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Editorial Lonely as a crowd?

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here is currently a successful advertising campaign in the UK run by an insurance company. The theme is `if you are in trouble you had better call us'. One ad has a rather concerned-looking cat surrounded by salivating police dogs. Another shows a solitary football supporter in his team's blue kit in the midst of a large number of fans dressed in red. Switzerland, it is sometimes remarked, is a country of villages, many of which are physically isolated. The challenge to the Swiss is to be at the same time isolated and connected. Yet Switzerland has maintained a clear sense of national identity, finding a highly appropriate posture in relation to the outside world. The posture is coherent but not simplistic, combining a respect for privacy in business and personal affairs with a concern for humanitarian matters (epitomised in the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Organisations, for example). Yet Switzerland, in its isolation, triggered the unfair gibe about a culture whose most creative achievement was the cuckoo clock. Efforts to preserve a national coherence may be too stifling for the `insider-outsider' to challenge the status quo. Increasingly, the organisational challenge is to find ways of integrating corporate players so that there is coherence around shared beliefs and vision, while allowing individuals to propose and introduce change. One subtle difference from past practices arises from the need to involve more people in the change process. The broader challenge is that of reconciling individualistic and altruistic impulses. This issue of Creativity and Innovation Management includes a range of contributions directly or indirectly addressing this challenge.

Contents Our first contribution was awarded a bestpresentation prize at the EACI conference in Vaals, earlier this year. Professor Stùren argues that sustainability can be achieved only through special design efforts in multi# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

discipline teams working beyond limiting economic boundaries. He suggests that the process will be augmented through the use of new data capture and retrieval technologies. The shift to team creativity for designers is studied by Tom Fisher. This implies a move away from the romantic notion of the innately endowed, and unusual creative loner. The research presents the results from surveys among designers. They suggest that in this professional grouping the romantic notion is widely challenged and replaced with a more pragmatic view of creativity as something that can be enhanced through groupwork. Peter Matthews speaks as a practitioner, an innovator engaged in upgrading the change efforts of his organisation. He reconstructs his practical experiences into codified abstractions that illustrate the systemic nature of innovation. Julian Robinson picks up on innovations introduced into the world of sport as a response to changes in the commercial environment. It has long been a contention of your editors that sport provides an excellent domain for studying processes of competition and change. Each sporting competition involves numbers of reasonably well matched individuals or teams. Their characteristics are well-documented, and performance data about as accurate as can be found for purposes of analysis. The author has direct experience of cricket as he played it in his native Jamaica, a great cricketing nation, and during time-off from his business studies in the north of England, another cricket hotspot. David Paper and Jeffrey Johnson contribute to the studies reported in the recent special issue (Vol. 5 No. 4) on creativity and information systems. They introduce us to the metaphor of organisational memory, which was earlier proposed among the new ways of conceptualising organisation in Gareth Morgan's Images of Organization. Some direct empirical evidence has been collected which shows how discovery requires some kind of organisational encoding if it is to persist. Perhaps we need to study the processes of organisational amnesia as a further route to understanding the processes of change. Christopher Hackley and Philip Kitchen also seek a scheme for integrating bodies of

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knowledge. Their proposal connects marketing and creative problem-solving. The connection arises through the proposition that creativity and marketing activities operate under ill-defined conditions. The approach finds support in Amabile's thesis in which social creativity is studied within a theoretical framework of heuristic rather than algorithmic tasks. The social context to the creative process implied in Hackley and Kitchen, and central to Amabile's contribution, are revisited by the Hungarian scholar Istvan Magyari-Beck. Regular readers will recall earlier contributions in this debate (which are cited in this most recent offering). Magyari-Beck seeks to tease out contradictions in current theoretical views of creativity and paths towards their resolution. The discussion stream has generated a range of responses including replies from leading figures in the field. The paper may offer a starting point for further exchanges. However, in the view of the editors this theme has now been adequately explored. No further responses are being encouraged, and any subsequent paper

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will be accepted only if our reviewers are satisfied that a substantial and new contribution is being made to the debate.

Book of the quarter The book of the quarter is a monograph on sense-making by Karl Weick, one of the leading theoreticians of organisational studies. The material is written for researchers and research students. However, although the book may attract a restricted readership it has much to offer the practitioner who wishes to go beyond the how-todo-it level of many management books. Throughout, the book presents a view of sense-making as a social discovery process that relates to the various contributions in this edition. He says in effect that we cease to be alone in a crowd as much as we are able to create collective sense through our communicative faculties. Tudor Rickards

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Sustainable Product Design ± Is there more to it than Science, Systems and Computers? 1 Sigurd Stùren The conditions are examined through which a company can take an active part in the evolutionary process towards ecologically sustainable societies. Productivity measures, quality perceptions, ecological performance and critical contradictions between business targets have to be identified, based on systematic retrieval and structuring of information of product, processes and practices. It is important that the company selects ecological performance parameters and sets performance targets which show the way towards ecologically sound products, processes and practices and at the same time secure its competitiveness in today's market. It is suggested that an extended quality function deployment process (QFD) can be used for this purpose. By combining this information structure with the modelling possibilities of products, processes and practices that are available in modern computer assisted engineering software (CAE), consequences and feasibilities of new ideas and creative solutions can be checked out continuously. New ideas and creative solutions that really will lead the way towards ecologically sustainable societies, seem to require development- and design-teams that are getting inspiration, visions and wisdom from other areas than the conventional business and university environment. Close cooperation should be encouraged between industry and the universities for building up such inspired environments.

Introduction

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rinciples and methods for systematic development of products, processes and practice are examined. When these methods are applied to problems where the requirement of ecological sustainability is combined with the need of increased competitiveness in today's market, the following question is raised: Are we able to cope with the challenge of developing products that satisfy short term sales goals and at the same time are more sustainable than competing products on the market? And how should we know that one solution is more ecologically sustainable than another solution? It seems that deep scientific understanding and excellent system engineering practice have to be combined with an inspired vision so that the person, the team or the organisation can see the right way to go. Then, a business unit could be the evolutionary unit on the road towards a sustainable future. # Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

The challenges from the 1994 Lerchendal Seminar and Workshop In January 1994 a seminar and workshop with the title: ``Product Design and Development for Sustainability'' was held at Lerchendahl in Trondheim (Stùren & Bñkkelund, 1994). Figure 1 represents the essence and the conclusions of the seminar, which can also be summarized as follows. (1) The global challenges of population growth remain of major importance. (2) There is need to distinguish between the rich, the emerging and the poor countries with respect to development for sustainability. (3) The concepts of sustainability and industrial ecology are not integrated into tools for development and design of competitive products in today's markets. It is therefore important to base the research and teaching on actual case stories, and from there to

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Figure 1. The need for a diagnostic tool for the assessment of the ecological and competitive performance of product, production, practice and business, as a base for sustainable product development strategies

European transport system unsustainable

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develop operational concepts and definitions of the ``degree of sustainability'' of a product. (4) The case of the transport system in Europe showed that even if the improvement of ecological performance of the cars was substantial, the whole infra-structure of transportation systems in Europe and the driving habits of the product users, made the whole system unsustainable. In order to ensure the sustainability of a product it is therefore necessary to work on all levels of systems design, from the single product with all its components and processing routes, the company, the production people and the customer practice, as well as interaction with local, national, regional and global infrastructure and ecological systems. (5) The experience of introducing the concept of industrial ecology into the strategic thinking of a company showed that it inspired the employees to create economical and ecologically sound solutions that otherwise would never have been thought about. (6) A company that combines strategies for competitiveness with a determined striving for ecologically sound products, processes and practices, may be looked upon as the basic evolutionary tool on the road towards sustainable societies. (7) Before a strategic development programme is launched, it is important to make a diagnosis of the present products, processes and practices, both one's own as well as those of the competitors, with respect to ecological performance. In addition to life cycle assessment of the product, an assessment has to be

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carried out of product and production technologies, individual practices in production and use, as well as the interaction with the environment, in order to point to directions for ecologically sound developments of products, processes and practices.

Life Cycle Logistics Figure 2 illustrates the Life Cycle logistics of products and processes. Aspects of environmental interaction and ecology related to production plants and the product life have to be integrated with the development of materials, products, processes and practices in a common information handling system. Computer-aided engineering-systems are under way, such as I-Deas and Pro-Engineer, that will permit users to handle such large amounts of data from a common data-base and make the data available and continuously updated for the development- and designteams working in a world-wide network. Specific qualities of the product and its production routes have to be related to specific features of the product or the processes at the actual phases of the life of the product or the processes. One of the main challenges today is for technical professionals and executives to get the information and data needed along the whole life cycle of materials, components and the product with a documented precision that makes it possible to compare a new solution with an existing reference solution with # Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

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Figure 2. Life cycle logistics respect to ecological performance and competitiveness. It will become necessary to establish reference solutions based on specific and welldocumented commercial products with known processing routes and functional ``history''. Knowledge of product, processes and practice has to be organized and assessed in a way that essential ideas for improvement can be generated and compared with the reference solution. The procedures for this are described in the diagrams in the text.

Design for Quality (DFQ) and Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Figure 3 shows a way of structuring the relation between the quality aspects of production, product use and environment and its connection to design parameters of the product as well as the production route. Such an information structure is necessary in order to give the data system enough flexibility to be a tool for creative development and evolution. This is an extension of the ``Design for Quality DFQ'' described by Mùrup (1993) and makes it possible to study the interrelation between product and production design parameters. This interaction may be very critical when ecological and competitive aspects are considered simultaneously, but it is traditionally not very well handled by the producer or by the product user. An exception is the work of very experienced product and industrial

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designers, who often have detailed insight and knowledge of the production routes, materials, shapes and the product use during its life cycle and can ``see'' this interaction during a creative design and development process. Today, it will be possible to support those mental processes by computer simulation of the physical processes involved, showing the interaction of the product and process design parameters. The input data are statements of experienced quality by product users (Hauser & Clausing, 1988), the production people as well as ecological performance parameters. Ecological performance parameters are put alongside the quality statements from the customers and the production people, because it is these categories of people in the society that in the future have to be responsible for those type of performance statements. It will be a critical point in the formulation of business concepts and business targets that the right ecological parameters are used. That is to say, the total solution must show the way towards sustainability before it is required by the customers and the production people!

The product structure and holistic thinking A technical system; a process, a machine or a mecatronic or mechanical product, can be viewed in four different ways, according to the ``theory of domains'' of Andreasen (1980) (Figure 4):

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Figure 3.

The Theory of Domains

(1) As the complete technical system it has some function, or is realizing certain processes in interaction with its operators and its environment.

(2) As a collection of interconnected subsystems where each subsystem is performing given tasks necessary for realizing the prescribed function of the total system.

Figure 4. Product system structure

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(3) As a collection of basic physical processes or operations realized by ``organs'' according to Andreasen (1980). This is often related to interaction between two or more components or media (heat exchange, load transfer, friction, reflection, etc.). (4) As an assembly of components, topologically connected in space. Each component is made by a given material, or combination of materials, to a prescribed shape and properties given by the material (or materials), the surfaces, the shape, the dimensions and the production history. This way of looking at a complex system may be defined as a holistic view, in contrast to the conventional reductionistic view. The reductionistic view believes that all systems can be subdivided to basic units from which all the properties of the system can be deduced. The holistic view accepts that the whole is more than its parts, and that there are many ways to look at the operation of the system, depending on what aspect of the system behaviour one is interested in. For each view there is a specific way to connect the whole and its parts in order to describe the essential parameters that govern the specific behaviour aspect of interests.

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(1) As a total system, including all the processing and transport chains from raw material to the finished assembled and tested product. It includes all the actual suppliers and subsuppliers, as well as the overall interaction of the production system with other production systems and products, its safety, its environmental impact. (2) As the collection of production lines, each producing a part of or a total subsystem. (3) As a collection of process units, where each unit often is related to the making of a given ``organ''. (4) As the structure of assembly of components, subsystems and total system, including all transport and handling operations. We are here looking at certain aspects of a total system of immense complexity. By highlighting the aspects of this system that are related to the specific product of interest, we use the holistic approach described above to identify the critical parameters of the relation between the specific behavioural aspects of that system and the essential parameters that govern this behaviour (production time, cost, energy consumption, variation in product properties etc.).

The production structure

Science, systems and computers. Is there something more?

The production system can also be viewed in four different ways:

For the persons using the diagnostic tools for assessing the product, processes and

Figure 5. Production system structure

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practices, insight and skills are necessary for building up and obtaining data that describe the interaction between technology, economy and ecology as necessary. Based on a ``world picture'' as illustrated above, with time along the horizontal axis and order of magnitude along the vertical axis, the whole and the details can be seen in one glimpse. By using the potentials of the computer for storing and handling information in relational data bases, structured in the holistic way that is described above, with models of production, processes, materials, product and system behaviour based on scientific principles, the tools for the development of sustainable products, processes and practices are established. In order to find the right path to go, however, more is needed. In getting information from the customers, the production people, the competitors and the ecologists as inputs into the Quality Function Deployment Procedure there is a need for persons with special skills in social sciences. They must interact with engineers that have detailed insight into the technical systems in order to transform customer and production statements into design parameters and interaction matrices for product, processes and practices. Then development of strategies and projects, based on the companies business concept and targets have to be formulated and started up. Here the development and design team has to be brought into action. By using the structured information from the QFD and the diagnostic tools, they must search for new solutions in interaction with decision makers

on all levels; from the company, the local, regional and national authorities, as well as institutions working with global issues. So we see that besides science, systems and computers we need professionals with different backgrounds, knowledge and skills, working together in teams for a common task. It is important to ``design'' the computer-systems, the man-machine interface and the practical procedures, so that it supports the creative processes in the individual as well as in the team. And in order to come up with solutions that really will ``change the path of evolution'' into the right direction, is it still more that is needed? Is it so that the ``God-given gift of inspiration'' you can find among great artists also is necessary for the team and organisation so that a common holistic vision and common ethereal insight can lead and inspire the group?

The technologist of the next century In order to develop products, processes and practices that combine high scores of ecological performance with competitiveness in the international marketplace, we need technologists that are able to connect detailed scientific knowledge with an holistic attitude towards the problem at hand. Abilities and skills to apply scientific approaches and methods in order to generate new knowledge in his or her own field of speciality must be understood in the wider context of the complex technical, ecological and commercial system. Addition-

Figure 6. Science, systems and computers ± is there something more?

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ally, the ability to work in teams and global networks inspired by a common vision, so that each specialist knowledge can be related to and directed to the solution of the overall target in interplay with other specialist fields, must be trained and encouraged. However, it will be difficult to bring about such a learning environment without teachers who are also trying to direct their view beyond their own expert knowledge in order to really understand how individual specialist knowledge is an integrated part of the whole. Working in close contact with industry and its interaction with the society and the ecological systems it belongs to, taking part in their struggle for competitive solutions by doing research together with them on the basic understanding of their processes and products, improvement of operations, as well as on integrating ecological and global thinking in the striving for competitive system solutions, is an effective way to obtain an holistic view of one's own field of speciality. Within such a learning environment, teachers and students should have the best possibility to be prepared for the challenges ahead. A possible way to implement the thinking presented in this paper is indicated in Figure 7. It is a part of the development program for the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU).

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Note 1. An earlier version was presented at the Lerchendal Seminar in February 1996, with the title: `Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Product Design ± NTNU and the state of the art' (Brattebù & Boelskifte, 1996)

References Andreasen, M. Myrup (1980) `Syntesemetoder paÊ systemgrunnlag' (`Methods of synthesis with basis in systems thinking'.) Dissertation. Lunds Tekniske Hùgskole (In Danish). Brattebù, H. and Boelskifte, P. eds (1996) `Industrial Ecology and Sustainable Product Design'. The Norwegian Academy of Technological Sciences (NTVA), Trondheim. Hauser, J.R. and Clausing, D. (1988) `The House of Quality', Harvard Business Review, May±June, 63±73. Mùrup, Mikkel (1993) `Design for Quality'. PhD Dissertation. Technical University of Denmark, Institute for Engineering Design, Lyngby. Stùren, S. and Bñkkelund, T. eds (1994) `Product Design and Development for Sustainability'. The Norwegian Academy of Technological Sciences (NTVA), Trondheim.

Scientific knowledge, holistic attitude

Sigurd Stùren is Professor of Machine Design and Materials Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.

Figure 7. `Mechanical Engineering 2000' development program # Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

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The Designer's Self-Identity ± Myths of Creativity and the Management of Teams 1 Tom Fisher This paper describes recent research conducted at Sheffield Hallam University in which practising designers reported on their experiences of working in a cross functional team. The survey related these experiences to the designers' attitudes to their creativity. Two models for creativity are proposed ± one based on the romantic stereotype of the creative genius, the other taking creativity to be an attribute possessed by all human beings in some measure, which can be enhanced by personal effort or by training. Identifying features of cross functional teams which are likely to demand certain personal qualities in designers, the paper notes that these are at odds with the qualities of a `romantic-type' creative person. The link between these qualities, and notions of personality as a set of fixed attributes is pointed out. Several theories of personality which describe mechanisms for change in self identity are described. It is noted that the results of the survey suggest that in many cases designers have a pragmatic attitude to their creativity, despite the prevalence of the romantic stereotype for creativity in the literature of both management and education. Principles are suggested for design education, to enable designers to re-evaluate creativity reflexively as a component of their self identity to enhance their performance as teamworkers.

Introduction

`T

eam projects are essential, but many of the problems arise because of, in my own experience, lack of awareness of what a designer is ± i.e. not just a drafting facility but a creative thinker, communications expert and effectively a manager.' So says a consultant industrial designer, a respondent in a recent survey of designers conducted at Sheffield Hallam University.2 The research reviewed the literature on the management of New Product Development; in particular, the effects of teamworking on industrial designers. Qualitative results, such as the quotation above, provided insights into designers' experiences. The project also produced quantitative results, some of which will be referred to below. It will be argued here that prevailing `cultural narratives' about creative people are not appropriate to the conditions facing practicing designers ± cross functional team-

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work being important among these conditions. The quantitative results of the survey just mentioned allow us to gauge the effects of these cultural narratives on the performance of designers in cross functional teams. Ideas from philosophy, psychology and sociology will be deployed to suggest that design education could equip designers with more appropriate attitudes to their creativity 3 and their sense of self. These insights will be related to the current debate about design education. This paper will show that the romantic genius is the prevailing stereotype for creative people and is evident in management literature, in design education and in the psychological study of creativity itself. It will note that there is a gulf between this stereotype for creative people, and the roles that real designers apparently take in cross functional new product development teams. It will question how it is that designers working in cross functional teams have apparently # Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

THE DESIGNER'S SELF-IDENTITY

transcended the stereotype for creative people, despite the fact that management literature and design education perpetuate it.

