Migration and Livelihood in Southeast Nigeria

Preface This volume presents studies and papers by academics and policy makers in various institutions in Nigeria. lt is on contemporary challenges of local and intemational migration in Southeast Nigeria. Different aspects have been examined. These include the environmental, social and economic factors and consequences of migration in that region as well as the consequences for livelihood. The following publications are available: Agricultural Projects and Sustainable Development of Rural Areas in Benin by Afouda Jacob Yabi (Vol. 55), Perspectives on Food Security in Eastem Nigeria by C. Nwajiuba (Vol. 46), Role of off-farrn income and gender in technology Adoption by C. Honagbode (Vol. 37), and exchange rate adjustment, food security and welfare of small-scale farmers by E. Abiassi (Vol. 39). Prof Dr. Werner Doppler, University of I-Iohenheim, Germany Acknowledgement Once again I have benefited from the tremendous kindness of the German nation, her people and her institutions. My Doktorvater Professor Dr. Wemer Doppler has continued to be very kind to me and has hosted me the second time as a visiting scholar. I have had wonderftrl access to facilities necessary for my work, and from which colleagues working in less wholesome conditions in our part of the world have brought to the attention of the intemational community their perspectives on the subject of migration. We are all jointly appreciative of this. The Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD), once again offered me the hospitality and kindness of the German nation to have sponsored my visit to Germany. Colleagues and fiiends at the Department of Agricultural economics in the tropics and sub-tropics, University of Hohenheim, have maintained the usual kindness and hospitality ever ready and willing to assist. To Dr. H.P. Wolff] Mrs Gudrun Grozinger, and the rest of the department, a big appreciation. To the authorities of my home Institution, the Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria, who have been gracious to allow me this visit, a big thank you. Chinedum Nwajiuba (Editor) Hohenheim — Stuttgart, July, 2005.

TABLE or comuwrs i TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents ................................................................................................ i Chapter I: Migration and Livelihood: Conceptual and Policy Issues ............ I C. Nwajiuba Chapter 2: Migration, Urbanization and Spatial Housing Disequilibria ...... l I J. Diogu Chapter 3: Appropriate Construction Technique for Migrant Communities ............................................................................ 23 P. Okereke and I. Onyegiri Chapter 4: Planted F allow: Improving Shifting Cultivation to Minimize Migration .................................................................................. 3l L. Nwaigbo Chapter 5: Forest Consequences of Migration Pressure .............................. 39 M Onuh, C. Nwosu and I. Christo Chapter 6: Consequences of Migration on Livestock Production ............... 45 B. Ekenyem Chapter 7: Migrant Nomads and Collateral Damage to Livelihoods .......... 5l A. Ejiogu and A. Anyaehie Chapter 8: Consequences of Poverty for Youth Migration ......................... 59 A. Onweagba and A. Chukwu Chapter 9: Street Food Vending, Income Eaming and Nutritional Status of Migrant Women ......................................................... 63 C. Asinobi Chapter 10: Effect of Women Economic Activities on RuralUrban Migration ....................................................................... 75 E. Onyenechere Chapter I l: Intemal Migration and Development: A Case Study ................. 85 C. Ngozi

Chapter 12: Nutrition and Health Issues among Urban Migrants .................. 91 O. Afam-Anene and C. A. Nwajiuba Chapter 13: Public Health Implications of Migration .................................. 103 B. Nwoke, E. Nwoke, I. Dozie, J. Anosike, F Iwuagwu, and C. Ukaga Chapter 14: Socioeconomic Determinants of Labour Mobility ................... 111 L. Tanko and C. M0/cuoma Chapter 15: Labour Market Mobility and Social capital in Nigeria ............. 127 U. Nwogwugwu Chapter 16: Some Issues in Migration and Livelihood in Southeast Nigeria ................................................................ 141 O. Nwankwo, B. Nnadozie and G. Onubuogu Chapter 17: Some Micro-Level Issues in Migration and Livelihood ............................................................................... 147 I. Uwazie, C. Eze and C. Nwajiuba Chapter 18: Mediating Rural-Urban Migration Through Information echnologies ............................................................................. 1 57 A.EIOchukwu

Mroiuriow AND uvsuuooo. cowcnms AND issues r CHAPTER ONE MIGRATION AND LIVELIHOOD: CONCEPTUAL AND POLICY ISSUES C. Nwajiuba Department of Agricultural Economics, 1m0 State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Migration, whether intemal or intemational, has become increasingly important in development studies. Contemporary debate on the issue has a dual perspective conceming benefits in form of remittances on the one hand, and loss of` human resources on the other. While short-term benefits such as remittances by migrants may have a potential to contribute to livelihoods, the long-term impact due to tmabated loss of human resources may be a serious cause of concem. However most migration studies, especially in less developed countries are limited by being anectodonal. Lack of quantitative data on migration especially in less developed countries is well known. There is hardly any data on the numbers, trends and characteristics of migrants abroad (DHARAM, 2004). Statistics of flows of investments, remittances, support of charitable work, voluntary humanitarian and development agencies are often lacking. While it is generally agreed that there are high levels of internal and intemational migrations, the extent of this, the benefits accruing to the regions from which migrants leave and benefits to the benefiting countries are rarely documented. Despite these limitations, this work is an attempt at various dimensions, causes, trends, direction and consequences of migration focusing on southeast Nigeria. This chapter tries to develop a framework of some contemporary migration issues. Conceptualising Migration There are two principal factors fuelling intemal and intemational migration in southeast Nigeria. These are rural population growth and adverse economic and political conditions. In a nutshell rural population growth contributes to unemployment, environmental degradation, food insecurity and poverty. Adverse

c. NWAJIUBA 1 . . - · ‘ loyment ’ d olitical conditions, also contribute to unemp _ ccoiwnnxengil degl-iadarion food insecurity. and poverty. These jointly lead [O Euiiicmassive rura1—urban migration (Fig. 1). Rapid and massive rural-urban in tion creates social crises, through urban unemployment, poor environment, Iirbfgng slums and crimes. This leads to the imeserization of poverty. Urban poverty leads to poor nutrition, poor health, low life expectancy and livelihood crises (Fig. I). Rural po ulation growth 1* Adverse economic and political conditions Unemployment environmental degradation—> Food insecurity \· Poverty / Migrition —> 8 Social crises 4% unemployment poor environment, housin - crimes etc. I — slums poverty / ‘/1H]CS€IIZati0n '\ poor nutrition oor health \. tow ure 4/ expectancy and livelihood crises FIB- l¥A fflmework of inter-linkages of causes and effects of rapid migration ;?;;:;f;°g0 igoythf N-ig¢fi8`S population has been growing at a fast fatear · 1991 (NATIE NMZESEIK increased from 55,770,056 in 1963, 88.99 million in as about 128 minion (CIA EION COMMISSION, 1991) and estimated in 2005 · 005)- The estimated rate of growth in Nig€I'I3’S

Miomriow ANI) uveuuooo. cowcuvrs AND issues 1 population is variously put at between 2.37% (CIA, 2005) and 3.8% (ECA, 1990). Generally, poor developing countries have higher population growth rates than rich developed nations (Table 1). Nigeria is also the most populous in Africa and ranks high among developing countries. This is worsened by inadequate food supply and employment opportunities not matching increasing demand of a rising population. Consequences of this include low productivity, unemployment and high crime rate, food insecurity, and poverty. These are contemporary development challenges in Nigeria. Table 1: Income Per Head and Population Growth Rates of Selected Countries (2004) Countries Income/Head (US$) Population Growth Rate (%) USA 40,100 0.92 Canada 40,100 0.92 Switzerland 33,800 0.49 Canada 40,100 0.92 Germany 28,700 0.0 South Africa 11,100 (0.31) India 3,100 1.4 Ghana 2,300 1.25 Kenya 1,100 2.56 Nigeria 1,000 2.37 The high rate of population growth subsequently led to rapid urbanization in most developing countries of Africa including Nigeria. Rapid population growth adversely affects access to sanitation and other facilities. In Nigeria, about 27% of the population lived in urban areas in 1980 (Table 2). This increased to 42% in 1998. The high rate of urbanization has increased the demand for food and other services in urban areas, which are already in, short supply. This is a factor in the increased demand for imported food items. Eastem Nigeria had a population of about 25,652,036 in 1991 and a land area of approximately 7,861,200 ha. This implies that the east represents 21.8% of the Nigeria population but occupies 8.5% of the total land area. This translates to an average of 0.3lha/person (OKORIE, 2002). This means this area is among the most densely populated in Africa. Rapid rural population in a hitherto

4 ` leads to a low level poverty· ‘ { d_ low technology, agfanan area _ _ pf$d;>m":?;;:‘l£";;ricul[uIal Sector consequently holds no attraction, especially mc en 1 . _ _ for the youths. Massive rural-urban migration results from this. Table 2: Urbanization and population in selected African countries Urban Population Urban population as % (million) oftotal population Cameroon 2.7 6.8 31 47 Ghana 3.5 6.9 31 37 Kenya 2.7 9.2 16 31 Nigeria 19.1 51.0 27 42 Senegal 2.0 4.2 36 46 Source: The World Bank (2000) Adverse economic and political conditions: Up till the early 1970s, Nigeria was a predominantly agriculture-dependent economy. However the rapid increase in petroleum export eamings since the early 1970s transfomied the structure of the Nigeria economy. The pattem of allocation of petroleum eamings favoured urban and non-agricultural sectors. This created the phenomenon equated to the Dutch disease as t.he economy became dependent on a sole sector — petroleum export eaming. Low labour eamings in the agricultural sector and consumer preference for imported food and other commodities contributed to massive rural-urban migration. The fall. in petroleum earnings in the early 1980s, in addition to the debt crises bedevilling Nigeria led to the introduction of structural adjustment programmes (SAP)-in 198.6. l3efore then not many Nigerians were interested in intemational migration. Nigerians who lei} the country did so principally for education or §(;$`|.l:l€l’(;l3l interests and usually retumed, But with the introduction of SAP, mcliluingion of theddomestrc currency (the Naira), the withdrawal of subsidies, - P .Ym€H l BH. job losses, Ntgenans commenced a season of massive intemational migration.

Mt0t<.»x‘rioN AND t.1vEL1ii00D. CONCEPTS AND ISSUES 5 DEGREE AND DIRECTION OF MIGRATION It is very common in the literature to find various robust quantitative indications of higher rural population relative to urban population. Some of these suggest that up to 60% of` Nigerians are rural residents. This does not reflect current situations as recent research findings indicate (Fig 2). At least in the southeast of Nigeria only about 22% of the people are rural residents. There is a very high degree of rural—urban migration with 78% of indigencs residing outside their homes. About 32% reside within the southeast region but not in their home communities. 14% reside in locations within Nigeria (outside the southeast) and 32% outside Nigeria. Frequent destinations include other countries within the African continent, but also outside of Africa, including Europe, North America, South America and Asia. Significant is that up to 32% are international migrants residing outside Nigeria. This migratory trend seems to agree with UNFPA (2002), that in 1975 only 23.4% of Nigerians lived in urban areas, and in 2002 it rose to 44.1%. It is projected to reach 50% in 2010, and 63.3% in 2015. =r?g-orig" DZ2% r i f i D 32% u In home communities ‘·_·- nwiiiiiii south usr Nigeria ’ uiii Nigeria raiiuiiuiiigsaiiui mr Nigeria EIOutside Nigeria D1 I32% Fig 2: Destination of migrants from southeast Nigeria, 2004/2005 Source: NWAJIUBA (2005) CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION There are also statistics, which claim that most people in sub-Saharan Africa including Nigeria, and most rural residents are farmers. Recent findings cont1·adict this. While the 22% resident in rural areas engage in some farming (or in fact gardening), almost all are involved in some income-eaming non-farm activity. Up till the boom in petroleum export eaming in early 1970, subsistence farmers were

about 85% of the population, and agriculture contributed up to 80%. of the country’s export (EKANONE, I993). Agriculture then, was characterized by scarce capital inputs, high labour supply, abundant land. and simple tools (OSUGIRI, 1996). The discovery of crude petroleum led to importation of food and Nigerian‘s taste changed to imported food. Local products suffered from lack of markets, farrner’s eamings fell, and rapid rural — urban migration ensued. Even if all nrral residents of southeast Nigeria were to be available for farming, the region being of heavy population density can no longer be described 35 an area of land and labour-surplus agricultural sector. The scenario is compounded by the lack of capital A rural farming society faced with poverty or lack of capital, technological stagnation, growing population, land scarcity and degradation that amorurts to soil mining, and people living at a low equilibrium level, has evolved an adjustment strategy of massive nual desertion, firstly to urban areas within the country and then outside the country. There is however little evidence of significant or counter migration. The movement of people from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration or the movement of people from urban cities to rural areas is termed counter-urbanization, retum migration or urban — rural migration (ARENE and MKPADO, 2004). The above scenario is heightened by the nature of the political and economic environment where the rural and agricultural sectors are neglected or taxed by policies. Fiscal measures in favour of urban non-agricultural sectors lead to ruralurban migration. Bias against agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa is a wellestablished fact (THIELE, 2003). Better eaming opportunities in urban areas led to massive rural-urban migration. Then came the collapse of petroleum export eaming in the early 1980s. This led to the introduction of structural adjustment ;9ni¤'<1¤:m¢f (S/tf). This attacked the urban middle class through inflation, v‘. depcngmis glbtiéiligaégld tiollapse of the manufacturing sector. Those I'\1f8l ` · middle class further fell rnto poverty, Subsequently, migration out of the country became a priority for many Nigerians. The ;;;;sdll;<;1;>;ld ZE nj;fl;;:r1;l adjustment programmes in 1986 lead to CCOHOmic 2004) m|gI`&l`l[S who are often poor (ARENE and MKPADO,

Mtotumow AND rtvsrttiooo. cowcnvrs mo tssutas 1 This scenario is to some extent consistent with experiences elsewhere. For instance, ZHANG, er ul., (2003) examined employment and migration trends (of women) and found sharp increases in off-farm participation by women especially the young. Women, mostly middle-aged to old ones are then left in charge of farm work. ln southeast Nigeria however, rural out migration has led to massive labour scarcity and high cost for an underdeveloped low technology labour-dependent agricultural sector. The millennium development goals desire a halving of the world’s poor and the obliteration of hunger (VON BRAUN, 2005). Yet the small proportion of rural residents engaged in mostly subsistence farming cannot do much without agricultural transformation. With the stagnation of technologies for production in a predominantly subsistence-oriented system, the heavy reliance on labour is constrained by an aging rural population of old men and women. This equates with Oliver Goldsmith’s deserted village where wealth accumulates and men decay. END NOTES Demographic transformation due to increasing levels of migration is an important variable worthy of further in-depth studying if the less developed world is to stand any chance of meeting the millemrium development goals. The nexus between migration and livelihood is therefore of contemporary research and policy challenge. Intemational migration is encouraged by a globalzing age, although there are evidences that receiving advanced countries are become wearing of large-scale immigration. This is despite a dominant philosophy of liberalization, free trade market economy, and resource mobility. DE HAAS, (2005) attributed this to the settlement of non-westem, culturally and physically distinct migrants. This begins to create social and political tension in Europe. In Nigeria, there is also concem about massive loss of trained manpower. The extent of intemational migration is very significant. For instance, there are 33,000 Nigerian doctors in the US.

(COLEMAN et al., 2005). Yet, Nigerians were late joiners to international migration because of the petroleum boom as there was little incentive to migrate. lntemal migration commenced in Nigeria due to economic factors, principally the opportunities offered by the urban non-agricultural sectors, and then exacerbated by the collapse of oil boom in the early 1980s, leading to significant to intemational migration. Due to strong family ties and community solidarity, migrants maintain close links and support to their families. Remittances are important contribution to poverty alleviation by migrants. There is not much contribution by migrants of technical skills because there is not a significant rate of retum-migrants. The poor state of the economy, as well as other social circumstances, constraint the retum of migrants. However, it is hypothesized that reduction in the outflow of skilled people should result in an overall improvement in the quality of human capital available for growth and development, especially in rural areas. This is not however to suggest a Pareto—optimality case, with the brain-drain phenomenon. lntemal and intemational migrations need to be managed to contribute significantly to the development of Nigeria and other developing countries. REFERENCES ARENE, and MKPADO (2004). Counter-urbanization and Agricultural Productivity in N1gena" Journal of Rural Development (India). Vol 23 (1): 73-8l. World Fact book — Nigeria www.odci. Gov/cia/publication /factbook COL (2O0§N£!;I;n1;;,_R. HOOPER, E. MASOOD, F. PEARCE, and C. AGRAHAM . tron for a prosperous future". New Scientist July, page 8 —l3 DE HAAS · . . . myths and fra}; EZFOS). intemational migration, remittances and dCV€i0pm€ntY c . 0baI mrgration perspectives 30. GCIM, Switzerland

coucrsvrs ANI) issues 0 DHARAM G. (2004). "Diaspora and development: the case of Kenya" Global migration perspectives No. l0 Global Commission on Intemational Migration, Switzerland ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA (ECA, 1990). Altemative Strategies to the World Bank Structural Adjustment Programme for African Countries, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. EKANONE, J. U. (1993). The structural adjustment programme (SAP) and its impact on the agricultural sector. The Agricultural Economist. Vol No. I ppI9 — 21. NATIONAL POPULATION COMMISSION (1991). Census Figures. Abuja, Nigeria. NWAJIUBA, C. U. (2005). Intemational Migration and Livelihood in Southeast Nigeria. Mimeo. Department of Agricultural Economics, lmo state University, Owerri, Nigeria. OKORIE, P. U. (2002). Prospects of food self-Reliance. In NWAJIUBA, C. Perspectives in food security in southeast Nigeria. Magraf verlag, Weirkesheim, Germany II-22. OSUGIRI, I. I. (1996). Effects of population pressure on agricultural productivity in Imo state. Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis, dept of Agricultural economics,, university of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. THIELE, R. (2003). The bias against agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa: has it survived 20 years of Structural adjustment Programes?" Quarterly Joumal of International Agriculture. Vol 42 (I): 5 — 20. UNFPA (1995) Inventory of Population Projects in Developing Countries Around the World. New York, United Nations Fund For Population Activities. VON BRAUN, J. (2005). The millennium development goals in need of strategy and instrument - agriculture and rural development matter" Quartery Journal of InternationalAgriculture. Vol 44 (2): 95 — 100.

I0 c. NWAJIUBA WORLD BANK (2000). World Development lndications I999/2000. ZHANG, L. A. DE BRAUW, and S. ROZELLE (2003). Labour market liberalization, employment and Gender in rural china. Proceedings of the 25"‘ Intemational Conference of Agricultural Economists, 16-22 August 2003 Durban, South Africa pp. 918-939. i

uousmo DISEQUILIRIA ii CHAPTER TWO MIGRATION, URBANIZATION AND SPATIAL HOUSING DISEQUILIBRIA .L Diogu Faculty 0f Engineering and Environmental Sciences [m0 State University, Owerri, Nigeria Email: [email protected] INTRODUCTION In most developing countries, population was centred in rural areas for much of the 20"` century. Only 18 percent of the population of these Less Developed Countries (LDCs) lived in urban areas in 1950. As the regions of these LDCs began to industrialize, rural residents began to move to the cities, promoting further industrial development by expanding the urban labour pool. Increased population growth in rural areas coupled with improved communication network expanded this migration wave. The proportion of urban dwellers in these areas consequently rose from 18% in 1950 to 40% in 2000 (PRB, 2004). Population shit} from rural to urban areas is accompanied by social and economic changes. Urban residents nomially have better and higher educational levels, higher income, lower fertility, better health and longer life than rural dwellers. Cities offer amenities and economies of scale that lower the cost of providing public services (PRB, op cit; UN HABITAT, 1996). Cities are increasingly more important in transforming resources into productive goods and services that contribute strongly to national economic production. Though, agriculture is still the major employer of labour in many LDCs, it contributes more than half of the gross domestic product (GDP) in relatively few of them, even the poorest. However, unprecedented population growth in urban areas resulting from rural-urban migration and relatively reduced mortality rate over the past 50 years strained the capacity of these LDCs to provide basic services and infrastructure for all, but the most privileged. As a consequence of

this inability to meet social, economic environmental and infrastructure demands, and the increasingly unrestricted rural-urban migration, "almost l billion people, or 32% of the global urban population languish in slums which are mostly in LDCs. TIBAIJUKA (2004) described the urbanization phenomenon in Africa, and in the LDCs as the ‘urbanization of poverty‘ with the locus ofglobal poverty moving into cities. This unusual process of urbanization and the inability of the system to control the process promoted the insurgence of slums, and their gradual development in all the cities of the LDCs. Urbanization in Africa, as in other LDCs of the South brought misery as against the positive retums of the same process in the North early last century. The regions of South—eastem Nigeria have a share of this. POPULATION TREND IN AFRICA In 1990, the world population was 5.25 billion, of which Africa constituted 654.75 million or 12.3 percent. The world population was 6.071 billion in 2000 AD with 4,874 billion people in the LDCs (PRB, op cit). Of thisabout 2 billion live in urban centres of developing countries. The world population reached 6.4 billion in 2004 and is growing at the rate of 80 million people every year (PRB. op cit). By the 2025, Aiiica’s population is estimated to increase to 1.62 billion or 19.7% of projected world population of 8.21 billion (ILO, 1990, in ONYEGIRI, 2004). The fastest population growth is predictably taking place in sub-Sahara Africa, and by 2025, Africa’s population is expected to exceed that of North America, Europe, Russia and Japan put together (ONYEGIRI, 2004). UN demographic experts also estimated that in 2025, 50% of African’s population will be resident in urban areas, particularly in metropolitan and mega cities, resulting in a dramatic change from a world of rural people, to one of city dwellers (MABOGUNJE, 2004). This will present a whole range of new problems added to the already difficult situation. Another area of concem is the fertility characteristics of Africa population. Migration, in concert with fertility and mortality (as independent population vanables), changes population size and characteristics. In West Africa, the high

iiousmo nisiaouirim is fertility rates over the years meant increasing number of young people. Elderly people aged 65 or older are only 3% of the population. This broad base of the West African population structure is a powerful force for future population growth, as these larger cohorts of young people move into childbearing ages. The number of childbearing women (age roughly, 15 - 49) is expected to rise from about 52 million to 151 million between 2000 and 2050 (PRB op cit). Table la and b show the trends in total fertility rates in Nigeria. Table la: Trends in total fertility rate in Nigeria *’"*···* 1981 — 1982 6.3 5-9 2003 5.7 Table lb: Fertility by background characteristics Background Tom] Percentage Mean No of children characteristics Fertility rate Currently ever born to women 40Pregnant 49 (% Nigeria Urban “ 9.4 6.2 - *****==·* K1 *2-4 7-* $0****-eS* Source: Curled from NPC (Nigeria) and ORC Macro 2004. POPULATION CHANGES AND THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE Nigeria’s population in 1991 was 88,992,220 (NATIONAL POPULATION COMMISION (NPC) 1991). Going by 2.83% growth rate, the population of Nigeria would be 115 million in 2000, with 49.8 million urban population or 43.3% of this total projected population. The Nigerian population is projected to reach 151.2 million in 2010 and by 2025, will increase to 229.8 million. ln effect, Nigeria’s population will double the year 2000 figure in a period of 25 years (by 2025). This population increase will intensify niral-urban and urban ~—urban

16 J. oioou 1975 the total housing stock in Nigeria was 3 to 3.5 million, and in 1980, an estimated shortfall of3 million housing units was established (ABIODUN, 1985). Housing deficiency is, at varying degrees global in scope, and there is a growing recognition of the fundamental obstacle to its prompt eradication. This obstacle is identified as resource limitations relative to needs even in the wealthy countries, let alone the LDCs (such as Nigeria), struggling to attain average levels of living beyond mere subsistence. Many critics have advocated for more cost of housing and urban development to the community. But the fact is that, every economy has a Maximum Housing Carrying Capacity, MHCC, beyond which, there will be socio-economic distortions that may adversely affect the entire national economic framework. Housing has to compete with other sectors for public and private capital invesunent: energy supply; industries; job creation; health; education; nutrition; schools, etc. Optional strategies for reducing housing pressure will include programmes aimed at stepping down and reducing rural-urban migration after fertility levels have been kept on check. Migration accounts for the greatest part of artificial population increase in urban areas of Nigeria that bear directly on urban housing equilibrium. HOUSING DISEQUILIBRIA Housing problems have quantitative and qualitative dimensions. Housing problems manifest fewer than 4 disequilibria states (BURNS et al, 1977). These disequilibria states of housing include: 1. Static disequilibria — this is the misbalance between the supply of housing and the quantity of housing needed to accommodate the population on average. of world standards. The United Nations recommend minimum plroductron of 8 — l0 dwelling units per thousand population per annum. ln igena, ABIODUN (op cit) puts housing production at 2 -3 units per 1000

uousmo DlSliQUlLlRlA rv population per annum, with as high as 7-8 units shortfall per 1000 population per annum. 2. Dynamic disequilibria — refers to the increasing disparity between population growth and growth in housing supply. lt refers to the growing gap between desired and actual levels of housing. ln developing countries there is l0/lpopulation growth to housing production, whereas world average is 4.6/l. 3. Qualitative disequilibria — In every city, certain identifiable population groups are poorly housed relative to others in the same city, or poorly housed relative to the minimum prevailing standards acceptable to the community. Accepted that differential housing is a cornrnon phenomenon in housing politics, the contrasts in housing quality are more conspicuously pronounced in LDCs than in developed nations. This qualitative disequilibrium is widening rapidly in the less developed countries, resulting in rapidly expanding slum-settlements fuelled by migration from rural to urban, and or, urban to urban areas. 4. Spatial disequilibria: This is where the Southeastem region of Nigeria ranks highest. It refers to the territorial mismatch between the supply of housing as immobile resource and the highly mobile population needing housing at points in space. Urbanization is the most pervasive agent of population mobility that generates Spatial Housing Disequilibria. Large migration from rural areas to cities are likely to continue into the first half of the 21S` century in the less developed regions of the world. Today, millions of people are migrants living in states or countries other than there own, or living in places other than their place of birth. Because, housing is immobile or relatively so, it camiot be moved when its rural occupants are attracted to the city. This results in over supply of vacant dwellings at places of origin (of migration) and overcrowding of housing stock at destination points. This phenomenon can occur in a nation experiencing a stable, declining or increasing total population. However, the condition becomes greatly aggravated in countries with rapid population growth, and high population mobility such as Nigeria with a 5.8% urbanization rate, and very high population mobility (Draii NUDP, 2004).

Southeastem Nigerians, who are mainly lgbos are exceptionally very mobile, and coupled with their recent socio-cultural demand to compulsorily builda house in their villages, Spatial Housing Disequilibria in South-eastem Nigeria is probably the highest in the world. The essence of Housing Need Estimates, is to highlight the magnitude of housing problems, set ambitions and goals, and stimulates actions. Together with similar estimates of the need for food, energy and basic materials, these estimates serve to raise legitimate questions about the world`s, and indeed Nigeria’s capacity to sustain rates of population growth, migration, urbanization and economic expansion and well being of the citizens. HOUSING DISEQUILIBRIUM IN SOUTHEAST NIGERIA Three things, after education, are the yardstick for measuring social status and life-fulfilment in traditional setting of the South-eastem Nigeria. These are ownership of a home, (not anywhere, but at the village of origin), marriage (especially with one’s kinsmen); and presence of children in marriage especially the male ones. With the bitter experience of homelessness, and the uncomplimentary remark of ignorance of the customs and tradition most "refugees in their fatherland" during the 1967 — 1970 war, were objects of shame and disrepute. Today, the consequence is that, most people have a primary objective of having a home at his village or place of origin before considering of building a house at the city, even when he may not live/stay in this village house for up to 5% of the days in a year. ln fact, the practice today is leading to a phenomenon that could well be described as the emergence of ‘village cities or Urban Housing in Rural settings’. Different residential designs are imported from North America, Canada, and from Australia. With the importation of these designs from diverse world cultures in a spirit of "healthy competition", the villages are being transformed, with enonnous socio-cultural, environmental and economic consequences.

uousmo orsuourtrnm ro On a macro level the result of this phenomenon is the ever-increasing level of Housing Spatial Disequilibria — an over supply of vacant dwellings at places of origin (village) and overcrowding of housing stock at the point of migration destination, the urban centres. This has given rise to phenomenal changes in housing market and consumption pattem by producing different categories of urban housing consumers requiring different housing markets in urban areas of South-eastem Nigeria in particular, and the nation in general. The urban group most affected by Spatial Housing Disequilibria is the low-income contingents of the urban population. URBAN HOUSING CONSUMERS A research survey by the author distinguishes three major categories of lowincome urban housing consumers in the cities of South-eastem Nigerian (DIOGU, 2002). They include: • Periodic Urban Residents: This group of urban poor are found within the urban settlements at certain periods of the year. When the economic activities (for instance, farming, fishing etc) within the rural areas are reduced or absent, they migrate to the urban centres. • Temporary Urban Residents or (T ransitory Residents: This group for one reason or the other but more otten economic fmd themselves within the urban setting and when their goals are achieved they remigrate to the rural areas or to another city. • Permanent Urban Residents: These include among others those who, by birth or otherwise have detined for themselves, a permanent residential status, with every intention to have a permanent residential accommodation within the urban settlement. Some or part of this group may include the original core—urban villagers, who are caught up by urban expansion and development. Migrants in this group, though permanents residents, are still linked with their kits and kin at their villages of origin.

