, who began exploring how metaphor functions in language and thought. This resulted in a flood of conflicting definitions and studies. Although the cognitive role of metaphor seems to be the widely accepted approach, there is “no general agreement on what exactly the term metaphor is meant to refer to, or how it operates” (Van Noppen and Hols 3–4). Anselm Haverkamp’s 1983 anthology represents the dominant though competing approaches to metaphorical theory. He attributes the surge of interest in the metaphor to the influence of modern linguistic studies and to a renewed interest in rhetoric. Modern literary theory has brought about three methodological paradigms in the study of metaphor, Sprachanalyse, Strukturalismus and Hermeneutik: Sprachanalyse has to do with semantics, meaning;2 among the contributors to this model, Haverkamp includes Max Black, Paul Henle and Philip Wheelwright. Strukturalismus or semiotics is a theory of signs and symbols, the analysis

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The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor

of the nature and relationships of signs in a language;3 he selects essays by Roman Jakobson, Jacques Lacan and Jacques Sojcher. Hermeneutik signifies interpretation, understanding,4 and among the theorists are Hans Blumenberg, Harald Weinrich and Paul Ricoeur. There is no uniform research on metaphor, Haverkamp concludes, but rather a collection of individual viewpoints, the scope of which he states “kaum überschaubar ist” (1–2). Further research into the historical and philosophical framework of each viewpoint led to Manfred Frank’s 1989 study, What is Neostructuralism?. With the focus on French deconstruction, his purpose is to restore the role of the subject, the individual, as the primary source of meaning and history, through a hermeneutic approach. Frank proposes to integrate contemporary philosophical differences in Europe between French anti-rationalists and German rationalists into a coherent theory (Schwab, Foreword xi). The theories associated with these groups are too diverse and complex to summarize here, but the factor significant for the study at hand centers on the conflicting approaches to language and interpretation: between the hermeneuticist, advocating “construction, cognition, coherence and unity of meaning; the antirationalist, deconstruction, undecidability, division, and dissemination of meaning” (xxxviii). Paul Ricoeur’s 1977 study, The Rule of Metaphor (hereafter, RM) is a mediating, dialectical approach to metaphorical theory in which he rigorously analyzes the methodologies of each significant theory of metaphor. His analysis clears up the confusion created by the vast number of conflicting theories by illustrating the systematic continuity of the various viewpoints. The intent is to integrate opposing theories, rather than replace one with another. The study leads to his theory of text interpretation. Ricoeur traces the historical progression of metaphorical theory and the shift in focus from the word, to the sentence, and finally to discourse, the text. This is reflected in the field of classical rhetoric, which centers on denomination: instead of giving a thing its usual name, one substitutes a similar appropriate word or name. In semiotics, the focus remains on the word-metaphor and leads to semantics of the word: in effect, the works of the “new rhetoric” viewpoint revert back to the approach of classical rhetoric, substitution. Semantics is centered on the sentence, emphasizing predication: an interaction occurs between the word and the context of the statement. The final level is hermeneutics, understanding the world the text reveals, and self-understanding. Traditional rhetoric regarded the metaphor as a trope, a one-word figure of speech having to do with a change of meaning, by substituting one

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name for another, the operation based on naming. Aristotle states: “Metaphor consists in giving the thing a name that belongs to something else; the transference being either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or on grounds of analogy” (RM 13). Aristotle’s definition, however, implies a duality, which reflects the conflict in approaches to metaphorical theory (Hester 14). It includes two very different viewpoints: the ornamental view, which expresses the non-cognitive approach, and the analogy viewpoint illustrating the cognitive approach. The definition describes a motion, the transference between two ideas, from one to the other (RM 24–25, 56). This activity takes place within a complete statement or utterance. In his 1965 work, Ivor Richards achieved the breakthrough in a new approach to metaphorical theory by naming the two ideas present in a metaphor: the tenor and the vehicle interact in such a way that new meaning is produced. The word is a cooperative member of an organism, the sentence. A word can have more than one meaning, which must be guessed each time the word is used in a different context. The metaphor is not simply a substitution of words, but rather an interchange of thoughts. Thought is metaphoric in the sense that the mind is constantly connecting and comparing two things, which belong to very different orders of experience (RM 76–83; Richards 94–100). Max Black demonstrates more precisely the important balance between the statement and the word. A complete statement can be considered metaphorical because of the attention drawn to the word, which carries the metaphorical meaning. He calls the sentence the frame, but the focus is on the word used metaphorically. Furthermore, the two ideas, the principal subject and the secondary subject are thought of according to a “system of associated commonplaces,” traits that easily come to the minds of most people of the same cultural community, and not simply according to a definition in a lexicon. In order for the metaphorical sentence to make sense, the reader filters through the implications he has of the secondary subject, suppresses some and selects others that can fit the implications the reader has of the principal subject. The reader then reorganizes the implications about the principal subject, not normally thought of before. In the substitution viewpoint, according to Black, the speaker replaces a particular literal expression with another expression used in a sense different from its normal meaning. The two expressions are equivalent because one can be substituted for the other. The metaphor can be explained by an exhaustive paraphrase revealing no new information. If it teaches nothing

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The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor

new, then it functions as an ornament of language; the comparison theory is simply a special case of the substitution point of view. The substitution and interaction theories reflect the basic differences between the semiotic and the semantic approaches to metaphorical theory: the wordmetaphor and the statement-metaphor (RM 84–87). Both approaches, however, are compatible, necessary points of view, according to Ricoeur, because of the interplay between the word and the sentence. In this discursive approach, metaphorical meaning takes place at the level of the sentence, with the focus on the word. Monroe Beardsley approaches the problem of the metaphor from the point of view of literary criticism. The sentence and the literary work are identical, except for the difference in length, because they are grounded in discourse. A duality of meaning exists between what a sentence states, its primary signification, and what it suggests, its secondary signification. In the same way, a word has an explicit, lexical denotation and an implicit, secondary meaning or connotation, depending upon its context. The important part of a literary work is its implicit meaning. Because the author’s intent is missing, it is difficult for the reader to objectively reconstruct, to explicate a literary work. A metaphor is a “poem in miniature” and explication of a metaphor is the model for explication of a literary work (RM 90–99). In attributing a modifier to a subject, Beardsley emphasizes the idea of logical absurdity: there is opposition at the primary level of meaning because the modifier possesses properties incompatible with the properties of the subject and with other terms in the sentence. This forces a twist indicating that the meaning is to be taken in a metaphorical way in order for the statement to make sense. The reader is forced to select the connotations that fit the subject, revealing a second level of meaning. This process performed by the reader is explication. It is the model for all explication and can be extended to larger entities such as an entire poem, or any literary work taken as a whole (“Twist” 74–85). The conflict regarding the status of the word versus the sentence occupied the thought of classical theorists as well. Plato was led to the duality of the noun and verb in investigating the question of truth and error in language. Because the function of individual words is naming, they are limited in regard to expressing a truth; naming is only one function of language. It is only in the joining of noun and verb, logos, where something is said about something that requires thought, where truth and error occur. Aristotle states that in the combination of noun and verb, a synthesis occurs going beyond words, an assertion, which can be either correct or incorrect (RM 70). The sentence as an expression of meaning, therefore, was well established as the basic unit of discourse.

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The science of modern linguistics, however, succeeded in relegating, if not exiling, the traditional concept of language as discourse to a subordinate position by introducing a second level of language, primarily language as a specific structure and a system designated for scientific analysis. In semantics, language begins in discourse and is realized in the sentence, “the very life of human speech in action” (RM 68). In the semiotic approach, however, language is an autonomous, closed system whose unit is the sign, or lexeme, not the sentence. The sign is a linguistic entity, interrelated and interdependent, defined by its difference from other signs within the system; the complex, finite system of laws governs the combination of signs. This description follows the program established by Ferdinand de Saussure, who distinguishes between two levels of language: “langue is the code—or the set of codes—on the basis of which a particular speaker produces parole as a particular message” (IT 3). The two approaches differ in other respects as well. The code is a closed, self-sufficient system with no reference outside its own world of interrelated entities. With priority placed on the system, language begins at the lower level of a “structural unconscious” rather than at the level of the “speaker’s consciousness” (RM 19). The code is unchangeable in the sense that it is set in time, a synchronic system; it is intelligible and therefore suited for scientific analysis. The message is arbitrary and changeable in the sense that it occurs in a sequence of time, and therefore unsuited for scientific analysis. The code is collective and anonymous, not intended. The message, however, is a spontaneous act by a particular speaker; it is individual and meant by someone (IT 3). The distinction between semiotics and semantics demonstrates the problem of language, because their operations function at different levels and in different directions. In semiotic analysis, attention is centered on the internal relations present within the collection of signs; utterances themselves are important only inasmuch as they provide information regarding the nature of the system. The operation consists of the breaking down of language into its constitutive parts, the signs, in order to learn the structural differences or the aspects of form. The fundamental operation in semantic analysis is predication and reveals the aspect of substance, or meaning; the units of language are integrated into larger wholes and to a higher level, that of the sentence. Structuralism as a philosophy brings about several radical consequences. It excludes the subjectivity of the speaker as well as the mode of being of language: the free act of speaking, which produces new utterances and meanings. History and time in the sense of change from one system to another are also excluded as well as “the production of culture and of man

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The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor

in the production of his language.” Language is no longer treated as a “form of life” (RM 319; “Structure” 111–12; IT 6). The structural model, which originally focused on analysis of units and signs smaller than the sentence, was later extended to larger entities such as folktales and myths, and ultimately to the interpretation of literary texts (IT 2–6). The aim is to discover the deep structure underlying the surface structure of the narrative (Klemm 93). Structural studies reject the idea of interpreting the meaning of what is expressed in a literary work by reaching outside the linguistic content of the text. Linguistics is therefore opposed to hermeneutics. Ricoeur’s goal is to unite system and speech by thinking of language as a “dialectical production, which makes the system occur as an act and the structure as an event” (“Structure” 113).

Language as Discourse Literary texts, like the metaphor, are both phenomena of discourse. Discourse has a dialectical quality and the features of discourse can be described in the form of pairs which seem contradictory: event and meaning; singular identification and universal predication; and sense and reference. The instance of discourse is a unique event, which occurs when a speaker intends to express himself to a listener through the use of a language. Although the event itself is instantaneous and disappears, it can be repeated, restated and translated; the meaning or the propositional content remains the same (RM 70; IT 9). The propositional content of discourse appears in the form of predication. In a sentence, a singular subject is identified, which means it exists and has substance. It also has universal characteristics attributed by the predicate, indicating the different ways something can be, such as the designations of quality, relations, actions and classes. The function of naming individuals and saying what their predicating qualities are, reveals the inherent ontological aspect of language: the statement expresses the way things are or are not (RM 71). This description reflects Aristotle’s doctrine of the Categories in which he formulates a theory of being by describing the ten categories as the general intrinsic qualities of things.5 Language is primarily referential. The act of speaking refers back to the speaker’s intention to say something to someone, and to what the speaker does in saying; when I say something, I commit myself to do what I say, insofar as I give a command, I make a wish, I believe. When the listener responds by obeying, or agreeing, or expressing compassion, the intersubjective event of discourse is present (RM 71–72). Discourse is not only self-referential, but it also refers to an extra-

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linguistic reality. The twofold goals of language are sense and reference. The function of predication expresses what the speaker says to someone and represents the first level of mutual understanding and meaning, sense. The proposition provides clues referring to the second aspect of language, reference. This is what the speaker is talking about, a world; it is the subjective dimension of meaning, which also refers back to the speaker. At this level, language moves beyond itself as a system, because the speaker refers to the world, to the way things are, demonstrating the “claim to truth” of discourse (RM 73–75; “Metaphor” 98; “Creativity” 123). This dimension indicates clearly the distinction between semiotics, which operates at the level of sense, whereas semantics operates at the level of reference (RM 74–75; IT 19–22). The polarity of sense and reference is incorporated in Ricoeur’s theory of text interpretation: the first level, explanation, corresponds to the sense, to the what-is-said, which is the “immanent design of the discourse.” The second level, interpretation, corresponds to the reference, the power of discourse to point to “an extra-linguistic reality about which it says what it says” (Ricoeur, “Metaphor” 98). When discourse appears as written, important changes occur, however, even though it is based on the same fundamental traits just described. Inscription changes the referential aspect of speaking. The being together situation of dialogue common to both speaker and listener disappears, and the reference to the speaker is not immediately knowable. The subjectivity of the human voice and gesture becomes the material mark of language on paper: the said, or the sense is fixed in writing. These changes result in the objectivity of the text where the meaning of the text and the world the text discloses comes to the forefront, surpassing the unknown intent of the author, and the time in which he wrote it. The process of writing causes distanciation and the problem for the reader now becomes one of interpretation in order to understand the meaning of the text (Ricoeur, “Hermeneutical” 80–84). Ricoeur shifts the emphasis in interpretation from a subjectivistic level to an ontological level by emphasizing the world of the text. The concept of the Hermeneutic Circle of Romanticism concerns a circle between two subjectivities, the reader and the author. The emphasis is on the expression of genius and on the goal of the reader to transfer himself into the author’s psyche, his historical background and that of the original readers. Rather than trying to understand the inner life of the author, the power of the text discloses another possible way of being in the world, thereby widening the reader’s capacity of knowing himself. Instead of a person-to-person relationship, Ricoeur likens text interpretation to Hans-Georg Gadamer’s con-

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The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor

cept of Horizontverschmelzung, “the world horizon of the reader is fused with the world horizon of the writer.” This approach remains true to the Hermeneutic Circle of Romanticism and also expands it, because the world that the text discloses allows contemporary readers “to understand the author better than he could understand himself” (IT 92–94; RM 220)6. The metaphor and the literary work are both forms of discourse based on the semantics of the sentence. Because a metaphor is a poetic work in miniature, the same process of understanding a metaphor may be extended to text interpretation. It is the key to understanding a literary work. Ricoeur proposes a tension theory of metaphor—the guiding thread of his study. The production of metaphor produces a tension at three levels: there is tension within the statement, between the two terms not normally associated. Tension exists between the two interpretations: the literal, which gives way to the metaphorical interpretation. There is tension in the copula to be: in the act of relating one term to the other, and also in the process of the literal is not within the figurative is (RM 247–48). The metaphorical process is that strategy of discourse which sets free the function of discovery. Stéphane Mallarmé’s statement, “the sky is dead” in the next discussion, demonstrates this process.

The Cognitive Theory _Ten Theses The metaphor is a semantic innovation. A semantic analysis of metaphor has to do with a change in meaning focused on the word at the level of the entire statement. This occurs because of a unique contextual action where all the words in the statement contribute to the creation of new meaning. The meaning is new because of the interaction of semantic fields, which are combined in the statement for the first time. The metaphor disrupts the normal strategy of discourse because of the connection of two literally contradictory terms. The concept of deviation from the norm, a fundamental characteristic of the metaphorical process, occurs as a result of joining two contradictory terms. A violation of the normal pertinence or relevance of the code of language occurs. Ricoeur adds the idea of a new pertinence to Jean Cohen’s structural theory of deviation, the meaning emerging as a result of the statement (RM 149–57). It is the reduction of the deviation in the metaphorical process that is important, not the deviation itself (RM 143). Mallarmé’s statement, “The sky is dead,” is a perfect example of predicative impertinence because the predicate “is dead,” refers only to the category of living things (RM 152).

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When taken literally, the statement is nonsense. A new pertinence results because the poet reduces the deviation by changing the meaning of the word dead. The metaphor is not the deviation itself, but rather the reduction of the deviation. The two stages of metaphorical attribution, the production and the reduction of deviation are retained at the level of predication in the interaction theory as opposed to Cohen’s structural approach, which is an example of a substitution theory (RM 155). Resemblance is the reason for the unusual predication in the metaphorical process. The work of resemblance, bringing together two things, which previously were distant, is a discursive operation. The process of resemblance is the perceiving and uniting similarity in spite of difference; the poet sees similarity in dissimilarity. Resemblance is the site of “the clash between sameness and difference” (RM 196). New meaning is established because two formerly distant realities now appear closely related. The verbal and non-verbal aspect, between saying and seeing-as, intersect in the metaphorical statement. The appearance of similarity in dissimilarity designates the non-verbal aspect of the metaphorical statement, described by Hester as the seeing-as concept, using Ludwig Wittgenstein’s expression (RM 12; “Imagination” 173). The seeing-as process is the link between tenor and vehicle: in the metaphorical statement, the common element that must be constructed is the point of view by which the two terms are seen as similar. The seeing-as process creates tension between the literal contradiction of the terms, which produces the semantic clash, or the metaphorical twist (RM 207–15). The idea of seeing similarity reveals the role of the image in the metaphorical process, and the pictorial quality of thought and language. Hester understands images as “sensorial impressions evoked in memory.” This aspect highlights the “sensible, sensorial, even sensual aspect of poetic language”(cited by Ricoeur, RM 208–12). The use of metaphor gives discourse “a body, a shape, a face” (Ricoeur, “Imagination” 172.) One therefore has an image of the sky as being dead, in a similar sense that a living thing can be dead. Henle describes the iconic quality of the metaphor as the ability to see an abstract idea as a concrete image. It enables one to “think of something by consideration of something like it” (Henle 177). This quality suggests an approach to literary criticism, in which inquiry is made into an author’s metaphors by identifying his typical images: “his visual, auditory and generally sensorial images” (RM 192–93). The poet is the artisan who pro-

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The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor

duces the mass of images through his choice of bizarre predication, which language intuitively evokes (RM 210–12; “Imagination” 172–73). The metaphoric process allows us to function in new situations because of our ability to see similarities and to perceive reality in different ways. It is also the reason for the extension of vocabulary (RM 189–90). The theory of deviation between figurative and non-figurative language focuses on the concepts of space and distance in metaphorical predication. Aristotle introduced the idea of space in his concept of the metaphor with his term, epiphora: This means the transfer of meaning from...to, from literal to figurative language (RM 17; “Metaphorical Process” 147). It indicates a shift in logical distance between meanings. Structural theorists study the concept of deviation, and focus on the moment where non-figurative language ends and figurative language begins. Cohen compares poetic language to scientific language, by measuring the distance between the two; scientific language is the “relative degree zero” of rhetoric and of style. The space between scientific language and poetic language is measured structurally according to “purely arithmetical operations applied to semic collections”(RM 168). This approach gives the notion of deviation a quantitative value and introduces statistical instrumentation into rhetoric (RM 136–40). The classification of words according to categories in Roget’s International highlights the notion of space between the terms in a metaphorical statement. Weinrich maintains that the Bildspanne, the semantic closeness or distance between the two terms, determines the vitality of the metaphor. There is general disagreement among theorists and writers as to which degree of distance is effective (“Semantik der kühnen” 318). Metaphorical attribution begins and ends in the imagination. The imagination of the author enables him to see resemblance in bizarre predication, and the imagination of the reader enables him to reconstruct and recognize it. Perceiving the resemblance causes the change in logical distance, the reduction of the deviation. Imagination is the insight, the “apperception of a new predicative pertinence” (Ricoeur, “Imagination” 173). This description highlights the basic aspects of Kant’s concept of schematism, the procedure of the productive imagination for providing a concept, or an emergent meaning, with an image. Imagination is a process, which schematizes metaphorical attribution (173). In a metaphorical statement, attention is focused on the word or words where the change of meaning takes place. A word is a sign with

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a two-fold nature: a name (word) may have a plurality of meanings, which are naturally vague and imprecise. The naming game is an important function of language; it enables alphabetical and conceptual dictionaries to be compiled (RM 112). Yet within a sentence, the word depends on the context in which it appears for its precise meaning, while still maintaining its independence as a sign. The word, therefore, actually mediates between semiotics and semantics. Because of its dual function, “the word names in sentence position,” acting as a “trader” between the system and the speech act (“Structure” 119). The metaphorical process is the inverse of the normal operation of discourse; it creates new statements and new meanings adding to the polysemy of words (RM 116; 130–31). The theory of the statement-metaphor (interaction) is therefore compatible with the theory of the word-metaphor (substitution) because of the dual function of the word (RM 131). The locus of metaphor is found in the copula in the notion of is and is not. In Mallarmé’s statement, “The sky is dead,” the verb not only joins the predicate to the subject, but it implies that what is re-described, the sky, really is the way it is depicted. This brings up the aspect of metaphorical truth, “which preserves the ‘is not’ within the ‘is’” (RM 249). In Celan’s poem, “Todesfuge,” Weinrich identifies the metaphor, “schwarze Milch” in the line, “Schwarze Milch der Frühe wir trinken sie abends”; Weinrich asserts, “die Milch [ist] nicht schwarz...Und doch ist die Milch schwarz.” Without specifically discussing the aspect of metaphorical truth, he cites the vitality and force of the metaphor: “Die Kühnheit liegt...in der geringen Bildspanne, die uns zur Wahrnehmung der Widersprüchlichkeit zwingt . . .” (“Semantik der kühnen” 327–35). This highlights further the role of the verb in the metaphorical process and points to the existential function of the metaphor stating the way things are (RM 248). The emotions play a significant role in the metaphorical process. The act of metaphorizing consists of an interaction between the intellect, the imagination and the emotions. Feeling accompanies and completes the role of the imagination, which enables a person to see resemblances, because the person interiorizes a thought and makes it his own. A resemblance is not only seen, but also felt. Feelings are part of the verbal texture of a poem: a poem expresses a mood, according to Northrop Frye; it is the way in which the images of a poem affect us. Feelings have an ontological aspect because they are ways of being-there. In Martin Heidegger’s terms, they enable us to find ourselves in the world (Ricoeur, “Metaphorical Process” 155–59).

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The metaphorical process is the basis for the dynamic of thought. In the logical order of language, a subject is normally described through the attribution of certain properties, or categories in the predicate, which generally determine how the subject can be (RM 21–22). The metaphorical process of seeing sameness in difference, a category mistake, destroys the order of already established categories and creates a new order of new categories, new classifications. The previously existing order was produced in the same way that metaphor changes it (RM 197–99). In other words, there is a fundamental “‘metaphoric’ at work at the origin of logical thought, at the root of all classification” (RM 22). The purpose of poetic language is to elicit images, which is the main focus of the study at hand. The poetic work then becomes an object, like a sculpture. In the functioning of ordinary language, however, Ricoeur sees “the most primitive layer in a theory of metaphor,” and the roots of text interpretation (RM 321–22). The metaphor is heuristic because it produces new information. By redescribing reality, a metaphor says the way things are in a new way. This points to the heuristic quality of the metaphor to instruct (RM 22; 197–98). The entire context, the entire literary work, determines the meaning of the individual metaphors. The interaction in a poetic work between individual metaphors and the entire text is exemplified by the notion of the intertwining of metaphors in a text, which refers back to the poet and elucidates his singular vision and style. Wheelwright’s concept of tensive symbols are those metaphors frequently used that permeate the entire work. The combination of metaphors raises discourse to the level of a poetic work (RM 353, footnote 41). The interplay between all the metaphors within the context of the poetic text, as well as the concept of tensive symbols, is the focus of this present study. Wheelwright’s concept of tensive symbols seems to be an expansion of Schopenhauer’s idea of the objective correlative, where an object symbolizes an idea, an emotion or an event.

The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor Although Ricoeur’s study appeared more than 25 years ago, it seems to coincide generally with the contemporary approach to a cognitive theory of metaphor. Most cognitive linguists researching the field in the past 20 years agree that, “[m]etaphor is the cognitive mechanism whereby one experiential domain is partially ‘mapped,’ i.e. projected, onto a different

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experiential domain, so that the second domain is partially understood in terms of the first one. The domain that is mapped is called the source or donor domain, and the domain onto which the source is mapped is called the target or recipient domain” (Barcelona 3). In the case of metaphor, it is essential that both domains belong to different superordinate domains. The primary locus of metaphor is in thought, and not language. A metaphorical expression is the linguistic activation of this conceptual mapping or projection. The system involved in cross-domain mapping in forming ordinary, everyday metaphors, is extended to novel, literary metaphors (Lakoff, “Contemporary” 202–05; 229–38). A listener or reader automatically understands an everyday metaphorical utterance. In a poetic expression, however, the imaginative mapping or combination of the two domains triggers an intuitive, spontaneous response: the reader immediately recognizes the semantic incompatibility of the two domains and realizes that the utterance must be taken metaphorically. Another level of meaning must be construed projecting the reader into a “metaphoric world” (Levin “Language” 118–23). The contemporary theory of metaphor is revolutionary because it holds that most abstract, complex subject matter can be understood only by way of metaphor; we structure our real world via conventional metaphor and conversely comprehend abstract subject matter by way of concrete subject matter. This ability is grounded in the body, and in knowledge gained from social and cultural experience, language and especially, the ability of the imagination to project concepts onto other concepts.

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III

Explanation


Now that the cognitive theory of metaphor has been established as the approach in identifying Grass’ metaphors, we can proceed to the first level of interpretation, that of explanation. At this point, the structural characteristics of the metaphorical statements are explained, revealing the chain of partial meanings. A study of the stylistic characteristics of Grass’ metaphors follows immediately in the next chapter. The process of explanation is similar to that of the natural sciences where external facts are empirically observed, verified and determined (Ricoeur, IT 72–4).1

Summary _ Previous Grass-research The key to understanding Grass’ works is found by studying his use of language and style. Since the metaphor is the dominant stylistic feature of Bt, the indirect language of the metaphor is effective in accomplishing Grass’ intent as an author to create distance and to “hide” behind the narrative. Understanding Grass’ intimate Bildkosmos, which reappears in his subsequent works, is important in discovering the underlying meaning of his works. His images and symbols are not easily understood because they are not directly related to a conventional reality. Grass’ precise language and vivid descriptions in part provoked the feelings of outrage and the scandal, which occurred when Bt first appeared; he demythologizes religious beliefs and disrupts the meanings of idiomatic expressions. Oskar’s preoccupation with his experiences is an existential task; he chronologically relates his life-story in order to understand himself—his nature. His drum enables him to remember events of his life and in the lives

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Explanation

of family figures. Oskar’s character does not progress and develop as the hero of the Bildungsroman does; rather the direction in his life is that of regression: The feeling and mood of resignation permeates the novel. Therefore, his idea of Utopia is to return to the womb because he learns from experience and from observing the adults around him that it is useless to strive to live in a chaotic world. The source of Grass’ metaphors is everyday objects. Through the creative use of verbs and the utilization of personification, familiar objects exercise their own autonomy. Objects reveal an event, an underlying concept, or a special meaning. By interacting with things, Oskar deepens his knowledge and expands his experiences, which explains the highly sensual quality of the novel. Various studies on Grass identify fundamental themes, which reappear in his literary and artistic work, such as sexuality, sensuality, unsatisfied basic human needs, history as an absurd reoccurring process, and the loathsome, chaotic quality of reality. The analysis of Grass’ metaphors proceeds through several steps. The metaphorical statement is selected based on the discussion in the previous chapter. Each metaphorical statement is preceded by the context in which it appears. The significant words within the statement, the two referents, the tenor and vehicle, or the source and target domains are highlighted. In many instances more than just the two referents representing the unusual predication need to be addressed, because additional words in the statement deepen and enhance the metaphorical meaning. In this chapter, the grammatical structure or form is identified and then explained. Repetition of some of the metaphors in demonstrating various classifications is unavoidable, because many are complex and conform to more than just one of the groupings undertaken.2

Basic Grammatical Structures and Forms In order to select the best approach in determining the basic structure of a metaphorical statement, several methods were considered. Metaphors are identified according to form and structure by Werner Ingendahl and other scholars: “die Metapher als Wort: (Wortarten, Wortartwechsel), die Metapher als Wort im Satz (Substantivmetapher, Verbmetapher, Adjektivmetapher), und die Metapher im Satz (Redensarten)”(Wolff 17). Other scholars such as Werner Kallmeyer grade metaphors according to a typology: “kreative (spontane innovative) Metaphern; konventionelle Metaphern (Klischees); Exmetaphern (lexikalisierte Metaphern); Remetaphorisierungen (Aktivierung eines Bildes durch Abwandlung)”(Wolff

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17–18). Walter Seiffert distinguishes metaphors according to their functions: “innersprachliche, Prädikations-, heuristische, affektiv- emotionale, soziale, rhetorische, bzw. manipulative, ästhetische Funktion” (Wolff 19–20). Owen Barfield points to the identification of the referents and the familiar “A is B” structure (cited by Aldrich 74). A form of the verb to be joins both terms. Christine Brooke-Rose calls this type of metaphor the copula. In the example, “[e]r war ein Löwe in der Schlacht” (Sobinski 305), the Bildempfänger, according to Weinrichs terminology, is [e]r, referring to a particular warrior, who is seen to have the courage and strength of a lion, the Bildspender. In current metaphorical terminology, the two terms in a metaphorical statement have various designations, such as tenor and vehicle, associated commonplaces, subjects, referents, fields, and domains. Barfield demonstrates his concept of visual metaphor in the symbol or the symbolic expression in which the form is simply B: the meaning, A is almost liquidated in the symbol, B. In Picasso’s sculpture, “The Goat,” he places a wicker basket to represent the ribs of the goat, instead of the usual material. This is a “compound metaphor with a two-way thrust”: you see the ribs as a basket and conversely, the basket is seen as ribs” (cited by Aldrich 74–75). In another instance, Picasso uses a vase to represent a woman’s hip. Gerhard Kurz concludes that metaphors are grouped according to grammatical structures: Genitivmetapher consist of a combination of two nouns such as, “Zelt des Himmels” and “die Forelle des Lichts.” Kompositabildungen or Kompositionsmetaphern are composite metaphors combining nouns, such as Himmelszelt and Zitronenmond. The Appositionsmetapher is a noun metaphor in which the second term explains the first, such as, “Und dein Schweigen, ein Stein.” Adjektivmetapher, or attributive Metaphern combine an adjective used metaphorically with a noun, such as “ein süßer Ton,” “ein dunkler Klang,” and “die kristallenen Weiden des Rehs.” In Verbmetapher or prädikative Metaphern the verb is used figuratively such as, “Die Wiese grinst.” Several metaphors are combined in the Satzmetapher, such as “Sein Herz drohte zu brechen.” Herz signifies “personal, intimate feelings” and the verbs are used figuratively also: drohen represents the expectation of the writer and brechen implies that the heart could stop beating (Wolff 19; Sowinski 305). Brooke-Rose employs the traditional surface language grammar method, consistent with verb metaphors and five types of noun metaphor. She sees the metaphorical process as the “juxtaposition of nouns” and she maintains that verb metaphors change one noun into another (Mac Cormac 45–46). Douglas Bergren identifies three epistemic principles in which comparisons occur: a pictorial comparison of the form A-B is based on an ordinary

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Explanation

perceived likeness such as calling a person hawk-nose; the comparison is “structurally repeated” in the ratio, A:B::C:D, such as “foot of the mountain”; a textural comparison, involves an emotion-like feel, such as “brooding mountains” and “echoing light.” The textural mode is essential to poetry and the structural mode is essential to both science and philosophy (241). Ricoeur discusses the A:B as C:D structure of the proportional metaphor, or analogy. It occurs when four terms are explicitly mentioned, such as when “old age is related to life as evening is related to the day” (RM 20–21; 197). The role of the context is significant in discovering metaphorical meaning. The following metaphors cited in various studies range in complexity. Most if not all are taken from poetry. These examples present little difficulty in interpretation when taken out of context: “The chairman plowed through the discussion”(Black, Models 28). “Votre âme est un paysage choisi” (Weinrich, “Semantik” 4). “Marriage is a zero-sum game” (Black, “More” 443). “Nature is a temple where living columns . . .”(Ricoeur, RM 167; 247). “That death is a drum / Beating forever” (Mac Cormack 168). “Nuclear power plants leech the wounds of a sick economy” (171). “O the mind, Mind has mountains” (Hester 25). “When by my solitary hearth I sit, / And hateful thoughts enwrap my soul in gloom” (Henle 176). “An obliging thrush hopped across the lawn; a coil of pinkish rubber twisted in its beak” (Henle 177–78). Being familiar with the entire context expands the reader’s comprehension of the metaphors. Weinrich cites Paul Celan’s 1959 poem, “Eine Hand”: “Der Tisch, aus Stundenholz, mit / dem Reisgericht und dem Wein. / Es wird / geschwiegen, gegessen, getrunken.” Upon reading the first line in the last verse, “Eine Hand, die ich küßte, / leuchtet den Mündern,” the change to the past tense indicates that the metaphor Stundenholz means the passing of time embedded in the table (Weinrich, “Semantic der kühnen” 337). The following line is taken from Sylvia Plath’s poem, “All the Dead Dears” which she writes upon seeing a coffin with the skeletons of a woman, a mouse and a shrew: “Stars grinding, crumb by crumb, / Our own grist down to its bony face.” The poem reveals, “we figuratively hear the passage of time that leads to our death and to our becoming mere skeletons” (Mac Cormac 181). The metaphorical meanings of the entire poem or literary text enable the reader to understand the world-of-the-work. In the next section, the grammatical structures are presented in this order: noun or nominal metaphors, noun-composite, adjective; adjectivecomposite, verbal or predicate, sentence, genitive, and the proportion metaphor or analogy. A brief description of the context precedes the

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metaphorical utterance. The highlighted words in the statement demonstrate the specified structure only. Even though the example may contain other metaphorical structures as well, these are not highlighted. The word in boldface type is the primary referent; the boldface italicized word or words indicate the secondary referent. An explanation follows, which clarifies the meaning.

Grass' Metaphorical Expressions Noun or Nominal Metaphors From the attic, Oskar observes his surroundings as a cramped, noisy network of streets, stairways and hallways: Der Hof hatte die Breite des Mietshauses, maß aber nur sieben Schritte in die Tiefe und stieß mit einem geteerten, oben Stacheldraht treibenden Bretterzaun und drei andere Höfe. Vom Dachboden aus ließ sich dieses Labyrinth gut überschauen...(76).

Oskar views the daunting maze through which he must maneuver. The attic offers him escape from the cruel antics of the children. On Tuesdays and Fridays of every week, the courtyard resonates with the sound of the housewives beating their carpets: “Oskar haßte diese einmütige Hymne an die Sauberkeit. Auf seiner Trommel kämpfte er gegen den Lärm an . . .” (77). The racket of the carpetbeating is perceived as a hymn. Oskar accompanies Matzerath, his mother and Jan on an outing to the harbor. As they depart, Oskar notices the seagulls hovering over the horse’s head which moments before, had been used to catch eels: Man sah aber nichts mehr von dem Kopf, denn die Möwen hatten den eingepudert....Eine frischgewaschene Wolke, die sich jeden Moment fein säuberlich in die Lüfte erheben konnte, laut schreiend einen Pferdekopf verhüllend, der nicht wieherte, sondern schrie (123).

Seagulls are seen as a pure white cloud, which will soon lift with a screeching sound revealing the black horse’s head, screaming silently. Grass’ language expresses the senses of sight and sound in the contrast between the colors white and black, the screeching sound of the seagulls, and the soundless scream of the horse. Oskar, at the age of fourteen, becomes lonely after turning down Bebra’s invitation to join his circus. He befriends Herbert Truczinski, a waiter in a tough, seaside bar who has fought in many barroom brawls. His back is covered with many scars: “Der Rücken war rund, beweglich. Muskeln

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Explanation

wanderten unermüdlich. Eine rosige Landschaft mit Sommersprossen besät” (143). Herbert’s back is a rosy landscape and the predicate, sowed with freckles, adds to the image of the back seen as countryside. The narrator discusses the response of a church-going people to the virtues of faith, hope, and love, in Paul’s letter to the Corinthians: Aber nachdem sie sich aus Liebe die Radieschen abgebissen hatten und der Glaube an den Gasmann zur Staatsreligion erklärt worden war, blieb nach Glaube und vorweggenommener Liebe nur noch der dritte Ladenhüter des Korintherbriefes: die Hoffnung (165).

The virtue of hope is described as useless dead stock. As Oskar prepares for his journey to the Front with Bebra’s group, he ponders which books to take along. He decides to take Goethe’s Wahlverwandschaften, “jenes wohlanständige Gähnen, das Goethe vor Jahrhunderten von sich gegeben hatte . . .” (265). This is an apposition metaphor, where Goethe’s Elective Affinities is seen as a highly respectable yawn especially when compared to Gretchen Scheffler’s volume, Rasputin und die Frauen. This metaphor contributes to the overall pattern of light and darkness, of goodness and evil in the form of Goethe and Rasputin. Oskar, Matzerath and the other fearful residents of the apartment building are in the basement under the watchful eyes of the Russian soldiers. Oskar hands Matzerath the Parteiabzeichen, the pin, which Matzerath impulsively puts in his mouth in order to hide it from the soldiers: “Nun würgte er an dem sperrigen Bonbon, lief rot an, bekam dicke Augen, hustete, weinte, lachte und konnte bei all den gleichzeitigen Gemütsbewegungen die Hände nicht mehr oben behalten” (326). Matzerath, the avid cook so focused on food, chokes on the party pin, seen as an unwieldy piece of candy. Oskar and Ulla resume their jobs as artist models after the summer break. The new abstract art consists of lines, curves and angles—absurdities. Der neue Stil does not express the essential, intrinsic qualities, the Gegenständlichkeit, that Oskar believes he and Ulla possess: “Die Muse Ulla aber, die, wenn sie irdisch wurde, einen recht kunstgewerblichen Geschmack an den Tag legte, erwärmte sich derart für die neuen Tapeten . . .” (404–05). This utterance contains two noun metaphors: Ulla is seen as a muse, and the modern paintings are seen as wallpaper, according to Oskar, lacking concrete and recognizable objectivity.

