MODERN CONSTB ENVELOP ANDREWWATIS MOD ERN CONSTRUCTION SERIES
fl SpringerWienNewYork
TION
2 INTRODUCTION Int ro ductio n
6 METAL WALLS 6
Envelopes and digital fabr ication
14
8
10
( I) Stick glazing:
74 CONCRETEWALLS 156 76
Syste m assembly
Fixing method s
Envelopes as form-defining systems
( I) Sheet metal:
12 GLASS WALLS
3 ( I) Cast in sit u / cast -in-place:
Openings
Framing profi les
Parapets, drips and cills
Substrates and
Opening light s
Finishes
suppo rt ing wa lls
Corner s
As-cast finish
Corn er s, parapets
Spandrel panels
Was hed finish
and cills
Po lished finish (2) Uniti sed glazing:
(2) Profiled metal cladding:
24
86
jo int ing panels
jun ct ion s
Opening light s
(2) Storey height precast panels:
Parapets and gutters
Corner panels, parapets and cills
Panel ty pes
W indow/door o penings
Penetrations
Therm al Insulati o n
Insulation , liner trays
Silicone-bond ed glazing
joints
D evelopm ents
34
96
Patch plate glazing
(3) Small precast/GRC cladding
Parapets and cills
Clamped glazing
panels:
W indow/door o penings
Opaque glazing
Individually suppor te d
D evelopm ents
Sealing clamped glazing
panels
Corn er s
Self suppor t ing
Therm al br idges at cills
(4) Metal rainscreens:
(4) Bo lt fixed glazing:
44
106
stacked panels
Support meth od s
Parapets and cills
Bottom suppo rted glazing
Openings
Mater ials
Top hung glazing
Sand blasted finish
Fixing method s
Corner s
and t oo led finish
Backing walls
Seals and int erfaces
Constru ction sequence W indow/door o penings
(5) G lass blocks:
Parapets and cills
11 6
Fixing glass blocks Support fr ames and walls
(5) Mesh screens:
54
Cast glass channels
Rigid mesh Meshes flexible in
(6) Steel w indows :
one direction
Small-scale glazing
Fully flexible mesh
Large-scale glazing
126
Mesh used o n curves Perforated metal
(7) A luminium and PVC-U w indows:
(6) Louvre screens:
64
132
W indows in o penings
Metal lo uvres
W indow wa lls
Glazed lo uvres
Composite w indows
Solar shading W alkways
168
Ac id etc hed finish (3) Clamped glazing:
(3) Composite panels:
158
(8) T imb er w indows: Window wa lls W indow design W indows in op enings
146
178
CONTENTS
4 MASONRY WALLS
188 Plastic-based cladding
( I) Masonry loadbearing walls: Brick, sto ne and concrete block
( I) Sealed panels: 190
Mortars
( I) Cladding the t imber
242
GRP panels
Timber frames
Polycarbonate cladding
Ground level
264
Upper fl oors
Parapets Cills and openings
(2) Rainscreens:
252
Flat polycarbonate sheet (2) Masonry cavity walls: Brick
frame:
Corners Roof eaves and parapets
Multi-wall polycarbonate sheet 200
Profi led polycarbonate sheet
(2) Cladding panels
Plastic-composite fi at panels
and rainscreens:
W indow and door openings
UPVC board cladding
Timber boards
Eaves and parapets
UPVC windows
Finishes
GRP panels
Cladding panels and rainscreens
Ground level
Plywood sheets
(3) Masonry cavity walls: Sto ne and concrete block 2 10 Wall structures Ground level Openings in walls Eaves and parapets (4) Stone cladding:
220
Fixings Cladding to precast concrete panels Joints Closed joints Movement joints Sto ne fi nishes (5) Terr acotta rainscreens: Manufacture of panels Corner pieces Fixing syste ms Panel sizes Openings
230
274
7
8
METAL ROOFS
284 GLASS ROOFS
( I) Metal standing seam
286
9 336
( I) Greenho use glazing and
Site-based meth od
capped systems
CONCRETE ROOFS 388 ( I) Co ncealed mem brane
338
Mat erials
Prefabricated method s
Greenhouse glazing
Str uctural joint s
Sealed and vent ilate d ro ofs
Mo dern roof glazing
Parapet upstands
Roof o penings
Capped systems
Balustrades and plinths
Ridges and valleys
Rainw ater o ut lets (2) Silicone-sealed glazing
Eaves and parapets
and roofii ghts (2 Profiled met al sheet
296
Penetratio ns for pipes and ducts 348
Silicone-sealed syste ms
(2) Exposed membrane
Juncti on s
as substrates
Use of capped profi les
PVC membranes
Profiled met al roof sheet ing
Ro ofiights
FPO (T PO) membranes Mechanically fixed method
Sealed and vent ilate d meth od s
Bo nded fixing meth od
(3) Bo lt fixed glazing: small scale
Tw in skin const r uction
ro ofiights
Ridges Openings
Generic struct ural suppo rt
Eaves and parapets
meth ods
Ridges and valleys
Supporting brackets
306
358
(3) Planted
Bo lt fixings
System design
A rrangeme nt of bolt fixings
Planted roof com po nents So il dept h O verfiow s
Tw in wall panels
Roof junctions
(4) Bolt fixed glazing: large scale
Ridges Verges
ro ofiight s
Eaves
Base of glazed ro of
Parapets and valley gutters
Exte rnal and int ern al fo lds
368
3 16
Larger roofiight s
Panel arrangement (5) Bonded glass roofii ghts
Parapets
Generic conical roofiight
Mo no pit ch ridges and verges Roof geomet ry
Generic rect angular roofiight
Roof soffits
Generic mo nopitch ro ofiight Glass roof decks
(5) Met al cano pies Bo lt fixed panels Fixed metal lo uvre cano pies Electrically o perate d louvres
326
Rainw ater o ut lets Balcony planter s
Small glazed roofii ghts (4) Rainscreens
Parapets and upstands Ballasted ro ofs
Glazed unit s
Single wall composite panels
406
Po lymer-based membr anes
Profiled met al decks
(3) Composite panels
390
378
4 10
CONTENTS
10 TIMBER ROOFS
420 PLASTIC ROOFS
( I) Flat roof Bitumen -based sheet membran es
( I) GRP ro ofi ights 422
462 464
Eaves and upstands
~~ ~ ( I) ETFE cushions Cushions
Th e mater ial
Verges
A ir supply
Roof build-up
A but ments
Th e mater ial
Solar protection
Sliding ro of panels
Fabri cation Durabi lity
Fixing methods Parapet upstands
(2) GRP panels and shells
Junction w it h til ed roof
Smaller panels and shells
Eaves and verges
Larger panels and shells
474
Performan ce in fire
(2) Single membrane: Con e-shaped roof
(2) Pitched roofTil es
486
432
Plain t iles
496
Fabri c roof prin ciples Fabr ic t ypes
Interlocking til es
Comparison of ty pes
Vent ilat ion
Th erm al insulati o n
Eaves
Aco ust ics
Ridges
Durability
Verges
Performan ce in fire
Hip s and valleys
Cond ensation
A but ments (3) Single membrane: (3) Pitched roof Slates
442
Barrel-shaped roof
Roof fo lds
Membrane roof fabrication
Vents
Membrane ro of edges
Mon op itch ridges
Suspension points
Dormer w indows
Membrane fold s
A but ments
(4) Pitched ro of Metal Standing seam co ld roofs Eaves and valley gutters Ridges and abutm ents Penetrations Metal ti led ro ofs
452
506
I IN DEX
51
A ut horship
5 16
Index
518
Intra uction
MODERN CONSTRUCTION SERIES Th e series is based aro und th e Mod ern Co nstr uct io n H andbook.Top ics from th e Walls and Roofs chapte rs from th e MCH are develop ed to provide more comprehensive information.
CONCRETE WAL LS
Chapter 3 Th e Con crete chapte r compares in-sit u (cast-in-place) concrete, and its use of form work o n site, w it h precast concrete and
Bo oks in th e series discuss mater ial syste ms based o n th e pr ima-
it s use of mou lds in a factory away from th e site . In th e use of
r y mater ial used.Th e series current ly comprises Mod ern Con -
eit her t echnique, th e constraints of th e panel sizes imposed by cast-
st ruct io n Facades, Mo dern Co nstr uctio n Roofs and Modern
ing methods influence th e use of th e material.
Con stru ction Envelop es.
MASONRY WALLS AIMS O FTHIS BOOK Mod ern Con stru ction Envelo pes combines th e earlier Mod -
Chapter 4 In th e Masonry chapter th e construct ion meth od o logy is clas-
ern Co nst ruction Facades and Mod ern Con stru ction Roofs into a
sified by wall construction: loadbearing, cavity wall o r cladding
single book w it h updated illust rati o ns and more exploded views
attac hed t o a backing wall.W it hin each construct ion method , th e
of materi al systems.This is a t extbook for st udents of architect ure ,
use of materials is very similar from brick t o sto ne and concrete
as we ll as st udents of st ruct ural and enviro nmenta l engineering
block.Th e differences in th e specific use of a particular mater ial are
w ho w ish t o broaden th eir study beyon d th e information provid-
shown in th e details.
ed in th e Walls and Roofs chapte rs of th e Mod ern Co nst ructio n H andbook. It shows th e pr inciples of th e main facade t ypes used t oday and illustrates thi s th rou gh t ypical generic details.Th e six chapte rs examine envelo pes from th e standpo int of th e pr imary materi al used in th eir const ructio n, from metal t o glass, concrete,
T he Plastics chapte r explores th e range of plastics from cellu-
masonry, plastics and t imber. Each set of five doub le page spreads
lar mater ials, such as po lycarbonate, t o composite mat er ials such
explains a specific form of co nstr uct io n w hich is accompanied by
as GRP, w hich is a combinat ion of a wove n fibrou s mater ial and a
drawn and annotated det ails.Th e t echniques describ ed can be
polymer matri x. N ewer compos ite materials combine th e econo-
applied int ernati o nally.
my of plastic w it h th e durability and st iffness of metal in com posite sheet materials.Th e recent re-introduction of plastics int o mainstream construct ion has been possible due t o th e improved quali-
METAL WALLS
ty and colour durability of th ese materials.A n advantage of plastics
Char:>ter I
in wa ll const ruction is th at th ey can provide translucency,rath er
Th e Metals chapte r explores th e use of sheet metal from a materi al fully suppo rte d o n a subst rate t o its use as a self-sup-
th an t he transparency associate d w it h glass, combined w it h high levels of th erm al insulation.
porting materi al in th e form of profiled decking and composite panels.Th e use of profiled decking in th icknesses normally used for shipping containers, rath er th an buildings,has led t o t he intro duction of semi-mo noco que co nstr uct ion w it h thi s materi al. Some composite panel syste ms are being manufactured w it ho ut an o ute r facing of metal sheet t o allow a separate wate rproo fing layer t o be added.
T he Timb er chapte r shows bot h recent developments in tim ber walls and developm ent s in tradit ion al t echniques.Th e low levels of em bod ied energy in thi s materi al, parti cularly in locally grown t imber, have helped th e revival in th e use of th is mater ial. Traditionally shunned for large-scale applicat ions due t o its poor
GLASS WALLS
fire resistance, particularly in Europe, th e use of t imber is now bet -
Chapter 2
te r understood to reduce th e spread of fire.Timber ty pes are also
Th e Glass chapte r investigates th e range from framed systems t o po int fixed glazing.W indows and shop fronts are discussed as separate systems w hich can be used as full glazing syste ms in th eir ow n right.
MC E
6
discussed as t heir selection has considerable enviro nmental impact.
METAL ROOFS Chapte r 7 Th e Metals chapte r discusses th e use of met al sheet in ro ofs
PLASTIC ROOFS Chapter I I Po lycarb on ate panels have th e advantage of providing we ll
both as a substrate and as a wa te rt ight cove r ing.W hen used as a
insulated translucent panels th at are more eco no m ic th an th o se in
substrate, in th e form of profi led met al decking o r co m posite pan-
glass. Th ey are mu ch light er th an glass, allowing more visually deli-
els,a wate r proof membrane can be formed in different materials.
cate suppo rt str uct ures t o be used for th ese panels. G lass rein-
U sed as a cove r ing materi al, m etal sheet can be em ployed in
forced pol yester (G RP) can produce opaque ro of form s th at are
standing seams, profiled sheet and rainscreens. Solar shading devic-
free of joints, forming co nt inuo us roof str uct ures such as shells and
es formed from met al are also discussed.
dom es co m pose d of a mon olith ic, light w eight mater ial w it h a watert ight finish o n its o utside face. A ll th ese ty pes are ex plained in th is chapte r.
GLASS ROOFS Chapter 8 Th e G lass chapte r sets o ut th e use o f th e mater ial as both ro ofii ght s and as large glass ro ofs. St ick fr amed ro ofii ghts and glazing syste ms are related t o th o se used for wa lls, but are usual-
Th e Fabr ic chapte r discusses t ensile ro of str uct ures, air sup-
ly fixed w it h pressure plates o n th e t w o sides parallel w it h th e
po rted t ypes and smaller scale cano pies. PT FE membranes can be
line o f slo pe . Bolt fixed glazing systems for roofiights and roofs
st retc hed ove r suppo rting st r uct ures, ty pically stainless stee l cables
fo llow principles used in wa ll co nst r uct io n. Bond ed glass decks
w it h tubu lar steel suppo rts. PTFE sheet is also used t o form inflat -
and roofiights are a developm ent o f glass bloc k deta ils, w hich are
ed 'air pillow s' th at are suppo rted o n an alum inium fr ame.Th eir
also discussed . Finally in th is chapte r. glazed cano pies are dis-
advantage o f high th erm al insulat ion and light ness in we ight is mak-
cussed, fo cusing o n th o se th at use point fixin gs w it h a minimum
ing th em an increasingly preferred o pt io n for ro of str uct ures.
of suppo rt st r uct ure .
QUALIFYING COMMENTS CO NC RETE ROOFS Chapter 9 Ro of decks co nstr ucte d in co ncrete are cove red w it h a var iety
Th e building t echniqu es discussed and th e built exam ples shown are designed t o last for an exte nded per iod w it h a relati vely high perform ance. Co nsequent ly, buildings for ex hibit io ns
of wate r proof membranes and finishes.W hen th e membrane is
and for t emp orary use are excluded. In addressing an int ernati o n-
applied directly t o th e co ncrete, th erm al insulation and finishes,
al reader ship, references t o nation al legislation, buildin g regulation s,
such as plantin g, paving slabs or timber decking, are applied. Con-
co des o f practi ce and nation al sta ndards have spec ifically not been
str uct io n can also be finished w it h anot her ro ofing syste m, such as
inciuded.T his bo ok ex plains th e pr inciples of accepte d building
met al standing seams, o r rainscreens in ot her materi als.A ll th ese
t echniqu es curre nt ly in use. Building co des th rou ghout th e wo r ld
ty pes are discussed in th is chapte r.
are und ergoing increased harm on isat ion because of increased eco no m ic and intellectu al glo balisat io n. Building co m po nents and assem blies from m any different co unt r ies are ofte n used in a sin-
iTIMBER ROOFS Chapter 10 Tim ber roofs are a traditi on al form o f co nstr uct io n th at use
gle buil ding. Since building co des are w ritte n t o protect users of buildings by providing for th eir health and safety, goo d co nstr ucti on pract ice w ill always uph old th ese codes as we ll as assist th eir
mainly t iles, slates and shingles in hou sing proj ects. In recent years,
advanceme nt. T he co m po nents, assem blies and det ails shown in
th e increased use of met al sheet o n timber roofs has led t o an
thi s bo ok describe many of th e building t echniqu es used by th e
increase in more co m plex geo met r ies th at do not need t o fo llow
building indust ry t od ay, but t his bo ok do es not necessar ily
th e principles of th o se tradition al lapped ro ofing mater ials. Flat
endorse o r ju stify th eir use since t echn iques in building are in a
timber roofs, thin planting and met al sheet, in addit io n t o th e more
co nt inual state o f change and development. A ll deta ils shown aim
tradition al single m embrane finishes, are set out here.
t o d em on str ate co nt inuity in th erm al insulati o n and wate rproofing, t ogeth er w it h t w o defences against rainw at er penetrati on. W here spec ific it ems are not clear ly present o n draw ings, th ese prin cipl es sho uld st ill be foll ow ed.
MC E 7
Panelisation for manufacture , using 3-D parametric software,
)
Fixing detail for panels using a minimum set of cast and extruded components,
While th e building envelope syst ems
panels w ere eit her single curved or double
described in t his book are most ly described
curved t o pr ovide a co nt inuously curved sur-
through rectilinear building form s,th ey can
face made from a combinat ion of GRC (glass
equally be applied t o complex geo met ries
reinfo rced co ncret e) and GRP (glass rein-
and assoc iate d mass customisat ion t ech-
forced po lymer) t ypes,Th e GRC is used
niques described in t he int ro duction essays in
mainly o n surfaces t hat are walked upo n in
th e seco nd edit ion of t he Modern Con stru c-
th e plaza spaces aro und th e building,w hile
t io n H andbook,
t he GRP is used as roof cladding panels
A n example is describ ed here w here th e
Panelisation of geometry for manufacture,
MCE
8
w hich are light er in w eight and have a com -
aut hor, a directo r of N ewtecnic, facade
parable co lour and surface finish, Panels we re
designers based in Lo ndon, wo rked w it h t he
manufact ured w hich follow ed t he geomet ry
United A rab Emirates' based co nt racto r,A ra-
required by th e architect w it ho ut th e need
bian Profiles (A PL) o n an exte rnal envelope
for flat o r facetted panels, w hile being eco-
of complex geomet ry,T he proj ect w as a cul-
nomi c in th e met hod of manufacture.Thi s
tu ral cent re in A zerbaijan, w hich involved t he
o utco me was achieved by translating th e dig-
manufacture of 16,000 cladding panels.These
ital 3D mod el describin g th e geomet ry into
Triangulated roof structu re to which envelope system if fixed
12·- - ---..,....,- -
::. .:-... .
....,
-,
.....
....
~
...,
~.-
:'-.
<,
Panelisation of geometry for manufacture,
Panelisation of geometry for manufacture ,
individual panels w it h data th at co uld be used in flex ible mou lding t ables t o fabr icate
Panelisation of geometry for manufacture ,
Th e use of a flexible mou lding t able allow s co mplex panel shapes form ed in single
th e panels using a meth od of mass customi-
curved geomet ry t o be manufactured quickly
sat io n.T he mou lding t able was designed by
and eco no mically t o a high standard. D igitally
th e manufacturer of th e panels,A PL, w ho
co ntro lled devices are used t o adjust th e
make envelope systems th at focus o n realis-
shape of th e panel w it h data provided by th e
ing ambit ious architect ural designs using mass
3D mod el. Informat io n for edge returns for
produ ct ion o r mass customisat ion t ech-
th e panels, used t o stiffen panels at th eir
niques,The three dim ension al form w as
edges, was pro vided by 'developed', o r
descr ibed by a grid of po ints linked by regu-
unro lled, shapes offset from th e curved
lar curve s th at create th e single curve d form s
shapes in th e 3D mod el generate d by th e
w it h non -r ectilin ear edges.T he flexible
architect,Thi s avoidance of purely hand craft -
mou lding t ables use digital input t o create
ed t echniques ensures th at th e manufacture
visually co mplex form s w it ho ut th e need for
of syste ms for co mplex buildings can be
hand-m ade co mpo nents w it h th eir associat -
applied t o large-scale building envelopes,
ed fabrication t o lerances,
Met hod of identifying panels for manufacture and installation
MC E 9
Envelope option of hexagonal unitised panels based on triangular units set into them.
Th is project, designed by N ewtecnic, for new
fJtJ~ ....-
Sequence of assembly
MC E 10
create a single set of's hards' t o create a
facades of an exist ing airport building show
combined st ruct ure and envelope solut ion.
how tw o quite different approaches can be
The facade geomet ry is composed of a uni-
t aken w here th e exte rnal envelope is used
t ised syste m of glazing, insulat ed panels, and
t o re-mod el an exist ing building w it hout th e
integrated shading devices.Thi s approach
need for demolishing th e prim ary st r uct ure.
allows th e st raight forward removal of exist-
This approach ensures th at existing buildings
ing rectangular precast concrete cladding,
can be re-used, ofte n w it h quite different
w it h th e new facade panels being lifted int o
function s w it hin th e building.
position and fixed simply t o th e ex ist ing pri-
The design on th e left hand page is gen-
mary st ructure.Th is solut ion ensured th at
erate d aro und th e use of a cladding syste m
both facade and ro of used a secondary stee l
based on th e hexagonal shape of th e plan of
suppo rt syste m th at did not require changes
th e exist ing pr imary st r uct ure, a panel
t o th e exist ing pr imary st ruct ure.
geomet ry w hich lends itself in th e plane of
The design on th e right hand page is
th e ro of The hexagonal panel shape is also
based on a CFD (computat ional fluid dynam-
used for th e facades,spanning from flo or t o
ics) st udy of th e high-wind enviro nment of
floor. A covered at rium space is create d
th e site. The roofscape was digitally generat-
from th e cent ral courtya rd, w it h th e int er-
ed by draping th e existing building form and
face of th e ro of and wall foldin g down t o
applying the prevailing w ind condit ion t o the
Envelope option of rainscreen cladding panels on a continuous waterproof metal deck.The design is based on prevailing wind movement across the site.
/
,...
I
...-"",'
resultin g surface.T he flowin g fo rm, striate d
are made from GRP (glass reinfo rced po ly-
t exture and longit udinal glazing st rips fo llow
mer) as used in th e digita l fabrication exam-
t he aerodynam ic requirement s of visual fluidi-
ple in Aze rbaijan, in t he pr eviou s page spread.
ty and air flow, ensuring t hat t he exte rnal
T he design uses a lightweight rainscreen
envelope allowed w ind from th e prevailing
roo f assemb ly envelo ping th e exist ing building
directio n to slip across it s surface, away from
st ruct ure.T his system allows for th e realisa-
peop le ente ring t he building from th e adja-
ti on of curved geomet ries as th e result of a
cent car parking area.
combinat ion of suppo rt ing st ruct ure for
The external envelope co nsists of a do u-
facade and roo f. creat ing a smoot h, co nt inu-
ble-skinned rainscreen system and glazed
o us form. T he rainscreen is backed by an
facade co nnected by steel trusses.W hile th e
eco nomic st r uct ural deck, w it h incorporated
glazing is seen t o visually 'cling' t o t he ex ist ing
closed cell th erm al insulation and wate r-
building struct ure, t he ot her visually 'billows:
proofing memb rane; a co nstruct ion met hod
revealing t he steel t russes th at ho ld t he
w hich provides a visual co nt inuity t o th e
exte rnal envelope in place.T he glazed roof
fo rm of t he exte rnal envelope, in co nt rast
syste m is used t o visually cut th rou gh th e
w it h th e panel compo nent -based so lut io n of
roof t o define new spaces w it hin t he existing
t he hexagonal panel design.
building struct ure as we ll as draw ing light int o th e internal spaces.T he o paque roo f panels
Panel connections for the hexagonal based option on previous page.
M C E II
METAL WALLS (I) Sheet metal: Fixing methods Openings Substrates and
supporting walls Comers. parapets and (ills (2) Profiled cladding: Junctions
Parapets and gutters Window/door openings
Insulation. liner trays Developments
(3) Composite panels:
Parapets and cills Window/door openings
Developments
Comers Thermal bridges at cills (4) Metal ralnscreens:
Materials Fixing methods Backing walls
Construction sequence Window/door openings
Parapets and cills (5) Mesh screens:
Rigid mesh
Meshes flexible in
o ne directio n Fully flexible mesh Mesh used on curves Perforated metal
(6) Louvre screens: Metal louvres
Glazed louvres Solar shading
Walkways
MC E
I]
f1 etalWalls 0 I Sheet metal
~
I D· Horizontal Section I : I0, Seam profile options
0)
CD
-®
I 0 \'
3-D cut-away view of typical folded metal sheet cladding construction ,Type 2
3-D view of wind ow inserted into folded metal facade,Type 2
Verti cal section & elevation I :S0, Sheet metal cladding with vertical jo int s
Sheet met al is used for t he rich surface t ex-
Fixing method s
450mm t o 600mm ( 18inx24in) square and
t ures t hat can be achieved w it h relati vely soft
T here are t hree fixing meth ods for co nt inu-
are set in eit her hori zont al and ver t ical edges
mater ials applied t o a cont inuo us suppo r t ing
o usly suppo rted sheet metal wa lls:co ntinu-
o r at a 45° angle, Other angles can be used
substrate ,T his meth od does not provide t he
o us sheet, lapped t iles and recessed joint s,
but are harder t o co-o rdinate w it h t he edges
sharp lines and fiat surfaces associated w it h
Co nt inuous sheets are laid in vary ing
of co rne rs and o penings, W indow and door
rainscreen panels or composite panel co n-
w idt hs w it h standing seams in vert ical joint s
o penings are usually enclosed in a met al strip
struct ion.T he m ost commo n metals used are
t hat run co nt inuo usly from t op t o bottom of
aro und t he reveal of t he o pening, w it h a
copper. lead, zinc. Mo re recent ly,sta inless
a wall,Thi s gives th e facade a characte ristic
shadow gap o r proj ectin g co rne r deta il.T iles
steel has come int o use, but primarily as a
st riped appearance w it h stro ng shadows
are not folded int o openings due t o t he
roofing material. Co pper sheet is a ductile
across t he sta nding seam joint s in sunlight.
complexity of jointin g and t he difficulty of
mat er ial, but not as malleable as lead. It s char-
Th e sheet met al is fixed o n th e hori zo nt al
getting t hem to fo ld neatly at half way across
acte ristic green patina w hen fully weat hered
jo ints w it h fiattened seams t hat allow rainw a-
t he panels, Shadows across t he surface of a
gives a consiste nt appearance, Lead sheet is
t er t o drain off easily, Hori zontal joints are at
ti led wa ll have small stro ng lines w hich give a
extremely durable, and it s soft ness allows it
distances t o suit t he visual appearance of t he
very t extured appearance t o t he facade.Tiles
t o be formed over co mplex geomet ries and
design but 12,0 metres (39ft 4in) t o 17,0
are lapped o n four sides t o give a cont inuo us
panels w it h a high amo unt of surface relief
metres (55ft 9in) is t he maximum depending
wate rt ight joint o n all edges,
Z inc is durable, th ough more brittle th an
o n th e metal used.Vertical joints align w it h
copper but is suscept ible t o corros ion from
t he edges of w indows and doo r openings,
met al laid over a specially form ed subst rate
it s underside if not vent ilate d, Stainless steel
H ori zo nt al joint s are usually staggered t o
t o prod uce recessed lines, w hich are usually
is a very durable materi al, but it st ill has an
form a patt ern rather th an t ry t o achieve a
horizont al.The material is occasionally
uneven surface w hen laid t hat provides a
co nt inuous st raight line w hich is difficult t o
recessed o n fo ur sides and set o n a plyw ood
richness of reflection.T he main disadvantage
keep comp lete ly straight and hori zontal.Thi s
backgroun d w it h projecting panels form ed by
of wo rking in stainless steel is it s hardness,
is because ho rizont al joint s are broken
t he plywood , How ever.t his t echnique is sel-
making it difficult t o wo rk w hen forming fo lds
between each vertical seam,
do m used any more due t o th e increased
in jointing, MCE
14
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Lapped ti les are made approximate ly
Recessed joints are formed in sheet
use of metal rainscreen panels w it h th eir
@
i
1
Vertical section :I0, Folded metal sheet parapet detail
@
@
3-D views of folded metal sheet with angled seam lines
Details
---------.r--CD CD Horizontal section I: I0, Folded metal sheet connection to aluminium curtain wall type window
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. I I. I 2. I 3. 14. 15.
Folded metal sheet Fixing battens Standingseam joints Window frame Waterproof membrane, typically bitumen based paint Internal finish Metal clips fixed at centres Timber window cill Substrate in plywood or timber board Folded metal coping Thermal insulation Backing wall - timber/metal frame with plywood facing Vapour barrier Ventilated metal drip Structural concrete wall
Vertical section I: I0, Folded metal sheet connection to aluminium curtain wall type window head
@
Vertical section I:I0, Folded metal sheet connection to aluminium curtain wall type window cill
CD
I @
@
® 3-D view of aluminium window in folded metal cladding system
Vertical section I,I0, Ground level cill
MC E
15
fl etalWalls 0 I Sheet metal
@
Ho rizontal section I 10. Simple seam details at corners
Details Ho rizontal section I :IO. Internal corner junction with wall
Hori zontal section I:I O. External corner formed from folded metal sheet
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
I
I [
o
10. I I. 12.
I
:
---- Wv~1IfNft -
13. 14. 15.
@
Folded metal sheet Fixing battens Standingseam joint s W indow frame W at erpro of membrane,typically bitumen based paint Internal finish Metal clips fixed at centres Timber window cill Substrate in plywood or timber board Folded metal coping Thermal insulation Backing wall - timber/metal frame with plywood facing Vapour barrier Ventilated metal drip Structural concrete wall
Horiz ontal section I: IO. Internal corner connection with folded metal sheet
Horiz ontal section I 10. External corner with seam connection
advantage of flat ness of panel and close fixing
facade. For all ori ent ation s of sheet met al.
t o lerances, providing crisp lines at joint s
w indow and doo r o penings have separate
a w indow t hat is designed fo r use w it ho ut
w hich are more difficult to achieve in a sheet
met al sheets forming reveals o n all sides.
such a finish.Th e usual altern ative is to use
met al cont inuo usly suppo rte d on a profiled
A lt ho ugh t his can result in some awkward
eit her a po lyester powd er coate d o r PVDF
cladding w ill always be a decorative finish t o
background. How ever.t his t echnique may
pieces of met al to form junction s aro und
paint finish on aluminium t o match th e col-
find favour again due t o it s rich surface t ex-
w indows, in practice t hey are pract ical and
o ur of t he adjacent met al, o r use a different
t ure. D rips are incorpo rat ed at hori zont al
eco no m ic t o fo rm o n site due t o t he site -
mat erial such as t imb er w indows .A paint fin-
recessed joints to avo id st aining occurrin g as
based nature of fixing metal sheet. Sheet
ish is o bviously much easier t o match if th e
a result of dirt being washed off th e flat sur-
metal cladding is ideally suite d t o t he com-
sheet metal finish is pre-patinated (pre-
plex juncti on s associated w it h non -rectilin e-
we at hered) so t hat it s final colour w ill be
ar geomet ries.A ttempts t o make th e mate-
very similar to t he colo ur of th e metal w hen
Op enings
rial appear too regular can produce disap-
inst alled.Thi s is much more difficult in
Where ver t ical jointed sheet metal is used,
pointing results, parti cularly w here a pure
unweathered metals.Th e use of galvanised
w indow and door o penings are usually posi-
rectilinear grid is attempte d. In t his inst ance,
steel w indows and doors w it h zinc is not so
tioned so th at a joint falls o n th e edge of an
met al rainscreen panels w o uld probably be
commo n due t o th e increased performance
opening.T his gives a clean, co-o rdinate d
more suit able.
of paint coat ings. How ever.galvanised finishes
faces of t hese joint s.
appearance to th e facade, but op enings th at
W indows and doors are glazed w it h
are ever-increasing in th eir durability and may
are set deliberately 'off grid' from t he vertical
almost any available t echnique, but t he ever-
event ually be used as a durab le finish for
joint s also look visually dramatic.A recent
increasing use of do uble glazed units both t o
w indow frames.
developm ent has been to use sheet metal
conserve energy and avo id co ndensat ion o n
Buildings clad partly in sheet metal are
w it h vert ical joint s inclined at angles up t o
t he w indow o r door surface has led t o t her-
beginning t o use large-scale glazed openings
45° from th e vert ical so th at th ey co nt rast
mally broken sect ions being used very com-
using a com plete ly different system such as
w it h rectilinear w indow o penings, giving t he
monly.W indow frames are ofte n clad in t he
bo lt fixed glazing.W hereas t hese two syste ms
sheet metal th e appearance of a cont inuo us
same sheet metal as used in th e adjacent
previou sly seemed incomp atible, w it h sheet
'no n-gridded' t exture acro ss a complete
facade, but thi s is expensive since th e metal
metal as an economic system and bo lt fixed
MC E
16
Ir r r I
Ho rizontal section I 10, External corner with seam connection
Horizontal section I : I0, External corner with seam connection
r
r
Vertical section I: I0, Parapet detail in folded metal sheet with projecting joints
Horizontal section I: I 0,W indow detail in folded metal sheet with projecting joints
Vertical section I : I0, Timber window cill detail in folded metal sheet with projecting joints
Vert ical section I: I0, Ground level cill detail in folded metal sheet with projecting joints
3-D view of folded metal sheet cladding with projecting joints.Type I
MCE
17
fl etal W alls 0 I Sheet metal
@
Vert ical section I: Ia,Aluminium window head detail in folded metal sheet with recessed joints
@
3-D view of folded metal sheet with recessed seams, Type I
Deta ils I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, I0, I I, 12, 13. 14, 15,
MC E
Folded metal sheet Fixing battens Standing seam joints W indow frame W at erproof membrane,typically bitumen based paint Internal finish Metal clips fixed at centres Timber window cill Substrate in plywood or timber board Folded metal coping Thermal insulation Backing wall - timber/metal frame with plywood facing Vapour barrier Vent ilat ed metal drip Structural concrete wall
18
Vertical section I:Ia,Aluminium curtain wall type window cill detail in folded metal sheet with recessed joints
glazing as an expe nsive syste m, t he two are
are not used,Timbe r boards are used but are
now used together increasingly w he re a
usually more ex pe nsive, as is profile d metal
de libe rate co nt rast of surface t extu re is
sheet. W he re t imber fram ing is used fo r t he
so ught.W hile bo lt fi xed glazing has a smoot h,
wa ll co nst ruct ion, t he t imb er subst rate fo rms
co nt inuo us surface uninterrupt ed by visible
an integral part of t he exte rna l wall. provid-
fram ing, shee t metal has joint s in a direction
ing d iap hragm stiffness in t he fram e , Profiled
at 400mm ( Ift 4in) to 600mm (2ft) ce nt res ,
metal sheet is increasingly used as a sub-
w it h a co mparat ively uneven surface finish,
strate fo r zinc, since zinc is more rigid t han ot he r metals such as co ppe r o r lead. Profiled
Substrates and suppo rt ing walls
met al sheet can span t he gap betwee n t he
Shee t metals can be laid direct ly o nto a sub-
peaks of th e cladding, w hile providing a vent i-
st rate , typically plywood , w it h t he exce pt ion
lated zo ne be hind to avoid co rros ion of t he
of zinc, w hich needs vent ilat ion o n its int erior
zinc.The add it ion of a vent ilat ion mat pro-
face to avoid co rros ion, Plywoo d is preferred
vides a full gap betw een t he zinc and t he
for its d urab ility, since if it beco mes we t
profi led metal.
before a rep air can be undertaken , t he mate-
Shee t metal is increasingly fi xed t o walls
rial can dry o ut w it ho ut be ing damaged ,
co nst ructe d in a w ide range of mat erials:t im-
Other materials such as particle board s are
ber frames, precast co ncrete, co ncrete block
not resistant to moisture pen etration and so
and lightw e ight ste e l frames made in cold
I Vertical section I: I0, Parapet detail in folded metal sheet with recessed joints
Horizontal section I: I 0, External corner detail in folded metal sheet with recessed jo ints
Vertical section I: IO,Timber window head detail in folded metal sheet with recessed joints
Horizontal section I: I0, Panel to panel junction with recessed joint
Horizontal section I: I 0,Junction between timber window and folded metal sheets with recessed junctions
@
@
I
Horizontal section I: I0, Junction between curtain wall type window and folded metal sheets with recessed junctions
fo rm ed sect ions, In Type I, timber fram es use sheet metal as a cladding in a fair ly traditional form of
ance combined w it h small-scale st anding seam joints make it ideal for a sealed metal
Vertical section I: IO,Timber window cill detail in folded metal sheet with recessed joints
cladding w here profiled metal sheet o r com-
const r uction, or as infill panels t o a timber,
posite panels have t oo 'indu strial' an appear-
concrete o r stee l frame.The overall cross
ance, InType 2, t herm al insulati on is set o n
sect io n of th e w all remains th in due to th e
t he o utside of t he concrete st r uct ure in
inclusion of th erma l insulation w it hin th e
o rder to use its th erm al mass as we ll as to
fr ame rather t han o n an o utside face,A
keep t he st r ucture at as even a t emperature
vapo ur barri er is needed on th e w arm- in-
as possible,Th e metal cladding is th en set for-
w inte r side (in a t emp erate climate) t o avo id
ward of t he insulati on,A new develop ment is
vapo ur reaching th e insulation from inside,
th e use of profi led metal cladding as a sub-
T he vapo ur barrier is needed in t he same
st rate in Type 4,W here zinc is used t he vo id
place in Type 3, w here pressed stee l, o r 'light
fo rm ed by t he profiled sheet provides a ven-
gauge' stee l sect ions are used.The all-metal
ti lation zone w it ho ut th e use of timber.A
const r uction ofType 3 is undergoing refine-
plastic-based drainage mat is set between t he
ment for use in housing,w here almost all its
zinc and th e profi led sheet to complete t he
compo nents can be eit her recycled o r
vent ilat ion,
Vertical section I: I0, Ground level cill detail in folded metal sheet with recessed joints
unbo lted and modified w it h th e same kit of parts durin g its lifet ime, It s fiatness of appear-
MC E
19
fl etal Walls 0 I Sheet metal
Vertical section I: I a. Ground level cill detail with interlocking folded metal panels.Type 3
Verti cal section I: I a. Parapet detail with interlocking folded metal sheets
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5.
@
6. 7. 8. 9. I a. I I. 12.
Vertical section I: Ia.Typical wall build-up with interlocking folded metal panels
Vertical section I: I a. Recessed aluminium window in interlocking folded metal facade
Corners, parapets and cills
co rrect vert ical o r inclined alignme nt.
Shee t metal can be joine d at co rne rs in
13. 14. IS.
Folded metal sheet Fixing battens Standingseam joints W indow frame W at erproof membrane,typically bitumen based paint Internal finish Metal clips fixed at centres Timber window cill Substrate in plywood or timber board Folded metal coping Thermal insulation Backing wall - timber/metal frame with plywood facing Vapour barrier Ventilated metal drip Structu ral concrete wall
Cills are formed in a similar way, but w it h
An adva ntage of sheet metal is th at para-
projecting o r flush drips to throw water clear
facades wit h e it he r recesse d o r proje cting
pet co pings and cill drips at th e base of wa lls
of th e base of th e cladd ing.W he re unweath -
cove rst rips.The cove rs need a t imber o r ply-
at w indows can be formed in th e same mate-
e red metal is used, care sho uld be t aken th at
wood suppo rt under th em to provide rigidity
rial w it h an identi cal fini sh.This is unlike many
rainwater run off from ox id ising metal does
Corn ers for vert ically set metal sheet can also
ot he r metal cladding syste ms, w he re ext rude d
not stain paved surfaces at th e base of th e
be formed by sett ing st anding seam joints at
aluminium o r pressed steel o r aluminium are
wa ll. Slot dr ains o r gravel edges can be used
th e co rne r, o r close to th e co rne r o n e it he r
most co mmo nly used for parapets and cills.
both t o provide dr ainage and avoid visible
side of th e edge .W it h tiled shee ts, co rne rs
The ability to form met al o n site in junction s
staining. Drips are often reinforced w it h a
usually w rap aro und, igno ring th e co rne r li ke
of shee t metal wa lls wit h parapet co pings is
steel o r aluminium angle to create a stro ng,
a co nt inuo us patt ern folded aro und th e co r-
use d e it he r to form a recessed joint, w hich
straight edge . Compatibility between th e clad-
ner.Altern at ive ly, co rne rs can have cove rst rips
allows th e sta nd ing sea m joint in th e cladd ing
ding material and suppo rt material must be
th at break th e patt ern from o ne facade to
t o be tapered down to th e li ne of th e co ping,
e nsured to avoid bimetallic co rros ion.W he re
anot he r. There is an increased use of presse d
o r a proje cting parapet co ping w hich allows
t he vo id behind met al cladding is used for
metal clips and rails, as used in profiled met al
th e sta nding sea m to butt up to the und er-
vent ilat ion, parapets and cills are used to
cladding, to suppo rt sheet metal subst rates ,
side of th e co ping.W it h e it he r solut ion, an
introdu ce fresh air. Insect mesh is introdu ced
typically plywo od . Clips and rails are made as
undercloak fl ashing o r wate rproof laye r is
wit hin th e jo int, but its presen ce does not
propri etar y syste ms w hich can be fixed t o th e
need ed undern eath th e co ping to provide
alte r air fl ow rates signifi cant ly.
backing wa ll quickly and eas ily adjuste d to
addit ional wate rproo fi ng.
MC E
20
@
Horizontal section I : IO. Interlocking metal panels. External corn er with metal fold 3-D view of folded meta l sheet with recessed seams. Type 4
@ Horizontal section I: IO. Interlocking metal panels. Internal corner with join t
3-D view of folded meta l sheet w ith recessed seams. Type 4
1Inn I I I I I
I I
I
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t _ U ~U.J I
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H orizontal sectio n I : IO. Interlocking meta l panels. External corn er with joint
---i.
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Horizontal section I : I O. Interlocking metal panels. Window junct ion
3-D view of fo lded metal sheet wit h recessed seams
MCE
21
Metal Walls Sheet metal
01-- - - - - - - Deta ils I. Foldedmetal sheet
2:F'xlngbattens 3. Standing seam joints 5.Waterproof
4,W,ndow frame
membrane. typICa lly brturren based pa int
7 Met I
.
'
e.toternal f.nish
a des fixed at centres
9. Substrate ill p~mber Window (ill or timber board 10. Folded metal coping 12, Backing waUI I .Thermal insulation - l imbe r/metal frame wlthp'''~ ., •• ~ facing
13.Yapo ur berner 14.Ventilated metal drip
\
3-D exploded view of horizontally set folded metal sheet facade with angIed seam lines
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3-D exploded voew v' set folded metal sh Me E_ 22 - ot horzontan 0 eel facade with angled seam toes ' '=
3-D exploded view of corner condition in tiled metal rainscreen system
3-D exploded view of folded metal sheet with horizontal recessed seams
3-D exploded view of corner condition in tiled metal rainscreen system
3-D view of folded metal sheet with recessed seams
3-D exploded view of construction of horizontally set folded metal sheet facade with angled seam lines
3-D exploded view of folded metal sheet with vert ical recessed seams
3-D view of folded metal sheet with recessed seams
3-D exploded view of window opening in horizontally set folded metal sheet facade with vertical seam lines
MC E 23
fletal Walls 02 Profiled metal cladding
3-D view of horizontally set profiled metal sheet
3-D view of ve rt ically set profiled metal sheet
An advantage of profiled metal cladding is
ding is used mainly for industrial buildings in
16ft 6in) cent res, depending o n th e floor
th at it can be easily integrated w it h a similar
conjunction w it h a portal fr ame in eit her
height. In buildings of more th an o ne storey,
syste m used for cladding th e roof A lso,small
stee l or concrete , it pro vides an economic
an inner lining t o th e wall is usually added
areas of ro of can be easily accommodated as
cladding syste m for larger framed st r uct ures.
since th e gap create d between th e cladding
steps w it hin th e facade w it h simple junction s between vert ical and shallow pit ch ro ofs.At th e junction w it h th e t op of th e ro of an
Th e mater ial can be set eit her vert ically o r hori zontally t o suit th e design. Horizontally-set cladding is used w here
and th e floor slab is difficult t o seal economically at floor level in a way th at w ill allow peop le t o wa lk o n it.T he addit ional inner lin-
undercloak flashing is used t o ensure wate r
it s st ro ng horizontal lines are used for linear
ing may exte nd up t o 1.0 metres (3ft 3in)
running off th e wall is sent on down th e roof
emphasis. Like vertically-set cladding,th e pro -
above th e finished floor level and may be
and not int o th e jo int at th e base.A t th e bot-
filed sheet is suppo rte d at 3.0 t o 5.0 metre
eit her a metal lining tray forming part of th e
t om of th e ro of, eit her an exposed gutter o r
( l Oft t o 16ft 6in) cent res by posts o r st ruc-
proprietary cladding syste m, o r be a concrete
a concealed parapet gutter is used t o collect
tural columns.This direction allow s th e mate-
blockw ork wall aro und 100mm (4in) thi ck.A
th e rainw ater.Ver y small areas of roof can be
rial t o enclose a building w it h a curve d sec-
smo ke seal o r fire barri er may be required
dr ained w it hout a gutter by proj ecting th e
ti on.A useful aspect of profil ed metal sheet -
between th e floors enclosed by th e cladding
roof beyond th e cladding, allow ing th e rain-
ing is it s ability t o be curved in one direction.
but th is is very much dependent upon it s
wate r to be thrown clear of th e cladding and
This makes it an ideal cladding material for
parti cular applicat ion.A lt ho ugh hori zontal
avoiding staining of th e wall below.Th e effect
buildings w it h a curved vertical sect ion. Slight
rails can be set at w ide cent res, addit ional
of throwin g wate r clear of th e building needs
irregularities in th e surface finish o r setting
rails may be needed eit her t o accommo date
t o be int egrat ed w it hin th e overall design.
o ut of th e curve are concealed by th e profi le
w indows and doors o r t o increase th e stiff-
it self Po lished stainless stee l has been used
ness of th e wall w it ho ut using a much deeper
for hori zont ally-set cladding in public build-
profil e, w hich wo uld also increase st iffness.
Profiled metal cladding is most commo nly used in large single sto rey buildings such as factories o r wa rehouses w here it spans verti-
ings w here it s high cost is balanced by longer
cally from gro und t o ro of w it ho ut th e need
durability th an coate d aluminium o r coate d
Junctions
for addit ional suppo rt. This makes it a very
m ild stee l typ es.
W hen laid vert ically, sheets are jo ined by lap-
economical solut io n for enclosing th ese building ty pes.A lt ho ugh profil ed metal d ad-
MC E 24 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vert ically-set sheet ing has hori zontal cladding rails at 3.0 metre t o 5.0 metre ( l Oft t o
ping th em by aro und 150mm (6in) at vertical joints. Hori zontal joints are also lapped w it h
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3. 4, 5, 6,
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10, I I. 12.
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13.
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14. 15. 16. 17.
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Metal cover st rip set Ho rizontally-set profiled sheet Vert ically-set profiled sheet Z section steel fixing rails Thermal insulation Backing wall. typically t imber/meta l frame with pIyM:xxJ facingandwaterproof membrane. or concrete block Vapour barrier Int ernal finish Roof.typically profiled metal sheet Curved eavesprofile Concealed gutter Exposed gutter Supporting structural frame Structural slab Window frame Metal tri m to w indow Metal parapet coping
f
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Vertical section I :25,Vertically set profiled metal cladding with gutter
I
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8> Vertical section I:25V ert ically set profiled metal cladding with gable end
Vertical section I:25, Horizontally set profiled metal cladding with parapet
_ _ .r1. _ _, " - - -
Vertical section I: I0, Roof junction at gable end
Typical profiled sheet profiles
MCE
25
@
Vertical section I: IO. Gutter detail for large span enclosure
Vertical section I: IO. Parapet detail
Vertical section I 10.Ground level cill detail
3-D view of profiled metal sheet as roof material
th e upper sheet set ove r th e low er o ne in
seal along a potent ially vulnerable jo int as
th e traditional manner.W hen laid hori zont ally,
we ll as a crisp line t o th e corne r. Regardless
horizontal joints are formed w it h laps as
of sheet o rientat ion, edging and jo inting piec-
w hen laid vert ically, but horizontal jo ints are
es are clearly visible, making th em an impo r-
not usually lapped in th e same w ay,Thi s is
ta nt part of th e design.W hereas profil ed
mainly because it is difficult t o form a co nt in-
sheet can be lapped t o give a co nt inuous
uous straight line in a joint th at moves in and
appearance o n a large area of facade, th e
o ut w it h th e shape of th e profi le. Instead a
edging and joint ing pieces of parapets, cills
recessed t op hat sect io n o r proj ecting cover-
and co rne rs are clearly visible.T he visual
plate is used.Th e profi led sheet is butted up
impact of th ese junct ion s can be reduced
t o th e C-shaped sect io n and sealed w it h sili-
w it h recessed joints.Th e use of curve d eaves
co ne or mastic.Th e same pr inciple is used for
sheet s and curved (in plan) co rne r sheets
a projecting coverplate .
was develop ed t o avoid th e need for visible
Co rne rs are treated in a sim ilar w ay, Co rners t o vert ically- and horizontally-set clad-
available, from some manufacturer s, th at can
ding use proj ecting o r recessed coverst rips.
be lapped smoot hly over adjacent profi led
Th e profiled sheets th at meet are lapped
metal sheet s.
how ever.t o pro vide a w eat hert ight seal and Vertical section I 10.Meta l door detail
MC E
26
co rner pieces.90° co rner sheets are now
th e coverplate, pro vides both an addit ional
IV
o l
@ 3-D view of gutter at connection between profiled metal wall and roof system
Vertical section I 10, Sloping roof junction at gable end
@ @
[-""'--,
Vertical section I : I0, Gable end with external metal gutter
Parapets and gutters
m itred corne r panels to allow a curved pro -
Parapet s are usually fo rm ed by eit her pro -
file to be used continuously arou nd a building.
jecting th e pro filed sheet above th e roof line
Visible gutters are fixed on th e outside
in o rder t o conceal th e roof complete ly,
face of th e cladding.The roof projects over
w hich is ofte n in th e same material in th e
th e t op of th e cladding in o rder t o dr ain rain-
case of industrial buildings,A lte rnat ively, a low
wate r into th e gutter. resulting in th e ro of vis-
parapet is formed at th e level of th e intersec-
ually proj ecting fo rw ard of th e wa ll. unlike a
t ion of wa ll and ro of, w it h a recessed gutter
parapet gutte r.A n advantage of t his method
set immediately behind th e parapet. A varia-
is th at rainw ater is kept o ut side th e building,
t ion on t his latter so lut io n is t o use curve d
avoiding th e need t o run vertical rainw ater
eavest o give th e idea of complete cont inuity
pipes w it hin a building,th en runnin g rainw a-
between walls and roof w it h o nly a recessed
t er back o ut th rough t he found atio ns below
gutter creat ing a line between th e two.T he
gro und level. Since gutters are needed o nly
recessed gutter in any of th ese configurat ions
at th e base of ro of slopes, gutters are often
is useful w hen a pitched ro of is used. On th e
not needed o n all facades, giving an uneven
gable elevat ion th e parapet can remain th e
appearance t o th e building.A solut ion t o
same height w hile th e roof rises and falls
making gutters wo rk o n all facades is t o
independently of th e cont inuing line of th e
design a hipped roof th at drains equally into
parapet o n all sides,Curved eaves have
all gutters, but thi s can complicate roof
Verti cal section I :IO. Roof junction at gable end
D etails I. 2.
Metal cover strip set Horizontally-set profiled sheet 3. Vertically-set profiled sheet 4. Z section steel fixing rails 5. Thermal insulation 6. Backing wall,typically timber/metal frame with plywood facingand waterproof membrane, or concrete block 7. Vapour barrier 8. Internal finish 9. Roof,typically profiled metal sheet 10, Curved eaves profile I I, Concealed gutter I 2, Exposed gutter
MC E
27
rl etal W alls 02 Profiled metal cladding
Vertical section I 10, Curved eaves with hidden gutter
Vertical section I:I 0, Curved eaves without gutter
Details .--
I, 2,
Metal cover strip set Horizontally-set profiled sheet 3. Vertically-set profiled sheet 4, Z section steel fixing rails 5, Thermal insulation 6, Backing wall,typically timber/metal frame with plywood facingand waterproof membrane, or concrete block 7, Vapour barrier 8, Internal finish 9, Roof,typically profiled metal sheet 10, Curved eaves profile I I, Concealed gutter I 2, Exposed gutter I 3, Supporting structural frame 14, Structural slab 15, Window frame 16, Metal trim to window 17, Metal parapet coping
3-D view of curved eaves connection with hidden gutter
@
@
=.:::::_=.--_
F=:==:=::::::::::::::::::=___
---=-
Vertical section I: I0,Junction with roof
MC E
28
Vertical section I: I0, Roof junction at abutting wall
..
3-D view and cut-away of profiled metal sheet assemblywith gutter
design. Gutter s require suppo rt by brackets
t ors to ensure a co nsistent co lour through-
Insulation and liner trays
back t o primary st r ucture in o rder t o sup-
o ut t he project.A n alte rnat ive approach is t o
A lt ho ugh profiled met al sheet is capable of
port th e we ight of w ate r w hen in use.The
reduce reveals t o a small dept h and use a
lo ng vert ical spans, t he th erm al insulat io n and
suppo rt ing brackets usually need t o pene-
colour fo r t he w indows different from t hat
int ern al finish mat erial require addit ional sup-
trate th e cladding, requirin g seals aro und th e
of th e adjacent cladding. For example, w it h
port.The insulation cannot be fixed directly
penetratio ns in order t o make t hem weat h-
a silver met allic finish fo r cladding, a darker
t o t he metal sheet w it ho ut being bo nded t o
ert ight. If t he roof construct ion is required t o
grey might be used fo r w indow frames w it h-
it. Fixing br ackets t o t he pro filed sheet wo uld
be vent ilate d t hen th e dept h of th e gutter
o ut creat ing any cont rast betw een th e two
involve penetratin g th e sheet. creat ing a pos-
w ill increase if th e roof is int ended t o be hid-
colours used.
sible po int for w ate r ingress.Welding a sup-
den fro m view. D eep gutters have a stro ng visual presence o n th e facade.
Cills are formed in pressed met al w hich
port bracket wo uld be both expensive and
is inclined t o drain w ate r from its horizont al
easily distort t he surface of th e cladding.
surface and has a pro jecting dr ip t o avoid
Bond ing t he insulati o n t o t he liner w ould be
W indow and door openings
dirt. washed off t he cill, runnin g onto th e
th e next practical method, but thi s is done as
T he reveals for w indows and doo r s are
cladding below, w hich wo uld cause staining.
a composite panel, w hich has const raints and
formed in flat met al sheet. usually th e same
Some drips have rising edges at th e sides t o
is dealt w it h in th e next section.
met al and same colo ur as t he profiled sheet-
avoid wate r runnin g off at t he sides t hat
ing. In pr actice th e colour matching can be
causes st reaking in lines below th e edges of
mediary sheet ing rails th at are also used t o
difficult if t he coat ing (usually po lyester pow -
t he o penings. Cills at gro und level o r at t he
suppo rt an inner metal lining sheet. Sheeting
der coat ing o r PVDF) is applied in different
base of t he cladding are eit her flush o r pro -
rails are made from pressed steel sections.
wo rksho ps or by different coat ing applica-
jecting,t o suit visual requirement s.As w it h
Since t he lining sheets are usually flat, t o cre-
t o r s. Cont rasting colo urs are somet imes
sheet met al cladding, t he cill is usually rein-
ate a smoot h finish w it hin t he building, t hey
chosen for t his reason .This is also tru e of
forced both t o ensure it lies in a st raight line
do not span very far and require sheet ing
w indow sect ions,w hich are usually supplied
and protect it from accidental damage.
rails set at close cent res.T he rails can be used
Flexible insulati on quilt is fixed t o int er-
predated by a different manufacturer. Close
to give addit ional rigidity to th e o ute r profi led
co- o rdinat io n is needed between cont rac-
sheet. but thi s requires penetrating th e sheet
MCE
29
fl etal ails 02 Profiled meta l cladding
@
Vertical section I : I0. A luminium window recessed into profiled metal cladding system
3-D view of recessed aluminium window in profiled metal facade
w it h screw fixings w hich are sealed from th e
not suite d t o cladding since t he st anding
o ut side w it h plasti c caps and w ashers.
seam joint. w hich is not designed t o be tightly
A n inner lining tray can also be form ed
@
folded t ogether, does not wo rk w hen set in
from th e same metal profi led sheet. as used
t he vert ical plane.This pr inciple is also tru e of
in wareho use buildings w here a smooth inner
wall cladding types w hich are lapped and are
wall finish is not needed. Som e interm ediary
not suite d t o use in ro ofs, w here th e seam is
sheet ing rails are still required t o suppo rt th e
not high enough t o be submerged under
th erm al insulati o n.A more econo mic form of
wate r during rain.A recent developm ent has
lining w all th at does not interfere w it h th e
been th e use of flat metal rainscreen panels
o ute r profiled cladding is concrete blockwork.
fixed directly t o a profi led sheet.This provides
In thi s instance, closed cell th erm al insulation
a smoot h finish visually t o th e outside face of
is fixed t o th e out side face of th e wa ll.
t he cladding, w hile maintaining th e economy and st r uctural efficiency of t he profiled sheet.
3-D views of head and cill details of recessed aluminium window in profiled metal facade
Developments
A lt ho ugh th e oute r metal panel is fixed t o
Th e range of profi le ty pes is steadily increas-
th e profiled sheet w it h screws o r rivets th at
ing, w it h w ider,deeper profi les th at we re
penetrate it. th e pin jointed rainscreen config-
o riginally designed for use as ro of decking
uration protects t he fixings from th e wo rst
being used as w all cladding. How ever, some
effects of w indblow n rain.
of th e inter locking ty pes used on roofs are
MC E
30
Vertical section enclosure
10. Gutter detail for small span
Vertical section upstand
10. Cill connection to concrete
@
Vertical section I 10, Roof connection to composite metal roof system
@
Horizontal section I :I0, Internal corner
L
'3
-'t]'- r
Horizontal section I: I0. External corner
n U l ILVllLdl :::.eCLlUII I . I v . \.....UlllleClIUII LV Illeldl UUUI
Deta ils I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10. I I. I 2. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Metal cover strip set Horizontally-set profiled sheet Vertically-set profiled sheet Z section steel fixing rails Thermal insulation Backing wall,typically timber/metal frame with plywood facing and waterproof membrane, or concrete block Vapour barrier Internal finish Roof,typically profiled metal sheet Curved eaves profile Concealed gutter Exposed gutter Supporting structural frame Structural slab Window frame Metal trim to window Metal parapet coping
3-D view of rear of recessed aluminium window in profiled metal facade
MCE
31
fletal Wa Is 02 Profiled metal cladding
Details I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Metal cover strip set Horizontally-set profiled sheet Vertically-set profiled sheet Z section steel fixing rails Thermal insulation Backing wall,typically timber/metal frame with plywood facingand waterproof membrane, or concrete block
7. 8. 9. 10. I I. I 2. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Vapour barrier Internal finish Roof,typically profiled metal sheet Curved eaves profile Concealed gutter Exposed gutter Supporting structural frame Structural slab Window frame Metal trim to window Metal parapet coping
3-D detail view of profiled metal sheet connection to blockwork wall
3-D detail view of profiled metal sheet with gutter
3-D exploded detail view of profiled metal sheet connection to blockwork wall
MC E
32
3-D exploded view of profiled metal sheet assembly with gutter
,
3-D exploded view of horizontally set folded metal sheet
3-D exploded view of vertically set folded metal sheet
3-D view of recessed aluminium window in profiled metal facade 3-D view and exploded axonometric of window head detail
3-D exploded view of recessed aluminium window in profiled metal facade
3-D section of recessed aluminium window in profiled metal facade
3-D view and exploded axonometric of window cill detail
MC E
33
Metal W alls 03 Composite panels ------
l - @--
@-
-
CD Horizontal section 1:5. Panel to panel connect ion with visible cap
CD
Horizontal section 1:5. Panel to window connect ion with visible cap
@ 3-D view of compos ite panels fixed to aluminium supporting frame with inter locking joints on two sides with vertical (right) and horizon tal (left) capping pieces
@
(2)
Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between composite panel and curta in wall type glazing with cap
(2)
Horizontal section 1:5.Connection between composite panel and curta in wall type glazing with metal flashing
Comp osite metal panels require few er com-
w here made specifically as part of a proprie-
th e trim projects beyond th e face of th e
pon ents th an for th e 'kit of parts' used in th e
t ary system. In pr actice, w indows are usually
cladding t o th row wate r clear and prevent
assembly of profiled metal cladding. Like pro-
supplied by a specialist manufacturer.
staining t o panels below.The back of th e dr ip
filed metal.panels are set eit her vert ically o r horizontally.Some panels int erlock o n tw o
T he steel suppo rt fr aming is set o n th e
proj ects up th e back of th e upper panel t o
face of th e slab, making it easier t o take up
prevent wate r from penetrating th e jo int.
sides,w hile ot hers interl ock o n four sides.
deflect ions in floor slabs. However, as is th e
Panels are also suppo rte d o n eit her an inter-
Four-sided panels require no separate int er-
case w it h curtain wa lling,th e gap between
locking frame o r occasionally th ey span
face com po nents for jo inting but it is more
composite panel and floor slab needs filling
between columns if panels are st iff enough t o
difficult later t o remove a damaged panel.
w it h a smo ke seal o r fire barri er.Th e floor fin-
span unassisted.A n additional method of fix-
ish usually has a metal angle t o close off th e
ing panels is t o position th em between floor
Horizontally-set composite panels can be easily int egrat ed w it h ribbon w indows
gap at slab level and at th e soffit level below.
slabs spanning from floor t o ceiling w hen
and suit building facades covering several
Four-sided int erl ocking panels use t he same
used as part of a rainscreen syste m. Panels sit
floors. Panels are stacked o ne above th e
prin ciple for fixing o n all four sides.This also
o n th e floor slab w it h th eir o ute r face flush
ot her w it h th eir vert ical joints closed by rub -
makes it easier t o integrate w indows w it hin
w it h th e edge of th e slab.Th e oute r rain-
ber-based gaskets, recessed channel sect ions
th e system since a w indow panel is locked in
screen is set forw ard of th e composite panel,
in alum inium, o r proj ecting coverst rips in alu-
like any ot her panel.
minium. Panels are fixed back t o t he pr imary
Vertically-set composite panels are more
str uct ure o r o n a secondary stee l frame, typ-
commo n in single storey applicat ions, but
concealing both th e panels and th e edge of th e floor slab. Interl ocking vert ically-set panels are of
ically box sect ions, fixed t o th e sides of floor
multi-storey applicat ions are used increasingly.
several ty pes, unlike horizontally-set types,
slabs if colum ns are spaced t oo far apart o r
Panels are int erlocked at vert ical jo int s, w hile
w hich have a ste pped jo int t o avoid rainw a-
columns are not position ed o n th e edge of
hori zont al joints are formed by using a cill-
te r penetration.T he most commo n type for
floor slabs.
t ype detail similar t o th at used in a transition
vert ical jo ints is also a stepped jo int w it h a
from vert ical panel t o low pitc hed roof A cill
recess o n th e oute r face.A n alte rnat ive is t o
in extruded o r fo lded aluminium o r stee l
have projecting nibs o n th e sides of th e panel
opening.T his is because w indows are not
(de pending o n w hich met al is used for th e
t o w hich a coverp late is fixed over th e gap
suppo rted by th e composite panels except
composite panel faces) is used.Th e front of
between th e t w o panels. Rubber-based seals
W here w indows are used in a facade, addit ional support is needed t o frame th e
MC E 34 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Details I, 2,
3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, I I, 12, I 3, 3-D view of framework supporting composite panels interlocking horizontally with vertical capping piece
3-D view of framework supporting composite panels interlocking horizontally with vertical capping piece
@
14, 15, I 6, 17, 18, 19,
Vertically-set composite panel Horizontally-set composite panel Silicone-based seal Outer metal facing Inner metal facing Inner insulation core Metal capping Concealed fixing Supporting structure 4-way interlocking composite panel Window frame Sectional roller shutter formed from composite panels Roof construction, composite panels are shown Metal trim Exposed gutter Concealed gutter Metal parapet coping Stick glazed curtain walling Door frame
l
,~
P r-
V
r'I
-
f-i
CD @
L ?1
CD
.c!
3-D view of profiled composite panel fixed to steel supporting structure with vertical capping piece
CD
~'~
In
r
l~
"r1 ~ Vertical section I: I0, Parapet and cill with curtain walling type window set into c1adding.Typical in industrial applications
3-D view of horizontal interlocking joint between profiled composite metal panels
Vertical section I: I O~Parapet and ground ' level cill
MC E
35
@ ,,""'"'
® Details I, 2,
3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, I I, I 2,
3-D view of concealed gutter detail
I 3. 14. 15. I 6. 17. I 8. 19.
Vert ically-set composite panel Horizontally-set composite panel Silicone-based seal Outer metal facing Inner metal facing Inner insulation core Metal capping Concealed fixing Supporting structure 4-way interlocking composite panel W indow frame Sectional roller shutter formed from composite panels Roof construction. composite panels are shown Metal trim Exposed gutter Concealed gutter Metal parapet coping Stick glazedcurtain walling Door frame
Vertical section I:I O. Junction with roof including concealed gutter. Integrated windows flush with face of composite panels
3-D view of junction with window frame
are set int o th e depth s of all th ese jo int ty pes.
panels.A large number of different panel
A not her jo int is a C- shaped channel profile
ty pes cannot be produ ced economically for a
w hich interl ocks w it h th e profil e of th e adja-
single proj ect. A lt hough folded metal fiashings
cent panel.The o utside face of th e panel has
and ext r usions can appear more visually
a slight ly projecting edge instead of a
int r usive th an a specially made composite
recessed joint in th e st epped joint types.
panel, thi s meth od is far more fiexib le for
A ll th ese panel ty pes use jointing methods th at avoid th erm al brid ges. Drips often penetrate from o ut side but th e low condensat ion risk is assessed durin g th e design stage.
dealing w it h varied parapet and gro und level junction s. parti cularly for complex junctions. Like fully suppo r t ed sheet metal facades. parapets can be set eit her level w it h th e ro of. t o create a cont inuo us smoot h envelope, o r
Parapets and cills
be stepped t o allow th e roof profile t o be
Parapet copings and dr ips at gro und level can
concealed.T he same pr inciples apply as
also be made as com posite panels. form ing
th ose for cont inuously suppo rt ed sheet
an integrated part of a proprietary syst em.
met al parapets and cills.
Th is can be an advantage w hen seeking a
3-D view of junction with ground slab
MC E
36
seamless effect across a facade, but set s limi-
Windows and door openings
t ations o n th e variety of junction s (in t erm s
Th ere are two meth od s of creat ing an o pen-
of w idt h and height) at parapet and base due
ing in a composite panel for both hori zont al-
t o th e need for repetiti on in specially made
ly- and vert ically-set panels.Th e fir st method
@
I Vert ical section I: Ia. Cross section through roof with integrated parapet
3-D view of spandrel panel connection
1 3-D view of composite panel facade assembly with flush glazing and concealed parapet
Vertical section I : I a.lntegrated parapet. window and doors all flush with face of composite panels.
is a special reveal panel t hat int erl ocks w it h
t o avoid penetrating eit her o ute r o r inner
t he composite panels.W it h vert ically-set pan-
face of t he panels. Instead it is fixed back t o a
els t he w indow inter locks into vert ical joints
floor slab or t o th e prim ary struct ure.
and has coverstrips on hori zont al joint s.
Since th e inclusio n of reveals is not really
W here ho rizont ally-set panels are used. t he
in t he nature of composite panel detailing,
w indow int erlocks w it h t he horizont al jo ints
and th e wall has littl e depth, th e addit ional
and has coverstrips applied o n t he vert ical
fr ame is also used t o suppo rt th e w indow,
joints.Th e second meth od is t o use metal
t ypically aluminium framed w it h a th erm al
sheet t o form a reveal.A single sheet of
break and doub le glazed units. More ofte n,
metal, 1200 or I SOOmm w ide coil (4ft o r Sft),
w indows and do ors are fixed w it h th e o ute r
is fixed t o a light gauge steel frame w hich is
face of th e glass o r door aligned w it h th e
insulated.The inner framed w all has a vapo ur
o ute r face of th e adjacent composite panels.
barrier and an inner met al sheet, usually
A n alte rnat ive form of glazing to w indows
mat ching t he adjacent inner face of t he panels.
and door s is t o use curta in walling.T herm ally
Heads and cills of openings are form ed in
broken stick systems are fixed directly against
t he same way w it h eit her a purp ose-made
t he adjacent com posite panels w it h a seal set
corne r panel (t he cill is an inclined surface) o r
against th e prim ary struct ure forming th e
w it h sheet metal and t hermal insulati on.
o pening (ty pically vert ical sheet ing rails). If
How ever,th e lightweight metal fr ame is not
hori zont ally-set panels are used. th en th e
usually fixed back t o th e composite in order
curtain w alling can be sealed against adjacent
Vertical section 1:5. Metal door set flush with face of composite metal panel
MC E
37
fletal ails 03 Composite panels
I
views of composite panel curtain wall with recessed window with deep metal reveal, with cill and gutter detail
0..;;;..
@
CD
I I
I '---
CD Vertical section I: I0. Parapet with concealed gutter and curtain wall type wind ow recessed with deep metal reveal.
Details I. Vertically-set composite panel 2. Horizontally-set composite panel 3. Silicone-based seal 4. Outer metal facing 5. Inner metal facing 6. Inner insulation core 7. Metal capping 8. Concealed fixing 9. Supporting structure 10. 4-way interlocking composite panel I I. W indow frame 12. Sectional roller shutter formed from composite panels 13. Roof construction , composite panels are shown 14. Metal trim IS. Exposed gutter I 6. Concealed gutter 17. Metal parapet coping 18. Stick glazed curtain walling 19. Door frame
MC E
38
~
Horizontal section I: I0. Door jamb with metal sheet forming panel in door reveal.
composite panels w it h a vert ical cover st rip
D evelop ment s
used for all vertical joints.
Th e use of composite metal panels is increas-
W here many w indows are requ ired at a
ing int o building ty pes beyond industrial
parti cular height o n a facade, as w hen pro vid-
buildings, into office buildings and spo r ts facil-
ing light into an upper floor, it is co mmo n t o
ities. In th e case of office buildings, th ey pro -
create a co nt inuous ribb on of w indows t o
vide an eco nomic spandrel panel w here cur-
avoid small infills of composite panels
t ain wa lling is not always effective. In spo rt s
between w indows.Th e cont inuo us line of
facilities, composite panels enclose large
w indow s is fixed back t o a secondary frame
indoo r spaces w it h a durable, crisply-made
of steel box sect ions, w hich may be exposed
and relatively eco nom ic cladding system.
in th e building or be co ncealed behind an
A lt ho ugh th e appearance of th e exte rnal face
inner finish such as a plasterb oard lining. Co n-
is smoot h and gridded, th e suppo rting st ruc-
tinu ous w indows can also be glazed int o hor-
t ure is visible and usually set on t he inside
izo nt ally-set panels int erlocking o n two sides,
face t o avoid penetration s t o th e o utside
o r fou r-sided panels.Thi s can avoid th e need
th rou gh th e joints betw een panels. If th e
for addit ional suppor t framing. In th is instance
exposed st ruct ure is enclosed w it h an eco-
th e w indows are br aced back in th e same
nomi c lining wall co ncealing th e st r uct ure, thi s
way as th e composite panels.
addit ional element can add considerable cost
10
3-D view of cur ved internal corner panel with partially interlocking joints
Ho rizontal section 1:5. Partially interlocking curved internal corner
Horizontal section 1:5. Partially interlocking connection between composite metal panel and window
3-D view of partially interlocking joint between composite panel and win dow
t o th e cladding, making it much less econo m ic. For th is reason, suppo rt ing st r uct ure th at
be dictate d by t he direction in w hich panels are laid. H orizontally-set panels do not have
is designed t o be seen, such as tubular stee l
w indows arranged ho rizont ally.Tr ansitio ns
post s, is increasingly used.Th e co m po site
between w indow o penings and com po site
panels span betw een st eel posts o r tru sses
panels are becom ing mo re eco no m ic w it h
w it h littl e o r no int er locking suppo rting
standard extr usions and rubber-based seals.
str uct ure . In o rder t o keep t he suppo rt ing
T his is ever-mo re t he case w it h fo ur-sided,
str uct ure as visually elegant as possible, truss-
int er locking panels, w here w indow panels
es o r posts are spaced as far apart as possi-
and met al panels are fixed in t he sam e way.
ble.Thi s has led t o panels getting lo nger,w it h
Increasingly, irregular facade gr ids are being
a maximum length current ly aro und 15
develop ed in designs t o create a richer mix
metres (49ft) . Some prop r iet ary syste ms
of panel sizes in visual patchw o r k of different
include edges t o panels w hich are deeper,
sizes of panels.
Ho rizontal section 1:5. Partially interlocking external corner
making t he co nt inuo us vert ical joint s and hori zontal joints more rigid, allowing t hem t o span greate r distances, and t hus reducing t he amo unt of visible supporting str ucture needed.
Horizontal section I :5. Insulated corner connection detail
Increasingly, w indow o penings need not
MC E
39
- - -Metal Walls 03-
....
Com osite l2anels
Horizon ta l section I:5. Joint between co mposite panels w~h fu l~ interlockin g connection
Horizontalsection 15 Panels interlocking on 4 sides spanning either vertically or horizontally
@
0
~ I
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Horizontal section 1:5 Jointbetween composite panel and curtain w all type glazing w ith fully interlocking co nnection
3-D view of partiallyinterlocking panels with Aush window and curved comer panel
~
Horizontal section I :5.Joint between com po site
panel and concrete wall with fully interlockingconnection
Vert ical section 1:10, Fully interlocking composite panels w ith curved eill and window set into reveal in cladding
Corners Composite panels are connected at comers
by one of two methods. Either specially made comer panels are used (typically why 90" is standard) or a cove-strip is addedto cover
@
the junction w here the panelsmeet Comer panels are more suited to vertically-set arrangements. though panels for horizontallylaid panels are sometimes used for visual effect Wh ere comer cover-strips are used. their appearance resembles t hat of profiled metal cladding,w hich can give a facade an overall framed appearance. Metal trims at the parapet base and corners can give this appearance. For this reason, the special corner panelsand parapet panelsare used Vertical section 1:5 Curved parap et deta il w ith fully interlocking connections
Me E 40
Ver t ical section I S-Aluminium window set into
reveal in cladding
increasingly.
Ho rizontal section I :5. Insulated corne r connection betwe en composite panels with fully interl ocking connection
Hori zontal section 1:5. Fully interloc king external corner panel
D etails
Horizontal section 1:5. Fully interl ocking curved internal corner panel
I. Vert ically-set composite panel 2. Hori zontally-set composite panel 3. Silicone-based seal 4. Outer metal facing 5. Inner metal facing 6. Inner insulation core 7. Metal capping 8. Concealed fixing 9. Supporting structure 10. 4-way interlocking composite panel
Hori zontal section 1:5. Fully interlocking internal corner panel
I I . W indow frame 12. Sectional roller shutter formed from composite panels 13. Roof construction , composite panels are shown 14. Metal t rim 15. Exposed gutter 16. Concealed gutter 17. Metal parapet coping 18. Stick glazed curtain walling 19. Door frame
Horizontal section 1:5. Fully interl ocking curved external corner panel
Thermal bridges at cills A weakness in composite panels syste ms has been th e use of pressed metal sect ions o r alum inium extrusions t hat pass from o ut side t o inside w it hout a th erm al break.This is being remedied by th e use of insulated cills, made in t he manner of composite panels. Thi s reduces th e th erm al brid ge, in some cases a break in t he section from o ut side t o inside can be formed by turning th e metal cill int o t he inject ed foam o r polystyrene in t he same way as a co mposite panel.
3-D views of fully interlocking corner pieces with square and rounded corners
MC E 4 1
Metal Walls 03- Com osrte . l2anels
3-D view of com flush glazing and coree, panelfacade with ncealed parapet
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Inner metal' ' r;g I ' laCing
nner insolat
Me ' '0<1 core tal caopmg Coneeaeo I fixing ~upport l ng structure -way Interlc ckin
12' W indow frame g composite panel
Sectional roller sh 13 composite panelsutter formed from Roofshown construct;011, composite panels are
15_ 14
16.
Metal tr im
sed gutter
17. Concealed gutte r Metal par 18. Stick I apeteoping 19, Doorgazed framecurtarn walling
3-D detail view of floor to wall junction
MC E_ 4 2
3-D detail view of and support window frame ,rig structure
3-D detailview of gutter
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3-D view of composite panel curtain wall with recessed window with deep metal reveal
3-D exploded view of composite panel curtain wall with recessed window with deep metal reveal
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3-D view of frame detail
Exploded axonometric frame detail I
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3-D section of composite panel curtain type wall with recessed window with deep metal reveal
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3-D view of gutter detail
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MC E 43
D etails
CD
I . Backing wall or structural wall supporting rainscreen 2. Supporting Frame 3. Support Bracket 4. Met al rainscreen panel 5. Open joint 6. Closed cell thermal insulation 7. W at erpr oof membrane 8. Internal finish 9. Supporting structu re 10.Pressed metal cill I I . Pressed metal coping 12. Continuity of waterproofing layers of wall and roof
Horizontal section I : I O. External corner connection between rainscreen panels
0lYVN0N Horizontal section I : I O. Extern al corner connection between rainscreen panels and junction with window
A much w ider range of mater ials is used in
Th ere has been a recent increased use of
sheet s of aluminium are bond ed o n both
semi-lapped assemblies th at co nceal th e vo id
sides of an inner core sheet of plastic of
Copp er and zinc have th e advantage of being
behind th e metal cladding.Th ese usually have
th ickness 3-Smm (0. 118in t o 0.2in) o r by a
easier to form than steel o r aluminium, par-
visible fixings at panel joints but allow th e
minimum 3mm (0. 118in) thi ck aluminium
ti cularly w here site -based co nstruct ion meth-
jo ints between panels t o be less in shadow
sheet , o r approximate ly I mm th ick steel
od s are pr eferred for eit her eco nomy o r in
th an is th e case w it h ot her fixing meth od s.
sheet, depending o n panel size. Hon eycomb
dealing w it h co mplex o r curve d geomet ries.
Th ere has been a gradual developm ent of
panels are also being used.A metal hon ey-
Th is meth od of fixing rainscreens avoids th e
rainscreens as visual screens rather th an as
comb layer. abo ut Smm (O.2in) th ick, is bond -
need for off-site fabrication of a large
weat her-excluding panels. For example, per-
ed t o thin metal sheet s o n eit her side.A lu-
numb er of different panel t ypes w it h different
forated metal screens in mild stee l or alumin-
minium is most commo nly used. One of th e
curve d geomet ries.Th ey can be made eco-
ium are used t o creat e both mod elling t o a
o ute r sheets is factory paint coate d from th e
nomi cally on -site.
facade and solar shading set fo rward of
ro lled co il from w hich it is cut, giving th e
glazed w alling. In such designs th e back of th e
materi al a high level of co lour co nsiste ncy over large areas of panel.
rainscreens th an was th e case five year s ago.
The 'ti ling' or 'shingling' of panels in co pper has been develop ed from sheet metal
rainscreen panel is visually as imp ortant as
cladding.Th is departs from metal rainscreen
th e o ute r visible face w here th e panel is seen
designs in th at th e surface appearance has a
through glazed openings in a facade. Fixings
Fixing methods
deliber ately uneven t exture th at emphasises
for such rainscreen panels ofte n have screws
Th e three main fixing ty pes used for metal
th e o il-canning effect th at gives th e appear-
and bolts th at are set into th e fixing rather
rainscreens are ( I) visible point fixed, (2)
ance of a layered, t iled surface.Th e move
th an having project ing threaded bo lt and
horizontal o r vertical rails w it h partially
away from th e emphasis o n flat metal panels
exposed nuts.
exposed br ackets (hung panels) and (3) ver-
in rainscreen co nst ruct ion includes an
t ical and hori zontal rails w it h parti ally inter-
increased use of pr ofiled and curve d metal
Mat erials
panels.A major advantage is th at fixings can
Rainscreen panels can have a flatness th at is
Th e choice of fixing method is ofte n
be co ncealed by semi-int er locking panels in
difficult t o achieve w it h ot her method s. Panel
determ ined by w hat is seen through th e jo int
th e manner of sheet metal cladding or in th e
flatness is achieved by eit her use of compos-
from th e o ut side . If dark shadow s are sought
manner of traditional ro of coverings.
ites such as proprietary laminates w here t wo
at th e joint th en th e backing wall sho uld have
MC E 44 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
locking panels and co ncealed fixings.
I
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3-D views of fully interlocking comer pieces with square and rounded co m er s.Type 3
Horizontal section I: IO. Internal corner connection between rainscreen panels
Verti cal section I : IO. Metal rainscreen wall assembly 3-D views of fully int er locking corner pieces with square comers. Type 3
MCE
45
fl etalW alls 04 Metal rainscreens
CD CD
3-D views of semi interlocking rainscreen panels.Type 2 Left: Horizontal rails support cladding panels with vertical interlocking joints. Right Vertical rails support cladding panels with horizontal int erlocking joi nt s.
a consiste nt dark colour. In th is case, short
Semi-inter locking panels are fixed by
lengths of bracket may be sufficient t o sup-
screw ing th e t op of th e panel t o hori zontal
are secured t o th e framing member s rather th an th e o ute r skin of th e backing wall. In
port th e panels, since th ey w ill not be visible.
rails t o suit th e o rientat ion of th e panels.Th e
some cases, if th e o ute r skin is th ick eno ugh,
If th e backing wa ll is likely t o be visible
adjacent panel is lapped into th e panel next
say 6mm (O.25in) aluminium sheet, rain-
through th e open jo ints, such as if th e backing
t o it, both t o secure it and conceal th e fixing.
screens can be fixed directly t o th e sheet
wall is clad in exposed polystyrene insulation
Th e joint in th e ot her direct ion is eit her fixed
materi al rather th an th e fr ame. If a light -
board, th en th e jo ints w ill need t o be
w it h a similar semi-inte rlocking edge t o form
we ight backing wall cannot accept addit ional
screened by a cont inuo us channel.
a t iled appearance, or has a cover st rip.
Panels w hich are point fixed have eit her counte rsunk screws set flush w it h th e panel
Unlike masonry-based rainscreens such as t erracotta o r sto ne, metal rainscreen pan-
loads from rainscreen cladding o nto it (as w it h composite panels), th en suppo rt rails span from floor t o floor as posts.
face, o r dom e headed screws w hich make a
els are lightw eight in com parison and need
visible featur e of th em.The screws are fixed
t o be mechanically fixed at a minimum of
t hermal insulati on is usually set o n t he o ut-
into rails set t o suit th eir position.Yertical
o ne or two points,usually at th e bottom of
side face in o rder t o keep th e struct ure
rails are often preferred since wate r can easi-
th e panel if th e panel is hung from th e t op.
eit her warm o r coo l, depending o n th e geo-
ly drain down th em.
Fixing screws are usually applied at th e jo int,
graphical locati o n.The wate rproo f layer is set
Hung panels are hooked o nto suppo rt ing
W it h concrete block backing wa lls, th e
unless it is fixed w it h exposed fixings through
direct ly on th e o utside face of th e concrete .
brackets. Panels are fixed by cutting slots int o
th e panel it selfThis means th at part of th e
Th e th erm al insulati on used is closed cell
th e sides of th e rainscreen panel durin g man-
bracket is usually visible. Sho rt lengths of
ty pe in order for it not t o absorb wate r
ufacture and hooking th em o nto dow els pro-
brackets th en becom e visible and need t o be
w hich wo uld dr astically reduce it s perform -
jecting from C-shaped brackets.These br ack-
incorpo rat ed as a visible part of th e design.
ance.T he insulati o n is also used t o protect t he wate rproof membrane but thi s makes it
ets are in t urn secured t o ver t ical rails set at vert ical jo ints between panels.Th e rails also
Backing walls
necessary for support brackets t o be fixed
act as screens t o close off views into th e cav-
Suppo rting wa lls t o rainscreen panels are
th rough th e insulation t o th e suppo rt ing wall
ity. Horizontal jo ints are formed by an
usually concrete block, w hich allows suppo rt -
behind. Som etimes ho les have t o be cut in
upstand formed in th e t op or bottom edge
ing panels t o be fixed at any point across its
th e insulation, w hich reduces its effect iveness,
of a panel.
surface, or fr amed, w here rainscreen fixings
but it is always better if th e fixings for sup-
MC E
46
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Horizontal section I : IO. Internal corner connection between metal rainscreen panels with interlocking horizontal joints and open vertical joints
Horizontal section I: IO. Internal corner connection between metal rainscreen panels with open horizontal joints and interlocking vertical joints
Horizontal section I : I O. External corner connection between metal rainscreen panels with interlocking horizontal joints and open vertical joints
Horizontal-se&n-' ~ I O:Extemal-cohier-connection between metal rainscreen panels with open ho rizontal jo ints and interlocking vertical joints
Details I . Backing wall or structural wall supporting rainscreen 2. Supporting Frame 3. Support Bracket 4. Metal rainscreen panel 5. Open joint 6. Closed cell thermal insulation 7. Waterproof membrane 8. Internal finish 9. Supporting structure 10. Pressed metal cill I I . Pressed metal coping I 2. Continuity of waterproofing layers of wall and roof
3-D view of semi interlocking metal rainscreen with angled joints and aluminium window recessed into the facade.Type 3
Vertical section I: IO. Metal rainscreen with interlocking horizontal joints , parapet and recessed window
MC E
47
fletalWa Is 04 Metal rainscreens
Horizontal section I 10. Connection between metal rainscreen and curtain wall type glazingwith flush finish
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Vert ical sect ion I: I O. Metal rainscreen with curtain wall type glazingset flush with face of cladding. 3-D view of curtain wall type glazing set fiush with metal rainscreen cladding.Type 3
D e t a ils I.
Backing wall or structural wall supporting rainscreen 2. Supporting Frame 3. Support Bracket 4. Metal rainscreen panel 5. Open joint 6. Closed cell thermal insulation 7. W at erproof membrane 8. Internal finish 9. Supporting structure 10. Pressed metal cill I I . Pressed metal coping I 2. Continuity of waterp roofing layers of wall and roof
port rails can be fixed at th e same t ime as
Co nstruction sequence
th e insulation in o rde r to co -o rdinate th em
An esse nt ial aspect of rainscreen co nst ruc-
and avoid lat e r cutting of th e insulatio n.
t ion is th e seq ue nce in w hich th e various
W it h lightweight backing wa lls in t imber
mal insulation , wate rpro o fi ng laye r and rain-
w it hin th e frame .A wate rproofi ng laye r is set
scree n pane l are brou ght togeth e r. Alt ho ugh
o n th e inside (wa rm in winte r) face.An inte r-
th e rainscreen principle is very effect ive and
nal finish laye r is then set in front of th is
ofte n ve ry eco no mic, its effectiveness can be
vapo ur barrie r. Rainscreen fi xings for suppo rt
reduced if sea ls are not prop erly applied o r
rails are fixed directly to th e o uter wate r-
insulatio n is damaged because e leme nts are
proofing laye r using sea ling washe rs th at
asse mb led o n site in th e w ro ng o rder.Typi-
avoid leaks throu gh th e fixing po int.Th e
cally, windows are sealed against th e backing
framed backing wa ll is designed to rece ive
wa ll before th e rainscreen pane ls are set in
fixing bracket s at points w hich transfer loads
place. An adva ntage of this form of co n-
down to th e primar y st ructure .The use of
st ruct ion is th at t he externa l wa ll can be
framed backing wa lls wit h rainscreen s makes
made waterproof before th e rainscreen
it ne cessar y to co-o rdinate t he two e leme nts
pane ls are fixed.
of co nst ruction during th e des ign rather than d uring the co nst ruct ion.
MC E
48
e leme nts of th e backing wa lls, w indows, th er-
o r presse d steel, th ermal insulation is set
A typical co nst ruction seq ue nce is to build th e backing wall first and set th e wate r-
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3-D vIew of vertical r ail system w ith rainscreen panels spanning horizontally.Type I
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verucat section 1:10, Horizontally spanning meta l r ainscre en panels with vertical rail system
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3-D view of horizontal rail system with r ainscre en panels spanning vertcally.Iype I
proofing layer and insulat ion in place. W in-
nat ure of the construction usually dictates
dows are then set into the backing wall and
t hat the rainscreen panel is set in a way that
are sealed against its waterproofing layer
avoids a view through the joint to the back-
Thermal insulation, if set outside the line of
ing wall beyond.
the waterproofing layer (asin in-situ con-
crete. precast concrete or concrete block)
W indow and doo r openings
makes it easierto set the thermal insulation
Becausewindow and door openings are usu-
on the backing wall after the wi ndows and
allyset into an opening before the raoscreen
doors have been fixed. Support rails for the
panels are set.reveals are sealed w ith either
rainscreen panels are then fixed to the bark-
individual rainscreen panels or with sheet
ing wall,followed by the metal panels them-
metal trims similar to those used for sheet
selves. Panels are usually fixed in horizontal
metal construction. Unlike sheet metal con-
rows from the bottom up so that comer
struction however, a gap is usually maintained
panels and panels at window openingscan
between the trim and the window in order
be fi xed from t he outside from the top of
to maintain the Joint principle.Similarly gaps
the panel. Metal panels can then be set in a
between reveal trims and adjacentwall pan-
correct alignment with the windows in
els are also separated by an open joint Since
terms of their position and in setting the
w indows and doors are sealed against the
required joint width. The open jointed
waterproo fing layer behind the raoscreen
Vertical section 1:10 Vertica lly spanning meta l raJnscre en panels w ith hori zontal rail system
MCE
49
Horizontal section I : IO. Internal corner of met al rainscreen shingles
3-D view of meta l rainscreen shingles with folded metal parapet
Horizontal section I : IO. External corner of metal rainscreen shingles
panel rath er t han t o t he panel it self, t hese
screen panels by providing a shadow o r may
separat ions are st raightforward t o achieve.
be lapped in t he manner of fully suppo rted
T hese o pen joint s aro und o penings are made
sheet met al cladding.T he wate rproo fing layer
in a way t hat conceals t he wate rproo f layer
w ill form a cont inuous seal w it h th e adjacent
behind, t hus protecting it from both accidental
roofing membrane. Cills at t he base of t he
damage fro m building user s and from t he
wall are detailed in a sim ilar way w it h met al
possible effects from sunlight heat ing up t he
being cont inuous but w it h joints eit her
membrane or attac king it w it h UV light. W in-
recessed o r lapped.
dow s and doo r s are usually provided w it h an addit ional w ider frame o r trim at th eir edges in o rder t o allow t herm al insulati o n in t he cavity t o provide cont inuity at th e o pening and allow t he rainscreen panel t o lap against it.
Parapets and cills Parapets have an o pen joint between th e parapet flashing and t he panel below but hori zontal joint s between flashings are usually closed t o protect th e parapet from accidental damage t o t he wate rproo fing undercloak beneath o r from th e harmfu l effects of sunlight from above acting o n it s hori zont al surface.Jo int s between flashings may be recessed to match th e visual appearance of t he rain-
MC E
50
3-D view s showin g recessed t imb er window opening in metal rainscreen shingle cladding system
®
Horizontal section I: I 0, Connection between metal rainscreen shingles and timber window
Deta ils I.
Vertical section I: I0, Connection between metal rainscreen shingles and timber window
Backing wall or structural wall supporting rainscreen 2. Supporting Frame 3. Support Bracket 4. Metal rainscreen panel 5. Open joint 6. Closed cell thermal insulation 7. Waterproof membrane 8. Internal finish 9. Supporting structure 10, Pressed metal cill I I , Pressed metal coping 12, Continuity of waterproofing layers of wall and roof
Horizontal section I :I 0. Co nnectIon etween metal rainscreen shingles and tim ber window
Vertical section I :I0, Metal door recessed into metal shingle rainscreen construction
3-D view recessed timber window in metal rainscreen shingle cladding system
Vertical section I:I0. Semi-interlocking metal rainscreen shingle system with parapet, timber window and finish at ground level
MC E 5 1
,...- - MetalWalls 04:- - , Metal ramscr eens
De tails I,
e..clong wall or structu ral w all SUppClftng rainscrl-en
2 4,
~Fra-ne ~ &'ac:l<et Metal ramscreen panel
5.
OpenjOOt
6.
Cbsed eel tho'maI nsulatJon Waterproof membrane
3.
7. 8.
Internal finisl1
9. Support.ng strvctlTe 10. Pressed metal til I •_ Pressed metal copong 12. COn1 lnurty of w aterproofIng layers of
wall af'Id roo(
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3-0 expcoec view of metal ramscreen paner systern woth
~rlapplng tIleSas panels
)-0 exp loded view of p;irapet condrtion
]-0 exploded view of top of WIndow opeoirla
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3-D exploded view of rainscreen panel system assembly
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fletalWalls 05 Mesh screens
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--\1 Verti cal section I :2. Edgefixing variations for rigid mesh supported on frame
Vertical section I:2. Steel rod incorporated into mesh weave and supported from eyelets fixed to backing wall
Vertical section I:2. Mesh cable formed into eyelet and hung from metal rod
Details for mesh I. 2.
3. 4. S. 6. 7.
3-D views of edge fixing details for frame supported mesh
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MC E 54 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view of mesh hanging detail
Metal support edge frame Stainlesssteel mesh Stainless steel spring Metal fixing bracket Metal support rod Fixing bolt to tension mesh Floor slab or backing wall Adjacent curta in wall
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Stainless steel mesh screens have been intro-
ti on, and mesh th at is flexib le in t wo direc-
duced int o mainstream building co nstruct ion
t ions w hich is made from woven w ire only.
(0.25in x 0.08in). Because th ey cannot be t ension ed, rigid meshes are eit her held in a
on ly in th e last t en years.Thi s metal is preferred for mesh screens due t o it s durab ility
form o penings of aro und 6mm x 2mm
Rigid mesh
cont inuo us edge frame o r suppo rted at
and we at her resistance w hen used exte rnally.
Rigid mesh is made in relatively small sheet
points in th e manner of bo lt fixed glazing.
Their appearance as a t extile rather th an as a
sizes and is suitable mainly for balustrades or
They are most commo nly used in balustrad-
sheet mater ial has led t o th e use of mesh as
areas of facades w here th e mater ial can be
ing w here rigidity of mater ial is an essent ial
'wraps' to facades in a similar way, in visual
suppo rte d o n a visible fr ame. It is also used
requirement.Th e eco nomic nature of th e
t erm s,t o rainscreens.Their purp ose is ofte n
as exte rnal solar shading w here it s light ness
mater ial allows it t o be used as both balus-
t o pro vide a smoot h,t exti le-like surface
in we ight allows it t o be moved in a motor-
trading and full height screening as part of
across a w all that can conceal a variety of dif-
ised system.Th e mater ial is made in both
th e same design.W hen used as a balustrade,
ferent facade elements imm ediately behind it.
mi ld stee l and sta inless stee l but mild steel
th e ex posed edges of th e material are held
It has also found favour in car park design,
requires painting. Polyester powd er coat ing is
capt ive in a protective edging if not fixed into
w here open mesh decks are given hom oge-
t he most co mmo n finish. Rigid mesh cannot
a full suppo rting frame.Th is avoids injury t o
neity w it h a w oven mesh screen.T heir vary -
be t ension ed and so it is clamped in a fr ame
building user s.A fold ed fiat sheet o r a pair of
ing levels of translucency can be exploite d
at it s edges.
fiats are co mmo nly used.
both in daylight by pro viding depth t o a
Thi s material is usually made in relatively
facade th at gives some pr ivacy t o building
small panels of aro und 1800 x 1500mm (6ft
Meshes fiexibl e in o ne direction
user s, and from a night t ime glow across it s
x 5ft). Stainless stee l bars are wove n in t wo
These meshes are made w it h rigid sta inless
surface generate d by elect rical light w it hin
directions, giving th e material a st iffness com-
steel rod in o ne direction woven and stain-
parable t o aluminium sheet but w it h a sur-
less stee l cable in th e ot her direct ion .A n
face t exture much more undulating th an per-
advantage pr esented by th e cables is th at
forated metal sheet. Rigid mesh can pro vide
th ey can be t ension ed at each end t o pr o-
direction made as woven w ire w it h rod s in
up t o aro und 50% shading. Rod thi ckness is
vide a large cont inuo us fiat area of translu-
one direction and w ire in th e opposite direc-
ty pically l .5mm (0.054in) diameter wove n t o
cent metal.
t he building. Meshes are of three essent ial ty pes: rigid mesh made from rod , mesh flexible in one
MC E
55
CD CD
CD
CD
Horizontal section I: I0, Regular panels forming internal corner
Vertical section I: I0, Parapet detail
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CD
Vertical section I :I0, Panel to panel connection detail
Horizontal section I 10,Internal corner using special corner panel
CD
Vertical section I :I0, Panel to panel connection detail
Details for mesh I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
Metal support edge frame Stainless steel mesh Stainless steel spring Metal fixing bracket Metal support rod Fixing bolt to tension mesh Floor slab or backing wall Adjacent curtain wall 3-D exploded view of mesh panels clamped to frame and supported on steel frame
MCE
56
Horizontal section I 10,External corner formed with special frame extrusion
3-D view of panel connection between mesh screens
CD
Hori zontal section I 10,Connection between frame supported metal mesh panels 3-D view of external corner of mesh screen
by t ension ing th e cables at each end.T he
A pplicat ions of mesh using w ide strips are
mum w idt h of aro und 7500 mm (25ft) , Since
cable is usually set ver t ically t o avoid sag
increasingly commo n, in w idt hs from 5 t o
th e mater ial is made as a cont inuo us run , it
associate d w it h horizontal laying,The cables
7met res, ( 16ft t o 23ft) hung from co nt inuous
can be made in very long lengths, making it
are loo ped in a secure loo p at each end
rod s and restrained back t o a frame at 1,0 t o
ideal for use in a single run of mater ial from
aro und a ro d o r bar.On e end is fixed w hile
1,5 metre (3ft 3in t o 5ft) cent res,
t op t o bottom of a facade w it hout joints, In
th e ot her is t ension ed by springs set at inter-
t erm s of transparency, th e mater ial can vary
vals along th e length of th e horizontal bar.
Fully fiexible mesh
from aro und 25% light transmission t o 65%
Springs are usually set at th e bottom so th at
Th is mater ial is made as a wove n-wire cloth
depending o n th e w eave,Th e amo unt of light
th e mesh is fir st hung, th en secured and t en-
o r as a crimped w ire panel.W ires are
transmission can be varied by increasing th e
sioned at th e bottom , Lateral st abilit y t o th e
crimped down th e length of th e mater ial and
Most of th ese meshes corne in a maxi-
th ickness and frequency of cables,Th e dis-
mesh over a long run of th e mater ial is pro-
straight w ires acro ss its w idt h,Th e wove n
t ance between ro ds cannot be varied by
vided eit her by bars w oven or fixed into th e
cloth ty pe is manufactured prim arily for small
reducing th e thi ckness of th e cable, allowing it
mesh, or by point fixings,Th e point fixings
solar shading screens, It is also used for balus-
t o be more tightly w oven, but more cables
comprise discs set eit her side of th e mesh t o
trades in co nt inuo us long lengths and as ver-
are usually int roduced t o compensate for th e
ho ld th e mater ial in place,A bo lt run s
t ically- or horizontally-set bands of solar
loss of st rength in th e cable w hen t ension ed.
th rou gh an o pening in th e mesh between th e
shading material. Large panels are not inter-
Cable th ickness can vary from 2,Omm t o
t w o discs,w hich is secured back t o th e sup-
rupted by jo int lines,The mater ial is fixed by
2.5mm (0,08in t o 0, I in) diamete r.Rod thi ck-
porting struct ure, t ypically a floor slab or
t ensionin g it vert ically. Closely wove n meshes
nesses can vary from 2,Omm (0,08in) up t o
backing wa ll. Meshes w ill span 2,0 t o 2.5
have a light transmission of between I % and
4mm (0, 15in) diameter.The weave pattern can
metres (6ft 6in t o 8ft) vertically between
5%, w hile crimped w ire screens vary from
vary from 4mm x 10mm (0, 18in x 0.37in) to
points of lateral restraint. A djacent sheet s can
25% to 50%,T he tightly w oven ty pes are
4mm x 100mm (0, 18in x 4in), giving very dif-
be fixed t ogeth er by using a br acket w it h two
made in w idt hs from aro und I 800mm t o
ferent visual effects from dense t o very open,
bolts in th e manner of bolt fixed glazing o r by
2400mm (6ft t o 8ft) and are made in very
In addit ion, vary ing densities can be wove n
lapping th e mesh panels and using a single
lo ng lengths.T he more o pen weaves have an
bolt in th e manner of a popper o n t extil e
appearance similar t o th ose w it h cables, using
cloth s as used in denim jeans, for example,
straight rod in o ne direction , w eaving rod in
into a single panel, o r length, of material. Meshes flexible in o ne direction are fixed
MC E
57
fV1etal als 05 Mesh screens :.;;,-
Deta ils for mesh
..