The residential status of urban housing consumers is expected to constitute dependent variables requiring adequate consideration in mass housing programme formulation in these regions, and in the structuring of operational housing market. In most cities of South-eastem Nigeria, there is a large section of the population who want to spend as little as possible on housing and certainly do not want to own a home — at least in their current circumstances. They are in the city to eam money and do not intend to make their home there. A proportion of those who are considered ‘“homeless" in the sense that they sleep in public buildings, parks or other open spaces may have sufficient income to rent a room or bed indoors but prefer to avoid these costs to maximize their savings or to permit them to send more funds to their family living at home/village for the purposes of building a home in their village. It is also common for migrants newly arrival in a city to spend as little as possible on accommodation by relying on family members, relatives or friends to provide accommodation initially, and help in finding employment that permits them to pay for their own accommodation. These consumer preferences require deeper research investigation in order to build a platform for intervention in the housing market, and to effect resultoriented action on mitigating the ever-increasing slum developments in cities of South-eastem Nigeria in particular, and Nigerian cities in general. CONCLUSION I;/;Ll1“;’;?ti;’E:!:i)Lahii)it;ti-lity rate and comparatively improved life expectancy in gron, population growth will continue rn both rural and urban areas of the region. Migration —both local and intemational, will continue to SZFMZLTQTZQTYLZZTOLZIELZTIZZ .‘ZZEZZZ`L‘II§ EZ’°"““ “-""a` "`?°*"€ "* °"`°' met/satellite television will also enhance migration. iziggjggngfgi£;1Il;l§u<;l;Ul§;;J;(ellr;;?;)t:-;2;1css by people of South-eastem Nigeriawill a comprehensive master planning of rulrailgcw Ofthcémtfrgcncc Ofumml cmcsi ’ utheast Nigeria rs recommended. This

uousiwo oisizouiunm zi will place the villages on a planned developmental footing that would ensure environmental protection and sustainable development. At the urban level, a more in-depth research is advocated on the characteristics of urban dwellers with multiple residential statuses. The outcome of such a research is expected to influence the structuring of urban housing markets, with the ultimate aim of reducing the incidence of expanding slum developments in our cities. REFERENCES ABIODUN, J. O. (1985). The Provision of Housing and Urban Environmental Problems in Nigeria. University of lfe, Press Ltd. Pp 174 — 191. AJAYI, M. O., (2004). Urban Regeneration: An Overview. In "Urban Regeneration" A compilation of Seminar Papers. Archibuilt, 2004. Nigerian Institute of Architects. ARIBIGBOLA, A. (2000). "Conceptual Issues in Housing and Housing Provision in Nigeria". Ejfective Housing in the 2l" Century Nigeria". Environmental Forum. Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria. Pp 1 — 8. BURNS, S. and L. GREBLER (1997). The Housing of Nations: Analysis and Policy in a Comparative Framework. The Macmillan Press Ltd. London. Drait National Urban Development Policy, 2004. Federal Govemment of Nigeria. DIOGU, J. O. (2002a). "Appraisal of Consumer Satisfaction in Urban Mass Housing in Southem Nigeria: A Survey Report" In The Proceedings of the Millennium Conference. "Building in the 21S` Century. — Dept of Building, Ahmad Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. Pp 190 — 195. DIOGU, J. O. (2002b). "Housing the Poor in Nigeria: The Integrated Project Approach". Journal of Association of A rchitects Educators in Nigeria. Vol. 2 (1): 40 — 44

21 1. Dioou MABOGUNJE, A. I. (2004). An African Perspective. In UN-HABITAT Debate. Vol. 10 (4):12. NATIONAL POPULATION COMMISSION (NPC) [Nigeria] and ORC Macro. 2004. Nigeria Demographic and Health Survev 2003. Calverton, Maryland. 333 pages. ONYEGIRI, I. (2004). "Low Cost Effective Housing in Nigeria". A Ph.D Seminar Paper, presented to the Faculty of Engineering and Enviromirental Sciences, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria. 60 pages. POPULATION RESEARCH BUREAU (PRB) March, 2004. Transition in World Population. 40 pages. TIBAIJUKA, A. K. (2004). A Message from the Executive Director. "A Future for Planning." In UN-HABlTATDebate. Vol 10 (4): 2. UKAEGBU, F. N. (2005). The Igboss The Afrikan R00t 0fNati0ns. Heinemann Education Books (Nig) Plc. 381 pages. UN — HABITAT, (1996). An Urbanizing W0rld: Global Report 0n Human Settlements. Oxford University Press.

cowsruucriow rucumouis 23 CHAPTER THREE APPROPRIATE CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE FOR MIGRANT COMMUNITIES P. Okerekeland I. 0nyegiri2 I Department 0fBuila'inng, 2Department 0fA rchitecture, Ima Stare University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Southeast Nigeria lies between latitude 40 l6" and 70 North and longitude 5° 22" and 90 30" East of the Equator. The area comprises tive of Nigeria's thirty-six states - Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. The area is the most densely populated part of Nigeria with over 400 persons per square kilomeue. As a result, the area is prone to migration from the rural to urban and from the region to other parts of the country. These movements of person resulted in enomious pressure that otten results in the proliferation of substandard buildings. This impacts negatively on the environment and quality of life, with far reaching consequences that may affect health, crime and the security of migrants. It is against this background that this chapter proffers a solution that will ameliorate the plight of migrants in owning house using available resources wherever they migrate. The use of earth in building is not only easy but also affordable, and environmental-friendly. Technologically, the concept of prefabricated buildings is as old as concrete. To realize its iiill benefits requires huge capital outlay and a pool of highly specialized team of engineering persormel experienced in the mechanized factory production of components and their assembly in the construction site (OKEREKE, 2002). This makes such a system unsuitable for a developing country with low level of technological know-how. However, the system could be modified with the introduction of manual labour-intensive technique that will rely on locally available materials. Such technology adaptation should make use of some of the attributes of traditional practices such as the age

26 P. oksaaka AND i. orwisoini CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE Casting of panels: One of the disadvantages of bricks as walling units is that their laying is skilled-labour intensive. To obviate this disadvantage, a factorybased technique is recommended (ADEPEGBA, 1980). Using Large earth Blocks (LEB) of varying sizes: This consists of forming the LATRASH mix in prepared moulds placed horizontally on a well-levelled ground. (The use of the concreted ground floor earlier cast may be advantageous). The sizes of these moulds range from 500-l0O0mm in length, 150-200mrn high and l50·230mrn thick. These large blocks are laid in the same way as normal blocks with cement stabilized earth mortar. Where there is door or window opening, metal angles could be used to support the above the opening. As an altemative, special panels, reinforced with sticks or suitable fibres could be used as shown in tig.2 ‘°’ <¤> E% A I? ?O-75mmthick .».- tc-.-; DEITIB 3y€|’ I [tj}, :_ I% 7 · M la Metal angle ooorzwmuow name Fig. 2: Typical wall from large earth blocks Using E rth P . · - . hcadmm:] Th ands (EP). This C0ns1sts of casting earth panels with heights UP to cast gmmid f|§0PT|€;;] ?11’€ also Cast on a well-levelled surface or on an 3ll`€3dY r. - . used as musmtcdnin ;iilt€¤13lIV€, vertical moulds with slight inclination may bc Operations. lg- 3-Th€ pl'Oduction process consists of the following

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE U Casting of the ground floor or re aration of a levelled round u n which the P P B P0 mould is placed; Preparation of panels‘ moulds (erection, oiling, etc.); • Preparation of reinforcement from bamboo splits; • Spreading of polythene sheets over the mould surface; • Casting ofthe first layer of 75—l0Omm thick LATRASH mix over the polythene sheet; • Placement of the reinforcement over the cast tirst la er; Y • Casting of the second layer. A, -$‘?.}.`:L{.`JiL.'.i£l? z` T;;III'L-ijglxlv g-jg—|‘».»1\iI4II~I—.'I'I|» PO\¤'I•Oi l _ g E .IN.IV7`.FC·UT¤·.€•h.IzI11r sz? 5< < · · · 3 iy »· .f».i._¤..·,».i1·• ·U.· B) F`. lI'I‘A|IIl'•·\Il |‘kNH‘ O Ilan!-Z*|··.·\'.Ii'| ‘‘‘‘ PP’P‘‘ ‘ {IEEE .... . -------- *IIIII ----- -------- IIIII ----- ------— » IIIIIP .... ........ •*IIIII \.0|•iIn 'I OIl IITWIIOI IADIII IIAUOI IAIIEO lI•$0I\hII'I . 3 DETAHS Of EARTH PANII.5 (E7) CONSTRUCTION The thickness of this second layer depends on the over all thickness of the panels depending on the available labour for hoisting them into position. To reduce the self weight of the panels the first layer may consists of 50-75mm thick of a mix containing 40% laterite and 60-80% saw dust or rice husk (RH) with 10-20%

cement, and the second layer a mix in the usual recommended proportion. This second layer (extemal face) is usually finished with joints as may be desired. An example is as shown in Fig 3a. For the intemal surface, there is need to allow the mud to harden sufficiently before subjecting it to any fomi of surface treatment. Among the surface treatments is the use of the traditional mud finishes common among the Afikpo natives of Ebonyi State and some others among the Igbos of Nigeria. The method consists of using ground termite mound (ikube) mixed with a special type of soil (orueja) which is resistant to surface cracks when rubbed on the surface and later scrubbed grout or cement-sand screed may be brushed on to the surface to improve on its durability. Erection of Panels: The erection of the panel is the major characteristics of this technique. lt relies on communal labour to lift the panels into position. To reduce the amount of labour required, the use of inclined moulds is adopted. Here, only a few hands will be needed to lift the inclined panels into position (the dotted lines in Fig.3). The operation of lifting into position whether from horizontal or inclined position should not be contemplated until the case mud, not less than 14 days are allowed. The lifting operation is with the help of ropes attached to the loops provided at convenient intervals along the top edges of the panel. More than one panel could be cast at a time. Monolithic joints among panels are achieved through the use of loops formed from fibre ropes cast into the panels at reasonable intervals along the ends of the panels as illustrated in Fig. 2. Jointing is achieved by passing upsplit sticks through the loops and fillings up with mud plaster. The panels should be rigidly supported until the joints had hardened sufficiently. The base of the panels are grouted or filled with concrete to reduce seepage. For rnass production of mud panels, the proprietary collapsible steel formwork shown in Fig. 3 could be adopted. This obviates the need to prepare fresh moulds each time a panel is to be cast.

I" CONCLUSION The study continns the possibility of substituting cement with 5 to 25% of RHA in the production of bricks/blocks with satisfactory properties. Apart from the reduced unit cost of such bricks/blocks from RHA, their aesthetic and insulating properties are further enhanced. The easy availability of RHA and laterite in the rice producing areas make LATRASH suitable for rural housing. ln order to facilitate the erection of mud houses, it is suggested that bricks or blocks should be replaced with wall panels from the LATRASH matrix. lt is recommended that the adoption of the LATRASH system should be experimented by building experimental houses in the rice producing areas for further study in the durability of the material in the long term. REFERENCES ADEPEGBA, D. (1980). The Prodigals of Structural Engineering. Inaugural Lectures, University of Lagos, Nigeria. OKEREKE, P. A. et al (1985). "Rice Husk Ash (RHA) as a soil Stabilizer". Proc. l7°` National Conference on Materials Testing, Control and Research. Page No. 6 PP. 90-96. Lagos. OKEREKE, P.A. (1988). "Latcen and latrash Systems for Rural Housing". Proc. Nigerian Society of Engineers Armual conference on Affordable Housing. Owerri OKEREKE, P.A. (2002). Agro-Industrial Waste for Rural Housing. African Journal of Environmental studies Vol. l&2 PP. 95-102. OPA, S. A. (1985). Structural properties of Soil Stabilized Bricks. Proc. Of National Seminar on the use of Clay Bricks. ABU, Zaria.

Ptmrrcrn mrtow _A CHAPTER FOUR PLANTED FALLOW: IMPROVING SHIFTING CULTIVATION TO MINIMIZE MIGRATION L. Nwaigbo Department 0f Soil Science Abia State University, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Nigeria has a population growth rate of about 3% annum (WORLD BANK, 1999). The Southeast Nigeria displays a population density of between 600 and 700 people km2. With population pressure on land famiers shorten forest fallows and lengthen the agricultural period on a piece of land. This depletes the soil, making agriculture unsustainable. This situation compels farmers to migrate seeking other forest sites to cultivate, usually outside their natal environment. Migration in the context of this paper is the movement of a person or group of people from one place to another for temporary or pemranent habitation for economic reasons. Shifting cultivation, the dominant land use practice in southeast Nigeria provides sustenance for about 30 million farmers. Long forest fallows is the case between short periods of farming. The long fallows make traditional techniques sustainable if there is extensive available land. This involves continued deforestation by cutting and buming, and then raising crops on the ashes of destroyed forests. The need for deforestation by shifting cultivators is declining land productivity. This leads to famier migration. Hence the provision of a viable farming system or the improvement of the shifting cultivation practice to enable rural farmers permanently fami on land in their control will be a welcome development. Planted fallow system is an improvement on shifting agriculture. lt is a forestryagriculture linkage in a symbiotic, harmonious system that enables small farmers have sustainable farming systems and ultimately become part of more stable rural communities. Thus by proper agro forestry land use practice, farmers satisfy most basic needs from land available (LUNDGREN and RAINTREE, 1983). Trees add values to farms and traditional shifting cultivators have encouraged the presence of certain trees or herb species in fallows to restore fertility and increase economic yields. This paper therefore examines the concept of planted fallow as a

management altemative to shifting cultivation and for the ¢I€Vt?i0p¤3€1'1I of Stable farming systems for stable crop yield and checking farmer mrgratrons. SHIFTING CULTIVATION AND FARMERS MIGRATION Shifting cultivation: Shifting cultivation otherwise known as slash. and bum ae*°“'“"° is a "‘°*"“" "i,"°""°“Z,f“‘Et`“§.s§Z§'ILZ?.Z$$ i’.“¤?§§1Z2b£EIZr§§.E§2 ‘ umt an cu rv . deisxcliiiie bayigieisirczaiiahegccomts for about three quarter lof total deforestation in Nigeria (01,A-ADAM, 1981). The advantage of this farming system rs that land is not impoverished as long as new forests are cleared for cultivation. This system requires extensive area of land to facilitate farming movement- on yearly or biannual basis from one piece of land to another for productrve agnculture, and to ensure that fallow periods are long enough for the restoration of soil fertility. In parts of Nigeria, fallow periods reduced from 9 to 20 years in the 1960’s to as 1 - 3 ears in the 1990`s CHUKWURAH, 2005). The implication of this iisntxirgts the sariie piece of land is rfultivated annually leading to the exhaustive use of available land (NWAIGBO, 2004). While the population of Nigeria is rising fast, her agricultural land is shrinking fast too as a result of population pressure. The rise in population poses serious problems for the management of agricultural land. 1t is known that farmers do not retum to land with low fertility, preferring to open new forests. This development keeps farmers on the move. Famrlands have economic and ecological carrying capacities. Economic carrying capacity is the sustainable ability of a space to maintain a certain population, while ecological capacity is the maximum number of persons able to live on a certain land area on the basis of resources necessary for life while maintaining the living standards and their quality of life. Both economic and ecological carrying capacities act imperceptibly until such a time their effects become obvious on people. At this point in time the threshold of the carrying capacities is exceeded and the famring system — shifting cultivation crashes leading to the migration of local famring populations in search of fertile farmlands outside their environment. Farmer migrations: The magnitude of migration can be significant. For example by 1923 about 28 lgbeagu famrers of lzzi clan in Abakaliki division migrated and settled in Ntrigom in Ukelle clan also in Abakaliki division of Southeast Nigeria. One year later in 1924 the number shot to 174 (VANGUARD, 2005). The

1gbeagu`s now have several farming settlements. Between 1975 and 1985 in southeast Nigeria, it became policy to establish large-scale plantations by govcmment as a means of replenishing the timber resources of the country. Famring families migrated to these forestry projects, which offered them free famrland in retum for planting and taking care of forest tree crops (Table 1). The failure of the shifting cultivation system and declining yield from farrnlands encouraged migration to these forest plantation centres. Table l: Migration of farming families to afforestation project sites ln southeast Nigeria Farming families Project site State 1975 1980 1985 Mamu river forest reserve Anambra 56 46 35 Ukpon Bende forest reserve Abia 40 43 34 Nkalunta forest reserve Abia 40 28 26 Obeaku forest reserve Abia 20 Ohambele forest reserve Abia 20 a 13 Obokoiia forest reserve lmo 20 25 23 Ohaji forest reserve M 25 30 22 Okigwe forest reserve W 20 15 m Awi forest reserve Cross River 13 u 12 Ikom forest reserve Cross River B 17 12 mai _ 273 254 204 Between 1975 and 1985 there was general decline in the number of farming families migrating to forest plantations. The decline may be due to the effect of petroleum-based industries, which provided jobs for some young farmers. Farmers migrated to these forestation projects because soils were more fertile. Because they are used to shifting cultivation, their farming methods did not change. In these reforestation projects, schools, health centres and labour camps were built for farmer. In Abia state increasing conflicts over access to natural resource between local and immigrant farming communities are some social problems associated with migration. As a result, a migrant farmers' primary school was built at lsiala Oboro in lkwuano Local Govemment Area of Abia State for the large number of migrant

farmer children in the area. The lkwuano local govemment area is the "food basket" of Abia state and there is yearly migration of local farmers rnto the area. PLANTED TREE FALLOWS FOR SOIL RECOVERY Migration may reduce if crop yields from a piece of land becomes sustainable. That is, ifthere is no declining yield as a result of repeated cropping of a piece of land. It is common to use fallow periods to replenish soils but shifting cultivation is unique in using secondary forest (MONTAGNINI and MENDELSOHN, 1997). When a secondary forest replaces an abandoned cropland, the cooler soil temperature under the forest canopy act favourably on both the addition and decomposition of organic matter (VAN WAMBEKE, 1992). Grass fallows need up to 20 years to restore soil nutrients while fallows with trees do so in much shorter periods. For instance, Sesbania tree specie fixes Nitrogen (N) enough for famiing in 2 years, with leaves falling off, enriching soils and roots fixing N. Time needed for restoration of soil organic matter depends on the rate at which the planted tree established itself This rate depends on rainfall, soil physical and chemical conditions, topography and erosive processes. Typically fallow periods of 5 to 15 years are required in most tropical humid areas for soils to recover organic matter to levels similar to those of the original rainforest (VAN WAMBEKE, 1992; WATERS, 1971). With planted fallow the recovery period of soil for productive crop production is reduced to 3 to 4 years because trees are chosen based on their ability for heavy litter fall and high rate of N fixation. Thereafter cropping of the land becomes permanent as plant pruning are retumed to the soil on regular basis for soil fertility restoration. Planted fallow therefore decreases the length of fallow period, enhances the rate of` soil recovery and improves the economic retum of the farmer through judicious management. Some tropical soils suffer extremely low organic matter levels and unable to sustain famiing systems. Planted fallow aims at improving land productivity and stabilize crop production. This is achieved through intemal resource use, efficient recycling of organic materials from trees and full exploitation of the biological potential of the agro-ecosystem. Achievement of soil recovery and sustainable productrvrty according to LUGO (1988) are the prime goals in ecosystem

{_ _ PLAN&lU;Al,1_L)\\' ____________;;g rehabilitation. This is what planted fallow is about and will achieve in a short period in order to stem famicr migration. ln most tropical countries such as Nigeria, planted tree fallow are adopted since traditional shifting cultivation has broken down due to population pressure. Planted tree fallow ensures permanent and productive fanning on a land. This is desirable and necessary. According to FINCK (1973), a three-year continuous cropping under shifting cultivation system requires a fallow period of 20 years for the recuperation of the soil fertility. During the 2000/20001 cropping season at Umudike, Abia state in Southeast Nigeria, pruning from planted fallow tree species of Dacryladenia harrcri, Gliricida sepium, Penmclerhra macrophylla and Spondius mombin added to the soil, nitrogen between 29.4 to 57.0kg ha`], Phosphorus of between 3.8 to 4.8kg ha` I and Potassium range of between 3.8 to 13.8kg ha`]. This underscores the importance of planted tree fallow in soil recovery. PLANTED TREE FALOOW FOR IMPROVED CROP YIELD A key to the success of this planted fallow system is the choice of quick growing indigenous and exotic trees with good economic potential and positive impact on soil properties (YOUNG, 1989). The impact of planted trees on soil fertility depends on their nutrient-recycling characteristic such as chemical composition of foliage and rapidity of litter decay. The quality of plant litter drives its decomposition and nutrient release. The quality of litter is important particularly in low input sustainable systems like planted fallow in which litter decomposition is a major determinant of soil fertility. Plant litter acts as mulch and fast decomposition accelerates recovery of degraded soil especially if leaching is minimal. Tropical soils tend to be poor in nutrients because of rapid break down of litter and rapid leaching due to high rainfall. Therefore the more efficient a plant is in keeping the valuable elements in circulation the more it will reduce the rate of degradation of the soil. One would therefore expect the soil to be improved at different rates under different kinds of cover according to the amount of elements in the foliage and in leaf litter. For example in an experimental planted fallow system in Umudike, Nigeria, pnming

from different tree species incorporated into the soil improved seed yam yield from 3. t ha" to 5.4 t ha`] during the 2000 and 2001 cropping seasons (Table 2). With significant improvement of seed yam yield through plant pruning, famiers tendency to out migrate in search for better agricultural land may no longer be desirable if planted tree fallow system are adopted for soil rehabilitation. Table 2: Inlluenee of plant pruning addition to soil on seed yam yield Plant pruning Seed yam yield t ha` 2000 season 2001 season Dactyladenia barteri 4-2 4-8 omicadra sepium 4.3 4-9 Pentaclethra macrophylla 4.0 4-2 Spondias mombin 5-4 Zero pruning 3-0 3-I CONCLUSION The population of southeast Nigeria is rising rapidly. This has caused traditional shifting cultivation systems to break down leading to migration of farmers. Therefore meaningful agricultural programmes to stem migration in high population density and land short areas should be such as will encourage increased productivity of small scale farmers. The traditional bush fallow system is such that only a small portion of available land is under cultivation at any given time based on multiple cropping systems. This small portion of land usually suffers soil fertility loss and decline in productivity. Ideal technology must therefore be in place to support soil fertility. Planted tree fallow concept, which provides the humus through adequate supply of organic matter for sustainable and rmproved crop production will ensure stable yield and eliminate migratory desires as local farmers will be able to satisfy their needs — food, fuel and shelter from their land.

l'LAN`l`1iD rAu.ow rt REFERENCES CHUKWURAH, E. C. (2005). The effect of plant population on growth and yield of groundnut (Arachis hypogeae) in Amakama, Umuahia South, Abia State, Nigeria. Unpublished Postgraduate Diploma Project. Abia State University, Nigeria. FINCK, A. (1973). The fertility of tropical soils under the influence of agricultural land use. Applied sciences and Development l. 7 — 2l. LUGO, A. E. (1988). Ecosystem rehabilitation in the tropics. Environ 30:41-45. LUNDGREN, B. and J. B. RAINTREE (1983). “Sustained Agro forest" ln NESTLE B (ed) Agricultural Research for Development: Potentials and Challenges in Asia. The Hague, ISNAR. MONTAGNINI, F. and R. O. MENDELSOHN (1997). Managing forest fallows: Improving the economics of swidden agriculture. Ambio 26 (2) 1 18-123. NWAIGBO, L. C. (2004). Agro-forestry: A pathway for soil fertility improvement and sustainable agriculture in Nigeria. In ANENE A and L.C. NWAIGBO (eds) Issues in sustainable Agriculture in Nigeria pp 166 — 172. Osprey publishers, Owerri, Nigeria. OLA-ADAM, B. A. (1981). Strategies for conservation and utilization of forest genetic resources in Nigeria. Journal of Forestry 11:32-40. VANGUARD (NIGERIA) (2005). Enough of the blood bath please. Warring towns beg Federal Govemment. May 21 2005, p l 1. VAN WAMBEKE, A. (1992). Soils of the Tropics. Properties and Appraisal. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 69-95. WATERS, R. F. (1971). Shifting cultivation in Latin America. FAO forestry Development. Paper No 17, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. WORLD BANK (1999). World Development Report Washington. World Bank country data, Nigeria.

as 1.. NwA1GB0 YOUNG, A. 1989. Agro-forestry for soil conservation. C. A. B. lntemation 1 and lntcmational council for Research in Agro-forestry, Wallingford, UK. 3

CHAPTER FIVE FORESTS CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION PRESSURE M. Onuh, C. Nwosu and I. Christa Faculty 0f Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Ima State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Although migration has far reaching effects on political, social, economic, religious and agricultural activities, this paper however focuses on the consequences of migration on forest resources of southeast Nigeria. Migration of labour out of rural areas (geographical) and out of farm jobs (occupational) is one of the most pervasive features of agricultural uansformations and economic growth. This is true both historically in developed countries and currently in less developed countries. Among nations, the share of rural population declines sharply as per capita incomes increase from 70 to 80 percent in countries with the lowest per capita GNPs to less than 15 percent in the highest-income countries (TAYLOR and MARTIN, 2003). The share of the national workforce in agriculture plunges even more sharply from 90 percent or higher in low-income countries. Developing countries, including Nigeria, have experienced dramatic declines in their rural population shares over the past three decades. NWAJIUBA (2004) emphasized that rural-urban migration leads to new challenges, which culminates in loss of labour available for agriculture. Thus, a country may be credited as having high human population, yet the agricultural sector will be lacking labour. In the case of southeast Nigeria, decline in rural population has been the case since end of the Nigeria civil war ended in 1970. This is despite higher rates of natural population growth in rural than in urban areas. Migration is therefore an important livelihood strategy for individuals and households yet; the motivations and processes involved are poorly understood. Adequate policies targeting the management of migration depend on the awareness about the motives, processes and likely impacts of migration on people‘s livelihood and on the environment.