Creative stereotypes In their article `Is Designing Mysterious? Challenging the Dual Knowledge Thesis' Richard Coyne and Adrian Snodgrass suggest that it is commonly supposed that design relies on mental processes which are subjective, individualistic and non rational, and that this determines the character of the resulting knowledge ± it defies rational explanation. They describe how this type of knowledge is often opposed to a scientistic approach to the world based on logic and rationality, suggesting that there is a complete split between the two sorts of knowledge. They point out that in this formulation, design `. . . inherits a style of thinking whose origins lie deep within the romantic movement in art'.4 It is possible to extend their comments about `design knowledge' to our understanding of creativity and thus to the designation of designers as `creative people'. The prevailing romantic stereotype for the creative process, and hence creative people, is well known.5 Curiously perhaps, considering that management is a supposedly rational business, it is also strongly evident in the literature on the management of people with creative roles ± designers among them. Winston Fletcher asserts without question that these `creatives' tend to be `. . . insecure, egotistical, stubborn, rebellious, poor time-keeping perfectionists'.6 Considering creative teams, John Whatmore states that: `Creative people are different: they are sensitive, intuitive, experimentalist, non-conformist and concerned as much about the development of their skills and talents as about their organisation's objectives'.7 Central to these ideas of what creative people are like is strong individualism. These are heroic figures whose personal qualities make them stand out from the crowd. They are accorded the right to be so individualistic within an organisation, by virtue of having been defined as creative. The same stereotype is also evident in some design education, where `creative expression' is privileged at the expense of reflection or analysis of meaning. As Barry Jackson puts it, design education `privileges a certain kind of creativity, the individual act of genius, the radical breakthrough, the moment of inspiration. It devalues collaborative, adaptive creativity . . .'.8 He also notes that design

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education `privileges designers as a special breed, set apart from others by their creativity . . . a tribe with a shared view of the nature and power of creativity.' Jackson relates these features of design education to others, such as its emphasis on craft and the manipulation of form; the judgement of performance by criteria which emanate from within design education, not from the world outside it; its belief in talent rather than learning; its celebration of heroes; its emphasis on subjectivity. The title of his influential book, Creativity, Beyond the Myth of Genius 9 gives a clear indication that Robert Weisberg considers it important that the prevailing stereotype for creative people be transcended. His argument is convincing, and shows just how firmly embedded is this romantic mythology in the scientific study of creativity. In his discussion of the methodological weaknesses of studies which have apparently identified a definable `creative personality' he refers to a review of such studies by Frank Barron and David M. Harrington10, in which they note that: `. . . the research has brought no surprises, in that the findings correspond to the general beliefs our society has concerning the characteristics of creative scientists and artists.' Even scientists are liable to have their perceptions coloured by the prevailing cultural narratives about that which they study.

The romantic origins of design

Personality typing Coyne and Snodgrass suggest that the characterisation of creative people by the lights of the genius myth implies their categorisation according to personality type.11 Within the notion of a typology of personalities is the implication that personality is fixed ± it is somehow the hand which each individual is dealt. This is so whatever cause might be ascribed to it ± genes, infant experiences, upbringing, education. Some degree of fixity of personality type is taken for granted ± indeed this is our common sense understanding of personality. This is confirmed perhaps by the uncomplicated way in which Whatmore and Fletcher talk of `creative people'. There is a long tradition of personality studies of this sort within modern psychology, which starts with Carl Jung 12 and was put to work in management by figures such as Meredith Belbin 13 in developing his scheme of team roles. To define the role which he calls the `plant' Belbin drew on Raymond Cattell's 16 personality factor test.14 Plants are the team members who most often

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Creativity associated with results

come up with obtuse but frame breaking suggestions. While Belbin stresses that there is no necessary connection between team roles and functional roles ± a plant might be a marketeer, or a company director ± there is a clear overlap between the characteristics of Plants and the romantic creative stereotype identified just now. In a fictionalised case study in Belbin's own training material, the Plant character is indeed the designer.15 This suggests, in accord with Weisberg's observation above, that there is a complex relationship between psychometric tests which classify individuals as more or less `inherently creative', and the prevailing cultural narratives about creativity. Perhaps therefore, it is the cultural narratives which affect creativity which are worthy of study, not qualities of inherent personality. Another set of attitudes to creativity is also evident in the management literature which co-exists with the romantic personality stereotype but is at odds with it. Here, creativity is not associated with personality, but with results. Here, creative performance is apparently a human potential which can be set to work by using Creative Problem Solving techniques.16 These techniques derive from models of cognition and the mind and are therefore democratic as the romantic stereotype is elitist. This set of ideas can perhaps be understood as the scientistic equivalent to the romantic stereotype above, to refer back again to Coyne and Snodgrass' Dual Knowledge thesis. It is this democratic concept of creativity which is at work in Total Quality Management, where the quality circle is put in place at all levels of an organisation and in all functions, as a mechanism for tapping into the creativity which can be contributed by all employees.

The unfixed self There has been much critical assessment within psychology of the theoretical basis for psychometric testing 17 and there is an extensive psychological literature which contends that personal identity changes through time, and in relation to circumstances. The idea of the `self concept' is useful here as it allows for change through time and from situation to situation. `. . . this definition of the self concept has very real implications for the way we behave. It suggests that we categorise ourselves into social groups. It also suggests that we use different self-identifications in different circumstances.18 (italics added to original)

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This suggests that some of the self concept of a person who takes a creative role in an organisation ± a designer for instance ± will derive from their having adapted to their situation, having `categorised themselves' in relation to the social group they inhabit ± `creative people'. If `creative people' are generally understood to have certain aptitudes and attributes, and we have seen that they are, then presumably those aptitudes and attributes will become part of that person's self concept. For practicing designers, the company culture they encounter will also be likely to affect their `self concept'. If the company culture adopts the prevailing romantic stereotype for `creative people', then this will be reinforced in the self concept of the designer. This is not inevitable however. If the company culture values communication, interaction and teamwork, then these qualities may override the romantic stereotype and be integrated in the designer's self concept to the extent that the designer defines themselves according to that set of ideas. The self concept of an individual is therefore not an entity made once and for all, but has a permeable boundary with the outside world. Components of the world which are likely to bear on this self concept are the prevailing ideas about creativity and creative people which the individual encounters. These sets of ideas will permeate the individual's self concept and they will engage with them in the process of building an identity for themselves as a creative person. The psychology literature which deals specifically with creativity itself has also moved on from the notion that it is a fixed and measurable component of the personality of certain people. Albert Runco 19 for instance advocates considering the values that guide people given especially creative roles, and the elements of culture and education from which those values derive. Reviewing a long term project studying creativity and art students, Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi 20 suggests a view of creativity which recognises the cultural, social and temporal context that defines the creative activity. Talking of an apparent `epistemological weakness' of his own empirical studies into the creativity of art students he notes that: `. . . it is possible that the relationships we found depend on timebound conceptions of what is creative ± a product of particular cultural and social conditions.' 21 Csikszentmihalyi points out that criteria for the judgement of whether someone `is creative' compared to the general population

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change as culture changes. As we have seen, in this era these criteria often approximate to the romantic stereotype. He is even more emphatic than this in the same article where he very succinctly argues that attributions of creativity do not depend on inherent personality traits: `Creativity is not a ``natural kind'', a trait that can be measured objectively such as height, strength, perfect pitch, reaction time, or knowledge of language or mathematics. Rather it is an attribution based on the current conditions of the social system ± more like judgements of taste, beauty or goodness.' 22 We can go along with Csikszentmihalyi here, as we are not concerned with what causes creativity - i.e. what makes one person more successful at having good ideas and making a success of them than another. Rather, we are interested in narratives about creativity, in as much as they affect the professional self concept of designers as they engage with the team based management of design and new product development. The self concept of designers may change as we have seen, as they change their allegiances to the groups they encounter in their professional lives.

The reflexive self A dynamic model for selfhood has been developed in sociology by Anthony Giddens, which suggests a mechanism for this change. Giddens' stress is on the relation between social processes and a sense of self. He suggests that because the modern period is predicated on change, then a `modern' selfhood is also bound up with change. His description of the process which takes place in individuals to deal with change hinges on his concept of `reflexivity'. As he puts it: `. . . a reflexive mobilising of self-identity [is] a general feature of modern social activity in relation to psychic organisation.' 23 Giddens wonders how this feature of modern society relates to the changes in self identity which took place in traditional societies. He suggests that in such societies it was the formalised `rites of passage', marking an individual's progress through life, which enabled changes to self-identity to take place securely. He suggests that these rites of passage have been replaced in modern societies by what he calls `abstract systems' among which he counts the efforts of educators. This puts a particular responsibility on design educators as it suggests that they are

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implicated in the aspects of their students' self identity which relate to their understanding of themselves as `creative people'. It falls to design educators to equip their students with appropriately sanguine, flexible and realistic attitudes to themselves in this respect. Designers will have to deal with events during their career which involve changes in their self-identity, albeit relatively superficial ones. They will face transitions from art school to professional life, from one form of professional life to another ± consultant to in-house designer for instance ± or from one firm's corporate culture and organisation to another. Echoing Csikszentmihalyi, Giddens is explicit about the relationship between selfidentity and the events which make up an individual's biography. 'Self identity is not a distinctive trait, or even a collection of traits, possessed by the individual. It is the self as reflexively understood by the person in terms of her or his biography.' 24 He also asserts that this reflection is an active process, in which the efforts of the individual are subject to moderation by the `abstract system' of education. Giddens suggests that individuals are involved in a continual process whereby they build a `story' about themselves which forms their self-identity. It is true the self-identity he describes is more fundamental than a person's professional identity or, perhaps, their attitudes to creativity. However, the characteristics of the romantic stereotype of creativity just described, its links with notions of fixed personality and its consequent elitism, may mean that it is strongly enough implicated in the selfidentity of an individual to affect their professional performance. It may not be too far fetched to suggest that at the very least design educators must take pains to prepare students for the range of `stories' about creativity and the professional environment they are likely to encounter. They may need to integrate various combinations of these stories into their self-identity and supersede the contradictions between them, as they face various situations in their careers.

Story-building and design

Designers and teamworking It is appropriate now to relate the previous discussion to the Sheffield Hallam University survey of designers referred to above. This survey established that teamworking is now ubiquitous in new product development in the UK. Through the literature it was established that cross functional new product

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development teams operate with the following characteristics: . Rigorous monitoring of new product de-

velopment projects 25

. Work done simultaneously by all the . . . . . .

functions within the team 26 Common location for design teams ± real 27 or virtual 28 Attention paid to communication between team members and documentation of process 29 Teams are goal orientated rather than rule orientated 30 Regular reviews of New Product Development process Acceptance of role ± flexibility of team members 31 Communication with teams from above based on information not instruction

The set of characteristics above may mean that teamworking poses a serious challenge to designers if their self-identity has the romantic stereotype deeply embedded within it, and they have no alternative `story' with which to interpret the demands likely to result from the experience. On the other hand, designers whose self-identity equips them with alternative `stories' about their creativity may find these characteristics empowering. The study got responses from a group of 40 practicing designers which was made up about evenly by freelance designers or consultants, and by designers employed by manufacturers. It sought to establish in a limited way some of the effects teamworking may have had on designers in terms of their attitudes to their work and their creative identities. This problem was approached with the premise that the highly individualistic romantic stereotype of the creative personality was likely to have had the strongest influence on the self concept of designers. With this in mind, a pair of questions were

devised which sought to test what relationship they had to the romantic stereotype. The two questions were: 1. Can creativity be learned? 2. Do you use any techniques to enhance your creativity? It was presumed that the response to Question 1 would indicate to some extent whether or not the respondent subscribed to a notion of individual creativity derived from the romantic stereotype, embedded within a fixed personality type. Question 2 was introduced as a qualifier to Question 1, as the term `creativity' was offered without any definition. Figure 1 shows the responses to these questions. The results suggest that a majority of the respondents have a significantly more pragmatic attitude to creativity than that derived from the romantic stereotype. This 60 % of the sample have presumably been able to integrate into their professional self image the demands for flexibility, communication etc. which run counter to the romantic stereotype and are concomitant with teamworking. These results do not show whether or not this fraction of the sample has had to modify their attitude to creativity. It may be that education and corporate culture have helped them to develop this attitude without crisis. On the other hand, given the strength and prevalence of the romantic stereotype within management literature, design education and psychology, it is reasonable to assume that some change has taken place in the self identity of at least a proportion of these respondents. This impression is reinforced when the responses to some of the other survey questions are considered. A narrow majority of respondents (55 %) reported that their capacity to generate and develop design ideas

Figure 1.

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had increased as a result of working in a team. Even more strikingly, when asked whether teamworking had made them `more creative' or `less creative', the respondents almost unanimously reported (90 %) that teamworking had not meant they had been less creative, and a majority (57 %) reported that it had made them more creative. On the other hand, a majority (72 %) reported that their `perception of themselves as a creative individual' had not been changed by working in a team, which at least suggests that if there has been a change in their self-identity, it has taken place without crisis. It may of course be the case that this question did not enable a subtle enough response to distinguish between respondents who had a romantic attitude to creativity, and those with a more pragmatic attitude. These results taken together suggest that if teamworking does imply any change in the professional identity of designers, then among the majority referred to above, this change takes place as part of the continual self reflexive monitoring which Giddens describes. On the other hand, the results also show that there are significant minorities who consider that creativity cannot be learned (18 %), and that teamworking has not meant they have been more creative (43 %). A designer reporting these responses to teamworking may not perform well in a team, though another study will be necessary to be sure of the relationships between these responses. It is instructive to note the degree to which the respondents reported interacting with, and learning from, the other disciplines within their cross functional teams. This came through most strongly in answer to the question which related to the generation of design ideas ± the stage of new product development where creativity in the traditional designerly sense is more overt. Respondents reported that teamworking resulted in `better understanding of other disciplines', `using various members as spring boards to generate new ideas', `more discussion of alternative ideas and mixing ideas' and `ideas taken from other disciplines'. This gives a picture of a creative process which is collaborative and communicative, not individualised, subjective and `mysterious'. Overall, it appears that the designers in this sample know more about the realities of doing creative work through cross functional teams than might be expected from the management literature, or from reports such as Jackson's. They betray a more subtle, and in the context a much more useful attitude to

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what constitutes a `creative person' than that suggested by Whatmore and Fletcher above. The results suggest that the experience of teamwork brings out the synthesising and communicative aspects of designing, far ahead of the individualistic stereotype, and that this is quite a comfortable fit with the self image of designers. As one of the respondents said of teamworking: `Management, sales and production are very separate entities ± the designer must synthesise and communicate'.

A pragmatic solution Coyne and Snodgrass analyse the traditions of thought which have described design, and design thinking. They suggest that these traditions of thought, dating from Descartes' splitting of the subject from the object, are responsible for some of the negative manifestations of the romantic tradition in attitudes to design thinking ± specifically, the supposedly `mysterious' nature of design thinking. They offer a thesis which derives from the philosophy of Gadamer and Heidegger which does away with the rational / intuitive split and allows design knowledge to move beyond the subjective and enter effective communication. Their thesis relates to design as a whole, but implies a modification of the view of creativity given its closeness to romanticism. The formulation they offer for design itself, they describe as `hermeneutical', deriving from the hermeneutic philosophy of Gadamer and Heidegger. Gadamer considered action in a situation to be fundamentally interpretative ± the actor brings their history to the situation and that history is modified in a dialogue with the situation:

Design knowledge and effective communication

`We are replete with expectations distilled from our background of experiences. When the situation does not match our expectations then there is some kind of breakdown. In such situations an activity best described in terms of play or dialogue occurs, between the situation and our expectations. As we engage in this play our expectations change. Our effective historical consciousness is always being renewed.' 32 This may describe what takes place as designers enter a professional situation which demands more of them than they have been trained to expect. Their interpretation of the situation is likely to alter their understanding of themselves ± their professional identity. Coyne and Snodgrass argue that design is `hermeneutical' ± it is both rational and

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Integrating theory and practice

intuitive, and it is not only rational nor only intuitive. Creativity in the sense of `actions which produce that which is new to the world' clearly derives both from rationality and intuition, and not only from rationality or only from intuition. This presupposes a shift in the conception of what a `creative person' is. Such a person is both rational and intuitive ± the particular combination in any situation deriving from the person's expectations interacting with their experience of the situation, in a hermeneutic dialogue.33 Coyne and Snodgrass also note that the romantic tradition evident in contemporary attitudes to design and creative people, inhibits communication ± one of the most vital abilities for an effective member of a cross functional team.

Education's role Coyne and Snodgrass propose that design education concentrate on the discursive, as well as the formal and visual, to counter this tendency. They urge design educators to emphasise what is different about design ± that designers have expert knowledge and appropriate experiences, rather than being blessed with mysterious special powers: `The question of aptitude in particular kinds of thought processes is replaced with questions of familiarity and experience in terms of domain, media, terminology, communication, coordination and even motor skills.'34 They suggest that this insight has implications for the teaching and practice of design in that it allows a student to abandon the confines of the highly individualised romantic stereotype of the creative person. They describe educational good practice based on studio based discourse and dialogue. Their prescription will be familiar to many design educators. It is worthwhile however to consider what more design education can do to enable designers to move with ease between the `situations' they will encounter in professional life, interpret them appropriately and integrate that dialogue into their professional persona. Ray Holland 35 describes a project which did this. It was run to discover the reactions of students from a range of disciplines to working in a cross functional team. The responses were evaluated using Belbin's team roles, which, flawed though they may be, showed that the experience of teamworking increased the proportion of the participants who could be categorised as `teamworkers' from 10% to 15%. Interestingly, the engineering and design staff in charge of the project

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appear to have had more difficulty over communication and language than the participants themselves. Clearly, the earlier this type of project organisation is experienced, the easier it is for attitudes to be modified by the experience and for the insights gained to be integrated into the self identity of the participants. After all, as Barry Jackson points out, echoing Giddens, design education can be `an education of the whole self'.36 Design education should therefore equip students to cope with potential challenges to their self-identity, such as the move from an attitude to creativity based on the individualistic romantic cultural narrative, to a professional life based on teamwork. It has become common to appeal to a closer integration of theory and practice in design education as a countervailing force against the negative effects of the romantic stereotype of creativity 37. This is clearly supported by the argument above, in that it will benefit designers to be able to adopt a genuinely critical attitude to their own professional identity. They will perform better as members of cross functional teams, if they can interact with their situation in a manner which derives from a flexible sense of themselves. The alternative is to slavishly adopt modes of behaviour and attitudes which are based on a demand for subjectivity and individual personal expression, which paradoxically is imposed by a tightly proscribed and inflexible romantic stereotype. Practicing designers have to be able to be what they need to be, as appropriate. Design education should give proto designers permission to play with roles as appropriate ± both consciously and semi consciously, in the same way that some design thinking is rational, and some is intuitive. The fact that a good proportion of practicing designers seem to rise to the challenge which teamworking may pose to their sense of self and perform well, does not suggest that education should do nothing. Practicing designers benefit from the following: . An introduction to ways of describing the

qualities of contemporary existence, through work which draws on cultural studies, anthropology and political economy. . A demand that students respond to this material within design projects. . That design education be acknowledged as an equivalent of Giddens' `rite of passage', and therefore should inculcate the appropriate diversity of potential

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approaches to design work and appropriate flexibility in attitudes to creativity.

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36. Jackson, B. op cit, p. 38. 37. Fisher (1995).

Notes

References

1. A previous version of this paper was presented to the Design Management Institute's 8th International Forum on Design Management Research and Education, Barcelona, November 1996. 2. Fisher, T., et al (1996). 3. The various possible meanings for `creativity' must be distinguished. The literal sense of `creation' ± to produce an artefact or idea new to the world ± is only sometimes relevant here. The sense of the word as it applies to either a particular category of people ± `creative people' ± or a potential within people ± `creativity' ± is relevant more often. 4. Coyne and Snodgrass (1991). 5. Armstrong and Tomes (1996) and Fisher (1995). 6. Fletcher, W. (1988) Creative People and how to Manage their Creativity. London: Hutchinson, p. 33. 7. Whatmore, J. (1996) p. 42. 8. Jackson, B. (1995). 9. Weisberg, R. (1993). 10. Barron, F. and Harrington, D. M. (1981) in Ibid. 11. Coyne and Snodgrass, op cit, p. 125. 12. Jung, C. (1925). 13. Belbin, R. M. (1986). 14. Cattell, R. (no date) cited in Belbin, R. M. (1986) p. 33. 15. Belbin, R. M. (1991) Building the Perfect Team, Video Arts. 16. As Alex Osborn put it in the 1963 edition of his book Applied Imagination `All human beings, to a greater or lesser degree, possess the imaginative faculty. Whether this talent per se can be enlarged by training is questionable. The point is that the student can be trained to use more productively the talent which he innately possesses.' p. ix. 17. Gorham, J. (1986). 18. Hartley, P. (1997). 19. Runco, A. (ed) (1990). 20. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). 21. Ibid, p. 195. 22. Ibid, pp. 199±200. 23. Giddens, A. (1991) p. 33. 24. Ibid, p. 52. Italics in original. 25. Imai et al (1985). 26. Francis and Winstanley (1988b). 27. Imai et al (1985). 28. Rafii and Perkins (1995). 29. Daniels and Mathers (1996). 30. Imai et al (1985). 31. Imai et al (1985). 32. Coyne and Snodgrass, op cit, p. 125. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid, p. 130. 35. Holland, R. (1995) `Integrated `R' Us', Proceedings of the Seventh International Forum on Design Management Research and Education ± Stanford University, Design Management Institute.