.i
I. 2. 3. 4. S. 6. 7. 8.
,-
'-
Metal support edge frame Stainless steel mesh Stainless steel spring Metal fIXing bracket Metal support rod Fixing bolt to tension mesh Floor slabor backing wall Adjacent curtain w all
-
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CD Vert ical section I: I0, Metal mesh supported from steel structure on top of regular rainscreen clad structure
3-D view of metal mesh fixed to steel frame with maintenance deck behind
MCE
58
3-D view of metal mesh clamped to supporting frame
th e ot her direction aro und th e fiat rod.Th ese
lengths on-3 metres (6ft 6in t o l Oft) by set -
o pen w eave types are made in w idt hs of
ting o ut th e cables on a curve t op and bot-
aro und 6000mm (20ft) th ough th ese sizes
t om w hich forces th e th in ro ds in th e oppo-
are difficult t o use in facade panels since th e
sit e direction t o th e curve . How ever, meshes
suppo r t grid of aro und 2000mm (6ft 6in) is
are being develop ed w hich can t ake up
usually needed t o restrain th e material. Since
curves more easily for complex geomet ries.
th e material is made from rod. metals ot her
Instead of using cables, loop s of stainless steel
th an stainless st eel can be used, th ough t ypi-
strip are wove n in loo ps between row s of
cally copper and bron ze are th e most com-
rod s.This allows th e rod s t o be bent around
mon alte rnat ives.They are less rigid th an
a form o r bow ed o ut by brackets, w hile
stainless steel but can produ ce quit e dramatic
allow ing th e loop s t o be individually
visual effects.A grid of 3mm x I.5mm
stretc hed between each row of rod s.Varia-
(O. 125in x O.0625in) is commo n in th is more
t ions o n th is ty pe of mesh are set t o grow
o pen w eave material.
over th e next t en years.
Mesh used on cur ves
Perforated metal
Regular mesh th at is rigid in o ne direction is
N on -rectilinear o r irregular geomet ric shapes
difficult t o curve, as it is suit ed t o fiat, rectilin-
in fiat o r curve d form can more easily be
ear designs. Curves can be formed over
achieved in perforated metal.Although panel
+
-I
CD
3-D view of metal mesh supported on steel framework with maintenance deck
Elevation & horizontal section I :25. Frame hung metal mesh supported from curtain wall glazing syst em
sizes are much smaller than ten sion ed mesh,
achieved. Squares and various decorative
a greate r range of form s can current ly be
motifs are also made but wit h less co nt rol on
mad e more economically. Perforated metal in
precise perforation percentages.
each mild stee l (paint o r po lyester powd er
Steel and aluminium shee t are co mmo nly
coate d) and aluminium (po lyeste r powd er
available in sizes up to around 3 metres x 2.5
coate d or PVDF coate d) are used. Both
metres ( lOft x 8ft) in 3mm (0. 118mm) thick
materials are manufactured wit h perforation s
shee t allowing panels to be reason ably large ,
of diffe rent shapes and percentages of perfo -
dep end ing o n w ind load co nside rat ions. In
ration s. Circular holes are th e mo st co mmo n-
ge ne ral.th e higher th e percentage of perfora-
ly used as th ey are st raightfo rward t o manu-
t ion, t he lowe r th e wind load o n th e perfo-
facture .They are also able to have a close ly
rated metal panel. Perforated metal panels
co nt rolled percentage of perforation by vary-
are usually fixed back to an edge frame mad e
ing both th e size of th e holes and t heir prox-
from angle o r profile in t he same material.
imity.This makes th e materia l very useful if a
The edges of th e metal are usually not perfo-
precise shading coeffic ient (pe rce ntage of
rated in o rde r to co nceal th e frame beh ind.
solar shading) o r light transmission is spec i-
The increased use of wate r jet cutt ing
fied for a facade . By varying both th e ho le
machines allows for a much greate r co nt rol
diameter and th e ce nt res of th e holes, differ-
of th e exte nt of patt ern on a sheet. Perforat-
e nt visual effects of transparen cy can be
ed metal panels are th en fixed back to th e
3-D view of metal mesh supported curved steel frame
MCE
59
fleta Walls 05 Mesh screens
~
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Vertical section I :2. Flexible mesh top support
.-
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-
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-
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Elevation & vertical section I : I O. Flexible metal mesh supported top and bottom with tensioning springs Vertical section I :2. Flexible mesh intermediate support
J
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J
Horizontal section I 10. Flexible metal mesh supported on vertical edges with tensioning mechanism
CD
Vertical section I :2. Flexible mesh lower support with tensioning spring
3-D view of metal mesh fixed to steel rod with tension spring
MC E
60
3-D view of metal mesh fixed in front of glazed facade to provide solar shading.A maintenance walkway occupies the space between the two systems
3-D vievvs showing meshscreen supported on bracketsin front of typicalwall build-up to act as solar shading mechanism
®
~ >C!2 ~
(j)
o
-
-: pri mary structure with a variety of hanging brackets. ties and struts to suit the des ign.The supporting structure is visually very refined if visible through the metal, particularly at night if the panel assembly is visible from lighting with-
Elevation and ver tical section I : 10. Mesh screen soppo-ted on brackets in front of typical wall build-up t o act as solarshading mechanism
in the building.A series o f fo rked pin connections or cast moment connectors are increasingly being used, with tapered tubular fram ing members o r bo x section s with complex sections increasingly being the norm. Because the metal framing is exposed to the effects of weather; a high specification paint is used for steel.and either polyester powder coating or PVDF coati ngs are used for alum inium. Anodising has become more popular in recent years but req uires very close control in the
Details for mesh I. Metal support edge frame 2. Stainless steel mesh 3. Stainless steel spring 4. Metal fixing bracket 5. Metal support rod 6. FiXIng bolt to tension mesh 7. Floor slab Q(' backing wall 8. Adjacent curtain wall
factory to avoid visible colo ur differences between adjacent anodised panels.
MC E
61
05- - - - - - ..
- - -Metal Walls Mesh screens
®
Details for mesh I,
Metal support edgeframe
2. 3.
Stainless steel mesh Stainless steel sprog
4,
Metal fixir>g bracket Metal support rod Fixing bolt to tension mesh Floor slabor backing wall Adjacer'lt curtain wall
5. 6. 7.
8.
3·0 exp loded view of metal m esh fixed in front of
glazed facade wrth rnasuenance wa lkway
3-0 exp loded deta il vrew of m etal mesh fiXIng m eth od and uppe r floo r junct ion
Me E 62
3·0 exp loded detai l view of glazIng m nnectioo in meta l m esh and glazed facade
3-D exploded corner view of metal mesh panels fixed to steel supporting frame
3-D exploded view of hooked metal mesh fixing
3-D exploded view of clamped metal mesh fixing
1---
3-D exploded corner view of metal mesh panels fixed to steel supporting frame
3·D view of metal mesh panels fixed to glazed masonry facade
3·D view of mesh panel in isolati on
3-D exploded views of metal mesh panels fixed to steel supporting frame
MCE
63
fletalW alls 06 Louvre screens ---,rr---------------("i'"}--,-~---------------_,_r_---
-
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-
f
Vert ical sect ion I: I OVertically set metal louvres
Details I,
I
2,
II 1\
Elevation & horizontal section I: IO. Metal louvre screen with integrated door
I
\
3, 4, 5, 6,
Extruded aluminium frame Stick curtain walling type carrier system Extruded aluminium louvre blades Backing wall Louvre panel door Thermal insulation
Metal lo uvres are typically used for two pur-
are made as a v-shape in o rde r to drain
th ickness.These bars are not visible directly
poses: as weat he r-resisting scree ns to natural-
wate r away into th e side s of th e frame
from th e o ut side but can be see n from
ly vent ilated spaces such as plant room s, as
whe re it is ejecte d t o th e o ut side at th e cill.
below if lo uvres are set at an angle th at
t ermin ations to th e e nds of air-handling du cts
Open gauge mesh is usually set at th e back
allows views through th em. Lou vre blades are
whe re th ey pen etrate th e exte rnal wa ll, o r
of th e lo uvre panel to prevent th e passage of
fixed to th e stiffene rs wit h ext rude d alumini-
alte rnat ively as solar shading o n th e o uts ide
birds. Lou vres wit ho ut drainage channels are
um clips to stiffen th e blades. Corn ers of
of facades in front of glazed walls o r w in-
used in shelte red areas and also whe re rain
frames t o lou vre panels are mitred and
dows. Glazed lo uvres are also used to pro -
th at is blown throu gh th e lo uvre will not
screwed o r we lde d The edge has diffe rent
vide natural vent ilat ion to winte r garde n
damage th e building fabric. Drained lo uvres
profiles t o suit being glazed into adjacent cur-
spaces whe re th ey also provide light, as in
are used whe re more weat he r protection is
tain wa lling, and has eit he r recessed joints
high level c1erestorey glazing o r in glazed
need ed , usually w he re expos ure to th e
between pane ls, o r a wide frame , to suit th e
walls in winter garde ns in hou sing. Glass lo u-
weat he r is more seve re and whe re wate r
type of addit ional suppo rt need ed for th e
vres are ge ne rally adjustable. Metal lo uvres
penetration through th e pane l must be
co mplete lo uvred panel widt h.
are used for air handling ducts o r plant
redu ced .These dr ained lo uvres allow a little
room s, and can be in single, double o r triple
less air movem ent th an th e st andard types,
Vert ically-set lo uvres have blade s set at an angle (in plan) such th at water dr ains
bank dep ending o n th e amo unt of weat he r
and more lou vre area is usually pro vided t o
down th e face of th e lou vres and is drained
resistance requ ired
co mpe nsate for th is.The use of a double
away at th e bottom of the frame.They are
bank lou vre e nsures th at wate r blown ove r
deep er th an th e simplest horizontal types
Metal louvres
th e t op of th e o ute r blad e w ill run down
and perform in a similar way to th e dr ained
Lou vre panels can be set eit he r horizontally
th e face of th e inne r blad e and be dr ained
horizontal types,Their depth also e nsures
o r ve rt ically. Horizontal louvres have inclined
away.The free area from th e lo uvres is
th at views through th e louvre panels are
blades mounted in a frame of the same
aro und 50 %.
seve rely redu ced Profiles for vert ical lo uvres
material.Some lo uvres throw th e wate r clear of th e edge of th e blade at th e front. Others
Horizontally-set blades are set 50 mm apart. Stiffener bars are set at ce nt res from
can be both v-shaped and ellipt ical.The free area is also aro und 50%. Pane ls are asse m-
whe re more weat he r protection is need ed,
1000mm (3ft 3in) t o 1500 mm (3ft) ve rt ical
bled in a factory for co upling t ogeth er o n
have e it he r a drainage channel at th e front, o r
ce nt res, dep ending o n blade size and material
site .Typical panel sizes are aro und 1.5 metres
MC E
64
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D detail view of frame supported metal louvres used as a shading device in front of glazed curtain wall
3-D detail view of metal louvres
a:
Horizontal section I : IO.Junction between vertically set metal louvre panels and metal door
D
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c
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=-
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-
Horizontal section I : IO.Junction between vertically set metal louvre panels Profile options for metal louvres
CD
1
l ed
Horizontal section I : IO. Corner arrangement for vertically set metal louvre panels
Vertical section I: IO. Door with vertically set metal louvres
3-D view of frame supported metal louvres used as a shading device in front of glazed curtain wall
MCE
65
fletalWarls OiS Louvre screens
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3-D view of frame supported metal louvres
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3-D view of frame supported metal louvres
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Horizontal section I: IOVertically set metal louvres used as shading device
Vertical section I: I Q Vertically set metal louvres used as shading device
x 2.5 metres (5ft x 8ft) for both vert ical and
co nnect s all th e blades t ogether and w hich is
6in), th ough as w it h all louvre ty pes, larger
hori zont ally set louvres, Larger panels can be
pushed up and down by a separate motor o r
panels can be specially made,
fabr icated, but transportation t o site
is co nnected t o a manual w inding rod.
becom es more difficult. Louvred panels can
Doors are made in t he same w ay as lou-
Glazed louvres
be arranged in heights up t o aro und 4
vre panels but have stiffer fr ames t o suit
Th ese have traditionally been poor excluders
metres ( 13ft) w it h extruded aluminium mul-
m ovement.Th ey are designed w it h louvre
of air (high air infiltration rates) but th ey have
lio ns,A bove th is height. addit ional st eel posts
panels and are ofte n th e same size in o rder
improved significant ly in recent year s.T he
are requ ired behind panel jo ints t o provide
t o co nceal th eir appearance,
both suppo rt and lateral restraint. Louvre panels can also be set at inclined
Sandt rap louvres are designed for use in sandy and dusty co ndit ions t o pr event most
amo unt of o pening can be closely co nt ro lled. Th ey consist of glass blades held in an aluminium fr ame or in aluminium clips,secured
angles but resistance t o rain penetration is
airbo rne sand and dust from passing through
o n pivots int o an edge frame made from
significantly reduced o n inclined walls th at can
th e louvre, Th ey co nsist of vertically-set
extr uded aluminium profil es,Some clips
be seen from below, Louvres can be set
C-shaped aluminium profi les w hich inter lock
ho lding th e glass in place are made from
upside down t o avoid views th rou gh th e
t o provide a co nt inuo us barrier.A ir passing
polyprop ylene rather th an aluminium, t o
screen, but th ey provide no weat her protec-
through th e lo uvre passes round th e int er-
avoid ratt ling between th e tw o compo nent s,
ti on , In both cases, an addit ional vert ical lou -
locking pro files w hile sand is trapped by th e
Th e most recent developm ent has been in
vre is set behind t o exclude rain,
inner profi le and falls t o th e bottom of th e
th in aluminium clips and th e use of bolt fixed
fr ame.The cill is inclined t o ensure th at sand
glazing t o hold th e glass in place,
Banks of louvre blades can also be made
Louvre glass blades are usually made in
t o t ilt t o suit vary ing vent ilat ion requ irement s,
falls o ut of th e bottom of th e panel at th e
such as in buildings w it h a high degree of nat -
fron t. Sandtrap lo uvres remove most of th e
laminat ed glass for safety,th ough float glass is
ur al vent ilat ion, Panels can o pen and close
sand and dust parti cles before t he air reaches
somet imes used for small-scale applicat ions,
from rain and w ind sensors form ing part of
th e filters on mechanical vent ilat ion equip-
So lar cont ro l glasses are ofte n used t o match
th e BMS (building management syste m) ,
ment. Insect screen is also usually provided
adjacent areas of glazing, Single o r doubl e glazed units are available, Glass lo uvre panels
Panel sizes are similar t o th ose of fixed pan-
and th is has littl e effect o n air flow rates,
els, th at is, 1,5 x 2.5 metres (5ft x 8ft) ,T hey
Maximum sizes are similar t o th ose of ot her
are eit her hand o perated by a w ire cable-
have a single rod set into th e edge fr ame th at
louvre ty pes in 1.5 x 2,0 metres (5ft x 6ft
t ype w inding handle or are elect rically o per-
MC E
66
Vertical section I :IO. Frame supported metal louvre screen
Vertical section I:I O. Metal louvre panel supported in curtain walling system
Vertical section I: IO. Metal louvre panel in rainscreen type facade
Vertical section I: IO. Door with horizontally set metal louvres
------------------
Details I. 2.
3. 3-D view of frame supported metal louvres 4. 5. 6.
Extruded aluminium frame Stick curtain walling type carrier system Extruded aluminium louvre blades Backing wall Louvre panel door Thermal insulation
Vertical section I ; IO. Metal louvre canopy var iatio ns
3-D view of frame supported metal louvres at ground level
Vertical section I; IO. W alk on metal louvre canopy
3-D view of metal louvre canopy
MC E
67
(i)
@
3-D view of mechanically controlled opening glass louvres in open position
(i)
Vertical section I : I O. Mechanically controlled opening glass louvres in closed position
Vert ical section I: IO. Mechanically controlled opening glass louvre s in open position
ated with rods as used in metal louvres. Elec-
mum length of a panel is 1200mm (4ft), but
tr ically operated units are generally 1500mm
two are commonly joined to provide an
(5ft) high to suit the length of t he rods. Pan-
overall maximum panel length of 2400mm
els are coupled vertically or horizontally to
(8ft).The thicker frames give less free area for
form a large-scale screen of panels.They can
ventilation of around 50%.Although the glass
also be glazed into curtain walling systems.
is insulated for reasons of energy conserva-
Maximum sizes are bigger than metal louvres
tion,frames are not yet thermally broken.
in 2400mm x 2400mm (8ft x 8ft) approxi-
Condensation risk when windows are closed
mately, but maximum length of ventilato r unit
is assessed for each application.
is around 1200mm (4ft).Automatic opening types are used as smoke vents in the event
Solar shading
of fire.They provide around 70% free area
Metal louvres are also used as solar shading
when fully open.
on glazed facades. Louvres are located either
W here double glazed units are used,they
3-D view of mech anically controlled opening glass louvres in closed position
MCE
68
in panels set away from the external wall or
are typically in 24mm thick overa ll units of
horizontally projecting from the facade as
4/ 16/4 (glass/cavity/glass) .The o ute r 4mm is
cant ilevered panels. Louvres are set either
slightly thicker ifa laminated glass is used for
horizontally or vert ically to suit the protec-
safety Like single glazed louvres,the maxi-
tion needed from varying sun angles.Yertical-
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3-D view of fixed gl,m louvreswith option of integrated pboto-voaac <ells
Ver tical sectco & elevation I :25. Horizontal fixed glass louvres
.,~
" Iy-set louvres are positioned forward of the
much further than tho se used in 1100mm
glass. usually a minimllTl of 6()(Xnm (2ft) to
(4ft) w ide opening louvre pane ls. and need
allow a person to pass between the external
to be more rigid as a result Panels project a
wall and louvres for maintenance access and
maximum o f around 10000m (3ft 3in)
cleaning. The shading devicesare fixed to ver-
without add itional diagonal tie rods to prop
tical posts or mullions which usually coincide
the panels. Most proprietary systems can
with the module of the glazing behind. Hori-
re ach 2000mm (6ft 6in) with an additional
zontally-set panels consist of fixed kxNres.
diagonal brace.
USUdIIy
inc~ned
at 450 to the Yertical in order
Elliptical and
Details I.
Extruded ak.m.... om
2.
StICk curtain wallong type (arTIer 5y<;tem to
frame~~
1 4.
S. aerofo~ -shaped
ali.mini.....,
to maximise the shading effect The Iowres
profiles are most c()ll'Vll()O/y used since their
are fixed to mild steel channels or T-sections
shape is seen outside the building and from
which are in tlfll fixed to support brackets
inside. More tradtionaJ
projecting ttvough the external wall.'vVhere
files are also used An advantage of horizon·
Z-shaped louvre pr0-
glazed curtain walling is used. the support
tally-set IolNres c:r.<eI" projecting canopies is
bracket goes through the munioo (vertical
that they do no t require rainwater drainage
member") .......here it can be properly sealed
that is needed for a coouooocs horizontal
against water penetration. Lowres for both
so-ace. Small louvre blades are made asa
-.e1ical andhorizontal shading usually span
single extrusion. but larger louvres. ~ to
6.
7. B. 9.
""""" ..Extruded """"" Backng""" waI providwlg alrOOiom
""""" AdJacent
Phot~
panel wal oonstr\ICtIOn
,~ e:
,
.
, .,
AdJacent roof (onstruetJOn larTwlated glass Ioo.M"e blade
Porrtixng (bolt or c1.:wrll) 10. Hroge II .
Hyd'"auIicaIy ope.-ated ¥TTl to opet'att' Ioo..Nr'e5
12.
Extruded~ ~
13.
to glas5 louvre Double gLued tnt fomwlg
"""""
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Vertical Secbon 1:25. GI.m 1ouvre5 fixed to 5teel
""""""'
MC E 69
fl etalWalls 015 Lo uvre screens
j
Vertical section I:I a.Single glazed louvre window panels set into metal raincreen facade
Horizontal sect ion I:I a.Single glazed louvre window panels set into metal raincreen facade
MC E
70
D etails I. Extruded aluminium frame supporting louvres 2. Stickcurtain walling - type carrier system to louvre panels 3. Extruded aluminium louvre blade 4. Backing wall providing support 5. Photovoltaic panel 6. Adjacent wall construction 7. Adjacent roof construction 8. Laminated glass louvre blade 9. Point fixing (bolt or clamp) ro. Hinge I I. Hydraulically operated arm to operate louvres 12. Extruded aluminium frameto glass louvre I 3. Double glazed unit forming louvre
Vertical section I:I a.Single glazed louvre window panels in closed position
3-D view of single glazed louvre window system in open position
aro und SOOmm ( Ift Sin) in w idt h are made
ty of sect io n profi les and are set o n transom
from an extr uded alum inium co re t o w hich
(ho r izontal) sect io ns th at are co nnecte d back
curve d or fiat alum inium sect io ns, usually
t o mu llion s o r direct ly back t o th e externa l
3mm (0. 1I Smm) th ick, are fixed.Th e ends o f
wa ll.Vert ical lo uvre sect io ns using an ellipt ical
profil es are fitted w it h extr ude d alum inium
o r aero fo il profil e can span up t o aro und
end caps both for visual reason s and t o pro-
3000 m m ( lOft) vert ically w it ho ut need for
t ect th e inside surfaces from co rros io n. A lu-
add it io nal st iffeners.
m inium lo uvres are finished in eit her PVDF o r polyester powd er coat ing. Blades are usu-
Walkways
ally fixed at th eir ends fr om th e cent re of th e
H orizontally-set louvres can also be used as
extr usio n at a single point at each end.
maintenance wa lkways if th ey are made suffi-
W here louvres are rnotor ised th ey are
cient ly r igid.T-sect ion alum inium profi les are
fixed at single pivot point s t o vert ical po sts.
used , and have a serrate d t op t o provide an
Link rod s are set into th e suppo rt po st join -
ant i-slip surface .A fall ar rest system is used t o
ing each blade in o rde r t o o perate a set of
secure maint enance per sonn el t o t he wa lk-
lou vr es from a single motor. Pivots have
way.T his co nsists of a co nt inuo us cable or
nylon bushes fitted t o avoid lo ng t erm rattle
tube fixed t o a co nvenient point alo ng th e
and noi se from th e moving parts.
wa lkway.A maintenance per son in a harn ess
Vert ically-set louvres use th e same varie-
is th en linked t o th e co nt inuo us cable o r tube
-Horizontal section I: I0, Double glazed louvre window system set fiush with metal rainscreen cladding
'1n.=,-==~:b!!bb::!d!b~ @'1iQF
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Vertical section I: I0, Double glazed louvre window system in open position
3-D view of double glazed louvre wind ow system in open position
by a secure line,Th e aluminium T-section s are
changing sun angles at different t imes of day
fixed t o st eel I-sections or channels w hich
and different tim es of year th rou gh a change
span between column suppo rts adjacent t o
in th e angle of th e blade o nly,Thi s system is
th e exte rnal wa ll, ty pically at aro und
used o n both ver t ical and horizontal planes,
7500 mm (24ft 6in) cent res,Th e main sec-
fo r examp le o n large glass facades as we ll as
ti ons suppo r t ing th e T-sect ions are fixed t o
proj ecting areas of hori zont al glazing w it hin
stainless st eel o r aluminium brackets th at
th e facade,Th e use of more complex metal
project through t he exte rnal wa ll from th e
profiles w here blades int erlock, t ogeth er
edge of th e floor slab,
w it h different perforated metals and th eir
A recent developm ent in metal louvre
connect ion t o a BMS (building management
design is in movable ty pes, Louvres are set o n
syste m) is sure t o make significant develo p-
a moving rack w hich allow s th em to be
ments over th e next t en years, Such co nt ro ls
moved from open to closed, using perforated
can reduce energy consum pt io n w it hin a
alum inium sheet t o form louvr es,W hen
building by reducing th e amo unt of mechani-
closed, th e lo uvres create a t ranslucent
cal coo ling needed as we ll as cont ro l glare
screen w it h 20% t o 50% light transmission
from direct sunlight.
(depending on th e degree of perforation in th e st eel) t o 100% light transmission w hen open.This allow s a glazed wall t o deal w ith
@
Vertical section I : I0, Double glazed louvre window system in closed position set flush with metal rainscreen cladding
MC E 7 1
Details I.
2.
- f-D detailedviews
or frame supported solar control glass
louvres used as a shading device in front of glazed curtain wall
3. 4. 5. 6.
Extruded aluminium frame Stick curtain walling type carrier system Solar control glass louvre blade Backingwall Louvre panel door Therma l insulation
3-D exp loded view of frame supported solar control glasslouvres used as a shading device in front of glazed curtain wall
3-D exploded view of frame supported solar control glasslouvres used as a shading device in front of glazed curtain wall Exploded axonometric view of frame supported solar control glass louvres used as a shading device in front of glazed curtain wall
MC E 72
®
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3-D exploded view of single glazed louvre window system
I
I I
Exploded axonometric of single glazed louvre window system
Exploded axonometric of mechanically controlled opening glass louvres
Details I. 2.
Extruded aluminium frame supporting louvres Stick curtain walling - type carrier system to louvre panels 3. Extruded aluminium louvre blade 4. Backing wall providing support 5. Photovoltaic panel 6. Adjacent wall construction 7. Adjacent roof construction 8. Laminated glass louvre blade 9. Point fixing (bolt or clamp) 10. Hinge I I. Hydraulically operated arm to operate louvres 12. Extruded aluminium frame to glass louvre I 3. Double glazed unit forming louvre
3-D exploded view of mechanically controlled opening glass louvres
Detailed views of the system
®
Detailed views ot the system
MC E
73
GLASS WALLS (I) Stick glazing:
System assembly Framing profiles Opening lights
Comers
Spandrel panels
(2) Unitised glazing: Jointing panels Opening lights
Comer panels. parapets and cills Silicone-bonded glazing (3) C lamped glazing: Patch plate glazing Clamped glazing Opaque glazing Sealing clamped glazing (4) Bolt fixed glazing:
Support methods Bottom supported glazing Top hung glazing
Comers
Seals and interfaces
(5) Glass blocks. Fixing glass blocks
Support frames and walls Cast glass channels
(6) Steel windows: Small-scale glazing
Large-scale glazing (7) A luminium and PVC-U windows: Windows in open ings
Window walls Composite windows
(8) Timber windows: Window walls Window design Windows in open ings
MCE
75
Glass Walls 0 Stick glazing
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11 Vertical section I :25. Stick curtain wall with opaque glassspandrel panel
3-D view of curtain wall with opaque glass spandrel panel
Verti cal section I :25. Floor to ceiling glazing with insulated panel at ground level
Comparison w it h unitised glazing
serv ice th e co nstruct ion of th e pr imary
higher dependence o n site- based work t o
Framed glazing syste ms are of t w o types:
st ruct ure ofte n being built at th e same t ime,
achieve th e quality of const r uction of th e fac-
stick and uniti sed. Stick syste ms are assem-
th ough usually several flo ors higher or several
t ory-based unitised systems.
bled mainly o n site, w hile unitised systems
bays away from th e glazed wa lling.
are assemb led in a factory.Stick syste ms are
For low ri se buildin g, or w here th ere is a
System assembly
we ll adapte d for non -m odul ar const r uction.
high degree of var iat ion in th e facade mod -
A n essent ial aspect of st ick syste ms is th at
W hile unitised systems require a repet ition in
ule, stick glazing is ofte n pr eferred, since th e
th ey should be drained and vent ilate d in
panel sizes in o rder t o keep th e types t o a
wa ll is assem bled in place o n site rather th an
o rder t o avo id wate r being dr awn through
small numb er in o rder t o remain eco nomic,
in a wo r ksho p, making it very eco no mic
th e rubb er-based seals int o th e building. Rain-
stick systems allow a high degree of freedom
w hen co m pared t o uniti sed glazing.
w ate r penetrating th e o ute r seal is dr ained
in modu le size and in facade design. Mullions
A lt ho ugh off-site fabri cation savestim e and
away in a vent ilate d zone th at pro vides pres-
and transoms do not need t o be cont inuo us;
can be of higher quality, it is ofte n more
sure equalisat ion between outside and inside
glazing bars can set o ut in staggered grids
expensive. Sometim es mu llion s and tran-
th e system. Pressure equalisat ion avo ids
and can be changed easily from smaller grid
soms are pr e-assemb led int o carrier fr ames
wate r being drawn int o th e syste m by a pres-
sizes t o larger o nes. Compl ex geomet ries can
th at are lift ed in place and fixed w it ho ut
sure difference between two chambers,
be t aken up much more easily by stick sys-
glass.Th is 'sem i-un itised' approac h can save
resulting in wate r being drawn through a
t ems th an by unitised syste ms. Stick systems
tim e o n co nst ruct ion w here th ere is some
joint. A ny rainw ater ente ring thi s zone is
are ofte n preferred for low -ri se building,
degree of repet ition .
dr ained away t o th e o utside fo rw ard of th e
w here scaffo lding is used, but th e increased
A crit icism of stick syste ms has tradition-
inner seal forming a second line of defence
use of mast climb er s (moving platforms) is
ally been of th eir poorer quality of assembly
against air and w ate r infiltration. Mo st stick
making st ick systems viable for taller buildings
w hen compared t o unitised glazing, but th is is
syste ms now pr ovide a full th erm al br eak
( 10 t o 20 storeys) w here uniti sed glazing
much less th e case today. Ho w ever. bringing
through th e aluminium profil es rather th an
wo uld ot herwise have been used.Th e
all th e compo nents t ogeth er at th e site, of
th e partial th erm al br eaks provided o n previ-
increased dependence on mast climber s is in
doubl e- or single glazed units,aluminium pro -
o us syste ms.Thi s reduces co ndensat ion risk
part due t o th e need t o be independent of
files, rubb er-based gaskets and seals,fo lded
o n th e inside face of th e fram ing in t emp er-
site cranes,w hich are increasingly needed t o
metal flashings and co pings, involves a much
ate climates.In hot and humid climates,th e
MC E
76
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
@
•
3-D view of glazed curtain wall with maintenance walkwayand glazed
solar shading panels in front
De tails Extr uded alum inium transom Extru ded alum inium m ullion
13. O uter glazed screen
Fixing bracket Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit
14 I S.
16.
t-laintenance access deck
app lication
17.
5. 6.
Pressure plate Rubber-based seal
W indow glazed in curtain wa lling
18
Metal honeycomb panel
7,
19.
Slot in mullion t o receive
8.
Therm al break Metal-faced or opaque gjassfaced insulated pan el
9,
Cover cap
I. 2.
1 4.
@
10, Floo r slab I I , Floor finish 12. C eiling finish
Thermal insulation Metal sheet seal
f,xlng bracelet for external screens, etc 20. Steel hollow sect ion 2 1. Adjacent wa ll.Meta l ra in screen shown 22. Smo ke sea l
Vert ical sect ion I :25 Curtain w allglazing on steel carr ier frame
Vertical section I:25 Glazed curtain wa ll w ith maintenance
walkwayand glazed solarshading panels in front
-...
providing solarshading
.
.. ..... ,-.
•
•
, •
wi'
= =I!=;;:;= 3-D view of curtain wall g1azing on steel carrier frame
Horizo nt al sect ion I :5. Curtain wall glaZIng on steel earner frame
MC E 77
GassWalls 01 Stick glazing
Section I:S.Junction between doub le glazed units
Vertical section 1:5.Top of slab con nection w it h insulat ed slab capping
Sectio n I :S.Junction between do uble glazed unit and glass spandrel panel
Vertical section I:S. Underside of slab connectio n with insulated slab capping
Sectio n I:S.Junction bet w een doub le glazed unit and metal honey comb panel
Vert ical Section I :S.Junctio n bet we en doub le glazed unit and t o p of inw ard opening w indow
Section I :5.Junctio n between do uble glazed unit and botto m of inw ard o pening wi ndow
MC E
78
Vertical section I:S.Junction with top and bottom of slab
@ Sect ion I:S.Junction bet ween doub le glazed units using reduced frame size
Section I:S.Junction bet ween double glazed units using slim fram e pr ofile
condensati on w ill occur harmlessly o n the
the pressure plates t o conceal the pressure
outside face of the frami ng if th e interior is
plates as well as th e self tapping screws hold-
coole d by mechanical vent ilat io n. In all cli-
ing th e glass in place. Somet imes th e cappings
mates, a th erm al break improves th e U -val-
are omitted but care must be t aken t o
ue of t he glazed w all, t hus reducing energy
ensure t hat t he screws are pro perly aligned
consumpt io n w it hin th e building for eit her
and th at the pressure plates are cont inuo us
heating o r coo ling.
and jointed carefully
Stick glazing is assembled mainly on site.
Stick systems are fixed fro m floo r to floo r
Mullions (verticals) are fixed to floor slabs
at either side of the floo r slab o r o n t op.The
w it h transom s (horizo nt als) spanning
design of t he connectio n is depend ent mainly
between th e mullions to w hich th ey are fixed.
o n th e meth od of form ing th e edge of the
These framing member s can be pre-assem-
floo r constr uct io n o n floor dept hs o r uses of
bled into 'ladder s' o n t he gro und and lift ed
t he adjacent floor zone, and any addit ional
int o place by crane in o rder t o reduce t ime
elements such as brackets for solar shading
o n sit e.The glass is set in place and pressure
or mainte nance walkways w hich penetrate
plates fixed th rough thermal breaks back to
the stick glazing.The glazing is either hung
t he carrier frame of mullions and tran soms.
fro m each floor level o r sits o n each floor
De corative cappings are usually applied to
level. Hanging is usually preferred but con-
D etails I. Extruded aluminium transom 2. Extruded aluminium mullion 3. Fixing bracket 4. Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application 5. Pressure plate 6. Rubber-based seal 7. Thermal break 8. Metal-faced or opaqueglass-faced insulated panel 9. Cover cap 10. Floor slab
I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
Floor finish Ceilingfinish Outer glazed screen providingsolarshading Thermal insulation Metal sheetseal Maintenance access deck W indow glazed in curtain walling Metal honeycomb panel Slot in mullionto receive fixing bracelet for external screens, etc. 20. Steel hollow section 21. Adjacent wall. Metal rainscreen shown 22. Smoke seal Horizontal section 1:5.Junction between double glazed unit and insulated metal panel
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3-D view of glazed curtain wall with cut glazing caps
Vertical section 1:5.Junction with double glazed unit and opaqueglazed panel with bonded insulation
str aint s imposed by th e str ucture o f t he
is fixed direct ly t o th e floor slab as w ell as
building may req uire t he glazing t o be sup-
form ing part of t he curtain w all system.Th is
ported at t he base o f each mulli on . Mulli on s
ensures t hat t he spand rel rem ains in place
are linked by spigots so th at th e restrained
lo ng afte r th e adjace nt curta in wa lling has
end of o ne mulli on fit s int o t he suppo rte d
co llapsed d uring a fire.T he spandrel panel
end of t he ot her mu llio n.
itself is usually protect ed w it h a fire resistant
Because glazed wa lling is set forward of t he edge o f th e slab, th e gap between th e
Vertical section 1:5. Opaque glass spandrel panel with ventilated spandrel zone
@
board as part of t he bar r ier. Where glazing is inclined significant ly
two is clo sed w it h a floor finish. Seals
from t he ver t ical. t w o -edge glazing is used t o
between adjacent floors are designed as
allow th e w at er t o run do wn unimped ed
eit her sm o ke seals or as flame barri er s.
w it h transom s.Thi s is a standard m ethod for
Sm o ke seals co m prise a mi ner al woo l o r
glazed ro ofs,w here mulli on s are capped. but
glass w o o l barri er, held in place and sealed
transom s running acro ss th e w idt h of th e
w it h galvanised stee l sheet above and below .
slo pe are sealed w it h a flush silico ne join t.
Flame barri ers, usually of o ne ho ur o r 90 minu t e ratin g are provided by a spec ially pro-
Framing profiles
t ected spand re l panel at t he level of t he flo or
Car r ier fr am es are m ade from a w ide var iety
zo ne.T he spand rel panel forming th e barri er
of sect io ns.Th e shape can usually be adapted
Vertical section 1:5. Metal honeycombspandrel panel with ventilated spandrel zone
MC E
79
Glass W alls aI
Stick glazing
Horiz ontal section 1:5, Internal corner connection between double glazed units
3-D view of connection betw een double glazed units
3-D view of framed internal corner connection between double glazed units
Hori zontal section 1:5, External corner connection between double glazed units
3-D views offramed external corner connection between double glazed units
D etails I, 2,
3. 4, S, 6, 7, 8, 9, I 0, I I, I 2, I 3. 14, 15, I 6, 17, I 8, 19, 20, 21, 22,
Extruded aluminium transom Extruded aluminium mullion Fixing bracket Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit application Pressure plate Rubber-based seal Thermal break Metal-faced or opaque glass-faced insulated panel Cover cap Floor slab Floor finish Ceiling finish Outer glazed screen providing solar shading Thermal insulation Metal sheet seal Maintenance access deck W indow glazed in curtain walling Metal honeycomb panel Slot in mullion to receive fixing bracelet for external screens, etc. Steel hollow section Adjacent wall. Metal rainscreen shown Smoke seal
MC E
80
Ho rizontal section 1:5, External corner connection between double glazed units
for a specific proj ect.Th e most commo n
ally too deep or if th e glazing syste m is fixed
t ypes are rectangular box sectio ns th at use
back t o a steel frame forming part of th e pr i-
th e full w idt h of th e joint, and narrower
mary structure,The front part of th e ext ru-
T-shaped and I-shaped sections th at are nar-
sion containing th e seals is fixed direct ly t o a
row er th an th e joint w idt h,A lt hough th e
mild stee l box or l-section.The glazing is th en
depth of th e profi le is determin ed by st r uc-
fixed t o thi s extrusion in th e convent ional
tural requirement s, th e overall shape can be
way, If th e steel fr ame has variable or com-
adapte d t o suit ot her needs,such as incor-
plex curves th en t he ru bber-based seals are
porating ro ller blind guides int o t he sides of
set onto th e steel fr ame w it hout an ext ru-
th e ver t ical profil es, Mullions and transom s
sion w it h a t echnique commo nly used in
are ofte n not of th e same depth , for st ruc-
glazed roof st r uctures,The glass is fixed w it h
tural reason s, but can be made so if
pressure plates directly t o t he steelwo rk w it h
required t o suppo rt blinds, for example, o r
a ru bber-based profile set between th e glass
for visual reasons,
and support ing steel.
W here framing member s have long vert ical or horizontal spans, mild steel sections
Opening lights
are somet imes used instead of a rectangular
W indow s, doors and smoke vents are fixed
box section in aluminium, particularly if th e
into stick glazing as items w it h th eir ow n
equivalent aluminium section wo uld be visu-
fr ame rather th an using t he cur tain wall fram-
3-D view of junction between double glazed unit and insulated external corner panel
Horizontal section 1:5.Junction between double glazed unit and insulated external corner panel
3-D view of external corner connection between double glazed units
Horizontal section 1:5. External corner at spandrel level with opaque glasspanels and vent ilat ed spandrel zone
ing directly.This is because th e op ening light
Parapets, cil ls and penetrat ion s
usually needs it s own dr ainage and we at her-
Parapet co pings are glazed int o th e curta in
proofing profi les and seals.This gives th e
w alling w it h a pre ssure plate in t he same w ay
appearance of a thi cker fr ame aro und op en-
as adjacent glazing. Copin gs usually proj ect to
ing light s th an aro und th e adjacent fixed
align w it h th e face of th e cappings on th e
light s. Drips and seals form a part of th e sec-
pressure plates or slight ly fo rw ard of th em to
ondary frame in th e same w ay as if t he light
protect th e glazing beneath from t he vert ical
we re glazed into any oth er form of co nst r uc-
m ovement of maint enance cradles. Copings
ti on such as an o pening in a masonry wa ll.
slope inw ards t ow ards a gutter rather t han
The op ening light is glazed into curta in w aIl-
sloping fo rw ards to avoid dirt accumulat ing
ing around it s edge w it h a th inner fram e t hat
o n th e top of co ping being w ashed down th e
correspo nds t o th e th ickness of t he glazed
facade by rain.Th is also avoids th e need for
units, allowin g it to be fixed in place w it h th e
th e co ping to proj ect beyond th e face of th e
same t echnique as if it we re a doub le glazed
glazing and form a drip. It sho uld be noted
unit.Th ese edge nibs are positioned on th e
th at proj ecting drips on copings are st ill good
fram e t o t he o pening light in a way that
pr actice in masonry co nstruct ion, w here an
ensures that th e glass of th e op ening light is
impervious co ping w ashes rainw ater onto a
in th e same plane as th e adjacent glass.
perm eable masonry material beneath, causing staining. Cills at th e base of stick glazing
Horizontal section 1:5.Junction between curtain wall glazing and rainscreen cladding system
MCE
81
Glass Walls 0 I Stick glazing
Horizontal section 1:5. Glazingframe supported directly on steel structure
Horizontal section 1:5. Framed external corner
Horizontal section 1:5. Glazing frame with thin frame
Det ails I. Extruded aluminium transom 2. Extruded aluminium mullion 3. Fixing bracket 4. Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application
Horizontal section 1:5.Junction between insulated metal spandrel panels
Horizontal section I:5. Inward opening window fixed into curtain wall system. Right: 3-D view of glass louvre fixed to inside of glazing frame
5. Pressure plate 6. Rubber-based seal 7.Thermal break 8. Metal-faced or opaque glass-faced insulat ed panel 9. Cover cap 10. Floor slab
@ Horizontal section 1:5. Glass rainscreen supported from bracket fixed to inside of glazing frame
are formed w it h a pressed aluminium profi le
is glazed int o t he curtain w alling at t he t op
w it h a clip at t he bottom w hich pro vides a
end, and project s down over t he adjacent
clean line at t he bottom of t he w all, and
wall in a manner t o suit t he det ailing of t he
pro vides rigidity to t he pro file.W here cill
wall beneath.
drips can be seen from below, t he folded
Horizontal section 1:5. Glass louvre fixed to inside of glazing frame
MC E
82
edge pro vides a smoot h painted edge w hich
Corners
is also protected from weat her corrosion.
Both int ernal and exte rnal corners are
W here stick glazing abuts an adjacent
form ed by glazing in a folded aluminium strip
area of wall in a different mat erial, a blocking
int o t he mullion on each side of t he corner.
profi le is glazed int o t he edge of t he glazing
A lte rnat ively, a mullion set at 45° is used to
profile, faced w it h an EPDM foil.The foil is
give a t hin edge t o t he facade, w it h a joint
t hen bonded t o t he adjacent wall.W here
w idt h similar t o t hat of joint s elsewhere on
glazing abut s metal rainscreens, w hich is a
t he facade. Som e manufactur er s provide
commo n combinat ion, t he edge of t he met al
int erlocking mullions for use at corners t o
return t o t he rainscreen can also be glazed
allow varying angles at corners on a single
int o t he edge mullion or t ransom.W here a
building w it h a constant abutting of mullions
pro jecting cill is required at t he base of t he
on t he inside face.
w all, for example, a proj ecting aluminium cill
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Elevation,verti cal & horizontal I :50, Curtain wall glaZIng with glass solar shading panels in front
_
I I. Floor finish 12. Ceiling finish
11 Outer glazed screen provOding solar shading 14 Thermal insulation
IS. Meta l sheet seal 16. t-taotenaoce access deck 17Window glazed in curta in walling
Spandrel panels
18 Metal honeycomb panel 19, Slot in mullion to receive fixing bracelet for
Spandrel panels are made either as a contin-
external screens.etc.
uo us sealed panel. draining in the same way
20. Steel hollow section 21 .Adjacent w all. Metal rainscreen shOVlIn
as the glass panels. or as a ventilated box. Where metal is used, spandrels can be
22. Smoke seal
@
formed as t rays glazed int o the frami ng with insulatio n between. Glazed spandrels are made either with rigid insulati o n bo nded to the back of laminated glass or on a sheet of laminated glass with a ventilated void behind both to coo l the glass and avoid either a visual read-through of the insulation from the outside or risk of t he insulation delaminating from the glass. When glass is used it is made opaq ue (w ith either method) by screen printi ng.etch ing or a combination of both. 3-D view showingcurtam wall glazing with glass solar shadingpanels in front at upper floor junction
MC E
83
- - - GlassWalls Stick glazing
Ol r-------..
3-D e;.q)k:x.led _
of stICk. glazed Curtain wall with glazed solar shading pane ls n front
/ .' /
Details I. Extruded a1<.mni1.rn transom
./
2. Extruded alnw1i.m I'l'WJIIon 1 fixing bracket
."
4.
, ®
Single glaZed Ot' double glazed l.rMl. to SUIt appIicat.Qn
--
- -
5_~plate
6. Ri..ttler-based sW 7.Thermal break
8.l"1et.»-faced or opacp..oe glass-f.xed nsulated panel 9. CoYer cap I (l Aoor slab I I. Aoor linrsh 11 CeWng Iinrsh
13. Outer glazed screen
~ solar
""".,
14.Thermal nsulabon IS. Metal sheet seal 16. r-tentene-ce access dec k 17. W ItldrJ.N glazed in a.rtaon walhng 18. Metal honeycOO"b panel 19 Slot n mullion to receee fixing braceletfor extemal screens.etc. 20. Steel hollow sectco 21.Adjacef1t wall, Metal raoscreeo
.oown
,
22. Smoke seal
3-D ~
MCE
84
VIeW 0( strl
glazed W'1ain wal at lIoorp,etJon
8) @ @
3-D exploded view of stick glazed curta in wall
3-D exploded view of stick glazed curtain wall with glazed solar panels at fioor juncti on
_-
.... .....
3-D exploded view of corner junction between double glazed units
I I
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3-D view of corner junction between double glazed units
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3-D exp loded view of stick glazed curtain wall w ith cut glazing caps 3-D view of stick glazed curtain wall with glazed solar panels at fioor junction
MCE
85
0_ Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between unitised double glazed units with glazing fixed from outside
Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between unitised double glazed units with glazing fixed internally
I
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'-':L.---0 Horizontal section 1:5. Outward opening window glazed into unitised panel
Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between unitised panels with insulated metal panels fixed from inside
Vertical section 1:5. Connection between externally glazed unitised panels with double glazed units and inulated metal panels
T he main advantages of uniti sed glazing in
glazed wa lls,visually, t hat have height s greate r
are used w hich pr oject from t he sides of t he
const r uct ion are of speed of installati on o n
t han aro und four metres betw een floo r slabs,
mullion/transom section.T his result s in int er-
site and of quality co nt rol of assembly wo rk-
th at is,greate r th an a single panel height.Th e
nally glazed sect io ns usually being w ider than
sho p co ndit ions over t hose o n site. Fo r t aller
fram ing can appear t o be visually very stro ng,
t hose glazed exte rn ally. W hen glazed exte r-
buildings,for t hose over five or six storeys,
and instead frameless co nstruct ion is often
nally, a maintenance cradle is used w it h th e
scaffo lding becomes much less pract ical, and
prefer red as eit her bolt fixed or clamped
capacity t o lift glass and allow t he panel t o be
so wo rking from inside th e building on a
glazing. It s mo st commo n use is in modules
lifted in place.Thi s method allows glass t o be
fioor slab is a safer and faster method. Uni -
of 1200mm o r I SOOmm w ide (4ft or Sft)
replaced w here it is eit her impractical to
t ised panels are assemb led and glazed in t he
w here it suits t he int ern al planning of office
carry t he glass t hrough t he building o r w here
factory.O n site th ey are secured by brackets
buildings, but st orey height panels 3 metres
glass sizes are too large to ente r stairwells o r
fixed t o th e fioor slab and set side by side,
w ide are used. Because of th e cost of setting
lifts.W hen intern ally glazed, glass unit s are
t hen rising floo r by floo r; usually from t he
up jigs and t oo ls in t he factory, uniti sed glaz-
carried up eit her in a lift or by stairs and are installed ent irely from t he floo r plate.
bottom of t he building upw ards. Panels are
ing is suite d to use w it h a small number of
made eit her as panels set side by side, so t hat
panel types t o create a high level of repet i-
th ey can be replaced as complete panels if
ti on .Thi s suits very modu lar facades w it h rel-
Jointing panels
accident ally damaged, o r be semi-inte r locking
at ively few panel t ypes. Glazed unit s are fixed
Most panels are made o ne sto rey-height. but
w here t he glass is replaced w it ho ut mo ving
eit her w it h pr essure plates, o r are silicone-
larger panels are made to span two fio ors
t he panel.The fully uniti sed type has w ider
bo nded t o a light frame aro und t he edge
and o ne bay w ide or o ne storey high and
site lines (ove rall fram e w idt h) at aro und
and th en mechanically fixed t o th e fr ame of
several bays w ide.Th ose larger panels are
80mm (3in), than th e semi-inte rloc king ty pe
th e panel.
usually done w here installation tim e is crit ical.
at aro und 6Smm (2.Sin). A comparable st ick
Glazed unit s are fitted eit her exte rn ally
Like st ick glazing, panels are eit her hung fro m
syste m w o uld have a joint w idt h of aro und
o r intern ally depending on th e glass replace-
th e t op o r are supporte d at th e bottom .
SOmm 2in). From t he visual point of view, t he
ment meth od.W hen glazed exte rn ally, mul-
Instead of a st raightforwa rd spigot between
w ider site lines of uniti sed glazing over st ick
lio ns and transoms are adapte d to have a clip
storey height lengths of mullion, panels are
glazing is t he main disadvantage of t his system.
o n t he outside t o form a pressure plate.
t ied t oget her w it h a 'st ack' joint. so-named
W here glazed units are intern ally glazed, clips
from t he co ncept of panels being stacked
Unitised glazing is much less suite d to t all
M C E 86 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
}- - - - --'""- . . . . . ~- 0--Horizontal section 1:5. Outward opening window glazed into unitised panel
Vertical section 1:5. Connection between unitsed double glazed panels with externally fixed glass
;;
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~ , ~. ~ Horizontal section I :5. Stick mullion in unitised panel
Vertical section 1:5. Stick transom in unitised panel
0- - -= Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between unitised panel and structure
Vertical section 1:5. Unitised panel connection at ground level
Vertical section 1:5. Outward opening window glazed into unitised panel
Deta ils I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. I 6. 17. 18.
Interlocking transom Plain transom Interlocking mullion Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit application Pressure plate Rubber-based seal Thermal break Metal parapet coping Metal-faced or opaque glassfaced insulated panels Floor slab Floor finish Ceiling finish Outer screen providing solar shading Thermal insulation Sheet metal seal Cover cap Smoke seal Support bracket
3-D view connection between unitised double glazed panels
MC E
87
GlassWalls 02. Unitised glazing
3-D view of frame less glasscomer
_
Horizontal section 1:5. Framed glass connection within unitised external corner panel
_
_
_
_
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Horizontal section 1:5. Frameless external glasscorner in externally glazed unitised panel
above one anot her.Th e complete bottom
in a pressure equalised chamber th at stops
horizontal edge of th e panel int ersects w it h
wate r getting any further.This is drained
th e t op edge of th e panel below .This joint
through th e forw ard baffle and out of th e
comprisest wo lines of defence against air
front of th e panel.At th e back of th e joint is
and wate r infilt rati o n, and a furth er air seal at
an air seal. In warm humid count ries, th is rear
th e interior face of th e panels. In st ick glazing,
chamber is usually vent ilate d t o th e o utside
seals are provided by a set of pressure plates
as we ll as t o release condensat ion t hat inevi-
applied w hen th e carrier frame and glass are
tably forms in th e full depth of th e profi le. In
already in place. In unitised glazing,th e wate r-
th is detail, th e performance of th e inner air
pro ofing is mostly fixed t o th e panel before
seal is crit ical t o th e success of th e system.
inst allati o n and has t o wo rk w hen panels are
88
Th e vert ical jo int between two panels is
simply slotted int o place.A n o ute r line of
form ed as a vert ical cont inuity of horizontal
defence is provided by rubb er-based baffles
joints.Th e forw ard baffle form s an o ute r seal,
set o n each panel so th at th ey press t ogether
th e inner seal is lapped onto th e horizontal
t o form a seal.A n aluminium drip profil e is
joint, and th e inner air seal is cont inuo us w it h
somet imes added t o th e outside of th is as a
it s horizontal counte rpart.
fir st barri er against w ind, but allow ing wate r
MC E
CD
Both hori zont al and vert ical aluminium
t o drip out again behind thi s profi le. A ny
profi les have a th erm al break set near th e
wate r passing through th is profile is sto pped
exte rnal face t o avoid th erm al br idging. How -
---.
Vertical section 1:5. Parapet connection detail at top of unitised glazing panel
Vertical section 1:5. Outward opening window glazed into unitised panel
3-D cutaway view of parapet connection at top of opaque unitised panel
ever. since exte rnal air is allowe d deep int o
unlike st ick glazing w here doors are glazed
t he joi nt, th erm al calculat ions are undertaken
into th e st ick syst em, making th e overall
t o check t hat t he dewp o int falls in t he pres-
w idt hs great er. H owever.air infiltrati on rates
sure equalised drainage cavity Spandrel pan-
for doors are usually half th at of uniti sed glaz-
I. 2.
els are fo rmed in t he same way as w it h st ick
ing at aro und 300 Pascals for doo rs w hen
4.
glazing w it h metal or glass panels.T he tran-
compared w it h 600 Pascals for unitised glaz-
som dividing spandrel and glazing beneath is
ing. Stick glazing pro vides similar levels of air
formed as one division w it hin th e uniti sed
infiltration .Th e poorer perform ance of tradi-
panel, t hough it can somet imes be at t he
t io nal doors can somet imes lead t o t he use
position of th e stack jo int if t he panels are
of w indow profi les as doors since th ey have
seat ed o n t he fixing bracket at slab level rath -
much lower air infiltrati on rates, so me mat ch-
er t han hanging fro m it.
ing t hose of curt ain w alling.
Opening lights
Corner panels, parapets and cills
Opening light s such as smo ke vent s are
A n advantage of uniti sed glazing is its ability
fo rmed w it hin each panel w it h a seco ndar y
t o have frameless glazed corn ers, w hich is dif-
fr ame inserted w it hin th e edge frame of th e
ficult t o achieve in st ick glazing, since th e seal-
panel. D oors are usually made as separate
ing joint between th e two glazed units has t o
it ems t hat are glazed int o t he adjacent frame,
be achieved on site, w here curing of t he sil i-
D etails
3.
5. 6. 7. B. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. I 6. 17. lB.
Interlocking transom Plaintransom Interlocking mullion Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit application Pressure plate Rubber-based seal Thermal break Metal parapet coping Metal-faced or opaque glassfaced insulated panels Floor slab Floor finish Ceiling finish Outer screen providing solar shading Thermal insulation Sheet metal seal Cover cap Smoke seal Support bracket
MCE
89
Glass ails 02 Unitised glazing
Vertica l section I :5. Unitised panel hung from top of slab with opaque glasspanel to hide slab edge
~
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Vert ical section 1:5. Connection between opaque glassspandrel panel and double glazed unit with stick transom at suspended ceiling level
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Horizontal section 1:5. Uniti sed curtain wall supported from fioor slabs with opaque spandrel panels
MC E
90
cone is much more difficult th an in th e facto-
t o th e doub le glazed unit visually w idens th e
ry.Corn er units w it h frameless corne rs are
jo int t o aro und 40mm . Panels can be formed
made by suppo r t ing th e glass on three sides
eit her as equal corne rs, w it h up t o aro und
in a fr ame and bondin g th e t wo sides t ogeth-
1500mm (5ft) from each corne r t o a short
er. Usually a small square aluminium sectio n,
corner of 1500mm (5ft) o n o ne leg and
30mm x 30mm ( I .lin x l .Zin) appro ximate ly
300mm ( I ft) o n th e ot her leg.As th e size of
t o match th e thi ckness of th e dou ble glazed
th e corne r panel increases, it becom es more
units,is used t o suppo rt th e co rner of th e
difficult t o lift and set in place, and conse-
panel w hen it is lift ed by crane.T his makes
quent ly becom es more expensive.A corne r
th e corne r of th e panel slight ly less all-glass
unit w it h a framing member at th e corne r
th an can be achieved by a doub le glazed bay
can be made eit her w it h a fr ame visible, o r
w indow for example, w it h a fully glazed cor-
visible o nly from th e inside, w it h a glass-to-
ner. In such a bay w indow th e glass can be
glass junction as descr ibed in th e paragraph.
jo ined w it ho ut th e need for an addit ional alu-
Som etim es th e jo int occurs o n th e corne r of
minium post using eit her a stepped o r mitred
two fiat panels, w it h eit her a mitred corne r
jo int. In a fully glazed corne r in a unitised
o r a square corne r w it h an infill piece.
panel. th e appearance of th e corne r is st ill aro und 40mm ( I.Sin), since th e visible edging
Both parapets and cills are form ed in a similar way t o th ose used on stick systems,
..:=-_-_-_---:::0.
Vertical section 1:5. Unitised panel connection to top of fioor slab with insulated metal slab capping
Vertical section 1:5. Unitised panel connection to underside of fioor slab with insulated metal slab capping
3-D view of unitised panel connection to top of fioor slab
3-D view of unitised panel connection to underside of fioor slab
but are formed as separat e panels unlike st ick
Silicone-bonded glazing
syste ms w hich are glazed int o th e t op tran-
A development over th e past t en years has
som at roof level.
been in silicone-bo nded glazing.A lt ho ugh t his is used in uniti sed syste ms, it is also used par-
Penet ratio ns
t ially in st ick glazing.Th e glass is restr ained on
Penet ratio ns t hro ugh glazing for bracket s,
t w o vert ical sides by pressure plates and two
usually fixed at floor level t o fix th em back to
ho rizont al sides by silico ne.A lte rnat ively, t he
th e floor slab, occur at joints betw een panels
glass is bonded on all four sides by silicone.
t hro ugh mullions o r t ransom s.T his is because
T his met hod avoids t he need for visible cap-
th e bracket can be far more easily sealed at
pings for mu llion s and/o r transom s w hich are
t his po int, w here t he glazing syste m is drained
ofte n aro und 1.5 t imes w ider t han an equiva-
and vent ilate d int ern ally,th an thro ugh span-
lent stick syste m.Th e use of silico ne allows
drel panels, w here it is difficult t o apply a seal
th e joint betw een glass unit s t o be flush rath-
and w here no mechanical pressure can be
er t han using a pressure plate w hich is set in
applied t o th e spandrel panel since th ere is
front of th e glass.Thi s allows th e facade t o
no framing mem ber behind.
have no visible fr am ing on t he o ut side. Sili-
D etails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. I O. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. I 6. 17. 18.
Interlocking transom Plaintransom Interlocking mullion Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit application Pressure plate Rubber-based seal Thermal break Metal parapet coping Metal-faced or opaque glassfaced insulated panels Floor slab Floor finish Ceiling finish Outer screen providing solar shading Thermal insulation Sheet metal seal Cover cap Smoke seal Support bracket
co ne is also used in th e joint since thi s mater ial cannot be com bined w it h an EPDM, such
MC E 9 1
Glass Walls 02 Unitised glazing
- -0 Horizontal section 1:5. Connection between unitised double glazed units with glass bonded to frame
_8
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Horizontal section 1:5 . Connection between double glazed unit and opaque glass unit with glass bonded to frame
0
as neoprene, used in seals in pr essure plate
is secured by addit ional short clips along th e
syste ms.
horizontal edges t o increase th e safety of th e
The glass unit s are bond ed to aluminium
th e glass.Th e glass is th en mechanically fixed w it h screws t o th e carrier fram e o n site. T his t echniqu e is increasingly used in unitised syst ems w here damaged glass can be remo ved w it hout th e need t o remove th e complete panel.A lt ho ugh silicone-bo nded glazing allow s a facade to appear from th e o utside as a cont inuo us glass surface int errupt ed o nly by smoot h and narro w joints,w it h 20mm (O.78in) rather th an SOmm (2in) m inimum w it h pressure plates,th e op aque zo ne across th e fram e is th e same overall w idt h as w it h pressure plates.Thi s is because th e area behind th e doub le glazed units is made opaqu e w it h screen printing in o rder t o co nceal th e w idt h of th e carrier frame behind. Som e manufacturers bond a light aluminium fr ame aro und th e edge of th e fram e w it hin th e depth of th e doub le glazed unit, fixing th e glass w it h shor t lengths of pr essure plate in th e co nvent ional manner, th en applying sealant int o th e jo int. Som et imes th e glass
MC E 92
system, but building codes aro und th e wo rld differ in th is requirement.
Horizontal section 1:5. Stick mullion in unitised panel
0_
Horizontal section 1:5. Outward opening window within unitised panel with glass bonded to frame
profi les t o form a light fram e at th e edge of
0- -
3-D view of unitised double glazed panel with glass bonded to frame
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Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10
I I. 12. 13.
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14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Interl o cking transom Plain tra nsom Interl o cking mullion Single glazed or doub le glazed unit to suit application Pressure plate Rubber-based seal Thermal break Metal parapet coping Metal-faced or opaque glassfaced insulated panels Floor slab Floor finish Ceiling finish Outer screen providing solar shading Therma l insulati on Sheet metal seal Cover cap Smoke seal Suppo rt bracket
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8) I Vertica l section I :5. Outward opening wi ndow within unitised panel with glassbo nded to frame
Vertical section I :5. Connection between unitised double glazed units w ith glass bo nded to frame
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Horizontal section 1:5. Unitised corner panels with glass bonded to frame 3-D view of unitised panel hung in front of slab incorporating double glazed unit and opaque spandrel panel
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I 11J-l---0 - - - - - - Horizontal section 1:5. Framed internal corner within unitised panel using bonded glass
Horizontal section 1:5. Framed external corner within unitised panel using bonded glass
Horizontal section I :5. Internal corner connection between unitised panels with bonded glass
MC E 93
Glass ails 02 U niti sed glazing
3-D view of unitised w indow w ith louvre system in front
3-D exploded view of window and louvres
Details I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. I O. I I. I 2. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
MC E
94
Interlocking transom Plain transom Interlocking mullion Single glazed or double glazedunit to suit applicat ion Pressune plate Rubber-based seal Thermal break Metal parapet coping Metal-faced or opaque glassfaced insulated panels Floo r slab Floo r finish Ceiling finish Ou ter screen providing solar shading Thermal insulation Sheet metal seal Cover cap Smoke seal Support bracket
)- D exploded view of slab connection at top and bottom of unitised panel
Exploded axonomentric view of slab connection at top and bottom of unitised panel
)-D voew of slab cco-ecuco at top olI1d bottom of uMJSed P¥'eI
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GassWals 03 Clamped glazing
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Horizontal section & elevation I:25. Glass clamped at corners to fixing suspended from cable support.
MC E 96 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3.
Stainless steel patch plates Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit application Silicone seal Glass fin Support bracket Floor slab Ceiling finish Floor finish A ccess ladder Clamped glazed wall Inner framed curtain walling Fixing bolt Maintenance access deck
3-D view glazing clamped at corners and supported from cables
3-D view of corner clamped glazing system
T his glazing m et hod is suite d primar ily t o sin-
ex pensive stainless steel angle-ty pe bracket s
gle glazing but doub le glazed exam ples are
t o be used Th ese cont rast both in th e
scree n prin ciple has been develop ed further
being const r ucte d th at avoid some of th e
appearance and higher costs associate d w it h
t o avoid fixing clamp s direct ly t o th e glass but
ings in areas of high am bient no ise.Th e rain-
w ide jo ints resulting from t he visible black
bo lt fixed glazing.A disadvantage of clamped
instead to silicone bond an edge frame
edges of double glazed unit s.Th e sealant
glazing is th at glassthi cknesses are usually
aro und th e glass and fix th e frames back t o
between doub le glazed units is also usually
t hicker than th ose in bo lt fixed glazing, w here
suppo rt ing st r uct ure w it h clamp s.T his sili-
black to match th e unit edges.
th e distances between fixings are redu ced
co ne-bo nded variat ion of clamped glazing is
(reducing th e span of t he glass) by setting
very useful in o paque o r t ranslucent glazing
th em into th e materi al.
in a full rainscreen to an o paque backing w all.
Comparison w it h bolt fixed glazing As a method of frameless glazing, clamped
Th is com binat ion o f easily fabr icated, eas-
Joi nt s betw een t he glass can be sealed w it h
ily modified brackets and fixing through th e
rubber-b ased strip s t o avoid dirt getting into
glazing.W hereas bolt fixed glazing requ ires
joi nt allows a geomet rically com plex facade
t he vo id behind th e glass and staining th e
dri lling of glass, clamped glazing do es not, as
to be fixed back t o a recti linear,eco no m ic
back of th e glass.Th e advantage o f thi s sys-
glass is fixed w it h patches o r clamp s th at pass
suppo r t ing str uct ure .Thi s cont rasts w it h th e
t em is in clampin g th e glass by means of a
glazing is more econo m ical than bo lt fixed
through th e joint between th e glass sheets o r
need t o repeat ex pensive bo lt fix ings w here
secondary frame t hat avoids penetrating an
doub le glazed units.Th e ability of clamp
th ere is little possibility of changing th e
o ute r seal, thu s m aking it suita ble for glass
bracket s to be sim ple and easily made allow s
geomet ry t o allow for different fixing po si-
rainscreen wa lls w it ho ut visible fr aming and
th e glasst o be suppo rted at different angles
t ion s of th e glass.
w it ho ut th e need for cleaning th e inner face
to on e anoth er in a ti led, non -planar manner.
Clamp ed glazing is increasingly used in
of th e glass sheets.
Glass has been lapped in th e m anner o f tra-
rainscreen configurat ion w it h o pen joint s o r
dition al patent glazing and t iled in t he m anner
o pen, lapped joints w it h an accessible area
Pat ch plate glazing
of w ood shingles, w here glass is lapped on
behind, as used in 'twin w all' glazed facades.
T his m ethod uses angles and plates th at are
two edges t o give a rich, undu lating t extu re
T he o ute r scree n acts primarily as a weat her
bo lted t hrough th e glass rath er t han t hrough
across glass facades. Because th e facade is
barri er, allowing th e inner wa ll t o have o pen-
th e joints.Thi s is an ear lier form of frameless
more visually vibrant, t he fitt ings th em selves
ing w indows w here th ey wo uld ot herw ise
glazing and was t he fo rer unner of bo lt fixed
can also project from t he facade t o allow less
not be po ssible, as in t all buildings or build-
glazing.A lt ho ugh cheaper th an bo lt fixed glaz-
MC E
97
Glass Walls 03 Clamped glazing
@
3-D view of glazing supported by spider clamp hung from cable truss
ing, it is restricted t o single glazing, Glass
3-D detail view of glazing supported by spider clamp hung from cable truss
also hung in order t o accommo date move-
it self is very transparent, th e patch fittings have a stro ng visual presence,
sheets are fixed at th eir corne rs w it h a patch
ment in th e suppo rt ing struct ure, Similarly, if
fitt ing th at connects four sheets t ogether. Like
th e glazed wa ll is suppo rte d at it s base th en
fr amed glazing in eit her stick o r unitised sys-
th e door sho uld also be suppo rted at floor
Clamped glazing
t ems,th e glazing is eit her hung from th e t op
level. If th e glazing is hung and th e door is
This method avoids dri lling through th e glass
w it h eit her brackets o r cont inuo us stainless
suppo r te d different ly,at it s base, th en a differ-
by passing through th e joint between glass
steel angles fixed back t o th e prim ary st r uc-
ence in movement between wa ll and door
sheets or units rather th an by dri lling holes in
ture, or seate d o n suppo rt angles at it s base,
w ill eit her damage th e door o r prevent it
th e glass it self Th is allows doub le glazed units
Patch fittin gs are not usually at t op o r base of
from wo rking prop erly
t o be used, since plates eit her side of a unit
a wall. Instead, cont inuo us angles o r a glazing
T he use of bo lts through th e glass
can be clamped at it s edge st rip,
channel is visually preferred both t op and
makes th e size of each patch plate relatively
bottom in o rder t o provide a weat her t ight
big com pared w it h ot her clampin g meth od s,
th e joint is secured t ogether and fixed back
seal. Clamped angles are used w here th ey
w it h up t o four bo lts per fix ing in elevat io n,
t o a supporting cable, rod or tub e structure,
are concealed beneath floor finishes, Glazing
Thi s meth od is ofte n used w it h glass fins,
This method is more economic th an th e
channels are used eit her for convenience o r
th at provide stability, in an all-glasswa ll,Th e
patch plate type, but still requires compara-
Th e disc or square plate eit her side of
w here th e channel is visible at floor level.
br acket s secur ing th e fins can have from
ti vely large discs t o secure th e glass,Th e use
W here glazed balustrades are used, th ese
four t o six bolts per br acket, giving a very
of discs has been combined w it h stick glazing
clamps are not sufficient for cant ilevered
st ro ng appearance, Since sta inless stee l
w here th e discs are used t o secure th e glass
glass, th at is,w here th e glass is fixed only at
br acket s and bo lts are required for durabili-
t o stick glazed aluminium extrusions, Glass is
floor level and not restrained at th e level of
t y (mild stee l is not sufficient ly durable) ,
set int o rubb er-based gaskets fixed t o th e
th e handrail. D oors are fixed using patch
th ese br acket s are finished as po lished t o
carrier fr ame and discs are used t o ho ld th e
plates w here th e door is hung, and are seat-
avoid surface t arnishing,Th e use of th is po l-
glass in place,Th e gap betw een t he doub le
ed o n pivots, w it h a floor spring w hen th e
ished finish gives th is glazing a very particu-
glazed units is filled w it h silicone sealant T his
door is suppo rte d at floor level.W here patch
lar appearance w hich is difficult to adapt t o
has th e advantage of being a dr ained and
plate glazing is hung from th e t op, doors are
somet hing light er.A lt ho ugh th e glazed wa ll
pressure equalised (vent ilate d) syste m,
MC E
98
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Details I. Stainle ss stee l patch plates 2.Single glazed or oocbie glazed unit to sot applicatio n
1 sacore sear 4, Glass fin
5. Support b-aoet 6. FIoof- 51ab 7.CeilIng fin'~ 8. Floor fin,m
,
s.eccess ladder 10. ClYrced glazed walt I I . Inner- framed o.Jrtaon waYll'1g 12.Filmg bolt II J"1aIITIenanc;e access deck 14. Foong bracket IS. Extruded ak,m11l.m m.Aons 16. Opaque Glazrlg
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17. ero..n::lSlab 18. Badong W all 19. InclIne<j and ~ glass 20.~~ 21 .Corner~
22 Cast rretar foong brad<et 23 ,~~
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24. MeuI par.tpet coprog 25.Thermal insl.Jlaton
sectJOn & elevatoon 1 : 2S _ ~ giazvlg
~ed from cable truss eeoc-ere slabs
spatTWIg ~
, , MC E 99
Glass Walls 03 Clamped glazing
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Elevation 1:5. Spider clamp suppo rt ing glass panels
3-D detail view of glazing supported by spider clamp hung from cable truss
Vert ical section 1:5. Spider clamp hung fro m cable truss supporting glass panels
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Horizontal section I :5. Spider clamp hung from cable truss supporting glass panels
MC E
10 0
Th e glass is fixed back t o eit her cables o r
funct ion norm ally. D oors are usually set int o
rod s if th e glass is hung, o r back t o a t ube if
a separate fram e and do not form part of
th e glass is bottom suppo rte d. If t op hung,
th e cable st r uct ure. If th e glazing is suppor t ed
cables o r thin rod s are hung from th e t op
at its base, th en suppo rting st eel tub es pro -
and t ensioned at th e bottom .Th e glass is
vide much more stiffness in th e glazed wall,
fixed t o th e cables w it h discs, usually at th e
but w it h a more visible suppo rt ing st r ucture.
edges of th e glass t o reduce th e numb er of
A n advantage of such a suppo rt ing st r uct ure
cables t o a minimum. If w ide sheets of glass
is th at th e glass can be fixed w it h a w ide
are used, th en th e glass may be suppo r te d in
range of different geomet ries. Lapped glazing
from th e edge.Th e use of cables provides a
o r 'fishscale' or 'shingled' glazing is possible.
very th in wa ll, but w it h deflection s th at are
Glass is held in a br acket th at can suppo rt
much higher th an a framed wall. Maximum
th e bottom of th e glass in a different position
deflection s can reach up t o 600mm t o 800 m
from th e t op of th e glass below. W it h doub le
(2ft t o 2ft 8in) for walls aro und 20 metres
glazed units th e glass can be drilled t o com-
(65ft) high, but thi s can be safely accommo -
bine th e advantage of clamped glazing w it h
dated w it hin th e struct ural design.The usual
th e seals pr ovided by ext r uded silicone gas-
difficulty is in accommo dating doors w hich
ket 'flippers' th at exclude rainw ater w it hout
can deflect only t iny amo unts in order t o
being punctured by th e br ackets, w hich pass
D et ails I. Stainless steel patch plates 2. Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application 3.Silicone seal 4. Glass fin S. Support bracket 6. Floor slab
7. Ceiling finish 8. Floor finish 9.Access ladder 10. Clamped glazed wall I I. Inner framed curtain walling 12. Fixing bolt I 3.Maintenance access deck 14. Fixing bracket I S. Extruded aluminium mullions 16. Opaque glazing 17. Ground slab 18. Backing wall 19. Inclined and lapped glass 20. Cablesupport 21.Corner clamp 22. Cast metal fixing bracket 23.Clamp bracket 24.Metal parapet coping 25.Thenmal insulation
Horizontal section I:5.Double glazed units fixed to supporting frame with 'toggle' connection and silicone sealed
3-D view of togglefixed glazing connection
through ho les in th e glass beneath. Such
in th e factory,allowing th e wall t o be built in
brackets are 'shoes' w hich suppo rt th e glass
th e manner of unitised glazing w it hout th e
usually away from co rne rs t o avoid th e co r-
need for site scaffo lding. Un its are fixed from
ner of th e glass being unevenly suppor te d.
mast climber s o r from scaffolding.
The glass is not st ruct urally suppo rte d along it s vert ical edges as it is easier t o sit th em in
Opaque glazing
th e shoes. Som etim es clips along vertical
Thi s system co mprises single glazing bond ed
joints are used for lateral restraint but thi s
back t o aluminium frames w hich are clamped
depends very much o n th e specific design.
t o a suppo rt ing st r uct ure, ty pically a co n-
A n alte rnat ive method of fixing th e glass
crete blockw ork wall o r hollow t erracotta
is t o use a silicone-bo nded fr ame aro und th e
block. Clamps are fixed betw een jo ints from
glass and fixing th at to cables o r st eel tub es.
th e front as sho rt lengths of pressure plate.
The joint between th e glass is sealed w it h
A lte rnat ively, panels may be hooked onto
extruded silicone gaskets th at can provide
rainscreen-typ e suppo rt br ackets before
two lines of defence against w indb lown rain
being clamped in place. Unlike rainscreen
instead of th e single line provided by site -
co nstruct ion,th e jo ints between panels are
applied silico ne sealant.T he use of extruded
sealed w it h an ext ruded profi le o r rubb er-
silicone allows th e seal t o be fixed t o th e unit
based seal o nto w hich th e glass is fixed. Para-
3-D view showing spider clamp hungfrom cable truss supporting glass panels
MC E
101
Glass Walls 03 Clamped glazing @
Horizontal section I : I 0, Conn ectio n between wall and glazing unit clampe d to aluminium carrier frame
@
Horizontal section I : I0, Connection between glazing units clamped to aluminium carrier frame
- - - - - - - -0---------' Horizontal section I: I0, External corner connection of glazing clamped to aluminium carrier frame
D etails
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Horizontal section I : I0, Internal corner connection of glazing clamped to aluminium carrie r frame
I, Stainless steel patch plates 2, Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application 3, Silicone seal 4, Glass fin 5, Support bracket 6, Floor slab 7, Ceiling finish 8, Floor finish 9, A ccess ladder 10, Clamped glazed wall I I , Inner framed curtain walling 12,Fixing bolt I 3. Maint enance access deck 14, Fixing bracket 15, Extruded aluminium mullions 16, Opaque glazing 17, Ground slab 18, Backing wall 19,Inclined and lapped glass 20, Cable suppo rt 21, Corner clamp 22, Cast metal fixing bracket 23. Clamp bracket 24, Meta l parapet coping 25,Thermal insulation
pets are parti ally vent ilated t o avoid most of
struction such as a reinforced concrete wall.
th e wate r ingress but allow some vent ilat ion,
Th e edge channel o r fixings must allow th e
Th e bottom is also vent ilate d, allow ing moi s-
glass to rotate w it hin it to t ake up movement
ture t o find its way o ut. Opaque glazing can
from deflection in a cable suppo rt ing th e
be easily int egrat ed int o adjacent areas of
ot her end of th e glass, Seals are usually
clear glazing by setting th e alum inium ext r u-
form ed by glazing channels or steel angles
sion away from th e edge and fixing th e edge
th at provide a weat her t ight seal. H igh
of t he glass into th e adjacent glazing system,
amo unts of movement can be taken up at junction s w it h a flexible metal strip th at is sili-
Sealing clamped glazing
cone-bo nded t o th e edge of th e glass t o pro -
W it h all form s of clamped glazing, th e move-
vide a flexible seal.
ment o r deflection of any fixed edges must be compat ible w it h th at of th e general support system,Th is is particularly im po rt ant in th e case of cable-suppo rte d glazing, w here high deflection s associate d w it h th e cables must be integrated w ith th e small amo unt s of Vertical section I 10, Glazing clamped to aluminium carrier frame
MC E
10 2
movement w hen th e glass at th e edge of th e wall is fixed o nto an adjacent form of con-
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~ Vertical section 1:5. Double glazed units clamped to steel frame
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Horizontal section 1:5. Double glazed units clamped to steel frame
Horizontal section I :25. Clamped glazing in lapped and flush panel arrangement
Vertical section I :25. Clamped glazing in lapped and fiush panel arrangement
@
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3-D views showing lapped , clamped glazing fixing method supported on steel frame
MCE
10 3
- - -Glass Walls
03- - - - - - ..,
Clamf2ed glazin
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Stainless steel pat ch plates Single glazed or doeble glazed
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unit to suitapplication Siliconeseal Glass fin
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Support bracket Floor slab
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Ceiling finish Floor fon ish
9
Access ladder
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16. Backing wall 19. Inclined and lapped glass 20, Cab le suppor t 21,
17. Ground stab
104
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22. Cast metal fixing bracket 23. Clamp bracket 24. Metal parapet coping
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10. Clamped glazed wall II . Inner framed curta in walling 25. Therma l insulation 12. Fixing bon 26. Single or double glazed unrt 11 r-taotenaoce access deck 14. Fixing bracket IS. Extruded aluminium mullions 16. Opaque glazing
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3-D fragmentviews of lapped, clamped glazing system, in-tact and exploded
3-D exploded view of fixingdetail for glazing supported by spider clamp hungfrom cable truss
~ 3-D exploded fragmentview of one storey of glazing system clamped at comers and supported from cables
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3-D exploded detail view of lapped. clamped glazing system fIXing
MCE
105
Glass W als OLl Bolt fixed glazing
®[ CD Vertical section I : 10. Section through bolt fixing element
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Vertica l section I: I O.Section through glazing
3-D views of cable supported 4 po int 'spider' fixing element
Elevation I: IO. 'H ' style bolt fixing connection
Support method s
w it h th e glass for thi s purp ose. A ny sleeve
high degree of t ransparency provided by t he
In co m mo n w it h some oth er glazed wa ll
t hat is set over t he t hreaded rod behind t he
bolts w hich replace th e need for metal fram-
t ypes, bo lt fixed glazing is eit her hung fr om
disc is po sition ed so th at it do es not interfere
Like clamped glazing,bo lt fixed glazing has a
ing around t he edges of t he glass sheet or
t he t op of t he un it o r is suppo r te d at t he
w it h t he free movement of t he ball joint.
doub le glazed units. On e of t he main advan-
bottom. W hen hung from th e t op, bo lt fix -
Support brackets t o bo lts are eit her cast or
tages of bo lt fixed glazing is th e small size of
ings are secured t o st ainless steel cables o r
are machined and we lded from plate.The
t he fixings w hen compared t o t he larger and
rod s fixed at th e t op and t ension ed at th e
choice w ill depend largely o n shape and th e
more frequent clamped fixings.This system
bottom . Fixing t o ler ances are provided in
number of brackets needed, since castings
can also be doub le glazed much more easily
t hree direction s: ver t ically, ho r izo nt ally and
are economic o nly in large numbers cast
since a spacer can be introduced int o do uble
lat erally. Because t he join t s betw een t he
from a single mould. Castings can be fo rmed
glazed units durin g manufacture, away from
glass units or sheets are visible, and need
to take up complex geomet ries that look
t he edge of t he glass, w here it also has th e
to be we ll aligned, and th e fact th at t he
very cumbersome in we lded plate, but are
advantage of reducing th e glass span, thu s
glass is dr illed during t he manufactu re of
more expensive and tim e-con suming to pro -
minimising glass t hickness. However.t he sight
th e glass, fixin g t o lerances have to be pro-
duce, except in large quantities.T he cho ice of
lines associated w it h doub le glazed units are
vide d by t he bo lt fixin g and it s co nnect io n
painted mi ld stee l or stainless steel (po lished
almost t he same as t hose for stick glazing,
t o t he suppo r t ing br acket.
o r bru shed) for t he suppo rt bracket is very
w it h th e black line aro und t he edge of two
Th e bo lt fixings th emselves vary in com-
much a visual decision, parti cularly w here a
adjacent units,plus a 20mm (0.78in) average
plexity from economic t ypes w here a t hread-
large amount of we lding is required. If th e
joint in silicone giving an overall SOmm (2in)
ed bolt is secured w it h nuts t o a fixing brack-
we lding is not perfo rmed t o t he highest
thi ck joint w idt h in a dark colo ur.Since th e
et, t o sophist icate d types w here all t hreads
standards th en th e results can be visually dis-
edges of doub le glazed units are made
are concealed behind sleeves t o give a very
appo int ing. How ever.t he bo lts t hemselves
opaqu e to conceal th e edging strip, translu-
smoot h appearance.A ll bo lt ty pes allow rota-
are always in st ainless steel.Junctions
cent silicone is not used in t he joint between
t ion t o occur between t he glass and t he fix-
between mild stee l and stainless stee l are iso-
two o paque edges. Instead, a dark coloured
ing usually t o a maximum of 12 degrees.A
lat ed t o avoid t he st ro ng elect ro lytic corro-
silicone is used, usually black.
ball joint is hou sed w here t he fixing int ersects
sion th at occur s between th ese two metals.
MCE
10 6
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
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Details I. Cast steel connector 2. M ild stee l or stainless stee l
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inner rubber-based extruded seal Insulated panel Bolt-based cable end
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Stainlesssteel bolt foxing
8.
Steel connector fixed to
9.
Stainlesssteel cable
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Floor slab/structural wall Glazing channel at
stee l t ube
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Vertical section 1:10, Open jomed bolt fixed connection between glass units
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ertcat section 1 25. Double skin glazed facade bo It fixed to steel framework
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Structu ral co lumn Ccoc-ete shovvn
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Steel arm for lateral
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suppo rt Steel rod
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Glass fin
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Single glazed solar shading glass
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3-D view of 'H' style bolt fixing connection
Elevation 1:10, ' X' sty le bolt fixing connection
MC E
107
04- - - - - - ....,
- - -Glass Walls
Bolt fixed glazing
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Vertical section I :10. Silicone sealed connection between bolt fixed glazing at nco- level
® I Vert ical section I: I0, Silicone sealed comer connection between bolt foxed glazing with external structure
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Vert ical section I: I0, Silicone sealed comer connection between bo lt
foxed glazIng wFth external structure
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Vert ical section I: 10, Silicone sealed connection between bolt foxed glazing with external structure
Construction tolerances between sup-
to be set in a fixed relationship w ith t he sup-
porting structure and glass panels are accom-
porting truss or column. If th is adjustment is
modated between the glass and the bolt fix-
instead formed between spider and primary
ing. between the bolt fixing and the support
structure.then the glass remains in perfect
bracket or 'spider' and between the support
alignment but the alignment between spider
bracket and the supporting column or t russ.
and column/truss will vary The choice of
The gap between glass bolt and fixing is to
where to posit ion the dimensional adjust-
allow three of the typical four bolt fixings on
ment varies between designs and is largely
a glass unit to move freel)' while the fourt h
based on visual preference.
unit is damped t ight without damaging the
3-D view of cast aluminium spider clamp for bolt fixIng glazing
Me E
108
Because all components in bolt fixed
glass at t he edge of the hole. If adjustment is
glazing are visible,both from inside and out -
provided between bolt fixing and support
side.the choice of fixing bolts and screws is
bracket in order to take up dimensional dif-
visually very significantas is the extent of visi-
ferences between glass and supporting struc-
ble thread on the bolt fixing itself. Counte r-
t ure then this results in different joint widths
sunk bolts and pig-nose bolts (those w ith
between glass units,with slightly uneven cor-
two small holes on their face to provide
ners where four glass units meet.This meth-
points for tightening) are often preferred to
od does, however. allow the support spider
the more common hexagonal head types.
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Verti cal section & elevation I :50. Bolt fixed glazing supported on glass fins
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3-D view show ing glass fin supported within bo lt fixed glazing syste m
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Vertical section & elevation I: I O. Bolt fixed glazing supported on glass fins
Bo lts wit h Allen keys (a square hole cut into
vious top ic in o rde r to provide maximum
a circular bo lt head t ighten ed wit h a socket
transparen cy w it h a minimum of metal sup-
wrench) are also prefe rred as are smoot h
po rting struct ure .
circular washe rs wit h small ho les for tightening drilled int o t he ir edges.
The glass units and fins are clamp ed at t he ir base to t he fl oo r slab. Because t he clamp ing plates are big, sec ured by fo ur to six
Bottom support ed glazing
bolts which pass t hro ugh t he glass, t hey are
Glass suppo rted at its base can be fixed by a
ofte n co ncea led below th e finished floo r
variety of meth ods. Glass units are most
level.The fl oo r slab suppo rt ing t he glazed
co mmo nly suppo rted wit h glass fins o r steel
wall is eit he r step ped down t o acco mmodate
posts.W he n glass fins are used, t he glass is
t he base clamps o r fo rm part of a raised
stacked from its base , wit h th e dead load
floor zo ne .W it h e it he r meth od , th e pocket
passing partly to t he fins, and partly t hro ugh
form ed can also be used to acco mmo date
t he bolt fixings to t he glass below, dep e nding
co nvecto r heating used to red uce down-
o n th e design.The glass fins se rve prima rily to
dra ughts in t emp erate climates. Above th e
stiffen t he glass wa ll and resist w ind loads.
base level, glass unit s are fixed w it h bo lt fix-
This method is very much a deve lopme nt of
ings th at transfer loads from the t op glass to
t he patch plate syste m described in t he pre-
lower o nes.
Det ails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16.
Cast steel connector Mild steel or stainless steel angle bracket Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit application Outer silicone seal with inner rubber-based extruded seal Insulated panel Bolt-based cable end Stainless steel bolt fixing Steel connector fixed to steel tube Stainless steel cable Floor slab/structural wall Glazing channel at fioor level Structural column . Concrete shown Steel arm for lateral support Steel rod Glass fin Singleglazed solar shadingglass
MC E
109
Glass Walls O't Bolt fixed glazing
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@ Vertical section I : IO. Connection at ground level with glassbolt fixed to steelwork
St r uct ural posts, usually in mild steel. are an alte rnat ive meth od of suppo rt ing t he glaz-
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Vertical section I : IO. Sealed connection at ground level with glazing fixed to slab
both by th e position of th e ho les in relation
levels. Bo lt fixings are secured w it h br acket s
t o t he edge as we ll as by t he meth od of fix-
t hat are secured directly t o t he cable o r rod.
ing w it ho ut intro ducing a visually intrusive
ing th e br acket back t o its suppo r t ing struc-
T hey usually fit t ogeth er in t w o halves w hen
element, t ho ugh concrete columns are
t ure. Positio ns of t he holes are usually so as
secured t o cable.W here rod is used, t he
somet imes used w here t hey fo rm a neces-
t o reduce t he span of t he glass in order t o
mat erial is usually in lengths t hat co nnect
sary part of th e pr imary str uct ure.This
keep it w it hin an eco nomic t hickness, ty pically
into a fixing made as a single piece.
meth od has t he advantage of allow ing each
12mm (O.S in).A n essent ial aspect of bracket
Again, t he mixture of stainless steel and
glass t o be individually suppo r te d. In generic
design is in accommodat ing fixing tol erances.
mi ld steel requires separators t o avoid
exam ples,t he glass is fixed back t o a steel
Since t he suppo rting st ructure is erecte d
bimet allic corros ion, caused by co ntact
post at each vert ical joint. Lat eral restraint is
before t he glass, t olerances are introduced
betw een different met als in t he presence of
provided by ver t ical o r hori zont al w ind t russ-
int o t he bo lt and bracket fixing t o t ake up
rainw ater.W hile mild stee l ro d can be paint-
es in eit her steel tub e o r cable. Cable is pre-
th e differences.
ed t o match ot her parts of th e co nst ruct io n
ferred for it s visual light ness.T he size (diame-
such as adjacent suppo rt ing st r uct ure, care
t er) of t he suppo r t ing posts o r t r usses can
Top hung glazing
must be t aken during assembly o n site t o
be reduced by add ing o ut rigger br ackets t o
Suppo rting st ructure t o bo lt fixed glazing can
ensure t hat factory-coated compo nents and
posts set at w ider cent res.T his reduces t he
be made visually very lightweight by t he use
assem blies are not damaged. W here sta inless
number of suppo rt posts by two t hirds, but
of cables o r rods hung from t he t op and t en-
stee l is used inst ead of eit her mild stee l ro d
each post w ill necessarily be bigger.T he o ut-
sioned at th e base. Stainless steel cables o r
o r stainless stee l cable, th e diamete r of th e
riggers can also be reduced t o become lat er-
painted mild stee l rod s are used.T he cho ice
rod w ill be bigger t han eit her of t he ot her
al restraints o nly by intro ducing small diame-
is usually made for visual reason s. How ever,
t w o o pt io ns.
t er posts, ty pically aro und IOmm (OA in), t o
like clamp ed glazing t his meth od is associate d
t ake t he vert ical load.
w it h high deflections under w ind load.Th is
Corners
can be accepted eit her in th e design (some
Corn er s are made by either introdu cing sup-
In all cases th e bo lt s suppo rting t he glass are fixed back t o steel columns w it h brackets
cable-assisted wa lls deflect up t o 800mm/2 ft
porting struct ure at t he corne r o r alte rna-
or t o o ut riggers w it h similar br ackets.The
8in at th eir cent re) o r be restrained w it h
ti vely by cant ilevering o r fixing t he glass at th e
general shape of t he bracket is determined
cable t russes o r o ut riggers, ty pically at floo r
corner and pinning t he glass t ogether w it h
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Cast steel connector Mild steel or stainless steel angle bracket Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit application Outer silicone seal with inner rubber-based extruded seal Insulated panel Bolt-based cable end Stainless steel bolt fixing Steel connector fixed to steel tube Stainless steel cable Floor slab/structural wall Glazing channel at floor level Structural column Steel arm for lateral support Steel rod Glassfin Singleglazed solar shading glass
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Details I. Cast steel conne ctor 2. M ild steel or stainless steel angle bracket 3 Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application 4. Outer silicone seal with inner rubber-based extruded seal 5. Insulated panel 6. Bolt -based cable end 7. Stainless steel bolt fixing 8. Steel connector fixed to steel tube 9. Stainless steel cable 10. Floor slab/structural wall I I. Glazing channel at floor level
Vertical section I : I O.Top of bolt fixed glazed wall supported from cable spanning between slabs
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t w o bo lts forming a co rne r br acket. W here
extrusions are slowly being int ro duced t o
st r uct ural suppo r t is pr ovided at a co rne r, a
make installati o n easier.T he dept h of double
special br acket is usually requi red, t ho ugh
glazed unit s (o fte n aro und 30mm/ I.2in)
manufacturer s are increasingly providing
allows a small drainage channel t o be intro -
standard co rne r br acket s as part of t heir
duced.T his info rmati on can be found in t he
syste m s.Variat io ns of co rne r co ndit io n are
sect ion on Clamp ed Glazing.
usually as eco no m ic as o ne anot her.W here do uble glazed unit s are used , care is t aken
W here bo lt fixed glazing int erfaces w it h adjacent glazing syste ms,th e edge of th e glass
t o avoid exposed edges of glass w here t hey
is usually glazed-in direct ly t o t hose systems.
are vulnerable t o damage, usually from
W here it meets a wall t ype in a non -glazed
cleaning equipme nt.
mat erial, t he bo lt fixed glazing is usually t er-
Seals and int e rfaces
th at are fixed t o th e adjacent wa ll.T he deta il
minated by a glazing channel or metal angles
Ver t ical section I : I O. Base of bolt fixed glazed wall supported from cable spanning between slabs
MC E
11 2
Like clamp ed glazing, bo lt fixed glazing has
is formed in a way t hat co nceals t he angles,
essent ially a single barrier to w at er penetra-
leaving o nly th e glass visible.W here bo lt fix-
t io n.The workmanship of t he silicone sealant
ings are used at t he int erface w it h anot her
o n sit e is crit ical t o its successful applicat ion.
materi al, half bracket s are used.
In co mmo n w it h clamped glazing, silicone
12. Structural column. (Concrete shown ) 13. Steel arm for lateral suppor t
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5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Caststeelconnector Mild steelor stainless steel angle bracket Single or double glazed unit to suit application Outer silicone seal with inner rubber-based extruded seal Insulated panel Bolt-based cable end Stainless steel bolt fixing Steelconnector fixed to steeltube Stainless steelcable
10. Floor slab/structural wall I I.
12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Glazing channel at floor level Structural column Steel arm for lateral support Steel rod Glass fin Single glazed solar shading glass
3-D exploded views of bolt fixed glazing supported on glass fin
MC E
11 5
Glass Walls 05 Glass blocks
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Elevation I :50. Glass blocks and w indows set int o concrete frame to form glazed wall
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Elevation & section I :50. Glass blocks suppo rt ed by concrete frame to fo rm glazed wall
Glass blocks are used to form a robust, trans-
General properti es of glass blocks are as
3600 x 3600mm ( 12 x 12ft) t o around 4500
lucent and fire resisting glazed wa ll construc-
fo llow s:
x 4500mm ( 15ft x 15ft) depending on block
t ion. Glass blocks are made as eit her solid o r
th ickness.Th is overall area can be adapte d t o
hollow compo nents, but th e hollow ty pe has
Th erm al conduct ivity approximate ly 0.88 W/m 2 °C (0.5 1 Btu/hrft°F)
better th erm al and acoust ic insulati o n due t o
Light transmission
th e parti ally air evacuate d vo id w it hin and is
block
= 75% for ho llow
most commo nly used in w all construction. Glass blocks are made by pressing
suit a maximum height of aro und 6000mm (20ft) and a maximum w idt h of aro und 7500mm (25ft) . W hen used as fire resisting construct ion,
A lt hough glass blocks are set in courses
glass blocks can reach 90 minutes fire integri-
ty, but above 60 minutes fire resisting con-
t ogether two half blocks of glass w hich are
in th e manner of masonry const r uction, th ey
held at high t emp erature.Th e half blocks are
are used as a non -loadbearing mater ial.
struction, a metal channel restraint is used in
made as eit her pressed o r cast shapes.As
Blocks are arranged in a rectilinear grid o r
th e jointin g for its greate r reliability in fire
th e block coo ls afte r manufacture, a parti al
'stack bond ' of cont inuo us ver t ical and hori -
over mortar o r silicone ty pes materials. On e
vacuum is create d as th e air pressure drop s
zontal joints th at give th is mater ial th e
hour fire rated panels of glass block can be
w it h t emp erature.
appearance more of glazing th an of masonry
made t o a maximum size of approximate ly
const ruction. Recently th ere has been a
3000 x 3000mm (9ft x 9ft) w it h a maximum
The most commo n sizes of glass block for
developm ent in design by setting glass blocks
of 4000mm ( 12ft) in eit her height o r w idt h,
walls are as fo llow s:
forward of floor slabs inst ead of being seate d
depending o n individual building codes.T her-
o n th em, in th e manner of glazed curtain
mal insulation of glass block is poor com-
190mm x 190mm th ick (met ric size)
wa lling.W it h th is meth od , a stiffening frame is
pared t o doub le glazed units, w it h some con-
8 x 8 x 4in thi ck (imperial size)
set w it hin th e joints between blocks, w it h
densation risk on th e inside face in t emper-
150mm x 150mm (nom inal 6 x 6in)
addit ional suppo rts set aw ay from th e glass
ate climates.For th is reason, blocks are often
200mm x 200mm (nom inal 8 x 8in)
blocks visually t o light en th eir appearance.
used w it h concrete and steel frames th at do
200mm x 100mm (nom inal 8 x 4in)
Glass blocks are most commo nly eit her set
not have th erm al insulation, often w here th e
300mm x 300mm (nom inal 12 x 12in)
int o concrete o r masonry backing wa lls or
int erior face of th e wa ll is vent ilate d but not
Typical thi ckness 100mm (nominal 4in)
are set into a reinforced concrete o r stee l
heated, as in semi-exte rnal circulat ion areas.
suppo rt fr ame. For non -fire rated const r uc-
A n ideal enviro nme nt for glass blocks is in
ti on, maximum panel sizes vary from around
region s w hich have a warm t emperate c1i -
MC E
11 6
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
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Vertica l section & elevation I:25. Glass block wall supported between steel framewo rk
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Glass block Bedding reinforcement Bedding compound. mortar or silicone-based bond . A djacent blockwork wall with rainscreen A djacent concrete wall A djacent light gauge steel framed wall Reinforced concrete frame Steel box section 90° corner block 45° corner block Steel I-section, usually speciallyfabricated Steel angle Inside Outside Floor deck SteelT-section A djacent brick cavity wall construction Thermal insulation Extruded aluminium sections providing support A djacent reinforced concrete wall
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Typical glass block types
MC E
11 7
Glass Walls 05 Glass blocks
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Vertical section I : I O. Glass block window with intermediate steel section set into cavity wall construction
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Horizontal section I : IO. Glass block window supported on thermally broken aluminium framework
MC E
11 8
D etails I. Glass block 2. Beddingreinforcement 3. Beddingcompound. mortar or silicone-based bond. 4. Adjacent blockwork wall with rainscreen 5. Adjacent concrete wall 6. Adjacent light gauge steel framed wall 7. Reinforced concrete frame 8. Steel box section 9. 90° comer block 10. 45° comer block 1I. Steel l-section. usually specially fabricated 12. Steel angle 13. Inside 14. Outside 15. Floor deck 16. Steel T-seetion 17. Adjacent brick cavity wall construction 18. Thermal insulat ion 19. Extruded aluminium sections providing support
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mate for most o f th e year,w here th erm al
rey height frames, th ou gh half sto rey fr ames
minimum radius dim ension s for different
insulati o n is not required.
can also be used t o reduce th e th ickness of
block sizes as fo llow s:
th e block as we ll as t he need for addit ional
Fixing glass blocks
bed reinforcement. Blocks are set o n th e
150mmx 150mm blocks: 1200mm min. radius
Blocks are fixed in different ways.W hen sup-
edge o f th e fioor slab. Block co urses are laid
(6in x 6in blocks: 4Sin m in. radius)
ported o n reinforced co ncrete fioor slabs,
o n a bed o f m ortar w it h th e head o f each
200 mmx200 mm blocks: 1600mm min . radius
th ey are bedd ed in mortar o n all jo ints. w it h
panel of glass blocks allowing for th e str uc-
(Sin x Sin blocks: 65in m in. radius)
a fiexi ble joint (somet imes w it h an addit ional
tural defiection of fioor slabs.A reinforced
300 mmx300mm blocks: 2500 m m min. radius ( 12inx 12in blocks: 9Sin m in. radius)
alum inium edge frame) at th e t op and sides
co ncrete fioor slab spanning 7500 mm (25 ft)
t o allow for st r uct ural m ovem ent. Blocks can
between co lum ns can have a defiection of
also be glued t ogeth er w it h bond ing silicone,
aro und 20m m (O.S in) at it s cent re.Th is
using a sealing silicone o n th e o ut side faces.
defiect ion is allowed for th e head of th e
of st raight and curve d panels.T hese joints
Blocks can also be fixed t ogeth er w it h
block w it h an alum inium channel restr aint
usually serve also as st r uct ural joint s fo r th e
extr uded alum inium clips th at ho ld all th e
used at th e perimeter t o ho ld th e glass
blocks.
blocks t ogeth er.A ngle-shaped clips are used
blocks in place but allow th e slab above t o
t o fix th e glass block panels t o t he st r uct ural
defiect under load.
opening w it ho ut th e use o f a per imet er
Glass blocks can be laid o ut in visually
Movem ent jo ints are set at th e jun ction
In alte rnative gener ic exam ples, glass blocks are set in o penings in a reinforced co ncrete wa ll. Openings in th e wa ll have t o
fr ame. th e clips allowing for st r uct ural move-
co nti nuo us lengths. but are divided up w it h
be form ed in close t ol er ances in o rde r t o
ment bet w een th e panel of blocks and th e
stee l T-sect ion s at 2.0 - 3.0 metre (6ft 6in -
have even edges if th e co ncrete is t o be left
str uct ural o pening.T he o utside faces are also
l Oft) cent res t o provide th e later al st abilit y o f
ex posed. W here o penings cannot be form ed
sealed w it h silico ne.
th e panels.Th e addit ional T-sect ion results in
so accurate ly, th e glass blocks are set int o an
a w ider jo int th an th ose used elsewhere in
alum inium edge frame th at laps ove r th e
Support frames and walls
th e panel but in a lon g run o f glass blocks t his
co ncrete o r fo rms a shadow gap aro und th e
In a gener ic exam ple, glass blocks are fixed in
is barely visible from th e o ut side . th ough visi-
o pening. If th e co ncrete wa ll is clad in a dif-
panels t o a maximum of aro und 3500 m m x
ble o n th e inside. C urve d panels have t he
ferent materi al. such as m et al o r masonry
3500 mm ( I 1ft 6in x I 1ft 6in) square , in sto-
advantage of inherent str uct ural stability but
rainscr een panels, th en th e cladding can be
MC E
11 9
GlassWals 0 Glass blocks
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Horizontal section I : IO. Connection between glass blocks, and supporting steel section
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Horizontal sect io n I : IO. Glass blocks supported by steel sections
Ho rizontal section I : IO. Detail of door set into glass block wall
Horizontal section I : IO. Glass end block
adjusted to meet th e glass blocks neatly
as a st ro ng fr ame w hen lit intern ally at night,
w it ho ut th e makeup piece in th e o pening
from o utside.
being visible.