Within the context of increasing pressure on resources, and the need for environmentally sustainable methods of economic development and poverty alleviation, migration may have both positive and negative effects on livelihoods, Migration may relieve pressures on natural resources in densely populated regions, while providing opportunities for poverty alleviation. On the other hand, migration may also frustrate attempts at sustainable development in the migrant receiving area. The link between migration and natural environment is multifaceted and it is caused by, and results in, envirorunental change (BLACK, 1998)., On one hand, out—migration in the form of labour migration and resettlement occurs as a response to land degradation or environmental disasters. On the other hand, migration (forced and spontaneous alike) is otien linked to environmental degradation as; moves into new areas will rework the profile of local resource entitlements (ELMHIRST, 2001). Migration can have both positive and negative social and environmental causes and impacts. Migrants may add positively to processes of development in the receiving areas through their input in social and human capitals. Negative impacts arise where conflicts with existing local populations occur, olien as the result of disruptions of local institutions and resources management systems (LOCKE and ADGER, 2000). CONSEQUENCES ON FOREST RESOURCES Forests are land covered by trees, shrubs, brushes, climbers, creepers and some other undergrowth, but generally dominated by trees (DANIEL et al., 1979). Forests influence the environment in erosion control, soil fertility, watershed protection, maintenance of water cycle, weather and climate modification, mamtenance of carbon cycle and provision of habitat for wild animals (NVl/ANKWO, 2003). Problems arise when forests fail to provide these essential environment services. Migration of human population in and out of an area is one of the major factors contributing to the loss of forest resources. Deforestation, the removal of forest cover, is encouraged mainly by human activities (urbanization, industrialization and provision of mechanized transportation). Immigrants who need land to build houses destroy forests in southeast Nigeria, hitherto, providing 3:;*3:;:i;:.g§;1;;s:r;;€;$;;;ber dealers who lodge the forest trees for USG in

The development of crude oil exploration in Nigeria provided avenue for young men and women, who should provide labour in rural agriculture, to abandon agriculture and migrate to urban areas, within and outside Nigeria in search of scarce white—collar jobs. Southeast Nigeria is the worst hit in this trend where young people, even under aged children migrate to urban cities in and outside Nigeria. From a different perspective however, out-migration in southeast Nigeria is a blessing in respect of forest regeneration, since the few aged rural residents now use less land for farming. On the other hand, human population pressure in migrant-receiving areas makes it imperative that forest materials will be needed to construct more houses and other infrastructures. Tropical rainforests are prime examples of natural areas that contribute heavily to human welfare by acting as environmental buffers (MAKANJUOLA, 1986). FAO (1985) report that all tropical forests jointly occupy about 40% of total area of the tropics. The rainforest remains nature’s most significant storehouse of untapped infomration on all biological life. As a result of the importance of forests resources, forests are victims of extensive exploitation. However, forests are capable of regrowth or compensating for rational removals (GRADWOHL and GREENBERG, 1988). But, due to continuous exploitations, the future ability of forests to compensate for lost resources can no longer be assured and deforestation of the ecosystem becomes an issue of concem. Deforestation is the removal or destruction of forest vegetation unaccompanied by deliberate effort at its replacement (ENABOR, 1986). Man's irrational use of forests and absolute disregard of the need for their regrowth is a major cause of deforestation and this has gone on for long a time that it is aiding desert advancement in the hinterland of forest zones (MAKANIUOLA, 1986). The problem of deforestation is more pronounced in developing countries than developed countries. This is attributed to the poverty of these countries and their dependence on the forest for timber and fuel. FAO (1986) estimated that 11.3 million hectares of tropical forests are destroyed annually. ln Nigeria, as in other tropical countries; the rate of deforestation has accelerated in recent years to approximately 285000 hectares annually (OSENI, 1978).

FACTORES THAT ENCOURAGE DEFORESTATION Agricultural practice: Agricultural practice through bush clearing for farming is an agent of deforestation. However, maintaining orchards of plantation crops could solve problems related to this. This in a way replaces the natural forest with man-made forests. Population growth: Population growth can through migration where people leave their communities for another. lncrease in population increases the need for more shelter; consequently, existing towns grow into urban centres thereby swallowing up adjoining fannlands and pushing back forest boundaries to create new farmlands. ln Nigeria generally and the southeast in particular, forests are destroyed because of industrialization. The need for industrial estates, housing estates, markets, roads, and parks are built to accommodate migrants. The consequence of deforestation is the gradual loss of the benefits of forests. In recent years, there has been wide fear and outcry conceming the gradual depletion of the ozone layer, as its effect is now observed in the high incidence of irradiation hitting the earth surface. The effect of irradiation had been kept at bare by the forest cover, which traps the sun energy. MEASURES TO CHECK DEFORESTATION Measures to check deforestation should encourage and facilitate the integrated management of tropical forest ecosystem to provide wildlife and non-wood crops with minimal disturbance of the ecosystem and associated wild genetic resources. Some of the measures to check deforestation include: - Legislation and administrative arrangements to protect forest resources. - Reforestation programmes to replace deforested areas. - Smce urbanization and industrialization are welcome development programmes, govemment should reserve areas for tree planting, and as - ;\;;i;:H;;;;i]¢i;r€§nt;:an;:;armprs through incentives and loan facilities. constitute the bulk cfm}; lC3 po rcres encouraging young people (thai _ I ' grating population) to stay in rural areas and mak¢ a living as their counterparts in urban areas.

.._._ CONCLUSION Agriculture in southeast Nigeria was once a booming trade, where young men and women provided the required labour. Until the advent of crude oil exploitation in Nigeria, the southeast was a major agricultural area. With increasing urbanization and industrialization due to petroleum, interest in agriculture dwindled. Thus, majority of the people migrated out of the southeast to other places, both within and outside Nigeria. It is advised that careful management of the existing forest should be embarked upon to reduce the current rate of deforestation, and aggressive reforestation should be adopted to meet with future demands for forest products. Govemment should also make agriculture an attractive profession to encourage young people to adopt it as a means of livelihood. REFERENCES BLACK, R. (1998). Refugees and the Enviromnent. Longman, London. DANIEL, T.W; J.A. HELENS and F.S. BAKER (1979). Principles of Silviculture. Mac-Graw Hill Book Company. New York. 15-36Pp ELMHIRST, B. (2001). Labour Migration, Enviromrrent and Politics of Community. EUROSEAS, SOAS, London. FAFCHAMPS, M. and B. MINTEN (2001). Social Capital and Agricultural Trade. American Journal of Agricultural Economics 83: 680-685 FOOD and AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1985). FAO’s Forestry Action. FOOD and AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION (1986). FAO Tropical Forestry Action Plan, Unasylva Vol.38,No.152 GRADWOHL J. and GREENBERG, R. (1986). Saving the Tropical Forests. Earthscan Publishers Ltd. London. 27p

M M. 0NUH. c. Nwosu AND 1. cmusro HOERDER, D. (2002). Cultures in Contact, World Migration in the Second Millennium. Duke University Press. LOCKE C. and W.N. ADGER (2000). Changing Places Migration’s Social and Environmental Consequences. Environment 42(7): 25-35 MAKANJUOLA, B. (1986). Strategies for checking Deforestation in the Savannah area of Nigeria. The Challenges of Deforestation in Nigeria. Proc. Of Annual Conf Of Forestry Assoc. of Nigeria. NWAJIUBA, C.U. (2004). Labour Constraints and the Challenge of Agricultural Mechanization in Farming Systems in Nigeria. In: Issues in Sustainable Agriculture in Nigeria. ANENE, A. and L.C. NWAIGBO (eds.) Osprey Publication Centre, Owerri, Nigeria. 190-193Pp NWANKWO, O. O. (2003). Man and Forestry Management. In: Man and Environmental Influences. OHAZIRIKE, N. C., M.O. ONUH, A.N.OKERE and P. N. DURU (eds,). City Prints. Oweni, Nigeria. l56-l7lPp OSENI, A.N. (l978). An Assessment of Nigeria’s Wood Balance. Paper presented at the 8* Annual Conf Of Forestry Assoc. of Nigeria. TAYLOR, J.E. and P.L. MARTIN (2003). Human Capital: Migration and Rural Population Change. In: Bruce Gardner and Gardan Fausser(eds.)Hand book of Agricultural Economics. North-Holland

Miormrrow AND uvusrocx Pnooucrrow 4;, CHAPTER SIX CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION ON LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION B. Ekenyem Department Of Animal Science and Fisheries, [m0 State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Human migration is motivated by several factors, which KOMOLAFE (2002) has located in the present trend of globalisation. Although spatial displacement of emigrants to other countries has not been according to a straightforward push-pull mechanism, poverty, and related socio—economic constraints are major causes of population movements (FLOYD, 1965; GODDARD, 1974). In Nigeria, the search for employment and economic survival are some reasons for migration. Migration, within or out of Nigeria has implications on livestock production systems in Nigeria especially in the South East. Economic survey of Nigeria (1976) states that with nearly all the major tropical ecological zones within her boundaries, a fairly extensive coastline and considerable continental shelf, Nigeria possesses great potential for self-sufficiency in livestock and fish production to ensure adequate and reliable supplies of protein to her teeming population. Livestock as the major source of animal protein in Nigeria are the comer stone for nutritional balance, tool to prevent malnutrition and pivot for physical and mental development, source of revenue to government and individuals, source of employment, and foreign exchange eamer for Nigeria. There is growing demand for protein related diets in Nigeria, which are insufficiently supplied to the populace (ABDULLAHI, 2003). As a result, there is need for public policy and private efforts to combine forces, revamp this threatening and glooming scenario, and save people from imminent protein malnutrition. The protein demand and supply gap has been emphasized by OZO (2004). This paper is aimed at assessing the impact of migration of South Eastem

B. EKENYEM Nigerians on livestock production and €0¤$¤mP·¥i0¤ ?$` aff;j€;¤;;0lcsustainnb|€ improvement in the nutritional and socia1—economrc sta us o p p _ THE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION CRISES Low animal protein production and sub-optimal consumption is a source of concem as people are exposed to risk of protein malnutrition. In Nigeria, there is continuous growing demand for protein related diets, which U rs insufficiently supplied to the populace (ABDULLAH1, 2003). Protein insufficiency rn the food intake of the citizenry is challenging. Owing to a combination of diverse socioeconomic factors, poverty account for the prevalence of nutritional deficiencies (OZO. 2004). Characteristics of livestock production in southeast Nigeria Most livestock production outfits in the South East Nigeria are smallholding. Few livestock, mainly goats, sheep and a few cattle notably the mutunu (West African short hom cattle) as ruminant population are kept. Some people keeps fowls (local and exotic breeds), pigs (mainly exotic) and rabbits as non·ruminants species. Livestock farming in most families are extensively or semi-intensively managed with little or no expertise and the scope of production is subsistence. Extensive management system has the demerits of poor record keeping, losses due to poor weather, accidents and stealing, disease spread and its poor management. There is however some intensively managed large-scale pig and poultry business. Women are largely involved in subsistence livestock production, notably poultry and goat production. Goats are mainly kept in stalls and fed mainly forages, browses and food residues and left over items with herd rarely exceeding ten goats. These livestock production practices aggregate to resolve animal protein demand and supply gap, provide employment, improve living standards and reduce crimc. There is decline in livestock production (Table 1) CBN (2000). The growth rate declined from 9% in 1986-1990 to 1.7% in 1991-1998. This calls for urgent attention. It would be observed that while the population of Nigeria is increasing at the rate of 3%, the livestock production is on the decline.

The following measure could help improve livestock production: Youth mobilization and empowerment: Most youths migrate to urban cities in search of employment and income to establish business. There is therefore need for sensitisation of youths especially after university education and provision of financial support to establish livestock enterprises. Youths are more likely to embrace new technologies, and have more zeal and initiatives. Table 1: Average growth rate of livestock and fisheries ln Nlgerla for the period 1970-1998 Year livestock fishery 1970-1975 -0.1 4.6 1976-1980 -0.3 3.9 1981-1985 7.0 -15.0 1986-1990 9.0 5.0 1991-1998 1.7 4.2 Source Adapted from CBN (2000) Provision of amenities: Potable water, electricity and good roads are necessary for livelihood in rural areas and productivity of farm animals. It therefore becomes necessary to provide these. Modernization of livestock production: Agricultural mechanization is desirable. Drudgery is a discouragement. Therefore, for sustainable animal production in the South East, mechanized systems of production should be encourage. Provision of farm inputs, loans at low interest rates and subsides: Provision of farm inputs such as animal feeds, day old chicks, livestock drugs and vaccines are possible materials that could be subsidized to encourage farmers. The provisions of loans to willing livestock farmers will help re-settle people who want to migrate to cities. Animal improvement programmes: Animals cannot perform beyond their genetic capability no matter how well fed and managed (MADUBUIKE and EKENYEM, 2000). Most of the breeds locally reared in southeast Nigeria are of poor genetic potentials.

48 B. EKENYEM Examples of this are the West African dwarf goat and the local fowl. These breeds are not profitable to keep and therefore discourage people from keeping them. Therefore the methods of livestock improvement including introduction, selection and breeding should be adopted to make livestock farming very lucrative. Improvement of management techniques: Traditional livestock systems should be changed and commercial oriented large-scale farms increased to discourage people migrating for greener pasture. This will ensure employment opportunities, higher income, reduced social vices and increased foreign exchange eamings. CONCLUSION Animal protein deficit in the diets of Nigeiians is a matter of concem. Livestock farming in southeast Nigeria not being financially attractive largely causes this. This contributes to migration, causes unemployment, spiral increase in crime waves, poverty and malnutrition. Policy is required to restructure the situation by giving incentives such as improved social amenities to rural areas, inputs subsidies and soft loans to livestock farmers and encourage good market outlets for livestock products. This will modify people’s attitude and reduce migration thereby ensuring the sustainability of livestock production. REFERENCES ABDULLAHI, A. 2003. Appropriate Management system for small scale livestock production in Nigeria. In; proc. 8"‘ Ann. Conf Of Animal. Science gssoenation of Nig. Sept. 16 —l8"` Fed. Univ. of Tech. Mimia, Niger State, igena (eds) OLATUNJI, E, A., AYANWALE , B. A., SHIAOYA E. L and AREMU, A. CENT su-UQURAI} OF NIGERIA (2000). The Agrarian system. The changing re o igeria economy and implications for development pp. 256. ECONOMIC Economic su SURVEY OF NIGERIA (1976), Livestock and FisheriesP bl. hl rvey 0f ·Nrgeria 1960-1999. OLAYIDE, S, O (ed). Aromolafan u is ing company limited, Ibadan, Nigeria 2003pp.

FLOYD, B. (1965). Soil erosion and Deterioration in Eastem Nigeria". Nigeria geographical journal 8: 1965 pp. 32 -44. GODDARD, A. (1974) "p0pulation movements and land shortages in the Sokoto close settled zone. Nigeria" In SAMIR, A. (ed). Modern migrations in Western Africa. Oxford. Oxford University press pp. 1974. KOMOLAFE, J. (2002). "Searching for fortune: The Geographical Process of Nigerian Migration to Dublin, lreland" lrinkerindo: A Journal of African Migration. Issue 1, September htggzll www. africamigration. com! archieve Ol /j komolafe searchinghtm MADUBUIKE, F. N and B. U. EKENYEM (2000). Ruminant animal production and Handling in the tropics, Alphabet Nigeria publishers Owerri pp 132. OZO, N.O. (2004) the stakeholding interface and the challenge of self sufficiency in Animal protein in Nigeria. A key-note address delivered at the 9”' annual conference, Anim Sci. Assoc. of Nig (ASAN) Sept. l3°` - l6°` 2004. Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria.

Miomm NOMADS AND co1.i.xrm1Ati>AMAoi; S. CHAPTER SEVEN MIGRANT NOMADS AND COLLATERAL DAMAGE TO LIVELIHOODS A. Ejiogul and A. Anyaehiez Agriculture Department, Ministry 0fA griculture and Natural Resources, Owerri, Nigeria 2 Department 0fA nimal Science, [m0 State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Man has migrated for three main reasons. Firstly, because of exhausted or devastated natural resources, secondly because he seeks to upgrade or alter some aspects of his way of life and thirdly because of wars, conquests or invasions. These three reasons may be related to population pressure. Peaceful intemal migrations may be engendered either by economic or non-economic tendencies. Non-economic tendencies include cultural, for educational and religious purposes. The non-economic tendencies were less important within the sub-region now know as Nigeria (UDO, 1973; MABOGUNJE, 1973). The Nigerian economy like most of the developing countries is basically agricultural. This sector employs more than two-thirds of labour force, produces food for the population, raw materials for the industry and export to eamed foreign exchange (MABOGUNJE, 1970). Animals were the first natural resources systematically used by man (UNDP, 1971). We still depend on animal life to provide protein for human diets, and industrial raw materials. Cattle population in Nigeria is estimated at 14 million (RIM, 1992). Large concentration of cattle is located in northem (FMANR, 1997). This concentration is due to the prevalence of favourable agro-ecological conditions. Nomadic cattle herders seasonally migrate to different parts of Nigeria for both market and grazing pastures. This version of transhumance, involves movement of nomads and their cattle by lorry and or on foot to different places in Nigeria including lmo State.

In 1992 alone, a total of 9632 herds of cattle entered lmo State (1MSPEDC_ 1996). ln 1993 it was 10,806; in 1994 this increased to .44,34-3, and has been increasing over the years, as have those of the nomads entering with them. Nomads and their flock criss-cross the length and breadth of lmo State in search of pasture. Cattle not only eat grasses but also crops in the field such as leaf vegetables, maize, and cassava. Nomads often attack and kill protesting farmers whose crops have been devastated (ONYEKA-BEN, 1998). This problem has attracted the attention of the Imo State government. On 28 October 2004, the govemment inaugurated a thirteen-member body known as Committee on Cattle Menace. One of the functions of the committee is to reduce cattle menace in lmo State. Nomads and their flock leave a trail of destruction, devastation and menace of people and their livelihoods. This study investigates the movement of nomads into and within Imo State and the concomitant collateral damage to lives and livelihoods. Specifically, the study seeks to describe the migration pattem in the State, highlight the collateral damage to lives and livelihoods and make recommendations based on the findings. It is envisaged that this study will be of invaluable interest to researchers involved in development economics. METHODOLOGY The study area is lmo State, one of the thirty—six states in Nigeria. It is situated ;T;so;sthe Riv<;r.Niger, and occupies the lmo River basin from which the state by the F3?/Z1;. Sttgicbgtgnjed on the east by Abia State, on the south and southwest (IMSG 1992) The Sm e iivest and northwest by Anambra and Enugu States haw/cc;] longéudc 60 3; is ocaited) inlthe southeastem part of Nigeria and lies north. It has atom land m;2j;;r;1b7 28 east and petween 50 10 north and 50 571 out 5,067.20km (MLSUP, 1992). 3;/:;: t`?;§;St;;“;§t3;t:-’cr!:;i;i€il;lt;1ra| Development Programme (ADP) officials, _ _ mo State were identified. Purposive sampling was used in selecting the respondents. Fifteen victims of cattle me a 15 nomadic herdsmen and two officers each ofthe State branch of P bl` n CCT Commission (PCC) and the Committ u lc Complaints for interview. ec On Cattle Menace (CCM) were selected

Data was collected from both secondary and primary sourccs. Secondary sources included newspaper publications, joumals, textbooks and some unpublished documents. Primary sources included the victims of the menace, the nomads and officers of the PCC and the CCM. Data was generated through semi-structured interviews involving questionnaires and open-ended discussions with the respondents. The discussions were conducted in the company of a research assistant who assisted where necessary with translation. This approach is similar to that adopted by MEAGHER (2001). Data was analysed by bringing out the most unique on the one hand and the commonest issues, on the other, of the accounts of the respondents. Establishing the similarities and the differences among the reports of the respondents did this. This approach is in line with EBOH (1998). Specific reports that typified the incidence of collateral damage were also reported. Descriptive statistics were also employed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Modes and Patterns of Migration: The point of departure is usually northem states of` Nigeria such as Kano and Sokoto. The modes of entry are by lorry and on foot. Movement by lorry involves cattle for sale as opposed to cattle for breeding. Movement happens at any time of the year as dictated by market forces. Movement on foot basically involves nomads and breeding cattle. Departure on foot usually starts by mid—June. This is necessitated by the increasing abundance of pasture for the breeding stock as the nomads leave the Sahel and the semi-and regions ofthe north for the 1uxtu·iant vegetation of the forest region in the south. lrrespective of the mode of entry, nomads and their flock wander in and around Imo State. The direction of movement is dictated by availability of green grasses in the fields. The migration pattem of the nomads in Imo State is a complex combination of various patterns. In addition they migrate from the peri-urban through the rural and back to the peri-urban. Nomads, who are usually of the Hausa-Fulani stock, are in constant touch with one another and so exchange information on the availability of pasture. Furthermore, the nomads are in touch with at least one of the known Hausa Quarters at Obinze, Owerri, and Okigwe. Contact is enhanced by the global system of mobile communications.

The landless nomadic herders essentially migrate with their cattle in search ot` pasture. ln response to occupational hazards, the migrating nomads often ami themselves for protection of selves and their herds, vthrle on the move, should their cattle destroy farms and farmlands belonging to host communities. Nomads tend to lack the orientation of pacifying tarmers whose means ot livelihoods are devastated in the course of their fending for their livelihoods. For nomads, any attempt to call them to order is met with the full force of arrns.·They do not purposefully set out to destroy the host communities’ means of lrvelrhoods. To all intents and purposes, they do not set out to hunt humans. However, collateral damages that border on loss of lives and destruction of means of livelihood occur. Collateral Damage: Violent clashes between nomadic cattle herders and farming communities have become incessant in lmo State that they tend to threaten the peace. No community - urban, peri-urban, or rural- is immune to the menace of the nomads and their cattle. The only difference is in the frequency of occurrence. Typical accounts of such menace as rendered by the victims are presented below. For instance in a letter dated 2 December 2003, and captioned "Destruction of Fami Crops by Animals", a respondent stated that cattle destroyed his fami along Standard Shoe Factory/Umudagu road in Amakohia in Owerri North Local Government Area (LGA) on 14 November 2003. Damages were estimated at N6, 600. Another respondent narrated a similar incident of cattle menace on a homestead farm at the ADC Senior staff Quarters, Nekede, Owerri West LGA. The incidence, which took place on 25 October 2004, caused an estimated loss of N20, 000. In a related development another respondent reported that some Fulani herdsmen strayed into his farm and used it as "transit camp" until crops worth N220, 000 was devastated. The respondent reported that when he contacted the Sarikin llglausa at Obinze Hausa Quarters, he was advised to report to the Sarikin Hausa at ouglas Road Owem. At the Sankrn Hausa Douglas Road, he was advised to petition to the State Commissioner of Police. ;’ir;;;0;;; 30l:SpC;1;i;;l;];;;r;§(;14hp1w on a visit to his fami in New Owerri, 3 p€1’l· thcir camgon his crops when th, 6 mel $0me Fulam cattle herders who had S€t they chased away the yes e respondent asked the cattle herdsmen to leave, pondent with their bows and arrows and continued to

graze on the standing crops. Estimated loss occasioned by the incident was put at Nl20, 000. A respondent in Akiri Famt Settlement in Oguta LGA reported incessant wanton destruction of farm crops by the grazing Fulani cattle. The respondent stated that the aggrieved famiers had threatened to attack the Fulani nomads should the destruction continue. Such a threat has grave implications not only for property but also for lives. With respect to loss of limbs and lives, a respondent stated that on 30 June 2003, he saw some Fulani herdsmen attack farmers. The respondent further stated that when he tried to intervene, he too received machete cuts in his hands and legs. In a related incident, a respondent from Okwu Uratta in Obibi, Owerri North LGA, narrated how the Hausa-Fulani herdsmen together with their cattle, illegally occupied walled plots of land at Aladimna North Extension Layout. The respondent stated that on 29 September 2001, the herdsmen armed with daggers, bows and arrows brutalized women members of the community in the farm. When the men intervened, the herdsmen attacked them with gtms. The community spent over N40, 000 in treating the victims. From Irete Commercial Industrial Layout along Owerri·Onithsa road, Owerri, reported a respondent that on 30 June 2003, Fulani cattle herdsmen savagely inflicted severe machete cuts on him while trying to mediate on an attack by cattle herders on farmers whose crops had been devastated. The respondent stated that he spent N1 10, 000 on medical bills. In some incidents, lives have been lost. In 1990, for instance, a group of Fulani herdsmen raped a girl to death before fleeing Okigwe (ONYEKA-BEN, 1998). Such sordid stories tend to go unreported. A common thread runs through these reports. This includes the request for compensation from the nomadic herders, the need to domesticate the nomadic herders, the plea for the nomadic herders to lay off the fanners’ livelihoods, and the judicial need for the police to prosecute reported cases of cattle menace. In a word, justice is being sought by the aggrieved. Furthemtore, of all the crops devastated in the field, cassava is mostly affected. All the respondents (100%) stated that their cassava farms were ravaged

Realising that cassava Production provides livelihood for over 30 million farmers _ '. · 7 . and countless processors and lT3d€l'$ 1¤ Ng€¤¤ (UOKORQ et at/, .,0()5)_ this damage has far reaching implications for food security in Nigeria in general and lmo State in particular. The Committee on Cattle Menace has received some reports from some victims of cattle menace. These reports are being looked into. The Public Complaints Commission, a Federal Govemment run institution, which investigates complaints made to it about administrative actions of officials (PCC, 1994), is currently looking into two reported cases. lf we have gone to a great length in articulating a sampling of the colossal loss of lives and livelihoods precipitated by the migrating cattle herdsmen on their meek host communities, we have done so in order to draw adequate attention to the maddening menace. The menace, formerly regarded as a problem of the Northem part of Nigeria from where herds are moved in droves to other parts of the country (ONYEKA-BEN, 1998), has spiralled to virtually every nook and cranny in Nigeria including Imo State. CONCLUSION Nomads criss-cross the entire region in search of pasture leaving a trail of death, destruction and violent clashes with the host communities. Nomads do neither set out to hunt down human lives nor destroy livelihoods. However, collateral damage that border on loss of lives and destruction of means of livelihood occurs. A common thread that runs through the reports of includes the request for compensation from the nomadic herders, the need to domesticate the nomadic herders, the plea for the nomadic herders to lay off the farmers’ livelihoods, and the judicial need for the police to prosecute reported cases of cattle menace. Of all the devastated crops, cassava is mostly affected. This has grave implications for food security in the State realising that over 80% of Nigerians depend on cassava for their livelihood. ;`1he collateral damage wrought on lives and livelihoods by migratory nomads and dcigccgtt c in Imc State is colossal. Like swarms, the nomads and their caiilc on arms virtually stripping them bare before moving on. It is a disaster

MiouAi
5, A. mioou AND A. ANYAEHIE OKORO, E., J. LEMCHI, C. EZEDINMA. A. DIXON. M. AKORODAM JNKUMBIRAQ F. GBE, P. ILLONA and G. TARAWALI (2005). "Technolog\. Challenges of Cassava Commercialisation and lndustrialisation in Nigeria" Guest Paper presented at the 2005 African Technology Day Organised by AIAE, ATP$_ and UNN at Top Rank Hotel, Enugu on 30 Jtme, 2005. ONYEKA-BEN, V. (1998). "The Cattle. Herdsmen, and the Farmer" in The Guardian Newspaper, Tuesday, February 17, 1998. p.15 PUBLIC COMPLAINTS COMMISSION (PCC) (1994). Public Complaints Commission [8th Annual Report 2nd January, I 993 - 3lst December, 1993. PCC HQRTS. Abuja RESOURCE INVENTORY and MANAGEMENT (RIM) (1992). Nigerian Livestock Resources.Executive Summary and Atlas Vol. 1. Federal Department of Livestock and Pest Control Services. Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Abuja. UDO, R. K. (1973). "Migration et Urbanisation" in J. CALDWEL (ed). ggmographique et Evolution en Ajrique de L ’Ouest .The Population Council Inc. UNITED NATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP) (1971). Human Progress Environmental Protection and the United Nations Development Programme Beyond Conflict or Compromise UN NY p. 6. WORLD BOOKUENCYCLOPEDIA (1976). World Book Encyclopaedia Volume I 3. Field Enterprises Educational Corporation Chicago

CHAPTER EIGHT CONSEQUENCES OF POVERTY FOR YOUTH MIGRATION A. Onweagba and A. Chukwu Department 0fAgricu/tura/ Economics, Extension and Rural Development, Ima State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Migration is a complex phenomenon with diverse socio-economic consequences and implications (KPADEKPO, 1982). It is a reflection of spatial imbalance in opportimities (EKONG, 2003). TODARO (1976) hypothesized that the greater the difference in economic opportunities between urban and rural regions, the greater the flow of migrants. People migrate for economic reasons to enhance livelihood. It is therefore a major livelihood strategy for economic empowem1ent and advancement. Rural-urban, rural-rural and urban-urban migrations are the most prevalent in rural southeast Nigeria. This is concentrated among youths irrespective of gender. In his study of migrant tenant farmers in Nigeria, UDO (l975) revealed that 73% of rural-urban migrants were between 15 and 44 years and mostly males. In the case of rural-rural migration, it involves movement out of an enclave of high population density with small farm holding, and low agricultural potentials. Thus migrants settle in areas of relatively abundant farmlands, high agricultural potential and high demand for labour to promote primary production. Poverty, as inability to meet basic needs reflects in low per capita income. Many Nigerians are poor from this perspective. SEN (1999) listed five dimensions of poverty. These are political space, economic space, social space, and transparency and protective security. People are poor because they lack these basic opportunities. Therefore they lack the ability to develop their capabilities and function as an empowered group. Empowerment requires processes that help people improve their capabilities to gain political, economic and social security. As a consequence of the absence of these oppommities, people are unable to contribute to the development process (ONWEAGBA, 2004). This fuels the urge

to migrate for better opportunities of life. One major question in migration dynamics is whether it is really an effective poverty reduction strategy or whether it has created more social problems in the rural setting. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY To attempt an answer, the study instrument was structured to obtain information relation to the socio-economic consequences and influences of migration in rural Nigeria. Six local govemment areas in lmo State, Nigeria were randomly chosen. Thereafter tifty respondents were randomly sampled from each local govemment area making a total of 300 respondents. Those interviewed were parents of youths who have migrated either to the westem world or within Nigeria. Some parameters describing major human needs were listed. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Positive Consequences: Majority of respondents indicated positive contribution to health care delivery. About 76% said this was through private hospitals and clinics, and contribution towards the provisions of good sources of water, and 86% through sinking boreholes in individual families and communities. There was positive response also in the area of providing rural infrastructure (shelter), 95%, and rural road network, 75% over the last 10 to l5 years, majority of families in Imo State, Nigeria have experienced an upsurge in the provision of modern accommodation for rural households. Also migration has helped many youths especially the males to establish their own business ventures. There is generally low level of improvement in the area of income distribution, especially through remittances to parents with only 35% of the respondents indicating contribution to education, establishment of market premises and increases in food production. E;}/;’ri;gS;ilgngglliznlgilgiarqzitg maintenance money- perse to old parent lh¤$ in wml areas. Attention {Las. a;;)m;_|0¤ty remit for infrastructure developméfll Organizing vigilante groups 84% conmzgdilitlused on social security through » rs.