Armstrong, P. and Tomes, A. (1996) `Design, Competition and Control', Sheffield University, Forthcoming. Barron, F. and Harrington, D. M. (1981) `Creativity, Intelligence and Personality', Annual Reviews of Psychology, No 32, pp. 439±476. Belbin, R. M. (1986) Management Teams, Why They Succeed or Fail. London: Heinemann. Coyne, R. and Snodgrass, A. (1991) `Is Designing Mysterious? Challenging the Dual Knowledge Thesis', Design Studies, Vol 12, No 3, pp. 124±131. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990) `The Domain of Creativity.' In Runco, A. (ed) Theories of Creativity. London: Sage, pp. 190±215. Daniels, W. R. and Mathers, J. G. (1996) `Provoking Organisational Change: using the Five Behaviours of Organisational Management.' Design Management Journal, Vol 6, No 3, pp. 10±17. Fisher, T. (1995) `From Mute Genius to Agile Manipulator.' Point, No 1. Fisher, T., Press, M., Chapman, G. and Rust, C. (1996) The Management of New Product Development: Creativity and Teamwork. Sheffield: Sheffield Hallam University. Fisher, T., Chapman, G., Reavey, P. and Ashworth, P. (1996) `Creativity and the Computer Nerd ± An Exploration of Attitudes.' Forthcoming at CADE '97: Digital Creativity. University of Derby, UK. Fletcher, W. (1988) Creative People and how to Manage their Creativity. London: Hutchinson. Francis, A. and Winstanley, D. (1988) `Designing for competitiveness.' Engineering Designer, March/April. Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and Self Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. Cambridge: Polity Press. Gorham, J. (1986) `Assessment, Classification and Implications of Learning Styles in Instructional Interactions.' Communication Education, Vol 35, No 4, pp. 411±417. Hartley, P. (1997) Group Communication. London: Routledge. Imai, K., Nonaka, I. and Takeuchi, H. (1985) `Managing the New Product Development Process: How Japanese Companies Learn and Unlearn.' In Clark, K. B., Hayes, R. H. and Lorenz, C. (eds) The Uneasy Alliance. Boston: Harvard Business School. Jackson, B. (1995) `Supra Art: Towards a New Paradigm of Design Education.' Co-Design, No 3. Jung, C. G. (1923) Psychological Types ± or the Psychology of Individuation. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Rafii, F. and Perkins, S. (1995) `Cross-Functional Integration: Moving Beyond Physical CoLocation.' Design Management Journal, Vol 6, No 3. Osborn, A. F. (1963) Applied Imagination ± Principles and Procedures of Creative Problem-Solving. New York: Charles Scribner's sons.

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Runco, A. (ed) (1990) Theories of Creativity. London: Sage, pp. 190±215. Whatmore, J. (1996) `A Creative Credo.' Demos Quarterly, Issue 8, pp. 42±43. Weisberg, R. (1993) Creativity, Beyond the Myth of Genius. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co.

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Tom Fisher is Senior Lecturer in Industrial Design, Sheffield Hallam University.

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The Need for Innovation: a Case History from the Water Industry Peter Matthews Anglian Water is a global water company with Anglo Scandinavian origins. It provides utility services and is a leader in water and wastewater technology and vocational learning through Aqua Universitas the University of Water. It employs over 5,000 people and operates through exclusive subsidiaries or in partnerships. The turnover is almost £800M per year ± of which 20% is international. The changing nature of water management has provided a case example of innovation in practice. The case is described with particular reference to Anglian Water. A more formal model framework for innovation is prescribed.

Introduction

T

he development of the English and Welsh Water Industry has provided historically an excellent example of innovation in practice. This is demonstrated by the experiences of Anglian Water which provides water utility services to Eastern England through Anglian Water Services; it has also expanded with a global business through Anglian Water International. The establishment of ten Regional Water Authorities in 1974 was a revolutionary initiative in establishing water cycle management in river catchments. The more recent privatisation of the utility functions of the Water Authorities has once again created innovative challenges in the provision of water services and their regulation. These two major steps created widespread interest in the organisation of water services. Anglian Water provides sewage services to some 5.5 million customers in Eastern England and water services to two thirds of them, the remainder being served by local ``water only'' companies. In early 1993 it embarked on a strategic systems review (SSR) with the aim of becoming more efficient and customer focused, and increasing employee satisfaction. This employed the techniques of business process re-engineering, which were then developed through consultation and the use of total quality management methods and applied to administrative, professional and managerial activities. # Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

The SSR was the start of a proposed process of continuous improvement. It recognised that to be successful, we have to harness the skills and enthusiasm of as many employees as possible. Continuous improvement in customer service and cost reduction requires knowledgeable and skilled people focused towards innovative goals. The initiative was a response to internal recognition that the Company needed to improve employee satisfaction whilst being more efficient, cutting costs and providing a better customer service. The Company has recognized a simple business model described as a tetrahedron ± the four parts being organisation, technology, employees and customers. The first three must be kept in balance to optimise customer service. For example if new technologies are introduced without proper training and changes to operational practices, problems can occur in providing good service. Equally if the number of employees is reduced the organisation and technology need to respond if outputs are to be maintained or even improved. As part of the preparation for the changes to Anglian Water, sixteen Business Processes were established in Anglian Water Services. Two of the Process Directorates, Innovation and Total Quality, were established to facilitate change initiatives. It is very important to recognize that the spirit of innovation and total quality are embedded deep in everyone's activities. The European Foundation Quality Model (EFQM) has been adopted as a framework for

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co-ordinating initiatives and business planning. The acquisition and use of knowledge and learning are key processes in achieving success in the forward looking approach adopted. The Company is now formally recognised as a learning organisation defined as one which is skilled at creating, acquiring and transferring and modifying its behaviour to reflect new knowledge and insights to improve business performance. It belongs to the European Consortium of Learning Organisations; the Learning Organisation was launched by the Minister responsible for Further Education in November 1994. This paper captures some of the thoughts and experiences of senior Anglian Water executives in their voyage of discovery in the practical task of implementing innovation. It demonstrates a new paradigm within a traditional industry required to provide a constant, almost invisible service, using innovation to become more efficient and customer focused. It is not intended to be an academic treatise drawing on available references. Hopefully these thoughts may add to that knowledge through practical experience. So, as innovation was identified as a key to being successful ± what is it and why did the Company need it? How does it differ from research and development? A number of external sources provide some clues.

Concepts of innovation What is innovation? How does it differ from research and development? Why do we need it? There are many questions we can ask. The House of Commons Science and Technology Select Committee reviewed the ways in which the science base is translated into innovative and competitive technologies in the UK in 1994 1. It said ``We believe that the innovative capacity of the United Kingdom industry will be vital for the country's future. The benefits of innovation and the research, design and development which precede innovation cannot be captured by innovation alone; the overspills will benefit the entire economy . . .'' ``It recognised that many definitions of innovation are available. In some contexts it is used to mean something akin to `invention'; a new development which has the potential to alter radically a product or process. Some definitions include both new products and processes which are incremental improvements in existing ones. The Science Policy Research Unit at Sussex University has assembled a database of innovation which specifically includes commercial

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success as one of the criteria by which an innovation is defined. This definition has much to commend it, but has the disadvantage that success will only be evident after the event. We will, therefore, use the term `innovation' to include both proven and possible success . . .'' The process of innovation is complex. Innovation involves the confluence of many factors including the application of new knowledge ± whether from science or technology, the competencies held by firms, the perceived level of commercial and technological risk, the cost of capital and the regulatory environment . . .'' The term ``innovation'' is used rather loosely. In simple terms it is the process of introducing novelty or change particularly in relation to technology. However, the DTI sponsored Annual Innovation lectures indicate that innovation is all pervasive and is more than technology. Readers of newspapers will be forgiven for thinking that this is often restricted to appealing developments in information technology. However, if innovation is in some way a combination of new technology and business process, then developments in information technology are, indeed, prime examples of innovation. In personal conversation and in published literature the words `creativity and competitiveness' are often used in juxtaposition to `innovation'. A person who is innovative is considered to be creative and have the ability to introduce change. To that extent, we all have innate innovativeness, but in some people that competence is stronger or more developed. It is evident from observation that not all researchers are strongly innovative. In some of the more traditional large research teams, individual members may play no more than a functionary role. Equally, people outside conventional research may exhibit strong innovative skills and these could be harnessed in creative ways by working within teams. Total quality management programmes would not succeed without the strengths of innovation. Successful suggestion schemes should encourage all individuals in an organisation to use their innovative abilities. Yet innovation as a business process should be aimed at large scale changes which will contribute to the overall competitiveness of the organisation by looking for ways to radically change (and therefore improve) the business itself. Anglian Water wants to foster innovativeness in all employees but has defined the business process of innovation to embrace initial ideas for change through exploration, development and exploitation. Traditionally

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innovation is regarded as finished when the successful prototype has developed into the first commercial model (Rickards 21). Continuous improvement programmes may make further adjustments in use, but the job of the innovation process is either completely finished or moves on to producing the second model. In a modern organisation, based on team work, there will be close collaboration between those involved in the continuous improvement programmes and in innovation, even where they may be, and often are, located in different structures such as customer (continuous improvement) and supplier (innovation). Innovation is step improvement, but an innovative work environment will be of great assistance to continuous improvement. The innovation process must include a fundamental embodiment of other needs such as intellectual property rights, return on investment, market opportunity and corporate publicity. In many ways the 19th century innovator±manufacturers embodied the spirit of innovation. They took risks and of course we only know about and remember successes. We remember Mercedes-Benz, or Rolls-Royce, but will we ever know if there was an early biogas driven vehicle development by Smith-Green that never quite made it? It is, perhaps a loss of this perception of the whole process of innovation which may explain the popular conclusion that the UK has been good at research and development but poor at exploitation. The Royal Academy of Engineering in the 1994 House of Commons Report 1 pointed out that, for successful innovation, the means and the impetus must be in balance. Provision of the means alone has in the past, led to pointless innovation, which fails in the marketplace while need alone leads to over ambitious projects which fail technically. The world is moving at a growing pace of change and competition and successful companies in future will be those that can not only live with change, but those that create and lead on change. The House of Commons Committee 1 observed that comparisons between countries on competitiveness, showed that relative unit labour costs appear to be less important than differences in technology competitiveness and ability to complete on delivery. However, technological novelty alone was considered by the Committee to be rarely sufficient for commercial success. When asked to rank the factors determining competitiveness in their industry, 55 UK companies of varying sizes, all ranked quality, service and price above product/process novelty. In product competitiveness novelty

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ranked below product reliability, product design, quality, safety features and relations with suppliers. Even in technology-based industries, competition on the basis of price and quality may be more intense than through technological performance improvements. Whether this is true for the water industry is a matter which will be addressed below. Technological competitiveness is not simply a matter of developing a new product or process, but of bringing it successfully to market. Innovation alone is not a sufficient factor for company success. However, it is a well documented marketing phenomenon that companies which have been first in the field with a particular product often find others reaping the benefits. This is a much deeper problem than failure to protect intellectual property rights. It may be that creators are not the best exploiters. It seems almost that after the intellectual effort in the genesis of an initial idea and its subsequent materialisation, exhaustion sets in and predatory competitors see the next stage of opportunity and development and exploit them with greater vigour. However, some companies make a virtue out of being first followers by learning from leaders' mistakes and being posed to follow faster. However, this does not always succeed. Examples of the first followers are IBM, Matsushita and Seiko 2,3. This text is presented principally on the basis of technology development. However, it is important to remember that the spirit of and need for innovativeness applies to all aspects of a business. Organisational procedure can be changed just as much as technology. Indeed in a technical industry such as water management business change and technology innovation go together. Distinction may be made between innovativeness in technology and innovativeness in business. However, in practice, innovation is really about changing the way that things are done either to exploit technology or to meet a business need, which often demands a new technology. In some ways, procedural or cultural change is soft innovation and technology change is hard innovation ± but that is misleading. It could also be stated that technology change is easy, but procedural or cultural change is difficult. The plain truth is that both are needed in an innovative organisation. This can be observed in the use of information technology. If IT is used to ``computerise'' existing manual procedures without facing up to the changes in the way things are done and the consequent reduction in

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Consistent service is paramount

manpower which may follow, the organisation will never get the real benefits of IT ± indeed it may be worse off because the computer system may add work to that necessary to carry out the tasks manually. Any organisation which seeks to radically change its organisational culture and practices, without changes in the technologies used, may be in for trouble. The transport infrastructure systems are classic cases of this. Experience in Anglian Water has also shown that innovation can play a big role in balancing the tetrahedron described earlier for organisation, employees and technology in order to optimise customer service. The conventional view of the difference between innovation and research and development goes beyond the concept of exploitation and business impact. It includes communication. Good communication with colleagues, employees and customers is crucial. R&D teams tend to have a predominance of introverts, whereas innovators are more likely to be extroverts with a physiological need for external stimuli (this is the formal distinction between introverts and extroverts). Perhaps we must think about R&M (research and marketing) in future rather than R&D (research and development). Innovation must also have a relationship to the core competencies of a business. It must be seen to help to develop the efficiency of existing business and technology. It can be used to develop new opportunities within current perspectives and to uncover completely new opportunities to the firm or to the industry by lateral thinking and action.

Relevance of these ideas to the water industry Before we can explore these ideas further it is worth understanding how they have relevance to the water industry. In many ways the connection of ideas about innovation to the requirements of the water service appears paradoxical. The paradox can be partly explained if we consider innovation as differing according to its market environment. In some environments, expectations support, even drive, production of new types of product. If we consider the photo-optical industry, customers expect, even demand, improvements to the products available. When we replace our cameras, we may expect to buy ones that are radically different to those we are replacing. Competition also plays its part. Any feature/cost comparisons are not made on a deflated basis, between what we spend now and what we spent

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originally, but between competing products on the market now. So the whole photooptical industry is sensitised to innovation and their companies are often cited as examples of creative modern companies. Similar factors can be identified in other sectors such as entertainment equipment (radios, TVs, etc) and cars. However, water customers primarily demand consistency of service. For example, water pressure should be constant (above an acceptable minimum). One of the operational problems in managing multi-source zones, where the qualities of the sources are different (e.g. hardness of the water can vary if one source is groundwater and another is surface water), is that customers can experience change and may complain. Water supplied constantly from either one of the sources alone probably would not create customer dissatisfaction. Chlorination of water needs to be dealt with on a consistent basis. So water company utility employees are expected to be innovative whilst providing a constant product and service. The expectation of customers and shareholders is that innovation will lead, for example, to reduced costs, increased efficiency or improvements in the levels of service to higher requirements of constancy or environmental protection during the execution of the services. However, this has been mitigated by organisational innovations since 1974. At that time, ideas of catchment-based authorities managing the water cycle were certainly novel. For the people who transferred from the former authorities, particularly those dealing with water supply and sewage, the changes were fundamental. They provided the catalysis for many innovations (and put the English and Welsh Water Industry at the forefront of organisational management of water). Examples of subsequent innovations were: regional capital management programmes, the use of river quality objectives as drivers for effluent control; regional schemes for the agricultural use of sewage sludge; and the establishment of water transfer schemes aided by wider distribution networks. However there was no competitive market place to fuel the engine of change ± so the creative rawness of 1974 had begun to run out of steam by the late 1980s. This was exacerbated by Government controls over expenditure which tended to stifle innovation. Privatisation in 1989 was in itself an innovative process which has created interest throughout the world. It required innovation in organisation and regulation. This has also

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revived the 1970s spirit of innovation in water companies. This has occurred in two ways. The utility services inherited from the earlier water authorities have continued to introduce innovative cultural change and innovative technology, more as users than producers. However, the expansion of the Water Group PLCs into commercial markets has added new dimensions of thinking to the utility services, but also brought the need for some of the Groups to start thinking as technology producers. The presence of producers and users in the same Group gives a rare opportunity to exploit synergies. There have been fewer examples derived through internally generated technology innovations up to the present time, but there are many examples of technologies offered by other technology supply companies being exploited and even developed by water companies. Until recently there was precious little regard to intellectual property rights, and ideas were shared readily between Water Authorities, either directly or through the Water Research Centre (WRc) or through other institutions, such as the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management (CIWEM) or Water Training International (WTI). This is not the case now. There may be duplication of research, but the cutting edge of competition in innovation is likely to bring greater advances in technology over the next decade than have been achieved in any previous decade. Intellectual property rights must now form a central feature in the management of any investment programme. Some examples of the benefits derived from the earlier approach in Anglian Water are . new ways of using sewage sludge in

agriculture,

. glass lined steel pre-fabricated construc-

tion,

. standardisation of chlorination equipment, . use of granular activated carbon and ozone

. . . .

and triple (anthracite, sand, garnet) filters in water treatment to remove various organic materials, medium density polyectylene water distribution pipes replacing cast iron pipes, telemetry controls, phosphate removal from sewage, region wide computer systems for a variety of operational uses, such as, scientific information, sludge use, operational maintenance, work planning and so on.

One can speculate on how those initiatives might have looked now if they had been pursued under the new more commercial approach, and a greater awareness of IPR had

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been exercised. The contrast to the theory being discussed for current innovation in the water industry, is that these developments were not properly exploited until the more innovative entrepreneurial approach of the Water Companies was established. As an example the Anglian Water Group is now surging ahead by developing suspended carrier biotechnologies for sewage treatment based on an original process developed in Norway and acquired by purchase of a Norwegian company ± Kaldnes Miljoteknologi. This process was the basis of the recent successful bid to construct and run the new sewage treatment works serving Wellington, New Zealand. The purpose of this presentation is not to review the relative merits of doing research in-house or externally or of participating in extreme programmes of work. Rather it seeks to draw attention to the fact that a requirement to generate outward looking technology is likely to produce a different balance of project types and styles in innovation investment as compared to an inward looking requirement to exploit external technology. Is the programme designed to generate profit from external sales or to cut internal costs? The former should contribute to the latter but it is much less likely that the latter will contribute to the former! Either way, there is a need for an innovative approach within the water industry. It is clear that a mental model is required for new water company requirements because user and supplier requirements co-exist as indeed do those of productors and exploiters. Aiko Morita, Chairman of Sony, identifies three creativities as key elements of true innovation 3. These are creativity in technology, creativity in product planning and creativity in marketing. Such a view is the perspective of the technology manufacturer/ producer. On the other hand, at the UK's first conference on Technology Transfer organised by AEA4, Sir Antony Cleaver said that transfer of technology know how from one market sector to another is fast becoming a crucial factor in the race to claim a competitive edge over industrial rivals. At the same conference, Dr Roger Ford, of North West Water said that he believed that new and innovative technologies will benefit the water and waste water industry in terms of cost savings and improved quality of output, as well as reducing risks associated with existing processes. He asserted that appropriate new technologies can be successfully developed through exploiting in-house potential. He identified two processes for transfer: an informal process ± in which the technology

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is adapted without any formal agreement; and a more formal approach accessing intellectual property outside the Company through formalised legal agreement requiring a thorough investigation into a particular technology for a specific application. What Dr Ford described focused on the internal use of technology. Figure 1 draws together the Morita and Ford descriptions into one model which involves the four combinations (a to d) of internal and external technology with internal and external use. This identifies transfer and ``cisfer'' as two mechanisms. Water Company R&D programmes need to reflect their overall Group interest.