Noun-composite Metaphors Oskar perceives the people in his environment, the Kleinbürger, as animals, according to their outward likeness. One is reminded of Bergren’s

Explanation




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description of the pictorial comparison type of metaphor discussed previously. This also points to Oskar, the impersonal outsider, the observer who creates distance from the other characters. Oskar describes Alexander Scheffler, the baker and his wife, Gretchen, Mama’s friend: “Er kahlköpfig, sie mit einem zur guten Hälfte aus Goldzähnen bestehenden Pferdegebiß lachend” (44). Hedwig Bronski’s eyes are Kuhaugen (53). Markus, the toyshop owner, is seen as a dog, satisfied with leftover crumbs from Jan and Agnes relationship: Hundegesicht (80). Mutter Truczinski’s eyes are Mauseaugen (149). The head of Kobyella, the janitor, is a “wimpernlose[r] Vogelkopf” (187). Luzie Rennwand’s face is a Fuchsgesicht (310). Herr Zeidler’s head is seen as an Igelkopf (396). Oskar describes his friends Lanke’s head as a Wolfskopf (450). The following noun-composite metaphors describe personality traits, or the nature of characters in the novel: Koljaiczek’s back, Kaschubenrücken (19); Oskar’s eyes, Glanzlichtaugen (45); Oskar’s size, Dreikäsehoch (61); Rasputin’s dark, evil personality, Kohleaugen (73); the eyes of the statue of Jesus: Bronskiaugen (112); Oskar and his ability to shatter glass with his scream, Glastöter (137); Ohrfeigengesicht (112); Mittelmeeraugen (138); Bernsteinaugen (151); Ringkämpfernatur, Fünfmännerweiber (155); Birnenkopf (158); Bastlerhirn, Bindfadenknotengeburten (253); Luftwaffenriesen (262); Mittelmeerstimme, Mittelmeermund (263); Blitzmädchen (266); Widerkäuerberuf (273); Strichaugen (352); Kohleprofessor, Rauschebart, Zigeunerkuchen, Kohleorgien, Kohlewüterich (385); Baukastenkönig (388); Musensegen (394); Ostereiermaler, Musenmund (405); Maleraugen (458); Knotengebilde, Knotengeburt (346). Other noun-composite metaphors depict characteristics of situations and events: the sexual relationship between Agnes, Alfred and Jan, Dreigestirn (42); greengrocer and boyscout leader Greff’s homosexual tendencies, Pfadfindererotik (45); Agnes’ and Matzerath’s marriage, Kolonialwarenhändlerehe (71); Sunday afternoons and the supper prepared by Alfred: Eintopfsonntag (100); parishioners confess a string of sins to the priest: Sündenschnur (110); Karfreitagsaal (132); Ziegelmehlsuppe (141); Grübensofa, Narbenbefragung (149); Waschküchennebel (207); Krähengewand (209); Waldmeistergefühl (223); Knäuelliebe (228); Dreigespann (242); Vanillenebel (251); Kartoffellawine (260); Brummkreiselliedchen (290); Polizistenliebespaar, Polizistengroßmutter (490).

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Explanation

Adjectival Metaphors Oskar observes his friend Vittlar who visits him: “Vittlar hielt sich steif, schlug die Beine, dabei den Bügelfalten Sorge tragend, übereinander, zeigte jenen feingestreiften, bizarren Hochmut, der nur Engeln im Himmel geläufig sein mag” (28). Haughtiness is seen as a pair of carefully pressed and creased pinstriped trousers, giving an insight into Vittlar’s personality. Oskar describes the woolen harness which Fräulein Kauer, the kindergarten teacher knits in order to keep the children in a line: “[S]ie strickte uns ein neues Geschirr, verteufelt rot sollte es werden, leider durfte ich es nie tragen . . .” (58). The description of the harness in vivid language has the same color red, which is associated with the devil, reminding Oskar of his close relationship with Satan. The children become involved in devilish behavior, as Stephan, Oskar’s cousin, is called Polack and beaten by one of the other children. Oskar enters the toyshop just as Markus is begging Agnes to run away with him to London: “Sigismund Markus kniete vor meiner Mama, und all die Stofftiere, Bären, Affen, Hunde, sogar Puppen mit Klappaugen, desgleichen Feuerwehrautos, Schaukelpferde, auch alle seinen Laden hütenden Hampelmänner schienen mit ihm aufs Knie fallen zu wollen” (84). The feeling of tension and anticipation in the shop because of Markus’ proposal is described; human feelings are attributed to the jumping jacks and the other toys, wanting to fall on bended knee, also. Grass seems to play games with the words describing the jumping jacks: “Laden hütende[n] Hampelmänner” either describes the toys as dead stock, or the jumping jacks seem to be guarding the toyshop, foreshadowing the tragic events of Kristallnacht. When Markus notices Oskar standing in the doorway, he gestures to Oskar “mit fünf sprechenden Fingern . . .” (85). In addition to describing the tension, it also gives an insight into Markus’ nature. Agnes’ routine, which includes her adulterous visits in town with Jan every Thursday afternoon, causes her to feel guilty: just as the flypaper hanging over the counter in the store attracts flies, so does Agnes attract sins. Hoping to start anew, every Saturday afternoon, summer and winter, she walks to church with Oskar in hand and confesses her sins to Father Wiehnke in the confessional. During the streetcar ride back to the store after a visit with Jan, she contemplates her guilt: Frau Agnes Mazerath...mühte sich durch den Labesweg wie durch einen Kreuzweg: die beginnende Unlust, das anomale Kind an der Hand, das schlechte Gewissen und das Verlangen nach Wiederholung; mit Nichtgenug und Überdruß, mit Abscheu und gutmütiger Neigung für den Matzerath mühte sich meine Mama mit mir...zum Geschäft...zu jenen beiden in verschiedenen Stimmlagen summenden Fliegenfängern führte mich Mama, die honigsüß über unserem Ladentisch hin-

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39

gen...während Mama jeden Sonnabend mit ähnlich übersüßer Seele, die sommers und winters, das ganze Jahr über hoch und niedrig summende Sünden anlockte, in die Herz-Jesu-Kirche ging und Hochwürden Wiehnke beichtete (109).

Agnes confesses her sins regularly to the priest. Nevertheless, she is unable to put an end to her weekly visits with Jan. In observance of Good Friday, the Matzeraths close the store according to Protestant custom and per Alfred’s request, to undertake an outing with Jan to the seaside. While the Protestants observe the day by attending church, the Catholics prepare for the Easter holiday by cleaning and beating carpets: “Wir aber ließen die passionsträchtige Teppichklopferei hinter uns . . .” (118). As Oskar observes the statues of Jesus and John the Baptist, he notices striking similarities between his own looks and those of the statues: “Natürlich hatten sie blaue Augen und sein kastanienbraunes Haar. Es hätte nur noch gefehlt, daß der bildhauernde Friseur den beiden Oskars Bürstenfrisur gegeben, ihnen die albernen Korkenzieherlocken abgeschnitten hätte” (113). Oskar describes Roswitha Raguna’s voice: “Signora Roswitha...hatte eine dunkle Früchte versprechende Stimme, die mich bewegte und erstarren ließ . . .” (138). Roswitha’s enticing, seductive voice arouses Oskar. Herbert Truczinski acquires another scar, this time while trying to protect a Latvian sailor during a brawl in the dangerous “Sweden Bar” in Neufahrwasser. Though acquitted of killing the sailor, he is dispirited and refuses to return to work waiting tables, “denn wer kellnert, wird gestochen...nur weil er einem lettischen Messer nicht erlauben will, neben all den finnischen, schwedischen, polnischen, freistädtischen und reichsdeutschen Narben noch eine lettische Narbe auf dem kreuz und quer gepflügten Rücken eines Herbert Truczinski zu hinterlassen” (147). Herbert’s back is seen as a field that has been plowed back and forth. Each scar can be identified according to a particular event involving a brawl with a sailor from a different country. Herbert’s back is as scarred from the brawls as the Polish countryside is scarred from the wars fought on her soil. Oskar entices Herbert out of unemployment to work with him as a team of burglars. Breaking and entering would be easy because of Oskar’s precision-like scream: “Oskar hätte, durch lange Erfahrung auf diesem Gebiet gewitzt, Schaufenster vor beachtlichen Auslagen mittels seiner immer noch diamantenen Stimme aufgetrennt und gleichzeitig den Aufpasser gemacht, während Herbert, wie man so sagt, schnell bei der Hand gewesen wäre” (148). Their evil deeds are brought to an end soon because they are unable to fence the stolen objects.

40




Explanation

Oskar, contemplating the meaning of love though yearning for another choice, concludes that the kind of love expressed between Jan and Agnes is the only kind. All the previous encounters with fizzpowder between Oskar and Maria lead to the following incident: Spontan, ohne die Möglichkeit vorher, Goethe oder Rasputin lesend, in Betracht gezogen zu haben, schüttete ich Maria, nachdem ich ihr wochenlang die linke Hand gefüllt hatte, den Rest eines Himbeerbrausepulvertütchens in die Bauchnabelkuhle, ließ meine Speichel dazufließen, bevor sie protestieren konnte, und als es in dem Krater zu kochen anfing, verlor Maria alle für einen Protest nötigen Argumente: denn der kochend brausende Bauchnabel hatte der hohlen Hand viel voraus (228).

The packet of fizzpowder loses its initial innocent connotation. Thus, Oskar experiences his first sexual act. Oskar interrupts Maria and Matzerath making love. Trying in vain to win her back, he offers her a package of fizzpowder, which she rejects by kicking him. A brutal fistfight ensues between them: Ganz nah ließ Oskar sie herankommen und schlug ihr dann mit beiden Fäusten von unten nach oben genau da hin, wo sie den Matzerath eingelassen hatte. Und als sie mir die Fäuste vor dem zweiten Schlag abfing, biß ich mich fest an derselben verdammten Stelle, und fiel, immer noch in Maria verbissen, mit ihr auf die Chaiselonge, hörte zwar, wie die im Radio eine weitere Sondermeldung ankündigten, doch das wollte Oskar nicht hören; und so verschweigt er Ihnen, wer was und wieviel versenkte, denn ein heftiger Weinkrampf lockerte mir die Zähne, und ich lag bewegungslos auf Maria, die vor Schmerz weinte, während Oskar aus Haß weinte und aus Liebe, die sich in bleierne Ohnmacht verwandelte und dennoch nicht aufhören konnte (238).

The savage encounter demonstrates Oskar’s sexual frustration. His pain and anguish reflect his powerlessness and unending helplessness. His attempts to win Maria back have failed and she rejects him. Oskar refuses to hear the awaited communiqué in the background reporting on battlefield progress because it seems to be an omen heralding Oskar’s future sexual experiences. Oskar narrates how Greengrocer Greff describes the potato to a customer: “‘Betrachten Sie bitte diese außergewöhnliche Kartoffel....Dieses schwellende, strotzende, immer wieder neue Formen erdenkende und dennoch so keusche Fruchtfleisch’” (239). The potato is given human intellectual and sexual qualities, indicating its importance. Having been rejected by Maria, Oskar turns his undivided attention to Lina Greff and describes the progress of his sexual prowess: Wenn mir Maria im naiv betörenden Vanillenebel die kleine Form nahelegt, mich mit Lyrismen wie Brausepulver and Pilzsuche vertraut machte, kam ich im streng säuerlichen, vielfach gewobenen Dunstkreis der Greffschen zu jenem breit epis-

Explanation




41

chen Atem, der mir heute erlaubt, Fronterfolge und Betterfolge in einem Satz zu nennen....Oskar holte das Letzte aus der Greffschen heraus und blieb dennoch unzufrieden, wenn nicht unbefriedigt, wie es sich für einen echten Künstler gehört (251).

Oskar progresses from the naiveté of Maria to slovenly Lina Greff, described as battlefield victories. Despite his success, however, Oskar remains unsatisfied.

Adjective-composite Metaphors Oskar’s voice is unable to reduce the curtains hanging on his living room windows to flames: “Doch meiner Stimme blieben Tischdecken und Polituren gleichgültig. Weder gelang es mir, mit unermüdlichen Schrei...die zundertrockenen, tabakrauchgewürzten Gardinen vor den beiden Fenstern des Wohnzimmers zu dekorativen Flammen werden zu lassen” (50). The senses of smell and taste are highlighted in one word. Hoping to put an end to the incessant drumming, the adults attempt to take away Oskar’s beloved, broken first drum. He retaliates with his first glass-shattering scream, breaking the glass of the family clock. Oskar is content only when given a new drum in exchange for the old one: “Ohne den von allen erwarteten Schrei, ohne den glastötenden Gesang laut werden zu lassen, gab ich die Schrotttrommel ab und widmete mich sogleich mit beiden Händen dem neuen Instrument” (55). Oskar’s evil and willful nature is revealed; he uses his ability to destroy glass as a weapon to have his way, instilling fear and shock among his family members. Oskar refuses to return to Auntie Kauer’s Kindergarten class where the children beat up his cousin, whom he does not especially like. Oskar will therefore attend a public school. He brings his drum and responds to the teacher’s recitation of the weekly class routine. Religion is scheduled on Thursdays: “[D]er Religion widmete ich, wie es sich gehört, nicht etwa vier, sondern drei dreieinige, alleinseligmachende Trommelschläge”(64). The adjectives refer to the theological teachings of the Catholic Church, for which Oskar bears a distinct hatred. Oskar’s mother and Gretchen Scheffler spend time reading an illustrated book together, entitled, Rasputin und die Frauen. Although Gretchen longs for a baby, her husband ignores her sexually. After an excited reading, Gretchen, Agnes and Oskar overindulge in assorted cakes and pastries from the bakery, “und kauend kam man wieder, doch jetzt mit dem nötigen Abstand auf Rasputin zu sprechen, konnte sich alsbald, nach kurzer, kuchengesättiger Zeit ehrlich über die so schlimme und abgrundtiefverdorbene Zarenzeit entrüsten (75). In their gluttonous and voyeuristic passing of time, the three repeat the same overindulgence of the nobility

42




Explanation

during the time of the Czars. After Oskar turns an orderly Nazi Party demonstration in the Maiwiese to utter chaos with the help of his drum from under the rostrum, he toddles off to a Sunday afternoon dinner at home: “Wer achtete schon auf den kleinen Jungen, der da pfeifend und dreijährig langsam am Rand der Maiwiese in Richtung Sporthalle stiefelte?” (99) Oskar displays his destructive, deceiving nature when he plays the part of an innocent three-year-old child, walking away from the turmoil he has created. Kristallnacht occurs in November, during the season of Advent, the time of preparation for Christmas. Oskar is returning from the toystore carrying new drums while pious women and very ugly girls distribute religious material and collect money: Und so glaubten sie an die alleinseligmachende Gasanstalt, die mit steigenden und fallenden Gasometern Schicksal versinnbildlichte und zu Normalpreisen eine Adventszeit veranstaltete, an deren vorauszusehende Weihnacht zwar viele glaubte, deren anstrengende Feiertage aber nur jene überlebten, für die der Vorrat an Mandeln und Nüssen nicht ausreichen wollte—obgleich alle geglaubt hatten, es sei genug da (164–65).

The season of Advent is a cultural and religious symbol, a time during which Christians prepare spiritually and culturally for Christmas. The focus of this metaphor is the annihilation of the Jews in the gas chambers, symbolized also by the nuts, abundantly used in baking; almonds also symbolize the smell of gas. The target is the Catholic Church: only the teachings of the Catholic Church can make you holy yet its followers commit atrocities during the season of Advent; furthermore, the women are physically unattractive. The Church, seen as a gas company, and its believers are held responsible for the atrocities. During one of Oskar’s visits to the Catholic Church with Maria, he describes the interior of the church:”Wir standen und guckten in den schattigen, kühlatmenden Kirchenbauch . . .” (292). The cool, quiet interior of the church is seen as a belly, with the human capability of breathing. Oskar describes the frenzied nature of Professor Kuchen, who supervises the students at the Academy of Art awaiting his next instruction: “Noch ein kurzer Vortrag des kohlenstaubschnaubenden Professors: Ausdruck verlangte er . . .” (383). Black dust seems to be emanating from him. Adjective-composite metaphors also vividly describe the colors of certain objects: preußischblaue[r] Rock, tomatenrotes Herz (111); blaurote Armen (123); kirschschwarze Mittelmeeraugen (138); blaßbunte Museumsfassade (157); bleigraue durchdringliche Blicke (189); rotge-

Explanation




43

flammte[s] Gewissens (211); feuerzündgockelrot (217); saftgrüne Tapete (257); dottergelbe[r] Zollstock (338); schokoladenbraune[r] Schellackstein (365); nachtschwarzer Ausdruck.

Verbal or Predicate Metaphors Oskar describes the bird-like qualities of his Kindergarten teacher, Fräulein Kauer. All is quiet until the turmoil caused by Stephan’s beating, when she seems to become a guinea hen: Gleich einem Mädchen, das nicht weiß, wie ihm im Frühling ist, trällerte sie mit ruckhaften Kopfbewegungen, die man sonst nur noch bei Perlhühnern beobachten kann, und strickte uns ein neues Geschirr...leider durfte ich es nie tragen: denn da gab es Geschrei im Gebüsche, Fräulein Kauer flatterte auf...(58).

Gretchen Scheffler, the baker’s wife, having no children to knit things for, compensates by filling her dwelling with countless embroidered and knitted objects. Oskar sets about the task of endearing himself to her because Gretchen is his only hope of getting some kind of an education, since he has no desire to attend a formal school: “Schon beim zweiten Besuch öffnete Gretchen ihr Herz, das heißt, sie ribbelte es auf . . .” (71). Gretchen finally opens her heart to Oskar in the same way she unravels a skein of yarn to create lovingly a knitted object. Agnes usually leaves Oskar with Marcus at his toyshop during her usual visits with Jan in the city. Oskar observes her uneasiness when Marcus, weeping on bended knee, begs her to run away with him, even if she despises him. She rejects his proposal because of Jan: “Des Onkels Namen wie ein Stichwort wertend, erhob sich Markus sogleich, klappmesserte eine Verbeugung und ließ hören: ‘Verzeihn Se dem Markus, hattä sich doch gleich gedacht, daß es wegen dem nich mecht sein’” (85). Markus is rebuked and his changed physical demeanor, his hasty, jerky bow seems like the action of a jackknife. The noun Klappmesser is transformed into a verb, in effect perceiving Marcus as an object, deprived of his passionate feelings. Oskar’s mother is dead and he stands with his drum at her deathbed: “Schließlich konnte ich mich nicht mehr beherrschen, ließ im Sterbezimmer meiner Mama noch einmal das Idealbild ihrer grauäugigen Schönheit auf dem Blech zur Gestalt werden (131). With the help of his drum, Oskar reflects upon the memory of his mother’s image. The drum is instrumental in helping Oskar to remember and to communicate his experiences. Oskar realizes that the first time he touched Herbert’s scars, they foreshadowed and communicated his future sexual encounters: “Er ließ die Hosenträger herunter, pellte sich das Hemd ab und ließ mich, während er las, seinen Rücken befragen” (145). By touching the scars Oskar seems to

44




Explanation

sense experiences of his own life. Oskar prevents Jan from running away from the impending attack on the Polish Post Office. He entreats Jan’s help in having his only remaining battered drum repaired by the janitor at the Polish Post Office. As they make their way to the heavily guarded post office, the church bells peal: “Die Glocken der Altstadt bronzierten” (178). The verb bronzieren meaning coated with bronze, is used creatively and visually. One sees the shiny movement of the bells as they peal, and is reminded of the ancient function of bells, to alarm the villagers of impending danger. They seem to foreshadow Jan’s execution. At Christmas, Oskar learns to his dismay that he has not received the new drum he so desperately needs: “[D]a schrie ich...da feilte ich mir nach längerer Pause wieder einmal meine Stimme zu einem spitzen, Glas ritzenden Instrument und tötete nicht etwa Vasen, nicht Biergläser und Glühbirnen, keine Vitrine schnitt ich auf, nahm keiner Brille die Sehkraft . . .” (212). Oskar is so infuriated, he screams out in protest and anger, displaying his power. His voice becomes a sharp tool that he uses to selectively destroy the decorations on the Christmas tree. Oskar bids his neighborhood farewell as he embarks on his trip to Paris with Bebra’s theater at the front recalling the situation of each of his neighbors: “Aber der Uhrmacher Laubschad lebte noch und erweckte tote Uhren zum Leben” (266). The character of the watchmaker is seen as resurrecting dead clocks, pointing to the sentient quality of objects. Oskar poses as an artists’ model for several students at the Academy of Art. The artists receive fiery directions from Professor Kuchen: “Das war wohl das Zeichen zum Anfang, denn sechzehnmal knirschte hinter den Staffeleien Kohle, schrie mürb werdend auf, zerrieb sich an meinem Ausdruck—gemeint war mein Buckel” (383). The pieces of charcoal seem to come to life while sketching Oskar’s hump.

Sentence Metaphors Oskar applies the destructive quality of his voice to cutting holes in shop windows, thereby tempting passersby to steal from the shop. Standing across the street on a cold evening in January, he observes “mancherlei Wild vor dem Schaufenster mit dem Schmuck und den Uhren...,” whom he eventually “shoots down” without a second thought (105). His sights, however, are on Jan Bronski. Oskar displays his evil nature: seeing himself as the hunter, the innocent passersby as his prey, and his scream as his weapon, he carefully selects and shoots down his victims by offering them the unique opportunity to

Explanation




45

steal expensive jewelry from the showcase. Herbert has a new job as a security guard at the Maritime Museum, where the notorious wooden figurehead from an old Florentine galleon is on display. Niobe supposedly caused the death of many a man who crossed her path: “Obgleich die Kriminalisten der Mordkommissionen bei jedem Todesfall von tragischem Selbstmord sprachen, hielt sich in der Stadt und auch in den Zeitungen ein Gerücht, welches besagte: ‘Dat macht de griehne Marjell mit de aijene Hände’” (153). Human qualities are attributed to the wooden figure of Niobe. She is seen as a “green kitten,” a figure, who through her sexual allure, intentionally causes men’s deaths. Men are helpless who find themselves in her commanding and destructive presence. Oskar and Jan are barricaded in the Polish Post Office building during the attack. Oskar recalls how Polish soldiers have constantly engaged in battle, enthusiastically and gallantly kissing the hands of the ladies, until they realize too late, that the ladies’ hands are really the deadly muzzles of field howitzers. He angrily asks himself, why he should care about Poland. He describes the two armored reconnaissance vehicles, shooting incessantly at the post office, and how “die konnten nicht genug bekommen, fuhren ratternd, gepanzert und spähend vor der Post auf und ab: zwei junge bildungsbeflissene Damen, die ein Schloß besichtigen wollten, aber das Schloß hatte noch geschlossen” (189). The two vehicles are seen as two insatiable, spoiled ladies, sightseeing and the castle is really the post office. Oskar feels guilty of having lured Jan to the Polish Post Office where Jan eventually meets his death. Oskar attempts to eradicate this event from his memory by incessant, furious drumming: Oskar...setzte all seinen Fleiß in die Aufgabe, den letzten Zeugen seiner Schmach angesichts der Heimwehrleute, die Trommel zu vernichten. Erst Mitte Dezember verloren die Beschuldigungen des mir anhängenden lackierten und rotgeflammten Gewissens an Überzeugungskraft: Der Lack zeigte Haarrisse, blätterte ab. Das Blech wurde mürbe, dünn und riß, ehe es durchsichtig wurde” (211).

Seeing his drum as his “conscience, “ a witness to his betrayal of Jan, Oskar batters the drum, thus weakening the accusations. He eventully destroys it hoping to forget and to rid himself of his shame. After the war, Oskar reaches a level of financial well-being and he entices nurse Gertrude with candy and the promise of cake stamps to go dancing with him at the “Lion’s Den,” a haven for black-marketeers: Es zeigten sich einige recht flüssig, wie eingeschult tanzende Paare. Viel Chewing Gum wurde bewegt, einige Burschen stellten für mehrere Takte das Tanzen ein,

46




Explanation

hielten die ungeduldig auf der Stelle dribbelnden Mädchen am Oberarm—englische Brocken ersetzten dem rheinischen Wortschatz die Hefe. Bevor die Paare sich wieder im Tanz fanden, wurden kleine Gegenstände weitergereicht: echte Schwarzhändler kennen keinen Feierabend (375).

The British and American influence during this post-war time period is evident in the language of the marketeers in the reference to the ingredient of yeast in the fermentation of wine, for which the Rhine valley is noted, and the reference to a cultural phenomenon, Feierabend, a time of leisure after working hours.

Genitive Metaphors At Oskar’s birth, he notices the sound of the moth drumming on the lightbulbs: Der Falter schnatterte, als hätte er es eilig, sein Wissen los zu werden, als käme ihm nicht mehr Zeit zu für spätere Plauderstunden mit Lichtquellen, als wäre das Zwiegespräch zwischen Falter und Glühbirne in jedem Fall des Falters letzte Beichte und nach jener Art von Absolution, die Glühbirnen austeilen, keine Gelegenheit mehr für Sünde und Schwärmerei (36).

This incident between the moth and the lightbulbs is significant because it heralds Oskar’s interaction with his own drum. The moth and the light bulb seem to be engaged in a conversation where the moth hurriedly confesses its sins to the lightbulb and receives absolution. The sound of the drumming of the moth is Oskar’s inspiration. Oskar feels secure when he seeks refuge under the table from the chaos in the room during his fourth birthday party: “Ich fühlte mich wohl unter der Tischplatte, im Windschatten des herabhängenden Tischtuches”(54). Oskar typically runs-for-cover, seeking escape and refuge from the chaos of his life by hiding under things. In this instance, the table and cloth are seen in nautical terms as the sheltered side away from the wind. Oskar reflects upon the many paintings throughout history depicting various battles: “O du irrsinnige Kavallerie!—Auf Pferden nach Blaubeeren süchtig. Mit Lanzen, weißrot bewimpelt. Schwadronen Schwermut und Tradition” (204). The paintings depict the constant history of war on Polish soil and the squadrons express the feeling of melancholy. In the Maritime Museum, Oskar and Herbert taunt Niobe by taking part in silly antics under her watchful eye:”Allerlei dummes Zeug trieben wir im Blickfeld des grün schwellenden Holzes . . .” (155). The figure of Niobe is referred to as a piece of wood having the human quality of sight and the ability to react.

Explanation




47

Analogy Metaphors Oskar’s scream is ineffective in destroying wallpaper: Weder gelang es mir, mit unermüdlichem Schrei das Tapetenmuster zu löschen, noch mit zwei langgezogenen, auf und ab schwellenden, sich steinzeitlich mühsam aneinander reibenden Tönen Wärme bis Hitze zu erzeugen, endlich den Funken springen zu lassen, der nötig gewesen wäre, die zundertrockenen, tabakrauchgewürzten Gardinen vor den beiden Fenstern des Wohnzimmers zu dekorativen Flammen werden zu lassen (50).

Oskar is unable to create the fire with his scream that would burn away the patterns on the wallpaper; he is unable to create tones that would rub together in the same manner that our primitive ancestors could create heat by rubbing together flints. The structure of this metaphor is A:B not as C:D. Oskar reflects upon the typical, painful routine of Mama’s life, her adulterous visits with Jan and regularly acknowledging her guilt in the confessional: Der Umgang mit Jan Bronski...die süße Mühsal eines ehebrecherischen Frauenlebens machten sie fromm und lüstern nach Sakramenten....[Sie] mühte sich durch den Labesweg wie durch einen Kreuzweg...zum Geschäft...zu jenen beiden in verschiedenen Stimmlagen summenden Fliegenfängern führte mich Mama, die honigsüß über unserem Ladentisch hingen und im Sommer alle zwei Tage gewechselt werden mußten, während Mama jeden Sonnabend mit ähnlich übersüßer Seele, die sommers und winters, das ganze Jahr über hoch und niedrig summende Sünden anlockte, in die Herz-Jesu-Kirche ging und Hochwürden Wiehnke beichtete (108–09).

Sins are perceived as flies and just like flies are attracted to the flypaper hanging over the counter in the general store, so are sins attracted to Mama’s too sweet nature. Herbert is laid to rest in Langfuhr cemetary. Oskar thinks of the impending catastrophic events of war in the same way men’s deaths are attributed to Niobe: Oskar will heute noch nicht so recht an Vorzeichen glauben. Dennoch gab es damals Vorzeichen genug für ein Unglück, das immer größere Stiefel anzog, mit immer größeren Stiefeln größere Schritte machte und das Unglück umherzutragen gedachte. Da starb mein Freund Herbert Truczinski an einer Brustwunde, die ihm ein hölzernes Weib zugefügt hatte. Das Weib starb nicht. Das wurde versiegelt und im Museumskeller, angeblich wegen Restaurationsarbeit, aufbewahrt. Doch kann man das Unglück nicht einkellern. Mit den Abwässern findet es durch die Kanalisation, es teilt sich den Gasleitungen mit, kommt allen Haushaltungen zu, und niemand, der da sein Suppentöpchen auf die bläulichen Flammen stellt, ahnt, daß das Unglück seinen Fraß zum Kochen bringt (159).

Because of Niobe’s destructive power, she is confined in the cellar of the museum. The catastrophe of the World War II era yet to come, which is

48




Explanation

gradually spreading throughout the country, cannot be controlled by storing it in a cellar, like Niobe. This paragraph seems to act as a postlude to Herbert’s death and a prelude to the next tragedy, the atrocities committed against the Jews. Kurt destroys all the gifts he received at his third birthday party, including a whistling top and the whip. Hoping to perpetuate his own drumming, Oskar presents Kurt with a drum. But Kurt treats his “brother” much like Cain treated Abel. Kurt responds cruelly to Oskar by whipping him into submission, reducing him to hopeless tears: “[S]o peitschte Kain den Abel, bis Abel sich drehte...aus unwirschem Gebrumm schon zu höherem Singen findend....[U]nd Abel mag so gesungen haben, bevor er zurückfiel, wie dann auch ich unter der Peitsche des Knaben Kurt zusammensackte” (290). Kurt displays the same brutality as Cain. He treats Oskar just as he did the whistling top. Oskar seems to become a top, crying and turning in the same manner the top whistled and spun.

IV

Stylistic Features


In addition to the grammatical structures discussed in the previous chapter, metaphors may be grouped according to various stylistic features: Stephen Pepper defines root metaphors as a group of metaphors, which describe one and the same subject (Ricoeur, RM 244). It is a manner of metaphorical functioning wherein a cluster or an array of metaphors function by way of intersignification: One metaphor, in effect, calls for another....Thus within the Hebraic tradition God is called King, Father, Husband, Lord, Shepherd and Judge....The network engenders what we can call root metaphors, which...have the power to bring together the partial metaphors borrowed from the diverse fields of our experience and thereby to assure them a kind of equilibrium (IT 64).

This technique is the rhetorical figure, variation: “In der Varatio spielt...die Metaphorik die dominierende Rolle” (Just 108). The purpose of this characteristic is to impress upon the reader the importance of the event being described (Wagenbach 123). Just claims the reason is “die Auflösung der Einheit” (107), which contributes a sense of chaos to the narrative. The use of Redensarten is another stylistic feature. Idiomatic expressions continue to function in a special way at the cultural level even though they have been embedded in a language (Sowinski 306). Another form of metaphor, personification, occurs when things or concepts are humanized, such as, “und Finsternis aus dem Gesträuche mit hundert schwarzen Augen sah” (Sowinski 309).

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Stylistic Features

The same procedure employed in the previous chapter in presenting the classifications is followed here. The stylistic traits are root metaphors, which are paragraphs containing several metaphorical expressions pointing to one meaning or theme; personification and names or naming-metaphors follow. The cultural grouping, including idiomatic expressions, cultural observances, and religious symbols and beliefs concludes this study.

Root Metaphors In this style of metaphorical functioning, several metaphorical utterances are used to express one concept, one theme, one event; one metaphor calls for another and each predicate is from a different category than the others. Oskar describes what his hospital bed means to him: “Mein weißlackiertes metallenes Anstaltsbett ist also ein Maßstab. Mir ist es sogar mehr: mein Bett ist das endlich erreichte Ziel, mein Trost ist es und könnte mein Glaube werden” (9). Oskar’s bed is seen as a strict standard, a haven from the rest of the world, his final goal, a source of peace and contentment for Oskar and perhaps even a religious belief. Oskar holds his family photo album in high esteem: Ich hüte einen Schatz.... [W]ährend der Reise im Güterwagen drückte ich ihn mir wertvoll gegen die Brust, und wenn ich schlief, schlief Oskar auf seinem Schatz, dem Fotoalbum. Was täte ich ohne dieses alles deutlich machende, offen zu Tage liegende Familiengrab?...Was auf dieser Welt, welcher Roman hätte die epische Breite eines Fotoalbums? (37)

The album is an important source of information for Oskar regarding himself; it enables him to learn of his predecessors. Oskar accepts a job as a model for the art academy and he narrates how Professor Kuchen propounds his definition of art: “‘Kunst ist Anklage, Ausdruck, Leidenschaft!’” (383) A variation of this style is the paragraph, containing several metaphors. The structures vary but the theme is the same. As Koljaiczek rides the logging raft down the river, the countryside is described as a scene of recurring battles: Links und rechts lag hinter den Deichen immer dasselbe, wenn nicht flache, dann gehügelte, schon abgeerntete Land. Hecken, Hohlwege, eine Kesselkuhle mit Ginster, plan zwischen Einzelgehöften, geschaffen für Kavallerieattacken, für eine links im Sandkasten einschwenkende Ulanendivision, für über Hecken hetzende Husaren, für die Träume junge Rittmeister, für die Schlacht, die schon dagewesen, die immer wieder kommt, für das Gemälde . . .” (21).

The countryside was created especially as the historic stage for heroic battles and especially for the painting, which depicts the battle in detail. Each

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phrase is introduced with the word für. Oskar’s Grandmother sets up a stall at the weekly market selling eggs and other items. On cold, wintry days, hot bricks are pushed under the skirts of the women to help keep them warm. Oskar, wishing he were a warm brick, describes the fanciful world he looks for under his grandmother’s skirts: Was sucht Oskar unter den Röcken seiner Großmutter?...Sucht er Vergessen, Heimat, das endliche Nirwana? Oskar antwortet:...Da floßen die Ströme zusammen, da war die Wasserscheide, da wehten besondere Winde, da konnte es aber auch windstill sein, da rauschte der Regen, aber man saß im Trocknen, da machten die Schiffe fest oder die Anker wurden gelichtet, da saß neben Oskar der Liebe Gott, der es schon immer gerne warm gehabt hat, da putzte der Teufel sein Fernrohr, da spielten Engelchen blinde Kuh;...Nirgendwo konnte ich ruhiger nach dem Kalender leben als unter den Röcken meiner Großmutter (101).

These sentence metaphors are introduced with the word da, and express Oskar’s desire to seek refuge under his grandmother’s skirts and to return to the womb. After his mother has died, Oskar reflects upon their closeness and similarity; this paragraph contains many utterances, which express his feelings of need and dependence upon his mother and her loyal support for him: Mama schüttete mich aus und saß dennoch mit mir in einem Bade. Mama ging mir manchmal verloren, aber ihr Finder ging mit ihr. Wenn ich Scheiben zersang, handelte Mama mit Kitt. Sie setzte sich manchmal ins Unrecht, obgleich es ringsherum Stühle genug gab. Auch wenn Mama sich zuknöpfte, blieb sie mir aufschlußreich. Mama fürchtete die Zugluft und machte denoch ständig Wind. Sie lebte auf Spesen und zahlte ungerne Steuern. Ich war die Kehrseite ihres Deckblattes (131).

Oskar waits for Herbert outside the museum where they eat the lunch Mutter Truczinski has packed for Herbert. Herbert then returns to the museum. Oskar remains outside and describes the lively play of the afternoon light and its effect on the museum: Der Nachmittag kroch über die blaßbunte Museumsfassade. Von Kringel zu Kringel turnte er, ritt Nymphen und Füllhörner, fraß dicke nach Blumen greifende Engel, ließ reifgemalte Weintrauben überreif werden, platzte mitten hineinin ein ländliches Fest, spielte Blindekuh, schwang sich auf eine Rosenschaukel, adelte Bürger, die in Pluderhosen Handel trieben, fing einen Hirsch, den Hunde verfolgten, und erreichte endlich jenes Fenster des zweiten Stockwerkes, das der Sonne erlaubte, kurz und dennoch für immer ein Bernsteinauge zu belichten (157).

The metaphors depict the passage of time. The afternoon creeps, tumbles, rides, eats, plops, swings, and traps. The afternoon sun brings to life the paintings in the room and also lights up Niobe’s amber eyes, thus bring-

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ing her to life, which results in a tragedy. The paragraph functions as a prelude leading to a highpoint in the narration, Herbert’s tragic death, just as in a musical composition. The effect is that of “Begleitmusik” (Wagenbach 123). In the Polish Post Office, Oskar, Jan and the janitor, Kobyella have sought refuge from the shelling in the children’s nursery of the living quarters. Oskar notices the large assortment of toys including a red and white tin drum. While Kobyella tries to shake the terror and cowardice out of Jan, the nursery is hit with the shelling and Kobyella is mortally wounded: [D]a traf es nicht den Bronski, da traf es Kobyella, da hatte sich eine Granate einen Riesenspaß erlaubt, da lachten Ziegel sich zu Splitt, Scherben zu Staub, Putz werde Mehl, Holz fand sein Beil, da hüpfte das ganze komische Kinderzimmer auf einem Bein, da platzten die Käthe-Kruse-Puppen, da ging das Schaukelpferd durch und hatte so gerne einen Reiter zum Abwerfen gehabt, da ergaben sich Fehlkonstruktionen im Märklinbaukasten, und die polnischen Uhlanen besetzten alle vier Zimmerecken gleichzeitig (190).