Negative Consequences: Of great interest in thc study is thc antithesis of migration - the negative aspects. School dropout registered the highest vote, 59% of the respondents indicated; followed by high demand for labour in the agricultural sector, 85%. This may explain the high food insecurity in most rural communities in Nigeria. Migration constitutes serious drain in the active labour in rural communities leaving the old and the aged in the farms. CONCLUSION Migration has to an extent encouraged rural economic development and promoted social security. The negative influences are minimal, though they exist. Migration therefore should be encouraged for economic reasons, to reduce rural poverty. Youths should migrate to improve their social horizon and knowledge level. This has policy implications for development and the social environment in Nigeria. Migration among youths is generally a poverty reduction strategy. Like any human activity however, it has created some minor social problems. Rural-urban migration should be encouraged, but regulated through legislation to check migrants in and out of t.he country. Otherwise, it may create social problems and constitute a drag in development process. REFERENCES EKONG, E. (2003). Rural Sociology: An Introduction And Analysis of Rural Nigeria. Dove Educational publishers, Uyo, Nigeria. KPEDEKPO, G. M. K. (1982). Essentials of Demographic Analysis for Ajiica. Heinemann, London. ONWEAGBA, A.E. (2004). "Agricultural Development, Health and Foot: $¢€urity in Nigeria in the 21S' century". Convocation Address Presented at the 10. Convocation of the Federal College of Land Resources Technology, Owem, Nigeria. SEN, A. (1999). Development as jieedom, New York, Knopf.

f'{__ ____ gjt_gi2 i_vi2No1No ____ U CHAPTER NINE STREET FOOD VENDING, INCOME EARNING AND NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF MIGRANT WOMEN C. Asinobi Department 0fNutriti0n and Dietetics [m0 State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION lntemal migration plays an increasingly central role in economic and social change in Africa (JASON, 2001). Economic imbalance between locations is not the only cause of migration. Higher demand for women workers in the service and export-processing industries have also been considered. This trend is likely to continue in the next few decades and will have a major impact on labour market. Women participation in labour force has been projected to reach almost 70 percent in 2010 (DEUTSCH, 1998). Although women‘s labour has increased, women mainly participate in jobs that are of lower quality (low-skilled jobs with no security or protection), part-time, home-based, or all of these. More than 80 percent of women work in largely gender-segregated occupations, and women on average still eam less than 70 percent of what men eam (MALHOTRA et al., 2002). Since women are in lower skilled and temporary jobs, they are more likely to loss jobs than are men during financial crises, and yet the percentage of households that rely on women’s financial contribution for food security is increasing. Studies have shown that women provide the main source of income in more than 20 percent of households in sub-Sahara Afiican and most of Asia (MENSCHER, 1988). Even in dual —parent families, women are contributing a higher percentage of income than before. Also careful systematic analysis of women’s diet and nutritional status from small and infrequent studies of women’s anthropometry, iron status and dietary intake suggest that they are at high nutritional risk (ANDERSON and BERGSTORM, 1997). A majority of women are anaemic, largely because of iron deficiency resulting from inadequate iron intakes and excessive blood losses from parasites or menstruation and closely spaced births.

64 c. Asixoui Calorie intake is often low among women although a few populations show adequate intakes or excessive ones. Deficiencies in calorie intake are common regardless of physiologic status (ACC/SSN, 1999). 'Women generally meet a smaller percentage of their current recommended daily requirements than men (ACC/SCN, 2000). There is need to enhance the livelihood of women beyond a focus on urban jobs. Worldwide, women play a very large role in preparing, marketing and selling street foods. Urban population growth has stimulated rise in number of street food vendors (REDDY et al., 2001) in many cities throughout the world. Migration from rural areas to urban centres has created a daily need among many working people to eat outside the home. Demand for relatively inexpensive, ready-to—eat food has increased as people, especially women, have less time to prepare meals. ln many parts of Nigeria, street foods have become an integral part of local food scene. Customers from various economic strata benefit from the nutrition’s, lowcost meals. ln Africa urban households spend 15 to 50 percent of their food budgets on street foods (POPKIN, 1999). Street food enterprise is generally small in size, requires relatively simple skills, basic facilities and small amounts of capital. Today, they are very numerous and have considerable potential for generating income and employment. This study determines the contribution of migration to improving the income earning and nutritional status of urban migrant women that are involved in street food vending in Owerri Municipality, Imo State, Nigeria. Policy suggestions on rural- urban interdependence and importance of street foods enterprise to the economic development are discussed. METHODOLOGY T11; dat; were drawn from women that are non-indigenes of Owerri, Municipality Z5 mo tate, Nigeria. The sample population is urban migrant women aged 25 — S Hyiafsdwlih pO0r socio-economic background, health and sanitary facilitl€S, that c·..._I ambum Bttmg the Owem Municipality streets which include stationafy and individumz O0? Ve:td01’S. Street food vending are usually owned and 0pCf3I€d bY o··..... · r ami ies rn Owem Municipality with little or no rent and capital equipment expenses.

as Oi`25O streets in Owerri Municipality identified for food vending, 25 streets were randomly selected including the six major streets. Ten women street food vendors were randomly selected from each of the major and live from minor streets. A total of 155 women; 60 from major and 95 from minor streets were obtained. Data collection on daily food expenditure on food ingredients used for street food preparation and daily sales on each street food prepared as well as daily income eamings of the vendors, were obtained for three consecutive days using protested questionnaires and interview method. Each vendor was asked to list all the ingredients she uses that she sues daily for the preparation of each street food she sells including the price, for three days. The average daily expenditure per day on each sheet food was calculated from all the street food vendors. The total daily sales on each street food for all sheet food vendors were calculated and the average daily sales for each street food were obtained. Daily income eaming per street food was obtained after deductions of total expenditure made on each street food preparation. The total expenditure excluded wages because the business was mainly executed on individual or family basis. Other expenditure on non-food items were obtained and deducted. Information on food consumption and food nutrient intakes were obtained from each vendor by direct dietary measurement and food composition table (PLAT1`, 1975). For each vendor, all raw ingredient and empty pots used for food preparation were weighed before cooking. The total weight of food was detemtined alter cooking. The women’s portion of food and the wastes remaining on the plates after consumption were recorded. The quantity of ingredients in the women’s portion of food was calculated according to the method of OLUSANYA (1977). Food eaten while away from stall, if any, was estimated using household measure or weights measured by food sellers’ balance or other foods. The nutrient content of foods consumed was calculated using food composition table. The nutrient intakes of each of the women were expressed as percentage of FAO/WHOfUN (1985) for energy, protein, and WHO (1967) for iron, vitamin A and C, thiamine and riboflavin. Anthropometric measurements on weight and heights of the women were taken by direct measurements following standard procedures established by WHO

(1976). The weight and height measurements were assessed in terms Iof body mass index (WHO, 1987) using the following formula: BMl= weight /(height ) RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The average expenditure per street food was not more than N500 per day for each women street food vendor (Table 1). Note that S = N 140ca. This is due to the fact that street food enterprise is generally small in size, requires relatively simple skills and basic facilities (ACHO, 2002) Otien, street foods reflect traditional local cultures and vendors in most cases buy their fresh food locally, thus linking their enterprises directly with small scale farms and market gardens. The average daily sales for the street foods were higher than average expenditure but higher in some street foods such as fiied yam and plantain, akara balls, fried meat and fish, boiled rice and stew, and moi-moi. Consequently, the average income eaming from the sales of the street foods were higher than other foods. The observation could be explained by the fact that the street foods generally are cheap and in most cases are customarily necessary to be consumed in each meal as in the case of fish and meat. Also another explanation could be that the nature of the prepared street foods could be much more convenient to be taken away to places of work to be consumed at convenient time. However, the high average daily sales and income could be due to availability and accessibility of street food and stalls rather than individual income of stage of national development the purchase of street foods is not confined to poor households nor are there higher levels of consumption in low-income countries. In many countries, workers as well as students have their first meal of the day from street food vendors. In addition, vendors provide items at lower prices than other retailers since they have lower rent and capital equipment expense. Because ingredients are bought in largc 'illiftiltities and at the cheapest markets, the cost of a single serving is quite ;£>;11:l;;tive with home cooking and often less expensive because vendors c€¤i€1’ located (;l§;l1(i·O;>;JS;iI>t;1l;¢rS. l\;;re so,.most street. foods have easy access to Stall; meal. , I stan rd Sanitary conditions and high nutritional valU€ of

Furthemiore, table l shows that on average cash income of N3,438 daily was eamed over an expenditure on street foods of N5,637. This value indicates that on average more than sixty percent profit per unit naira per day per any street food enterprise was eamed. When the average income per month of the vendors (14103, 140) was compared with the national minimum wage (N8000) it was at the range of4 - 12 times more than national minimum wage. This observation is comparable to the findings of ACHO (2002) who reported an average of eamings of four times more than the minimum wage in Cameroon. Street food enterprise provide income opportunities especially for women unskilled workers who migrant to city from rural areas (ACHO, 2002). They are vital for economic planning and development of many towns. The contribution of street food vendors to the economics of development countries has been vastly underestimated and neglected because it is considered part of the informal sector. Previously, the informal sector was thought to symbolize lack of economic development that would and should disappear with modemization. Until more pemianent jobs could be provided by the modem sector the former was expected to absorb unskilled workers who migrated to the city from rt1ral areas. Because of the rapid rise in urban population and increasing awareness of the limited employment generated by large-scale industries, there is need for the planner to acknowledge the importance of the informal Table 2 shows that the mean value of food nutrient intakes of the street food vendors compared to the recommended daily requirements were short by less than 6% in most cases except in the case of vitamin A, thiamine and riboflavin intakes. However, a level of intake that is inferior by 20% or even by 40% can still be compatible with adequate nutrition (COLE et al, 1997) this is due to genetic difference as well as individual inter- variations in various countries. Thus the fact that the recommended requirements of the vendors were short by less than 6% does not mean that they were malnourished but could be nutritionally adequate with regards to intra- individual variation between countnes requirement.

c. xsrxoar Table 3; Body mass index and calorie intake ¤SSO€i¤ted with cash income 0.- women mm fwd vendors { cash income (+1) - I l · Ab 5/N Factor |:V€t'2\g€ 0|' i? n OVC atggragc A Body mass index (kglm`) above normal i 42 64.6 71 78.8 below norrna 23 353 19 Zlil Calone rn e 45 69.2 73 81-1 above RDA 20 30.7 17 18.8 below RDA "Average cash income of the vendors =N3,438** Normal BMI for the vendors = l8_5_24kg/m Z•·~ Recommended daily requirement (RDA) for Cal0rrc= 2200kel a) x2 = 3.8823; p<0.055, df=l b) x2 = 2.9339; p<0.05; df=l CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY SUGGESTIONS Women migrants from rural to urban areas participated greatly in street foods enterprise. Street food enterprise contributed significantly to the income eamings and nutritional status of women urban migrants. Policy makers have usually ignored the importance of rural- urban interdependence, or attempted to curb it, as in the case of migration. Inevitably the living conditions of lower — and middle — income groups have worsened. As a first step, policymakers need to identify and soften or eliminate policies that have negative impact on rural — urban linkages by providing support to migrants rather than discriminating against them. Certainly in many countries rural development will remain crucial to reducing poverty and improving food security and nutrition, but this should not bar urban policies from supporting livelihood strategies of both urban migrants and rural residents. The next step is trickier because rural — urban linkages are highly contextdependent. Policy based on generalization about scale and nature of linkages has usually failed. Local govemment can play an important role in addressing local nlpeds and pnontres, but action at the local level generally must be supported at t leregronal and national level. This support includes managing natural resources “;0lledt€Sp0¤dll1g to both urban and rural demands; assisting local ecO¤0mlc$ by p vr mg physical and socral (health and education) infrastructure; and

facilitating the efforts of low—income households to make a living by drawing on a variety of resources, including migration. Policies should promote access of the poor to financial capital through micro finance scheme; build the capabilities of the urban poor through formal education and training so that they can secure high — quality employment; and take into account the heterogeneity of labour markets and fluctuating nature of labour supply and demand. Govemments may also need to purse special policies to reduce gender disparities and to break through the labour market segmentation that inhibits certain groups from taking up jobs in more rewarding activities. Given the difficulty of making specific policy recommendations, what is more important initially is for various government, NGO, and other groups and actions to recognize the centrality of urban-rural interdependence to both urban and mral livelihoods, to understand the local and national problems associated with it and to conduct a democratic dialogue to arrive at a negotiated set of strategies for nurturing and benefiting from this interdependence. Understanding the importance of rural linkages to urban livelihood, food and nutrition security is crucial if policies are to improve the live of the urban poor, rather than making them even more difficult than they already are. In general, the socio-economic significance of street foods had been ignored. Before any regulation can be established for street vendors, the local authorities need to recognize the importance of street foods. The ability of the vendors to produce cheap and nutritious, traditional meal must be safeguarded, encouraged and assisted. Rules and regulations for safe food manufacturing need to be enforced and information and education must provide the basis for enforcement. REFERENCES ACC/SSN (1999) Adequate Food: a htunan right SCN News No. 18 UN Standing Committee on Nutrition , Geneva ACC/SCN (2000). Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation, Geneva: ACC/SCN in Collaboration with IFPRI, Washington.

ACHO C. C. (2002). The mobile street food service practice in the urban eeononiy of Kumba, Cameroon. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography VO]. 23 (2)pp 131-148 (17). ANDERSON, R. and S. BERGSTORM (1997). Matemal Nutrition and Socio. economic Status as detemiinants of birth weight in chronically malnourished African Women. Tropical Medicine and International Health 2 (1 1): 1080-1087. BHAT R. V. and K. WAGHRAY (2000). Street foods in Africa. World Rev. Nuts. Diet. Vol 86, pp 100-122. COLE, A H, O. T. OMAUUMIJO, N. I. NWAGBARA and C. E. COLE (1997). Energy intakes, anthropometry and body composition of Nigerian adolescent girls: a case study of an institutionalised secondary school in Ibadan. British Journal of Nutrition, 77: 499-509. DE HAAN, A (2002). Nutrition in poverty reduction strategy papers, and thc mainstreaming of social issues. Background paper for the 5"` report on the world nutrition situation. UN Standing Committee on Nutrition, Geneva. DEUTSCH, R. (1998). Does Child Care Pay? Labour Force Participation and Earnings effects of access to child care in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro. The InterAmerican Development, Washington. EURODAD (2001). Putting poverty reduction tirst: why a poverty approach to debt sustainability rnust be adopted. Online: htt://www. eurodad.org// debtsl analysis/general/putt1ng_poverty_reduction-first-summary.htm. FOOD and AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION/WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION/UNITED NATIONS (FAO/WHOfUN) (1985). Energy and protein requirements. Technical report series No. 724 Geneva WHO pp9 1 -94. $3:532,. P.RS. (2001). Geographical Mobility. US census Bureau. Cufrenl p ion eports p20 — 538, Washington, D.C: Govemment Printing Oftice. MALHOTRA, A, SCHULER, S. R., BOENDER, C. (2002). Measuring women’s €mp0W€l'm€nl as a Variable in Intemational Development Back ou d 3 cl prepared for the World Bank Workshop on Poverty and gender glnterinaiioiial entre for research on women Washin i s gtOTl. MENCHER, J. P 1988 • household mainteriance ih`;/o)tiIl1irlri;di;0li(i·alg(WI;)vcrw: W°m°°’s contribution to divided: Women and Income in th ih'. ER D, BRUCE, J (cds) A Home Prcsistanfordl 6 I rrd World 99-119, Stanford Univ€fS|l)'

STREET Foot) vrannmo U OLUSANYA, E. O (1977). Manual of food consumption surveys in developing Countries Ibadan: University press ppl2-2l PLATT, B. S. (1975). Tables of representative values of food commonly used in tropical countries. Pergamon Press Oxford, London POPKIN, B (1999). Urbanization, lifestyle changes and the nutrition transition. World Development 27 J 1905-I 6 REDDY U, BHARATHIS, DEVIK (2001). Consumption of Street foods by urban population and their microbiology safety. Indian Journals and Nutrition and Dietetics 38 (I0): 357-65 WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO), (1967). Requirements of vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin and niacin. WHO report No. 362 WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO) (1976). Methodology of Nutritional Surveillance. Geneva (ITC) technical report, 593 WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (1987). Global Nutritional Status. Nutrition Unit Division of family Health, Geneva WHO/WPRO (2003) Diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases. Report of a joint WHO/FAO expert consultation. WHO Technical Report series No. 9I6.World Health Organization, Geneva

___F,_ vs CHAPTER TEN EFFECT OF WOMEN INFORMAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES ON RURAL—URBAN MIGRATION E. Onyenechere Department 0f Geogurphy, Alvun Ikoku College 0f Education, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION A large number of small-scale production and service activities that are soleproprietorships, partnerships, cooperatives and even private limited liability companies termed the infomral sector have emerged, particularly in the rural parts of Nigeria, as a medium for improving the standards of living of the rural populace. The informal sector is a very large, resilient and dynamic sector, which grows even under conditions of recession. More so, the size of the endogenous economy is an observable reality, and in many countries, it makes a significant part of the total economy because it is an engine of growth and has enonnous capacity to function (OLOWU er al., 1995). The dependency on infomral economic activities as a means of income — earning opportunities for a large number of people seems to have gained greater support (OBADAN er al., l996). The Intemational Labour Organization (ILO) estimated, among other things that the informal sector is responsible for about 50 percent of economic activities in Afiica. Without informal economic activities there will be serious unemployment in many Afiican Countries, especially where rural urban migration has become a threat. Employment generation by the infomral sector consist of a wide range of activities from small-scale manufacturing to services of all kinds. Opportunities are also provided through apprenticeship, which, gain serves as a training ground for entrepreneurial development and management (UNECA/AAPAM, 1992; NDUMA et al., 2000). Because informal economic activities involve large concentration of the people particularly women, it is likely to contribute to wider spread distribution of development. It also provides opportunity for majority of the people for self`—actualisation, self-reliance and fulfilment. It therefore seems worthwhile to consider the impact of such activities. This is even more important

in the rural context, where the "trickle — down effect" hypothesis is put to test in the pursuit of rural development programmes. This paper therefore examines the effect of rural women economic activities on rural — urban migration. Specifically the paper identifies the contribution of informal economic activities, and ascertains their impact on rural — urban migration. The central hypothesis is rural women infomial economic activities contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State:" RESEARCH METHODS The study was conducted in nine out of the twenty-seven local govermnent areas of Imo state. These are lsiala Mbano, ldeato-South, Mbaitoli, Owerri-West, OruWest, Nkwere, Onuimo, Aboh-Mbaise, Oguta. Eighteen communities (two from each of the local government areas) were selected. These are Amaraku, Umunkwo, Dikenafai, Isiekenesi, Orodo, Ifakala, Olcuku, Umuguma, Mgbidi, Otulu, Nkwere, Owerre Nkwoji, Umunna, Okwelle, Enyiogugu, Nguru Nwenkwo, Oguta, Orsu Obodo. Data collection was by the use of one set of structured questionnaire. Systematic sampling technique was used, at intervals of ten, to select the household for the survey. In each household, the wife of the household head was the respondent. If the head of household is a polygamist, the first wife of the household was selected. Where the head of household is a woman, then she is chosen. Where the sampled head of household has no wife, the next house is chosen and thereatier adjusted to every tenth house. Respondents totalled 2,340. Appropriate analytical techniques such as percentages and Z tests for proportion were employed. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY Informal economic activities: There are various contribution of rural women rnfomral economrc activities to development in the study area. These range from lrigglqtrgrli 231:;. igcidenee of rural poverty to improvement in per capital inc0m€uncmploymcom l7e0x;ain:iS;r;q;i(;ienqt indicates reduction of perennial and seasonal · · obrlrzatron and utilization of rural resources,

lNFORMAL ECONOMIC ACrtvtru;s another l7_0% indicated pet capital l¤€0I`¤€ lmPl”0VeS, l6.0% indicaicd payment for famed stalls built by tht? LGA ¤U¥l`l0¤`l¥)’ thus enhancing intemally generated revenues, 7]% indicated redU¢¥l0¤ of the incidence Of rural poveny (Table I) In addition 6.7% indicated poor nutritional intake among households is reduced 5.0% contribute to community self-help development project and 3.0% indicated capacity to educate the children ot` rural women at both primary and secondary school levels is enhanced. This shows that responses on the contribution of rural women informal economic activities in the study area are varied. Table l: Distribution of the contribution of rural women informal economic activities CATEGORIES OF CONTRIBUTION FREQUENCY Reduction of the incidence of rural 7.7 povt rw K Reduction of perennial and seasonal 645 27.6 unemployment Mobilization and utilization of rural 398 17.0 resources Poor nutritional intake among households 157 6.7 is reduced. Capacity to educate the children of rural 70 3.0 women at both primary and secondary school levels is enhanced. Payment for rented stalls built by LGA 374 thus enhancing intemally generated revenues. C0nlt‘ibute to community self help ll7 5-0 development project. Per Capital income improves. 398 l7·0 2340 Source: Field survey, 2004 R°dUCll0l’l of perennial and seasonal u¤€mplOym€nt l$ 3 major contribution as it f’°°¤t>i¢s ll'l€ ETSI position among the various COl’lU'lbUll0l`l$ of I-uml mt-0"nal economic activities in the area, that ls 8 labour uslmngcn as well as other rural women informal economic 8€iWI¤€$» because they hell) to reduce unemployment problems. They S€l'V€ 85 the smglc

E. ONYENECHERE rnost important sources of employment in tht? study Hftfft. This fact agrees with el 0/ recognize C3p3ClY)' lnfonnul S€C[0l· to Create jObs_ Even Qndingg of a study ofthe C0¤i€m¥t0Y6¥jY nature of the rural economy in some parts of Nigeria indicated that farming employs a large proportion of the rural people follo-wed by trading (OKAFOR and OMOKERHORAYE, 1986). Again, famring, food fish processing and other informal economic activities by rural women in the study area have activated the mobilization and utilization of rural resources for economic gains. This contribution occupies the second position. While, capacity to educate the children of rural women at both primary and secondary school levels is enhanced occupies the last position and ranks least amongst other contributions. Peasant famring is the greatest employer of labour for rural women and others in Nkwerre. Mgbidi and Otulu communities. Food/fish processing activity is the greatest employer of labour for rural women and others in Okulcu, Oguta and Orsu Obodo communities. Artisans/handicrafts by rural women create employment opportunities in only few communities such as Umuna and Owerre Nkwoji communities. This is because raw materials for handicrafts such as clay and straw are not readily available in many communities. The contribution of rural women infomial economic activities as means of livelihood cannot be over-emphasized. Rural women informal economic activities aids income generation and revenue formation, this is because field observations - “ _ revealed that rural women pay the authorities of the local govemment for open . spaces and rented stalls at rural markets. Rural women informal economic activities in the study area improve income, since increased sales of prgdtice/products to middlemen from the towns show this. This possibly explains xh; c;‘;al'(;;lt;/ifglén COntl’tbute to community self-help development project afld g ucate children of rural women at both primary and secondary I school levels is enhanced for just the few who can afford the cost, and this is P€ThaP$·WhY·¥li€Y M0 the least of the contributions of rural women informal economic activities in the study area. The hypothesis: H0: Rural women informal economic activities do not contribute ;lg:;TTc;::Yi;; Etrban migration among rural dWell€l`$ in . i. ural women informal economic activities

contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among tural dwellers in lmo State, was tested. In one sample test of a proportion for this hypothesis, an analysis of four individual rural women informal economic activities (farming, food/lish processing, petty trading and artisan/handicrafts) as it related to rural - urban migration with a yes/no response was used. Z - calculated is -7.59, which is less than the Z tabulated value of 1.645 (Table 2). Thus, test is not significant at 5% level. We accept the null hypothesis (HG) and reject the altemative (H1). That is, rural women famting activities do not contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among rural women in Imo State. Table 2: Z - Test of statistical analysis of the effect of farming on reduction rural - urban migration Impact of farming on Proportion Z-Statistic Pr>Z Zreduction of rural- Tabulated urban migration Yes 0.0726 -7.59 1.0000 1.645 The Z - calculated is 2.40, which is greater than the Z tabulated value of 1.645 (Table 3). Thus, test is significant at 5% level. We reject the null hypothesis (H0) and accept the altemative (H,). That is, rt1.ral women petty trading activities contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State. Table 3: Z - Test statistical analysis of the effect of petty trading on reduction of ruralurban migration Impact of petty trading Proportion Z-Statistic Pr>Z Zon reduction of rural- Tabulated urban migration Yes 0.3718 2.40 0.0083 1.645 The Z - calculated is - 2.17, which is less than the Z tabulated value of 1.645 (Table 4). Thus, test is not significant at 5% level. We accept the null hypothesis (H.,) and reject the altemative (H,). Thus, rural women food and fish processing

activities do not contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State. Table 4: Z - Test statistical analysis of the effect of food/fish processing on reduction of rural-urban migration Impact of food/fish Proportion Z-Statistic Pr>Z Ztrading on reduction of Tabulated rural-urban migration Yes 0.2350 -2.17 0.9849 1.645 The Z calculated is -8.59. which is less than the Z tabulated value of 1.645 (Table 5). The test is not significant at 5% level. We accept the null hypothesis (1-1.,) and reject the altemative (Hi). Thus, rural women artisanfhandicrafi activities do not contribute significantly to reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State. Table 5: Z - Test statistical analysis of the effect of Artisan and handicrafts on reduction of rural-urban migration Impact of Artisan and Proportion Z-Statistic Pr>Z Zhandicrafts on Tabulated reduction of ruralurban migration Yes 0.0427 -8.59 1.000 1.645 Results from the statistical analysis summary tables will help us to conclude. We then conclude thus by stating that, "it is only petty trading that contributes significantly to the reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State, Southeast Nigeria. While farming, food/fish processing and artisanfhandicrafts do not". On a general note, since most of the rural women informal economic activities do not contribute significantly to reduction in ruralurban migration among rural dwellers in Imo State, Southeast Nigeria, we accept the null hypothesis (H.,) and reject the altemative (H,). CONCLUSION The study reveals that the greatest contribution/impact of rural women informal economic activities in the study area is the reduction of perennial and seasonal

unemployment in the rural areas. This was closely followed by the mobilization and utilization of rural resources. The z - test-analysis went further to reveal that it is only petty trading that contributes significantly to the reduction in rural — urban migration among rural dwellers in- [mo State, Southeast Nigeria, famiing, food/fish processing, artisan/handicraft do not. This study does not, however, regard its findings as final, despite the facts that were duly exposed. Further work is being recommended amongst other recommendations. Generally, the contribution of informal economic activities to GDP is very important, but often difficult to measure. Between 1970 and 1989, the informal sector in Nigeria contributed an average of 18.0 percent of GDP armually, because it produces goods and services, which are in conformity with the need of the people. Informal sector also aids the development indigenous enterprises, as well as trains and retrains its unskilled workers highly. All the aforementioned benefits infer that informal economic activities play important roles in the development of the economy. This fact is corroborated by MABOGUNJE (1980) and EBOH and OCHEOCHA (2002). But this study could not measure quantitatively the contribution of informal economic activities in the previous activities. And again LGAs do not keep the records of paid taxes. Because of these problems we have limited the study to the answers supplied in Table 1. The following are recommended: i) The govemment should design a comprehensive strategy that will stimulate demand for goods and services through programmes that include construction of more market places and organization of promotional fairs/prospecting for export markets. For enhanced rural women petty trading activities would act as huge magnets that will attract the people and stem rural - urban migration. il) Rufal infrastructure base need be strengthened. The goverrunent and the people should improve rural transportation and communication and provide cheap and reliable social utilities to help raise the overall productivity of projects and living standards generally. This way a reduction in nual — urban migration will be maintained.