. All are likely to have elements of (d) as . .

. .

they will be doing in-house or conversion research for internal needs. All programmes are likely to have elements arising from (b) because external technologies are likely to be exploited. Where there is external marketing of processes, projects driven by (d) and (a) are likely to be developed in tandem so as to exploit operational experience as a support to marketing. Some projects in (a) may add value to external processes for external use where there is strong commercial activity. The strongest competence of creativity will be demonstrated by projects reflecting (c) and (d) although creative lateral thinking will be needed to incorporate projects reflecting (b). This view is based on the assumption that creativity drives the generation of projects in the process of innovation.

This may be summarised in a different diagrammatic form of Boston squares (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Exploitation of Technology 1. Water company technology innovation programme: (a) External Technology ± External Use (External ``Cisfer'') . e.g. Licenced membrane treatment of food processing effluents (b) External Technology ± Internal Use (Inward transfer) . e.g. MDPE pipes for water distribution (c) Internal Technology ± External Use (Outward transfer) . e.g. Suspended carrier biological treatment of paper mill effluents (d) Internal Technology ± Internal Use (Internal ``Cisfer'') . e.g. Sludge utilisation methods

Managing technological innovation As described earlier, innovation is a significant process within current management concepts. It has a number of steps. These can be described in many ways. Figure 3 provides a description based on the experience of the author. In essence the innovation programme has three main phases, conception, research and exploitation. Conception ± arising from bright ideas which may be gathered in from outside the innovation process and from market demands. Research

TECHNOLOGY

b

Adding value. Licensing for external sales, agencies etc. a

Incremental internal change

Sales, direct or licensing out

d

c

Purchase or licensing in

External Generation

Internal Generation

Internal Use

External Use APPLICATION

Figure 2. Exploitation of Technology 2.

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± the programme itself ± in which progress is constantly tested against corporate goals and needs and in which a watchful eye is kept on IPR. This proceeds through small scale and large scale phases. Finally, with the construction of the first reference plant the project emerges into the Exploitation phase at which point the technologists have a very strong team role with operational and corporate marketing people ± ultimately iterating back to drive new ideas. Other descriptions have been provided 5. The model proposed here provides the answer to the innovation gap identified by CEST 13. It shows a bridge between idea generation and market success. Arthur D. Little is a consultancy well known in this field. It reported that it had investigated 13 types of innovation processes at the Marketing/R&D interface5. These provide a more detailed segmentation of the cycle described in Figure 3. These were:. Assessment of trends of competitors' offer. . . . . . . .

ings Idea generation (totally new products) Idea generation (product extensions) Idea evaluation and selection Product strategy Technology strategy Product cycle plan Selection of fundamental research projects Selection on innovation and advanced developmental project

25

. Review of innovation and advanced devel-

opment project

. New product specifications . Approval of technical specifications . Project review

However, the key to success is to recognise that an idea progresses to a full product or process in a series of steps within any of which the project is evaluated and may be stopped or advanced. At all times, close liaison should be maintained with marketing (where appropriate) and internal users. Indeed they should be intimately involved with the project by having vested interest. In the experience of the author, a successful company will need to have an identifiable focal point for the Innovation process. However a major goal of the force function should be to inculcate the spirit of innovation throughout the whole company. It should promote knowledge networks (which were identified by a House of Commons Committee as a key to competitive success)1. It is very likely that a technology innovation programme will be operating close to the core competencies of the business and should be coupled to these learning processes. The evaluation of a project will be carried out by whatever criteria the organisation thinks appropriate. The Arthur Little report, concluded with opinions that traditional financial performance measures and costs

Figure 3. The innovation process

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accounting systems do not provide the answers because . they often fail to recognise that innovation

is a creative process that does not lend itself to tidy routine checks . they seldom provide yardsticks specific to each stage of the innovation process . they are often lagging indicators where what is needed are leading indicators . they are either too aggregated or too narrow to be of use

Innovation requires collaboration

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In the experience of the author, the Hiesenberg principle is relevant as an analogy. This states that at the atomic level of matter the method of measurement itself significantly influences that which is being measured. The same may be said of measurement of innovation. The nature of the criteria influences the nature of the work. A good example is the frantic rush to get jobs done at the end of the financial year in public utilities ± as success and future allocation of resources depends on meeting the target as near as possible. When the effect of measurement is recognised, this relationship can be harnessed beneficially to direct the research in the way the organisation wants. There is a need to distinguish between the success of the projects and the success of the innovation process. Success of projects is in itself one of a number of criteria to assess innovation. Typically companies will wish to measure success against the ``bottom line'' terminology and will seriously question the validity of an innovation function which is not seen to be delivering bottom line benefits. Perhaps this is particularly the case when difficult economic circumstances prevail and when companies have to examine their cost base ± in social science this metaphor is extended to the idea of reflection producing insights and change in essentiality open systems. Arthur D. Little organisation has suggested that criteria might include a number of creative ideas, proportion of practicable creative ideas, the number of creative ideas surviving the complete innovation process and the number of patentable or IPR protected projects. They would also include profit/savings benefits and benefit/cost ratios, product cycle time, customer satisfaction, increase in turnover (and comparisons of predicted versus actual for all of these). These criteria should be stretching yet realistic. The same authority reports that such targets are achieved after stays of despair, anger, resoluteness, creativity and then success. The consultancy has designed a kit of audit tools at three levels. Level 1 addresses an organisation's perception and

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consensus about where the innovation process needs improvement. Level 2 addresses an organisation's innovation process against world class best practice and can reveal opportunities for dramatic improvement. Level 3 addresses what is called product dissection and should be a cross functional acceptance of the root causes of under performance and the need for change. It must be said that these approaches are not necessarily accepted universally. Trying to predict long term benefits of innovation investment is well known to be very difficult and so several other techniques have been used from other activities. For instance, Dr Black of PA Consultancy has drawn an analogy to the activities of bond share and currency trading. Options pricing theory is a tool used in option trading to work out rational values for options. It takes uncertainty, current prices, risk free rates of interest, length of time before the option is exercised, agreed future price and gives a value to the option. The same can be done for technology innovation.6

Conclusions So what can we conclude for the future? To say that an organisation needs innovation to be competitive is an `apple-pie and motherhood' statement. It takes hard work to put this into practice. It is an intimate companion of other modern management philosophies and contributes to a holistic approach. To score well on the European Quality Foundation Model for total quality management, there has to be clear recognition of innovation as an enabler or process. Because innovation requires close interdepartmental collaboration it has to be embedded in the organisation not just in one department. It has more need for close integration than say research and development. Whilst there may well be a central focus, one of its functions must be to promote innovation in the whole organisation. There has to be a balance between promoting stepchange creativity and organising focused harmonised change. It is the balance between the focus of ``sniper fire'' and the broad effect of ``scatter gun'' shot approaches. Each has its place, as any hunter will explain. It is certainly true that technology and business changes have to be focused but everyone in an organisation should be looking for small improvements. There is a synergy between continuous change and the step changes of innovation. Continuous change should be a creative source of ideas for innovation and

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continuous change should constantly seek to improve and enhance, once the step-change process is complete. Innovation in this broader sense encompasses new technology and business change. These must go hand in hand. Business change will inevitably mean exploiting new technology. For instance, if a reduction in manpower assumes the use of automatic equipment and that is not available, the remaining workforce may not be able to cope. Conversely the introduction of a new technology may require a change in the business in order for the technology to be exploited. This may be counter productive because of mismatch of technology and business procedure. Business process engineering must recognise the role of innovation. This can be very frustrating because there is a gap between vision and journey. ``We can see that distant hill and we want to be there, but how can we negotiate the swamps and chasms between'' ± may be how business change managers feel. Having a map but being flexible about the route and not driving alone must surely be the way forward. We need innovation to be profitable.

Acknowledgments Any views expressed are those of the author and not necessarily of Anglian Water. The author would very much like to thank Tudor Rickards for his guidance into a format which is suitable for inclusion in the Journal.

References 1. HMSO. (1994) House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. The Routes through which the Science Base is Translated into Innovative and Competitive Technology. First Report. 2. Innovation Advisory Board. (1993) DTI. Getting the Message Across.

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3. Morita, A. (1992) DTI. First United Kingdom Innovation Lecture. Royal Society. 4. AEA Technology. (1994) Report on Technology Transfer. AEA Technology/The Economist Conference. Also, The TT race is on. AimeÂe Turner Water Bulletin 631, p. 8, 18 November 1994. 5. Several Authors. (1994) Technology and Innovation: Managing the Processes. Prism, Fourth Quarter, Arthur D. Little. 6. Black, S. (1995) Accounting for R and D. Chemistry and Industry, 2 January. 7. HMSO. (1994) House of Lords Trade and Industry Committee. The Competitiveness of UK Manufacturing Industry. Second Report. 8. HMSO. (1994) Competitiveness ± Helping Business to Win. DTI, May. 9. HMSO. (1993) Realising our Potential ± A Strategy for Science Engineering and Technology, OST, May. 10. DTI/CBI. Pamphlets and literature available from the DTI Innovation Unit. 11. HMSO. (1994) Innovation and Foresight. Cabinet Office. 12. CEST. (1991) Attitudes to Innovation in Germany and Britain: A Comparison. 13. CEST. (1995) Bridging the Information Gap. 14. Best Practice Club Bulletin. Published by IFS International. 15. Innovation in Business. National Westminster Bank, London, UK. 16. Business Matters. CODA. Harrogate, UK. 17. Competitive Edge. AEA Technology. Harwell, UK. 18. Innovative Manufacturing Initiative. EPRSC. 19. R and D Innovator. Winston J. Brill & Associates, Madison, USA. 20. Innovation and Technology Transfer. EC DG XIII Brussels. 21. Rickards, T. (1996) The Management of Innovation: Recasting the Role of Creativity. European Journal of Work & Organisational Psychology, 5 (1) 13±27.

Peter Matthews is Director of Innovation, Anglian Water.

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Innovations in Sport: the Rise of One Day Internationals (ODIs) in Cricket Julian Robinson The rise of one day internationals has been influenced by spectators' desires for a shorter, more exciting version of the game with a mass appeal and by cricketing associations' recognition of the significant contribution it makes to their financial coffers. This article seeks to show how the diffusion of ODIs resembled that of an S curve with slow uptake by test-playing nations in the early 1970s to the present day, with all the test-playing nations and three non-playing nations participating in the World Cup. It then discusses how ODI was an `alpha' innovation that has created the conditions for the development of many smaller or `beta' innovations.

Factors influencing innovation

C

ricket at the highest level (test cricket) is played over five days with the competing teams each playing a maximum of two innings. It is a relatively long game, starting at 10.30 in the morning and ending at 5.30 in the afternoon, with two breaks for lunch and tea, of a combined time of one hour. From a spectator point of view, it requires the commitment of a minimum of an entire day. Over a period of many decades, spectators found this version of the game too long and time-consuming to watch and its appeal became limited to enthusiastic cricket fans. It could be argued that both push and pull factors have resulted in the innovations in cricket and the rise in ODIs.

Pull factor The rise of ODIs is related to the need to find a version of the game that would supplement the traditional five day game and appeal to a mass audience. Cricket has to compete with other sources of entertainment and other sports, which have much shorter time horizons. A spectator could watch a football or basketball game by only sacrificing about two hours of his time, however a cricket game would require a seven hour `sacrifice'. In addition to the length of test matches, the less

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appreciative spectator found it rather unattractive that a single game played over five days could end without a result. The ODI provided this definitive result without the prospect of a stalemate. Spectators wanted entertainment in the form of ODIs with their non stop action and often nail biting finishes.

Push factor Towards the end of the 1970s and the early 1980s sports `spectating' became accessible to wider audiences through the emergence of television coverage. Millions of individuals from all over the world could watch a particular event, made possible by the breakthroughs in satellite and telecommunications technology. There was a need to find a version of the game that would not only appeal to a mass audience but would be attractive for television sponsorship by raising revenues for the teams and country associations. The ODI provided this, as sponsorship from television became a major source of revenue for financing a relatively expensive game. The associations saw ODIs as a major cash cow and those spectators who could not afford the time and money commitments of a five day game saw ODIs as an attractive substitute. ODIs became regular schedules in tour itineraries as cash hungry cricket associations realised their financial worth. # Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

INNOVATION IN SPORT

Theories of the diffusion of innovations The S curve The theory of the S curve is basically that in the initial period of an innovation there are a few individuals actively taking up the innovation. There is a subsequent increase in participation, which can be described as the bandwagon effect, then a levelling off as there are few individuals left to take up the invitation. If the individuals adopting are plotted over time an S curve would emerge. The diffusion of ODIs appears to follow the S curve closely. Initially, in the 1970s, ODIs were an aberration. The games were usually scheduled between test matches to give players a `leisurely break' from the rigours of the five day game. The success of the first World Cup of 1975 in bringing together all the test playing nations in one premier competition, increased the popularity of ODIs. However, it was not until Kerry Packer's innovations towards the end of the 1970s in Australia, that the commercial gain of ODIs was realised. Most of the test playing nations began to schedule ODIs as a regular part of their fixtures because of their spectator popularity. This continued in the 1980s right up to the present. This period could be described as the uptake or `bandwagon effect'. The World Cup just concluded, saw the introduction of three non test-playing nations in Kenya, The United Arab Emirates and Holland, who would be the late adopters. One of the positive outcomes of the shock defeat of the West Indies by Kenya is the successful efforts at diffusing this ODI innovation to non traditional test playing nations. There are fewer and fewer countries left to take up the innovation and so the curve is levelling off. The success of Sri Lanka in the 1996 World Cup is yet another example of how this innovation has diffused to non-traditional countries and how a nation has revised its strategies and tactics and adapted to the modern version of the game using technology to assist. One strategy successfully employed by Sri Lanka is to bat aggressively and score heavily in the early overs of the games when the field placing restrictions are in place.

`Alpha' and `beta' innovations One of the more influential theories on the diffusion of innovations is that postulated by the Austrian economist, Joseph Schumpeter. Schumpeter's theory was that an entrepreneurially-driven innovation is a two step

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process of discovery followed by diffusion or exploitation. Initially there is an `alpha' innovation that produces the conditions for many smaller or `beta' innovations. One-day cricket was an innovation in its own right (`alpha' innovation), but has produced a number of smaller or `beta' innovations which will be discussed below. It might be argued that test cricket was the alpha innovation, and that one-day cricket one of the beta innovations. This is less clear, as we should be able to find a large number of such variants.

Tactics One of the areas on which the rise of ODIs has had the greatest impact, is fielding. The skill levels of fielders have to be of a much higher standard because of the need to restrict the runs scored by the batting team within the limited number of `overs' (six balls bowled by a given bowler). Additionally, the traditional field placing positions have been replaced by positions that bring players into much greater contact with the ball. For example, in a test match, the typical fast bowler would relax at fine or long leg for most of the match. However in an ODI, he is drawn into much greater participation by being placed at third man or even mid off. This increased participation requires that his fielding skills be of a high standard or else he will be a liability to his team. One day cricket is increasingly becoming a batsman's game. Most of the wickets prepared are done so to suit the batsmen, because spectators prefer to watch a high scoring game dominated by batsmen. This has made it difficult for bowlers to do well and has increased the importance of paying greater attention to line and length. The margin of error for bowlers is very small because bad balls are dispatched to the boundary. Bowlers also need to have great control so they can bowl to their field placements. For example, for fast bowlers, the traditional fine leg is replaced by a deep backward square leg, which means any delivery on mid off leg to leg stump is an easy opportunity for the batsman to glance to fine leg for four runs. While the balance in ODIs seems to be in the favour of batsmen, there is greater demand on their skills levels encouraging them to be innovative in stroke play. Field placements are typically defensive making it difficult for batsmen to score freely. Two innovative shots have emerged from the rise of ODIs. The reverse sweep, done against a slow bowler, has proved productive for

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batsmen and difficult for fielding captains to set appropriate fields. Another innovative shot, is running the ball through the vacant slip area down to third man. Both shots require great skill and control on the part of the batsmen and are high risk, high reward innovations. Attractive and crowd pleasing when they come off, they earn the damnation of coaches and commentators in failure. With skills levels of fielders increasing, placing the ball as opposed to simply powering it, is more important. To score runs against a defensive field, finding the gaps is important. This requires great skill and the successful ODI batsmen are those that have excellent technique. The restrictions of having only two players outside the fielding circle in the first 15 overs, have made quick scoring in this period essential to the fortunes of the batting team. The traditional opener in test matches, should ideally be able to bat through two to three sessions and lay the foundation for his team. This type of player has to adapt for the one day game and has to be more aggressive early in his innings. There are a few openers who can perform both roles very well and as such most teams promote a hard hitting middle order batsman to open the innings. The hope is that this player will do better, playing what would be considered his natural game. Again this could be considered a high risk, high reward strategy because the player promoted to open takes more risks early and could easily be dismissed attempting a rash stroke. Of interest, a couple of British newspapers have coined the American baseball phrase `pinch hitter' to describe this kind of player. The success of Sri Lanka in the recently concluded World Cup was largely due to the effective exploitation of this strategy. Most of the other test playing nations have now followed such a strategy specifically selecting `pinch hitters' for ODIs. One area of batting that has been affected profoundly by the rise of ODIs is speed of running between the wickets. Scoring boundaries is not easily done against good bowling with defensive field placements, and batting teams have recognised the importance of taking quick singles against good bowling to keep the score board ticking over. This means that the overall fitness levels of batsmen have to be high and the communication between the players at the crease excellent. The rise of ODIs has seen with it, the demand for players who possess all-round skills. Generalists are now preferred to specialists as involvement in all areas of the game is required of most players. There are occasions where front line bowlers have to be

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pulled out of the attack because they are expensive and part time bowlers have to chip in to fill the gap. Lower order batsmen are sometimes required to make twenty or thirty runs needed to win a game. This has meant that specialist players have had to work on their weaker skills to provide a balance for the team.

Rules As mentioned before, the one day game is increasingly becoming a batsman's game. Many of the rules of the game have been adapted to suit batsmen. Wides (penalty runs) are called, for just about any delivery that is pitched outside the leg stump. It is more difficult for batsmen to score, when deliveries are outside their pads and calling wides is a measure to penalise bowlers and ensure that there is a `fair' contest between bat and ball. Wides are also called for deliveries more than 12 inches outside the off stump. Again, the rationale is to give batsmen a fair opportunity to score. It is interesting how this rule has affected the five-day game. In the recently concluded English tour of South Africa, Dominic Cork was no balled for consistently bowling down the leg side in a test match although the deliveries were not wide. The umpire's explanation was that his bowling was `ungentlemanly' conduct in the sense that the bowler was not giving the batsman a fair opportunity to score. Another rule that has emerged in ODIs is the no-ball, (penalty runs) for any delivery that is short pitched and bounces above shoulder height. Again, the rationale is to ensure a fair opportunity for the batsmen to score. Yet another rule which favours batsmen is the field placement restrictions of having only two players outside a fielding circle in the first fifteen overs. This allows the batsmen the opportunity to hit over the in-field and score boundaries. This rule enhances run scoring and in so doing increases spectator mass appeal. One of the truly fascinating technological innovations resulting from ODIs is the use of a third umpire. The third umpire using television replays adjudges run out decisions, which are too close for the standing umpires to decide with the naked eye. The number of decisions made by the third umpire in ODIs has increased significantly, as the game is characterised by risk-taking in running between the wickets. This innovation has benefited the game and ensures that both

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sides are treated fairly in close decisions. Possibly, the only drawback that television replays have had, is that there is greater scrutiny paid to umpires' decisions and their culpability is exposed in an environment where human error is viewed as cheating. The post-Packer era in world cricket witnessed the tightening of tour schedules with players being required to play constant cricket. In addition to more games, the pressures of ODIs are immense. Scoring on a sustained basis between five to six runs an over and bowling and fielding in a frenetic environment brought the need for greater physical preparation and a far more athletic approach to the game. Most teams employ physiotherapists and have coaches with knowledge of the appropriate diets and forms of exercise needed to sustain physical exertion for long periods of time.