The chaos and destruction caused by the explosion of the shell in the children’s nursery seems comical. The rocking horse seems to run off, but the scattering of the toy Uhlan soldiers about the room is reminiscent of the real soldiers that fought and died in previous battles on Polish soil. Oskar visits Klepp, another boarder in the rooming house and when the conversation leads to music, Oskar is driven to fetch the drum from his room that he has not played. He finally begins to drum again and he begins to tell Klepp his entire life story: Die tausend Bleche, die ich zum Schrott geworfen hatte und das eine Blech, das auf dem Friedhof Saspe begraben lag, sie standen auf, erstanden aufs Neue, feierten heil und ganz Auferstehung, ließen sich hören, füllten mich aus, trieben mich von der Bettkante hoch, zogen mich, nachdem ich Klepp um Entschuldigung und eine Moment Geduld gebeten hatte, aus dem Zimmer... peitschten mich in mein Zimmer, ließen mir jene Trommel entgegenkommen, die mir der Maler Raskolnikoff geschenkt hatte, als er die Madonna 49 malte; und ich ergriff die Trommel...ließ dann, wie zufällig, einen Stock auf das Blech fallen, ach, und das Blech gab Oskar Antwort...und ich begann zu trommeln...am Anfang war der Anfang...(421–22).

Personification The act of personifying is a metaphoric action closely related to mythologizing. Since the language of the primitive thinker had few abstract words, his expressions were drawn from human experiences. The quality of his world was “presential”: a hovering presence was sensed within, behind or amidst everyday surroundings (Wheelwright, Metaphor 148–50). The imagination

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of such a writer is “mythopoeic” (133). Grass is “impressively gifted” at the “abstract level of mythopoeic symbolizing” (Diller 5–6). The following paragraph clearly demonstrates the presential quality described by Wheelwright, and it illustrates the important role everyday things play as a source of Grass’ inspiration and his style of describing objects as if they are real and present. Oskar narrates how he and Herbert cavort fearlessly in the Maritime Museum under the watchful gaze of the figurehead, Niobe; he is convinced that objects possess a sentient quality: “Heute weiß ich, daß alles zuguckt, daß nichts unbesehen bleibt, daß selbst Tapeten ein besseres Gedächtnis als die Menschen haben. Es ist nicht etwa der liebe Gott, der alles sieht!” (155). Oskar recognizes that his drum is a source of communication for him. He needs it to learn his life story so that he can narrate it: Hätte ich nicht meine Trommel, der bei geschicktem und geduldigem Gebrauch alles einfällt, was an Nebensächlichkeiten nötig ist, um die Hauptsache aufs Papier bringen zu können, und hätte ich nicht die Erlaubnis der Anstalt, drei bis vier Stunden täglich mein Blech sprechen zu lassen, wäre ich ein armer Mensch ohne nachweisliche Großeltern (17).

The drum is endowed with a human quality, the power of memory and communication. Oskar is helpless without it. Oskar observes the bell tower of a nearby church while awaiting Herbert: Der Vormittag verging. Am Ende der Heiligen-Geist-Gasse brütete schwarz, grün kleingetürmt, unter dickem, geschwollenem Turm die Backsteinhenne Sankt Marien. Tauben stießen sich immer wieder aus den klaffenden Turmmauern, fielen in meiner Nähe nieder, redeten dummes Zeug und wußten auch nicht, wielange die Brutzeit noch dauern sollte...(157).

Oskar describes the quiet day in September as he, Jan and the janitor, Kobyella, experience a break, a moment of stillness in the shelling of the Polish Post Office: “So still wurde es, daß ich Fliegen brummen hörte....Ein heiterer bis wolkiger Septembertag, die Sonne pinselte Altgold, hauchdünn alles, empfindlich und dennoch schwerhörig” (188). The sun is seen as a painter; the situation in the room is so intense and quiet that the atmosphere possesses a quality of sensitivity. After one of the firings on the post office, Kobyella is seriously hurt. Jan clumsily tends to him then tries to nurse his own very minor wounds, which have stopped bleeding: “Verkrustet schwiegen die Schnittwunden, mochten jedoch schmerzen und Jans Angst nähren, die in dem niedrig stickigen Raum keinen Auslauf hatte” (193). Just like his wounds, which have stopped bleeding and have become silent, Jan’s pain and fear have no outlet.

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At times, Oskar feels deeply guilty of betraying Jan at the Post Office. He decides to blame it on his ignorance, which seems to be the loophole many use to excuse their guilt: Doch wie jedermann halte ich mir an Tagen, da mich ein unhöfliches und durch nichts aus dem Zimmer zu weisendes Schuldgefühl in die Kissen meines Anstaltsbettes drückt, meine Unwissenheit zugute, die damals in Mode kam und noch heute manchem als flottes Hütchen zu Gesicht steht (201).

Oskar has decided to accept the invitation of Bebra and Roswitha to join their theater at the front. He bids his neighborhood and neighbors adieu: “Und wer verließ da zu nachtschlafender Zeit das große, mühsam atmende Mietshaus? Das war Oskar....Warum blieb er zwischen all den verdunkelten, an den Luftschutz glaubenden Häusern vor einem verdunkelten, luftschutzgläubigen Haus stehen?” (266). Even the apartment building seems to be in deep sleep, safe and sound, protected from air raids. Oskar approaches the closet in nurse Dorothea’s room and is compelled to enter: Schon wieder auf dem Wege zum Toilettentisch, vielleicht von der Absicht bewogen, nun endlich die vermeintlichen Salbendöschen öffnen zu wollen, befahl mir der Schrank, seine Ausmaße zu beachten...und ihn endlich zu öffnen; denn jeder Schrank will geöffnet werden....[G]anz frisch und wie am ersten Tage wollte er dem Schrank begegnen, weil auch der Schrank ihn mit offenen Armen empfing (409).

Human qualities of desire and will are attributed to the closet.

The Function of Names and Naming Creating names and the act of naming is a prominent characteristic of Grass’ style. The names of the players in Bt are significant because they provide etymologies, which communicate an insight into the character’s personal nature:1 such as: Fräulein Kauer, Herr Heilandt, Schwerdtfeger, Suzi Kater, Luzie Rennwand, Maria, Anna Bronski, Professor Maruhn, and Professor Kuchen, among others. The meanings of these names are readily comprehensible for the most part. Furthermore, there are many instances in which the narrator gives characters or events names, which he specifically precedes with varying forms of the verb nennen or heißen: Oskar becomes acquainted with the drumming sound of the moth on the lightbulb at his birth: “[Ich] nenne ihn Oskars Meister” (36). In the interaction between Oskar and Maria with the fizzpowder, he remembers what Maria called him: “Du nennst mich Waldmeister” (230). After a brawl between Maria and Oskar, she speaks

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angrily: “Maria...nannte mich eine verfluchte Drecksau, einen Giftzwerg, einen übergeschnappten Gnom” (238). When Oskar silently bids his neighborhood farewell before joining Bebra’s Theater at the Front, he thinks of Suzi Kater: “Oh, unförmige Frau Kater, deren Tochter Susi sich Blitzmädchen nannte” (266); Oskar is also reminded of another childhood playmate: “Klein-Käschen, der eigentlich Retzel hieß.” At the Front, Roswitha gives Felix, the acrobat, a nickname because he resembles a racehorse: “[D]eswegen nannte ihn die Raguna scherzhaft ‘Cavallo’ oder ‘Felix Cavallo” (267). Oskar speaks of the growing power of his destructive voice: “[J]etzt nenne ich sie, die Wunderwaffe” (307). Oskar refers to the “Ringfingerprozeß—den ich besser den dritten Prozeß Jesu nenne” (318). Oskar asks Bruno, his keeper to take over the narration to relieve Oskar’s fingers. Bruno names the figures he fashions from string, which represent minute details of persons, places and events that Oskar has included in his narration: Bisher knotete ich seine Großmutter, die ich ‘Apfel in vier Schlafröcken’ nenne;...seinen Großvater, den Flößer, nannte den etwas gewagt ‘Columbus’; durch meinen Bindfaden wurde aus seiner armen Mama ‘Die schöne Fischesserin’; aus seinen beiden Vätern Matzerath und Jan Bronski knotete ich eine Gruppe, die ‘Die beiden Skatdrescher’ heißt; auch schlug ich den narbenreichen Rücken seines Freundes Herbert Truczinski zu Faden, nannte das Relief ‘Unebene Strecke’...(347).

Bruno’s creations—the figures of people; specific churches and museums; Greff’s vegetable cellar; the Polish Post Office and the cemeteries at Saspe and Brenntau, and others—all are objects, which represent and perpetuate Oskar’s life. Bruno’s figures retell Oskar’s experiences in a special way: they can be perceived sensually, seen and felt, which further add to the experience of Oskar’s life. Oskar is disdainful of the art produced at the time, art, which looks like wallpaper and does not represent Oskar and Ulla’s true natures. Outrageous looking paintings are given “marktschreierische Titel” (405) in order to attract buyers. Titles are significant for Grass, demonstrated particularly by the titles of certain chapters, such as “Die Nachfolge Christi” and “Glaube Hoffung Liebe.” People go to the Zwiebelkeller nightclub to narrate their sorrowful stories. It is not a restaurant because nothing to eat is offered: “Und warum das? Weil der Keller so hieß.” With the help of cutting onions they are brought to tears, “denn es ist gar nicht gesagt, daß bei vollem Herzen sogleich auch das Auge überlaufen muß, manche schaffen das nie, besonders während der letzten oder verflossenen Jahrzehnte, deshalb wird unser

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Jahrhundert später einmal das tränenlose Jahrhundert genannt werden” (437). The people of this generation are unable to express genuine sorrow over the catastrophes committed during the war. Among the guests in the Zwiebelkeller is a figure who will be prominent in Hundejahre, Walter Matern, “jener glatzköpfiger Schauspieler, der bei uns der Knirscher genannt wurde, weil er beim Weinen mit den Zähnen knirschte” (443).

Cultural Characteristics and Religious Observances Grass’ metaphorical utterances bring cultural aspects to the forefront, such as language, customs, and events. Beliefs and symbols of the Catholic religion are especially highlighted. Sayings are in some instances taken literally, at other times, turned completely around. Because familiar cultural practices, religious observances and literary symbols are associated with the atrocities of the Nazi era, they are distorted, taking on a negative, profane connotation. This stylistic feature follows the formula, “christliche Ideologie + Kleinbürgerideologie führt zu politischem Terror” (Just 182). They are presented as the foundation and cause of the Nazi terror. “Die assoziative Verflechtung der beiden Bereiche leistet vor allem die Metaphorik, wobei im einzelnen jedoch eine genaue Zuordung zu Sach- und Bildbereich nicht mehr möglich ist” (181). The title of the chapter, Karfreitagskost, and other sentences throughout the chapter, connect a sacred, religious observance to an actual grotesque event in the novel. In addition to this, Agnes’ suffering and death is connected to and profanes the passion and death of Jesus (Just 180). On his first day of school, Oskar encounters Sütterlinschrift, an old style of German writing, originally having nothing to do with Nazism. It becomes associated with the authority of the school and with documents and other brutal aspects of Nationalsocialism (Cepl-Kaufmann 82). This associative aspect of Grass’ style is especially evident in chapter titles: “Glaube Hoffnung Liebe” in which the letter of St. Paul is connected to the horrors of Kristallnacht, and in “Nachfolge Christi” where the biblical story narrating the conversation between Jesus and Peter, the apostle, is demeaned when the statue declares: “Du bist Oskar, der Fels....Folge mir nach!” (296) Cultural customs in general are brought to light in Grass’ metaphors. Chanterelle mushrooms are favored in the northern part of Germany: On the day of Oskar’s third birthday celebration, he describes a familiar comfortable scene in his home, his mother seated at the piano and Matzerath in the kitchen, preparing dinner, “wo kaschubische Pfifferlinge mit Rührei und Bauchfleisch in der Pfanne erschraken . . .” (48). The detailed description of the dinner highlights the focus on food.

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The regular chiming of church bells is a familiar custom. Inside the Maritime Museum on the second floor, Oskar and Herbert await the afternoon sunlight and its effects on the objects and paintings. The bells chime simultaneously with the appearance of the afternoon light. The ancient bells seem to be recording the historical passage of time: “Auch taten die Kirchen der Rechtstadt, Altstadt, Pfefferstadt das ihre, den Ablauf des staubaufwirbelnden Sonnenlichtes mit Uhrzeiten zu versehen und mit historischem Glockengetön unserer Historiensammlung aufzuwarten” (156). The German people were obligated to donate to the Nazi charity Winterhilfe. After Markus’ death, Oskar is deprived of the source of his drums. Fearing the inability to acquire a new drum, “Oskar übte Askese” (170) and he refrains from drumming in order to preserve his drum. In doing so, he loses weight and requires medical and psychological assistance. He tries drumming on the Sammelbüchse, the tin in which Alfred collects donations for the Winterhilfe: “Wie ich auch schlug und die Stöcke mischte, immer gab es nur eine Antwort: Kleine Spende fürs WHW!” (171). This is not the communication Oskar wants to hear. It is essential that Oskar find another source to fill his desparate need for a tin drum. A typical scene in northern Germany is the sight of picturesque nests, which storks build on the rooftops. Oskar describes the battle scenes of Poland at war depicted in paintings. Even the storks are splashed with blood, “denn malerisch ist die Schlacht, der Tod ein Modell für die Maler....[W]eißrot klappern Störche auf Dächern . . .” (204–05). Buildings in northern Germany are characteristically constructed with bricks. As Oskar recuperates from the battle for the Polish Post Office, he realizes that the German Reich has taken over the city of Danzig: “Die Freie Hansestadt Danzig konnte den Anschluß ihrer Backsteingotik an das Großdeutsche Reich feiern . . .” (205). Bebra and Roswitha invite Oskar to join their front-line theater. As he rides with them in their official car through Danzig, the Prussian characteristics of discipline and order are the focus: “In regelmäßigen Abständen, grün, preußisch die Bäume der Hindenburgallee” (264). The trees are standing smartly, soldier-like, at attention. Throughout the novel, the symbol of the Polish flag is particularly significant; the white and red colors of the Polish flag are used to express feelings of patriotism because of the many times in history the country has been divided and at war. Koljaiczek is evading the local authorities because of a problem he created at a sawmill. Oskar explains why Koljaiczek is using the papers of a dead man in applying for work: “Weil er, der eine Zeitlang die Flößerei aufgegeben, in einer Sägemühle bei Schwetz gearbeitet, dort Streit mit dem

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Sägemeister wegen eines von Koljaiczeks Hand aufreizend weißrot gestrichen Zaunes bekommen hatte” (19). The word weißrot sympolizes patriotism for Poland and also the colors of blood, shed in all the battles on Polish soil.

Idiomatic Expressions These types of metaphors express intimate characteristics of a particular language and people. An aphorism enlivens the next scene, highlighting the colors of the Polish flag. The manager of the sawmill beats Koljaiczek with the slats he painted red and white: Gewiß um der Redensart recht zu geben, die da besagt, man könne einen Streit vom Zaune brechen, brach sich der Sägemeister je eine weiße und eine rote Latte aus dem Zaun, zerschlug die polnischen Latten auf Koljaiczeks Kaschubenrücken zu soviel weißrotem Brennholz, das der Geprügelte Anlaß genug fand, in der folgenden, sagen wir, sternklaren Nacht die neuerbaute, weißgekälkte Sägemühle rotflammend zur Huldigung an ein zwar aufgeteiltes, doch gerade deshalb geeintes Polen werden zu lassen (19).

The expression, “einen Streit vom Zaune brechen” means to pick a quarrel; here, the expression is used literally. The white and red slats of the fence signify the colors of the Polish flag; by setting fire to the sawmill, the red flames and the white sawmill unite in a symbolic reunification of Poland. Because of the incident at the sawmill, Joseph Koljaiczek is involved in a desperate escape from the local police amidst chaos in the harbor. He jumps into the water, seeking refuge under the floating logs among the barges: “Wasser hat dennoch Balken” refers to the familiar saying, “Wasser hat keine Balken” (25) meaning, don’t trust the water without knowing how to swim, because water has no beams. Here, Grass turns the expression around and applies it in a literal sense to Koljaiczek’s experience in the harbor, which happens to be filled with logs. With his first drum in hand, Oskar walks up and down the stairs of his four-story apartment building and along the streets of his neighborhood, drumming incessantly. The infuriated adults finally try to take it away from him: “Meine Trommel hielt das aus, die Erwachsenen weniger, wollten meiner Trommel ins Wort fallen, wollten meinem Blech im Wege sein, wollten meinen Trommelstöcken ein Bein stellen–aber die Natur sorgte für mich” (49). Oskar describes his glass-shattering scream, which he inflicts for the first time when the adults try to confiscate his drum: “[I]ch war in der Lage, Glas zu zersingen; mein Gesang ließ Fensterscheiben ins Knie brechen und Zugluft regieren . . .” (49). The expression highlights how Oskar’s singing makes short work of the window. After having fallen asleep in the Polish Post Office, Oskar awakens to

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gunfire. The building is under attack from the Home Guard. The halls are empty except for Oskar: “Da patroullierte nur Oskar, war wehrlos und ohne Trommel dem Geschichte machenden Introitus einer viel zu frühen Morgenstunde ausgesetzt, die allenfalls Blei, aber kein Gold im Munde trug” (181). The proverb is transposed. This morning the pleasant expression and the “Introit,” the opening part of the Catholic Mass, are both associated with a brutal, catastrophic event typical in Polish history, this time perpetrated by National Socialism. The only promising event this particular morning has to offer is a bullet. The ornate style of German script, the Sütterlin script, is associated with the Nazi era, giving it a negative connotation: On Oskar’s first day at the Pestalozzi School, the inscription, “Mein erster Schultag” is written on the chalk board in Sütterlin Script: Sütterlinschrift kroch bösartig spitzig und in den Rundungen falsch, weil ausgestopft, über die Schultafel, kreidete jene, den Anfang eines neuen Lebensabschnitte markierende Inschrift....Schon damals, da ich Sütterlinschrift zwar durchschauen, aber nichtlesen konnte, wollte die Doppelschlinge des Sütterlin M, mit dem die Inschrift begann, tückisch und nach Hanf riechend, mich ans Schafott gemahnen (66).

The script is associated with atrocities of war, and the smell of rope and the double loop of the letter M remind Oskar of the hangman. Playing the familiar card game Skat is generally thought of as normal recreation. But the game is given a different connotation in Bt; it is a mode of escape and refuge from political responsibility and turmoil: Jan, Matzerath and Agnes frequently play the game: “Das Skatspiel...war...ihr Hafen . . .” (44). The game characterizes the nature of the Kleinbürger, their lack of interest in social and political matters (Cepl-Kaufmann 87). In one of his most famous paintings, “Die Skatspieler,” Otto Dix (1891–1969), highly critical of German society after World War I, portrays veteran army officers. Their grotesquely mutilated bodies display the ravages of war as they play the cardgame, oblivious to their situation and what it represents. During the defense of the Polish Post Office Jan frantically pulls out a deck of cards from his pocket. He and Oskar prop up a dying postal worker and force him to join them in a game of Skat. After the third player dies, Jan builds a house of cards: Was mochte in Jans Köpfchen Witziges passiert sein, daß er erst leise, noch unter Tränen, dann jedoch laut und fröhlich dem Lachen verfiel...und endlich...begann er...ein hochempfindliches Kartenhaus zu bauen....[L]uftig stand es, empfindsam, leicht atmend in jenem Raum voller atemloser Toter...und erlaubte uns...den beizenden Qualm und Gestank [zu]vergessen...(198).

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The observance of Sunday, considered a special day of relaxation and enjoyment, has a cultural significance in Germany and is cited frequently throughout the novel. In this instance, Oskar, Jan, Mama and Matzerath are on a Sunday afternoon outing to the Zoppot Opera-in-the-Woods to hear a work by Wagner: “Nicht nur im Schloßpark war Sonntag, auch...in der Straßenbahn nach Glettkau und im Kurhaus Glettkau, wo wir zu Mittag aßen...überall war Sonntag. Als uns die Strandpromenade nach Zoppot führte, kam uns der Sonntag entgegen . . .” (88). The observance of Sunday is personified. One seems literally to bump up against the spirit of people enjoying Sunday outings in the Castle Park, in the streetcars, in the cafes, at the beaches. Oskar recalls following Bebra’s advice by disrupting the Sunday afternoon Nazi party demonstration in the Maiwiese: “Hat er an einem Eintopfsonntag im August des Jahres fünfunddreißig zum erstenmal und später noch einige Male bräunliche Kundgebungen auf einer zwar weißroten, dennoch nicht polnischen Blechtrommel wirbelnd aufgelöst?” (100) The Eintopf refers to the hot-pot dish where everything is cooked in one pot. It was initiated during this time period to encourage the people to save money, which was to be given to the State. The observance of Good Friday during the Lenten season is a significant day for Catholics, a day of fasting and abstaining from meat; fish is eaten instead. The title of the chapter Karfreitagskost (117), highlights the significance of the fish, a Christian symbol of faith and purity and a metaphor for Jesus Christ, demonstrated especially in this example by the connection to religious and liturgical language: “Karfreitagsaal, Aal aus dem Haupte des Rosses entsprungen...Aal von deinem Aal, denn Aal wird zu Aal . . .”(132). The concept fish has also a phallic connotation (Jobes 574; Cirlot 106). The religious observance of Good Friday is associated with Agnes’ insatiable sexual appetite, signified by her overindulgence in eating fish, which eventually kills her. Exploring the inside of nurse Dorothea’s closet, Oskar encounters her black patent leather belt. He remembers the Good Friday outing at the harbor, and his mother’s overindulgence. At the harbor, the sailor swings the eel, “bis der Aal seinen Lack zeigte . . .” (412). The varnish of nurse Dorothea’s belt reminds Oskar of the shiny black eels, which acquire a sexual connotation. He recognizes in himself his mother’s sexual selfindulgence: “Das aber habe ich wohl von ihr, daß ich einerseits auf nichts verzichten will und andererseits ohne alles auskommen kann; nur ohne geräuchterte Aale, auch wenn die noch so teuer sind, kann ich nicht leben” (412).

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Grass reverses the legend of Niobe in the portrayal of the wooden figurehead in the Maritime Museum. Niobe, a figure in Greek mythology, is a favorite theme in literature and art. Aeschylus and Sophocles wrote tragedies based upon the legend and Ovid described it at length in his Metamorphoses. Niobe, the daughter of Tantalus, is proud of having seven sons and seven daughters. She boasts of her superiority over Leto, the mother of only two children, Apollo and Artemis. As punishment, Apollo slays all of Niobe’s children. She is turned into a rock and when seen from a distance, the rock appears to be weeping when the rays of the sun melt the winter snow on her peak (Diller 56). Grass’ creation, like the mythological figure, causes death to persons around, but she acquires an active, more deadly characteristic. Unlike the mythological figure, Niobe’s eyes are illuminated by the afternoon sun, which seems to bring her to life. She acquires a negative sexual connotation in Bt, called “die mannstolle Person” (153), one bringing misfortune to men who attempt to conquer her: “Ein üppig hölzernes, grün nacktes Weib, das unter erhobenen Armen, die sich lässig und alle Finger zeigend verschränkten, über zielstrebigen Brüsten hinweg aus eingelassenen Bernsteinaugen geradeaussah. Dieses Weib, die Galionsfigur brachte Unglück” (151). The chapter “Glaube Hoffnung Liebe” depicts atrocities of Kristallnacht committed during the religious season of Advent. This leads to the contention that a church-going people of faith who believe in Christmas are gullible enough to believe also in the principles of National Socialism: Aber nachdem sich der Glaube an den Weihnachtsmann als Glaube an den Gasmann herausgestellt hatte, versuchte man es, ohne auf die Reihenfolge des Korintherbriefes zu achten, mit der Liebe....Aber nachdem sie sich aus Liebe die Radieschen abgebissen hatte und der Glaube an den Gasmann zur Staatsreligion erklärt worden war, blieb nach Glaube und vorweggenommener Liebe nur noch der dritte Ladenhüter des Korintherbriefes: die Hoffnung (165).

The same kind of people dating back in history to Saul and others masquerading as Santa Claus are like butchers, who stuff the sausages with beliefs like faith, hope and love: [U]nd nie werden wir erfahren, wer still werden mußte, verstummen mußte...damit Därme gefüllt...konnten...ich weiß nicht, ich ahne: Es sind dieselben Metzger, die Wörterbücher und Därme mit Sprache und Wurst füllen, es gibt keinen Paulus, der Mann hieß Saulus und war ein Saulus und erzählte als Saulus den Leuten aus Korinth etwas von ungeheuer preiswerten Würsten, die er Glaube, Hoffnung und Liebe nannte, als leicht verdaulich pries, die er heute noch, in immer wechselnder Saulusgestalt an den Mann bringt (166).

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The end result of any enticingly packaged belief has proven to be the same: one cannot trust the message that it conveys and he who believes in it will dearly suffer the consequences. The title of the chapter “Die Nachfolge Christi” (285) implies the title of a religious treatise, The Imitation of Christ, ascribed to Thomas à Kempis, 1426, on the value of contemplation. It had almost as great an influence on Christianity as the Bible (Benet 478). The chapter is so titled because the statue of Jesus drums on Oskar’s drum: Christ imitates Oskar. Grass overturns the connotation of the treatise. A particular line in The Polish National Anthem, “Poland is not yet lost,” is frequently alluded to in depicting the history of Poland and war. In the defense of the Polish Post Office, Oskar ruminates disdainfully on the recurrence of war on Polish soil and on those who presently engage in that activity: Was hatte meine Trommel mit dem Blute Polens gemeinsam! Mochten sie ihre Akten und Löschblätter mit dem Saft färben!....Wenn es ihnen schon darauf ankam, daß Polen, wenn verloren, dann weißrot verloren gehe, mußte dann meine Trommel, verdächtig genug durch den frischen Anstrich, gleichfalls verloren gehen? (183)

The blood is seen as Poland’s blood, as juice, and the spilling of blood on the paperwork in the post office is seen as a paint job; the white-red colors of the wounded men’s shirts are seen as the Polish flag, the same colors as Oskar’s drums. The familiar and polite forms of the word du in the German language are highlighted when Oskar refers to his male organ. He realizes helplessly that he is not the one who has control over his sexual drive but rather his male organ, “der Herr da unten...der mir so fremd ist, daß ich ihn siezen möchte . . .” (229). He uses the polite form of the verb, thereby creating the feeling of distance and respect. The city of Danzig is burning again senselessly for the hundredth time as a result of war. The damage and loss caused by the fires is described: Das war aber nicht der erste Brand der Stadt Danzig....[U]nd nun waren es Russen, Polen, Deutsche und Engländer gemeinsam, die die Ziegel gotischer Backsteinkunst zum hundertstenmal brannten, ohne dadurch Zwieback zu gewinnen....In der Kleinen Hosennähergasse ließ sich das Feuer für mehrere auffallend grelle Hosen Maß nehmen....In der Großen Mühle wurde roter Weizen gemahlen. In der Fleischergasse roch es nach verbranntem Sonntagsbraten. Im Stadttheater wurden Brandstifters Träume, eine doppelsinniger Einakter, uraufgeführt....In der Milchkannengasse kochte die Milch über (322).

Once again, cultural landmarks in Danzig in the form of charming street names are burning, landmarks, which took years to reconstruct after pre-

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vious destructive fires. Even the observance of Sunday in the form of Sonntagsbraten cannot escape the flames. The familiar connotation of a muse, who in Greek mythology was a source of inspiration for a poet or artist, is reversed and perverted in the person of Ulla. Oskar poses as a model with Ulla, Lanke’s girlfriend; Lanke is also an artist. Oskar calls Ulla, “die Muse” and he calls Raskolnikov, the artist who paints her, “Madonnenmaler”: Auch Ulla fühlte sich als Modell wohl. Der Maler Lankes mit der großen schlagkräftigen Hand behandelte sie besser, seitdem sie regelmäßig Geld nach Hause brachte, und schlug sie nur noch, wenn seine genialen Abstraktion von ihm eine zornige Hand verlangte. So war sie auch diesem Maler, der sie rein optisch nie als Modell benutzte, im gewissen Sinne eine Muse; denn nur jene Ohrfeigen, die er ihr austeilte, verliehen seiner Malerhand die wahre schöpferische Potenz....Anders verhielt es sich mit dem Maler Raskolnikoff, der mit Ulla, ohne ihr nahe zu treten, intimsten Umgang pflegte (392).

Ulla is beaten by Lanke and sexually abused by Raskolnikov. The concept of the muse is overturned; Ulla is really an anti-Muse, an anti-Madonna. So far, the process of identifying Grass’ metaphors has revealed a wide variety of grammatical structures and stylistic features ranging from simple to complex. In this study, all the numbers displayed in the tables and bar graphs are approximate. In the entire novel, about 862 metaphors are identified. The most prominent grammatical structures are verbal, nominal and noun-composite metaphors. The predominant stylistic features are personification and root metaphors, or the rhetorical technique, variation. The bar graphs and tables presented in this study function mainly as models to demonstrate how the results of the topics can be depicted. These models, too, are metaphors (Black, Models 219–43). In scientific language, the model is essentially a heuristic instrument, because it redescribes one interpretation by replacing it with a new, more adequate interpretation. The model extends language in a visual way through metaphorical usage. It is a method equal to explanation (Ricoeur, RM 239–42). The number of metaphorical occurrences of each entry is greater than the number of metaphors because in many instances, besides having a particular grammatical structure, a metaphor may conform to other headings as well, such as a particular stylistic trait, theme, and tensive symbol. The results of the studies undertaken regarding the grammatical structures and the stylistic features, are represented in the following bar graphs, and classified under the separate headings Book I, II, and III.

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FIGURE 1: Grammatical and Stylistic Characteristics | Book 1: Number of Metaphors=352

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FIGURE 2: Grammatical and Stylistic Chatacteristics | Book 2: Number of Metaphors=316

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FIGURE 3: Grammatical and Stylistic Characteristics | Book 3: Number of Metaphors=194

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The first level of interpretation concludes in this chapter and consists of three separate analyses. The first is a conceptual study where the isolated words in a metaphorical utterance are located in the “Synopsis of Categories” section of Roget’s International Thesaurus (see Appendix). This is followed by a task where metaphors appearing frequently throughout the entire narrative are identified as concrete images or tensive symbols. The third and final analysis demonstrates how the dominant themes of the metaphors are classified according to one word.

A Conceptual Study The purpose of the conceptual study is to determine the category of concepts under which Grass’ words in the statements are classified. Roget’s International Thesaurus was used rather than Wehrle-Egger’s Deutscher Wortschatz because the classification of words and concepts in both texts are identical, and the International’s’ physical format is more clearly presented and accessible. It is the “best empirical base for research in structural semantics” (xvi), and the intent is to “map the totality of concepts available to the human mind, and the relations among these concepts, regardless of what language may be used to express them” (92). The International contains three main sections: the “Index,” the “Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases” and the “Synopsis of Categories.” The “Index” is a comprehensive list of numbered words and phrases. Words are grouped according to their various meanings and tenses in the text of the “Thesaurus”; this grouping demonstrates Ullmann’s

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concept of the polysemic quality of words. The “Synopsis” is the arrangement of words into eight classes of categories with subgroupings. These classes seem to follow very closely Aristotle’s doctrine of the ten categories. McKeon lists Aristotle’s categories as, substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action, and affection (7–28). This is significant because the categories are not only modes of mental representation, or concepts, according to Aristotle, but also actual modes of being, ways in which anything can be said to be. To know a thing is to be able to understand what is said about it. Saying something about a thing occurs in the form of a sentence (Wheelwright, Aristotle xxx–xxxii). This process of predication is the starting point of the metaphorical process, which deviates from the basic procedure of logically saying the way things are in a statement. Since the metaphorical process is at the basis of thought and metaphorical predication is a category mistake, the intent in this first analysis is to determine the conceptual origin of Grass’ writing by isolating the words in his metaphors, and ultimately locating the words under the conceptual headings. Their lexical relationships can be observed also. Scholars such as Weinrich, Cohen and Ullmann discuss in their studies the significance of distance in determining a vital metaphor, and the measurement of rhetorical language. This conceptual analysis explores the possibility of concretely measuring the distance between categories, or domains. The procedure is as follows: after identifying the words used metaphorically in Grass’ expression, the word is first found in the “Index” to select the subentry closest to the connotation; it is grouped according to number. The number is then located in the “Thesaurus” to choose the more precise meaning by noting the related words included in the text. Finally, the word is found in the “Synopsis” under the main classes of categories. The following metaphorical statement demonstrates the procecedure: Although family and friends visit Oskar frequently, he values his solitude, confined to his bed in a mental hospital. He sees solitude as an object woven between white, metal bars: “Einmal in der Woche unterbricht ein Besuchstag meine zwischen weißen Metallstäben geflochtene Stille” (9). The italicized words and the word in bold-faced type are used metaphorically in the statement: Stille is the primary subject, and the italicized words represent the secondary subject. Between is number 237.12 in the “Index.” In the text of the “Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases” section, between is listed as a preposition within a paragraph of related meanings. Finally, the number is located in the “Synopsis of Categories” grouping under Class Two: Space, under the subentry Interposition.

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In the “Index,” white has the adjectival subentries aged, blank, chaste, clean, color, colorless, comparisons and innocent. Based on the context of the statement, chaste is the closest meaning, number 988.4, and is included in the “Thesaurus” within a paragraph of related meanings. The number is then located under Class Eight: Affections, in the “Synopsis” section, under the subentry Moral Practice. Bars has the subentries barrier, blockage, currency metals, exclusion, harmonics, heraldic insignia, island, lawyers, length, lever, line, military insignia, music, restraint, saloon, shaft, shoal, stripe, and table in the “Index.” Based on the context of the statement, barrier is the closest connotation, number 730.5, in the “Thesaurus” section. It is located in the “Synopsis” under Class Seven: Volition and under the subheading Voluntary Action. Woven has the subentries interlaced and webbed in the “Index.” Based on the context, webbed is the better connotation, number 221.12 in the “Thesaurus.” In the “Synopsis,” it is found under Class Two: Space, under the subentry Dimensions. Stillness has the subentries quiescence and silence in the “Index”; quiescence is the better meaning. It is number 268,1 in the “Thesaurus” section. In the “Synopsis,” it is found under Class Two: Space, under the subheading Motion. The obvious conclusion is that, of the five words, two are classified under the category Space, one under Volition, and the other under Affections. This procedure was followed with each metaphorical statement identified. The total number of isolated significant words in the metaphorical utterances of Bt is approximately 2200. The following tables show the results of locating the words in the “Synopsis of Categories”: the figures in the first table show which main Classes of Categories are the most numerous in the novel. In the second table, the figures show which subentries occur most frequently, and under which main Class of Categories the subentries are grouped: Classes of Categories VII. Volition II. Space VI. Intellect IV. Matter V. Sensation Subentries Time Color Hearing Communication of Ideas

386 353 324 294 226 I. Abstract Relations III. Physics V. Sensation VI. Intellect

76 94 149 235

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The following bar graphs show the results of the conceptual study in Books I, II, and III:

FIGURE 4: Categories of Concepts | Book 1: Number of Isolated Words=906

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FIGURE 5: Categories of Concepts | Book 2: Number of Isolated Words=855

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FIGURE 6: Categories of Concepts | Book 3: Number of Isolated Words=439

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Tensive Symbols A symbol is a repeatable concrete image, an object, which captures a second level of meaning from a particular experience (Wheelwright, Metaphor 92–110). An image is the most concrete element, which has “metaphoric potencies and metaphysical overtones” (66–68). Tensive language is poetic and alive and reflects the ceaseless tensions, which the human person experiences in the everyday struggle between opposing forces. Poetic language speaks indirectly, evoking another meaning which the utterance does not express literally. It exhibits interplay between various levels of meaning (57). Symbols such as the Christian cross, the Buddhist lotus, Fire in the paintings of Orozco, the Grecian urn in Keats’ Ode, the Brooklyn bridge in Hart Crane’s poem, “Bridge,” Mallarmé’s faun, and Abraham Lincoln, are considered tensive symbols according to Wheelwright (92–93). Symbols appearing frequently throughout the entire narrative contribute significantly to the overall meaning of the work. Wheelwright describes how a metaphor is integrated in the literary work and how it functions symbolically: It is necessary to mention the stable and repeatable character of a symbol; for when an image is employed as metaphor only once, in a unique flash of insight, it cannot accurately be said to function symbolically. It acquires a symbolic nature when, with whatever modifications, it undergoes or is considered capable of undergoing recurrence (93).