REFERENCES EBOH, E. C. and K. N. OCHEOHA (2002). "Determinants of Rural Non- Farm Sector Potential in Reducing Income-Poverty; Evidence from Enugu State, Nigeria". Proceedings 36"` Annual Conference of Agnc. Society of Nigeria, Federal University ofTechnology, Owerri , October 20-24, 2002, Pp. 160-l64_ GEODES, R.(l997). Cities in our future. Island Press, New York. HUNTINGTON, S. P (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remarking of World Order, Simian and Schuster, Mass. MABOGUNTE, A. L. (1980). The Development Process: A Spatial Perspective, Hutchison and Co. publishers Ltd., London. NDUMA, I.; P. KRISTJANSON and J. MC PEAK.(2000). Diversity in Income Generating Activities for Sedentarized Pastoral Women in Nonhem Kenya, Submitted to Human Organization, Nov. 2000. OBADAN, M. I.; A. P. Odusola and W. O. AKERELE (1996). Strategies for Revitalizing the Nigerian Economy: The Role of Informal Sector. A Paper presented on Revitalizing the Nigerian Economy, Nigeria Institute for Social and Economic Research, Ibadan, Nigeria. OKAFOR, F. C. and A. G. ONOKERHORAYE (1986). Rural Systems and Planning._The Geography and Planning Series of Study Notes, Eguavoen Printers, Benin City. OLOWU, D. O., O. Okotoni and O. OLUDIMU (1995). The Informal Sector in Nigena: Some Analytical and Development Issues. A Paper Presented at the Techmcal Workshop on Conceptual and Methodological Issues in the Informal Financial Research Sector Organized by the Central Bank of Nigeria and Nigeria Institute for Social and Economic Research, Ibadan, Nigeria. August 30 -31. POPULATION REFERENCE BUREAU (1996). "Intemational Migration: A Global Challenge , Population Bulletin, Vol.5 l, No.1. NATIONS ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR AFRICA (UNECA) Or a ' t' (1992). Mobilizing the Informal Sector and Non- Govemmcni ang laza ions (NGOs) for African Economg: Recovery and Development: Policy Abuja anagement Issues. Report of the 12 AAPAM Round Table ConferenC€

INTIERNAL MltiRAT|0N {-/"{‘*___-___ ` CHAPTER ELEVEN INTERNAL MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY C. Ngazi Department 0f Geography and Environmental Srudies Alvari Ikoku College of Education, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Migration involves permanent or semi-perrnanent change of residence (UDO 1978). It is considered rational because it is an economic man’s reaction to economic differential between different areas. However, other non-economic factors are implicated in migration studies. Migration could be intemational, that is when a person moves and settles in another country, or intemal, that is, when individuals move from one area of a country and settles in another area of the same country. This type of migration is the focus of this chapter. Migration involves immigration and emigration. Indigenes move from their communities and settle in another area, while others move and settle in more distant places. The distance, the migrants cover and the reason behind their migration constitutes theoretical issues in migration studies. The goals of this research are to identify various issues that motivate migration in South-eastem Nigeria and to examine the impact of migration on socio-economic development ofthe people and the area. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research is a survey of Mbanassa clan in Ideato-North local Govemment Area of Imo State in Southeast Nigeria. A questiomraire was designed and admimstered to randomly selected migrants from the seven communities that make up the clan. In each of the seven communities, 100 questionnaire were administered to migrants, giving a total of 700 respondents. The questionnaire solicited mfomration on socio-economic characteristics such as gender, age, occupation, education, and etcetera.

cuoozl RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS l. Characteristics of migrants l Gender: Over 75% of the migrants in the area are males while 25% are females T ble 1) The preponderance of males over females as migrants rs hinged on ( iiure arid tradition that permits males more freedom to move out than females. u.. The female migrants include wives of male migrants and tmmamed ladies, whe are self-employed or are apprentice in training. Age: The age of new migrants lie between 15 years and 55 years while older migrants are aged 56 years and above (Table 1. About 95% of those between l5— 55 years engage in various income-eaming activities such as farming, trading, artesian, restaurant operators, motorcyclist operators etc. Five percent or those aged 56 and above ovim petrol stations, supermarkets, commercial schools, and medicine shop and oil mills. Table 1: Age, gender, and literacy levels of migrants, 2005 Male 525 75% Female 175 25% Total 700 100 Age No Percent 15-55 665 95 56 and above 35 5% rmi 700 Q Literacy Level No Percent Literate 140 20 Semi literate 245 35 515 45 Wi 000 Source: Field data, 2005 m iiltéfgy level: About 20% ofthe migrants have academic qualification CI8S$m€d tca;>;>mp¤¤;¤;y &n<:1r;;0st—scc0ndary (Table 1). Migrams ih these groups includ¢· typists BEV Ol'? g $i€ll€fS, School proprietors, motorcycle opcrat0l'S and mcchaglics gl-i° th° _ mlgmms M6 semi-literate and they include weld¢f$» ,v passed pri ;;;¤:ll0T$, CHIDCHICIS etc. These are those who claim K0 haw mafy or are dropouts. 45% ofthe migrants are illiterates. These

tn are those migrants that cannot write their names, but can communicate in Pidgin English. They are mostly famrers, wine-tapers, block mouldcrs, day-jobbcrs. cobblers, etc. Occupation: The migrants perform various activities to eam their living (Table 2. The occupations ofthe migrants include: > Trading: About 50% of the migrants engage in various trading activities including foodstuff, beverages, bread, canned and packaged articles including water; clothing materials; and various goods and articles. > Farming: About 32% of the migrants engage in farming. This includes crop production, and livestock such as poultry, and Snailry. > Welding and Construction: 5% of the migrants engage in welding and metal works. > Carpentry and Woodwork: 2% percent of the migrants engage in carpentry and woodworks, producing wooden doors and windows, caskets, etc. > Driving: About 4% of the migrants aged between 20 years and 45 years engage in operating motor vehicles and motorcycles. > Mechanical repairs: 4% percent of the migrants engage in repairing broken down vehicles, bicycles, motorcycle, vulcanisation and car washing. > Masonry: About 3% engage in bricklaying, block moulding, and painting. > Other activities: Less than 1% of respondents are proprietors of commercial schools; petroleum and related products merchants, oil mill operators, drugstores, restaurants, day-jobbers, teachers and pastors Table 2: Occupation of respondents Occupation No % Trading 350 50 Famring 224 32 Metal works 35 5 Woodworks 14 2 Driving 28 4 Mech. Repairers 21 3 Masonry 21 3 others 7 l rmt 700 100% Source: Fleld data, 2005

2. Source Areas of Migrants Though migrants come from most major ethnic nations in Nigeria, the majority are from eastem Nigeria. The migrants come from Anambra State, Abia State_ Ebonyi State, Enugu State, Cross River, Akwa lbom, Rivers and Bayelsa States. Others come from Midwest States, Westem States and Northem States (Table 3). There also those from others areas of Imo State outside Mbanasaa clan. Some of the population exporting areas has some historical and cultural links with some of the communities in Mbanasaa. For example, Achina have ancestral link with Urualla, Akokwa with ltrunbuzu; Umualaoma, and Uzii with Osina, Aguata has historical and cultural links with Mbanasaa clan as a whole. About 4l.42% of migrants claim that historical and cultural linkage attracted them to the area. Table 3: State of origin of migrants w N° P¢t¤¢¤¢ Anambra 130 1g_57 Abia *285 Ebo 115 16.43 Ewa *428 Cross RlV€l` Al“"“‘“’°m 65 9.29 gz; ¤-43 Midwest States 2. 14 2.86 Westem States 2.57 Northern States 8.57 *00-99 Source: Field data, 2005 The atial a ‘ · . mm;;rbm,Pur;;:\tgf\1T;;:2;:>: glutflogp into Mbanasaa is therefore rural-rufal, urban to urban of indigenes of Mbanasairatlim which can be rural to wml and since Mbanasaa Clan is not urban immi {lv 9 njlgfated elsewhere. Essentially urban to rural. Semi-urban areas lcl gm mn ls m the fom] Of mm to rural and Akokwa . °s° *0 Mbanassa such as U rr O · d ¤¤r¤¤r more mrgram Rcmm . . . me "· s‘“° a" migration involved migrants from

so Mbanasaa who. retired from service or business and are at home doing business or producing services needed by the people. 3. Motivation for migration and impact on development The driving force for migration are economic differential, availability of infrastructures, dwindling infrastructure facilities in source area, job opportunities and freedom to practice crati and trade, dwindling agricultural possibilities in source area, and historical and cultural link of source area and Mbanasaa. With available economic infrastructure in Mbanasaa, migrants with business interests invest in properties and other enterprises. Migrants are noted for the increase in farming activities, production of wine and palm fruits (cf CBN 2000). Migrant labour has played leading roles in large-scale production of cassava, yam, fruits, cocoa yams and vegetables. Notable farmers in food crop production are migrants from Abakaliki, (Ebonyi State) and Nkalu (Enugu State) who are noted for farming prowess. The increasing number of migrants has resulted in the increase of population of Mbanasaa Clan. Increase in population by migrants especially taxable adult results in increase in income tax collected per capita of taxable adults. The IdeatoNorth Local Govemment Council announced that over the year’s tax collected from taxable adults are the main financial engines for most of her development projects. Migrants contribute to this. Some social and economic facilities such as filling station, abattoir, medicine store, commercial schools, welding and mechanic shops are owned by migrants. These facilities help in filling the gap provided by absence of such facilities owned by indigenes. In areas of social and recreation, migrants provided hotels, restaurants, entertainment shops and hall where video films are shot from time to time. Restaurants and catering houses presents an altemative recreation and eating houses for indigenes and travellers. These recreation centres provides assorted menu and drinks. Migrants provided vehicles and motorcycles to enhance transportation and communication. These vehicles operate all over the clan at minimal cost. To enhance coordination the town unions and the Local Govemment provides garages for these operators. Each day a vehicle operator pays permit tax before he commences his business. Some migrants have invested

,0 c.Nooz1 in properties and thus helping in reducing accommodation problem in Mbanasaa for sustainable development. Migrant youths provide telephone facilities in most remote areas of the clan. With cell phones and antennas they run telephony business in areas where cell phone access is impossible. With the emergence of the telephony business in remote rural areas parents can communicate with their children any where in the world. CONCLUSION Migration has been an engine for social and economic development. Migrants provide wide range of services through which they make their living and at the same time help in socio-economic transformation of the clan. Migrants are attracted to the area because of historical and cultural linkage and facilities such as natural, economic, social and prospects for employment and generation of income. The income generated by migrants contributes to the public treasury and hence public investments. Migration generates development through contribution, which they make in their areas of residence. The income, which accrue from economic activities help in enhancing livelihood. Food security is addressed through the efforts of migrant famiers. Food crops produced are sold to eam income and at the same time contribute to household food security. Migration has not only provided migrants and natives with sustainable livelihood but also at the same time lunched them into expanding their economic activities for socio economic sustainability. REFERENCES CBN 2000. The Changing structure of Nigerian economy and Implications for Development Realm. Communications Ltd, Lagos ; Nigeria. ;Jfl;?é€l:;(n ;)9(g`7?J:It;;¤\ial Migration and development" in Geographical Rcgi0¤$ INBO; J.S et al Heinemann Publishers, Ibadan, Nigeria.

CHAPTER TWELVE NUTRITION AND HEALTH ISSUES AMONG URBAN MIGRANTS 0. Afam-Anenel and C A. Nwajiubaz [Department 0f Nutrition and Dietetics Imo State Universily, Owerri, Nigeria E-mail: afamanene3l @yah00.c0m 2Alvan Ikoku College of Education, Owerri, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected] INTRODUCTION Common forms of intemal migration in southeast Nigeria are rural-urban and urban-rural areas. However rural — urban migration in search of better livelihood is more prevalent. A prime reason for this is that rural areas do not provide adequate means of living. Consequently, labour, especially youths, a vital ingredient for rural/subsistence agriculture is scarce. Agricultural activities are then let} with the aged whose productive capacities are limited. This perpetuates food insecurity, which negatively affects nutrition and health (NWAJIUBA, 2002). By 2030, three fifths of the world population will live in urban areas (STEPHENS, 2000; BROCKERHOFF, 2000). It has been observed that between 1977 and 1981, Owerri urban population (the capital city of Imo state) has grown significantly due mostly to immigration and then natural increase factors (PATMBANO, 2004). Consequences of this include environmental degradation, food i¤S€Curity, poverty, Health problems, unemployment and crimes, housing problems (Fig. 1). This chapter focuses on examining these consequences of rural-urban migration, especially on nutrition and health Statuses of migrants. URBAN IZATION AND POPULATION GROWTH The problem of migration from rural to urban areas have often been linked to urbanization process resulting from rapid population growth (PAT-MBANO,

2003). This creates new challenges in the urban centres with regard to infrasn-ucture, access to safe water, sanitation, employment, and provisronof social and health services. Pressure on already existing facilities result to massive enviromnental problems resulting from increased demand tor water and sanitary services, transport and energy consumption services, and pushing the city limits tiirther into the marginal land settlements. Rural- urban Migration v Urban population Growth + A/Urbanization\> Crime p0Verfy Fiod \` environmental unemployment Housing. . .insecurity degradation Fig I: Consequences of rural-urban migration There are pollution and solid waste management problems. These result in dirty and unsanitary environment. In the urban centres in south- east Nigeria there is improper / inadequate disposal of refuse, which pollutes the environment, which in tum perpetuates infection and diseases. Consequently affecting the nutrition and health status of the people. Exposure to contaminated water and air can result in several types of illnesses (HENRICKSON et al, 2001). Examples are gastroenteritis (GI), acute respiratory diseases (ARD), and eye, ear, skin infections. Fig. 2 presents the problems of rapid population growth due to migration from rural to urban areas. The rising increase in urban population is a concem to many demographers and they wam that cities will be unable to accommodate large population, increases (BROCKERSHOFF, 2000). There exist high birth rate in developing countries like Nigeria. ln southeast Nigeria, effective birth control measures have not been widely adopted. Consequently, the number of children per couple is on the increase. World population must be managed by reducing unwanted fertility in urban areas of developing Cotmtries and among potential migrants living in rural zielqs (\};§OCKERl·lOFF, 2000). Reducing fertility is necessary because migr3ii0¤ e an areas is mostly within the peak reproductive ages (between 15 and 40

_ ti»\l.TH •>¤ years). Most migrants move to the cities between the ages of I9 and 79 (BROCKEPHOFF, 2000). Improving access to modem methods of contraception can most directly reduce unwanted fertility. Population growth + A/Jrbanization Climatic change Envirciumental degradation • inadequate refuse and sewerage • disposal High environmental Air pollution temperature water contamination - water lofged areas 111 ess ./ - gastroenteritis, acute respiratory diseases - eye, ear, skin infections - malaria, typhoid F ig.2: Outcomes of Urbanization URBANIZATION AND POVERTY Most of the people that migrate to urban areas are usually tmskilled for any job. This leads to unemployment, poverty and crime (Fig. 3). As a result accessibility to good housing, adequate water supply, good food, education, and health services becomes difficult (STEPHENS, 2000). This results to urban poverty, which consequently increases the rate of under nutrition and infectious diseases. Food insecurity manifests as lack of access to enough food at all times in the right quantity and quality by all persons. Household food security means ability to acquire quantitatively and qualitatively enough food. It requires adequate production of food and or adequate economic and physical access to food (GILLESPIE and MASON, 1991). Economic access comes from an adequate purchasing power while physical access refers to the proximity to supply. Urbanization increases food insecurity, by hampering adequate food production. lt limits purchasing power due to urban poverty, and liirther constrains ability to buy food. This may arise due to urban unemployment.

Urbinization -—-*7* P0V€Fl)’ neriployment Poor housing Malnutrition Poor Water supply Food insecurity Poor health __,...-> Infections and diseases I - diarrhoea, measles, tuberculosis Infant and adult mortality Fig. 3: Consequences of urban poverty due to unemployment URBANIZATION AND POVERTY Urban expansion has impact on food security thereby affecting the nutrition of the urban populace. Food security is access by all people at all times to enough food for an active and healthy life (WORLD BANK, 1986). Urban expansion is associated with increased cost of supplies, distribution and access to food and increased number of urban households that are food insecure (ARGENTI, 2003). Competition between demands for land needed for housing, industry and infrastructure and agricultural production within and around cities erode most of the agricultural productive lands thereby affecting food production and access to enough food by urban migrants. This results to nutritional deticiencies, which contribute major health problems especially in developing countries (EL — HODHOD er al, 2005). Malnutrition increases the risk of infectious diseases, chronic diseases, under weight and stunted growth among children. There have been changes in feeding habits among urban migrants. There has been an increase rn the demand for convenience and processed meals. This raises the issue of food quality and safety. The increasing number of fast food restaurants in the urban areas make more people go for refined and "junk" foods high i¤ carbohydrates and fats, preservatives, sweeteners instead of natural foods high in

Nuriuriow AND uiaxiru ,5 libre, minerals and vitamins. Differences in pattems of consumption of specific nutrients have been found to contribute to observed differences in the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) between mral and urban population (NESTEL er al, 2005). lt is believed that 50% of arterial diseases and hypertension can be attributed to dietary intake (TAM er al, 2005). ln the developing world, urbanization has brought a remarkable shift towards a high incidence of obesity, diabetes, coronary heart diseases, and hypertension (POPKIN, 2000). This eventually leads to low life expectancy among urban migrants (Fig. 4). Urban@on Food insecurity <—— Change in feeding styles L - processed! junk foods - High in carbohydrates Poor nu - Fats ealth problems / \ l`t-hOP3¢dlC disorders Mar mus Kwashiorkor Obesity diabetes Chronic heart disease - elevated cholesterol infectious diseases A/mypertension > Low life expectancy Fig. 4: Negative impact of urbanization on nutritional status of migrants URBANIZATION AND HEALTH The epidemiological and health transition associated with urbanization has detrimental effects on health with an increase in infectious and chronic diseasesiof lifestyle (KRUGER er al, 2005). In south — east Nigeria, a lot of social activities take place and because most people are jobless, they engage in such activities

96 0. AFAM-ANENE AND c. A. NwAJruBA which most times are not good for their health In such social gatherings people, youths in particular engage in smoking, alcoholism, sexual acts, crimes etc. This has lead to an increase in diseases such as cancer, kidney. diseases, respiratory problems, sexually transmitted diseases (HIV /AIDS), family break-ups, mental and emotional problems, and teenage pregnancy. They also engage in physical activities, which seem precarious to their health. Such include hazardous work, aggressive trading etc since majority are unskilled for good jobs. As a result, they are predisposed to stress related ailments (Fig. 5). Urbanization Change in keg change u1ge in Feeding style life ftyle physical fctivity Nutritional related Negative health -stress hypertension Diseases habits -obesity - infectious disease - prostitution - orthopaedic disorders - - chronic or - alcoholism — fast aging - coronary heart problems — smoking -+ o — family crises o —teenage pregnancy o — STDs (HIV/AIDS) o Diseases V Low life expectancy Fig. 5: Effects of urbanization on health status of migrants Urbanization leads to rapid spread of diseases. The UNAIDS 2004 has the view Shar human mobility has been a major driving force in epidemics of infectious l;cas°S‘ Thc lmks Pctwlicn m0b1Uty and HIV/AIDS are related to the conditions ;¤ER;¤\';1;t5re of migration process. According to NGWIRA et al; (2001) alld HIV/AIDS ); (27002) food insecurity is a "fuelling factor" in the spread of dcstm tl , y increasing transactional sex activity, and labour migration. Thi? c ive power of HIV/AIDS is now well known (BARNETT and WHITESIDE, 2003). It affects assets inst'tut` · · , 1 ions, and nutritional status and

finally leads to premature death after causing family break-up and further infection. The AIDS pandemic threatens to halt and reverse development achievements (UN, 2001). Nutrition and food security play a critical role in the main strategies for combating HIV/AIDS prevention, care. treatment and mitigation (SCN, 2004). CONTROL STRATEGIES There are some strategies to overcome the negative impact of migration on human nutrition and health. To develop the strategies, the connection between rural — urban migration and urban poverty has to be understood and migration needs to be managed for the benefit of the cities, societies and individuals migrants. Policy makers need to identify and direct policies that will reduce the influx of people from rural to urban areas especially for those migrants who can stay in rural areas and make a decent living. This can be achieved by providing social amenities that could help improve the lives of rural dwellers. This calls for an understanding of rural - urban linkages. Urban poverty should be addressed by strengthening rural development to lower migration pressures and reduce income disparities between urban and rural areas. Local govemrnents can address local needs and priorities, which must be supported at the state and national levels. This support includes managing natural resources while resisting local economics by providing physical and social (health and education) infrastructure. Urban population growth could be managed through effective urban governance by engaging communities, civic groups, private contractors in meeting basic needs, decentralizing decision- making authority and control of municipal resources to local indigenous groups and making govemments more responsive to local needs, more accountable for actions and more transparent with respect to financing. Rapid population growth of the urban centres makes it difficult for urban health services and sanitary infrastructure to keep up with the demand generated by immigration. This then makes it necessary for govemments to increase budgetary allocations to the health sector, direct public health resources towards centres in

accordance with the exceedingly rapid growth rates and maintain adequate urban water and sewage systems. Food and nutrition policies should be directed towards finding solutions common to both under nutrition and over nutrition and promoting them through education and more direct interventions. For instance promulgation nutrient-dense fruit and vegetables, which contain photochemical, vitamins, minerals and fibre (TAM et al, 2005). That would reduce caloric intake and improve mrcronutrrent status. Govemrnent must continue their efforts and develop programs and policies for agricultural production, nutrition, food marketing and education that will help to successfully confront the nutrition problems and achieve sustainable food and nutrition security. CONCLUSION The consequences of migration on the nutrition and health of the urban populace are numerous. Common among these are urban poverty, food insecurity, lowered nutritional status, over crowding, dirty and unsanitary enviromnent and frequent episodes of infections and disease. Efforts should be geared towards managing the rate of migration and improving the health and nutrition of the migrants through appropriate policies and programmes. Policies, programmes and processes to improve nutritional outcomes have a role to play in global development. A nutrition perspective can strengthen key development mechanism such as poverty reduction strategies, health sector reform, improved govemance and human rights. Integrating nutrition can accelerate improvements in non-nutrition development objects. Better nutrition reduces poverty by boosting productivity ::;l;5l';<;l;;tl1€ HE? 1;:;/ele and across generations. It slows the onset of diseases and chronic disc In HIV p0s1t1ve rndrvrduals and lowers the risk of diet related

2 REFERENCES ARGENTI, O. (2000); Feeding the Cities; Food Supply and Distribution. In Achieving Urban Food ana' Nutrition Security in the Developing World — A 2020 Vision for Food, Agriculture and the Environment Focus 3 — (IFPRI, 2000, 22) FAO: ROME. http://www.l`uo.org/aglsada. BARNETH, T and WHITESIDE, A (2003): AIDS in the Twenty—First Century; Disease and Globalisation. Palgrave Macmillan, Basing Stoke. BROCKERHOFF, M (2000); An urbanizing world: In Achieving urban food and Nutrition Security in the Developing World - A 2020 Vision for Food Agriculture, and the Environment — Focus 3- IFPRI, 2000, 22. FAO http://xat»vw.fao.org/aggsada DEREVEUX, S. (2002): The Malawi famine of 2002. Institute for Development Studies Bulletin 33: 70 -78. EL-HODHOD, M., M. NASSAR, M. ZAKI and A. MOUSTAFA (2005). Apoptic changes in lymphocytes of protein energy malnutrition patients". Nutrition Research, Vol. 25(l): 21 — 29. HENRICKSON, S.E., T. WONG, P. ALLENS, T. FORD, and P. R. EPSTEIN (200l)." Marine Swimming —related illness": Implications for monitoring and environmental policy. Environmental Health Perspectives. Elsevier ltd, UK. 109 (7): 645-650. GILLESPIE, S and MASON, J. (1991): Household Food security. In Nutrition — Relevant Actions. ACC/SCN State of the An Series Nutrition Policy Discussion paper No 10, 30 — 34. KRUGER, H., A. KRUGER, H. VORSTER, P. JOOSTE and P. WOLMARANS (2005). Urbanization of Africans in the North West is associated with better micronutrients status; the transition and health during urbanization study in south Africa. Nutrition Research, Vol. 25(l): 365 - 375.