Spectator appeal Apart from the fact that the one day game appeals to a mass audience in a way that the traditional five day game does not, new innovations have been introduced to enhance spectator appeal. Clothing is one area that has changed significantly since Kerry Packer. No longer are players wearing the traditional white shirts and trousers, but each team has a distinct colour for their clothing and gear. At night, under lights, it is an attractive spectacle. The names of players are now printed on the back of their shirts making it easier for spectators to recognise their favourite players. This concept is one that has long been used in the more popular sports such as football and basketball. Day-night games are fast becoming the norm as cricket organisers have recognised the need to have a game that starts in the afternoon and finishes in the night. This game will appeal to a broader cross section of spectators who work and cannot sacrifice an entire day of work to watch a cricket game. This makes the game more attractive to a mass audience which increases revenues through gate receipts.

Multiple teams, one tournament Without ODIs there could be no World Cup in the way it exists today. It would be difficult for cricket organisers to bring together the test playing nations in one tournament for a specified period of time playing the traditional five day game. The ODIs have

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made it possible to have one premier tournament to decide who are world champions.

Can ODIs replace the traditional game? It is interesting to speculate whether the one day game will become so popular that it dominates and eventually replaces the traditional game. Cricket purists, of which I am one, will unequivocally say no. We maintain that the traditional game is the `real thing' and that ODIs do not truly reflect the quality of players and teams and that luck and `performance on the day' heavily influence final results. The five day game will always be seen by some as that which brings out the true character in the players and the form of the game that remains the preserve of `gentlemen'. On the other hand, given its mass appeal and financial worth, the push and pull factors described earlier may propel it into dominance. Its status, typified by the success of the recently concluded World Cup may supersede that of the traditional game.

Glossary Over ± six consecutive balls bowled by each bowler at each end of the wicket. Wide ± a delivery adjudged by the umpire to be outside the batsman's hitting range for which a penalty run is awarded to the batting team. No-ball ± a delivery which bounces above the shoulder height of the batsman for which a penalty run is awarded to the batting team. Boundary ± a ball struck by a batsman which reaches the perimeter of the field and for which four runs is awarded to the batting team. Fielding circle ± a circle approximately thirty yards in radius from either side of the pitch. Only two fielders are allowed outside this circle during the first fifteen overs of each innings.

References 1. Manley, M. and Melhado, O.K. (1996). `West Indies cricket: the way forward', The Sunday Observer, February 25. 2. Rickards, T. (1985). `Sporting innovations', Creativity & Innovation Network, April±June.

Julian Robinson is an MBA graduate from Manchester Business School, and is a consultant with IBM.

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A Theoretical Framework Linking Creativity, Empowerment, and Organizational Memory David J. Paper and Jeffrey J. Johnson Empowerment, creativity, and organizational memory are constructs that have been researched in MIS. While each construct has received individual attention, we have found relatively little research linking them. One of the major edicts of empowerment is delegation of decision making authority to lower-level employees. Increased authority allows employees more freedom to be creative. However, if creative thought is generated but not captured, innovative ideas may be lost. Organizational memory can capture creative ideas as they are generated so that empowered teams can draw upon positive creative experiences. We developed a theoretical model to illuminate the relationships between organizational memory, worker empowerment, and creativity. The model portrays the linkages between empowerment and creativity, creativity and organizational memory, and organizational memory and empowerment. The model was developed based on the literature in each respective area and an interview-based study concerning ``empowered'' systems development project teams and organizational memory. Analysis of the interview data revealed that empowered workers generate creative solutions to problems. However, creative solutions can only be used for future projects if they are somehow recorded into organizational memory. Organizations that empowered their workforce and embraced creativity reported increased customer satisfaction, waste reduction, and some quality gains. In contrast, those that did not empower reported little or no change. Organizations that recorded creative solutions to problems believe that retrieval of this information could be potentially useful for future projects. Potential challenges faced by organizations classified into each cell are also presented. This classification scheme should prove useful as a guide to organizations examining the potential benefits and pitfalls of worker empowerment and organizational memory.

Introduction

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rganizations must embrace change. As a beginning, they need to re-evaluate the types of knowledge and skills needed by their workforce to effectively compete in the marketplace of the future (Fellers [1] ). In addition, they need to learn from successes and failure. Since radical change is extremely hard to accomplish, organizations must be willing to accept failure and learn from it (Caron, et al. [2] ). Although it is easier to learn from successes, organizations must have a mechanism to retain what was done correctly as well as what was not (Levitt and March [3] ). Such a mechanism

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is typically referred to as organizational memory. Organizational memory can be defined as organizational knowledge with persistence (Ackerman [4] ). Information Technology (IT) is generally recognized by most managers as a support mechanism for organizational activities (Boynton et al. [5] ). IT can support organizational memory by making recorded knowledge retrievable or by making individuals with knowledge accessible (Ackerman [4] ). Notwithstanding, an increasingly interdependent and unpredictable business environment has made it impossible for top management to manage the entire repertoire of organizational knowledge. Integrative thinking and # Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

ORGANIZATIONAL MEMORY

action must permeate the organization at all levels (Senge [6] ). Therefore, workers need to be empowered to not only carry out their respective jobs, but to facilitate the accessibility of knowledge. Creativity is a catalyst that allows an organization to exploit the potential of IT in meeting business goals (Couger [7] ). Creativity can produce innovative solutions to complex organizational problems. Empowerment, creativity, and organizational memory are constructs that have been researched in MIS. While each construct has received individual attention, we have found relatively little research linking them. Our research explores the possible linkages and interrelationships among the three. One of the major edicts of empowerment is delegation of decision making authority to lower-level employees (Clement [8] ). Increased authority allows employees more freedom to be creative. However, if creative thought is generated but not captured, innovative ideas may be lost. Organizational memory can capture creative ideas as they are generated so that empowered teams can draw upon positive creative experiences. To facilitate our understanding, a theoretical framework was developed. The framework illuminates the linkages between empowerment and creativity, creativity and organizational memory, and organizational memory and empowerment. The model was developed based on the literature in each respective area and an interview-based study concerning empowered systems development project teams and organizational memory (Paper and Johnson [9] ). Analysis of the data revealed that memory is only as good as what is recorded. We found that empowered workers generate creative solutions to problems. In addition, we posited that these creative solutions should be recorded for the future posterity of the organization.

Literature review This section details current literature from the areas of organizational learning, organizational memory, empowerment, and creativity. A literature review in these areas is presented to provide the background to better understand the linkages between empowerment, memory, and creativity.

Organizational learning Although the concept of organizational learning is not new, the learning organization has

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become a popular topic of scholarly work in recent years. While organizational learning includes learning by individual members, it is not restricted to, and is not the same thing as individual learning. Rather, the learning organization has the ability to acquire and diffuse ideas that cause change and improvement across organizational boundaries (Ulrich et al. [10] ). In today's business environment, the ability to learn and change may be the only means of sustaining competitive advantage (Mason [11] ). The need to establish, communicate, and continuously maintain an organizational knowledge base is cited by Mulconrey [12] as the reason to ``create an organizational learning laboratory''. Moreover, Walter Wriston (CEO of Citibank), recently commented that ``. . . the person who figures out how to harness the collective genius of the people in his or her organization . . . is going to blow the competition away'' (Senge [6] ). Experience is perhaps the principle source of organizational learning, and individuals' memories collectively contribute to retention of lessons learned. However, turnover and other sources of disorder threaten to erase parts of organizational knowledge before its usefulness can be fully exploited (Carley [13] ). Other knowledge repositories exist for preserving organizational learning, such as standard operating procedures, databases, and others. These are part of the organizational memory.

Linking empowerment, creativity and organizational memory

Organizational memory Independent of specific conceptualizations, organizational memory can be intuitively understood as knowledge from past organizational experience that can be brought to bear on present decisions. Efforts aimed at the preservation of organizational knowledge also can be described as either organic or constructed (Johnson [14] ). Organic memory includes individual organization members' memories, the embedded memory resulting from organizational culture, standard operating procedures, expected role behaviors, and environmental factors. Constructed memory consists of knowledge stored in facilities deliberately designed and maintained for purposes of organizational memory. Such facilities include electronic databases, transaction records, and historic archives. There are several different facets of the organizational memory concept. Walsh and Ungson [15] discussed several dimensions of organizational memory in terms of ``retention bins,'' including: individuals, culture,

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transformations (e.g., standard operating procedures), structures (e.g., expected role behaviors), and ecology (physical environment). Others have conceptualized organizational memory using 262 matrices juxtaposing form and function (Sandoe, et al. [16] ), and form and access (El Sawy, et al. [17] ). Some attempts have been made at constructing computerized organizational memory systems. The Answer Garden (Ackerman and Malone [18] ) ``grows'' organizational memory by storing answers to questions posed by system users. If the system does not have an answer to a specific question, it forwards the question to an expert who then provides an answer to be stored in the system for future use. Ackerman [4] conducted a recent field study involving two main sites and 35 users. Answer Garden was the package used to augment organizational memory. Results of the study suggested that the tool was used, but not extensively. The incentives appeared to work in the field study, but further testing needs to be conducted to determine chances of success over time. Morrison [19] developed a system to provide longitudinal support for business teams in the context of business projects that continue over a period of time. Her system facilitates project management, meetings, and decisions and actions that take place between team meetings. Chen, et al. [20] describe a knowledge-based system that aids information searchers to retrieve specific text items from an organization's historic database. In addition to these systems, many consulting firms are developing organizational memory systems to capture organizational knowledge (Davenport [21] ). Cohen and Levinthal [22] recently introduced a new perspective on organizational memory as it relates to adoption of innovations which they term ``absorptive capacity''. According to the authors, absorptive capacity is the ability of an organization to ``. . . recognize the value of new information, assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends'' (p. 128). It is a function of a firm's level of organizational memory. Since most innovation results from borrowing rather than invention (March and Simon [23] ), innovative inertia can be greatly facilitated by an organization's ability to retain, evaluate, and utilize external knowledge (Cohen and Levinthal [22] ). Boynton, et al. [5] draw upon absorptive capacity theory to test a model relating IT climate and IT use in large organizations. They found that the ability of an organization to absorb knowledge is influenced by IT climate, which in turn, influences IT usage.

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All organizations draw upon organizational memory, whether organic or constructed, to one degree or another. There are various arguments for and against making use of information from past organizational experience. Arguments against organizational memory include concern about the bureaucratic entrenchment and/or tunnel vision that could result from failure to acknowledge new environmental variables. Arguments for taking advantage of knowledge stored in organizational memory point out common benefits such as: learning from past successes and failures, and conglomeration of collective experience. Of course, neither argument is completely right or wrong. The appropriate (not exclusive) use of organizational memory may provide some benefits in present decision-making situations. Organizations that use stored knowledge in either extreme, too much or too little, risk forfeiting competitive advantages that may have already been learned. Empowerment and group memory are important trends to understand as it has been established that they can facilitate software team success (Zahniser [24] ).

Empowerment In recent years, organizations have rushed to adopt an empowerment approach (Bowen and Lawler [25] ). Although empowerment has been touted as an approach to enhance business competitiveness (Shrednick et al. [26]; Bowen and Lawler [25]; Davenport [21] ), it may not be for every organization. Each organization should explore their strategic and short-term needs and objectives to see if empowerment is the best approach to managing front-line employees. A new management approach should be chosen based on many criteria, including the organizational culture, organizational structure, existing management team, skill level of front-line employees, and the disposition of top management toward change. With every major decision, the benefits and costs should also be carefully considered by the top management team. Input from workers involved in the process should be solicited to gain a holistic perspective. Before an organization moves to empowerment, it should find out what empowerment means. In other words, how is empowerment different from the way we manage now? Traditional management is based on simplification of tasks, division of labor, substitution of equipment and systems for employees, and little (if any) decision-making discretion granted to employees (Levitt [27];

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Levitt [28] ). The management team designs the work system, and the employees execute activities associated with it. In contrast, empowerment encourages information sharing with front-line workers, rewards based on organizational performance, employee training, and employee involvement in management decision making (Bowen and Lawler [25] ). Taken one step further, empowerment emphasizes locating decisions at the lowest level in the organization (Lawler [29] ). Perusal of the literature led us to enumerate eight Key Success Factors (KSF) that we believe are necessary to ensure successful empowerment. Drawing upon Pinto et al. [30], Zultner [31], Holtzblatt and Beyer [32], Rapaport [33], and Clement [8], the eight KSFs are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

top-management commitment cross-training skilled workforce cultural acceptance flexible management team dedicated project championship customer involvement/satisfaction ``value-added'' approach to team output

Organizations in the literature reporting success with empowerment exhibited at least some degree of involvement with each of the eight KSFs. Empowerment requires establishment of support mechanisms, training, and high-level commitment to ensure long-term success. The benefits of empowerment can be substantial. However, empowerment does not come without costs. An organization should make a comprehensive assessment of the potential costs and benefits associated with empowerment prior to implementing any changes. Table 1 presents the major costs and benefits of empowerment as presented in the literature. The costs of empowerment can be quite high. Highly decentralized project teams often fail to meet their deadlines, even with open communication channels to management (Brooks [34]; Mantei [35] ). Speed of delivery can thereby be impacted. A possible explanation for this is competing, individual goals of team members (Henderson and Lee [36] ). Conflicts between team members can significantly decrease team innovativeness and performance (Henderson and Lee [36]; Davenport [21] ). Reliability can also be affected as teams may not follow standards set out by the organization. Another cost is investment in selection and training. It is difficult to hire creative problem solvers, especially when organizations have little experience in this area (Bowen and

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Table 1. Major benefits and costs of empowerment Costs Reliability Selection & training costs Bad decisions Delivery speed Benefits Innovativeness Quality of work life Improved customer satisfaction Improved productivity Cost reduction

Citations Brooks [34], Mantei [35], Bowen and Lawler [25] Bowen and Lawler [25] Bowen and Lawler [25], Davenport [21] Henderson and Lee [36], Davenport [21]

Key Success Factors of empowerment

Bowen and Lawler [25], Davenport [21] Bowen and Lawler [25], Davenport [21] Shrednick et al. [26], Bowen and Lawler [25] Shrednick et al. [26] Shrednick et al. [26]

Lawler [25] ). Training may be even costlier. Training existing employees in how to operate successfully in an empowered environment requires mentoring time and formal training monies. Inexperienced workers can easily make bad decisions. Even with training, they do not have experience in dealing with the consequences of their decisions. The benefits of empowerment are numerous. Individual team members offer a diverse and broad set of skills and ideas. Teams with cross-functional membership offer skills from functional areas involved in the project (Pinto et al. [30] ). Therefore, cross-functional teams can greatly facilitate project implementation as many systems projects require crossfunctional cooperation (Wind [37] ). Innovativeness and customer satisfaction can be improved as teams are empowered to make customer decisions without having to wait for managerial approval. Front-line workers make the product or provide the service (Shrednick et al. [26] ). They are therefore, in a better position to know what the customer needs and when they need it (Lawler [29] ). Finally, the quality of work life is improved as employees are more in control of their own destiny (Bowen and Lawler [25]; Davenport [21] ). In sum, the needs and objectives of an organization should be considered before moving to an empowered environment.

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Customer satisfaction and productivity can be greatly enhanced if workers are properly trained, involved in the decision making process, allowed access to facilitative information technologies, and provided supportive management.

Creativity Although the body of literature on creativity in the IS field is growing, few large empirical studies have been reported (Higgins and Couger [38] ). Moreover, conceptual frameworks depicting the role of creativity in providing strategic value and competitive advantages to organizations are almost nonexistent. Research on creativity in the IS field has focused on the effectiveness of creativity interventions introduced into IS departments and refinement of terminology. Standard terminology is important in a new area of IS research. Couger, Higgins, and McIntyre [39] differentiated between the terms creativity, innovation, entrepreneurship, and intrapreneurship. The authors noted that creativity must be present in each stage of the innovative process to ensure effective implementation of inventive ideas and products. Couger [7] introduced a framework for using creativity techniques at each phase of the systems development life cycle. He presumes that delaying convergence on a solution will enable new approaches/ alternatives to be generated and evaluated prior to implementation. Moreover, creativity in systems design can be fostered by establishing an entrepreneurial environment. From a synthesis of the creativity literature, the author recognized two factors ± newness and value/utility ± critical in defining creativity. Couger, Higgins, and McIntyre [40] expand the definition to include three themes ± radical newness, fruitful transformation, and value-added. Creativity intervention studies began to appear in the IS literature in the late 1980s (Elam and Mead [41] ). Higgins, Couger, and McIntyre [42] explored creativity interventions used to enhance implementation of marketing information systems. Two experiments were performed using 5 Ws and H and Wishful Thinking techniques. Results indicated that use of creativity techniques could provide competitive advantages and foster implementation of marketing information systems. A five-month creativity improvement intervention was introduced in a work unit of systems developers (Snow and Couger [43] ). Several creativity techniques were used to enhance performance. Results

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indicated that system developers estimated their own improvement at 23% and the whole department to be 27%. Couger and Dengate [44] evaluated six software products for their degree of creativity in terms of novelty and utility. Evaluation of creativity was determined through existing literature on software development, field case studies, and expert judging. Couger, Higgins, and McIntyre [40] divide 20 creativity techniques into analytically oriented and intuitively oriented approaches. Three analytical (progressive abstraction, 5Ws and the H, force field analysis) and intuitive (associations/images, wishful thinking, analogy/metaphor) techniques are explored with case studies. The authors conclude by discussing when and where creativity intervention is most effective. Creativity techniques are ``appropriate for broad-scope activities . . .'' and ``. . . in daily activities that tend to become routine'' (p. 391). They are commonly used ``. . . in the midst of problem solving or opportunity delineation. After definition and fact-finding, the techniques are used to help generate ideas'' (p. 391). Couger [45] employed the Work Environment Inventory (WEI) to measure the climate for creativity in IS organizations. Results indicated that IS professionals perceive more obstacles and less stimulation to be creative. The CRCI introduced an IS creativity improvement program to the systems development group at Federal Express in Colorado Springs (Couger, Flynn, and Hellyer [46] ). Results indicated that creative output doubled and idea generation enabled a significant return on investment increase. Finally, Higgins and Couger [38] applied the Kirton Adaption/ Innovation (KAI) and the Innovation Styles Profile (ISP) to assess style of creativity of IS professionals.

Interview-based study The focus of the interview-based study was to examine how organizations retain knowledge when employing empowered work teams in software development projects. A 262 classification system was used to address this research objective. The classification system was utilized to categorize differences in how project teams in organizations retain knowledge and implement worker empowerment. Classification was made by analyzing a team's ability to establish mechanisms for implementing empowerment KSF and its propensity to retain knowledge. Classification allowed us to recommend different IT and management strategies based on different

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levels of empowerment and organizational memory. A table was constructed to illustrate creative results generated by transformation to a more ``empowered'' environment. Information for the table was garnered from informal discussions with project managers.

Methodology Data was collected from project leaders, in eight organizations, by telephone interviews. Organizations were identified for inclusion in the sample based on established relationships between the researchers and software development project leaders in each firm. Each team was asked to comment on their posture regarding worker empowerment and organizational memory. Specifically, respondents were asked questions regarding their ability to empower workers and their propensity to retain knowledge. Respondents were also asked questions about how they store knowledge, retrieve knowledge, and use IT as a mechanism to facilitate organizational memory. The unit of analysis was a software development team project in an organization. The project leader from each organization was the participant in the interview process.