A tensive symbol creates a pattern that is woven throughout the entire literary work. Bergren refers to Wheelwright’s concept of tensive symbols as “poetic schemata,” a “visualizable phenomenon” that actually can be seen or just imagined. The symbol is a vehicle expressing an aspect of a person’s inner life or non-spatial reality (248). Ricoeur calls this combination of metaphors, intertwining, which reveals the writer’s “singular vision” of the entire work (Ricoeur, RM 352, note 41). There are five ascending levels of classification according to Wheelwright: A symbol may be the presiding image of a particular literary work. In this case, it has not been used before in literature. An example of this is the bridge in Hart Crane’s poem of the same name, Mallarmé’s faun or Yeats’ tower (Wheelwright 99–103). A symbol may be personally significant to the author. It must be relevant to the author’s imagination or his actual life. It may recur in other works of the writer. The symbols of music, jewels, gardens, stinging vipers and others are developed throughout Shakespeare’s works in a way that is uniquely his own (102–05). A writer may reuse effectively a symbol from another writer in a new and original context. T.S. Eliot borrows the symbol of the game of chess from

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Act V of Shakespeare’s Tempest and from Middleton’s Women Beware Women, and he reuses it in The Waste Land (105–08). A symbol may have significance to a particular culture or community, and also to a religion or sect. In T.S. Eliot’s Four Quartets, for example, he uses Christian symbols such as the dove, Adam, the “ruined millionaire,” and others (108–10). Archetypal symbols pertain to all of humanity in general. Symbols such as sky father, earth mother, light/dark, up/down, are found in civilizations remote from one another in time and space (111–28). This method of classification is important because it enables the reader to determine how wide-ranging and comprehensive an author’s metaphors are. The concept of the tensive symbol seems to be an expansion of the objective correlative concept, originating with Schopenhauer, as previously discussed: an object or a person expresses or represents a particular emotion. Wheelwright defines the tensive symbol as a way of metaphorizing. In this study, the five classifications are designated as A through E respectively. In Grass’ metaphor just cited in the conceptual study, the tensive symbol is Oskar’s bed: “Einmal in der Woche unterbricht ein Besuchstag meine zwischen weißen Metalstäben geflochtene Stille.” Oskar seeks refuge in his antiseptic hospital bed, finding peace and quiet from the chaotic world. The symbol bed is classified B, signifying Wheelwright’s second level of classification: a tensive symbol personally significant to the author. Many symbols overlap into more than just one of the five grades listed because they are “plurisignitive,” having more than one meaning. Since an overwhelming number of Grass’ symbols are highly individual and personal, it is difficult to differentiate between the first and second levels: symbols classified under A could also fall into class B. In the following table, Grass’ tensive symbols are classified according to the five grades: A Scream Bed Vanilla Album Luzie Fizzpowder

B Black Cook Four Skirts Drum Oskar Charcoal Hump Anna Eel Nurses Potato Uniforms Closet

C Niobe Ulla

D Sunday Skat

E Fire Under Glass Triangle Male Organ

This table demonstrates approximately the symbols occurring most frequently:

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63 40 38

Male organ Luzie Black Cook




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32 23 22

FIGURE 7: Tensive Symbols | Book 1

D Jesus E Fire E water E Triangle A Scream A Vanilla A Luzie B Black Cook B Drum B Hump B Eel B Potato B Chest C Ulla D Skat E Under E Glass A Bed A Album A Fizz powder B Four Skirts B Oskar B Anna B Nurses B Uniforms C Niobe D Sunday

Because of the large variety of tensive symbols, this table shows approximately only those occurring most frequently; the following graphs depict the results of the study in the respective Books:

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FIGURE 8: Tensive Symbols | Book 2

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FIGURE 9: Tensive Symbols | Book 3

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Familiar Themes Expressing the meaning of Grass’ metaphors in one or more words is based somewhat on the procedure presented at the “Bochumer Diskussion,” in which participants examine various approaches to metaphorical theory (Weinrich, “Metapher” 121–24). Using Heinrich von Kleist’s poem “Penthesilea” as an example, themes of his metaphorical utterances expressed in lines 395–402 are identified with one word: Seht! Wie sie mit den Schenkeln Des Tigers Leib inbrünstlich umarmt! (Liebesmetapher) Wie sie, bis auf die Mähn herabgebeugt, Hinweg die Luft trinkt lechzend, die sie hemmt! (Trinkmetapher) Sie fliegt, wie von der Senne abgeschossen: (Bogenmetapher) Numidsche Pfeile sind nicht hurtiger! (Pfeilmetapher) Das Heer bleibt keuchend, hinter ihr, wie Köter, Wenn sich ganz aus die Dogge streckt, zurück! (Jagdmetapher) (122–23)

Classifying metaphors according to one theme is beneficial because the meaning of a metaphorical expression can be encapsulated in one or two words. Just like tensive symbols, an author’s familiar themes interwine throughout the narrative. Grass’ metaphorical statement cited earlier is the example: Oskar rejects living in the chaotic world of his family and neighbors and he seeks refuge by confining himself to his pure, white hospital bed. The theme is Refuge; it is also a White/Black-metaphor because the context informs the reader that the color white is an important factor in the novel, signifying innocence and purity. Just as with tensive symbols, some metaphors may express more than one theme. Grass’ metaphors in Bt express these predominant themes: Refuge Ideology Poland Protest

Stillness Satiation Powerlessness Catholic Church

White/Black Communication Chaos Art

Eternal Recurrence Character Economic Miracle

Because of the various methods applied in interpreting Grass’ metaphors, repetition of metaphors already cited is unavoidable; they are grouped under the theme titles. Where appropriate, the tensive symbol will be demonstrated also.

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Character Objects have a sentient nature; the powerful force, which objectivates itself in objects, is the same force present in humans. Oskar maintains that objects are able to bear witness to our acts: Heute weiß ich, daß alles zuguckt, daß nichts unbesehen bleibt, daß selbst Tapeten ein besseres Gedächtnis als die Menschen haben. Es ist nicht etwa der liebe Gott, der alles sieht! Ein Küchenstuhl, Kleiderbügel, halbvoller Aschenbecher oder das hölzene Abbild einer Frau, genannt Niobe, reichen aus, um jeder Tat den unvergeßlichen Zeugen liefern zu können (155).

Oskar’s describes his neighbors as he perceives them: “Seidler...stand iglig in der Tür” (396). “Mutter Truczinski machte Mauseaugen” (149). He sees Kobyella as, Vogelkopf; Gretchen Scheffler, Pferdegebiß. This point of view enables Oskar to distance himself from his neighbors. The nature of objects is described in vivid, precise language: tabakrauchgewürzt[e] Gardinen (50); verteufelt rot (58); preußischblaue[r] Rock (111); kirschwarzen Mittelmeeraugen (138); saftgrüne Tapete (257); dottergelbe[r] Zollstock (338).

Communication Oskar’s learns his life story with the help of his drum: Hätte ich nicht meine Trommel, der bei geschicktem und geduldigem Gebrauch alles einfällt, was an Nebensächlichkeiten nötig ist, um die Hauptsache aufs Papier bringen zu können, und hätte ich nicht die Erlaubnis der Anstalt, drei bis vier Stunden täglich mein Blech sprechen zu lassen, wäre ich ein armer Mensch ohne nachweisliche Großeltern. Jedenfalls sagte meine Trommel (17).

Drum is a tensive symbol classified B, personally significant to Grass. It is the symbol occurring most frequently in the novel, signifying communication. By touching Herbert’s scars, Herbert tells Oskar about the brawls causing them. Oskar also seems to learn about future events of his life: “Er ließ die Hosenträger herunter, pellte sich das Hemd ab, und ließ mich, während er las, seinen Rücken befragen” (145). Oskar brings his picture album with him on the train westward. The album is a source of comfort relieving his pains: “Nur wenn der Zug hielt...will er wieder den stechenden, ziehenden Schmerz erlitten haben, dem er...mit dem schmerzstillenden Fotoalbum begegnete” (350). Fotoalbum is a tensive symbol B signifying communication because the pictures inform him about his family and bring him comfort.

Protest At Christmas, Oskar expresses his rage when there is no drum under the tree. His scream becomes a destructive instrument:

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[D]a schrie ich, ich hatte schon lange nicht mehr geschrien, da feilte ich mir nach längerer Pause wieder einmal meine Stimme zu einem spitzen, Glas ritzenden Instrument und tötete nicht etwa Vasen, nicht Biergläser und Glühbirnen, keine Vitrine schnitt ich auf, nahm keiner Brille die Sehkraft (212).

At first, he screams mainly out of protest and anger; but his motives worsen from protest, to malicious mischief to criminal activity. Oskar’s scream enables him to maintain his selfish needs. Scream is a tensive symbol A. Glass is a tensive symbol E, signifying light: the word glass is located in the “Synopsis” under the subentry Sight. When Oskar destroys lightbulbs and windows, rooms and entire buildings are plunged into darkness. He disregards the pain and suffering he causes family members when he destroys household objects.

Satiation When Oskar relates the difference between his sexual experiences with Maria and with Lina Greff, he describes the progress of his sexual prowess: Wenn mir Maria im naiv betörenden Vanillenebel die kleine Form nahelegt, mich mit Lyrismen wie Brausepulver und Pilzsuche vertraut machte, kam ich im streng säuerlichen, vielfach gewobenen Dunstkreis der Greffschen zu jenem breit epischen Atem, der mir heute erlaubt, Fronterfolge und Betterfolge in einem Satz zu nennen....Oskar holte das Letzte aus der Greffschen heraus und blieb dennoch unzufrieden, wenn nicht unbefriedigt, wie es sich für echten Künstler gehört (251).

Despite the frequency of Oskar’s visits and the “epic” limits he achieves sexually with Lina Greff, he still remains dissatisfied and discontent. Oskar is despondent, pining for nurse Dorothea. His friend Klepp believes hunger is the cause of Oskar’s “Leid dieser Welt”: “Oskar aß in jener Zeit sehr viel frische Blutwurst mit Zwiebelringen und trank Bier dazu, damit sein Freund Klepp glaubte, Oskar’s Leid heiße Hunger und nicht Schwester Dorothea” (425). This points to Oskar’s sexual desire and longing for Dorothea, which he pursues later in her closet.

Refuge As Anna sits in her stall at the weekly market, selling her wares, Oskar reflects upon his desire to go under her skirts: Was sucht Oskar unter den Röcken seiner Großmutter?....Sucht er Vergessen, Heimat, das endliche Nirwana? Oskar antwortet:....Da floßen die Ströme zusammen, da war die Wasserscheide, da wehten besondere Winden, da konnte es aber auch windstill sein....[U]nter den Röcken meiner Großmutter war immer Sommer, auch wenn der Weihnachtsbaum brannte....Nirgendwo konnte ich ruhiger nach dem Kalender leben als unter den Röcken meiner Großmutter (101).

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Oskar seeks peace from a chaotic world under the shelter of his grandmother’s four skirts. His real desire is to return to the womb. Four skirts is a tensive symbol B and E. At the dinner celebrating Kurt’s baptism, Oskar painfully notices the vanilla sauce served with dessert, which reminds him of Maria, now handin-hand with Matzerath. Oskar feels his loss: Sanft roch die Vanille vor sich hin und umgab mich mehr und mehr mit Maria, so daß ich sie, die aller Vanille Anstifterin war ...nicht mehr sehen und ertragen konnte. Von seinem Kinderstühlchen rutschte Oskar, hielt sich dabei am Rock der Greffschen fest, blieb ihr, die oben löffelte, zu Füßen liegen und genoß zum erstenmal jene, der Lina Greff eigene Ausdünstung, die jede Vanille sofort überschrie, verschluckte, tötete....Langsam, lautlos und krampflos überkam mich ein befreiender Brechreiz. Während mir die Mockturtlesuppe...entfiel[en], begriff ich meine Ohnmacht, schwamm ich in meiner Ohnmacht, breitete sich Oskars Ohnmacht zu Füßen der Lina Greff aus - und ich beschloß von nun an und tagtäglich, meine Ohnmacht zu Frau Greff zu tragen (250).

Because Maria has spurned Oskar in his attempt to renew their relationship, he seeks refuge in Lina Greff. Vanilla is tensive symbol B. It is also a satiation-metaphor: Oskar turns to Lina Greff to satisfy his sexual needs, highlighting his sexual frustration.

Poland While sitting in his hospital bed drumming, Oskar remembers incidents at the Stadt-Theater and the Stockturm, but he looks for Poland mainly: “Er sucht es mit seinen Trommelstöcken.” Many claim that Poland is forever lost: “[W]ährend sie hier die erste bis zur vierten Teilung verwerfen und die fünfte Teilung Polens schon planen...während man von hier aus das Land der Polen mit Raketen suchen wird, suche ich Polen auf meiner Trommel . . .” (86).

Eternal Recurrence After his experience at the Polish Post Office, Oskar recuperates in the hospital. He reflects as the city of Danzig is annexed to Germany: O du irrsinnige Kavallerie! ...Mit Lanzen, weißrot bewimpelt. Schwadronen, Schwermut und Tradition. Attacken aus Bilderbüchern....[D]enn malerisch ist die Schlacht, der Tod ein Modell für die Maler....Ulanen, es juckt sie schon wieder ...und sammeln sich hinter einem ...Pan Kiehot ...der allen seinen Ulanen den Handkuß beibrachte zu Pferde, so daß sie nun immer wieder dem Tod - als wär’ der ‘ne Dame - die Hände anständig küssen, doch vorher sammeln sie sich ...die deutschen Panzer von vorne, die Hengste aus den Gestüten der Krupp....Doch jener ...Pan Kiehot ...weißrot lädt zum Handkuß Euch ein und ruft er der Kavallerie zu: ‘Ihr edlen Polen zu Pferde, das sind keine stählernen Panzer, sind Windmühlen

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nur oder Schafe, ich lade zum Handkuß euch ein!’ Und also ritten Schwadronen dem Stahl in die feldgraue Flanke und gaben der Abendröte noch etwas mehr rötlichen Schein (204).

This lengthy paragraph, also a Poland-metaphor, expresses the absurd history of battle on Polish soil. The soldiers naively follow their Don Quixote to a bloody death. Oskar has high hopes for his relationship with Kurt: So denkt Oskar heute. [E]s galt, einen trommelnden Sohn an die Seite eines trommelnden Vater zu stellen...es galt eine zeugungsfähige Trommlerdynastie zu begründen; denn mein Werk sollte von Generation zu Generation blechern und weißrot gelackt übermittelt werden (287–88).

Oskar’s wish, through Kurt, is to perpetuate his nature and life. The example is also a communication-metaphor because Oskar wants Kurt to retell Oskar’s life story. Oskar fearfully senses the dangerous lure of standing on a diving board during the Dusters trial. Tempted by Luzie to dive into an empty swimming pool, his mind turns to the events of history: [D]a lag mir die Welt zu Füßen und nicht nur Europa.... So blieb es auch nicht aus, daß der Faden des Zeitgeschehens, der vorne noch hungrig war, Schlingen schlug und Geschichte machte, hinten schon zur Historie gestrickt wurde” (317–18).

The atrocities of history no sooner occur, than they become forgotten events of the past.

Ideology After Kurt’s baptism, Oskar observes how the adults sit at table, eating soup: Die vom Lande schlürften.... Gretchen Scheffler biß die Suppe....Nur die alten Frauen...waren ganz und gar den Löffeln ergeben, während Oskar sozusagen aus dem Löffel fiel, sich davonmachte, während die noch löffelten ...während die anderen hinter den Löffeln immer gedankenloser und leergelöffelter schrumpften, wenn sie auch die Löffelsuppe in sich hineinschütteten (248).

While the people increasingly allow themselves to be “spoon-fed” the Nazi ideology, Oskar is smart enough to avoid it.

White/Black The colors white and black are associated throughout the novel with the opposites good and evil, light and darkness, innocence and guilt. Under Gretchen Scheffler’s tutelage, Oskar acquaints himself with works by

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Rasputin and Goethe: the indecent illustrated volume, Rasputin und die Frauen, and the uplifting Wahlverwandschaften. Although Oskar tends to favor Rasputin, he sometimes fluctuates between the two: “dem Düsteren...und dem lichten Dichterfürsten” (72).

Chaos When Kurt receives a sailboat, a whip and a spinning top for his third birthday, Oskar presents him with a drum: he would like Kurt to continue narrating Oskar’s story by drumming. Having destroyed the sailboat, Kurt takes his whip to Oskar and the drum, just as Cain beat Abel: “[S]o peitschte Kain den Abel, bis Abel sich drehte...das Brummkreiselliedchen sang.... [D]a hatte ich Kreide in der Stimme, da ließ ein Tenor sein Morgengebet fließen...und Abel mag so gesungen haben, bevor er zurückfiel, wie dann auch ich unter der Peitsche des Knaben Kurt zusammensackte” (290). Oskar’s dream, to drum side by side with Kurt, is cruelly and painfully dashed.

Stillness The Polish Post Office is bombarded with a series of hits from the field howitzer and Jan responds with bloodcurdling screams. Kobyella tosses him a rifle, which Jan fires and empties, aiming upward over the buildings outside. This is followed by machine gun fire then a lull in the shooting: “Ich weiß nicht wie lange wir so lagen: ich zwischen Jan und der linken Zimmerwand, wir beide hinter den Sandsäcken.... Etwa gegen zehn Uhr ebbte das Feuer ab.... Ein heiterer bis wolkiger Septembertag, die Sonne pinselte Altgold, hauchdünn alles, empfindlich und dennoch schwerhörig” (188). This highlights the cycle of chaos and stillness evident throughout the novel. Circle is the tensive symbol E signifying this motion.

Economic Miracle Oskar entices nurse Gertrude with cake stamps to go dancing with him at the “Lion’s Den,” a haven for black marketers. English phrases enliven the Rhenish dialect as couples dance. Oskar is asked to dance: Bevor die Paare sich wieder im Tanz fanden, wurden kleine Gegenstände weitergereicht: echte Schwarzhändler kennen keinen Feierabend. Heiß gab sich die Band, spielte ‘Jimmy the Tiger.’...Jedenfalls flüsterte mir das junge quecksilbrige Ding mit dem hennaroten Wuschelkopf, das mich zum Herrn ihrer Wahl auserkor, tabakheiser und kaugummibreit ‘Jimmy the Tiger’ ins Ohr (375–77).

The time of the economic recovery in Germany after the war is described. People visit Schmuh’s Ziebelkeller because they are unable to evoke

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sorrow and remorse regarding WWII atrocities; they need onions to arouse their tears: “Man versuchte, ins Gespräch zu kommen, schaffte es aber nicht...hätte sich gerne einmal Luft gemacht, hatte vor, mal richtig auszupacken, wollte frisch von der Leber...die blutige Wahrheit, den nackten Menschen zeigen—konnte aber nicht” (435). The idiomatic expressions emphasize the feelings of suppression during the post-war time and the cruel nature of human beings.

Powerless In his hospital bed, and with the help of his drum, Oskar reflects upon the ability of Herbert’s scars to prophesy events in his own life and his sexual encounters. Oskar recalls “mein eigenes Geschlecht, das ich unentwegt, wie das launenhafte Denkmal meiner Ohnmacht und begrenzten Möglichkeiten, bei mir trage” (144). He remembers “Narben, Weichteile, an meine eigene, nur noch dann und wann starktuende Ausrüstung” (144). These metaphors express Oskar’s lack of control over his sexual performance, signified by the tensive symbol male organ.

Art Oskar describes his ability to break glass with his scream as if it were an art form: [H]eute denkt Oskar gerne an die archaische Frühzeit seiner Stimme zurück. Wenn er in jener ersten Periode nur notfalls, dann allerdings gründlich Quarzsandprodukte zersang, machte er später, während der Blüte-und Verfallszeit seiner Kunst, Gebrauch von seinen Fähigkeiten, ohne äußeren Zwang zu verspüren. Aus bloßem Spieltrieb, dem Manierismus einer Spätepoche verfallend, dem l’art pour l’art ergeben, sang Oskar sich dem Glas ins Gefüge und wurde älter dabei (56–57).

Catholic Church Oskar’s conflict with the Catholic Church begins innocently at birth as he observes the interaction between the moth and the bulbs, and the sound of the moth, drumming: “Der Falter schnatterte ...als wäre das Zwiegespräch zwischen Falter und Glühbirne in jedem Fall des Falters letzte Beichte und nach jener Art von Absolution, die Glühbirnen austeilen, keine Gelegenheit mehr für Sünde und Schwärmerei” (36). Oskar imagines that before the moth perishes, the light bulbs forgive its sins. This follows the Catholic Church’s rite of Penance and the Last Rites. The classification of the themes described and demonstrated above, yielded the following results in the entire novel: Character Chaos

180 90

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86 82 56 45

Catholic Church Stillness Refuge




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43 41 40

FIGURE 10: Themes | Book 1

The following bar graphs depict these results in Book I, Book II, and Book III:

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FIGURE 11: Themes | Book 2

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FIGURE 12 Themes | Book 3

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VI

"Der weite Rock"


The following demonstration summarizes the procedure undertaken at the first level of interpretation in analyzing Grass’ metaphorical expressions. The first chapter, “Der weite Rock,” is used as an example. It gives an overall perspective for the entire study. The system employed here is described as follows: The demonstration begins with a synopsis of the chapter, which functions as the context. The metaphorical expressions follow, and each is contained within a brief description of the setting. This way, the metaphors are understood more readily when placed in the context of the narrative. The entire metaphorical expression is presented and the significant words used metaphorically in the utterance are isolated. The words indicated in roman boldface type signify the principal referent, and the italicized words in boldface type indicate the secondary referent. The page number follows the metaphor with an explanation of the meaning. The Roman numerals represent the main classes of categories within which the word is included according to the “Synopsis of Categories.” The subheading then follows (see Appendix). The upper case letters indicate the level of the five tensive symbols according to Wheelwright. These are: A, novel; B, personal to author; C, previous symbol used in a creative way; D, pertaining to a culture, religion or sect; E, archetypal, pertaining to all of humanity. The lower case letters signify the grammatical structure and stylistic characteristics. These are v, verbal; n, noun or nominal; nc, noun composite; na, naming; a, adjectival; ac, adjective composite; g, genitive; p, personi-

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fication; s, sentence; r, root metaphor; an, analogy; cu, culture. A word or two in boldface type identifies the theme of the metaphor.

Chapter One, Book I: "Der weite Rock" Oskar Mazarath is a patient in a mental asylum, confined to his bed and supervised by his male nurse and keeper, Bruno. Family members, friends and lawyers visit him periodically. Oskar begins to narrate his story and introduces his maternal grandmother, Anna Bronski, to the reader. Oskar relates the event when she meets Oskar’s future grandfather, Joseph Koljaiczek escaping from local authorities in the potato fields of Kashubia, where she is tending the potatoes. She grants him refuge under her four skirts where Oskar’s mother, Agnes is conceived in the year 1899. cnB Character

Entsetzt, schlägt er dann seine Pflegerhände über dem Kopf zusammen...(9).

The hands of Oskar’s keeper, Bruno Münsterberg, are seen as those of a nurse. This composite-metaphor is used as a noun; it is a charactermetaphor, giving insight into Bruno’s personality, his quieting, caring manner. It introduces the tensive symbol nurses, a personal image of Grass, B. The words are located in the following categories of the “Synopsis”: nurse: VII: Volition; subheading, Conditions. healing hands: I: Abstract relations; subheading, Quantity.

Oskar has finally achieved his goal and finds long-awaited peace and comfort by seeking refuge in his hospital bed. Separating himself from his visitors is his pleasure: rA n nn n Refuge

Mein weißlackiertes metallenes Anstaltsbett ist also ein Maßstab. Mir ist es sogar mehr: mein Bett ist das endlich erreichte Ziel, mein Trost ist es und könnte mein Glaube werden, wenn mir die Anstaltsleitung erlaubte, einige Änderungen vorzunehmen: das Bettgitter möchte ich erhöhen lassen, damit mir niemand mehr zu nahe tritt (9).

The paragraph contains several noun or nominal metaphors and root metaphors characterizing his bed. They are refuge-metaphors and the bed is tensive symbol A. bed: norm: goal: consolation: faith:

II: VI: II: VIII: VI:

Space, subheading, Dimensions Intellect, subheading, Intellectual faculty Space, subheading, Motion. Affections, subheading, Personal affections Intellect, subheading, Intellectual faculty

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After Oskar’s visitors leave, Bruno ventilates the room and collects the strings from the gifts left by the visitors. He then crafts these into figures: Stillness n na nenne (10).

Oftmals findet er nach dem Lüften noch Zeit, an meinem Bett sitzend, Bindfäden aufdröselnd, so lange Stille zu verbreiten, bis ich die Stille Bruno und Bruno die Stille

Bruno is seen as the tranquility Oskar feels in his presence in this example, whereas his visitors remind Oskar of the chaotic world, from which he seeks refuge. He would rather have the bars of his bed raised higher, keeping his visitors at a greater distance. They disturb his peace and he is happiest after they leave him, and his room is sterile again. His most perfect bed is his finally achieved goal. It is a noun metaphor, exhibiting the stylistic trait of naming, and is a stillness-metaphor. The metaphor also points to a movement in the novel, which develops from the stillness expressed at the beginning of the book and when he is confined to bed, to the end of the book, where chaos and confusion reign. It also introduces the characteristic of naming and names. The act of naming is an act of volition; the names of characters and of towns communicate an insight into the personal nature of a player. Grass’ habit of creating significant names provides helpful etymologies rendering the nature of the figure more precise (Diller 5). The significant words of the metaphor fit in the following categories: Oskar names: Stillness: Bruno’s name:

VII: Volition; subheading: Choice II: Space; subheading, Motion VI: Intellect; subheading, Communication of ideas

In the next metaphor, the abstract concept stillness is seen as a material that can be woven between the white, metal bars. Oskar feels safe and secure in his bed. aA Refuge

Einmal in der Woche unterbricht ein Besuchstag meine zwischen weißen Metallstäben geflochtene Stille (9).

The color white introduces the theme white/black, symbolizing the opposites light and darkness, good and evil. The reader is aware of a movement in the novel from the whiteness and antiseptic quality of Oskar’s bed, signifying innocence and purity in the beginning of the book, to the color black, appearing in the form of the Black Cook, signifying futility, guilt, and fear in the final chapter of Book III at the end of the book. He is resigned to self-imprisonment because it is hopeless for him to attempt to survive in a chaotic world. The structure of the metaphor is adjectival a, and it is also a refuge-

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metaphor. The significant metaphorical words are located in the following categories: between: white: metal bars: woven: stillness: ap Communication

II: III: VII: II: II:

Space; subheading, Dimensions. Physics; subheading, Color Volition; subheading, Voluntary action Space; subheading, Dimensions Space; subheading, Motion.

Niemals hätte ich meine Besucher, etwa den Anwalt oder Klepp, um diesen Dienst bitten können. Besorgte, mir verordnete Liebe hätte den Freunden sicher ver boten, etwas so Gefährliches wie unbeschriebenes Papier mitzubringen und meinem unablässig Silben ausscheidenden Geist zum Gebrauch freizugeben (10).

In the above example, Oskar trusts Bruno to supply him with paper upon which his mind can interminably and freely “excrete” syllables. His other friends and visitors would surely forbid it because the lengthy story enfolds a tale of guilt, brutality and abuse, which the narrator’s mind excretes onto pure white paper. The color white symbolizes purity and light, contrasting with the dark blackness of the story, seen as excrement, indicating the theme white/black. Structurally the metaphor is adjectival a, exhibiting the characteristic of personification p. It is also a communication-metaphor because it alerts the reader of Oskar’s intent to narrate his experiences. The significant words fit in the following categories: incessant: syllables: excreting: mind:

VII: Volition; subheading, In general VI: Intellect; subheading, Language, Communication of ideas II: Space; subheading, Motion VI: Intellect; subheading, State of mind

Next, Bruno is asked to fetch “unblemished” paper, seen in the abstract sense of being pure and guilt free. It is the opposite of the story, which will defile its space: ap Guilt

Ach Bruno, würdest du mir fünfhundert Blatt unschuldiges Papier kaufen? (10)

Here, the theme of guilt is introduced. Throughout the novel, Oskar and other figures commit evil acts, intentionally or otherwise. Agnes constantly reminds Alfred of his guilt in leaving the cellar door open, causing Oskar’s fall. Oskar accuses himself of causing Alfred’s, Agnes’ and Jan’s deaths. Oskar malicious acts entice others to steal. The color white, and the idea of purity and innocence, highlight the feeling of peace and tranquili-

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ty evident at the beginning of the novel. The theme is white/black, the metaphorical expression illustrates personification p, and the structure is adjectival. The significant isolated words in the statement are located in the following categories: unblemished: paper:

VIII: Affections; subheading, Moral condition VI: Intellect; subheading, Communication of ideas

Next, Anna sits by a fire in the potato fields. The smoke from the fire generated by the weeds of potato plants, is seen as the labored breathing of an asthmatic person. aBDE Powerless p Stillness

Vor senkrecht gestellten, mit den Spitzen zusammenstrebenden Stiefelsohlen schwelte ein manchmal asthmatisch auflebendes, den Rauch flach und umständlich über die kaum geneigte Erdkruste hinschickendes Kartoffelkrautfeuer (11).

This metaphor introduces the archetypal symbol fire. The fire burns upwards, if weakly, fueled as it is with dead potato plants. Potato is a personal tensive symbol B, and it also has cultural significance to the Germans and other European peoples, D. The context indicates the ritualistic aspect of Anna Bronski’s life and the orderliness of her character. It demonstrates the circularity of her life: she sits beside a fire, roasting and eating potatoes, in a field in which she plants, tends, gathers and brings the potatoes home to her family, a recurring activity. The reader is aware of the tranquility and stillness in the Kashubian countryside. It also demonstrates powerlessness; Anna is caught, so to speak, in the cycle of life. The circle is the basic archetypal theme of the entire novel. The metaphor is adjectival and expresses the themes of powerlessness and stillness. asthmatic: flaring up: smoke: sending out: potato weeds: fire: nBE Stillness na

IV: II: III: II: IV: III:

Matter; subheading, Vapor Space; subheading, Motion. Physics; subheading, Heat Space; subheading, Motion. Matter; subheading, Life: Vegetable Physics, subheading, Heat

Anna Bronski (11)

Anna is the name of the Blessed Virgin’s mother; Agnes, however, is the opposite of Mary. The origin of the word Bronski is a combination of the German words Bron and Brunne, fountain, and the Polish suffix, -ski.

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The word Brunne means a fountain or spring (Diller 12). The root of Brunne is brinnen meaning to burn, shine or glow, signifying the idea of a warm fountain from the interior of the earth. Brunne is also an enclosed Quelle, a fountain or source. This indicates an intimate relationship between birth as the earthly origin of life, eventual death and return to the earth, Diller explains, and he connects C.D. Jerde’s notion of “womb and tomb” to Anna Bronski: “The grandmother motif represents both source and end of life.... [T]he grandmother is the ever present hope of death.... Oskar constantly tries to crawl under her four skirts to be close to her origin; yet the skirts remind him of a coffin and he watches the genital for signs of those who have died” (12).

The combination of the German and Polish aspects in her last name reflects Oskar’s uncertainty and doubt regarding his identity: is his father the Polish Jan or the German Alfred? It also signifies the fluctuating conditions of Poland during the many wars throughout its history. Anna’s name illustrates Grass’ propensity for providing names, which have an etymology and communicate a history. Anna is a tensive symbol, a presiding image of Grass, B; she appears again in Die Rättin. Anna is also an archetypal symbol E, because of Oskar’s desire in seeking refuge under her skirts is to return to the womb, the life sustaining quality of “water” which also symbolizes purity, and finally the idea of circularity, of beginning and end. It is a stillness-metaphor because of the consolation Anna provides Oskar. Anna: Bronski: nBE Character na

VIII: Affections; subheading, Religion I: Abstract Relations; subheading, Cause, source. Brenntau (11)

In the above example, the name of this town in Kashubia means, burning dew or water. The metaphor points to “the fire-water paradox of Joseph Koljaiczek himself,” Koljaiczek, the arsonist (Diller 9). It is a symbol personal to Grass B, and an archetypal symbol E, illustrating fire and water. In this instance, fire symbolizes Joseph having impregnated Anna while seeking refuge under her skirts. Fire has the power of “seemingly spontaneous generation and rapid reproduction” (Wheelwright, Metaphor 118) and the water of the womb symbolizes purity and sustaining life. The metaphor demonstrates Grass’ penchant for names and naming. burning: dew:

III: IV:

Physics; subheading, Heat Matter; subheading, Liquids

"Der weite Rock" nBE Character na




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Goldkrug (11)

“Goldkrug” is the name of another town in Kashubia and means “golden pitcher.” The metaphor exhibits Grass’ penchant for naming. It is an archetypal metaphor dealing with fire and water, reflecting Koljaiczek’s nature. golden : pitcher:

Class III, Physics; subheading, Color. Class: II, Space; subheading, Dimensions, Enclosure.

vpBDE Stillness ap Stillness

Der Sonntagsrock kam ihr montags eins näher, während ihr jenes Stück, das es sonntags hautwarm gehabt hatte, montags recht montäglich trüb oberhalb von den Hüften floß (12).

In preparation for Sunday, after spending the previous Saturday in her usual routine of housework, tending animals, laundering and taking her weekly bath, Anna rotates the order of her four skirts, wearing the clean skirt on top of the other three to church. On Monday, the skirt she wears on Sunday is placed one layer closer to her body. Two metaphors occur here: one verbal the other adjectival, demonstrating the characteristic of personification because the skirts are capable of feeling warmth and emotion. This gives an insight into Anna’s nurturing character and her morality; the context of the novel tells of her qualities of steadfastness, orderliness and sense of responsibility. Her life revolves around her religious faith, including the observance of Sunday. Upon returning home from the potato fields and her encounter with Joseph, a priest is summoned and he performs a marriage ceremony. She is faithful to Joseph, cares about her children, is attentive to her grandchildren and affirms upright behavior. The reader also becomes familiar with the local village custom involving household and village tasks in preparation for Sunday, the day of rest. The tensive symbol four skirts is intrinsic to Grass, personally B: Oskar’s constant desire to seek refuge under the skirts and to experience stillness and harmony, is a theme of the novel. The symbol is archetypal E, representing the cycle of time and life, the four seasons, and the purifying waters of life. The four skirts symbolize “the four sheaths of terrestrial space, the four corners of the earth, the points of the compass, the four basic elements, and therefore, the whole sweep of the earthly realm and its embracing framework of creation” (Diller 8–10). Oskar experiences timeless harmony and restful tranquility under his grandmother’s skirts. The following metaphor contains the tensive symbol Sunday, D, the

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cultural and religious significance of observing Sunday as a special day of rest. It is a time to attend church, to go on outings and to attend special activities. Sunday: skirt: come closer: Mondays: gloomy:

VII: II: II: I: VIII:

Volition; subheading, Voluntary action. Space; subheading, Dimensions Space; subheading, Motion. Abstract Relations; subheading: Time. Affections; subheading, Personal

The following event depicts Joseph Koljaiczek’s desperate flight from the local authorities. The setting is the panoramic view, which Anna observes, seated in the potato fields on a day in October. She sees the peaceful, tranquil Kashubian countryside, interspersed in an orderly manner by telegraph poles, with a partial view of a brickworks chimney. It is the calm before the storm. The scene changes because of a slight movement: Chaos

n

v v

Es bewegte sich etwas zwischen den Telegrafenstangen. Es sprang da etwas. Drei Männer sprangen zwischen die Stangen, drei auf den Schornstein zu, dann vorne herum und einer kehrt, nahm neuen Anlauf, schien kurz und breit zu sein, kam auch drüber, über die Ziegelei, die beiden anderen, mehr dünn und lang, knapp aber doch, über die Ziegelei, schon wieder zwischen den Stangen, der aber, klein und breit, schlug Haken und hatte es klein und breit eiliger als dünn und lang, die anderen Springer, die wieder zum Schornstein hin mußten, weil der schon drüber rollte, als die, zwei Daumensprünge entfernt, noch Anlauf nahmen und plötzlich weg waren, die Lust verloren hatten, so sah es aus, und auch der Kleine fiel mitten im Sprung vom Schornstein hinter den Horizont. Da blieben sie nun und machten Pause oder wechselten das Kostüm oder strichen Ziegel und bekamen bezahlt dafür (13–14).

Joseph and the two constables become geometric figures; they are also seen as vaulters who seem to jump over the horizon and over chimneys. The uniformed soldiers, when they are momentarily out of sight, are perceived as actors, off stage somewhere during the intermission, changing their costumes or the scenery. The description of Joseph, running for cover, is seen as a theatrical presentation, a whimsical skit expressing the theme, chaos. vaulters: intermission: change: costumes:

II. VI. I. VI.

Space; subheading, Motion Intellect: subheading, Communication of ideas Abstract Relations; subheading, Change Intellect; subheading, Communication of ideas

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Joseph, shaken and frightened, emerges from the sunken lane, approaches Anna and peers at her like a small animal. Anna shows compassion and offers him refuge under her skirts. The change is almost magical as expressed in the following metaphors: vp Stillness

[S]till war es wie am ersten Tag oder am letzten, ein bißchen Wind klöhnte im Krautfeuer, die Telegrafenstangen zählten sich lautlos...(14).

The telegraph poles are so orderly they seem to count themselves quietly. This verbal metaphor exhibits personification. Just as on the first day of Creation or the last, peace and order is once again restored to the Kashubian countryside, contrasting the state of chaos and confusion of Koljaiczek’s desperate escape. The metaphor expresses the theme of stillness. telegraph: poles: count: quietly: vp Stillness

VI: II: I: V:

Intellect; subheading, Communication of ideas. Space; subheading, Dimension. Abstract Relations; subheading, Number Sensation; subheading, Hearing.

der Schornstein behielt Haltung (14).

This verbal metaphor exhibits personification because the chimney seems to be standing at attention. It seems to possess a demeanor, which expresses the return to order in the area, a contrast to the confusion and chaos of Koljaiczek’s flight. The metaphor expresses the theme of stillness in the Kashubian countryside. chimney: stood: at attention:

III: II: VI:

Physics; subheading, Heat. Space; subheading, Dimensions Intellect; subheading, State of mind.