. COLGUHOUN, R. J. SIMES, K_ NESTEL, P. 1.. K- BAGHURSI D` N M A TONKIN, A. KIRBY, and C. PALLICINO MEHALSKL D. H. WHITE, · · _ _ _ b_ _ · ‘ diovascular disease risk factors rn su jects with 2005) "Relat1on of diet to cat . ( d i 1 d`sease in Australia and New Zealand: analysis of the long —term ° cu ar 1 _ . ,, . Irzilerhidrigon with pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease trial . The American Journal of clinical nutrition, Rockville, USA. 81 (6) 1322. NGWIRA, N, BOTA, S. and LOEVINSOI-IN, M (2001): HIV/AIDS, Agriculture nd food security in Malawi: Background to Action. Renewal Working Paper No 1 ISNAR/Ministry of Agriculture and irrigation. The Hague/ Lilongwe. NWAJIUBA, C. U. (2002). Food insecurity: An Overview. In NWA.IIUBA,·C. Perspectives in food security in southeast Nigeria. Magraf verlag, Werrkesherm, Germany. PAT-MBANO, E.C (2003): Rural urban migration: causes and consequences. In, Man and Environmental influences. OHAZURIKE N.C, ONUH, M.O, OKERE, A. N and DURU, P. N (eds.) City Prints, Aladimna Housing Estate, Owerri 94103pp. POPKIN, B.M. (2000): Urbanization and the nutrition Transition. In, Achieving urban food and nutrition security in the developing world — A 2020 vision for food agriculture, andthe Environment- Focus 3. IFPRI, 2000, 22. SCN (2004): Nutrition trends and implications for attaining the MDGS. In, Nutrition for improved Development outcomes. Sm Re ort on the World Nutrition P Situation SCN, Geneva, l29pp. STEPHENS, C. (2000): Threats to urban Health. In, Achieving urban food and Nutrition Security in the developing world — A 2020 vision for food, Agriculture, and the Environment — Focus 3 — IFPRI, 2000, 22. TAM, C., L. NGUYEN, S. PE, K. HAIYAN, S: KEVORK, R. DAVRA, G. POON and P. LEW (2005). "The effects of age, gender, obesity, health habits, and vegetable consumption frequency as hypertension in elderly Chinese Amencans". Nutrition Research, Vol. 25(l): 31 — 43.

pursue itmtrrt imrwicxrrows CHAPTER THIRTEEN PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF MIGRATION B Nwvkel E_ Nwgke, I. Dvziv, J- AHOSik¢’. F Iwuugwu, and C,Ukgga Department 0fAnima/ & Environmental Biology, [mo Stare Universiry, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Human migration, a major demographic trend can be grouped into two major types: involuntary and voluntary. The involuntary commonly referred to, as forced migration is typically the outcome of unexpected violence and conflict providing little time for preparation. Sometime people are conscripted into forced migration. The physical and psychological violence associated with forced migration has immediate and long-term damages. Due to the sex selectively of contemporary migration, women are left with responsibility for children and elderly relatives, but without any supportive mechanism they are used to (MILLER, 1994). Some are forced to flea alone or with children but without spouses or older relatives to share the physical and psychological burden (CARBALLO et al, 1996). The other aspect of forced migration in Africa is the mass refugee flow in the continent as a result political and amred conflicts, unjust economic structures and power struggle between the superpowers (ANON, l99l). Also included here are enviromnental catastrophe and resettlement programs due to economic development such as new cities and hydroelectric dam sites. Of all these, the issue of migration, as a result of political conflicts and violence are the most devastating and common. As one commentator puts it "as long as the political and social injustices exist, as long as legal channels for political expression and political dissent are obstructed, the prevention of conflict and violence (rn Africa) and the resultant refugee problem will remain an elusive goal . This is compounded by the fact that violence or conflict itself (in most African countries) ls cxploltffd (DASGUPTA, [973) as (hg superpowers m3I`I(€¥ 50% of thfifiizgri they produce to other countries (WARING, 1988), especially to poor countries. Mass migration or refugees, therefore is a global problem and complex.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES AMONG MIGRANTS Rural-to-urban migration and refugee influx increase the demand for water, education, housing, sanitation and health care. This remarkable urban growth has been associated with deterioration in the quality of the urban environment. The appalling state of the urban periphery or squatter settlements, where majority of these urban immigrants reside is reflected in poor housing condition and in the volume of effluent and solid wastes the collection, the disposal of which have become intractable problem in most Africa cities (ADEGBOLA, 1987) In such migrant settlements, there is uncontrolled flow of water with open lanes and drainage-constituting breeding sites for insect vectors of human diseases. The health hazard of fouling open spaces with excreta and dirt in such settlements is very obvious. (NWOKE et al. 2004; NWOKE, 2004). The poor enviromnental conditions of the migrants and refuges in the slums, shantytowns and squatter settlements are important factors that affect the incidence of infectious diseases, ill health and death among the migrant population. High incidence of parasitic diseases has also been reported among the urban slums and shantytowns in Nigeria (FASHUYI, 1988; OSINUSU and OYEIIDE, 1989). Most of these infectious diseases are diseases of poverty and underdevelopment. Migrants are exposed to them as a result of their living conditions. For instance, in the Netherlands, where the incident of tuberculosis (TB) infection rose from 45% between 1987 and 1995, over 50% of the infection occurred among the immigrants (CARBALLO and NERUKAR, 2001) especially among the immigrants &om Africa. These same underlying environmental factors have also contributed to migrants, risk of contacting HIV/AIDS. lviany migrant workers travel alone, living their spouse/ partners at home. This situation inevitably places these migrants at risk of unsafe sexual behaviour, contact with sex workers and infection with sexually transmitted diseases (STDS). The work of CAltBALLO and NERUKAR (2001) showed that the incidence of was higher among migrants living in Sweden especially those ff0m , an among Swedish nationals. g¥\;[:iiT;¢1;[;$i<;;1;llheal:h, "migrants tend to take jobs that are temporary, requif¢ available ’Such as tha;§;;1u;?£T¤CIlV€ to local labour forces, Many job thtlt BTC . ng, construction, heavy manufacturing industry,

l’U1ll.l(`ll1iALTll rMr·r.rcArroNs Z/’.'?__e and agricuhum often inV0lVO POOV environmental Conditions and lack safety- It is impomm [0 mrc here that rn most CZSOS. migrants (from Africa) have iangua C bmw and the rack of familiarity with Sontc ofthe technology used contribute $0 Occupational risk. Again. many of these Africa immigrants may not mel be eligible {Or national health ln5Ul'3nO€ OV thc)! Simply may not know whcyg and how to seek help. As a result of these risks, mortality among urban poor migrants is often markedly higher than in rural areas (LOPEZ, 1987). ln the bid to migrate to "greener pasture" at lot of deaths have been recorded. For example, on Sunday, June 18,2000, 54 Chinese would-be immigrants suf`f`ocated to death while trying to enter united Kingdom in a sealed van designed to carry f`ruits from continental Europe, examples have shown that, from Valencia, Spain, down to the straits of Gibraltar, police patrols regularly find a lot of bodies of Africans who drown trying to enter Europe through its Southem most door (CARBALLO and NERUKAR, 2001). REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH IMPLICATIONS Migration has serious reproductive health implications in Africa. ln sub-Saharan Africa, rural-to-urban migration has dramatically decreased the "risk of conception and fertility, once lower, remains lower. BROCKENHOFF and YANG (1994) noted that this might be due to improvement of standards of living while CARBALLO et al (1996) reported that because most people migrate alone, in many parts of Africa might mean that the absence of the spouse is also a key factor. One of the major public health problems that have threatened the reproductive health of migrants is sexual violence. Rape, abduction, sexual harassment, Prostitution, physical violence remains a distressing reality for many refugee Women. And the study of LIPSON and MULLER (1994) confirms that there is a growing body of evidence that migrant women face considerable sexual harassment, violence and exploitation by employers. This is compounded when potential unemployment and fear of deportation compel migrant women to provide sex to employers and others (MARDH and GENC, 1995). This bnngs us to the issue of traf`ficking in women. The Intemational Office of Migration (IOM)

( 1994) noted that W0[`I`l€I1·U'BfHCklUg h3$.b€€Om€ =;fg1¤;>¤1 Pclllllgc Zroiblimh By this young women, mainly from Africa. are 0 cre on I y F ln { cn forced to sell sex under conditions laid down by their recruiters. or instance, 90% of the Wvindow prostitutes in Amsterdam are l1’I11TllgI`&1’ltS,.&1'ld in Spain, France and Italy, women from sub-Saharan African countries constituted the main street prostitutes (IOM, 1994)The consequence these reproductive health phenomena are increased risk to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including HIV/AIDS. Among the migrants, DAVIDSON (1995) noted that the STDs are spread through heterosexual relationship in which rape and prostitution are the key factors. For instance, about 12% of pregnant female refugees in Mozambique were infected by syphilis; and the fact that the prevalence of HIV was only 3% (in l993)" suggests that HIV may have been recently introduced into the population as a result of the sexual violence which women were exposed to in the war" (CARBALLO et al, 1996). STDs (including HIV/AIDS) infection as a result of sexual violence against women migrants in other African countries has been reported by SEIDEL (1993). SOCIO-PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEMS Migration, whether planned, voluntary or forced, means breaking with family, friends and traditional values and systems. Migrants have to adapt to new social and psychological environment; and this involves some degree of stress. Voluntary rural-to-urban migration places additional burden on health and social infrastructures, aggravate, unemployment and underemployment. RAHIM and CEDERBLAND (1984) observed that in Sudan rapid urbanization caused problems of psychological adjustment for the older children. Migration results in social isolation and loneliness, especially when people move alone; and barriers of good communication of migrants compound the feeling of isolation and being ‘imwanted". Under this condition migrants find relief in temporary friendship and supportive social enviromnent such as ethnic bars that CARBALLO and NERUKAR (2001) noted to heighten migrants dependency on alcohol and other dangerous substances-with the attendant public health problems. sotvgrlilgmtion transforms the houschoid structure in a way that en with the sole responsibility for dependant children and

i»um.1c utextru 1Mi=i.ic,mONS Fund for Pnnnganon Activtil€·S 'faP0Fl€
ms B NWOKE E_ NWOKE L Dom; r_ Awosrrua. F. rwUAGwU AND C. UKAGA require strategies of simultaneous rural and urban development in order to discourage t.he current rural to urban migration. For the brain drain or brain push to industrialized nations, Afiica leaders need to leam to hamess the potential of their people by providing appropriate incentive, good govemance and rule of law as well as political and economic environment for the professionals to stay in their countries of origin and excel. The present militarised political power, autocratic democracy and injustice by the ruling class are responsible for the conflict, violence and war with their attendant refugees problems in the African continent. And because of the complex nature of migration and the public health problems associated with it, it is believed to be a global problem. In view of the fact that women and children are more vulnerable to the public health impact of migration, any national, continental and global strategy to solving the problem of migration should take special measures to protect and support migrant women and children. REFERENCES ADEGBOLA, O (1987). The impact of urbanization on health conditions: The case of Nigeria. Wld Hith. Statict. Quart. 40: 74-83. ANON (1991). World Rejixgees Survey. Washington DC BROCKEN1·1OFF, M and X Yang (1994). Impact of migration on fertility in subSaharan Aiiica Social Biology. 41 (1-2): 19-43. CARl3ALI.O, M; M. GROCU· II and A. HDZIHASANOVIC (1996). Women and migration: a public health rssue. Wld Hlth. Statist. Quart. 49: 158 — 164. CARBALL . . E t .0, Mland A NERUKAR (2001). Migration, refugees, and health risks. merging infectious Diseases 7(3): 556 -560, DASGUPT · - . C _ 2- New ’(l973). Studying violence. Indian Council of peace Research. 2 . . . . mbod gl . . D’ AVANZO C E (1994) Stress in Ca ` of Nursing Scholarship. 26(2): 101 — 105. lan rc gcc famlhcsl Image Journal

-.___. "UH@ DAVIDSON, S (1995). What is reproductive health care? Rejiigee Particpation Network. 20:4-8 FASHUY1, S. A. (1988). An observation ofthe dynamics of intestinal infection in two isolated communities in South west Nigeria. Trop. Geogr. Med. 4:226-232 I O M (Intemational Office of Migration) (1994).Traj]ic/ting and prostitution: the growing exploitation of migrant women from central and Eastern Europe. I O M Geneva. KNOCKE, W. (1999). Gender, ethnicity and technological change. Economic and Industrial Democracy. l5(l): 1 — 34. LIPSON, J. G. and S. Miller (1994). Changing roles of Afghan refugee women in United States. Health Carefor Women International. 15(3):l71 -180. LOPEZ, A. D. 91987). The impact of demographic trends on health: Introduction. Wld. Hlth. Statist. Quart. 44:25 MARDH, P. A. and N. GENC (1995). Migratory prostitution with emphasis on Europe. Journal of Travel Med. 2(1): 28-32 MATTSON, S (1993). Mental health of Southeast Asian refugee women: an overview. Health Care Women International. l4(2):155-165. MILLER, L. C. (1994). Aiphan refugee children and mothers. Archives of Paediatric and Addescent Med. 148(7): 704 — 708. NWOKE, B. E. B. (2004). Emerging and Re-emerging, Parasitic and lnkctious Diseases and Our Environment. Supreme Pub. Nigeria. NWOKE, B. E. B.; I. N. S: DOZIE; E. A. NWOKE and J. C. ANOSIKE (2004). Human schistosomiasis and Nigeria environment and climate change. J. Biological Research and Biotech.2( I). OSINUSI, K. E and C. OYEJIDE (1989). Morbidity pattem among Nigerian children from a poor urban community. Af J. Med & Medical Sc. 18:43-47.

»»————— -——&@&DQ —.; -———»— ' " CHAPTER FOURTEEN SOCIOECONOMIC DETERMINANTS OF LABOUR MOBILITY L. Tanlw and C. Njvkuoma Department 0fA gricu/tural Economics Michael Okpara University 0fA griculiure, Umudi/re, Nigeria ` INTRODUCTION There are a number of theories of migration. Migration can be taken as an equilibrating mechanism on a macroeconomic basis (LEWIS (1954; FEI and RANIS (1961). SJAASTAD (1962) perceived migration of labour as an investment in human capital resulting in higher expected benefits. Labour mobility can involve a job change, but no change in occupation or residence; an occupational change, but no change in residence; a geographic move to a job in the same occupation; or geographic migration accompanied by a change in occupation (CAMPBELL and BRUE (1992). The last two are the focus of this study. Being a major factor of production, AHMED and SIRAGELDIN (1993) observed that labour migrates from one region to another. Diverse opinions abound as to the determinants of labour mobility. SOFER (1993) opines that labour migrates from lower income regions to higher income regions. MUELLER (1989) in found that people who have low incomes in shortrun employment have greater likelihood of migration. DAVANZO (1981) pointed out that labour force participation by wives has a negative effect on labour mobility and the higher the percentage of total family income eamed by the wife, the greater the likelihood of family migration. UPTON (1997) observed that agricultural labour mobility is higher where there are prospects of higher wage in altemative employment, while MINCER (1999) found that an individual will choose to migrate if the annual eamings differential in the present job is higher than in the previous job. Dearth of basic infrastructure has also been identified as a pull factor for labour mobility (YOUDEOWEI, 1999). BHADUR1 (1999) found that the average labour wage rate in agriculture is generally lower than in nonagriculture and this leads to agricultural labour mobility. A

in L. rxmto AND c. wortuomx Several studies on labour supply in Nigeria focused on agricultural labour (OKOYE, 1989; ALIMBA and AKUBUILO, 2002; ALIMBA el: al 2004). Available literature shows that no previous study addressed socio-economic determinants of labour mobility in Abia State. Given that labour is a veritable resource and the productive sectors of developing economies such as agriculture are largely labour-intensive, an attempt to identify the socio-economic factors responsible for this movement and the ef`fect it has on source and destination areas will be a worthwhile adventure as these are issues of concem to both the government and individual planners. While considerable progress has been made in developing a theoretical model of migration, the empirical verification of this model using individual level data has remain unresolved. Social disparity in distribution of amenities encourage excessive population, over stressed use of basic facilities, high crime rate, traffic congestion and even difficulty in implementing certain government policies (SOFER, 1993). This study is justified by the need to having a better understanding of the dynamics of labour mobility so as to shed light on its features. This paper therefore aims at identifying the variables influencing migration decisions of the migrants in the survey area. METHODOLOGY Household data used in this study is based on a survey conducted in Abia State in 2004. The State is divided into three agricultural zones, namely; Umuahia, Aba and Ohaiia and consists of 17 Local Govermnent Areas (LGAs). Abia State has a projected population of about 2,368,574 people consisting of 1,160,141 males and 1,208,433 females and about 226,706 fanning household (EMEROLE, 2002). About two-thirds of the total population are engaged in small-scale agriculture. The State was stratified into the existing three agricultural zones. From each `1|... agrrcu tura zone, two LGAs and two commimitres in each LGA were selected Tglfgg e simple random sampling technique. From the twelve rural communities, hl··. h oluse o ds were selected givmg a sample size of 120 respondents. For each ou l h · . . F se 0 d, t e survey recorded infomiation on income, expenditure, and labour ipa ion migration and fertility history. The migration module also

||] documented data about various socio-economic and demographic variables related to each household member. The variables included are: age, sex, marital status, education, migration status, year of migration, place of residence etc. This module classified household members as non-migrants, out·migrants, in-migrants, ` retum migrants or potential migrants. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Following SJAASTAD (1962), a discriminate function (function whose dependent variable is qualitative) was adopted. Migration in this paper was treated as an investment in human capital. This means that the potential migrants calculate the stream of benefits that would result from the move and compares them with the costs of migration. In other words, such a person seeks to maximize the present value of net gains resulting from the change in location. Thus if the present discount value (PDV) of the income eamed by the i"` individual in the place of origin ‘n’ is denoted by ‘Yni’, the PDV of the income eamed at the destination is given by ‘Ymi‘ and if the pemianent income equivalent of the cost of moving from place ‘n’ to place ‘m’ is denoted by ‘Ci’ then, the move takes place if; Ymt- vm; ct - - - (1) Where ‘Ci’ is not only influenced by the personal characteristics of the im individual (Zi), but also these costs is affected by certain attributes of the original location (Wi). Thus, the cost function takes the form: ci = c(zt, wa) + ei - - - (2) Where ei is the non-stochastic disturbance temt associated with costs. Also, Campbell and Brue (1992) attempted to compute the annual eamings differential between any two jobs using the value of net benefits model as follows; Vp = Nggjl - N _£_ - Z - (3) 1 Z(l + i)" Z(l + i)“

nz] n=l Where Vp = present value of net benefits E2 = eamings from job X in y€&f H (N) El = eamings fromjob Y in YW? U N = length of time expected on job x (year) i = interest rate (discount rate) n = year in which benefits and costs accrue C = direct and indirect monetary costs resulting from move in year n Z = net psychic costs of move (psychic costs minus psychic gains) Migration Decision Rule Given equations (l) and (2) above, the structural form of` the migration decision mle can be generated as a linear combination of income or wage differential and the variables, which influence the cost ftmction, ie. Ir* = Lni Ymi—i Yni (1+ci) =Ln Ymi — Ln Yni — Ln Ci ---- (4) Where Ln stands for natural logarithm and ci = Ci/Y ni. Hence the selection criterion becomes: Prob (Migrate) = Prob (If > 0) Prob (Stab') = Prob (Ii* 5 O) - _ (5)

Ahmed and Sirageldin (I993) observed two problems with a straightforward estimation of the structural form decision rule (cqu, 4)_ Fin;t_ it contains observable latent variable l.*, instead, they observed that; I, = l if l,* > 0 Ii = 0 if l."‘ < O -——- (6) Second, the cross sectional nature of the data as used in this paper suggests that eamings of migrants and non-migrants are conditional on the values taken by l,, i.e Yi = Ymi if I = I Yi = Yni if I, = 0 - — (7) Where potential earnings are not influenced by observable personal characteristics only but that cost-related factors also influence them. Incorporating these determinants, the resulting reduced form migration decision rule becomes: It* = Xt 6 + Et --—- (8) Where Xi = [Zi, Wi] and Ei includes the random disturbance terms associated with the cost and eaming function. From equation 6 — 8, we can derive the probability function as: Prob (I, = 1) = Prob (Ei > - Xi9 = 1-r(-x.0) - - - (9) Where F (.) is the cumultive distribution function of E,. The likelihood function becomes: L = l'IF(-Xt6) Il[1—F(—Xt9)] - - (I0) Ii :0 lg = l Since the probit model assumes E, ~ N (O,`§2), therefore the cumulative timctton takes the following fomi:

- _ = j.xr07; 1 F ( xm) ~» (2]] )0.5 exp (-E) ( 2 )dt (11) Operational Model Different economic and community level variables which are either direct measures of gains and costs or near approximations are examined and their relationship with migration was observed using the Pearson’s product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r) which describes the degree of association between pairs of variables. This is expressed as: r,, = n§|X;Y,-)- {ZX;)-2 (ZY;) 2, [¤ZXa2 · (ZX02] [ZYr - (ZYJ] Where Xi and Yi = Variables affecting migration decisions including the migration index. The general model specified under the theoretical framework was used as a guiding paradigm as it enable one write a model which lends itself to a meaningful maximum likelihood probit estimation. Following AHMED and SIRAGELDIN (1993), the operational model for estimation to determine the effect of some variables on migration decisions has been formulated in implicit form as: MIS = t` (AGH, ESH, EDH, EDW, HHS, COH, CHS, FPE, OCH, EPW, URD, LND, HST, ABD) Where, MIS = Migration Status (Dummy, l for migrants and zero otherwise) AGH = Age of husband in years ESH = Employment status of husband (dummy variable I if husband is selfemployed and zero otherwise). `

.»-€— *~*<>¤¤¤¤.¤tv -__.--..______LlZ' = Ed ‘ i ~ EDH ucation of husband (No. of years of schooling) EDW = Education of wife (N0. of years of schooling) HHS = Household size (No.) COH = Cost of housing in place of migration (rent) (N) OCH = Occupation of husband (Dummy variable; 1 if husband belongs to one of the occupational categories, and zero otherwise): Professional clerical Business, Agriculfllré, Skilled, Others (unskilled, military, ele) i ` HST = Housing status (Dummy variable, l if house is owned, and zero if rented) CHS = Number of children between ages tive and nine going to school FPE = Family type (Dummy, l if the migrant belongs to a nuclear family, and zero otherwise). EPW = Employment status of wife (dummy, l if wife is in labour force and zero otherwise) LND = Land ownership (Dummy, 1 if land is possessed, and zero otherwise) URD = Dummy variable taking value of l if the respondent lived in an urban area, and zero otherwise. ABD = Dummy variable taking a value of 1 if the respondent lived in Abia State and zero otherwise. iv A priori Expectation Age: Age indicates number of working years. Since young workers have a longer working time horizon, they have greater flexibility to move. Age is also indicative of the higher opportunity cost of moving as older people are relatively more established and have better social status as compared to yotmger people. A negative relationship is therefore expected between age and migration decision.

us L. TANK0 AND c. Nrokuom Education: Education acts as a signalling device, which increases the likelihood of securing employment at the destination. Education of both the husband and the wife is a determinant of income. It is expected that these variables will have positive effect on migration decision. Employment Status: Readjustment of self-employed workers is costly; a negative relationship is therefore expected between employment status and migration. Those who are self-employed either in agriculture or in business, are less likely to migrate as compared to the unemployed. Family Type: It is argued that those who live in a nuclear family have a weaker incentive to migrate as compared to those who live in extended families. This is because the migrating households usually leave their families with their close kin, at least for the mean time, which reduces the immediate cost of relocation. Schooling of Children: The greater the number of children going to school, the greater will be the cost of relocation, thus suggesting an inverse relationship between this variable and migration decision. Land and House Ownership: These two variables allow for a permanent income and wealth concept in the model. The decision to migrate is also influenced by the availability and cost of housing in the place of destination, thus an inverse relationship is therefore expected between these variables and the decision of a household to migrate. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results show that an average household had six family members, the typical h. ousehold head was male, 40 years old and had attained up to secondary level e ucation. Labour mobility was observed among 57% of the respondents

#···———— @_____________ in comprising of 48% males and 9% females. The typical family was extended in i nature accounting for 58% of the respondents while the remaining 42% were of ` nuclear type. Labour mobility was more pronounced among respondents in the 31 — 40 years age bracket and among respondents with fomial education. The maximum likelihood probit estimation technique was used to derive empirical results for the reduced fonn migration decision rule. The results are presented in Table 1. The results in Table 1 indicated that the only variables that significantly affected the probability of migration decision of respondents were; age of husband (at 1% level), education (5%), husband’s employment status (1%), occupation of husband (1%), number of children in school (1%), area of residence (1%), state of domicile (10%), and household size at 1% levels respectively. As indicated, the relationship between the age of husband and the probability of migration were negatively related. Due to a longer expected span of working life, the incentive to migrate is higher for younger people. Also, given that older people are generally norm-averse, the older the age the more hesitant the individual would be to accept the norms of a new place. Quite a number of studies (LEE, 1985; KRIEG, 1990 and AHMED and SIRAGELDTN, 1993) have shown that the migration decision is strongly influenced by educational attainment. This variable was disaggregated into four discemible components. Results in Table 1 show that, this variable is significant at higher levels of schooling on the one hand whereas educational attaimnent of wife was not found to be an important determinant of migration decision on the other. The results of the present analysis refute AHMED and S1RAGELDIN’s claim that a negative relationship is expected between employment status and the decision to relocate. This is shown by the magnitude of the coeflicient (2.632) and statistically significant. Those who are self-employed either in agriculture or in

business will remain only if their current eamings are higher than altemative employment in new location; otherwise, the probability to migrate to vocations where the annual eamings differential is higher than the present employment is likely. Level of eamings to a great extent varies with occupation. A positive relationship was observed between occupation and the probability of migration with a coefficient of great magnitude (2.22) (Table l). Though not disaggregated, strong evidence abound to show that professional and skilled workers are relatively more inclined towards migration as compared to those not included in the professional categories (professional, clerical, business, skilled, agriculture and others (unskilled and military service etc). The results presented in Table 1 also indicated that the higher the number of children in schools in a given family, the higher the cost of migration by way of relocation. The negative sign associated with the coefficient of this variable, which was confirmed, to be statistically significant, evidenced this. Similarly, the household size had an inverse relationship with migration decision, which implies that it imposes restriction to mobility. Results for the residence dummy variables shows that a negative and significant relationship is observed between the migration decision and the residence dummies (Table l). This is supported by earlier findings of AHMED and SIRAGELDIN. The residential dummy is used to measure the level of accessibility to various modem amenities/infrastructure generally available in the urban areas. The negative coetiicient hereby supports the contention that urban dwellers have fewer propensities to migrate as opposed to individuals residing in rural areas.

m Table 1; :\:•Ka;r;u§;iall;te;:}1:,o‘0d Problt Estlmatcs or ine Mrgmiqn Decision rulg Coeflicients Age of Husband -0.028 —3.530•·•• ` Education of Husband: Primary ( 1 — 6) 0.174 -0.707 Secondary ( 6 — 12) 0.254 -0964 Tertiary > 12 0.102 1.587** Education of Wife -0.010 -1.091 Husband’s Employment status 0.387 2.632*** Occupation of Husband 0.103 2.22*** Wife’s employment status -0.108 -0.761 Ownership of House 0.1 17 0.784 Ownership of Land -0.110 -0.774 Children in School -0.093 -5.556*** Family Type 0.005 -0.106 Residence dummy -0.171 -3.183*** State of Domicile Dummy 0.201 4.28* Household Size -0.057 -1.372** Cost of housing in place of migration 0.001 -0.087 Note: ***, ** and * represent signiticance at 1%, 5% and 10% levels respectively. Summary Statistics Sample Size = 120 Goodness-of-fit chi-squared (20) = 1 1 1.952 Log Likelihood Ratio = -1302.710 Available literature provides conflicting evidence as to the role possession of assets such as houses and land play in migration decision. On the one hand. studies by DAVANZO (1981), SIRAGELDIN el al (1984), A'1·lMED and

SIRAGELDIN (1993) and LEE (1989) observed a strong negative relationship between the owmership of a house and/or land and migration decrsron DAVANZO (1981) further buttressed his claim by saying that land is a locatronjspecitic asset that deters individuals from moving due to raised costs of migration. However BILSBORROW (1981) contended that those who own large tracts of land are relatively high-income eamers who can afford the migration cost and thus have a greater incentive to migrate on the other. The results of this analysis tends to pitch with the latter. Correlation analysis describes the degree of association between pair of variables. This study assumes that two variables will be strongly correlated if the correlation coefficient (r) is greater than 0.4. A strong correlation is observed between household size and age of wife, munber of children in school and age of wife, number of children in school and household size. This is also the case between number of children in school and residence dummy. Altogether, the matrix reveals a high positive correlation between seven pairs of variables. A relatively moderate correlation was observed between household size and education of wife, cost of housing in new location and migration status, education of wife and her employment status and between housing status and ownership of land. It was also observed that correlation is weak for about twenty—two pairs of variables. CONCLUSION This study shows that additional years of schooling increased the probability of migration. The incidence of migration was highest among those who had acquired up to tertiary education. Provision of increased incentives and better remuneration, conditions of service and job security could breed efficiency and reduce the incidence of migration. Respondent’s age was found to be a crucial variable in the migration model. Thus, older and experienced workers have a weaker tendency to migrate than do the younger workers. Public and private sector institutions should therefore take into account this peculiarity at the policy front.