Classification system Data collection and analysis Interviews with each project leader lasted approximately an hour. Anonymity was

guaranteed, but in all cases, respondents agreed to allow disclosure of the company name. Notes taken during the interview process were transcribed as soon as possible (usually within two days) to minimize the possibility of information loss. Each factor was introduced by asking an open-ended question about the topic. Based on the answer, extemporaneous questions were asked to probe for quantification or further explanation. The systematic and rigorous nature of our data collection methodology should also add to reliability. Company project teams were ranked based on their ability to empower workers and propensity to retain knowledge. Ability to empower was operationalized on three discreet categories ± low, medium, and high. Teams with no empowerment mechanisms in place and no high level support were classified as low. Teams with mechanisms in place for some KSFs and/or some high level support were classified as medium. Teams with mechanisms in place and high level support for all eight KSFs were classified as high. The KSFs were not prioritized as we found no consistent ranking in the literature. Propensity to retain knowledge KSFs was operationalized on two discreet categories ± low and high. Teams that did not consider establishing organizational memory mechanisms were classified as low. Teams that were proactively attempting to build effective organizational memory mechanisms were classified as high. Statistical analysis techniques were not used because of the small sample of cases. Instead, simple inspection of the raw data was used.

Table 2. Classification table Propensity to retain knowledge

Implementation of empowerment KSFs

Low

Low F

High E

Medium High

D B

C A

A: Mechanisms in place and high level support for all eight empowerment KSFs Conscious effort to retain knowledge to augment organizational memory B: Mechanisms in place and high level support for all eight empowerment KSFs No conscious effort made to augment organizational memory C: Some mechanisms in place and/or some high level support of empowerment KSFs Conscious effort to retain knowledge to augment organizational memory D: Some mechanisms in place and/or some high level support of empowerment KSFs No conscious effort made to augment its organizational memory E: No empowerment mechanisms in place and no high level support Conscious effort to retain knowledge to augment organizational memory F: No empowerment mechanisms in place and no high level support No conscious effort made to augment its organizational memory

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Table 2 outlines the classification framework we used to classify each team. Following Table 2 is a description of each cell. Table 3 illustrates how each organization's project team was mapped into a particular cell. Finally, Table 4 provides a classification of potential challenges project teams in organizations may face. Following Table 4 is a discussion of potential challenges for a particular cell.

Interview results The project leader from Sunmark displayed no interest in the idea of organizational memory. Furthermore, their organizational structure is completely hierarchical and structured. He admitted that empowerment of their workforce was not a high priority. The project leader at Utah Power and Light (UP&L) reported that they actively pursue activities to enhance organizational memory such as cross-training of IS professionals and enforcement of established standards. The standards were generated by the employees themselves. These mechanisms enable the UP&L team to retain knowledge that could be lost by attrition. Cross-training is one mechanism that they consciously employ to empower workers. However, top management is not actively attempting to establish mechanisms to support worker empowerment. For instance, cultural acceptance of empowerment may be hindered by dissenting managers. Top management has not done anything to remove these potential roadblocks. The Qualitech project leader reported that the company does not have a formal policy of empowerment. However, the nature of the business and workforce pushes decisions down. Qualitech employees are, in most cases, highly educated technologists that must travel to customer sites to conduct business. Decisions made on-site are quicker and closer to customer specifications. Nevertheless, team members are not trained in how to effectively operate in an empowered

environment. In addition, top management has not established any formal mechanisms to facilitate empowerment for future projects. They understand that organizational memory is important, but do not have the resources to commit at this time. The Matrixx Marketing project leader reported that the company does not have a formal policy of empowerment. However, management is actively involved in unofficial empowerment activities. Formal top management commitment to empowerment has yet to be established. They are aware that loss of key individuals may cause knowledge drain, but they have not as yet taken action to remedy the situation. As reported by the project leader, Comdisco has a hybrid empowerment strategy. In many cases, workers are empowered to carry out their jobs. However, the CEO has an autocratic management style. Hence, management sometimes sends mixed signals to workers. Organizational memory is very important to Comdisco as the CEO uses an executive support system to record and analyze events throughout the organization on a daily basis. The IBM project leader fosters an empowered environment. Workers are accountable for making decisions as a team and adding value to the business as a whole. The project leader's role is that of a facilitator and champion. Top management supports empowerment activities and budgets for crosstraining of team members and facilitator training of project managers. Although roadblocks in IBM may inhibit empowerment, top management is actively working to reduce or eliminate potential obstacles. IBM management is currently attempting to restructure many of its businesses to become more conducive to empowerment. At IBM, customer satisfaction is a top priority. The project leader reported that customers are continuously informed on project progress and are encouraged to provide input. Organizational memory is not a priority at this time.

Table 3. Classification of responding organizations Propensity to retain knowledge

Implementation of empowerment KSFs

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Low

High

L M

Sunmark Qualitech, Matrixx

UP&L Comdisco

H

IBM

Monsanto, SGI

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The interview with the Monsanto project leader revealed that they completely embrace the empowerment philosophy. They practice proactive managed empowerment. Top management provides initiatives including training monies, advice, political power to remove obstacles, and autonomy within project constraints. Customer involvement in project activities and results is continuously encouraged. Project managers are known for their ability to mentor and nurture team members. Furthermore, they utilize decision and executive support systems to record events. The SGI project leader generally embraces the idea of empowerment. He attempts to include employee input in the management decision making process. Team members are awarded for creative thinking that adds value to a project and/or the company as a whole. Top management is willing to provide training monies for team members and project managers. As a relatively new company, top management has found it easier to structure the organization for change. Similar to Monsanto, they employ management and executive systems to record events.

Potential challenges Although empowerment may not be for every organization, we believe that each organization should carefully consider potential problems and risks associated with failure to

implement empowerment initiatives. Failure to do so may negatively impact employee morale and ability to learn from mistakes. Even firms that embrace empowerment may face a different set of problems. In addition, organizational memory may not be a prerequisite to success. Nevertheless, failure to consider the potential of organizational memory may not be in the best long-term interest of an organization. For instance, project leaders in organizations ranking low on empowerment and/or memory in our sample are still aware of these issues. However, they appear to lack high-level support, money or other key ingredients to initiate programs to implement empowerment or memory mechanisms. Project leaders in low empowerment environments (in our sample) could not justify their current situation. Hence, a classification table of potential problems may help project leaders (in this situation) bargain with top management by providing potential detrimental costs to non-adoption. Table 4 identifies and classifies potential problems and risks associated with different levels of memory and empowerment. The data for Table 4 was garnered from informal conversations with project leaders from the eight organizations in the sample. Respondents from organizations not embracing memory and/or empowerment were able to discuss what they perceived as potential dangers or problems with their

Organizational memory no prerequisite to success

Table 4. Classification of potential challenges Propensity to retain knowledge Low Implementation of empowerment KSFs

Low

Medium

. competitive advantages lost or never

. competitive advantages lost or never

. . . .

. low employee morale . wasted employee potential . information stored efficiently, but

gained low employee morale wasted employee potential failure to learn from experience repeated mistakes

. may fail to maximize empowerment

gains

. failure to learn from experience . repeated mistakes . gains made from empowerment are

High

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temporary . accountability problems . gains made from empowerment are temporary

gained

knowledge may be lost

. may store useless information . may fail to maximize empowerment

gains

. failure to recognize new opportunities . perceived knowledge is greater than

actual stored knowledge

. accountability problems . over-dependence on memory may

cause entrenched decision-making pattern

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current situation. Respondents involved in empowerment and/or memory initiatives were able to discuss what they perceived as potential problems with embracing empowerment and/or memory. In this section, we introduce specific difficulties that organizations in each category may face. Table 4 maps these problems into our classification scheme.

Low empowerment-low memory Organizations in this position do not embrace empowerment as a philosophy for improving worker productivity and make no conscious attempt to retain knowledge gained from successes and/or failures. These organizations risk having low employee morale and wasting employee creative potential. Moreover, competitive advantages may be lost. For instance, lower-level (line) employees tend to deal with customers the most. Line employees are therefore in an ideal position to identify customer desires. However, if employee input is never sought, a potential competitive advantage may be lost. Without any mechanisms in place to store knowledge, experiences cannot or will not be documented. If a job title does not include documenting experiences, it most likely will not be done. Even if experiences are documented, knowledge retrieval mechanisms must be in place. In addition, retrieval of information must be easy to perform and readable. Hence, organizations in this position may fail to learn from experience and/or repeat mistakes. Utilization of organizational memory is completely in the hands of experienced individuals. This may be dangerous in that these employees may retire, leave and/or fail to pass the information on to others.

Low empowerment-high memory Organizations in this position potentially face many of the same problems as low-low firms. Since empowerment KSFs are not embraced, competitive advantages may be lost, employee morale may be low, and employee potential may be lost. The difference is that these organizations consciously build mechanisms to retain knowledge. Experiences may be documented in management support systems (i.e., expert systems, decision support systems, etc.). Furthermore, theoretical design of these systems calls for user-friendly access and presentation of information. However, knowledge may be lost as empowerment benefits are never realized. In addition, useless information

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may be stored because employee input is never sought. Since employees are closest to business processes and customers, knowledge stored may not reflect the true situation.

Medium empowerment-low memory Organizations in this position realize that empowerment is important, but fail to make a total commitment to the philosophy. Although some advantages could be attained, they may fail to maximize empowerment gains. Since they have no commitment to organizational memory, they may fail to learn from experiences and repeat mistakes. Moreover, any gains made from empowerment are temporary.

Medium empowerment-high memory Similar to medium empowerment-low memory organizations, these organizations may fail to maximize empowerment gains. In addition, they may fail to recognize new opportunities that complete commitment to empowerment may bring to an organization. Although they are strongly committed to organizational memory, their perceived knowledge may be greater than what is actually stored. In other words, they may think they know more than they do. Their memory mechanisms store knowledge gained from experience. However, they may fail to maximize knowledge gain as maximum empowerment gains will not be achieved.

High empowerment-low memory Organizations in this category face two potential problems. First, high empowerment may have its costs. Over reliance on selfmanaging teams may lead to loss of control and accountability. Although the benefits of empowerment are substantial, teams must still operate within the auspices of the organization so that chaos does not ensue. Second, gains from empowerment may be temporary as there are no established mechanisms in place to record events.

High empowerment-high memory Although organizations in this category tend to maximize customer satisfaction and competitive advantages, they may still face problems. Over reliance on self-managing teams may lead to chaos. Furthermore, over dependence on memory may lead to an entrenched decision making pattern. If an organization records experiences and learns

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from these experiences, they may not be open to successful practices of rival organizations. Organizational memory implies ``internal knowledge''. Allowances must be made for continuous external scanning of the environment to avoid entrenchment of ideas. In sum, organizations that proactively embrace empowerment and organizational memory appear to be in a better position to take advantage of competitive opportunities offered by employee involvement in decision making and creativity. However, they must be careful not to rely completely on internal memories. They should continually scan their external environments for ideas and customer input to keep their knowledge bases up-todate.

Creative results A potential result of transformation to an empowered environment is enhanced creativity. All eight project leaders were asked to enumerate ``creative'' (novel) results generated by team members. Respondents from the six projects classified as having ``medium'' to ``high'' empowerment were able to provide information on creative outcomes generated by team members. The remaining two project leaders informed us that they did not actively seek employee input because their environments were not conducive to empowerment. From the information obtained, a log of creative solutions and consequences was compiled. The list was synthesized to find commonalities between the projects as follows: 1. redesign/reengineering suggestions ± improved customer contact, reduced cycle time as a result of adjustments/tweaking at the point of production/service, and reductions in non-value-added activities and wasteful practices 2. creative solutions to systems design, analysis, implementation problems ± design adjustments which improved functionality, friendliness, and operatability of GUIs, IT architecture modifications which improved computer-to-computer operatability; implementation suggestions which fostered increased use of new systems 3. involvement in operational activities ± reduction in backlog by rotating jobs or assignments (decisions made by teams and management jointly), reduction in waste (employees closest to the process/ customer can better identify problems), improved customer satisfaction (employees take pride in work and understand value of customer)

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4. brainstorming sessions ± managers established meetings to encourage free expression of ideas and involvement in the business. Brainstorming enabled generation of numerous ideas to cut waste, save money, and better serve customers 5. increased team harmony ± empowered environments increased interaction and communication in team structures which fostered creativity From our discussions with these organizations, we believe that project leaders and managers should re-shape traditional organizational structures to create an environment conducive to empowerment. Otherwise, creativity will not flourish. To facilitate environmental changes, leaders should embrace change and offer encouragement. They should be willing to delegate authority, involve employees in the decision making process, and provide resources (IT, materials, facilities, and time).

Theoretical framework The framework, depicted in Figure 1, illuminates posited linkages between empowerment and creativity, creativity and organizational memory, and organizational memory and empowerment. The model was developed based on the literature in each respective area and an interview-based study concerning empowered systems development project teams and organizational memory (Paper and Johnson [9] ). Intrinsic task motivation is promoted when individuals perceive that they are in control of their task engagements (Roger [47] ). Retained control of task engagements means that employees are free to complete the task as they choose (Elam and Mead [41] ). Since freedom nurtures deep involvement in task engagements, it is critical to creativity (Meichenbaum [48] ). In addition, creativity

Figure 1. Theoretical model

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Key role of IT in recording events

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can be inhibited by fear of failure (Adams [49] ). It can also be blocked by organizational obstacles such as narrow job categories, organizational structure or non-supportive managers (Kotter [50] ). Therefore the linkage between empowerment and creativity is facilitated by delegating authority (where appropriate), involving employees in decision making activities, alleviating fear of failure by nurturing/coaching, removing real or perceived obstacles, and allowing workers freedom to complete their assigned tasks. This leads to the following proposition: Proposition 1: Empowerment leads to greater creativity when management creates an environment conducive to change. Creativity/memory and memory/empowerment linkages have received very little attention in the IS literature. However, absorptive capacity shows promise as a construct linking creativity/memory and memory/empowerment. As stated earlier, the absorptive capacity of a firm relates to its ability to recognize, assimilate, and apply innovative ideas. Absorptive capacity is largely a function of the firm's level of prior related memories (Cohen and Levinthal [22] ). Organizational absorptive capacity depends on the firm's direct interface with the external environment (Cohen and Levinthal [22] ) and the links across individuals' absorptive capacities (Nelson and Winter [51] ). Effective organizational absorptive capacity, therefore, pivots on communication between individuals within the organization. Without such interaction, information absorbed by individuals cannot be shared with the organization as a whole. Vyssotsky [52] argued that effective research and development must be done by creative people and that these people must be provided freedom to think up new approaches and ideas. Boynton, Zmud, and Jacobs [5] suggested that an IT climate allowing broad freedom to both managers and IT personnel must be established to promote creative idea generation and problem solving. Moreover, they concluded that the absorptive capacity of a firm can be greatly enhanced by such a climate. Organizations with higher levels of absorptive capacity will tend to be more proactive and opportunistic while those with lower levels will tend to be more reactive (Cohen and Levinthal [22] ). Information exchange between line managers and IT providers is critical in creating opportunities to leverage IT and enhancing the innovative process (Nonaka [53] ). Moreover, information exchange leads to con-

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tinuous organizational learning (Kenney and Florida [54] ), as in Proposition 2. Proposition 2: Creative ideas can be captured into memory databases by crossfunctional teams to be utilized by the organization in the future. As an empowered environment calls for structural integration of teams and management structures (Kotter [50] ), it can be an ideal vehicle to facilitate organizational absorptive capacities. Cross-functional teams can facilitate communication and information sharing if properly organized. However, these teams should be structured to allow generation of ideas as a group, consensus decision making, and sharing of ideas and expertise. Although individual expertise may be difficult to capture in memory databases, the idea of teams collectively recording events may hold promise. Teams involved in major projects can record basic success factors, major problems encountered, a log of events and summaries of brainstorming sessions, and generate new and creative ways to record knowledge and expertise. Expertise may be difficult to comprehensively record, but events surrounding organizational activities can be captured into organizational memory. This leads to the following proposition: Proposition 3: Empowerment of cross-functional teams can facilitate the ability of an organization to record critical events in memory databases. Although our conceptual model depicts unidirectional linkages, we believe that they could be bidirectional. However, the literature and our research did not support the additional linkages. We plan to investigate these linkages in future research.

Empowerment and memory As implied by this paper, organizational memory should thrive in an empowered environment. Workers are encouraged to generate creative solutions to problems. They are also encouraged to share ideas with each other and management. It seems natural that organizations attempting to integrate their human resources by empowering their workforce and employing ``integrative'' managers should try to record positive (and negative) events generated by integration. IT can play a key role in the success of such an effort by providing a suitable venue for easy and reliable storage and retrieval. Although expertise may be difficult to completely capture, basic logs of project successes and failures can be entered into memory databases as they occur. Periodically, an employee can be

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ORGANIZATIONAL MEMORY

assigned to summarize, synthesize, and organize the information to make it more readable and easier to understand. Future project teams (and managers) can tap into these databases to learn from these accumulated ``organizational memories''. We believe that learning from mistakes and positive events can be extremely valuable to an organization. Furthermore, we believe that recording events and ideas can be useful to organizational learning. Although expertise cannot be comprehensively recorded (at this time), ideas from experts can.

Conclusion In a recent study, IS executives agreed that creative and innovative approaches to problem solving are key to successful implementation of reengineering projects (Paper [55] ). Notwithstanding, few studies have focused on the potential of creativity to solve information systems problems (Couger et al. [40] ). Our paper develops a conceptual model that depicts the conceptual links among empowerment, creativity, and organizational memory. We believe that understanding the linkages between these constructs is vital to practical application of creativity in organizations. We hope our model will inspire subsequent research in this area and encourage practitioners to consider the usefulness of building creativity into the workforce. Moreover, we believe that memory can play an important role in problem solving if creative successes are continually recorded. We developed a table of potential challenges in both empowered and non-empowered environments, a synergy of creative results generated from empowered environments, and possible synergies from combining memory and empowerment to help project leaders and organizations decide on better ways to manage project teams.

References 1. Fellers, J.W. (1993) Teaching Teamwork: An Exploration of Using Cooperative Learning Teams. Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Information Systems, December 5±8, Orlando, Florida. 2. Caron, J.R., Jarvenpaa, S.L., and Stoddard, D.B. (1994) Business Reengineering at CIGNA Corporation: Experiences and Lessons Learned From the First Five Years. MIS Quarterly, September, 233±249. 3. Levitt, B. and March, J.G. (1988) Organizational Learning. Annual Review of Sociology 1988, 14, 319±340.