The following selection focuses on the encounter of the soldiers of the rural constabulary with Anna Bronski in the potato field after she has offered Koljaiczek refuge under her skirts. The soldiers come to an abrupt halt before the fire: Idealogy spB

spB

Hatten jedoch auf einmal Hacken und in den Hacken ihr Hirn, bremsten, drehten, stiefelten, standen in Uniformen gestiefelt im Qualm und zogen hüstelnd die Uniformen, Qualm mitziehen, aus dem Qualm und hüstelnd immer noch, als sie meine Großmutter ansprachen, wissen wollten, ob sie den Koljaiczek gesehen, denn sie müsse ihn gesehen haben, da sie doch hier am Hohlweg sitze, und er, der Koljaiczek, sei durch den Hohlweg entkommen(15).

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The rural constabulary officers are seen as objects performing actions, rather than as people. These sentence metaphors exhibit personification: human functions, coughing, describing, reflecting, are attributed to objects. This selection highlights Grass’s general propensity for professional attire, and the motif of soldiers in particular. As the soldiers approach Anna, the narrator states, “es zeigte sich, daß sie lang, dünn und von Berufs wegen die Uniformen der Feldgendarmerie trugen” (15). The notion of uniforms is tensive symbol B, appearing throughout the story and individual to Grass. The context demonstrates that the colors and other physical descriptions of the uniforms indicate a progression throughout the novel: in Book I, the narrator describes the authority of the artless rural constabulary: “Feldgendarmen kennen immer nur zwei Möglichkeiten” (15); in Book II, Oskar describes the cruelty of the invading soldiers and sees one as “ein kastenförmiger, großporiger Russe” (335). uniforms: coughing: wanted: know: spE Stillness

VI: IV: VII: VI:

Intellect; subheading, Communication of ideas. Matter; subheading, Vapors Volition; subheading, Desire Intellect; subheading, Faculty

Erst als der Abend dem Oktoberhimmel einen feinen schrägen Regen und tintige Dämmerung ausquetschte, griffen sie noch rasch und lustlos einen entfernten, dunkelnden Feldstein an, ließen es dann aber, nachdem der erledigt, genug sein (16).

Evening is seen as an artist, squeezing rain and twilight from pigment tubes onto the canvas, which is the October sky. This sentence metaphor exhibits personification because the motions of an artist are attributed to the abstract concept of a time of day. Stillness and harmony reign again in the countryside. The rain has the mythological role of watering and nurturing both the earth, and the sexual union of Anna and Joseph. Fire and water are archeological tensive symbols, reflecting Joseph’s character. evening: October: sky: slanting: rain: inky: twilight: squeeze:

I: I: IV: II: IV: III: I: II:

Abstract Relations; subheading, Time. Abstract Relations; subheading, Time. Matter; subheading, Universe. Space; subheading, Dimensions Matter; subheading, Liquids. Physics; subheading, Color Abstract Relations; subheading, Time. Space; subheading, Motion

"Der weite Rock" spB Idealogy




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Erst als die Uniformen nur noch wippende, langsam im Abend zwischen Telegrafenstange versaufende Punkte waren, erhob sich meine Großmutter so mühsam, als hätte sie Wurzeln geschlagen und unterbräche nun, Fäden und Erdreich mitziehend, das gerade begonnene Wachstum (16).

The departing constables are seen in the distance as swaying, drunken points. The narrator describes this perspective from the point of view of an artist and from looking through the smoke produced by the fire. The sentence metaphor exhibits personification; the human quality of drunkenness is attributed to objects. The phrases “tintige Dämmerung” and “versaufende Punkte” demonstrate Grass’ precise, vivid language in describing a situation as if it were at hand. The scene of Joseph’s desperate escape suggests the characteristics of a musical composition beginning with Anna, quietly roasting potatoes in the peaceful Kashubian potato fields. The composition gradually enfolds into a crescendo as she watches Joseph’s fearful escape from the local authorities amidst chaos. The composition reaches a climax, a significant event in the narration: Anna shelters the panicked Joseph under her skirts, is impregnated, and conceives Agnes, Oskar’s mother. The authorities are thwarted in their search for Joseph, which takes place in the form of a decrescendo as the soldiers poke about. Events come to a peaceful conclusion when the soldiers finally depart the tranquil Kashubian countryside, followed later by Anna and Joseph. uniforms: swaying: drunken: points:

VI: II: VIII: II:

Intellect; subheading, Communication of ideas Space; subheading, Motion. Affections; subheading, Moral conditions Space; subheading, Motion

The following tally sheet demonstrates the results of the analysis of the metaphors in Book one, chapter one. This includes: the approximate number of metaphors and of significant words isolated in the metaphorical statement which contribute to the comprehensive meaning of the metaphor; the grammatical structures and the stylistic features, such as: noun metaphors, composite metaphors in general, noun-composite, verb, adjective, adjectivecomposite, sentence, analogy, genitive; personification; Names/Naming; Root metaphors; Cultural references; the categories and subclasses under which the words are located in the “Synopsis.” In the Classes where the number of subentries was needlessly lengthy, the subentries were altered, such as in Class II: Space; the five grades of tensive symbols are included and the predominant themes.

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Book I Chapter 1 "Der weite Rock" Metaphors: 26 Significant words: 56 Categories: I. Abstract Relations: 7 Existence: 0 Relation: 0 Time: 4 Change: 2 II. Space: 19 In General: 0 Structure: 0

Quantity: 0 Event: 0

Order: 0 Number: 1 Causation: 1 Power: 0

Dimensions: 8 Motion: 11

III. Physics: 7 Physics: 0 Mechanics: 0

Heat: 4 Light: 0 Physical Properties: 0

IV: Matter: 6 In General: 0 Universe: 1

Organic: 1 Sex: 0

Vapor: 2 Liquid: 2

V: Sensation: 1 In General: 0 Sight: 0

Touch: 0 Hearing: 1

Taste: 0

Electricity: 0 Color: 3

Smell: 0

VI: Intellect: 13 Intellectual Faculties: 3 State of Mind: 2 Communication of Ideas: 8 VII: Volition: 5 In General: 1 Inclination: 1 Voluntary Action: 2 Support/Opposition: 0 To Nominate: 0 VIII: Affections: 5 Personal: 2 Morality: 2

Sympathetic: 0 Religion: 1

Structural and stylistic features: n9 c1 nc 1 v4 p 11 na 4 r1 cu 0 Tensive Symbols: 22 A 5: Bed, 5

Choice: 1

a5

ac 0

s4

an 0

g0

"Der weite Rock" B C D E

11: 0 2: 10:




101

Nurses, 1; Potato, 1; Skirts, 3; Anna, 2; Uniforms, 4 Sunday, 1; Potato, 1 Fire, 5; Anna, 2 Skirts, 3

Themes: Refuge: Stillness: White/Black: Eternal Recurrence: Ideology: Satiation: Communication: Character: Poland: Powerless: Chaos: Economic Miracle: Protest: Catholic Church: Art:

5 8 3 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 0 0 0 0

The results of the study up to this point are as follows: there are approximately 862 metaphorical utterances in Bt, illustrating that the metaphor is a significant stylistic feature of the novel. Verbal, noun and composite metaphors are among the most prominent grammatical structures. In the composite grouping, the noun-composites are most numerous. In particular, they depict the outer appearance and nature of the Kleinbürger, and a situation or an event. Adjective-composite metaphors display Grass’ colorful and precise language. Among the stylistic characteristics, personification dominates. The process of intersignification occurring in root metaphors, or variation, in which a paragraph contains a network of metaphors describing one theme, is also prominent. The paragraphs are sometimes used as in a musical composition, functioning as a prelude or displaying a direction such as a crescendo or a decrescendo, leading to a high point, a main event in the narration. The metaphors reveal a very strong presence of cultural, social and religious practices and symbols. Many are overturned and used in a negative connotation. Grass’ penchant for naming is evident in the names of characters and in the titles of chapters. The act of naming is particularly noticeable when the narrator precedes a name with the verb nennen or heißen. In the conceptual study, approximately 2200 significant words are isolated in the metaphorical statements. Located in the Synopsis of Categories, the words stem mostly from these concepts: Volition, Space, Intellect,

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Matter, Communication of Ideas, and Sensation. The large number of tensive symbols indicates Grass’ preference in making abstract concepts visible by way of concrete objects. Since many of the symbols are plurisignitive, they can be classified in more than just one of the five grades specified. The majority of the symbols are typical for Grass personally. The tensive symbols appearing most frequently are drum, scream, Oskar, male organ, Luzie, Black Cook. The archetypal tensive symbol representing the entire novel is the Circle. The themes expressed in Grass’ metaphorical statements most frequently are Character, Chaos, Communication, Satiation, White/Black, Eternal Recurrence, Catholic Church, Stillness, and Refuge. Because in some instances certain metaphorical statements express more than just one theme, they are grouped accordingly under the appropriate theme titles.

V II

Schopenhauer


Introduction We have just completed the explanation of the separate meanings expressed in Grass’ metaphorical statements. Up to this point, we have only briefly alluded to specific tenets in Schopenhauer’s philosophy, which the metaphors reveal. Yet, there seems to be no evidence in Grass-research, or in interviews or speeches, where he specifically names Arthur Schopenhauer outright as a source of influence and inspiration. Nevertheless, the messages in his metaphorical expressions highlighted so far point very clearly in that direction. In order to illustrate this with more certainty, a brief review of Schopenhauer’s system of thought and other personal information follows,1 organized according to ten theses. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860), born in Danzig, published his major work, Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, in 1819. It appeared at the same time that the philosophy of Idealism, expressed in the teachings of Johann Fichte, Friedrich Schelling and Georg Hegel, was at its height and had spread into the arenas of science, art and poetry. Schopenhauer’s work was written in reaction to the idealist system of thought. Schopenhauer claimed their teachings deformed Kant’s concept of the “thinking-Ego,” which organizes reality, the data of experience, to the idealistic concept of the “pure Ego,” which creates reality. He considered himself to be Kant’s “immediate successor”; Kant’s philosophy is the starting point for his own system of thought (II, 5).

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Schopenhauer's Philosophy _ Ten Theses Schopenhauer’s main goal is to reveal the true nature of the world, the thing-in-itself. The noumenon, the essence of the world, is Will, and the phenomena of the world consists of the “Representations,” the percepts of the senses and the intellect: concepts are learned through the senses. The title of his work, The World as Will and Idea, signifies this: “The World is noumenon, which is Will and phenomena, which are Representations, and beyond these there is nothing, or at least nothing that we can ever have any grounds for postulating. As far as we can ever know, Will and Representation comprise total reality” (Magee 152). There is only one reality: the essence of the world is the Will, which is “without knowledge... a blind, incessant impulse...eternal becoming, endless flux.... The will is characterized as the Will-to-live...since what the will wills is always life” (I, 354). The phenomenal world is the appearance of this same reality. Schopenhauer claims that subject and object, intelligence and matter, are interdependent, inseparable correlates: [T]he one exists only for the other, both stand and fall together, the one is only the reflex of the other. Indeed they are really one and the same thing regarded from two opposite points of view; and this one thing...is the manifestation of the will, or the thing in itself. Consequently both are secondary... (I, 180–81).

Schopenhauer illustrates this concept of the inseparable correlativity of matter and intelligence by personifying the concepts of subject and matter by having them take the parts in a dialogue. In the conversation, both matter and form conclude in unison that both are “[inseparable] parts of one whole, which includes us both and exists for us” (I, 181–83). Grass’ creative use of personification highlights the vital role objects play. It reflects his Objektzwang and produces the sense of animism and autonomy of objects. This coincides with Schopenhauer’s concept that the Willto-live manifests itself in matter. Knowledge of the thing-in-itself is attainable through the analysis of one’s experience. The subject cannot comprehend the inner nature of things through knowledge alone. Matter exists so that the subject may gain understanding (II, 175–76). Knowledge, therefore, always comes from without, from matter, from the objects surrounding him. Schopenhauer originally stated this in his dissertation: “Matter is therefore only the objective correlative of the pure understanding” (Payne 119). Schopenhauer likens the “pure” knowing subject to “a winged cherub without a body” (I, 129). The knowing subject, however, is more than just

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an intellect, because of his identity with his body. The human body is also an object among objects. In fact, it is the starting point for the knowing subject in his perception of the world. Objects are perceived through experience and through some sensation of our bodies (I, 128–29). Knowledge is the servant of the Will; it functions as “a means of supporting the individual and the species” (I, 198–99). Through his intellect, the subject finds more efficient ways to satisfy his bodily needs. The narrative of Bt coincides with Schopenhauer’s concept of experience because the story revolves around Oskar’s existential need to relate, to rehash and repeat, and to learn from his experiences. He learns through his interaction with objects such as his drum and picture album. Schopenhauer’s concept of the objective correlative is mirrored in Grass’ use of objects, the tensive symbols signifying abstract ideas and events, such as the four skirts, fizzpowder, uniforms and many others. Schopenhauer’s notion of learning through sensation is reflected in Grass’ vivid language, such as saftgrün and tabakrauchgewürzten Gardinen, which combine the senses of taste, sight and smell. The subject’s experience takes place in the form of sequential acts. Objects exist in the world only through the essential forms of time, space and causality, in a necessary relation to other things (I, 6; 175; 221; III, 480–81). Matter is the union of time and space, and “the essence of matter consists in the orderly change, which one part of it brings about in another part” (I, 10). This change occurs successively: “Succession is the form of the principle of sufficient reason in time, and succession is the whole nature of time”; pure space “is nothing more than that possibility of the reciprocal determination of its parts by each other, which is called position.” (I, 7–13). Things therefore are comprehended through “co-existence, succession and causal relations” (II, 392). A person gets to know his empirical character only gradually; he cannot foresee his future acts. In this sense, the individual is like an outsider. He only recognizes from “experience and reflection” that which has already taken place. According to Schopenhauer, “Everyone knows his will only in successive acts.... [N]o one knows his character a priori, but only learns it through experience and always incompletely” (II, 407). Oskar’s experiences are carefully narrated in sequential, chronological order. He learns from observation and from his own experiences that by nature, he is a helpless creature. The subject’s actions, which are the voluntary movements of his body, are a result of volition. The subject’s actions are based on motivation and

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his movements reflect his inner nature and determine his character. They are the visible manifestation of the will (I, 137). Humans believe themselves to be free when they choose to act, but the fundamental nature of human life, the “empirical character,” and that of the world, is unalterable (I, 389). The reason for this is the nature of the subject, which is the blind, incessant will to live. The subject gradually learns, “that his actions take place with absolute necessity from the coincidence of his character with his motives.... [A]ll a man’s deeds are merely the constantly repeated expression, somewhat varied in form, of his intelligible character...” (I, 372–73). People treat one another with extreme cruelty: “The chief source of the serious evils which affect men is man himself:...Whoever keeps this last fact clearly in view beholds the world as a hell, which surpasses that of Dante in this respect, that one man must be the devil of another” (III, 388). The world is the sphere of human volition and, as such, a place of conflict, suffering and evil. It “mirrors” the will. It is “childish” to think that we can change someone’s conduct or way of thinking through “rational ideas, prayers and entreaties.” The same is true for our own way of thinking and living (I, 393). The individual’s desires are never satisfied; any satisfaction that he may experience is only temporary. Happiness is never lasting and positive; when a wish or desire is fulfilled or satiated, pleasure ceases, followed by boredom and lethargy (I, 398). Fulfillment is followed by a new want or desire. We find ourselves at the beginning of the same, circular process (I, 411–12). The true symbol of life is the circle. It is “the schema or type of recurrence” (III, 267). The empty struggle of the human race is easily comprehended in the ceaseless labor exhibited in nature, where animals and insects struggle to obtain food and shelter, to protect and nurture their young. After a time, the young embark upon the same labor: “This misery repeats itself thousands and thousands of times, year out year in.” The end result of this ceaseless striving aside from momentary incidents of comfort is “the satisfaction of hunger and the sexual instinct” (III, 111–12). Although the situation is more complicated and serious regarding human life as opposed to the situation in Nature, the fundamental character remains unaltered: the nature of human life centers around the “maintenance of the individual and the propagation of the species“ (I, 421). The Will manifests itself in the incessant recurrence of the same activity: the individual’s restless, endless striving to seek happiness in the satisfaction of his physical needs, eating, drinking, and copulation” (III, 114). Likewise, Oskar discovers that nothing changes. Instead, the same

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events that happened in the past recur, such as the recurrence of war on Polish soil, the realization that his own insatiable sexual needs remind him of Agnes’ and Jan’s ravenous appetites. Anna’s life is cyclical and ritualistic demonstrated by her tending potatoes, and rotating her four skirts. Among the many pretexts, which perpetuate and mask the unsatisfied desire for self-preservation, are love, egoism, and progress, or history. True and pure love, “agape” or “caritas,” shows sympathy or compassion toward others. But “Eros” is selfishness (I, 485), and is rooted in the sexual impulse, the purpose of which is not the “reciprocation of love,” but “possession, the physical enjoyment” and “the production of an individual of a definite nature” (III, 339–441). Egoism impels the subject to take from another and to increase another’s suffering in order to advance his own happiness. The sight of the selfish individual is clouded by “the veil of Maya,” the world which appears to the senses (I, 454). The veil of Maya causes the selfish individual to, “regard his person as absolutely different and separated by a wide gulf from all others, a knowledge to which he clings with all his might, as it alone suits and supports his egoism...”(I, 471). He does not see his own self in other people as the moral man does. Oskar’s desire to distance himself from his family and neighbors is evident at the very beginning of Bt. He has no desire to live in the evil world of his parents. Furthermore, he treats people cruelly and maliciously to satisfy his anger and needs. Progress and history merely reflect the characteristic of human life. In the histories of the great and the little world, nothing is new or significant; history is the same under different forms (I, 236–37): “The chapters of the history of nations are at bottom only distinguished by the names and dates; the really essential content is everywhere the same” (III, 224). Schopenhauer strongly rejected Hegel’s system of thought and his affirmation of history as necessary and progressive. Grass also has expressed his repudiation of Hegel’s concept of the state and of history in his essay, “Über meinen Lehrer Döblin” (Aufsätze 68), in his interview with CeplKaufmann (302) and other sources. Certain tenets of Hegel’s philosophy bear further discussion in order to understand Grass’ viewpoint more clearly. For Hegel, the whole of reality is self-thinking thought, or “Being”; the entire history of the world and of man is the self-enfolding of Being, or Spirit, toward its highest revelation. In this dynamic activity of Spirit, nothing is nullified, but everything is affirmed in a higher development, so that Being becomes ever richer and more conscious. Reality is always new

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and changing and since thought is identified with reality, this process is logical and rational (Copleston 3, VII, 194; 216). The objective Spirit reaches its highest level in the State, i.e., the spirit of a people. Should treaties and international laws fail in regulating the relationships among nations, war is a rational, necessary and progressive alternative, no matter how great the injustice and suffering (170–71; 191–92). War is the means by which a people’s spirit is either rejuvenated or is swept aside, making way for another nation in which the Spirit manifests itself more vigorously (218). This is what World History is all about. Schopenhauer maintains that the nature of history is an illusion: “[I]t [history] pretends always to relate something different, while from beginning to end it repeats always the same thing under different names and in a different dress” (III 227). War causes pain and misery; the essential purpose of the state, of law, is to diminish the suffering and wrongdoing of its peoples (I, 443–44). His comment about the nature of history “repeating the same thing in a different dress” is particularly interesting. It brings to mind Grass’ description in Bt of the various uniforms worn by the different armies of soldiers. Schopenhauer, however, was never a German nationalist. He left Berlin at the time of Prussia’s insurgence against Napoleon. He also showed no sympathy for the Revolution of 1848 (261–63). Hegel’s rational, progressive concept of history is “exaggeratedly optimistic,” according to Schopenhauer (Copleston History 3 VII, 224). He considers optimism as an “absurd and really wicked way of thinking, as a bitter mockery of the unspeakable suffering of humanity” (I, 420). Oskar frequently refers to the cycle of battle and destruction on Polish soil. History as an absurd process is one of Grass’ favorite themes. The subject can escape temporarily from his vain struggle for satisfaction and his egoistic aggression through the ascending grades of aesthetic contemplation, ethics and ascetics. Schopenhauer exalts the “artistic genius,” capable of contemplating beauty in the form of art and nature, the Platonic Ideas, and who expresses them in artistic endeavors (Copleston 3, VII, 278–81). The subject forgets selfish desires and does not perceive the object out of its relation with other objects, i.e., according to the principle of sufficient reason. He becomes the “pure, will-less” knowing person (I, 253–59). Music, Tragedy and Sculpture, are among the highest levels in Schopenhauer’s consideration of the fine arts in which the Will “objectivates” itself (I, 276–346). Ethics compels the subject to recognize his own being in others. The moral person is just and compassionate toward others: “caritas” is sympa-

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thy, pure love. He performs good “disinterested” deeds that are not selfish, or done for personal gain. The egoist, however, is cruel and wicked (I, 464–84; III, 419; 423–24). Because of conflicts among individuals, the purpose of the state and of politics is to alleviate the pain and suffering of the people, and to deter wrongdoing (I, 441–52). Asceticism is the highest level of the denial of the will to live, of selfdenial. It is no longer sufficient for a person to love others as himself. He becomes so horrified of his own nature, that he turns from life and ceases all volition. He no longer desires sensual gratification under any condition. Rather he turns to complete chastity, intentional poverty and fasting. Only saints, penitents and mystics have reached this level (I, 490–98). The result of this self-sacrifice is resignation (I, 491; III, 420–59). Resignation is the overwhelming sentiment or mood expressed in Bt. Oskar’s fear of living in a chaotic world, which his own malicious actions cause, is so horrific, that he chooses to live the life of an ascetic in his bed. Later in the novel, however, when Oskar attempts to live in the world as an adult, he works as an artists’ model and as a stonecutter. Life is insignificant and meaningless: a state of misery and suffering for most humans. Death is the final refuge, the “womb of nature.” Since life is “a weary longing and complaining, a dream-like staggering through the four ages of life to death” (I, 415), the best quality of life is its brevity (I, 419). According to Schopenhauer, [e]very individual, every human being and his course of life, is but another short dream of the endless spirit of nature, of the persistent will to live; is only another fleeting form, which it carelessly sketches on its infinite page, space and time; allows to remain for a time so short that it vanishes into nothing in comparison with these, and then obliterates to make new room (I, 415).

This paragraph illustrates Schopenhauer’s masterful use of language, his use of metaphorical expressions and personification in expressing one theme: the manifestation of the will to live in human life. Since life is a state of misery, it is a mistake to be born: “To desire that the individuality should be immortal really means to wish to perpetuate an error infinitely. For at bottom every individuality is really only a special error, a false step, something that had better not be; nay, something which it is the real end of life to bring us back from” (III, 286).

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Schopenhauer agrees with Calderon and sees in these lines, the “Christian dogma of original sin”: For the greatest crime of man Is that he ever was born (I, 458).

Life is a crime; it is our original sin, and we are guilty because we are alive: “If we could lay all the misery of the world in one scale of the balance, and all the guilt of the world in the other, the needle would certainly point to the center (I, 454). Since life is pure misery, anyone in his right mind would prefer “absolute annihilation” rather than have the choice to begin a new life. It is death, which allows the individual to be free of his unalterable nature, “no longer to be I.” Death is “a last refuge,” like waking from a nightmare, a friend for many people. It is “the return into the womb of nature, from which they arose for a short time, enticed by the hope of more favorable conditions of existence than have fallen to their lot, and the same path out of which constantly remains open. That return is the cessio bonorum of life” (III, 257–58). Oskar’s approach to living is similar. His idea of paradise, his ultimate refuge from the world, is to return to the womb by way of his grandmother’s skirts. Schopenhauer possessed outstanding gifts as a writer. Schopenhauer wrote extremely well. He showed integrity in his methods of argumentation and “used the German language with a clarity which has never been surpassed” (Magee 248). He held Fichte, Schelling and especially Hegel in intense contempt because he hated their methods of “misusing” language and rhetoric in their logical demonstrations (248–49). Schopenhauer called them, “hungry scribblers, without talent and without honesty” (II, 22). He typically interspersed his writing with frequent personal insults, unequaled in the history of philosophy (Magee 248–49). Schopenhauer valued the ability to express things vividly and distinctly (I, 310–11). For him, poetry is “bringing the imagination into play by means of words” (III, 200). The abstract idea is made concrete and perceptible to the reader because of the creative, skillful manner of the “master” poet (I, 313–14). Schopenhauer cites Homer, who when writing about the sea and the dawn, uses the epithets, “wine-dark” and “rosyfingered,” thereby making the ideas concrete (Copleston 3, VII, 280). Grass’ exhibits the precise language that Schopenhauer values. This is evident in his expressions such as verteufelt rot, tomatenrot, kirschschwarz, and dottergelb. Schopenhauer’s philosophy exerted great influence on many writers and artists. Magee writes, “it looks to me as if the influence of Schopenhauer

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on creative artists of the very front rank surpasses that of any other philosopher since the ancient Greeks” (389–90). The number is so great, that Magee takes the space in his book to mention only the most significant. He devotes an entire chapter to Schopenhauer’s influence on Richard Wagner (379–91). Ivan Turgenev, Emile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, Marcel Proust, Thomas Hardy, Joseph Conrad, and possibly, Somerset Maugham, are other writers influenced by Schopenhauer. In addition to these, Magee cites the philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche, Søren Kierkegaard and Ludwig Wittgenstein (42; 264). Arthur Hübscher points out that Schopenhauer, “der Begründer der Triebpsychologie,” greatly influenced Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud and Carl Gustav Jung (271). In his later writings, Freud openly acknowledges Schopenhauer’s influence in his approach to psychoanalysis especially in his emphasis on sexuality, “[in] der Verfallenheit, der grundsätzlichen Unvollendbarkeit der menschlichen Existenz” and in the idea that life is “nur ein stets gehemmtes Sterben...ein steter Kampf mit dem Tod” (271). Wagner and writers such as Thomas Mann and Leo Tolstoy held Schopenhauer in such high esteem, that they hung his picture on their walls (Magee 389–90). This is noteworthy because in Bt, the picture of Beethoven hangs in the Matzerath’s sitting room, directly facing the photo of Hitler. Beethoven and Schopenhauer shared a strong personal resemblance: “As regards his [Schopenhauer’s] personal appearance and character, a general resemblance, which it became commonplace to draw in the late nineteenth century, when the renown of both as culture-heroes was at its height, was between Schopenhauer and Beethoven” (18). In Bt, the picture of Beethoven in the Matzeraths’ sitting room could signify the role of music, the highest level in Schopenhauer’s notion of aesthetics, repelling the evil signified by the photo of Hitler; it could also signify the resemblance of Beethoven to Schopenhauer. Schopenhauer’s philosophy emphasizes the following concepts: Volition signifies that the person’s voluntary actions comprise his experience; they are the visible manifestation of the will and of the subject’s nature. Intellect indicates that the subject uses his knowledge so that he may more effectively pursue his desire for self-preservation. Space and Time form the “framework” for the phenomenal world. Matter signifies the phenomena comprising the other part of the equation, subject and object, which are both manifestations of the will; both are inseparable correlates. Objects exist in their relation with other objects according to the essential forms of Time and Space; they exist according to their position in space with other objects. Matter consists of orderly change and change occurs successively,

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which is the nature of time. Action is the true nature of matter. Sensation signifies that the subject experiences the world through his senses; his body is a thing also. The conceptual study in this analysis shows that the majority of the words isolated in Grass’ metaphorical statements in Bt are located in the Synopsis under the classes Volition, Space, Intellect and Matter. The category Sensation is also significant. These results demonstrate a close similarity between aspects of the novel and tenets of Schopenhauer’s philosophy. We can now approach the second and final level of interpretation, understanding: synthesizing the “chain of partial meanings” revealed in Grass’ metaphors.

V III

Understanding


Thus far, this analysis has established a model grounded on a cognitive theory of metaphor, a guide used in selecting Grass’ metaphors. His metaphorical statements disclose a complex and varied range of structures, leading to a multifaceted array of meanings. His use of personification and verbmetaphors lends objects a sentient quality and display the important role objects play. Objects and persons in the narrative symbolize an emotion or an event. The composite-metaphors create the feeling of chaos and alienation. His vivid language appeals to the senses, and at times, to two or three senses in one word. Paragraphs containing metaphors of varied structures express one theme, such as satiation, refuge, powerlessness, or communication. Isolated words, when selected by breaking down the metaphorical statement and located in a conceptual lexicon, are found mainly in the classes of Volition, Space, Intellect, Matter, and Sensation. These findings now are united and comprehended finally in “an act of synthesis,” the second level of meaning, which begins here and continues into the next chapter.

Grass' Language _ Schopenhauer's Style Grass favors the use of paragraphs containing root metaphors or variation, several metaphors expressing one theme. The metaphors also exhibit personification and a variety of grammatical structures. In the following paragraph, the theme, “das Unglück,” meaning the atrocities of the Nazi era, is compared to the figurehead, Niobe, who was instrumental in causing Herbert’s death:

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Dennoch gab es damals Vorzeichen genug für ein Unglück, das immer größere Stiefel anzog, mit immer größeren Stiefeln größere Schritt machte und das Unglück umherzutragen gedachte. Da starb mein Freund Herbert Truczinski an einer Brustwunde, die ihm ein hölzernes Weib zugefügt hatte. Das Weib starb nicht. Das wurde versiegelt und im Museumskeller...aufbewahrt. Doch man kann das Unglück nicht einkellern. Mit den Abwässern findet es durch die Kanalisation, es teilt sich den Gasleitungen mit, und niemand, der da sein Suppentöpfchen auf die bläulichen Flammen stellt, ahnt, daß da das Unglück seinen Fraß zum Kochen bringt (159).

Niobe’s destructive power has caused the death of many men who found her sexual attraction irresistible. Although Niobe can be stored away in a cellar, the approaching catastrophe produced by Nazi atrocities cannot be sealed up and forgotten. The spread of the disaster is uncontrollable. The horrors of war reappear, spread and continue. The disaster enters the gas pipes, i.e., the concentration camps, and everything will come to a head. At first, disaster is seen as a striding figure, wearing boots, then as gas, seeping into everyone’s lives. It has already been established that Schopenhauer possessed outstanding gifts as a writer. In the following paragraph, Schopenhauer describes the insignificance of life: Es ist wirklich unglaublich, wie nichtssagend und bedeutungsleer...das Leben der allermeisten Menschen dahinfließt. Es ist ein mattes Sehnen und Quälen, ein träumerisches Taumeln durch die vier Lebensalter hindurch zum Tode.... Sie gleichen Uhrwerken, welche aufgezogen werden und gehen, ohne zu wissen warum; und jedes Mal, daß ein Mensch gezeugt und geboren worden, ist die Uhr des Menschenlebens aufs Neue aufgezogen, um jetzt ihr schon zahllose Mal abgespieltes Leierstück abermals zu wiederholen, Satz vor Satz und Takt vor Takt, mit unbedeutenden Variationen—Jedes Individuum, jedes Menschengesicht und dessen Lebenslauf ist nur ein kurzer Traum mehr des unendlichen Naturgeistes, des beharrlichen Willens zum leben, ist nur ein flüchtiges Gebilde mehr, das er spielend hinzeichnet auf sein unendliches Blatt, Raum und Zeit, und eine gegen diese verschwindend kleine Weile bestehen läßt, dann auslöscht, neuen Platz zu machen (Schopenhauer Welt 1, 4, 415).

Life is seen as a weary longing and complaining, a dreamlike staggering. People are seen as wound-up clocks, wandering aimlessly about, repeating the same insignificant tune. They are but fleeting forms at the mercy of the spirit of nature, i.e., the will to live. Grass’ preceding paragraph describing “das Unglück,” exhibits strikingly similar characteristics, which Schopenhauer’s description also contains: many metaphors of varied structures, in lengthy paragraphs, where phrases and sentences are introduced with the same word. The metaphors display personification and contain creative comparisons expressing one theme. In another example, Oskar realizes that he, too, is enslaved to the same

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sexual impulse, Knäuelliebe that his Mama and Jan practiced. Oskar’s powerlessness over his male organ, “der Herr da unten,” is described: Hatte der Herr da unten seinen eigenen Kopf, eigenen Willen? Und Maria, die...doch den nicht wollte, den ja auch ich nicht wollte, der sich selbständig gemacht hatte, der den eigenen Kopf bewies...der andere Träume hatte als ich...der heute noch seinen eigenen Weg geht...der mich verrät und im Stich läßt...der mir so fremd ist, daß ich ihn siezen möchte, der ein ganz anderes Gedächtnis als Oskar hat (229).

In this excerpt, we again see the predominant use of personification expressing one theme, Knäuelliebe, and Oskar’s feelings of frustration and despair in his lack of control. The repetition of metaphors in the paragraph highlights the importance of the theme. In the next paragraph, Schopenhauer describes the sexual impulse and he writes that the source of all love, Verliebtheit, is the sexual impulse. It is the strongest of all impulses next to the love of life: Wenn man nun, dieses fest haltend, die wichtige Rolle betrachtet, welche die Geschlechtsliebe...in der wirklichen Welt spielt, wo sie...die ernsthaftesten Beschäftigungen zu jeder Stunde unterbricht, bisweilen selbst die größten Köpfe auf eine Weile in Verwirrung setzt, sich nicht scheut, zwischen die Verhandlungen der Staatsmänner und die Forschungen der Gelehrten, störend, mit ihrem Plunder einzutreten, ihre Liebesbriefchen und Haarlöckchen sogar in ministerielle Portefeuilles und philosophische Manuskripte einzuschieben versteht...die verworrensten und schlimmsten Händel anzettelt, die wert[h]vollsten Verhältnisse auflöst, die festesten Bande zerreißt, bisweilen Leben, oder Gesundheit...zu ihrem Opfer nimmt...demnach im Ganzen auftritt als ein feinds[e]liger Dämon, der Alles zu verkehren, zu verwirren und umzuwerfen bemüht ist (Schopenhauer Welt 2, 4, 1325–26).

We see the same predominant use of personification in this excerpt, expressing the same theme of Geschlechtsliebe, the Knäuelliebe, which Grass describes. Grass uses adjectives in a precise, descriptive way; such as, “kirschschwarze[n] Mittelmeeraugen” in referring to Roswitha’s alluring eyes, and “bleigraue Blicke” when describing the bullets fired at the Polish Post Office. It is true, that Grass cites Döblin in his essay: “Döblin fordert...Regeln auf: ‘das Ganze darf nicht erscheinen wie gesprochen, sondern wie vorhanden’” (Grass, Aufsätze 72). But Schopenhauer also writes: “The skill of a master, in poetry...enables us always to obtain the precise precipitate we intended” (Haldane I, 314). Furthermore, writes Schopenhauer, the task of the poet is to “bring down the abstract concept to the level of perception and thus to stimulate the imagination and enable the reader or hearer to apprehend the Idea in the perceptible object

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(Copleston 3, VII, 280). As noted earlier, Schopenhauer cites Homer’s clever use of epithets in bringing the idea of the sea or the dawn closer to perception, such as, “wine-dark” and “rosy-fingered.” Regarding Homer’s style of writing, Schopenhauer explains that Homer precedes almost every noun with an adjective thereby rendering the concept of the noun much more precise (Haldane I 314). The large number of tensive symbols in which objects represent an abstract idea, an emotion or an event, reflect Schopenhauer’s concept of the “objective correlative.” In his dissertation he states, “Matter is therefore only the objective correlative of the pure understanding,” as cited earlier in this study. The tensive symbols are further evidence of Schopenhauer’s notion of “apprehending the Idea in the perceptible object.”

Grass' Metaphors _ Schopenhauer's Thought The tenets of Schopenhauer’s system of thought are encapsulated here in ten designations along with a brief explanation: The Will, Reality, Human Life, Selfish Love, Egoism, Progress, Aesthetics, Caritas, Asceticism and Death. The Will is the center of his philosophy. It is the unconscious, incessant and insatiable striving to live. It is constant flux, manifesting itself in the phenomenal world and becoming conscious in the human person. The world is a place of suffering and pain. People seek happiness, but they can never attain it. Their cruel treatment of one another is the source of much suffering. No one can change the nature of the world or of human life. It is better never to have been born because striving to live is futile. Reality is the phenomenal world, the external appearance of things the “veil of Maya.” The world is a place of conflict and of hopeless suffering and misery. In Human life, a subject learns about his nature by experiencing life sequentially. His intellect is primarily concerned with developing ways to satisfy his physical needs: nourishment and propagation. He learns through his bodily senses. Selfish love, Eros, is sexual love. Overindulgence and satiation are illusions, which mask the Will. Egoism refers to the immoral person who separates himself from others. He is unable to see through the “veil of Maya,” to see himself in others, which supports his egoism. His willful acts inflict suffering upon others. He is the source of his own pain. Progress is another illusion, which masks the Will. Progress, history, is

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an absurd process, the constant recurrence of the same events. Aesthetics is a temporary way of escaping from the slavery of the Will. This occurs through artistic endeavors. Caritas is sympathy and selfless love. The moral person sees through the “veil of Maya” because he is compassionate toward others, performing good deeds. Asceticism is self-denial, mortification. It is a temporary remedy in escaping the Will. Death is the final refuge. It is the return to the “womb of nature.” In the following tables, the tensive symbols and themes discussed earlier are classified accordingly: Will The Black Cook Luzie Rennwand White/Black Glass

Reality Chaos Stillness Personification Character Composite Four Skirts

Human Life Refuge Powerlessness Communication Drum Photoalbum Skat;Closet;Table

Egoism Protest Scream Oskar

Progress Aesthetics Ideology Art Eternal RecurrenceMuse Economic Miracle Charcoal Cultural/Religious symbols; Sunday Catholic Church/Religion Poland

Asceticism Bed White/Black

Death Four Skirts

Selfish Love Satiation Oskar Male Organ Triangle; Fiber rug Nurses; Eels Niobe Caritas Anna Potato Vanilla Nurses

The Will The Black Cook strongly suggests something analogous to Schopenhauer’s concept of the Will: Oskar ultimately recognizes her ominous presence at every act of cruelty occurring in the narrative, in all the evil deeds he has experienced or undertaken throughout his life. Just as the colors progress in the novel from white to black, so does Oskar’s fear of the Black Cook intensify from the innocence of a harmless children’s song at the outset of the narrative to the stark fear Oskar experiences at the end of the novel.