A complete frame of ro lled st eel sect ions can suppo rt glass blocks by setting th e blocks
Steel support frames
directly onto th e steels.This meth od requires
Glass blocks can also be suppo r te d o n stee l
close dimensional co-o rdinat ion of stee l size
fr ames.Th ese have th e advantage of making
and block w idt h in order for th e blocks t o be
th e glass blo cks appear t o have a co nt inu-
aligned o n th e o ute r face t o drain wate r
o us surface unint errupted by suppo r t ing
down th e face of th e stee l w it hout th e need
st r uct ure.
for a drip , w hich is visually o bt r usive.
In ot her cases, steel T-section s suppor t
Isometr ic view of glass block wall assembly
MC E
120
A recent developm ent in glass block
th e blocks for modest spans, w hich can be
design has been t o insert a st eel suppor t
increased from 1.5 metres t o 3.0 metres (5ft
fr ame int o th e jo ints between individual
t o l Oft) w it h th e use of a box section set
blocks. This is made more economic by using
behind it t o form a cont inuous suppo rt ing
th e largest 300 x 300mm ( 12in x 12in)
fr ame both vert ically and horizontally.W it h
blocks and adapt ing th eir edges in o rder t o
both o pt ions, th e frame is parti ally visible
conceal t he st eel box section w it hin.This
from o utside, as a shadow line in daylight, and
concealed steel fr ame can be suppo rte d by
Horizontal section I: IO. Glass block wall supported by steel framework
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Horizontalsection I:IO. Framed comer in glass block wall
3-D view of connection between glass blocks supported by steelbox frame
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3-D view of glass block wall supporte d between steel framework
such as t ube s.Alternatively.th e con cealed
Masonry and timber framed w indow o penings
steel frame can be made t o hang or sit on
G lass blocks cannot be bedded directl y int o
supp orting structure in th e manner of curtain
mason ry w alls, such as con crete blo cks, since
w alling, using steel posts to provide lateral
any movement at joints between blo cks w ill
stability throug h its height. Glass blo cks are
result in a crack in the nearest glass blocks .
brackets back t o secon dar y vertical po sts,
bo nded together w it h silicone w hich allow s
For t his reason w hen glass blocks are held in
fo r the highe r amounts of structural m ove-
mason ry o pe nings,they can be set d irectly
m ent assoc iated w it h stee l suppo rts than
o nto a concrete cill if o ne is used. Sometimes
those in reinfo rced co ncrete str ucture s.T he
t he co ncrete cill can fo rm a complete rein-
co nt inuo us surface of blo cks, unint errupt ed
forced co ncrete fr am e, aro und 50 -75m m
by floo r slabs o r co ncrete beam s, do not
(2 in- 3in) w ide in w hich t he glass blo cks are
require any drips t o t hrow w ate r clear of
set. Openings in t im ber fr amed w alls, and
t hese surfaces, giving an ove rall sm oot h
o penings in cavity w all co nst r uct io n (t ypically
appearance t o t he glass blo ck wa ll.
brick o uter leaf, air gap and inner blo ck/t im ber wa ll) use an extr ude d alum inium frame
D etails I. Glass block 2. Bedding reinforcement 3. Bedding compound, mort ar or silicone-based bond. 4. Adjacent blockwork wall with rainscreen 5. Adjacent concrete wall 6. Adjacent light gauge steel framed wall 7. Reinforced concrete frame 8. Steel box section 9. 900 corner block 10. 450 corner block I I. Steel I-section, usually specially fabricated 12. Steel angle 13. Inside 14. Outside 15. Fl oor deck I6. SteelT-section 17. Adjacent brick cavity wall construction 18. Thermal insulation 19. Ext ruded aluminium sections providing support 20. Adjacent reinforced concrete wall
to ho ld t he glass blocks in place, w hich is usually po lyester powder co at ed.T he alum inium
MC E
121
Glass Walls 05 Glass blocks
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3-D view of storey height glass channels ascladding system
fram es are t herma lly broken, fixed to t he
)
A n advantage of cast glass channels o r
performance soft coat ings are required t o be
masonry o pening, usually w it h screws, Similar
'p lanks' ove r glass blocks is t hat t hey are self-
sealed as do uble glazed unit s in t he factor y,
alum inium sect io ns are used between some
suppo r t ing, w it h th e ability to span th eir full
w hich is not possible w it h cast glass channels
joints t o pro vide additi on al suppo rt if
length of aro und 2.5 metres (Bftj .T he glass is
as th eir ends are o pen unti l installed in th e
required.W here glass blocks are set int o an
held in place w it h t hermally broken alumini-
aluminium edge framing already descr ibed. Cast glass channels are sealed t ogeth er
op ening in a timber frame, th e alum inium
um ext r usions at its ends, using sect ions simi-
pro file edge can be co mbined w it h a t imb er
lar t o t hose used fo r glass blocks in w indow
w it h silicone, w it h translucent w hite being t he
cill t o give a co nt inuo us t imb er appearance
o penings,T he ext r usions are anodised or po l-
most commo nly used co lour,t o match th e
both int ernally and exte rn ally.
yester powd er coate d t o suit t he design,
glass as closely as possible. U nlike glass blocks,
Light t ransmission is aro und 85%, reducing t o
cast glass channels can provide o nly very lim-
Cast glass channe ls
70% if two channels are int erlo cked t o fo rm
it ed fire resistance of aro und 30 minutes
The effect of translucency pro vided by thi ck
a wall of doub le thi ckness t o improve th er-
w hen th e length of th e plank is restricted t o
glass can also be pro vided by cast glass chan-
mal insulati o n and increased sound reduction
aro und 2.5 metres (8ft) .T he glass is rein-
nels,T hese are like half blocks in section
t hro ugh t he wall.A double t hickness of int er-
forced w it h a grid of w ires, giving t he appear-
w hich are made in lengths up t o aro und 2.5
locking channels can pro vide a sound reduc-
ance of traditional w ired glass, and jo ints use
metres ( I ft 6in), Most are aro und 250mm
ti on similar t o t hat of a double glazed unit in
a fire retardant silico ne.
w ide x 60mm deep ( l Oin x 2.5in) w it h glass
a glazed wa ll of aro und 40dB, w it h t hermal
aro und 6-7mm (0,25in) t hick, Planks can be
insulation also similar t o th at of a doub le glazed unit at aro und 2,0 W /m 2 K if a hard
set both vert ically and ho rizont ally, but ver t ical applicat ions are th e most co mmo n as
low emissivity (lowe) coat ing is applied t o
t hey are far easier t o fix,W hen set ho rizon -
t he inner face of t he o ute r channel.A n
t ally,glass planks cannot sit on t op of o ne
advantage of cast glass channel glazing is t hat
anot her ; each plank is suppo r te d individually
it is much cheaper th an a co nvent ional glazed
at it s end t o pro vide a wate rproo f seal
wall syste m,T his coat ing changes t he surface
between planks th at can accommo date t her-
appearance slight ly,A hard coat ing allows th e
mal movement.
channels t o be assembled o n site ,T he higher
MC E
122
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3-D view of storey height glass channels used as cladding system
Details I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Glass block Bedding reinforcement Bedding compound , mortar or silicone-based bond . Adjacent blockwork wall with rainscreen Adjacent concrete wall Adjacent light gauge steel framed wall Reinforced concrete frame Steel box section 90 0 corner block 45 0 corner block Steel l-section, usuallyspecially fabricated Steel angle Inside Outside Floor deck SteelT-section Adjacent brick cavity wall construction Thermal insulation Extruded aluminium sections providing support Adjacent reinforced concrete wall
Horizontal section I: IO.Vertically set glass channels used as window
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Vertical section I:IO. Interlocking horizontally set glass channels used as window
Vertical section I:IO. Horizontally set glass channels used as window
3-D view of ope ning set in glass channel facade
MC E
12 3
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ails 0 Glass blocks
3-D exploded view of glass block system with supporting structure
CD
3-D view of glass block facade system with supporting structure
3-D exploded view of top of glass block facade system and fioor slab connections
Details I. 2.
Glass block Bedding reinforcement 3. Bedding compound, mortar or silicone-based bond 4. A djacent blockwork wall with rainscreen 5. A djacent concrete wall 6. A djacent light gauge steel framed wall 7. Reinforced concrete frame 8. Steel box section 9. 90° corner block 10. 45° corner block I I . Steel I-section, usually specially fabricated
MC E
124
I 2. 13. 14. 15. I 6. 17.
Steel angle Inside Outside Floor deck SteelT-section Adjacent brick cavity wall construction 18. Thermal insulation 19. Extruded aluminium sections providing support 20. Adjacent reinforced concrete wall
3-D exploded view of glass block facade system with supporting structure
3-D exploded view of junctions in 'kinked' glass block wall configuration
3-D view of bottom of glass block window set in cavity wall construction
3-D exploded view of bottom of glass block window set in cavity wall construction
3-D view of top of glass block window set in cavity wall construction
3-D exploded view of top of glass block window set in cavity wall construction
MC E
125
GlassWals 01) Steel windows
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D eta ils
Steel fram ed w indows are a rob ust w indow
ened w it h a fr ame formed from integral
I. 2.
const r uct ion t hat is ofte n used as a fire
stee l fins th at pass through t he w indow.
resistant glazing. Steel glazing was develop ed
These narrow w indow sect ions cannot
primari ly for single glazing,w here th e main
incorporate a th erm al break.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.
22. 23.
Outside Inside Steel supporting structure Transom Mullion Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application Fixing bead Fixing lug Projecting transom Rubber-based seal Fixed light Inward opening light Outward opening light Window cill Condensation tray Damp proof course (DPC) Internal finish Drip Packing Aluminium clip to secure double glazed unit Steel cill Meeting stile Pressed steel frame
MC E 126 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
advantage was t heir t hin sight lines w hen
W indow walls w it h larger panel sizes can
compared t o t hose in aluminium.T he t hin,
be formed in larger pressed stee l sect ions
rigid, rolled stee l sect ions we re also more
and ro lled hollow sect ions rath er t han t he
economic t han th eir aluminium co unte r-
smaller G-shaped or T-shaped sect ions.Their
parts.The rolled sect ions can accommo date
sight lines are very similar t o t hose in alumini-
doub le glazed unit s of most thi cknesses, but
um, t hat is considerably w ider th an hot rol led
are not t hermally broken.These rolled sec-
sect ions. Pressed stee l sections are w ider and
ti ons are used w it h small w indow sizes up to
deeper in sect ion th an th e ro lled types but
a maximum of aro und 3000 x 1800m m
t hey have t he advant age of being able t o be
( l Oft x 6ft) and a minimum of 250mm x
form ed int o larger walls as we ll as being able
400mm ( l Oin x 16in) w it h doub le glazed
t o incorp orate a th erm al break.Therm al
unit s. Fully glazed walls made fro m w indow
breaks are held in place by folding t he mate-
sect ions can be made using thi s relatively
rial tightly over t he ends of t he polymer
small w indow size.The 'w indow wall' is st iff-
mat erial, w hich is current ly t oo difficult t o do
Vertical section I: I0, Internally glazed rolled steel frame
Ver t ical section I: I0, Internally glazed rolled steel frame
Ho rizontal section I : I0, Internally glazed ro lled steel frame
eco nomically in thin hot ro lled sect io ns, The most commo n use of steel w indows
3-D view of rolled steel window details
Horizontal section I : I0, Externally glazed ro lled steel frame
w here a co nsiste ncy of appearance is required over a cont inuo us facade w it h dif-
is in fire resistant glazing, typically w here
ferent requ irement s for fire protect ion in dif-
glazed w alls enclose a fire resisting compart -
ferent areas of th e same facade,
ment.Th e fire integrity is usually between 30 minutes and I hour, but 2 hour int egrit y Can
Small-scale glazing
be achieved w hen used w it h fire resisting
Fixed and o pening light s framed in sizes up t o
glasses,A lt ho ugh st eel glazing pro vides st r uc-
3000mm x 1800mm ( l Oft x 6ft) use a stand-
tura int egrity during a fire, it does not pro -
ard single section w hich is used for both hor-
vide th erm al insulation t o co unte r th e heat
izontal and vertical glazing sect io ns as we ll as
generate d by fire.Th is is dealt w it h eit her by
for o pening light s,W here o pening light s
pro viding sprinklers th at drench th e wall t o
occur,th e profi le used for th e w indow frame
keep it coo l o r else th e wa ll is position ed in a
is different, as is th e profi le for th e o pening
way th at building user s do not come int o
light it self A lso, profiles are different for
direct contact ,A reas of fire resisting glazing
inw ard and o pening lights, Unlike aluminium
Can be combined w it h areaS of unprotected
fr amed glazed walling, w here a single ext r u-
glass w it ho ut changing th e outward appear-
sion is used throughout, w it h o pening light s
ance of th e glazing,Th is is a big advantage
glazed int o th e syste m, small-scale stee l glaz-
J-LJ view ot Junction with adjoining cavity wall
MC E
127
Glass Walls Ob Steel windows
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Vertical section I :I O. Rolled steel frame with singleglazing
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.
MC E
Outside Inside Steel supporting structure Transom Mullion Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application Fixing bead Fixing lug Projecting transom Rubber-based seal Fixed light Inward opening light Outward opening light W indow cill Condensation tray Damp proof course (DPC) Internal finish Drip Packing A luminium clip to secure double glazed unit Steel cill Meet ing stile Pressed steel frame
128
CD
1 Vertical section I:I O. Rolled steel frame with singleglazing
Vertical section I :I O. Rolled steel frame with double glazed unit
ing requires a family of different pro files t o
wall, mild st eel T-sect ion fins are set betwee n
create a single glazed wa ll. For t his reason,
th e w indows t o form a st iffening frame.T he
manufactu rers offer a small range of stee l
adjacent fr ames are screw ed t o t he fins in
w indow ty pes in o rder t o remain economic.
o rder t o cont ribute t o th e overall st iffness of
Because sectio ns are ro lled rather t han
t he frame. Unlike aluminium, t he T-sections
ext r uded, t here is very littl e possibility of cre-
used are different fro m t hose set vert ically in
at ing a new profile for a specific project. Sin-
o rder t o provide a projecting drip. Profiles
gle glazed panes of glass w ere traditionally
are designed so th at th ey are glazed from
fixed w it h stee l pins and glazing putty like tra-
eit her t he inside o r t he o utside.T he choice of
dit ional w indow fr ames, but th e pract ice has
syste m is usually dictate d by th e method of
given way t o t hin steel channels and angles.
glass replacement , w hich may be fro m an
Mo re recent ly,aluminium ext r usions are used,
intern al fioor o r from an exte rnal ladder or
w hich are clipped int o place.T he ext rusions
cleaning and maint enance cradle.
are both more reliable in t he long t erm and
O utw ard o pening light s have pro files w it h
far easier t o replace, parti cularly in large-scale
edges th at proj ect over th e front of th e sup-
glazed wa lls.
porting frame t o exclude rainw ater.A pro-
W hen w indows, eit her fixed o r o pening light s, are joined t ogether t o fo rm a glazed
jecting drip is prov ided at t he t op to prot ect t he vulnerable t op joint. A ny rainw ater t hat
~-06 @
Ho rizontal sect ion I 10. Rolled st eel frame with single glazing and outward op ening light
@ @
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Vertical section I : I O. Inward opening rolled steel frame with double glazed unit
Vert ical section I: I O. Outward opening rolled steel frame with double glazed unit
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Ho rizontal section 1:5 . Junction between steel window and adjoining cavity wall construction
Ho rizontal section I : I O. Rolled steel frame glazed internally
drip s into th e inner surface of th e frame is
direct ly th rou gh th e fr ame into th e suppo rt-
dr ained away aro und th e edge of th e fr ame
ing mater ial.
and o ut at th e bottom of each frame. Rub-
A ddit ional st iffening for larger walls is
ber-based seals are now used t o assist w it h
provided by tub e or box sect io ns set away
reducing air infiltration th rou gh th e w indow.
from th e glazed w all.T he glazing is fixed t o
Inw ard o pening light s use th e same pro -
th e suppo rt fr ame w it h steel cleats and
files w it h th eir proj ecting edges set against
br ackets.Th ese provide a meth od of taking
th e frame in a similar w ay At th e w indow
up tolerances and alignme nt adjust ments
head, a projecting fin is not needed as a dr ip,
between t he w indows and th eir suppo r t ing
since th e oute r frame is lapped over th e
fr ame.
inner light. Rubber-based seals are used t o
CD
Doors are fixed t o t he suppo rting fr ame
reduce air infiltration .W indows and glazed
in t he same way as w indows, but th eir con-
walls are fixed t o adjacent masonry walls
st ruct ion is more robu st.They have th icker
w it h stee l lugs t hat allow th em t o be fixed
sect ions at t he cill and have a horizontal rail
away from th e edge of th e concrete o r
at mid -height t o provide st iffness. Some also
masonry These lugs are co ncealed by int ernal
have m ild stee l plates, glazed in at cill level as
finishes.W hen fixed into a timber or pressed
kicking plates.The plate s have an internal
steel edge fr ame, stee l glazing can be fixed
insulati on co re if used in co njunct ion w ith
3-D view of steel glazing set in cavity wall construction
MC E
129
Glass Walls OiS Steel windows
Ho rizontal sections I : 10.Various pressed steel window configurations with double glazing and thermall y bro ken
0- -
Horizontal sections I: I O. Pnessed steel frame win dows with double glazingand thermally broken. Junction with cavity wall construct ion
Horizontal sections I: 10. Pressed steel frame windows w ith double glazingand thermally broken. Junction with cavity wall construction
3-D view of various pressed steel frame wind ow configurations with double glazingand thermall y broken
Details
do uble glazing.Th e thinn ess of st eel w in-
front t o allow fixing t oggles t o be inserted
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
dow fr ames in relation t o aluminium allows
int o it. Rubber-based air seals are set against
7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.
MC E
Outside Inside Steel supporting structure Transom Mullion Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application Fixing bead Fixing lug Projecting transom Rubber-based seal Fixed light Inward opening light Outward opening light W indow cill Condensation tra y Damp proof course (DPC) Internal finish Drip Packing Aluminium clip to secure double glazed unit Steel cill Meet ing stile Pressed steel frame
130
doo r cills t o be visually more discrete t han
t he carrier frame onto w hich t he double
th o se in aluminium, w it h a low upstand
glazed units are set.The glass is secured w it h
formed by t he cill at flo or level. D oors, in
pressure plates and int egral ru bber-based
commo n w it h ot her cills, have a co ndensa-
seals in th e same w ay as aluminium glazed
t ion channel w hich co llects wate r at t he
wall syste ms.The pressure plate is fixed w it h
bottom of th e glazed wall and directs it t o
a bolt th at is secured into the t oggle. In alu-
t he outs ide .These channels are needed
minium const r uction, a projecting groove
since t he fr ame is not t herm ally brok en and
forms part of t he ext r usion t o w hich t he bolt
co ndensat ion can occur on t he int ern al face
is fixed. Rolled or pressed st eel cannot incor-
in te mperate climates.
porate such a complicated and rigid profile. The ru bber-based air seals fixed t o t he box
Large-scale glazing
sect ions have an addit ional lip w hich t ucks
Large-scale glazing uses a carrier frame of
down over th e top of th e do uble glazed unit
mullions and t ransoms form ed in steel box
below.T his provides a sealed inner chamber
sect ions similar t o t hat in aluminium.The car-
for drainage and pressure equalisation in t he
rier fr ame has an indented groove at th e
manner of aluminium glazed walls. Manufac-
--,J 3-D view of double glazed steel frame w indow set in cavity wall construction
Ver tical section I: I a. Outward op ening double glazed st eel frame wi ndows set in cavity w all con~~:~~~~n
@
@ Vertical section I :I a. Fix ed light double glazed steel frame windows set in cavity wall construction
Hor izont al section I :I a.Vertically set glass channels used as window
tu rers provide systems to suit different glaz-
be combined wit h a glazed roof. In thi s det ail
ing layo ut s and spans.T he shape of th e box
a co ping is glazed int o the roof member adja-
section can also vary. fro m t hin long boxes,to
cent t o th e wall at o ne end and glazed int o
a rectangular box. t o a po inted aerofo il-type
th e t op t ranso m of the w all at its other end.
sect io n.The overall sight lines are t hinner
The coping profile is usually formed to project
t han an equivalent in alumini um. Special cor-
slight ly forward of t he top face of the pres-
ner pieces are made w it hin manufacture rs'
sure plate in order t o pro vide protect io n fro m
systems w hich are similar to those in alumini-
maint enance equipment and ladders th at can
um.Th ese special profiles make co me rs more
damage th e parapet co ping. Cills at gro und
elegant t han t hey wo uld be by combining
level have met al fiashings glazed int o th em t o
struct ural sections,w hich w o uld necessitate
pro ject dow n over adjacent co nstr uct ion, such
th e adding of sheet metal in co rners.
as an insulat ed co ncrete upstand.A n alumini-
Parapet s are form ed by glazing a metal
um o r EPDM fo il is also glazed in behind t he
fiashing int o t he transom (horizont ally) at th e
fiashing t o pro vide a wat ert ight seal against
t o p of th e w all and exte nding th e fiashing
adjacent co nst ruct io n such as a fioor slab. Slot
down th e parapet w all behind w hich t he roof
dra ins at cili level are increasingly used t o co n-
build-up is retained.A n advantage of steel
ceal t he minimum I SOmm (6in) upstand
glazed walls in box sect ions is t hat t hey can
required between th e low est transom and t he
3-D view of double glazed steel framed wi ndow set in cavity wall construction
MCE
131
Glass Walls 06 Steel windows
@
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Vertical sections I : I O. Pressed steel singleglazed fire resisting doors without thermal breaks
Vertical section I:I O. Pressed steel doors with thermal breaks. Outward opening (left) and inward opening (right)
@
Horizontal section I: I O. Fixed pressed steel singleglazed fire resisting doors without thermal breaks
Horizo ntal section I: I0, Outward opening pressed steel door with thermal break
Horizontal section I :I O. Inward opening pressed steel single glazed fire resisting doors without thermal breaks
Jr -
Horizo ntal section I break
'
Horizontal section I :I O. Outward opening pressed steel single glazed fire resisting doors without thermal breaks
Details I.
2. 3.
4.
5. 6.
7. 8. 9. I O. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Outside Inside Steel supporting structure Transom Mullion Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit application Fixing bead Fixing lug Projecting transom Rubber-based seal Fixed light Inward opening light Outward opening light Window cill Condensation tray
®
®
3-D view of outward opening pressed steel door with thermal break
16. Damp proof course (DPC) 17. Internal finish 18 Drip 19. Packing 20. Aluminium clip to secure double glazed unit 21. Steel cill 22. Meeting stile 23. Pressed Steel Frame
® 3-D view of outward opening pressed steel singleglazed fire resisting door without thermal break
MC E
132
Horizontal section I: I0. Steel framed cur t ain walling details at var ious junctio ns
exte rnal gro und level for wate rproofing pur-
fixed t hro ugh t he fr ame int o t he adjacent
poses.The use of an exte rnal slot drain also
st ruct ural wa ll.A n EPDM foi l or silicone seal-
allows t he exte rnal level t o be t he same as
ant is th en used t o seal th e gap between th e
based seals. Similar ly, doors can have a mod-
t he int ernal fioor level w hile providing a
stee l w indow/door and t he adjacent co n-
est t her mal break int roduced t hat avoids
semi-co ncealed upstand.
crete or mason ry wa ll.
co ndensat ion fo rm ing o n t he inside face of
Met al fiashings and an EPD M foi l behind it are also used t o seal steel glazing against
Steel glazing w ith box sections has a lim-
Steel glazing w it h box sections has a limited th erm al br eak provided by th e rub ber-
t he door in t emp erat e climat es. D oors and
it ed th erm al break provided by t he rubb er-
o pening light s have rubb er-based seals
areas of adjacent co nstruct ion such as
based seals.Similarly,doo rs can have a mod -
between t he light and t he carrier fr ame t o
masonry and co ncrete wa lls. O pening light s
est t hermal br eak int ro duced t hat avoids
reduce air infilt rati on . Steel glazing is usually
and doo rs are set int o stee l glazing as sepa-
co ndensat ion forming o n th e inside face of
finished as eit her galvanised o r po lyester
rat e it ems glazed w it h an opening.As w ith
t he door in t emp erate climates. D oo r s and
powd er coate d. PVDF is not used o n steel.
alum inium glazed walls, t he door or o pening
o pening light s have rubb er-based seals
Somet imes a co mbinat ion of galvanising and
light has an addit ional frame w hich is visible
between t he light and t he carrier frame t o
coat ing is used, but galvanising can distort
from t he o utside. D oor and w indow light s
reduce air infilt rat io n. Stee l glazing is usually
small co mpo nents, making it much less po pu-
are formed from pressed steel sections
finished as either galvanised or po lyest er
lar t han polyester pow der coat ing.
w hich are fold ed t ogeth er t o form a family of
powd er coate d. PVDF is not used o n stee l.
pro files t o suit different sizes and glass ty pes.
Somet imes a combinat ion of galvanising and
Steel fr amed w indows and doors are also
coat ing is used, but galvanising can disto rt
made as separate items for glazing into o pen-
small compo nents, making it much less popu -
ings in mason ry wa lls. In t his inst ance t hey are
lar t han polyester powd er coat ing. MCE
13 3
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Steel windows
Details I. """'"
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2._ 1 Steel supportrog wueture -s.Transom
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S. Mu11'on 6. SlI'Igle g\aled or double gLued l.I1ct to ~ applatoOn
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7. Fomgbead 8.Fi>arIg Ug 9. PrOjectl'lg tranSOffi
,O. Rubber-based seal II . Fixed light 12.Inward opening Iigtlt 13. Ovtwara openrog light I"'Wndow61
15.Cc:nOensabon tray 16.Damp proof ccc-se (DPC) 17. Internal fin,sh
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18. Drip 19. Packing 20.A!l.rniruum clipto secure
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MC E
134
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21. Steel dI
21 Meebng stile 21 Pressed steel frame
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3-D exploded view of pressed steel window set wttIWl ~ waf
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MC E_ 135
GlassWalls 07 Al uminium and PVC- U w indows ~
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Vertica l section I: I O. Inw ard open ing door
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HOrizontal. vertical section and elevation I :25. Inward opening alum inium doors with extemal balustrade
A luminium w indows are used eit her as indi-
fianking sound passing from apartment t o
vidual light s set int o a structural opening o r
apartment. 'W indow wa lls' of w indows linked
as 'w indow w alls' w here w indows are st ill set
by glass o r metal panels is ofte n pr efer red
int o op enings, but are linked t oget her w it h
w here a fire separat ion zone is needed
metal or opaqu e glass panels t o give t he
between apartment s,w hen combined w it h
appearance of a cont inuo us glazed w all.
t hermal and acoust ic mass.
T he essent ial difference between alumini-
3-D view of aluminium opening doors and fixed lights
MC E 136 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
um w indows and aluminium glazed w alls (o r
Window s in openings
'curta in walls') is t hat w indows are set indi-
W hen fixed into a str uctu ral op ening in a
vidually into structural op enings,w hereas
w all formed in another mat erial, aluminium
curta in w alling uses a co nt inuous carrier
w indows have dri ps and flashings t o seal
fr ame fixed fo rw ard of t he suppo rt ing struc-
against t he adjacent materi al. Specific inter-
t ure.W indows are not t echnically inferior t o
face det ails of w indows w it h adjacent mat eri-
curta in wa lling, but are a different met hod of
als are discussed elsewhere in t his book,
glazing.W indow systems are we ll suite d t o
under t he heading of each wall typ e.T his sec-
apar t me nts, w here t he discontinui ty of fram-
t ion deals specifically w it h t he issues of glaz-
ing is prefer red for acoust ic reasons,avo iding
ing aluminium w indows and doors into any
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Vertical section I: I O. External opening door
L ............._ - - '
Vertical sections I: I O. Aluminium windows fixed into openings in masonry concrete walls
1--J--;tu~U;=:ll!i;~ Horizontal section I: I O. Internal opening door
0. '--
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Horizontal sections I :I O. Aluminium wlnaows fixe Into openings in masonry/concrete walls
Horizontal
~\; il:~L~==l' section I: I O. External opening door
fL-Jn-~=:::::::::J
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struct ural opening. A luminium w indow s and doors are often
st r uct ural stability. In commo n w it h aluminium curtain walls,
preferred for th eir th erm al and acoust ic
aluminium w indows are pressure equalised
insulation prop erties, t ogether w it h low lev-
and internally dr ained, providing two lines of
els of air infiltration .They have a generally
defence against rainw ater ingress.The oute r
D et ails
higher performance in th ese areas th an stee l
line of defence is provided by a rubb er-based
I. 2.
or timber fr ames, and th eir dur able finish
seal fixed t o th e w indow frame.A ny rainw a-
gives th em a consist ent appearance over 20
t er penetrating th is oute r seal is dr ained away
years, depending on th e t ype of finish used.
in a vent ilate d cavity w it hin th e w indow
Their main disadvantage is th e w ide sight
fr ame and is released back t o th e outside
lines required t o accommo date smoot h
through th e cill profile.
movement of th e opening light in t he fr ame
Horizontal section I :I O. Internal opening door
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Opening door or window Fixed light Floor slab Thermal insulation Surrounding wall Internal finishes W indow cill
There is an increased use of 'flipper' seals
as we ll as th e seals and th erm al breaks
w it hin w indow frames t o both keep any rain-
required. Manufacturer s are ever-st riving t o
wate r th at penetrates th e oute r seal in a
make th e sight lines th inner but th is usually
chamber at th e front of th e section (similar
results in th e depth of th e w indow and door
t o unitised cur tain walling) and t o provide a
increasing substant ially in order t o maintain
th erm al break in th e void w it hin th e w indow
MC E
137
GassWalls 07 A luminium and PVC- U w indows
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Ho rizontal section I :25, Door fitted into a stick curtain wall system
fr ame.This prevent s air t emper ature and
in o rder t o provide much low er levels of air
humidity levels in th e outer chamber from
and w at er infiltr ation, D oor fr ames are gen-
passing all th e way through th e void in th e
erally w ider so as t o provide stability for th e
fr ame and reaching th e inner seal.T he inner
infill panel of glass but are not usually th er-
seal is th en used only as an air seal rather
mally broken in o rder t o provide a rigid
th an a full weat hert ight seal.T his meth od is
fr ame t o suppo rt th e infill glass,W indow
similar t o th at used in unitised curta in wa lling,
fr ames are often used for doors w here th ese
w here t wo air chambers are used at th e joint
low er levels of air and wate r infilt rati o n are
between panels,Th ere has been an increased
required, as in doors t o balconies in apart -
use in recent years of th erm al breaks in both
ment s, for example, D oors using door pro -
th e frame and th e o pening light in aluminium
files can reach 3.0 t o 3.5 metres in height
w indows ,The breaks are position ed t o coin-
w it hout w ide sight lines w hereas thi s is not
cide w it h th e rubb er-based flipper seal t o
th e case for doors using w indow fr ame pro-
reduce th e th erm al brid ge across th e com-
files w hich can reach a maximum of around
plete w indow sectio n,
2.4 metres high (2400mm) ,A bove thi s height.
A luminium frames for doors and w in3-D view of window fitted in to unitised glazing
MC E
138
it is difficult t o use th e frame t o support th e
dow s differ subst ant ially in th at w indow
glass, For doors exceeding 2.4 metres in
fr ames are narrow er but deeper th an doors
height using w indow sect ions, it is visually
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Verti cal section I: I O. Outward opening thermally broken door. Fixed into stick curtain walling
Vertica l section I: 10. Inward opening door with no t hermal break.Fix ed into stick curtain walling
Ho rizontal section I:25.A luminium doors fixed into a stick curtain wall system
D et ails I. 2.
3. 4. S. 6. 7. Hori zontal sect ion I: I O. Junctions between fixed light and opening door and window
Meet ing stile I: I0
necessary t o silicone bond th e frame t o the
both by th e minimum manufacturable size of
glass so th at th e fr ame and glass become a
double glazed unit and by th e need t o open
single structural component.The glass is th en
th e light smoot hly.
used t o stiffen th e fr ame rather than being a
Opening door or window Fixed light Floor slab Thermal insulation Surrounding wall Internal finishes W indow cill
Top hung light s, ofte n set above fixed alu-
non-structural infill panel w it hin th e fr ame.
minium w indows and opening door s t o pro-
This is more expensive and also difficult t o
vide night t ime natural vent ilat ion, have a
replace th e glass if broken w it hout replacing
minimum height of abo ut 800mm t o 900mm
th e comp lete frame. If t he fr ame is replaced
in order t o accommodate the o pening mech
th en t he colour of th e replacement door
anism. Fixed light s above doors can be
may not match th e surro unding framing.
reduced t o a height of around 200mm.Top
Maximum w idt hs of aluminium glazed doors
hung, bottom hung and t ilt!t urn w indows use
are a function of th e height, in order t o
similar sections t o side hung w indow s.Tilt!
restrict the overall we ight of th e door leaf,
turn w indows have t he advantage of combin-
but 850mm w ide doors (for a 1700mm w ide
ing th e functions of side hung w indows w it h
pair of doo rs) are commo n.The minimum
th eir ability t o open complete ly, and th e abili-
w idt h of th e opening door is abo ut 250mm
t y of bottom hung w indows t o provide high
t o 300mm depending on door height and
level natural vent ilat ion has led t o th eir
w idt h.The minimum dimension is determ ined
increased use.
3-D view of alumnium window
MC E
139
Glass Walls 07 Aluminium and PVC-U windows
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Horizontal & vertical section 1:25. Aluminium windows set into a glazed rainscreeen
3-D view of top hung aluminium window
MC E
140
3D view of side hung aluminium window
Horizontal & vert ical section I: I O. Sliding aluminium doors
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proof backing wall used in thi s ty pe of construction.This method makes it necessary to
of t he door is rest rained by guides t hat both
int o a st ructural opening, t he joi nt between
fix t he w indows and seal t hem t o t he backing
hold th e do or in place and allow it t o move
w indow and adjacent wall is made eit her
wall before th e exte rnal cladding is fixed.This
w it hout being o bstr ucte d by dirt and grit
w it h a sealant, such as silicone, or w it h an
is often an advantage, w here aluminium w in-
accumulat ing in t he bottom of th e cill pro -
EPDM foil glazed int o th e w indow fr ame and
dow s and backing walls provide a weat her-
file. Bottom rolling doors, w hich are sup-
sealed against th e face of t he surro unding
t ight enclosure at an ear lier stage t han wo uld
ported on th e cill profi le and are restrained
wall.The choice of seal is dependent upon
be achieved w it h more traditional method s
at th eir head, are much less commo nly used
th e material used in th e surrounding wall, but
w here t he w indows are glazed in afterwa rds.
for exte rnal doors since dirt and grit can
silicone seals are generally used w here th e
The ear ly date for weat hertight enclosure
hinder t heir movement.There are t w o t ypes
adjacent wall is of sealed const r uct ion, such
allows construct ion wo rk int ernally t o com-
of sliding door: th ose th at ro ll in a constant
as an open joint ed wall, sheet metal or
mence at the same tim e as th e exte rnal clad-
plane and th ose w hich lift o ut and th en
render on concrete . EPDM foil is used w here
ding is being installed. Forming a seal w it h
slide.Th e fir st t ype has higher levels of air
th e adjacent wall has an open joi nt ed finish in
sealant, w it h silicone or a polysulphide for
infiltration associate d w it h side hung door
front of th e struct ural wall, as in rainscreen
example, rather th an EPDM, allows th e w in-
profiles.Th e second type has much low er
construct ion, in metal or sto ne, for example.
dow t o be installed afterwa rds. Since t he
levels of air infiltration but has w ider sec-
The EPDM foil is sealed against th e wate r-
joint s are visible, and are formed w it h a t ool
MC E
141
G assWans 07 Alum inium and PVC-U w indows
3-D view of aluminium window as part of a unitised glazingsystem
3-D view of aluminium window as part of a unitised glazingsystem
3-D views of frame details
B.
Deta ils /
3-D detail view of aluminium glazing
MC E
142
I. 2.
D.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Opening door or window Fixed light Floor slab Thermal insulation Surrounding wall Internal finishes Window cill
B,
c.
D,
from outside, care sho uld be t aken t o choo se
wa rd of th em on br acket s, If th e w indow is
Comp osite wi ndows
a colour w hich is compat ible w it h both t he
sitting o n a suppo r t , t hen t he o paque panel
A recent developm ent has been in t he use of
w indow and th e adjacent const ruct ion,
adjacent t o it is usually set fo rw ard of th e
aluminium w indows w it h an inner frame in
w indow in o rder t o accommo date it s t her-
timber t o suppo rt th e o ute r aluminium pro -
Window walls
mal insulati on ,W hen t he w indow is set fo r-
file,T his is effectively an aluminium w indow
This syste m is parti cular ly useful w here a dis-
wa rd of th e o pening, th en th e glazing in th e
wall w it h a timber carrier frame, From th e
cont inuity is required, usually for fire o r
aluminium w indow can be aligned w it h t he
int erior,t he framing has an all-wood appear-
acoustic reasons,w hile maintaining an overall
o paque glazing.Thi s glazing t ype is commo n-
ance, However,th e glazing sect ions used are
modular facade,T hey are usually less expen-
ly used w it h both ribbo n w indows and row s
t hose from w indows rather th an curtain waIl-
sive th an glazed cur tain walling,Th e o paque
of individu al w indows,
ing, Som e manufact urers make w indows w it h
areas are usually filled w it h eit her an alum ini-
A n advantage of w indow wa lling is th at
timber frames behind th em t o form a timber
um sheet (coate d t o mat ch t he colour of t he
t he o paque spandrel panels can be made in a
fr amed uniti sed system,T he o ute r joint is an
adjacent w indow frames) o r w it h o pacified
different form of construction from t he w in-
o pen joint ed rainscreen.This protects t he
glass,T hese infill panels are suppo rte d by t he
dow s, Insulat ed composite panels can be
inner seals between t imber frames fro m t he
w indow frames and do not have a suppo rt
used for exam ple as metal rainscreen panels,
wo rst effects of w indblow n rain,T he t imb er
fr ame behind as wo uld be used in cur tain
o r o pen joint ed o paque glazing,T his can
fr ames are screwe d o r bo lted t ogether.Th e
walling syste ms,
make t he system very economic w hen com-
complete carrier fr ame is fixed back t o floo r
pared t o curtain wa lling. If th e spandrel pan-
slabs w it h stee l o r aluminium brackets in th e
visible fro m o utside is adapte d t o give t he
els are not set int o a framing system t hat is
manner of glazed curta in w alling.T hese
same appearance as th e junction betw een
internally drained and vent ilate d like th e w in-
brackets are describ ed in th e section o n st ick
o paque spandrel panels,T his gives t he
dow s, t hen t he vo id behind t he o paque pan-
glazing and unitised glazing.
exte rnal fr aming an ove rall consiste nt
els must be drained at t he head of th e w in-
appearance associate d w it h ot her modu lar
dow below, In addition, th e th erm al insulation
In a w indow wa ll, th e aluminium profi le
glazed wa ll t ypes,W indows are suppo rte d
behind t he spandrel panel fo rms a cont inuity
eit her direct ly o nto a floor slab o r co ncrete!
w it h th e doub le glazed unit of th e w indow,
block upst and, o r alte rnat ively are set for-
MC E
14 3
Glass Wa Is 07 Aluminium and PVC-U windows
1'1 3-D exploded view of wall with aluminium window
MC E
~
Exploded axonometric view of wall with aluminium window
3-D view of top hung aluminium window open
3-D frame detail of top hung aluminium window open
3-D view of side hung aluminium window open
3-D detail of side hung aluminium window frame open
144
3-D view of wall with aluminium windows
Exploded axonometric drawing of wall with aluminium windows
D etails I. 2. 3. 4. S. 6. 7.
Opening door or window Fixed light Floor slab Thermal insulation Surrounding wall Internal finishes Window cill
3-D exploded view of wall w ith aluminium window
3-D view of aluminium window
3-D view of aluminium window exploded from wall 3-D exploded view of aluminium window
MC E
145
Glass W aifs 08 Timber windows
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Verti cal section I :5.Inward opening casement dOO<"S Hor izontal section 1:5. Fixed casement window
Elevation I :25.Fixed casement window
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Like aluminium w indows. timber windows are
to avoid much larger equivalent sections in
used either as individual components or as
timber In common w ith other framed glaz-
assemblies o f 'w indow walls' of opening win -
ing systems. t imber windows are required t o
dows and fixed lights wh ich are linked
be held in a rigid frame. w ith only small
together
structural deflections allowed under wi nd load. For t his reason, cable-assisted st ruc-
3-D views showing side hung and fixed light windows
M C E 146 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
W indow walls
tures are seldom used, since they are associ-
These are formed either as individual w in-
ated with higher deflections than framed
dows linked togeth er and reinforced by a
supporting structures.These reinforcements
secondary frame. usually steel flats. or are
or addit ional supports are usually set inside
formed as full curtain walling systems.Where
the building to avoid penetrat ing the exteri-
t imber sections form the full structural sup-
or seal o f th e timber frame s.W hereas alu-
port for t he glazing.the glazing is secured
min ium glazing systems can accommodate
w ith timber glazing beads.Where individ ual
support brackets penetrating the oute r seals
w indows are linked together with steel rein,
with rubber-based gaskets and silicone seals.
forcement, addit ional support may be need-
the high moisture movement associated w ith
ed fro m a secondary structure. Steel tubes.
wood makes thi s much less practical w ith
T-sect ions or box sections are typical ly used
timber w indows .
D etails
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Fixed light Supporting structu re Outside Inside Head Cill Metal stiffening insert Timber infill panel Thermal insulation Singleglazed or double glazed unit to suit application Fixing bead Rubber-based seal Inward opening light Outward opening light Damp proof course
(DPC) 16. 17.
Internal finish Flashing to seal against adjacent wall 18. Vertically sliding sash 19. Sliding door frame top hung or bottom rolling 20. W indow or door jamb Elevation I :25. Side hung window
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HOrizontal section I :5. Side hung windows In window wall With different framing methods
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W here w indows are linked t ogether and
_
t imb er sect ions over aluminium extrusions is
reinforced w it h a mild st eel flat a drainage
t he ability of t imber t o be routed t o form a
groove is cut int o t he o utside of t he fram e as
variety of juncti on s between mullion (ver t i-
part of a st andard w indow frame. A ny w at er
cal) and tran som (ho rizontal). Slots and con-
t hat passes through t he o ute r seal is dr ained
t inuous gro oves can be cut int o t he sectio ns
away in t he groove w hich is used on all fo ur
t o give t hem a visual richness t hat is ofte n
sides of a t ypical fr ame.W ate r is dr ained
lacking in metal glazed w alls. Support brack-
away t o th e outside at th e cill.T he reinforce-
ets fixed t o th e inside face are form ed in alu-
ment does not exte nd forward of t he drain-
minium or mild st eel.
age groove t o allow wate r to be drained
Timber framed w indow wa lls ty pically
away unimpeded. A ll-t imber frames, in t he
span up t o two floors, due t o t he self we ight
manner of glazed cur tain w alling, may have
of t he panels.This is due t o t he need t o bind
mullion s and transoms of different dept hs,
t he frame int o large single unit s t o avoid t he
reflecting t heir different struct ural require-
effects of t hermal movement fro m shrinking
ments,and each may be in a different wood
of th e sect ions. If timber sect io ns are not ti ed
typ e. Hardwoods and softwoods can be
t ogether.t hey t end t o warp and t w ist w hen
mixed, but moisture movement needs to be
exposed t o outside eleme nts. Even if th e sur-
t aken int o account. A n advantage of solid
faces are painted o r sealed w it h varn ish, any
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MC E
147
Glass
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Elevation I :25. Side hung windows
Elevation I :25. Horizontal sliding wind ow
Horizontal section 1:5. Horizontal sliding window Vert ical section 1:5. Sliding window
movement due t o moisture w ill crack th e
add it io nal st iffness at th e co rne r, bindin g
o ute r finish and allow further movement t o
t he three t imb er sect io ns int o a single
occur.Timber sect ions are jointed w it h eit her
st r uct ural co mponent.
t ongue-and-groove o r rebated jo ints.W here t ongue-and-gro ove joints are used, th e linking
Window design
materi al can be a durable hardw ood o r alu-
W indows in recent years have develop ed by
m inium. Sections can also be bo lted t ogether
providing better airt ight and better wate r-
if th e sectio ns are of sufficient size,such as
ti ght barri ers in th eir design.A ir infiltr ation in
aro und 75 x 50mm (3in x 2in). Glazed wa lls can be jo ined relatively easily t o adjacent wa ll const ruct ion w it h seals
MC E
148
o pening light s has been reduced, w hen th e w indow is closed by th e addit ion of rubb erbased seals, often held in place by aluminium
and lapped edges associate d w it h traditional
clips so th at th ey can be replaced w hen
w indows . Corn er s are st raightfo rw ard to
wo rn-o ut. Wate rtight ness of opening light s
form as eit her a structural corne r o r as a fully
has been improved by th e use of pressure
glazed corne r.St ructural corne rs have t wo
equalised rebates in th e w indow sectio n so
glazing sectio ns brought t ogether. w hich are
th at any wate r ente ring th e profi les at th e
reinforced w it h an addit ional co rne r post.
sides is drained away from an oute r cavity
This post is set into routed grooves in th e
w it hout being drawn into th e inner seal by
edges of t he two w indow frames t o provide
capillary action (pressure different ial)
3-D section t hro ugh side hung window details showing different framing methods
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Horizontal sections I:5. Slid ing sash w indow
between inside and outside th e framing. An out er seal prevents excessive w at er infilt ration w hile t he inner air seal also serves
also been improved by th e use of fo lded alu-
Details
m inium and UPVC profi les.These profiles are
I. 2.
set fixed o n all edges of th e w indow by set-
as an acoust ic barrier. providing better sound
t ing them into a groove in the w indow frame
insulation than t radit ional w indows wi t ho ut
and projecting them over th e face of the sur-
th ose seals.The inner rubber-based air seal is
ro unding w all.This makes th e sealing of the
usually 'vulcanised' or fused at th e corne rs of
gap between w indow and surrounding w all
the frame t o maintain performance around
much easier by avoiding th e need t o seal the
the complet e perimete r of th e w indow.The
butt jo int created by setti ng t he w indow
drainage groove or channel around th e frame
directly int o th e opening.This projecting pro-
of ope ning light s somet imes has an alumini-
file is more reliable t han the traditi on al
um profi le attached to allow th e timber pro-
weat her bar used in th e cill with sealed butt
file t o be simp ler. Holes are drilled int o th e
joints o n th e jambs and head.
alum inium profile at cill level t o allow wate r
T here has been an increased cont ro l of
t o dr ain t o th e o utside of t he frame.This
moisture movement of t he t imber used.
met al profi le is painted t o reduce th e visibility
W hen timb er is kiln-dried t o reduce its w ate r
w hen th e w indow is o pen.
conte nt prior t o manufacture, t he pro cess is
Seals betwee n th e w indow and t he open ing into w hich the w indow is fixed have
now better controlled t o avoid excessive
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. I O.
I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17. I 8. 19. 20.
Fixed light Supporting structure O utside Inside Head Cill Metal stiffening insert Timber infill panel Thermal insulation Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit applicat ion Fixing bead Rubber-based seal Inward opening light O utward opening light Damp proo f course (DPC) Internal finish Flashingto seal against adjacent wall Verti cally sliding sash Sliding door frame t op hung or bottom rolling Sliding w indow or door jamb
shrinkage afterwa rds.T imber s are dried to
MCE
149
Glass Walls 08 T imber w indows
®
3-D view of vert ical sliding sash window
aro und 15% moisture conte nt, depending on
w it h coat ings t o aluminium profi les, it is very
t he species used.Treatments t o timb er s are
difficult t o coat t he edge of a sharp corne r.A
D etails
also changing t o avoid t oxic run off w hile pro -
radiused edge allow s th e protective coat ing
I, 2,
viding some protectio n against colour fading
t o maint ain a better constant t hickness at t he
fro m UV radiati on fro m sunlight.T imber st ill
vulnerable corne rs,Typically, ro unded edges
Vertical section I:5, Vertical sliding sash window
Fixed light Supporting structure 3. Outsid e 4, Inside 5, Head 6, Cill 7, Metal stiffening insert 8, Timber infill panel 9, Thermal insulation 10, Single glazedor double glazed unit to suit application I I, Fixing bead 12, Rubber-based seal 13, Inward opening light 14, Outward opening light 15, Damp proof course (DPC) 16, Internal finish 17, Flashing to seal against adjacent wall 18, Vertically sliding sash 19, Slidingdoor frame top hung or bottom rolling 20, W indow or door jamb
MC E
150
requires re-coating and cleaning t o avoid th e
allow an 80% layer thi ckness of coat ing (w it h
surface visually fading and causing damage t o
100% on adjacent flat surfaces) compared
t he t imber it self. Some more eco nomic t im-
w it h around 5% coat ing t hickness for a sharp
ber w indows have traditi onally suffered from
angle,W it h th e increased use of doub le
poo r jointin g at t he corne rs of t he fr ame,
glazed unit s in t imb er w indows, rubber-based
Th ese have been imp roved across all w indow
gasket s are also increasingly being used t o
t ypes in recent years w it h t he use of do uble
allow t he moisture movement of t he w indow
mortice and t enon jo ints and wood glues
fr ame and timb er glazing beads t o move
w it h better resistance t o heat and moisture,
w it hout reducing t he w at er ti ghtness of th e
W it h t he improvement in protective
seal between t he frame and do uble glazed
coat ings for timber w indows, parti cularly
unit. Soft seals,including th ose made from
t hose on t he o ut side face, has come t he use
wet -applied silicone, o r silicone extrusions,
of ro unded edges t o profi les,As is th e case
perform much better in thi s respect th an th e
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TYPE I
TYPE2
TYPE 3
Horizontal section 15. Sliding doors
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harder and more brittle putties and sealants
are fixed onto the face of the o pening.T he
used prev iously.
position of the w indow in the o pening has
A luminium trims are also used to secure
more infiuence over the junction with the
the glass, but the appearance fro m outside is
surrounding wa ll than the cho ice of material
ob viously a mixture of timber and aluminium
for the wall.
rather than all-timber. making the window
In generic examples. the window is fixed
more o f a composite design associated with
to the outs ide face of the wall, wh ich would
timber window walls.Th is tre nd will probably
typically be reinforced co ncrete or co ncre te
conti nue due to the greater rel iability of alu-
block This would be used where a massive.
minium for glazing beads and t rims.
sound insulating structure, such as an apartment building. is clad in a different material
W indow s in openings
such as timber rainscreen panels or terracc t -
Where t imber windows are set into an
ta. w hich are often used in a smooth continu-
op ening rat her t han being part o f a wi ndow
ous plane without reveals.This construction is
w all.the most common mate ri als used are
ideal for remscreen construction. It allows the
masonry block, bric k or timber boarding .
w indow to be sealed to the structural wa ll,
W ith all these materials,timber w indows are
or backing wall, w ith a lapped jo int around
fixed eithe r into the reveals of the o pening or
t he opening and allowing it to be fitted inde-
3-D view of side hung timber window
MC E
151
Glass W alls 08 Timbe r w indows
, 3-D view showing horizontal section through timber sliding door
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Horizontal sections 1:5. Sliding doors
pendently of th at opening.This permits t he
case needs t o allow wate r t o drain t he t op
w all t o be set out on a precise grid t hat
of t he opening t o t he sides, as in masonry
would be difficult to achieve by setting t he
cavity wall const r uct ion. In th e previous case,
w indow int o t he opening.This is because t he
t he w indow does not have t his addit ional
const r uction tolerances associated w it h con-
requirement and so is protected from w ate r
crete frame construct ion are considerably
penetration by t he w all it self H ow ever. rain-
higher than tho se used for timber w indows.
wate r needs t o be dr ained at t he bottom of
W indows wo uld ty pically be sealed against
t he opening, w here a cill is pro vided. The
t he concrete w all w it h projecting pro files t hat
w indow is lapped over t he cill, ofte n w it h an
wo uld lap under a wate rproo f layer on th e
additional weat her bar for protection against
surro unding wall.This creates a deep reveal
w ate r ingress through capillary action.
on t he inside face of t he wall w hich has fin-
The w indow can also be set int o a
ishes applied to create a t idy junction w it h
ste pped reveal.This has t he advantage of giv-
t he int ernal face of t he w indow.
ing greate r construct ion t olerance w hen fit -
In some cases, th e w indow is set into th e
tin g th e w indow as we ll as creat ing a lapped
reveal of t he opening. Because t he w indow
joint between t he structural opening and t he
has to be smaller th an t he opening size in
w indow, w hich is easier to seal th an an equiv-
order t o install it, t he joint w idt h has t o be
alent butt joint w here a backing strip is
accurately form ed around th e w indow.
needed t o give a surface t o w hich t he sealant
Sometim es th e w indow fram e is built in to
can adhere.
t he wall as t he surro unding wall is co nst ructe d, or else a t emp late is used to avoid accident al damage t o t he w indow during const r uction. A lte rnat ively, t he w indow could be set int o t he oute r wall const r uction and in t his
MC E
15 2
3-D views of sliding door junctions
Details I.
Fixed 'ttl!.
2.
Supportong str1.lCtl.n
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18, Vett.1Ily slidon& sash 19, 510d0ng door frame top tul& or bottom roklg 20. 510d0ng wncbN or door jan"b
ve-tcal sectco I:5.Outward opening casement doors
3-D _
of b'J'itler> wndows and doors on waI system
MCE
153
Glass W alls 08 Timbe r w indows
Details I.
Fixed light
2. Supporting structu re 3. Outside 4.
Inside
5. Head 6. Cill 7. Metal stiffening insert 8. Timber infill panel
9. Thermal insulat ion 10. Single glazed or double glazed unit to suit application I I. Fixing bead 12. Rubber-based seal 13. Inw ard opening light 14. Outward opening light 15. Damp proof course (DPC) 16. Intem al finish 17. Flashing to seal against adjacent wall 18. Vertically sliding sash 19. Sliding do or frame top hung or bottom ro lling 20. Sliding window or doo r jamb
3-D view of storey-height timber window construction
3-D exploded view of storey-height timber window construction
3-D exploded detail view of storey-height timber window construction at upper fioor level
MC E
154
3-D exploded detail view of storey-height timber window construction at upper fioor level
3-D views of tercer w indow ccooectcos to cavity brick wall (above) 3-D exploded view of timbe r w indow construction (bek>w)
3·0 view of timber window set in cavrty brick wall
3-D exploded VIew of timber w indow set in cavity brick wall
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CONCRETE WALLS (I) Cas t in situ I
cast-in-place: Parapets. drips and aIls F,"""", As-cast finish Washed finish
Polished finish (2) St o re y height
precast pane ls: Panel types Thermal Insulation Joints Acid etched finish (3) Sm all precast/GRe cladding
pane ls' Individually supported panels Self supporting stacked panels
Parapets and (ills Openings Sand blasted finish and tooled finish
MCE
157
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up formwork
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3-D exploded view of window set in precast concrete wall
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A n essential difference betw een concrete
under standing of form w ork is important t o
and ot her mater ials used in facade const ruc-
appreciate how t o cont ro l t he appearance of
tion is th at concrete is poured in place into
joints and of bo lt ho les through th e concrete,
mould s, o r into form work rather th an being
since th e form work is th e negative impres-
manufactured as a standard size compo nent
sion, or mirror image, of th e final concrete .
in a factory.W hereas metal, glass, masonry,
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changed in recent years t o include th erm al
dimension s in th e form of sheets or sect ions,
insulation, eit her set w it hin th e concrete dur-
concrete is cast,eit her o n site o r in a factory
ing pouring, o r fixed o n th e int ernal face o r
as precast panels.A lt hough th ere are few
exte rnal face after th e wa ll has been cast.T he
constraints on th e size of a single cast ele-
position of th e insulati on w it hin th e const r uc-
ment in concrete, in pr actice an essent ial
t ion affects th e use of th e th erm al mass of
determin ant of concrete panel size is th e
concrete and its ability t o cont ribute t o night-
amo unt of concrete th at can be poured at
t ime coo ling as part of an overall reinforced
o ne tim e.W it h precast concrete th e essent ial
concrete st r ucture. Co nt inuity of th erm al
constraint o n panel size is th e we ight th at can
insulati on is increasingly impo rtant in th e
be lift ed by a crane o n site . 3-D view of window set in precast concrete wall
MC E 15 8 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Th e design of in-situ concrete walls has
plastics and t imber are made t o standard
In-sit u concrete is dependent o n th e form work in w hich th e concrete is cast.A n
interface w it h glazed openings and doors t o avoid th erm al bri dging. Continuity of doub le glazing and th erm al insulati o n in th e concrete
Setting up plywood formwork
Setting up formwork
Securing formwork
Concrete pouring
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3-D view of window set in precastconcrete wall
Vertical section I: IO. Connection between insitu wall and window
w all is pro bably th e biggest recent change in
accumulate s on flat surfaces. Parapets have
th is form of const r uction in recent years. In-
metal copings th at prevent staining o n th e
situ concrete walls are formed as eit her a
w all beneath by directing rainw ater to w ards
structural concrete w all w it h th ermal insula-
a gutter immediately behind th e parapet.
ti on on th e inside face w it h an int ernal dry
W it h th e second meth od, in-sit u con-
lining, or as a diaphragm/doub le wall of con-
crete walls are form ed as 'sandwi ch' walls
crete w it h th erma l insulati on set between th e
w it h int ernal insulati on.Th ese have eit her
two skins of concrete .
insulation brok en by st rips of concrete th at
The first method has th e benefit of econ-
link across th e two skins (forming limit ed
omy,parti cularly w here th e th erm al mass of
th erm al brid ges) o r are formed as two sepa-
th e concrete wa ll is not required for use in
rate concrete skins linked o nly by stainless
night-t ime coo ling.Th e wall zone for th e insu-
stee l brackets and t ies.The second ty pe is
lation can also be used t o fit w indow s,so th at
increasingly popul ar as it avoids th erm al
th e o pening light s and doors do not have t o
br idging w it h it s associate d risk of co ndensa-
be set into specially cast recesses in th e con-
ti on forming o n th e inside of th e w all, in t em-
crete , w hich makes it more expensive. Drips
perate climates.
D etails I. 2.
Concrete external wall Concrete internal wall 3. Thermal insulation 4. W indow frame 5. W aterproof membrane 6. Metal parapet flashing 7. Internal finish 8. Metal cill 9. Drip 10. Metal lined gutter
are cast into th e t op s of w indow reveals t o reduce st aining t o th e adjacent wall beneath caused by rainw ater run off from dust th at
MC E
159
Concrete curing o
Setting up formwork
Concrete poured
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3-D view of In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith rigid closed cell insulation between skins
MC E
160
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Vertical section I :50. In-situ concrete wall cast in two skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
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Vert ical section I : IO. In-situ concrete wall constructi on, junction at ground level. In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
Parapets, drips and cil ls
dust in adjacent areas of wa ll. If overhangs are
Th e detailing of openings, parapets and cills
not a part of th e design, th en w at er from
fo llow s th e same pr inciples for a single wall
hori zont al o r slight ly sloping surfaces is
of struct ural co ncrete w it h intern al th erm al
th rown clear of th e wa ll by proj ecting cills
insulation. W hen co ncrete is used as an
and flashings.In highly pol luted enviro nme nt s,
exposed exte rnal finish, cills, parapets and
dust -catching wa ll t extures are usually avoid-
drips are detailed t o ensure th at rainw ater is
ed. and smoot h finishes are ofte n preferred.
thrown as clear as possible from th e exte rnal
However, w here pr otect ive treatment s are
wall surface.W hen an addit ional o ute r mate-
applied t o th e concrete t o reduce po ro sity,
rial is used, typically a rainscreen in a w ide
thi s can lead t o greate r run -off acro ss th e
range of mater ials, th e concrete wa ll can be
facade w hich can increase staining, and must
fo rmed eco nomically w it h no regard fo r visu-
be t aken into account in th e design of th e
al appearance, since th e mater ial is not visible.
exte rnal wa ll.
Since hori zont al o r slight ly sloping surfaces catc h dust, roo f overhangs and deep eaves
Finishes
are ofte n inco rporat ed int o th e design t o
Th e main influence in th e base co lour of
avoid wash-o ff from rain. Du st washed away
co ncrete used for wa ll co nst ruct ion is in th e
by rainw ater causes th e deposit of dirt and
cho ice of ceme nt, w it h fair-faced visible co n-
D eta ils I. 2.
Concrete external wall Concrete internal wall 3. Thermal insulation 4. Window frame 5. Waterproof membrane 6. Metal parapet flashing 7. Internal finish 8. Metal cill 9. Drip 10. Metal lined gutter +
Moving formwork up to higher fioors
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Vertical section I :IO. In-situ concrete wall window/door condition . In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith rigid closed cell insulation between skins
Vertical section I :IO. Junction at parapet level for typical wall condition . In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith rigid closed cell insulation between skins
cret e wa lls using eit her a grey cement base
t o th e st ro ng covering capacity of th e pig-
or a w hit e ceme nt base.Th e physical prop-
ments.W hit e cement is much more expen-
ert ies of th ese t w o cement types are very
sive th an grey cement but it is not subject t o
sim ilar.
th e colour variat io ns of grey cement. nor is it
The colour of finished concret e from a grey cement base is also grey, as expected,
subject t o rain darkening. Th e most commo n finishes used for in-
but thi s can vary w it h th e w ate r/cement
sit u cast concret es are an as-cast finish, a
ratio, th e porosity of th e shuttering,vibrat ion
w ashed finish and a po lished finish.The less
condit ions,formw ork stripping t ime and
commo n t ypes are descr ibed in th e fo llow ing
we at her condit ions.Th e grey type can also
sect ions o n precast panels, but can also be
blacken w it h rain due t o th e presence of iro n
used for in-sit u cast concrete wa lls, depend-
oxide. How ever.grey cement based archit ec-
ing o n th e ability t o w o rk o n large areas of
tural quality co ncret e can achieve an even
complete d wall surface.
colour w hen pourin g method s and conditi on s are kept consistent. W hen grey cement
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3-D view of metal flashingon in-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith rigid closed cell insulation between skins
As-cast fi nish
is used w it h a mod erate t o high level of pig-
Smooth co ncrete finishes can have th eir sur-
ment conte nt. as-cast o r treated co ncret es
faces broken by small air bubbles of
are much less prone t o co lo ur variat ions due
ent rained air, but th ese hardly affect th e sur-
MC E
161
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Horiz ontal section I: I0, In-situ concrete wall condition at window jamb, In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skin
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3-D view of window in an in-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith r igid closed cell insulation between skin
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Vert ical section I: I0, In-situ concrete wall junction at window, In-situ cast concrete wall cast as a monolithic construction with internal thermal insulation
D etails I, 2,
3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
Concrete external wall Concrete internal wall Thermal insulation W indow frame W aterproof membrane Metal parapet flashing Internal finish Met al cill Drip Met al lined gutter
Ax onomet ric view of window jamb in an in-situ concrete wall
MC E
162
face any more th an w ould be foun d in natu -
mix, including wate r, and th e care in pr eparing
ral sandstones and limest o nes, Co lour varia-
and setting t he formwork,
ti ons from th e use of grey ceme nt result not
Textured surfaces w it h eit her a shallow
from its natur al co lour, but its co lour afte r
o r deeper conto ured profi le can be form ed
pouring, and from fine part icles of sand
eit her w it h specially fabricated shuttering
becomin g segregat ed in certa in areas as a
boards o r w it h an addit ional lining th at is set
result of vibrat ion, If th ese fine particles
o n th e inside face of th e shuttering boards,
appear in th e face of t he w all. a marbling
against w hich th e concrete is poured.A n
effect similar t o th at of natur al sto ne w ill
addit ional lining is usually flexible and is made
occur. If th e parti cles are different from th e
of eit her polystyrene board, w hich can be
shade of th e facing, staining w ill occur.As a
used only o nce, o r po lyureth ane sheet o r sili-
result, th e t inting of clear mixtures w it h fine
co ne rubb er sheet w hich can be used several
particl es of dark sand is avoided. Smoot h
t imes, Silicone ru bber mou lds are made by
co ncrete is usually self-co loured, at least in
pouring th e mater ial int o a positive-shaped
large areas,t o avoid co lour variat ions associ-
mould made from a non-coh esive material
ate d w it h using pigment addit ives, Smooth
such as sand, making it s use expensive, but
and visually co nsistent natural finishes are
capable of forming comp lex forms in th e sur-
achieved largely by both t he accuracy of t he
face of as-cast co ncrete ,Joint s between th ese
prop ortion s of th e mater ials in th e co ncrete
specially-made shuttering boards are usually
3-D view of window and external cill
3-D view of window junction in an in-situ concrete wall cast as a monolithic construction with internal thermal insulation
forrned as grooves to avo id uneven and
3-D view of window junction in an in-situ concrete wall cast as a monolithic construction with internal thermal insulation
The faces not shutte red method is don e
blurred lines resulting from attempt ing to
eit he r by spraying deactivator o n t he gree n
bo nd th eir edges.
(fresh) co ncrete and washing it as just described. or by direct washing before th e
W ashed fini sh
ceme nt has fully set. Usually t he meth od is
The washing-o ut or deactivation of fresh
co mplete d wit h a last was h using an aqueo us
co ncrete is carried o ut in two ways, eit he r
acid so lut ion in o rde r to re move traces of
wit h 'faces shuttered' o r wit h 'face s not shut-
hydrated ceme nt so iling th e ex pose d aggre-
te red' .The faces shuttered meth od involves
gate, leaving sta ins o n t he o utside face .W he n
t he app lication of a product on th e shutt e r
this is co mpleted, th e mineralogical nature of
pane ls t hat deactivates, retards o r eliminate s
t he coarse aggregate is exposed, w hich gives
hydration of t he ce me nt.The prod uct is
a textured appea rance . Som e aggregates,
applied wit h e it he r a bru sh or by spraying.
such as limesto ne , can becom e du lled or
After stripping t he shuttering, t he exte rnal
change co lour o n co ntact wit h t he acid. In
faces are was hed w it h a wate r jet w hich
deep washing, this meth od is parti cular ly suit-
re moves t he hyd rat ed skin and, dep e nding o n
able for bringing o ut t he visual characte ristics
how deep th e effect of t he deactivator is,
of coa rse aggregate . It leads to a very differ-
revea ls eit he r th e grains of sand o r, more
e nt fini sh dep ending o n the shape , eit he r
co mmo nly, t he coarse aggregate .
crushed o r rolled , t he mineralogical type (sili-
3-D view of window junction in an in-situ concrete wall cast as a monolithic construction with internal thermal insulation
MC E
16 3
Concrete VIa Is 0 I Cast in-situ / cast-in-place
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3-D view of parapet junction of an in-situ cast concrete wall cast as a monolithic construction with internal thermal insulation
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3-D view of parapet junction of an in-situ cast concrete wall cast as a monolithic construction with internal thermal insulation
ca o r limestone), particle size, but also th e
honeycombing.A fte r th is filler has hardened,
mix composit ion in t erm s of th e density of
th e surface is again po lished w it h successively
stones revealed on th e surface.
finer grains.As th e scrat ches are removed, th e colo urs of aggregate reveal th emselves,
/
Polished fin ish
but th e surface does not shine naturally.The
Concrete wa lls can be po lished t o vary ing
co ncrete wa ll surface can, however, be made
amo unts of smoot hness by abrasive grinding,
shiny by th e applicat ion of a varnish. Co n-
using a grinding w heel w hich is lubricat ed by
crete walls can be polished further t o create
wate r.The oute r skin of th e co ncrete is
a sat in finish and even further t o pro vide a
removed by abrasion t o a depth of between
gloss finish.A protective clear coat ing can
I mm and 2mm, w it h o ne pass of a grinding
also be applied at th is po int
w heel w hich ex poses some of th e fine and 3-D detail view of window jamb in an in-situ cast concrete wall cast as a monolithic construction with internal thermal insulation
MC E
164
coarse aggregate behind th e surface.A sec-
Po lishing is easier t o apply o n flat surfaces th an o n ro ughened o r curve d areas of co n-
o nd pass w it h a finer abrasion disc removes
crete . Polishing exposes th e colo ur of th e
th e big scratc hes left by th e fir st pass, w hich
minerals w it hin t he co ncrete , giving rich co l-
are parti cularly visible o n darker surfaces.
o ur effects from th e ceme nt, th e sand, and
W it h polishing by disc, a filler is applied t o th e
th e coarse aggregate materi als in th e mix.
surface t o fill th e air bubb le pockets and small
Th is method pr ovides a self-coloured finish
3-D detail view of concrete wall construction and junction with window fiush to exterior face
Vertical section I:IO. In-situ loadbearing concrete wall with window flush to external face
D etails I. Concrete external wall 2. Concrete internal wall 3. Thermal insulation 4. W indow frame 5. W at erproof membrane 6. Metal parapet flashing 7. Internal finish 8. Metal cill 9. Drip 10. Metal lined gutter
Hori zontal section I:IO. In-situ loadbearing concrete wall with window flush to external face
w it h a surface t hat is less prone t o ret ain dust. w hich w ashes off, causing staining, and is easy to rnaintain by sirnple wa shing, und ert aken using th e sarne rnethods o f rnaintenance access used for glazed w alls.
3-D view of in-situ loadbearing concrete wall junction with window flush to exterior face
3-D section view of in-situ loadbearing concrete wall junction with window flush to internal face
MC E
165
- - ·Concrete Walls Or--
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Cast in-situ Icast-in-Rlace
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GIst in
two sons with ngJd closed cell insulation between skim
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)-0 view of concrete wall frame detail
Me E
166
3-D lirtedrawingof concretewall frame detail
3-D exploded view of concrete wall frame detail
3-D view of loadbearing concrete wall gutter detail
3-D exploded loadbearing concrete wall gutter detail
Exploded axonometric view of loadbearing concrete wall gutter detail
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Concrete external wall Concrete internal wall Thermal insulation Window frame Waterproof membrane Metal parapet flashing Int ernal finish Metal cill Drip Metal lined gutter
3-D view of loadbearing concrete wall cill detail
3-D exploded view of loadbearing concrete wall cill detail
Exploded axonometric view of loadbearing concrete wall cill detail
MC E
167
Concrete ails 02 Storey height precast pane ls
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D etails I. 2.
'.
3. 4.
3-D view of precast concrete cladding panels
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12, I 3. 14. 15.
Concrete floor deck Precast concrete panel Thermal insulation Vertical bafflejoint between panels Vertical butt joint between panels Horizontal lap joint Horizontal butt joint Window opening Stainless steel dowel or angle Rubber-based baffle EPDM or silicone-based seal Concrete column Concrete corner panel Concrete coping Roof assembly
W hile in-situ concrete is a loadbearing form
joint, is usually pro vided by serv ice co res
vent cracking durin g lifting and t o allow a reg-
of construction, precast concrete can be
elsewhere in a building. In addition t o floor-
ular site crane t o be used.
formed as eit her loadbearing wa lls o r as non -
height loadbearing panels,loadbearing pre-
loadbearing cladding panels. Loadbearing
cast spandrel panels are used.Th ese are in
Pane l t ypes
panels are increasingly popu lar, since th ey
effect st r uct ural beams spanning betw een
Precast concrete panels are formed mainly
provide a weat hert ight st r uctural wall w it h
columns. Principles of connect io ns t o floor
by eit her forming th e finish in th e bottom of
high fire resistance combined w it h high
slabs are th e same as for full-height panels,
th e mould,th e t op of th e mou ld w it h anot h-
acoustic insulation and th erm al mass. In load-
but loads from th e panels and flo ors are
er material t o th e face of th e panel, o r as an
bearing const r uction, panels are stitc hed
t aken back t o st r uct ural columns rather th an
insulat ed sandw ich panel.
to gether to form a monolithic st ructural w all.
down through th e wa ll panels.
N on -Ioadbearing cladding panels have main-
N on-loadbearing cladding panels are
Bottom form ed panels,w here th e finish is set o n th e bottom of th e mould, are used
t ained th eir popul arity by providing greate r
fixed back t o th e prim ary struct ure eit her by
w here addit ional linings,ty pically polystyrene
freedom in design, from th e visual point of
concrete brackets forming an integral part of
board, po lyurethane sheet o r silicone rubb er
view, th an th e struct ural constraints imposed
th e panel, by stainless stee l br ackets, o r by a
sheet, as descr ibed in th e t ext on in-sit u cast
on loadbearing panels.
combinat ion of both .Typically panels are sup-
concrete , are used t o create a t extured sur-
ported o n an edge beam at th e base of each
face in th e face of th e panel. Som etimes,
stacked t ogether t o suppo rt floors by trans-
panel and are restrained at th e t op w it h
ceramic t iles o r sto nes are laid in th e bottom
ferring th eir own we ight and a floor loading
stainless steel brackets. Some cladding panels
of th e panel in ord er t o bond to th e con-
t o a found ation.Th e unit/fl oor connect ion is
are t op hung in order t o benefit from th e
crete poured o n t op.Th e small size of t erra-
usually made w it h a pin joint rather th an a
t ensile qualities of th e stee l reinforcement o r
cotta o r ceramic til es allows th em t o be laid
mom ent (rigid) jo int since th ese are difficult
fram ing. Cladding panels are usually made t o
at th e bottom of th e mould and be individu-
t o create in precast concrete , as th e amo unt
span o ne storey high, w it h a w idt h or height
ally bond ed t o th e concrete .
and length of built-in reinforcement is high,
of panel up t o a maximum of 3600mm in
Loadbearing types consist of units
In t op form ed panels,an additi onal deco-
as we ll as th e fact th at th e t ensile forces
o rder th at th e panel can be transported o n a
rative layer is applied t o th e t op of th e
w it hin th e unit can be high.Th e hori zontal
standard fiat trailer. In addit ion, we ight usually
poured concrete. Th e thi ckness of th e deco-
stability, w hich is not provided by th e pin
has a maximum of aro und 10 tonn es t o pre-
rative layer is usually 25mm - 30mm .The
MC E 16 8 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
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Vertical section I: I0, W all clad with precast concrete panels
MC E
169
Concrete a s 02 Storey height precast panels
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CD Horizontal section I :10. Concrete wall with precast concrete cladding panels
D etails I. 2. 3. 4.
Concrete floor deck Precast concrete panel Thermal insulation Vertical baffle joint between panels 5. Vertical butt joint between panels 6. Horizontal lap joint 7. Horizontal butt joint 8. W indow opening 9. Stainless steel dowel or angle 10. Rubber-based baffle I I. EPDM or silicone-based seal 12. Concrete column 13. Concrete corner panel 14. Concrete coping 15. Roof assembly
Horizontal section I: IO. Concrete wall with precast concrete cladding panels.showing junction with window
concrete in th e decorative layer is minimised
insulati on is set between th e decorative and
since it is usually much more expensive t han
structural layers of concrete .This removes
grey st r uctural concrete .A lte rnat ively, larger
t he th erm al bri dge across th e panel and, if
scale facing pieces t han t hose w hich can be
t he int erio r concrete face is exposed, pro-
bond ed directly to th e concrete in t he bot -
vides a t hermal mass for night -tim e coo ling in
t om of t he panel, such as t erracotta, ceram ic
th e building.Th e t emperatur e of th e o ute r
til es or natural st o ne, are mechanically fixed
lining can reach abo ut 70 0
t o th e top of th e concrete in th e mou ld as a
depending o n geographical locati o n.The
deco rative finish. D ue t o its larger size and
sandw ich panel ensures t hat th e o ute r facing
we ight, sto ne is usually fixed w it h pins o r
o nly is suscept ible t o th erm al movement, th e
stainless steel brackets back t o th e precast
cont inuous insulati o n is kept dr y and th e
panel.Th e greate r size of st o ne panels over
inner massive loadbearing st ruct ure is pro-
t iles makes th em suscept ible t o relatively sig-
t ected from exte rnal t emperatur e variat ions,
nificant th erm al movement for w hich t he pins
reducing its ow n th erm al movement. In addi-
o r brackets allow.
t ion th e th erm al capacity of th e inner struc-
A not her meth od of construction is t o
MC E
17 0
e in summer t ime,
ture provides a regulation of t emp erature
form an insulat ed sandw ich panel w here th e
variat ions w it hin th e building from int ernal
inner part of th e wall is loadbearing.T hermal
heat ing and heat sources by absorbing sur-
3-D detail cutaway view of concrete wall with precast concrete cladding panels
3-D view of fixing elements
Horizontal section I : IO. Concrete wall with precast concrete panel, junction with shadow gap
pluses and suppleme nt ing deficiencies. Exte r-
inside face of precast panels, w indows can be
nal t emp erature changes in th e daily cycle
set directly above th e insulation, avoiding th e
can be absorbed by th e o ute r layer,w it h th e
need t o fit th e w indow direct ly into th e
th erm al insulati on keeping th e int ernal heat
o pening in th e concrete .Th e w indow, ty pical-
in and exte rnal solar radiation out.
ly aluminium or t imber, has metal pro files th at
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form a cill th at is cont inuous w it h t he w in-
T hermal Insulat io n
dow, avoiding any source of leaks across th e
Both loadbearing and non-Ioadbearing ty pes
gap between w indow and precast panel.
w it hout integral insulation have th erm al insu-
W here w indows are set directly into o pen-
lati o n fixed t o th e int ernal face of th e con-
ings in precast panels, th e o pening often has a
crete wa ll. How ever,th e t herm al mass of th e
rebate (ste p) cast int o th e edge t o provide
const r uction is lost.W here an addit ional
more protection against rainw ater penetrat-
exte rnal finish is used, ty pically a rainscreen
ing th e joint.
3-D view of fixing element s
panel in anot her material,th e th erm al insulati on can be set o n th e o utside of th e precast
Joint s
panels, w hich maintains th e ability t o use th e
Jo int s betw een panels are of o pen or closed
th erm al mass of t he int erio r face of t he wa ll.
t ype.The o pen type has an inner membrane
W hen th erm al insulati o n is set on t he
seal and an o ute r flexible mastic seal o n th e
MC E
171
Concrete a s 02 Storey height precast panels
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Horizontal section I: IO. Panel junction at corners. In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
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Horizontal section I: I O. Panel junction at corners. In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
Horizontal section I : IO. Panel-to-pan el junctions. In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
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Ho ri zontal section I : IO. Panel-to-pa nel junctions. In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
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Ho ri zontal section I : IO. Panel junction at corners. In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
Vert ical section I: IO. Panel-to-panel junctions. Insitu cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
Horizontal section I : I O. Panel junction at corners. In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
Horizontal section I : IO. Panel-to-panel junctions. In-situ cast concrete wall cast in 2 skins with r igid closed cell insulation between skins
inner face.Th e closed ty pe has a single o ute r
allowed t o pass th rou gh an o ute r gap
seal of flexi ble mastic.T hese principles apply
between two panels t hat form a vert ical joint.
t o both vertical and hori zo nt al joi nt s. In t he
A n EPD M baffle str ip is set int o a cont inuo us
hori zont al joint s,a st ep in th e panel may be
slot formed in th e edges of two adjacent
provided t o assist in weat her t ightn ess of
panels and 3wate r ente r ing t his joi nt, w hich
panels, w hich are upw ards o f I SOmm t hick.
form s an inner cham ber. is drained away from
Minimum join t w idt hs are typically I O-1 2m m
t he slot and o ut t hro ugh th e ho rizont al joi nt
thi ck for panels ranging from 1800m m w ide
below.The int eri o rface of th e joint is eit her
to 2400m m w ide, increasing t o a joint w idt h
closed w ith an air seal formed using wet o r
of 16-1 8mm for panels 600 0mm w ide.T hese
extr uded silico ne, in th e case of a non -load-
w idt hs help reduce visually any var iat ions in
bear ing cladding panel, o r is mechanically
th e w idt h o f t he joint as a result of joinin g
fixed t o t he panel below and gro ute d w it h a
panels.Visually, joint s are recessed as shadow
ceme nt-based mat er ial in t he case of load-
gaps in o rder t o co nceal small differences of
bear ing panels.
alignme nt between panels. Open joint s are int ernally drained and
MC E
172
H ori zontal o pen joints bet w een panels are m ade by fo rm ing a ste p in t he pro files o f
vent ilate d in th e manner of uniti sed cur tain
th e t op and bottom edges o f adjacent panels
wa lling. In an o pen joint, w indblown rain is
in o rder to drain water out o f bot h vertical
."
D etails I, 2, v,
3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, I I, I 2, I 3. 14, 15,
Concrete fioor deck Precast concrete panel Thermal insulation Vert ical baffle joint between panels Vert ical butt joint between panels Horizontal lap joint Horizontal butt joint W indow opening Stainless steel dowel or angle Rubber-based baffle EPDM or silicone-based seal Concrete column Concrete corner panel Concrete coping Roof assembly
Horizontal section I: I0, Joint between precast panels
- - - - - - -0 - - - Hori zontal section I: I0, Conn ection between precast concrete panel and window <,
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3-D views of corner junction between precast panels
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Horizontal section I:25, Connection between precast concrete panel and building structure
Horizontal section I:25, Joint between precast concrete panels
and hori zont al joints as we ll as t o prevent
t o th e interior face of th e panel is eit her
rainw ater from fiow ing directly through th e
closed w it h an air seal as for vert ical jo ints, o r
jo int.Th e horizontal st epped jo int is used for
is mechanically fixed t o th e panel below and
both loadbearing and non -loadbearing ty pe
gro uted in th e same w ay as th e vertical joints,
panels,but th e detail varies w it h th e way th e
Closed jo ints are sealed o n th e o utside
upper panel is eit her suppo rte d on th e lower
face w it h a wet applied silicone o r polysul-
panel in a loadbearing panel o r is separate d
phide sealant. A ny wate r th at penetrates th is
from th e low er panel in a non -Ioadbearing
o ute r seal is drained away in th e void behind.
panel. How ever.th e general pr inciple for all
Wate r is released th rough wee p holes (small
panel ty pes remains th e same.T his ensures
holes) in th e hori zontal joints, Closed joints
th at wate r runn ing down th e EPDM baffles in
are more commo nly used w it h loadbearing
th e vert ical joints is drained o ut w here it
panel const ruct ion w here panels are bond ed
meets th e horizontal jo ints,A cont inuous
t ogether at jo ints and w here most of th e
horizontally-set EPD M strip is set on th e
jo int is required t o be filled t o provide struc-
inner face of th e joint. in th e to p of th e lower
tural continuity from panel t o panel.
3-D view of junction between precast panels
panel.The EPD M st rip in th e ver t ical joint is lapped over th e face of th e EPD M o n th e horizontal jo int. The rear of th e joint. adjacent
MC E
173
Concrete a Is 02 Storey height precast panels
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3-D view of precast concrete wall
Vertical section I :25. W all to floor connection with sandwich insulation
Vertical section I:25. W all to floor connect ion with insulation on inner face
Acid etched finish In addition t o the finishes described in t he
effect is prod uced by submerg ing a precast
previous sectio n o n in-situ cast finishes,
conc rete panel in an acid bath.This pro cess is
w hich can also be used in pr ecast panels,
most commo nly used w hen all faces of t he
acid et ching is possible. Ac id et ching is parti c-
unit need t o be treated.W it h acid washed
ularly we ll adapte d t o precast panels since
co ncretes. a gel co ntaining acid is applied t o
t hey are cast flat. w here acid treatments can
the surface to be t reat ed.T his meth od is we ll
be carefully co nt ro lled.
adapted to treatment o n specific areas of
In cured panels,the surface of t he precast co ncrete is treated wit h hydroch loric acid, wh ich is t hen rinsed off.T his met hod fir st removes th e ceme nt skin, th en strips away
3-D view of precast concrete wall
MC E
174
an acid w ashed finish.A w eat hered co ncret e
co ncret e. to form a surface texture or pattem o n th e con crete w all. Aci d etc hing is we ll suited to exposing small aggregate in th e panel surface by
th e grains of sand w it hin t he co ncrete
ex posing o nly a small amo unt of th e con-
beneat h. depending o n t he co ncent ration of
crete t exture beneath its skin after casting
t he acid solut ion and length of t ime fo r w hich
has t aken place.T he precipitation of salts
it is applied.T he acid etch ing method can be
fro m the acid-cement and aggregates quickly
used to create either a weat hered finish or
neutral ises thi s,w hich can only be co nti nued
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3-D view of junct ion at window jamb, In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skinswith rigid closed cell insulation between skins
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t: Verti cal section I: 10. Junction between panels. Panels insulat ion on inside face
Vert ical section I : IO. Junction between panels. Panels insulation on inside face
Vert ical section I : IU, Junction at parapet level for t ypical wall condition and for window jamb, In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
by rin sing and applying more acid. Ac id etc hing always requires rin sing t o rem ove th e precipitated salts and neutralise th e surface. Ac id etc hing attacks limest o ne aggregate s, and somet imes more quickly th an th e ceme nt, w hile th e silica-based aggregate rem ains.Th e surface t exture can be quite different, dependin g on th e fine aggregate material, being more granulate d in th e case of silica and less co loured in th e case of limeston e.
D etails I, 2,
3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. I I. I 2. I 3. 14. 15.
Concrete floor deck Precast concrete panel Thermal insulation Vert ical baffle joint between panels Vert ical butt joint between panels Horizontal lap joint Horizontal butt joint W indow opening Stainless steel dowel or angle Rubber-based baffle EPDM or silicone-based seal Concrete column Concrete corner panel Concrete coping Roof assembly
Vertical section I: I0, Junction at window jamb, In-situ cast concrete wall cast in two skins with rigid closed cell insulation between skins
MC E
175
Concrete ails 01 Storey height precast panels
3D view of precast concrete wall Exploded axonometric of wall assembly
3D detail view of precast concrete wall
3-D exploded view of wall assembly
MC E
17 6
3D detail view of precast concrete wall
Details I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. I 2. I 3. 14. 15.
Concrete floor deck Precast concrete panel Thermal insulation Vertical baffle joint between panels Vertical butt joint between panels Horizonta l lap joint Horizontal butt joint W indow opening Stainless steel dowel or angle Rubber-based baffle EPDM or silicone-based seal Concrete column Concrete comer panel Concrete coping Roof assembly
3-D exploded view of concrete wall with precast concrete cladding panels
Seriesof compo nents of wall assembly
Internal concrete wall
Hanger
Bolts
Window
Precast concrete panels
MCE
177
Concrete ails 03 Small precast / GRC cladding panels t:>
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Horizontal section I : IO. Wall construction with small precast cladding panels
Smaller precast panels than those used in
exte rnal and intern al faces th at require no
and eco nomically th an in stone, th ough th e
sto rey height sizes have been undergoing
further t reatment.
number of panel typ es is restricted for any
considerable developm ent over th e past 20
proj ect in o rder to keep th e syste m eco-
years.T hey are made as eit her individually
Individually support ed panels
nomi c. Small precast co ncrete rainscreen
suppo rte d panels o r as self-suppo rt ing
T his system allows narrower joi nt s t o be
panels are used increasingly in apart me nt
stacked panels.
form ed between panels th an t hose possible
buildings w here large areas of o paque wall
in full-height panels, and allow a varied, non -
can be given a high degree of finish in t he
Individually suppo r te d panels are fixed direct ly to a background suppo rt ing wa ll. usu-
rectangular layo ut t o be used w it h a joint
material w hile benefiting from th e cast ing
ally fo rmed eit her in reinforced concrete o r
pattern independent of t he backing w all. Indi-
ability of t he mat erial.
in co ncrete block. Panels are usually o pen
vidually suppo rted panels use a fixing met hod
Panels are most commo nly fixed w it h
joint ed t o allow t hem t o dry easily afte r wet-
w hich is similar t o stone cladding panels, but
stainless steel angles w hich are eit her cast-in
tin g in rain and t o allow rainw ater to dr ain
w it h th e po ssibility of much bigger panel sizes.
o r are bo lted to th e co ncrete .Th e angles are
easily down t he backs of t he panels or dow n
N at ural stone cladding is limit ed to sizes t hat
secured t o br ackets fixed t o a backing w all.
t he face of t he backing wall. Spandrel panels
can be cut from a stone block, w hich is usual-
Slotted holes provide adjust ment vert ically,
are usually part of a propri etar y precast co n-
ly aro und 2000mm x 2000mm x 2000mm,
hori zontally and lat erally These panels have
crete system of frame, floo r slab and spandrel
depending o n stone ty pe.T his yields stones
t he advantage of being able t o have a rich
panel, w it h ribbo n w indows added as sepa-
w hich are a maximum of aro und 1500m m x
surface t exture as a result of t he casting
rate elements, or full-height glazing in areas
750mm, o r 1500mm x 1000mm depending
pro cess in an individual mou ld. Slots,gro oves
w here sprinklers are not required. Self sup-
o n t he strength of t he stone. Precast co n-
and complex profi ling can be inco rpo rat ed in
porting panels are a more recent develop -
crete panels can be much larger,t ypically
th e manner of profi led metal cladding. Back-
ment and com prise precast panels w hich are
1500m m x 3000m m w hich can be suppo rt-
ing walls are usually wate rproofed in t he
stacked togeth er in t he manner of metal
ed on stainless steel fixings back t o floor slabs
o ute r face. Closed cell th erm al insulation is
com posite panels,w it h a t ongue-and-groove
and th e prim ary st r ucture.A n advantage of
set o n th e outside of thi s t o insulate th e
co nnect io n between panels in t he hori zo nt al
precast co ncrete over natural stone in small-
building struct ure.A n alte rnat ive meth od is
joints.Th ese panels have th e advantage of
er panels is th at corne r units and non -rectan-
t o use metal foi l faced insulation w hich is
having int ern al insulati on t oget her w it h
gular shaped units can be form ed mo re easily
semi-rigid.T he insulati o n is fixed direct ly t o
MCE
17 8
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14.
Backing wall Precast concrete panel Closed cell thermal insula tion Vertical joint open or closed type Horizontal joint (typically a lap) open or closed type Internal finish Window frame Reinforced concrete column Metal corner trim Metal parapet coping Concrete floor deck Adjacent panel in different material Waterproof membrane Precast concrete coping
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Ver t ical section 1:25.Typical precast concrete wall construction. Large scale panels
@ Ver tical section I:25.Typlcal precast concrete wall construction. Smallscale panels with drained joint
@ Vertical section I :25.Typical precast concrete wall construction. Smallscale panels with sealed joint
MC E
179
Concrete a s 03 Small precast / GRC cladding panels
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Horizontal, vertical sections & elevation I:SO. Glass reinforced concrete (GRC) panels with open joints
D et ails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. I 2. I 3. 14.
Backing wall Precast concrete panel Closed cell thermal insula tion Vertical joint open or closed type Horizontal joint (typically a lap) open or closed type Internal finish W indow frame Reinforced concrete column Metal corner t rim Metal parapet coping Concrete fioor deck A djacent panel in different material W at erproof membrane Precast concrete coping
th e blockwork backing wall, w it h an oute r
Self supporting stacked panels
metal foil face th at provides th e full weat her
Stacked panels have th e advantage of being
protection.Joint s between st rips of insulati o n
suppo rted at th e base of th e wall in single
are sealed w it h adhesive fo il t ape.
floor buildings up t o around 10 metres, and
Like stone cladding, panels are usually
at every floor level in buildings of more th an
suppo rte d o n sho rt lengths of stainless steel
o ne st orey. W hen suppo rted at th eir base,
angle at each floor level, back t o th e floor
stacked panels are set on a concrete beam
slab.Thi s overco mes t he risk of pro gressive
o r st rip found ation forming part of t he pri-
collapse of a cladding panel, w here a failure
mary structure. Panels are stacked w it h con-
in o ne panel wo uld cause it t o drop o nto
t inuous vert ical jo ints w here th ey are
th e panel below, causing furth er collapse
restrained by columns,in eit her reinforced
down th e facade. Panels at floor level are
concrete o r stee l, but concrete is more com-
fixed directly t o th e slab, w it h fixings
mon due t o th e greate r ease of connecting
designed so th at th ey can t ake th e full load
th e panels t o th e pr imary st r ucture.Th e need
of th e panels imm ediately above , in th e
t o suppo rt panels at jo ints results in th eir
event of fixings t o panels above failing eit her
being w ide in o rde r t o maximise th e distance
partially o r complete ly.
between columns, o r suppo rt posts.As a result t hey are not very t all in o rder to
MC E
18 0
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Ho rizontal sections I : IO. W indow junctions and corne rs. Glass reinfo rced concrete (G RC) panels with o pen joint
reduce th eir w eight t o th at w hich can be lift-
ings needed. However.th e th erm al brid ge
ed by a mod est sized crane, typ ically w it h a
across th e vert ical and horizontal joints in th e
lifting capacity of 4 t o 6 t onn es. The th erm al insulati o n in panels does not
panel can result in pattern staining as th e result of heat transmission acrossth e panel.
create a complete th erm al break from o ut -
This is parti cularly noti ceable o n th e intern al
side t o inside, since th e concrete block has
face of th e panel.
concrete faces o n it s t op and bottom edges
Stacked panels fabricated in th icknesses
in o rder t o ser ve as a method of creat ing a
of 75mm t o IOOmm can form part of a com-
t ongue and groove jo int in th e horizontal
plete cavity wall const ruction of 200mm -
jo ints. If th e concrete panel we re formed as a
300mm th ickness w hen used as a self-sup-
sandw ich panel th en mechanical fixings,such
porting oute r skin.The inner wa ll can vary
as stainless st eel cramps, wo uld be needed
w idely in it s construction from concrete
both t o hold th e two sides of th e concrete
block t o light gauge metal st ud w all w it h a
panel t ogether and t o connect th em t ogeth-
w at erproofed o ute r facing.Th e cavity
er as th ey are stacked vert ically.T his wo uld
between th e oute r concrete panel w all and
create a diaphragm wall rather th an a mon o-
th e inner backing wa ll has a vent ilate d cavity
lit hic loadbearing wa ll, making it much more
of 50mm - 75mm w idt h.Th e cavity is vent i-
expensive as a result of all th e mechanical fix-
lated at th e t op and bottom of th e wall.
Vertical section I : IO. Parapet and panel-to-panel joint. Glass reinforced concrete (GRC) panels with open joints
MC E
181
Concrete a s 3 Small precast/GRC cladding panels ~)l
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D etails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. I 2. I 3. 14.
MC E
Backing wall Precast concrete panel Closed cell thermal insula tion Vert ical joint open or closed type Horizontal joint (typically a lap) open or closed type Internal finish W indow frame Reinforced concrete column Metal corner trim Metal parapet coping Concrete fioor deck Adjacent panel in different material W at erpro of membrane Precast concrete coping
182
Parapets and ci lls
t o fold over th e inside face of t he parapet
Th e detailing of parapets and cills for both
wall,w hich protects th e roof membrane
individually suppo rte d panels and for st acked
from th e effect s of sunlight. It also provides
panels fo llow s th e same prin ciples.At parapet
an overcloak t o th e roo fing membrane w hich
level, self-suppo rt ing concrete panels have
w raps up th e inside face of t he parapet w all
th e advantage of not needing an addit ional
and across t he t op of th e precast panel,
inner parapet wall but require a pressed alu-
w here it forms a complete weat hertight seal
minium coping over th e t op of th e wa ll t o
t o th e t op of th e wall.A coping made from
both keep rain from penetrating th e t op
precast concrete is less easy t o handle, but
panel. w here it is most vulnerable, as w ell as
provides effective protection t o th e w at er-
t o throw rainw ater off th e coping inw ards t o
proof membrane beneath.
an inner gutter at th e edge of th e roof Th e visible vert ical face of th e coping is usually
Th e base of walls in precast panels are detailed in a similar way t o ot her forms of
kept t o a minimum in order t o reduce it s vis-
loadbearing masonry.A continuous damp
ual impact o n th e facade. A precast coping is
pro of membrane (D PM) exte nds up from
also used inst ead of aluminium, but th is is
th e o ut side of th e struct ure beneath and
essent ially for visual reasons.The advantage of
form s a damp pro of course (D PC) w hich is
an aluminium coping is th at it can be pressed
positioned so t hat it exte nds at least I SOmm
1 4
4
L
3-D view of wall clad in small GRC panels
L L
3-D detail view of wall clad in GRC precast panels Horizontal section I: I0, W all construction with small GRC cladding panels
above external gro und level.Th e DPe is
Open ings
positioned so t hat t he low est row of panels
Th e characte ristic to ngue-and-groove pro file
at gro und level appears t o sit o n t he gro und
of hori zont al joint s makes it necessary t o
w it h its bottom course level w it h t he adja-
provide a complete edging to th e op enings
cent gro und or pavement.T his avoids t he
fo rmed in precast panels, Special precast pan-
need fo r a I SOmm - 200mm plinth aro und
els for o penings are not usually made since
t he base of t he w all t hat is popu lar in load-
t his adds considerable cost t o t he syste m,
bearing brick construct ion in ord er to avoid
Th e mo st commo n method of forming an
rainw ater t hat is splashed off t he gro und
edge t o a w indow o r door opening is t o use
soaking into th e base of th e w all and causing
metal sheet on all sides of th e reveal to th e
damp penetratio n o n t he inside of t he wa ll at
o pening,This provides usually a thin edge as
fioor level.
we ll as being able t o be cont inuo us w it h a w indow or do or frame and providing an int egral cill t o t he o pening,
Horizontal section I: I0, W all construction with small GRC cladding panels
MC E
18 3
Concrete a s 03 Small precast/GRC cladding panels
Horizontal section I: I0, W all construction with small GRC cladding panels
3-D exploded view of wall construction
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Backing wall Precast concrete panel Closed cell thermal insula tion Vertical joint open or closed type Horizontal joint (typically a lap) open or closed type Internal finish W indow frame Reinforced concrete column Metal corner trim Metal parapet coping Concrete fioor deck Adjacent panel in different material W at erproof membrane Precast concrete coping
Sand blasted fin ish and t ooled finish
aggregates and du lls th em as a result, produc-
In addit ion t o th e finishes descr ibed in t he
abrades both in prop ortion t o th e hardness
t exts o n both in-situ co ncrete and precast
of th e co ncrete surface and t o th e prop or-
co ncrete panels, th e t echniques of sand blast-
t ion of coarse aggregate in th e cement mix,
ing and t ooling are commo nly used o n small
Th is leads t o different surface t extures,
cladding panels,
depend ing o n t he ty pe of small aggregate ,
Th e sand blasting of co ncrete panels is usually done w it h iron filings rather th an sand
184
ing a characte rist ic matt surface, Sand blasting
and th e quality and degree of hydr ation of th e cement mix, Sand blasting allows th e fin-
particl es, Con crete is blaste d w it h differing
ish t o be obta ined gradually and controlled
amo unts of abrasive iron filings at high pres-
visually as wo rk progresses, w it ho ut th e need
sure, depend ing o n th e hardness of th e con-
for rinsing w hich slows down th e pro cess,
crete wall panel.This slight ly ero des th e face
Ac id etc hing also allows very localised wo rk-
of th e co ncrete , eit her back t o th e surface
ing w it h th e use of stencils,
sand grains or more deeply t o t he coarse
MC E
j
Horizontal section I: I 0, GRC cladding panels construction with window connection
3-D detail view of junction between wall and window
D etails
4
Too led co ncrete is a meth od of texturing
aggregate beneath,Th e essent ial visual char-
co ncrete by eit her striking t he mater ial w it h
acterist ic of thi s meth od is th at it abrades all
chisel o r pick, o r by rotat ion, using diamon d
'<0
Vertical section I: I0, W all construction with small GRC cladding panels
3-D detail view of wall construction
tipped burring too ls to make grooves for any shape, depth and distance apart. A claw chisel has a tooth ed fi at head th at breaks th e surface, while a pick is a chisel w it h a sharp point th at can be used to create a roughened surface ,A boasting chisel is a groov ing chisel used to make a set of parallel grooves in th e face of th e co ncrete .These textures usually sto p sho rt of co rne rs of wa llsto give a crisp edge ,
3-D view of wall clad with small GRC panels
MC E
185
CC5'n t'rete'
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3-D exploded View of component build-up
3-D view of wall with small precast cladding panels
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Details I.