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4. Ackerman, M.S. (1994) Augmenting the Organizational Memory: A Field Study of Answer Garden. Proceedings of CSCW'94, 243±252. 5. Boynton, A.C., Zmud, R.W., and Jacobs, G.C. (1994) The Influence of IT Management Practice on IT Use in Large Organizations. MIS Quarterly, September, 299±318. 6. Senge, M.S. (1990) the Leader's New Work: Building Learning Organizations. Sloan Management Review, 32, 1, 7±23. 7. Couger, J.D. (1990) Ensuring Creative Approaches in Information System Design. Managerial and Decision Economics, 11, 281±295. 8. Clement, A. (1994) Computing at Work: Empowering Action by `Low-level Users'. Communications of the ACM, 37, 1, 53±63+. 9. Paper, D.J. and Johnson, J.J. (1995) Learning From Empowerment Through Organizational Memory: A Classification Framework. PanPacific Conference XII: A Business, Economic & Technological Exchange, forthcoming May. 10. Ulrich, D., Von Glinow, M.A., and Jick, T.D. (1993) High-Impact Learning: Building and Diffusing Learning Capability. Organizational Dynamics, 22, 52±66. 11. Mason, D.H. (1994) Scenario-based Planning: Decision Model for the Learning Organization. Planning Review, 20, 6±11. 12. Mulconrey, B.G. (1994) Create an Organizational Learning Laboratory. Research Technology Management, 37, 12±13. 13. Carley, K. (1992) Organizational Learning and Personnel Turnover. Organization Science, 3, 1, 20±46. 14. Johnson (1993) Supporting Decision Making with Organizational Decision Memory. Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Arizona. 15. Walsh, J.P. and Ungson, G.R. (1991) Organizational Memory. Academy of Management Review, 16, 1, 57±91. 16. Sandoe, K., Olfman, L., and Mandviwalla, M. (1991) Meeting in Time: Recording the Workgroup Conversation. Proceedings of the International Conference on Information Systems. New York, pp. 261±271. 17. El Sawy, O.A., Gomes, G.M., and Gonzalez, M.V. (1986) Preserving Institutional Memory: The Management of History as an Organizational Resource. Best Papers Proceedings, 46th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Chicago, Ill. 118±122. 18. Ackerman, M.S. and Malone, T.W. (1990) Answer Garden: A Tool for Growing Organizational Memory. Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Office Information Systems, Cambridge, MA, April 25±27, 31±39. 19. Morrison, J. (1992) Development and Evaluation of a System to Support Team and Organizational Memory. Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Arizona. 20. Chen, H., McHenry, W.K., Lynch, K.J., and Goodman, S.E. (1991) A Textual Database/ Knowledge-Base Coupling Approach to Creating Computer-Based Organizational Memory. Center for Management of Information Working Paper 91±37.

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21. Davenport, T.H. (1993) Process Innovation: Reengineering Work Through Information Technology. Harvard Business Press, Boston, Massachusetts. 22. Cohen, W.M. and Levinthal, D.A. (1990) Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective on Learning and Innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35, 128±152. 23. March, J.G. and Simon, H.A. (1958) Organizations. Wiley, New York. Mason, D.H. (1994) Scenario-based Planning: Decision Model for the Learning Organization. Planning Review, 20, 6±11. 24. Zahniser, R.A. (1993) Design By Walking Around. Communications of the ACM, 36, 10, 115±123. 25. Bowen, D.E. and Lawler, E.E. (1992) The Empowerment of Service Workers: What, Why, How, and When. Sloan Management Review, 33, 3, 31±39. 26. Shrednick, H.R., Shutt, R.J., and Weiss, M. (1992) Empowerment: Key to IS World-Class Quality. MIS Quarterly, 16, 4, 491±505. 27. Levitt, T. (1972) Production-Line Approach to Service. Harvard Business Review, September± October, 41±52. 28. Levitt, T. (1976) Industrialization of Service. Harvard Business Review, September±October, 63±74. 29. Lawler, E.E. (1994) Total Quality Management and Employee Involvement: Are They Compatible. Academy of Management Executive, 8, 1, 68±76. 30. Pinto, M.B., Pinto, J.K., and Prescott, J.E. (1993) Antecedents and Consequences of Project Team Cross-functional Cooperation. Management Science, 39, 10, 1281±1297. 31. Zultner, R.E. (1993) TQM for Technical Teams. Communications of the ACM, 36, 10, 78±91. 32. Holtzblatt, K. and Beyer, H. (1993) Making Customer-Centered Design Work for Teams. Communications of the ACM, 36, 10, 92±103. 33. Rapaport, R. (1993) To Build a Winning Team: An Interview with Bill Walsh. Harvard Business Review, January±February, 111±120. 34. Brooks, Jr., F.P. (1975) The Mythical Man-Month. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. 35. Mantei, M. (1981) The Effect of Programming Team Structures on Programming Tasks. Communications of the ACM, 24, 3, 106±113. 36. Henderson, J.C. and Lee, S. (1992) Managing I/S Design Teams: A Control Theories Perspective. Management Science, 38, 6, 757±777. 37. Wind, Y. (1981) Marketing and the Other Business Functions. In Research in Marketing, Vol. 5, J.N. Sheth (Ed.), JAI Press, Greenwich, CT, 237±264. 38. Higgins, L.F. and Couger, J.D. (1995) Comparison of KAI and ISP Instruments for Determining Style of Creativity of IS Professionals. Proceedings, 28th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Maui, January, 566±570. 39. Couger, J.D., Higgins, L.F., and McIntyre, S.C. (1990) Differentiating Creativity, Innovation, Entrepreneurship, Intrapreneurship, Copyright and Patenting for I.S. Products/Pro-

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49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54.

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cesses. Proceedings, Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, January, 370±379. Couger, J.D., Higgins, L.F., and McIntyre, S.C. (1993) (Un)Structured Creativity in Information Systems Organizations. MIS Quarterly, December, 375±397. Elam, J.J. and Mead, M. (1990) Can Software Influence Creativity? Information Systems Research, 1, 1, 1±22. Higgins, L.F., Couger, J.D., and McIntyre, S.C. (1990) Creative Approaches to Development of Marketing Information Systems. Proceedings, Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, January, 398±404. Snow, T.A. and Couger, J.D. (1991) Creativity Improvement Intervention in a System Development Work Unit. Proceedings, Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, January, 412±418. Couger, J.D. and Dengate, G. (1992) Measurement of Creativity of I.S. Products. Proceedings, Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, January, 288±298. Couger, J.D. (1994) Measurement of the Climate for Creativity in I.S. Organizations. Proceedings, Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Wailea, HI, 351±357. Couger, J.D., Flynn, P., and Hellyer, D. (1994) Enhancing the Creativity of Reengineering. Information Systems. Information Systems Management, Spring, 24±29. Roger, C. (1954) Towards a Theory of Creativity. ETC: A Review of General Semantics, 11. Meichenbaum, D. (1975) Enhancing Creativity by Modifying What Subjects Say to Themselves. American Educational Research Journal, 12, 129±145. Adams, J.L. (1979) Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas. W.W. Norton and Company, New York. Kotter, J.P. (1995) Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail. Harvard Business Review, March±April, 59±67. Nelson, R.R. and Winter, S. (1982) An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Vyssotsky, V.A. (1977) The Innovation Process at Bell Labs. Technical Report, Bell Laboratories. Nonaka, I. (1991) The Knowledge-Creating Company. Harvard Business Review, 69, 6, 96±104. Kenney, M. and Florida, R. (1988) Beyond Mass Production: Production and the Labor Process in Japan. Politics and Society, 16, 1, 121±158. Paper, D. (April, 1995) Implementation of Business Process Reengineering Projects: An Empirical Study, 24th Annual Western Decision Science Institute Conference, San Francisco. David Paper and Jeffrey Johnson are Assistant Professors at the Department of Business Information Systems and Education, College of Business, Utah State University, Logan, Utah, USA.

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Creative Problem Solving as a Technology of Expert Behaviour within Marketing Management Christopher Hackley and Philip J. Kitchen This paper presents a case based on. the notion that rule based systems or 'technologies' designed to promote creativity may be seen as a way of short-cutting the training route to domain specific cognitive expertise in Marketing Management. The paper draws on multidisciplinary research from different but thematically parallel research programmes in expertise and cognitive science, creativity, and problem solving. The argument proceeds with an examination of the construct of 'creativity' and its role in management domains in general and the marketing domain in particular. A review of psychological findings concerning expertise is then undertaken to draw out the common features between creativity in problem solving and high level expertise. Finally, these common features are synthesised in a speculative model which describes the complex of cognitive strategies and beliefs about problem solving which may characterise expert problem solvers in marketing management a move towards a potentially testable 'metacognition' of expertise in marketing.

Introduction - cognitive technologies and truth claims within Marketing

M

ichael Polanyi (1978) broadly conceived 'rule based systems' as cognitive 'technologies'. Such technologies may be applied to problems in the absence of a rigorous theoretical underpinning. Creative problem solving techniques may be seen as rule based systems or technologies for promoting goal directed creativity. Problem solvers, usually under the guidance of a tutor or facilitator/consultant, follow a series of rules designed to help them to think creatively to solve particular problems. There are many such systems, for example, 'Synectics' (Gordon, 1961); 'brainstorming' (Osborn, 1963); De Bono's (1972) 'lateral thinking'; 'mind-mapping' (Buzan, 1974); 'TOWS' (Proctor and Ruocco, 1992); and the MPIA (Mess, Perspectives, Ideas, Actions) system developed at Manchester Business School (Rickards and De Cock, 1994). Systems such as these have an enduring popularity, perhaps because of their intuitive appeal, certainly because of their record of documented success in helping to generate novel problem solutions in areas such as product design, technological innovation and advertising. 0Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

Nevertheless, theoretically disembodied cognitive technologies have inherent limitations placed upon them because of the nature of their claims to truth. These claims to truth seem to be characterised by a self-confirming tendency. For example, an advertising copywriter may use a creativity promoting technique in the production of a slogan which proves highly successful. There may seem to be a necessary connection between the technique used and the successful creative problem solution derived from it, but thisneed not be so. A causal relation is a complex matter to establish, and the utility of creativity promoting techniques or technologies seems always to be conflated with issues of organisational culture, the mood state and experience of problem solvers, and the receiving environment which stimulates and accepts or rejects the creative output. The truth claims of cognitive technologies are therefore seen as difficult to establish in an intersubjective sense. How can we treat such claims within the general area of Marketing Management? As Scleiermacher (in Wamke, 1987) suggested, in the absence of theory, truth claims require a sense of meaning. This meaning derives from an understanding not merely of the substantive knowledge claims made, but

The complexity of causality

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from insights generated through an interpretive or hermeneutic framework which derives from the historicity, biography and sociology of a particular claim to truth (see Gadamer, Scleiermacher, in Wamke 1987). These appeals have an internally generated frame of reference or meaning in the sense that they are most accessible to members of that frame of reference or meaning. However, if the task of (exploratory) academic research is, in part, to mediate between frames of meaning, (Giddens, 1993) which in the present case would involve reconstructing Marketing knowledge in the idiom of the wider academic community, we are faced with an element of circularity in the confirmation of knowledge claims. This limitation may be seen as doubly problematic when creative problem solving technologies, which tend to be theoretically disembodied, are employed within the domain of Marketing Management, a domain which (see Hunt, 1993; O’Shaugnessy, 1992; Buttle, 1994) has an uncertain theoretical basis. The (well documented and debated) epistemological weakness in academic Marketing derives partly from the large number of normative explanatory sketches that exist within Marketing’s codified body of knowledge claims (see above references). These sketches or models may themselves be considered technological in nature because of their normative tendency, and also because of their lack of explicit and rigorous theoretical underpinning (Hackley, 1997a). Standard explanatory sketches in Marketing Management such as the Product Life Cycle (Patten, 1959; Rogers, 1962), models of product portfolio and competitor analysis (Porter, 1980; Ansoff, 1965; Abell, 1987), or principles of Marketing Planning (MacDonald, 1984) are offered as substantive problem solutions notwithstanding their dubious epistemological status (see Hackley, 1997a; Hunt, 1991; O’Shaugnessy, 1992). However, the absence of rigorous theory underpinning these prescriptive sketches is generally considered unremarkable within the body of Marketing practitioners and practitioner/academics. Marketing Management’s claims to academic knowledge may be grounded in the hard headed, ’common sense’ school of utilitarian pragmatism to which business people subscribe. Academic Marketing’s claims to knowledge seem to rely to some extent on intuitive appeal to Marketing’s practitioner/academics. In view of the above remarks, it is considered that the task of picking apart the components of expert behaviour within Marketing Management is perhaps a hermeneutic task. That is, the knowledge claims of

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academics and practitioners w i t h Marketing Management must, if these claims are to be reconstructed in a fashion which renders them meaningful, be interpreted in the light of the biographical, sociological and historical (and historicist) forces from which they evolved. Such a task is beyond the scope of this paper which merely seeks to explore a possible theoretical basis for the argument that creativity techniques or technologies may, applied within the Marketing Management domain, constitute a cognitive technology of expert behaviour. The epistemological tension which exists between a) the structuralist-functionalist notion of a cognitive technology, and b) the hermeneutic analysis of Marketing discourse suggested above, may suggest difficulties with regard to the internal coherence of the approach underpinning this paper. The authors concede these difficulties and offer a way forward which is suggestive of the sense of pragmatism which runs through the Marketing discipline. The notion of a cognitive ’technology’ seems a useful conceptual tool with w h c h to present a partial reconstruction of sigruficant elements of expert behaviour in Marketing Management. Clearly, the question of how to assess the central claims of this paper is bound up with socially constituted notions of creativity and expertise, notions which sit incongruously with the closed system positivistic experimental approach associated with a cognitive technology. Nevertheless, the authors consider it a worthwhile enterprise to explore the nature of expertise in Marketing Management through the pragmatic device of taking a notion embedded in one paradigm (that is, a cognitive technology embedded within the structuralist-functionalist paradigm), and analysing it in the terms of another (the relativistic hermeneutic paradigm). Such an approach runs the risk of encountering a progress paralysing mutual incompatibility, or incommensurability, of theoretical approaches. However, it is suggested that this risk only emerges from within the perspective of a Kuhnian metatheoretical polarisation which exaggerates the internal coherence of each respective paradigm. A quote from Warnke (1987) on Scleiermacher may serve as a neat way to present the general theoretical perspective favoured in the approach of this paper: “For Scleiermacher, the task of understanding is no longer that of facilitating a knowledge of the general truth of a claim, but rather than of achieving insight into the unique conditions behind an individual expression of the claim. The focus

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of hermeneutics thus shifts from general validity to individual creativity . . ." Wamke, 1987. This paper may then be seen, on one level of analysis, as an initial interpretive exploration of the individual creativity which may lie behind high level expertise in Marketing Management. It will be suggested that this creativity is embedded within a complex of beliefs and values which are characteristic of high level expertise in the domain of Marketing Management. In other words, the expert Marketer occupies a place in an 'ethical community' which confers an implicit paradigmatic cognitive structure upon the problem solving activities of the professional Marketer. Problems are found and solved in novel ways within the values of this broader environment, and creativity promoting technologies may be seen as facilitating strands in a socially constituted web of Marketing activity. One further qualification is offered before the argument proceeds. Creative problem solving techniques, as mentioned above, tend to be rather atheoretical. Creativity, on the other hand, has many theories. In this paper the two may appear to be conflated, depending on the context of Marketing problem solving under discussion. The notion of creativity implicit in this paper is not abstracted from knowledge based problem solving, therefore 'creativity' is, in most points of the argument below, considered as being synonymous with high level expertise in strategic Marketing problem solving. Atheoretical creative problem solving techniques or 'technologies' are therefore conceived as training devices for the promotion of the creativity which, combined with domain relevant knowledge, lies in a fundamental position to high level strategic expertise in Marketing Management. This paper draws a connection then between the characteristics of creativity in problem solving and those of expertise in Marketing Management. Creativity promoting technologies are represented as reconstructions of cognitive problem solving strategies that share important, defining, characteristics with those of high level expertise in the domain. Creativity is therefore defined not as a unitary concept but as a conceptual framework which offers explanatory insights into cognitive problem solving strategies which are characteristic of expertise in Marketing Management. The argument proceeds with a literature based analysis which examines creativity and its role in Marketing Management, and then examines

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the psychology of expertise and the common features found in expertise and creativity. It concludes with a model which is synthesised from the earlier analysis and derived from work within Marketing on Marketing management problem solving skills. This model represents a possible metacognition of expertise in Marketing Management. That is, it represents the way experts in marketing may think about their problem solving strategies, and it suggests that these cognitive problem solving strategies display many features associated with 'creativity' and 'creative' problem solving. Creative problem solving technologies and their possible role in Managerial Marketing expertise are consequently set upon a theoretical base deriving from research into expertise in empirical psychology.

Constructions of 'creativity' and its relation to 'expertise' in marketing The search for conceptual definitions of creativity has proved popular. Many of these focus on that aspect of creativity which aims to generate successful novelty. There are numerous processual definitions based on a subdivision of 'preparation, incubation, illumination' and then 'verification' (Wallas, 1931).There are many variations and discussions on this approach (see Simon, 1977; Johnson, 1955; Mintzberg et al., 1976; Leythem, 1990, for example). Creativity is, for Simon Majaro (1980), the 'commonsense' procedure of 'generating ideas'. Creative problem solutions have an element of 'novelty' (Newell, Shaw and Simon, 1979) and are placed in the category of 'hot' cognition (Janisand Mann, 1977). For Arthur Koestler (1964) creative thinking results from a cognitive 'bisociation of matrices' through which incongruous combinations of concepts are combined to solve problems in ways that appear to be unusual or striking. For Koestler, this principle of novel conceptual combination underlies humour as well as scientific and social learning. He gives many examples of discovery which, when they become public, are explained in terms of a logically incremental process based on naive empiricism which does not square with the autobiographical accounts of the discovery. Koestler (1964) argues that the progress of science is a human story of dreams, serendipity, metaphor and analogical discovery, and not a matter of logically incremental independent observation and measurement. The implication of his case, seen from a social science perspective, is that 'creativity' offers a

Connecting creativity and marketing management

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The power of metaphor

more telling explanatory framework for examining the progress of novel human ideas, artistic or scientific, than offered by the ’logical empiricism’ paradigm which dominates explanation in non-artistic fields. One important feature of creativity may lie in the way conceptual categories are related in problem orientated thinking. Reference to Koestler’s ’bisociation of matrices‘ has already been made. Other researchers have noted that creative combination of domain related concepts in categorising or representing the problem is very important in generating a successful solution (for example Wertheimer, 1959). This insight implies something about knowledge organisation in the long term memory of experts. Experts, as will be elaborated below, have ’fuzzy’ or sophisticated conceptual categories allowing relations to be drawn between concepts at a deep level of abstraction. Novices see problems in terms of rigid concepts which have not been refined through experience of domain related problem solving. Therefore, the relation between domain related concepts which is only accessible at a deep level of abstraction is not available to novices because of their naive conceptual organisation. The free, yet goal orientated, association of concepts characteristic of expertise is also a characteristic of creativity. Wertheimer (1959) defined creativity as the ‘reorganisation of experience’, implying that creativity resides in having the conceptual flexibility to perceive phenomena in the world in novel ways. The personal psychological risk implicit in this is well documented in creativity research. It is psychologically ’safer’ to see the world in preconceived ways in line with historically and socially established norms than to see it in ways which may be interpreted as heterodox. It is this element of creativity, the link with psychological notions of risk, personal growth and psychological health, which tends to lead to its being placed in the ’humanistic’ branch of psychology. De Bono (1982) defines creativity as ’the changing of concepts and perceptions . . . (to) escape from the established approach to a situation’. Kaufmann (1991) emphasises the importance of ’problem identification’ and the ’discovery task’ of ’problem formulation’ as critical in problem solving success. This problem identification process implies the sort of conceptual flexibility in categorising/ representing the problem which is alluded to above. Many management techniques of creative problem solving rely heavily on adjusting the problem solver’s perceptual organisation of problem related data, sometimes overtly (see McCaskey, 1991), more

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often implicitly (Kitchen and Hackley, 1995). For example Synectics (Gordon, 1961) involves, in part, the use of metaphor to help problem solvers see the deep analogies which can form the basis for novel problem representations, and therefore are a basis for finding solutions. This use of metaphor allows the solver to suspend their (socially constituted) sense of rationality in order to gain access to new perspectives on the problem. A purely conscious, objectively rational approach to the problem brings in powerful syllogistic reasoning before the problem premises are adequately defined or represented, leading to weak or inappropriate solutions (Kitchen and Hackley, 1995). There is support in mainstream psychology for the importance Synectics attributes to creative analogy seeking in problem solving (see Gentner, 1980). The power of metaphors in seeking analogies is a fundamental one for Gordon (1961) since metaphor as mental principle is “inherent in language and grounded in the nervous system”. For Langer (1951), the very communicative basis of language consists in ”faded metaphor” so the use of metaphors can . . .