Lnrsoun Mouruw m The Stud), also revealcd that thc PYCSPPCC of $€h00l·g0l¤g children in a hguschold estricted mobility due to the opportunity cost associated with relocation to a new place. The incentive to migrate was also relatively lower among residents in urban a1’€BS· REFERENCES AHMED, A. M. and I. SIRAGELDIN (1993). "Socio-economic Determinants of Labouf Mobility in Pakistan", The Pakistan Development Review, 32; 2; pp B9 _ 157. ALIMBA, J. O. and C. J. AKUBUILO (2000). "Assessing the Consequences of Technological Change on Farm Enterprises in south-eastern Nigeria by Use of Factor Analysis", Elsevier Journal of Agricultural System ASY 74, pp 257 - 270_ ALIMBA J. K. EZIKE and E. ONYEABOR (2004). Determinants of Su 1 of , i PP Y Urban Casual and Rural Agricultural Labour in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Joumal of Sustainable Tropical Agricultural Research, 10: 3, pp 42 — 46. BHADURI, A. (1999). Alternative Development Strategies and the Rural Sector Economics of Tropical Farming Systems. Cambridge Press, England, p. 16. BILSBORROW, R. E. (1981). Surveys of Intemal Migration in Low Income Countries: The Need for and Content of Community Level Variables. Geneva: lntemational Labour Office. CAMPBELL, R. and S. L: BRUE (1992). Contemporary Labour Economics. Third Edition, Mc Graw — Hill Inc. New York. DAVANZO, J. (1981). Techniques for Analysis of Migration History Data from the ESCAP National Migration Surveys. Paper Prepared for ESCAP Technical working Group on Migration and Urbanization, Bangkok.

EMEROLE, C. O. (2002). Determinants of Householdlncome and Consumption Expenditures of Smallholder fanners in Abia State, Nrgena.· Urlzpiubllrslied Ph.D Dissertation Presented to the Department of Agric. Economics, rc ae Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike. FEI, J. C. H. and G. RANIS (1961). A Theory of Economic Development. American Economic Review. September. LEE, S. L. (1989). Migration, Income and Fertility in Malaysia: A Simultaneous Equation Model with Limited Dependent Variables, Applied Economics, 1589 — 1610. LEWIS, W. A. (1984) Economic development with Unlimited Supplies of Labour. The Manchester School of Economics and Social Studies May: 139 — 191. MINCER, J. (1999). Labour Mobility and Wages: A Review, Columbia University Press, New York. MUELLER, C. F. (1989). The Economics of Labour Migration, American Economic Review. OKOYE, C. U. (1989). “Migration and Agricultural Labour Supply in Abakaliki Area of South Eastem Nigeria, Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsuldca, Nigeria. SIRAGELDIN, I; N. SHERBINY and M. I. SERAGELDIN (1984) Saudis in Transition: The Challenges of a Changing Labour Market, Oxford: Oxford University Press. SJAASTAD, L. A. (1962). The Costs and Retums of Human Mi tion. Journal Bm of Political Economy. 70: 80 — 93. SOFER, (1993). Uneven Regional Development and Intemal Lab0\1F Migration rn Fiji, World Development Report, 21 (2): 301 — 310.

Lxnouu MARKET AND Socmr. cxmrxr m CHAPTER FIFTEEN LABOUR MARKET MOBILITY AND SOCIAL CAPITAL IN NIGERIA U. Nwagwugwu conomrcs §;lZi1ri’li]iili11i(C£i;lege 0f Education, Owerri Nigeria INTRODUCTION The trend of highly mobile labour markets and globalisation has played tremendous role in the erosion of social capital - an important developmental variable. Participation in formal civic groups and organizations is one aspect of social capital. Others include social trust and norms of cooperative behaviour. Evidence shows that these aspects of social capital have also declined in most parts of the world (KNACK and KEEFER, 1997; COLEMAN, 1998). A number of studies have shown that social capital affects social and economic well-being. PUTMAN (1993) for instance describes studies showing that more civically active communities — those with high levels of social capital — are more successful in reducing poverty, unemployment, crime and social vices, and also more successful in areas of education and health. A decline in social capital is likely to have serious economic and social consequences on the development matrix, including on violent crimes. Why the decline or low level of social capital in Nigeria and elsewhere? Some hypotheses often proposed are labour mobility and the recent trend of economic liberalization. Due to the enormous degree of mobility over a very extended geographical area, and across nations people tend to live farther away from their family (parents, siblings, cousins, and others), childhood friends, and original €0nununity, and they tend to rely less on these support group. For the decline over time, PUTMAN (1993) lists increase labour mobility as one of the major causes of the erosion of social capital. l-Ie argues that residential stability is associated with greater civic engagement, while mobility uproots people and reduces civic participation. HAGAN et al. (1996) tinds a longitudinal study of adolescents in Toronto that multiple family moves have a deleterious

rza u. Nwoowuowu effect on children's emotional adjustments and educational achievement. They link this to the fact that leaving a community destroys established bonds, and deprives family and children of a major source of social capital. THE MODEL The model used in the paper examines the impact of an increase in generalized labour mobility across region with similar incomes, and not unidirectional mobility from poorer to richer areas in South-North or rural-Urban migration. Here labour moves not because of regional differences but because the supply of human skills is unevenly distributed over space. This seems reasonable for a country like the US where many industries are concentrated spatially, and labour movements are typically associated with local or regional demand for specific skills. Asstune two "islands" i = 1,2, which are identical except for the endowment of skills. Two—way migration is obtained by assuming different endowments of industry-specific skills in each island, low moving costs for labour and prohibitive moving costs for goods, say due to trade barriers. Assume that he initial population on both islands is n = 1. Denote by n,j the proportion of natives of Island I living on Island j (I, j = 1,2). Before migration takes place, nll = nl; = 1, and the proportion that migrates m = nl; = nz. = 0. Each native of Island 1 (2) produces the same quantity of a single good H (h). Each individual from Island I living on Island j, 1,,, consumes HU and h,j units Of H and h, with given utility given by Mi = Hip + hue lk! (I) Output of H and h depends on a specific factor as well as on local public goods and services whose provisions, based on the evidence provided in PUTMAM (II993), rs posrtrvely related to the level of social capital. Altematively, assume that output depends on the specific. factor and on aspects of social capital such as Kgéxéena of trust and cooperation among individuals which, KNACK and ( 997) and NARAYAN and PRITCHET (1997) have shown, lower

_. ns costs and improvc economic P€TfO¥'m3¤C€. Thus, H(h) is produogd mnsawo ,, Capiiai or skills K(k) and social capital. Only natives or {stand i (2) will humacd with Skills Oftypg K(k). The production functions for H and h are HU are crfog,) and Z Spcciticallys = and = fpjofigeilerality, assume K =k = 1, Then HU : Sljr : 'lj : l’2'6 Assume that the social capital Sii of individual lii increases with the proportion nii of natives in the total population of island i, or equivalently, that rt declines with the proportion m = i-nii of migrants in the total population. In other words, and as the evidence has shown, the lower the degree of mobility (m) of the population, the higher the level of social capital because the proportion of those who have interacted for a long period of time and have established cooperative relations and trust is higher. This is supported by DURKIN (1998) who argues that positive spillovers from a group-specific public good rise with the share of that group in the population. Specifically, assume that the level o social capital available to each native Iii is equal to the number of potential interactions with other natives, i.e., Sii = nii. An individual lij moving from Island i to Island j does not benefit from the same amount of social capital as his/her original island because creating a network of social relations and building trust takes time, and some relations and experiences (eg., those with family and childhood friends) cannot be recreated. For instance, natives in Island may speak a different language than those inn Island j. hence, migrations gain partial access to the social capital available in their island of destination. Specifically, the social capital Sij available to a migrant from island i to lSl8Ild (i. 96 is a proportion o 5 I ofthe social capital of natives of islandj, i.e., Sij = u.njj. For instance, if the language spoken on island i differs from that ;;'u;Sl;*;l;€;·j, fl measures the degree of similarity between the two languages. We Si a a/·*‘fa,,, 0
U. Nwo0wUGwU Finally, aggume that migration entails Teal I'€$OuI`°.€ eosts (Ze-- g·0;
r.Anouu MARKET mn socmt CAPITAL ,3, Budget constraint ofmigrantsl2,; (iii) q(| - m) y. hz, = pl -H2l (Market clearing: (iv) n,, [(1 - m) _ HI,] = ,,, - H2, (iv`) ml¤(/ — mh'- hzi] = mi. First Order Conditions: (v) P, = (h,,/[-[,,)"*’ on P. =<‘·” Migration Equilibrium: (vii) U,, = U,2 or H"+ h”H + h” Given $Ymm€UY» hiz = H2: and Haz ·= hzi. $0 that (vii)H’9+h¤ =H”+h” Social Capital: (viii) S,, = n,, (lx) S21 = Q-nll Equation (iv’) is not independent of equations (ii), (iii) and (iv) because of WALRAS Law. The solution is given below. Recall that eiuy is the amount of productive skills available to a migrant, with (1-::) being the loss of productive skills due to migration costs and private loss of social capital. The equilibrium number of natives n,, and of migrants m is n·—E_ " _ —L (4) l + ag" _ 1 m= TQ (5) l + eg`] Note that since B< land B>l, n,, > m: no more than half the population of €8€h island migrants. Since the case of n,i= m +c > m (C >0) is id€¤t`i¢¤l to (3 minor image of ) n,, = m — c<m, except for the fact in the latter case, resources are wasted in excess migration, n,, <m is never optimal. Note that when 8 = l, migration does not result in a private loss of productive skills, nn = m = %, and the two Islands are identical following migration. The relative pnce of H (rn units of h) is P| = E S

That P, < I is due to the fact that the supply of H is larger than supply of h, both because n-ii Z m and because migrants experience a private loss of their prod-uctive skills. This is not the case for c = l where nt. = m = %. P. =l (equation 6)_ and H = h. U · Consumption and utility are __L .JZ.. : ”·· =”·Z =(»"'/) <7> wr B Z (8) hu = hzi -‘:£`}I/Q+ EM) U.,=U2l =H,, +hf?= (9) (* t ef') From equation (9), it is clear that under labour market integration utility depends exclusively on parameters c and B. Given symmetry and migration arbitrage, utility U is the same for all groups, ie.,UH= U2,= U22= Ul; = U. Recall that in the absence of migration, U = l’ is in fact a horizontal line at B = %. Thus, there are no gains (or losses) from migration when B = %, no matter what the value of a. It can be shown from equation (9) that U>l below the line ‘U = l’ where B<% (see figure 1). Thus, labour market integration is beneficial for low values of B because marginal utility diminishes rapidly and the benefits of diversification are large. For instance, utility increases froml for B= % to 2 for B= 0.0n the other hand, U%. Thus, labour market integration generates a welfare loss when B is large. The fact that welfare increases for low values of B can be given an altemative interpretation. lf H and h, the greater the difference in their marginal utilities, the greater the benefits from diversification. The ratio of marginal utilities UH / Uh = (h/l·l))l`° For B= l, UHfUh =l, H and h are perfect substitutes (with U= H= h), and there are no gains from diversification .The higher the value of B, the greater the degree of substitution between Hand h falls as well , and the benefits of diversification increase. Note that a low degree of substitution between Hand h implies a low degree of substitution between inputs K and K. Thus, if integration is between two "island"

_..T;‘ and countries with similar labour endowments (with skills K similar to K), the gains from diversification are likely to be small. lf the countries have different types of labour endowments (eg., famrers versus industrial workers) and produce different goods (agriculture versus manufactures), labour market integration is more likely to generate welfare gains. What about the relationship GU/Ga between private migration costsl- ra and welfare? From figure 1- and from equation (10) in section 8 and figure 2 below we can see that: 5U/Ge 2 0 for,8$ % (where U Z1) <>< In other words, for B <%, U>l, and the benefits of migration rise as the private migration costs (1- ra) fall. This makes sense: if migration is beneficial, a lower private cost — which results in more migration — is more beneficial. For B>%. U
Other developments that are likely to facilitate labour mobility include the creation of hotel and restaurant chains, which provide standardized services of predictable quality and enable travellers to feel more familiar surroundings when away from home. These types of institutions help reduce the private loss of social capital (raise u) associated with increased labour mobility; though they are also likely to reduce mobility costs (raise y). Others institutions designed to lower mobility costs include private and public agencies providing information on distant labour markets, moving companies, credit card companies where they exist, the interstate highway system, and legislation to increase the inter- firm portability of pensions. Private institutions will not arise unless they are profitable, i.e., unless the private value of the services is higher than the cost. But will they raise welfare? In analysing institutional development, the main theoretical framework was the neoclassical economics. Under this approach, institutions developed optimally in response to market demand. Theoretical and empirical developments, including strategic interactions, asymmetric infomiation, interdependence of agents’ taste, insecure property rights, and coordination problems, led to the understanding that institutional development need not be optimal. In this paper, institutional development need not be optimal because of the negative extemality on social capital associated with increased mobility. If the extemality is small, so that the private migration equilibrium is not much larger than optimum, then a new institution lowering migration costs and resulting in an increased in migration is likely to raise welfare. I-Iowever, where migration extemalities are large and socially optimal migration level is significantly lower than the market equilibrium, then it is more likely that a new institution resulting rn an increase in migration will lower welfare, even though it may be privately profitable. The welfare impact of a costless institutional change that raise e is obtained by deriving UH in equation (9) with respite to t;. The (s,B) - contour for which 6U/6t:= 0 is shown in figure 2. The ‘6UH/Ge =0’contour is a straight line at B=l/2 (where U =l). It can be shown from equation (lt)) that 62U/0s6B0 for [3l/2 i.e. Lower migration costs raise welfare if the benefits of diversification are large (B
ln the case of institutional changes which cost less in reducing migration costs, such as elimination of visa and work permit requirements, these lower welfare for [3>l/2, raise welfare for [3l/2, and the effect is ambiguous for B<1/2, what if, instead of general taxes, a toll is levied such that migration costs are unchanged. Then, migration is unchanged. Whether welfare rises or falls depends on whether toll revenues are larger or smaller, respectively, than the transport improvement costs. In general, labour market integration has an ambiguous impact on welfare in the presence of the negative extemality on social capital. If the extemality were intemalised, a political change allowing free movement of people across the islands would result in less migration and would unambiguously raise welfare. The equilibrium level of migration is higher than the welfare-maximizing one. This is likely to be especially important in a country such as the US, because it constitutes the largest and most integrated labour market. What can the authorities do to raise welfare? Through a tax on mobility might help; it is unacceptable in a democratic society where freedom of movement is a fundamental right. An alterriative is to subsidize length of residence. For instance, as mentioned earlier, homeowners are known to invest more then renter in their neighbourhood, in terms of intemal and extemal care of their homes, interaction with neighbours, beautification of public areas, and crime prevention. A subsidy o home ownership would thus help build social capital. This is the case in the US where interest payments on the mortgage are tax deductible. An additional measure that would help would be to make the capital gains fax and the sale of a house a declining function of the length of time of residence. Controlling or taxing the intemational migration of indigenously trained_high level professional manpower is a very sensitive area. It can potentially mfrmge on

the basic human right and freedom to choose the nature and location of ones work. In a repressive regime, such a restructure policy can be morally repugnant, Conversely when a nation invests scarce public finance resources rn the education and training of its people only then to forego the social returns on that investment as a result of intemational migration, it seems both economically and morally justified to seek either to temporary restrict that movement in the national interest or better, to tax if possible the overseas eamings of professional migrant and reinvest these revenues in programs of national development. Such a tax on overseas eamings would act as a financial disincentive to migrate. Its implementation however would require the cooperation and assistance of the govemments of coturtries to which these professionals migrate. OBSERVATIONS The discussion on labour market migration confirms that "a paraeto optimal organization is one such that any change which makes some people better off makes others worse off" . That is an organization is parateo optimal if there is no change that will make one or more better off without making anyone worse off (GOULD and FERGUSON, 1980). The evacuation of labour resources in the fomr of slave trade to the Americas is the prime origin of underdevelopment and backwardness of the blighted area. The southeastem parts of Nigeria are the victim. Migration is a fact of life in human history. People tend to move to a more favourable enviromnent either for permanent settlement or temporary. • ln the case of labour integration where barrier to movement are reduced or eliminated, movement of people becomes free between the integrated regions. The welfare of the individual person is thus at a maximum and productivity tends towards equilibrium in the two states. In the absence of labour market integration, the welfare of the two people concemed will skewed as benefits flows to the benefiting markets. This was the case during the periods of slave trade.

Lxnouit • lnremational labour movement generally and historically has never favoured Nigerian as the best brains tend to remain outside thc region and those inside tends to want to move away. • Globalisation, came along with it economic liberalization; on not just of goods and services but also of manpower, especially the skilled ones. ln this circumstance the question of nationalities and places of origins are thrown into the dustbin of history, giving way to the global village, which became accelerated by breakthroughs in technology (NWOGWUGWU, 2004). The bottom line of the development and the implication for the present and future remains that globalisation has not brought about the expected gains of global wealth rather poverty has grown in the recent times in those regions of Nigeria that has contributed a lot to global wealth through migration. CONCLUSION The paper started out to identify the missing variables in the development question of poor world especially Nigeria — social capital erosion. This phenomenon have been nourished by the ever presence of unidirectional migration from south to north, rural to urban, poor area to rich area, insecure to secure parts of the world etc., The paper further establishes a model where two basic variant of migration under the assumption of non-unipolarison. There are the cases of labour market integration and another with no labotu· market integration. In the case of labour market integration the model ascribes higher welfare on the inhabitants of the two Islands while others does not. The historical experience of migration typities the case of no labour market integration while the later case in globalisation is expectedly the one synonymous with labour market integration that supposedly welfare giving.

rss u. Nwoowuowu The middle case is treated where labour market results in new institutions, new culture and new direction of production, distribution and consumption. Migration however has to be in hamrony with the dynamic nature of the society. REFERENCES _ COLEMAN, J.S (1988) Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology 94(Supplement): S95-S 120. DURKIN, J.S.(1988) "Immigr·ation, assimilation and growth" Journal of Population Economics 1 1 :273-91. GOULD, J, P. and FERGUSON (1980) Microeconomics theory. Irwin Series in Economics, London I-IAGAN, J., R. MACMILLAN and B. WHEATON (1996) New Kid in town: social capital and the life course effects of migration in children. American sociology KNACKS, S. and P. KEEFER (l997)"does Social Capital Have an Economic Payoff`? A Cross-Section 1nvestigation" Quarterbr Journal of Economics CX111251-88. NARAYAN and L. PRITCHET (1997) "Cents and sociability: Household Income and Social Capital m rural Tanzania" Economic development and culture Change. NWOGWUGWU, U.C.C. (2004) Africa in development PARADOX. Oscar Graphics, Owerri, Nigeria. PUTMAM, R.D.(l‘993) Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modem Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Review 61 :368-85. TALBOLT, A., (1967) People of southem Nigeria. Vol.2 London Pl85

»—?b___#___ isstrrlggyriow ;r__ CHAPTER SIXTEEN SOME ISSUES IN MIGRATION AND LIVELIHOOD IN SOUTHEAST NIGERIA O. Nwankwa, B. Nnadazie and G. Onubuogu Department 0fA gricultural Economics, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Migration is the movement from one place to another of a large number of people (SUMMER et al, 1995). It is the movement of people into and out of a place in search of individual, group or national interest. People from about eighteen countries outside Africa, the Economic Community of West Afiican States (ECOWAS), those from other African countries move in and out of Nigeria yearly (FOS, 1996). While these foreigners come into Nigeria for sustenance, Nigerians migrate to various countries in search of livelihood, group or national interests. Migration is ofien a two-way traffic. While Nigerians migrate into other countries, people from other countries migrate into Nigeria, and as the people of southeast Nigeria migrate into other regions of the country, so do people from thee other regions migrate into the southeast. Both emigration and immigration are beneficial to the people or economy of the places where they migrate. A place not suited for someone’s perceived economic survival may be most suited to someone else’s survival, hence the in and out migration. South Eastem States of Nigeria comprises the five of Nigeria's thirty-six states. These are Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo states. Based on the 1991 National Census (the most recent in Nigeria), Lagos is the most densely populated followed by Anambra, Imo and Abia states occupying second, third and fourth positions respectively. Enugu state took seventh position after Akwa Ibom and Kano states (FRN, 1997) (Table 1). The fifth state that make up the southeast in the present 36 state structure is Ebonyi state. This was carved out of Enugu and Abia States in 1996.

Four of the southeast states are among the most densely populated in Nigeria, The implication is the southeast is the most densely populated region of Nrgena, and there is stiff competition for resources, and strong tendency to migrate. Table l: Seven most densely populated states of Nigeria in l99l h Rank Population Area (km ) Density Lagos H 5,725,116 3,345 1712 Anambra 2 ` 2,796,475 4,844 577 W 3 ‘ 2,485,635 5,530 449 Abia 4 2,338,487 6,320 370 Akwa Ibom 5 ' 2,409,613 7,081 340 rom H 5,810,470 20,131 289 w 7 3,154,380 12,831 246 Source: FRN, 1997 'TYPES OF MIGRATION Fanners who do not have enough farmland or whose farmland has been exhausted of nutrients embark on rural-rrual migration. They migrate from their rural communities to other rural communities where they can acquire more and better farmland to practice agriculture. Traders and job seekers among them embark on rural-urban migration. They leave mral for urban areas where trading and other job opportunines are brighter. When migrants do not achieve their ambition in one urban area, they move to other urban areas in an urban-urban migration. People who could not make it in any of the urban cities have migrated back to their rural commtmities thus actualising urban — rural migration. These movements may be within one’s state of origin or to other states within the region, and at other times to other regions. In some cases migration is to other African countries. There are southeast Nigerians in the countries of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). They are also found in other African countries including South Africa. Outside they are found in England, Ireland, USA, Canada, Saudi Arabia, and elsewhere.

rssuris rw Ml(iRATl0L REASONS FOR MIGRATION Reasons for migration may be personal, group and national interests, but mainly for economic survival. Migration stems from a search to relocate to a place where it is easier to actualise one‘s life ambition. This is usually achievable in a place where competition for livelihood is less rife. ln such a place there are usually abundant natural and or man-made resources vied for by few people. Migration of Nigerians is characteristic of the current era of globalisation, political upheavals, economic crisis and decline in opportunities for advancement. These cause movements to other parts of the world (KOMOLAFE, 2002), where economic advancement is more realizable. Farmers in the region embark on rural—rural migration in search for more productive arable land and for where agricultural products can attract better income. Urban demand for agricultural commodities has induced rural-rural migration to rural communities around urban cities. The rural areas of Obinze, Umuagwo, Irette, and other communities surrounding Owerri town, the capital of Imo state have since the creation of Imo state in 1976 witnessed an up-surge in population occasioned by among other factors migrant farmers who have settled to satisfy the food needs of Owerri urban. There are other urban induced ruralrural migrations in the region. The population of Ngwa land in Abia State was increased by settlement of migrant farmers to satisfy the food needs of Aba town. Largely migrant farmers at Otuocha and Anambra rural communities have supplied the food needs of Onitsha inhabitants in Anambra State. Farmers who could not get enough fertile farmland in the region oiien migrate to other regions. They have migrated to North Central region to have comparative advantage in yam cultivation. The North Central region is sparsely populated and has sufficient rainfall to support yam growth. The land is easier to cultivate relative to the more thickly forested and wetter southem parts of the country. Some rural residents of southeast Nigeria, particularly young school leavers and traders migrate to urban such as Lagos, Port Harcourt, Kano, Kaduna, Ibadan, Abuja, Aba, Onisha, Enugu for jobs and better trading opportunities. MEIER (1995) in his rural-urban migration model opined that probability of urban-rural real income differential and probability of securing an urban job determine the rate and magnitude of rural-urban migration in tropical Africa. Urban-urban

migration has been recorded among ¤l1$>S¢ :5; Oilgm settlement and had to move to other cities er rvrng conditions. There also intemational migrants. Before Nigeria’s independence in 1960 they have travelled to United Kingdom, USA, France, etc to obtain higher education. They quickly came back to Nigeria at the end of their courses because it was easier to actualise their life’s’ dreams at home than rn the overseas countries. But some years after independence, particularly during the military. regimes, most migrants for higher education rarely come home at the end of their studies. They perceive better economic opportunities there more than in Nigeria. The less educated youths are not left out in the overseas migration. They get into such countries legally or illegally. The illegal migrants do all sorts of menial jobs secretly. The legal migrants negotiate and get better-paid jobs. BAMOUL and BLINDER (1998) observed that the role of immigrants in US has become a major political issue. Foreign workers, many of whom illegal immigrants do much of the relatively unskilled work. However both legal and illegal migrants cam wages, which are much higher than what they could have eamed in Nigeria. The illegal migrants stay until they regularize their stay, otherwise they may relocate to a country where resident permits are easier to obtain, or they await deportation. KOMOLAFE (2002) has shown the extent of Nigerian migrants of various ethnic groups in Ireland. This however shows that the Hausa, which is one of the major ethnic groups in Nigeria not represented. This is probably because they had no need to migrate. The southeast was the main theatre of war between 1967 and 1970. This caused some migration to Tanzania, Gabon, Haiti, France, and other places as asylum seekers. There was a lot of destruction and since then things have not been the same in infrastructure, socially and economically. Southeast Nigeria is behind other parts of Nigeria in infrastructure development. The situation creates a plpndrtron of poverty the zone, hence the mass movement out of the zone and e country at the slightest opportunity. GODDARD (1974) contimted that poverty. and its attendant socio-economic constraints are major causes of ;°;’;;;;°?0"g;;;j;;€:l;$-I Sgnge women married to fairly rich [bo husbands iT3V€1 such a country and his°F;rc;t;€E$nAHy of such babres has 3 crtrgenshtp Status 0; Overseas migration have been b I mlgmle there to make better lrvmg. C€h3¤C€$ 0 Hghtened for some lucky Ibos by the visa lottery

policy of some countries. Some lucky lbos have won thc visa lottery thickets to USA, Canada, etc and have migrated to settle in such countries. Table 2: Ethnic composition of Nigerian migrants in Ireland, I996 - 2000) group pop vomba a 602 @ 1105 1934 962 Igbo NIL 5 154 154 523 167 Edo 2 ¤ 33 43 M 3' Unwbo NIL 4 ¤ 40 52 zi Source: KOMOLAFE, 2002 SOME EFFECTS OF MIGRATION Migrants contribute to the economic development of their host communities. They are employed and eam more income than what they could have in their homes. Nigerians form associations or unions holding them together where they migrated (KOMOLAF E, 2002). This benefits migrants and their home communities or countries. There are such organizations as Nigeria Association of American Residents. Such associations aid economic development of their areas to ameliorate the sufferings of their kith and kin at home. The associations encourage their members to contribute to development. They also encourage family and community members to join them, improve their fortunes and assist in developing their homes. CONCLUSION Migration is not the first choice for economic survival, but whenever it provides a better option, it is embarked upon. The incessant migration of people from southeast Nigeria is of necessity. If all were well, most migrants would remain at home. Govemment provide necessary facilities to aid economic development in the region. lf achieved the mass migration of the people to other regions and other countries could be limited and the people will settle down to develop their homes.