Backing wall
2, 3
Precast concrete panel Closed cell thermal insula ,"0
4
5,
Vertical joint open or closed type Honzontal jom (typically a lap) open or closed type
6 7 8
lntem al fin,sh W indow frame Reinforred concrete cohjmn
9, 10. I I. 12.
Metal come r tr im Metal parapet coping Concrete floor deck Adjacent panel in
3-D view of frame detail
mat erial
13. Waterproof membrane 14. Precast concrete coping
Exploded axonometric drawingof frame detail
Exploded axOilO metre- drawing of wall detail
MC E_ 186
I
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3-D view of wall with precast cladding panels
3-D exploded view of component build-up
3-D view of fixing element
I
3-D view of wall with precast cladding panels
3-D exploded view of component build-up
3-D view of fixing element
MC E
187
MASONRY WALLS (I) Masonry loadbearing walls:
Brick, stone and concrete block Mortar>
Parapets Cills and openings
(2) Masonry cavity walls:
Brick Ground level Window and door openings
Eaves and parapets (3) Masonry cavity walls: Stone and concrete block
Wall structures Ground level Openings in walls
Eaves and parapets (4) Stone cladding:
Fixings Cladding to precast concrete
panels Closed Joints Movement joints
Stone finishes
(5) Terracotta rainscreens: Manufacture of panels Comer pieces
Fixing systems Panel sizes
Openings
MC E
189
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Vertical sections I: I O. W indow openings and restraint/support at floor level
Details for hollow brick I. 2.
3. 4. 5.
Loadbearing hollow brick wall Timber framed window Internal finish Thermal insulation Hollow brick cill
In maso nr y loadbearing const ruct ion, a com-
joint s t hat wo uld weaken it struct urally Eng-
plete wall is bo nded t oget her t o form a sin-
lish bond has alte rnate courses of all header s
gle struct ure. Loadbearing brick wa lls formed
set o n courses of all st ret cher s.
w it h traditional sized bri cks follow tradition al
In th e hori zont al joints,bond s in all load-
bond ing patt ern s w hich set th e br icks t ogeth -
bearing materi als have a cont inuo us path
er in a way t hat avoids cont inuity in ver t ical
from o ut side t o inside, w hich reduces it s
joints.In ot her wo rds, each course is laid in a
resistance t o w at er penetratio n.Traditionally,
way t hat is different from t he co urse below,
t his is overcome by making t he wall suffi-
in order t o ensure t hat joint s between br icks
cient ly deep t o avoid t he passage of wate r
are st aggered vert ically This ensures th at th e
through th e thi ckness of th e wall. In conte m-
wall behaves st ructurally as a hom ogenous
po rar y construction, a vapo ur barrier is usu-
construct ion w it h discontinuou s joints.Tradi-
ally added to th e inside face if th e wall is dr y
t io nal brick bonds have a recognisable
lined, o r t he w all is faced int ernally w it h a
appearance in elevat ion. For example, Flem-
wate rproo f render t o ensure moisture do es
ish bond has courses of alte rnate header s
not penetrate th e joint.
(sho rt edge) and st retc her s (long edge) set
MC E 190 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertical sections I: IO. Window opening and restraint/suppor t at floor level
In br ick const ructio n it is usually
side by side. Each course is offset from th e
assumed th at a wa ll aro und 3 1Smm ( 12in),
o ne below t o avoid a cont inuity of ver t ical
w hich correspo nds t o o ne br ick length plus
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Vertical sections I:IO. W indow openings andrestraint/support at floor androof levels
3-D view of window detail
o ne br ick w idt h in a bond , is sufficient t o
be compat ible w it h th ose physical prop erties
resist rainw ater penetration in t emp er ate c1i -
of t he backing wa ll.
mates.Th is is dependent upon br ick density
W it h th e increased use of th erm al insu-
and manufacturin g dim ension s, but walls of a
lat io n to reduce energy consum pt ion w it hin
thi ckness correspo nding t o o ne bri ck length
buildings,th erm al insulation is set o n th e
o nly are usually not deemed t o be th ick
inside face t o allow th e mater ial t o be visible
eno ugh, and ofte n suffer from dampness o n
o n th e o ut side face. How ever. thi s results in
th eir int ernal faces if th ere is no damp proof
th e th erm al mass of th e wa ll not being used
membrane and/o r wate rproo fed render o n
for night t ime coo ling.W here th e int ernal
th e inside face.
face of th e wa ll is required for night tim e
W hile loadbearing concrete block is
coo ling, th e th erm al insulati o n can be set in
commo n in hou sing, st o ne is used mainly as
th e middl e of th e w all co nstr uct io n, w it h th e
part of a loadbearing stone wall w here block
leaves of br ick, sto ne o r block o n eit her side
or brick is th e prim ary material. It is ofte n th e
linked by st ainless steel ti es t o form a dia-
case th at stone is used as a facing materi al t o
phragm wa ll. H ow ever.thi s is an unusual
a more economic mater ial behind. If st o ne is
solut io n as st ruct ural discontinuity in th e
used as a loadbearing material rather th an as
wa ll const ruct ion is less efficient from th e
addit ional cladding th en it s properties must
st ruct ural po int of view.As th e height of th e
D etails 6. U-shaped brick, filled with reinforced concrete 7. Waterproof membrane 8. Damp proof course (DPC) 9. Weather bar 10. Hollow brickcoping I I. Roof construction 12. Rendered finish I 3. Floorslab
MC E
191
a
IVlasonry Walls I Masonry loadbearing wal ls: Brick, stone and concrete block
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So lid bri ck detai ls I.
Loadbearing brick wall 2. Timb er framed window 3. Internal plaster finish or dr y lining/drywall 4. Thermal insulation 5. Stone lintel 6. Stone cill 7. W aterproof membrane 8. Damp proof course (DPC) 9. Reinforced concrete lintel 10. Stone facing blocks
MCE
192
w all increases between floor slabs o r
Int ernally,th e insulati o n is finished w it h plaster
betw een points of restr aint, th e thi ckness of
and a proj ecting cill t hat gives a traditional
th e wa ll also increases t o provide st ability. A n
visual appearance aro und a w indow.
alte rnat ive to th e traditi on al method of sim-
Th e colour range of cut st one is very
ply making th e wa ll thi cker is to form a dia-
important in loadbearing st o new o rk in order
phragm wa ll.Two skins of br ick, typically
t o ensure th at a wa ll has a 'massive' appear-
2 15mm t o 3 15mm thi ck (9in- 12in), are set
ance, as if almo st cut from a single block of
apart w it h fin wa lls set perp end icular t o th e
stone.T his is quite different from masonry
direction of th ese br ick wa lls. Con crete
cladding, w here th e stone can be much more
block wa lls w ill be t ypically 200mm or
varied acro ss th e facade if preferred, since
300mm th ick (Sin o r 12in) .
cladding rarely tries t o achieve a truly mono-
W hen used internally,th erm al insulation
lit hic appearance.
provides a full cont inuity between t he insulat ed wall and insulated glazed units set into
Mortars
o penings.Th e th erm al insulation passes under
A n essent ial benefit of using loadbearing
th e int ernal cill and is set in a w ay th at avoids
masonry walls is th eir ability t o avo id move-
visual clumsiness that can spo il th e appear-
ment joints w it h th e use of lime mortar. This
ance of loadbearing br ick, stone and block.
binding mater ial is a traditional mortar m ix
3-D view of window detail 3-D view of window detail
W indow details I. 2.
Ground fioor or fioor slab External ground level Screed W at erproofing layerto roof Brick parapet
3. 4. 5.
6. 7.
A ngle fillet External wall
8. 9. 10,
Roof substrate Damp proof course (DPC) Damp proof membrane (DPM)
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w it h low er strength th an mortars used in
varied by vary ing th e prop ortion of cement
cavity wall const ruction but has great er flexi-
and lime w hich are used t o bind th e mortar
bility as a mater ial, allow ing it t o move more
t ogether.A higher prop ortion of cement
freely w it hout cracking.T his reduces,o r can
increases strength, w hile a higher proportion
avoid th e need for. movement joints w hich
of lime increases flexibility Mixing th e correct
are int roduced t o avoid cracking in masonry
mortar for a particular wall const ruct ion is
walls. Movement joints are t ypically set at 6.5
achieved through a balance of st rength and
metres t o 8.0 metres (21ft-26ft), depending
flexibility.In addit ion, th e comparat ively low
on t he st rength and size of th e wa ll.
wate r perm eability of lime gives it greate r
mixes in loadbearing wa lls as for cavity wa lls
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resistance t o rain penetration th an more cement -based mortars. Lime makes a mortar
and masonry cladding, and follow th e same
light er in colour th an cement -based ty pes.
pr inciples in br ick. st o ne and co ncret e block.
Co lour can be mod ified by pigment addit ives.
It is commo n t o use th e mortar of minimum
In st one w alls, crushed sto ne is added t o th e
strength required. since an increase in
mix instead of sand in o rder t o give mortar
strength results in a correspo nding increase
th e t exture and some of th e appearance of
in rigidity w hich increases th e risk of cracking
th e st o ne itself.
j-U
view ot clll detail
occurring at joint s.Th e st rength of mortars is MC E
19 3
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Ho rizontal sections I : IO.W indow jambs
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I~ I Ho rizonta l section 1: IO.W indow jamb Vert ical sections I 10. W indow openings
C on cret e blo ck det ails I.
Loadbearing block wall 2. Tim ber framed wi ndow 3. External render finish 4. Internal finish 5. Thermal insulation 6. Precast concrete cill 7. Precast concrete lintel 8. Damp proof cour se (DPC) 9. W eat her bar 10. Seal
MC E
194
Parapets
usually much t hicker t han t hat used in clad-
Unlike parapets in masonry cavity walls or
ding t o ensure t hat it w ill not easily crack due
cladding, t here is littl e oppo rt unity t o incor-
t o freeze / t haw act ion and is stro ng enough
por ate th erm al insulation w it hout concealing
t o absorb norm al impact loads, ty pically from
t he int ernal face of t he parapet. In pr actice,
maintenance equipment.A damp proof
t he parapet is ofte n insulat ed o nly up t o t he
course (DPC) is set underneath t he coping
height of t he wate rproo fing layer in order t o
stone t o avoid wate r being absorbed too far
reduce th e t hermal br idge betw een th e insu-
dow n int o t he const r uction from it s top sur-
lat ed roof and t he t op of t he t hermal insula-
face, and t his DPe may be cont inuous w it h a
ti on in th e exte rnal wall. Loadbearing stone
wate rproofing layer exte nding up from th e
allows for considerable modelling of t he par-
int ernal face of t he parapet. In commo n w it h
apet w all w it hout th e need for complex piec-
ot her copings, th e t op is sloped inw ards t o
es of st one t hat wo uld be needed in cavity
drain wate r t ow ards t he roo f rath er t han
w alls or cladding.The t hickness of t he stone
down th e front of t he facade w here it wo uld
can be expressed t o its full exte nt in a para-
cause staining.The coping usually projects
pet and t his is a commo n feature of t heir
beyond t he face of t he wall on t he roof side
design, parti cularly w here th e parapet also
in order t o th row t he wate r clear of th e w all
serves as a balustrade.The coping sto ne is
and avoid staining.A cont inuous groove , or
3-D view of cill detail on concrete block wall.
' V
Isometric view of concrete block wall assembly
3-D view of window detail on concrete block wall.
throating, is int ro duced t o avo id rainw ater
Ci lls and o penings
being drawn back along th e underside of t he
Openings in loadbearing stone, br ick and
proj ecting coping, Cop ings are somet imes set
block have th e advantage of revealing th e
forward on th e exte rnal face of th e st o ne
thi ckness of th e materi al,giving a massive
but thi s is primari ly don e for visual reasons,
appearance t o th e wa ll. Openings in cavity
since rainwat er th at falls o nto th e t op of th e
w alls and cladding require corne r pieces that
coping is directed away to ward s th e inside
have a jo int adjacent t o th e corne r,giving th e
face w it h little risk of staining occurring o n
appearance of a w all covered in a different
th e exte rnal face of th e w all.
mater ial rather th an being a surface appear-
Where bri ck is used, th e coping is ty pically in stone o r precast concrete, In o rder t o
ing t o have been carve d out of so lid materi al. H owever, repetition in th e size and shape of
secure th e coping to th e wa ll beneath, w hich
corne r pieces is needed in ord er to keep th e
is weakened by th e need for a damp pro of
construct ion as econo mic as possible,
course, dowels are ofte n set into th e top of
]
Cills are form ed from eit her th e same
th e wa ll.T he coping is th en set onto th e
materi al if sto ne is used for th e wa ll, or pre-
dow els by means of holes dr illed int o th e
cast concrete if th e w all is made from br ick
underside of th e coping.
o r block, In commo n w it h co pings, cills are sloped w it h a projecting edge th at throw s
MCE
195
JV1asonry a s Masonry loadbearing walls: Brick, stone and concrete block
1
D iaphragm brick wall details I, 2,
Loadbearing diaphragm brick wall Air void or thermal insulation
Horizontal & vertical sections I 10, Bedding reinforcement between courses, diaphragm wall
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Isometric views of wall assembly, I , parapet level, 2, ground level
th e rainw ater clear of th e w all beneat h,A
wo rk above, In concrete block const ruction, a
t hroating is also used t o avoid wate r running
reinforced concrete lint el is used, w hich spans
back t o t he facade from th e under side of t he
t he complete w idt h of t he wa ll, w hile in
proj ecting cill.W here st one is used, th e ty pe
sto ne a thin arch is used on th e o ute r face of
of sto ne must be suitable for use as a cill.
t he wa ll, ofte n w it h a more rudimentary brick
W here softer sto nes such as limest o nes and
arch behind it, concealed by th e w indow
sandsto nes are used for t he wall, sto ne for
frame, Since t he t her mal insulati on is set usu-
th e coping must be sufficient ly dense and
ally o n th e inside face, th e th erm al bridge is
durable t o avoid rainw ater being absorbed
avoided.Throatings are incorp orated into
into th e cill itself. causing staining o n th e t op
concrete and stone faced lint els in o rder t o
of t he cill. More dense st ones w ill absorb lit -
avoid staining, but t his is not usually do ne in
tl e wate r.w hich w ill instead be throw n clear
br ick, w hich is more absorbent and in w hich
of th e cill durin g rain, Som e harder lime-
it is difficult to form a groove,
stones and sandstones may still be suitable for use as cill pieces, Cills are usually made in single pieces, but w here op enings are w ide, sect ions are set side by side w it h mortar joints between th em,Th e DPe, incorporated beneath cills in all mat erials, drains away any wate r t hat soaks t hrou gh th e cill, parti cularly at t he joint s, The heads of op enings in loadbearing masonry walls are support ed by lint els o r arches, In traditio nal br ick const r uct ion, a flat or curved arch is used t o support th e bri ck-
MC E
196
3-D view of loadbearing brick wall
Types of brick bonds
Flemish bond
Old English bond
3-D view of loadbearing masonry wall with stone cladding
Stretcher bond
3-D view of loadbearing masonry wall with stone cladding
Solid brickdetails I.
Loadbearing brick wall 2. Timber framed window 3. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/drywall 4. Thermal insulation 5. Stone lintel 6. Stone cill 7. Waterproof membrane 8. Damp proof course (DPC) 9. Reinforced concrete lintel 10. Stone facing blocks
3-D exploded view of loadbearing masonry wall with stone cladding
Exploded axonometric view of loadbearing masonry wall with stone cladding
MC E
197
Solid brick details I.
2. 3.
Loadbearing brick wall Timber framed window Internal plaster finish or dry
lining/drywall 8. Thermal insulation Stone lintel 9. Stone cill Waterproof 10. membrane
4. 5. 6. 7.
Damp proof course (DPC) Reinforced concrete lintel Stone facing blocks
3-D view of loadbearing brick wall cill detail
3-D view of loadbearing brick wall
3-D view of loadbearing brick wall parapet detail
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Exploded axonomet ric view of loadbearing masonry construction
MC E
19 8
3-D view of loadbearing block wall 3-D exploded view of loadbearing block wall construction
3-D view of window detail
3-D exploded view of loadbearing block wall with window
Co ncrete block details I.
Loadbearing block wall Timbe r framed w indow 3. Extemal render finish 4. Intem al finish 5. Thenmal insulation 6. Precast concrete cill 7. Precast concrete lintel 8. Damp proof course (DPC) 9. Weathe r bar 10. Seal
2.
I I r I
MC E
199
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Vertical section I : I O.Typical connection or restraint to primary structure
Vertical section I : I O.Typical conn ection or restraint to primary structure
1 [ J[ [ [ J[ l
Horizontal & vertical section I IOTypical window at cill and head
Brick cavity wa lls have th e advantage of pro-
buildings up t o two storeys, th e o ute r skin is
viding a cavity w it hin th e depth of a wa ll for
built up from th e found ation and is restrained
drainage of rainw ater before it is allowe d t o
back t o th e floor slab at first floor level and
be absorbed t oo far into th e wa ll constr uc-
at roof level.The inner skin is built off each
ti on.W hereas loadbearing bri ck wa lls use th e
floor slab and is restrained at th e head by th e
overall wa ll th ickness t o stop th e passage of
floor slab or roof structure above.Taller
rainw ater from out side t o inside, cavity w alls
buildings also have th e inner skin built off
use two skins of br ickw ork separate d by a
floor slabs in th e same way, but th e o ute r skin
vent ilate d air gap.Th e inner skin is increasing-
is suppo r te d at each floor level o n a cont inu-
ly form ed in concrete block. ho llow t erracot-
o us stainless st eel angle, bo lted back t o th e
t a block or t imber studwork.T hermal insula-
floor slab.A damp proof course (D PC) is set
ti on is usually set o n th e exte rnal face of th e
o n t op of th e steel angle t o drain th e cavity
inner skin in o rder t o keep th e building
Slots called wee p ho les are form ed in th e
st r uct ure insulated.
vert ical joints immediately above th e steel
Th e o ute r brick skin is usually o nly
3-D view of typical win dow assembly
MC E 200 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Isometric view of wall assembly
angle in o rder t o allow wate r in th e cavity t o
I OOmm/4in th ick (o ne br ick w idt h) w it h both
dr ain o ut. In addit ion t o being restrained at
skins being suppor t ed either at gro und level
floor slabs, th e o ute r skin is also ti ed at inter-
o r at int ermediar y floor levels. In th e case of
mediary po ints back t o th e inner skin w it h
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3-D top view of typical window opening in cavity brick wall Vertical sections I: I O. Junction at parapet. support of outer leaf at fioor slab, window opening
Vert ical section I :25.W all assembly
stainless stee l t ies.T hese are set t ypically at
dry as we ll as dr ying o ut t he o ute r skin of
450mm/ I Sin ho rizont al cent res and
brick, w hich can become fully sat urate d in a
900m m/3ft vert ical cent res.
rainsto rm.T he cavity is bridged o nly by o pen-
Histori cally, inner and outer skins we re ti ed t ogether w it h floor slabs t o form dia-
ings for w indows and doors. W hen an o pening is form ed. t he cavity is
phragm walls, but t heir use is reduced w it h
closed by a lint el (beam) t o suppo rt t he
t he concern over th e th erm al bri dge create d
inner and o ute r skins at t he top of th e o pen-
by linking th e two skins of brick. Current
ing, and a cill piece at t he bottom of t he
practice uses t he o ute r skin as cladding t o a
o pening.T he sides are closed by eit her
dr ained and vent ilate d void behind, w it h an
returning o ne of th e two skins to meet th e
inner skin t hat is wate rproo fed w it h a high
o ute r skin, o r by setting an insulat ed cavity
level of th erm al insulation. Brick types used in
closer. usually made as an aluminium ext ru-
cavity const ruct ion vary w idely, fro m trad i-
sion filled w it h t herma l insulati on. Because
ti on al clay bricks w hich are eit her hand
th e down w ard passage of wate r inside th e
formed o r w ire cut t o extruded hollow t er-
cavity is blocked by th e lint el at th e head of
racotta bricks.T he cavity is vente d t op and
t he o pening, a 'cavity tray' is set above t he
bottom t o ensure th e free passage of air
lint el t o drain w at er o ut of t he cavity A cavity
through t he cavity T his allows t he cavity t o
tray is fo rm ed from a bitumino us felt st rip
D etails I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
9. 10. I I. I 2. 13. I 4. 15. I 6. 17. 18. 19.
Outer brick skin Inner blockwork or brick skin Tim ber framed window Timber cill Cavity closer Internal plaster finish or dr y lining/drywall Thermal insulation in cavity Air cavity (sometimes omitted where insulation fills cavity) Inner concrete lintel or beam Pressed steel lintel Steel angle Met al coping Precast concrete cill Damp proof course (DPC) Brick cill Movement joint Ground fioor slab Steel cavity wall tie Foundation
MC E
20 I
®
®
Vertical section I : IO. Junction at gro und floor level
3-D view of brick cavity w all junct ion at ground floor level
W indow and door openings
w hich is set int o a ho rizo nt al joint in th e
height between gro und floor level in t he
inner skin and set sloping downwards across
building and t he adjacent ext ernal level.The
Since a w indow o r door frame has a profile
th e face of th e cavity.Th e bottom of t he tray
OPC in th e o ut er skin is set at around
w hich is t he same on all four sides,w it h an
is set o n a hori zonta l co urse o n th e o ute r
I SOmm above exte rnal gro und level.The
exte rnal modification for t he cill,t he profile
skin.W eep holes are left in t he vert ical joints
OPC for th e int ern al skin is set at t he same
of t he o pening int o w hich it fits must be
immediat ely above th e OPC t o allow wate r
level if th e step up fro m o ut side t o inside is
consiste nt on all sides.Visual consideratio ns
t o dr ain o ut.T he ends of th e OPC are tu cked
aro und I SOmm. If th e difference betwee n
are equally impo rt ant in th e detailing of cavi-
down into a vert ical OPC set int o th e jambs
o utside and inside levels is around
ty w all o penings.The dept hs of th e reveal
(sides) of the opening.The ver t ical OPC is in
300mm/ 12in t hen th e OPC is st epped up
can make the o ut er skin appear mo re 'mas-
tu rn linked to a OPC set under the cill t o
from outer skin t o inner skin in t he same
sive' if t he reveal is made at least one brick
fonrn a com plete w at erti ght seal t o th e
place but a separate OPC is added t o th e
deep or more like a th in skin if th e window
opening w hich is drained and vent ilat ed t o
inner skin at t he same level as t he bottom of
is set forward of th e reveal.Where a load-
th e o utside wa ll.A similar prin ciple of cavity
th e cavity tray.Th e aim of th e damp pro ofing
bearing wall can incorporate a structural
tray is used t o drain w at er at roo f level and
is t o provide a conti nuity of prote ction from
brick arch, th is is much mo re difficult in a
at ground level. In addit ion, a OPC is used at
underneath th e ground floor o r low est base-
cavity wa ll.This is because the o ute r and
gro und level t o avoid w at er being drawn up
ment slab up into t he wall const ruction.
inner skins of a cavity w all are kept separate ,
int o th e wall construction t o th e inside face
T he cavity is filled below gro und floor
except w here t hey are bridged by lint els.
of th e w all wit hin the building. OPCs are also
level t o avoid it filling with w at er wh ich
Because th ey are linked o nly at th ese points,
used beneath parapet s and copings as we ll as
wo uld eventually damage th e construction,
th e lintel needs t o be a separate structural
at th e junction of wa ll and pitched roof.The
particularly from freezing in w int er in t em-
eleme nt w hich suppo r t s both skins w it hout
use of th e cavity tray tog ether w it h a damp
perate climates. Until recent ly, th erm al insula-
exert ing lat eral forces in th e adjacent brick-
pro of course are t he two most impo rt ant
t io n was usually t erm inated at gro und floor
wo rk, w here cracking could occur in bot h
level. More recent ly,t he t hermal insulati o n
skins.Fo r t his reason, simply suppo rted lin-
cont inues down below gro und w here it is
t els are used, w hich exert balanced loads o n
Ground level
cont inuo us w it h t herm al insulation set on t op
bot h skins. Bot h reinforced concret e and
Th e detailing of t he OPC at gro und floo r
of or beneat h t he floo r slab to pro vide a
steel ty pes are used,w hich have the advan-
level is dependent upon the difference in
complet ely insulat ed building enclosure.
t age of supporting a course of bricks t o give
pr inciples of cavity w all detailing.
MCE
202
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Vertical section I : IO. Junctions at ground fioor level
Vertical section I :25.Wall assembly
Vertical section I: IO. Support of outer leaf at fioor slab and at ground level
3-D cut-aways showing relationship between inner and outer cavity leaf
MCE
203
CD
3-D view of cavity br ick wall assembly
Vertical section I:2S.W all assembly
D et ails I. 2.
3. 4. S. 6. 7. 8.
9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14. IS. 16. 17. 18. 19.
MC E
Outer brick skin Inner blockwork or brick skin Timber framed window Timber cill Cavity closer Internal plaster finish or dry lining/drywall Thermal insulation in cavity Air cavity (sometimes omitted where insulation fills cavity) Inner concrete lintel or beam Pressed steel lintel Steel angle Metal coping Precast concrete cill Damp proof course (DPC) Brick cill Movement joint Ground floor slab Steel cavity wall tie Foundation
20 4
th e appearance of a flat arch. Reinforced
Lintels are suppo rte d on both skins at
concrete lint els appear as beams visible in
th eir bearing points.A reinforced concrete
both elevat ion and on th e soffit (underside) ,
lint el spans across both skins eit her in a pro-
w hile stee l lint els are visible only on th e sof-
file th at also forms a cavity tray for w ide
fit of th e opening, making it clearly visible
spans or as a flat lintel for shor t spans.In
th at th e br icks across th e t op of th e open-
some examples, th e lint el has a beam sect ion
ing on th e oute r face are not self suppo rt ing
support ing th e inner skin w hich provides th e
unlike loadbearing wall const r uct ion. For th is
spanning element and a t oe suppo rt ing th e
reason br ickw ork suppo r te d by a stee l lint el
oute r skin.A DPC is set onto th e lint el t o
is ofte n not set on edge t o form an arch,
drain w at er. In ot her cases, th e DPC can be
but is co ursed th e same as th e br ickw ork
set above th e lint el depending on th e config-
above, since any arch suppo rt ed by a st eel
uration of th e wall construct ion. In both cases
lint el is decorative. How ever, an advantage
th erm al insulati on is set on th e inside face of
of th e stee l lintel is th at it can incorporate a
th e w all t o avoid a th erm al bridge. Stee l lin-
cavity tray,w it h rainw ater being drained
t els can be used eit her as a pressed mild
through wee p holes in ver t ical joints in th e
steel lint el w hich has a profile for support ing
bottom co urse.
both skins, or as reinforced concrete lint el
TYPE B
TYPE A
TYPEC
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Verti cal sections showing window junction variations
[r Vertical sections I : IO.Junction at ground floor level and at window
1
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3-D views of window and floor junctions
w it h a st ainless steel shelf angle bolted t o it.
t he t op w it h a br ick or block t hat allow s t he
In ot her examples, t he lint el has a OPC set
load from t he roof st ructure t o be suppo rt -
on t op of t he profile formed by t he lint el
ed on t he inner skin.A lte rnat ively, t he roof
w here t he inner block has no st r uctural func-
st ructure may be supported on a column set
tion but is instead used t o infill t he gap and
into t he inner skin of th e wall or on block-
provide a background for plaster. Optionally,
w ork pier s, also forming part of t he inner
t he OPC can be set onto a stainless steel
skin.The closing of th e cavity w all at th e t op
angle.The angle supports t he oute r skin,
allows for cont inuity of t herm al insulation
w hile t he reinforced concrete inner beam
fro m cavity wall t o roof structure w hile
support s bot h inner and oute r skins.
allow ing the ro of const r uction t o be vent ilat -
l r
ed w here required, and t he t op of t he cavity
Eaves and parapets
in t he wall t o be vent ilated.The t op of t he
At t he eaves, t he bottom of a pitched roof
wall usually has plastic spacers set int o t he
t ermin ates against th e t op of a brick cavity
hori zontal or vert ical joint s t o ensure th at air
w all.W hile t here are many variat ions for t he
movement can occur w it hin t he cavity,A
roof it self, t he t op of t he wall maint ains a
OPC is set on t he underside of t he br ick or
consiste nt prin ciple of closing th e cavity at
block th at closes the cavity t o ensure cont i-
Isometric view of wall assembly; one with steel support (top) and one with concrete support (bottom)
MC E
205
3-D view showing opening in brick cavity facade
Vertical section I 10.Junction at ground floor level
3-D view of double brick skinned cavity wall system
nuity between th e damp pro of membrane on th e exte rnal face of th e inner skin and th e wate rproofing layer of th e roof Parapets are closed at th e t op by a coping, usually in reinforced concrete o r stone,A D Pe is set beneat h th e cop ing t o sto p th e passage of wate r down w ards, Below th is, rainw ater can ente r t he cavity from both inner and oute r skins and th is is prevented by exte nding th e w at erproof layer from th e roo f up th e side of th e inner skin up t o coping level.T hermal insulati o n is usually cont inued up th e inside of th e cavity wall as well as up th e exte rnal face of th e inner skin t o avoid a th erm al bridge th rough th e inner skin,
3-D oblique view of cavity brick wall assembly facade
MC E
20 6
@
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Horizontal sectors 1:1 0, Comer conditions
-- ~ Details I. 2. 4.
Outer brick skjn Inner blockworl<. or brick skin Timber framed window Timber eill
S. 6.
Cavity closer Internal plaster f.nish O!" dry
7.
Iiningldryw-all Thermal irlsulation in cavity
3.
3-D
View
of t ypical win dow o pening In brick
cavitywall assembly
r-"---Ylj J
8.
Air cavity (somet imes omitted where insulation
9.
r.ns cavity) Irmer concret e lint el or beam
10. I I.
Pressed steel lintel Steel ar'lgle
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Metal coping Precastconcrete cill Damp proof course (DPC) Brick (ill Movement joint Ground floor slab Steel cavity wall t ie Foundation
MC E_ 207
y
Masonr cavit
0)
Details I , Outer brick skin 2.Inner blockwork or brick skin
3.Timber framed window 4.Timberc ill
5. Cavitycloser 3-D exp loded \!lew of open ing in cavity brick wall facade
6. Intern al plaster finish or dry lining!
drywall ]. Thermal iosulatron in cavity B.A ir cavity (sometimesomitted where iosulatron fills cavrty) 9. Inner corxrete lintel or beam
10. Pressed steellintel I I , Steel angle 12. Metal coping 13. Precast concrete (ill 14. Damp proof course (OPC) IS. Brick cill
j
16. Movement jo int
17. Ground floor slab 18. Stee l cavrtywalltie 19. gooroaton
r
] ·0 exploded view of cavitybrick wall assembly
Me E 208
J
] -0 exploded vieW'> at upper floor junction
@
3-D exploded views of brick cavity wall junction at ground fioor
3-D view at top of window opening in brick cavity wall
3-D view at ground floor junction
3-D view at bottom of window opening in brick cavity wall
3-D exploded view at bottom of w indow fitting in brick cavity wall 3-D explode d view at top of wi ndow fitting in brick cavity wall
MC E
20 9
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Vertical section I Ia.Junction at ground fioor level
Vertical section I: Ia.Typical window at cill and head
Details I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Stone or concrete coping Outer stone skin with brick backing shown to create deep window reveals or where required structurally Inner block skin Timber framed window / door Stone or precast concrete cill Timber inner cill Cavity closer Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall Thermal insulation in cavity
Th e prin ciples of cavity w all design are set o ut in t he previou s t ext on br ick cavity
MC E 2 10 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
dry o ut easily, avoiding a sit uat io n w here
w alls.T he same principles can be applied for
sto ne wo uld dr y from o nly t he o ute r face,
use w hen sto ne and co ncrete blockw ork are
w hich wo uld draw dirt and dust out int o th e
used to form an outer skin.
outside face.
W hen sto ne is used, it can be used eit her
3-D view of cill detail on a blockwork cavity wall
al is vent ilate d o n both sides, allowin g it to
T he biggest difference in detailing
as an outer skin appro xim ately IOOmm/4in
between bri ck cavity walls and st o ne / block
t hick, o r w it h t hinner stone t hat is bo nded t o
cavity wa lls is t hat t here are few er joint s in
br ickwo rk t hat t ogether fo rms a 'composit e'
stone / block due t o t heir large size.T his
o ute r skin.W hen used as a IOOmm/4in thi ck
means th at th ere are fewer opportunities to
skin in o rder t o be self-suppo rt ing,t he sto ne
design a damp proof course (D PC) w it h
becom es expensive, so sandst o nes and lime-
fioor slabs, for example, parti cularly w here
sto nes are most commo nly used. Comp osite-
shelf angles are used.T he smaller unit size of
t ype o ute r skins suit sto ne that is 40mm to
brick makes it a very fiexib le material w hen
50mm thi ck ( l.s in-2.0in), bond ed to a
detailing; stone / block requires careful co-
IOOmm/4 in w ide br ick skin.This method suits
o rdinat ion of stone / block size and fioo r t o
granites and denser limest o nes.
fioor heights to allow for w indows to be suit-
In single o ute r skins of stone, t he materi-
ably placed. For t his reaso n, alternat ing bands
Horizontal section I: IO,Typical win dow jamb 10, I I, 12, I 3. 14, 15, 16, 17, I 8, 19, 20,
A ir cavity (sometimes omitted where insulation fills cavity) Inner precast concrete lintel Outer precast concrete lintel or stone fiat arch Damp proof course (DPC) Movement joint Timber framed inner skin with quilt insulation Cement fill Foundation Vertical DPC Structural column Floor construction
Vertical sections I : IO,Typical W indow at cill and head, parapet and eavesto pitched rOOT
of t hick and t hin sto ne are used in coursing,
w it h large scale building frames in eit her stee l
T his allow s ho rizont al jo int lines to be pro -
o r concrete , t he inner leaf is no longer load-
vided at shelf angles, cavity tra ys and DPes at
bearing and inst ead t he complete w all con-
gro und level w it hout disturbing th e stone
st ruction form s a cladding to t he fr ame.
patt ern w it h addition al horizont al jo ints.
W hen reinforced concrete frames are used,
Unlike open joint ed stone cladding, w here
t he junction between inner skin, typ ically con-
t he mortar is om itted, th e mortar and jo int
crete block or t erra cotta block, is st raightfo r-
pro file have a big visual impact.
ward w it h a gap between t he tw o t o allow for st ructural movement in t he fram e. Stain-
W all structures
less st eel sliding anchors are used eit her in
Loadbearing cavity walls used t o suppo rt two
t he sides of t he inner skin panel w here it
storey st r uct ures on th eir inner skins are very
meets th e column, o r at th e head w here it
commo n in hou sing co nstructio n in Europ e
meet s t he floor slab.T he oute r skin runs con-
and N or t h A merica.Vert ical mo vement joints
tinu ously in front of it.Th e sit uat io n is more
are provided at aro und 7500mm/25ft cen-
complicate d w it h a st eel fr ame, w here th e
t res, o r else are avo ided altoget her in t he
column needs t o be protected fro m corro -
const r uction by keeping lengths of w all w it hin
sion from wate r vapo ur in th e cavity Typically
t hese dimensio ns.W hen cavity wa lls are used
t he column is painted t o fo rm a protective
Vertical section 1:25.W all assembly
MC E
2 11
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D et ails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Stone or concrete coping Outer stone skin with brick backing shown to create deep window reveals or where required structurally Inner block skin Timber framed window / door Stone or precast concrete cill Timber inner cill Cavity closer Internal plaster finish or dr y lining/dry wall Thermal insulation in cavity Air cavity (sometimes omitted where insula tion fills cavity) Inner precast concrete lintel Outer precast concrete lintel or stone fiat arch Damp proof course (DPC) Movement joint Timber framed inner skin with quilt insulation Cement fill Foundation Vertical DPC Structural column Flo or construction
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Vertical section I 10.Typical threshold
Vertical section I :10.Typical parapet
coat ing and th erm al insulation is set across
ISOmm/6in above gro und fioor level w it h a
th e face of th e stee lwo rk t o provide a cont i-
hor izontal joint th at can be accommo date d
nuit y of t hermal insulation. Sometimes t he
w it hin th e design. Granite is often used
oute r skin is restrained w it h cavity ties fixed
below DPC level t o avoid staining from rain
t o th e face of th e reinforced concrete or
splashing from th e adjacent gro und and from
stee l column.T his is particularly useful w hen
dust and damage in urban locations.The
forming a movement joint in lengths of
granite, usually 30mm t o 40mm thi ck ( 1.2in
brickw ork, or movement joints th at form
t o I.Sin), is bonded t o brickwork or concrete
part of th e building str uct ure w hich typically
blockw ork t o make up th e difference in
occur at columns in th e building fr ame.The
th ickness of th e oute r skin t o a minimum of
ver t ical movement joint is filled w it h tw o
IOOmm (4in).
part polysulphide sealant th at also matches
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In order t o avoid dampness reaching th e
th e colour of th e mortar as clo sely as possi-
inside of th e building, a mixture of DPCs is
ble and provides a seal th at can accommo -
used th at provides a cont inuity between
date th e str uct ural movement w it hin th e
D PC and th e damp pro of membrane for th e
cavity wall.
fioor slab. D ifferent combinat ions of DPCs are used for ent ry int o th e building at th e
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Vertical & horizontal sections I: IO.Typical window at cill
MC E
2 12
Ground level
same level as outside w hen th e fioor level is
A n essent ial design considerat ion at gro und
a minimum of ISOmm (6in) above exte rnal
level is to provide a DPC at a minimum
level.W hen internal and exte rnal levels are
,
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Horizonta l sectio n I: I O. Blockwo rk cavity w all con st ructi on
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3-D view of blockw ork cavity wall const r uct ion
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Isom etri c views of wall assembly.
almost th e same, th e OPC is set at gro und
build th e masonry skins direct ly off th e foun-
level and is co nt inuo us w it h t he OPM rising
dation.The t herm al insulat io n in th e cavity is
fro m below.A n additional stepped OPC is
taken dow n as far as possible t o overlap wit h
set I SOmm (6in) above exte rnal level t o
t he insulat ion under th e floo r slab to reduce
drain th e cavity above.W hen internal and
t he th erm al br idge t o a minimum.
ext ernal levels are very different, a first OPC steps down from internal floor level t o a hor-
Openings in walls
izontal joint in the outer skin, ISOmm (6in)
This sectio n discusses variat ions and details
above ext ernal level, w here a second OPC
additional t o th ose set out in the previo us
o n th e inner skin exten ds down t he internal
section o n brick cavity w alls and focuses on
face of the w all down t o join the OPM.
different mat erials fo r t he inner skin.
T he cavit y below gro und level is filled t o
W hen a t imber framed inner skin is used.
avoid water building up in any voids. parti cu-
th e w indow is usually an int egral part of that
larly w here found atio ns for pads for stee l o r
inner skin so t hat a complete enclosure is
reinforced concrete co lumns are cont inuo us
fo rmed in timb er w it h masonry used as an
w it h t he cavity wall. Found at ions need t o be
o ute r skin providing some lat er al stability.The
filled t o gro und level.
o ute r mason ry skin can be return ed t o form
There is always a difficulty in prov iding a
a reveal up t o around 12Smm (Sin) depend-
cont inuity of th er mal insulat ion down the
ing o n th e th ickness of insulat ion in t he cavity.
cavity and under t he slab due t o th e need t o
A lternatively t he t imber wi ndow can be set
Vertical sectio n I : IO.Typical wi ndow at cill and head
MC E
213
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Horizontal section I 10. Blockwork cavity wall construction
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D etails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. I 2. I 3. 14. 15. I 6. 17. I 8. 19. 20.
Stone or concrete coping Outer stone skin with brick backing shown to create deep window reveals or where required st ruct urally Inner block skin Timber framed window / door Sto ne or precast concrete cill Timber inner cill Cavity closer Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall Thermal insulation in cavity A ir cavity (sometimes omitted where insulation fills cavity) Inner precast concrete lintel Outer precast concrete Iintel or stone fiat arch Damp proof course (DPC) Movement joint Timber framed inner skin with quilt insulation Cement fill Foundation Vertical DPC Structural column Floor construction
fo rw ard close t o th e line of th e oute r face
cotta o r even br ick are bond ed t ogether
w it h a t imber cill projecting fo rw ard of th e
w it h mortar and th en held in a st eel edge
wall.Th is gives th e o ute r wa ll an appearance
fr ame, w hich is fixed t o th e inner skin.Th e
of a brick t exture, giving a planar look to th e
concrete inner skin is wate rproo fed w it h
materi al.
bitumin ou s paint and th erm al insulation set
W it h reinforced concrete inner skins, it is
steel angle o n th e bottom edge form s a clos-
restrain th e o ute r mater ial. Since it is not
er t o th e w indow below, w hile th e stee l o n
practical t o cast in wa ll t ies in th e precise
th e t op edge form s a cill t o th e w indow
location w here th ey are needed, w hich does
above .T he vert ical steel angles are usually
not allow for lat er adjust ment, a set of nar-
concealed w it hin th e cavity t o give a cont inu-
row stainless steel channels are post fixed t o
o us masonry appearance.Th e masonry is
th e co ncret e.Wall t ies are th en fixed t o
somet imes restrained w it hin th e panel by
th ese channels, w hich provide th e adjust ment
vert ical stainless steel ro ds w hich are t en-
required. In recent years, o ute r masonry skins
sioned against th e fr ame t o form lightly pre-
have been made as prefabricated panels o n
stressed panels.Vert ical jo int s between panels
some proj ects w hen fixed back t o a rein-
are sealed,ty pically w it h a polysulphide sealant.
forced concrete wa ll. Panels of sto ne, t erra-
MC E
2 14
o n th e o utside face of th e inner skin.Th e
difficult t o set wall ti es int o th e materi al t o
3-D view of blockwork cavity wall constru ction
Vertic al section I: IO. Typical window at cill
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3-D exploded view of blockwork cavity wall constru ction
Horizonta l sect ion I: IO. Typical connectio n or restraint to prim ary structure
Eaves and parapets
ing behind the soffit. The o uter skin cont inues
Eaves t o cavity w alls in stone and block are
wit h anot her course to close against the slab
generally t o either a reinfo rced concrete slab
soffit. W here a dow nstand beam is used t o
or t o a timber pitched roof. When a rein-
support th e concrete roof slab above, the
forced concrete slab is used and is visible
beam is usually aligned w it h the inner skin of
from the o utside, both inner and o uter skins
the cavity w all.A stepped
need a joint fo r expansion at the head.A
other w ay rou nd fro m it s usual position,
compressible durable seal is used, recessed
draining fro m the o uter leaf to th e inner leaf,
ope is set the
fro m the face of t he outer skin t o avoid a
but w at er run ning down t he underside of the
colour clash w it h t he mor tar below. St ainless
ope is dr ained harmlessly dow n t he o uter
stee l angles w it h slotted connections are also
face of t he inner skin. If t imber is used in a
ope is set o n t op of
used t o restrain masonry at t he head, o r
projecting flat ro of th e
even a stainless ste el channel if t he underside
t he wa ll, on w hich ro of tim ber s are suppor t-
of t he concrete is revealed.W hen th e con-
ed. A cont inuity of th ermal insulat io n is pro -
crete slab soffit is concealed w it h addit ional
vided.Th e t imber roo f struct ure can also be
cladding, a hori zontal joint in t he o uter skin is
vent ilate d t o allow it t o be kept dry w hile
usually placed t o align w ith t he cladding to
maintaining t herm al insulation.
avoid t he appearance of th e stone disappear-
3-D view of blockwork cavity wall constructio n
For parapets the inner skin is th ickened
MCE
215
D etails I. Stone or concrete coping 2. Outer stone skin with brick backing shownto create deep window reveals or where required structurally 3. Inner block skin 4. Timber framed window / door 5. Stone or precast concrete cill 6. Timber inner cill 7. Cavity closer 8. Internal plasterfinish or dry lining/drywall 9. Thermal insulation in cavity 10. Air cavity (sometimes omitted where insulation fills cavity) II . Inner precast concrete lintel 12. Outer precast concrete Iintel or stone fiat arch 13. Damp proof course (DPC) 14. Movement joint 15. Timber framed inner skin with quilt insulation 16. Cement fill 17. Foundation 18. Vertical DPC 19. Structural column 20. Floor construction
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Isometricview of wall assembly.
up w hen used as a balustr ade. A hand rail o n
parapet wa lls, a st epped DPC is used to drain
t op of t he co ping is fixed by drilling t hro ugh
w ate r back t o t he inner skin t o ensure t hat
t he t op and bo ltin g it to t he inner skin
w at er inside thi s part of th e cavity w all is
beneath.T he co ping is cut t o receive t he bal-
drained imm ediat ely, especially in very
ustrade o r handrail. unless t he uprights sup-
ex posed co nd it io ns. A st epped DPC is used
porting t he handrail pass bet w een t he joints.
instead o f a regular fiat DPC und er th e co ping.
T he adjacent area of fiat ro of o r gutter usually has a w at er pro ofing layer retu rn ing up t he wa ll, regard less o f th e ro of finish.Th e waterproofing layer is set int o hori zon t al join t s in o ute r m ason ry skin. A m et al flashing is set int o t he sam e hori zon t al join t and is set ove r t he t op of th e wate r pro ofing t o protect it fr o m dam age. Met al co pings are used increasingly o n parap et s in o rde r t o match t he appearance of w indows and doo rs, particularly w here m et al cills are used .T he same prin cip les app ly as for co ncrete co pings, w it h a DPC set o n t op of t he m asonry wa ll. D r ips
I
are form ed o n eit her side of t he vert ical face t o ensure t hat water is t hrow n clear o f t he wa ll. For all parapet s, th e w at erpro o fing layer is co nt inued up t he w all t o beco m e co nt inuo us w it h t he DPC in low parapet s. For high
MC E
2 16
3-D view of sectionthrough blockwork cavity wall and window
1
3-D view of window cill detail 3-D view of window head detail
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Horizontal sections I : IO.Window jambs
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Vertical section I : IO. Junction at ground fioor level
MC E
2 17
onry a s Masonr cavit walls: Stone and concrete block Details I.
l
Stone or cooc-ete copong Outer stone sb'I WIth bOck 00d
3. -4
5. 6.
7.
reveals
or ~
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Imer block sb'1 Tmbet" h'amed ~ I dooI" Stone or precast co-crete dl Tm ber irvler dl CavIty closer
8.
Intemal plaster 'irush or dry lining/dry wall
9.
Thermal insulation lI"l Cavrty
3-D VIeW of tllocIr<worio: c.wrty w all construetoon
10. Ar UVIty (sometmes OII"Ittect ~ nsuIatoon fillseavrty) I I. Inner precast eeoc-ere Irltel
II Outer precast eeoc-ere lImel or stone IIat arch 13. D¥Ill proof course (DPC) 1-4
MoYeITleflt pill:
15. Timber framed inner skI'l WIth qu,t! ,nsulatlon 16. Cement f,1l 17. Fcuodation
18. Vertical DPe 19. Structural column 20.
3-D exp loded view of blockwo rk cavrty wal l ccostructoo
Floor con structio n
o
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MC E_ 218
VIeW
of bIockworl< cavity wall conwuet:oon
3-D VIeW
of blockworl< UVIty w all wrth WI1dow
3-D view of stone cavity wall construction
3-D exploded view of stone cavity wall construct ion
3-D exploded view of stone cavity wall window detail
3-D view of stone cavity wall construct ion with window
MC E
2 19
CD
Isometric view of sto ne cladding on individual fixings
Isomet r ic view of stone cladding on ext ru ded aluminium carr ier system
st rength due to var iat ion in th e bed of t he
is taken t o avoid defects such as cracks and
eit her sealed w it h mortar o r sealant o r, alt er-
stone. Som e quarries have co nsistent st o ne,
holes in t he material th at w ill affect it s dura-
nat ively, be o pen jo inted fo llow ing rainscreen
w hile in ot her s it s prop erties may vary con-
bility as a cladding material. For slates, nat ural
principles. In both cases th e sto nes are fixed
siderably.Test dat a o n t he physical properties
markings are a part of t he natu re of th e
t o an insulat ed backing w all.T he stone types
of t he stone in each quarry are obt ained,
sto ne and th e mater ial is judged fo r it s par-
used in cladding are granit es,sandstones,
parti cularly its strength, in o rder t o establish
t icular applicat ion.
limest o nes and slates. Marbles are somet imes
t he panel size and t hickness t hat w ill be used.
used, but are not generally considered to be
T he th ickness of stone fo r a facade applica-
Fixings
as durable as t he oth er sto ne types .Their
t ion is usually established by structural calcu-
Stainless steel is most commonly used fo r fix-
Cut sto ne used for w all cladding can be
we ights vary from 2500kg/m2 for limestone
lat io n. Flexural strengt h, also called t he modu-
ings rather than other mat erials because of
t o 2750 kg/m2 for granite .
lus of rupture. is usually t he most important
it s resistance t o corrosion comb ined w it h
structural co nsiderat ion . Code s of practice
high strength and rigidity. Stone fixings allow
and ot her cladding mate rials is that t he mate-
often set out minimum t hicknesses fo r differ-
for a three-way adjustment t o ensure a prop-
rial may still not be cut from the quarry at
ent panel sizes in different stones, but t his is
er fit vertically. ho rizontally and laterally (in o r
the t ime th e material is chosen fo r a building
o nly a general guide and calculation is usually
o ut fro m the facade).W here ancho r slots o r
project. particularly fo r larger pro jects.The
under t aken fo r facade applicatio ns.
inser ts are cast int o the floor slab o r rein-
An essential differe nce between stone
use of sto ne for cladd ing requires considera-
Samples are usually chosen t o set t he
fo rced con crete wa ll,t hese are needed t o be
ble planning, fro m setting t he range of co l-
r ange of co lour and t extu re th at are t o be
accurately position ed even t hough t hey pro-
ours, t o ne and surface marks t hat w ill be
used in a facade. Because t he sto ne required
vide adjustment for th e final posit ion of th e
used fo r th e cladding, t o establishing t he
for a particular pr oject is not always cut
sto ne.T he ty pe of fixing used is dependent mainly o n t he st o ne t hickness.
physical pr op erties for t he stone from t he
before co nstruct ion st arts, t he quarr y co n-
act ual quarry chosen, t o using thi s data t o
firm s t he amo unt of tim e needed t o cut and
complete a str uctural design t o establish
finish t he stone panels. w hich can t ake co n-
sto nes,are usually set o n t he bottom edge of
siderably lo nger t han cladd ing panels in ot her
t he sto ne panel,t hough side fixings are some-
mat erials. Because the mat er ial is nat ural, care
times used, depen ding on the weight and
stone panel sizes and th icknesses. Stone is varied in its durability and
MCE 220 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Loadbearing fixings,suppo rting th e
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o D etails for stone o n individual fixings I. 2. 3. 4. S. 6. 7.
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Stone panel Backing wall.typically concrete block Stainless steel fixings (a wide range is available) Timber framed window Stone cill Timber inner cill Internal plaster finishor dry lining/drywall Thermal insulation in
cavity 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14.
Stainless steel restraint at each floor level Air cavity Precast concrete lintel W aterpro of membrane Floor slab Stone coping
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Horizontal & vertical sections I:I O. Typical stone carrier system made from individual stone fixings
3-D view of typical stone carrier system made from individual stone fixings
MC E
22 1
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3-D view of stone carrier system made from individual fixings
Horizontal, vertical sections and elevation 1:25, Typical stone carrier system made fro m individual stone fixings
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o r dowel, set into a st ainless st eel fiat sect io n in an 'L' shape,Th e pins are typically 3mm
th an four brackets in total.Triangular panels
(0, I I Sin) diameter for st o ne up to 30mm
usually have o ne fixing in each corner.At ver-
( I ,2in) thi ck and 5mm (0,2in) for sto ne of
t ical movement jo ints, adjacent sto nes are
greate r th icknesses, Face fixings are norm ally used w it h mar-
th e movement joint. The end of th e fixing
ble and granite ,Th e bo lts function as both
suppo r t ing t he st o ne is around 50mm w ide,
loadbearing and restraint fixings and are set away from th e corne rs in th e manner of bo lt
ti ve and negative w ind loads as we ll as
fixed glazing,A bolt is fixed in each corne r.
imposed loads from maintenance equipme nt.
usually at a distance equal t o three t imes t he
Th e slot in th e stone is eit her a ho le, slot o r
stone th ickness but t o a maximum distance
rebate th at is not visible from th e st o ne face,
of around 75mm (3in) from th e corne r.
Th ese are usually locat ed at 1/5 po int s for
Smaller stones are fixed w it h fewer fixings,
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stack bo nded st o nes and Y. points for %
and tri angular panels usually have a fixing in
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each corne r o nly.
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Horizontal & vertical sections I : I0, Typical stone carrier system made from individual stone fixings
MC E
r.
bottom of th e stone are used, w it h not more
Restraint fixings are used t o resist posi-
tq
,
st rength of th e panels,Two br ackets at th e
carried on separate supports, each side of
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from th e corne r.A maximum of four
Fixings used to suppo rt st o nes th at clad
restr aint fixings per stone is used, Restraint
soffits, such as t he under side of a concrete
fix ings t ypically co nsist of a stainless stee l pin,
slab, are suspended from bolts o r hangers
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3-D view of extruded aluminium carrier system Horizontal & vertical sections I:I O. Typical stone carrier system made from extru ded aluminium
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w hich slide int o anchorages cast int o th e sup-
ber-based w asher around 3mm (0. 1IBin)
port ing structure.
t hick t o allow for th e moveme nt between
Cladding to precast concrete pane ls
dowel penet rates 2/3 th e th ickness of the
Any of the stones listed at the beginning of
concrete (2.3in-3in) .
I~ .J...,
stone and th e concrete backgro und.The
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Sto ne panel Extruded aluminium carrier system Stainless steel fixing pins Stackjoint Backingwall. Concrete shown. Thermal insulation Adjacent wall. Rainscreen panels shown. 8. O pen joint configuration as shown 9. Support brackets 10. Restraint brackets I I . Joint betwe en sto ne panels 12. Flo or slab
stone and around 60mm - 75mm int o th e
this section can be used as a facing to precast concrete panels,but granite is most com-
Joints
mo nly used due t o its higher st rength, allow -
Joints are eit her of closed or ope n type.
ing it t o be used relat ively thinl y.T hicker sand-
Closed jo ints use either mortar o r proprie-
sto nes and limesto nes are also used, however.
tary sealant. Closed joints are used where
Sto ne is fixed t o concrete panels w it h dowel
th e cladding is suppo rted at each floo r level
pin fixings w hich are inclined at 45° t o 60° t o
o n st ainless stee l angles w it h joint ed sto nes.
suit th e size of stone and ho lding it in place.
W it h open jointed sto nes,each panel is indi-
Pins are usually set at around 200mm (Bin)
vidually suppo rt ed in a rainscreen const ruc-
cent res both vert ically and hori zontally w it h a
t io n, w here rainw at er passing through th e
pin t hickness of aro und 5mm . 50% of dowels
joints is drained away down eit her th e back
are set in each direction t o provide a bal-
of th e sto nes o r down t he face of th e back-
anced suppo rt Each dow el has a flexible rub-
ing w all.
3-D view of extr uded aluminium carrier system
M CE
223
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Verti cal & horizontal sections I : IO. Typical stone carrier system made from extruded aluminium
3-D view of extruded aluminium carri er system
3-D expl oded views of individually fixed carri er syst em
Clo sed jo ints
o ur of t he mort ar is blended w it h t he
Movement jo int s
Closed joints need t o be loadbearing and
cr ushed sto ne.
Hori zont al movement joints are used t o deal
wat ert ight and must also accommod ate rela-
For narrow joints used w it h granite o r
mainly w it h fioo r slab deflect ions, and t o a
tive movements of cladding and suppor t ing
slate , a high ceme nt -to-sand ratio is used.
lesser exte nt vert ical shortening, in t he st ructural frame.This horizontal joint is usually
building struct ure.T he typ es of jo inting o r
joint s w ider t han around 4mm are filled w it h
point ing (t he o ute r finish of mo rtar o r seal-
a w eaker mix t o reduce shrinkage cracks.Th e
pro vided at slab level. w here th e sto ne clad-
ant) w ill depend on t he ty pe, size, th ickness
maximum w idt hs of mortar filled joints are
ding is suppo rted fro m either short lengths
and surface finish of cladding unit s. Stones are
aro und 12mm (O.5in) but sealant filled joi nts
of stainless steel angle, or a contin uous shelf
not usually butted up against o ne anot her,
can be up t o aroun d 30mm ( 1.2in), depend-
angle.The joint occurs immediately below
since any movement of t he unit o r of t he
ing o n th e prop riet ar y prod uct used. jo int
t he stainless steel angle,w here vertical
structure cannot be accommo dated , causing
w idt hs are usually a functio n of th e cutting
defiection w ill occur. Hori zo ntal movement
damage t o th e stones.
t ol erance of th e stone, around 2mm differ-
joi nts can be set at inte rvals of two sto reys if
ence in the cut line of t he stone, depending
th e stone and support brackets or frame can
joints in sandsto ne and limest o ne are usually filled w it h ceme nt/sand mort ar or
o n stone ty pe and th e cutting machine used.
be designed to span t he height.The joint
cement/ sand/ lime mortar. Granite and slate
Mo dern machines can cut stones to w it hin
w idth is usually a minimum of 15mm, but
ty pically use prop rietar y sealant. such as two-
I mm accuracy.jo int widths of 4mm are com-
20mm to 25mm (O.8in- 1in) are common
part polysulphide. Mort ar used for point ing
mon, but thi s can rise to a maximum of
w it h reinforced concrete st ruct ures.T he jo int
is made fro st resistant w hen used in t emper-
I 2mm w hen required for visual reasons,par-
is fo rm ed eit her as a sealant o r as a step in
at e climates,and of sim ilar st rength t o th e
t icularly w hen t he joint is recessed. Granite,
th e st o ne, w here th e upper ston e proj ects
jointi ng mortar,w hich is t he st ruct ural mor-
slat es and hard limest on es and sandstones
forward of t he sto ne below to conceal t he
t ar behind. N eith er mortar sho uld be st ro ng-
can have a jo int w idt h at a minimum of 3mm,
w ider joint. In both joint types t he joint is
er th an th e sto ne. For limest o ne and sand-
w hile soft sandst ones and limesto nes can be
made w ate rt ight. for closed joint s and for
sto ne a mort ar of 1/1/5 for cement/ lime/
laid w it h a minimum 5mm joint. W hen a pro -
o pen joint s, w here rainscreen cladding pr inci-
sand is ty pically used, o r 1/ 2/8 for cement/
priet ar y sealant is used, th e minimum jo int
ples are used.
lime/cr ushed stone particles, w here t he col-
w idth for all stone types is usually around 5mm .
MCE
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Vertical section and elevation 1:25. Typical stone carrier system made from extruded aluminium. Stone joints with both straight and staggered joints to show flexibility of carrier systems
Details for sto ne suppo rte d on carrier syste m I. 2.
Stone panel Extruded aluminium carrier system 3. Stainless steel fixing pins 4. Stackjoint 5. Backingwall. Concrete shown. 6. Thermal insulation 7. Adjacent wall. Rainscreen panels shown. 8. Open joint configuration as shown 9. Support brackets 10. Restraint brackets I I. Joint between stone panels 12. Floor slab 3-D view of stainless fixing method for extruded aluminium carrier system
MC E
225
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D etails for sto ne o n indi vidu al fixings I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. I 2. 13. 14.
MC E
Stone panel Backing wall,typically concrete block Stainless steel fixings (a wide range is available) Timber framed window Stone cill Thermal insulation in cavity Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall Timber inner cill Stainless steel restraint at each floor level Air cavity Precastconcrete lintel W at erproof membrane Floor slab Stone coping
22 6
Vert ical movement joints are pro vided t o deal w it h racking in th e st r uct ure as we ll as
are aro und IOmm (O.5 in).Yert ical movement joints are ext ended int o parapets and copings.
movements in th e cladding itself W here movement joints occur in th e building st r uc-
Stone finishes
ture, usually fo llow ing a co nt inuo us vert ical
Granites, limesto nes, sandst o nes and slate s
line w here it intersects w it h th e facade, a
are using an increasingly w ide range of finish-
ver t ical movement jo int is pro vided in th e
es,w it h finishes associate d w ith o ne st o ne
facade in th e same locati o n.Th e distance
ty pe being used for anot her.T he main finishes
between joints is ty pically at aro und 6 metres
are as foll ow s:A ru bbed finish is a smoot h
in a co nt inuous run of st one cladding w it h
finish made by rubbing stone w it h an abrasive
closed joints.The joint w idt h co rrespo nds t o
materi al (ty pically used for limeston e and
th e expecte d movement in th e cladding, but
sandstone); a hon ed finish has a du ll po lish
w here sealed joints are used, th e joint w idt h
(used for all t ypes); a polished surface has a
is dependent o n th e amo unt of movement
high gloss (ty pically used for granite and hard
th at th e sealant is required t o accommo date .
limest o ne); a flamed finish is o bta ined by
Minimum w idt hs of vert ical movement joints
passing a hot flame over th e st o ne surface
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finish, w here th e stone is cut on it s cleavage plane (ty pically used for slate , sandsto ne o r limeston e) and t ool ed. w here th e materi al is wo rked, leaving t oo l marks and is used mainly on sandstone o r limestone, In addit ion, sto nes can be filled w it h cements o r pr opriet ary fillers t o conceal natur al vo ids in th e sto ne,Th e surface is th en coate d o r polished
3-D view of bottom of window opening in stone cladding system made from individual stone fixings
3-D view of top of window opening in stone cladding system made from individual stone fixings
MC E
227
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Stone c1addin 3-D exploded view of extruded aluminium carrier system
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fixings I.Stone panel 2. Badc ng wall,typically concrete block
3.Stainless steel fixings (a wide range is available) 4,Timber framed window 5. Stonecill 6.Timber inner cill 7. Internal plaster ~n ish or dry lining! dry wall 8.Thermal iosclanon in cavity
9,Stainless stee l rest raint at each f loor level
IO.Air cavity II . Precast concrete lint el
12.Wate rproof memb rane 13.Floor slab 14. Stone coping
3-D exploded detail view of parapet for stone cladding system fixed 3-D exploded overview of extruded aluminium carrier system
Me E 22 8
with individual ~xings
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3-D exploded detail view of extruded aluminium carrier system
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3-D view of bottom of w indow open ing in individually fixed stone cladding system
3-D exp loded view of top of wi ndow opening in individually fixed stone cladding syste m
3-D view oftop of window open ing in individually fixed stone cladding system
3-D exploded view of top o f w indow open ing in individually fixed stone cladding system
MC E
229
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Isometri c view of vertically set wall assembly
Examples of terracotta rainscreen fixing methods
The essent ial prin ciples of rainscreen cladding
op ed syste ms have inter locking panels,t o
ext ruding pro cess gives fiexibi lity to th e
are discussed in t he sect ion on met al rain-
provide crisp joint s, and double wall sections
mat erial t hat is sim ilar t o t he creat ion of alu-
screens.Terracotta rainscreens have devel-
to pro vide long spanning ti les w it h high fiexu-
minium sections for glazed wa lls and w in-
oped int o patented pr oprietar y systems from
ral strength, o r modulus of rupture, com-
dow s.W hen t he material is ext ruded and cut
prototyp es w it hin t he last t en years. O ver
bined w it h lightn ess in we ight.T he range of
it is dried and fired in kilns of different types
t hat t ime th e sizes of t erra cotta panels have
glazed finishes has develop ed co nsiderably in
dependi ng o n th e ti le size and shape. Som e
increased and fixing syste ms have develop ed
t he past few years t o give a very w ide range
t erracotta panels are machined fo r firing in
for use as solar shading screens t o glazed
of t extures and co lour mixes derived from
o rder t o pro vide th e precise profi le needed
w alls as part of an overall rainscreen syste m
co nte mpo rary potter y.
for t he fixing system as we ll as t o provide
for a building facade. H ollow t erracotta sec-
precise smaller jo int w idt hs between panels.
t io ns are reinforced w it h alum inium sect ions
Manufacture of panels
set into th em to form lo uvred screens th at
Terracotta is made from natur al clay th at is
ext ruded edges and two cut edges, it is
can match w it h adjacent areas of cladding.
ext r uded and fired in a kiln. Powd ered clay is
im po rt ant in arranging panels t o avoid a cut
Terracotta is fixed eit her on rails, int o alumin-
mixed w it h wate r in t he facto r y t o achieve a
edge being revealed at a co rne r.T his is
ium o r sta inless steel panels,o r o n individual
co nt ro lled level of wate r conte nt. It is th en
because t he surface finish and colour of th e
Because t erracotta panels have two
brackets like mason ry cladding w it h co n-
ext r uded t hrough dies t hat draw t he mat erial
end face w ill not mat ch t hat of t he fro nt face.
cealed fixings.Vert ically-set o r hori zont ally-
along a co nveyor belt w here it is w ire cut t o
T he ends of ext r uded t erracotta differ from
set rails are used to suit a range of joint
th e required length.Th e use of dies makes
t erracotta and fired clay bri cks in thi s respect.
arr angement s t hat imit at e trad itional maso n-
t he manufacture of t erracotta panels very
T he ends of panels are usually co ncealed
ry bond s,or can be stack bond ed in th e
fiexib le, giving it th e ability t o make new
w it h aluminium trims,somet imes at th e co r-
manner of w all t iling o r glass blocks.Terracot-
shapes and sections fo r each new pr oject
ners but typ ically aro und w indow o penings.
t a has been develop ed for use in rainscreens
w it h relative ease.Th e die creates different
both from building blocks and br icks,as used
heights and depth s of block, w it h hollow ing
Corner pieces
in loadbearing masonry co nstruct ion, and
o ut of t he int eri or t o keep t he mat erial rela-
Special shapes can be fo rmed by hand t o
from decorative ti les,w here many of t he
ti vely light and easy to handle, allowing it t o
match w it h th e sta ndard ext ruded ti les,such
glazed finishes are derived. Recently devel-
be made in long pieces if required.Th e
as co rne r pieces and deco rative eleme nts.
M C E 230 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertical sections I: IO.Windows at head and cill
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Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Terracotta rainscreen Extruded aluminium carrier frame Support brackets,typically aluminium Thermal insulation Backing wall Floor slab Metal framed window Waterproof membrane Structural column Internal finish
3-D view ofterracotta rainscreen assembly, hung from individual aluminium clips and horizontally-set support rails
MC E
23 1
Horiz ontal section I: I0, Corner condition s
I-----@----------,
Vertical sect ion I 10, Panel-to-panel
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junctions
D etai ls I, }, 3,
Hori zontal section I :I0,W indow jamb
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
Terracotta rainscreen Extruded aluminium carrier frame Support brackets, typically aluminium Thermal insulation Backing wall Floor slab Metal framed window W at erpro of membrane Structural column Internal finish
3-D view of terracotta rainscreen fixed with individual clips to vertically-set support rails
Corn er pieces are made by pressing, usually
absorpt ion of regular t erracotta panels is
w it h a maximum length of I SOmm (6in) on
between 3% and 6%, w it h a density of
o ne leg and 300mm ( Il in) o n th e ot her leg,
aro und l OOOkg/m 3, making th e use of glazes
Large corne r pieces are made by hand by
not very important in excluding rainw ater
joining t wo sections t ogether. but th ese cur-
but important more for visual reason s.
rently produ ce less reliable results th at can
Vertical section I :I0, W indow at head and cill,junction with ground
MC E
232
lack a straight and crisp edge. Manufacturer s
Fix ing syst ems
ofte n provide ext ruded cill sections for para-
Terracotta t iles have been used in tradition al
pets and w indow sect ions t o suit wall con-
const r uct ion for a lo ng t ime, but th eir use as
st ructions of 300mm t o SOOmm ( I l in-lOin)
ext ruded panels in o pen jointed rainscreen
w ide.Th ese have slo pes t o eit her o ne side o r
const r uct ion is relatively new and has been
t o both sides from th e middl e of th e ext ru-
undergoing considerable developm ent over
sion.T he fired t erracotta is eit her left in it s
th e past 10 years.The extruded nature of th e
natural colour o r is glazed w it h a w ide range
materi al used for cladding allows it t o be sup-
of glazes. A glazed finish can give th e material
ported o n clips from both behind and inside
more visual sparkle by making th e mater ial
th e mater ial. D epending o n panel size and
more reflective, w hich also provides better
thi ckness,th e materi al can be made solid or
durability from staining. H owever. wate r
hollow t o suit a range of fixing syste ms.
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Isometric view of horizonta lly-set wall assembly
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Ver t ical & horizontal sections I 10, Panel-to-panel junctions
Smaller, solid panels have cont inuo us suppo rt
cont inuous, at least twice as many ver t ical
clip profi les o n th e t op and bottom at th e
rails wo uld be needed as th ose needed for a
back of th e panel w hich form s part of th e
stack bond arrangement. Since horizontal
material w hen extruded. Some manufactur-
joints are cont inuous,hori zont al rails are used
ers use th e hollow s of th e ext rusion t o hold
t o fix courses of t erracotta.
fixing pegs at th eir ends t o provide a fully concealed fixing syste m. The panel is th en fixed back t o suppo rt
Vert ical rails are cont inuous, and form a setting-o ut grid for stack bond ed tiles,w hich are fixed back t o rails w it h ext r uded alumini-
rails w hich are set eit her vertically o r hori-
um clips. Each manufacturer has a proprietary
zontally, made from aluminium for th eir abilit y
fixing system w hich makes easier th e pro cess
t o be formed precisely as extrusions for ease
of fixing panels t o form even jo ints aro und
of fixing.Vert ical rails are we ll suite d t o 'stack
th e t erracotta panel edges.
bond ed' t erracotta,w here jo ints form a recti-
Vertical section I : I 0. Panel-topanel junctions
Horizontal rails are not cont inuo us in
linear grid of cont inuous vertical and hori -
o rder t o allow wate r t o run down th e back-
zontal joints. Hori zont al rails are w ell suit ed
ing wall w it ho ut being impeded by th e br ack-
t o staggered bond s of panels th at imit at e th e
ets.A n alte rnat ive meth od of fixing horizontal
stretc her bond used in masonry cavity w all
rails is t o set th em fo rw ard of th e backing
const r uction. Because vert ical jo ints are not
wall on brackets t o allow wate r t o pass
3-D view of terracotta rainscreen facade with hori zontally-set support rails
MC E 233
3-D view of terracotta rainscreen wall assembly fixed with individual clipsto vertically-set support rails
between th e rails and th e backing wall. Some
3-D view of terracotta rainscreen wall assembly fixed onto verticallyset support rails
th e t erracotta extr uding process,w hich
t he panels.The ext rusions, set at th e ends of
manufacturers use stainless steel compo-
serves as a suppor t bracket to take th e load
each panel, somet imes project forw ard of th e
nents mixed w it h aluminium component s
of th e panel onto th e support ing rail.Ver t ical
t erracotta in order t o provide enough stabili-
since th e form er material is considered t o be
joints are eit her left open or have a plasti c or
ty in th e sect ion.This gives th e facade a char-
more durable.
black coated aluminium st rip as a baffle t o
acterist ic appearance of vert ical bays of pan-
prevent most of th e rainw ater from ente ring
els,w here only vertical backing support s are
have extr uded aluminium sections w hich, like
th e joint.Th e baffle also serves as a visual
used, divided by th e visible edge of th e alu-
vert ically suppor t ed systems, are fixed back
screen to t he cavity behind w here t here is a
minium suppo rt. Co rner pieces can be made
t o a cont inuous backing wall such as con-
risk of daylight refiecting back out of th e cav-
in sizes of 2S0mm x 300mm ( l Oin x 12in) high,w hich ofte n do not match w it h th e
Hori zontally suppo rted syst ems usually
crete blockw ork.A luminium br ackets are
ity t o reveal th e backing wall behind. A n
fixed to th e backing wall from aro und
advantage of keeping ver t ical joints open is
maximum size th at can be manufactur ed for
IOOOmm t o 2000mm (3ft 3in t o 6ft 6in)
th at th e gaps allow th e void behind t o be
th e planks, but thi s const raint w ill no doubt
hori zontal cent res, depending on rail size.
bett er vent ilate d, instead of relying only on
be overcome in th e next few years.Thinner
The use of a horizontal clip ensures th at
vent ilat ion points at th e t op and bottom of
t erracotta panels of 30mm ( 1.2in) th ickness
most of th e rainw ater is excluded at hori -
th e wall as is th e case in masonry cavity
are used, in sizes w it h a maximum length of
zontal joints by clipping t he panels t ogether
walls.Joint w idt hs of t erracotta panel rain-
around SOOmm (2ft Sin) and corresponding
in a way t hat ensures most of t he wate r runs
screens vary from 2mm t o aro und IOmm
maximum height of 300mm ( I 2in).These
back out of th e joint.Terracotta til es used in
(up t o O.5in), depending on th e size of panel
t hinner panels have maximum corner panels
hor izontally suppo rte d systems have a
and t ype of fixing syste m chosen.
of I SOmm (6in) on one leg and 300mm
stepped edge th at projects into th e cavity
( 12in) on th e ot her leg.The minimum sizes
th at clips int o th e aluminium profile.The bot -
Panel sizes
th at can be accommo dated w it h th e vert ical
t om edge of th e t erracotta panel above laps
For th e largest t iles, formed as 'planks' up t o
rail system are t erracotta panels aro und
over th e front of th e hori zont al suppo rt pro -
around I SOOmm long x 600mm w ide x
200mm long x 200mm high (Sin x Sin), w it h
file in order t o conceal it. A cont inuous lip is
40mm th ick (Sft x 2ft x I.Sin), a substant ial
a th ickness of 30mm t o 40mm ( 1.2in- I .6in).
form ed in th e back of th e panel. as part of
aluminium suppor t section is needed behind
A ll panel dimensions vary w it h a tol erance of
MC E
2 34
Vertical section I :25. W indow s at head and cill
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Tenracotta rainscreen 2. Extruded aluminium carrier frame 3. Support brackets. typi cally aluminium 4. Thermal insulation 5. Backing wall 6. Floor slab 7. Metal framed w indow 8. W aterpro of membrane 9. Structural column 10. Internal finish
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3-D view of bottom of window opening in terracotta rainscreen facade
3-D view of corner condition
MCE
235
Horizontal section I: I0, W indow jamb
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Ho rizontal section I :25,W indow jamb
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around ± I .Ornrn in th eir length, since t erra-
are made from eit her fo lded aluminium o r
cotta is w ire-cut as it comes o ut of th e
rolled stee l channels,Trims are not cont inu-
ext r usio n machine, and is subject to a toler-
ous w it h th e st r uct ure behind in ord er to
ance of aro und ± l .Srnrn in its w idt h due t o
avoid th erm al brid ging,Th e flat, planar nature
shrinkage during firing,
of t erracotta has led t o th e increased o mission of reveals aro und w indow o penings by
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Vertical section I :25,W indow at head and cill
MC E
236
Openings
pushing t he w indow frame forward t o align
W indow s and doors can be set very easily
w it h th e face of th e t erracotta panels, Bays of
int o t erracotta rainscreen cladding, Extruded
t erracotta are also increasingly mixed w it h
aluminium trims w hich proj ect from w indow
ot her materi als such as metal rainscreen pan-
o penings can be used t o form a crisp edge t o
els and metal lo uvre panels w here mater ials
a w indow w hen it is set back behind th e face
change w it ho ut t he need for any special
of th e t erracotta,as is typically th e case,since
detailing at th e junction, since all panels are in
th e w indow is usually fixed int o th e backing
a cont inuous rainscreen arrangement. W here
wall,t o w hich th e rainscreen cladding is fixed.
t erracotta reveals are introduced into w in-
A lte rnat ively, th e w indow frame can form
dow o penings, corne rs are mitred w it h open
part of a cont inuo us hori zont al o r ver t ical
joints if special corne r panels are not used.
metal trim th at visually divides t he t erracotta
This prin ciple is also used at intern al and
int o panels, typically storey height.Th e trims
exte rnal corne rs in th e facade,
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MCE
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3-D exploded view of wall assembly of terracotta rainscreen supported on vertical and horizontal aluminium rails
MC E
238
I .Terracotta rainscreen 2. Extruded aluminium carrier frame 3. Support brackets, typically aluminium 4.Thermal insulation 5. Backing wall 6. Floor slab 7. Metal framed window 8.Waterproof membrane 9. Structural column I a.lnternal finish
3-D exploded view of parapet assembly on terracotta rainscreen facade
3-D exploded view of ground fioor junction
3-D exploded view of top of window opening in terracotta rainscreen wall assembly
3-D exploded view of top of corner condition in vertically-hung terracotta rainscreen cladding
3-D view of top of w indow opening
3-D view of bottom of win dow op ening
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3-D view of parapet
3-D exploded view of terracotta rainscreen mounted on individual aluminium clips on vertica lly-set aluminium support rails
MCE
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_________ M...;.;CE- 241
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Horizontal sections I : IO.Junctions at panel-to-panel , window and junction with other wall types at top and bottom, corner
3-D detailed view of window and panel junction
M C E 242 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D detailed view of wall and panel junction
Details I. 2.
Translucent GRP claddingpanel. insulat ed Thenmally broken extruded aluminium framing 3. Opaque GRP claddingpanel. insulated 4. Insid e 5. Outside 6. Recessed cover cap 7. W indow inser ted into framing 8. Adjacent wall.Metal rainscneen shown 9. Insulated comer panel 10. Metal cover str ip II. Supporting structure
Plastics are resinou s. po lym er-based mater i-
resin. w it h w hich th e fibre is com bined. forms
ding for its translucency and transparency,
als. and th ey are used for both sealed clad-
a solid materi al w hen a chemical cata lyst is
especially w here its high th erm al insulation
ding and rainscreens. w hich are discussed in
added. GRP panels are form ed in a mou ld
values are needed. Po lycarbonate is made by
th e foll owin g t w o sections.Th e materi als
w here glass fibr e cloth is laid into a mould
melting a polymer and extruding it into
used are pr incipally glass reinforced polyester
and coate d w it h resin and catalyst. A n alte rna-
strands w hich are cho pped t o produce poly-
(G RP). polycarbon ate and UPVC. Since th e
ti ve method is t o spray a mixture of glass
carbo nate granules.Th e granules are th en
properties of th ese materi als are generally
fibr e and resin into a mould. The face of th e
ext ruded or mould ed t o form sheet materi -
not as familiar t o reader s as ot her mater ials.
m ou ld is coate d w it h a releasing agent t o
als. Po lycarbon ate is ext r uded in single wall.
a bri ef descripti on of each of th ese materi als
allow th e GRP t o be removed w hen it has set
doub le wa ll or trip le wa ll materi als.Twin wall
is given here. GRP is a composite mater ial made from th erm osettin g po lyester resins (t hat set hard
hard. GRP sections are made by pultrusion.
sheet is an extrusion of t w o layer s separate d
w here fibres are pulled through a die dr aw ing
by fins. giving th e mater ial greate r rigidity,
st rands of th e materi al t o form co nt inuous
combined w it h an air gap th at pr ovides addi-
and do not melt w hen re-heated) w hich are
sect ions in th e manner of aluminium ext r u-
t ional th erm al insulati o n.Th e maximum sheet
mixed w it h glass fibr e mat.Thi s co mposite
sions. Pultru sion s are beginning to be used as
size is approximate ly 2000mm x 6000mm .
mater ial has high t ensile. shear and co mpres-
st ruct ural co mpo nents in footbridges.w here
Th e mater ial has a t endency t o yellow w it h
sive st rength combined w it h lightness and
th eir durability is considered t o be better
age. w hich can be ove rco me w it h an acry lic
resistance t o co rrosion. How ever, like alumin-
th an painted aluminium o r steel struct ures.
coat ing.Th e mater ial can also be mou lded
ium it deflects co nsiderably under high loads
W hereas sections are made by an expensive
into complex shapes. It is also used for its
and requires st iffening. but th e material is
pultrusion method. panels are made by hand
high strength. ductility and lightn ess in we ight.
stiffer than ot her plastics. GRP is not combus-
as a craft-based act ivity in a wo rksho p.The
Because th e mater ial is combust ible. it s use in
tibl e and can reach one hour fire resistance in
production of GRP panels is eco nomic.
facades is limited. A n advantage of th e mate-
some cladding applicat ions.Glass fibr e mat is
requiring neither high t emp er atures for manu-
rial over glass is it s im pact resistance. w hich is
a flexible sheet material made from fibr es
facture. nor expensive equipme nt.
higher th an th at of tou ghened glass o r lami-
drawn from mo lten glass. It s t ensile st rength is much greate r th an th at of stee l. Polyester
Polycarbonate is a th erm op lastic. th at is. it melts at high t emp eratures. It is used in c1 ad-
nated glass.Th e main disadvantages of po lycarbo nate over glass are th at it is less durable
MC E
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2.
Therm ap y broken extruded aluminium framing
3.
Opaque
o 3-D view of junct ion at gutter
GRP cladding panel,insulated
4.
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5.
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screen shown Insulated come r panel
10. Meta l cover strip I I. Supporting structure
Vert ical section 1:10, lorctons at parapet and cill
MC E
244
3-D view of junction at ground
Isometri c view of wall assembly.
3-D cutaway view of wall assembly.
3-D section of window and sealed panel junction
and scratc hes easily, w hich makes th e surface
pressure plate system w it h a secondary sup-
held between EPDM gaskets by an ext ruded
dull w it h tim e, and its high th ermal ex pansio n.
porting stru cture behind, or by forming alu-
aluminium plate. Panels are made from two
It expands up t o 20% more than glass.
m inium ext rusions w it hin th e panels.A n
mou lded GRP skins w hich are bond ed eit her
advantage of GRP panels is th eir lightn ess in
side of th e rigid insulation . In commo n w it h
UPVc. or PVC-u is an unplasticised, o r rigid PVc. used in plastic-based cladding
we ight, com bined w it h being mou lded, allow-
metal composite panels, GRP panels have
mainly for w indow fram es and weat her-
ing th em to be made in large panel sizes, up
undergone much development in th e use of
boardin g.Th e materi al can be easily ext r uded
to 6000mm x 1500mm (20ftx5 ft) .T hey are
glues to avoid delamination betw een th e
as com plex sect ions t o pr ovide an eco nomic
more eco nomic th an an equivalent insulat ed
o ute r skins and th e insulati o n core. Edges of
material w it h low th erm al co nductivity, mak-
glazed wa ll. Panel thi cknesses are usually
th e GRP panels are bond ed together t o form
ing it ideal for w indow frames w here a plastic
70-75mm t o pro vide struct ural stability and
a sealed panel.W indows are glazed in to th e
th erm al break would be provided in an
th erm al insulati o n.
pressure plates as separate panels.W indows
equivalent aluminium w indow. Like po lycar-
W here panels are fixed into aluminium
are rarely glazed directly into GRP panels
bon ate it is combustible but is not easily ignit -
pressure plates, th e cover capping over th e
since it is difficult t o pro vide a drained and
ed, burnin g slowly if ex posed t o a flame
face of th e plate is also aluminium.T his can
vent ilate d vo id w it hin a GRP panel. Earlier
source. If th e flame is removed, th en th e
present a difficulty in co lour matching
versions of GRP panels, used in th e 1960s
flame w ill self-ext inguish.Th e material w ill sof-
between th e capping and th e adjacent panel.
and I 970s, used a rubb er gasket t o seal th e
t en if exposed t o a direct heat source. UPVC
W here th e alum inium is powd er coate d o r
jo int between w indow and panel, as w as
is available in a range of co lours, weat hering
PVDF coate d, th e GRP is coloured w it h a
used in car w indscreens at that tim e. But th e
we ll, but is suscept ible t o fading, particularly
resin applied t o th e face of th e mou ld during
lack of a second line of defence behind th is
w it h br ighter co lours. It is a t ough mater ial,
manufacture.Th is can lead t o co lour variat ion
seal led t o th e leaks.T he same pr ob lem was
but also flexible.
GRP panels
between th e cappings and th e panels,w hich
enco unte red in car w indows, w hich mo ved
can eit her form part of th e design, o r else
o n t o using silicone bond s. C ills and parapets
different colo urs are used for each. GRP pan-
are form ed w it h GRP or pressed aluminium
GRP cladding panels can be made eit her as
els are glazed in a similar way t o glass, w it h a
co pings in th e same way as st ick glazing sys-
separate panels glazed into an alum inium
thin panel edge, w hich can be co mpressed,
t ems,discussed in th e Glass chapte r. Copin gs MCE
245
D etails I. GRP or UPVC rainscreen panels 2. Twinwall polycarbonate sheet 3. Support rail 4. Thermal insulation 5. Supporting structure 6. Metal drip 7. Floor slab 8. Metal parapet coping 9. Backing wall Vertical sections I: IO. Panel-to-panel junctionand head and cill condition Horizontal section I:IO. Corner condition
3-D view of panel to panel junction
®
3-D view of panel to panel junction
3-D view of panel to panel junction
are glazed in to t he pressure plate fram ing in
light to pass t hrou gh t he panel. Mineral w ool
wa ll, restrain ed by a secondar y steel fr ame.
t he same w ay as a panel.
quilt is t ypically used, but fixing t he insulation
W hen glazed into an op ening, t he edge
requires care t o avoid t he mat eri al fro m lat er
T-sect io n alum inium profiles are sealed
w it h extr uded aluminium sect io ns set w it hin
sagging, w hich is clear ly visible t hro ugh t he
against t he adjacent concrete floo r slab w it h
t he depth o f t he panel.T his is a more eco -
GRP panel. Light t ransm issio n w it ho ut addi-
silicone, at both t op and bottom .W hen fixed
nomi c sol ut ion w hich is closer to metal com-
ti on al t herm al insulation is t ypically around
to a seco ndar y suppo rt fram e, panels are
GRP panels can also be fixed t oget her
"C, w hich is
po site panels in its approach t han t he alumin -
15%, w it h a U -value o f I .5W /m 2
ium pressure plate system, w hich is based o n
sim ilar t o an argo n filled do uble glazed unit,
stick-built glazed wa lls. GRP panels are
and a shading factor of 20%, w hich pro vid es a
int ern al) or st ainless st eel (if ex posed t o t he
clipped into aluminium extr usions w hich have
high level of shading for a 'glazed' wa ll. Un like
weat her) . Ci lls and co pings are form ed w it h
a t her mal break set int o t he section. Panels
t he pressure plate syste m, w indows can be
t he meth ods descr ibed in t he sect ion o n
are also st iffened int ern ally w it h alum inium
glazed int o th e panels, giving th e possibilit y of
met al com posite panels.
I-secti on s o r T-sect io ns w here large scale
a rich mix of w indows , doors and translucent
panels are used. Panels can be opaqu e or
panels w it ho ut t he need fo r co m plex framing.
suppo rte d at each floor level o n met al bracket s in eit her alum inium, mild steel (if
Polycarbonate cladding
t ranslucent, like t he previo us pressure plate-
W indow frames can fo rm part o f t he T sec-
Po lycarb onate is used fo r wa ll cladding as eit her profi led sheet or as twin wa ll / trip le
based syste ms describ ed. W here panels are
ti on extr usio n aro und a w indow. Int egrat ing
t ransparent, t he int ern al alum inium fr aming
t he w indow frame int o t he extr usion sup-
wa ll sheet. W here pro filed sheet is used, it is
w it hin t he panel forms a visible gr id, resem -
porting t he GRP panels avoids potential leaks
ty pically used in lo ng length s to avo id ho r i-
bling t raditio nal Japanese Shoji scree ns.T hese
associate d w it h silicone-sealed butt joint s
zont al joint s fo rmed by lapping sheets over
int ern al rib s are typically set from 300 mm x
w hen a separate w indow frame and panel
on e anot her.T he sheet is orientated ty pically
300mm cent res to 300m m x 600mm cen-
fram e are fixed together.T he int egrat ed w in-
w it h t he profi le lines r unning vert ically to
t res. In t hese t ranslucent panels t he vo id
dow frame allow s w ate r t o be drained fro m
allow rainwater t o run off w it h a minimum of
between t he two skins can be filled w it h
t he frame. GRP panels can be glazed into
visible st aining to t his translucent materi al, but
t ranslucent insulati on quilt t o increase t her-
large str uct ural o penings, fro m floor t o ceiling
hori zont ally o r ientate d sheet is increasingly
mal insulation, w hile st ill allowing a diffu sed
for exam ple, or can form a com plete glazed
being used. W hen set vert ically, sheets are
MCE
246
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3-D view of parapet detail
Horizontal section I : IO. Corner condition
Isometric views of wall assembly: I Vertically set, 2. Horizontally set
3-D view of ground junction
MCE
247
Details
o CD
I,
Twin wall po lycarbomte sheet
2. I 4. 5.
Thermal break Supporting structure GRP dadding panel.insulated Stickcurtain wall-type support system
6.
Extruded aluminium edge framing
7. 8. 9.
Rubber-based or silicone-based seal Adjacent wall MetJ.1cover strip
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Isometric views of wall assembly t .Vertlcallyset 2. Ho rizontally set w ith interlocking jo ints. 3. Ho rizontally set w ith stepped joints
3-Ddetail of comer junction
CD
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joined by either a straightforward lap of th e
ed l-sections. similar to those used in GRP
material,which results in visible staining
cladding. to clip t he twin wall sheets to pro-
through the t ranslucent material,unless an
vide a completely lightweight system.This is a
opaque sealant is used Alternat ively. an alu-
very economic form of cladding which can
minium to p hat section is used. set between
be screen printed to create visually dramatic
two adjacent sheets usedas described in the
translucent facades. Its lack of fire resistance
section on profiled metal sbeet.Tbe manufac -
makes it a less attractive material for ware-
t ure of polycarbo nate cladding is restricted
houses and factory buildings. where it s trans-
only t o t he she et material. and accessories
lucencyand t hermal insulation. combined
such as (ill profiles. coping profilesand win-
with economy. would make it a much more
dow trims are not usually available.Alumini-
popular material. As with profiled polycar-
um trims are used instead. and are fixed so as
bonate sheet. other standard components
to reduce their visibility to a minimum.Trims
are not usually manufactured.and folded alu-
are fixed in the sameway as for profiled wall
minium sections are used for drips and para-
cladding described earlier.
pet copings instead of polycarbonatesec-
Twin wall polycarbonate is fixed with either convent ional aluminium framing for w indows.or framing for stick glazing curtain walling. Some manufacturers provide extrud-
Me E 24 8
tions.which are expensive to produce as new profiles.
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3-D view of twin wall polycarbonate sheet wall
3-D exploded view of tw in wall polycarbonate sheet wall
3-D detailed view of twin wall polycarbonate sheet wall
MC E
25 0
3-D view of twin wall polycarbonate sheet wall
3-D view of plastic-based seated panel system
D etails I. 2.
3. 4. S. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Twin wall polycarbonate sheet Thermal break Suoportmg structure GRPcladding panet insulat ed Stroccurta in wall-type support system Extruded aluminium edge framing Rubber-based or silicone-based seal Adjacent wall Metal cover strip
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3-D exploded view of ptasnc-based sealed panel system
o
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3-D exploded view of plastic-based sealed panel system with window
3-D explode d view of plastic-based sealed panel system w indow detail
MC E
25 1
3-D view of typical polycarbonate rainscreen cladding assembly
3-D view of typi cal wind ow o pening in polycarbonate rainscreen
The tw o main ty pes of plastic-based rain-
fixed glazing and clamped glazing, w it h o pen
cones.Th e panel can th en be attac hed t o
screen are flat panels, cassette panels, profiled
joi nt s betw een panels. Flat sheet is made in a
ver t ically- o r ho rizo nt ally-set rails w it ho ut
sheet and over lapping ti les.Th ey are used as
w ide range of co lours. Sheets are held cap-
th e fixings being visible. A n alte rnat ive fixing
eit her o ute r screens t o glazed wa lls, typically
ti ve at th eir corne rs w it h an aluminium
meth od is t o fix th e panels through th e front
as solar shading, or as rainscreen panels t o an
clamp o n both sides, w it h a set of bo lts
face as visible fixings. Panels are set o nto
opaque wall,t ypically in-situ concrete o r con-
squeezing th e clamps t ogeth er w it ho ut th e
cont inuo us rails, runnin g vert ically or hori -
crete blockwork. T he mater ials used are
need t o drill t hrough th e po lycarbon ate.
zontally, w hich are positio ned behind t he
eit her po lycarbon ate or glass reinforced poly-
Since th e cost of dri lling po lycarbon ate sheet
panels.A layer of EPD M o r silicone is set
este r (GRP).Ac ry lic and UPVC, w hile softe r
is much low er th an glass (glass has t o be
between t he panels and fr aming t o provide a
th an both th ese materials,are used for w in-
heat strengthened afte r dri lling), point fixings
smoot h consiste nt surface for th e panels.Th e
dow frames and special mou lded elements. In
are more commo n w hen thi s t echnique is
panels are fixed w it h screws from th e front
addit ion, composites ot her th an GRP
used. Bolts are much simpler th an th ose
through ho les pre-dri lled in th e panel.Th ese
(described in t he previou s sect ion o n plastic-
used for glass, since t he mater ial is much
screws t hen have a deco rative capping
based cladding) are used for rainscreens.
light er.t hough po lycarbo nate has higher
applied, such as a dom e head screw th at is
Thermosettin g po lymer resins can be mixed
th erm al expansion th an glass. Polycarbon ate
secured int o th e head of th e fixing screw
w it h cellulose fibres t o provide sheet materi-
sheets usually have UV protectio n o n both
t hat is already in place.
als w it h high durability w hich fade littl e in
sides t o avoid yellow ing w it h age.T he prob -
sunlight. In commo n w it h rainscreens in ot her
lem of yellow ing has now been largely over-
Multi-wall polycarbonate sheet
mater ials, panels o r sheets are fixed w it h
come w it h t he higher quality sheet mater ials.
Like flat sheet, multi-w all sheet can be used
eit her visible point fixings,vert ical/horizontal
Sheet sizes are aro und 2000mm x 3000mm
for rainscreens,w here its main advantage is
rails w it h partially concealed framing mem-
(6ft 6in x l Oft) and 2000mm x 6000mm
t he ability t o provide large, flat panels rather
ber s, o r parti ally inter locking panels w here
(6ft 6in x 20ft), vary ing betw een manufactur-
th an its high level of th erm al insulation.Thick-
th ere is no view through th e joints.
ers, in thi cknesses from 3mm to 8mm
nesses are from 4mm to 32mm (0. IS- I .2in)
(0. 118-0.3mm).W hen o paque colours are
in sheet sizes from 1000mm x 6000mm
Flat po lycarbon ate sheet
used, rather th an th e translucent o r clear
(3ft3 in x 20ft) t o 2000mm x 7000mm (6ft 6in
Opaque flat sheet is fixed as rainscreen clad-
t ypes, hook-on fixings can be bond ed t o t he
x 23ft) .T he material can be screen pr inted o r
ding panels using similar t echniques t o bo lt
rear face of th e panel w it h st ruct ural sili-
coate d t o provide a w ide variety of colours
MC E
252
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Det ails
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2.
Breather roen o -aoce
3.
Ver t ical t imber battens
4.
Reflective foil breather membrane Profiled pofycarbcnate cladding (orientated vertically) Composite timber joist Thermal insuaH:ion
5.
6. 7. B. 9,
Internal dry lining Timber framed window
10. Horizontal timber battens II . Screw fixing witl1 plastic
spacer 12. 13. 14.
A luminium w indow surround Roo f construction Metal coping
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3-0 section detail of pofycarbonate rainscreen Vertical secnoo I: I0 , Deta il of pobcarbonate ramsoeen
3-D section detail of poiycarbo nate ra inscreen
MC E
253
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X X
Plastic-compos.te fiat
4.
parers UPVC board cladding GRPcladding parer
s.
Glazed unit
6.
Thermal insulation Backing wall
3.
.(!)
UFVC sect ion
7. 8. 9. 10.