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His awareness and fear of the Black Cook become increasingly evident in the final chapters of Book III: Oskar has signed a contract to perform in a concert tour as a drummer. Billed as a miracle worker, a healer, he appears before a large group of elderly miners and drums up the stages of infancy and childhood, with its normal pains of teething and illnesses, for his enthusiastic audience. The message of Oskar’s drum, however, evokes unspeakable fear among the old people; it informs them that the illnesses and pains they experienced in childhood are the manifestations of the Black Cook. He warns them of an impending primal fire, a colossal catastrophe: [I]ch spielte vor alten Bergleuten...und ich dachte mir, die alten Kumpels werden, da sie jahrelang mit schwarzer Kohle zu tun gehabt haben, einen kleinen schwarzen Schreck vertragen. Oskar trommelte also ‘Die Schwarze Köchin’ und mußte erleben, daß tausendfünfhundert Kumpels, die da schlagende Wetter, absaufende Stollen, Streik, Arbeitslosigkeit hinter sich hatten, der bösen Schwarzen Köchin wegen ein fürchterlich Geschrei losließen (463).

Aboard the train to Paris, as he approaches his final destination, Oskar senses impending doom in the sound of the train on the tracks, and in the tension of his fellow passengers. On the platform in the station, he fearfully imagines the presence of the Black Cook in each passerby: Was mir auffiel, war, daß erstens die Metro gleich der Eisenbahn, wenn auch mit anderem Rhythmus, nach der Schwarzen Köchin fragte, daß zweitens allen Mitreisenden die Köchin gleich mir bekannt und fürchtenswert sein mußte, denn um mich herum atmeten alle Angst und Schrecken aus.... Und jetzt bist du in Paris...wo wird sie dir schwarz und schrecklich entgegenkommen? (486)

Toward the end of his journey, Oskar realizes that he must decide on a profession to follow in his future life, since he will probably be released from the security of the mental hospital: So werde ich also jenes Liedchen, das mir immer lebendiger und fürchterlicher wird, auf mein Blech legen, werde die Schwarze Köchin anrufen, befragen, damit ich morgen früh meinem Pfleger Bruno verkünden kann, welche Existenz der dreißigjährige Oskar fortan im Schatten eines immer schwärzer werdenden Kinderschreckens zu führen gedenkt; denn was mich früher auf Treppen erschreckte, was im Keller, beim Kohlenholen buhhh machte...was aber dennoch immer schon da war, mit Fingern sprach, durchs Schlüsselloch hustete, im Ofen seufzte, schrie mit der Tür, wolkte auf aus Kaminen...auch als die Aale nach Mama verlangten, und meine arme Mama nach den Aalen, wenn die Sonne hinter dem Turmberg verschwand und für sich lebte, Bernstein! Wen meinte Herbert, als er das Holz berannte! Auch hinterm Hochaltar—was wäre der Katholizismus ohne die Köchin, die alle Beichtstühle schwärzt?...Immer war sie schon da, selbst im Waldmeisterbrausepulver, so unschuldig grün es auch schäumte; in allen Kleiderschränken, in denen ich jemals hockte, hockte auch sie und lieh sich später das dreieckige Fuchsgesicht der Luzie Rennwand aus (490–91).

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Oskar reflects upon all the suffering that he, family members, and friends experienced in their lives, and likewise, the pain they inflicted on others. He realizes that the Black Cook, the nature of the world and of human life, instigated all of them. Luzie Rennwand is a tensive symbol signifying the Will because of her powerful presence, and her malicious, destructive nature. She is the persistent seductive temptress with her triangular shaped face symbolizing the sexual urge, which haunts Oskar throughout the narrative. He is almost as fearful of Luzie as he is of the Black Cook. Oskar and the Dusters stage their Black Mass in the Church of the Sacred Heart. As the police arrive, Oskar plays the role of the innocent threeyear-old victim. He offers Luzie a sandwich prepared by one of the gang members. Oskar sees Luzie as the Black Cook and his obvious fear of her is expressed in the following paragraph: Den Korb griff ich mir, ging auf die magere, im dünnen Mantel fröstelnde Luzie zu and bot ihr die Stullen an...und ich beobachtete ihr brennendes, geschlagenes, gedrängt volles Gesicht: die Augen rastlos hinter zwei schwarzen Schlitzen, die Haut wie gehämmert, ein kauendes Dreieck, Puppe, Schwarze Köchin, Wurst mit den Pellen fressend, beim Fressen dünner werdend, hungriger, dreieckiger, puppiger—Anblick, der mich stempelte. Wer nimmt mir das Dreieck von und aus der Stirn? Wie lange wird es noch in mir kauen...(315).

The color combination White/Black is a theme demonstrating the plurisignitive quality of poetic language. The colors signify the conflict between good and evil, between harmony and chaos, between light and darkness, illustrated in the novel by the juxtapositioning of Goethe and Rasputin, of Beethoven and Hitler, of Apollo and Dionysos. There is a motion in the novel from the color white, depicted by Oskar’s antiseptic hospital bed and the “innocent” white paper upon which he “excretes” his story, to the imminent threat of the Black Cook. But after years of experience, Oskar has learned that it is hopeless to try to survive in a cruel, chaotic world. Nothing changes: the same pain and suffering occur over and over again. Moreover, he recognizes his own guilt and realizes that his selfish nature caused much pain and suffering. Oskar’s preference is not to live; his idea of perfect happiness, of paradise, is to return to the womb and the closest he can come to this is under Anna’s skirts. As the events in his life advance and as he flees westward, this refuge is no longer a possibility. His endeavors to satisfy his sexual urge, to experience a happy life in the field of sculpture, as a stonecutter and later as an artists’ model, and to function as a responsible adult are futile. He tries to escape this frightening scenario, manifested by the Black Cook, by rejecting the world and seeking refuge through asceticism. But even this must come to an end, because he is pronounced innocent of the death of nurse Dorothea and can no longer

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remain in the mental institution. He is forced to face living in a world he so desperately fears. The atmosphere of white at the beginning of the novel signifies innocence, the rejection of the world and of selfish, destructive deeds. It also signifies asceticism, the nullification of the Will to live. As the story enfolds, events advance toward the atmosphere of black, signifying guilt and the hopeless struggle to live in a world full of suffering. In chapter three, Book III, the color black is predominant. When Oskar first arrives at the Academy of Art, he meets the instructor, Professor Kuchen, whom he describes as kohlenstaubschnaubenden: “Längere Zeit umschritt er mich, ließ seine Kohleaugen kreisen, schnaubte...und sprach, mit schwarzen Fingernägeln einen unsichtbaren Feind erwürgend:.... Kunst, das ist schwarze Zeichenkohle, die sich auf weißem Papier zermürbt!” (383) Sixteen artists eagerly lean forward and await the professor’s next command: “Ausdruck verlangte er...sagte, verzweifelt nachtschwarzer Ausdruck”; Oskar, the model, must express “den Wahnsinn unseres Jahrhunderts ...” That was indeed the order to start, “denn sechzehnmal knirschte hinter den Staffeleien Kohle, schrie mürb werdend auf ...” (383). Oskar also poses for the sculptor, Professor Maruhn, “der ja kein expressiver Kohlewüterich, sondern Klassiker war, dem meine Augen in Goethischer Klarheit leuchteten” (385). As Oskar approaches his fate in the final chapter of the novel, he is conscious of the Black Cook and only of one word, black: Denn was mir früher im Rücken saß...kommt mir nun und fortan entgegen:...Schwarz war die Köchin hinter mir immer schon. Daß sie mir nun auch entgegenkommt, schwarz. Wort, Mantel wenden ließ, schwarz. Mit schwarzer Währung zahlt, schwarz. Während die Kinder, wenn singen, nicht mehr singen: Ist die Schwarze Köchin da? Ja - Ja - Ja! (491)

Another aspect of the White/Black image is Oskar’s ability to shatter windows with his scream. Glass is an archetypal symbol signifying light. In the Synopsis, glass is located under Class III: Physics, and under the subentry of Light. Light is an archetypal symbol signifying certain qualities of mind and spirit, such as “intellectual clarity: light produces visibility, it shows forth clear outlines which in darkness vanish” (Wheelwright, Metaphor 117). In theological terms, God is called, “the God of Light”; Jesus is called, the “Light of the World” and the “Word of God.” Satan is referred to as the “Prince of Darkness.” When Oskar’s scream shatters the windows of the chocolate factory, he also dispels light, resulting in darkness: “Dann malte ich mit meiner Stimme die restlichen Fensterfüllungen des obersten Fabrikstockwerkes Schwarz (305). But Oskar is unable to destroy the

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stained glass windows of churches. During one of his episodes in church, when Oskar is unable to get the statue of Jesus to drum, he hears Jesus ask Oskar to follow him. Oskar becomes enraged, but he remembers that he is unable to destroy church windows with his scream to satisfy his anger. He is unable symbolically, therefore, to put out “the Light of the World,” “the Word of God,” and to plunge the world into darkness. Satan warns him to leave church windows alone. So Oskar seeks his revenge the best way he can. He goes home to his attic where he finds four light bulbs, and shatters the first three to pieces one by one. After that, Oskar “sang einer vierten die Schönschriftbuchstaben ‘Jesus’, ließ dann das Glas und die Inschrift zu Pulver werden” (297).

Reality Schopenhauer’s concept of Reality means that subject and object, intelligence and matter, are inseparable correlates: they are both manifestations of the same force, the Will-to-live. Personification is the act of attributing human qualities to concepts, or objects, therefore the personification-metaphors are classified under this heading. Grass vividly describes objects as if they are real and present, a characteristic, which Schopenhauer also valued. The themes Chaos and Stillness are grouped under the Reality heading: Chaos represents turmoil and suffering, resulting from the willful, destructive acts that humans constantly commit against each other, including war. Stillness signifies harmony, order, and peace; it is a temporary reprieve from the turmoil of the world. The themes also depict the natural, recurring rhythm of life: Koljaiczek’s desperate escape, depicted in Chapter 1, Book I, has already been cited, signifies chaos: he is escaping from the local authorities, having set fire to sawmills because of his patriotic feelings for Poland, a country which has been divided throughout its history by the chaos of war. He finds peace and refuge under Anna’s skirts (13). Oskar disrupts a Sunday afternoon political demonstration causing chaos by drumming dance rhythms from his position under the rostrum. Gradually, the drums and trumpets, and all the instruments of the troopers join in: [D]a ging den Fanfaren ein Lichtchen auf, und die Querpfeifen, oh Donau, pfiffen so blau. Nur der Fanfarenzugführer und auch der Spielmannszugführer, die glaubten nicht an den Walzerkönig und schrien ihre lästigen Kommandos, aber ich hatte die abgesetzt, das war jetzt meine Musik... [S]o blau, hüpfte mein Rhythmus, verstärkt durch das über mir vollaufgedrehte Mikrophon.... Nur dem Lobsack...lag erstaunlicherweise der Walzertakt nicht.... Durchs Astloch sah ich seine Leiden. Es zog durch das Loch.... [D]och die Jungs vor der Tribüne...die

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hämmerten Kraut und Rüben.... [D]a dachten die Querpfeifen sich, gehupft wie gesprungen. Gesetz ging flöten und Ordnungssinn.... Als Oskar nach Hause kam, stand das Mittagessen schon auf dem Tisch:... Gegen Abend bot ein erfrischendes Gewitter mit Wolkenbruch und wunderschön trommelndem Hagel eine längere Vorstellung. Oskars erschöpftes Blech durfte ruhen und zuhören (97–99).

The storm seems to act as an exclamation point after the disorder reaches its climax, then a decrease, as in a decrescendo, and a return to calm. Oskar describes the effect that the carpetbeating noise, part of the preparations for the Easter holidays, “die passionsträchtige Teppichklopferei,” has upon him: “Bald darauf hörte ich vom Hof her jenes gleichmäßige Teppichklopfen, das mich durch die Wohnung trieb, das mir nachkam” (125). Oskar cannot bear the noise and chaos of the carpetbeating emanating from the courtyard. The plurisignitive character of Grass’ metaphors produces the feeling of chaos. Because his composite-metaphors contain a variety of different ideas and senses in one word, they are classified under the theme chaos. Character-metaphors fit in the Reality grouping. Noun-composite metaphors function as character-metaphors, portraying characteristics of members of the Kleinbürger social class according to their outward appearance, such as Pferdegebiß, Kuhaugen, Hundegesicht, Vogelkopf and Fuchsgesicht. Oskar perceives other individuals impersonally by their obvious outward appearance alone, rather than seeing them as individuals with feelings and aspirations. Therefore, Oskar is able to keep his distance from his neighbors and friends. He expresses this desire at the very beginning of the novel. In the security of his hospital bed, he wishes the sides of his bed were higher, so as to keep his visitors at a greater distance. He finds them so distasteful, that Bruno has to ventilate Oskar’s room after their departure. Oskar perceives “das Erwachsensein” in general as the inability to accept responsibility (Cepl-Kaufmann, Analyse 135). This is a typical characteristic of Schopenhauer’s concept of the selfish, egoistic person, unable to see past the “veil of Maya” or to see other persons as his equal. Other character-metaphors such as these depict the nature of things and situations: Knäuelliebe, Mittelmeerstimme and Knotengeburt. Metaphors in other more complex structures are also charactermetaphors, portraying the outward appearance of things. As Frau Kater passes him on the stairs carrying a carpet to the courtyard, Oskar describes in a distasteful way how he perceives her persona: “Während Matzerath die Wohnung aufschloß, sah ich Frau Kater.... Sie hielt mit blaurot mächtigen Armen einen zusammengerollten bräunlichen Teppich auf der rechten Schulter.... Als sie ihr Fett in einem schwarzglänzenden Taftrock vor-

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beitrug, traf mich ihre Ausdünstung” (124). Four skirts, an archetypal tensive symbol, is grouped under Reality. It depicts the orderly, normal rhythms of life, the four seasons, the four stages of life. It also signifies Oskar’s desire to return to the womb.

Human Life The stylistic trait, Names and Naming, is included under Human Life. Names given to the characters in the novel provide an etymology, a history and an insight into the character’s personality, such as Anna Bronsky, Fräulein Kauer, Herr Heiland. The action itself of naming is noticeable when names are preceded with varying forms of the verbs, nennen and heißen. This characteristic points to the aspect of propagation in Schopenhauer’s philosophy and the notion of self-perpetuation. Wheelwright demonstrates that in mythology, naming is a creative act in the sense of procreation: he refers to a tale in Egyptian mythology where the self-generated god Re, “stood upon a hill that rose from the primeval waters and created things by creating their names” (Metaphor 182, note 5). He cites two myths, relating how Re, also called Atum, supposedly produced “the race of gods and the race of men by taking his organ in his own hand, and that he created his own name”. In his book, Headbirths or The Germans Are Dying Out, Grass discusses the word headbirths, and points to “the god Zeus, from whose head the goddess Athena was born” (4). He states that the characters of this book, Harm and Dörte Peters, “are my headbirths” (114) and that their problem, whether or not to have a baby, is a headbirth. In Bt, Oskar calls Bruno’s string figures Knotengeburt[en] and Knotengebilde. Bruno names the figures, too: “Der Ostflüchtling” represents Oskar; “Apfel in vier Schlafröcken” is Anna, and “Die schöne Fischesserin” depicts Agnes (346). The characteristic of naming is used in the sense of procreation and perpetuation. It is noteworthy that in the Synopsis, name is found under Class VI: Intellect, in the subentry Communication of Ideas. The action “to name,” or to nominate, is located under Class VII: Volition. Both concepts, Intellect and Volition, are significant in Schopenhauer’s system of thought. Refuge-metaphors describe a person’s need to escape from the turmoil of a chaotic world. Schopenhauer’s philosophy claims that the world is a place of pain and suffering, caused mainly because of the evil nature of the individual, who seeks refuge in a variety of ways. Oskar destroys the light bulbs with his scream, because the adults try to take away his drum during his third birthday party, plunging the room with the adults in darkness.

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Anna returns from fetching candles, and scolds the adults for their shameful misbehavior while the room is in darkness. Oskar seeks refuge under the table from all the turmoil, which he himself caused: “Ich fühlte mich wohl unter der Tischplatte, im Windschatten des herabhängenden Tischtuches” (54). Oskar seems to be aboard a boat at sea, and the tablecloth is seen as the sail. In order to escape the trouble he has caused, he seeks protection under the table on the side or direction away from the wind. Oskar seeks refuge in a clothes closet away from the maddening noise of the carpetbeating coming from the courtyard: Bald darauf hörte ich vom Hof her jenes gleichmäßige Teppichklopfen...das mir nachkam, dem ich endlich im Kleiderschrank unseres Schlafzimmers hockend entging, weil die dort hängenden Wintermäntel den ärgsten Teil jener vorösterlichen Geräusche abfingen.... Wie gut, daß es den Schrank gab und schwere kaum atmende Stoffe, die mir erlaubten, fast alle Gedanken zusammenzunehmen, zu bündeln (124–125).

Communication-metaphors are placed under the Human Life designation. Knowledge is subservient to the Will, according to Schopenhauer and the individual’s intellect enables him to discover efficient ways to satisfy his human needs and to gain knowledge of himself. The communicationmetaphors inform Oskar about his life. He speaks of the communicative significance of the welts on Herbert Truczinski’s back and of his drum: Die ersten Berührungen jener Wülste auf dem weiten Rücken des Freundes verhießen mir schon damals Bekanntschaft und zeitweiligen Besitz jener Verhärtungen, die zur Liebe bereite Frauen kurzfristig an sich haben. Gleichfalls versprachen mir die Zeichen auf Herberts Rücken zu jenem frühen Zeitpunkt schon den Ringfinger, und bevor mir Herberts Narben Versprechungenen machten, waren es die Trommelstöcke, die mir vom dritten Geburtstag an die Narben, Fortpflanzungsorgane und endlich den Ringfinger versprachen (144).

Oskar learns of the promise of future experiences from the scars on Herbert’s back and from his drum. This highlights the manner in which Oskar learns, through the senses, and in this instance, the senses of touch and hearing. The tensive symbol drum signifies communication. In the Synopsis, the word drum fits under Class V: Sensation, in the subentry Hearing. In the context of the narrative, the function of Oskar’s drumming consists of “drumbeating,” of declaiming, proclaiming, shouting out. The word drumbeating is found under Class VI: Intellect, in the subentry Communication of Ideas. Oskar learns about his history through the sounds of his drum. If it were not for Oskar’s drum, he would never be able to relate the experiences of his grandparents: “Hätte ich nicht meine Trommel, der beim geschickt und geduldigem Gebrauch alles einfällt was an Nebensächlichkeiten nötig ist um die Hauptsache aufs Papier bringen zu

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können...wäre ich ein armer Mensch ohne nachweisliche Großeltern” (17). His drum then continues to narrate Joseph and Anna’s story. Oskar’s constant drumming has reduced the drum to scrap metal. Hoping that the janitor at the post office might repair it, he waits for Jan outside the Polish settlement for his help: “Ohne erst lange erklären zu müssen, wollte ich mit großem Schlag und Aufschrei des Bleches meine hoffnungslose Lage deutlich machen” (175). Oskar’s drum has only one purpose: “Mein Blech verlangt immer dasselbe Holz. Es will schlagend Antworten geben oder unterm Wirbel zwanglos plaudernd Frage und Antwort offenlassen” (230). When Oskar first becomes acquainted with the Dusters gang, he destroys the windows of a building with his scream, in order to show them, he is “Jesus.” At the same time, the air raid sirens sound, as if supporting Oskar’s claim. “Oskar sagte ‘Jesus’, atmete wieder ein, und nacheinander bestätigten mich die Sirenen...bis alle Sirenen langatmig...die von mir verkündete Botschaft aufnahmen” (303). The tensive symbol Fotoalbum signifies communication and is placed in the Human Life grouping. The photos of family members and friends inform Oskar about his personal history. Powerlessness-metaphors, also grouped under Human Life, reflect Schopenhauer’s claim that people believe they act freely, and they may even experience periods of respite from the suffering and chaos in the world. But they gradually learn from experience, that happiness is only temporary. Their striving is useless because they cannot escape or change their evil nature and urges. Oskar is powerless in controlling his male organ. In the mental hospital, he reflects upon his first sexual encounter, the loss of innocence which neither he nor Maria wanted, but which occurred during the fizzpowder episode: Maria, “die allenfalls Brausepulver, doch den nicht wollte,” Oskar’s “third drum stick,” “den ja auch ich nicht wollte, der sich selbstständig gemacht hatte.” Oskar wonders who is really in control: he or “the little gentlemen down there,” because when Maria visits him in the hospital, Oskar is impotent: Und ich wußte nicht mehr; bin ich das, der da trommelt?.... Hatte der Herr da unten seinen eigenen Kopf, eigenen Willen? Zeugten Oskar, er oder ich? [D]enn wenn heute Maria mein Zimmer betritt und Bruno diskret auf den Gang hinaus ausweicht, erkennt er Maria nicht wieder, will nicht, kann nicht (229).

Oskar recognizes his helplessness and his lack of control. By using the word siezen, the polite form of address in the many sentence metaphors, the feeling of distance and subordination is created. One is reminded of the scene with Oskar and Maria in the bathhouse, where Oskar is seized with feelings of shame and rage because he experi-

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ences “diesen Erdgeruch, den Maria hinter der Vanille verbarg, mir den modernden Jan Bronski auf die Stirn nagelte und mich für alle Zeiten mit dem Geschmack der Vergänglichkeit verseuchte” (220). Oskar’s experiences reveal his nature. He learns to his utter shock and dismay that he, like Jan and Agnes, is repeating and is guilty of the same kind of “love” that he hates and he calls, “Knäuelliebe und [Oskar] haßte diese Liebe, bevor er sie als Liebe exerzierte und als einzig wahre und mögliche Liebe sich selbst gegenüber verteidigen mußte” (228). Oskar is powerless within his family as well. He recognizes himself as an outsider within his own family, and he realizes his helplessness. Matzerath has asked Maria, who is pregnant, to marry him. But Oskar believes that he, himself, is the one who fathered the child, and that it is he, therefore, and not Matzerath, who deserves all the attention that goes along with it: Wenn ich mir aber bestätigte: dieser Matzerath ist...der, dir nun vor allen Leuten die allerbeste Frau weggeschnappt, dich zum Zeugen einer Hochzeit, fünf Monate später einer Kindstaufe macht, zum Gast zweier Familienfeste also, die zu veranstalten viel mehr dir zukäme, denn du hättest Maria zum Standesamt führen sollen, an dir wäre es gewesen, die Taufpaten zu bestimmen, wenn ich mir also die Hauptrollen dieser Tragödie ansah und bemerken mußte, daß die Aufführung des Stückes unter einer falschen Besetzung der Hauptrollen litt, verzweifelte ich am Theater: denn Oskar, dem wahren Charakterdarsteller, hatte man eine Statistenrolle eingeräumt, die genauso gut hätte gestrichen werden können (235).

Oskar sees the situation of his family as that of a theatrical tragedy, a play in which he has been miscast. He feels that he is the one who should be playing the main character, and not the role of the “extra,” which could very well have been edited out. When Kurt celebrates his third birthday, Oskar proudly presents him with a drum. But when Kurt beats him mercilessly with a whip, Oskar feels despair and helplessness because he becomes fully aware that he has failed in his desire to father a son, who would help him propagate a dynasty of drummers. Without his drum, Oskar realizes that he is helpless and vulnerable, because his drum informs him about his history and his experiences: “[D]enn ohne meine Trommel bin ich immer der Bloßgestellte” (230). Oskar’s feelings of helplessness highlight Schopenhauer’s concept of the human person’s incessant and futile struggle for self-preservation and propagation. Matzerath is presented with forms he must complete in order to have Oskar committed to an institution. Maria notices no improvement in Oskar realizing his helplessness: “Aber siehst ja: is nich jeworden, wird überall nur rumjestoßen und weiß nich zu leben und weiß nich zu sterben!’” (299).

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Matzerath, commenting that the deceased Agnes never would have allowed it, refuses to sign the forms. Oskar feels powerless nevertheless: “Es hatte mich also alle Welt verlassen, und nur der Schatten meiner armen Mama...verhinderte mehrmals, daß ich, der Verlassene, diese Welt verließ” (299). Feeling forsaken, Oskar unleashes his rage and reaffirms his existence with the help of his scream: [M]ir jedoch war Oskar’s Stimme über der Trommel ein ewig frischer Beweis meiner Existenz; denn solange ich Glas zersang, existierte ich, solange mein gezielter Atem dem Glas den Atem nahm, war in mir noch Leben. Oskar sang damals viel....Ich nahm mir...eine...luftschutzgerecht glimmende Straßenlaterne...Die Bahnhofstraße lief ich, jede dritte Laterne killend...kühlte jedoch mein Mütchen an einer mir aus Richtung Oliva engegenkommenden, fast leeren Straßenbahn.... Oskar suchte nach einem Nachtisch für seine Wut, nach einem Leckerbissen in jener an Leckerbissen so armen Zeit (299).

In his rage, his scream destroys windows and glass unceasingly. He is like a person who is still not sated after having consumed a huge meal and expects dessert.

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IX

From Selfish Love to Death


In this chapter, the study continues classifying the themes and tensive symbols expressed by Grass’ metaphors according to tenets of Schopenhauer’s philosophy. It concludes the second level of interpretation.

Selfish Love Satiation-metaphors belong in this grouping. The aspects of food and sexuality are combined in many metaphors. According to Schopenhauer, the subject experiences the cycle of desire: distress, desire, satiation, boredom, distress, in his endless quest to satisfy his sexual needs. This demonstrates also the circularity of life, of eternal recurrence of the same situation. Oskar is a tenant in Zeidler’s rooming house. He demonstrates the cycle of desire as he leaves his room and passes Herr Münzer’s door in the corridor on the way to the art studio. Oskar is obsessed with his longing for Nurse Dorothea, and his need for friendship in the person of the slovenly Münzer, whom Oskar calls Klepp, another boarder in the rooming house whom he has not yet met: Als Oskar unbeherrschten Schrittes sein Zimmer verließ, auf den Korridor trat, umständlich und laut die Wohnungstür öffnete, lauschte ich einen Augenblick lang zur Tür des Herrn Münzer hin. Er hustete nicht, und ich verließ beschämt, empört, befriedigt und hungrig, voller Überdruß und Lebenshunger, hier und da lächelnd, an anderen Orten dem Weinen nahe, die Wohnung und schließlich das Haus in der Jülicher Straße (415).

Oskar and Klepp become good friends and discuss many topics, including the source of all the suffering in the world:

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Klepp witterte hinter jedem Leid dieser Welt eine wölfischen Hunger, und so glaubte er auch, jedes Leid mit einer Portion Blutwurst kurieren zu können. Oskar aß in jener Zeit sehr viel frische Blutwurst mit Zwiebelringen und trank Bier dazu, damit sein Freund Klepp glaubte, Oskars Leid heiße Hunger und nicht Schwester Dorothea (425).

Klepp identifies the source of life’s sufferings: an insatiable hunger. It is a need which he, himself constantly tries to satisfy by much eating and drinking. Though Oskar plays along with his friend’s needs, he recognizes that the origin of his own primary hunger is for sexual satisfaction and not food and drink, and at this particular time, in his attraction toward nurse Dorothea: “Die Hälfte meiner Gedanken waren immer bei ihr” (425). Oskar and Klepp’s conversation contains the two main concepts of Schopenhauer’s notion of the human person’s incessant struggle for selfpreservation: nourishment and propagation. The striving to fulfill these basic human needs is also evident in the rooms in the Matzerath house, because they correspond symbolically to personal characteristics of certain figures. Matzerath is “ein passionierter Koch, [weil er] Gefühle in Suppen zu wandeln verstand” (32). In the novel, the kitchen is called, “Matzeraths Küche”; the bedroom is the corresponding room for Jan and Agnes: “Küche und Schlafzimmer als symbolische Räume erfassen die individuellen Züge der Personen und beweisen, daß sie auf die vitalen Bedürfnisse reduziert sind” (Cepl-Kaufmann, Analyse 84–85). With the framework of Schopenhauer’s philosophy in mind, the satiation-metaphors could also be considered refuge-metaphors since the individual seeks refuge by satisfying his sexual needs. Bed, four skirts, Skat, closet and table are tensive symbols signifying Refuge. As Oskar looks at pictures in his album, he carefully notes every nuance of the figures in the photos. He recognizes the cycle of satiation and boredom and the sexual relationship between Jan and Agnes. Matzerath’s role in the triangular relationship is the cook in the kitchen: Schon längere Zeit betrachte ich eine Gruppe, die kurz nach der Hochzeit aufgenommen wurde. Ich muß zur Trommel greifen und mit meinen Stöcken vor dem matten, bräunlichen Viereck versuchen, das auf dem Karton erkennbare Dreigestirn auf gelacktem Blech zu beschwören. Auf keinen dieser Bilder wird das Unabänderliche, die letztmögliche Lösung so deutlich wie auf dem Balkonbild. Jan und Mama auf einer Platte; da riecht es nach Tragik, Goldgräberei und Verstiegenheit, die zum Überdruß wird, Überdruß der Verstiegenheit mit sich führt. Matzerath neben Mama: da tröpfelt Wochenendpotenz, da brutzeln die Wiener Schnitzel.... Dennoch ziehe ich diese fotografierte Langeweile dem anstößigen Schnappschuß späterer Jahre vor, der Mama auf dem Schoß des Jan Bronski...zeigt. Erfaßt diese Unfläterei—Jan läßt eine Hand unter Mamas Kleid verschwinden—doch nur die blindwütige Leidenschaft

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des unglücklichen, vom ersten Tage der Matzerath-Ehe an ehebrecherischen Paares, dem hier, wie ich vermute, Matzerath den abgestumpften Fotografen lieferte (42–43).

Jan and Agnes’ relationship develops into weekly meetings in a hotel room in the city followed by coffee and cake at a nearby café, while Marcus, the toyshop owner, takes care of Oskar. Jan and Agnes’ sexual appetite, their self-indulgence, is likened to their gluttonous appetite for eating cake. Marcus is seen as the one who longs for leftovers from their relationship, just as a dog waits under the table for the scraps. But Jan and Agnes leave no leftovers: So blieb ich...beim Sigismund Markus, durfte...dem Markus ins traurige Hundegesicht blicken. Wenn ich auch nicht wußte, wo seine Gedanken herkamen, ahnte ich, wo sie hingingen, daß sie in der Tischlergasse weilten, dort an numerierten Zimmertüren schabten oder sie hockten gleich dem armen Lazarus unter dem Marmortischchen des Cafe Weitzke, worauf wartend? Auf Krümel? Mama und Jan Bronski ließen kein Krümelchen übrig. Die aßen alles selbst auf. Die hatten den großen Appetit, der nie aufhört, der sich selbst in den Schwanz beißt (80).

Jan’s passion for Agnes causes him to succumb to Oskar’s temptations: Oskar cuts a hole in the shopwindow of a jewelry store with his scream and Jan, “[d]er Zierliche...in der Liebe ehrgeizige, der gleichviel dumme und schönheitsversessene Jan Bronski, Jan, der vom Fleisch meiner Mama lebte ,” steals a ruby necklace (106). Jan’s sexual appetite is seen as gluttonous, compared to eating. As Herbert has secured a job as security guard at the Maritime Museum, he becomes obsessed with Niobe, the notorious nautical figurehead on display. Grass reuses the legend of Niobe, a favorite theme in literature and art throughout the ages. In addition to being seen as “a purveyor of death,” she acquires a sexual connotation in Grass’ interpretation: “Ein üppig hölzernes, grün nacktes Weib, das unter erhobenen Armen, die sich lässig und alle Finger zeigend verschränken, über zielstrebigen Brüsten hinweg aus eingelassenen Bernsteinaugen geradeaussah. Dieses Weib, die Galionsfigur brachte Unglück” (151). Niobe is called “(das) sündhaft(e) Weib”; “De griehne Marjell”; “die mannstolle Person” (153). Oskar and Herbert quietly pass an afternoon in the museum under Niobe’s gaze: “Niobe sah mit Bernsteinaugen vor sich hin und strebte doppelbrüstig einem Ziel entgegen, das nicht unser Ziel war. Wir kümmerten uns kaum um sie. ‘Is sowieso nich mein Typ,’ winkte Herbert ab” (154). But Herbert dies later that day during a frenzy of lust trying to attack Niobe. In the bathhouse scene with Maria, Oskar is confronted with his loss of innocence and his human nature. He recognizes his mortality, his

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humanity and he sees Maria differently, painfully recognizing the sexuality underlying her innocence and he is reminded of Jan: Und nun erkannte ich sie sofort. Wut, Scham, Empörung, Enttäuschung und eine halb komisch, halb schmerzhaft beginnende Versteifung meines Gießkännchens unter dem Badeanzug, ließen mich Trommel und beide Trommelstöcke um des einen, mir neu gewachsenen Stockes willen vergessen. Erst...als mir die Vanille Tränen in die Augen preßte...als dieser Erdgeruch, den Maria hinter der Vanille verbarg, mir den modernden Jan Bronski auf die Stirn nagelte und mich für alle Zeiten mit dem Geschmack der Vergänglichkeit verseuchte, da ließ ich los. (220).

By reflecting upon Jan, Oskar recognizes in himself the recurrence of the same erotic love between Jan and Agnes, selfish and insatiable, the love referred to by Schopenhauer as Eros. Oskar later realizes that he himself becomes a slave to erotic love, Knäuelliebe that he hates: Obgleich ich wußte, dieses abwechselnd aus Mama und Jan oder Matzerath und Mama bestehende...Knäuel bedeutet Liebe, wollte Oskar dennoch nicht glauben, daß Liebe Liebe war, und suchte aus Liebe andere Liebe und kam doch immer wieder auf die Knäuelliebe und haßte diese Liebe, bevor er sie als Liebe exerzierte und als einzig wahre und mögliche Liebe sich selbst gegenüber verteidigen mußte (228).

Rejected by Maria, Oskar turns to Lina Greff, reaching his manhood while exercising this type of “love”: he refers to his maneuvers “im Greffschen Schlamm,” and calls her, “das Greffsche Naturereignis.” Oskar refers to the “Übungsgelände der Lina Greff”; he compares his sexual progess in artistic terms, advancing from Maria’s naive Mundharmonika to Lina, who offers him an “orchestra” more complex than any to be found at Bayreuth or Salzburg: “Oskar holte das Letzte aus der Greffschen heraus und blieb dennoch unzufrieden, wenn nicht unbefriedigt, wie es sich für einen echten Künstler gehört” (251). The situation Oskar describes clearly illustrates the aspect of satiation in Schopenhauer’s concept of the cycle of eternal recurrence: having had his needs satiated, however, the subject experiences again the feeling of distress. The tensive symbols signifying Eros are: Oskar, eels, triangle, fox, fiber rug, and especially Oskar’s male organ, referred to also as Gießkännchen, der dritte Trommelstock, and der elfte Finger. This tensive symbol could also signify powerlessness and be classified as a symbol personal to Grass, because he used it previously in his 1956 poem entitled “Der elfte Finger.”

Egoism Egoism refers to people unable to see themselves in others. Selfish, willful people are the source of all the pain and suffering in the world. They

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treat fellow human beings cruelly for the most part, seeking only personal gain, according to Schopenhauer. Oskar’s deeds reflect this concept. Oskar not only intentionally disrupts Party gatherings from under tribunals with his drum, he tempts people to steal by cutting holes in shop windows with his scream. In fact, his goal is to disrupt and destroy: “Mein Werk war also ein zerstörerisches. Und was ich mit der Trommel nicht klein bekam, das tötete ich mit meiner Stimme. So begann ich...mit nächtlicher Tätigkeit:...[ich] spielte den Versucher” (100). Oskar further describes the power of his destructive nature: Although Jan Bronski desperately wants to escape, Oskar entices him to the Polish Post Office so that Kobyella could repair his battered drum. But they become trapped amid the battle. After everyone in the post office is ordered out by the Home Guards, Oskar betrays Jan by enlisting the help of several Home Guards in order to save himself and to protect his drums. He claims that Jan forced him into the post office and in typical Polish fashion, used him as a shield: Oskar versprach sich einiges für seine heile und seine zerstörte Trommel von diesem Judasschauspiel und sollte Recht behalten: die Heimwehrleute traten Jan ins Kreuz, stießen ihn mit den Gewehrkolben, ließen mir jedoch beide Trommeln, und einer, ein schon älterer Heimwehrmann mit grämlichen Familienvatersorgenfalten neben Nase und Mund, tätschelte meine Wangen (201).