REFERENCES BAUMOL, W. J. and A. S. BLINDER (1995). "Recent Developments in the U.S. Labour Market". Economics: Principles and Policy. The Dryden Press, New York pp 398 — 399. F.O.S. (Federal Office of Statistics) (1996). "Migration: Persons Arriving and Departing Nigeria by Nationalities". Annual Abstract of Statistics 1996, F.O.S., Lagos pp 46 — 47. F.R.N (Federal Republic of Nigeria) (1997). “Population: 1991 Population Density". Nigeria Statistical Year Book 1996. p 52. GODDARD, A. (1974). "Popu1ation movements and land shortages in the Sokoto Close-settled Zone, Nigeria" in KOMOLAF E, J. (2002). "Searching for fortune: The Geographical Process of Nigerian Migration to Dublin, Ire1and" Irinkerindo: A Journal of African Migration. Issue 1, September htm://www.africamigration. com/archieve 01/j komolafe searchinghtm KOMOLAFE, J. (2002). "Searching for fortune: The Geographical Process of Nigerian Migration to Dublin, Lre1and" Irinkerindo: A Journal of African lmgration. Issue 1, September http://wwwafricamigration. com! archieve 01/ j komolafe searchinghtm MEIER, G. M. (1995) "Migration and Urbanization." Leading issues in Economic Development. Oxford University Press, New York p. 140 SUMMERS, D., A. GADSBY and M. RUNDELL (1995). Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman Group Ltd. England p. 901. WELLEP., K. (no date). "Nigerian Demography: Pattems and processes ofNrger1an migration http://www.uni.edu/gaifNigeria/Background/ Standard9.htrr1l.

,_,.r¢T;-Y_$£l££E@H°i**"M`T ________ ,,,7 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN SOME MICRO-LEVEL ISSUES IN MIGRATION AND LIVELIHOOD I. Uwuzieh C. Eze] and C. Nwajiubaj [Department ofEconomics, A Ivan [koku College of Education, Owerri, Nigeria; 2Department of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Nigeria; 3 Department of A gricultural Economics, Imo State University, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION There is demographic transformation due to increasing rural out-migration in most of sub-Saharan Africa. It is projected that ninety percent of the worlds' increased population will be located in urban areas, posing fomiidable social challenges (SERAGELDIN, 1993). More persons will reside in urban areas rather than rural areas in most of sub-Saharan Africa, including Nigeria. This has consequences for livelihood. The nexus between migration and livelihood is therefore a contemporary research and policy challenge. Migration could be intemal or extemal. Intemal migration is the movement within a particular country. This type of migration, within the scope of this paper can be viewed as the usual rural-urban migration that exists within a country. For instance, it is known that significant migration exists from southeast Nigeria to Lagos, Abuja, Kano, Kaduna, Portharcourt, and other cities in Nigeria. This kind of migration according to TODARO (1981) is population mobility from rural areas to urban areas. The growth of urban centres can be attributed to rural —urban migration. Migration could be rural-rural, rural—urban, urban-rural or urban-urban. Intemational migration involves movement from one country to another. This is expected to further be the case in the coming decades (HANSON, 1997). A number of factors influence these, and also have consequences for livelihood. It is hypothesised that there is an interrelationship between migration and livelihood for the migrant, the places migrated to and the place of origin. This would serve

the purpose of synthesizing the state of knowledge on these matters and make input into effective development policies. The central issues rs, lwhat are the impact and consequences of migration on the source and the destination areas? While considerable attention has been given to assessing the pros and cons of migration, there is wide difference of opinion on the various points raised. We will therefore attempt to assess the favourable and unfavourable aspects of local and intemational migration as they affect the source areas, the destination areas, the migrant and his family. BASIC CONCEPTS Rural-rural migration: This involves movement from one rural area to another. This is common with the agriculttual sector especially in the less developed parts of the world where shiiiing cultivation and pastoral farming systems are prevalent. The driving force here is usually resource-related like land scarcity, soil infertility and demand for grazing land. Rural—urban migration: This is the movement of people from rural areas to urban settlements. The dominant economic activity of rural areas is usually agricultural, while for urban areas are non-agricultural. Disparities in wages and eamings in urban, non-agricultural sectors are stimulus for rural-urban migration. Average eaming in the agricultural sector is less than eamings in the nonagricultural and non-rural sectors. It is also usually lower than the average national income per capita. Urban-rural migration: This may be commonly referred to as retum migration or counter migration. This is prevalent among retired workers retuming from urban non—farm sectors. Urban-urban migration: This occurs due to labour mobility within an economy. lt could also be induced by geographical unemployment among other factors. A typical example of urban to urban migration is the movement of people from cities such as Lagos in the south—westem part of Nigeria to Portharcourt in the ;puth—s0uth. The reason for this is the discovery of crude oil in Portharcourt area. ence, many people are migrating from some urban areas in search of employment in the petroleum.

_'_______ >_&`l()—LL`()N()hll(` tM1·,x
areas are higher. The snag however is that economic crises in most countries of sub-Saharan Africa have eroded employrnent-generating ability of urban centres. Economic adjustment programmes which most of these countries have adopted at the prompting of the World Bank/IMF has reduced urban sector employment and eroded purchasing power. These have consequences for remittances to rural areas. Remittances are key sources of rural liquidity, which impacts positively on rural agricultural investments and welfare. Although agricultural transformation may lead to a downsizing of the famiing population with fewer farmers producing enough to feed a growing non-farm population, this has not been the cue. This ought to arise from a boost in productivity, which encourages people to leave for non-agricultural sectors. But here the propelling factors are the reverse: the inability of the agricultural sector to keep farm hands that migrate to seek better urban wages. Agricultural systems, which rely on human labour, with little use of technologies, which substitute for labour, tend also to be hindered by drudgery. At critical stages of the famring systems — land preparation, planting, harvesting and processing labour is drudgerous. There are other consequences for an agricultural population that is left to the aged and females. It has been established that extension services do not focus on the younger people and the females. This has negative impact on adoption of productivity — enhancing technological innovations. The high rate of urbanization has increased the demand for food and other services which are in short supply. Rural -Urban wage differences: This arises due to differences in the retum to labour and differences in wages. Typically agricultural wages are lower than for non-agricultural sectors. Rural wages are also lower than urban wages. However migration to urban areas has not guaranteed higher eamings and living standards aslurban unemployment and poverty is also on the increase (HANSON, 1997). Migrants usually expect they can eam higher income than they could have obtained in rural areas, gain better access to schooling for their children and access better social services. To what extent urban areas have met the expectations of migr·ants is however debatable.

_'__, .t "’°" Population growth: ln the past, population growth has provided stimulus to economic growth by enlarging the market lor goods and services and by increasing the supply of labour for the production of these goods and services. A [argc population therefore raises both the aggregate demand and the aggregate supply of goods in the economy (GRAHAM, 1991). In most advanced economies, population growth is slow. Thus population growth is a relatively unimportant issue. However, the reverse is the case with most developed countries. Consequently it is a central issue in the management ofthose economies. Some of the reasons for the high growth of the population in the developing countries are: High Birth Rate: Most developing countries have high birth rates unlike developed countries where effective birth control measures are widely adopted. ln developed countries the number of children per couple is at most two or three, whereas in most developing countries, most couples have more than six children. Falling Death Rate: ln the past, death rate and birth rate were high in developing countries. As a result, population growth was slow. But due to improvement in health and nutrition, death rate has fallen. With low death rate and high birth rate population rapidly increases. CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION Urban crises: Rapid urban population growth through migration from rural areas may be causing serious social problems. The urban population of developing countries increased from 25 to 46 percent between 1970 and 1991. The annual growth rate of urban population in developing countries has accelerated from an average of 3.7 percent in the 1970s to 6.3 percent in the 1980s (BEEDE and BLOOM, 1995). The growth of urban areas through migration from rural areas may be proceeding too fast and causing serious social problems. Urbanization may involve huge social costs. Consequently, there may arise vices in urban slums, indiscipline, prostitution, drunkenness, suffering, neglect of children and delinquencies, lack of sanitation, gross under-nourishment, and high degree of immorality, frustration, and transference of rural poverty to the cities. Urban poverty becomes more conspicuous.

Scarcity of farm labour: A consequence of rural-urban migration is scarcity of famr labour. Traditional systems relied mostly on family labour. Migration involves mostly young males. ln effect, the population of rural areas becomes skewed to the aged, and to women. ln rainfed systems, in peak farming seasons, scarcity of labour reaches crisis proportion, with labour costs rising beyond the ability of prospective employers. Young and vibrant males are the main drifters from the traditional agricultural rural areas. This has resulted in serious shortfall in rtual farm labour. Employment in agriculture increases slowly in the region of only 1.7% while construction and manufacturing were 50% and 21% respectively. Food supply in Nigeria grows at an annual rate of 2.3% while demand grows at 3.4% (FAO, 1984). This disequilibrium in the supply and demand for food arose from variables like population increase, rapid urbanization per capita income growth, monetization and shit} in consumer preferences. Socio-political conditions: Political factors have been of increasing importance in causing migrations in the years immediately proceeding independence. This factor is usually interwoven with tribal and social considerations, religions animosities, etc. Political problems in Nigeria have acted to cause migration by people who merely would not have wanted to migrate outside the country. It is important to state here that the religions riots in the Northem part of the country have always been targeted at the south easterners whose properties and lives have been lost to religions zealots in the north. Many of them have therefore been forced to migrate outside the country for fear of losing their lives and means of livelihood. Another factor that is very vital and causes intemational migration of south eastemers has to do with the political persecution of the people. Where people are excluded from political position, many are forced to migrate out of the country. IMPACT ON LIVELIHOOD Livelihoods refer to what people do for a living, what they do to eam income. Livelihoods describe how people access resources, what gets in the way of access, how resources are used to build assets and crucially, how assets reduce people’s vulnerability to diseases.

#____, ts: Impact of Internal Migration: The economic effect of migration is on both directions (origin and destination) (ABOYADE, 1983). This includes effects on capital accumulation in urban centres, losing and gaining emigrants and immigrants, low levels of aggregate income, defiationary and inflationary tendencies on a demand —pull and cost — push variety. While some immigrants [end to bring new skills, funds, technology, productivity, and attitude, they may also generate problems of housing, job creation, training and social security. Strong migration movements are therefore likely to alter the demographic profiles of geopolitical units and the existing balance between population and natural resources, thereby setting it on a new course of dynamic adjustment. However, Intemal migration could be a favourable for industrial development of a nation. This benefit could come from labour relocating to where a marginal product is both positive and growing. This could be due to capital accumulation and technological progress. However, the rates of rural —urban migration in Nigeria seem to exceed the rate of urban job creation and have surpassed the capacity of both industry and urban economic services to absorb the labour efficiently and effectively. There are other adverse impacts of migration. These include concentration of people as a result of migration, without a compensatory increase in food production leads to malnutrition, starvation, hunger and poor health of workers and hinders productivity of labour force. It also leads to over-crowding in urban areas, which causes high rent of houses, high cost of living, and existence of urban slums. Rural-urban migration may create traffic jams, poor sanitation, poor sewage disposal, high crime wave, juvenile delinquency, armed robbery, drug abuse and addiction, prostitution and all manner of crimes. To this extent therefore, local migration exceeds the carrying capacity of some areas and therefore leads to over use of available public amenities and constant breakdown of such facilitates and a high cost of maintenance. These no doubt adds much pressure to govemment expenditure in view of dwindling revenues. Impact of International migration: the impact can also be looked upon from both the origin or source areas and that of the destination area. In terms of the positive impact and /or benefits of intemational labour migration, TODARO op cit stated that there are five major benefits that accrue to the sending country.

The first is the reduction of domestic unemployment. Second, the remittances sent to families by overseas migrants which cause an increase in local consumer demand and savings, thereby providing an incentive and a source of foreign exchange for physical capital formation that spur long-run economic growth. Third, the outflow of redundant labour from the rural sector would raise the landlabour ratio, improving labour productivity and, hence, raising rural incomes and stimulating the rural sectors growth. Fourth, returning migrant workers would bring back skills leamed in more prosperous countries, thereby contributing to increased human capital fomration without the need for expensive domestic programs. Finally by allowing disadvantaged sections of the population to proceed abroad and eam higher wages, intemational migration is supposed to help improve income distribution in the sending country. To the individual migrant, he receives higher wages and attains a better standard of living. This particular factor and those mentioned above have been associated with the socio-economic impact of intemational migration as it affects livelihood in southeast Nigerians. On the other hand, experts on development economics have wamed that the continued migration of skilled labour to advanced countries will be cotmter- productive. There is considerable conuoversy over the benefits to the labour exporting country as a whole. Hence the general opinion that a deeper look into the realities of developing countries reveals that these benefits can be illusory and that certain factors can negate them. With reference to Nigeria and southeastem Nigeria, intemational migration is responsible for the much talked about "Brain Drain". Despite all the illusion and fears expressed by third world development economists, intemational migration is no doubt a means of livelihood and substances of the people of southeastem Nigeria. In spite of the above-mentioned benefits of migration, especially intemational migration on livelihood, some experts have questioned if these perceived benefits are real or not. TODARO 0p cit questioned whether remittances actually promote long-run economic growth. The reason he gave is that the emigrant’s households use a larger proportion of these remittances for private consumption with little going intosavings or investments. When some of these remittances are made to their families, it may lead to some substitution of leisure for labour, with the result

s<>t`i<>-ru>r~:t>r`1i<`tturnxcr in that there may be only a small increase in agricultural output. Hence thc remittances make thcm to become lazy and no longer productive. Despite some of these mentioned problems, evidence both statistical and otherwise, reveal that southeastem Nigerians have benelited substantially from their dependents abroad. This has also led to increased and better standard of living and the overall economic development of southeastem Nigeria. CONCLUSION It is recommended that government should encourage Nigeria’s professionals to work in Nigeria after training so as to contribute to the socio-economic development of the country. Further, enlightenment programmes should be embarked upon by relevant govemment agencies to educate rural families on investment opportunities where remittances from migrated family members could be profitably invested. Banks should establish a section to hamess resources from abroad for investment. Banks command the trust and confidence of investors A major setback to remitting substantial part of migrant’s earnings is risk aversion. Banks are in a position to ameliorate this. Govemment should ensure security of lives and properties of migrants whenever they come back to explore investment opportunities. Improvements in infrastructure, which at present is in a deplorable situation, will hamess the potentials in remittances from migrants. The state of roads, electricity, water and other socio—economic amenities are deplorable. Therefore, it is recommended that these facilities should be substantially improved upon so as to encourage migrants’ investors to remit money for investment. This is because without all these facilities, investment will suffer. These recommendations if implemented and sustained, will have multiplier effect on the socio-economic condition of southeast Nigeria.

REFERENCES ABOYADE, O (1983) Integrated Economics: A Study of Developing Economies. Addison Publishers, Ibadan, Nigeria. AGESA, R. U. (2001). Migration and the Urban to Rural Eamings Difference: A sample Selection Approach. Economic Development and Cultural Change. Pp. 847 - 865. BEED, D. N. and D. E. BLOOM (1995), "The economics of Municipal Solid Waste", Research Observer, The World Bank Vol. 10 (2): 113 — 150. FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANIZATION (FAO, 1984), Annual Abstracts of Statistics. Rome ltaly. GRAHAM, D. (1991). A Foundation Economic. Stanley Thomas Publication Ltd England, U.K. HANSON, J. C. (1997). A Text Book of Economics. Macdonald Publishers London, U.K. SERAGELDIN, I. (1993). "Making Development Sustainable" Finance and Development. Vol. 30 (4): 6 - IO. TODARO, M. P. (1981) "The Urbanization Dilernma" Reading 17 in the Struggle for Economic Development, New York: Oxford University Press. TODARO, M. P. (1985) Economic Development in the Third World, (3rd.editi0n), New York: Longman

[JP/dv |N|`t)Rl\I,·\-l`l()N Tl£l|N0l.0@__ r57 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN MEDIATING RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION THROUGH INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES A. Elachukwu Diamond Bank Information Technology Centre Ima Stare University, P.M.B. 2000, Owerri, Nigeria INTRODUCTION Rural-urban migration is associated with push from rural restrictive poor economic environments and pulled to urban areas with economic opportunities. One of the factors associated with urban economy is the use and implementation of ICTs. Many operations are computerized and access and non-access to ICTs have created what is called the digital divide. Bridging this gap is imperative as those shut out of the digital world are shut out of public discourses, left politically powerless, and shut out of jobs and economically deprived. Thus we are dealing with two divides: the rural-urban divide of economic deprivations and opportunities, and the digital divide of access to ICTs and economic opportunities and non-access to ICTs of economic and political deprivations. Economic deprivation in general and mral areas in particular has made the southeast region the source area for rural-urban migrants over three decades (NISER, 1997). This has resulted into congested cities and rural areas whose economic viabilities are undermined following loss of its valued labour force. It is at this point that issues relating to controlling migration or migration tumaround have become relevant in discourses about socio-economic development. The temr "Digital Divide" refers to the gap in access to Infomation and Communication Technologies (ICTs). That technology is available does not mean it is accessible. The Divide is not simply a dichotomy between those who have and those who do not. More importantly, it is the "ability to access, adapt and create knowledge via use of Information and Communication Technology (WARSCHAUER, 2001). Against this backdrop and apart from several policy options advanced for rural development and migration control, this paper explores the digital option not only to create economic opportunities for better life of rural areas, but also to retain the young and the mobile as well as to attract back those who have already moved.

MEASUREMENT OF THE DIGITAL DIVIDE The Digital Divide within countries is usually measured in terrS;;>Ef;1<;;1il(§f;1I:>:; 3;; Telephones, Computers and Internet users against non-uspgsf i pmwm around disparity within and between nations., overallnaceess to s s g U 1 _ g _ the world, even in the poorest countries. This is linked. to exponentia increase rn ICT access in advanced industrial societies and the increasing exclusion from jobs, participation in government processes agd cpgggcthgislcgggsgrlggs pgp}: ‘ ` those without access an r gililligilly ianhdsei:lblii§>rr(i;tally. Countries and communities are identified as facing the threat of being lei} further behind if they do not address the growing digital divide. Installing computers and connections in underdeveloped communities is only part of what is needed to put information and communications technology to use for socio-economic development. An understanding of grassroots realities, pooling of resources, and a favourable regulatory system are among the many elements necessary in an effective approach to bridging the digital divide (PETERS, 2003). Major forces are reshaping the iiiture of the world, reducing geographical boundaries, bringing cultures, and societies closer. These forces have extensively bridged the gap between individuals, empowered people socially, economically and technologically. Therefore, Bridging the Digital Divide is basically centred on how various sectors with disparate cultures and different languages can collaborate using a new technology medium to solve old problems. In this pursuit, Intemet is a natural tool for the needed collaboration and aggregation, but it is only effectively leveraged if the collaborators speak the same language or at least understand each other (PEIZER, 2000). ICTs offer enomious opportunities to narrow social and economic inequalities and support sustainable local wealth creation, and thus help to achieve the broader development goals that are needed in the rural communities. ICT cannot act as a panacea for all development problems, but by dramatically improving communication and exchange of information, they can create powerful social and gconpmic networks, which in tum provide the basis for major advances in eve opment. The digital divide is a complex problem, presenting both practical and policy challenges. It is also apparent that solutions that work in some cities cannot simply be transplanted to rural areas: solutions must be based on an understanding of local needs and conditions (PETERS, 2003). By enabling these new networks to collect and share local knowledge and information, ICT can provide new and

_gf’__ ,lK“L2*&‘i@`jE‘_'N‘ll-"(*!; H9 more efficient methods of production, bring previously unattainable markets within the reach of local producers, improve the delivery of govcmmcm Services and increase access to basic social goods and services can help ignite a virtuous circle of sustainable development. SOUTH EAST NIGERIA: THE CASE STUDY The people of southeast Nigeria migrate from rural-urban areas due to depravity of quality information capable of transforming their lives. It is obvious that there is near digital exclusion in the area. This is why people first engage in apprenticeship with their ‘masters’ as a means of leaming new trade so as to survive economic hardship. This is one of the reasons trading is the major source of living, not in modem ways, but in the traditional system of buying and selling to the local markets only (OKALI er al, 2001). It is therefore imperative to bridge the divide and offer southeast Nigeria digital opportunities. The Digital Opportunity Initiatives (DOI) should include investment in Information Technology, with pragmatic and market-driven regulatory framework, venture capital funds, and Telecentres. This will bring new technology-based infrastructure, promotion of IT education through lntemational Certification Programs, Telemedicine, and Voice Over Intemet Protocol initiatives. ICT FOR CAPACITY BUILDING Following the discussion on the potentials of ICT in transfomiing rural economies it is imperative to note that ICT capacity building project should be developed for the people of southeast Nigeria. This will bridge their near total digital exclusion. Policy is required to impact IT skills to the citizens so as to be able to develop a domestic ICT sector and technical capabilities. Because of the portable nature of the underlying technologies driving the development of the infomiation society and economy, rural communities like in the South East Nigeria, are equally placed to take advantage of them to facilitate her socio-economic development process. It can be argued that rn the new emerging economic order, the fundamental basis for poverty reduction, wealth creation and national prosperity is in information and knowledge. Rural communities cannot afford to be without either of these.

. . - f t f h` ‘ infomation and communications techriclcgtcs _¢¤¤;u?;li ;;i§;s °;:;r€‘°;;":§ · ‘ `ldeveo men in - __ progress m ccoiwmlc aim soma ci) nom will generate opportunities doubt that the 'nfomauon and kmwlc ge gcc y It will be a new source across all sectors within the South East Nrgenan economy. _ _ _ · · · ‘ — hh gneratton and l’€d|SU'lbUllOI`l, fapld f°' ’*‘° °'°”"°“ °f q“°'"’ ’°b°’ Im g rot racrirraun Iobal economic development and prosperity as well as a source g g competitiveness of the rtrral communities. However, if the South East Nigeria is to achieve rapid and radical social and economic transformation in the new rnformatrontage to be dominated by infomation and knowledge-based economies, she will need to put in place and implement comprehensive ICT-led socio-economic development policies, strategies and plans. The premise is that: t.he emerging information and commtmications technologies underlying the infomiatron revolution are offering even rural communities a window of opportunity to leapjfrog the subsistence agricultural economic stage and transform their economies into high value-added information economies that can compete with the advanced economies on the global market. The basic argument is that it will be possible for: rural communities with predominately subsistence agriculture based economies to transform her economy and society into a predominately information and knowledge economy without first being fully industrialized. This policy will focus on: • Human Resource Development • Infrastructure Development • Software Industry Development • Hardware Industry Development Human Resources Development: This is central for every developmental process and policy achievement. In employing the potentials of ICTs in a bid to transfomung the rtrral economy from subsistence agricultural based economy to Knowledge Based economy, rt rs imperative to develop strategies that will enhance the development of human resources available within the rural areas that will carry on the implementation of the policies of transformation. For this demand 'for skilled manpower in ICT, there is need to bring up from the communities a large number of ICT professionals. Sequel to this therefore, attention should be focused on

# iwiriiwritiw TI§CllN()L()(ill;S tu • Widespread introduction of ICT education in public and private educational institutions. This is a prerequisite for producing skilled ICT manpower. • Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Educations, both in the public and private sectors, shall be strengthened to produce ICT graduates which in tum be sent to strengthen the rural community ICT projects. • Establishment of Centres of Excellency in rural South East areas. • Establishment of multimedia institutes so as to enable skilled human resources to exploit the opportunity offered by the growing multimediamarket. • Virtual ICT training should be deployed wherever possible. CD`s and web based courseware development and use shall be encouraged to promote computer-aided education at all level of education. • Qualified and skilled teachers should be brought in from abroad in the fields where local teachers are not available. • Syllabus and Course Curricula for all levels of Computer Science training will be updated continuously (BCC, 2002). Infrastructure development: Human Resource Development cannot be effective in ICT without the infrastructure that will enable them to practice so as to improve skills. Human resource development requires equipment for development. With increasing ability to work on computerised process, the need to have sufficient access to quality infrastructure increases too (BCC, 2002). As schools will be committed to ongoing, long term staff development in ICT, they will equally face the challenges of ensuring that the resources are there to meet this increasing need for infrastructure development. The point is so clear that there is need for careful and planned infrastructure development (BCC, 2002). Where infrastructure lags behind the capability of human resources to use new ICTs diminishes, frustration occurs and development is halted. The major issues lie on the necessities to equip the communities with the required infrastructure that will: • Ensure capacity building of the communities in the tield of lnfonnation Technology and to attain a sustainable growth of the ICT sector of rural South East Communities.

• To support the growing demand of the ICT sector, appropriate ICT infrastructure will be established immediately both in public and private sector. As telecommunication infrastructure is an integral part of ICT, so the telecommunication sector should be deregulated and made open to private sector investors as early as possible. • ln order to establish direct connectivity with intemational information and communication backbone these communities should be joined with the world network. • Development of telecommunication infrastructure should be considered. • As GSM telephone handsets are being increasingly used as terminals for emailing and other ICT uses. Such services should cover rural areas and their tariffs lowered to a reasonable level. • The use of ICT and information services should be affordable to the people. • The cost of Intemet bandwidth should be made available to the rural communities and at an affordable price. • Socio-economic development can be accelerated if more people can have access to information. Teledensity is important in this respect and it will be increased to broaden the coverage, which will improve the socio-economic condition of the people through ICT-related activities in line with experience of developed countries. • Basic telecommunication facilities should be made available in the rural and under-served areas of the South East Nigeria to bring the greater mass into the stream of ICT activities both by the public and private sector. Also advanced and new technologies should be introduced to expand the existing network which will serve the rural and under served areas. • Dial-up Intemet access from local telephone calls ISPs should be provided with relevant technological facilities. • Intemet services should be provided to the educational institutions and libraries. • To ensure public access to information, Cyber Cafes should be set up in all Post offices. Private sector participation will be encouraged to set up these facilities. • To support the installation of ISPs in the rural communities, NITEL Plc as the national high-speed backbone for Intemet carrier should be encouraged to lower their cost so as to boost ISP service to the rural communities.

RMATtoN Ttacuwotoottas ru • Development of local technological capabilities through local ICT industry will be emphasized. Local private limis, in association with foreign finns, will conduct the service component of thc ICT industry as and where possible. • Inter-School network to serve, as a central depository for collection and dissemination of ICT infonnation and research findings should be developed. • Solar power will be encouraged specially in those inaccessible areas where use of ICT is constrained due to lack of electricity. CONCLUSION South East Nigeria is an area in Nigeria that has been highly marginalized in resource sharing, dissemination of govemment projects, industrialization and economic resource. This economic depravity has stimulated the search for greener pastures in all nook and crannies of Nigeria and Diaspora. Many who settled around some rail and commercial centres culminated to the urban and peri-urban areas we have in the South East Nigeria today. The major cause of this is the ability of the people to engage in meaningful trading activities. These have resulted to greater move of the youths from the rural to urban and peri-urban areas due to the seemingly better economy at the urban and peri-urban areas. It is obvious that their migrating motives are economic. It is good to note that, the statement does not mean that some of its professionals are not migrating for higher academic pursuit or for sale of professional sills abroad, but greater percentage of its youths migrants are economically motivated. This brings about the reason for this article, which argues that if the potentials of ICTs are employed in these rural areas, such level of migrants will definitely be reduced because ICT potentials have the capability of transforming rural subsistent agricultural based economy into knowledge and Information based economy. More to this is that, this type of economy has enormous potentials for the youths as Computer knowledge gives one a sense of belonging in this modem time of information based society. More so, the world is getting smaller and becoming rapidly a global village. The South East Nigeria deserves a place in this global village, so as to afford them global digital opportunities.

REFERENCES BANGLADESH COMPUTER COUNCIL (2002) "Nati0nal Infomation and Communication Technology (ICT) Policy" Ministry of Science and Infomation and Communication Technology. Oct, 2002. www.bccbd.org NIGERIA INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH (1997) ··N5gc,·5an Migration and Urbanisatiorl Surv¢y" I993, Ibadan, Nigelja_ http://www.niser.org OKALI, I., E. OKPARA and J. OLAWOYE (2001). The Case of Aba and its Region, Southeast Nigeria. Rural-Urban Interactions and Livelihood Strategies Working Paper 4. http ://www.iied.org. PEIZER, J. (2000) "Bridging the Digital Dividc", Intemet and Infomation Policy htjp://www.s0ros.org PETERS, T (2003) "Bridging the Digital Divide" The Evolving Intemet Global Issues, hgtp://wv»w.bridges.org KA®$CHAEUR»_ (200l) “What is Digital Divide?"

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