Support rails UPVCwindow
Plastic-coroposae coping
3-D view of parapet detail
Section I: 10. Parapet detail,wall assembly and ground junction
.' 0 ~(y\r
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J Horizontalsections I:IO.lntemal comer and external comer
I
on a large format sheet-Aswith flat sheet
t ransparent panels with around 90% light
the material can be coated to give UV pro -
t ransmission. made to match steel and alu-
tection on one side or both sides to avoid
minium sheetingfrom other companies.They
yellowing.The sheetmaterial is used in
are used mainly to provide daylight in roofs
increasing numbers of walls, from twin wall
and in wall cladding in industrial buildings
to five or six walls thick.Panels are fixed using
without the need for special rooflight panels.
t he same methods as flat sheet with thicker
Sheets are made in profiles to suit sheets by
sheets being supported up to around
a particular manufacturer with whom they
1800mm centres (6ft). Panels can be curved
have an agreement They are prod uced in
by setting t hem into a pre-formed aluminium
both sinusoidal (curved) profiles and trape-
edge frame,when the material can be curved
zoidal (zigzag) profiles in lengthsup to
to a minimum radius of ISOOmm (Sft) for
around 10metres (32ft)with thicknesses
twin wall sheets and around 4000mm (13ft)
around Imm.The width of most sheets is
for the thickest sheets.
around 1200mm (4ft).They can also be used for rainscreen wall cladding, as a material in
Isom etri c views of wall asse mb ly. I. Horizonta lly set supports, 2.Verticallyset supports
Me E 254
Profiled polycarb onate sheet
its own right vertically set sheeting is being
Profiled sheets are made from extruded
used in city centre buildings, far from its use
polycarbonate resin. manufactured to provide
as an economic roofing material. Its high
1]
Ho rizontal sections I: I0, Internal corner (top). exte rnal corner (mi ddle). panel to panel junction (bottom)
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impact resistance, light ness in we ight and lo ng
and coping profi les are made from eit her
t erm high weat her resistance make po lycar-
ext r uded UPVC, GRP o r extruded alumini-
bon ate very suitable for dr amatic cladding
urn.The material can be curve d t o a mini-
struct ures w here we ight is a crit ical issue,
mum radius of aro und 4000mm ( 13ft) for a
Profiled sheets are fixed w it h self-tapping
sheet of 50mm (2in) thi ckness, Profi led poly-
sealed screws, w it h a wate r t ight washer o n
carbo nate sheet is also made in a translucent
th e o utside, More elabo rate point fixings are
w hite colour t o provide a light transmission
difficult t o use due t o th e profi led nature of
of aro und 45% and in grey colours w it h light
th e sheet w here a screw or bolt is attac hed
transmission of aro und 35%,
through th e peak o r trough of th e profile, Sheets are lapped o n all sides, creat ing a
Plastic-com po sit e fiat pane ls
shadow w here th ey lap, w hich can be con-
Flat panels can also be made from th erm o-
cealed by th e suppo r t st ruct ure behind,
setting resins m ixed w it h cellulose fibres.This
A lte rnat ively, sheets can be lapped in th e
is usually a mixture of 70% softwood fibre
horizontal direction, regardless of th e sheet
and 30% resin, manufactured at high t emper-
orientat ion, and can be jo ined by aluminium
at ure and pressure, Panels can be coloured
t op hat profi les in th e ver t ical direction in th e
o n o ne side, both sides o r have different col-
manner of profi led metal sheet ing, Cill, drip
o urs o n each side, Panels are smoot h w it h an
3-D view. External corner detail
MC E
255
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In Isometric views of wall assembly:2 different UPVC board-type profiles
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ill Isomet ric view of w all assembly: head and cill of w indow opening
almost impervio us sealed surface.A lt hough
factured in t he same mater ial. Plastic-com -
also be glued w it h solvent adhesives o r
th e finish colour is form ed by using pigment-
posite fiat panels can be fixed w it h visible fix-
sealed w it h silicone sealants. Other compo-
ed resins as a t op coat in th e mou ld, sawn
ings or concealed fixings used for fiat sheet
nent s specially made for UPVC cladding
edges do not require repainting or protective
and multi -w all polycarbon ate sheet.
include end covers for th e exposed ends of ext rusions, flashings for cills, copings and w in-
cover since th e colour exte nds all th e way through th e material. Rainscreen panels
UPVC Board cladding
dow surro unds. Boards are fixed back t o
formed in thi s material are very resistant to
Extrud ed UPVC board s are used as a subst i-
batt ens th at pro vide a vent ilate d vo id behind
th e lo ng t erm effects of we at her.w it h high
tute for t imber cladding, and are ofte n fixed
t o allow th e boards t o function as a rain-
UV resistance and colo ur stability and high
back to a timber fr ame in th e same way as
screen.W here th e suppo rt ing wa ll is timber
fire resistance. Plastic-comp osite fiat panels
t imber board ing.A lt ho ugh th e main advan-
fr amed, as is ty pically th e case,th is w all is
can be cut drilled and routed o n site , making
t age of th is mater ial is it s low maintenance
faced in a wate rproo f membrane w it h ply-
it more like timber in t erm s of its flexibi lity
w hen compared t o painted timber boards,
wood sheat hing behind th at forms part of a
durin g const r uction. Comp on ents do not all
th e material is beginning t o be used in its
timber st ud wa ll. UPVC board cladding pro-
have to be cut off-site in a wo rksho p.
own right. w it hout th e imitation of th e lan-
vides a high level of th erm al insulation, w it h
Because th e sawn edges are smoot h, t hey
guage of t imber wa ll cladding. Boards are
U-values at aro und 0. 15W/m2 " C . UPVC
can be laid as over lapping ti les in th e manner
made as ext r usions in lengths up t o aro und
boards are subject t o relatively high levels of
of t imber shingles, a t echnique used in sheet
5000mm ( 16ft) , in w idt hs from 250mm t o
th erm al expansion w hen com pared t o GRP,
metal cladding.Th eir high impact resistance
300mm ( I 0-12in).Thicknesses match th ose
at 7x I 0-5 per °C for UPVC (like polycar-
and imper viou s surface make th em we ll suit -
of timber bo arding at 18-20mm (aro und
bonate) and 2.5x I0-5p er °C for GRPA
ed t o demanding condit ions w here damage
0.7in). Boards are nailed back t o t imber
length of UPVC at 3000mm ( lOft) lo ng w ill
can occur easily.T he material is made in sheet
fr ames o r screwe d back t o alum inium fr ames
expand abo ut 6mm (0.25in) w it h a 25°C
sizes from 3600mm x 1800mm ( 12ft x 6ft),
and are fixed at aro und 600mm (2ft) along
increase in it s t emp er atur e.
3000mm x 1500mm ( l Oft x 5ft) and
th e length of th e panels. Manufacturer s have
2500mm x 1800mm (8ft x 6ft) in th icknesses
specially form ed co rne r pieces in a range of
UPVC w indows
from around 5mm t o 12mm (0.25-0.5in).
angles t o suit t ypical sit uat io ns of 45° angles
Extrud ed UPVC w indows are used for w in-
Corner panels and parapets are also manu-
both intern ally and exte rnally. Corn er s can
dow s, ty pically in rainscreen panels in plastic-
MCE
256
Vertical sections I: I0,Window at head and cill, louvre Vertical section I : I0,Junction with ground
Horizontal section
1:10, Window, louvre
~,'. / 1--
-
---1
® Horizontal section
1:10, Window jamb, internal corner
Details I, },
3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, I0,
UPVC section Plastic-composite fiat panels UPVC board cladding GRP cladding panel Glazed unit Thermal insulation Backing wall Support rails UPVC window Plastic-composite coping
0 ----'
' - - - - - - - - - - - ------"
Horizontal sections I: I0, Internal corner, external corner
3-D view of UPVC window
MCE
25 7
'====0 Horizontal section I 10, W indow opening
3-D views of ground junction detail
D etails I, 2,
UPVC section Plastic-composite fiat panels 3. UPVC board cladding 4, GRP cladding panel 5, Glazed unit 6, Thermal insulation 7, Backing wall 8, Support rails 9, UPVC window 10, Plastic-composite coping
Vertical section I: I0,
CD
--. ...... ~
3-D views of window opening in plastic rainscreen
MC E
25 8
avoid co rro sion of th e st eel sections, UPVC
provide com plex and accurate sections th at
w indows have develop ed co nsiderably in
can be appreciably more eco no mic th an
recent years w it h higher impact resistance
th ose in aluminium,The material has a much
and higher crack resistance, parti cularly in th e
low er th erm al conduct ivity th an aluminium,
low w inte r t emp eratures w here th e mater ial
and so requires no addit ional th erm al br eak,
is more vulnerable,
W indows have an inner chamber w hich is
.._------
--......
based mater ials, UPVC can be ext ruded t o
drained and vent ilated in th e manner of alu-
GRP panels
minium w indows , w it h rubb er-b ased seals
Po lycarbonate is generally a more expensive
pro viding th e necessary air seals,W indow s
materi al th an GRP. making GRP more suitable
are ty pically sealed w it h silicone aro und th eir
for low er cost applicat ions, How ever, GRP
edges, U-values for w indow frames can reach
has o ne advantage over all th e ot her plastic-
as low as 1.4 W /m2 " C, w hich is comparable
based materi als,w hich is its ability t o be
w it h highly insulat ed doub le glazed units,
mou lded easily and eco nomically. W hen used
Some UPVC w indow sect io ns have a galva-
as rainscreen panels th e materi al needs a t op
nised steel int ernal co re reinforcement t o
gel coat t o avoid it s fibres being seen.T he
stiffen th e frames, usually as folded sect io ns
ability t o see th e fibr es th rou gh th e material
th at are held by th e wa lls of th e ext r usion,
make it very unsuitable for transparent o r
Corn er s of frames are bond ed t ogether t o
translucent panels, but for mou lded rain-
Isometric view of wall assembly
- - - -- - -@- - - - - -
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Vertical section I:I O. Parapet condition
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Hori zontal sections I : IO. External corner, panel-to-p anel junction
screen panels it is possible t o int ro duce some 3D modelling int o t he facade panels. GRP
CD
can be bonded t o hon eycomb panels fo rm ed in th e same material t o produ ce large panels w it h high fire resist ance.T he face of t he panel can be screen print ed to any design, w ith t he use of photographic images being increasingly popu lar,
D etails I. 2.
UPVC section Plastic-composite fiat panels 3. UPVC board cladding 4. GRP cladding panel 5. Glazed unit 6. Thermal insulation 7. Backingwall 8. Support rails 9. UPVC window 10. Plastic-composite coping
3-D view of possible fixing method detail
3-D cut-away view of parapet condition and possible panel fixing method
MCE
25 9
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MCE
260
of top of wndow opet'Wlg
wallassembly
in plastic
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of bottom of wndow openng in plastic wal assembly
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3-D exploded view of ground junction in plastic rainscreen assembly
3-D exploded view of parapet condition in plastic rainscreen assembly
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3-D view of ground junction in plastic rainscreen assembly
3-D exploded view of profiled GRP rainscreen assembly
3-D view of parapet condition in plastic rainscreen assembly
3-D view of corner detail in plastic rainscreen assembly
3-D exploded view of plastic rainscreen corner condition
MC E
26 1
MCE
263
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Horizontal section I :25, W indow openings
Horizontal section I: I0, W indow jambs
3-D view of window jamb
Timber cladding has tradition ally been used
eac h sto rey height set of timb er frames.The
e it he r o n-site o r in a wo rksho p.vo ids
o n load bearing t imb e r frame d wa lls, as d is-
ballo o n frame , w hich is now used less, is
betw ee n t he framing mem be rs are fille d w it h
cussed in this section, Its more recent appli-
e njoying a revival in light gauge steel sect io ns,
th ermal insulation ,A breath er membrane is
cat ion as cladding pane ls and as rainscreen s is
This meth od has vert ical framing members
th en fixed to th e face of th e sheat hing laye r.
discussed in t he seco nd sect io n of t his chap-
w hich are co nt inuo us, wit h t he int e rmediary
This provides a wate rproo f barrier w hich
te r. There are two tradition al gene ric forms of
floors being suppo rt ed by th e wa ll running
also allows th e vapo ur t o esca pe t o allow th e
t imber frame t hat use small section t imb e rs
co nt inuo usly past it.
t imbe r wa ll to release and abso rb moistu re
to form framed loadbearing wa lls:th e plat-
wit h changes in t he weat he r. Outer t imber
fo rm frame and t he ballo o n frame , More his-
Timber frames
cladd ing boards are t he n fixed o n t he o utside
torical types th at use large t imber sections
Timber frames co mprise vert ical sect io ns
of t he breath er membrane ,
w it h an infill in t imb er o r anot he r mate rial are
called 'studs' fixed to horizontal mem bers
not discussed here , as th eir applicat ion is cur-
called 'rai lsThe st uds run ve rt ically co nt inu-
frames, th e softwood stud wa llsth at form th e
rently very li mit ed. Both t he platform frame
o usly, w it h d iscontinuou s ho rizo ntal members
wa ll st ruct ure can use t he t imber cladd ing to
W he n t imb e r cladd ing is used o n t imb e r
and t he balloo n frame are based o n soft-
w hich are called 'noggins'The o ute r face of
stiffen t he wa ll.Trad it ionally, t his has bee n
wood saw n timb er sections aro und
th e timb er frame is clad wit h plywood
do ne by fi xing t he boarding d irect ly to t he
IOOmmx50mm (4inx2 in),These are eco no m-
sheat hing t o prov ide late ral bracing, typically
t imbe r frame, wit h a breath er membrane set
ic, and set at close ce nt res of aro und 400mm
12mm -18mm t hick (0.5in-O,75in), dep e nding
betw ee n t he frame and t he t imb e r boards t o
( 16in) in o rde r to be a multiple dime nsion of
o n th e struct ural requirem ent of st iffening
allow th e o ute r cladding to 'breat he', o r d ry
plywood shee ts and related board mate rials
t he frame ,Timb e r boards can also be used as
o ut and abso rb moisture , in respon se to t he
used to form th e sheat hing for th e walls and
sheat hing, this is an expe nsive so lut io n, Fram-
changes in weat he r co nd it ions,Alte rnat ive ly,
floor decking, Since t he floor joists are set at
ing mem bers are typically formed from
t he t imb e r board s are fixed to batt e ns w hich
t he same ce nt res as t he vert ical studs, board
IOOx50mm (4inx2in) softwoo d sect ions at
are set fo rward of t he breat her mem brane ,
materials are used for th e floor decking in
40 0mm ( 16in) vert ical ce nt res w hich are
o r wate rproofi ng laye r. to e nsure th at th e
t he same size,The platfo rm frame co mprises
nailed t ogether. Mild ste e l co rne r brackets
t imbe r is vent ilate d o n all sides ,W he n bat-
studs spanning from floor to floor: w it h t he
and cleats are co mmo nly used to make t he
te ns are used, t he timb er boa rds are less ab le
t imber floor struct ure be ing suppo rte d at
co nnect ions more reliable and ea sy to fo rm,
to stiffen t he frame if t he batte ns are not set
MC E 2 6 4 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
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Vertical section I:25.W lndow opening
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Details I. 2.
Metal parapet flashing Timber boards 3. Plywood sheathing 4. Timber studs 5. Timber rail 6. Breather membrane 7. Window flashing 8. Damp proof course 9. Vapour barrier 10. Timber fioor I I. Concrete ground slab 12. Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall I 3. Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame 14. Timber framed window/door 15. Timber cill 16. Air gap
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MCE
265
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Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13.
Metal parapet fiashing Timber boards Plywood sheathing Timber studs Timber rail Breather membrane Window fiashing Damp proof course Vapour barrier Timber floor Concrete ground slab Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame 14. Timber framed window/door 15. Timber cill 16. Air gap
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Vert ical section 1:25 Door opening
Vertical section I: I O. Door opening
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MC E
266
3-D exploded view of parapet detail
3-D view of window opening at corner
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~~~;;;;;;;;; CD Isometric view of wall assembly
Horizontal section I :25.Window opening at corner
in alignment w it h every st ud forming th e
th e t imber,w hich wo uld cause staining and
frame of th e w all behind.
deteri orati on of th e material. Cladding is usu-
th e cont inuous timber base plate t o protect
ally suppo rte d at gro und level o n a concrete
th e t imber,th e DPC usually exte nding down
has a cont inuous vapour barri er,t ypically
slab o r edge beam th at forms part of th e
th e vert ical face of th e concrete slab w here it
th ick po lyth ene sheet, set o nto it, in t emp er-
concrete wa ll.A lte rnat ively, th e wa ll can span
connects w it h th e damp proof membrane
ate climates, o n th e 'w arm in w inte r' side of
between concrete pads at 3000mm -
(D PM) beneath th e concrete slab o r th e ver-
th e wa ll.Th e inner face of th e wall is th en fin-
SOOOmm cent res ( l Oft- 16ft) , w it h timber
ti cal face of th e basement wa ll.T he DPC w ill
ished w it h plasterb oard (drywa ll) t o provide
beams at th e base of th e wall to provide sup-
also be cont inuous w it h a DPM set o n t op of
an internal finish.
port between pads.W here a concrete slab is
th e concrete slab. Floor finishes are th en
used. th e edge of th e slab has traditi onally
applied in th e same depth as th e cont inuo us
Ground level
been exposed as a base t o th e wall.W it h
baseplate, allow ing int ernal skir t ing boards t o
This t ext focuses o n different condit io ns at
increasing concerns of increased th erma l
be fixed t o th e bottom rail of th e timber
The inside face of th e t imber framed w all
A damp proof course (D PC) is set beneath
gro und level, upper floor levels and at roof
insulati on at th e gro und level of a building,
fr ame, w hich sits at th e finished floor level.
level.The lightweight nature of timber clad-
th erm al insulation has been introduced on
W here concrete pads are used, th e timber
ding has led t o it s use w it h a raised t imber
th e visible edge of th e slab betw een gro und
beam is set int o stainless steel shoes w hich
gro und floor, ofte n w it h no co ncrete gro und
level and th e base of timber cladding.The
are fixed t o th e concrete pads.Th e pads may
slab.This makes th e junction w it h th e gro und
insulati on requires an o ute r protection t o th e
exte nd below gro und level t o form found a-
quite different from th ose of th e ot her mate-
insulati on, typ ically th in concrete slab o r
t ions w here th e gro und is allow ed t o cont in-
rials described in thi s book. D etails aro und
brickwork.
ue undern eath th e building.A lte rnat ively, th e
w indows and doors are as th ose described in
Th e t imber w all frame is not fixed direct-
panels may sit o n a concrete floor slab set
th e sect ion o n timber w indow walls in th e
ly t o th e floor slab but instead is usually set
below th e timber gro und floor t o prevent
Glass chapte r.
o n a cont inuo us t imber section, w hich is first
th e growth of any vegetat ion beneath th e
fixed to th e concrete slab to pro vide both a
raised gro und floor. Gravel is oft en set at
minimum of ISOmm (6in) above exte rnal
level surface t o set th e timber in place and t o
gro und level in th e vo id below a raised tim -
gro und level t o avo id rainw ater splashing up
be an easier fixing t o use th an simply nailing.
ber floor. D oor thresho lds at gro und level
Timb er cladding at gro und level st o ps a
MC E
26 7
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D etails I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Metal parapet flashing Timber boards Plywood sheathing Timber studs Timber rail Breather membrane Window flashing Damp proof course Vapour barrier Timber fioor Concrete ground slab Internal plaster finish or dr y lining/dry wall Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame Timber framed window/d oor Timber cill Air gap
Vertical sections I:IO. Floor junction, eaves to pitched roof, two ground conditions
usually have a raised profi le t o prevent wate r
wall, fioors can be suppo r ted separat ely as
from penetrating through th e o pening, and
pads, typically in mild galvanised o r stainless
th ese are also fixed directly o nt o th e cont inu-
steel posts.This allows th e ground fioor slabs
o us baseplate.A n addit ional DPC is set o n
t o be built before th e timber w all is st art ed,
t op of th e baseplate t o avoid moisture pene-
and avoids any risk of lo ng t erm damage t o
tration th rough th e door thresho ld.
th e fioor joists from contact w it h a damp
T imber can also be suppo rte d o n br ick walls set at a minimum of I SOmm (6in)
wall below DPC level.A n alt ernat ive method of suppo rting th e low level bri ckw ork is o n
above exte rnal gro und level and be suppo rt -
stainless steel lint els spanning between th e
ed on a concrete st rip found ation o r gro und
concret e pads th at suppo rt th e timber fioor.
beam.As br icks go below gro und th ey usually
Th e br ick base can be avoided complete ly by
change t o eit her a dense concrete block o r a
th e use of beams spanning between concrete
dense engineering quality brick.A raised fioor
panels as describ ed previously.
is th en set int o th is br ick wa ll.T he vo id
3-D view of ground condition
MC E
268
beneath th e timber fioor is vent ilate d w it h air
Upper floors
br icks th at encourage cross vent ilat ion.This
T imber fr amed wa ll panels are used t o sup-
avoids stagnant air in t he vo id from damaging
port upper fioors also in t imber. Floor joists
and eventually rotting t he timb er fioor.
are set directly into th e timber frame, w here
Instead of suppo rt ing th e fioor o n th e br ick
th ey are suppo rted, eit her o n th e t op of th e
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fi oor-height panel below, o r to th e sides of
Corners
th e t imber studs if th e fioor exte nds ove r
The most co mmo n co rne r formed in timb er
tw o or more fioors in th e balloon frame .
cladding is a single timb er bead set so that
W he re timb er wa ll frames span only from
th e timb er board s on both side s butt into
fi oor to floor; as is more co mmo nly th e case ,
th e co rne r bead. If a breath er membrane is
fi oor joists are fixed to th e face of timb er
used behind th e cladding, th en an addit ional
beam s th at form part of th e wa ll frame
wate rproo f fiashing is adde d t o th e co rne r.
instead of penetrating th e frame itse lfThis
This is formed in a dur able po lymer-based
allows th e gap between wa ll and fi oor to be
shee t o r metal sheet. Alte rnat ively, th e board s
fi lled wit h timb er. which drastically redu ces
can be allowe d to make a co rne r wit h a butt
so und transmission between fi oors. Because
joint, and an addition al L-shaped timb er trim,
th e t imber fi oor and wa ll form a co nt inuo us
form ed from two se parate t imber sect ions, is
struct ure , th ere is no need to form a hori-
added o n th e face of th e co rne r to protect
zo nta l movem ent in th e t imber cladd ing o ut-
th e exposed e nd grain of o ne of th e sides
side .This gives th e co nt inuo us surface of tim-
formin g th e co rne r. These trim s also pro vide
ber cladd ing across two o r three fi oors that
a visual t idiness to th e co rne rs. Boards can be
is characte ristic of platform frame co nstruction.
jo ined wit h a mitred jo int (45°) w it ho ut any
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cove r strip but th e timb er used must be of th e highest qua lity t o avoid th e joint o pe ning
MC E
269
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Isometric view of wall assembly
Detai ls I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. IS. 16.
Metal parapet fiashing Timber boards Plywood sheathing Timber studs Timber rail Breather membrane W indow flashing Damp proof course Vapour barrier Timber floor Concrete ground slab Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame Timber framed window/door Timber cill A ir gap
Vertical sections I:I0. Two eaves conditions to pitched roofs
up wit h rnoisture rnovernent, and very high
o r for flat joists. For large scale roo f st ruc-
levels of wo rkma nship are required. A water-
tures' deep er timb er sect ions are used, set o n
proof layer o r flashing behind t he rnitred joint
e nd, as used for co nnections to upper fl oor
is esse nt ial to th e waterproofi ng perform ance
struct ures.The wate rproo f laye r o n th e o ut-
of this detail. Inte rnal co rne rs are formed
side of th e timb er framing, o r breath er mem -
using th e same sets of tim ber beads o r
brane, is made co nt inuo us w it h th at of th e
mitred jo ints.
roof st ruct ure. In th e case of ove rhanging
Roof eaves and parapets
sea led, but in both cases th e membranes
O verh anging eaves from pitched roo fs o r flat
must be co nt inuo us to avoid wate r pen etrat-
eaves, th e roo f may be vent ilated o r be
roofs are very co mmo n wit h timb er cladding
ing th e joint. O n th e inside face of the wall,
as th ey provide protection to th e wa ll
th e vapo ur barr ier must be co nt inuo us from
ben eath from th e wo rst effects of weat he ring
wall to roof, o r wall to ce iling level, ben eath
from water runn ing directly down th e facade .
th e roo f
A co nt inuo us timb er section, o r wa ll plate , is set o n top of th e timb er frame. creat ing a doub le t hickness of timb er at th e t op of th e wall. This se rves as a base for slo ping rafters
MC E
27 0
3-D view of eavescondition
3-D exploded view of eavescondition
3-D view of eavescondition
3-D exploded view of eavescondition
MC E
27 1
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3-D view of timber framed wall with two openings
3-D view of timber wall construction
Details
3-D exploded view of timber framed wall with two openings
MC E
272
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Metal parapet flashing Timber boards Plywood sheathing Timber studs Timber rail Breather membrane W indow flashing Damp proof course Vapour barrier Timber floor Concrete ground slab Internal plaster finish or dry lining/dry wall Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame Timber framed window/door Timber cill Air gap
Exploded axonometric drawing of timber wall construction
3-D view of timber wall construction
3-D exploded view of timber wall construction 3-D exploded view of floor to wall junction
MC E
273
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10. Concrete floor I I. Internal finish 12.Thermal insulation quilt set w ithin timber frame 13.Timber framed w indow/door 14.Timber cill Is .Air gap 16. Sliding timber louvre panel 17. Metal facing 18.Ext ernal plywood facing 19. Cover strip 20. External floor deck 21. External glass wall in twi n wall 22. Structural t imber frame
Details I, 2,
3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
Timber boards Plywood sheathing Timber studs Timber rail Breath er membrane Foundation Damp proo f course Vapour barri er Timber floor
Exploded diagram show ing assemblyof timber cladding panels
Timber boards
preser vative treatment is used, but w it h an
aro und 5% t o 20% w hen in use. Similar levels
T imber boards for cladding panels and rain-
increasing scrut iny of th e meth od s, since
are found in t imber s from t imber suppliers,
screens are sawn and are available in many
some preser vatives can damage gro und
and are classified as 'dry', 'kiln dri ed' o r 'sea-
t imber species, th ough enviro nmental con-
aro und th e site as a result of wate r run -off
soned'. How ever, some softwoods are sup-
cerns have led t o an increasing preference
from th e t imber int o th e gro und aro und th e
plied unseasoned, depending o n th e supplier,
for locally-grown t imber for large-scale appli-
timber wall. Softwood boards are made usu-
so th e amo unt of timber drying and season-
cat ions.T his is because t imber has a negative
ally in 250mm ( l Oin) w idt hs, w it h trimmed
ing is crit ical t o th e way th at t imber is cut o n
effect o n C02 levels,reducing th e levels in
boards w it h profiles ro ute d into th em usually
site t o fit a junction. Unseason ed timb er w ill
th e at mosphere,Th e C02 emissions create d
trimm ed down t o 150mm - 200mm w idt hs
shrink as it dr ies, and consequent ly an allow-
as a result of cutting and wo rking timb er
(ein-Bin), W ider boards cannot generally be
ance is made for lat er shrinkage by increasing
before it reaches a local building site are still
used due t o th e risk of th e mater ial curv ing
th e over lap between t imbers w here applica-
less th an th e amo unt of C02 consumed by
in sect ion,
ble, o r making tighter butt joints w here th ese
th e timber during its growth,The highest tim -
Th e increased use of hardw ood s in rain-
are used Unseason ed timb er s are fixed in
ber grades are used for wall cladding boards,
screens, for th eir durability, has led t o differ-
place soon afte r delivery t o site t o avoid any
since exposure t o th e weat her w ill involve
ent thi cknesses and sections of timber being
twisting o r wa rp ing of th e timber.As a result,
considerable t emperatur e and humidity vari-
used Th is has led t o th e increased use of lo u-
lapped boards are not nailed t ogether w here
at ions, as we ll as fading in sunlight. Softwood s
vred t imber screens and panels in front of
th ey over lap, and nails and screws are
are generally used for th e cladding of tim ber
glazed w indows and doo rs t o pro vide solar
secured so t hat th e timber can move w it ho ut
fr ames, w it h hardwood s being more com-
protection w hile cont ribut ing t o th e t exture
th e t imber splitting or being damaged
monly used for cladding panel and rainscreen
of th e timber facade,
applicat ions,W here hardw ood s are used,
A ll t imbers vary in mo isture conte nt w it h
Finishes
th ose species th at are naturally durable are
changes in t emp erature and air humidity, thi s
Timber cladding is finished w it h th e tim ber
used W here less expensive, less durable tim -
being o ne of th e essent ial aspects t o be con-
being left eit her as supplied, w it h preser vative
ber s are used, th ese require higher levels of
sidered in t imber detailing, Most t imber s used
applied o r injected by th e supplier,o r alte rna-
finishing and maintenance, For softwoods,
in cladding w ill have a moisture conte nt from
ti vely is given coats of preservative in clear,
MC E 27 4 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D Elevation.Timber cladding panels and relationship with structural frame
1= =
'111'=
=1
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Horizontal sections I :25. Cladding panel in twin wall configuration for taller buildings
3-D sectional view of timber louvre cladding panel and junction with upper floors
MC E
275
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Vertical section I : IO. Junction with fioo r slabs Right: - Vertical section I : I O.Tim ber louvre cladding panels and typical assembly 3- D views showing connection between timber cladding panel and supporting frame
sta ined. o r o paque fini sh o n site wit h pre-
types of jointing of boards is 'shiplapping'
se rvat ives th at rep el rainwater, o r wood
whe re t imber board s are set horizontally and
sta ins and paint. Paints can be oil-based or
lapped ove r on e anot he r wit h th e upper
acrylic,w hile preservatives are clear and can
board lapp ed ove r th e top of th e board
be used as a fin ish th at penetrates th e depth
be low to protect it from rainwater ingress.
of th e wood wit ho ut ap preciably changing its
Shiplapping can be assisted by th e use of
appea rance . It can also be used before stain-
'feath ered' o r we dge -shaped board s to give
ing o r painting th e timb er. Preservatives help
t he lapping a more elegant ap pea rance .
t o prevent mo isture abso rpt ion as we ll as
Ton gue-and -groove board s are used to give a
redu ce fungal growth.This is because th ey
co nt inuo us fl at appea rance, while having th e
e nhance the life of the timb er but do not
advantage of locki ng board s togeth er int o a
prevent th e material changing co lo ur and fad-
co ntinuo us plate-like struct ure . Board s are
ing t o a silve r grey appea rance . Site-applied
typically aro und 20 mm (O.75in) thick, made
finishes and regular mainten ance he lp ove r-
as lo ng as possible at aro und 3000 mm -
co me th e effects of th e weat he ring of timb e r.
3500 mm ( lOft- I Ift6in), to avoid vert ical
In addit ion to the use of preservatives
MC E
27 6
jo ints which are a pote nt ial so urce of rainwa-
and coat ings, th e o rientat ion of t imbe r
te r pe net ration except in rainscreen co nfig u-
boa rds is critical to t he lon g term perform -
ration. W he re to ngue-and-groove boards are
ance of t imber cladd ing.The most co mmo n
used , t he groove is set o n th e underside to
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
Timber boards Plywood sheathing Timber studs Timber rail Breather membrane Foundation Damp proof course Vapour barrier Timber floor Concrete floor Intemal finish Thermal insulation quilt set within t imber frame Timber framed window/door Timber cill Air gap Sliding timber louvre panel Metal facing Extemal plywood facing Cover strip Extemal floor deck Extemal glass wall in twin wall Structural timber frame
3-D view showing ground floor junction
1 ,
Left:-Vertical section I :IO.Timber board cladding panels and typical assembly
3-D view of cladding panel assembly with built-in opening window
avo id wate r accumulating w hen t he board s
fr ames in reinforced co ncrete , stee l and ti m-
are set horizont ally o r diagonally.W here
ber. In t his applicat ion, cladding panels fo llow
t ongue-and-groove boards are set vert ically,
th e prin ciple of ot her form s of cladding,
th e gro ove is set away fro m th e prevailing
requiring pre-fabricatio n of panels and allow -
w ind direction t o avo id w indblown rain being
ance for st ruct ural movement in t he sup-
blown int o t he joint. Jo int s betw een boards
porting frame associated w it h larger-scale
are never sealed alo ng t heir lo ng edges w it h
st r uctures. Cladding panels can also be faced
silicone o r mastic sealants as t his prevents
w it h plywood rather t han ti mber boards,in
th e t imber from dr ying properly, w hich
rainscreen app licatio ns. Because of t he higher
wo uld cause t he mat erial to deter iorate and
moisture movement associate d w it h t imb er
event ually rot. However,sealants are used o n
t han w it h ot her mat er ials, junction s bet ween
th e ends of t imber boards w hen t he com-
cladding panels require allow ance for move-
plete exte rnal surface is sealed w it h paint.
ment as a result of changing moistu re levels
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in t he mat er ial.
Cladding panels and rainscreens
W hen reinfo rced concrete or stee l
T imber cladding t o a platfo rm fr ame o r a
fr ames are used, t he t imber cladding panels
balloo n frame is cont inuo us, fo rming an int e-
are set fo rw ard of t he floor slabs in t he man-
gral part of t he w all st ruct ure. In cont rast ,
ner of glazed curta in w alling. Panels exte nd
timber cladding panels are fixed t o building
from floor t o floor, being eit her hung from a
Isometric views of wall assemblyat ground level
MC E
277
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Vertical section I :5.Timber board cladding panel wall assembly and junction with upper floor
Vert ical section I :5. Connection between timbe r cladding panel and supporting frame
fioor slab o r else sitting on a bracket o n th e
panels follow s th e same prin ciple of timber
op enings in th e laminated timber frame, w it h
fioor below. In t aller buildings, t imber cladding
cladding descr ibed in th e previou s sect ion.
panels suppo rte d at th eir base o n th e t op s
is used in conjunct ion w it h a twin wall con-
H ori zont al joints have an inner chamber
of beams. Floor decks in timber are th en
struct ion w it h an inner t imber wa ll and an
form ed between two adjacent panels.A ny
fixed t o th e side of th e laminat ed t imber
oute r open jo inted glazed wall.Th e oute r
rainw ater th at penetrates th e o ute r seal,
beams.T imber panels are fixed at th eir base
glazed wall pro vides protection against w ind,
w hich is also kept open in some designs,is
t o th e beam beneath, but have a sliding
dust and no ise, allow ing th e w indows t o be
drained down an inner chamber w here th e
restraint at th e t op t o allow th e slab and
opened for natur al vent ilat ion.Th e oute r wall
wate r is discharged through th e hori zontal
panel above t o defiect w it ho ut damaging th e
provides a 'th erm al buffer' t o reduce th e
jo int at fioor level.T he o ute r t imber cladding
panel below.A metal fiashing at th e base of
effects of heat and cold at different tim es of
has cont inuo us vert ical joints to allow panels
th e panel drains wate r at its base and throw s
th e year.Th e two walls are set 700mm -
t o be fixed sequent ially, unless th e oute r t im-
it clear of th e beam beneath in o rder t o
IOOOmm (2ft3 in-3ft3 in) apart t o allow access
ber bo ards are applied afte r th e panels have
avoid staining of th e timber beam.The oute r
from th e inner t imber wa ll t o th e zone
been installed, but th is is cont rary t o th e pan-
t imber rainscreen cladding is set flush w it h
between th e two walls for maintenance and
el-based form of const r uct ion.
th e o ute r face of th e laminat ed t imber fr ame
cleaning access. Th e o ute r glass screen also
W here timber frames are used t o sup-
provides protection t o th e t imber cladding
port t imber cladding panels, cladding is set
from th e effects of rain and w ind, allow ing
between fioor struct ures rather th an forward
th e material t o maintain its appearance w it h-
of th em, since th ere is no significant th erm al
t o avoid any views into th e wate rproo fing layer behind. Th e use of compute r numer ically controlled (CNC) machines ensures th e accu-
out full exposure t o outside condit ions.Vert i-
br idge from o utside t o inside, allow ing th e
rate cutting of compo nents t o make t imber
cal joints between panels have a ste pped
st ructural frame t o be exposed on th e o ut -
wall panels w it h th e close t olerances of high
jo int t o allow for defiection s in fioor slabs
side.W here t imber frames are exposed, lami-
quality, large scale construction, parti cularly
between panels, followin g prin ciples of glazed
nated timber is often used, since it can be
housing,w here timber has undergon e a huge
curtain walling.T his ste pped joint is covered
form ed in beams of significant loadbearing
revival, partl y due t o its low er levels of
on th e o utside w it h t imber boards, set for-
capacity, and is able t o form a fr ame rather
embodied energy in it s construction.Th e use
ward of th e face of panels o n battens in rain-
th an th e cont inuo us loadbearing wa ll of th e
of composite aluminium I timb er w indows ,
screen configurat ion.Th e const r uction of
platform frame. Cladding panels are set int o
w it h th eir high perform ance, low U-values
MC E
27 8
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Details I.
TIIT'ber bo¥ds
2. Plywood sheathng 3. TIlT'lber studs 4. T,mber rail ~_ Breather merrbr~ 6. Foundatton 7. Darro prcot coo-se 8. vecoo- ba-rer 9. Timber floor I 0 Concrete ncoI I , Internal f,nlsh 12. Therma l insulation quilt set
wltt"n t imber frame 11 Timber framed WI'ldow'ldoor 14. Timber (ill 15. AIr gap 16. Sliding twTtler k::luvre panel 17. Metal facl1&
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18. External ~ fao'lg
19. eo.er strip 20. External ftoor deck 21. Extemal glass wal 11 twlI'I wal 21 Struetl.nl tn'ber frame
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Horizontal sectJOfl I:I WrndoN ~
MCE_ 279
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3-D view of basictimber cladding wall assembly
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sometric views ot wall assembly
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Vertical section I :IO. Timber cladding wall assembly
D etails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. IO. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.
MC E
Timber boards Plywood sheathing Timber studs Timber rail Breather membrane Foundation Damp proof course Vapour barrier Timber fioor Concrete fioor Internal finish Thermal insulation quilt set within timber frame Timber framed window/door Timber cill A ir gap Slidingtimber louvre panel Metal facing External plywood facing Cover strip External fioor deck External glass wall in twin wall Structural timber frame
280
and acoust ic attenuat ion, has given timber
set over t he face of th e adjacent panel. I Im-
cladding panels great er impetu s fo r large
ber st rips can also be set over joint s t o pro -
scale proj ects w here traditionally t he t herm al
t ect t he o ut side face of th e plywood but also
and weat her resisting perfo rmance of t imb er
allow t he rear face t o be vent ilate d int o a
w indows and fr ames has been much poorer
cavity t o allow t he mater ial t o be kept dr y.
t han t hat of aluminium o r UPVC w indows
Since plyw ood sheets can now be supplied in
and doors.
very large sizes, bays of plyw ood can be made from a single sheet. reducing t he need
Plywood sheets
for edge protection of t he plywood. Plyw ood
W hen plyw ood sheets are used w it h t imber
sheets are also lapped in t he hori zont al joint s
cladding panels, t he edges of t he sheets are
t o create a visual effect like shiplapped t im-
protected. since th e edges of plyw ood are
ber boards,o r are shingled in t he manner of
suscept ible t o damage and rot if left exposed
sheet met al cladding.T he increased use of
in an exte rnal enviro nment. Edges can be
rainscreen tim ber cladding w it h a w at erproof
protected w it h met al trims and flashings,
backing wa ll has increased t he freedom for
w here an aluminium Z -shaped profi le is set
timber panel design.
o n th e back of o ne sheet. proj ecting o ut t hro ugh a vertical o r hori zont al joint. and is
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Vertical section I :25. Cladding panel in twin wall configuration for taller buildings.
-.... _-._-. 3-D detail view of fioor junction in twin wall configuration for taller buildings
3-D view of cladding panel in twin wall configuration for taller buildings
MCE
28 1
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3-D exp loded view of timber cladding system consisting of fixed glazingand louvre screens
Details
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I .Timber boards 2. Plywood sheathing 3.Timber studs 4.Timber rail 5. Breather membrane 6. Foundation 7. Damp proof course S'vapour barrier 9.Timber floor I O. Concrete floor I I . Internal finish 12.Thermal insulat ion quilt set within timber frame I 3.T imber framed window/door 14.Timber cill IS.Air gap 16. Sliding timber louvre panel 17. Metal facing 18. External plywood facing 19. Cover strip 20. External floo r deck 21. External glasswall in twin wall 22. Structural timber frame
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3-D exploded view of window opening and connection between cladding panel, supporting frame and upper floor in fixed glazing-louvre screen system
MC E
282
3-D view of timber clad facade incorporating both louvred and board panel types
3-D exploded detail view of ground fioor junction
3-D exploded detail view of top of window opening in timber cladding 3-D view of ground junction in timber system claddingsystem
3-D exploded view of cladding panel in twin wall configuration for taller buildings
3-D exploded detail view of conncection between timber cladding panel and upper fioor
3-D view of window opening in timber cladding system
3-D exploded view of timber cladding panel wall assembly
MCE
283
METAL ROOFS (I) Me ta l standing seam
Site-based method Prefabricated methods
Sealed and ventilated roofs
Roof openings Ridges and valleys Ea-es and parapets (2) Profile d metal s heet Profiled metal decks
as substrates Profiled metal roof sheeting
Sealed and ventilated methods Twin skin construction
Ridges Openings
Eaves and parapets Ridges and valleys
(3) Compo site panel s
Single wall composite panels Twin wall panels
Ridges Verges
Eaves Parapets and valley gutters (4) Ra insc ree ns
Panel arrangement Parapets Monopitch ridges and verges Roof geometry
Roof soffits (5) Me tal canopies
Bolt " ' " " _ Fixed metal louvre canopies
Electrically operated louvres
MCE
285
f1etal Roofs 0 I Metal standing seam
3-D section through metal profile roof on timber structure
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Vertical section I : IO.Typical roof assembly without acoustic layer
Vertical section I : IO. Typical roof assembly without acoustic layer
Standing seam ro ofs are increasingly being
secured w it h a clip-based fixing system rather
sheet are lapped over th e next t o form a
used for industrial and commercial buildings
th an o nto a cont inuo us subst rat e. Bot h ty pes
cont inuous sealed surface.Th e st anding seam
in preference t o profil ed metal sheet w here
are discussed in thi s sectio n.
concealed fixings and low roof pitches are
joint is formed by foldin g th e metal t ogether t o form a seal. Because th e roo f is form ed,
required for visual reasons.This is because
Site-based meth od
standing seam ro ofing is both economic and
This method of fixing sheet is we ll suit ed t o
standing seam between each gutter is above
has crisp, uninterrupted jo int lines th at allow
small-scale applicat ions, or w here complex
th e level of th e wate r dr aining down it. Rain-
effectively, as a series of linked 'gutt er s', th e
it t o be made a visible part of th e building
geomet ries are used Th ese applicat ions make
wate r is avoided being drawn th rou gh th e
design, ofte n w it h as much architectural pres-
th e use of prefabrication both unnecessary
jo int by capillary act ion by one of two meth-
ence as th e facade beneath.Th e main advan-
and unecon omi c, due t o th e time needed t o
ods, w here th e joint is eit her sealed o r vent i-
t age of standing seam roofs over profiled
make special junction s and edges o n sit e.Th e
lat ed In a sealed jo int th e seam is pressed
metal ro ofs is th at almo st no fixings pass
use of a single sheet metal profi le and angle
ti ght, as in a tradition al lead o r copper roo f
th rough from o ut side t o inside th e construc-
suppo r t clips used in prefabricate d meth od s
eit her by fo lding th e met al over it self t o form
ti on.Th is gives th e roo f surface a visually crisp
is usually t oo inflexible for such condit ions.
appearance w it h very few visible fixings.The
In thi s tradition al meth od of forming
a th in seam, o r by form ing th e metal over a timber ro ll o r sectio n. In a vent ilated joint, a
standing seams allow th e t echnique t o be
standing seam roofs, timber boards o r ply-
small gap is left between th e fo lded sheets t o
used on very low pitch roofs.
wood sheet are used t o form a cont inuous
allow air t o pass through but not rainw ater.
The traditional method of forming a
substrate, or suppo rt ing surface. Standing
Sheet metal is fixed t o th e timber
standing seam ro of is t o set th e sheet onto a
seams are formed by t imber st rips of rectilin-
upstand strips eit her by clips,w hich avoid
timber subst rat e, and t o fold th e long edges
ear o r curve d sect ion w hich are set at 450-
penetration of th e sheet metal, o r by a
of th e metal upw ards t o form a standing
600mm cent res down th e slope of th e roo f.
mechanical fixing through one side of th e
seam joint. However.thi s method is increas-
correspo nding to t he w idt h of th e sheet
sheet.T he fixing is applied t o th e side w hich
ingly giving w ay t o prefabricated systems
metal used Sheet met al is laid along t he
has th e adjacent sheet lapped over it, in
w here th e sheet metal is fo lded t o a specific
length of th e roof from t op t o bottom , w it h
o rder t o avoid rainw ater passing through th e
profil e eit her in a factory o r o n sit e w it h a
th e sides of th e sheet fo lded up and over th e
fixing penetration.Timber-based subst rates
ro lling machine.Th e fo lded metal is th en
t imber batt ens. Successive st rips of metal
are increasingly being replaced by profiled
MC E 2 8 6 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D cuta way view showing typ ical roof assembly
Vertical secnon 1:1 0, Ridge with flashing Details I.
Metal sheet
2
Standing seam joint
10.
Clips at centres
3
~mermemb~e
II .
Folded metal gutter
4
Thermal insulat ion
12.
Curved eaves sheet
5.
Substrate, typicallytImber/metal
11
External wall Structural frame
rafters with p!ywood facing
14.
6,
Vapour barrier
I S.
Outer meet
7,
Drywall/dry lining if required
16.
Rooflight
8,
Outer stand,ng seam sheet
17.
Metal flash ing
9,
Inner lining sheet
18.
Ridge piece
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Vertical section I : I
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Vertical section I: 10, Ridge with recessed flash ing
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3-D cutaway view of typ icalroof assembly
MC E
28 7
f1et al Roofs 0 I Met al standing seam
y
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Vert ical section I: I0. Ridge deta il on pitched met al stand ing seam roo f
Vertical sect ion I : I0. Flat met al standing seam roof
3-D view showi ng pitched met al standing seam roof assembly
metal sheet w hich has a much greate r span-
th e liner tray o n th e wa rm (in w inte r) side of
standing seam profi le in place. Met al sheet is
ning capability t han plywood sheet, helping t o
t he t herm al insulati on. In hot, humid coun-
form ed in long lengths of fo lded t rays w hich
reduce th e cost of th e support ing structure.
tri es an addit ional vapo ur barri er is set o n
are th en fixed o nto th e suppo rt brackets.
T imb er-based subst rates, typically plywood o r
t op of t he insulati on w here t he risk of int er-
Finally t he standing seam joint s are crimped
t imber boards, require suppo rt at 400-
st it ial condensat ion is fro m t he outside as
t o form a seal, usually w it h a 'zip up' t oo l t hat
600mm cent res. Profiled metal sheet is
we ll as th e inside.
travels along th e joint and across th e ro of,
increasingly being used as a substrate , as it
For both construction configurat ions t he
sealing t he joint as it moves along.T his fixing
provides a self-finished soffit (underside) t o
roof pitch can go down t o 1°, afte r t aking
meth od gives very smoot h and st raight joints,
t he space below t he ro ofThis is particularly
int o account any st r uctural deflections t hat
but t he long lengths of sheet metal fo rm ing
useful w here acoust ic ceilings are used, w it h
wo uld further reduce t his angle. Met al sheets
t he ro of surface can result in 'o il canning',
perforated sheet t hat has a paint coat ing on
can be made up t o 40 metres in length, but
w here part of t he met al surface appears t o
its underside.
road transport is difficult, w it h long sheet s
be crinkled as a result of uneven th erm al
(longer t han a trailer length) requiring special
expansion. Generally,t herm al expansion is
Prefabricated meth od s
arrangements for ro ad transportatio n in
accommo date d by allow ing t he long lengths
Th e most commo n configurat ion of prefabri-
most count ries. For larger proj ects, long
of metal sheet t o slide over t he suppo r t clips,
cate d standing seam roofs is a st ruct ural
sheets are fo rm ed o n site w it h a rolling
w it h t he sheet it self fixed rigidly in only a few
deck, t ypically reinfo rced concrete o r profiled
machine t hat can fo rm t he profile of t he
places along it s length.
metal sheet, w it h insulation set on t op and
standing seam sheet t o any length required.
an o ute r (upper) sheet suppo rte d o n brack-
t he profile being fo rm ed from metal coil.
Standing seam sheet s can form shallow curves by gent ly bending t he metal o n site , o r
ets set o nto th e st r uct ural deck.A n alte rna-
Suppo rt brackets are usually T-shaped
t ive configurat ion is t o fix t he brackets sup-
and are fixed eit her t o t he st ructural deck o r
porti ng th e o ute r sheet t o a set of metal
t o pur lins w it h self-tapping screws.The br ack-
radius curve s are formed by crimping t he
pur lins.A metal liner sheet is set below th e
ets are usually made from ext r uded alumini-
sheet in t he factory,w here th e materi al is
alte rnat ively by curv ing th e sheet s in th e fact o r y, t o give a smoot h appearance. Small
pur lins t o suppo rt t he t hermal insulati on
um in order t o pro vide a pro file t hat is both
mechanically form ed w it h small local fo lds.
quilt, set between th e pur lins.A vapo ur bar-
thi ck enough t o form a rigid co nnect ion and
Sharp folded corners are made by we lding
rier is set betw een t he insulati on quilt and
sufficient ly precise in sect ion t o ret ain a given
two sheet s t ogether along t he fo ld line.
MC E
288
Details I.
Metal sheet
2.
Standing seam jo int
3.
Breather memb rane
®
4. Therm al insulatiOl1 S.
Substrate, typically timber/metal rafters with plywood facing
<0'- - - -1 @
r
Vertical section I:10. Eaves w~h curve d gutte r
3·0 vIews showing eave, condition on pitched metal standIng seam roof with curved gutter
6. Vapour barrie r 7. Drywall/d ry lining if requ ired 8. Outer standing seam sheet 9. Inner lining sheet 10. Clips at centres I I. Folded metal gutte r 12. Curved eaves sheet 13. Extern al wall 14. Structural frame 15. Outer sheet fixing bracket 16. Roofiight 17. Metal fiashing 18. Ridge piece
MC E
289
rJetal Roofs 0 I Metal standing seam
@
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\ Ver t ical section I: I O. Pipe op ening in pitc hed metal standing seam roof assembly
Vertical section I: I O. Eaves condit ion on pitched metal standing seam roo f assembly
3-D view showing mono-pitch metal standing seam roof assembly
D etails I . Met al sheet 2. Standing seam joint 3. Breather membrane 4. Thermal insulation 5. Substrate, typically timber/metal rafters with plywood facing 6. Vapour barrier 7. Drywall/dry lining if required 8. Outer standing seam sheet 9. Inner lining sheet I O. CIips at centres I I . Folded metal gutter 12. Curved eaves sheet I 3. External wall 14. Structural frame 15. Outer sheet fixing bracket 16.Roofiight 17. Metal fiashing 18.Ridge piece
MC E
290
Sealed and vent ilat ed roofs
joints t o make t hem both airt ight and wate r-
Th e choice of a sealed o r vent ilate d roof
t ight. Moisture vapo ur th at builds up inside
configurat ion depends upon both th e metal
th e construct ion is released by slots for pas-
used and th e natur e of th e const ruction
sive vent ilat ion at th e ridge and eaves.
beneath.Vent ilat ion is essent ial if th e th erm al
Unlike ot her metals, zinc sheet requires
insulation is set some distance below th e
vent ilat ion o n th e underside t o avoid corro-
metal sheet. as in a pitched roof w here th e
sion from wate r vapo ur trapped inside th e
insulati on is set hori zontally,above a closed
constr uct ion.Vent ilation for zinc ro ofs has
ceiling.Vent ilate d roofs are also suitable
tradition ally been provided w it h o pen jo inted
w here th e exte rnal roo f form has a complex
timber boards, but thi s meth od is being
geomet ry,This allow s th e th erm al insulation
replaced on larger applicat ions by a plastic-
t o be set horizontally beneath, w hile th e roof
based wove n mat set o nto a substrate , w hich
form can be free of th e constraint s of making
allows air t o pass across th e inside face of th e
th e ent ire ro of co nstructio n fo llow th e same
zinc w hile using a cont inuo us substrate mate-
geomet ry,Vent ilate d roo fs have slot s at ridg-
rial beneath.
es, valleys and per imeter gutter s t o allow air t o pass th rough th e const r uction t o ensure
Roof openings
th at t he ro of build-up remains dry,Sealed
Roofiights are set into st anding seam roofs in
roofs use sealing strips in th e standing seam
o ne of t wo ways: eit her by form ing a pressed
Vertical section I: I0, Eaves and gutter on pitched metal standing seam roof assembly
Vertical section I : I0, Eaves and gutter on pitched metal standing seam roof assembly
3-D cutaway view showing typical roof assembly
Vert ical section I: I0, Abutment
3-D view showing metal roof at abutment
metal upstand aro und th e o pening so th at
pipe and a flashing usually we lded t o th e
th e roofiight projects up aro und I SOmm
pipe, fo lds over th e t op of th e upstand t o
above the level of th e roof, or by setting it
avo id rainw ater from penetrating th e joint.
level w it h th e roof finish and forming a gutte r
Th e base of th e 'skirt' flashing is bond ed t o
aro und t he edges of th e roofiight.T his sec-
th e metal sheet roof covering and sealed,
ond meth od avo ids th e need for roofiights t o
t ypically w it h a silicone-based bond and seal.
appear as projecting box-like forms in an
Standing seams th at clash w it h th e base of
ot herw ise smoot h, cont inuo us roof plane, If
th e skir t flashing are stopped and closed
th e roofiights are set int o th e opening, t hen a
above and below th e penetration ,
metal fiashing is fixed aro und its edge, being lapped under t he st anding seam roof o n it s
Ridges and valleys
t op edge,At th e sides th e flashing form s a
Ridges are form ed by a variety of meth od s, In
standing seam w it h th e adjacent joints run -
some cases a fo lded o r curve d metal sheet is
ning down th e ro of, and it s bottom edge
set over th e gap between th e two sides of
lapped over th e t op of th e roof sheet imme-
th e ro of on th e level of th e t op of th e stand-
diately below it. Penetration s for small ducts
ing seam,Th e gap betw een th e t op and bot-
and pipes through th e standing seam ro ofs
t om of th e standing seam is closed w it h a
use simplified flashings,A n upstand is form ed
form ed metal filler piece, o r st r ip, Elsewhere,
as a cont inuo us skirt aro und th e projecting
a sharp ridge line Can be form ed as a stand-
3-D view showing eaves condition on pitched metal standing seam roof assembly
MC E
29 1
f1etal Roofs 0 I Meta l standing seam
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Vertical section I : IO. Gutter at abutment
Vertic al section I : IO. Parapet gutter at abutment
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Vertical section I : IO. Gutter detail
Vertical section I 10. Parapet
ing seam joint, w it h th e seams meeting th e
depth at gutters, th erm al insulation set below
ridge being t erm inated t o avoid th e need for
it is ofte n th inner th an th e adjacent areas of
visually bulky filler that could be seen from
roof Th e reduced th erm al insulation can be
below.A lte rnat ively, th e ridge can be treated
improved upon by using eit her higher per-
as a soft fo ld, w it ho ut any break in th e mate-
form ance insulati on in th at area, or by deep-
rial.A lt hough thi s may appear to be th e most
ening th e st r uct ure of th e roof beneath
st raightfo rward of th e ridges t o form , th e
w here th is is possible, t o allow th e depth of
alignment of th e ridge piece is as crit ical as in
th erm al insulation t o be increased.
previou sly discussed versions, in order t o cre-
If th e ro of is vent ilate d, th e gap formed
ate a st raight ridge line. Shadow s from th e
between th e t op of th e gutte r upstand and
sun cast across t he ridge w ill reveal any wavi-
th e under side of th e st anding seam roofing
ness in th e line of t he t op of th e roof Valleys are formed by lapping th e ends of
allows th e passage of air int o th e roof void w it hout th e need for vent ilat ion slots, visible
th e st anding seam roof int o a fo lded metal
from below, being set int o th e o ute r face of
tray forming a cont inuo us gutter.Th e gutter is
th e ro of
ofte n we lded at th e joint between o ne length
3-D view of gutter det ail
MC E
292
of fo lded sheet and th e adjacent sheet in
Eaves and parapet s
o rder t o avoid th e possibility of a wate r leak
Eaves are formed in a similar w ay t o a valley,
in th e gutte r. Because of t he reduced roof
w it h a gutter set at th e edge of th e roof
Details I. Meta l sheet
10. Clips at cent res
2. Standing seam joint
I I . Folded met al gutter
3. Breath er mem brane
I 2. Curved eaves sheet
4.Ther mal insulat ion
I 3. Extern al w all
S.Substrat e. t ypically t imber/me tal
14. Structural fram e
raft ers w ith plyw ood facing
I S. O uter sheet fixing bracket
6.Vapour barrier
16. Rooflight
7. D rywall/dry lining if requ ired
17. Metal flashing
8. Outer standing seam sheet
I 8. Ridge piece
9. Inner lining sheet
Vertical section I : I0, Abutment on curve d metal standing seam roof
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Vertical section I : I0, Abutment on metal standing seam roof
o..-.- ....-...
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Increasingly,gutters are being integrated into
-------------_..-
roof form s in order t o avoid a we ak visual
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line formed by a gutter w hich is not continu ous w it h th e smoot h lines of th e roof W hen
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addit io nal closer pieces are used, such as bull nose profi les,th e metal panels are usually
/f
designed t o be drained and vent ilate d t o th e exte rior.and th e line of wate rpro ofing co n-
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tinu es up th e exte rnal wall t o th e under side
of th e gutter th at is adjacent t o th e exte rnal wa ll up to th e parapet coping, w here it is
I
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of th e standing seam roof Parapet s are formed by t aking th e side
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t erm inated w it h a rubb er-based seal bond ed to th e t op of th e exte rnal wa ll.A parapet coping is set int o th is seal as an overcloak flashing and second line of defence against rainwater penetration.
3-D roof show ing curved metal standing seam roof assembly
MCE
293
---
f1eta l Roofs 0 I Meta l standing seam
Details
3-D exploded view of curved metal standing seam roof assembly
3-D exploded view of metal standing seam roof assembly with timber frame
MC E
294
I. Metal sheet 2. Standing seam joint 3. Breathermembrane 4.Thermal insulation 5. Substrate. typicallytimber/metal rafters with plywood facing 6.Vapour barrier 7. Drywall/dry lining if required 8. Outer standing seam sheet 9. Inner lining sheet 10. Clips at centres I I. Folded metal gutter 12. Curved eaves sheet 13. External wall 14. Structural frame 15.Outer sheet fixing bracket 16. Rooflight 17. Metal flashing 18. Ridge piece
3-D view of curved metal standing seam roof assembly
3-D exploded view of metal standing seam roof parapet and gutte r detail
3-D view of meta l standing seam roof parapet and gutter detail
3-D view of metal standing seam roof parapet and gutter detail
3-D view of metal standing seam roof parapet and gutter detail
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3-D exploded view of metal standing seam roof parapet and gutter detail for curved roof edge
3-D explo ded view of metal standing seam roof assembly
MC E
2 95
rletal Roofs 02 Profiled met al sheet
3-D detail view of flat profiled metal sheet roof
3-D view of flat profi led metal sheet roof
==-== -==- == -
== ==---= =- ::::=: -== -== ==--=== ===- --
Vertical section I : IO. Typical profiled metal sheet roof construction
The main advantage of profi led metal sheet
Vertical section I : IO. Typical profiled metal sheet roof construction
W hen used as a substrate, profi led metal
closed cell insulation set onto th e profi led
over other met al roof typ es is t he ability of
sheet can be cut t o fo rm com plex
th e material to span economically up to
geomet ries, t ypically suppo rte d by a steel
peaks of th e profi le w it ho ut defiecting signifi-
aro und 3.5 metres between pr imary struc-
frame t o create a t hree dimensio nal fo rm .
cant ly w hen it is w alked upon fo r mainte-
t ural suppo rts.T his self-suppo rt ing ability of
Profiled sheet w it h an overall dept h of SOmm
nance access, w hich wo uld ot herw ise st retc h
t he material, combined w it h its we at her
is used typically,but much deeper sections
t he joints in th e membran e.A single layer
resistant painted coat ing applied during man-
are used for spans above 3.5 metres t o
membrane is t hen set o nto t his insulati on,
met al deck, rigid eno ugh t o span across t he
ufacture, allow s for it to be used as both a
aro und 6.0 metres,w it h a depth up to
usually an elastome ric membrane that can be
substrate material for a finish in a different
aro und 200mm.T he deep sectio ns are also
left exposed t o t he effects of t he sun w it ho ut
material set onto it or as a single layer struc-
used in composite roof decks w hen filled
damage. Sometim es a t hin layer of smoot h
t ural and weat herproo f mat erial.W here
w it h concrete . Fo r a stee l profile, sheets of
pebbles is laid o n t op t o keep t he sun off t he
standing seam roofin g, w it h its high proj ecting
O.7mm thi ck are used for th e outer skin; for
membrane and allow maintenance access
fo lds,is suite d to long, straight o r gent ly curv-
aluminium a 0.9mm th ick sheet is used. Steel
w it hout risk of punctur ing t he membra ne.
ing spans,profiled met al sheet can both span
is galvanised and coate d, w hile aluminium is
T he closed cells of t he mat erial ensure t hat
between suppo rts and form complex
mill finished or coate d.
any wate r vapo ur trapped in th e const r uc-
geomet ries.It is t his flexibility of being both
t ion is not absorbed by t he insulati on w hich
struct ural deck and w ate rproo fing layer t hat
Profiled metal decks as substrat es
has an advantage w here th e interior finish is
W here profi led metal is used as a deck rath -
wo uld ot herw ise cause it s deterioratio n.
designed t o be in a different material, such as
er t han as a roofing mat erial, a lightweight
Profiled metal roof sheet ing
dr y lining o r decor ative boarding. In recent
build-up is usually applied, since th e metal
W hen used as a finish material. called 'roof
years ro of pitches have great ly reduced t o
decking is chosen w here a light w eight roof is
sheet ing', profiled metal sheet provides a
make th e roof as fiat as po ssible, usually for
required.Th e lightweight finishes used are
cont inuous weat herproo f skin w it h t he ability
visual reasons. Most profi led sheet is laid to a
t ypically an addit ional layer of profi led sheet,
to be curve d in one direction. A limit at ion of
minimum pitch of around 4°. Standing seam
met al standing seam (discussed in t he previ-
t he material is t hat openings for roofiights,
roofs can go down t o a I ° pitch, depending
o us sect io n), membranes (mainly elasto mers)
edges, and junction s w it h ot her materials are
on t he geomet ry of t he roof
and light planted ro ofs.A typ ical build-up is of
not easily int egrat ed int o t he pro file of t he
MC E 296 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view of gutter detail
3-D view of fiat profiled metal sheet roof construction
3-D view of fiat profiled metal sheet roof construction Vertical section I:I O. Concealed gutter junction
Deta ils I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
Outer profiled metal sheet Inner lining sheet Fibre quilt thermal insulation Vapour barrier Purlin or structural beam Profiled metal structural deck Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Metal fascia panel External wall Outer sheet fixing bracket Curved eaves sheet Structural frame Ridge piece Metal flashing Roofiight Pipe or duct penetration Parapet flashing Vented filler piece
---=---@
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Vertical section I:I O. Profiled metal sheet roof with parapet
Vertical section I :I O. Edge detail
MC E
29 7
rletal Roofs 02 Profiled met al sheet
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Vertical section I:I O. Eaves detail with gutter
3-D view of eaves detail with gutter
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sheet. Even simple rectilinear o penings have
ing in eit her sealed o r vent ilated const ruct ion.
few standard profiles t o close off th e gap
Vent ilat ion is used mainly w here a t imber
betw een th e flat flashing and th e gaps
suppo rt ing st ruct ure is used, w it h th e timber
Detai ls
betw een th e peak and trough of th e profi le.
being vent ilated t o avoid rot in th e mater ial
I. Outer profiled metal sheet 2. Inner lining sheet 3. Fibre quilt thermal insulation 4. Vapour barrier 5. Purlin or structural beam 6. Profiled metal structural deck 7. Folded metal gutter 8. Folded metal drip 9. Metal fascia panel 10. External wall I I. Outer sheet fixing bracket 12. Curved eaves sheet 13. Structural frame 14. Ridge piece 15. Metal flashing 16. Roofiight 17. Pipe or duct penetration 18. Parapetflashing 19. Vented filler piece
How ever, o ne of th e main advantages of pro-
from mo ist air in th e vo id th at wo uld ot her-
filed metal sheet is it s ability t o be curve d
w ise be trapped w it hin th e const ruction.This
easily, w here th e suppo rt ing structure
is discussed further in th e sect ion o n t imber
beneath requires o nly a few structural mem-
pitched roofs .The followin g t opi cs in thi s sec-
ber s t o be curve d, and most framing can be
t ion deal w it h th e use of profiled sheet as a
st raight. Used as roof sheet ing, th e material is
sealed roo f covering.
lapped on all four sides like metal standing
In sealed roofs, th e th erm al insulati o n
seam roofs.The laps are made lo ng eno ugh
usually fills th e voids in between th e inner and
t o avoid capillary action through th e joint.
o ute r skins, but vent ilato rs are ofte n prov ided
Th is simple jo inting system provides large
at th e ridge and eaves t o allow some breath-
areas of reliable, w eat her t ight ro ofing th at can
ing t hro ugh th e ribs of th e pro filed sheet.This
be inst alled quickly.
helps t o keep th e insulati o n complete ly dry. Because th e inner lining sheet presents a
Sealed and vent ilat ed m eth o ds
MC E
@
29 8
hard surface under th e roof. perforated
In commo n w it h standing seam roofing, pro-
sheet s are used t o im prove sound absorpt ion.
filed metal roofs can be used as a ro of cover-
Sound is allowed t o be absorbed partl y by
---
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Vertical section I : IO. Eaves with partiall y concealed gutter
Vertical section I : IO. Profiled metal sheet connection with roofiight
---
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Vertical section I : IO. Valley gutter
Vertical section I : IO.
t he insulation quilt.This helps t o reduce
th e o ute r roo f sheet. In recent years th e
reverberatio n, particular ly in noisy int ern al
Z -shape sect ion has develop ed int o a w ide
enviro nment s.A vapo ur barri er is set
range of sect ion ty pes. Sheet s are fixed w it h
between t he t herm al insulati o n and t he t hin
self t apping screws w hich, in addit ion t o fixing
layer of acoust ic insulati on beneath.
t he sheets t o t he suppo rt ing st r ucture, are also required t o be weat hert ight. A vapo ur
Tw in skin con struction
barrier is provided o n t he wa rm (in w inte r)
Profiled metal sheet roofs have th e ability t o
side of th e insulation, between t he liner tray
conceal t he suppor t ing structure w it hin t he
and t he t herm al insulati on.
dept h of th e roo f construction.T his gives a
T his construction method co nt rast s w it h
smoot h finished appearance t o t he inside
composite panels, w here t he oute r skin, min-
face of t he roo f A n o ute r met al sheet is sup-
erai fibre t hermal insulati on quilt and inner
ported o n metal roo f pur lins, and an inner
lining are combined into a single panel th at is
lining tray, w hich suppo rts t he t hermal insula-
fixed o nto a supporting st ructure w hich
ti o n, is fixed to t heir under side.The purlins
remains visible.T he suppor t ing ro of st ruct ure,
are usually Z -shaped galvanised stee l ty pes,
visible fro m below t he roof, is eit her left
ty pically l .5mm thi ck, w it h nylon w asher s o r
exposed o n its underside or is concealed
sleeves betw een t he pur lins and t he o ute r
w it h a layer of dry lining.
and inner sheet s t o provide a t her mal break as w ell as a pad t o seal th e screw fixings on
3-D view of monopitch edge detail
Laps between profiled sheets along t heir t op and bottom edges are sealed w it h butyl
MCE
29 9
f1 etal Roofs 02 Profiled met al sheet
3-D view of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter detail
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Exploded axonomet ric view of gutter detail
Vertical section I:I O. Prefabricatedvalley gutter
sealant strip.Two st rips are normally used,
Ridges
one at t he end of t he exte rnal lap and t he
Ridges at t he junction of a double pitched
D etails
other at t he t op end of t he int ernal lap.T he
roof use a folded metal st rip t o form a con-
I.
oute r seal provides protection against capil-
t inuous ridge sheet.These sheets can be fold-
lary act ion of rainw at er being draw n up int o
ed on a straight line or form ed t o a curved
t he lap between sheets, w hile t he ot her
line.The void beneath is filled w it h t hermal
provides a vapo ur barr ier t hat avoids mois-
insulati on in addit ion t o t hat used beneath
ture, generate d inside th e building, from
th e pro filed sheet. Closer st rips are used t o
condensing in t he joint. Self t apping screws
seal th e gaps in th e profiled sheet w here it
th at hold th e sheet s in place clamp th e t wo
meet s t he ridge cover strip set on t op of t he
sealed surfaces t oget her. Sheets are norm al-
profiled sheet.
Outer profiled metal sheet 2. Inner lining sheet 3. Fibre quilt thermal insulation 4. Vapour barrier 5. Purlin or structural beam 6. Profiled metal structural deck 7. Folded metal gutter 8. Folded metal drip 9. Metal fascia panel 10. External wall I I . Outer sheet fixing bracket 12. Curved eaves sheet 13. Structural frame 14. Ridge piece 15. Metal fiashing 16. Roofiight 17. Pipe or duct penetration 18. Parapetfiashing 19. Vent ed filler piece
ly lapped 150mm over one anot her,w hile
ment w it h an adjacent wall,th e cover st rip
made w it h a single lap of profile, w it h a sin-
between wall and roof is folded up t he wall
gle seal of butyl t ape set at th e cent re of th e
and is fixed t o it. A fiashing projecting from
lap. In commo n w it h standing seam roo fs,
th e wall is lapped over th e outside of th e
th e t hermal insulati on quilt is usually 150-
ridge strip in order to direct rainwater over it
200mm t hick in order t o achieve a U-value
and down onto the roof
of 0.25 W /m2 K.
MC E
300
W here a pitched roo f meet s an abut -
laps between sheet s on th eir side edges are
@
3-D sectionthrough typical valley and ridge construction
L
@
Vertical section I: IO. Ridge detail
Vertical section I: IO. Ridge detail
Openings
usually w elded t o form a single upstand collar
In commo n w it h rooflights fixed int o standing
aro und th e pipe and fixed t o th e roof deck
seam roo fing, a gutter is required along th e
A lso in co mmo n w it h standing seam roofs,a
t op edge of roo flights, along w hich wate r
counte r flashing is w elded or bond ed t o th e
running down th e ro of is directe d t o th e
upper part of th e pipe, above th e roof, w hich
sides.T he gutter can be form ed in front of
laps down over th e flashing t o protect it from
th e metal sheet as in a parapet detail, o r be
rainw ater runn ing down th e pipe above th e
concealed by setting th e profiled sheet close
ro of level.
@
t o th e roo flight and concealing th e gutter, leaving o nly a SOmm gap between roof sheet
Eaves and parapets
and ro oflight.Th e gutter can be concealed for
Parapets are form ed by creat ing a gutter at
small ro oflights w hich carry o nly littl e rainw a-
th e base of th e profiled sheet, th en cont inu-
t er and so do not need t o be very big.Th e
ing th e line of th e gutter up t o a parapet
sides of roo flights parallel t o th e slo pe, and
coping w it h laps over th e t op.Th e gutter is
along th e bottom edge, have flashings lapped
form ed from a single fold ed sheet t o avoid
down from th e roo flights and onto th e adja-
th e possibility of leaks, and is lapped under
cent roof sheet s.
th e vertical sheet th at form s th e seal
Penetration s for small ducts and pipes through th e roof are sealed w it h a flashing,
Vertical section I:IO. Roof penetration
between gutter and coping. Parapets in pro filed metal sheet are ofte n used w here th e
MC E
30 I
fletal Roofs 02 Profiled metal sheet
----
Vertical section I: I0. Curved profiled metal sheet roof with concealed gutter
3-D view of curved profile metal sheet roof with gutter
D etails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14. IS. 16. 17. 18. 19.
MCE
Outer profiled metal sheet Inner lining sheet Fibre quilt thermal insulation Vapour barrier Purlin or structural beam Profiled metal structural deck Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Metal fascia panel External wall Outer sheet fixing bracket Curved eaves sheet Structural frame Ridge piece Metal flashing Roofiight Pipe or duct penetration Parapet fiashing Vented filler piece
302
3-D detail view of curved profile metal sheet roof with gutter
exte rnal w all is fo rmed in a different mater ial,
pieces are usually made by crimping t he
so t hat t he parapet fo rms a visual break
mat erial along t he vertical edges of t he pro-
between t hem. However, many profi led metal
filed sheet, t o give a characte ristic appear-
roofs are used in conjunct ion w it h walls in
ance, but t hese pieces are increasingly being
t he same mat eri al using a concealed gutter
made w it h a cont inuo us smoot h appearance.
t hat allows wa ll and ro of t o be cont inuo us. Manufacturers provide standard curve d piec-
Ridges and valleys
es t o different radii in profiled met al sheet
T hese fo lds in met al roofs are fo rmed using
th at allow th e same material t o form a gent ly
th e same methods discussed in th e previous
curved edge o r,alte rnat ively, a sharply curve d
sect ion o n standing seam roofs. However,
t ermin ation t o t he roof w hich can be lapped
w hereas standing seams can be cut down t o
into th e profi led sheet forming th e wall
form a fiat ridge w it ho ut a proj ecting ridge
beneath. Eaves pieces w it h sharp edges are
piece, t his is not possible in profiled sheet ,
also manufactured as part of proprietary sys-
and inst ead a fold ed ridge piece is fixed t o
t ems.These are formed t o different angles by
t he upper surface of t he pro filed sheet.T he
we lding two profi led sheet s t ogether t o form
gaps between t he ridges and t rou ghs of t he
a cont inuous smoot h fo ld in t he roof. Cur ved
profiled sheet are filled w it h a prop rietary
Vertical section I: I0, Connection to masonry wall.
3-D view of iunction between profiled metal roof and wall 3-D view of profiled metal wall and roof with vert ical gutter
metal filler piece, usually forming part of th e manufacturer' s system.Vent ilate d roofs do not require thi s filler piece, w it h th e resulting gap betw een t he fo lded ridge sheet and t he profi led sheet being usually sufficient to pr ovide ventilat ion int o t he co nst ruct ion. Valleys are also fo rmed in a similar w ay t o t hat discussed in st anding seam roofs, w ith a venti lat ion gap provided in th e gap between t he gutter and t he under side of t he roo fing sheet.
3-D cutaway view of profiled metal roof with vertical gutter
MC E
30 3
rletal Roofs 02 Profi led metal sheet
3-D cutaway view of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter
3-D view of profiled metal sheet roof construction
j-U exploded view ot pronleo metal sheet root with gutter
.. "
Exploded axonometric view of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter
3-D view of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter
MC E
304
e .--~ --=---
@
3·0 line drawing of ridge detail
3-D view of profiled metal sheetroof with gutter and r idge
Detail s I,
Outer proflled metal sheet
3.
2.
Inner lining sheet Fibre quit!: thermal
4,
Vapour barrier
5. 6.
9.
Purhn or structural beam Profiled metal structural deck Folded metal glitter Folded metal drip Metal tasca panel
10.
Extemal wall
insulat ion
7.
8.
II. Outer sheet fixing bracket 12. Curved eaves sheet 13. Structural frame 14.
Ridge piece
IS. Metal flashing 16. Roofiight 17. Pipe or duet peoetreton 18. Parapet flash ing 19.
3-D exploded view of pro filed metal
sheet roof with gutte r and ridge
Vented filler piece
Exploded axooometnc view- of profiled metal sheetroof with gutter and r idge
3-D cutaway Vlew of profiled metal sheet roof with gutter and ridge
MC E
305
f1etal Roofs 03 Composite panels
-----
----------
3-D view showing parapet edgeand composite panel roof assembly
Vertical section I:25. Composite panel parapet condition
T here are t wo t ypes of composite panel
composite wall panels wo uld be applied t o
special joint s between sheets. Panels are usu-
used for roofs: t win wa ll and single wa ll pan-
roof panels, making for use in (no minally) flat
ally set butted up to on e anot her.w it h th e
els.T he fir st is a developm ent of profiled
roofs.T hese panels wo uld have t he smoot h
gap between panels filled w it h foam-based
met al sheet. w here o ute r sheet. t hermal insu-
face and edges used in wa ll panels t o provide
t herma l insulati on .A separat ing layer is usual-
lat io n and inner sheet are combined into a
a construct ion th at wo uld be both economic
ly set between th e wate rproo f membrane
single panel.These are used in pitched roofs
and very elegant.T he joint s betw een panels
and t he insulat ed panel t o allow movement
and have an appearance very similar to th at
wo uld form gutters th at wo uld create a con-
t o occur freely in both t he membrane and
of profiled metal roofs.T heir main advant age
nected grid of drainage channels t hat could
t he com posite panel substrate .T he sheets of
over pro filed metal roofs is t he speed of
form a crisp jo int line between panels.T his
wate rproof membrane are bo nded or torch
erect ion o n site, but t hey are usually a littl e
develop ment of composite panel design has
we lded t oget her by lapping o ne sheet over
more expensive th an an equivalent profi led
yet to be comme rcially available in a t echni-
th e oth er. o r by using bondin g st rips in th e
metal sheet roof.The seco nd com posite ro of
cally reliable system.
panel ty pe, single wa ll panels, consists of pro-
same mater ial t hat form part of t he propriet ar y syste m.T he membrane is ofte n protect-
filed metal sheet bond ed t o a layer of foam
Single wa ll composite panels
ed w it h a lightw eight covering of smoot h
typ e t herm al insulati on.T he insulati on is laid
T his panel ty pe has a single sheet of profiled
pebbles t hat can be wa lked upon for maint e-
face up t o receive a separate wate rproo fing
met al o n t he low er loadbearing face of t he
nance access w it hout puncturing t he surface.
layer.ty pically a single layer membrane.Th e
panel w hich is bond ed t o a foam-based insu-
Met al rainscreen panels are also used t o
membr ane is t hen t ypically finished in rain-
lati on t hat fills all t he voids in t he profiled
protect t he membrane from t he effects of
screen panels or smoot h pebbles, depending
sheet. pro viding a smo ot h, flat upp er surface.
direct sunlight.
o n t he geomet ry and required appearance
T he dept h of t he t hermal insulati on is deter-
of th e ro of. A developm ent in composite roof panel
At ridges and fo lds in t he ro of geomet ry,
mined by th e U-value required. and manu-
panels are joined in th e same way, w it h th e
facturer s are often flexible in thi s regard Th e
gaps between panels filled ty pically w it h a
const r uction w hich has been slow t o appear
upper face of t he panel is wate rproo fed w it h
foam insulati on applied by injecti on on site .
comme rcially is th e truly inter locking panel
an independent membran e, t ypically an elas-
Th e membrane sheets are usually joined at
w it h int egral gutter.w here t he pr inciples of
t omer ic type t hat requires no upst ands o r
t he fo ld in t he ro of, and a strip of t he same
M C E 306 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertical section I :5,Composite panel showing panel to panel junction
3·0 view of vertical section through parapet edge and folded metal gutter between panels
(i)
vertrcal section 1:25. Folded metal gutter between composite roof panels
(i)
(i)
Vertical sections I :25, Compo site panel confIguration and parapet edge condition
Details I. Metal ramscreen panel 2. Single layer membrane 3. Composite panel 4. Folded metal coping 5. Purlin or structural beam 6. Secondary purlin 7. Folded metal gutter 8. Folded metal drip 9. Metal fascia panel 10, External wall II. O uter sheet fixing bracket 12, Panel I
13.Panel 2 3·0 vIew of panel connectron
MC E 307
f1etal Roofs 03 Composite panels
f
J,
Isometric view showing composite panel roof system with metal fiashing r-r-
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Vert ical section I: I O. Composite panel roof system with metal fiashing
3-D view showing compo site panel roof system beneath metal rainscreen
mater ial is bond ed along th e jo int t o provide a weat hertight seal. At parapet gutte rs, an upstand is formed
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Metal rainscreen panel Single layer membrane Composite panel Folded metal coping Purlin or structural beam Secondary purlin Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Metal fascia panel External wall Outer sheet fixing bracket Panel I Panel 2 Ridge piece Structural frame Pipe or duct penet rat ion
in th e same insulati o n mater ial as th at used in
Th e use of a separate wate rproo f membrane o n a subst rat e t hat is easy t o form int o a
bond ed t o th e composite panel beneath.Th e
smoot h cont inuo us surface allows junction s
o ute r edge of th e upstand is sealed and st iff-
t o be formed easily, particularly around roof
ened w it h a metal strip fixed t o th e under-
penetration s such as duct o penings and pipe
side of th e composite ro of panel o r th e sup-
penetration s, w here wate rp roo f membranes
porting struct ure beneath.A n addit ional
are we ll suite d due t o th e ease w it h w hich
length of membrane is th en bond ed t o th e
th ey can be cut, formed and sealed o n sit e.
t op of th e upstand and is mechanically fixed
Gutter s can be formed by using th e rapid
o r bond ed t o th e t op of th e adjacent exte r-
site assemb ly meth od of setting lengths of
nal wall,typically formed in com posite w all
composite panel t ogether,w hile a membrane
panels o r glazed curta in walling.T his parapet
bond ed t o th e upper surface gives a wate r-
flashing is th en protected by a fo lded met al
ti ght finish. Co mposite panels forming a valley
coping set o nto it.
gutter o r parapet gutter are fixed rigidly t o
we ll adapted to complex ro of fo rms, w here a
308
ed w it ho ut th e need for complex junction s th at wo uld be needed w it h twin wa ll panels.
th e composite panels, th e upstand being
Single faced composite roo f panels are
MC E
lightw eight, w ell insulated ro of can be provid-
reduce th e amo unt of structural movement th at wo uld ot herw ise damage th e mem-
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3-D view showing metal rainscreen roof parapet condition
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Vertical section I: I0, Composite panel roof system beneath metal rainscreen
brane, w hich is t ypically bond ed t o th e base
rib of th e o ut er sheet projecting from th e
and edges of th e gutter in order to closely
panel o n o ne long side, w hich laps over t he
fo llow it s shape.
adjacent panel.This gives a cont inuous ribbed
Twin wall panels
ferent o n its o ut side face t o profiled metal
appearance t o th e roof th at is visually no dif-
This panel ty pe, w hich combines th e separat e
roo f cladding. Both meth od s have lapped
compo nents of profiled metal sheet, has two
joints o n th eir shor t edges, w here an uninsu-
jo int ty pes: a doub le seam w it h a cap o n t op
lat ed edge projects down t o form a lap jo int
in th e manner of standing seam roo fing, o r a
ver y sim ilar to th at used in profiled metal
single lap of profile in th e manner of profiled
roofs.Th ese horizontal jo ints are also sealed
metal decking.W it h th e fir st method , panels
w it h butyl t ape t o avoid capillary action from
have raised edges o n th eir lo ng sides runn ing
rainw ater o ut side, and t o prevent th e pas-
down th e slope.Th e raised edges are butted
sage of w at er vapo ur int o th e jo int from
t ogether and sealed w it h butyl t ape.A metal
inside th e building.
capping is fixed over th is jo int t o provide a weat hertight seal w hich sheds wate r o nto
Ridges
th e panels eit her side of th e jo int.Th is meth-
Ridges for twin w all composite panels are
od gives a dist inct visual appearance of w ider
form ed by fixing a met al flashing over th e
joint s.Th e second meth od has an uninsulated
juncti on between th e panels.T he flashing is
3-D view corner condition of composite panel roof system beneath metal rainscreen
MC E
309
fletal Roofs 03 Composite panels 3-D view of vergewith parapet upstand
3-D views showingcomposite panel roof assembly and parapetedge condition
profi led t o match t he profi le of t he panels
t o provide a cont inuo us vapo ur barri er.This
lat ed or sealed. If sealed, th en th e overhang-
onto w hich it sits. Manufacturers often make
inner t rim is made eit her fiat o r pro filed t o
ing verge fo llow s t he same detailing princi-
t hese profi les as part of t heir proprietary sys-
suit th e composite panels used.
ples. If th e eaves vo id is vent ilate d, th en th e edge of th e verge is sealed to th e edge of
t em.A lternatively, a fiat ridge fiashing is used w hich sits o n t op of t he pro filed upper sheet.
Verges
t he ro of, w hile t he w all beneath is sealed t o
T he gaps are t hen closed w it h a profi led filler
Verges between composite panels and t he
th e under side of t he composite metal roof in
piece as used in profiled met al ro of construe-
adjacent w all const ruction are formed w it h a
o rder t o provide a cont inuous weat her seal
ti o n.The angle betw een t he meeting panels is
fo lded metal c1 oser.Wh ere com posite panels
w it hout any break in th e t herma l insulation.
closed by adjust ing t he angle of t he fo ld of
fo rm t he wall const ruction, a fo lded met al
t he ridge fiashing o n site , o r by fo lding a fiat
st rip is sealed t o t he t op of t he last 'peak' o n
fiashing over t he joint t o give a smoot h curve
t he roof panel and is t hen sealed against t he
o r o nto it t o avoid a t hermal bridge, and is
across t he ridge line.Th e ridge fiashing has
w all panel.A lte rnat ively, a Z-sect io n closer
fo lded to be sealed o nt o t he co mposite roof
visible fixings w hich are difficult t o conceal, so
piece is fixed and sealed to profi led sheet
panel in t he same way as for t he eaves
t hat precise positio ning is essent ial t o t he
and t he fiashing is fixed t o t he hip of t he clos-
detail.T he inner face of t he joint is sealed
overall visual appearance of t he ridge.Th e
er piece.W here glazed curtain wa lling is
w it h a folded metal closer st rip to pro vide a
gap between t he panels is filled w it h th erm al
used, t he metal fiashing is glazed into th e t op
vapo ur barrier.
Verges t hat t erminate in a parapet use a fiashing t hat is set behind t he vert ical panel.
insulati on o n site , w it h eit her mineral fibre
transom of t he glazed wa ll.As w it h ridges, t he
quilt o r,more frequent ly,w it h th e same
gap between t he roof panel and t he wall
Eaves
foam-based insulati on used t o manufacture
construct ion is filled w it h t hermal insulati on,
T hese are fo rmed in a similar way t o profiled
t he panels. Insulat io n is injected into th e gap
and a fold ed closer strip is applied t o th e
metal panels,by lapping th e edge roof panel
t o provide a U-value t o mat ch t hat of t he
int ernal face of t he joint t o pro vide a vapo ur
over a gutter.T he gutte r is closed against t he
adjacent panels. The inner face of th e panels forming t he ridge is sealed w it h a fo lded met al sheet, typi-
barrier between t he insulati on and t he inside
under side of t he composite panel eit her by
of th e building.
folding it o utwa rds and sealing it, or by fo lding
If t he verge overhangs t he exte rnal wa ll
t he t op edge inw ards, up t he under side of
cally fixed to adjacent ro of pur lins and sealed
instead of meeting it directly,th en t he vo id
t he panel.The gutter is suppo rte d by eit her a
against t he inner face of t he composite panel
create d by t he overhang can be eit her vent i-
bracket beneath t he gutter t hat is fixed back
MC E
3 10
,
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-
= = -;;,;;;
3-D views showing composite panel roof assem bly and parapet edge ccootco
Det ails I 2 3 4 5
Metal rainscreen panel Single layer mem brane
Composite panel Folded metal coping Purlin or struct ural beam
6
Secondary purlin
7 8
Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Metal fascia panel
9 10. Externa l w all
II. Outer sheet ~x ir;g bracket 12. Panel I
11 Panel 2 14. Ridge piece IS. Structura l frame 16. Pipe o r duet pe netration
MC E 3 11
rletal Roofs 03 Composite panels
=
Vertical sections I 10. Various gutter configurations in composite roof panels 3-D views showing various gutter configurations in composite roof panels
t o th e prim ary structure, or by a metal sup-
composite panel syste m. Since an advantage
port arm set onto t he t op of t he composite
of composite panel const ruction is t he
panels 'peaks' and cantilevering out to sup-
increased speed of construction on site over
port th e top of th e gutter. A n essent ial
oth er metal roofin g method s, thi s advantage
advantage of t he metal suppo rt arm on t he
wo uld be lost if t he gutters t ook much longer
roof is th at it does not require any penetra-
to fix t han t he panels t hemselves.The gutter
t ion t hrough t he wall const ruction t o t he
shape, in cross sect ion, is form ed t o pro vide
suppor t ing struct ure, but can be fixed
cont inuity in th e th ermal insulation from roof
t hrough t o th e roof panels w hich do not usu-
panel through t o t he adjacent parapet wall.
ally require a fixing t o pass all th e way
Seals are provided to avoid any w ate r from
t hrough t he wall panel, t hus reducing t he risk
penetrating t he seals and passing int o t he
of any rainw ater penetration t hrough t he
building, w hich might occur in t he event t hat
building envelope.
th e rainwat er outlets become blocked and t he ent ire gutte r becomes filled w it h wate r
3-D view showing potential gutter configuration in composite panel roof assembly
MC E
3 12
Parapets and valley gutte rs
up to th e level of th e outer (to p) face of th e
Unlike eaves gutte rs, parapet gutters are
composite roof panels.
th erm ally insulated, since th ey form part of
Valley gutters are form ed in a similar way,
th e exte rnal envelope.The gutter is usually
w it h th e seal between roof panel and prefab-
prefabricated t o form part of t he overall
ricated gutter being crit ical t o avoid wate r
3-D views showing gutter detai l within composite panel arrangement. hidden by rainscreen above
D etails I, Met al rainscreen panel 2. Single layer membrane 3. Composite panel 4. Folded metal coping 5, Purlin or structural beam 6. Secondar y purlin 7. Folded metal gutter 8, Folded metal drip 9. Met al fascia panel 10,External wall I I . Outer sheet fixing bracket 12,Panel I 13.Panel 2 14, Ridge piece 15. Structural frame 16, Pipe or duct penetration
penetrati on in th e event of th e valley gutter being filled t o capacity in th e event of a blocked rainw ater o ut let. Th e t op s of parapets are closed w it h a pressed metal coping t hat is fo lded down over th e face of th e exte rnal wall and th e inside face of th e parapet t o provide a complet e weat hertight seal.T he to p of th e cop ing is usually inclined t ow ards th e inside face of th e wa ll (into th e gutte r) t o avoid dust, th at settles on horizontal surfaces,from being washed down th e face of th e exte rnal wall during rain.Th e coping is usually made from a minimum O.7mm t hick stee l sheet o r 3mm thi ck aluminium sheet.T he void immediately beneath th e coping is faced w it h th erm al insulati on t o avoid a th erm al bri dge occurring th rough th e cop ing into th e air space behind. 3-D view showing gutter detail in centre of composite panel roof assembly
MC E
3 13
--~etar Roofs Com osite
03- - - - - - .., ~ an el s
Details I. Met31 rainscreen paner 2. Single layer membrane 1 Composite panel 4. Folded metal coping
5. Purlinor structural beam 6. Secondary pur lin
7. Folded meUlI gutter
8. Folded metal drip 9. Metal fascia panel 10. External wall
3-D exploded view shovvingcomposite panel roof assembly beneath metal rainscreen
I I. Outer sheet (,x ing bracket Il. Panel I 13. Panel 2 14. Ridgepiece I S. Structural frame 16. Pipe or duct penetration
3-D view showing composite panel roof arrangement hidden by rainscreen above
1
•
3-D view shO'Ninggutter detail within composit e panel arrangement. hidden by rainscreeo above
Me E
3 14
3-D exploded v'ew showing gutter detail within composite panel arrangement, hidden by rainscreen above
3-D exploded view showing central gutter detail in composite panel roof assembly
3-D exploded view showing gutter detail within composite panel arrangement, hidden by rainscreen above
---
3-D exploded view showing end gutter detail in composite panel roof assembly
3-D exploded view showing parapet detail in composite panel roof assembly
MC E
3 15
fletal Roofs O:q. Rainscreens
Vert ical section I: I0 through roof assembly
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof assembly
Vertical section I: IO. Connection between meta l sheets
Vertica l section I: 10. Rainscreen cladding typical construction
Th e use of metal rainscreen panels is rela-
pit ch o r curved sect ion. Rainw ater is st ill
dented from foot traffic durin g maintenance
ti vely new in roof const r uct ion, and has
expecte d t o dr ain o nto th e wate rproo fing
wo rk, w hich maintains th e flatness associate d
developed from its use in exte rnal wa lls. In
layer beneath as if th e panels we re not in
w it h composite metal materi als.Th e 'o il can-
facades, rainscreen panels are used in a con-
place.T he main function of th e rainscreen
ning' effect of depressed o r dented panels,
figur ation th at allows most of th e w indblow n
panels o n roofs is t o protect th e membrane
resulting from regular maintenance access is
rain th at reaches a met al panel facade t o
from th e effects of th e sun (heat and UV
usually avoided by using th ese com posite
dr ain down its face.Jo ints betw een metal
radiation) as we ll as from th e wo rst effects
sheet mater ials. In such mater ials a th in layer
panels are left open jointed, so t hat o nly a
of w indblow n rain. Rainscreen panels pro vide
of plastic is faced w it h t w o thin sheets of alu-
small amo unt of rainw ater passes through it.
a lightweight covering th at forms part of th e
minium w hich are bond ed t o th e plastic
Rainw ater is drained away in th e cavity
visual language of th e exte rnal wa lls.
sheet core.Th e size of met al rainscreen pan-
behind, th e rear face of th e cavity being
A lt hough smooth pebbles are also used t o
els is restricted more by th e panel w idt h th at
sealed, typically w it h a single layer membrane
protect wate rproo fing membranes o n roofs,
can be walked upon for maintenance access
on an insulated, lightweight, backing wa ll.A
pebbles and gravel are o bviously not suite d
th an by th e sheet size available.Th e maxi-
commo nly used alte rnat ive is of a bitum en-
t o sloping o r curve d roofs.Th e use of metal
mum size of metal sheet is usually in a w idt h
based paint o n a reinforced concrete o r con-
rainscreen panels is we ll suite d t o th ese ro ofs
of 1200mm or I SOOmm metal coil. Co mpos-
crete block backing wa ll. Closed cell th erm al
w hich form a visible part of th e design.T hese
ite sheets are ty pically I OOOmm t o 1200mm
insulati o n is usually set o n th e o utside face of
panels allow t radit ional roof elements, w hich
w ide, in lengths from 2400mm t o 3000 mm,
th e backing wa ll, w it h a cavity between th e
are usually visually do minant, such as gutters,
depending upon th e manufacturer. In prac-
th erm al insulati o n and th e inner face of t he
parapets and ridges, t o be accommo date d
t ice, panels may o nly be aro und 600mm
metal rainscreen panel.
w it hin a smoot h, cont inuo us finish, allowing
w ide if th ey do not have add it ional suppo rt-
roofs t o t ake o n th e visual characte rist ics of
ing framing beneath t o st iffen th em. Framed
In cont rast, met al rainscreens for roofs vary considerably from th e configurat io n
exte rnal wa lls and becom e a 'facade' in th eir
panels can reach t he maximum sizes already
used in exte rnal wa lls. First ly, most of th e rain
own right.
menti oned, but care must be t aken t o avoid
falling o nto a metal rainscreen roof is not
A lt hough metal sheet is used, metal and
th e patt ern staining o r dent ing th at can
usually drained away o n th e o uter layer of
plasti c composites are becomin g increasingly
reveal t he fr ame behind durin g t he lifecycle
panels, unless th e roof has a relatively stee p
popu lar.as th ey are less likely t o becom e
of th e roof.
MC E 3 16 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Metal rainscreen panel Single layer membrane Closed cell thermal insulation Structural deck Purlin or structural beam Secondary purlin Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Metal fascia panel External wall Outer sheet fixing bracket Panel I Panel2 Ridge piece Structural frame Pipe or duct penetration
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof fixing channel
3-D exploded view of metal rainscreen roof assembly
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof support system
MC E
3 17
rvletal Roofs 04 Rainscreens
Vertical section I :I0 Metal panels fixedto support rail system
Vertical section I :I0 Fixing detail of metal panels
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof assembly with capping to seam
Panel arrangement
fixings are more difficult t o accommo date,
viewed as a complete set of ro of panels.
Rainscreen roo f panels are ty pically arranged
th ough such syste ms are likely t o appear over
Countersunk screws have th e least visually
eit her as panels laid in a fiat grid, o r as lapped
th e next t en years as demand for thi s roof
obt rusive appearance.
panels, w here t he bottom edge is lapped
system increases.
over th e t op of th e panel beneath. Side jo int s
Panels are made usually by folding th e
Parapets
remain o pen jointed and are set in t he same
edges down t o form a tray,th en o utwa rds to
A n advantage of rainscreen panels for para-
plane in th is configurat ion. Panels in a fiat grid
form a rim around th e panel. Ho les are
pets is th at th e gutter and upstand can be
are set onto metal Z -sections,w hich are
drilled at th e corne rs t o allow access t o
made w it ho ut eit her eleme nt being visible.
eit her bond ed t o th e t op surface of th e
screw fixings beneath. Short lengths of br ack-
Con sequent ly, eaves, mon op itch ridges and
wate rproo f membrane t o avoid any risk of
et are bond ed o r riveted t o th e sides of th e
verges can have a sim ilar o utward appear-
wate r penetration th rou gh mechanical fixings,
tray beneath th e proj ecting panel rim.The
ance of an uninterrupted panel layo ut
o r are set above th e membrane o n suppo r t
panels are th en screw fixed at th e brackets
exte nding from ro of down t o th e exte rnal
pads.Th ese pads are usually covered w it h a
t o th e suppo rting rails o r Z-sections by pass-
wa ll. Parapet s are formed o nly by a gutter
wate rproo fing membrane t o reduce th e
ing th e screw th rou gh th e hole in th e rim.
th at also provides th e necessary upstand
numb er of fixing penetration s th rough thi s
This allows th e screw fixings t o be concealed
height for th e parapet itself A coping is th en
layer.Th e rainscreen panels are th en screw
from view, w hile allow ing each roof panel t o
formed by using th e same rainscreen panels
fixed t o th e Z-sect ion w it h brackets th at
be removed w it ho ut affecting adjacent panels.
as elsewhere o n th e roof in o rder t o pro-
avoid th e screw fixings being seen at a dis-
A n alte rnat ive fixing method for panels is
vide a cont inuity of appearance.Th e wate r-
t ance w here th is is a visual requirement.
t o set screws in each corne r of th e face of
proof membrane beneath is th en sealed
Unlike rainscreen panels for wa lls, roo f panels
th e panel o nto a suppo rt rail syste m. Screw
against th e wa ll const r uct ion o r against th e
cannot be secured easily o n a hook-on ty pe
heads are difficult t o coat in a co lour th at
side of th e sealed roof deck, w hich is closed
suppo rt syste m w hile being set near a hori-
matches th e panel, and even if thi s is
off w it h a fold ed metal st rip, in th e case of
zontal plane. Since panels must have th e abili-
achieved, t hen scratc hing of th e panel is likely
profil ed met al sheet o r composite met al
t y t o be removed easily and regularly for
as a result of removing panels for mainte-
panels being used.
maintenance access, screw fixings in all panel
nance access. Screws are usually left as a self-
corne rs are most commo nly used. Con cealed
finish, and have a particular appearance w hen
MC E
3 18
Th e depth of th e ro of construction is th en finished w it h anot her rainscreen panel,
@
Details I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
Metal rainscreen panel Single layer membrane Closed cell thermal insulation Structural deck Purlin or structural beam Secondary purlin Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Metal fascia panel Extemal wall O uter sheet fixing bracket Panel I Panel 2 Ridge piece Structural frame Pipe or duet penetration
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof fixing channel with cappingto seam
3-D exploded view of metal rainscreen roof fixing channel with capping to seam
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof support system with cappingto seam
MC E
3 19
fletal Roofs 04 Rainscreens
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof with concealed parapet gutter
e
o
o
@) ~~
Vertical section I:I O. Metal rainscreen roof with concealed parapet gutter
D et ails I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
MC E
Metal rainscreen panel Single layer membrane Closed cell thermal insulation Structural deck Purlin or structural beam Secondary purlin Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Metal fascia panel External wall Outer sheet fixing bracket Panel I Panel 2 Ridge piece Structural frame Pipe or duct penetration
320
@- - - ---
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof with concealed parapet gutter
set ver t ically, w hich is fixed in front of th e
t ems.Wate r runnin g down th e membrane is
parapet. Unlike parapets in profiled metal o r
dr ained directly int o th e gutter.and wate r
composite panels,the vert ical fascia panel
underneath the gutte r cover dr ains through
can exte nd up t o th e t op of th e wall in o rder
slots or perforation s.
t o conceal th e coping flashing. In ot her ty pes of metal roofin g,th e coping exte nds over th e
Monopitch ridges and verges
t op of th e wall, resulting in a th in visual edge
Th ese ridge types are form ed by sealing th e
t o th e t op of th e wall.This coping line can be
wate rproo f membrane against th e side of
concealed from view in rainscreen roof panel
th e roof deck t o provide a wate rt ight enclo-
construct ion.Th e exte rnal w all beneath is
sure th at is cont inuous w it h th e exte rnal w all
t ypically sealed up t o th e under side of th e
beneath.The rainscreen panel at th e edge of
roof deck.
th e roof is linked directly t o a fascia panel.