Jan is executed along with the others who defend the post office. As Maria’s pregnancy progresses, Oskar is unable to bear the terrible hatred and pain he feels because the child will not be acknowledged as his. After trying to abort the baby by causing Maria to fall from a ladder, he tries to kill the fetus with scissors: “[I]ch sah nur noch den Bauch...kannte nur einen Wunsch: er muß weg, der Bauch.... So ging ich hin zum Bauch und nahm etwas mit beim Hingehen. Du solltest da ein bißchen Luft machen, das ist eine üble Blähung” (245). Just as Oskar tries to strike with the scissors, Maria grabs them out of his hand. Oskar must suffer because of his malicious act: he is banished from the apartment and must stay with Mother Truczinski in her apartment. He no longer visits in the Matzerath’s store, apartment or even the courtyard of the apartment building. Despite Oskar’s futile attempts to interfere, Kurt is born. Oskar’s scream is a tensive symbol signifying protest, anger and malicious destruction; its connotation progresses in intensity and seriousness from a scream of protest, provoked by the attempts of adults to take away his drum, to a scream of rage, because of his feelings of vulnerability and helplessness, to a scream of temptation, as he entices passersby to steal from shops, and finally to a scream causing criminal acts. Oskar calls himself

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“Jesus,” and his scream is now a weapon of destruction, as leader of the Dusters gang: Meiner Natur entsprechend hielt Oskar sich während der Aktionen im Hintergrund. Tagsüber suchte ich zumeist alleine, und wenn, dann nur von Störtebeker begleitet, ein lohnendes Ziel für das nächtliche Unternehmen, überließ dann Störtebeker oder Moorkähne die Organisation und zersang—jetzt nenne ich sie, die Wunderwaffe fernwirkender als je zuvor, ohne die Wohnung der Mutter Truczinski zu verlassen, zu später Stunde vom Schlafzimmerfenster aus die Paterrefenster mehrerer Parteidienststellen, das Hoffenster einer Druckerei, in der Lebensmittelkarten gedruckt wurden, und einmal auf Wunsch und widerstrebend, die Küchenfenster zur Privatwohnung eines Studienrates, an dem die Burschen sich rächen wollten (307).

Oskar knows that as he sleeps, gang members have gained entry into offices. Because of his destructive scream, they are stealing from Party treasuries, and taking food cards, other printed forms, and important Party information. At the end of Book II, Oskar flings his drum and himself into Matzerath’s grave, decides to grow and give life a chance as an adult. His scream loses its destructive power and he leaves his drum behind. He flees to the West with Maria and Kurt where he continues to grow and develops a hump in the process. This hump is a tensive symbol signifying guilt. His guilt is visible because he carries it around with him. The topic of guilt comes to the forefront and is discussed literally and often in Book III; Oskar admits his own guilt several times: “Raskolnikov” is the nickname of one of the artists Oskar encounters; he is considering how to pose Ulla and Oskar. Oskar recommends that he, Oskar, represent guilt since his own guilt is manifest and apparent: “Ein Wörtchen von mir entzündete die Phantasie Raskolnikoffs. Er brütete duster...wusch seine Pinsel aus, sprach...von Schuld und Sühne, da riet ich ihm, in mir die Schuld, in Ulla die Sühne zu sehen; meine Schuld sei offensichtlich . . .” (405). Raskolnikov is also the name of a figure in Feodor Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment; he is guilty of murder, and he fabricates motives for his crime as his conscience begins to have an effect on him. The students give the artist the nickname, “weil er ständig von Schuld und Sühne sprach” (391). Oskar discovers that Bebra is the owner of the concert agency that has hired him. Bebra holds Oskar accountable for the “murders” of Roswitha, Oskar’s mother, Jan and Matzerath. Oskar tearfully confesses to all of these deaths and asks for mercy: “Ich war es, Meister Bebra. Das tat ich, und das tat ich auch, diesen Tod verursachte ich, selbst an jenem Tod bin ich nicht unschuldig–Erbarmen!” (461).

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Progress The idea of progress occurring in any form is absurd. According to Schopenhauer, in history as well as in human life, the same events reappear in the shape and guise of other personages and places. In the course of history, systems of thought, reappearing in different forms, are misinterpreted and selfishly exploited, causing war, pain and suffering. Ideology-metaphors and the tensive symbol uniforms belong under the designation Progress. In an interview with Manfred Durzak, Grass asserts that Hegel’s concept of history is senseless and absurd, a form of superstition, stating: Die Ermordung von 5 Millionen Kulaken war an sich ein Verbrechen, aber gemessen am notwendigen politischen Prozeß, sagte man dann, war es wohl notwendig, das zu tun. Die Geschichte sanktioniert alles mögliche, wenn man ihr einen Sinn dieser Art unterlegt (14).

Grass’ anti-ideological position is well known. He learned to live without an ideology as a nineteen year old: “Noch hatte ich die Morgenfeiern der Hitlerjugend im Ohr, diese allsonntäglichen Vereidigungen auf die Fahne...und schon lockten die Kommunisten mit ähnlich verstaubten Requisiten aus den Rumpelkammern ihrer Ideologie” (Neuhaus, Wa 10 441). Ideology-metaphors can express either rejection of, or conformity to a system of thought. The tensive symbol uniforms illustrates conformity to an ideology, depicting the theme, the eternal recurrence of war. The colors of the uniforms reflect the current ideology accordingly, and change throughout the narrative; at first, the uniforms depict the local constabulary during times of peace, and then the uniforms represent soldiers of war. There will always be uniforms, only the colors change. One is reminded of Schopenhauer’s comment regarding history: history always repeats the same story “under different names and in a different dress” (III 227). Oskar narrates that Joseph Koljaiczek knows he is under surveillance for his misdeeds, but he finally escapes in the harbor “[e]rst als mein Großvater den Holzhaufen voller blau Uniformierter sah” (25). Gregor Koljaiczek, Joseph’s brother, marries Anna a year after Joseph disappears under the rafts. He finds work in a gunpowder factory, which exempts him from peacetime and then later from wartime military service:”Die Arbeit...bewahrte Gregor vor dem bunten und bald darauf grauen Rock” (30). The colors of the military uniforms are now brown. Oskar describes the scene of a Nazi Party rally. Löbsack, a skilled speaker, is a Party official, who

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presides over the rallies in the Maiwiese: “Hatte er es mit bierernsten Kommunisten und den lahmen Zwischenrufen einiger Sozis zu tun, war es eine Wonne, dem kleinen Mann, dessen Buckel durch das Uniformbraun besonders betont und gehoben wurde, zuzuhören” (94). Oskar has caused chaos at the rally by drumming dance music. Löbsack leads a train of party officials dressed in their brown uniforms in an attempt to restore order: “Nur dem Löbsack, der mit Kreisleitern und Sturmbannführern, mit Forster, Greiser und Rauschning, der mit einem langen braunen Führungsstabschwanz mitten in der Menge kochte...lag erstaunlicherweise der Walzertakt nicht” (97). Oskar is able to perplex the shrewd Löbsack on several occasions at other rallies by drumming under rostrums and causing chaos. Oskar relates that it was not just Nazi party rallies he detested, but rallies of any ideology. Oskar asks the reader not to picture him as a resistance fighter, but rather “in mir nichts anderes als einen etwas eigenbrötlerischen Menschen zu sehen...der...Farbe und Schnitt der Uniformen...ablehnte”: Wir wollen noch einmal einen Blick unter Oskars Tribünen werfen. Hat Oskar denen was vorgetrommelt?.... Hat er dem so schlagfertigen und mit allen Wassern gewaschenen Gauschulungsleiter Löbsack das Konzept vermasselt? Hat er an einem Eintopfsonntag im August des Jahres fünfunddreißig zum erstenmal und später noch einige Male bräunliche Kundgebungen auf einer zwar weißroten, dennoch nicht polnischen Blechtrommel wirbelnd aufgelöst? Ich trommelte nicht nur gegen braune Versammlungen. Oskar saß den Roten und den Schwarzen, den Pfadfindern und Spinathemden von der PX, den Zeugen Jehovas und dem Kyffhäuserbund, den Vegetariern und den Jungpolen von der Ozonbewegung unter der Tribüne (100).

Ideologies, religions and scout groups, organizations of any sort, are included in this paragraph and Oskar clearly rejects them all. He certainly tried, with his drumming, to confuse Löbsack’s beliefs in idealogies. The “Spinathemden von der PX” refers to a Catholic youth group; PX stands for the Chi Rho symbol for Christ. Later, Oskar joins Bebra’s theater and they travel to Paris, the city of light, entertaining the German occupation troups. With his scream, Oskar shatters costly historical glass articles to the delight of the Kommandatur, clad in grey, wartime uniforms: Wenn auch die feldgraue Masse im Parkett und auf den Rängen dem historischen Ablauf meiner Darbietungen nicht folgen konnte und die Scherben nur als gewöhnliche Scherben beklatschte, gab es dann und wann doch Stabsoffiziere und Journalisten aus dem Reich, die außer den Scherben auch meinen Sinn fürs Historische bewunderten (271).

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Oskar’s voice destroys costly, valuable objets d’art from various historical periods signifying the parades of war and destruction throughout history. The officers, however, do not comprehend the significance. Oskar is unable to recognize former neighbors and friends among a large group of field-grey uniformed soldiers; all the men look alike: “Oskar glaubte auch ein- oder zweimal in einer Horde Infanteristen Marias flotten Bruder erkannt zu haben; aber er war es nicht: Feldgrau täuscht!” (271). Oskar thinks he recognizes Maria’s brother in the group, but he is misled, just as an ideology, signified by the uniforms, midleads those who believe. The description of the uniforms has now advanced to those of the Russian soldiers occupying the cellar in the rooming house. There is no color in these descriptions; instead, the Russian soldiers are seen as huge, wooden, rectangular crates, which quickly set about raping and pillaging: Da sich sogleich drei der viereckigen Uniformen für die Greff erwärmten, kam etwas Bewegung in die starre Gesellschaft. Die Greffsche, die solch zügigen Andrang nach so langer Witwenschaft und vorhergehender Fastenzeit kaum erwartet hatte, schrie anfangs noch vor Überraschung, fand sich dann aber schnell in jene, ihr fast in Vergessenheit geratene Lage (324).

The Russian soldier is referred to as “ein kastenförmiger, großporiger Russe” (335). The notion of the eternal recurrence of war reaches a climax in the cruelty and brutality of the Russian soldier. At Kurt’s baptismal party, the adults are seated at the table eating soup. They are seen as thoughtlessly and blindly allowing themselves to be spoon-fed a system of thought: Die vom Lande schlürften...während Oskar sozusagen aus dem Löffel fiel, sich davonmachte, während die noch löffelten, und im Schlafzimmer die Wiege seines Sohnes suchte, denn er wollte über seinen Sohn nachdenken, während die anderen hinter den Löffeln immer gedankenloser und leergelöffelter schrumpften, wenn sie auch die Löffelsuppe in sich hineinschütteten (248).

Metaphors focusing on the Catholic religion and/or the church demonstrate again and again the rejection of any system of thought that becomes an ideology. From the time of his baptism, Oskar solidly rejects the teachings of the Catholic Church and although he exhibits an intimate familiarity with the prayers of the Mass service, the gestures of the rite of Baptism, the procedure of confession and other religious observances, aspects of the Catholic Church and beliefs are treated disdainfully. This reflects Grass’ opinion that the Catholic Church shares in the guilt for the monumental crimes of the era. In a 1982 interview with Robert Stauffer, he states:

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From Selfish Love to Death Wie konnte es zu diesen Verbrechen kommen? Wo waren die Gegenkräfte? Hat es überhaupt Gegenkräfte gegeben? Und da taucht dann wieder die Kirche auf–und das Versagen der Kirche. Es ist einmal das Versagen der Kirche und das im Grunde bis heute nicht verstandene Eingeständnis dieses Versagens, das mein Verhältnis insbesondere zur katholischen Kirche geprägt hat (Neuhaus, Wa X 299).

In his essay “What Shall We Tell Our Children,” Grass expresses his strong feelings regarding what he calls the “cowardice” of the Catholic and Protestant churches in Germany because of their “passive acceptance” of the Nazi atrocities. They have “forfeited their claim to ethical leadership,” he states, and they are “more responsible than the criminal in the spotlight, be his name Kaduk or Eichman” (On Writing 89). Grass’ metaphors precisely reflect these feelings. In the following quote, Oskar expresses gratitude to Satan for his support during his Baptism, which Oskar rejects; he feels it tainted him: “Dieses Wörtchen ‘gebenedeit’ hatte mich zeitweise...so versüßt und vergiftet, daß ich dem Satan dankte, weil er in mir die Taufe überstanden hatte und mir ein Gegengift lieferte, das mich lästernd aber doch aufrecht über die Fliesen der Herz-Jesu-Kirche schreiten ließ” (111). Oskar attends church sometimes without Maria mainly because he has nothing better to do. During such a visit in August, he sees the frigid interior of the cathedral in terms of religious beliefs, comparing it to “de[m] grabeskalten Katholizismus” (298). Reference is made on several occasions to the claim that eternal salvation is granted to Catholic believers alone: as Fräulein Spollenhauer announces the class schedule and refers to Religion class, Oskar replies, “der Religion widmete ich...drei dreieinige, alleinseligmachende Trommelschläge” (64). The focus in the chapter, “Glaube Hoffnung Liebe,” is the distrust of any belief. The church is referred to as “die alleinseligmachende Gasanstalt” (164) and is associated with the annihilation of the Jews in the gas chambers and the participation of the followers of the Catholic Church (164). Although the style of the Herz-Jesu Catholic church is Neo-Gothic, all confess their sins in the same manner, no matter how old or new the church: Gebeichtet wurde in alten und neueren Kirchen auf dieselbe Weise. Genau wie Hochwürden Wiehnke hielten hundert andere Hochwürden am Sonnabend nach Büro- und Geschäftsschluß das haarige Priesterohr im Beichtstuhl sitzend gegen ein blankes, schwärzliches Gitter, und die Gemeinde versuchte, durch die

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Drahtmaschen hindurch jene Sündenschnur dem Priesterohr einzufädeln, an welcher sich Perle um Perle sündhaft billiger Schmuck reihte (110).

According to Schopenhauer, all the prayers in the world cannot change an individual’s nature. Oskar’s mother confesses the same sins every week, but nothing changes. Oskar describes irreverently and disdainfully the three different statues depicting Jesus: “Diese naiv selbst bewußten, blauen Schwärmeraugen! Dieser blühende, immer zum Weinen bereite Kußmund!.... Es hatten beide jenes die Frauen zum Streicheln verführende Ohrfeigengesicht...(111–12). Eternal Recurrence-metaphors express the circular aspect of life. The history of war on Polish soil is expressed frequently throughout the novel. Battle is seen as a painting, portraying Uhlans and hussars on horseback, engaged in valiant battle; the horses will soon be replaced by the tanks, which appear in the dreams of those lying asleep in the cottages, bordering the fields (21). Amid the turmoil in the post office, Oskar is irate because of Poland’s involvement in war. Polish soldiers are deceived into believing that the deadly field howitzers are really ladies, whom the soldiers foolishly and gallantly court: “[W]as ging mich Polen an! Was war das, Polen? Die hatten doch ihre Kavallerie! Sollten sie reiten! Die küßten den Damen die Hände und merkten immer zu spät, daß sie...einer Feldhaubitze ungeschminkte Mündung geküßt hatten” (189). The recurrence of war, the cycle of battle, of repeated bombardment, chaos and stillness, is described throughout the chapter on the defense of the Polish post office. Oskar is concerned that his drum will be soiled with the blood of a wounded postal clerk, and not about Poland: Was hatte meine Trommel mit dem Blute Polens gemeinsam?.... Mochten sie doch ihre Taschentücher, weißen gestärkten Hemden zur gutpolnischen Hälfte röten! Schließlich ging es um Polen und nicht um meine Trommel! Wenn es ihnen schon darauf ankam, daß Polen, wenn verloren, dann weißrot verloren gehe...(183).

In this paragraph, the metaphor refers to Grass’ notion that for him, Poland is a “lost homeland.” In a 1975 interview with Ekkehart Rudolph, Grass is asked the reason for choosing Danzig as the scene for many of his novels. After listing several political and historical reasons, he adds: “Ein weiterer Grund...mag wohl darin liegen, daß ich diese Stadt verloren habe.” And when asked where his hometown is, Grass responds, “Meine Heimat ist Danzig” (Neuhaus, Wa X 180). The motif of eternal recurrence is significant throughout the entire novel, especially in satisfying one’s sexual needs, the circular process of desire, satiation, boredom and desire. Oskar sees in himself the same unwanted

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characteristics of erotic love he witnessed in Jan and Agnes’ relationship; Agnes returns week after week to confess the same sin in the confessional. The history of war in Danzig shows the same pattern of recurrence. The basic structure of the novel is that of the circle and the circle, which is an archetypal tensive symbol, symbolizes much of the motion referred to in the entire novel. The Economic Miracle-metaphors express the busy occupation of the people during the post-war reconstruction. This is seen as a cover-up and a diversion from confronting and accepting responsibility for the atrocities of the war era: Oskar is discharged from the hospital and finds Maria and Kurt participating in the postwar economic growth. They are busily engaged selling honey and flints on the Black Market: “Heute, da ich das hinter mir habe und weiß, daß ein Nachkriegsrausch eben doch nur ein Rausch ist und einen Kater mit sich führt, der unaufhörlich miauend heute schon alles zur Historie erklärt, was uns gestern noch frisch und blutig als Tat oder Untat von der Hand ging” (362). Oskar sees the economic recovery as a period of unrestrained self-indulgence, a binge, followed by a hangover. It allows the misdeeds of wartime quickly to be clouded and forgotten, chalked up to history. The Economic Miracle-metaphors also reflect Grass’ opinion expressed in a 1985 speech, “Geschenkte Freiheit,” in which he denounces the fifties as a time when the German people used their preoccupation with the economic reconstruction of Germany as a mechanism to forget the atrocities of the World War II era.

Aesthetics Schopenhauer’s first level of the suppression of the will to live, the aesthetic contemplation of beauty and art, the individual’s appreciation of art is that of disinterest. There is no selfish desire and, therefore, no evil: Maria and Kurt have developed a lucrative business by selling flints and preparing packages of honey to be sold on the black market, part of the “economic miracle.” Everyone benefits from the enterprise, including Oskar, who helps with the packing. But Oskar abandons this job and decides, “meine Kunst soll anders heißen . . .”; he discovers happiness as a stonecutter, embossing and sculpting tombstones. Oskar has thrown his drum in his father’s grave, and his work as a stonecutter replaces the happiness he experienced while drumming. He takes great pleasure in the writing and the embellishing of the tombstones with artwork: [M]ein Glück wird fortan auf Grabsteine geschrieben oder zünftiger, in Grabsteine gemeißelt werden. Glück, das war zwar nicht meine Trommel, Glück war nur

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Ersatz, Glück kann aber auch ein Ersatz sein, Glück gibt es vielleicht nur ersatzweise, Glück immer Ersatz fürs Glück, das lagert sich ab: Marmorglück...Hartes Glück: Blaubank. Wolkig brüchiges Glück: Alabaster (367–68).

According to Schopenhauer’s philosophy, any kind of happiness can only be temporary. Oskar is happy working on the tombstones because he is not preoccupied with evil and selfish interests; he is not a slave to the Will, to his evil nature. But this happiness is only temporary. Oskar leaves his position working on tombstones realizing he will soon lose his job and becomes an artists’ model. During Carnival, he sees Lankes, and meets his girlfriend, Ulla; Oskar calls her “die Muse.” Lankes forces her to pose for the artists. She and Oskar are depicted in a painting called, “Madonna 49.” Oskar calls Ulla, Himmelsbewohnerin” (390). But Ulla “inspires” physical abuse from Lankes, and sexual abuse from the artist Raskolnikov. She is an anti-muse, an anti-madonna. According to Schopenhauer, the highest level of aesthetics is music. It is a remedy for the will to live. When Matzerath joins the Party, he wants a picture of Hitler to replace the picture of Beethoven, which normally hangs over the piano. Oskar’s mother insists, however, that the picture of Beethoven remain hanging over the sideboard: “So kam es zu jener finstersten aller Konfrontationen: Hitler und das Genie hingen sich gegenüber, blickten sich an, durchschauten sich und konnten dennoch aneinander nicht froh werden” (93). This “confrontation” seems to imply that the picture of Hitler signifies the evil nature of humanity whereas the picture of Beethoven represents music, the highest artistic remedy for the suppression of the will to live.

Caritas Caritas represents the second level of suppression of the will to live, or ethics. The moral person expresses compassion for others. He is able to see past the external appearance of others and he sees himself in them. Anna is the tensive symbol signifying caritas. She is the moral person who accepts responsibility for her actions. She offers Joseph refuge under her skirts from the police. After Joseph impregnates her in the potato fields, they promptly call for a priest who performs a marriage ceremony. She nurtures her grandchildren and treats them lovingly. Anna expresses indignation at the misbehavior of the adults when they are temporarily plunged into darkness by Oskar’s scream. She is genuinely and deeply concerned about her family and worries about what happened to Jan and where he is buried.

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Bruno is a tensive symbol signifying compassion. Oskar sees Bruno as a source of his peace and solitude because of the care and attention he gives Oskar. Bruno ventilates Oskar’s room after his visitors leave, he creates knotted figures depicting episodes from Oskar’s life, and he assumes the role of narrator when Oskar’s fingers are swollen. The potato is the tensive symbol for nourishment. It is a significant, ritualistic part of Anna’s life evidenced in the first chapter where she is first introduced sitting in a potato field. It also indicates her role as a nurturer and the significant role the potato plays in feeding the people (11). Anna and her brother, Vinzent, have a healthier respect for the potato than does Greff, the greengrocer. Greff places only a monetary value on vegetables. For him, a good plum harvest could make up financially for a poor potato harvest: “Weder an Kartoffeln glaubte er noch an Wirsingkohl” (239). When he speaks to his customers, Greff refers to the potato in an exaggerated, unnatural manner: “Betrachten Sie bitte diese außergewöhnliche Kartoffel.... Dieses schwellende, strotzende, immer wieder neue Formen erdenkende und dennoch so keusche Fruchtfleisch” (239). But Anna’s approach is practical and genuine because she is dependent on a good potato harvest for survival: Meine Großmutter Anna Koljaiczek, die ja zwischen Kartoffeläckern alt wurde, hat selbst während der besten Kartoffeljahre nie mehr über die Lippen gebracht als ein Sätzchen wie dieses: ‘Na dies Jahr sind de Bulven ähn beßchen greßer als vorjes Jahr.’ Dabei waren Anna Koljaiczek und ihr Bruder Vinzent Bronski viel mehr auf die Kartoffelernte angewiesen als der Gemüsehändler Greff...(239).

The scent of vanilla is a tensive symbol signifying innocence, especially in comparison with Oskar’s encounters with Lina Greff. Oskar seduces Maria with fizzpowder, however, causing them to lose the caring and unselfish interaction they first experienced. Thus, their relationship develops into a sexual interaction.

Asceticism Asceticism represents the third and highest level of Schopenhauer’s concept of the nullification of the Will-to-live, namely, self-denial. Oskar practices self-denial and indicates the significance of his hospital bed at the very beginning of his narrative. The bed is an omnipresent symbol: Mein weißlackiertes metallenes Anstaltsbett ist also ein Maßstab. Mir ist es sogar mehr: mein Bett ist das endlich erreichte Ziel, mein Trost ist es und könnte mein Glaube werden, wenn mir die Anstaltsleitung erlaubte, eine Änderungen vorzunehmen: das Bettgitter möchte ich erhöhen lassen, damit mir niemand mehr zu nahe tritt (9).

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Oskar seeks refuge and experiences peace and harmony in his bed. He has separated himself from the chaos and turmoil of the evil world by denying the Will-to-live. Oskar’s friend, Klepp, visits him weekly in the hospital and has adapted to living in the world. He has abandoned his bed and is now a jazz musician, and an enthusiastic member of the Communist party. He urges Oskar to leave his bed and the hospital: Daß es auch mir so ergehe, sei mein Bett vor, aus dem mich der Bursche mit lebenswarmen Versprechungen locken will. Eingaben über Eingaben macht er beim Gericht, arbeitet Hand in Hand mit meinem Anwalt, verlangt eine Wiederaufnahme des Prozesses: Oskars Freispruch will er, Oskars Freiheit - raus aus der Anstalt mit unserem Oskar - und das alles nur, weil mir Klepp mein Bett nicht gönnt! (424)

Oskar has no desire to return to the turmoil and chaos which life has to offer despite all of Klepp’s attempts to convince Oskar that life outside the hospital is really worthwhile. He thinks that Klepp himself really wants to escape from life. Bed is a tensive symbol representing asceticism: Oskar denies himself by turning away from committing evil deeds; it also signifies refuge. Oskar is a tensive symbol, who embodies most of the aspects of Schopenhauer’s philosophy.

Death According to Schopenhauer, death is the final refuge for most people, the return to the “womb of nature.” Life is a living hell and the only good thing about it for the individual is its brevity, he maintains. In fact, every individual’s existence is a mistake. Oskar and Klepp discuss precisely these themes, topics, which reflect tenets of Schopenhauer’s philosophy: Wir überließen uns einem Gespräch.... Plaudernd berührten wir leichteste Themen: ich wollte wissen, ob er unser Schicksal für unabänderlich halte. Er hielt es für unabänderlich. Ob er der Meinung sei, alle Menschen müßten sterben, wollte Oskar wissen. Auch den endlichen Tod aller Menschen hielt er für gewiß, war aber nicht sicher, ob alle Menschen geboren werden müssen, sprach von sich als von einer irrtümlichen Geburt, und Oskar fühlte sich ihm abermals verwandt (419).

Oskar’s ultimate wish, which he expresses at the event of his birth, is to return “zur Nabelschnur,” to the womb. He foresees a gloomy life for himself if he follows his father’s plans, but the possibility of acquiring a drum prevents him, “dem Wunsch nach Rückkehr in meine embryonale Kopflage stärkeren Ausdruck zu geben” (37). In his quest to return to the womb, Oskar seeks refuge under his grandmother’s skirts: “Oskar wollte...seinem Großvater nacheifern, bei ihr untertauchen und wenn möglich, nie wieder außerhalb ihres Windschattens atmen müssen” (174).

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In Oskar’s fantasy, he and Kurt slip under Anna’s skirts. He introduces Kurt to the relatives who have gone before them, waiting for them in the womb, “im großmütterlichen Butterfaß”; Oskar promises: “Eines Tages kehren auch wir dorthin zurück, gehen der Quelle nach, die den leicht ranzigen Buttergeruch verbreitet. Freue Dich!” (289) The tensive symbol, Anna’s four skirts, is plurisignitive. The skirts have a sexual connotation signifying Oskar’s longing to return to the womb, to the pure waters where life began. This longing is satisfied in part when he seeks refuge from the chaos of the world under Anna’s skirts. The skirts symbolize the circle, representing the cycle of life, of eternal recurrence. Because the circle signifies both the beginning and the end, the symbol of the four skirts also signifies death. Oskar’s final goal is to find the ultimate refuge from the turmoil of life under Anna’s skirts: this is his idea of paradise, of “Utopia.” We have just seen how Grass’ favorite symbols and themes expressed in his metaphors, strongly point to the influence of Schopenhauer’s philosophy. Furthermore, Grass’ creative style of writing, especially his use of personification and metaphorical language in lengthy paragraphs expressing one theme, have striking similarities to Schopenhauer’s concept of poetic language, and his own outstanding gifts as a writer. Now that the interpretation of Grass’ metaphorical expressions has progressed through the levels of explanation and understanding, we can discuss the results of the analysis.

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In a previous chapter, we discussed how the mind functions as a “connecting organ” in the metaphorical process. The imagination is at the heart of the “seeing-as” process in seeing similarity and in making comparisons. The narrator of Bt states that he looks for Vergleiche and discusses the making of comparisons frequently throughout the novel. In the first two books, the comparisons are effective: In Book I, Chapter 13, Oskar compensates for the loss of his mother and continues his “studies” with Gretchen Scheffler; he discusses the cycle of light and darkness which he perceives in his constant comparison of Goethe and Rasputin, “während ich unentwegt Goethe mit Rasputin verglich, bei diesen Vergleichen nie ein Ende fand und mich dem strahlend düsteren Kreislauf zumeist durch historische Studien entzog” (136). In Book II, Chapter 2, the Polish post office is under siege and Oskar observes the damages done to it by the machine gun fire: “Flüchtig besah ich mir den Schaden und stellte mit jenem Fensterglas Vergleiche an, das unter dem Eindruck meiner diamantenen Stimme in ruhig, tief atmenden Friedenszeiten zusammengebrochen war” (181). In Book II, Chapter 9, Oskar has established a relationship with Lina Greff and describes their interaction with that of the German army in the muddy fields of Russia: Man mag mir nachsehen, daß ich den Schlammerfolgen der Heeresgruppe Mitte meine Erfolge im unwegsamen und gleichfalls recht schlammigen Gelände der Frau Lina Greff gegenüberstelle. Immer noch nicht mag ich diesen Vergleich aufgeben: Oskar...wurde trotz seiner Jugend im tückisch unübersichtlichen Übungsgelände der Lina Greff zum Manne herangegebildet (250).

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Oskar continues by comparing his prowess in artistic and musical terms. He advances from Maria’s naive lyrical poetry to “jenem breit epischen Atem” which enables him to compare his advance to ascending to the directorship of an orchestra which is more accomplished than those heard at Bayreuth or Salzburg. Again in Book II, Chapter 12, Oskar returns home from the Front and is greeted lovingly by Matzerath. Oskar cautions his father that many a young man returning home fabricates stories so that he may be looked upon as a modern-day Ulysses. Oskar discusses “seeing” a comparison with the reader: “Wenn schon Vergleich - und ich sehe ein, daß ein Heimkehrer sich Vergleiche gefallen lassen muß, dann will ich für Sie der biblische verlorene Sohn sein” (286). The vitality of Grass’ metaphors changes in Book III. Some comparisons seem ineffective and as a result, the narrator must explain them. This could support a claim already established, that a break in the perspective of the novel occurs with Matzerath’s death at the end of Book II. The point of view changes when Oskar decides to grow and when he assumes the role of an adult. He is neither the fanciful Kunstfigur of Books I and II, nor the irresponsible three-year-old child/dwarf drummer, who intentionally distances himself from society (Just 74). Rather, Oskar decides to grow and tries to become a normal adult capable of living and functioning in society. The change in metaphorizing is recognizable in the following examples: In Chapter 2 of Book III, Oskar is assisting in transporting a tombstone to a village cemetery near a power plant where the corpse of a woman is being exhumed. Oskar sees himself as Yorick in “Hamlet” (Act V, Scene I) and attempts a comparison of the power plant, the exhumation of the woman and “Hamlet.” The comparison itself seems ineffective because he explains it: Zugegeben, daß der Starkstrom mir ähnlich wie Goethe ein Weltgefühl vermittelte, aber die Finger der Frau berührten mein Herz, auch wenn ich mir die Evakuierte als Mann vorstellte, weil das besser in meinen Kram fürs Entschlüssefassen paßte und für den Vergleich, der mich zum Yorick machte und die Frau...zum Manne Hamlet, wenn man Hamlet als Mann bezeichnen will. Ich aber Yorick...hielt des Gründgens Hamletfinger auf meinem Arbeitsdienstspatenblatt...machte den dörflichen Friedhof zum Mittelpunkt der Welt, das Kraftwerk Fortuna Nord zu meinem imponierenden halbgöttlichen Gegenüber, die Äcker waren Dänemarks Äcker, die Erft war mein Belt, was hier faulte, das faulte mir im Reich der Dänen (380).

In Chapter 4, the narrator attempts a comparison between Parsival and Oskar, which comes across as being weak because he explains it later. Oskar identifies himself with Oskar because of the drops of blood in the snow:

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Kennen sie Parzival? Auch ich kenne ihn nicht besonders gut. Einzig die Geschichte mit den drei Blutstropfen im Schnee ist mir geblieben. Diese Geschichte stimmt, weil sie zu mir paßt. Wahrscheinlich paßt sie zu jedem, der eine Idee hat. Aber Oskar schreibt von sich; deshalb ist sie ihm fast verdächtig kleidsam auf den Leib geschrieben (393).

The narrator then explains his comparison to the reader: Mein ungeschicktes Bild wird Ihnen deutlich genug sein: der Schnee, das ist die Berufskleidung einer Krankenschwester; das Rote Kreuz, welches die meisten Krankenschwestern, so auch Schwester Dorothea, in der Mitte ihrer den Kragen zusammenhaltenden Brosche tragen, leuchteten mir an Stelle der drei Blutstropfen (393).

In the same chapter of Book III, Oskar sits in the solitude of nurse Dorothea’s closet. He is reminded of the stillness, which existed in Niobe’s presence in the museum and of her destructive power: Und noch schlimmer verhält es sich mit der Stille. Wir erlebten es mit jener Galionsfigur.... Da lag der erste Museumsdiener in seinem Blut.... Man schrie, Niobe.... Niobe war hölzern und feuerfest, tötete und blieb wertvoll. Primaner, Studenten, einen alten Priester und einen Chor Museumwärter machte sie still mit ihrer Stille.... [D]och Niobe blieb trocken und nahm an Stille zu (402).

Repeating the Niobe episode and connecting it with that of Nurse Dorothea seems to diminish the effectiveness of the original metaphor: In Book I, the Niobe story successfully sets the stage for Herbert’s tragic death, and signifies the ominous approach of the atrocities of the World War II era: “Das Unglück.” Like Niobe, the atrocities cannot be stored away, confined and forgotten. Even though Oskar, who is not guilty of Dorothea’s death, will be forced to face his fate and the chaotic world, manifested by the Black Cook, which he greatly fears, the connection to Niobe in this instance seems ineffective. In Chapter 5 of Book III, Oskar notices Dorothea’s black patent leather belt as he sits in her closet. He reflects on the eels and seagulls of the Good Friday excursion to the harbor described in Book I and seems to explain his fixation with the colors white and black: “es wäre auch allzu einfach, könnte man alles, was Weiß trägt, in eine Hut werfen, in einen Schrank stecken, dasselbe kann man von Schwarz sagen” (411). Oskar continues to contemplate the episode at the harbor and discusses looking for a comparison between a black patent leather belt and the eels. He realizes that his fear of the Black Cook has increased. The narrator makes a direct correlation between Oskar’s innocence at the beginning of the narrative and the color white: [D]amals fürchtete ich mich noch nicht vor der Schwarzen Köchin, saß furcht-

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los im Schrank und wiederum nicht im Schrank, stand ähnlich furchtlos bei Windstille auf der Hafenmole zu Neufahrwasser, hielt hier den Lackgürtel, dort etwas anderes, das zwar auch schwarz und schlüpfrig und dennoch kein Gürtel war, suchte, weil ich im Schrank saß, nach einem Vergleich, denn Schränke zwingen dazu, nannte die Schwarze Köchin, doch ging mir das damals noch nicht unter die Haut, war in punkto Weiß viel beschlagener (411).