Th e parapet gutter can be covered w it h
W here a curve d panel is st r uct urally inde-
a perforated or slotte d metal cover in th e
pendent of th e exte rnal w all beneath, th e
same material and finish as th e adjacent rain-
roof deck is allowe d t o deflect and move
screen panels. Since rainw ater run s off each
under normal structural loading w it ho ut
panel at its edges o nto th e membrane below,
affect ing th e w all beneath. If w all and ro of
th ere is no need t o leave th e gutter uncov-
we re rigidly fixed t ogether.th e w all w o uld
ered, as is th e case w it h ot her metal roof sys-
deflect w it h th e roof. t o an exte nt th at wo uld
r-----------
''''':i~r·.......
::::~=:::Dj~~~~Tnrf7r:X)~!Tii]1l~~
Vertical section I: Ia.Typical long section through metal rainscreen roof
-------
,. Vertical section I: I a. Typical long section through metal rainscreen roof with cur ved panel
be t oo much for curtain wall syst ems, w hose
edge of th e roo f. If large amo unt s of wate r
movements are very restricted.This is a com-
flow are expecte d th en th e ro of can be
mon detail for roofs w here th e expecte d
angled upwards slight ly t o avoid an upstand
structural movements are higher th an th e
th at exte nds above th e line of th e rain-
mod est movements allowed w it h curtain
screen roo f panels. A n alte rnat ive solut ion
wall facades. A seal between th e exte rnal wall and
(i)
is t o int rodu ce a gutter at th e edge of th e verge t o give greate r height t o th e verge
th e under side of t he roo f is provided by
upst and w it ho ut it becomin g visible, and
t wo layers of EPDM sheet w ith flex ible
w it hout breaking th e cont inuo us line of
insulation quilt set between th em. Fold ed
rainscreen panels.
metal sheet can also be used, but is less flexible in th e lo ngit udinal direction (along
Roof geometry
th e length of th e roof) th an EP D M sheet.
A n advantage of rainscreen panels is th eir
Verges are similar t o mon op itch ridges,
ability t o form complex geomet ries from fiat
but differ in th at th ey require an upstand at
panel compo nent s. Since th e panels are not
th e roo f edge t o prevent rainw ater from
required t o be wate rproo fed,th ey do not
spilling off t he roo f.T he upstand can be low
require any joint s between panels t hat wo uld
if th e verge is fiat, and if relatively small
become difficult and expensive for roofs w it h
amo unts of rainw ater are fiow ing along th is
complex geomet ries. Flat panels can be fixed
3-D view of metal rainscreen roof with concealed parapet gutter
MC E
321
fletal Roofs 04 Rainscreens
Verti cal section I :25 typi cal section with rainscreen panels draining from panel to panel
3-D detail of meta l rainscreen support system
3-D detail of metal rainscreen support system 3-D view o f metal rainscreen roof draining from panel to panel
t o create a set of gent ly curve d panels th at
rainscreen panels t o pro vide weat her pro -
are turned in eit her o ne or two direction s.
t ection for equipme nt as we ll as a visual
Panels are increasingly being twiste d in two
screen to th ese items, w hich can have a con-
directions in o rder t o create genuinely
siderable visual impact o n a ro of Rainscreen
curved roof finishes.A lte rnat ively, panels can
panels set I OOOmm above th e roof are fixed
be set fiat but w it h each panel set at different
t o a secondary suppo r t fr amew ork, typically
angles t o create a facetted ro of sect ion.
of cold formed stee l sect io ns o r alum inium
A lt ho ugh th e dr awn examples here show
extr usio ns.Th e fr amew ork is fixed at its
lightweight roof configurat ions t o suit th e
base t o pads o r Z -sect io n profi les in t he
lightweight natur e of th e metal rainscreen
same way as th e rainscreens set clo se t o th e
panels, any compat ible roof subst rate can be
roof membrane.
used, from reinforced concrete slabs t o t imber shell st r uctures. A lt ho ugh most rainscreens are set at
Detail of metal rainscreen support system
MC E
322
Roof soffits Met al rainscreen roof panels can also be
aro und IOOmm above th e membrane, some
used as soffit panels t o eit her an overhanging
can be up t o I OOOmm above th e roof deck
eaves o r parapet, o r alte rnat ively t o form a
in order t o accommo date mechanical plant
complete soffit t o th e underside of a ro of
equipment and duct o ut lets for mechanical
W hen mixed w it h perforated o r slotted pan-
vent ilat ion w it hin t he building.Th is allows
els and lo uvres, a ro of can becom e a single
D etails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10, I I, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16,
Metal rainscreen panel Single layer membrane Closed cell thermal insulation Structural deck Purlin or structural beam Secondary purl in Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Metal fascia panel External wall Outer sheet fixing bracket Panel I Panel 2 Ridge piece Structural frame Pipe or duct penetration
3-D view of concealed parapet gutter with cantilevered edge
Vert ical section I: I0, Concealed parapet gutter with cantilevered edge
visual ent ity,set above its exte rnal walls as a separate and distinct eleme nt.T his can be achieved w it ho ut th e need for an expensive struct ure, o r for an ex pensive wate rproo fing layer, since th e membrane is co ncealed from view and is chosen for its perform ance rather
3-D view of gutter detail
th an for it s visual qualities.Th e easy removal of panels for maintenance access both o n th e roof, and int o th e ceiling vo id from th e soffit panels beneath, make it an eco nomic and easy t o use system for ro ofs of co mplex geomet ry.Th e range of co lours for com posite sheet and for coat ings to sheet metal have increased co nsiderably in th e past t en years, making thi s a ro ofing meth od set for new developm ent s.
3-D view of cantilever detail
MC E
323
fletal Roofs 04 Rai nscreens Details
3-D exploded detail of metal rainscreen support system
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
3-D detail of metal rainscreen support system
Metal rainscreen panel Single layer membrane Closed cell thermal insulation Structural deck Purlin or structural beam Secondary purlin Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Met al fascia panel External wall Outer sheet fixing bracket Panel I Panel 2 Ridge piece Structural frame Pipe or duct penetration
3-D exploded view of metal rainscreen roof draining from panel to panel
@ @
9 ~
"'0 til
1:
Exploded axonometric drawing of metal rainscreen roof draining from panel to panel
MC E
324
G)
Exploded 3-D view of metal rainscreen support system
3-D exploded view of window connection
Exploded axonometric view of concealed parapet gutter with cantilevered edge
3-D exploded view of concealed parapet gutter with cantilevered edge
3-D exploded view of concealed gutter detail
3-D exploded view of cantilevered edge detail
MCE
325
f1etal Roofs 05 Metal canopies
3-D view of louvred metal canopy and support
3-D section through louvred canopy edge and support
Metal canopies use all th e t echniques available t o metal: standing seam, profi led sheet,
metal cano pies are expecte d t o be fully
composite panel and rainscreen panels w it h
wate rt ight.T he generic example here fo llow s
a membrane beneath. How ever, th e pre-
thi s prin ciple.
ferred t echnique for metal cano pies is usually
3-D top view of louvred canopy
MC E 3 26 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
panels. In commo n w it h ot her cano py t ypes,
In generic exam ples, th e metal cano py
none of th ese, but inst ead a meth od suite d
also serves as a sealed ro of t o part of a
t o small-scale co nstruct ion of comp lex
glazed wa ll.A n inclined glazed wall meets a
geomet ry.T his meth od uses met al panels
met al cano py at mid -height w hich might
w it h fo lded edges,somet imes called cas-
form part of an ent rance, o r may serve as
settes, th e joints between panels being
solar shading t o a facade.The sealed oute r
sealed w it h silicone sealant. Panels can be
layer of th e cano py co mprises metal panels
individually fold ed t o different shapes t o
w hich are fo lded to form an overall curve d
form a cano py of complex geo met ry.There
profi le, each panel being made from metal
has been a gradual move t ow ards larger
sheet w hich is fo lded at it s edges t o form a
metal panel sizes, even a co mplete form
tray.The fold ed edges form th e surface t o
made from metal co il, w hich imit at es th e
w hich th e silicone sealant adheres.A n alte r-
hom ogeneous form s found in GRP mem-
native meth od of joinin g met al panels
br anes and t ent st ruct ures, but w it h th e
t ogether is by rivet ing th em t ogether, leaving
more durable finishes associate d w it h metal
a hairline joint between th e sheets.Thi s is
D etail s I. Extruded aluminium louvre blade 2. Mild steel box section 3. Mild steel tube 4. Structural pin connection 5. Mild steel I-section 6. Bolt fixedmetal panel 7. Aluminium sheet 8. Mild steel or aluminium support frame 9. Thermal insulation 10. Silicone seal I I. Glazed wall Ii
Horizontal and vertical sections I:50. Louvre roof general arrangement
CD
don e eit her by butting fiat sheet t ogeth er
minium sections are usually preferred for
and r ivet ing th e tw o sides t ogeth er, o r by
th eir durability but m ild stee l is ofte n used for
folding th e sheets down and rivetin g th e
its greate r rigidit y Mi ld steel is galvanised,
under side. In some sit uat io ns, th e sheet s are
painted, o r both , w hile alum inium, w it h its
fixed w it h counte rsunk rivet s fix ing th e edges
greate r durability can be natural, anodised o r
of each sheet in place.A co m pressible poly-
cro mate d (sim ilar t o ano dising) dependin g on
mer sheet is set beneath t he sheets to pro -
th e individual applicat ion. Met al panels o f
vide a weat hertight seal.A lte rnat ively, a sim i-
large size, made from 1200mm x 2400 mm
lar sheet mater ial can set between th e rivet -
sheet, can result in a gent le oil-canning effect
ed panels t o provide a seal. In pr actice, both
aro und th eir edges.T his gives panels th eir
seals discussed are difficult t o achieve w here
characte r ist ic soft edge, but th ey look
a high weat hertight performance is required.
smoot h and co nsiste nt , and th is is usually
Instead, a silicone seal aro und I Omm w ide is
accepte d visually as part of th eir appearance.
used between panels w hich are fixed w it h
If mu ch th icker sheet is used, th ere is a disad-
br acket s back t o a suppo rt ing st r uct ure.Thi s
vantage in increased cost as we ll as a greate r
provides a reliable seal th at maint ains it s
difficulty in wo r king th e sheet t o form
weat her tightn ess in th e lon g t erm.
smooth shaped pressed panels.A lum inium
Th e suppo rt ing st r uct ure is made from eit her mild steel o r alum inium sect ions.A lu-
panels are ty pically eit her PVDF coate d or polyester powd er coate d, w hile steel sheet is
3-D bottom view of louvred canopy
MC E
327
r1etal Roofs 05 Metal canop ies
Vertical sections I:IO. Louvre mechanism configuration
3-D Elevation. Louvre mechanism configuration
®
'~~"§"h''''''''''''~ 1 ,,,,,,~,,,,~,,.,r~""~1.'-(!)-"-
o
!
0
1
Vertical section I :25. Louvre mechanism configuration
usually polyester pow der coate d only. Th e
t ersunk screws, painted o n site in a colour
sheet o n th e exte rior face of th e wa ll is
use of anodised aluminium as a finish o n
matching t hat of th e panels, enhances th e
glazed int o th e t op transom of th e wall
sheet has increased in recent years as a
overall appearance.
below.A ny excess rainw ater th at is blown
result of greate r reliability of th e finish, w hich
In generic examples, th e glazed wa ll
int o th e jo int drips off th e t op of th e transom
until recently has suffered from uneven col-
above th e cano py is sealed t o it by exte nd-
pressure plate and capping. Small amo unts of
o ur consiste ncy. In many cases, th e silicone
ing t he metal sheet forming t he exte rnal gut-
rainw ater t hat find th eir way into th e t ran-
used t o seal th e jo ints can be applied in a
t er up int o th e bottom transom (ho rizontal
som are t aken away through th e vent ilate d
variety of monotone tints, ranging from
glazing bar) of th e glazing system t o form a
intern al drainage syste m of th e glazed wa ll
w hite, t o greys,t o black. Som e silver-grey col-
cont inuo us seal w it h th e glazed wa ll above.
fr aming.The metal sheet form ing th e under-
o urs match we ll w it h silver coloured panels
Th e th erm al insulation w it hin th e cano py is
side of th e cano py o n its intern al face is t aken
t o give an overall appearance of a single col-
cont inued in o rder t o meet th e th erm ally
as close t o th e glass as possible before being
o ur for th e complete cano py, particularly
brok en transom w here it fo rms a cont inuity
folded back t o align w it h th e transom .
w hen recessed joints are used between pan-
w it h th e doub le glazed units above .Th e
els. Flush joints in silicone t end t o give th e
metal sheet form ing th e t op of th e cano py
single seal between panels t o form a weat h-
canopy surface an hom ogenou s appearance,
o n th e intern al side of th e wa ll is lapped up
ertight joint.This meth od uses th e applicat ion
giving it more th e appearance of concrete
th e int ernal face of th e glazed wa ll fr aming
meth od of bo lt fixed glazing,w here a reliable
th an of metal.This can detract from th e
w here it is fo lded under th e bottom t ran-
silicone seal between doub le glazed units is
crisply fitt ed assembly of panels w hich is
som.Th e met al sheet forming th e t op of th e
th e norm . How ever,w here a foam-based
characteristic of metal and also one of th e
cano py becom es a vapo ur barrier o n th e
backing ro d is used t o suppo rt th e silicone
advantages of th e material.
intern al side of th e wa ll, rather th an th e full
applied from th e outside, wo rkmanship o n
weat her barr ier used o n th e exte rnal face of
site must be of th e highest quality t o ensure
Metal panels can br ing t ogether th e full set of assembly t echniques available t o th e mater ial w it hin a single assembly. W it h folded
th e canopy T he glazed wall o n th e underside of th e
Metal cano pies are increasingly using a
a durable weat hert ight seal. If thi s is difficult to achieve, as w here t he edge of th e panel
panels, th e edges are we lded and gro und
metal coping is joined in a way th at disturb s
has a small edge return , o r w here panels are
smoot h, and th e complete panel is coate d t o
th e line of th e canopy as little as possible as it
not very rigid due t o th eir geomet ry o r man-
a single consistent colour.Th e use of coun-
passes it from o utside t o inside.Th e metal
ufacturing meth od, a second line of defence
MC E
3 28
= @-A
3-D detail of louvred canopy edgeand support
"
: J i=__________ = = = = = =~fF @ ------.:l
Details I. Extruded aluminium louvre blade 2. Mild steel box section 3. Mild steeltube 4.Structural pin connection 5. Mild steel l-section 6. Bolt fixed metal panel 7.Aluminium sheet 8.Mild steel or aluminium support frame 9.Thermal insulation 10. Silicone seal I I. Glazed wall
Vertical sections I: IO. Louvre mechanism configuration
MC E
329
l'1etal Roofs 05 Metal canopies
I
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~J Horizontal section I :20. Genericmetal canopy serving assealed roof to part of a glazed wall
)-D section view showinggeneric metal canopy serving assealed roof to part of a glazed wall
for weat her t ightness is provided by an elast om eri c o r th erm opl astic wate rproo f mem-
Gutter s and rainw ater out lets can be form ed in sheet metal.The rainw ater o ut let
brane.The ends of th e wate rproofing sheet
can be finished t o match th e adjacent metal
at th eir t op and bottom ends are fixed into
finishes so as not t o detract from th e overall
th e glazing syste m above and below w here
visual form of th e canopy.
small amo unt s of wate r th at penetrate th e
Th e cano py can form part of a glazed
o ute r silicone seal are allowe d t o drain t o
wall, and is so th erm ally insulat ed.T he insula-
th e out side.
ti on usually follow s th e form of th e outside of th e cano py t o keep th e vo ids w it hin th e
Bo lt fixed panels
structure at a similar t emperatur e t o th e
Metal panels can be bo lt fixed o nto th e can-
int ernal t emp erature of th e building.A n alte r-
o py edges. Flat panels, such as m inimum 3mm
native is t o form th e insulati on w it h th e
thi ck aluminium sheet and metal ! composite
sho rte st distance betw een th e glazed w alls
sheet, can be bo lt fixed using proprietary sys-
above and below, so th at th e st ructure and
t ems destined for use in point fixed glazing.
void are at th e exte rnal t emperature.Th e
Th e use of oversized ho les or slotted ho les
warm roof solut ion is usually preferred.
in th e metal panel ensures th at th e metal
MC E
330
panels can move w it h th erm al expansion
Fixed metal louvre canopies
w it hout bow ing o r bending.
A rrangeme nts of metal lo uvres are used as
Vertical sections I:20. Generic metal canopy serving assealed roof to part of a glazed wall
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t-=~~~~ 3-D section view showing generic metal canopyserving assealed roof to par t of a glazed wall
Vertical section I :20. Moveable louvre detail
cano pies to provide so lar shading w hile st ill
below. Extruded alum inium sect io ns require
allow ing daylight t o pass t hro ugh t he canopy.
end caps, usually fo r visual reason s, and
Louvre blades are set typically at 45 0 t o t he
th ese are eit her fixed w it h counte rsunk
vert ical in o rder to block th e passage of
screw s int o th e wa ll of th e sect io n, o r are
direct sunlight but allow t he light to be
we lded and gro und smo ot h.Where end
reflected off it s surfaces down to t he space
caps are screw ed t o th e ends,th e alum inium
beneath t he canopy. Lo uvre sect ions are cre-
profile has screw ports t hat form part of t he
ate d from fo lded st rips of aluminium or mild
extr usion, int o w hich th e screws are fixed.
steel sheet. but t hese have limit ed st iffness
A luminium ext rusio ns can be made in
and stability, requirin g restraint along th eir
lengths up t o around 6000mm, and are sup-
length to hold th eir straightness.Greater st iff-
ported at cent res t o suit th eir st r uct ural
ness is provided by ext ruded aluminium sec-
dept h.A n ellipt ical sect ion w ill span typically
tions,w here th e ellipt ical sect ion is most
1500mm for a 75mm t o I OOmm deep sec-
commo nly used, mainly fo r it s ability t o
t ion w hile a 250mm deep section w ill span
reflect daylight in a way th at reveals its
2500mm, depending upon design w ind
3-dimensional form, enhancing it s appear-
speed and relati ve loads.W hen fixed at th eir
ance. Sections are eit her a half ellipse o r a full
ends, a fixed lo uvre assem bly can be made
ellipse. Flat lo uvre arrangement s pro vide
w it ho ut visible fixings.
D etails I, Extruded aluminium louvre blade 2, Mild steel box section 3. Mild steeltube 4. Structural pin connection 5, Mild steel I-section 6, Bolt fixed metal panel 7,Aluminium sheet 8, Mild steel or aluminium support frame 9.Thermal insulation 10, Silicone seal I I, Glazed wall
much less visual vibrancy w hen viewed from
MC E
33 1
rletal Roofs 05 Metal canopies
Vertical sections I :20. Louvre mechanism details
3-D view of electrically operated louvre mechanism details
In some cases, th e suppo rt ing st r uct ure comprises a mild steel frame fabricated from
panel is fixed to th e cleat bracket w it h a counte rsunk bo lt.
ing arms move through th e arrangement of gears.
box sections, suppo rte d by tub e sectio ns th at spring from po ints below th e ro of The box
by an electric motor, and as it turns,th e slid-
Electr ically operated lo uvres
Louvr es are ty pically a maximum of
sect ions are show n bo lted t ogether t o form
Louvr e cano pies are also used for horizontal
around 6000mm lo ng for th ose 75mm t o
a fiat fram e structure, into w hich are set lou-
and inclined glazed roofs,excluding up to
100mm deep, requirin g suppo rt at 1000mm
vre panels, prefabr icated and finished in a fac-
90% of solar heat gain w hen set at a 45°
t o 1500mm. Sliding arms typ ically suppo rt up
tory,th en fixed to th e suppo rt ing mild steel
angle. Louvre blades are 75mm- 1OOmm in
to a 6000mm length of louvr e blades,giving
frame o n site .The stee l tub es are fixed t o th e
t ypical proprietary syste ms but blades up t o
an overall square shape (in plan) t o each set
fiat frame w it h pin connect ions.Two fiat
300mm w ide can be made as a single extru-
of cont ro lled louvres of 6000mm x 6000mm
plates are we lded t o th e ends of th e tub es,
sion. N ylon sleeves and washers are used at
size w hich are fixed int o th e suppo r t ing l-sec-
and a single plate forming a cleat is fixed to
th e connection of moving parts,rather th an
tion fr ame.A 100mm deep I-section w ill span
the underside of th e fiat frame and the base
metal, to avoid th e need for regular lubrica-
typ ically 1000mm - 1500mm between sup-
suppo rt below th e ro ofThe fork ends of th e
t ion. Louvres can be solid o r perforated t o
ports depending o n th e design of th e glazed
tubular suppo r ts and th e suppo rt cleats to
different percentages of solid t o void, from
roof below.The distance between th e move-
w hich it connects are fixed t ogether w it h
aro und 10% vo id t o a maximum of 50%,
able louvre panels and th e glazed roof below
face-mounted or counte rsunk bo lts t o form
th ough th e latter is difficult t o fabricate.
is made sufficient t o allow for access for
a visually crisp connection.Th e tub es have
Louvres are fixed by steel pins into a slid-
tapered ends w hich is typ ical of th is typ e of
ing aluminium section at each end of th e
steel construction.Th e aluminium louvre pan-
profil e.Th e lo uvres are also fixed at th eir cen-
els are fixed t o th e suppo rt ing fiat frame w it h
tre in sect ion.As th e sliding aluminium rod
brackets th at are we lded to th e sides of th e
mo ves,th e aluminium lo uvres move to gether,
bottom fiange of th e stee l I-secti o n.Th e alu-
o pening and closing t ogether.The sliding rod s
minium louvre panel is suppo rte d o n th ese
are connecte d at each end of th e lo uvres
brackets,w it h a nylon spacer between th em
th at are fixed to a suppo rting fram e of alu-
t o allow for th erm al movement.The louvre
m inium I-secti o ns.The single tub e is pow ered
MCE
332
cleaning th e glass below and th e lo uvre assemb ly it self
3-0 . " " , of " , -'" \n open ",_d and clos loU',e " ed posit\o " ,e \ ns
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£flrude d alumin ium IOU'lre b lad 1. M\l d steel be O)( secti ] . M\l on ds 4 . Str teel tube uctUral pin co S. MilnnectiOn 6. Bod steel I_sectiOn lt f()(ed m etal pan 7 . Nu el rO 8 . Mil lolum sheet d steel o r alurOln ium su 9. \\"pport frame Iermal in sulation 10. SiliC one seal II. G lazedwa ll
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Metal cano ies
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De tails I. Extruded all.nmium 2. 1 4. 5.
"""'steer
Mild steer box secnoo Mild tube Structural pin
con nection Mild steeu-secto-
6.
Bolt fixed metal panel
7. 8.
AlumInium sheet Mild steel 0<"alumin ium
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""""" Thermal frarre insulation I0, Seco-e seal II. ~wall
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J.D e>q>loded _
MC E_ 114
shoWng Iouvred metal canopf ¥'odsupport
3-D >new showing ConnectIOn for Iouvred metal C¥IOp'f and support
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3-D exploded view showing metal louvres in front of glazed wall
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3-D exploded view showing electrically operated louvre panel mechanism
3-D exploded view showing metal canopy assembly
3-D exploded view showing generic metal canopy serving as sealed roof to part of a glazed wall
3-D exploded view showing generic metal canopy serving as sealed roofto part of a glazed wall
3-D exploded view showing canopy fixing method
MC E
335
GLASS ROOFS (I) Greenhouse glazing and capped systems Greenhouse glazing
Modem roof glazing Capped systems
(2) Silicone-sealed glazing and rooflights Silicone-sealed systems
Junctions
Use of capped profiles Roofiights
(3) Bolt fixed glazing: small scale rooflights Generic structural support met hods
Supporting brackets
Bolt fixings Arrangeme nt o f bo lt fixings
Glazed units (4) Bolt fixed glazing: large scale roofJights
Base of glazed roof External and internal folds
Small glazed roofl ights Larger rooflights
(5) Bonded glass rooflights Generic conical roollight Generic recta ngular rooflight Generic monopitch rooflight
Glass roof decks
MC E JJ 7
- - -Glass Roofs
01- - - - - - - - - - - - - .....,
Greenhouse glazing and capped systems
Vertical section I :25. Greenhouseglazing. Typical ridge section.
Vertical section I:25. Typical section through greenhouseglazing
Vertical section I :25. Greenhouseglazing. Abut ment.
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Vertical sections I:25. Greenhouseglazing. Typical crosssection.
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CD Isometric view of roof assembly
Greenhouse glazing
attract ion, w hich can cause w at er leaks and
C urtain wa lling principles used in exte rnal
staining. However. complete weat her t ight-
walls have been ado pte d, over t he last 20
ness is a seco ndary issue in greenho uses,t his
years, as a reliable meth od of co nstruct ing
design being a very neat and eco nomic so lu-
glazed ro ofs t o replace earlier syst ems devel-
t ion for it s purp ose.
o ped from greenho use glazing.Traditional
3-D view of green house glazing ridge detail
greenhouse glazing used t hin steel o r cast iron sect io ns t o suppo rt glass sheets o n t heir
t ional greenho use enclosure. For large green-
vert ical edges t o form a pitched roof. Since
houses an addit ional aluminium o r steel
rainw ater needs t o run dow n t he slope w it h-
fr ame is used t o support t he glazing.A ty pical
o ut being impeded by glazing bars,a method
struct ure is of lightweight met al t r usses, used
of lapping glass sheets over one anot her was
t o suppo rt t he glazed ro of, w hich are set o n
used.Traditi on ally,t he glass is lapped w it h no
steel or aluminium box sect io n co lumns th at
seal, w it h glazing bars set at aro und 600 mm
also suppo rt t he glazed wa ll.Tr usses are set
(2ft) cent res in ord er to keep t he glass as
ty pically at 3000mm cent res w it h pur lins run -
t hin as possible, w it h glass t hicknesses from
ning between t hem t o suppo rt t he glazing
4mm t o 6mm t hicknesses being used t ypical-
bars at 600mm cent res.
ly.Th e lapped glass results in w at er being draw n up between t he sheets by capillary
MC E
338
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
T he glazing can be used in a pitched roof as we ll as a vert ical wa ll t o fo rm t he t radi-
Thi s glazing system is still used in greenhouses fo r agricult ural act ivit ies, but has poo r
CD Vertical section I: IO. Ridge detail
Vertical section I:IO. Valley detail
3-D view of greenhouse glazed roof
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3-D view of greenhouse glazed roof
Greenh ou se d etails I. Extruded aluminium glazing bar 2. Extruded aluminium sections 3. Single glazed sheet 4. Double glazed unit 5. Aluminium clip-on capping 6. Polycarbonate sheet 7. Aluminium gutter 8. Concrete base
Horizontal section 1:5. Polycarbonate to glass iunction
Vertical sections I: IO. Eaves detail th erm al insulation, since its purpose is t o
serve s as a drain fo r m oi sture inside th e
abso rb th e heat from th e sun rath er th an
bu ilding th at has co nde nsed w it hin th e fr am-
exclud ing it.The use of single glazing, w it h no
ing. C ondensation channels are eit her o pen
th erm al breaks and high air infiltration rates
at th e edges, o r are enclo sed. M od ern gree n-
(by curta in wa lling st andards) , m ake it ideal
hou se glazing is m ade from extr ude d alum ini-
for agr icult ural use, but ver y po or for th e use
um sect io ns w it h no th erm al break. since high
in general bu ilding co nstr uct io n. H ow ever, th e
th erm al insulati o n is not requ ired , but
co nce pt o f gree nho use glazing has been
includes th e co nde nsat io n channels t o avoid
develop ed int o th e highly insulat ed, air sealed
wate r from dripp ing below.
and wate rt ight glass roof system s used in co nte m po rary bu ildings. A n essent ial co m po nent of gree nho use
T he hori zontal joint bet w een lapp ed glass sheet s is sealed w it h eit her a clear co lo ured seal, ty pically silico ne sealant, o r w it h
glazing th at has been ret ained in m od ern
co nt inuo us alum inium clip s. Some gree n-
glazed roofs is th e glazing bar,w hich co r re-
hou se syste ms still have lapped glass w it h no
spo nds t o a mulli on in glazed wa lls.Th e
seal bet w een th e glass sheets, m aking it ve ry
gree nho use glazing bar has a co nde nsat io n
eco no m ic, but not very airtight w hich suit s
channel beneath th e glass t o drain away
certa in agr icult ural applicat io ns.
wate r th at passes through th e o ute r seal during rain.Th e co nde nsat io n channel also
Horizontal sect ion 1:5. Polycarbonate to glass junction
-lonzontal section I :::> Glass to glass j~un-"ct :.:.i:.:.o-"n
---,
Vent ilat io n in gree nho use glazing is provided at t he eaves and at th e r idge, w hile
MC E 339
Glass Roofs a I Greenhouse glazing and capped systems
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~1 3-D view of capped glazingconstruction
Isomet ric view of roof assembly
o Vert ical sections I :5. Capped glazing.Typical profiles
Capped glazing details I.
Extruded aluminium glazing bar 2. Transom 3. Single glazed unit 4. Double glazed unit 5. Ridge bar 6. Pressure plate and capping 7. Insulated gutte r 8. Insulated fiashing 9. Roofiight 10. Therm al insulation I I. Pressed metal fiashing 12. Concrete base I 3. Pressed metal t rim
MC E
340
o pening light s are used for more closely co n-
trol bar,allowing it greate r freedom t o
tro lled vent ilat ion. Single glazed sheets are
exte nd both inside and outside t he face of
held in place o n t heir sides by suppo rt ing
t he glass.T he rubber seals are deep eno ugh
th em on th e glazing bars and securing th em
and soft eno ugh to allow th e bottom of th e
in place w it h co nt inuous aluminium clips t hat
glass sheet t o lap over t he t op of t he sheet
snap o nt o th e glazing bar.Th e aluminium sec-
below o n t he ho rizont al joi nt s. Greenhou se
t io ns are separate d from t he glass by ext r ud-
glazing can accommo date do uble glazing
ed rubb er-based seals w hich are held in place
units.The main reason for thi s is usually t o
o n t he aluminium glazing bars and w hich
provide greate r cont ro l of t he int ern al t em-
press against th e glass t o pro vide both a
perature for agricult ural buildings.Th erm al
cushion fo r t he glass as we ll as a wate r and
breaks are still not required, but t here is a
air seal.T he st rength and st iffness of t he glaz-
larger pr ovisio n for slot vent ilat ion at t he
ing bar is pro vided by th e cent ral flat bar th at
ridge and eaves locat io ns t o enco urage natu-
exte nds beyo nd t he glazing line eit her inside
ral cross vent ilat ion.T he increased we ight of
o r o utside th e glazing. Un like curta in walling
doub le glazed unit s over single glazed sheets
based systems, w here t he st ruct ural mullio n
result s in bigger glazing bar s t o suppo rt t hem,
exte nds o n th e inside face of t he glass, w it h a
but th e system remains essent ially th e same .
pressure plate o n th e outside, greenho use
Th e snap-o n glazing clips o r screw -o n ty pes
glazing has o nly clips eit her side of t he co n-
in use usually have a ste pped pr ofile t o
3-D view of capped glazing junction with parapet upstand
3-D view of capped glazing eaves detail
Vertical section I:5. Capped glazing.parapet upstand detail
3-D cutaway view of capped glazing eaves detail
accomm odate th e increased glass depth,
roof pitches,ty pically 22° , 30° and 45°. A
w hile short length alum inium clips are used
co ndensat ion channel set int o th e glazing
along th e horizontal joints to ho ld the lapped
section is drained either into th e glazing bars
units in place.Th ese hori zont al joints are usu-
th at inter sect w it h it w hich drains down th e
ally sealed w it h silicone t o provide an air seal.
slope of th e ro of t o th e eaves, o r is dr ained
Greenhou se syste ms can also accommo date
at its gable ends if th e ridge can be set level
both flat polycarbonat e sheet and th e multi-
t o allow th e wate r t o drain freely.
w all type. A twin w all sheet has thi cknesses
Gutters are formed by fixing gutter pro -
w hich are similar t o th ose of doub le glazed
files t o a box sect ion used at jun ctions
units, ranging from aro und 24mm to 32mm,
beneath it.Th e glass simply ove rhangs th e
allowing th e same aluminium profi les t o be
edge of th e roof t o dra in rainw ater int o th e
used for both doub le glazing and po lycar-
gutter.At gro und level, th e glass ofte n over-
bon ate sheets.
laps th e concrete gro und slab, w here a fin-
Ridges are formed by special extruded
ished floor is provided.W here th e green-
alum inium sect io ns th at hold th e glassw it h
house glazing has no flo or, as is th e case in
th e same clips used for th e glazing bar s w hich
many agricultural applications, a br ickw ork o r
meet at th e ridge. Since each ridge ext rusion
co ncrete blockw ork edge is pro vided t o t er-
can suit o nly on e ro of pitch, manufacturer s
min ate th e glass above gro und level, w here it
offer ridge profi les t o suit a limit ed range of
co uld ot herwise be suscept ible t o damage.
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Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing. Eaves with glass to glass fold
MCE 341
Glass Roofs 0 I Greenhouse glazing and capped systems
3-D view of capped glazing junction with valley gutter 3-D view of capped glazing junction with valley gutter
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Vertical section I:5. Capped glazing. Eaves with profiles at fold
Vert ical section 1:5. Capped glazingwith valley gutter
Capped glazing details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. 13.
Ext ruded aluminium glazing bar Transom Singleglazed unit Double glazed unit Ridge bar Pressure plate and capping Insulated gutter Insulated flashing Roofiight Thermal insulation Pressed metal fiashing Concrete base Pressed metal trim
Valley gutters, w hich occur ty pically
sons: to under stand how glazed roofs have
w here glassho use roofs are set next t o o ne
evo lved from a simple mass produ ced sys-
anot her,are also form ed from ext r uded alu-
t em , as we ll as for applicat ions w here a glaz-
minium sect ions,w it h th e glass being secured
ing syste m is required t hat is minim al in both
in t he same way as t he glazing bars.A n addi-
it s compo nents and it s overall assembly as
ti onal upstand is ofte n added t o th e alumini-
we ll as w here an uninsulated glass struct ure
um sect ion for increased rigidity. Gutter s in
might be requ ired, w it ho ut th e need to use
other roo f systems are usually insulat ed,
t hermally bro ken glazing systems w hich are
w here t he dept hs of insulati o n, together w it h
designed for much larger glass unit s.
th e inner lining, provide a rigid gutter.Wit h greenhouse glazing, w it h no th erm al insulat ion prov ided, an upstand o r down stand
Systems for glass roofs use t he pr inciples of
fo rmed w it hin th e gutter extrusion perform s
greenho use glazing, but incorporat e th e prin-
t he same function of pr oviding sufficient st iff-
ciples of glazed curta in wa lling. Drained and
ness t o bear th e we ight of a gutter filled
venti lated systems are used, with t hermal
w it h rainw at er.
breaks and do uble glazed unit s. Pressure
A lt ho ugh not useful fo r mo st applications
MC E
34 2
Mod ern roo f glazing
plates rath er t han clips are used to hold large
in general building co nst ruct ion, greenho use
glass unit s in place in capped systems, and
glazing is useful for t he reader for two rea-
togg le-type plates are used t o prov ide flush
Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing. Ridge 3-D view of capped glazing ridge detail
Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing.Junctionwith roofiight
3-D cutawayview of capped glazing ridge detail
joints in silico ne based syste ms.Thi s latter
sure plate and th e glass to pro vide a weat h-
typ e is discussed in t he next sect ion of th is
ert ight seal.As w it h glazed curt ain walling,t he
book, w hile t his section focuses on pressure
glazing bars are dr ained and vent ilat ed, or
plate based, or 'capped' syste ms.
Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing. Junction with roofiight
pressure equalised, intern ally.Wate r th at is able t o find it s way through th e o ute r seal
Capped systems
drip s into an int ernal channel w here it is
The capped syste m comprises glazing bars
drained away safely t o th e bottom of th e
w hich are assembled on site in a grid of
roof. ty pically at th e eaves. In smaller ro ofs
memb ers t hat resemb le th e mullion s and
w it hout eaves, w here th e roof angle changes
tran soms of stick glazed curt ain w alling.Th e
from pitched to vert ical wall, rainw ater is
base of t he curta in wa ll, at th e bottom of t he
allowe d t o run on down th e w all t o t he base
extruded profi le, may have an addit ional co n-
of t he roof At th e 'fo ld' po int of t he roof th e
densation channel.Thi s pro vision can also be
internal drain in th e glazing bar is co nt inuo us
made by setting th e co ndensat ion channels
w it h th e vert ical w all, and th e system is
imm ediately beneath th e glass.Th e glass is set
drained at th e base of th e wall, w hich co uld
onto rubb er-based air seals fixed t o th e glaz-
be a reinforced concrete slab at roof level.
ing bar and is secured w it h a co nt inuo us
, V
Vertical section I:5. Capped glazing. Eaves gutter
W hile glazing bars runnin g down th e
pressure plate of extruded aluminium. A strip
roof proj ect above th e surface of th e glass,
of ext ruded EPDM is set between t he pr es-
th ose runn ing along th e roof. ho lding in place MCE
343
Glass Roofs 0 I Greenhouse glazing and capped systems
Vert ical section I :5. Capped glazing.Typical profiles
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Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing. Parapet upstand
Vert ical sect ion 1:5. Capped glazing.Abutment
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Vert ical section I :5. Capped glazing. Parapet upstand
Capped glazing deta ils I.
Extruded aluminium glazing bar 2. Transom 3. Single glazed unit 4. Double glazed unit 5. Ridge bar 6. Pressure plate and capping 7. Insulated gutter 8. Insulated flashing 9. Roofiight 10. Thermal insulation I I. Pressed metal flashing I 2. Concrete base I 3. Pressed metal trim
Vertical section 1:5 . Capped glazing. Ridge
t he top and bottom edges of t he glass,
bar is usually made deep er to take t he highe r
req uire a met hod of allowing t he wate r to
struct ural loads of t he ridge . Glazing bars t hat
run ove r the junction . Some syste ms use a
intersect wit h th e ridge profile are notched
ste p at th is point, wit ho ut a pressure plate o n
at th e top to allow t he drained and vent ilate d
t op t hat wo uld ot herwise impede t he pas-
inne r chambe r to drain wate r intern ally down
sage of wate r down th e roof. O t he r syste ms
th e glazing bars t hat follow th e slo pe down
use a pressure plate and cove r capping w it h
t he roo f.A specially made V-shaped co nt inu-
chamfered edges t hat allow rainwater to pass
o us pressure plate is used to sec ure t he glass
ove r it eas ily A small amo unt of wate r is left
at th e ridge , wit h a similar shaped cove r cap
trapp ed o n t he top edge of t his horizont ally-
set o n top. W hile cove r caps are not an
set glazing bar, but this is soo n blown away by
esse nt ial part of glazed roofs , as is th e case
t he wind o r else evapo rates.Any wate r t hat
wit h curta in wa lling, t he ir functio n is to co n-
pen etrates th e o ute r seal is drained away
cea l th e drainage slots and screw fi xings in
th rough t he intern al drain in t he glazing bar.
o rde r to provide a co nsistent visual fini sh to
Ridges, like glazing bars, fo llow t he main principles of gree nho use glazing.The box sect io n' o r chose n profi le of t he ty pical glazing
MC E
344
t he glazing bars. Gutte rs, at both valleys and eaves, are very diffe re nt to gree nho use glazing. Inst ead
3-D view of capped glazing ridge detail
3-D exploded view of capped glazing ridge detail
Vertical section 1:5. Capped glazing. Junction with roofiight
Vert ical section 1:5. Capped glazing. Ridge
of lapping th e glass into th e gutter, th e gutter
in o rde r to provide a co nt inuity w it h th e
profile (o r downstand fl ashing) is clamp ed
th erm al insulatio n of t he adjacent co nst ruc-
into o ne side of th e horizontally-set glazing
tion at th e base of th e roof in o rde r to avoid
bar at th e base of the pitched roof An insu-
a th erm al bridge. Glazing bars th at termin ate
lated gutter is used to maintain th e re latively
at fl ashings and gutters allow th e inte rnal
high level of th erm al insulation and to avoid a
drain t o release wate r at th ese points. Drop s
th erm al bridge across th e syste m. If a down-
of wate r th at find the ir way int o th e drainage
stand fl ashing is used to se parate th e roof
chambe r are drained o ut o nto th e o ute r
from th e gutte r, t o make it eas ier to install
(to p) surface of th e downstand flashing,
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th e gutte r, th en two laye rs of flexible mem brane seal are used between th e downstand insulated fl ashing and th e insulated gutter. This
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Vertical and horizontal sections I 100. Capped glazing. General principle
Regular downstand fl ashings are insulated
MC E 345
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MC E_
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Capped glazing details I.
2. 1 4,
S. 6.
Extruded alu:mrnum
.""" ... Transom
SIngle glazed untT. Double glazed un" RIdge bar Pressc-e plate and
7. 8. 9.
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Insulated gutter Insulated flashing
RooIl'l:ht
10, ThermaJ insulabOO I I . Pressed metal flashing
12
Concrete base
13. Pressed metal trTn
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MCC347
Glass Roofs 02 Silicone-sealed glazing and rooflights
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Silicone-sealed systems
th e unit usually used to bond th e unit togeth -
Wh ile capped syst ems, descr ibed in th e previ-
er and t o seal th e edges behind th e spacer.
str uct ural box or fin removed in o rde r t o fix
ou s sect ion, suit pitch ed roofs,they cannot
Th e adjacent spacer in th e double glazed unit
it directly to a steel support fram e. Square
In some cases, th e glazing bar has its
reliably be used on (nom inally) fiat ro ofs,
both keeps th e glass at a fixed distance apart
hollow sections are shown here.A lte rnat ively,
w here th e roof pit ch is usually 3° to 5° .T his is
as we ll as having desiccant w it hin it t o absorb
an all-alum inium glazing bar can be used. As
mainly because th e rainw ater runn ing down
any residual moi sture w it hin th e sealed cavity
w it h capped systems, small amounts of rain-
th e roof cannot pass th e horizontal glazing
betw een th e glasssheets.Th e recessed alu-
w ate r that pass through th e o ute r silicone
bars w hich proj ect above th e surface of th e
minium channel is bonded t o each glass sheet
seal are drained away in th e co nde nsat ion
glass.Th e smoot h, co nt inuous finish required
and also provides th e edge seal t o th e co m-
channels set below th e glass, w it hin th e glaz-
for fiat glazed ro ofs is achieved w it h a silico ne
plet ed unit, as in a regular doub le glazed unit.
ing bar. In practi ce, silico ne seals are very reli-
seal betw een glass panels th at is set flush w it h
Th e sho rt lengths of pressure plate are th en
able but are dependent upon goo d wor k-
th e surface of th e glass.Th e glass is clamp ed in
set int o th e gap formed by th e recessed
manship o n site, so th e co ndensat io n channel
place w it h short lengths of pressure plate th at
channels of abutting glazed units,and are
is ofte n not used in pr actice but serves as a
are recessed below th e oute r seal.Th e
clamp ed t o th e glazing bar w it h self tapp ing
secondary cham ber t o suppo rt th e inner air
recessed plates are secured to an alum inium
screws , t ypically at 300mm cent res.Th e gap
seals. Silico ne-sealed glazing bars can be used
channel w hich forms an int egral part of th e
betw een th e glazed unit is sealed w it h sili-
in all direct ion s across a ro of. unlike capped
doub le glazed unit and w hich is co nt inuo us
co ne, t ypically 15mm t o 20mm w ide, and
systems, since th e glazing bars present no
around its perimet er.Th e extr uded aluminium
w it h a backing st r ip or 'backing rod' behind it
barri er to th e passage of wate r.
channel is recessed int o th e gap at th e edge of
t o form a back edge t o th e silico ne seal.
MC E
348
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertical section I:25.Typical assembly
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Horizontal section I : IO. Panel to panel corner junction
Details i. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
B. 9.
3-D view of connection detail with gutter
Extruded aluminium glazing profile Pressureplate and capping Mild steel suppor t frame Doubl e glazed unit w ith recessed edge Thermal insulation Silicone seal Concrete base Gutter internal finish
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MC E 349
Glass Roofs 02 Silicone-sealed glazing and rooflights
Vertical sections I:5. A lternative panel to panel junctions
Vertica l section I :5. Panel to panel junct ion without capping
Details I. Extruded aluminium glazing profile
2. Pressure plate and capping 3. Mild steel support frame 4. Double glazed unit with recessed edge 5.Thermal insulation 6. Silicone seal 7. Concrete base 8. Gutter 9. Internal finish
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Junct ions Since the advantage of silicone-sealed sys-
cont inuous w it h a glazed w all in the same
tem s is of co nt inuo us glazed surfaces unint er-
system w it h a simple 'fold ', w it hout reducing
rupt ed by visible glazing bars, ridges and val-
it s w eat her t ightn ess.Typically th e w all is not
leys are treated as simple folds in th e surface
ver y high, forming part of a larger glazed roo f
of t he glazing, since rainwater ru ns across t he
D ust t hat is carr ied down off t he ro of dur ing
complete sealed surface of th e glass rather
rain is washed down th e vert ical glazing, rath -
t han being directe d into gutters across its
er than being carried away in a gutter, but in
surface.The sho rt lengths of pressure plate
pract ice glazed ro oflights require regular
can be fo lded in the factory t o the required
cleaning t o maint ain their crisp appearance.
angle. w hile t he glazing bar forming t he ridge
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3-D exploded view show ing panel to panel junctio n
MCE
350
thi s system is th e ability of th e roof t o be
Th e folded co rne r is formed w it h either
is th e same as th at used elsewhere o n th e
a single specially formed glazing bar,o r w it h
roof. w it h some modifications t o th e angle of
two glazing bar s meet ing. Th e recessed
th e clips t hat ho ld th e inner EPDM seal in
lengths of pressure plate are fo lded t o form
place.T he edges of roofs are also treated as
t he requ ired angle, and t he silicone is cham-
fo lds, wit h rainwater usually allowed to run
fered t o form a flat surface between t he two
off the edge into a gutter, eithe r just below
meet ing glass panels. Silicone is rarely used to
t he roof. or down to the base of the glazed
make a sharp angle between th e two do uble
w all below the glazed roof An advant age of
glazed units as it is very difficult to achieve a
3-D view showing typical corner junction
o
Vertical section I:5. Corner detail straight line w it hout th e assista nce of an addi-
result in condensat ion occurring in t emp er-
ti on al metal angle bedd ed int o t he silicone.
ate climates.T he inner face of t he t herm al
T he alte rnat ive method of forming a roof
insulation is lined w it h a vapo ur barrier, ty pi-
edge requires th e edge of th e doub le glazed
cally a 3mm thi ck fo lded aluminium sheet.
unit t o be coate d o r 'op acified' t o avoid t he
Th e o pacifying of t he glass is don e by screen
fr ame behind being visible th rou gh th e glass.
printing o n th e intern al face of th e glass.
T his is ofte n achieved by ste pping t he glazed
W hile black is ofte n t he pr eferred colour, in
unit, w it h th e o ute r glass exte nding t o meet
o rder t o match w it h th e silicone seals, ot her
th e co rne r,w hile th e inner glass stops at th e
co lours and pattern s are increasingly being
glazing bar t o allow th e recessed aluminium
introduced in glass manufacture.
angle t o be bonded in it s usual positio n adja-
W here a gutter is required, an insulat ed
cent t o t he glazing bar. T he glass unit is
gutter is fitted t o t he glazing bar. Prefabricat-
secured in th e same way,w it h a recessed
ed gutters are used w here th ey are seen
length of pressure plate, w hile th e o ute r glass
from t he under side, inside t he building.They
is cant ilevered t o meet th e adjacent glazed
can be glazed into th e syste m fo llowin g th e
unit at t he corne r.T hermal insulati on is bond -
line of t he int ern al face of t he double glazed
ed t o th e oute r glass along th e cant ilevered
units.W here th e gutter is required t o be sep-
edge t o form a co nt inuity of th erm al insula-
arated from th e glazing st r uctures, typically
ti on , and avoiding a t herm al bridge t hat w ill
for st ruct ural reasons, a separate flashing can
3-D view showing window-wall junction
MC E 35 1
Glass Roofs 02 Silicone-sealed glazing and rooflights
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Cross section I : I O.Junction of 2 roofiights with opaque roof
be used, fixed t o th e glazing bar but inde-
fixed. A down stand flashing is more easily
pendent of t he gutter.T he gutter is st ill sealed
fixed t o a hori zont al glazing bar t han a glaz-
to th e glazing bar w it h a flexible EPDM gas-
ing channel.The vert ical glazing bars (fo rm-
ket t o pro vide a co nt inuous seal. T he base of t he glazed roof t hat t ermi-
ing th e mullion s) are fixed to br ackets th at are secured t o t he upstand.A co ncrete
nates in a glazed wa ll can meet an adjacent
upstand can be used w it h exte rnal insulati o n
co ncrete ro of slab w it h eit her a metal glazing
and a single layer membrane.T he metal
channel, or in an upstand and flashing.W here
flashing exte nds down th e face of th e
a glazing channel is used, t he do uble glazed
upstand t o pr otect t he joint. As w it h gutters,
unit sits in a profi le formed from ext r uded
an EPD M membrane exte nds down from
aluminium, stainless steel o r painted mild
t he hori zont al glazing bar w here it is bo nded
stee l.T he glass is levelled on met al shims
t o t he membrane.Th e roofing membrane
(sho rt lengths of metal strip) th en sealed
and th e EPD M are always checked for co m-
w it h silicone.T he advantage of th e glazing
patibility, but in pract ice t his rarely pr esent s
channel is th at it can be set flush w it h th e fin-
any difficulty
ished int ern al level t o pr ovide a junctio n w it h
MC E
352
no visible hori zontal glazing bar.A lte rnat ively,
Use of capp ed profiles
th e glazing can t ermin ate in a hori zontal glaz-
A n advantage of silicone sealed glazing over
ing bar.t o w hich an aluminium flashing can be
fully bond ed glazing (discussed in t he next
o -----Vertical section 1:5. Edge of ro ofiight
3-D view showing edge of roofiight
sect io n) is its ability to be mix ed w it h capped
and rid ges,are form ed in t he same w ay,
glazing. Since both syste ms are drained and
w hile t he capped syste m fo llow s t he folds
vent ilate d (pressure equalised) , th e same
w it h co nt inuo us pr essure plates th at are
glazing bar can be used in a mixed ro of sys-
mit red and sealed at t he fo lds. Butyl t ape is
t em of fiush silicone joints and capped pro -
used as an extra seal at fo lds, set betw een
files.A lt hough t his mix is done ofte n fo r visual
t he pressure plate and t he o ute r EPD M gas-
reasons, it does allow for easily formed junc-
kets. Cove r caps are also mitred t o give a
t io ns w it h adjacent areas of ro of in different
crisp appearance.
materials,and for a mix of actual panels and
Th e intern al drainage of t he mixed glaz-
glazed panels in a single ro of using a reliable
ing syste m wo rks in t he same way,w it h any
dr ained and vent ilate d syste m.
wate r t hat penetrates t he silico ne sealed
Th e m ost commo n applicat io n of thi s
glazing being drained along th e intern al co n-
meth od is w here capped pr ofiles are used
densatio n channels befo re draining int o t he
for t he vert ically-set glazing bars runnin g
profi les of th e capped syste m and onwa rds
dow n t he slope of a roof. w hile silico ne-
dow n t o t he base of t he ro of T he co ndensa-
sealed glazing is used o n ho rizont al joints t o
t ion channel and inner air seal can also be
allow rainw ater t o pass down it unimp eded
form ed in a single EPD M extrusion w it ho ut
by any proj ecting glazing bars.Junct io ns in sil-
t he use of any aluminium ext rusion, but w it h
icon e sealed glazing, such as edges of roofs
a suppo rt ing struct ure behind. In t his case,
Vertical sectio n 1:5. Ho rizontal panel to panel junctio n w it h capping
M C E 353
Glass Roofs 02 Silicone-sealed glazing and roofl ights
3-D view of panel to panel junction detail with capping
3-D view of corner detail showing insulated corner covered by opaque glazing
t he short lengths of pressure plate holdin g
ual roofli ghts th at are visually integrated into
same level to ensure th at any wate r th at
t he glass in place are secured by self t apping
adjacent areas of opaque roof A single layer
passes t hrough t he o ute r seal is drained
screws t hat are secured t o a suppo rt ing
membrane ro of can be sealed into th e edge
t hrou gh a set of linked channels t o th e bot-
struct ure behind.A holl ow box section can
of a capped glazed rooflight by clamp ing t he
t o m edge of t he ro oflight w here it is released
also be used.T he EPD M gasket. combined
membrane int o t he glazing syste m. A met al
above t he roof level of t he adjacent mem-
w it h a stee l suppo rt ing st ruct ure, is used as
rainscreen can also be incorporated. sitting
br ane. Openable roo flights,as shown in th e
an alte rnat ive t o t he ext ruded aluminium
complete ly independent of t he rooflight, but
previo us sect ion o n capped glazing systems,
glazing bar.usually for larger glass panels
set onto th e membrane t o both protect it
can be incorporated easily, w it h th e use of an
w here t he suppo rt ing fin o r box pro file t o
and give a visual co nt inuity t o t he rooflights
additio nal sub frame, int o w hich t he o penable
th e aluminium ext r usion wo uld be visually
across th e ro of
light is set.
t oo deep o r t oo w ide .
T he edge of t he ro oflight is fo rmed w it h a capped glazing profi le, w hile th e jo ints w it h-
Roofiights
in th e rooflight, running across it (at 90 °), use
A useful applicat ion of co mbining capped and
a silicone-sealed profile t o allow w ate r t o run
silicone sealed glazing is in sealed roofli ghts,
down t o th e bottom edge of th e roofli ght.
w here strips or bands of glazing are com-
T his lowest edge of t he rooflight has a sili-
bined w it h a ro of in a different mat erial.Tra-
co ne sealed edge w it h a drip flashing glazed
diti on ally,individual roo flights are form ed in
into th e edge of th e profi le to drain wate r off
upst ands t hat sit high above t he level of t he
t he edge.T he single layer mem brane is
adjacent ro of Large numb er s of t hese tradi-
tu cked under t his flashing and is clamped
ti onal individual ro oflight s lack t he visual ele-
dow n w it h t he pressure plate t hat exte nds
gance of co nt inuo usly glazed roofs. In recent
th e full w idt h of th e roofli ght.Th e t op edge
years t his has changed w it h t he increased use
of t he rooflight (running parallel w it h t he
of t he combinat ion of single layer mem-
roof slope) has a capped pro file t o allow
br anes and rainscreen panels w it h capped
wate r to dr ain aro und its sides.The co nden-
and silicone sealed glazing t o provide individ-
sat ion channels in all pro files are set at t he
MC E
354
Details I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Extruded aluminium glazing profile Pressure plate and capping Mild steel support frame Double glazed unit with recessed edge Thermal insulation Silicone seal Concrete base Gutter Internal finish
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Typical cross section I :25, Capped glazingTypical profiles
3-D view showing typical cross section with capped glazing
M C E 355
- - -Glass Roofs
02- - - - - - - - - - .....,
Silicone-sealed glazin and roofl i hts 3·0 exploded view showingtypical rooAight assembly
3-D view showIng typical roo fiight assembly
3-0 exploded view showing typical silicone sealed glazed wall and roof comer junction
Deta ils I. Extrudedaluminium glazIng profile 2. Pressure plate and
capp,ng 3.Mild steel support frame 4, Double glazed umt with recessed edge 5.Thermal insuatrcn 6. Silicone seal 7. Concrete base
8. Gutter 9. Internal finish
)- 0 exploded view showing typical rooflight connection to roof construction
Me E
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Cross section. I: IO. Horizontal panel to paneljunction
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Vertical section I:IO. Corner
D etails I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I.
Mild steel connector Mild steel support frame Double glazed unit Silicone seal Bolt fixing Support bracket Concrete base Stainless steel cable Mild steel tension rod Mild steel plate Adjacent external wall
3-D exploded view of bolt fixed glazing w ith two point fixing
MC E 358 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view of bolt fixed glazing with two point fixing
This method of glazing for roo fs has been
pat ch fittin gs at all.This fur th er enhances th e
adapte d from th e tec hnique used for glazed
essent ial concept of fr ameless glazing w hich
walls, w here glass is fixed at points w it h spe-
is t o pro vide greate r visual transparency th an
cially designed bolts rather th an w it h a frame
an equivalent fr amed system.
suppo r t ing th e per imeter of th e glass. Bolt
Th e pat ch plate meth od of fr ameless
fixed glazing for facade const ruct ion devel-
glazing is not used ver y o fte n in roofs,
o ped from patch plate glazing in th e I 960s,
since th e glass fins becom e glass beams in
w here single glazed sheet s of glass are bolt ed
such applicat io ns.W hile glass beams have
t ogether w it h mild steel br acket s. In th e con-
been used in mod est rooflight applicat io ns,
t empoary version, glass fins are used t o st iff-
th er e is uncertaint y surro und ing th e diffi-
en th e glazed wa lls t o replace th e alum inium
culty of rep lacing cracked o r damaged
mullion s.The L-shaped patch fitt ings bo lt th e
beams o nce t he ro of is co m plete d.Th is has
fins and glass t ogether, as we ll as boltin g th e
limited th e use of glass beams t o mo dest
glass t o th e suppor t ing struct ure at th e t op
applicat io ns in glass ro ofs. In co nt rast t o
and bottom of th e wall.W hile thi s glazing
thi s, bolt fixed glazing has becom e incr eas-
method has been develop ed and is still in
ingly popu lar for glazed ro ofs in mainly
use, th e idea of frameless glazing has evolved
co mme rcial and pub lic buildings.
further int o do uble glazed units being bo lted directly t o a suppo rt ing struct ure w it ho ut
During t he early 1990s do ubts w ere raised over th e reliability of th e wate rproo f
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Horizontal section I:sO.Typical assembly
Horizontal section. I 10. Bolt fixing
silicone seals betw een glazed unit s, but t hese
porting beam can be set under each glass
we re soo n overco me w it h a mixture of labo-
joint , so t hat bo lt s are suppo rted o n each
ratory t esting and a better underst anding of
side o f t he beam by a sho rt br acket. A lte rna-
th e w or kmanship required w it h silicone joint-
ti vely, by setting th e beam in th e mi dd le of
ing.W hile manufact ures offer propriet ary sys-
alte rnate glass panels,o nly half t he num ber of
t em s for w alls, w hich can include a support-
beams are requ ired t o suppor t t he same
ing str uct ural system such as cable t r usses,
t hree panels of glass. Brackets are cant ilev-
roof glazing systems are usually designed for
ered from th e beam t o suppo rt th e edge of
individual applicat ions.
t he panel above as we ll as o ne side of t he panel next t o it.Thi s meth od provides greate r "'~Iiii;;;;;;;;;;;~
Generic str uct ural suppo rt methods
visual t ransparency t han t he first o pt ion, but
W hereas glazed w alls are usually str uct urally
det ract littl e from th e increased effect of
suppo rte d by eit her t op hung o r bottom
transparency.
suppo rted meth ods,th e sup po rt of glazed
requires larger bracket s, w hich in pract ice
T he single tube sect ion shown in th e dia-
roofs is by t ru sses, steel sections o r pur lins
grams wo uld suit only a sho rt span, as in a
t hat span across th e roo f o pening. For (no m i-
roo flight, but large span roo fs require deeper
nally) flat roofs , th ere are t w o com mo n
beams, usually fo rmed as o pen trusses in
ar rangeme nts of suppo rt ing beams.A sup-
o rder t o maint ain t he sense of t ransparency
3-D view of bolt fixed glazing with two point fixing
M C E 359
Glass Roofs 03 Bolt fixed glazing: small scale rooflights
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Vertical section I :Ia,Junction with adjacent roof
Details I, 2,
Mild steel connector Mild steel support frame 3. Double glazed unit 4, Silicone seal 5, Bolt fixing 6, Support bracket 7, Concrete base 8, Stainless steel cable 9, Mild steel tension rod Ia, Mild steel plate I I , A djacent external wall
Elevation I:Iaa,Typical assembly
at ob lique viewing angles,Triangulated trusses
struct ure and t he glass pane ls is ta ke n o ut in
provide both struct ure and suppo rt for t he
th e po sition at th e co nnect ion betw een th e
glass, but tend to be visually heavy, Cab le
bo lt and t he bracket. A slotted o r oversized
tru sses are often preferred, but they require
hole is cut into t he suppo rt ing bracket and
a ring beam aro und t he edge of t he glazed
t he bo lt suppo rt ing th e glass is fixed to it.The
roof to form a tensile suppo rt ing stru cture
bo lt may be off-ce nt re from t he bracket, and
li ke a t e nnis racq uet.T he cable t russes, always
each bo lt may be in a different position in
in tension, require an equivalent surro unding
relation to its neighbo ur. This can prod uce an
st ruct ure in co mpression to transfe r t he
awkward appea rance whe n see n from below
loads to the main building st ruct ure,
t he roof, but t his is ce rtainly o ne of t he most eco no mic so lut ions,W he re a channel-shaped
Supporting bracket s All t hese suppo rt ing str uctures req uire bracket s to which th e bo lt fi xings are
MC E
360
bracket is we lde d to t he top of t he bea m, a single bracket, typ ically mild st eel plate , is bo lted to th e channel bracket. An oversize
attac hed, In t he case of a sho rt bracket
hole in t he bracket is used to make t he
atta ched to a beam, a mild stee l bracket can
adjustme nt for to lerance .The bo lts suppo rt-
be we lde d to eac h side of t he t ube , Because
ing t he glass are set at eac h e nd of t he brack-
th e bracket is we lde d, th e adjustm ent for to l-
et.The fi at bracket can be rep laced by a cast-
e rance between fi xing of th e suppo rt ing
ing, usually in e it he r mild steel or aluminium,
3-D view of bolt fixed glazing w ith spider clamp
3-D exploded view of bolt fixed glazing with spider clamp
3-D view of bolt fixed glazing with spider clamp
The cast ing fo r thi s applicat ion wo uld be
Bolt fixin gs
made fro m a steel mou ld whic h is ex pensive
T he essent ial component in this glazing
to manufacture, so a large quant ity of cast
method, t he bo lt fixing, is made ty pically in
brackets are needed t o make thi s met hod
stainless steel. and consists of several compo-
eco nom ic.A djustment is made in th e same
nents that fo rm th e comp lete assembly.Th e
w ay as the channel bracket example .The
part t hat passes through the glass has eit her
beam can become a cable t russ,w here a
a disc o n each side of th e glass t o clamp th e
suppo rting bracket in eit her mild steel plate
glassor do uble glazed unit together; or alter-
or a casting is clamped t o th e cable. Here t he
natively is angled to fo rm a co untersun k
adjustment for t olerance is made in two
device w ithin the depth of t he do uble glazed
places; at th e junction of th e bracket and t he
unit.The co unters unk fitt ing is set flush wit h
bolt fixing, as w ell as at t he junction of t he
th e o ut er face of the glass, and th e face fixed
bracket and th e cable clamp .There are, of
disc t ype is set forward of the face of t he
co ur se, many variat io ns o n th ese t ypes, but
glass.A po lished st ainless steel finish is mostly
th ese are th e most commo nly used bracket
used o n th e o utside in order to make it easy
suppo rt method s.
t o clean and maint ain. In th e face fixed type, w hich is current ly t he most co mmo nly used fixing, th e inner disc screws over th e t hreaded shank t hat fo rms part of the outer disc
3-D view of bo lt fixed glazing wit h spider clamp
MC E 36 1
Glass Roofs 03 Bolt fixed glazing: small scale rooflights I
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3-D explod ed view of bolt-fi xing on small glazed roofiight
<,
3-D view of mild steel support frame for bolt fixed roofiight
until it is tight up to th e inner face of th e
Arrangemen t of bolt fixings
glass.The threaded shank projecting into the
The arrangeme nt of brackets for bolt fi xed
building and is able to rotate abo ut a ball
roofs is dep end ent upon th e position of th e
bearing whe re it meets th e inner face of th e
fixing bo lts. Rectangular shaped double glazed
doub le glazed unit.This allows th e doub le
units can be arranged wit h suppo rt ing beams
glazed unit t o rotate up to aro und 12° under
set in th e direct ion of th e lon g side of t he
wind load and assoc iate d st ruct ural deflec-
panel. Bolts are position ed in a way that
tions.This swivel joint is esse nt ial in avoiding
reduces th e span of th e glass by pushing
th e ove r st ressing of th e glass under full wind
th em away from t he edge .The redu ced glass
load th at wo uld ot herwise result in breakage
span allows t he glass th ickness to be th inner.
of th e glass unit.Th e threaded shank is th en
making it more eco no mic, parti cularly give n
used to clamp th e co mplete bo lt fixing t o a
th at th e material cost of glass increases dra-
suppo rt bracket w it h eit he r t hreaded discs
matically wit h th e increase of thickness (t he
o r nuts.The visible thread in th e shank can be
relation ship betw een glass th ickness and cost
eit he r left ex posed. o r be cove red w it h
is not linear). Flat plates can be used. subject
threaded sleeves and sto p e nds.Th is bo lt
to struct ural requirem ents.
type is used regardless of th e o rientat ion of th e roof, whet he r fl at o r pitched.
MC E
36 2
W he re t he glass fixing bo lts are eq uidistant from th e edges of th e glass,a cro ss-
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Vertical section I: IO. Hori zontal panel to panel junction
® Vertical section I:IO. Corner
Vertical section I: IO.Vertical panel to panel junction
Hor'izonta'l section i :i 6. Horizontai panei to panei junction at edge
shaped br acket allows four glass co nnect ions
doub le glazed unit being brok en, th e inner
t o be made w it h a single bo lt connect ion
laminat ed sheet remains int act, w hile th e br o-
between t his suppo rt br acket and th e beam
ken pieces of th e heat strengthened o r fully
D etails
beneat h.The cross-shaped br acket is carrying
t oughened o ute r sheet come t o rest o n t op
I. 2.
a high load of glass to a single point on th e
of th e damaged, but int act, inner sheet.T he
beam. St iffening fins are usually needed o n
doub le glazed units are fir st fixed and adjust -
t he under side of t he cro ss-shaped br acket.
ed t o form even joi nt w idt hs between all t he
These can be individually we lded and gro und,
unit s.Jo int s oflO-28mm are used, th ough
but it is ofte n eco nomic t o make t hem as
aro und 20mm is t he most commo n joi nt
castings, w hich have a more reliably refined
w idt h (in elevat ion) th at allows for bot h
appearance. Mild stee l br ackets requ ire paint -
st ruct ural movement and t he slight variations
ing; st ainless stee l br ackets can be buffed o r
in t he size of t he glass panels. Un like capped
polished t o th e preferred visual finish.
roof glazing systems, th e entire dou ble glazed
Glazed units
th e edges are not set behind pressure plate s
In commo n w it h other glass roo f ty pes, th e
th at co nceal any variat ions in glass panel size.
inner glass of a do uble glazed unit is usually
Joint w idt hs up t o aro und 28mm, w hich is
made from laminat ed glass. In th e event of a
deemed close t o th e maximum pr actical joint
Mild steel connector Mild steel support frame 3. Double glazed unit 4. Silicone seal 5. Bolt fixing 6. Support bracket 7. Concrete base 8. Stainless steel cable 9. Mild steel tension rod 10. Mild steel plate I I. Adjacent external wall
unit is visible from both o utside and inside,
MC E 36 3
Glass Roofs 03 Bolt fixed glazing: small scale rooflights
r
Vertical section I 50,Typical assembly
3-D view of small roofiight roof assembly
Vertical section I : I0, Vertical panel to panel junction
w idt h for th e adhesion of silicone sealant in a
has proj ecting fiaps o n each side t o form a 'fir
regular doub le glazed unit, are used w here
t ree' sect ion w hich prevents any w ate r th at
br ackets penetrate t he o ute r seal from inside
penetrates th e exte rnal seal from reaching
th e roof to outside, If required. th ese brack-
th e inner face of th e seal.Thi s EPD M gasket
ets are used to suppor t exte rn al sun shading
also serves as an inner air seal, and pro vides a
and maintenance equipme nt.T hese br ackets
crisp appearance of sharp lines in t he int erior
are usually in th e form of fiat plates th at are
face of th e glazed roof.
we lded to th e internal suppo rting st ruct ure,
3-D detail view of typical roof assembly
and pr oject t hrou gh t he joint. A lt hough an
unit s, t he but yl seal between t he spacer and
additional lip around th e proj ectin g plate may
t he glass creates a slight ly wavy line, visible to
provide addit ional protection t o wate r pene-
t he eye w hen it spreads beyo nd t he face of
tration between th e silicone and th e br acket,
th e spacer.Thi s slight ly uneven appearance of
in pract ice it has been fo und t hat t his detail
t he edge of t he glazed unit can be co ncealed
perfo rm s we ll if t he seal is applied t o a goo d
by t he use of edge 'fr itt ing', o r a baked-o n
level of wo rkmanship,
screen printed edge in black, w hich ensures
Seals between do uble glazed unit s are
MCE
364
In th e manufacturin g of double glazed
t hat t he edge of t he unit has a crisp black
made as an outer silico ne seal w it h an inner
edge,Thi s is mainly w here th e roofii ght glass
backing rod of ext ruded EPDM,The gasket
can be seen at close prox im ity.
Vertical sectionsVarying glass fixings
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Ho rizontal sections. Bolt fixed arrangements
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Vertical sections. Bolt fixed arrangements
Isometric view of roof assembly
T he holes in dou ble glazed units,t o w hich t he bo lt fixings are attac hed, are made by cutting holes in t he glass aro und I Omm larger t han t he metal circular sleeve t hat fits between it. The circular sleeve bond ed to t he glass is sealed aro und it t o maint ain t he sealed cavity of th e doub le glazed unit.T his is parti cularly imp ortant in th e case of argo n
D et ails
filled cavit ies, w here t he gas improves t hermal
I. 2.
insulatio n. T he drilling of t he glass it self is now we ll established in glass manufacturin g, w it h both float glass and laminat ed glass being drilled befo re any heat t reatment t o make t hem eit her heat st rengthened or fully t oughened.
Mild steel connector Mild steel support frame 3. Double glazed unit 4. Silicone seal 5. Bolt fixing 6. Support bracket 7. Concrete base 8. Stainless steel cable 9. Mild steel tension rod 10. Mild steel plate I I. Adjacent external wall
W here coat ed glasses are used, such as solar 3-D detail view of typical roof assembly
control coat ings o r low emissivity (lowe) coat ings, t his is do ne after heat t reatment.
M C E 365
Glass Roofs 03 Bolt fixed glazing: small scale roofi ights
3-D exploded detail view of bolt fixed glazingjunction
3-D view of small roofiight roof assembly
3-D line drawing of bolt fixing
3-D exploded view of small roofiight roo f assembly
----3-D exploded detail view of bolt fixed glazingjunction
MC E
366
3-D exploded view of bolt fixed glazing roofiight wall assembly
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Details I. 2.
Mild steel connector Mild steel support frame 3. Double glazed unit 4. Silicone seal 5. Bolt fixing 6. Support bracket 7. Concrete base 8. Stainless steel cable 9. Mild steel tension rod 10. Mild steel plate I I. Adjacent external wall
3-D exploded view of small roofiight roof assembly
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3-D exploded view of bolt fixed glazing roofiight wall assembly
3-D exploded view of bolt fixed glazing roofiight wall assembly
M C E 36 7
Glass Roofs O~ Bolt fixed glazing: large scale rooflights
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Vertical section I :25. Panel to panel junction
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Vertical section I :25.Typical assembly
Horizontal section I : I a. Panel to panel junction
Vertical section I : Ia.Typical assembly
3-D view showing internal fold of glazed pitched roof assembly
MC E 368 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
The ge ne ric suppo rt struct ures described in
is act uallytwo viere ndee l trusses linke d
th e previou s section suit a range of roofs in a
togeth er, wit h th e sho rt cross members
single plane, w het he r pitched or (no minally)
we lde d to the lo ng members. If addit ional
flat. Suppo rt ing struct ures w hich are facetted
stiffness is required in part o r all of th e st ruc-
o r curve d to form co mplex geo met ries
ture' t hen cross bracing is typically adde d.
require a slight ly different ap proac h.These
Addit ional st ruct ural sta bility is provided by
suppo rt ing struct ures are dictated more by
fo lding, curving o r ribbing th e surface of t he
th e dem and s of th e form th at is being creat-
struct ure .This avoids th e need t o deep en th e
ed rath er th an by o pt imising the position of
struct ure wit h trusses th at significant ly redu ce
suppo rt ing members to maximise visual
th e visual transparen cy offe red by bo lt fi xed
transparen cy t hrough th e st ruct ure. Stru c-
roof glazing.
tures for arches o r curve d surfaces are usual-
The 'ladd ers' are bo lted o r we lde d
ly made w it h as little struct ural depth as pos-
togeth er to form th e co mplete st ruct ure . If
sible, w it h th e visually successful types using a
we lde d, th en an inne r sleeve is inse rte d
single 'plane' of struct ure formed in 'ladde r'
betw een the sect io ns being jointed and th e
forms. C ircular ho llow sections and box sec-
edges of joints are we lde d together and
tion s are preferred for th eir visual co nsisten-
painted. An alte rnat ive fixing meth od is to
cy regard less of w he re th e glazed roof is
bo lt th e sect ions togeth er.This meth od
viewe d be low th e roof. The ladde r pr inciple
avoids th e bo lts be ing visible, leaving o nly a
Details I.Mild steel connector 2.Mild steel support frame 3. Double glazed unit 4. Siliconeseal 5. Bolt fixing 6.Support bracket 7.Concrete base S. Stainless steel cable 9. Mild steel tension rod 10. Mild steel plate I I.Adjacent external wall 12.Singleglazed solar shading glass 3-D detail viewshowing bolt fixed pitched roof comprisingdouble
glazed unitssupported by metal structural frame
3-Dview showingglazed pitch roof general assembly
hairline joint visible at the junction.giving the
The structural form of the 'ladder' usually
joint a minimal appearance and avoiding
corresponds to the layout of the glass panels.
welds which form a visible ring around the
since the comers of panels are fixed back to
joint This joint method also allows a faster
t he supporting structure. which is preferably
installation than if welding were used,w ith
as close to the glassJoints (in elevatio n) as
the additional benefit that steelwork can be
possible. In other examples the structure is
installed with a fully painted finish from the
set in line with the joints in the glass. In some
factory if required.In this method. a mild
cases the bolt fixings for the gass are fixed to
steel plate is welded to eachend of t he tube
a tubular supporting structure with mild steel
being jointed.A rectangular hole is cut into a
brackets fixed to the main tube (asdescribed
wall of one of t he hollow steel sections. big
in the previous section).The positions of the
enough to pass a hand through.Accessing the
bolt fixingsin relation to the edge of the glass
inside of the hollow section from the rectan-
are optimised to reduce the glass to an eco-
gular hole. bolts are fixed through the end
nomic th ickness. Bolt fixings can be set mid
plates to fix the two steel sections together.
distancebetween two horizontal ladders.This
The rectangular hole is then covered w ith a
might correspond to a joint between two
thin metal plate which is either bonded to
double glazed unit s or an additional bolt fix-
the sUlTOunding metal or is screwed into the
ing to secure a large double glazed unit.A
surrounding wall of the hollow section.
v-shaped mild steel bracket is set at 90 0 to
Horizontal section 1:10. Junction witM adjacent wall
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MC E 369
Glass Roofs O~ Bolt fixed glazing: large scale rooflights Elevation I:IO. Internal fold D etails I. 2.
~
Mild steel connector Mild steel support frame 3. Double glazed unit 4. Silicone seal 5. Bolt fixing 6. Support bracket 7. Concrete base 8. Stainless steel cable 9. Mild steel tension rod 10. Mild steel plate II . Adjacent external wall
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Horizontal section I:IO. Penetration of platethrough glass joint
Verticalsection I:Ia. Base upstand
Verticalsections I: Ia. lntemal fold th e bracket s.T he st ainless st eel bo lt s are
part of a co ncrete roof deck.T he suppo rt ing
aligned in elevat io n w it h adjacent br acket s.
steel str uct ure is fixed t o th e edge of th e co ncrete slab, w hich t ypically forms a co nt in-
3-D view showing underside of bolt fixed glazed roof system
MC E
370
Base of glazed roof
uou s ring beam aro und th e opening t o carry
Bo lt fixed glazed ro ofs are o fte n fixed t o a
t he lo ad of th e glazed roofThe base of th e
surro unding reinforced co ncrete slab.A n
glazing has a cant ilevered edge of th e dou ble
essent ial feature of jun ction s in bo lt fixed
glazed unit w hich is sealed t o an alum inium
glazed ro ofs at th eir perimet er is t hat t here is
fiashing.An addit io nal flashing w hich is co n-
no mechanical co nnectio n betw een t he dou -
t inuou s w it h th e wate rproofing membrane, is
ble glazed unit and th e adjacent roof deck, o r
set o n th e inside face o f th e glass.Thi s folded
parapet. since th e glass is bolted some dis-
alum inium str ip is bond ed w it h silico ne t o
t ance away from th e co rne r, and th e edge o f
th e bottom of th e double glazed unit. It can
th e glass is cant ilevered from th e bo lt fixin g.
be eit her co ncealed by th e int eri or finishes o r
Th e adjacent roof o r exte rna l wa ll (in a dif-
be coate d, usually in a PVDF o r po lyester
ferent materi al) meet s it w it h two set s of sili-
pow der coate d finish.Thi s alum inium strip is
co ne seals o nly, or alte rnat ively w it h EPD M
bond ed t o th e edge of th e wate r proofing
seals w hich are bon ded t o th e edge of th e
mem brane th at extends up th e face of t he
glass unit. In some cases, a low pitched ro of
upst and across th e to p.Thi s co m binat io n
m eet s a reinforced co ncrete upstand form ing
provides an inner,second line o f defence t o
3-D view of bolt fixed glazed roof system
3-D view of of externa l fold
3-D view of internal fold
th e flashing above .The o ute r flashing is set
th e jo int is formed in t he same way as ot her
o n t he oute r face of the glass. and has a fold-
jo ints. w ith an o uter silicone seal and an
ed edge in order t o bo nd it wit h a silicone
inner ext rude d EPDM baffle, or air seal.t he
seal. typ ically 20mm w ide t o match visually
double glazed units are stepped o n th eir
with the other seals between the glass units.
edges to ensure t hat the joint is not w ider
An y rainwater wh ich penetrates the outer
than adjacent joints .With an external fold
seal is drained away on the inner metal flash-
t he outer glass is stepped beyond t he edge
ing o nto th e w aterpro of membrane.T he
of the unit t o maintain a constant w idt h
void between t he two flashings is filled w it h
th rough the dept h of t he joi nt. The inte rnal
closed cell t herm al insulat io n, someti mes as
fold. o n th e ot her hand, can have the inner
injected foam to fill th e cavity comp letely. In
laminated glass exten ding beyond the o uter
some instances. an all-metal upst and flashing
glass t o perform t he same function.T he jo int
can be used, w hile in ot her s t he upstand is
w idt h both exte rnally and int ernally is made
concealed by an accessible t imber deck.
to match th e w idt h of adjacent joints in
External and inte rnal fo lds
gasket t o be used as an inner seal.
3-D view of bolt fixed system
o rder t o allow th e same ext ruded EPD M
Changes of direction in bo lt fixed roo fs t hat
Junct io ns of th e edge of the roo f w it h
fo rm ridges and valleys are formed as exte r-
exte rnal w alls in ot her materials are similar
nal fo lds and int ernal folds respectively.W hile
t o flashings at th e base of t he roofs, wit h
Horizontal section I:25.Typical clamp assembly
MC E 371
Glass Roofs 02f Bolt fixed glazing: large scale rooflights
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Mild steel connector Mild steel support frame Double glazed unit 4. Silicone seal 5. Bolt fixing 6. Support bracket 7. Concrete base R Stainless steel cable 9. Mild st eel tension rod 10. Mild st eel plate I I . Adjacent external wall 12. Singleglazedsolar shading glass
2. 3.
Vert ical section I:80.Typicalassemblyof twin wall roof w ith double glazed units
'- --- - -
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Ho rizontal section I :80.Typical assembly of tw in wall roo f with double glazed units
MC E
372
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3-D view showing twi n wall roof with do uble glazed units. steel t russ support system and glazed solar shading 3-D view showing twin w all roof syst em detail
w hich th ese joints can be cont inuo us as th e
Small glazed roofl ight s
small roofii ght of 3500mm x 3500mm in plan
roof per imeter t urn s from roof t o exte rnal
A n essent ial aspect of small roofiights is t he
is made from a mild steel t ube suppo rt ing
wall. In some cases, an insulated aluminium
greate r number of int erfaces w it h surro und-
stru cture.The t op of th e roofii ght requires
closer is bond ed to th e edge of th e double
ing co nstruct ion and oth er materials th an is
four glass panels in ord er to span from side
glazed unit and is sealed against t he adjacent
usually t he case w it h large glazed ro ofs.
t o side .T he bo lt fixings in t he cent re of t he
wall co nstruct ion.Th e bo lt fixed roof co uld
W here small roofii ghts have a bo lt fixed glaz-
top of th e ro ofiight are suppo rte d by two
meet. for exam ple. a metal rainscreen w all, o r
ing assemb ly mixed w it h gutter eleme nts in a
cable trusses spanning diago nally fro m t he
an exte rnal w all clad in a range of panels.
t ypical single rooflight, t he glazing is sealed
corne rs, inter secting in th e cent re.T he four
Support br ackets for exte rnal shading
against th e adjacent co nstruct io n. In some
bo lt fixings are secured t o a cross-shaped
and for rop e fixing points for abseil-based
inst ances, an o ute r seal is form ed against an
bracket w hich is in turn bolted t o two halves
cleaning are somet imes designed t o pene-
exte rnal roof panel in a different panel.A
of a clamp bo lted t o t he suppo rt ing cables.A
trate through th e joints betw een th e glass
second inner seal is made w it h an inner
vert ical mild steel rod forms th e cent ral vert i-
jo ints.Th is met hod is descr ibed in th e pr evi-
metal panel. Glazing channels can also be
cal eleme nt in th e truss.T he absence of steel
ous section.W here t hese brackets occur at
used (as described in t he previou s section) in
tub es spanning across t he cent re of t he t op
exte rn al and internal fo lds.th e br ackets are
o rder t o seal t he gap but t he glazing channel
of th e roo fiight increases its visual transparen-
usually designed so as to avoid penetrating
must be co nnecte d t o a flexib le seal such as
cy.Junct io ns at th e corne r and at th e base of
t he joint at t he co rne r it selfThis is done t o
an EPDM st rip t o allow t he bo lt fixed glazing
t his typical small roofiight do not rquire bo lt
avoid a complicate d junction of th e bracket
t o m ove independent ly of th e ot her materi-
fixings. increasing th e sense of transparency In
t oget her w it h t he fo ur co rne rs of a joint
als making t he junction . In t his case it is
plan. exte rnal co rne rs can be formed by
meeting at th e same place.Thi s is both diffi-
assumed th at th ese stru ctural mo vement s
stepping th e edges of th e double glazed unit
cult t o seal and difficult t o give a smoot h.
are small.
in o rder t o maint ain a co nsta nt joint w idt h
cont inuo us appearance as seen fro m inside th e building.
In small ro ofiights t he suppo rt ing st ruc-
for all ro ofiight joint s.T he visible area of sili-
ture is made visually lightweight in o rder to
cone behind th e glass can be concealed w it h
maximise t he effect of t he bolt fixed glazing.
silk screen pr inting, o r 'frittin g', usually in a
Stainless stee l cables are ofte n used to
black co lo ur.A lt ho ugh exte rn al and internal
increase transparency. In generic examples.a
corne rs of meeti ng do uble glazed unit s in M C E 373
Glass Roofs 04 Bolt fixed glazing: large scale rooflights
-
3-D view showing fixing method of twin wall roof with double glazed units, steel truss support system and glazed solar shading
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3-D view showing overview of twin wall roof with double glazed units. steel truss support system and glazed solar shading
bolt fixed ro ofs have a w ide sight line, th e
adjustment for fixing t olerance made at th e
cont inuity of th e glass and it s reflection s
junction of th e bo lt fixing and th e suppo rt
obscure th e effect of th e fritting and silicone
br acket.Th e glass units set hori zontally can
seals behind
be suppo rt ed at th eir corne r fixings by eit her
Larger rooflights
joint, o r w it h a cable tru ss,w hich pro vides
For bigger roofl ights up t o aro und 5.0 metres
greate r visual transparency th an th e all-t ube
high and 8.0 metres w ide, lightweight hollow
solut ion.The main st ainless steel cables of th e
mild steel sect io ns,t ogeth er w it h st ainless
tru ss span across th e diagonal co rne rs, meet-
a grid of st eel tub es immediat ely below th e
steel cables are commo nly used Th is rooflight
ing at a cent ral vert ical tubu lar post, as
size suit s glass sizes w hich are aro und
descr ibed in th e previous paragraph for small
2000 mm x 2000mm for hori zontally-set unit s
rooflights.The increased span is assiste d by a
and aro und 2000 mm x 2500mm high for
set of secondar y ste el cable tru sses set at
vert ically-set units.A mod est rectangular st eel
45° t o th e diagon al geomet ry (o rthogo nal
fr ame forming th e edges of th e generic roof-
w it h th e glass).T he seco ndary trusses bot h
light can support stainless st eel cables span-
st iffen th e main tru sses and pro vide a fixing
ning both vert ically and horizontally t o w hich
point for all bolt fixings.The pr inciple of th is
bolt fixings and cross-shaped brackets can be
medium size generic ro oflight can be adapt ed
fixed Th e cro ss-shaped br acket is fixed t o a
t o suit a range of individual designs of similar
clamp w hich is bolted t o th e cable. For glass
overall dim ensions.
jo ints set direct ly in front of th e tubu lar st eel struct ure, th e bolt fixings are secured directly t o a channel-shaped bracket w elded t o th e main support ing steel tub e. A ll bo lt fixings in th ese mod est sized roo flights have th eir
MC E
374
3-D detail view showing fixing method of twin wall roof with double glazed units
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steel connector stee l support frame
Double glazed Ur'lrt Silicone seal
Bolt ~x i ng Support bracket
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Co-crete base
8.
Stainless steel cable
9.
Mild steel tension rod
10. Mild stee l plate II.
Adjacentexternal wall
12. Single glazed solar shadingglass
Verticalsection I 25.Typical assembly of tw in wall roof with doubleglazed uruts and solar shading
MC E 375
- - -Glass Roo s OLl Bolt fixed glazing: large scale roofl ights
/ 3-D view of underside of typical glazed pitched roof assembly
3-D exploded detail views of bolt fixed glazing
3-D exploded view of bolt fixed glazed roof
MC E
376
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I 3-D view of typ ical con ical roofiight assembly
Vertical section I :25. Generic conical rooflight,t ypical assembly
Ver t ical section I :5.Junction with adjacent material
Th e meth od of silicone bondin g glass t o alu-
w hich w o uld have t o be curve d both verti-
m inium fr aming is we ll develop ed for use in
cally and horizontally, and w hich wo uld be
glazed curta in wa lling to pro vide visually
ext remely difficult to fabricate.Th e generic
smoot h glass facades w it h no visible cappings.
rectangular ro oflight can be bond ed t ogeth er
Th e use of silicone sealed roofl ights,dis-
w it hout a suppo rting st ruct ure, w it h t he glass
cussed in an earlier sect io n, can be t aken a
pro viding its ow n support. A flat mono pitch
ste p further t o becom e a full bond w it hout
roofl ight can be bond ed t o a fr ame t o pro -
th e need for th e mechanical restraint of pr es-
vide a small ro oflight from o ne doub le glazed
sure plates. In silicone bond ed rooflights, th e
unit.Th e use of laminat ed glass sheet s can
glass is glued t o a support ing fr ame.The glue
make a glass deck st ro ng eno ugh t o wa lk o n.
is also th e exte rnal seal.T his t echnique is use-
Similar t o a glass floor used inside a building,
ful for small roofl ights, w here cappings wo uld
it must also t ake heavier traffic loadings and
be very difficult t o fabricate, and in ro oflights
be w eat her t ight.
w hich are walked upon , w here th e ro ofl ight is an exte rnal glass floor. Four examples are discussed in t his sec-
j Ver t ical section I :5.Junction with upstand
MC E 378 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Generic conical rooflight In a generic conical roofl ight, a lightweight
ti on. Th e generic co nical ro oflight has curve d
steel fram e is used t o suppo rt doub le glazed
doub le glazed unit s bond ed t o an aluminium
units th at form a ro oflight.Th e st ruct ural
fr ame. Silicon e bond ing avoids cover caps
fr ame comprises box sections set vert ically,
3-D view from below of typical conical roofiight assembly
Vert ical sect ion I 10. Junction with adjacent material
Details I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Silicone bond Mild steel support frame Singleglazed laminated glass panel Silicone seal Concrete base Insulated metal panel Folded metal fiashing Reinforced concrete support frame
3-D detail view of glass to glass junction In conical roofiight
Vertical section I: IO. Base upstand
held in place by thin tub e sectio ns runnin g
and a means of concealing th e closed cell
horizontally t o form a circle.T he glass panels
th erma l insulati o n set o n t op of t he wate r-
are supported on ste el flat sections w hich
proof membrane.
are we lded to th e hori zontally set tub e sec-
At th e top of th e roofli ght, a metal panel
t ion.Th e glass is levelled on blocks set onto
is used t o seal t he po int ed form. Th e glass
th e hori zont al flat sectio n, and th e silicone is
can be co nt inued almo st to th e top, w it h
applied t o th e joint. At th e base, t he ho rizo n-
o nly a small po inted metal cover, but th is
t al metal sectio n proj ects out to form a flash-
example aims t o show how th e glass is
ing over th e upstand in w hich th e ro oflight is
sealed t o anoth er mater ial set above it. Th e
set.An additi onal inner metal upstand can be
metal cover is fo lded inw ards at its junction
provided w it h anot her silicone seal if th ere is
w it h t he doub le glazed unit.Th e fo ld form s
risk of future flood ing from blocked rainw ater
an edge t o make a silicone seal.T he glass is
outlets,for exam ple.Th e wate rpro of mem-
bond ed to anot her stee l flat set below th e
brane for th e roof slab is co nt inued up th e
metal cover.Th is provides lat eral suppo rt t o
upstand and is bond ed to th e base of th e
th e glass unit as w ell as making an addit ional
horizonta l section th at suppo r ts th e glass.
inner seal.T he metal cover is typ ically
This provides a complete seal from th e glass
formed from a single piece of aluminium o r
to th e roof membran e, w it h th e metal flash-
stainless stee l th at is we lded and gro und
ing providing both a protection t o t his seal
smoot h, and is insulat ed w it h inject ed foam
Key plan
MCE 379
Glass Roofs 0 Bonded glass rooflights
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Horizontal section 1:5. Typical assembly
I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
MC E
Silicone bond Mild steel support frame Single glazed laminated glass panel Silicone seal Concrete base Insulated metal panel Folded metal flashing Reinforced concrete support frame
380
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Ho rizontal section I:5.Typical assembly
o r mineral fibre quilt to provide a cont inuity
sides of th e panel fo rm ing t he corne r in
of t hermal insulati on.
o rder t o receive t he clip.A n alte rnat ive
T he use of silicone bondin g in thi s roof-
D etails
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meth od is t o fix th e metal clip to th e o ut side
light avoids th e need t o use visually obtrusive
of th e glass at th e corne r.This avo ids th e
bolt fixings, allow ing t he form of t he rooflight
need fo r specially made corner pieces but it
t o be seen more clearly In some count ries,
does form a visible fixing.T he mod est size of
addit ional restraining clips are required o n
t his rooflight allow s t he horizont ally-set glass
t he o utside of th e glass, at th e co rners, but
to span from side t o side w it h no addit io nal
th is additio nal safety featur e is dependent
suppo rt.T he corne rs of t he rooflight are stiff-
upon th e individual rooflight design and t he
ened by sho rt lengths of pressure plat e
local building codes.
w hich ho ld t he glass in place.Th e glass has a
Generic rectangular roofiight
do uble glazed unit. t o w hich th e pressure
Th e generic rectangular ro oflight can be con-
plat es are fixed. Co rner jo int s have an o ute r
st ructed w it ho ut a suppo rt ing fr ame.
co rner piece of fo lded aluminium w hich is sil-
Mechanical restraint is provided at t he cor-
icone bond ed eit her t o t he face of th e adja-
specially shaped groove in th e depth of t he
ners in th e fo rm of pressure plate clips.Th e
cent glass units, o r is folded at 90° to bo nd it
double glazed units at t he corne rs are fabri-
to th e side of th e unit. Glass-to -glass joint s
cate d w it h a recessed groove o n th e two
between horizontally-set units have a silicone
3-D view of rooflightwith glass supports and central steel supportbeam
3-D viewof junction at edge of glass beam and steel support
3-D detail of connection between glass beam and concrete wall seal w it h an aluminium angle set on th e
brid ges th at w ould cause conde nsat ion t o
insid e face t o provide a second seal.
form o n th e inside face of th e fram ing in
At the base of the roofii ght the glass
temperate climates. A lt hough th erm al insula- -
unit s are seate d on aluminium or mild stee l
ti on can be difficult t o install in such sit ua-
sect ions w hich are in turn suppo rte d o n
t ions, th e cont inuity of insulati on is essent ial
br ackets to th e required height of th e fiash-
to avoid th e effects of th erm al brid ging.
ing.These metal brackets are fixed t o th e adjacent roof deck.The wate rproo f mem-
Th e inside face of th e doub le glazed unit t at its base is bond ed t o an inner metal
brane for th e adjacent roof exte nds up th e
angle.The outside face of th e glass is sealed
concrete upstand and up th e face of a fold -
t o th e metal fiashing below w it h silicone.
ed aluminium sheet th at forms a complete
A ny wate r th at passes through th e oute r
weat her t ight seal. Closed cell th erm al insula-
seal is drained t o th e exte rnal face of th e
tion is applied t o th e outside of thi s mem-
roof membrane beneath.
brane, and an o ute r pressed aluminium
3-D detail of connection between glass beam and concrete wall
Small ro ofi ights can have upstands as
fiashing is fixed to protect both th e mem-
fiashings w hich can appear t o be large in
brane and th e th erm al insulati on.T he insula-
relation t o th e area of glass. In highly visible
ti on forms a cont inuous layer from th e junc-
or accessible ro ofs thi s can be avoided
ti on w it h th e roof insulation up to th e sili-
eit her by setting th e ro ofiight on th e oute r
cone seal in order t o avoid any th erma l
edge of th e upstand t o create a fiat appear
MCE 38 1
Glass Roo s 05 Bonded glass rooflights
3-D view of glass to glass junction
3-D exploded view of glass to glass Junction
3-D view of glass to glass junction 3-D exploded view of glass to glass junction
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ance t o th e flashing, o r by adding a layer of
polymer backing rod.The surro unding w at er-
decking t o co nceal th e upstand, D ecking is
proof membrane is lapped up th e edge of
usually in th e form of op en jointed co ncrete
th e vert ical ring to pro vide a continuou s seal
slabs o r timber boards,
aro und th e ro oflight. A metal panel forms th e
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edge of th e silico ne seal aro und th e glass.T he
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Generic monopitch roofiight
co nt inuity of th erm al insulation is pro vided by
Th e mon op itch roofl ight provides a visually
closed cell insulati o n set o nto th e roof mem-
simple method of closing a ro of o pening
br ane th at exte nds up t o th e silicone seal.
form ed in a different mater ial.The circular
Horizontal section s I :5, Glass to glass junction
MC E
38 2
ro oflight is form ed by a circular ring of alu-
Glass roof decks
m inium fixed on Z -shaped br ackets w hich
Roofl ights form ed as (nominally) flat, accessi-
are fixed t o th e co ncrete upstand beneath,A
ble roof decks have been in use ove r th e past
vert ical metal flat sect ion is screwed t o th e
t en years, Previously used o nly inside build-
Z -sections and th e junct ion w it h th e flat ring
ings for wa lkways and st airs, th ey are now
is sealed w it h silicone,Th e circular doubl e
being used as fully wate rproo fed exte rnal
glazed unit is set int o th is ring fr ame in a bed
decks, manufactured as proprietary systems,
of silicone w it h spacer blocks t o locat e it
Single glazing is used. since doubl e glazed
evenly o n th e ring,Th e joint between glass
units are difficult t o use as a result of solar
and frame is th en sealed w it h silicone using a
gain aro und th e edge of th e unit, w here th e
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/
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Key plan 1:25. Monopitch rooflight,
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Vertical section I:25.Typical assembly
glass is ex posed to th e outside, but is sup-
t o catc h any w at er th at penetrates th e sili-
ported o n it s under side, allowing heat t o
co ne seal, or any wate r t hat passes through a
enter but not to escape.Where black co l-
damaged joint.
oured edge 'fritting' is used, th e sit uat ion is
Th e details here show alte rnat ives for
made difficult. How ever, doub le glazed roof
both st eel beam and glass beam suppo rt s t o
decking is in developm ent and w ill no doubt
th e glass panels.Th e suppo rt ing struct ure has
becom e much more commo n over t he next
a glass beam set in th e cent re, spanning th e
t en years.
full length of 6000mm. Its depth is approxi-
Th e glass used is lami nat ed, in commo n
mately 600mm, but th e beam depth w ill vary
w it h ot her ro oflights, both t o avo id th e pos-
depending upon th e individual design.Th e
sibility of any falling o bjects from penetrating
glass beams here comprise three layers of
th e glass o n im pact, as we ll as pr event ing
glass, each 19mm t hick, w hich are lami nat ed
damaged glass from falling imm ediately into
t ogether. In th e event of o ne glass being bro -
th e space below.Th e glass is set int o a series
ken, th e remaining two glasses w ill t ake th e
of extruded aluminium angles t o w hich it is
full load, avoiding col lapse of th e beam.The
bond ed o n it s under side.A gap betw een th e
overall th ickness of th e beam, of approxi-
fr ame and th e t op of th e glass is sealed w it h
mately 60mm, also pro vides sufficient bearing
silico ne of a different t ype. A n addit io nal
for th e tw o glass sheets th at meet on t op.
co ndensat ion channel is set below th e glass
Each glass has 20-25 mm bearing, w it h a
3-D detail view of glass to glass junction
3-D detail view of glass to glass junction
MCE 383
I
Glass Roofs 05 Bonded glass rooflights
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Key Plan. Laminated glass roof wh ich can be walked on , typ ical assembly
I S-20mm joint w idt h betwee n th e glass
dete rminants in th e overall rigidity of th e
decking sheet s,t o suit t he individual design.
glass deck and it s associate d vert ical deflec-
W here stee l plate is used to pro vide a beam
t ions.Typical vert ical deflections for th e glass
D etails for glass deck
instead of laminat ed glass, a steel flat is w eld-
build-ups,given below, range from O.2mm t o
I. 2.
ed t o t he t op of t he beam t o fo rm aT-sec-
2.0mm, th ough th e acceptab le amo unt of
t ion th at gives eno ugh bearing for th e glass
vert ical deflection under full design load is
Silicone bond Structural glass beam 3. Singleglazed laminated glass panel 4. Silicone seal 5. Concrete base 6. Insulated metal panel 7. Folded metal flashing 8. Mild steel plate beam as alternative support 9. Folded aluminium decorative cover 10. Steel aluminium support 'shoe'
deck.T he ends of t he glass beams are sup-
dependent upon t he specific design applica-
ported by a met al shoe suppo rt, made from
t ion.Typical laminated glass build-ups for th e
eit her mild steel or aluminium. St ainless stee l
range of panel sizes just ment ioned are as
is used w here co rrosion is an essent ial co n-
follow s.The t hicknesses of inter layer s have
siderat ion of t he design.T he metal shoe is
been ignored for clarity:
bolted back t o t he suppo rt ing st r ucture or
I Smm + 12mm+ 12mm
= 36mm t hick
reinforced co ncrete floor slab.Th e gap
I Smm+ I Smm+ 12mm
= 42mm thi ck
between th e edge of t he glass deck and t he
I Smm + I Smm+ I Smm
= 4Smm t hick
adjacent roo f finish material is made w it h a silicone seal. Typical glass deck panel sizes range from
MC E
384
At t he juncti on of glass beams, t he seco ndary glass beam is fixed t o th e primary
I OOOmm x I OOOmm to I SOOmm x I SOOmm.
beam by eit her a mild steel shoe , in th e man-
Both panel size and overall glass t hickness are
ner of t imb er floo r co nstruct ion, or mild st eel
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3-D detail of steel support beam
cleats in th e manner of stee l fram ed fioor const r uct ion. Both meth od s requ ire at least one of th e glass beams to be dri lled in order to bolt th e metal compo nent t o th e beam. W hen bo lting a glass beam t o a stee l beam, th e same prin ciples apply of using a metal shoe .Th e drilling of glass is a we ll esta blished t echniqu e develop ed mainly for bo lt fixed glazing. Glass decks usually have an additi onal layer applied t o th e t op surface of th e glass t o increase it s fr iction w hich reduces th e possibility of a building user from slipping w hile walking o n th e glass. Carb orundum is sometim es added to th e t op surface of th e glass for t his reason .A n alte rnat ive method is t o 'frit' o r screen print th e t op surface of th e glass, w hich has th e added benefit of reducing
3-D detail of steel support beam
visibility through th e glass from below.
MCE 385
- - -GIa'??'Roofs
05- - - - - - - - - - ......
Bonded glass roofli hts Details I . Saccoe bond 2.
3.
Mild stee l support frame Single glared laminated glass panel
4. 5.
saccoe seal Concrete base
6. 7. 8.
Insulated metal panel Fokled metal flash ing Renforxed concrete support frame
3-D detail view of point at top of conical mofiight assembly
3-D exploded view of typical conical roofiight assembly
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Exploded axonometric view of typical conical roofiight assembly
Me E 386
3-D detai l exploded view of glass to glass jorction in a coo ical roofiight
3-D exploded view of glass beam with central steel support beam
3-D view of glass beam wrth central steel support beam
Details for glass deck I, 2,
Silicone bond Structural glassbeam 3. Single glazed laminated glass panel 4, Silicone seal 5, Concrete base 6, Insulated metal panel 7, Folded metal flashing 8. Mild steel plate beam as alternat ive support 9, Folded aluminium decorative cover 10. Steel aluminium support 'shoe'
3-D exploded view of glass beam w ith central steel support beam
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3-D exploded vie;v of connection between concret e wall and glass beam suppo rts
3-D exploded view of junction at edge of glass beam arc steel support
M C E 38 7
CONCRETE ROOFS (I) Concealed membrane
Materials Structural JOints Parapet upstands
Balustrades and plinths Rainwater outlets
Penetrationsfor pipes and doers (2) Expo sed membrane
Polymer-based membranes
PVC membranes FPO (TPO) membranes Me
Parapets and upstands Ballusted roofs
(3) Plant ed System design Planted roof components
Soil depth
Overflows Roof junctions Rainwater outlets
Balcony planters
MCE
369
Concrete Roofs 0 Concealed memb rane 3-D overview of a concrete roof with a concealed membrane
Details I.W aterproof membrane 2.Thermal insulation
3. Concrete deck 4. Paving slabs S. Smooth pebbles 6. Parapet coping 7. Rainwater outlet 8.Slot drain 9. Opening for overflow
Materials
dim ension al stability and t ensile strength.
added for vulnerable locations such as at gut-
Bitum en has traditionally been used as a
Th is reinforcement ofte n allows th e mater ial
t er s and at upstands.
wate rproo f layer.applied w hile hot in liquid
t o be fold ed through 90°, making its use
form onto a concrete roof slab.As it cool s it
considerably easier.w here angle fillet s are
ingly being laid fiat w it h no fall, unlike
hardens, forming an impervious membrane,
not requ ired.
exposed membranes, w here a slight fall is
but w ill softe n again if heated by th e effects
W it h th e developm ent of much thinn er
Concealed membrane roofs are increas-
always required.This is partl y because bitu-
of solar radiation. For th is reason, in o rder t o
membranes in th erm op lastics and elastom-
men bond s more reliably t o a concrete slab
keep th e materi al coo l, bitum en membranes
ers, t ogether w it h th eir compet it ive costs,
th an t o a thin screed, and partl y because th e
are concealed by smoot h pebbles,paving
th ere have been considerable effor ts made
slopes required t o create falls in large areas
slabs, usually w it h th erm al insulati o n set
by manufacturer s over th e past 20 years t o
of fiat ro ofs create difficulties in level changes
between th e bitum en and th e pebbles/paving.
make th e bitum en layer s th inner.t o reduce
across th e roof w hich can be difficult t o dr ain.
Tradition al bitum en roofs are usually laid in
th e material required w hile enhancing its
Th e more traditional meth od s of screeds laid
two layers, w it h an overall thi ckness of
properti es of strength and fiexibi lity This has
t o falls and thi ck layers of bitum en is used
aro und 25mm . On e of th e limiti ng factors
been achieved by replacing th e th ick two -lay-
w here th e roof finish is sealed, such as paving
w it h bitum en is fo lding th e mater ial through
er method w it h a mixture of thin layer s,still
w it h sealed joints.
an angle.W hen th e materi al turn s through a
applied in hot liquid form on site , but rein-
Typically upst ands are formed before th e
right angle from th e horizontal roof t o a ver-
forced w it h an elasto me ric sheet, usually bed-
main areas of ro of are wate rproo fed in o rder
ti cal parapet wall, it can pass th rou gh a maxi-
ded between th e layer s.This is t ypically two
t o allow exte rnal wa lls t o be complete d.
mum of 45° in a single fo ld. For th is reason
layers, each 3mm th ick w it h reinforcing layer s
W hen an area is complete d, th e roof deck is
45°angle fillets are used t o make a 90° turn
bedded into th e materi al.This allows th e
wate rproo fed and finished, w it h areas of fiat
from roof to wall.
bitum en t o accommo date both small
roof being bond ed cont inuously t o th e
amo unts of movement at th ese junction s,as
already complete d upstands.This avoids th e
are co ncealed beneath ro of finishes are typi-
Mod ern bitum en-based membranes th at
we ll as th e sharp fold in th e material,w hich
need t o protect th e membrane, w hich has
cally a combinat ion of bitumen-based sheet
creates a weakness in th e membrane w hich
atte ndant risks of being damaged before th e
mixed w it h synt het ic rubber t o give fiexibili -
might ot herwise be damaged durin g th e life
building is finished.
t y combined w it h a reinforcement t o give
of th e building.A n o ute r protective layer is
MC E
390
A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertical section I 10,Rainwater outl et
CD
3-D view of rainwater out let
3-D view of parapet and rainwater out let
Vertica l section I :I0, Parapet and rainwater outl et
MC E
39\
I.W aterp ro of membrane 2.Thermal insulatio n 3-D view showing expansion joint in conc rete slab
3. Concret e deck 4. Paving slabs 5. Smooth pebbles 6. Parapet copi ng 7. Rainwat er out let 8. Slot drain 9. O pening fo r overflow
Vertical section I: I0. Expansion joint in concrete slab
Co ncealed membrane ro ofs are typically
screed and th e sealed paving above. Paving
in 'inverted' ro of co nfigurat ion w it h eit her
slabs o r blocks are bond ed t o t he screed
o pen joints o r sealed joints in th e t op layer
w it h mortar and gro ut ed.
th at covers th e th erm al insulation, usually
Vertical section I: I0, Base of balustrade
Vertical section I : I0, Parapet detail
MC E
392
paving. In th e o pen joint version, th e mem-
Struct ural joints
brane. bond ed t o th e concrete slab. is cov-
The main advantage of concealed mem-
ered by a protection layer.w it h closed cell,
branes is th eir ability t o span movement
rigid th erm al insulation set o n t op.A po lyes-
joints and expansion joints in reinforced con-
t er filter sheet is set o n t op, w it h paving o r
crete slabs w it h simple, reliable details th at
smo ot h pebble ballast o n t op t o ho ld th e
require no upstands t o form th e junction.
insulation in place as w ell as t o wa lk o n. Peb-
Expansion joints between concrete slabs of
bles are 20mm-40mm diameter. w hile paving
w idt hs between aro und I Omm t o SOmm are
slabs are around 600 x 600mm in size, 30
formed by stopping th e material each side of
mm -40mm deep. In th e sealed jo int configu-
th e joint and setting a rubb er-based st rip t hat
ration, th e bitum en membrane w it h its pro -
dips into th e gap between th e slabs, linking
t ection layer has a drainage layer o n t op,
t he membranes int o a cont inuo us seal.As t he
o nto w hich is laid a minimum 6Smm sandi
gap betw een t he slabs varies w it h struct ural
cement screed. usually reinforced or made
movement s, th e rubb er-based strip is allowe d
sufficient ly t hick t o avoid cracking both in t he
t o move w it hout being st retc hed significant ly.
3-D detail of roof parapet
3-D view of concrete upstand
Ve rt ical section I 10.Concrete upstand
The joint is protected and reinforced w it h an
3-D view of concrete upstand
groove at th e edge of th e slab unless wate r
addit ional layer,eit her flat and bond ed o n
at th is lower level can discharge int o a rain-
one side only, o r form ed as a fo lded,
wate r o ut let.
S-shaped cover th at folds back over itself.
Juncti on s between concrete ro of slabs
held in place by an addit ional protecti on
and w alls are t reated in a similar way, w it h
sheet o n t op. T he gap between th e mem-
th e membrane dipping down int o th e gap
brane, dipped int o th e jo int, and th e rein-
between wa ll and roo f and th e membrane
forcement cover is filled w it h a foam backing
cont inuing up th e wall. Reinforcement is simi-
rod o r tub e, as used in t he glass jo ints of bolt
larly applied, w it h a rubb er-based st rip fo lded
fixed glazing.Th e material used for th e rein-
th rou gh th e 90° corne r rather th an th e maxi-
forcement is eit her th e same bitum en based
mum 45° fold s th at are usually allowed in tra-
mater ial, o r increasingly, a rubb er-based st rip.
dition al bitum en-based membranes.
The t op of th e joint is finished as level as
Pro pri etary met al-based expansion joints
possible w it h th e adjacent areas of roof t o
are used t o form part of th e visible finishes,
allow w at er t o drain freely from th e roo f
t ypically w it h sealed roo f finishes. In thi s case
The reinforcing membrane is somet imes
th e seal is form ed by bond ing a st rip of
fo lded down int o t he gap, separate d from th e
membrane t o t he metal assembly. Th e metal
membrane below w it h a foam backing rod. It
expansion joint assembly is fixed o n t op of
can be difficult t o dr ain wate r from th is
th e membrane, w hich still dips down int o th e
3-D view showing concrete upstand
MC E
393
oncrete Roofs a Concealed membrane -c ,
--~
- .......
....- .. --"-- ..
I
Vert ical section I 10,Junction of external wall and roof slab
3-D view showing roof and door cill junction
Vert ical section I: I0, Door sill
joint. A foam backing rod is set o n t op of th e
t he building,The membrane is turned through
pet coping t o drain through th e pebbles t o
dipped membrane and is covered w it h a bed
a full 90° as show n in t he draw ings, but an
t he membrane beneath, In ot her inst ances
of compat ible sealant t o ensure t hat any
angle fillet is required by some manufacturers
t he paving is cont inued up th e parapet
wate r t hat penetrates t he movement joint is
t o limit t he angle of any fo ld t o 45°,A rein-
upst and, In an example w here t he cill t o t he
drained t o t he sides of t he movement joint.
fo rcing st rip is usually added w here a 90° fo ld
exte rnal doo r covers t he o pening, and is sup-
The wate rproo f membrane is t hen form ed
is made,
ported from th e base of th e o pening, th e
up out t he base of t he movement joint
In generic examples, a low parapet wa ll is
wate rproo fing stops at t he edge of t he
assembly t o provide a complete seal across
t ermin ated by a concrete or stone coping,
op ening.The t ermin ation of th e membrane
t he joint.
T he wate rproo f membr ane exte nds up t he
varies w it h each sit uat io n,
Joint s between concrete panels,such as
height of th e upstand, w hich run s hori zontally
precast concrete slabs, w here o nly negligible
t o fo rm a full damp proof course undern eath
Balustrades and plinths
struct ural movement is expecte d. are also
th e coping,This ensures th at th e membrane
Balustrade posts can be fixed t o a base plate
formed w it h rubb er-based st rips.T he mem-
provides a cont inuous w ate rpro of layer at th e
w hich is set o nto th e finished w ate rpro of
brane fo rms a cont inuous lapped joint across
juncti on w it h t he exte rnal wa ll.A n addit ional
membrane,T he balustrade base plate is bo lt-
t he rubb er-based strip, w it h a foam backing
metal flashing t o cover th e t op of th e metal
ed through th e membrane t o th e concrete
rod being provided w here t here is a risk of
faced insulati on t o protect t he juncti on
slab below, If t he memb rane has an addit ional
damage during const ruct ion,
between t he t op of t he met al facing t o t he
protection layer,t hen t his is usually omitted
insulation, and th e insulation itself. In thi s case,
aro und th e base plate t o give a more reliable
Parapet upstands
an o pen joint ed arrangeme nt of paving slabs
seal.A n addit ional membrane is t hen laid o n
In formi ng parapet upst ands, an essent ial
is ado pte d, w it h rainw ater drain ing at th e
t op of th e base plate w it h th e protection
requirement is t o keep t he wate rproo f mem-
level of t he membrane,To assist w it h t he
layer.A lte rnat ively, a ru bber-based seal is
brane as we ll protected from th e effects of
drainage of th e rainw ater from th e parapet
bond ed t o th e t op of th e base plate t o pro -
t he sun as elsewhere o n t he roof. Fo r t his
coping, a strip of pebbles is shown,T his avoids
vide a secondary seal t o t he penetrations in
reason, t hermal insulati on is applied t o t he
staining of t he roof level paving w here it
t he membrane fo rmed by t he bo lts securing
inside face of th e parapet even if thi s has no
meets th e parapet upstand by allow ing rain-
th e base plate,Th e po lyester filter sheet, set
direct benefit t o t he passage of heat t hro ugh
wate r runnin g off t he inside face of t he para-
loose laid o n t op of t he insulati on in t he
MC E
394
Vertical section I: I0, Expansoin joint in concrete slab
3-D view showing closed expansion joint in concrete slab
Vertical section I: I0, Expansoin joint in concrete slab
3-D view showing open expansion joint in concrete slab
D etails I. 2.
Waterproof membrane Thermal insulat ion 3. Co ncrete deck 4. Paving slabs 5. Smooth pebbles 6. Parapet coping 7. Rainwater out let 8. Slot drain 9. O pening for overflow I 0. Reinforcement at fold if required I I. Proprietary movement joint 12. Balustrade I 3. Pipe or duct I 4. FiIter sheet
Vertical section I :I0. Junction of extemal wall and roof with overflow
:0 J
Qj
3-D section view showing junction of external wall and roof with overflow
MCE
395
Concrete Roofs 0 J Concealed membrane
®
Vert ical section I: I O. Junction of external wall and roof slab
1
Vert ical sect ion I: I O. Base of balustrade Vertical section I: I O. Pipe penetrations
Vertical section l: I O. Base of balustrade
@
detail. is w rapped around t he balustrade post
level of the sealed paving and th e level of t he
below the level of th e paving.
wate rproo fing layer.The base of the rainw a-
Plinths w hich are form ed as short columns for th e support of roof-mo unted
concrete slab.The wate rproof membrane is
Details
mechanical equipment are wate rproofed in a
dressed down int o th e t op of the rainw at er
I. 2.
similar w ay t o a parapet upstand.The mem-
out let and the upper part of th e rainw ater
brane is folded up th rough 90° from the roof
out let is bolted down onto t he part already
level and is formed t o cover th e complete
fixed and sealed.The geotextile sheet is
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. I 2. I 3. 14.
MC E
t er out let can alte rnat ively be fixed to th e
396
W at erproof membrane Thermal insulation Concrete deck Paving slabs Smooth pebbles Parapet coping Rainwater outlet Slot drain Opening for overfow Reinforcement at fold if required Proprietary movement joint Balustrade Pipe or duct Filter sheet
plinth. Some configurat ions incorporat e a rail
w rapped around th e outlet t o avoid dirt and
suppor t ing an I-section th at w ould support
debris being w ashed into th e rainw ater
an air handling unit or a rail for a cleaning
dr ainage system.The rainw at er outlet could
cradle trolley.The therm al insulat ion exte nds
be fixed in th e same way, but in t his case t he
across th e comp lete plinth t o prevent a th er-
cover w ould be much low er,since rainwate r
mal br idge t hro ugh th e roo f co nst r uct ion.
is drained only at t he edges of th e cover,and
Rainwater outlets
could also be tu cked down int o t he edges of
not th rough its full height.The filter sheet
Some rainw at er outlets are set at th e level of
t he rainw ater outlet. Because of it s concealed
th e w at erpro of membrane, w hereas ot her
position, t he rainw ater outlet requires regular
roof configurat ions are drained at both th e
visual inspections by lifti ng up t he paving slab
ertical sSection I: I0. Pipe penetration
Vertica l section I :I 0. Pipe penetration
@ @
ertical section I: I0, Pipe penetration
@
@
3-D section view showing pipe penetration
in concrete roof with concealed membrane
immediately above to remove any debri s
t o th e balustrade detail mention ed earlier.
th at m ight collect in th e gap between th e
W here a concrete upstand is formed, a metal
rainwat er outlet and th e therm al insulation
flashing is we lded or mechanically fixed and
adjacent t o it. In ot her examples, th e rainw ater could
sealed t o th e penetrating pipe or duct. In some siutat ions, a metal sleeve is bo lted
be used increasingly to drain ro of t erraces
through th e membrane and a reinforcing
int o exte rnal rainw ater pipes fixed t o th e
rubb er-based disc is bond ed t o th e t op of
facade, o r t o a vo id imm ediately behind th e
th e base plate.Th e pipe is set into thi s sleeve
facade, w it hout th e need for a visible o pening
and is sealed w it h a t ension clip at th e t op of
in th e parapet wall th at is visually unappealing.
th e sleeve.Th e pipe flashing detail can allow
The tw o-w ay o ut let is fixed in two parts,A
th e pipe t o be both th erm ally insulat ed and
25mm gap is show n between th e parapet
independent of th e enclosing sealed sleeve.
wall and th e edge of th e paving slab t o allow rainw ater t o drain int o th e o ut let.
Pen etration s fo r pipes and ducts Penetration s are sealed by eit her forming an upstand aro und th e opening, o r by forming a metal collar aro und th e pipe o r duct, sim ilar
3-D section view showing pipe penetration in concrete roof with concealed membrane
MC E
39 7
- - -Concrete Roofs 0 ,.-- - - - -. Concealed membrane 3-D exploded view showing generic roof with co-cealed membrane
Details I. 2.
I 3.
Waterpro of membrane Thermal insulat ioo Co ncrete deck Paving slabs Smoo th peb bles Parapet (Op ing Rainwate r outlet Slot drain Operung for overflow Reinforcement at fold if req uired Prop rietary moveme nt joint Balustrade Pipe or duct
14,
Filter sheet
3. 4. 5.
6. 7. 8. 9. 10,
I I, 12.
,,
3·0 view showing parapet condition on conc rete roof with concealed membrane
Me E 398
3-D exploded view showing parapet condition on concrete roof with concealed me mb rane
3-D exploded view showing pipe penetration in concrete roof with concealed membrane
3-D exploded view showing upstand condition on concrete roof with concealed membrane
3-D exploded view showing door cill junction on concrete roof with concealed membrane
3-D exploded view showing expansion joint in concrete roof with concealed membrane
MC E
399
Concrete Roofs 02 Exposed membrane
3-D exploded overview of concrete roof with an exposedmembrane
Vertical section I: IO. Bonded method. Pipe penetration II
LD
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Vertical sections I: IO. Bonded method.Junctions of external wall and roof slab
Exposed membranes have been used for fiat
MC E 400 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
was considered t o be a major undertaking t o
roo fs w hich are not visible from below, but
install a complete ly new ro of covering. Dam-
thi s has changed in recent years as mem-
age t o th e bitum en-based roof materials was
branes are produ ced in increasingly smoo t h
ty pically a result of a lack of fiexibi lity of th e
and regular finishes. Because of th eir light -
membrane th at could not easily accommo-
we ight natur e, th ey are often used in con-
date th erm al and structural movements as
junction w it h lightweight roofs such as pro -
we ll as deflections in th e building structure.
filed metal deck and timber. This section con-
A lt ho ugh concrete roofs slabs are less sus-
siders th eir use in concrete const ruction,
cept ible t o th erm al movement th an some
th ough th e same prin ciples of wate rpro ofing
ot her materi als,interfaces between wa ll and
can be applied t o th ese ot her mater ials.
roof. or roof and roofiights, for example,
It was st ill commo nly th e case 30 years
3-D view of junction of external wall and roof slab
-
wo uld often result in damage to th e roof
ago for exposed membranes o n concrete
membrane w here th e ro ofing sheet cont in-
ro ofs t o be made from bitum en o r bitum en-
ued across th e jo int at th e junction of th e
based sheet materials.This materi al was
two materials.The st r uctural movement
expecte d t o last aro und I 0- 15 years, afte r
between th e roof deck and th e adjo ining ele-
w hich tim e th e ro of covering sho uld have
ment s wo uld somet imes result in th e ro ofing
been replaced. In practice th ese ro ofs we re
sheet splitting o r t earing, allow ing rainw ater
patched up w here leaks occurred since it
to penetrate th e roof const r uction.Th e
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D etails I.
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W aterproof membrane 2. Thermal insulation 3. Concrete deck 4. Paving slabs 5. Smooth pebbles 6. Parapet coping 7. Rainwater outlet 8. Opening for overflow 9. Balustrade 10. Pipe or duct I I. External wall 12. Roofiight
,~
Vertical section I:I O. Bonded method . junction of external wall and roof slab
Vertical section I : I O. Bonded method . junction with rooflight
11" :<'--1
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Vertical section I :I O. Bonded method .junction of external wall and roof slab
we akness of th ese mater ials was partially
3-D view of junction between external wall and roof slab
ing reliable weat hert ight ro of membrane.As
overcome by int ro ducing added sacrificial lay-
a result of th ese developm ent s,po lymer
ers.A lt ho ugh thi s had th e advantage of
modifications we re also made in th e o lder-
reducing th e risk of th e membrane being
generat ion bitum en-based materi als to make
punctured by foot traffic during maintenance,
th em more flexible, in o rder t o compete w it h
th is meth od did not add any substant ial
th e po lymer-based sheet mater ials.As a
strength t o th e membrane and damage
result th ere is now a w ide range of exposed
wo uld occur as before.
membrane materials available t o suit different
The int ro ducti on of po lymer-based mem-
budgets and individual roof designs.
branes provided economic wate rproo fing mater ials th at we re more flexible than th eir
Polym er-based m em branes
bitum en-based predecessors. First introduced
Th e main advantage of th e polymer-based
in th e 1960s and I 970s,th ey became much
sheet mater ials is th eir ability t o be cut and
more w idely used in th e I 980s and I990s.
form ed t o complex shapes, allow ing th em t o
The increased flexibility of th e new sheet
t ake up shapes precisely,somet imes pre-
mater ials allowe d for greate r amounts of
form ed in th e factory before being delivered
movement between adjo ining compo nents
t o site . Single layer membranes are very
and assemblies, allow ing th e detailing of junc-
practical on roofs w it h a large number of
tions to be relatively straightforward in form -
penetration s,t ypically in comme rcial buildings
3-D detail view of junction between external wall and roof slab
MCE
40 I
- - -Concrete Roofs 02- - - - - .... Ex osed membrane
(j)
, ,ANMIy\ I
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o
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ve rt kalsection I :10 , Booded method. Rainwater out let
Rainwater
Out~l':'
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Vert ical sectio n 1:1 0, Bonded method. Roof fo k!
3-D view of bcooe o method. Rainwater out let
®
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Vert ical sect ion I: 10. Mechanical fast ening meth od. Roof ove rflow
Me E 402
. .;=J
3-D view of bonded metho d.
I
VII
o
Vert ical sect ion I: 10. Mechan ical fasterllng method .Junct io ns of exte rnal wall and roof slab
D etails I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
W at erproof membrane Thermal insulation Concrete deck Paving slabs Smooth pebbles Parapet coping
7, 8, 9, 10, I I, 12,
Rainwater out let O pening for overfow Balustrade Pipe or duct Ext ernal wall Roofiight
Low parapet.
------ o
Vert ical section I: I0, Bonded method, Low parapet
3-D view of bonded method, Low parapet.
w here mechanical vent ilat ion equipme nt is
niques o r adhesive bond ing meth od s th at can
we lded t ogeth er t o form a co nt inuous mem-
regularly being modifi ed o r replaced during
be both slow and can damage adjacent wo rk
brane w itho ut t he need for standing seams
during th eir applicat ion, In hot air we lding, a
o r visible jo ints, Plasticiser s and filler mater ial
jet of heated air is used t o softe n th e mater i-
in PVC-P is added t o give th e mater ial great -
eit her elastome ric materi als, t ypically EPD M,
als and we ld t ogeth er, applied from a range
er flexibilityThe materi al has very low levels
o r from th erm op lastic mater ials, typically
of t oo ls th at are eit her hand held o r fully
of shrinkage, and is dimensionally sta ble and
plasticised PVC (PVC- P), Elastome ric m ateri -
automate d, depending o n th e application,
doe s not creep visibly w it h age,The material
plastics are pr eferred in Euro pe, EPD M (et h-
PVC membranes
movement under full w ind load.
ylene pr opylene diene mon om er) is a flexi-
pv c (po lyvinyl chloride) ro of membranes
th e lifeti me of a building, Single layer membranes are made from
als are very popu lar in th e US w hile th erm o-
experiences o nly very small amo unts of
Membranes are reinforced w it h glass
ble and elastic materi al t hat has th e appear-
have been in use since th e 1960s as a very
fibr e sheet o r polyester fabric.Th ese layer s
ance of a synt het ic rubb er. EPDM is manu-
lightweight and relatively eco no mic roofing
are bond ed int o th e mater ial.The glass fibre
factured in th e lim it ed co lours of black, grey
materi al, and have becom e w idely used in
provides dim ension al stability, making it more
and w hite , Both elastome rs and th erm op lastics can
recent years, Mem br anes in thi s material
stable for bon ding t o th e substrate ,Th e
we re fir st develop ed in Euro pe in th e lat e
wove n polyester fabric, used in t ent membrane st r uct ures, has high t ensile strength t o
be mechanically fixed, bon ded o r secured
1960s and we re used in th e US from th e
w it h ballast t o th e co ncrete deck beneath,
I 970s o nwards, PVC sheet materi al is usually
resist w ind loads resulting in mechanical fixing
D evelopm ents in th ese mater ials have led t o
reinforced w it h glass fibre t o give it increased
meth od s being used. A typical build-up for a
th em being used o n timber decks and pro -
rigidity th at is easier t o bo nd t o th e subst rat e,
filed metal decks in addit ion t o th e co ncrete
Th e PVC used in membranes is plasti-
decks discussed here, Both th erm opl astic and
cised (PVC-P), unlike th e unplasticised PVC
single layer membr ane is a co ncrete deck w it h a vapo ur barr ier set o n t op , w it h th ermal insulation above th at, sealed o n t op w it h
EPD M membranes can be we lded toge t her
(PVC-U, o r upv q used t o make w indow
a single layer membrane, PVC-P membranes
t o fo rm a co nt inuous wate rproof sheet.
fr ames and rainw ater dr ainage compo nents,
are t ypically l .5mm - J Omm th ick, w hile
W hile both materi al ty pes we re glued, th ere
PVC-P is rigid at norm al external t emp era-
EPD M membranes are ty pically I.Omrn -
is an increasing use of hot air we lding meth -
tures, but softe ns w hen heated, making it
I .Srnrn th ick,
ods, w hich avoid th e need for flame t ech-
flexible and allowing st rips o r sheet s t o be MC E
403
Concrete Roo s 02 Exposed membrane
D etails I.
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W aterproof membrane 2. Thermal insulat ion 3. Concrete deck 4. Paving slabs 5. Smooth pebbles 6. Parapetcoping 7. Rainwateroutlet 8. Opening for overflow 9. Balustrade 10. Pipe or duct I I. Ext ernal wall 12. Roofiight
Vert i"cal secti'on
I:rO. Bonded met nod: Roo( (old
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3-D view of bonded method. Pipe penetration
FPO (T PO) membranes
from expanded po lystyre ne board .T he
A recent developm ent in themn opl astic
vapo ur barrier is loose laid o n the concret e
membrane ty pes are po lypro pylene- and po l-
deck and th er mal insulatio n is then mechani-
yet hylene-based mat er ials.They have greater
cally fixed thro ugh t his barrier t o th e deck
flexibilit y th an PVC-P membranes. but sti ll
beneat h.T he spacing of th e fasteners varies
require reinforcement in glass fibre sheet for
w it h t he design w ind loads.A separat ing layer
increased dimensional stabilit y and po lyest er
of glass fibre sheet is usually laid o nto th e
fabric to give great er t ensile st rength. Fire
insulat io n w it h an o ut er single layer mem-
retard ant is added t o pro vide fire resistance,
brane.T he membrane is mec hanically fixed
unless it is PVC-P w hich is self-extin guishing
w it h pressure plate bars,similar t o th ose
w hen flame is applied.
used in glazed cur tain w alling systems t o hold th e glass in place. Bars fo rm strip s of pressure
Mechanically fixed method
plat e to hold t he ro of build- up in place.The
T his fixing met hod is suit ed t o applicat ions
pressure plat es are fixed by bolts at cent res
w it h high w ind uplift fo rces. as bond ed sys-
along t heir length t o t he subst rate below.
tem s t end t o be limited by t he bo nding 3-D view of bonded method. Pipe penetrat ion
MCE
404
Membran es can also be secured by po int
st rength of th e vapo ur barrier t o w hich t he
fixings rathe r than by pressure plat es.
membrane is itself bonded t hrough t he ther-
SO-7Smm diameter rigid plastic discs are
mal insulation layer.w hich is ty pically made
used t o hold the build-up in place.The se are
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Vertical section I : I 0, Bonded method, Upstand for balustrade
3-D view of bonded method, Upstand for balustrade
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Vertical section I: I0, Mechanical fastening method, Rainwater outlet
Vertical sect io n I: I 0, Mechanical fastening method, Pipe penetration
set at cent res to suit th e design w ind loads,
risk of vapo ur passing through th e roof st ruc-
The closed cell rigid insulat io n is typically
ture from inside th e building.The th erm al
made in panel sizes of 1200mm x 2400mm
insulation is then bond ed to th e vapo ur bar-
in thi cknesses from 25mm to IOOmm
rier. Insulat io n can also be mechanically fixed w it h pressure plates t o th e concrete deck
Bonded fixing method
beneath,Th e membran e is th en bond ed to
The build-up of mater ials is th e same as that
th e insulati o n w it h a cont inuo us layer of
for th e mechanically fixed system,The mem-
bondin g adhesive on its underside, Some sys-
brane can eit her be bond ed directly t o th e
t ems still bond th e membran e at po ints o nly
concrete deck to form a co ncealed mem-
rather th an acrossth e ent ire surface of th e
brane, o r be in th e exposed configurat ion
membrane, but th is is dependent upon th e
discussed here,W hen bond ed directly t o th e
w ind load and th e proprietary system used
concrete deck. a felt backing layer is usually used t o overcome any roughness in th e sub-
Bonded membranes have a visually smoot h appearance, making it suit able w here
strate th at w o uld puncture th e material In
th e roof surface is seen from points aro und
th e exposed membran e configurat ion th e
th e building, It can be more difficult t o
vapo ur barri er is usually bitum en-based and
achieve th e bondin g required for high w ind
is bond ed t o th e deck Joints between th e
uplift condit io ns, but thi s is a matter of indi-
vapo ur barrier sheet s are lapped t o avoid any
vidual design,Th is fixing method st ill requires
3-D view of bonded method, Upstand for balustrade
MCE
405
Concrete Roo s 02 Exposed membrane
D etails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
W aterproof membrane Thermal insulation Co ncrete deck Paving slabs Smooth pebbles Parapet coping
7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12.
Rainwater outlet Opening for overfow Balustrade Pipe or duct External wall Roofiight
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Vertical section I: 10. Mechanical fastening method. Low parapet
Vertical section I:I O. Mechanical fastening method .Junction with roofiight 2
3-D view of low parapet on exposed membrane concrete roof with ballast
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Vertical sections I : I O. Mechanical fastening method, Junctions of external wall and roof slab
mechanical fixing at t he edges, and around
Ballast ed roofs
o penings such as roofiights.
Concealed membranes w hich are ballasted use a t op layer t o we igh down th e mem-
Para pets and upstands
Vertical sections I :I O. Mechanical fastening method , Roof fold
MC E
406
brane and insulati o n rather th an use mechan-
Membranes can be bond ed o r mechanically
ical fixing o r bon ding method s.A ty pical
fixed t o parapet upstands.The fixing method
build-up consist s of a single layer membrane
th at is used o n th e main area of roo f is usual-
we lded t ogether t o form a cont inuous sealed
ly cont inued on th ese vert ical areas.W it h
sheet. w hich is loose laid o nto a concrete
mechanical fixing th e pressure plate can be
deck.A backing felt is used w here th e con-
fixed eit her t o th e upstand o r t o th e fiat roo f
crete is considered t o be t oo roughly finished
area.Th e pressure plate form s a junction
for th e membrane t o be laid directly on t op.
between th e membrane sheet forming th e
Th erm al insulati o n is loose laid o nto th e
upstand and th e membrane sheet of th e
membrane w it h a filter layer set onto th e
roof Int ermediat e pressure plates are applied
insulati on. Smooth pebbles are spread o n t op,
hori zont ally o n th e upstand w hen its height
t o a depth dependent upon both th e we ight
exceeds aro und SOOmm, depend ing on th e
required t o avoid w ind uplift as w ell as t o
specific materi al used.
sat isfy visual requirement s.
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Vertical section 1-10 Ballasted method. Eaves
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Vert ical sections I 10. Ballusted method.Junctionsof external wall and roof slab
trat ion
3-D view of expo sed membrane concrete roof with ballast
3·0 view of exposed membrane concrete roof with ballast
MC E 407
Concrete Roo s 02 Exposed membrane
3-D exploded overvi ew of concrete roof w ith an exposed membrane
Exploded axonometric view of junction between roof slab and externa l wall
3-D exploded view of junction between roo f slab and ext ernal wall
Exploded axonometric view of low parapet 3-D exploded view of low parapet
MCE
408
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3-D overview of concrete roof with an exposed memo -aoe
3-D exploded view of rainwater outlet within exposed membrane roof
(j)
3-D exploded view of pipe penee-atco
D etails I.
Waterproof membrane
7,
2.
Thermal insulatio n
Rainwater outlet
J.
Concrete deck
4. 5.
Pavingslabs Smooth pebbles
8. Opening for overflow 9. Balustrade I0, Pipe or duct I I , External wall
6.
Parapet cop ing
I 2. RoOftlgtlt
3-D exploded '/lew of upstand with railings
MC E 40 9
Concrete Roofs 03 Planted
Vertical section 1:5. Parapet condition in lightly planted roof
3-D overview of concrete roof with light (sedum) planting
System design
used as substrates. Maintenance access is
added we ight of soil. In t erm s of dr ainage it
Con crete decks used for planted areas can
provided by t he pebble st rips at th e roof
is estimate d by manufacturers of proprietary
be w ate rproo fed w it h eit her a concealed
edges or by individual paving slabs that avoid
systems th at 50% t o 90% of rainfall is
membran e or an exposed membran e as dis-
th e need t o wa lk across t he planting.
retained in planted roofs, but t his varies con-
cussed in t he previous sections. Planted
Heavy planted roofs permit a w ide vari-
roofs are of t wo ty pes: light planted and
ety of plants, shrubs and trees t o grow o n a
heavy planted. U nlike ot her concrete roof
concrete roof deck. Du e t o t he size and
siderably w it h local climate condit io ns and rainw ater dr ainage provision.
typ es, planted roofs are not always insulat ed
intensity of th e planting th ey require an
Plant ed roof components
as th ey oft en form th e roof of underground
auto mate d irrigati o n system, usually from
Both light planted and heavy planted ro ofs
structures such as car parks, providing a
pipes set into th e so il th at provide a tri ckle
have a similar build-up, comprising ty pically a
planted roof at gro und level.
w ate r feed to th e soil at specific tim es w hich
t op layer of planting,w it h a growing medium
may vary during th e course of th e year.
o r soil beneath.A filter layer is set under-
Heavy planted roofs require regular mainte-
neath, and below thi s, a drainage layer and
Light planted roofs have resilient plants th at require littl e or no irrigat io n, and th at w ill grow in a thin layer of soil or organic
nance, provided by paved paths o r by areas
moisture mat. Beneath thi s lowest layer is set
growing medium.They are not usually used
of grass.
th erm al insulati o n if required.A lt ho ugh
o n a roof accessible to building users,but are
Both light planted and heavy planted
planted ro ofs provide a limit ed amount of
seen from vant age po ints aro und th e build-
roofs have dr ainage layers beneath th e
th erm al insulation from th e soil, in practice
ing. Light planted roofs have plants and flow -
growing medium th at hold wate r and release
th is is reduced due t o t he vary ing amo unts
ers t hat require littl e maintenance and do
it back t o th e plants w hen required.This
of wate r held w it hin th e soil.A root barri er
not usually have an irrigati o n system t o sup-
allows th e soil depth t o be much less th an
is set beneath th e insulati o n t o protect t he
ply w ate r at cont rolled tim es,relying on rain-
th at w hich wo uld be required for o lder land-
wate rproof membrane, w hich form s th e
wate r and mod est amo unts of wate ring dur-
scaping meth od s,w here th e soil was expect -
bottom layer.w hich is bond ed to th e con-
ing maintenance at specific tim es of th e year.
ed t o ho ld all th e w ate r.Th e reduced depth
crete roof deck.T he root barr ier is some-
Th ese lightweight planted ro ofs suit a light -
of so il allows planting t o be considered for
tim es bond ed t o th e wate rpro ofing layer,
we ight deck, such as a thin concrete shell,
concrete roof struct ures t hat would require
usually w hen th e complete build-up is a sin-
althou gh profi led metal decks are commo nly
no significant strengthening t o receive th e
gle proprietary syste m.
MCE 4 10 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3-D view' stlov.ing lightly planted (sedom) roof assembly
3-D view' shov.il1gparapet jUl1ctiol1 il1 heavi ~ planted roof
Details I,
2,
3. 4,
5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10. II. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Light vegetation Heavy vegetation $o il 1 grow ing medium Filter sheet Drainage layer Wate rproofing layer Therm al il1sulation vapoo- barrier Concrete deck Smooth gravel Coping Pipe 1 duct Supp~ pipe Raowater out let Wa ll claddll1g
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Vert ical section I 10. Ligl1t plantil1g Parapet
jmcnon
MC E 411
Concrete Roo s 03 Planted
Vert ical section I : IO. Light planting. Rainwater outlet 3-D detail of rainwate r outlet in light ly planted roof
Vertica l section I: IO. Junction between light ly planted roof and door cill
3-D detail of cill junction in heavily planted roof
The esse nt ial requirem ents for stabilising
shee t retains wate r th at dr ains throu gh th e
are th e pro vision of nutrients in t he grow ing
planting.Wate r is retained in profiled troughs
medium , wate r retention , so il ae rat ion and
in a typically polystyren e egg-crate shaped
drainage. So ils used are aimed to be re latively
tray t hat re leases water back to t he plant ing.
low in we ight but are balanced to suit th e
This meth od also performs sat isfacto rily o n
nutr ients, so il porosity, vapo ur perm eab ility
sloping co ncrete roofs. Excess water is
(from th e drainage laye r below) and pH val-
drained away through gaps between th e
ues req uired by th e plant s chosen. Both th e
drainage trays.The egg-crate form allows ae r-
so il mix and th e so il depth determin e th e
at ion, permittin g th e so il t o abso rb th e wate r
amo unt of plant growt h th at can be expect-
sto red here . In dr ier months, water diffuses
ed o n a planted roof
3-D detail showing rainwater outlet in planted roof
MC E 4 12
The drainage laye r ben eath th e filte r
and maintaining plant growt h in planted roofs
up t hrou gh th e so il to the plant roots.A
To prevent th e passage of o rganic matt er
moisture mat is ofte n set under this laye r to
and fin e particles into th e water drainage sys-
catc h wate r that runs off th e dr ainage laye r.
t em, a filte r sheet is set undern eath th e plant -
The mat is made from a dur able fibre th at
ing.This shee t is lapped up th e sides of th e
retains moisture and nutr ients as we ll as
planting, whe re it meet s an upstand, to th e
se rving as prot ection t o th e root barrier
level of th e planting.
ben eath. It is not used in inverted roof co nfiguration s. In inve rted roofs, a root barr ier is
3-D overview of concrete roof with heavy planting
1°1 ' II
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3-D detail of parapet junction in heavily planted roof
r , I
Vertical section I : I O. Heavy planting. Low parapet.
set immediat ely below t he insulatio n t o pro-
in mild, te mpe rate climat es. Light planted
tect th e w at erpro of memb rane formi ng th e
ro ofs can be grow n o n both no minally flat
lowest layer.T his layer prevents plant ing roo ts
roofs and o n sloping roo fs w it h a pit ch up to
fro m damaging the w at erproo fing. In w arm
25° to 30°. Heavy plant ed roofs have a
Details I. Light vegetation 2. H eavy vegetation
roof constr uction, the w at erpro of membrane
deeper drainage layer t o provide great er
is set o n t op of th e thermal insulation, posi-
w at er storage.The soil depth, in excess of
4. Filter sheet
ti oning the insulation w it hin the building
150mm, requires an automat ic irri gation sys-
5. Drainage layer
envelop e.A vapo ur barrier is set between
t em to provide a reliable w at er supply cover-
the t herm al insulat ion and the co ncrete deck. In th is configurat ion a moisture mat is set
age of th e complet e roof. In inverted roof configuratio ns, th e
3. Soil/growing med ium
6.Wat erproofing layer 7.The rmal insulation SVa po ur barr ier 9. Co ncret e deck
between th e w at erpro of memb rane and t he
w eight of soil and vegetati on is made suffi-
drainage layer above.
cient t o avoid wi nd uplift and the possibility
I I . Coping
of th e insulation floating o n t he wate r durin g
12. Pipe/ duct
Soil depth Th e soil dept h in light planted roofs
rainfall.A lt ho ugh t he pond ing is ofte n consid-
IO. Smo ot h gravel
13. Supply pipe 14. Rainwater outlet
ered by pro prietary wate rproofing manufac-
ranges from 50mm t o around 150mm,
tu rer s not t o affect th e wate rproo fing layer,it
weighing a minimum of aro und 70kg/m 2 of
can cause lightweight planted roofs t o 'float '
ro of area.Water is stored in the grow ing
during rainstorms if th is layer is not properly
medium and drainage layer, making it efficient
secured.
15.W all cladding
MC E 413
oncrete Roo s 03 Planted
Vertical section I :5. Light planting to rooflight junct ion
Overflows
w all const r uction. Up stands for parapets and
th e building.A fall arrest syste m is provided.
Irrigat ed heavy planted roofs are usually pro-
door sills,high wa lls and roofl ights are formed
such as harnesses wo rn by maintenance per-
vided w it h overfow o ut lets so th at, in th e
by exte nding th e wate rproof filter sheet and
so nnel, w hich is attac hed by a safety line to
event of th e rainw ater outl ets being blocked.
root barri er up to a minimum of I SOmm
an ancho r point or a latch way cable. Balus-
a high rainfall o r failure of th e irrigati o n con-
above th e level of th e soil o r growing medi-
trades are provided for building user s in con-
trol equipment do es not cause th e roof t o
um.The visible membranes and sheets are
ditions w it h low parapets.
flood w it h wate r.O verfow s are set ty pically
concealed w it h th erm al insulati o n, and typi-
at a height between SOmm and ISOmm
cally eit her paving turned on edge (t he same
Veget at ion barriers are provided at roof perim eter s,upstands,duct penetration s and
above th e planting level t o avoid flood dam-
paving used for adjacent access paving) o r a
rainw ater o ut let po ints t o avoid damage t o
age t o both th e planting and t o th e interior
metal sheet t o match th at of th e parapet
th e adjacent construct ion th at wo uld be
of th e building.W hen th e roof is laid t o falls,
coping w here a metal coping is used.
some overfow s are set at th e level of th e
Eaves can be formed by metal edge
highest finished ro of level in ord er to avoid
trims,usually from a minimum 3mm thi ck
caused by plants. Pebbled strips w it h a minimum w idt h of 300mm are used, w it h river washed pebbles of 16mm t o 32mm diameter.
planting being damaged sho uld flood ing
fo lded aluminium sheet o r stainless stee l
result in landscaping being t emp orarily sub-
angle.Th e filter sheet is folded up th e inside
Rainwater o utlets
merged in w ate r.
face of th e angle t o avoid o rganic matt er and
Th e filter layer is dressed up around th e ver-
fine particl es from being w ashed down int o
t ical edges of th e rainw ater out lets. A n access
Roof junctions
th e drainage layer.Th e wate rproo f mem-
cover is provided for maintenance purp oses.
At upstands and eaves th e same pr inciples
brane is bond ed t o th e base of th e metal
Wate r drains at th e level of th e wate rproo f
apply to planted roofs as discussed in th e
angle w here th e edge is t ermin ated by a pav-
membrane, w hich is dressed into th e base of
previou s sect io ns o n co ncealed membran es
ing slab. Smooth pebbles can be used, provid-
th e o ut let.
and exposed membranes.The wate rproo fing
ed th ere is no risk of th em being pushed
exte nds a minimum of ISOmm above th e
over th e edge, parti cularly durin g mainte-
Balcony plant er s
level of th e planting, pro viding a cont inuity
nance wo rk. Many planted roofs have low
Planting troughs w it h automatic irrigat io n and
from th e roof membrane t o th e flashing at
parapet o r eaves edges so th at th e roof can
a dr ainage system can be incorp orated at
th e t op of th e upstand o r t o th e adjacent
be experienced visually from th e o utside of
roof level int o cur tain wall facades. In some
MCE
4 14
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Vertical section I: I0, Rainwater outlet
3-D detail of pipe penetration in lightly planted roof
, \ / \ / , , \ / ',I \ 1 \ / \ / \ I" / \ 1\/ \ / \ I
3-D detail of two-way outlet in lightly planted roof
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Vertical section I: I 0, Light planting, Roofiight upstand
Vertical section I :I0, Roofiight upstand in lightly planted roof
MCE
4 15
Concrete Roo 5 03 Planted Vertical section I: I0, Heavy planting, Pipe penetration,
Vert ical section I: I0, Heavy planting, Cill junction, Planter edge,
1/11'1/1/1/11'1 II ,II 111111111\,/11'1/1/11 01 "1,II/I/I/',/I/I/II'I/I/I/\J~
8
3-D details of pipe penetration in heavily planted roof
D e t ails I, 2,
3. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. II . I 2. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17. I 8.
Light vegetation Heavy vegetation Soil /growing medium Filter sheet Drainage layer W at erproofing layer Thermal insulation Vapour barrier Concrete deck Smooth gravel Coping Pipe / duct Supply pipe Rainwater outlet W all cladding GRP planter Glazed external wall Glass balustrade
MC E 4 16
cases, a small planter can be integrated into a
e nd, typically by a wate r supply pipe of small
balcony. The plant er is sea led, but sho uld any
diamete r set into t he roof finishes.The drain-
wate r leak e it he r from th e plant er (as a result
age pipe is typically of SOmm diameter for
of damage) o r if wate r pen etrat es th e seals
such installat ion s, and is set e it he r w it hin t he
aro und its top edges , th en th e wate r is
facade pane ls o r d irect ly in front of t he
dr ained by an intern al wate rproof tray into
facade . Plant e r boxes are made from glass
th e transom be low, w he re it drains t o t he
re inforced po lyeste r (GRP) w hich is mou lded
o utside .The curtain wa ll syste m, w hich is
to fo rm a single , sealed she ll.This mate rial is
dr ained and vent ilate d int e rnally, allows any
very resilient and can be mou lded by hand to
wate r t hat pe netrated th ese planter seals to
suit individual project req uire me nts. Planter
dr ain t hro ugh it s pressure equalisat ion cham-
boxes made from t he rmop lastics are much
bers.A glazed balustrade is show n beh ind t he
more expe nsive t o manufacture , requiring
plante rs, indicating th at t he planter wo uld be
large numbe rs to be fabricated at t he same
maintained from t he facade clea ning syste m,
size to make t hem eco no mic.The boxes are
typically cleaning crad le.Alternat ively, large r
set int o a met al frame provided w it hin t he
ve rsio ns of t his plante r can be used t hat are
curt ain walling system and are sea led w it h sil-
more suitable for much larger plants.The
icon e aro und t he ir edges. In t his example, a
plante rs are d rained intern ally in t he same
metal str ip is set o n top of t he plante r to
way. In all plante rs wate r is supplied at o ne
co nceal t he GRP from view.
3-D sectional view showing small balcony planter arra ngement
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3·0 view showing small barcorw planter arra ngement
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3·0 detail view showing section t hro ugh small balcooy planter
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Vertical sect ion 1:5. Small balcony planter
MC E 4 17
- - -"0"0'"' , ~el""R85"""'------" Planted
3-0 exploded 'neW ~ hghtly planted ccoo ete roof assembly
Details I.
4lht ~oon
1 -.,,_ 3. Soli gr'O'MIlg rnedun "
filt er sheet
5 """"'..,.,.
6. Watelpl ooftlg layer7. Therma l nAAnton 8. Vapour bamer
9. Ccocete oeo; 10. Smooth gr<M"1 II . CopIng 12. Pipe { c1.d
11 Supply pipe 14, Rainwater outlet IS. W all cladding
16. GRP planter 17. Glazed ext ernal wall 18 G lass balustrad e
3-0 _
stlowIng parapet ccocooo on l.ght1y planted
root "'"""" MC E 4 18
3-D exploded voew showing p.uapet coodrtlOO on hght ly
ptned roof assembly
3-D exploded _
showro& jJnclJon WIth parapet on
hudy pLyned roof assembly
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MC E
4 19
TIMBER ROOFS (I) Flat roof: Bit um en-based sheet membranes
The material Roof build-up
Solar p-otecuon Fixing methods
Parapet upstands Junction with tiled roof
Eaves and verges (2) P itch ed roof:T iles Plain tiles
Interlocking tiles Ventilation
Eaves Ridges
Verges Hips and valleys Ab utments
(3) Pit ch ed roof: Slat es Roof folds
Vents Monopitch ridges
Dormer windows Abutments
(4) P itche d roof: Me tal
Standing seam cold roofs Eaves and valley gutters Ridges and abutments
Penetrations
Metal tiled rook
MCE
421
irn er Roo sO Flat roof: Bitumen-base d sheet membranes
3-D view of nat timber roof with a bitumen -based sheet membrane. with pipe penetration and step in roof
- -0 Vertical section I: IO. Pipe penetration
3-D view o f nat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane. with pipe penetration
M CE 422 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vertical section I : I O. Step in roof
3-D view of nat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane. with step in roof
D etails
r--
I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
_
Vertical section I: I0, Two-way drain outlet
Bitumen-based sheet Plywood sheet Rigid thermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joists Dry lining/drywall internal finish
7, 8, 9, 10, I I,
Metal fiash ing Timber upstand External wall Angle fillet Proprietary skirt fiashing 12, Rainwater outlet I 3. Paving bonded to bitumen-based sheet
Vertical section I: I0, Door threshold
Thi s sect ion discusses fiat timber roofs th at
w hich t ogeth er provide an eco no mic roo f
fire resistance of th e material. Bit umen-based
use a bitum en sheet -based membrane as a
design for relatively small-scale applications,
sheet ofte n has a glass fibr e reinforced upper
wate rproofing layer in a warm ro of, w hich is
o r designs w it h a complex geo met ry of low
face t o provide greate r dim ension al st ability
a commo n combinatio n.Alt hough ot her
pitched ro ofs, as is ofte n used in hou sing and
and resistance t o accidenta l damage, as we ll
membrane mater ials are used o n fiat t imber
in schoo l buildings, Bitum en-based mem-
as a po lyester reinforced co re t o increase
roofs as both w arm and cold roofs , ty pically
br anes have developed over th e past 25
t ensile strength,T hese sheet materials are
formed in elastomeric and th erm op lastic
years t o co mpete w it h th e new er elastomer-
ty pically aro und 4mm th ick, depending o n th e
membranes,th eir applicat ion is discussed as
ic and th erm opl asti c materials by increasing
propriet ary system used. Even w it h th ese
Exposed Membranes in th e Con crete chap-
th eir fiexibility and making th em th inner,thu s
addit ives, bitum en-based sheet is slow ly oxi-
t er.The prin ciples of detailing in th at sect ion
requirin g less materi al,w hich helps t o reduce
dised by heat, making th e material gradually
can be similarly applied t o t imber ro ofs, Bitu-
th eir overall cost. Bitum en-based membranes
more br itt le w hich event ually results in
men-based sheet can also be used in 'inver t -
can also be used w it h co ncret e and metal
cracks,Th e polymer add itives reduce thi s
ed roof , or co ncealed membrane co nfigura-
decks,and th e prin ciples here can be applied
effect, parti cularly th e TPO addit ives w hich
t ion as described in th e Concrete chapte r
in a similar w ay t o th ose roof deck t ypes,
w here t he detailing is similar. but bitum enbased sheet is generally less ro bust t han t he
help t o increase th e life of th e mater ial, w hich can now be up to aro und 25 years,T PO-
T he material
modifi ed sheet can be exposed t o th e effects
membranes described in th at sect io n, Mem-
Bitum en-based sheet is manufactured in roll
of th e sun, requ iring no addit ional so lar pro -
br anes applied t o co ncret e decks are usually
form in w idt hs of aro und I OOOrnm, is black in
t ection , since th e material provides better UV
laid in hot liquid form and are reinforced t o
co lo ur, and is t ypically mixed w it h SBS (sty-
resistance th an o lder-ty pe bitum en-based
suit th e specific co ndit ions of fold s and joints
rene-butadiene-styrene) polym er s o r w it h
membranes, SBS-mo dified sheet is usually
occurring w it hin th e st ruct ural deck, In th is
TPO (t hermo plast ic po lyo lefin) po lymer s.The
covered w it h sto ne chippings o r so lar refiec-
sect io n th e mater ial is co nsidered as an
addit ion of th ese po lymer s raises th e melting
t ive paint t o protect th em from th e effect s of
exposed and visible materi al o n a relatively
point w hich ensures stability in hot weat her
th e sun,
lightweight deck,
as well as increasing th e fiex ibility of th e
Bitum en sheet membranes are eco nomic, and are ofte n used w it h t imb er roof decks,
mat eri al at low t emp eratures (usually in w int er in t emp erate climat es) and enhancing th e
MC E
4 23
im6er Roo sO Flat roof: Bitumen-based sheet membranes
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Vert ical section I: 10. Low parapet wall
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3-D view of flat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane. with expansion joint
Ver tical section I: IO. Rooflight
D et ails I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Bitumen-based sheet Plywood sheet Rigid t hermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood jo ist s Dry lining/drywall intemal finish 7. Metal flashing 8. Timber upstand 9. Extemal wall 10. Angle fillet I I. Proprietary skir t flashing I 2. Rainwater out let 13. Paving bonded to bitumen-based sheet
MC E
424
Roof build-up
th e bitumen t o th e insulation.The bitumen-
Where plywood is used to form th e struc-
based membrane is then bond ed t o the
t ural deck of a t imber roof. t he joi nts O n t im-
th ermal insulat ion t hrough t he ho les in the
ber boarded decks, w here t his is not as prac-
isolati ng layer.
t ical a method . a t hin layer of bitum en is laid o nto t he deck, applied typically in t hick liquid
Solar protection
form t o seal t he joint s between th e boards,
Resistance t o UV radiatio n is provided by
wit h t he bitumen setting t o form a smoot h
eit her a coating of fine st o ne chippings o r by
substrat e.A vapo ur banrier is set o nto the
aluminium solar reflect ive paint applied t o t he
prepared timber deck. the barrier being often
visible surface of the bitumen-based sheet. As
bitumen-based as part of a proprietary sys-
a result of pro viding thi s additional UV pro -
tem . Rigid closed cell insulat ion such as poly-
t ection. t hese coatings have t he addit io nal
ureth ane is bedded in hot bit umen onto t he
benefit of reflecting heat. w hich has th e effect
vapo ur barrier t o ho ld t he insulat io n securely
of reducing t he surface t emperat ure of t he
in place.A loose laid perfo rat ed iso lating layer
roo f below th at w hich wo uld ot herw ise be
is set o nto t he t hermal insulat ion w hich is
t he case. So lar reflective paint gives t he roo f
used to allow th e mem brane and th ermal
a metal appearance, w hich pro vides a visual
insulat ion t o release gases into th e iso lat ing
alternative t o the characteristic black colo ur
layer w hich are formed as a result of bond ing
of bitumen-based sheet. Membranes can also
Isometric view of assembly 3-D view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane , parapet detail
Vertical section I : I0 Low parapet wall
Vertical section I: IO. Rainwater out let
be pro vided w it h a solar protection layer
being eit her poured and spread in place o r
dur ing manufacture as part of a prop rietary
spray applied t o t he subst rate / str uct ural
bitumen-based membrane syste m.
deck. Bitumen-based sheet is laid o n t op and is ro lled into place. Laps are sealed w it h
Fixing methods
adhesive, but t o rching is somet imes used t o
Bitum en-based membranes are fixed ty pically
seal t he laps of bo nded membranes t o allow
by eit her t orching, bo nding o r mechanical fix-
t hem t o be inst alled more quickly. Like elas-
ing methods.W it h t orching, a fiame is used to
t om eri c and th erm op lastic membranes,th e
melt an adhesive layer o n t he underside of
hot air we lding of laps and joint s is being
t he sheet so th at t he membrane adheres t o
int ro duced. A t oo l th at provides hot air t o
t he substrate . Sheets are lapped by aro und
t he edge of t he mat erial is used t hat allows
IOOmm t o ensure a w ate rt ight seal.Torches
th e material t o melt locally and be sealed
are usually gas fuelled, supplied from a small
t ogether.Th e use of bondin g avoids th e
caniste r as part of a hand-held t ool, o r are
need fo r a flame t hat can damage adjacent
supplied from a large gas cylinder set onto
finished wo rk.
t he roof t o a variety of t oo ls, eit her handheld o r w heeled, fo r larger scale applicat ions. In th e bond ed method, t he sheet is applied cold o nto t he subst rate , t he adhesive
W it h t he mechanical fixing meth od no adhesive is required, t he membrane being fastened t hrough t he insulati on layer int o t he
3-D view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane, parapet detail
timb er deck w it h disc-type fastener s.Laps
MCE
425
T lm6er Roo s 0 Flat roof: Bitumen-based sheet membranes
I Vertical section I: I 0, Low parapet wall Vertical section I: I0, Expansion joint
Details I, 2,
3. 4, 5, 6,
Bitumen-based sheet Plywood sheet Rigidthermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joists Dry lining/drywall internal finish
7, 8, 9, 10, I I, 12, I 3.
Vert ical section I: I0, Low parapet wall
Metal fiashing Timber upstand External wall Angle fillet Proprietary skirt fiashing Rainwater outlet Paving bonded to bitumen-based sheet
between sheets are usually t o rch sealed t o a
acro ss th e top of th e wall undern eath th e
full 90° fo ld in a junction w here significant
w idt h of aro und 150mm ,A vapo ur barrier.
coping,T he roof membrane is made cont inu-
structural movement can be expected
w it h sealed laps, is laid onto th e structura l
o us w it h th e w ate rproo f seal of th e exte rnal
deck or substrate w it h t he insulati on set on
w all,w it h t he membr ane t erminating against
top,Th e insulation is mechanically fixed to
t he bitumen paint finish of t he exte rnal face
upst ands, but t he membrane cont inues over
t he deck, w it h t he bitumen-based sheet laid
of th e blockwork w all,Th e coping can be
th e t op of th e upstand W here an expansion
o nt o th e insulation.The mechanical fastener s
made from any imper viou s and durable
joint is fo rmed, t he membr ane is separate d
are fixed w it hin th e area of th e lap in th e
materi al.A pressed metal co ping overhanging
on on e side of th e mo vement joint to op en
sheet t hro ugh t he insulati on int o t he deck
o n both sides provides added protectio n t o
and close as a result of structural movement.
beneath, Mechanical fixings are covered by
th e membrane as it fold s over th e top of th e
strips or are lapped over th e t op of t he fix-
w all. U pstands t o high parapet w alls can be
Junction w it h tiled roof
ings, t he laps being sealed by t o rching, t hen
form ed by t erm inating th e membrane
Th e juncti on of a fiat roof and a t iled pitched
Up stands for perforations and movement joint s are formed in t he same w ay as ot her
150mm above th e finished roof level.A bove
roof is form ed by exte nding th e base layer
t his level t he w all is w ate rproo fed w it h a dif-
and membrane up 150mm above t he fin-
Parapet upstand s
ferent method Typically,concrete w alls are
ished roof level, w it h an addit io nal reinforcing
Up stands in bitumen-based sheets are
wate rproo fed w it h bitumen paint and an
layer t o strengthen t he juncti on,T he roofing
form ed by eit her fixing t he sheet to th e ply-
exte rnal panel-based finish, o r render.T he t op
felt, o r breather memb rane, of t he t iled
pressed in place w it h a roller t oo l.
wood face of a t imber framed upstand, o r t o
of th e membrane is protected w it h a folded
pitched roof exte nds down over th e t op of
t he face of th e th erma l insulation, depending
met al flashing such as aluminium, w hich is
t his membrane t o provide a complete
o n th e configurat ion of t he exte rnal w all.
eit her bedded int o a groove formed in t he
we at hert ight seal acro ss t he roof The bot-
W here a t imber roof deck meet s a masonr y
joint between courses of blockw o rk, o r t he
t o m t op row of t iles is kept clear of t his junc-
wall, and a concrete block w all is clad in tim -
metal strip is sealed against th e w all w it h sili-
tion in ord er t o avoid th e possibility of dam-
ber rainscreen panels, t he bitumen-based
cone if a concrete w all is used T he vapo ur
age and t o ensure t hat rainw at er runnin g
sheet is shown fixed to th e face of th e
barrier cont inues up t he full height of t he
dow n t he t iles cannot run back up t he gap
upst and W it h a low upstand, t he membrane
membrane,A 45° angle fillet is used t o avoid
between th e ti le and th e roof membran e by
cont inues up t he full height and exte nds
t urn ing t he bitumen-based sheet t hro ugh a
capillary actio n,W here a bitumen-based
MC E
426
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Vertical section I: IO. Pipe penetration
3-D view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane, eaves detail
Vertical section I : IO. Eaves
Vertical section I : IO. Step in roof
Vertical section I : IO. Rainwater outlet
3-D view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane, eaves detail
MC E
427
irn er Roo sa Flat roo f: Bitumen-based sheet membranes
3-D view of flat roof with a bitum en-based sheet membrane. with low parapet wall and dra in outlet
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Vertical section I: I0, Low parapet wall with drain outlet
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Isometric view of assembly
MC E
428
Isometric view of assembly
Vert ical section I: IU, Low parapet wall
D etails I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
Bitumen-based sheet Plywood sheet Rigid thermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joists Dry lining/drywall internal finish
7, 8, 9, 10, I I, 12, I 3,
Vertical section I: I0, Balustrade Metal fiashing Timber upstand External wall A ngle fillet Proprietary skirt fiashing Rainwater outlet Paving bonded to bitumen-based sheet
membrane forms a wate rproo f covering t o
metal st rip th at seals th e gap between glaz-
shallow slopes of bitum en-based roo fs, and
an area of fiat roof at th e t op of th e pitched
ing and upstand.The edge of th e roofi ight
are formed w it h a low upstand th at prevents
roof, th e membrane is fold ed at th e edge t o
t ypically includes a drip t o avoid wate r run-
rainw ater from running over th e edge of t he
form a drip, so th at rainw ater cannot track
ning back up int o th e joint betw een upstand
verge,The membrane is cont inued up over
up int o th e roof construct ion,A metal drip is
and roofi ight.
th e t op of th e upstand,A GRP or metal
somet imes used t o give a visually sharper
edge trim is set at th e edge t o t ermin ate th e
edge t o th e ro of The vapo ur barr ier beneath
Eaves and verges
membrane as we ll as forming a dr ip at th e
th e th erm al insulation is turn ed up so that it
The eaves detail is formed w it h a fold ed drip
t op of th e exte rnal wall.A n addit ional sealing
t erm inates against th e edge of th e mem-
form ed in th e same w ay as described for th e
st rip of membrane is lapped over th e edge
brane drip t o provide a cont inuous barrier.A
junction w it h th e t op of a pitched roofThe
trim t o pro vide a complete w at er tight barri -
metal flashing exte nds down from the vapour
gutte r is tu cked up behind th e drip t o ensure
er, as we ll as providing reinforcement t o
barrier and is lapped over th e t op of th e ti l-
th at all rainw ater running off t he edge of t he
st rengthen t he joint.The vapo ur barri er
ing to provide a complete seal from th e bitu-
eaves is collected by th e gutter,and th at no
exte nds up th e side of th e t imber upstand
men-based membrane of th e roof t iles
wate r is allowed t o run behind th e gutter
but it is not necessary t o exte nd it t o th e
beneath.The ro ofing felt or breather mem-
and down th e face of th e wall below, w here
edge of th e ro of due t o th e extra layer of
brane under th e roof t iling is t erm inated
staining can occur from th e dust washed off
bitum en-based membrane th at provides a
against th e under side of th e upper t imber
th e fiat ro of The vapo ur barr ier under th e
full seal.
deck W here th e membrane meets a roo f-
th erm al insulation is cont inued t o th e edge of
light upstand th e bitumen-based sheet is
th e roof t o ensure th at th e t imber sections
t aken over t he t op of th e timber upst and t o
forming th e edge of th e eaves are kept dr y
form a cont inuous seal w it h the vapour barr i-
and vent ilate d w it hin th e roof void beneath,
er on th e inside of th e building, w here
The th erm al insulation is kept co nt inuous
required, as we ll as th e vapour barr ier
between wall and roo f t o avoid th erm al
beneath the th erm al insulat ion,The roofiight
br idging th at reduces th e th erm al insulati on
is fixed t o th e t op of th e sealed upstand, t ypi-
value of th e ext ernal envelope,
cally w it h a cont inuous t imber glazing bar or
Verges t ypically exte nd along th e edge of
MC E
4 29
im er Roofs aI Flat roof: Bitumen-based sheet membranes
3-D line drawing of typical fiat timber roof construction with rigid insulation above roof structure
3-D view of typical fiat timber roof construction with rigid insulation above roof structure
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Bitumen-based sheet Plywood sheet Rigid thermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joists Dry lining/drywall internal finish
7. 8. 9. 10. I I. I 2. I 3.
Metal fiashing Timber upstand External wall Angle fillet Proprietary skirt flashing Rainwater out let Paving bonded to bitumen-based sheet
3-D exploded view of typical fiat timber roof construction with rigid insulation above roof structure
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3-D exploded view of typical fiat timber roof construction with insulation between roof joists
3-D line drawing of typical fiat timber roof construction with insulation between roof joists
MCE
430
3-D view of typical fiat timber roof construction with insulation between roof joists
-
3-D exploded view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane , with step in roof
3-D exploded view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane, with pipe penetration and step in roof
3-D exploded view of fiat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane , with pipe penetration
3-D exploded view of expansion joint in a fiat roof with a bitumen-based sheet membrane
3-D exploded view of drain outlet in a fiat roof with a bitumenbased sheet membrane
MC E 43 1
im5er' Roofs 02 Pitched roof:Tiles
Vert ical sect ion I:20. Unventilated roof
3-D view of ventilated roof with terracottatiles
Details I. Plaintile 2. Interlocking tile 3. Softwood battens 4. Softwood counter battens 5. Roofing felt 6. Gutter 7. Softwood rafter 8. Vapour permeable membrane 9. Thermal insulation
1O. 1I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Vapour barrier Softwood joist Metal flashing Ventilator Fascia board External walt Ridge capping Innercavity leaf
C lay ti les for ro ofs are most commo nly made
Vertical section I:20.Ventilated roof
Both ti le types are fixed t o timber bat-
hung o n any slo pe down t o 35° above th e
from clay o r co ncrete . In t he clay t ype natural
t ens set ho rizont ally, t hat is, at right angles t o
hori zont al.The maximum head lap for all
clay is mixed w it h addit ives such as quartz,
t he direction of th e slope.Th e battens are
co ndit ions is aro und 90mm, so t hat ti les are
mica, iron oxide and crysta lline aluminium
fixed o nto roofing felt, w hich fo rms a second
always lapped w it h t hree t iles set over one
oxide . Clay t iles are fired in a kiln at aro und
line of defence and full weat her t ight barrier
anot her.T iles are butted up t o one anot her
I 100°C t o make th e material both rigid and
t o th e ro of Th e ro ofing felt is set o n timber
o n th eir sides, w it h joints st aggered over one
resistant t o moisture penetratio n. Plain t iles
rafters (sloping t imb ers) o r full t imb er truss-
anot her t o avoid rainw at er penetratio n by
are used on pitched ro ofs ranging from vert i-
es.T he ti les pro vide t he first line of defence
dr aining wate r th at penetrates th e outer ti le
cal t ile hanging t o pitches as low as aro und
against rainw at er penetratio n as we ll as pr o-
o nto t he middle of t he t ile beneath, w here it
35° above t he ho rizont al. Int erlocking ti les,
t ecting t he ro ofing felt from direct w indblown
runs on dow n t he ro of W it h t he maximum
w it h grooves and complex laps can be used
rain, t he effects of t he sun, as we ll as pr otect-
head lap, t he smallest size of visible t ile is
in down t o a minimum pit ch of 22.so above
ing th e felt from accidenta l damage. Many ti le
aro und 170mm x 160mm, giving a shape t o
t he ho rizont al. Co ncrete t iles are made from
shapes and profi les are available w hich have
each t ile appro ximating t o a square.T iles are
aggregate and Po rtland cement w hich are
been develop ed fro m hist ori cal examples.
fixed t o batt ens w it h nails fixed t hro ugh two
mixed t oget her and t hen cured in t emp era-
T he design life for ti led ro ofs in both clay
holes at t he t op of th e ti le, w hich are cov-
t ure-co ntro lled chambers in t he factory.T heir
and co ncrete ty pes is aro und 30 years but
ered by t he tw o t iles t hat lap ove r it.Tiles
appearance t ends t o imit at e t hose of tradi-
t hey are act ually expecte d t o last for aro und
have two nibs (bracket s) o n t heir underside
ti on al clay ti les in both shape and variety of
100 years.
w hich hook over th e batt ens t o both sup-
in sizes t hat are difficult t o achieve in clay. In
Plain t iles
o n th e battens, w hich are set o ut accurate ly
commo n w it h clay t iles, co ncrete plain t iles
Plain t iles are made in a variety of sizes, t he
t o ensure t hat t he required arrangement of t iles is achieved.
colour. but large int erlocking t iles are available
po rt t he we ight of t he t ile and t o align t hem
are used in ro of pitches dow n t o 35° above
m ost commo n being aro und 260mm x
t he ho rizont al.A n advantage of co ncrete t iles
160mm.T iles are lapped by a minimum of
over clay t iles is t hat some co ncrete int er-
aro und 35mm o n t heir t op edge, called t he
Interlocking tiles
locking ti les can be used for pitches as low as
'head lap', w hen hung vert ically, and are head
Int erl ocking ti les in both clay and concrete
12.5° above t he hori zont al.
lapped by a minimum of aro und 65mm w hen
are also made in different profiles and sizes,
M C E 432 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
3·0 vIews show ing t imbe r t iled roof eaves and abutment using plain t ile,
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Vertical section I:I 0, Plain t ile" Eaves and abutment
MC E 4 JJ
Vertical section I: Ia. lnter locking tiles.Abutment
Vertical section I:Ia.lnterlocking tiles.Abutment
D etails I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Ia. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16. 17.
MC E
Plain tile Interlocking tile Softwood battens Softwood counter battens Roofing felt Gutter Softwood rafter Vapour permeable membrane Thermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joist Metal fiashing Ventilator Fascia board External wall Ridge capping Inner cavity leaf
434
3-D views showing abutments in both fiat and pitched interlocking tiled roofs
w it h a t ypical size of aro und 400mm x
dow n t he ro ofing felt to t he bottom of t he
300mm.T his t ile ty pe has a longer head lap
ro ofThe typ ical IOOmm head lap and 30mm
of aro und I OOmm w hich accommo dat es
side lap give a typical visible ti le size of
gro oves in t he bottom of th e t op til e.T hese
300mm x 270mm w hich, like plain ti les, has a
grooves ser ve as drips t o avoid t he passage
square- like size.Th is is ofte n not perceived
of rainw ater up th rou gh th e t ile by capillary
due to t he ro lled o r wavy pro files typical of
action.T iles are also lapped at t heir sides,
t raditio nal designs, but is visually dom inant in
again w it h gro oves set int o t he t iles, usually
fiat, modern designs. Like plain t iles, t he int er-
o n both faces of t he ti les t hat lap.Again rain-
locking t ypes have nibs on th eir under side t o
w ate r is drained down t hese gro oves o nto
hang and align th e t ile, and are fixed w it h
t he cent re of t he t ile below, w hich has t he
nails w hich are usually larger th an t hose used
overall effect of draining t he t ile o n all fo ur
for plain t iles in o rder t o secure t he larger
sides.T his inter locking of t iles, t ogeth er w it h
sized ti les.
t he pr ovision of drainage grooves , avo ids th e need fo r th ree t iles to always lap o ne anot h-
Vent ilati on
er, as is requ ired for plain t iles.A s t iles lap
Like fiat roofs, pitched ro ofs are fo rmed as
o nly at t heir edges, only one t ile t hickness is
eit her w arm roofs or co ld ro ofs. In t he cold
required. w it h any wate r t hat passes t hro ugh
roof, hori zont al joint s are insulat ed, and t he
th e joint from w indblown rain being drained
vo id is vent ilate d t o ensure t hat any co nde n-
Vertica l section I: IO. Interlocking t iles'va lley gutter
Vertical section I: IO. Interlo cking t iles. Mon opitch ridge
3-D view of plain t iles on monop itch roof
sat ion forming in th e ro of void can escape,
edges for thi s t o wo rk. In pr actice, most cold
w hich avoids damage t o both th e t imber and
roofs are st ill vent ilate d at th e ridge and at
th e th erm al insulation . In recent years it has
th e eaves even w hen a breather membran e
becom e more commo n t o use a vapour
is used as an under lay t o th e t iling.These
perm eable membrane or 'breather' mem-
prin ciples apply equally t o monopitch ro ofs
brane as th e under layer t o th e ti ling instead
and ro of spaces w hich are divided.
of wate rproo f roofing felt.Th is is done t o
j-U view ot plain t iles on rnono prt ch ro ot
In th e warm roof. th e sloping rafters are
avoid vent ilat ing th e ro of void, w hich can
filled w it h th erm al insulation in order t o allow
become very damp in t emper ate climates
th e internal space of th e ro of void t o be
during w inte r.A ny vapour in th e roof void
used.As w it h th e cold roof, a vapour barr ier
escapes through th e breather membrane,
is set between th e th erm al insulation and th e
but in pr actice th e ceiling has t o be com-
int ernal dry wall lining.A vapour perm eable
pletely sealed t o avoid any vapour passing
membrane is set on th e outside face of th e
from th e space below int o th e roof void.
sloping rafter s as an under lay t o th e t iling. If
W hile a vapo ur barri er between th e th erm al
th e insulati on complete ly fills th e void
insulati on and th e dry wall lining beneath is
between th e rafter s,th en thi s breather mem-
standard, in all roof const ruct ions, th e barrier
br ane serves t o allow moisture trapped w it h-
must be complete ly sealed aro und ro of
in the const ruction t o escape. If th e th erm al
hatches, pipes and ducts as we ll as at it s
insulation does not fill th e void, and is set
®
@
11 Vert ical section I : I O. Plain t iles. Monopit ch r idge
MC E
435
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. I 2. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Plain tile Interlockingtile Softwood battens Softwood counter battens Roofingfelt Gutter Softwood rafter Vapour permeablemembrane Thermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joist Metal flashing Ventilator Fascia board Externalwall Ridge capping Ridge capping
Vertical section I: 10. Interlocking tiles. External fold (top) and internal fold (bottom)
3-D view showing internal fold on interlocking tiled timber roof
against th e internal dry lining, th en th e void
cally in PVC-U, is set betw een th e bottom
Ridges
between th e insulation and th e breather
ti le t o vent ilate eit her th e roof void in a cold
W here a sealed ridge is required, ridge ti les
membrane is vent ilated at t he ridge and at
roof. or t he cavity between t he underlayer
are eit her bedded in a sand cement mor t ar,
t he eaves.W here a breather membrane is
and th e ti les in a w arm ro of configurat ion.
or are dry fixed w it h metal screws, typically
used, t he cavity between t he outside face of
In t he cold roof version t he proprietar y
stainless steel, w here a rapid inst allation is
t he membrane and th e ti les is increased from
vent ilator is set beneath the under layer. Fresh
required. For vent ilate d ridges,proprietary fix-
2Smm t o SOmm t o allow t he air w it hin t he
air is allowed t o flow int o t he vent ilato r set
ings usually made in PVC-U w it h vent ilat ion
void t o move more freely, ensuring th at
beneath th e bottom ti le and is released into
slots are used t o vent ilate eit her t he batten
vapo ur being released t o the outside can be
th e roof void w it hout affect ing th e th erm al
cavity between th e underlay and th e ti les,in a
disper sed easily.The increased gap ifformed
insulati on of t he roof at ceiling level, w hich is
warm ro of. or t he roof void in a cold roof
by battens set perp endicular t o t he t iling bat-
cont inuous between wall and ro of In t he
configurat ion.W here t he batten cavity is ven-
t ens,called counte r battens,w hich are set in
warm ro of version, a vent ilato r set betw een
t ilated th e cavity is sealed across the ridge. A ir
t he direction of t he rafters,and are fixed
t he bottom t ile and t he felt underlay int ro -
is allowed t o pass t hrough a gap betw een th e
dow n t o t hem t hrough t he underlay.
duces air int o t he void between t he t ile and
bottom of th e ridge ti le and t he roof ti le
t he breather membrane.The t hermal insula-
immediat ely beneath, t he gap being formed
Eaves
ti on eit her cont inues to th e fascia board,
by th e PVC-U vent ilat or.The ridge ti le itself is
Bot h plain t iles and int erlocking t iles are t er-
t hen return s horizont ally back t o form a
mechanically fixed t o a ridge batten w hich is
minated at th eir base w it h a gutter. In order
cont inuity w it h th e wall insulation, or alte rna-
secured back t o th e counte r battens beneath
t o maint ain a constant pitch of t iles dow n t o
t ively t he wall insulation cont inues vert ically
w it h met al clips, usually in stainless steel.
t he gutter,th e bottom row of battens is
until it reaches t he sloping insulat ion set
W here t he complete roof void is vented t o
raised up on a wedge-shaped timber profi le
between th e rafter s. In th e second version,
t he outside in a cold roof, a gap of around
called a t ilting fillet. This allows t he underlay
t he void forming t he fascia and soffit imme-
IOmm in t he underlay is form ed at t he ridge.
t o meet th e underside of th e bottom ti le,
diately beneath it is in 'cold' ro of configura-
The underlay is turned up th e side of th e t op
and drain bot h rainw ater running dow n t he
t ion and is required t o be vent ilate d in order
row of battens on each side of t he ridge t o
ti les as we ll as any moi sture running down
t o avoid damp, stagnant air from damaging
ensure that rainw ater is not blown up th e
t he underlay, int o t he gutter.A vent ilato r,ty pi-
t he t imber s.
batten cavity and down into th e roof void
MC E
436
Vertical section I:IO. lnterlocking tiles. Verge
3-D view showing verge detail on interlockingtiled roof
, \ \
. "\
\
\
CD 3-D view showingvalley on plain tiled roof
Vertical sections I: I0, Plain tiles, Hips
Vertical sections I: I0, Plain tiles, Valleys
MCE
437
imoer Roofs 02 Pitched roof:Tiles
Vertical section I : IO.Plain tiles. Ridge
Vertical sect io n I : I O. Int erlocking tiles.Valley gutte r
3D view showing ridge on plain tiled roo f
3D view showi ng valley on inte rloc king tiled roof
beneath.The ridge t ile is fixed in th e same
bird mesh or insect mesh t o prevent t he
way in th e warm ro of version, w it h a PVC-U
voids from being used as nesting areas.
vent ilato r set below th e ridge t ile.
Hips and valleys Verges
3D detail view of ridge on plain tiled roof
MC E 438
Hip s and valleys in plain t iles are formed w it h
Verges, o r gable ends, are clo sed w it h a
eit her specially folded hip t iles or by cutting
sand cement mortar seal betw een th e
th e ti les t o create a mitred corner. Specially
under side of th e ti les and th e fascia board
folded hip ti les form part of manufacturer s'
beneath. Metal clips, usually in sta inless stee l,
ranges of t iles,but usually th ey suit only 90°
are used t o restrain th e edge ti le. Propri e-
corners in plan, and only certa in ro of pitches.
t ary syste ms of int erlocking t iles ofte n have
More complex folds in th e roof can be
special verge ti les.w here th e ti le forms a
form ed w it h cut ti les th at meet at th e fold
st raight ver t ical face.The verge t iles are
line, w it h th e open joint being closed by a
clipped t ogeth er t o hold th em in place t o
metal flashing beneath the fold line. Hips in
resist w ind uplift.The vo id enclosed by th e
inter locking ti les are ofte n made using th e
t imb er fascia bo ard and soffit board
same method as at t he ridge in order t o suit
beneath is usually vent ilate d in order t o
th e individual shape of the ti le used.
keep it dry. The vents, as at t he eaves, have
Valleys are formed in th e same way, w it h
Vertical section I :I a.Interlocking tiles. Ridge
Vertical section I: Ia. lnterlocking tiles.Eaves
3-D detail showingeaves detail on roof with interlocking tiles
eit her fo lded t iles o r mitred t iles.W hen a
it self A gap betw een t he vert ical wall and
large amo unt of rainw ater is co llecte d in t he
t he t o p t ile is maint ained t o allow t he free
valley, a full gutter can be form ed by intro-
passage of air,w hile t he gap between vent ila-
ducing a met al o r GRP strip.T he edges of
t or and wa ll is closed w it h a met al flashing
t he gutter are fo lded up t he adjacent batt ens
t hat is set int o t he vert ical wa ll and fo lded
and are made cont inuous w it h t he felt
over t he t op of t he PVC-U vent ilato r,t o
under lay.The gutte r is usually suppo rted by
w hich it is bond ed o r mechanically fixed. A
t imb er boards or plyw ood sheet set
side abut ment requires no vent ilat ion and
between t he rafter s as shown.A n addit ional
t he metal flashing fold s into t he gap below
layer of underlay is somet imes set beneath
t he t op t ile o r is formed int o t he slo pe of
t he gutter as a second line of defence against
t he int erl ocking t ile.
rainw ater penetration at fo lds and junctions in t he gutter.
Abutments
D etails I. Plain tile 2. Interlockingtile 3. Softwood battens 4. Softwood counter battens 5. Roofing felt 6. Gutter 7. Softwood rafter 8. Vapour permeable membrane 9. Thermal insulation IO.vapourbarrier I I. Softwood joist 12. Metal flashing I 3. Ventilator 14. Fascia board 15. External wall I 6. Ridge capping 17. Inner cavityleaf
W here a ti led roof meets a vert ical w all at t he ridge, a propriet ary vent ilato r is set onto t he t op t ile, w hich is clipped onto t he t ile
MC E 439
- - -m Se Roofs
0'.,.-- - - - - ..,
Pitched roof: Tiles 3D explodedVIew showing t imber uled roof eaves and abutment using plaIn ules
Details I , Plain t ile
Zfnterkx king t ile
3.Softwood battens 4. Softwood coonter battens 5. RoofIng fert
6.Gutter 7.Softwood rafter Svapour permeable membrarle 9 Thermal insulat ion
IOVapour barrier I I. Softwood joist 12.Metal flash ing l Lveotilator
14, Fascia board I S. External wall 16. Ridge capping
3D exploded view show ing tiled roo f abutment condition
3D exploded view showingeaves condition on roof with interlocking t iles
Me E 440
3D exploded view showing internal fold on roof using interlocking tiles
3D exploded view showing valley condition on roof using plain tiles
3D exploded view showing condition of roof using curved terracotta tiles
MC E 44 1
Tim5er Roofs 03
Pitched roof: Slates
Vertical section I :I O. External fold 3-D view of external fold detail in timb er pitched roof construction with roofing slates
@
4
3-D view of internal fold detail in timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates
Vertical section I :10. Internal fold
D etails I. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16.
Slate Softwood battens Softwood counter battens Roofing felt Gutt er Softwood rafter Vapour permeable membrane Thermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joist Metal fiash ing Vent ilat or Fascia board External wall Ridge capping Flexible pipe
Roofing slates are made in eit her natur al cut
imit ati o ns of natur al slat es w hich are more
stone. as recon stituted sto ne o r as fibr e
eco nomic th an th e natural materi al.
cement t iles w hich imit at e th e appearance of th e natural mater ial.A ll th ese slat e types are
pit ches from vertically hung t o usually 22.5"
made in a similar size t o t iles.at aro und
above t he horizontal.A ll slate ty pes require a
450mm x 350mm, but are also available in a
head lap (discussed in th e previou s sect ion
w ider range of sizes, from 600mm x 300mm
o n ti les) ranging from 60mm to aro und
down t o 400mm x 200 mm, depending o n
I 20mm depending o n t he roof pitch. Both
th e manufacturer. N atur al slat e is used as a
natural slat e and fibre ceme nt ty pes are laid
flat mater ial t hat is fixed in th e same way as
in a way t hat maintains a minimum th ickness
t iles, as discussed in th e previou s section.
of two layers of slate t o ensure a weat her
Recon stituted slates are made from t ypically
t ight roof covering. Reconstit uted slate is
50% t o 60% recycled waste slat e (fro m th e
ofte n form ed w it h profi led edges th at int er-
quarr ying of slat e) w hich is mixed w it h resin
lock t o reduce th e possibility of capillary
and glass fibre reinforcement, th en pr essed t o
action from rainw ater being drawn up int o
shape. Recon stitut ed slates are usually made
t he lap between th e slates.This improved
w it h an inter locking profi le to enhance th eir
jointin g allow s t he material t o be used in a
perform ance in reducing rainw ater penetra-
single th ickness rather t han as two layers.
ti on . Fibre cement slat es are ceme nt -based
MC E 44 2 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
A ll th ese slate ty pes can be used in roof
Vertical section I : IO.A but ment Vertical section I: I O. Eaves
@ r t-"'"-----".2'"
8 ~==1 11
3-D view of timber monopitched roof construction with roofing slates
N atur al slate is sort ed into at least three
Vertical section I : IO. Monopitch ridge
Roof folds
gro ups o n sit e, based on th e mater ial th ick-
Changes of roof pitch th at form a fo ld line
ness, w hich varies in th e splitting of th e natu-
are form ed by reducing th e lap at th e head
ral material.W hen fixed, slat es used o n any
of th e t iles,o r head lap, t o a minimum. W hen
course (row of slat es) are of similar th ickness.
th e ro of pitch forms an intern al fold, th e
The thi ckest slat es are used at th e base of
upper ti le is butted up t o th e low er til e. A
th e roof, and th e th innest are used at th e t op
metal flashing is set beneath th e upper slat e
of th e roof, w it h slates in between varying
and is lapped over th e o ut er face of th e
pro gressively from th ick t o th in. Fibre cement
lower slat e t o ensure th at rainw ater is direct- ·
slates are of constant thi ckness and do not
ed down th e slo pe and not onto th e under-
require any sorting o n sit e.
lay beneath.A n external fold is form ed by
The vent ilat ion of slat e ro ofs follow s th e
projecting th e upp er slat e o ut slight ly t o
prin ciples set out in th e previous sectio n o n
form a drip, ensuring th at rainw ater does not :
t iled ro ofs,w it h both w arm and co ld roof
run back up th e metal flashing beneath,
configurat ions being detailed in th e same way.
w hich is positioned in th e same way as w it h
The detailing of eaves,ridges, verges, hips and
an intern al fold.
valleys follow s th e same prin ciples of rainw at er drainage, vent ilat ion and th erm al insulati on as o ut lined in th e sectio n o n t iled roofs.
3-D view of timber mono pitched roof construction with roofing slates
MC E
443
Tim6er Roofs 03 Pitched roof: Slates
@
I
/
;'
@ I
I
/
I
/
/ Vertical section I : IO. Ridge
Vertical sections I : IO.Verges
3-D view of valley detail in timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates Vertical sections I : IO. Valleys
3-D view of valley detail in timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates
MC E
444
Vertical sections I: IO.Valleys
Details I.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10. I I. 12. I 3. 14. 15. 16.
Slate Softwood battens Softwood counter battens Roofing felt Gutter Softwood rafter Vapour permeable membrane Thermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joist Metal flashing Ventilator Fascia board External wall Ridge capping Flexible pipe
Vertical section I : I O. Ridge with vent extract
Vertical section I : I O. Eaves
3-D view of timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates with gutter at eaves
3-D view of timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates with gutter at eaves
Vertical section I: I O. Eaves
MCE
445
im6er oafs 03 Pitched roof: Slates
Vertical section I: I0, Expansion joint
,---------'
D et ails I,
2,
3. 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, I I. I 2, I 3. 14, I 5, I 6,
Slate Softwood battens Softwood counter battens Roofing felt Gutter Softwood rafter Vapour permeable membrane Thermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joist Metal flashing Ventilator Fascia board External wall Ridge capping Flexible pipe
Vertical section I: I 0. Eaves
Vents
closed against th e sloping slates o n one side,
cally-hung slates, slates form intern al and
Extr act po ints for mechanical vent ilat ion
and a t imber board on th e vert ical face.
exte rnal co rne rs by butting th e slates t ogether from each side t o form a corne r, and set-
ducts can be integrated into a vent at th e ridge as we ll as on th e general area of
D o rmer w indows
t ing a metal fiashing beneath t o ensure th e
pitched roof w it ho ut requiring a pr oject ion
For slate cladding o n th e vert ical faces, o r
co nt inuity of weat her ti ghtness at th e co rne r.
above th e ro of th at wo uld be visible from
cheeks, of a dorm er w indow th e suppo rting
below.A ridge vent uses a similar vent as th at
st ruct ure for th e slates is typically t imber
Abutments
required for a vent ilate d ridge, as describ ed
fram ed, w it h insulation set betw een th e tim -
A but me nts at th e side of a pit ched roof, and
in th e sect ion on til ed ro ofs,Th e t op of th e
ber st uds (vert ical fr aming memb er s) in
at a mon opitch ridge co ndit ion, are form ed
fiexible duct has a co nnecto r, usually in
warm roof configurat ion. Horizont ally-set
by covering th e jo int between wa ll and ro of
PVC-U as part of a propri etary syste m.T he
softwood battens are fixed o nt o vertically-set
w it h a metal fiashing w hich is fixed over th e
connecto r is closed aro und th e base of th e
battens w hich are fixed back t o th e under lay
t op of th e first slate of th e roof and is sealed
ro of vent and is sealed w here it penetrates
o r breather membrane.Th e vert ically-set bat-
against th e vert ical face of th e wall.W here
th e under lay t o ensure th at rainw ater cannot
t ens, or counte r battens, ensure th at moisture
br ick is used th e fiashing is returned int o a
find its way into th e ro of vo id. A vent ilato r
is allowe d to run freely down th e membrane
joint between bri ck courses,
set into th e pit ch of th e ro of can have a fiexi-
o r under lay as we ll as enco urage natural ven-
ble duct co nnected t o it in th e same way.
til ation behind th e slates, Slates are hung
way, w it h a metal tray fold ed up th e under-
from th e battens,Th e edge of th e low
side of th e slate , as describ ed in th e sect ion
Mo nopitch r idges
pitched roof of th e dormer w indow has it s
o n t iled roofs.The vertical face of th e gutter
As w it h apex ridges,a monopitch ridge is
fascia board set fo rw ard of th e slates, t o
w here it meets th e adjacent w all is sealed
formed w it h a specially formed ridge slate o r
ensure th at vent ilat ion of th e ver t ical cladding
w it h a fiashing set over th e t op of th e gutter t o pro vide a co mplete weat hert ight seal.
clay t ile.Th e ridge slate o r t ile is mechanically
is maintained at th e t op of th e cheek.A ir is
fixed t o th e timber struct ure beneath t o
also allowe d t o ente r th e batt en cavity at th e
eit her allow th e ridge t o be vent ilate d o r
base of th e wa ll.At th e corne rs of th e verti-
MC E
446
Valley gutters are form ed in th e same
....
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Vertical section I: IO. Ridges
Vertical sections I: IO. Hips
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Vertical sections I : IO. Ridges 15
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i:>- ~P ~
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f:; (z) Vertical section I: IO. Vent ilators
3-D view of ridge detail of timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates
MC E
44 7
I imber Koors 03
I
Pitched roof: Slates
I
,
@
s,
I
1/ @
@
~J
I
f0-
~
(i)
C0
@
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0
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G)
~J
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@ Vertical section I : IO.Abutment
Vertical section I : IO.Verge
I==f\. @
Vertical section I: IO. Abutment
Vertical section I : I OValley gutter
3-D view of abutment detail of timber pitched roof construction with roofing slates
MC E
448
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q;y 0 /
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,CD
0
--
Vert ical section I :10. Monopitch ri dge
o
I
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0 ~
e
~
hung slate, at intern al comer
>'0
0 ~: r1~
, Ho rizontal sections I: I0, Vertically
e
o
vertical section I: 10. Base of wall
:® ' verr car section 1:1 0, Vertocally hung slates at external co-r-er
l
Horizontal secto- I :10. VerticalfyhUrlg slates at
external comer Details I. Slate 2 Softwood battens Softwood counter 3 battens 4.
Roo~r;g
5. 6. 7.
Gutter
felt
8.
Softwood rafter Vapour permeable membrane Thermal irtsulat'oo
9.
Vapour barrier
10. II. 12. 13
®,
Softwood joist Meta l flashing
Ventilator
Fascia board
--<
14. External wal l
15. Ridge capping 16 Flexible pipe
\
Vert ical secton I: 10. Donner window
MC E 44 9
- - -m Se Roofs 03-
-
-
-
-
.,
Pitched roof: Slates
Details I. 2. 3.
Slate Softwood battens Softwood counter battens
4, 5. 6. 7,
Roof""gfelt Gutter Softwood rafter Vapour permeab le mem b rane
8. Thermal insulation 9, Vapour barrier 10. Softwoodjoist I I. Metal flashing 12. Ventilator 13. Fascia board 14.
External wall
15. Ridge capping 16. Flexible pipe
3-D overview of t imber pitched roof construction with roofing slates 3-D detai l view of tercer pitched roof construcuo- with
roofIngslates
3·0 exploded view of t imber pitched roof construct ion with roofing slate,
3-D exploded view of timber pitched roof construction with rooflng slates
Me E 450
3-D exploded v;ew of abutment detail of timber pitched roof construct ion with rocfu
3-D exploded view of timber monc pitched roof construction w ith roo fIng slates
==~.~
3-D line draw ing of timbe r rroncpitched roof construction w ith roofog slates
3-D line drawing of t imber pitched roof construction w ith roofing slates. external fo ld detail
3-D exploded view of tim ber pitched roo f constr uction with roofing slate s, external fol d detail
3-D exploded view of timber pitched roof construction with roofJngslates. eaves detail
MC E
451
im5er' Roofs 04 Pitched roof: Metal
Isomet ric view of assembly
3-D view showing meta l standing seam pitched roof with timber structure
Standing seam cold roofs
t er being blown through th e o pening into
ro of sheet on o ne side and is sealed against
Standing seam roo fs are discussed in th e
th e roof void.Valley gutters are formed in a
th e adjacent masonry/concrete wa ll o r para-
Metal chapte r as sealed, insulat ed roof cover-
sim ilar w ay, w it h a gap formed betw een th e
pet, typically w it h an addit ional met al flashing
ings in a wa rm ro of configurat ion.W hen
gutter tray and th e metal sheet t o provide
w hich projects from w it hin th e depth of th e
used in th e cold roof configurat ion w it h a
vent ilat ion t o th e roof void.Th e metal tray
wa ll.Verges are formed w it h a metal clip
pitched timber roof, th e st anding seam ro of
has an upstand at th e edge w hich is lapped
w hich provide a closer t o th e edge sheet,
is vent ilate d, w it h th erm al insulati o n provided
up t o th e under side of th e met al sheet and
w it h an addit ional metal coping set over th is
at ceiling level.
sealed against th e sheet. This ensures th at
t o pro vide a second line of defence against
In thi s build-up a vent ilate d st anding seam
rainw ater runn ing down th e gutter cannot
rainw ater penetration.
metal deck is set o nto a t imber ro of of tru ss-
ente r th e ro of vo id, w hile air can st ill pass
es and pur lins.At ceiling level, th erm al insula-
int o th e roof vo id.
Pen et rat ion s Penetration s are formed in a w ay w hich
ti on quilt is set between th e ceiling joists (ho rizontal memb er s). A vapo ur barri er is set
Ri dges and abutments
form s a gutter aro und th e op ening in th e
beneath th e insulati o n, position ed o n th e t op
Ridges are formed by creat ing a gap, ty pically
roof In some examples, rainw ater run s off
surface of a dry lined wa ll beneath.Th e roo f
IOOmm between th e metal sheets.Th e gap
th e ro of into th e gutter,at th e edge of th e
void is vent ilate d at th e lowest point (eaves
at th e ridge is covered w it h a fo lded metal
upstand, w hich is set at th e level of th e adja-
or parapet gutte r) and at th e highest po int
ridge capping w hich is fixed t o th e sheets
cent ro of sheets.Wate r is directed around
(ridge o r abut ment), w it h verges and para-
beneath.A narro w gap is maintained
th e sides of th e upstand and back o nto th e
pets at th e sides of th e roof remaining sealed.
between th e ridge sheet and th e standing
roof sheet ing below. Penetration s in roofs are
seam sheet in o rder t o pro vide constant
positioned so th at th e st anding seam joint s
Eaves and valley gutters
vent ilat ion along th e ridge.A lte rnat ively,
between roo fing sheet s are clear of th e sides
Eaves are vent ilate d by leaving a gap
PVC-U vent ilato r blocks are added at cen-
of th e o pening in th e ro of t o ensure th at
between th e t op of th e fascia board sup-
tres along th e ridge, and th e joint between
rainw ater can run freely aro und th e sides of th e upstand t o th e roof opening.
porting th e gutter and th e under side of th e
th e ridge and th e roo f deck is sealed. A but -
standing seam roo f sheet. A metal angle is
ments are form ed in a similar w ay t o ridges,
fixed in front of th e o pening t o avoid rainw a-
w it h a fo lded metal sheet th at is fixed t o th e
MC E 45 2 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Vert ical section I: IO. Verge
Ver tical section I:IO. Parapet verge
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Details I.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Standing seam sheet Fibre quilt thermal insulation Vapour barrier Timber beam/joist Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Fascia board Externalwall
Metal sheet fixing bracket 10. Soffrt board I I. Metal supports 12. Ridge piece 13. Metal flashing 14. Parapet flashing
9.
3-D view showing standing seam cold roof configuration
M C E_ 453
im5er Roofs OLf Pitched roof: Metal
. @
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Verti cal section I : I O. Eaves
Vertical sectio n I : IO.Valley gutter
3-D view showing eaves and gutter detail on metal pitched roo f
3-D view show ing valley gutter detail on met al pitc hed roof
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3- D view showing r idge detail fragment
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Vertical section I :IO. Eaves
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Vertical section I: IO. Verge
3-D view showing verge on metal standing seam cold roof
3-D view showing edge condition on metal standing seam cold roof
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. IO. I I. 12. 13. 14.