The number of metaphors decreases as the books progress: Book I contains 157 pages and approximately 352 metaphors. Book II contains 186 pages and 316 metaphors, and Book III contains 132 pages and 194 metaphors. Toward the end of Book II, certain exaggerated episodes are taken out of the realm of believability or authenticity because the narrator is no longer Oskar, the three-year-old. This could also account for the decrease in the number of the metaphors. These examples in Book III highlight exaggerated episodes: In Chapter 11 of Book III, Oskar takes a walk in the country with Lux, a dog he rents, and makes Vittlar’s acquaintance sitting in an apple tree (470). In his testimony against Oskar in court, Vittlar relates the incidents which take place in the countryside: the retrieval of the ring finger, the plaster cast that Korneff makes of it, Vittlar’s subsequent visit to Oskar’s rooms where he observes the finger preserved in alcohol, and Oskar’s prayer of adoration to the finger in the jar. In the same chapter, Vittlar recounts the episode in the streetcar where he and Oskar meet Victor Weluhn who survived the Polish Post Office battle, and is still pursued by two executioners. A squadron of Polish Uhlans miraculously appears, which carries Victor and the executioners away beyond the moon. These incidents do not seem to be a believable, i.e., acceptable part of the narrative because the narrator is not Oskar, the Kunstfigur, the three-year-old child. The large number of verbal metaphors in Bt (862) illustrates the statement that the “ultimate abode” of the metaphor is in the “copula.” In a metaphorical statement two seemingly disparate terms are creatively juxtaposed. The preponderance of character-metaphors in the novel (180) supports the claim that a metaphorical statement “says the way things are” in a new way; it re-describes reality. The greatest number of charactermetaphors (100) occurs in Book I; there are 47 in Book II and 33 in Book III. The reason for this is that the majority of the characters, their personalities, and the plot of the narrative are introduced in Book I. Grass creatively employs the metaphor as an instrument to describe the nature of the characters, the events and the situations in the story. With the completion of the second level of analysis, the task of interpretation is now brought full circle. Our exploration into Grass’s use of

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metaphorical language began with a probe into the complex and controversial arena of metaphorical theory. A cognitive approach maintains that a metaphor is a statement in which two or more referents not usually combined are creatively joined; the imagination sees a resemblance between the two domains. This results in new meaning, new concepts. The metaphorical process, therefore, is at the origin of thought because the normal, logical functioning of language is disrupted and a category mistake occurs; in turn, a new order is created. Because a metaphorical statement says something new about something, it is instructive. In this analysis, the structural and hermeneutic approaches to interpretation are effectively integrated. The double nature of the word makes the integration possible: a word is a lexeme, a meaningful unit of the language system, defined in a lexicon. But a word is also a part of the statement— discourse, and the sentence determines the precise meaning of the word, without the word losing its original sense. Language refers back to the subject, to what a person says to someone. It also refers to extra-linguistic meaning, to what a person is talking about when something is said. This reflects the subjective dimension of meaning. Since both the metaphorical statement and a literary text are both phenomena of discourse, the same approach used in understanding a metaphor can be applied to interpreting a poetic text. The meanings of all the metaphorical utterances contribute to the meaning of the text. Metaphorical analysis is an effective method for the interpretation of a poetic text, a literary work having a second level of meaning. This study is a synthesis of two levels of interpretation, two points of view. The first part is the explanation, or explication of the structural aspects and the string of partial meanings of the metaphorical utterances, leading to the second level of understanding, comprehending the extralinguistic meanings. The reader understands the profound world that the literary work reveals and determines whether or not he feels a part of this world. As a result, he reaches a better understanding of himself. Combining two levels of interpretation adds a new dimension to literary interpretation, and expands the Romanticist tradition of hermeneutics, which emphasizes the ability of the reader to know the author’s intention and situation, and to transfer himself into the author’s psychic experience. Metaphorical analysis enhances the subjectivist level, enabling the reader to recognize the author and expands the reader’s scope of selfunderstanding, thereby adding the ontological level. The result of this inquiry is a guide, which opens the way to an analysis of Grass’ metaphors in Bt. His metaphorizing manifests the nature of

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the metaphorical process, the elements of which are the intellect, the imagination, and the feelings. We sometimes “feel” what we say, and what we say elicits feelings and responses. When the novel first appeared, it elicited an array of mixed feelings among the readership. Although Grass was awarded numerous literary prizes, he was also denounced as a blasphemer and a pornographer. Some scholars attribute this response to his use of language. Grass uses many idiomatic expressions and cultural, social, and religious symbols in such a way, that the connotations of the symbols are overturned. In many instances, they are distorted when associated with the crimes and atrocities of the Nazi era. His metaphors also express his feelings of anger, and a yearning for his lost homeland, destroyed in battles throughout history. Grass’ metaphorical language articulates a critical commentary on German society of the World War II era, particularly on the Kleinbürger milieu and on the Catholic Church. The endless recurrence of bloodshed and destruction caused by war in German history is Grass’ main focus and he accuses his contemporaries of suppressing their guilt and responsibility. Grass intentionally seeks out effective comparisons in the narrative, and in precise, vivid language, he creatively juxtaposes seemingly disparate terms to describe objects, people and events in a new way. His metaphors are highly unconventional and personal. In no way do they demonstrate an attempt to magnify or ennoble human actions. In fact, the opposite is true. The metaphors disclose a brutal world full of chaos, suffering and endless striving over which most people have little control. As a result, the narrative expresses feelings of futility, resignation and alienation, reflecting tenets of Schopenhauer’s philosophy. His metaphors range from the simple to the complex. In many instances, the reader must construe not just the two referents in an utterance, but also additional descriptive words in the statement, which enhance and complete the meanings. Indeed, several pages consist of metaphors focused on one theme. The purpose is to emphasize the importance of the theme. Grass’ recurrent metaphors, expressed by tensive symbols and themes, are woven into the fabric of the entire text. Tensive symbols are objects and people, often plurisignitive, symbolizing abstract emotions or events. Oskar’s scream, capable of shattering glass, signifies a malicious act of protest, at first. But it evolves into a criminal act: by breaking jewelry shop windows with his scream, he entices passers-by to steal jewelry, and the Dusters’ gang members to steal documents from Party headquarters. Anna’s four skirts is a temporary place of refuge and solace for Oskar, but it also represents his yearning to return to the womb, the ultimate refuge from a

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brutal world. Under Anna’s skirts, he learns about his history and the relatives who preceded him. The white/black theme intensifies throughout the novel from the notion of innocence and light at the beginning of the narrative, to the idea of fear, evil, guilt, and darkness at the end of the novel. This notion of light and darkness is manifested in the statements juxtaposing Goethe and Rasputin, Apollo and Dionysos, Beethoven and Hitler. The studies of the themes and tensive symbols reveal information pointing to tenets of Schopenhauer’s system of thought. The intertwining action of the metaphors in Bt supports the claim that a metaphor may not seem vital when taken out of context. But when it is connected to the context in which it appears, it is effective because of the information it contributes to the overall meaning of the text. The fact that a metaphor re-describes reality is demonstrated in the large number of character-metaphors identified in the novel, which disclose a person’s nature, such as Lanke’s Wolfskopf, which depicts his savage nature. Grass’ metaphorical statements express many familiar themes, such as eternal recurrence, satiation, and chaos, and others identified by scholars throughout years of Grass-research. When the significant words in Grass’ metaphorical statements are isolated and located in the “Synopsis of Categories” section of Roget’s International Thesaurus, they reveal concepts from which the words originate. The study shows that the majority of the words used metaphorically are located under Class VII, Volition; Class II, Space; Class VI, Intellect; and Class IV, Matter. The category Sensation, Class V, is also predominant. These categories coincide with concepts that Schopenhauer discusses in his system of thought. The conceptual study also introduces the possibility of further exploring the notion of space in language analysis. The study identifies approximately 862 metaphors and yields about 2200 significant words isolated from the metaphorical statements; the verb, noun and composite metaphors are found to be in the majority. Personification and root metaphors are predominant stylistic characteristics. Oskar’s drum and scream are the tensive symbols occurring most frequently in the novel. Metaphors expressing the themes of character, chaos, communication, satiation, and eternal recurrence are in the majority. The archetypal symbol of the circle is predominant. The data yielded from all the tasks is compiled in bar graphs, which contribute to the quantitative, scientific element of language analysis. The meanings of the metaphors allow the reader to gain an insight into Grass’ worldview. His familiar themes echo his own concerns and statements on topics, which he articulates in interviews and speeches: the art- and eco-

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nomic miracle-metaphors reflect statements he made in a May 1985 address as President of the Berlin Academy of the Arts, “in der er die fünfziger Jahre der neuen Republik als eine Zeit des nationalen Versagens und der vertanen Chancen brandmarkte” (cited by Hoesterey 72). In his 1985 “Geschenkte Freiheit” speech, he denounces the preoccupation of the citizenship with the economic recovery pointing to the Verdrängungsmechanismen, and matches this with the situation in the arena of modern art. He rejects abstract art because of its Gegenstandslosigkeit, which renders unrecognizable the “Häßlichkeit, die man glücklich hinter sich zu haben meinte” (72). The Catholic Church-metaphors call attention to disdainful opinions he expressed in interviews regarding church authorities and their lack of response to Nazi atrocities, according to Grass. The potato-metaphors highlight his feelings expressed in an interview regarding the role of the potato in alleviating starvation in Europe during the eighteenth century. To be sure, Günter Grass seeks refuge behind his books by way of his many creative narrative methods and stylistic traits. But he speaks his mind in his metaphorical statements.

Appendix


“Synopsis of Categories” from Roget’s International Thesaurus, 5th Edition by Peter Mark Roget. Copyright 1992 by HarperCollins Publisher, Inc. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

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Notes


Chapter I 1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Grass alludes to the cathartic function writing has for an author in a 1974 interview with Günter Gaus. Though his memories of Danzig were vague before writing Bt, he believed writing the novel would clear up many aspects for him: “Und ich habe sicher...gedacht: Nun ist dieser Komplex vorbei. Es war nicht vorbei. Es waren neue Schichten da, und ich sehe kein Ende ab” (Neuhaus, Wa, X, 163–64). This study is based on the following dissertation: Antoinette T. Delaney, An Analysis of Günter Grass’ Metaphors in ‘Die Blechtrommel’ based on a Cognitive Theory of Metaphor. Diss. University of Maryland, 1995. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1996. 9622045. See Neuhaus, Werkausgabe X, 183–84; Stolz 18; Brandes 100; Julian Preece 36. For discussions of Ricoeur’s theory of metaphor, see Klemm 95–102; Clark 120–47. For a discussion of Ricoeur’s theory of text interpretation, see Klemm 74–90. For detailed discussions of Grass’ use of this narrative device in Bt, see Parry 108; Botheroyd 28–61. Jens writes, “In Oskar Matzeraths Irrenhaus-Klause...mag sich das erinnernde Subjekt auf Proustsche Weise in ein erinnertes Object verwandeln” (Deutsche 94).

Chapter II 1.

2.

This familiar preamble to Majorca fairy tales demonstrates the concept of metaphorical truth, according to Paul Ricoeur, the ability of metaphor to re-describe reality. When the poet writes that “nature is a temple where living columns . . .” the copula says that what is re-described really is that way (RM 246–49; 255–56). Bußmann: Semantik [Auch: Semasiologie (veraltet)]. Bezeichnung von M. Breal [1897] für die Teildisziplin der Sprachwiss., die sich mit der Analyse und Beschreibung der sog. ‘wörtlichen’Bedeutung von sprachlichen Ausdrücken beschäftigt’ (455). Beckson and Ganz. semantics: 1. That branch of linguistics, which deals with the meanings of words and especially with historical changes in those meanings.The study of the relations

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3.

4.

5.




Notes

between signs (and especially words, or verbal symbols), their meanings, and the actions—both mental and physical—evoked by them (251). Bußmann: Semiotik [griech. semeiotikos >zum Zeichen gehörend<. Auch: Sematologie,. Semiologie, Zeichentheorie]. Allgemeine Theorie bzw. Lehre von den sprachlichen und nichtsprachlichen Zeichensystemen, innerhalb deren natürliche Sprachen nur ein Zeichensystem unter anderen (wissenschaftlichen, religiösen u.a.) darstellen. Mit MORRIS sind folgende Untersuchungenaspekte zu unterscheiden: >Syntax als Relation zwischen Zeichen, >Semantik als Relation zwischen Zeichen und Bedeutung. >Pragmatik als Relation zwischen Zeichen und Zeichenbenutzern sowie (vgl. KLAUS) >Sigmatik als Relation zwischen Zeichen und Realität (460). Fowler: semiology or semiotics Difficult to distinguish sharply from STRUCTURALISM; perhaps best seen as different focuses within one emergent and as yet unformed complex of disciplines. ‘Semiology’ is F. de Saussure’s term (1916) for a projected new science devoted to study of ‘the life of signs within society’—‘signs’ including non-linguistic signs. R. Barthes follows Saussure, regarding patterns of social behaviour (fashion, cooking, architecture, etc.) as ‘languages’—communicative codes. ‘Semiotic’ is a traditional term in those branches of philosophy particularly concerned with signs (especially the work of C.S. Pierce and of Charles Morris); more recently, Margaret Mead has attached ‘semiotics’ to the study of ‘patterned communications in all modalities’: here it closely approximates ‘semiology’ (as does the French semiotique). If structuralism stresses the ‘patterned’ nature of literature as a cultural institution (thus having close affinity with FORMALISM), semiology is particularly concerned with literature as ‘code’—or, in Barthes’s recent work, as a counterpoint of several codes—as an institution, which transmits and formalizes meanings and values (168–69). von Wilpert: Hermeneutik: (griech. hermeneuein = auslegen, nach Hermes als Vermittler zwischen Göttern und Menschen), die Kunst der sinngemäßen Auslegung (>Deutung, >Interpretation >Exegese) e. Schriftwerkes, bes. auch der Bibel, dann die wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Regeln und Hilfsmittel, die den vom Verfasser gemeinten Sinn erschließen (Methodologie). Von Dilthey zur grundlegenden Methode der Geisteswissenschaft gegenüber den ‘erklärenden’ Naturwissenschaften erhoben (229). Flew: hermeneutics. 1. (in theology) The interpretation of the spiritual truth of the Bible. 2. (in social philosophy) The term imported from theology by Dilthey, used to denote the discipline concerned with the investigation and interpretation of human behaviour, speech, institutions, etc., as essentially intentional. 3. (in existentialism) Enquiry into the purpose of human existence (136). Copleston 1, I, 280; Wheelwright Aristotle. Selections. xxx-xxxii; McKeon Basic Works

Notes
6.

165

7. See also Ricoeur, “Metaphor” 106–07; “Hermeneutical” 84–85.

Chapter III 1. 2.

For a detailed discussion, see Klemm 92–105. The text used for this analysis is the Luchterhand 1986 edition of Die Blechtrommel.

Chapter IV 1.

Diller 5; 12; 17–18; 26; 108–09; 193 footnote 10.

Chapter VII 1.

The text used in citing references to Schopenhauer’s philosophy is, The World as Will and Idea translated by R.B. Haldane and J. Kemp, except when otherwise stated.

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———. “The Metaphorical Process as Cognition, Imagination and Feeling.” Critical Inquiry 5 (August 1978): 143–59. ———. “The Model of the Text: Meaningful Action Considered as a Text.” From Text to Action. 144–68. ———. “Structure, Word, Event.” The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur: an Anthology of His Work. Eds. Charles E. Reagan and David Stewart. Boston: Beacon Press, 1978. 109–20. Roberts, David. “Aspects of Psychology and Mythology in ‘Die Blechtrommel’: A Study of the Symbolic Function of the ‘hero’ Oskar.” Grass. Kritik—Thesen—Analysen. Manfred Jurgensen, ed. Bern: Francke, 1973, 45–77. Roehm, Klaus-Jürgen. Polyphonie und Improvisation: Zur offenen Form in Günter Grass ‘Die Rättin.’ New York: Peter Lang, 1992. Roget, Peter Mark. Roget’s International Thesaurus. 4th ed. Revised by Robert L. Chapman. London: Harper and Row, 1979. Rothenberg, Jürgen. Günter Grass. Das Chaos in verbesserter Ausführung: Zeitgeschichte als Thema und Aufgabe des Prosawerks. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitäts Verlag, 1976. Schopenhauer, Arthur. Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. 5 vols. Leipzig: Inselverlag, 1860. ———. The World as Will and Idea. Trans. R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp. 3 vols. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957. ———. “On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason.” Trans. E. F. J. Payne. La Salle: Open Court, 1974. Schwab, Martin. Foreword. What is Neostructuralism? By Manfred Frank. Trans. Sabine Wilke and Richard Gray. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989, x–xliv. Schwarz, Wilhelm Johannes. Der Erzähler Günter Grass. Bern: Francke Verlag, 1975. Shibles, Warren A. Essays on Metaphor. Wisconsin: The Language Press, 1972. ———. Metaphor: An Annotated Bibliography and History. Whitewater, Wisconsin: The Language Press, 1971. Sowinsky, Bernard, Deutsche Stilistik. Frankfurt/M: Fischer, 1972. 301–20. Spencer, Hanna. Heinrich Heine. Boston: Twayne, 1982. Stanzel, Franz K. Typische Formen des Romans. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1964. ———. A Theory of Narrative. Trans. Charlotte Goedsche. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. 79–110. Stolz, Dieter. Vom privaten Motivkomplex zum poetischen Weltentwurf: Konstanten und Entwicklungen im literarischen Werk von Günter Grass (1956–1986). Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1994. Szondi, Peter. On Textual Understanding and Other Essays. Trans. Harvey Mendelsohn. Foreword by Michael Hays. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986. Van Noppen, Jean-Pierre and Edith Hols, comps. Metaphor II: A Classified Bibliography of Publications 1985 to 1990. Amsterdam: John Benjamin, 1990. Wagenbach, Klaus. “Günter Grass.” Schriftsteller der Gegenwart: 53 Porträts. Ed. K. Nonnemann. Olten/Freiburg: 1963. 118–26. Wahrig, Gerhard. Deutsches Wörterbuch. Munich: Mosaik, 1986. Wehrle-Eggers, Hugo. Deutscher Wortschatz: Ein Wegweiser zum treffenden Ausdruck. Ed. Hans Eggers. Stuttgart: Klett, 1961. Weinrich, Harald, Heinz Heckhausen, and Ulrich Suerbaum. “Die Metapher (Bochumer Diskussion).” Poetica 2 (1968): 100–31. ———. Sprache in Texten. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag, 1976. ———. “Semantik der kühnen Metapher.” Theorie der Metapher. Anselm Haverkamp, ed.

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Index


A the absurd, philosophy of as expressed by “Oskar,” 8, 14 and history, 13, 108, 116–7, 135 and post-WWII authors, 5 action (in relation to matter), 112 adjectival metaphors, 38–41 adjective-composite metaphors, 41–3 Aeschylus, 61 aestheticism, 108, 117, 119, 140–1 allegory, 6–7 “All the Dead Dears” (Plath), 34 analogy metaphors, 47–8 Apollo (Greek god), 119, 151 archetypes. See tensive symbols Aristotle, 17, 19, 22, 26, 68 art abstract, 12, 152 as escape from egoism, 108 in Germany, 12 as metaphor, 50, 84, 98, 140–1, 151–2 asceticism, 14, 109, 117, 119–20, 142–3

A Barfield, Owen, 33 Beardsley, Monroe, 20 Beck, Hans Jürgen, 6 beds, as metaphors, 90, 91, 142-3

Beethoven, Ludwig von, 119, 141, 151 being-in-the-world, 3 Bergren, Douglas, 33–4 Berlin Academy of the Arts speech (Grass), 152 Bilderkosmos, 2, 31 Bildspanne, 26 Bildsprache, 2 Bildungsroman, 14 Bildwelt, 5 black, as metaphor. See white/black, as metaphors the “Black Cook,” 117–20, 147 Black, Max, 18, 19–20, 34 Die Blechtrommel (Grass). See Bt (Grass) Blumenberg, Hans, 18 “Book 1 Chapter 1 ‘Der Weite Rock’” (tally sheet), 100–1 Boßman, Timm, 2 Bronski, Jan, 13, 44, 53, 133 Brooke-Rose, Christine, 33 Bt (Grass) allegory in, 6–7 critical studies, 4–11 geographic authenticity, 7 literary influence and significance, 1, 2 metaphorical analysis, summary, 101–2 metaphors and narrative progress, 148 narrative technique, 2, 7–8

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Index

Nobel Prize, 1 popular reaction to, 8, 150 predominant symbols in, 102, 151 psychological interpretations, 5 and Schopenhauer’s philosophical tenets, 112, 117–27 as “Warnliteratur,” 7 “Der Weite Rock,” analysis, 89–102 See also “Greff;” metaphors, classification of; “Oskar” Büscher, Heiko, 8 Der Butt (Grass), 14

C Camus, Albert, 5–6 caritas, 107, 117, 141–3 categories, Aristotelian, 68 “Categories of Concepts/Book 1,” 70 fig. 4 “Categories of Concepts/Book 2,” 71 fig. 5 “Categories of Concepts/Book 3,” 72 fig. 6 category mistakes, 28, 68, 149 Catholicism as major theme in Bt, 102 and rejection of ideology, 8-9, 137–9 religion and metaphor, 56–8, 84, 152 religious symbols, 150 teaching of, 41 and WWII atrocities, 42 causality, 105 Celan, Paul, 27, 34 Cepl-Kaufmann, Gertrude, 2, 12, 13, 14 chaos, metaphors of and destruction, 83 and futility of life, 32, 91 “Joseph’s” escape, 96–7 as major theme of Bt, 102 “Oskar” as agent of chaos, 14, 121–2 character, metaphors of, 79, 102, 122–3, 148, 151 the circle, as archetypal theme, 93, 102, 106, 140, 143–4 Cohen, Jean, 24, 25, 26, 68 communication, metaphors of, 79, 92, 102, 124 concept mapping, 29

context, and metaphor, 34 Cooper, David, 11 copula, 33, 148 the crucifix, 8 cultural and religious customs, metaphors of, 56–8, 101

D Danzig, 13, 62–3, 81–2, 139, 140 death as escape from egoism, 109–10, 117 metaphors of, 10, 51, 113–4, 143–4 See also refuge, metaphors of deconstructionism, 18 desire and satiation, cycles of, 106, 107, 129, 132, 139–40 “Diana—odor die Gegenstände” (Grass), 9 Dionysus (Greek god), 119, 151 discourse, 22–3, 24, 28, 149 Dix, Otto, 59 Döblin, Alfred, 9 domains, and metaphors, 28–9 Dreiecksbeziehungen, 11 drums and drumming, as metaphors as means of disruption, 14, 121–2, 133, 136 as means of remembering and communicating, 43, 52, 53, 79, 124–6 moths’ drumming on light bulbs, 46 “Oskar’s” concert tour, 118 “Oskar’s” gift to “Kurt,” 48 “Oskar’s” guilty conscience, 45 as predominant tensive symbols, 151 removal of “Oskar’s” first drum, 41, 58 See also “Oskar”

E economic miracle, as metaphor, 83–4, 140, 152 Eco, Umberto, 1 egoism, 107, 108, 111, 116, 132–4 Eliot, T. S., 6, 10, 73–4 emotions, 27–8 empirical character, 105 the Enlightenment, and post-WWII authors, 5

Index Entwicklungsroman, 14 epiphora, 26 eros. See selfish love; sexuality, metaphors of eternal recurrence, metaphors of, 81–2, 102, 139–40, 144 ethics, 108–9 See also caritas experience and knowing, 104–5, 112, 116

F Feierabend, 46 Fichte, Johann, 103, 110 fire, as archetypal symbol, 93, 94 folktales and myths, 22 frames (linguistic), 19 Frank, Manfred, 18 Freud, Sigmund, 5, 111 Frizen, Werner, 6, 8 Frye, Northrop, 27

G Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 23–4 Gaus, Günter, 8 genitive metaphors, 46 German history, 12–3, 83–4 German reunification, 2, 4 “Geschenkte Freiheit” (Grass), 12, 140, 152 glass, as archetypal symbol, 120–1 The Goat (Picasso), 33 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 1, 36, 82–3, 119, 145, 151 good and evil, metaphors of, 35–6, 82–3, 119–20 Good Friday, metaphorically, 60 “Grammatical and Stylistic Characteristics/Book 1,” 64 fig. 1 “Grammatical and Stylistic Characteristics/Book 2,” 65 fig. 2 “Grammatical and Stylistic Characteristics/Book 3,” 66 fig. 3 Grass, Günter on the 1950s, 12 and abstract art, 12 as artist turned writer, 12 Camus, influence of, 5–6 and German history, 7, 12–3, 42, 147,




177

150 and German reunification, 2 Hegel, rejection of, 13, 107 lack of studies on metaphors in works of, 6 and metaphors, importance of, 14 Nietzsche, influence of, 5 and objects, importance of, 8, 9–11 philosophical foundation of the work of, 5, 11 poetry of, 9, 14 relation to critics, 1–2 on the role of the author, 7, 13 Schopenhauer, influence of, 4, 8 Grass, Günter, works Berlin Academy of the Arts speech, 152 Der Butt, 14 “Diana—odor die Gegenstände,” 9 “Geschenkte Freiheit,” 12, 140, 152 Headbirths or The Germans Are Dying Out, 123 “Kurze Rede eines vaterlandslosen Gesellen,” 13 Die Rättin, 5 “Scham und Schande,” 13 “Über meinen Lehrer Döblin,” 107 Ein weites Feld, 2 “What Shall We Tell Our Children,” 138 See also Bt Grass, Günter, writing style adjectives, use of, 115 narrative technique, 2, 146–8 paragraph construction, 113–4 personal system of symbols, 12, 74, 150 preciseness, 9, 31, 110, 115, 150 recycled themes and symbols, 2, 150 satire, 8 similarities to Schopenhauer’s style, 114, 144 “Greff,” 6, 7, 11, 14 guilt, metaphors of, 92, 134

H Hamlet (Shakespeare), 146 “Eine Hand” (Celan), 34

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Index

Hartung, Harald, 5 Haverkamp, Anselm, 17–8 Headbirths or The Germans Are Dying Out (Grass), 123 Hegel, Georg, 13, 103, 107–8 Heidegger, Martin, 27 Henle, Paul, 18 hermeneutics, 18, 22, 23–4, 149 Hermeneutik, 18 See also hermeneutics Hester, Marcus B., 25 Hille-Sandvoß, Angelika, 6, 10 Hitler, Adolph, 119, 141, 151 Hoesterey, Ingeborg, 12 Hübscher, Arthur, 111 the human body, as object, 11, 105, 112 human life, tensive symbols and themes, 123–7

I Idealism, 103 Ide, Heinz, 14 ideology, metaphors of, 82, 135–6 idiomatic expressions in Bt, 31, 150 as metaphor, 12, 49, 58–63 and narrative intimacy, 11–2 images, poetic. See poetic images imagination, 26, 27–8, 29, 145, 149 Ingendahl, Werner, 32 Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning (Ricoeur), 3 intimacy, narrative, 11–2 Irving, John, 1

J Jahnke, Walter, 7 Jakobson, Roman, 18 Jens, Walter, 2 Jesus Christ, 120–1, 125 Jung, Carl, 111 Jurgensen, Manfred, 2 Just, Georg, 6, 8, 10, 56

K Kallmeyer, Werner, 32 Kant, Immanuel, 103 Kim, Nury, 6–7 Kleist, Heinrich von, 78

Knäuelliebe, 115, 122, 126 Kniesche, Thomas, 5 Knotengeburt, 122 Kreuz. See the crucifix Kristallnacht, 42, 56, 61 “Kurze Rede eines vaterlandslosen Gesellen” (Grass), 13 Kurz, Gerhard, 33

L Lacan, Jacques, 18 langue, 21 lexemes. See semiotics light and dark, metaphors of. See good and evil, metaphors of; white/black, as metaphors light, as archetypal symbol, 120–1 Lindemann, Klaus, 7 literary explication, 20 logos, 20 love. See caritas

M Magee, Bryan, 111 Mallarmé, Stéphane, 24–5, 27 Mann, Thomas, 1 matter (subject and object), 111, 116 Maya, veil of, 107, 116, 122 Mayer, Hans, 7 Metamorphoses (Aeschylus), 61 metaphorical truth, 27 metaphors vs. allegory, 6 Aristotle on, 19 bodily basis of, 29 and context, 34 cues to reader, 29 definitions, 6, 17, 19, 28–9, 149 and emotions, 25, 27–8 iconic quality of, 25–6 and the imagination, 25, 26 and literary interpretation, 3–4, 20, 24, 149 and mythmaking, 52–3 objects as sources of, 9 types of, 32–4 and vocabulary extension, 26, 27 metaphors, classification of

Index concepts, 67–9, 70–2, 101–2, 151 and Schopenhauer’s philosophy (see aestheticism, asceticism, caritas, death, egoism, human life, progress, reality, selfish love, the will) tensive symbols, 73–7, 102 thematic, 78–87, 102 metaphors, cultural and religious customs, 56–8, 101 metaphors, grammatical types adjectival metaphors, 38–41 adjective-composite metaphors, 41–3, 101 analogy metaphors, 47–8 genitive metaphors, 46 noun-composite metaphors, 36-7, 63, 101, 122, 151 noun metaphors, 33, 35-6, 63, 101, 151 sentence metaphors, 44–6 verbal metaphors, 43–4, 63, 101, 148, 151 verb-metaphors, 11, 33, 101, 148 metaphors, linguistic aspects category mistakes, 28, 68, 149 and deconstructionism, 18 deviation, 24, 26, 68 domains, 28–9 grammatical structures, 34–5 and hermeneutics, 17 heuristic nature of, 28 linguistic tension, 24, 25 resemblance, 25 rhetoric, 18–9 semantics, 17, 24, 26 semiotics, 17 subjects in, 19 metaphors, stylistic types idiomatic expressions, 49, 58–63, 83–4 names and naming, 54–6, 101 personification, 49, 52–4, 63, 101 Redensarten, 49 root metaphors, 49, 50–2, 63 variation, 49, 63, 101 Michelson, Peter, 14 Mittelmeerstimme, 122




179

Modellanalyse (Jahnke and Lindemann), 7 Motivkomplex, 5 “Münsterberg, Bruno,” 7 muses, metaphors of, 36, 63 music, as metaphor, 141, 146 mythmaking, 52–3, 61

N names and naming (metaphoric), 54–6, 93–4, 95, 123 naming (linguistic), 20, 22, 26–7 narrative technique distance, 2, 7–8, 23, 31 first person narrative, 7 idiom, 11–2 intimacy, 11–2 names and naming, 54–6 poetic narrative, 3 satire, 8 third person narrative, 7 Nazi party, 42, 135–6, 150 Neuhaus, Volker, 1, 4, 8, 13, 14 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 5, 111 nihilism. See the absurd, philosophy of Niobe (mythological figure and character in Bt) destructive power of, 45, 47–8, 61, 113–4, 131, 147 legends and literary portrayals of, 61, 131 wooden figure, 46 nominal metaphors. See noun metaphors noun-composite metaphors, 36–7, 63, 101, 122, 151 noun metaphors, 33, 35–6, 63, 101, 151 nourishment, metaphors of co-occurrence with death and sexuality metaphors, 10, 60, 129, 131 dangerous food, 36, 60 gluttony, 41–2 mushrooms, 56 onions, 55–6 See also potatoes

O the objective correlative Eliot on, 6, 10 Schopenhauer’s concept of, 28, 74,

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Index

104, 105 and tensive symbols, 116 objects autonomy of, 9–10, 11, 32 human bodies as, 11, 105, 112 importance of in works of Grass, 9–11 names and naming, 55 personification of, 49, 104 the self as object, 8 sentient qualities of, 53, 79 sequential experience, 105, 111–2 as sources of metaphor, 32 See also tensive symbols Objektzwang, 9, 104 onions, as metaphor, 55–6 “Oskar” amoral behaviors, 8 and choice of chaos, 14 and history, 13 and love, 40 as Nietzsche figure, 5 and objectification of the self, 7–8 as picaresque figure, 8 and regression, 14, 32 sexuality of, 62, 80, 84, 114–5, 125 as Sisyphus figure, 6 as “Yorick” in Hamlet, 146 See also drums and drumming, as metaphors; screams and screaming, as metaphors

P parole, 21 “Penthisilea” (Kleist), 78 Pepper, Stephen, 49 personification definition of, 49, 121 examples of, 52–4, 115 as predominant stylistic feature of Bt, 63, 101, 151 of Sunday, 60 Pflanz, Elisabeth, 10–1 photo albums, as metaphors, 50, 79, 105, 125, 130 picaresque novels, 8 Picasso, Pablo, 33 Plath, Sylvia, 34 Plato, 20 poet as artisan, 25–6

poetic images, 27–8 poetic narrative, 3 poetry and emotions, 27–8 of Grass, 9, 14 and metaphor, 3, 24–5, 29, 34 Schopenhauer on, 115–6 Poland as lost homeland, 13, 139, 150 as metaphor, 81, 82 Polish flag, 57, 58 Polish National Anthem, 62 potatoes, as metaphors Grass on potatoes as symbols, 6 Kashubian potato fields, 99 as nourishment symbols, 142, 152 personification of, 11, 40, 93 powerlessness, metaphors of, 84, 93, 125, 127, 132 See also sexuality, metaphors of predicate metaphors. See verbal metaphors predicative impertinence, 24–5 principle of sufficient reason, 108 progress (historical), 116–7, 135–40 propagation. See sexuality, metaphors of protest, metaphors of, 79–80 See also screams and screaming, as metaphors

R Rahner, Thomas, 7, 11, 12 “Raskolnikov,” 134, 141 Rasputin, Grigori, 82–3, 119, 145, 151 Die Rättin (Grass), 5 reality, tensive symbols and themes, 121–3 Redensarten, 49 referentiality, 22–3 refuge, metaphors of “Anna’s” skirts, 80–1, 99, 119, 150–1 beds, 90, 91, 142–3 death, 109–10, 117, 143–4 grandmother’s skirts, 51, 95 as major theme of Bt, 102 as response to chaos, 123–4 and satiation metaphors, 130 religion. See Catholicism representation (philosophical concept), 104 reunification, German. See German reunifi-

Index cation rhetoric, 18 Richards, Ivor, 19 Ricoeur, Paul on analogies, 34 on images, 28 on the imagination, 26 Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning, 3 on intertwining of metaphors, 73 on the metaphoric process, 3, 18, 22 pictorial aspects of metaphor, 25 The Rule of Metaphor: MultiDisciplinary Studies of the Creation of Meaning in Language, 3, 18, 19 theories of literary interpretation, 22–4 Roberts, David, 10 Roget’s International Thesaurus, 4, 26, 67–8, 151 See also metaphors, classification of “Rollenprosa,” 8 Romanticism, 149 root metaphors, 49, 50–2, 63, 113 Rudolph, Ekkehart, 9 The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies of the Creation of Meaning in Language (Ricoeur), 3, 18, 19 Rushdie, Salman, 1

S Satan, 38, 138 satiation, metaphors of, 80, 81, 102, 129–30 See also desire and satiation, cycles of satire, 8 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 21 scars, as metaphors, 43–4, 84 “Scham und Schande” (Grass), 13 Schelling, Friedrich, 103, 110 Scherf, Rainer, 6, 7, 11 Schopenhauer, Arthur and asceticism, 14 Beethoven, resemblance to, 111 Grass, influence on, 4, 6, 8 Hegel, rejection of, 13, 107, 110 history, views on, 107, 108 influence on writers and philosophers, 110–1 Kant, influence of, 103




181

and the objective correlative, 10, 28, 74, 116 optimism, views on, 108 philosophical tenets, 104–10, 111–2, 116–7 on poetry, 115–6 Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, 103, 104 writing style, 9, 110 “Schugger Leo,” 7 screams and screaming, as metaphors art works, destruction of, 136–7 Christmas ornaments, destruction of, 44, 79 glass, shattering of, 58, 80, 84, 120, 123–4 glass, stained, 120–1 as predominant metaphors, 151 as protests and/or criminal acts, 131, 133-4, 150 as response to powerlessness, 127, 133–4 wallpaper, attempt to set on fire, 47 Seiffert, Walter, 33 the self, 7–8, 14, 32 selfish love, 107, 116, 129–32 self-preservation and intellect, 111 self sacrifice, 109, 142–3 See also asceticism semantics Bildspanne, 26 distinguished from semiotics, 21, 23 semantic clash, 25 semantic domains, 4 semantic fields, 24 and study of metaphor, 17 semiotics, 17–8, 21, 23, 27, 149 sensation, and experience, 112 sentence metaphors, 44–6 sentences vs. words, 20, 21 sexuality, metaphors of co-occurrence with nourishment metaphors, 60 and death, 113–4 eros and selfish love, 107 “Luzie Rennwand,” 119 “Oskar’s” male organ, 62, 84, 114–5, 125 “Oskar’s” objects of desire, 80

182




Index

predominance of, 10–1, 32 See also Niobe Shakespeare, William, 146 signs (linguistic). See semiotics Skat, 59, 130 Die Skatspieler (Dix), 59 skirts, as metaphor “Anna’s” skirts, 80–1, 99, 119, 141, 143–4, 150–1 archetypal symbols, 123 grandmother’s skirts, 95 as response to chaos, 121 and satiation metaphors, 130 See also refuge, metaphors of Sojcher, Jacques, 18 Sophocles, 61 Sosnoski, M. K., 10 space and time framework, 111 Sprachanalyse, 18 See also semantics stillness, metaphors of “Anna’s” skirts, 94 “Bruno,” 91 lull in shooting, 83 as major theme of Bt, 102 Niobe and “Nurse Dorothea,” connection, 147 restoration of peace to countryside, 97 as temporary reprieve from chaos, 121 Stirb und Werde, 14 Stolz, Dieter, 5 structuralism, 21–2 See also Jakobson, Roman Strukturalismus, 18 See also semiotics subjectivity, 21 See also the self subjects in metaphors, 19 suicide, 6, 7, 11, 14 Sunday, metaphorically, 60, 95, 121 Sütterlinschrift, 56, 59 symbols. See tensive symbols

T tensive symbols as concrete images, 4 as defining a poetic work, 28 definition and examples, 73, 74

and the objective correlative, 105, 116 predominant symbols in Bt, 102 “Tensive Symbols/Book 1,” 75 fig. 7 “Tensive Symbols/Book 2,” 76 fig. 8 “Tensive Symbols/Book 3,” 77 fig. 9 thematic metaphors. See metaphors, classification of, thematic “Themes/Book 1,” 85 fig. 10 “Themes/Book 2,” 86 fig. 11 “Themes/Book 3,” 87 fig. 12 Theoriefeindlichkeit, 13 things. See objects time, metaphors of, 51–2, 57 The Tin Drum (Grass). See Bt (Grass) “Todesfuge” (Celan), 27 toys, as metaphors, 52, 83 Triebgebundenheit, 11 truth, metaphorical, 27

U “Über meinen Lehrer Döblin” (Grass), 107 uniforms, as metaphors, 98, 108, 135–6, 137

V vanilla, as metaphor, 142 variation (metaphoric), 49, 63, 101 verbal metaphors, 43–4 Verbindlichkeit, 11 verb-metaphors, 11, 33, 101, 148 Verfremdung, 11–2 “Vittlar, Gottfried von,” 7 volition, 105–6, 109, 111, 123

W Wagenbach, Klaus, 5, 8, 9 Weinrich, Harald definition of metaphor, 6 metaphorical truth, 27 semantic closeness, 26, 68 semiotics, 18 the world-of-the-work, 34 Ein weites Feld (Grass), 2, 4 Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (Schopenhauer), 103, 104 What is Neostructuralism? (Frank), 18 “What Shall We Tell Our Children” (Grass), 138

Index Wheelwright, Philip concept of tensive symbols, 4, 28, 73, 74 on naming, 123 presential quality of objects, 52–3 semantics, 18 white/black, as metaphors beds, 91, 119 innocence vs. guilt, 92–3, 147, 151 as major theme of Bt, 102, 119–20, 151 paper vs. excrement, 92, 119 Rasputin vs. Goethe, 82–3, 119, 151 See also good and evil, metaphors of; the “Black Cook” the will cycles of desire and satiation, 106 escape from, 108 Schopenhauer’s concept of, 104, 116 tensive symbols and themes, 117–21 volition, 105–6, 111 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 25 Wolfskopf, 151 words dual functions of, 27, 149 and naming, 20 vs. sentences, 20 The World as Will and Idea (Schopenhauer). See Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung world-of-the work, 3, 23, 34




183