Standing seam sheet Fibre quilt thermal insulation Vapour barrier Timber beam/joist Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Fascia board External wall Met al sheet fixing bracket Soffit board Met al supports Ridge piece Met al flashing Parapet flashing Vertical section I: 10. Penetration
MCE
455
T lm6er Roofs 04
Pitched roof: Metal
Vertical section I: I O. Standing seam roof. Valley gutter
3-D views show ing valley gutter and eaves gutter details on st anding seam roof
Metal tiled roofs
ent from profiled metal sheet, w it h its cont in-
Metal t iles are increasingly being used for
uous lo ng lengths of sheet ing.T he sho rt
ro ofs due t o th e flexibi lit y of th e roof pit ch
met al ti les, lapped over one anot her,can easi-
and t ile lap th at can be formed econom ically
ly t ake up com plex geomet ries w it h a pat-
D etails : Standing seam roof
for individu al proj ects. Copp er and zinc are
t ern of joints and laps th at clearly show th e
I. 2.
commo nly used. w it h th eir characte ristic pat-
form of th e ro of.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12. I 3. 14.
Standingseam sheet Fibre quilt th ermal insulation Vapour barrier Timber beam/joist Folded metal gutter Folded metal drip Fascia board External wall Met al sheet fixing bracket Soffit board Met al supports Ridge piece Met al fiash ing Parapet fiashing
ina th at is suitable for both walls and roofs.
folded metal sheet and are individu ally
clay t iles and slates, w it h battens and counte r
designed and fabricated for a building project.
battens set o nto a bitum en- o r po lymer-
A n advantage of metal sheet til es over clay
based w at erproof underl ay.Eaves and para-
t iles is t hat til es and edging pieces can be
pet gutters are form ed in th e same way as
individually designed for each proj ect w hile
standing seam roofs,w it h vent ilat ion slot s
remaining economic, since metal can be fold -
provided t o ensure th at air can pass through
ed w it hout th e need for mou lds w hich are
th e roof vo id. Metal til es are eit her flat like
required for clay til es and slate s.
slate s, or alte rnat ively are made from profil ed sheet, w hich imit at es th e appearance of tradit ional til ed roo fs made from curved o r profiled t iles.Th eir appearance is very differMC E
456
Ridges and verges are usually made from
Metal til es are fixed in th e same manner as
~eta i ls :Tiled roo f . Metal tiles 16. Softwood 17. V battens
apour permeable
;;: Vapou r barrier
24. Softwood joist 25. Meta l flashing
membrane
18. Gutter 19. Softwood 20 . rafter . Verltilatioo void 2 1. The rrnalosuation ' I
26. 27. 28. 29.
Soffitboard Fascia board Exterra l wall Ri dge piece Ventilator
(i1)
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Vertical section I' 10 M pitc h ridge wit h' metal . otiles no-
Vert ical secuon )' 1
mo nopitc h ridge' o.Aftematrve
3-D view show ing stand Ing seam roof on timber structure
MC E_ 45 7
- - -m Se Roofs
04- - - - - ....
Pitched roof: Metal
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Vertical section I: I 0. Standing seam roof. Eaves andgutter
-'-'4:'"
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Vertical section I: 10. Metal tiled roof. Abutment
3-0 views showing eaves and gutter coooto-
3-D viewsshowing eaves andgutter condition
\ ®
Vert ical sect ion
MC E_ 45 8
o
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Vertical section I: IO. Metal t iled roof.Abutment
Vertical section I: IO. Ridge
3-D view showing ridge detail fragment
Details:Tiled roof 15. Met al tiles 16. Softwood battens 17. Vapour permeable 18. 19. 20. 21 .
22. 23.
@
24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
membrane Gutter Softwood rafter Ventilation void Thermal insulation Vapour barrier Softwood joist Met al fiashing Soffit board Fascia board External wall Ridge piece Ventilator
MC E
459
- - -m Se Roofs
04- - - - - ....
Pitched roof: Metal
3-D exploded view showing metal standing seam cold roof coof guraton
3-D exploded view showing edgecondition on metal standing seam cold roof
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0{t 3-D exp loded view shOWing meta l standirlg seam roof 00 timber st ructure
Me E 460
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3-D exploded view show ing ridge configuratioo on metal standing seam roof 00 limber structure
3-D exploded view showing ridge configuration on metal standing seam roof on timber structu re
3-D exploded view showing eavesand gutter assemblyon metal standing seam roof on timber structure
Details : Standing sea m ro of I. 2. 3. 4. S. 6. 7. 8.
Standing seam sheet Fibre quilt thermal insulation 9. Vapour barrier Timber beam/joist 10. Folded metal gutter I I. Folded metal drip 12. Fascia board I 3. External wall 14.
Metal sheet fixing bracket Soffit board Metal supports Ridge piece Metal flashing Parapet flashing
3-D exploded view showing valley gutter configuration on metal standing seam roof on timber structure
MC E 46 1
PLASTIC ROOFS (I) GRP roo nights
Eaves and upstands Verges Abutmeo~
Sliding roof panels (2) GRP pan els and shells Smaller panels and shells
larger panels and shells
MCE_ 463
a,
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GRP rcoff hts
o
ver tca t section 1:5. Large roofiight upstand at base
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3-D view of small rooftigtlt
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Verticalseetioo I:5. Small roofiight verge
3-D viewof small rooftigl1t verge
Glass reinforced polyester (GRP) is used in
Key plan and elevation. T)'P;QI small roofiight layout
De tails I. fran shxerrt and insulated
mosetting polyester resios that provide high
t he form of thermallyinsulat ed panels to
tensile and compressive strengths,The mate-
form t ranslucent rooflights which are robust
rial is not combustible, making it a suitable
and economic when compared to an equiva-
material for rootlights a, well as an opaque
lent glazed rooflight with do uble glazed units.
roof cladding material,W hile GRP rooflight
GRP roo flights use the principlesof metal
systems do not usually achieve the high levels
composite panelsw hich are combined w ith
of resistance to wind blown rain of internally
greenhouse glazing framing to provide a light-
drained and ventilated curtain walling sys-
weight highly th ermally insulated and eco-
terns. they are robust and economic.making
nomic rootlightW here glazed roo tlights
them ideal where translucency is required
2
GRP roof panel Thermally broken alumin
sometimes need an additional layer of solar
rather than the transparency provided by
iurn framing
shading. or use solar performance glass to
glass panels.
3 4
Inside Outside
reduce the effects of the sun, GRP roo tlights
5
Pressure plate
provide a more economic solution.The
which i, bonded to an aluminium carrier
advantages of GRP over glass are its strength.
frame around its edges.Thennal insulatio n set
light ness and fl exib i lit~ as well as the materi-
into t he void is usually bonded to the outer
al's high resistance to impact damage. GRP is
GRP faci ng sheets to provide t rue composite
a composite material formed by reinforcing
action between the GRP skin and the insulat-
flexible fibreglass mat (or fibres) with ther-
ed core. like metal composite panels. GRP
6
Adjacent masonry/con crete wall
7 8 9
Folded metal cover strip EPDM strip Support ingstr ucture
10 Concrete upstand
MC E 4 64 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Rootlights are made from GRPsheet
CD Vertical section I :5.Abutment
0)
0) Vertical section I :5.Verge
Vertical sections 1:5. Small roofiight panel to panel junction
Vertical section 1:5. Small roofiight panel to panel junctior
0)
3-D view of small roofiight panel to panel junction
panels increasingly have a th erm al break
vary w it h th e proprietary syste m and w it h
int ro duced int o th e framing t o reduce th e
th e individual roofiight design.Typical panel
possibility of co ndensat ion forming o n th e
sizes range from around 400mm x 800mm
underside of th e panel in t emperate climates
( 16in x 32in) t o 800mm x 3000mm (32in x
as we ll as t o improve th e overall th erm al
120in) . GRP roofiight panels use a lightweight
insulation value of th e ro ofiight.Th erm al
fr aming syste m rather th an a lapped junction
breaks are usually made from an ext ruded
o r raised edges t o pro viding a standing seam
polymer th at has a much low er th erm al con-
t ype joint used in metal composite panels.
ductivity th an aluminium, and are bond ed t o
Th ese make th eir appearance more refined,
th e ext r usion in th e manner of glazed cur tain
since th e fr aming is ver y visible in translucent
walling or are clipped t o it and secured in
GRP panels, unlike th eir metal equivalent.An
place by self-t apping screws th at hold th e
ext r uded aluminium T-section form s th e sup-
pressure plate in po sition.
port t o th e panels o n all four edges, w it h an
In small roofiights, up t o aro und a
Vertical section I :5. Large roofiight panel to panel junction
ext r uded aluminium pressure plate being
3000mm ( l Oft) span, GRP composite panels
used t o hold th e panels in place o n th e oute r
require no addit ional suppo rt, w hile th ose of
face of th e GRP panels. Most suppo rt fr ames
greate r span use an addit ional aluminium o r
are now intern ally drained and vent ilate d t o
steel frame beneath t o support th e compos-
provide a second line of defence against rain-
it e panels over th e greate r span. Panel sizes
wate r penetration.Th e oute r seal is provided
Vertical section 1:5. Large roofiight ridges.
MC E
465
a,
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GRP rcoff hts
o /
.."
f'C'----
"
~:r-
-:...
Vertica l section I:5. l..arge roofi,ght ridge
o Vertical section I:S Large rooflight eaves
, -:
/(,/ -: ~/
3-D view of large rooflight
by an extruded EPDMgasket clipped into t he aluminium extrusion, Proprietary tapes
vides a method of construction for translu-
are also used. but are more de pe ndent upon
cent rooOights which is visually lightweight
good wo rkmanship on site than gaskets
with slender joint lines.
w hich are fixed to t he pressure plate in factory conditions.
==0
Verti cal section 1:5. Small roofiight r idge and eaves
Vert ical section I:5. Small roofiight r idge
Me E 466
and composite metal panel techniques pro -
Pressure plates for panel Joints running
In addition to these standardjunctions which form part of proprietary systems. panels are jointed with folded metal sheet.
down the slope. are set over the joint
where unusual junctions are to be formed.A
between the panelsin the manner of glazed
folded metal sheet is fixed over the top of
curtain walling.Joints running across the
the upper panels. to ensurethat rainwater
slope sometimes have pressure plateswith
runs down the panel. and forms a drip where
lapped Jo ints in order to avoid water building
it is fixed to the top of the vertical panel.An
up on the upper sideof the joint and being
inner metal sheet is bonded to the junction
unableto run over the joint The lap is
of t he panels to provide an inner seal and
formed by setting an aluminium strip or
vapour barrier.An alternat ive detail is to fill
extrusion under the bottom edge of the
the void w ith thermal insulation in order to
panel which laps over the top of t he panel
reduce the risk of condensation formingon
below.Thiscombination of glazed curtain
the underside of the panel in temperate c1i -
walling (or greenhouse glazing) techniques
mates.This is typically used in a wider than
Details I.
Translucent and insulated GRP roof panel 2. Thermally broken aluminium framing 3. Inside 4. Outside 5. Pressure plate 6. A djacent masonry/ concrete wall 7. Folded metal cover strip 8. EPDM strip 9. Supporting structure 10. Concrete upstand
Vertical section I:5, Large rooflight eaves
3-D view of large rooflight eaves
Vertical section 1:5 , Large rooflight ridges
typical joint w he re th e provision of a t herm al
down th e joint betw een th e panels th at run
break is usually difficult to achieve.A seco nd
down t he slope of t he roof
line of defe nce against rainwater pe netratio n is provided by a membrane set immediate ly
Eaves and upstands
ben eath the metal fl ashing rath er th an on th e
W he n a rooflight termin ates in an eaves, an
inne r joint between pane ls, as is t he case
int e rmediary aluminium extrusion o r fo lded
elsew he re, because t he t hermal insulation
sheet is used to fo rm t he junction .An o ute r
cannot be set wit hin th e drainage cavity
EPDM o r ext ruded silicone sea l is used as an Vertical section 1:5, Small roofiight ridge and eaves
whe re it wo uld both impede t he passage of
o ute r line of defe nce against rainwater pe ne-
t he small amo unts of wate r th at wo uld be
tratio n at th e junction w it h t he GRP roof
drained in t he intern al cavity, as we ll as lose
panel.Drainage slots formed in t he bottom
its t he rmal insulation prop e rt ies d ue to t he
of t he aluminium closer piece drain away any
abso rpt ion of wate r.
wate r that passes t hrou gh th e o ute r sea l.
A ridge fl ashing can be formed in t he
CD
0)
These drainage slots also take away any
same way, wit h a metal sheet fi xed to th e
wate r to th e o utside from th e dr ainage chan-
uppe r face of t he GRP pane l frame and a
nels wit hin t he joints bet wee n panels t hat
membrane waterproo fi ng laye r ben eath.Any
run do wn th e slo pe of th e roof The GRP
rainwater th at penetrates th e o ute r sea l is
panel ben eath th e closer piece th at form s a
drained eit he r at t he e nds of t he ridge o r
vert ical part of t he roofl ight is formed by
CD
0)
Vertical section I:5, Small roofiight ridge
MC E
46 7
a,
0
GRP rcoff hts
CD
Vertical section I:5.Small roofhgtTl upstand at base
CD 0)
Vertical section I :5.Large roofiight monopitch r idge
1 Vertical section I:5. Large roofiight base
setting the panel beh ind a vertical aluminium
3-D view of large rooftight monopitch ridge
De tails I.
Tr.ll1slucent and insulated GRProof panel
2.
Thermally broken aluminium framing 3. lnsde 4, O utside
5. Pressure plate 6. Adjacent masonryl 7.
co-c rete wall Folded metal cover
"n p 8.
EPDM strip
9. Supportingstructure 10. Co ncrete upstand
Me E 468
used to provide a cont inuous edge support
strip that forms a lapped jo int over the top
to the GRP panel aswe ll as a weathertight
of the panel,avoiding the possibility of rain-
seal.A waterproof membrane is bonded to
water passing through the joint.The gap
the outside of the closer piece and is secured
between the aluminium closer and the GRP
to the upstand below. typically formed in
pane l is sealed with either an EPDM gasket a
reinforced concrete.The closer piece is ther-
proprietary tape. or a silicone sealant.A
mally insulated and is sealed on its inner face
metal gutter is fixed to the metal closer if
with a thin folded aluminium strip that serves
required, but this is usually exposed unlessit
both to retain the thermal insulation in place
forms part of a fascia such asthe curved
and as a vapour barri er The visible width of
eaves used in profiled metal roo fing,for
the inner closer strip usually matches that of
example. In smaller roofl ights the rainwater
the adjacent aluminium jo ints between the
typically runs off onto the surrounding area
panels and is visible within the building.The
of flat roof.
gap between the bottom of a GRP panel and
Upstands are formed either with an alu-
the upstand beneat h is sealed with a metal
minium closer piece as used at eaves, or w it h
flas hing set forward of the vertical face of the
a metal flas hing. where the GRP panel is sup-
upstand. This allow s water to drain out of the
ported on an additional steel or aluminium
vent ilated channels in the joints that form the
supporting frame.A metal closer piece is
second line of defence against rainwater pen-
Vertical section 1:5. Large rooflight internal fold
3-D view of large roofiight monopitch ridge
o
/ / /
/
Vertical section 1:5. Large roofiight external fold
Vertical section 1:5. Large rooflight external fold
3-D view of large roofiight monopitch ridge
et rat ion.A w at erpro of membrane, typically
fo rw ard of t he vert ical panels t o give a thin
EPD M, is bonded t o t he bottom edge of t he
edge t o t he roof. A lte rnat ively t he roof can
met al frame surro unding t he GRP panel and
t erminate in a sharp edge, w it h a fo lded alu-
is sealed against th e w at erpro ofing layer of
minium sheet o r angle closing th e gap
t he upst and, providing a co nt inuous seal from
between t he panels.A s w it h ot her panel t o
t he surro unding area of flat roo f up t o t he
panel juncti o ns, a wat erproof membrane is
rooflight. A t herm al break in t he framing of
set o n t he under side of t he o ute r met al
t he GRP composite panel ensures a cont inui-
flashing as a second line of defence against
ty in t he t hermal insulati on from upst and t o
rainw ater penetratio n.T he void between t he
GRP ro oflight.
panels is filled w it h miner al fibre quilt type t hermal insulati on, w hich has t he flexibility
Verges
required t o fill t he irregular-shaped voids
The gable ends of sloping GRP rooflights are
between GRP panels.A n addit io nal alum ini-
fo rmed w it h an aluminium flashing t hat is
um angle is used at t he juncti on of t he inner
bon ded, or mechanically fixed and sealed, t o
face of th e panels t o provide an addit ional
t he met al edge frame t o t he side of t he GRP
seal and vapo ur barrier.
panel forming t he slop ing panel, and to t he t op of t he tri angular-shaped vert ical end
Vertical section 1:5. Large rooflight abutment
panel.The slo ping panel can exte nd slight ly MCE
469
Vertical section 1:5. Ridge
Vertical section I:5.verge
A but ments
Sl iding roof panels
w hile th e oth er three sides wo uld be set into
W here a GRP rooflight is set against a vert i-
T he lightweight nature of GRP rooflight pan-
a slot. In t he slot connect ion, t he oute r
cal wall in anot her material, such as rein-
els is being used increasingly in sliding panels
(upper) seal comprises EPD M or silicone-
fo rced concrete o r concrete block, a met al
t hat allow a rooflight t o be opened at differ-
based gaskets, usually in a 'flipper' section
flashing is used. Beneath t he metal flashing, a
ent t imes of t he year.Typically up t o aro und
th at allows th e aluminium fr aming t o slide in
wate rpro of membrane is bond ed t o th e
40% of panels in a rooflight are opened by
and o ut of th e housing o n o ne side, and t o
edge of t he GRP panel and is fo lded up t he
sliding t hem over adjacent fixed panels, in rel-
slide o n t he ot her two sides.A ny rainw at er
abutting wa ll t o w hich it is bonded.W here
atively modest elect rically o perate d syste ms.
t hat penetrates t he o ute r seal is drained
wall and rooflight are not connecte d struc-
W hereas larger-scale glass rooflight panels
away in a cavity w it hin t he rooflight frame,
turally,th e membran e usually has an ext ra
are difficult and expensive to becom e o pena-
dr aining o ut through holes in th e bottom of
curve of material between t he panel and t he
ble due t o t he we ight of t he glass and t he
th e aluminium profi le onto th e roof below.
wall t o allow for st ructural movement
complexity of th eir seals, GRP roofli ght pan-
A n inner air seal, eit her po lymer foam based
between wall and roof T he o ute r line of
els are easier t o slide, w it h seals being provid-
o r similar t o t he o ute r gasket seals, is provid-
defence formed by t he met al flashing is set
ed by lapped joint s w it h EPDM o r extruded
ed o n t he under side of t he GRP panel.These
onto th e membrane and is fold ed up th e
silicone seals in th e manner of sliding doors.
general pri nciples of sliding panels w ill no
vert ical face of t he wa ll.A n addit ional met al
Opening panels are sealed t o t he levels of air
do ubt be develop ed t o suit more complex
flashing is used t o cover t he t op edge of t he
infiltrati on associate d w it h o pening w indows ,
geomet ries of o penable panels over th e next
metal flashing w here significant struct ural
w hich are usually low er th an th ose of fixed
t en years.T he pop -out t ype sliding doo r s t hat
movement is expected, t he oute r met al flash-
glazed ro oflights.
move o utwa rd before sliding, t ogether w it h
ing being fixed into a cont inuo us gro ove o r
Panels can move eit her side to side in th e
hinged panels,w ill make thi s rooflight system
hori zont al joint line in t he concrete o r
manner of sliding doors,o r vert ically in t he
more generally applicable t o large-scale appli-
masonry wall t o pro vide a weat hert ight seal
manner of sash w indows .T he same prin ciples
cat ions of all building ty pes.
t o th e t op of th e flashing.
of fixing and wate rproo fing joints are used regardless of t he directio n of movement of th e panels.For example, o ne side of th e hori zontally sliding panel wo uld have an upst and,
MCE
4 70
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Small curved roofl,gtlt layout
""'"c"t ical section I:5. Eaves
-
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Details I. 2.
Translucent and insulatedGRP roof panel Thermally broken aluminium
)
i0ruJ r .,..
lLllJ·f u
CD
framing
J.
tosoe
4.
Outside
5.
Pressureplate
6.
Adjacent masonry/concrete wall
7. 8. 9. 10.
Folded metal cover strip EPDM strip Supporting structure Ccoc-ete upstand
Key plan. Small curved roof layout
3-D view of small curve d roofhghl
3·0 view of ridge detail
MC E
471
a,
0
GRP rcoff hts
3-D exploded view of large pitched rooflight
Details I.
Translucent and insulated GRP roof panel
2.
Thermally bro ken aluminium
3
framing Inside
4
Outs ide
5
Pressure plate
6 8
Adjacent masonry/concrete wall Folded metal cover strip EPDM strip
9
Support ir
7
10 Concrete upstand
3-D exploded VIew of large pitched rooflight
\
o
3-D line drawing of large pitched roofbght
3-D exploded view of parapet junction of GRP pitched rooflight
Me E 472
3-D line drawing of small roofiight
3-D exploded view of small roofiight
3-D exploded view of small roofiight
3-D exploded view of large roo fiight w ith monopitch
3-D line drawing of large roofiight with monopitch
3-D exploded view of large roofiight with monopitch
MC E
473
3-D view of top of roof
D etails I , GRP shell panel 2. GRP oute r cladding panel 3. GRP structural rib 4. GRP thin panel with honeycomb core 5. Mild steel or aluminium frame 6. Mild steel or aluminium truss 7, GRP fiashing 8. Waterproofing membrane 9. Metal fixing bracket 10, Thermal insulation I I . Glazing 12. Concrete base Note: GRP shown tran slucent for clarity only
W here glass reinforced po lyester (GRP)
ports th e co mplete o ute r skin.Th e frame has
Jo int s between GRP panels are form ed by
rooflights, discussed in t he previo us section
curved members t hat radiat e fro m t he cen-
butting panels up t o o ne anot her and sealing
on ro oflights,are made as panels w hich are
tre at th e t op t o th e edge and from th e cen-
th e gap between th e panels.The seal is
join ed t o form t ranslucent ro ofl ight s. Opaque
tre at t he lowest po int of t he st ruct ure, back
form ed in a co nt inuous ste p profile o n t he
GRP panels can be made as mo no lithic, self-
t o t he perimeter.T he radiatin g 'spokes' of t he
long edges of each panel t hat creates a co n-
suppo rt ing shells, usually made from panel
w heel are held in place by T-secti ons t hat, in
tinu ous groove at t he joint betw een panels.
segme nts w hich are bro ught t o site and bo lt-
plan, form co ncent ric circles.T his 'bicycle
T he groove is filled w it h a laminati on of glass
ed t ogeth er.Th e segment sizes of GRP shells
w heel' form is suppo r te d near its perim eter
fibr e and resin to fill th e gro ove to th e level
are made in sizes w hich are suita ble for trans-
by a met al ring beam t hat is set immediat ely
of t he t op of t he panels.T he exte rnal face of
portatio n by road, usually set upright on a
above t he glazing beneath t he GRP roofThe
t he GRP is t hen gro und smoot h, usually by a
t railer.The shells can t hen be lifted by crane
ring beam is suppo rte d by posts t hat are
hand-held grinder.t o achieve a uniform,
into place as a co mplete d assembly, w hich
fixed t o th e roof deck beneath.
smoot h surface th at co nceals th e joint lines.
makes th em quite different from ro of st ruc-
T he metal frame is clad in pr efabricated
Finally,a paint finish is applied, usually as a
GRP panels w hich are bo lted t o t he suppo rt
spray, t o give a smoot h and reflective finish.
fr ame on th eir intern al face in order to avoid
W here pigment s are applied t o th e t op coat
Smaller panels and shells
visible fixings. Panels are made w it h an o ute r
o r 'gel' coat in t he factory,a more limit ed
Smaller shells co nsist of a set of segme nte d
skin of GRP aro und Smm t hick, w it h an over-
range of colours is available.T hermal insula-
panels w hich are bo lted togeth er to form a
all panel depth of aro und 4Smm for th e pan-
tion is set o n th e under side of th e shell, being
tures in ot her mat erials.
roof shell of approximate ly 7.0 metres diam-
els sizes shown of 3S00mm long and
bo nded t o t he inner face of t he GRP panels
ete r. Some variat ions are suppo rte d by an
1800mm w ide.Th e GRP panels are st iffened
in o rder t o achieve co nt inuity of insulation .
addit ional fram e, w hile ot hers are self-sup-
by concent ric ribs, aro und 120m m w ide.T he
porting GRP shells. GRP panels can be suppo rted by a light
Typical examples use glass fibre ribs t hat
lo ng edges of panels do not require thi ck ribs,
form part of th e shell t o pro vide integral
and th ese are aro und I Omm t hick. Panels
struct ural sta bility t o th e shell. Panels are gen-
met al frame beneath.The fr ame comprises
are secured w it h bo lts w hich are fixed
erally aro und 200mm deep, and are bo lted
steel o r aluminium T-section s w hich are we ld-
through th e metal suppo rt fr ame into rein-
together t o form a self-suppo rt ing GRP shell.
ed t oget her t o fo rm a st ruct ure t hat sup-
forcing ribs at t he edges of t he GRP panels.
Ribs are made in solid GRP in o rder t o allow
M C E 4 74 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Horizontal and vertical sections I :SO. GRP shell roof
3-D section through roof assembly
M C E_ 475
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-e-
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Vertical sections I : I o. Panel to panel junction
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3-D view showing GRP shell roof internal structure
.Jl2c= r-
r
CD
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Vertical section I: I O. Perimeter Vertical sections 1·5 Panel to panel junction
th em t o be bolted t ogether easily Panels are
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GRP shell panel GRP outer cladding panel 3. GRP structural rib 4. GRP thin panel with honeycomb core 5. Mild steel or aluminium frame 6. Mild steel or aluminium truss 7. GRP flashing 8. W aterproofing membrane 9. Metal fixing bracket 10. Thermal insulation II . Glazing I 2. Concrete base
MC E
4 76
int ernally behind curve d glazed units inst alled
Th ere are various methods for forming th e
near th e perim eter of th e roof Th e intern al
J
t op of th e roof W here panel segme nt s con-
part of th e shell on its under side, has th e
verge at th e t op of th e shell, a separat e cen-
same panels w it h th e same finish,but w it ho ut
"
.':
D etai ls I. 2.
Th e underside of th e shell is mostly set
jo ined and sealed o n th eir exte rnal face.
tre panel is used t o create a smoot h exte rnal
any th erm al insulation, w hich is ty pically set
finish.A cent ral exte rnal panel avoids th e dif-
around th e o ute r edge of th e shell in order
ficulty of brin ging up t o 16 panels t ogether at
to keep t emp eratures w it hin th e void close
a single point w hich wo uld make it difficult t o
t o th ose w it hin th e building. Close t o th e
achieve a smoot h transition from o ne side of
edge of th e shell, on th e under side, th e joint
th e shell t o th e ot her. In th e example shown,
between th e t op panel w hich curves aro und
a shadow groove is set aro und th e jo int
th e edges, and th e adjacent panel under-
between th e cent ral panel and th e segments
neath, has a groove formed along th e joint t o
in order t o avoid any misalignment between
serve as a dr ip.W indblow n rain w ill still be
segmente d panels from being visible.Th e
pushed along th e underside of th e soffit
per imeter jo int of th e panel can be filled and
panel, but th e drip reduces th e amo unt of
sealed using th e meth od describ ed earlier,
wate r t hat run s dow n t o th e glazing below.
w it h addit ional grinding required o n site t o ensure a smoot h finish.
Th e curve d glazed units beneath th e roo f shell are set int o a recessed slot at th e panel
3-D view of underside of GRP roof assembly fragment and connection to glazed wall
3-D fragment of GRP shell showing intern al st r uct ure
joint.The recess avoids th e possibility of a
fibreglass mat being laid int o t he resin, usually
weakne ss in the seal t hat cou ld result in using
w it h rolle rs.T he proce ss of fabricat ing GRP
a butt joi nt between shell and glazing. The
panels is very labour-intensive. but requires
edge of the double glazed unit is sealed com -
no expe nsive equipment. making panel pro-
pletely around the junction w it h the shell.
duction a craft-based te chnique rather t han
typically w it h silicone.
an industrial proce ss.When th e panels are
Both the cladding panels and the self-
released from the mould the y are trimmed
supporting shell are made using the same
along th eir edges and ground smooth w here
manufacturi ng process. Panels are made in a
necessary.A n alternative met hod is t o apply
mo uld. usually from a single segmented panel
a mixture of resin and glass fibre particles as
type to form a co mplete rooflight. Moulds
a spray direct ly into th e mou ld.The mixt ure
are usually made from plywood t o create th e
is applied to a thi ckness of 3mm t o Smm
shape and are th en finished in G RP t o create
depend ing o n th e panel size requ ired.
th e negative shape of t he panel being formed. GRP panels are fabricat ed by first
Larger panels and shells
applying a release agent t o th e mou ld t o
In many cases a hemispherical dom e of 20
allow th e finished panel t o be removed easily.
metre diameter is co nstr ucted as a self-sup-
then the rmose tting polyester resins are
port ing shell.The GRP shell can eit her be
applied t o th e face of the mo uld, w it h flexi ble
made from GRP on ly.or can use add it ional
3-D fragment showing GRP shell and mi ld steel structural frame fixing details at to p of glazed wall
MC E 477
Vertical section 1:20. Junction at base
@ D etails I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. II . I 2.
GRP shell panel GRP outer cladding panel GRP structural rib GRPthin panel with honeycomb core Mild steel or aluminium frame Mild steel or aluminiumtruss GRPflashing Waterproofing membrane Metal fixing bracket Thermal insulation Glazing Concrete base
struct ural sta bility prov ided by an exte rnal
3-D fragment of basejunction on domed GRP roof with external exposed truss structure
Th e struct ural shell is usually assembled
steel o r aluminium truss.Th e truss might be
by br inging th e panel segme nts t o site indi-
honeycomb sheet.T he hon eycomb core pro vides a rigid reinforcing layer t o th e o ute r
used t o suppo rt a decorative o ute r screen or
vidually, due t o th eir size.Th e panels are th en
skins of GRP th at give th em a flat, smoot h
a lighti ng syste m t o illuminat e translucent
bolted t ogeth er o n site, o n th e gro und.Th e
appearance.Th is inner skin is reinforced by
panels, for exam ple.
jo ints are th en form ed on th e finished face,
struct ural ribs th at form an int egral part of
In many instances,a loadbearing inner
eit her intern al o r exte rnal. Finally,th e shell is
th e panel. and are set hori zont ally at approxi-
shell, w it h int egral GRP st ruct ural ribs, is clad
lifted by crane int o position o n th e roof as a
mately I OOOmm cent res.Th ey are also made
w it h GRP panels th at form a weat hert ight
complete item.The flexibility and lightweight
from GRP. filled w it h mineral fibre insulation
oute r screen.T he inner shell serves as th e
nature of GRP makes th is possible, w hich
o r inject ed foam t o provide th erm al insula-
loadbearing struct ure, it being easier to install
avoid s th e need for scaffo lding and access
tion, w it h overall sect ion sizes of around
panels w it h a pre-finished int ernal surface
equipment at roof level.A n alte rnat ive meth -
200mm w ide x 300mm deep.Th e horizontal-
since no furth er access is required for finishes
od, w here no space is available on site for
ly-set ribs span a maximum of aro und
wo rk o n its intern al face. Consequent ly,no
assembly, is t o create a platform beneath th e
450mm at th e base of th e shell, deceasing in
scaffo lding o r access platforms are required
shell inside th e building, w here th e ro of can
size unt il th ey reach th e t op of th e shell. GRP
inside th e building t o install and finish th e
be assembled in place. How ever. th e sanding
ribs are also set vertically o n th e edges of th e
roofl ight.Th e o ute r skin of GRP cladding pan-
and grinding o perat ions requ ired t o make
panels, filled w it h th erm al insulati o n but made
els is fixed using a lightweight crane th at lifts
th e inner face of th e shell smoot h and co n-
as solid GRP w here panels are fixed t ogeth er
th e o ute r segmente d panels into position .
tinu ous,and ready for painting, usually require
w it h bolted co nnect ions.
The co nst ruct ion method can, of course, be
th e in-sit u co nstructe d solut ion t o be in an
reversed so th at an o ute r shell w it h a facto-
enclosed space t o avoid GRP dust particl es
erai fibre o r foam-based insulation set in th e
ry-applied finish can be installed as a pre-
from spreading aro und th e building.
voids between th e ribs.Th e o ute r face of th e
assembled item th at requires no furth er
Th e inner shell is generally made w it h an
Th e shell is th erm ally insulat ed w it h min-
shell is covered w it h a GRP skin th at pro vides
inner wall around 15mm thi ck made as a thin
an oute r seal against rainwater penetration.
th en be applied t o th e int ern al face of th e
composite panel.The panel is form ed w it h
Th e layer is given a further protect ion and
shell from inside th e building, but thi s is th e
t wo o ute r skins of GRP. 2 -3mm thi ck, w it h an
visual screen pro vided by o ute r cladding pan-
more difficult const r uction meth od.
inner core made from po lypropylene-based
els. Like th e inner shell,th e o ute r cladding is
wo rk exte rnally. GRP cladding panels can
MC E
4 78
3-D fragment of domed GRP roof with external exposed truss structure
\=
Hor izontaland vertical
sectoos 1:200, GRP domed roof with external steel truss structure
3-D VIew showing fragment of domed roof formed using GRPshell panels andexternal exposed truss structure
MC E 47 9
astic Roo sO
GRP panels and shells
,*,l ;%
Horizontal section I: I0, Panel to panel junction
Vert ical section I: I0,Junction between shell panels and external supporting trus s
-3--D view showing-fixing method "for t -RP roof panel"formed with steel structure
Vert ical section I: I0,Junction between shell panels and external supporting truss
3-D view showing fixing method for GRP roof panel formed with steel structure
D etails
made from 15mm t hick compo site panels,
t he inner shell are reduced t o 20mm t hick
I, 2,
st iffened by GRP ribs aro und IOOmm deep x
ribs,A metal plate is set between t he adja-
200mm w ide,These o ute r segme nte d panels
cent panels,w it h th e joint being sealed w it h
GRP shell panel GRP outer cladding panel 3. GRP structural rib 4, GRPthin panel with honeycomb core 5, Mild steel or aluminium frame 6, Mild steel or aluminium t russ 7, GRP fiashing 8, W at erproofing membrane 9, Metal fixing bracket 10, Thermal insulation II , Glazing I 2, Concrete base
are bond ed t o th e inner shell w ith resins o r
silicone,A n o ute r skin of GRP cladding panels
w it h silicone, and sealed w it h silico ne at th eir
can provide an o ute r line of defence against
joints t o fo rm a co nt inuo us oute r skin, Small
rainw ater penetrati on , Panels are mechanical-
amo unts of rainw ater th at might penetrate
ly fixed to a co nt inuous metal plat e form ing
th e o ute r line of defence are drained away
part of th e truss,t he panel being sealed
down th e oute r GRP skin of th e inner shell.
against th e plat e w ith silicone seal.
W hile it is easier t o provide a co nt inuous smoot h finish in a smaller shell, in larger
th e shell is treat ed as an upst and.Th is allows
examples it is more difficult t o avoid visible
th e shell t o be set a minimum of 150mm
surface irregulariti es o n larger shells, For thi s
above th e adjacent roo f level w it ho ut t he
reason , visible jo int s are usually preferred in
need fo r complex junctions between roof
larger-scale GRP shells,
slab and shell.The base of t he shell has a co n-
In generic exam ples, an additional metal Horizontal section I : I0, Panel to panel junction
MC E
480
In many cases th e jun ction at th e base of
t inuo us GRP flashing bon ded w hich also
tru ss in either mild steel or aluminium is fixed
serves as a fixing plate o nto th e co ncrete
at th e panel joints t o pro vide st ruct ural st a-
upst and.Th e base plate is set on levelling
bilit y.The GRP ribs w it hin th e panels forming
shims to take up th e co nst ruct ion to lerances
~I_/.
I
~1
3-D view showing stripped-back GRP panel-clad dome
/
Horizon tal and vertica l sections
3-D view showing base junction of dome formed with GRP shell panels and external steel truss
in th e height of th e concrete upstand.Th e wate rproo fing memb rane of t he adjacent roof is t aken up to t he t op of t he upst and and is lapped under th e GRP fiashing.A n addit ional wate rproo fing memb rane may exte nd t o th e inside of th e inner shell and up t he int ernal face of t he shell w here it is prot ected by anoth er GRP cover strip, concealed from view by int ernal finishes.
3-D view showing hemispherical dome formed with GRP shell panels and external steel structural truss
MC E 48 1
~..!
OJ
~t:1'
to
t!,,~~ 1!lllil4~, ~TIl.1 ~:!.l!~l~1
--
..?~
0);7'~ .. ..-
-
Details
.- -
I. GAP shell panel 2.GAP outer cladd,ng panel 3.GAPstr\.ICt\nlrtl 4.GRP thlll panel WIth hclne)'con"C core S.Mold steel or ~ frame 6. Mold steel or a1um,nun truss 7. GAPRash;ng 8.vvaterprcofing membrane 9,Metal fixing bracket
3-0 exploded _ ~lIed
sl10wKlg fra~ of GRP sheI roof wrth ,ntemal steel st.n..oet\n
3-D view show,ng fragment of GAP shell parelled roof with 'ntemal stee l structure
MCE_ 482
10. Thennal in$uIabOn Il .Glazng 12. Ccocete base
3-0 exploded VIeW sI'1<.1wIng outer edge of frawnent of GRP sheI paneled roof wrth onternal steel struet...-e
s
®
,
3-0 exploded view shcming base ccootce of domed roof rorrned using GRP shell panels and steel tM$
3-D e>
MC E_ 483
FABRIC ROOFS (I) ETFE cushions
Cushions
w""'"
Ar The matenal Fabrication Durability
Performance in fire
(2) Sin gle m embrane: Cone-shaped roof Fabric roof principles
Fabric types Comparison of types Thermal insulation
Acoustics Durability Performance in fire Co ndensation
(3) Single membrane: Barrel-shaped roof Membrane roof fabricatio n
Membrane roof edges Suspension points Membrane folds
MCE
465
3-D view of junction between ETFEcushions
Details I. 2.
ETFE cushion Extruded aluminium clamping plate 3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile 4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane 5. Support ing structure 6. Plast ic air supply tube 7. Main air supply tube 8. Insulated metal lined gutter 9. Metal flashing IO. ETFE cushion with contours shown for clarity
3-D overview of inregular shaped ETFE cushions used in facade assembly
((
Isometric view of junction of clamping plates
Fabrics used as ro of membranes have th e
A lt hough large scale self-suppo rt ing
advantage of being light in we ight. stro ng in
inflat able roof struct ures are in use, particu-
t ension and durable, and have th e ability t o
larly for covering spo rts stadiums, th ey
be cut t o different shapes and joined t ogeth-
remain st r ucturally stable o nly w hile air is
er eco nomically, w hich is difficult t o achieve
being supplied t o th e st r ucture. If th e air sup-
so easily w it h metal and is very expensive t o
ply is int errupt ed, th e co mplete roof struc-
achieve w it h curved glass. Roof membrane
ture deflates. In smaller scale applicat ions,air-
fabrics are used in t ension struct ures, eit her
filled cushions remain in place w hen th e air
by stretc hing th e mater ial, o r 'prestressing'
supply fails or is switc hed off w hen used as
th e membrane, between st ruct ural suppo rts
non -Ioadbearing panels.Thi s ty pe, w here
o r,alte rnat ively, by suppo r t ing th e mater ial
ET FE sheet is used t o make panels formed as
pneum atically in inflated struct ures.The use
air-filled 'cushions', pro vides highly transpar-
of fabric membranes in pr estressed ro ofs is
ent. lightweight and resilient ro ofs th at have
discussed in th e next two sections o n single
th erm al insulati o n values similar t o th ose of
layer fabric membranes.This section co nsid-
doubl e glazed units.
ers ETFE cushions, also called 'p illow s' o r 'foi ls', w hich are th e most commo n applicat ion of inflat able fabric ro ofs.
C ushions ET FE cushions usually co nsist of a minimum of two layer s of ET FE sheet w hich are set
MC E 486 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
----
....
~-_._._---
---Vertical section 1:5.Junction of clamping plates
Vertical section I :5. Clamping plate assembly
----
l~~l < - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
1------------);'
(( 3-D view of junction of clamping plates
))
Vertical section I: I O.Junction of clamping plates
back t o back t o form a flat panel and are
from a single air supply,and t o ensure th at
sealed at th e edges.Th e void w it hin th e cush-
th e air pr essure in both chambers remains
ion-shaped panel is inflated w it h air t o a pr es-
equal.T his three layer cushion pro vides a
sure of between 200 Pascals and 700 Pascals,
U-value of aro und 2.0 W/m2 K, w hich is simi-
depend ing o n th e cushion size and th e manu-
lar t o a doub le glazed unit used in glass roofs.
facturer 's propri etary system, t o provide
Cu shion s made from two layers of ET FE
struct ural sta bility t o th e panel.Th e increased
sheet are also used but th e th erm al insulati o n
air pressure st ret ches, o r 'prestresses', th e
perform ance is reduced co nside rably.T her-
oute r membranes, giving ETFE cushions th eir
mal insulati o n performance is reduced at th e
characte ristic curve d shape.Th e cushio ns are
perim eter of th e cushio n w here its thi ckness
held in place by clamps th at form a frame
is reduced t o a th in edge. Som e cushions
aro und th e cushions in th e manner of glazed
have th erm al br eaks at th e panel perim eter
ro oflights.Th e clamping frames are th en sup-
t o parti ally overco me thi s loss of th erm al
ported by a mild steel st ruct ure form ed t ypi-
insulati on.Th e overall U-value can be
cally as box sect ions o r tub es.Cushion s ty pi-
reduced by forming a w ide gap between th e
cally have three layers th at form two cham-
t w o oute r membranes, t o provide a consist -
ber s.The two chambers are linked by a ho le
ent ly w ide air space w it hin th e cushion.T her-
formed in th e middle (flat) membrane in
mal insulati o n performance can also be
order t o allow air t o pass t o both chambers
improved by increasing th e numb er of air
3-D cutaway view of junction between ETFE facade and ground
MC E
48 7
Fal5ric Roofs 0 I ETFE cushions
Di o
""JI/I\IIII\II\(
®
)~ 0
Horizontal section I : IO. Clamping plate with air supply pipes
Verti cal section 1:5.Junction with gutter
0--~~~==:;,8 .""O:---------------j
3-D detail of cushion to cushion air supply
chambers w it hin th e cushion by adding fur-
t ems w it hin buildings.The humidity level of
t her layers of ETFE membrane.
t he air is usually co nt ro lled t o avoid t he possibility of condensat ion forming w it hin th e
Ai r supply
cushions. Once th e ETFE cushions have been
A ir is supplied t o cushions from rubb er pipes
inflated, air is supplied t o th e cushions for
o r flexible plastic pipes th at are co nnected t o
o nly aro und 5- 10 minutes per hour t o com-
t he underside of t he cushion near t he clamp-
pensate for loss of air pressure from leaks
ing assembly Pipes are usually of aro und
from cushions o r from air supply pipes.
25mm diameter. and are co nnected t o a larg-
3-D detail of junction between ETFEcushions
MC E
488
If air pressure w it hin t he cushion is lost as
er pipe th at supplies th e air t o all th e cush-
a result of damage to one of t he o ute r mem-
ion s eit her side of a single struct ural suppo rt.
branes o r from loss of air pressure in th e
T his main pipe is also usually made from plas-
supply pipe, t he cushion deflates t o it s flat -
ti c and can be co ncealed w it hin th e suppo rt-
t ened shape. As w ind pressures are applied
ing st ruct ure, being o nly up t o a diameter of
t o t he exte rnal face of t he cushion, t he o ute r
aro und 60mm.The air supply w hich maintains
skin w ill deflect eit her inw ards o r outwards
t he air pr essure w it hin t he cushions at a co n-
as a result of t he positive o r negative pres-
stant level. is supplied by electrically pow ered
sures.T his does not usually cause damage t o
fans w it h air filter s (to avoid th e passage of
th e cushions before th e air supply is restored.
dust) , as used in mechanical vent ilat ion sys-
Som e manufactu rer s' systems have o ne-way
1 Vertical section I 10.junction at base
3-D detail of junction between ETFE facade and ground
1---- ®-------::3"":~-r====;.......
CD Vertical section I:I O. junction with adjacent roof
f-----0
-----3-D detail of junction with adjacent roof
Vert ical section I:IO. junction of clamping plates
valves to prevent loss of air pr essure from
The material
th e cushions back t o th e supply pipes.
ETFE (et hylene-tet ra-flouro -et hylene) is a
Condensation o n th e underside, or inter-
polym er similar t o PTFE (markete d asTeflon)
nal face, of ETFE cushio ns is avo ided by
w hich is made by ext r usion as a sheet mate-
D etails
ensuring th at vent ilat ion levels w it hin th e
rial.Thicknesses vary but 0.2mm is a commo n
building are sufficient ly high t o avoid thi s
thi ckness of material for ETFE cushions,
I. ETFE cushion 2. Extruded aluminium clamping plate 3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile 4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane 5. Supporting structure 6. Plastic air supply tube 7. Main air supply tube 8. Insulated metal lined gutter 9. Metal flashing 10. ETFE cushion with contou rs shown for clarity
occurring, and th at levels of relative hum idity
allow ing th em t o be very light in we ight at
are suita bly cont ro lled.W here condensat ion
aro und 350g/m2 for thi s thi ckness of sheet.
is st ill a risk, co ndensat ion channels are fixed
H eavier gauge sheet at O.5mm th ickness
to th e under side of th e cushion clamping
we ighs aro und I 000g/m 2 . Inner layer s of
assembly,similar to that used for glazed ro of-
ETFE sheet th at pro vide separate chambers
light s. In most cases th e t emp erature of th e
w it hin th e cushion are ofte n made from
air supplied t o th e cushions is similar t o th at
0.1 mm thi ck sheet.T he materi al is also used
of th e int ernal space immediat ely below th e
for it s high level of transparency,w it h 95%
roof, so condensat ion do es not usually occur
light transmission, and its durability w hen
on th e under side of th e cushion.
compared to ot her fabric materials, w it h a life expecta ncy of 25-35 years, based on visual crite ria. In o rder t o pro vide translucent areas of ro of (o r facade) using th e same mater ial, a
MC E
489
CD
Vertical section I: I O. Opening smoke vent s with insulated gutter
D eta ils I. ETFE cushion 2. Extruded alu-
3.
4.
minium clamping plate Extr uded aluminium reta ining profile Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Supporting structu re Plastic air supply tube Main air supply tube Insulat ed meta l lined gutte r Meta l flashing ETFE cushion with contours shown fo r clarity 3-D overv iew of ETFE roof system
w hite co loured translucent sheet is manufac-
is low, so th at sound travels easily th rou gh
been made in a variety of shapes from circles
tured w hich provides aro und 40% light trans-
th e mater ial.W hile th is can be an advantage
t o hexagons using a hot we lded pro cess
mission . ETFE does not provide a barri er t o
in noisy intern al enviro nme nts, it can be an
undertaken in th e wo rksho p.The we lded
th e passage of UV light, making it ideal for
inappropriate material if exte rnal noise is able
seams are visible but are not visually st riking
use in buildings w here exte nsive planting is
t o travel through th e roof t o int ern al spaces
w hen viewed from aro und th e building.The
displayed, th ough th e translucent w hite sheet
w here a quiet enviro nme nt is required. Cush-
w idt h, o r span, of th e cushion has an effect
has great ly reduced UV light transmission .
io ns can also pr odu ce a drumm ing effect
on it s depth , w here th e depth is ty pically
Solar shading can be prov ided by a patt ern of
during rain resulting from th e use of a thin
around 1/5 t he span of th e cushion. Larger
dots pr inted o nto th e surface of th e ETFE
st retc hed, membrane mater ial.
cushions somet imes use a net of co nnecte d cables t o provide addit ional restraint.
cushion, w it h a refiective silver co lour being a popu lar cho ice, th ough other colours and
Fabri cati on
patt ern s can be develop ed for individual
ET FE cushions are usually fabricated in th e
in plast ic, w hich is used t o retain th e panel in
proj ects.Th e printe d dots o n clear ET FE
workshop but can be assembled on site t o
its suppo rt ing frame.The cushion is set into a
The cushions have an edge bead, ty pically
sheet reduce th e light transmission t o aro und
suit project condit ions.Th e mat er ial is manu-
clamping frame, usually made from extruded
50-60%. but t his can be increased furth er by
factured in ro lls of considerable length but of
aluminium, th at hold s th e panel in place by
printing dots on two faces of th e air-filled
a w idt h of around 1.5 metres.For thi s reason,
clipping it into an aluminium profile, th en
cushion in areas of th e roof w here more
ET FE cushions are ofte n made w it h spans in
ho lding it in place w it h an aluminium pr es-
shading is required.Th e amo unt of solar
w idt hs of aro und 3.0 metres t o 4.0 metres
sure plate th at clamps th e edges.Th e com-
shading provided can be varied by allowing
between clamped frames, in lengths up t o
plete assembly usually perform s in a similar
th e middle layer t o move as a result of
between 15 - 30 metres, but lengths up t o
way t o th e framing used for glazed ro ofs,
changing th e air pr essure w it hin t he cushion.
60 metres have been used. Larger cushions
w it h a dr ained and vent ilate d inner chamber
The middle layer moves eit her o utwa rds o r
are made by we lding sheet t ogeth er in th e
th at serves as a second line of defence
inw ards t o increase th e over lap of th e print-
workshop t o form w ider sheets t o fo rm
against rainw ater penetration .A ny rainw ater
ed screen of dots th at has th e effect of vary-
cushions th at vary from th e rectangular form
th at passes th rou gh th e o ute r clamp ing plate
ing t he amo unt of solar shading pro vided. The sound absorpt ion of ET FE cushions
MC E
490
create d from a standard w idt h of ET FE sheet.
is drained away in grooves formed adjacent
Cu shion s up t o aro und 7.0 x 7.0 metres have
t o th e edges of th e ET FE cushions,th e wate r
\
>( X
X
\ \
"i X
"' Isometric view of junction of clamping plates
-@
X
lscmetn c view of junction of ETFE cushion assembly
tscroetr c view of junction wrth gutter
•
3·0 overVIew of ETFE roof system 3-D view of joint between ETFE cushions showing aIr supply pipes
/
3-D view of junction with adjacent roof
Isometn c view of junction of clamping plates
MC E
49 1
Fa6ric Roo sOl ETFE cushions
Vert ical section I : IO.Junction of clamping plates
o CD
C r0 J
Vertical sect io n 1:5.Junction of clamping plates
3-D view of joint between ETFE cushions showing air supply pipes
being drained back t o th e o utside of th e ro of
Du rability
T he clamping assembly is ty pically aro und
Th e t oughness of ET FE sheet is com bined
I OOmm w ide, w hich is w ider t han th at used
w it h a high resistance to t ear. D amage by
for glazed roofs, but less framing is required
sharp o bjects puncturin g an o ute r membrane
t han commo nly used o n glazed roofs.
does not spread easily into a larger t ear.
Th e complete ET FE cushion assembly is
o
/
G)
3-D exploded view of joint between ETFE cushions showing air supply pipes
Birds can puncture th e o ute r membrane, but
suppo r te d by a struct ural frame beneath,
t hey have great difficulty in coming t o rest o n
w it h mild steel, aluminium and laminat ed tim -
t he ro of it self. except o n th e clamping plates,
ber all being used t o suit th e design.T he
w here w ire is somet imes fitt ed t o avoid pr o-
clamped framing assem bly is fixed t o mild
viding any spaces for birds t o stand.T he
stee l tub es by fixing t he framing onto T-sec-
materi al has fairly high resistance t o surface
t ions w hich are we lded in short lengths t o
fading from UV light w here t here is a gradual
th e mild steel tub e.The aluminium framing
loss of surface reflecti vity. ETFE sheet is also
spans between t he T-section suppo rt s t o pro -
highly resistant t o attac k from chemicals and
vide a visual separat io n between th e ETFE
from airbo rne pollution in urb an areas. It s
cushions and th e suppo rting st eelwo rk.
low level of surface frict ion ensures t hat cushions do not hold dirt and dust easily, making cushion roofs relatively easy t o maint ain. ET FE roofs are usually cleaned as a result
MC E 492
((
))
Vertical section I :5,Junction with adjacent roof
I
f
\
\' \
"
Vertical section 1:5,Junction of clamping plates
3-D view of junction with adjacent roof
of rain in t emp erate climate s,t hough access
burnin g fragment s w ill fall below durin g a fire,
fo r maintenance is required, usually provided
Since th e mater ial melts rather th an burn s,
by w alking along t he exte rnal clamping plates
w it h most of th e burnt material being carried
w it h cable assista nce or from exte rnal st r uc-
away in th e rising hot air of a fire, ET FE sheet
ture, Roofs are designed so as t o ensure th at
melts at aro und 275 °C, form ing holes in th e
rainw ater drains easily from th e roo f Gutters
fabr ic w hich allows th e heat and smo ke of a
are int roduced o n lo ng span roofs betw een
fire t o escape, However. so me roofs still
set s of clamp ing plat es,C ushions are repaired
require sm oke vents, since thi s may not
by th e use of ET FEt ape, w hich is visible, o r
always occur during a fire if t he smo ke and
by co mplete replacement of th e panel,
heat is being generated in an area away from
depend ing largely o n t he visual requirement s
t he roof, w here th e ET FE cushions are not
of t he roof design,
affecte d by t he fire,T he small amo unt s of materi al used in ETFE cushions, w it h an aver-
Perfo rm ance in fire
age w all th ickness of Q, 2mm, result in littl e
A major co ncern in th e use of po lym er
materi al being deposited durin g a fire,
materials for single layer and mu ltiple layer
D etails I, 2,
ETFE cushion Extruded aluminium clamping plate 3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile 4, Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane 5, Supporting structure 6, Plastic air supply tube 7, Main air supply tube 8, Insulated metal lined gutter 9, Metal fiashing 10, ETFE cushion with contours shown for clarity
fabric ro ofs is th eir performance in fire, ETFE sheet is not easily inflammable and w ill selfextinguish qu ickly under direct flame, Few
MC E
493
- - -Fa6 " Roofs Or-- - - - .....
- - ;ETFE cushions
3·0 detail of junct io n betw een ETFE cushions
3-D exploded view of junction between ETFE cush ions
Details I. 2.
ETF E cushion Extrude d aluminium clamping plate
3.
Extruded alumin ium retain ing
profile
4.
Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane
• S.
•
6.
Supporting structure Plastic air supply
rub, 7.
Main air s.upply
rub, 8.
•
Insulated metal lined gutte r 9. Metal flashing 10, ETFE cush ion w rth contours shown for clarity
3-D exploded view of irregular shaped ETFE cushions used in facade assembly
3-D detail of junction between ETFE cush ions and ground
MC E 494
3-D exploded view of junction between mE cushions and ground
----
3-D exploded view of ETFE roof system
3·0 exploded view of ETFE roof system
3·0 view of ETFE roof joining concretestructure
3-D view of ETFE roof joiningconcrete structure
1
Exploded axonornetric view of ETFE roof joiningconcrete structure
3-D exploded view of ETFE roof joiningcooc-ete structure
MC E 495
3-D overv iew of co ne shape roof with tension cable support
!
Isometric view of cone-shaped fabric roof
The fo llowing two sect ions discuss th e two
porting struct ure, w hich is typically a mixture
most co mmo n shapes used for single laye r
of mild steel tubes and sta inless stee l cables.
roo fs:th e 'con e-shaped ' roo f and th e 'barre l-
Fabric roof principles
Details
shape d' ro of A third type , based o n th e
I. 2.
shape of a hyperb o lic paraboloid, uses th e
Early exa mples of fabric ro of st ruct ures of 30
same principles as th ose for th ese two types
years ago we re based , in part, o n o bse rva-
and is co nst ructe d using the same pr inciples
t ion s of how forces act in soa p bubb les,
and same co nst ruct ion details. For th at rea-
w he re th e soap film wall of th e bubble t akes
so n it s spec ific geo met ry is not discussed
up a minimum of surface area as a result of
Fabric membrane panel Supporting mild steel structure 3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile 4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane 5. Extruded aluminium clamp assembly 6. Stainless steel cable 7. Stainless steel connector 8. Membrane skirt 9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt 10. Mild steel ring support I I. Fabric cover to close ring
MC E 496 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
here, but th e co nstruct ion principles
th e surface ten sion of th e wa ll of th e bubble
described here can be applied eq uallyt o
being eve nly dist ribute d. In a fabric roof th e
hyperb o lic parabo lo id forms.
membrane is st ructurally mod e lled so th at
The advantages of single membrane fab-
t he resultant form deve lop ed between archi-
ric ro ofs are th e ir smoot h curve s, typically
tect and st ruct ural e nginee r distr ibutes th e
w it h different and thin , sharp edges, in o ppo -
ten sile forces w it hin th e membrane wit ho ut
site d irect ion s, th at pro vide translucent roofs
ove r-te nsioning so me parts and under-ten -
th at allow diffused daylight t o pass throu gh
sioning ot he r parts of th e membrane , w it h
th em .They use th eir curvat ure as a meth od
th e resulting design resisting all load co mbina-
of ten sion ing th e membrane against a sup-
t ion s in the ir d iffe rent d irect ion s.Th is wo rk is
Horizontal section I :400. Cone-shaped fabric roof
Tensile roof shape types:
CD Cone
CD Saddle G) Arch G)Wave
3-D view of underside of cone shape roof
usually developed in th e form of a computer
sect ion and th e barrel-shaped example of
model, eit her by specialist st r uctural consult -
t he fo llow ing sect ion make use of an int ern al
ants or by manufacturer s as part of t he
stee l structure t hat suppo r ts part of t he
design developm ent pro cess.Th e minim al
membrane, t o t ension it in some areas, w it h
surface form must also be suitable for drain-
roof edges w here th e mater ial is held and
ing away rainw ater,w hich form s anot her
t ension ed, eit her at po ints o r w it h cont inuous
aspect of design develop ment, t ogether w it h
clamp ed fixings similar t o t hose described in
th e treatment of interfaces w it h adjacent
th e previou s section on ET FE cushio ns. Gen-
areas of roof and exte rnal wa ll.T he resulting
erally speaking, t he high po ints of t he sup-
form is designed t o keep all parts of th e fab-
porting struct ure t ake up th e down loads
ric membrane in t ension, not just from th e
from th e membrane and impo sed loads
suppo rt ing st r uct ure but fro m imposed loads,
(mainly w ind loads) and t he low er po ints at
mainly w ind loads.W ind pressures are resist-
th e edges t ake up th e effect of w ind uplift. In
ed by re-distributing t he forces w it hin t he
shallow sloped roof membranes, more of t he
fabric membran e.A ny areas of th e fabric roof
st ructural loads are t aken by th e edges o r
t hat go int o compression as a result of slack-
points at t he base, often resultin g in large col-
ness in t he membrane reveal t hemselves as
umns o r posts being required at t hese po ints.
creases in th e material.
Th e distributi on of loads w it hin th e fabric
Both t he cone-shaped example in t his
;:..."
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. .-
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.x
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roof design is revealed in t he suppo r t ing
MC E
49 7
Fa6ric oafs 02 Single me mbrane: Co ne-shaped roof
C0
>--
(
CD
J ----
19~1
Vertical section I : IO. Clamping ring
Vertical section 1:5. Base of ro of with membrane skirt
3-D detail of fabric membrane clamped to edge ring
stru cture, w hich can be as visually lightweight
threads, somet imes w it h a protective coat ing
w it h a layer of PVC.The coat ing protects th e
and elegant as th e fabr ic membrane it self, o r
applied t o th e manufactured thread it self, t o
fabr ic against th e effects of rain and of UV
can becom e visually heavy,w hich can detra ct
increase th e life ex pectancy of th e materi al. In
light.Th e PVC coat ing is a mixture of PVC
from th e int ended light w eight effect of th e
all th ese wove n mater ials th e strength of th e
powd er. softe ners and plasticiser s, UV stabilis-
membrane.W here ro ofs transfer forces t o
fabr ic can be different in th e t w o direct ions in
ers, pigment s and fire retardants.A n addit ion-
an adjo ining st r uct ure, rather th an co ntain
w hich th e 'clot h' is woven.W hen select ing a
al o ute r coat of lacquer slows down th e
th e loads w it hin th eir own suppo rt ing frame,
mater ial, th e st rength of th e' wa rp' threads
effect in th e PVC coat ing of becom ing
th e visual effect o n th e adjo ining st ruct ure is
runnin g th e length of th e materi al is com-
increasingly brittle w it h age,w hich results
balanced w it h th e requ irements of th e mem-
pared t o th e 'w eft' threads runn ing th e w idt h.
from th e softe ners w it hin th e mater ial gradu-
br ane roof and its ow n frame.
In most commo nly used ro of membranes,th e
ally moving t o th e surface of th e PVC coat ing.
t ensile strength of th e wa rp and we ft direc-
The lacquer coat ing also slows down th e fad-
sand can cause perm anent stretc hing of th e
ti ons are similar.but th ese need t o be
ing effects of th e colo ur pigments.A PVD F
fabric membrane, th e form of th e ro of and
checked w hen th e mater ial ty pe is chosen.
lacquer (a fluorinated po lymer) is typically
W here imposed loads such as snow o r
it s associate d slopes are made sufficient ly steep t o avoid creat ing areas o r pockets o n th e fabr ic roof w here th ey can co llect.
Most fabric roof mater ials imit at e th e
used, w hich also ensures th at th e surface has
appearance of natural canvas, but thi s material
low surface fri ction so th at it w ill attract littl e
is used o nly w here it s appearance and indi-
dust and dirt, and allowing th e membrane t o
vidual t exture is co nsidered t o be th e most
be cleaned easily. Ac ry lic lacquers are also
Fabric types
important co nsiderat ion. N atural canvas is
used.Th e ty pical we ight of roof using thi s
The tw o m ost commo n fabr ics used are
less sta ble th an synt het ic fabr ics w hen used in
mater ial is 500-800g/ m 2. A PVC/p o lyester
PVC- coated polyester fabric and PTFE-coat-
t ension struct ures, and is difficult t o clean.A
membrane ro of w ill last aro und 15-25 years.
ed glass fibr e fabr ic. Both are wove n cloth
m od ified acry lic canvas mater ial, w it h a similar
mat erials w hich are protected by coat ings,
t exture t o natural canvas, is somet imes used
from a glass fibre mat w hich is coated w it h a
usually applied o n both sides. O t her o pen-
for its greate r dim ension al sta bility N eith er
PTFE layer such asTeflon. As w it h PVC/p oly-
weave mater ials are used as solar shading
mater ial is suita ble for lo ng span fabric roofs.
only, and are manufactured w it hout protect ive coat ings. Th ese are made from po lym er
MC E
498
PVC/p olyester fabrics are made from polyester cloth w hich is coate d o n both sides
PTFE/glass fibre membranes are made
este r membranes, th e coat ing pr otects th e fabric from th e effects of both th e weat her and UV light as we ll as forming a low fr iction
Elevation 1:400. Cone-shaped fabric roof
/
----/
/
.e>:
(0
/
-:
I
(0
CD CD Vertical section I :400.Cone-shaped fabric roof
Vertical section I: IO. Base of fabric roof
D etai ls I. 2.
3. 4. .........._ ......_ ...._ - ~.......
-~-~~
3-D detail of edge ring supported by tension cables
5.
Fabric membrane panel 6. Supporting mild steel structure 7. Extruded aluminium 8. retaining profile 9. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane 10. Extruded aluminium clamp I I.
assembly Stainless steel cable Stainless steel connector Membrane skirt Gutter fonmed by membrane skirt Mild steel ring support Fabric cover to close ring
MC E
499
a nc Roo s 02 Single membrane: Cone-shaped roof
Vertical section I :SO. Clamping ring with fabric cover
3-D detail of cone top with protruding structural support
MCE
500
D etails I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10, I I, Elevation I:200. Membrane cover
u
Fabric membrane panel Supporting mild steel structure Extruded aluminium retaining profile Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane Extruded aluminium clamp assembly Stainlesssteel cable Stainlesssteel connector Membrane skirt Gutter formed by membrane skirt Mild steel ring support Fabric cover to close ring
/
tl
CD
.~ Vertical section I :200. Cone-shaped fabric roof
surface t o reduce th e collect ion of dirt and
manufactured beige co lour afte r a few
by using a translucent fibre-based insulation ,
dust. Most dirt is washed away by rain, but
m onth s of being exposed t o sunlight. Weld
as used in fibre glass cladding panels dis-
some cleaning is needed using th e same
marks th at occur during fabrication also dis-
cussed in th e previous chapter.Th e insulation
meth ods as for PVC/p olyester roofs.Typically
appear as a result of bleaching in sunlight.
can be fixed t o t he inner face of either mem-
it we ighs 800- 1500g/m .T he life expecta ncy
PTFE/glass fibr e has low er surface frict io n
brane, depending o n how t he roof vo id is
2
of a PTFE/glass fibre membrane roo f is longer
th an PVC/p o lyester, allowing th e form er to
vent ilate d.W ith th e increasing impo rtance of
t han PVC/p o lyester membranes at aro und
remain cleaner, w hile PVC/p o lyester requires
t he role of t herm al insulati on in t he reduc-
30-40 years.
cleaning more frequent ly PTFE/glass fibre
ti on of energy use in buildings, th e use of
requires greate r care in transpo rtatio n t o site
do uble layer fabric mem br anes is set t o
and erect ion th an PVC/p olyester, th e latter
develop co nsiderably over th e next t en years.
Compar ison of t ypes Both PVC/p o lyester and PTFE/glass fibre have
being capable of being fo lded w it ho ut dam-
high t ensile st rength and high fiexibility, mak-
age t o t he memb rane.
ing t hem very suita ble for curve d and doub le
A coust ics Like ET FE cushions discussed in t he previous
curve d roof memb ranes.T hey bot h have a
Thermal insulation
sect ion, single layer mem branes pr ovide no
light transmission of 5-20% depending on t he
A single layer membrane fabric roof in eit her
significant reduction of noise t hrou gh th e
t hickness of mem br ane used, refiectin g
PVC/p olyester or PTFE/glass fibr e t ypically
roof A do uble layer roof w it h an acoust ic lin-
75-80% of light. N eith er w ill catc h fire easily,
has a U-value of aro und 6.0W /m 2K.W here
ing w ill provide some acoustic perfo rmance
and both resist th e deteriorating effects of
t w o layered mem br anes are used, w it h a
but w ill have th e effect of losing most of th e
UV light, t hough PVC/p olyester becomes
minimum air gap of 200mm between t he
light t ransmissio n t hro ugh t he membranes. In
increasingly brittle w it h age. Both have almost
membranes,th e U-value can be reduced t o
add it ion, low frequency sound is difficult t o
no acoustic perfo rm ance and have poor
aro und 3.0 W/m2 K. D ouble layer membr anes
absorb due t o t he low mass of t he cladding
t herm al insulatio n performance w hen used as
are less co mmo nly used as t hey have a
mat eri al. In commo n w it h ET FE cushion ro ofs,
a single membrane roo f PVC/po lyest er has a
severely reduced light transmission , th e trans-
th e ro ofs are almost transparent t o sound
greate r range of co lours readily available,
lucency of t he mat erial being one of t he main
emitted from w it hin t he building.
w hile PTFE/glass fibr e is usually w hite, th e
advantages of th e material.Therm al insulation
colour t o w hich it bleaches nat urally from it s
can be added t o a do uble layer memb rane
MC E
50 I
Fa nc Roofs OL Single membrane: Cone-shaped roof
'-----
0
0 '-----
-----'
Vertical section I : IO.Junction of adjacent fabric membranes meeting at same angle
®
Vertical section I: IO. Junction of adjacent fabric membranes meeting at different angles
Du rability
roof C leaning is also an important co nside ra-
270 °e. W it h both materials, t he failure of
Fab ric roofs are highly susce pt ible t o damage
t ion in areas of high humidity w he re there is
th e membrane forms holes in th e roof
from sharp o bjects. Small cuts in t he mem -
a higher risk of mou ld forming o n th e surface
w hich allow heat and smo ke t o esca pe .
brane can be rep aired w it h patches made
of t he fabric w hich can cause permanent
from th e same material w hich are glued into
sta ining. Regular cleaning prevents mou ld
Con densation
position. Larger tears are rep aired w it h hot
growth. PVC/p o lyester is more susce pt ible to
W he re co nde nsat io n is li kely to oc cur o n
air we lde rs, usually undertaken by th e spe-
mou ld growth th an PTFE/glass fibre fabrics,
th e underside of the membrane in an inter-
cialist co nt racto r th at installed th e fabric roof
esse nt ially because th e latt e r has lowe r sur-
nal space w it hin th e building, e it he r a second
Large rep airs are visible, and pane ls are
face friction .
membrane is adde d o r, more co mmo nly, increased vent ilat ion is pro vided w it hin th e
rep laced w he re visibility is th e most impo rtant co nside rat ion. Since large tear s can affect
Performance in fire
th e ove rall st ruct ural performance of th e
The performance of a membrane during a
membrane, th e co mplete membrane is
fire dep end s o n both th e fabric used and th e
somet ime s rem oved for anot he r pane l to be
st itc hing at th e sea ms, w he re t his jo ining
stitc hed o r we lde d, and re-coated in th e fac-
meth od is used. Membranes lose th eir ten -
tory
sio n under high temperatures, wit h PVC/po l-
The o ute r surface of fabric ro ofs are cleaned wit h soft bru shes th at wash th e
yester st retching above 70 -S0°C, and PVc/ po lyester sea ms sta rt ing to pee l at aro und
membrane surface, th e wo rk be ing don e typ-
IOO°e. At 250 °C th e PVC me lts, leaving
ically from e it he r a mobi le platform o r by
ho les in th e membrane . PVC has fire retard -
rop e access cleaners (abse ilers) w ho are
ants in th e coat ing so t hat it se lf-ext inguishes
attache d in harn esses and suspe nded from
w he n th e flame so urce is rem oved w hich
cables attac hed t o a stee l bracket ancho r
results in few, if any burning fragments to
po int o n th e top of th e membrane ro of The
drop down from t he roof PTFE/glass fibre
ancho r point forms part of th e st ee l o r tim -
fabrics fail at a aro und IOOO°C, but sea ms will
ber suppo rt ing struct ure t o th e membrane
fail at a much lowe r temperature of aro und
MC E
502
space be low th e ro of
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Fabric membrane panel Supporting mild steel structure 3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile 4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane 5. Extruded aluminium clamp assembly 6. Stainless steel cable 7. Stainless steel connector 8. Membrane skirt 9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt 10. Mild steel ring support I I . Fabric cover to close ring
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3-D detail of cone top with protruding structural support
MCE
503
a nc Roo s O Single membrane: Cone-shaped roof
3-D exploded overview of cone shaped roof with tension cable support
•
3-D exploded view of edge ring supported by tension cables
3-D exploded overview of cone shaped roof with tension cable support
MC E
504
Details I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. IO. I I.
Fabric membrane panel Supporting mild steel structure Extruded aluminium retaining profile Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane Extruded aluminium clamp assembly Stainlesssteel cable Stainlesssteel connector Membrane skirt Gutter formed by membrane skirt Mild steel ring support Fabric cover to close ring
3-D exploded overview of cone shaped roof with tension cable support
3-D exploded view of cone top with protruding structural support
3-D exploded detail view of cable connections with protruding structural support
MC E
505
al5ric Roofs 03 Single membrane: Barre l-shaped roof
3-D overview of single membrane barrel-shaped roof
3-D overview of single membrane barrel-shaped roof Isometric view of roof assembly
Membrane roof fabrication
slight ly under sized t o allow for t he stretc hing
Roof membranes are made from individual
of th e mat er ial w hen it is under t ension as a
panels of fabric w hich are cut fr om sheet
roof membrane,
mat er ial, t he curve d forms of membranes D etails I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, I I, 12,
Fabric membrane panel Supporting mild steel structure Extruded aluminium retaining profile Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane Extruded aluminium clamp assembly Stainless steel cable EPDM sealing tape Membrane skirt Gutter formed by membrane skirt Thermal insulation W elding seam W ind up lift cable (above membrane)
lapped seams w hich are either sewn, we ld-
conical-shaped example show n in t he previ-
ed, bond ed o r join ed in a comb inat io n of
o us section is made from panels w it h edges
st itching and we lding, w ith all processes
t hat curve inw ard, w hile th e barrel-shaped
being carried o ut in th e wo rkshop .T he
roof shown in t his section is made from pan-
w idt h of th e lap, w hich is visible from below
els w it h edges th at curve o utwa rd, PVC
th e roof as we ll as from o ut side th e building,
coate d po lyester fabric is made in w idt hs
is det erm ined by th e st r uct ural forces o n
from 2000-3000mm, in t hicknesses up to
th e membrane, w ith higher loads requ iring
I .Zmm, w hile PTFE coated glass fibre fabric is
w ider seams,
made in w idt hs up t o aro und SOOOmm in
MC E 506 A. Watts, Modern Construction Envelopes © Springer-Verlag/Wien 2011
Fabr ic panels are join ed t ogether w it h
being formed from fiat sheet mat eri al.The
In stitched panel jo int s, w ider seams
thi cknesses up t o I .Omm, Large panels are
have mo re rows of st it ching visible, w it h t he
usually cut by CNC cutting machines, w ith
mat er ial fo lded over it self to st rengthen t he
small pieces cut by hand, but even small piec-
joint. Joint w idt hs vary from aro und 2Smm
es are now being made increasingly by a cut-
to I OOmm depending o n th e size of th e
t ing machine, Fabric panels are usually made
membrane and it s associated loads,A ddi-
Horizontal section and elevation I:200. Barrel-shaped fabric roof
ti o nal st rips of fabric are usually bon ded
applied again w hen t he we lding is complete
o nto t he o ute r (upper) face of t he st itc hed
t o ensure t hat t he PVC is fully we lded and
seam t o avoid rainw ater penetration
th at t he PVDF lacquer form s a cont inuous
t hro ugh t he sewn t hread. PVC/p o lyester
seal across t he joint w hen fo rmed. PVC/p o ly-
panels can be st itc hed in co njunct ion w it h
este r can be both hot air we lded and hot
mo st lacquer t ypes. Welded seams are made by fo rming a lap between panels,t hen heating th e lapped
element we lded. t he advantage of hot air we lding being t hat repair wo rk and some complex jointing can be undert aken duri ng
areas and pressing t hem t ogether.Joint
erect ion o n site . Fabric ro ofs w it h high struc-
w idt hs are similar to those required for
tural loads w it hin t he membranes can be
stitc hed seams. Seams in PTFE/glass fibre
both we lded and sewn t o pro vide a st ro nger
panels are fo rmed by hot element we lding
joint. If t he joint is fir st sewn t hen we lded, t his
rather th an by stitc hing o r bondin g, w it h an
avoids th e need for an addit ional strip t o be Isometric view of roof assembly
addit ional fabric strip added eit her on t op o r
added t o t he upper surface, w hich can
w it hin th e joint itself between th e mem-
enhance th e visual appearance of th e mem-
branes t o provide t he required strength. Fo r
brane o n it s oute r surface. Bo nding w it h sol-
we lded joints on PVC membranes,th e edge
vents is used o n PVC/p o lyester fabrics o nly,
of th e panel being jointed has th e PVDF lac-
but can be don e in conjunct ion w it h most
quer removed before we lding, w hich is
lacquer s used on t hat mat eri al.
MC E
50 7
]
L Vertical section I: IO. Edge of roof
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\ 3-D view of fabric roof edge 3-D cutaway view of fabric roof edge
D etails I. 2.
Fabric membrane panel Supporting mild steel structur e 3. Ext ruded aluminium retaining profile 4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane 5. Ext ruded aluminium clamp assembly 6. Stainless steel cable 7. EPDM sealing tape 8. Membrane skirt 9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt 10. Thermal insulation I I. W elding seam 12. W ind up lift cable (above membrane)
Membrane roof edges
membrane back over itself and st it ching o r
Edges of mem branes are usually eit her gen-
we lding it t o form a cont inuo us pocket in
t ly cur ved or st raight. Cur ved edges are
w hich a stainless ste el cable is inserted. A
formed w it h a cable held in a co nt inuo us
25mm diameter st ainless st eel cable is t ypical,
pocket at th e edges of th e membrane.A n
depending o n t he struct ural forces.A strip of
alte rnat ive detail used in PTFE/glass fibr e
membrane mater ial o r plastic is set between
cano pies is t o have an exposed cable con-
t he cable and t he membrane t o allow t he
nected t o th e clamped edges of th e mem-
two t o move independent ly w it ho ut abrasion
br ane w it h a series of stainless steel link
occurring.A reinforced plastic strip is some-
plates. Straight edges are usually formed w it h
tim es added into th e pocket but thi s is not
an edge bead made from a flexib le PVC or
visible fro m eit her above o r below t he roof.
EPDM rod in a small pocket.T his reinfo rced
Straight clamp ed edges use clamping
edge is th en held capt ive w it hin an alumini-
plates, aro und IOOmm w ide, set back to back
um clamp ing plate assembly sim ilar t o t hat
and bolted t ogether,w hich comprise two flat,
used for ET FE cushio ns, o r alte rnat ively in a
gro oved plates,rather th an th e clamping
luff groove extrusio n.
plate and suppo rt ing extrusion used at joint s
Cable restrained curve d edges t o fabric
MC E
508
between panels.Th e clamping plates are fixed
roofs usually follow a circular or cate nary
back t o eit her a visible cable w hich is set
shape.A sleeve is form ed by fo lding t he
aro und I OOmm away from t he edge of t he
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Vertical section I : IO. Edge of roof with penetration
cable, w hich fo llow s th e edge of th e mem-
and inst alled separate ly, usually w here th e
brane o r, altern atively, individual brackets are
membrane has reached a maximum size for
fixed to a suppo rt ing w all, w here no stainless
eit her fabrication or installation . In both cases
steel cable is required.The edges of th e
th e clamping plates are position ed t o ensure
membrane have a flexib le plastic o r EPDM
th at rainw ater can run freely along it s edge
edge strip o r rod, ty pically of I Omm diameter,
rather th an creat ing a barri er w here rainw a-
th at prevent s th e membrane from slipping
t er can co llect.
w it hin th e clamping assembly Th e clamps
W here tw o cables meet at membrane
somet imes have an addit ional cover st rip t o
co rne rs o r po ints, th ey are usually fixed t o a
serve as a first line of defence against rainw a-
single mild st eel plate.The cable is fixed into a
t er penetration but any rainw ater th at passes
stainless steel cable fixing w hich is secured
int o th e groove , w here th e edge of th e
w it h a pin connect ion back t o a suppo rt ing
membrane is held capt ive, is drained away
stee l plate.Th e corne r of membrane is cut t o
w it hin th e groove w hich also serve s as a
form a curve d end. A ddit ional straps are
dr ainage channel.Wate r is th en drained at
somet imes added t o ensure th at th e mem-
th e base of th e roof.
br ane does not slide away from th e co rne r.
Clamping plates are also used at th e
3-D view of junction between two fabric panels
Rainw ater can be directed along th e
junction between two areas of ro of w here
edge of a membrane, rather th an being
th e two parts are requ ired t o be fabr icated
allowe d t o fall directly off th e edge, by int ro-
MC E
509
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3-D cutaway detail of junction between two fabric panels
3-D detail view of junction between two fabric panels 6( ~=;:;;;;:;=:::O;===============;'7""':=:r:;=~
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Vertical section I : I0,Junction between panels
ducing a standing seam adjacent to th e edge.
_
Th e first o pt io n w it h a metal ring
A strip of membrane is rolled aro und a foam
requires an addit ional membrane cover piece,
st rip and is we lded or stitched to the mem-
w hile the second 'palm tree' option forms a
br ane.This is parti cularly useful w here building
cont inuo us membrane w it h a smoot h curve d
users pass beneath, as w hen th e fabric roof
t op, w it ho ut any breaks in th e cont inuity of
form s an exte rnal cano py Junction s w it h ver-
th e membrane. In th e 'ring' solut ion, th e
t ically-set membranes beneath th e roof, are
membrane is clamped between an inner ring
form ed as fiexible membrane connect ions to
and an o ute r ring fixed to gether w it h bo lts.A
allow for movement between roof and wa ll.
second clamp is used t o fix th e cone-shaped membrane th at covers th e top of th e ring.
Suspension po ints
3-D view of junction between two panels
Suspension po ints at th e t op of a cone-
pulled over th e t op of th e cent ral mast o r
shaped fabric roof are usually form ed eit her
clamped aro und it.Th e ring is eit her freely
by a metal ring, w hich is fixed back t o a cen-
suspended from cables,o r is firm ly fixed t o
tral mast by cables or cant ilevered brackets o r,
th e mast w it h cant ilevered br ackets t o w hich
alte rnat ively, by a 'palm tree' arrangement of
th e ring is secured.
proj ecting curve d metal bracket s w hich serve
MCE
5 10
Th e t op of th e conical-shaped cover is eit her
In th e 'palm tree' suppo rte d solut ion,
to t ension th e cont inuo us membran e against
cant ilevered brackets w it h a curved shape
it s suppo rting mast set w it hin th e building.
are set o ut radially in o rder t o create a
--------- - - -
Vertical section I :200. Barrel-shaped fabric roo f
4.
Vertical section I: 10. Edgeof roo f at abutment
3-D view of underside of barrel shaped fabric roo f
smoot h curved form o n which th e mem -
Inte rnal fo lds are formed in th e same
brane is set.The brackets are usually aligned
way as hips, wit h t he membrane folded o ut-
wit h joints between membrane pane ls.
wards rather th an across th e ridge and downwards. In so me cases th e membrane
Memb rane fold s
may pass under t he cable.These junctio ns are
In an exte rnal fold in a roof membrane, th e
form ed by clamp ing th e e nds of adjacent
mate rial is draped ove r t he suppo rt ing st ruc-
membranes t hat form t he valley. The edge of
ture, fixed w it h fabric strips that are sew n o r
eac h membrane is clamped wit h an edge
we lde d to t he underside of t he membrane
bead , while t he clamp itself is fixed to a ce n-
and clamp ed to th e suppo rt ing st ruct ure. An
tral cable.The gap between th e membranes
addit ional membrane cove r st rip is fixed to
is closed by two mem brane strips which are
t he top of t he joint to co nceal t he st itc hing if
sew n o r we lde d t o t he base of t he st rip and
required. An alte rnat ive method is to form a
are clamp ed do wn to a thin pressure plate
joint betw een two membranes at t he exte r-
betw een th e membranes.The clamp t hat
nal fold,clamping th em wit h a pressure plate
closes the two membrane st rips is suppo rte d
to an aluminium ext rusion which is suppo rt-
off t he metal straps ben eath. By raising t he
ed by th e primary struct ure , such as a mild
closing strips above the height of th e join,
steel tub e, curved to form th e shape t aken
two adjacent gutters are form ed, w it h th e
up by t he membrane .
clamp ing strip sec uring th e closing flaps being
Details I. 2.
Fabric membrane panel Supporting mild steel structure 3. Extruded aluminium retaining profile 4. Plastic edge bead to fabric membrane 5. Extruded aluminium clamp assembly 6. Stainless steel cable 7. EPDM sealing tape 8. Membrane skirt 9. Gutter formed by membrane skirt 10. Thermal insulation I I. Welding seam 12. Wind up lift cable (above membrane)
MCE
5 11
a nc Roofs 03 Single membrane: Barrel-shaped roof
Vertical section I: IO. Edge of roof with penetration 3-D details of edge clamp
above th e level of th e wate r th at is dr ained.
t o a ro of A gutter t o dr ain away rainw ater o r,
same principle can be applied w here a gutter
rather t han being subme rged in wate r.Th is
alte rnat ively, a metal sheet t o shed wate r
is formed at th e base of a roo f Th e mem-
wo uld be th e case w here a single gutter is
directly off th e roo f, can be added t o th e
brane skir t at th e base of th e ro of is clamped
formed w here th e clamp holding th e straps
suppo r t ing struct ure.W here th e clamping
t o th e side wall of an insulat ed gutter.A dja-
in place is low er than th at shown.
plate is at th e base of a low pitched mem-
cent penetrations are closed w it h a specially
brane ro of, and th ere is a risk of wate r being
form ed membrane skirt th at fit s aro und th e
held behind th e clamping plate, an addit ional
structural member w hich penetrates th e
W here two joining memb ers form a cont inuo us line, th e same pr inciple of sewn or we lded st rips can be applied. join ed w it h a
membrane skirt can be used t o dr ain away
roofThe t op of th e skirt is clamped t o th e
pressure plate set above th e level of th e adja-
wate r.The membrane skirt is sewn o r we lded
projecting st ructure, w hile th e base of th e
cent roof, forming two gutters w here th e
t o th e membrane in th e wo rksho p.
skirt is site we lded o r bond ed t o th e main
pressure plate jo int is not submerged w hen functioning as a gutter. W here a single gutter is required in an
W here th e membrane is formed over
roof membrane panels.
arched suppo rts, as in th e barrel-shaped ro of, membrane skirt s are used t o form a junction.
int ernal fo ld, a single membrane is sewn o r
Th e same pr inciple is applied at th e roof
we lded t o each side of th e joint and th e link-
edge, w here th e membrane cont inues over
ing membrane is held in t ension across th e
th e edge of th e roof w here it is mechanically
junction. In practice th is is difficult t o fix
fixed t o a metal fiashing.A clamping strip is
D et ails
unless th e st rip is bond ed o r we lded in posi-
used t o fix th e membrane to th e flashing
I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. I I. 12.
ti on on site o n at least o ne side of th e mem-
w hich also form s a wate rt ight seal.The metal
brane.The solut ion of two strips joined w it h
flashing is fixed t o th e timber arches.Th erm al
a clamping plate allows more easily for fixing
insulati on is set betw een th e metal flashing
tol erances o n site .
and th e membrane t o both avoid th e mem-
At th e base of a fabric roof, a clamping
ber from becomin g t oo hot from th e effects
plate fixed o nto a base plate w hich is we lded,
of th e sun (as a result of direct contact w it h
or form s a cont inuous part of a suppo rt ing
th e supporting stee lwo rk) as we ll as t o allow
steel member, provides a sealed t erm ination
th e two compo nent s t o avoid abrasion.The
MC E 5 12
Fabric membrane panel Supporting mild steel structure Extru ded aluminium retaining profile Plastic edge bead to fabric membr ane Extru ded aluminium clamp assembly Stainless steel cable EPDM sealing tape Membrane skirt Gutter formed by membrane skirt Thermal insulation W elding seam W ind up lift cable (above membrane)
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MC E 5 13
- - -Fa6 " Roofs
03- - - - - - - .. Details
...
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I. Fabric me mbrane panel 1. Supporting mild stee l struct ure 3. Extr uded aluminium retaining profile 4. Plastic edge bead to fabr ic membr ane 5. Extruded aluminium clamp assembly 6. Stainless stee l cable 7. EPDM sealing tape 8. Membrane skirt 9. Gutte r formed by memb-ane skirt 10, Therm al insulation I I , Welding seam
12. W ind up 11ft cable (above membrane)
3-D exploded view of barrel shaped fabricroof
3-D exploded view of edgeclamp
3-D expkxJed view of barre l shaped fabric roof
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Me E 514
3-D exploded line drawing of junction betweentwo segments of barrel soaped fabric roof
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3-D exploded view of fabric roof edge
MC E 5 15
Thi s book has been produced by th e N ew -
Before establishing th eir own pr actice
N ewtecnic is a firm of Lond on -based
t ecnic t eam: Ciaran Canavan,Julianne Cassidy,
specialising in facades, N ewtecnic principals
specialist architects w ho create facades
N ick Channon , Mike Clarke, Jenny Coppi n,
A ndrew and Yasmin Watts w or ked exte n-
in co llabo rat ion w it h leading architects.
Sana H asan,A lia Khonji, Rocky Marchant ,
sively both in t he U K and ot her co unt ries.
T he firm pr act ices int ern ati on ally as facade
Louise Scannell, Ho w ard Tee, Leon Turr ell,
During thi s tim e th ey we re invo lved in a
designer s for archit ecturally and t echnically
A ndrew Watts,Yasm in Watts,Adam W il-
range of significant pr ojects including Federa-
challenging projects and has a particular
letts.Th e t ext is by A ndrew Watts.Views of
t io n Square, Melbourn e w it h LAB A rchite cts,
int erest in develop ing new facade syste ms
3-D mod els for th e book we re set o ut and
th e Millennium Bridge, London for Foster
and in th e use of com plex geomet ries.
rendered by Julianne Cassidy and Lo uise
and Partners, Euralille and Institu t du Mon de
N ewtecnic follow s principles of rapid pr o-
Scannell.The layo ut was designed byYasmin
A rabe, Paris for Ate liers Jean N ouvel. and
t otypin g as a meth od of developin g facade
Watts .T he cover image is by Michael Clarke.
Cite Int ern ati on ale, Lyo n and t he N ew
syste ms t hat can be manufactu red quickly
Caladon ia Cu ltural Centre for Renzo Piano
and w it h a high degree of accuracy and
D avid Marold is Editor for A rchitecture and
Building Worksho p.They have produced a
pr ecision . Th e office's current wo rk ranges
number of volumes on co nte mpo rary build-
fro m large scale develop ments in Moscow,
Philosophy at Springer Ver lag in Vienna. He
ing t echnology w hich pro vide reference
has driven t his book from a set of basic lay-
mater ial for st udents.T he
o uts t o a com plete d book. He has a passion
tion Series is pub lished by Springer Wi en
for books and t heir design, ranging fro m t heir
N ew York. In addit ion, t he
w ider co nte nt t o t he quality of pr int paper.
Review, fro m RIBA Publication s was pub-
cal solut ions and o pt im ise co mplex designs
lished in spring 2007.
for digital fabricatio n.
MC E 5 16
Modern ConstrucFacades Technical
Dubai, Egypt Kuw ait C ity and St Pet er sburg t o residenti al and comme rcial pr ojects in Lond on, w here N ewtecnic are w o rking w it h design t eams t o develop innovati ve t echni-
Much of N ewtecnic's w ork is informed
Th e N ewtecnic t eam investigates mate-
by a specific response t o climate and t o
rial systems that are explored through 3-D
th e t echnical performance of th e exte rn al
mod elling rath er th an 2-D drafting.The
envelope. In pr ojects w here climate co nt ro l
engineering aspects of th e design, both
and natural vent ilat ion are primary design
st r uct ural and enviro nmental. are develop ed
crite ria for th e facades in t emp erate climates,
through an investigati o n of t he behaviour of
doub le skin facades are ofte n used. Rather
co nstruct ion syste ms w hen modi fed geo-
th an fo llow rectilinear design, th e o ute r skin
metri cally. Rather th an develop a series of
of facades of projects w here N ewtecnic
o pt ions t o solve a design, a single parametric
are involved are required increasingly to be
mod el is used w it h fixed crite ria and crite ria
shaped geomet rically in response t o specific
w hich can be st retc hed and pulled until an
enviro nmenta l issues.Th ese resulting facade
o pt imum solut io n is found.Thi s allows a
form s are typically t wi sted. curved, t apered,
single design model to pro vide a 'range' of
o r a combinat ion of t hese forms.These
solut ions w hich can be explored through
pages aim to illustrat e some of th e research
rapid prototyp e models, using a variety of
undertaken by N ewtecnic in recent pr ojects
mod elling t oo ls from 3-D printer s t o laser
w hich exhibit th ese t endencies in t erm s of
cutters. Strands of fabrication, co nte xt , site
th e possible solut ions for th e design of t he
specificity, language of th e base 'compon ent'
cladding in both t emp erat e and hot climates.
of t he design and spat ial organisat ion are develop ed in parallel for each proj ect.
MCE
5 17
A Aluminium windows W indows in openings W indow walls Composite windows Authorship
136 136 143 143 5 16
B Bitumen-based sheet membranes Bolt fixed glazed walls Support methods Bottom supporte d glazing Top hung glazing Corner s Seals and interfaces Bolt fixed glazing: small scale roofi ights Gener ic support meth ods Supporting brackets Bolt fixings Arrangement of bolt fixings Glazed units Bolt fixed glazing: large scale roofi ights Base of glazed roof Exte rnal and internal folds Small glazed roofi ights Larger roofi ights Bonded glass roofi ights Gener ic conical roofi ight
MC E 5 18
Gener ic rectangular roofi ight Generic monopitch roofi ight Glass roof decks Brick cavity walls Ground level W indow and door openings Eaves and parapets
380 382 382 200 202 202 205
C 422 106 106 109 11 0 11 0 11 2 358 359 360 36 1 362 363 368 370 37 1 373 374 378 378
Cast in-sit u /cast-in-place Parapets, drips and cills
158 160 Finishes 160 As-cast fin ish 161 Washed fin ish 163 Polished fin ish 164 Cladding panels, rainscreens (timber)274 Timber boards 274 Finishes 274 Cladding panels and rainscreens 277 Plywood sheets 280 Cladding the t imber frame 264 Timber frames 264 Ground level 267 Upper fi oor s 268 Corner s 269 Roof eaves and parapets Clamped glazing Comparison wit h bolt fixed glazing Patch plate glazing Clamped glazing
270 96 97 97 98
Op aque glazing Sealing clamped glazing Composite panels - roofs Single wall composite panels Twin wall panels Ridges Verges Eaves Parapets and valley gutte rs Composite panels - walls Parapets and cil ls W indows / door openings Developments Corner s Thermal bridges at cills Concealed membr ane roofs Materials Structural joints Parapet upstands Balustrades and plinths Rainwater out lets Penetrations for pipes and ducts
101 102 306 306 309 309 3 10 3 10 3 12 34 36 36 38 40 41 390 390 392 394 394 396 397
E ETFE Cushions Cushions Air supply The mater ial Fabrication Durability
486 486 488 489 490 492
Performance in fire Exposed membr ane roofs Polymer-based membranes PVC membr anes FPO (TPO) membr anes Mechanically fixed meth od Bonded fixing meth od Parapets and upstands Ballasted roofs
493 400 40 1 403 404 404 405 406 406
F Fabric roof systems 484 Flat roof, Bitumen-based sheet membranes 422 The mater ial 423 Roof build-up 424 Solar protection 424 Fixing methods 425 Parapet upstands 426 Junction with t iled roof 426 Eaves and verges 429
G Glass blocks Fixing glass blocks Steel support frames Masonry and timber framed
window openings Cast glass channels Greenhouse glazing and capped syste ms Greenhouse glazing Modern roof glazing Capped syste ms GRC cladding panels GRP panels and shells Smaller panels and shells Larger panels and shells GRP roofl ights Eaves and upstands Verges Abutments Sliding roof panels
338 338 342 343 178 474 474 477 464 467 469 470 470
L Loadbearing masonry walls Mortars Parapets Cills and openings Louvred scree ns Metal louvres Glazed louvres Solar shading Wa lkways
11 6 11 9 120
121 122
190 192 194 195 64 64 66 68 70
M Masonry cavity walls: brick Ground level W indow and door openings Eaves and parapets Masonry cavity walls: sto ne and concrete block Wa ll structures Ground level Op enings in walls Eaves and parapets Masonry cladding Masonry loadbearing walls Mortars Parapets Cills and openings Masonr y rainscreens Mesh scree ns Rigid mesh Meshes fl exible in one direction Fu lly fl exible mesh Mesh used on curves Perforated metal Metal canopies Bolt fixed panels Fixed metal louvre canopies Electrically operate d louvres Metal rainscreens - roofs
2 10 2 11 2 12 2 13 2 15 220 190 192 194 195 230 54 55 55 57 58 58 326 330 330 332 3 16
Panel arrangement Parapets Monopitch ridges and verges Roof geometry Roof soffits Metal rainscreens - walls
3 18 3 18 320 32 1 322 44
200 202 202 205
MC E 5 19
Materials
44
Eaves
436
Sealed and vent ilated method s
298
Fixing meth od s
44
Ridge s
436
Twin skin co nst ruct ion
299
Backing wa lls
46
Verges
438
Ridges
300
Con stru ction seque nce
48
Hips and valleys
438
Openings
30 1
W indow / door o pe nings
49
Abut me nts
439
Eaves and parapets
30 1
Parapets and cills
50
4 10
Ridges and valleys
302
Metal sta nding sea m ro ofs Site-based meth od
Plant ed co ncrete roofs
286
System design
4 10
286
Plant ed ro of co mpo ne nts
4 10
Prefabricated meth od s
288
So il depth
4 13
Sealed and vent ilated ro ofs
290
O verflows
4 14
Ro of o pe nings
290
Roof junction s
4 14
Ridges and valleys
29 1
Rainwater o ut lets
4 14
Eave s and parapets
292
Balcony plant ers
4 14
R Rainscreen s:
Plastic-base d claddin g sea led
3 16
242
Metal wa lls
44
GRP pane ls
245
Masonry
230
Po lycarb onate cladd ing
246
Sheet metal
14
pane ls
P
Metal roofs
Plast ic-base d claddin g rainscreen s
Pitched roof Metal
252
45 2
Flat po lycarb on ate sheet
252
Stand ing sea m co ld ro ofs
45 2
Multi-wall po lycarb on ate sheet
252
Eaves and valley gutters
452
Profiled po lycarb on ate sheet
254
S
Ridges and abut me nts
45 2
Plastic-composite fi at pane ls
255
Pen etrat ion s
45 2
UPVC board cladd ing
256
Metal t iled ro ofs
456
UPVC w indows
258
Open ings
16
Pitched ro of Slate s
44 2
GRP pane ls
258
Substr ate s and suppo rt ing wa lls
18
24
Corners, parapets and cills
20
Fixing method s
14
Ro of fo lds
443
Vents
446
Junctio ns
24
Mo no pit ch ridges
446
Parapets and gutte rs
27
Silicon e-sealed systems
348
Dormer w indows
446
W indow and door o pe nings
29
Junctio ns
350
446
Insulatio n and li ne r trays
29
Use of cappe d profile s
352
43 2
Deve lopments
30
Roofiights
354
Abut me nts Pitched roof Tile s
Profiled metal cladd ing - wa lls
Profiled metal sheet roofs
296
Silicon e-sealed glazing and roofiights 348
Single membrane: Barre l-shaped
Plain t iles
43 2
Inte rlocking t iles
43 2
Profiled metal decks as subst rates 296
ro of
506
Vent ilat ion
434
Profiled metal ro of sheeting
Me mbrane ro of fabricat ion
506
MC E
5 20
296
Membrane roof edges Suspension points Membr ane folds Single membr ane: Cone-shaped roof Fabric roof principles Fabric types Comparison of types Thermal insulation Acoust ics Durability Performance in fire Condensat ion Slate tiled pitched roof Small precast /GRC cladding panels Individually supporte d panels Selfsupport ing stacked panels Parapets and cills Op enings Sand blasted and tooled fini shes Steel windows Small-scale glazing Large-scale glazing Stick glazing Comparison wit h unitised glazing System assembly Framing profi les Op ening light s Parapets, cills and penetrations Corner s Spandrel panels Stone and blockwork cavity walls Cavity walls in framed
508 5 10 5 11 496 496 498 50 1 50 1 50 1 502 502 502 442 178 178 180 182 183 184 126 127 130 76 76 76 79 80 81 82 83 2 10
st ructures Ground level W indow and door openings Eaves and parapets Stone cladding Fixings Cladding to precast concrete panels Joints Closed joints Movement joints Stone fin ishes Storey height precast panels Panel types Thermal Insulation Joints Acid etched fin ish
2 11 2 12 2 13 2 15 220 220 223 223 224 224 226 168 168 171 171 174
T Terracotta rainscreens Manufacture of panels Corner pieces Fixing syste ms Panel sizes Op enings
230 230 230 232 234 236
Timber cladding panels and rainscreens Timber boards Finishes Cladding panels and rainscreens Plywood sheets
274 274 274 277 278
Timber framed cladding Timber frames Ground level Upper fl oors Corner s Roof eaves and parapets Timber windows W indow walls W indow design W indows in openings
264 264 267 268 269 270 146 146 148 151
U
Unitised glazing Glazing Jointing panels Op ening lights Corner panels, parapets and cil ls Penetrat ions Silicone-bonded glazing UPVC windows
86 86 86 89 89 91 91 258
MC E 5 2 1
A ndrew Watts Lond on , England
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