”. . . restore the force that makes (language) . . . essentially relational, intellectual, forever showing up new, abstractable forms in reality”. A similar note on the role of metaphor in creative enterprise is made by sociologist Anthony Giddens (1993):

. . there is some plausibility in holding that metaphor has an important role in the creation of innovative paradigms. To become acquainted with a new paradigm is to grasp a new frame of meaning . . . elements of the new scheme are learned through metaphorical allusion to the old. Metaphor both produces and expresses what Schon calls a ’displacement of concepts’; the connection of disparate frames which is initially ’unusual’. Metaphor is perhaps thus at the heart of innovations of language so that there is an essential poetics in the succession of scientific theories which reflects and draws upon the metaphorical usages of natural language”. ’I.

Giddens’ reference to Schon above could equally have been made of Koestler. To draw this section of the discussion to a close then, it may be stated that conceptual relation may, in the associative task of bringing meaning to a new frame of experience, and/or in solving a perceived problem, be based upon principles of analogy and metaphor rather than on the

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principles of formal logical relation favoured in the logical empiricist account of scientific progress. In this sense, ’creative’ approaches to the explanation of the generation of novelty are considered to be valuable in a field such as Marketing Management which, as will be argued below, is characterised at the strategic level by problems whch fall into the category of ‘ill-structured’-ness. It is a central feature of the argument of this paper that creativity may be a significant component of domain specific cognitive problem solving expertise. To elaborate on this hypothesis we will investigate the problem types to be encountered in Managerial Marketing, and the cognitive problem solving styles which offer the most telling insight into expertise in the field.

Creativity and strategic marketing management Creativity in finding and solving problems is widely acknowledged to be an important feature of high level decision making expertise in management domains (see for example, Quinn et al., 1996; Rickards, 1985; Kaufmann in Henry, 1991; De Bono, 1970). For Quinn et al. (1996) ‘self motivated creativity’ is the highest rung on a ladder of professional intellect in management. The belief in the importance of creativity to corporate success is reflected in the demand for creativity training from current management consultants (e.g. Rogers, 1996; Alder, 1994; Marlow, 1994). This builds on the history of creativity promoting consultancy in management which dates from the sixties (e.g. Osborn, 1963; Gordon, 1961; and see Rickards and De Cock, 1994, for overview). Inasmuch as management is culturally constituted as a significant domain of expertise, the acknowledged importance of creativity within it reflects the well-documented importance of creativity as a component of high level expertise in other scientific and artistic fields of endeavour (for a review of the creativity in biographical studies of scientific achievement see Koestler, 1962). The management domain of marketing offers particularly good examples of problem solving expertise into which insights may be generated through an explanatory framework based on ’creativity’ rather than one based on formal ’scientific rationality’. Marketing has already attracted its share of attention from creativity orientated management consultancy (see above and Proctor and RUOCCO, 1992; Hudson-Davies and Moger, 1996; Proctor, 1993). Problems in the domain of

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Marketing Management may be described as ’ill-structured’ in the sense Mintzberg et al. (1976) used the term. Marketing Management problems do not present themselves in neat packages, neither do they lend themselves to easy categorisation nor to universally appropriate heuristic devices (Hackley, 1996). They are informal, yet non trivial since the problems that arise are important and difficult to solve effectively.A problem orientated view of some of the skills demanded of marketers includes the following derived from Thomas (1984) by Hackley (1996):

’How to’ . . . gather and select relevant information from the business environment to make predictions about market opportunities. ’How to’ . . . be innovative at a strategic level seeking new product opportunities which can form part of a strategic vision for the organisation. ’How to’ . . . optimise the marketing mix to achieve stated objectives. ’How to’ . . . communicate the benefits of marketing within the organisation. Clearly, a feature of these formulations of problems is their ill-structuredness. At the strategic level managerial marketing problems have to be constructed by the marketer. They rely on non-formal skills such as ’prediction’ (of market changes/opportunities), or the generation of (new product) ’ideas’. Strategic marketing decisions are often made in a task space of the manager’s own construction. This requirement for problem construction, if supported, would bring key aspects of Marketing Management firmly into the realm of ‘creative’ activity. This general theme, as the basis of this paper, may not seem particularly striking to researchers in creativity or other disciplines to whom ’Marketing’ evinces an image of spotty cravats and flamboyant creative people dreaming up wacky ideas for products or advertisements. However, the worlds of academic and practitioner Marketing are more prosaic and conservative than many outsiders would think. The very basis of the growth of Marketing as a business function and, consequently, as an academic subject, may be that it has appealed to a mentality of scientific rationality within the business community by taking its implicit assumptions from the Durkheim/Comte position on positivism. The case for Marketing Management as creative problem solving still remains to be made within many quarters of Marketing’s

Marketing management @S creative problem solving

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practitioner/academic community. If this case appears to be laboured in this paper the reason derives from the relatively narrow perspective of the school of Managerial Marketing, and it is this perspective which is being addressed. Hackley (1997a) has argued that 'mainstream' or popular marketing education is based on a naive 'metacogrution' of marketing which misrepresents the way marketing people think about their problem solving behaviour. Successful problem solving in Marketing may, on the other hand, be explained more successfully by a 'creative' framework of ideas than by the 'rational' paradigm which dominates the most popular marketing management texts and many academic courses. The group of social science orientated authors within marketing who are critical of the orthodox approach is still small and includes Shelby Hunt (1991), and John O'Shaugnessy (1992). Creativity as an aspect of marketing is a substantial yet perhaps marginalised element of the academic and consulting world. The great majority of marketing courses still lean heavily on a genre of texts which attempt, but may fail in their own terms (Hunt, 1993), to represent the marketing manager as an empirical rationalist. There may be a social censorship of ideas here to which Rickards (1996) has alluded in the context of commercial innovation. Rickards quotes social scientists such as Winch (1990) and Pettigrew and Whipp (1991) on the socially constructed assump-

tions which underlie some (mis)perceptions of innovation in industry and commerce. For Pettigrew and Whipp (1991) there is an assumption of 'homo economicus' and the implicit model of a 'rational' man underlying popular narratives of innovation in management. Nicholson (1988) "points out how such (innovation) research tends to deny the significance of ambiguities and emergent characteristics". The text book account of a successful innovation, like the marketing case study of new product development or strategic brand positioning, generally uses a conceptual vocabulary derived from scientific empiricism to explain an organisational process which may actually appear to be strikingly non-scientific, at least when measured against a naive empiricist model of science. At this point it may be helpful to elucidate the description of some of the conceptual features attached to 'creativity' by juxtaposing a few of the characteristics and attributes of thinking styles along the simphfymg device of a creative-non-creative continuum (from Kitchen and Hackley, 1995). The elements of the table are derived primarily from research initiatives into creative thinking and are offered in an attempt to clarify the descriptive basis of discussion from the point of view of Marketing practitioners/academics, as opposed to creativity researchers. Figure 1 conceptualises some features of creative thinking by juxtaposing them with the corresponding 'formal' thinking style. The features of the chart follow a simplified

-

FormalLogical Thinking.......................................................... .Informal/Creative Thinking Characterised by.,, Characterised by... Formal logical reasoning.............................................................

informal, associative reasoning

Convergent thinking...................................................................................... .divergent thinlung

Use of established principles............................................................ of conceptual classification

.Few established principles or conceptual categories

Value placed in positive.................................................................................... .Value placed in inter-subjective verification novelty in solutions Emphasis on conscious, linear information........................... processing

Emphasis on unconscious, parallel processing

Figure 1. Some features of creative/non-creative problem solving cognitive styles

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polarisation: on the left, thinking styles which are characteristic of scientific rationality on the empiricist model. On the right are the thinking styles which are sometimes under valued in mainstream academic Marketing but which, when utilised in a heuristic search, may in fact be very powerful components of expertise. Formal logical reasoning, on the left of the continuum, is the style of reasoning associated with scientific rationality and positivist science. This form of reasoning conforms to Aristotle's 'laws' of thought and may be reduced to symbolic logic. Associative reasoning, its counterpoint in the chart, does not necessarily acknowledge the laws of thought or of conceptual categories: it cannot be reduced to formal logic and is a form of thinking possibly viewed with suspicion (perhaps rightly) by a number of professional fields. The other features of the chart follow a similar polarisation which is fairly self evident. The features of the left of the chart may be considered characteristic of a popular, perhaps dominant, model of 'rationality' in Western culture. Western knowledge systems tend to rely for their stability and internal coherence on these features: systemic goal directed creative thinking shows little respect for the politics of knowledge. However, the marginalisation of creative thinking in a domain would seem to offer a recipe for intellectual stagnation. Over reliance on formal thinking styles exaggerates the internal coherence of paradigms: few knowledge systems may claim to be sufficiently rich or mature so that all conceivable problem solutions may be deduced from within their own internal frame of meaning. Thomas Kuhn (1970) has been accused (by Anthony Giddens) of exaggerating the internal coherence of paradigms, but nevertheless his analysis of paradigm breaking in the sociology of scientific progress strikes a resounding note which has made many people reevaluate the terms in which they view the development of scientific knowledge. Expertise studies suggest that the highest levels of domain specific expertise significantly involve creative association in thinking style because creative thinking is powerful in cutting across disciplinary boundaries in the heuristic search for creative problem solutions. Experts in an informal and theoretically under-developed field such as Marketing Management may be characterised by a problem solving style which is paradigmatically uninhibited. Kuhn's 'normal science' is a phase of relatively routinised activity which rests upon, often implicit, assumptions concerning the ontological and epistemological

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basis of the subject matter. If these assumptions are outdated or inappropriate to a domain, or if practitioners in the domain do not know what these assumptions should be, the scientific rationality of Rene Descarte and Francis Bacon may offer a merely illusory sense of knowledge development within the domain. This process of argument now continues with an appeal to empirical social science for support for the argument that a creative thinking conceptual framework may offer a fruitful explanatory framework within which to analyse creative expertise in Marketing Management. Of course novice/expert studies in empirical psychology generally rest upon the assumptions of the structuralist/ functionalist paradigm. Notwithstanding some possible internal logical inconsistency here, an appearance of inconsistency which would perhaps rest upon an exaggeration of the coherence of each respective paradigm, it seems reasonable as a device of argumentation to call upon evidence derived from a model of scientific rationality to support a case which may seem to reduce the influence of such a model in the domain of Marketing Management.

Psychological studies into expertise and problem solving - the case for creativity Modem expertise research uses much of the idiom of Newell and Simon's (1972) problem solving research while eschewing its major theoretical assumptions. Problem solving, defined as addressing a discrepancy between an existing situation and a desired state (Kaufmann 1984) has been researched extensively from within the Newell and Simon (1972) paradigm. This research programme has been subject to the assumptions of serial cognitive information processing and formal reasoning. The experimental material consisted of relatively trivial puzzle-like problems (the 'towers of Hanoi', 'the missionaries and cannibals', see Eysenck and Keane, 1990). There are clear limitations to this approach when problem solving in more complex domains is the object of interest. The notion of 'expertise' implies something more than a mere facility for solving trivial puzzle-like problems. It implies problem solving acuity that is not easily accessible to others because the complexity of the domain in question demands extensive knowledge as well as experience of knowledge application strategies. Expertise research therefore uses concepts such as 'task environment',

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‘problem space’, ’legal operators’ and ’heuristics‘ but does not assume that human problem solving entails serial information processing. Freed from this limiting assumption, expertise research can postulate ’creative’ and other complex cognitive processes underpinning expertise in domains which demand extensive knowledge and experience and which present complex problems. Most expertise research has been conducted in knowledge- or semantically-rich domains which show characteristics of ’formality’ described by Larkin (1981). The formality of these domains lies in their well established rules and principles. They are semantically rich because they require problem solvers to possess a stock of relevant knowledge in long term memory. These formal domains have included chess, physics, medical diagnosis, maths and computer programming (Roe, 1953; Chase and Simon, 1973; McKiethen et al., 1981; Kahney, 1986). These domains have ’legal operators’ or accepted rules for implementing solutions such as the rules of moving pieces in chess, the rules of mathematical physics or binary programming language rules in computing. Even medical diagnosis can be reduced to a mechanistic process for the purposes of experimentation. Formal domains also have widely accepted ways of representing and solving problems. Physics problems can be represented as instances of Newtonian principles, maths problems as a multiplication or area calculation problem and so on. In these domains, successful problem solving is fairly easy to inter-subjectively certify. Expertise research in formal domains is important in building up ontological and operational concepts and themes with which to try to explain expertise in other, less formal, domains. Informal domains do not have universally accepted rules of conduct or ’legal operators’: neither do they have well established ways of representing and solving problems. Marketing Management is such a domain. Nevertheless, it seems that some inferences may be drawn from expertise research in formal domains which offer insights into the acquisition of expertise in an informal domain, such as Marketing.

Experts and novices in formal domains creativity and concept representation A number of differences between novice and expert performance have been noted. Experts possess what Reiman and Chi (1989) describe as ’domain-specific experience’. This knowl-

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edge of the domain, acquired over time, allows experts to, as Greeno and Simon (1984) put it, ’represent a problem successfully’. The problem ‘representation’ refers to how the problem is formulated or conceived by the solver. For example, studies in chess and physics have shown that experts represent problems at a level of abstraction which is beyond the capability of novices. Chess grandmasters see the configuration of pieces on a board in strategy chunks, while novices see the individual pieces (Chase and Simon, 1973). Extensive experience of playing chess sensitises experts to the subtleties of pattern of chess pieces on the board, and to the strategic implications of particular combinations of pattern. Similarly, physics experts will look at a problem in terms of the underlying principles of which the features of the problem are a particular example. The problem representation of novices is more naive and focuses on the surface features in the problem rather than the underlying level of abstraction at which each object has a relationship with the others (Chi et al., 1981). Experts are able to represent problems successfully by drawing on their ’huge domain specific knowledge base’ (Reiman and Chi, 1989) to ‘elaborate upon the given problem formulation‘. The superficial problem representation of novices limits their choice of problem solving methods to weak heuristics such as meansends analysis. This heuristic involves working backwards from the desired goal to achieve sub-objectives which move the solver incrementally closer to a solution. Clearly, breaking down problems in this way entails the likelihood of going down blind alleys and having to re-trace steps. While novices typically work backwards in this way, experts work in a forward-driven way based on their insight into the underlying principles of the problem (Bhaskar and Simon, 1977). It is held that this forward driven heuristic search may, particularly in an informal domain such as Marketing, have a sigruhcant ’creative’ component. At this point, the argument may seem laboured, especially to those familiar with creativity research and creatively orientated management training. The intimate connection between creativity and high level expertise is well established and accepted in some strands of research (for example Sternberg, 1990; Kirton, 1994). However, as mentioned above, this particular case for the creative perspective is argued from within a relatively narrow disciplinary perspective in academic Marketing Management. Thus the argument is continued with an important strand: this concerns the crucial

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place of domain relevant experience in the acquisition of creative expertise. It is considered that this significant finding in empirical psychology acts as a counterweight to the theoretically disembodied nature of creativity technologies in Marketing. The necessary presence of domain related experience in the domain of Managerial Marketing expertise emphasises the contingent nature of creative problem solving technologies. Such technologies do not, cannot, act in a vacuum of knowledge and experience. This link between creativity in problem solving and experiential ‘common sense’ may be appealing to the practitioner academic in Marketing since it leaves creativity promoting technologies firmly grounded in the hard school of problem solving knocks. The creative perspective can then be seen to facilitate, and promote, rather than replace, expertise within Marketing.

The relationship between expertise and experience It has been intimated above that Marketing experts may represent problems within their domain at a deep level of conceptual abstraction. Reiman and Chi (1989) argue that richer problem representation is possible for experts in other fields because of the extent of their domain-specific experience. Generalising from this research to expertise in general, it may be inferred that this experience is not a sufficient, but is a necessary condition for expert problem solving to occur. As Kolodner (1983) writes,

”. . . even if

a novice and an expert have the same semantic knowledge (i.e. know the same facts) the expert’s experience would have allowed him to build up better episodic definitions of how to use it.” Kolodner (1983) here uses Tulving’s (1972) distinction between semantic and episodic knowledge in long term memory. ’Semantic’ knowledge refers to knowledge of relevant factual propositions while ’episodic’ knowledge refers to life episodes or events. The distinction might be described colloquially as that between book learning and real life: a studious medical graduate may have as great a factual knowledge base as an experienced GP, but there is likely to be a subtle refinement in the GP‘s knowledge, acquired through direct experience, which gives it greater heuristic power. Tulving’s (1972) typography of knowledge is closely related to cognitive scientist John Anderson‘s (1983, 1986) distinction between declarative

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and procedural knowledge, although ’declarative’ knowledge here refers to both semantic and episodic knowledge. For Anderson (1986, 83) novices may become experts by proceduralising their declarative knowledge base, and domain specific experience is the means for this proceduralisation. This process is called knowledge compilation. Procedures are subsumed within larger, more powerful ones, and declarative knowledge is modified through testing it against experience. Experience leads experts to acquire a more sophisticated or ’fuzzy’ representation of the concepts relevant to the problem (Murphy and Wright, 1984; Rosch, 1975).This fuzziness allows experts to see analogical relations between problems which novices cannot see because of the inflexibility of the concepts with which they represent the problem. Experts therefore apply their knowledge and experience not merely by having a greater stock of problem solving heuristics, but also by having a richer problem representation than novices. Once again we can see the general point, which is that the acquisition of expertise in non-trivial domains has a temporally mediated element of experientially acquired problem solving schemas which are composed of highly flexible, sophisticated and loosely connected groupings of domain relevant concepts.

Some general conclusions about expertise and the roles of knowledge and intelligence ‘Expertise’ tends to be specific to a relatively narrow socially constituted domain of action. Mandler (1962) has noted the narrow range of most examples of expertise. The transferability of ’skills’ or operational procedures from one domain to another, or from a training situation to a live one, is therefore a highly problematic matter. It may be asserted that expertise is a construct without meaning if it is abstracted from a socially constituted domain of activity which demands fairly specific procedural knowledge. The necessary connection between expertise and knowledge has been supported by some research into Spearman’s (1927) notion of ‘g‘ or general intelligence as measured by I.Q. tests. In general, the findings are that I.Q. is a measure of academic potentiality, but the transfer of problem solving skill from this domain to others is highly problematic (see Howe, 1990; Weiner and Waldman, 1986; Ceci and Liker, 1986). Gronhaug and Kaufmann (1986) write that knowledge rather than

Connecting expertise and knowledge

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intelligence is the crucial element behind cognitive expertise. They state that . . .

“. . . high level cognitive abilities should not be seen as existing apart from knowledge . . . powerful cognitive operations seem only to materialise in a system of well organised extensive knowledge”. Prominent psychologist Richard Gregory agrees that ”. . . deploying one’s knowledge is the most important feature of intelligence” (Gregory, 1987). He goes on to link intelligence with creativity. “It is absurd to consider intelligence separately from creativity . . . we might define intelligence as the generation of successful novelty.” For Kaufmann (1991) too there is a

link between creativity and knowledge. He

writes . . .

”Creative problem solving may be seen as expert performance that produces new insights. We may now expect that highlevel creativity is crucially dependent on a large amount of well-organised domainspecific knowledge.” Attaining expertise in a field may require persistence in the face of setbacks (Anderson, 1980), diligence over ten years or more (Hayes, 1978), and of course, luck. This ’deploying of one’s knowledge’ in successful domain specific problem solving may then be described as expertise, as intelligence, or indeed as creativity. The above discussion concerning cognitive technologies and the role of knowledge and experience in the acquisition of domain specific expertise has set out a general conceptual framework into which to place Marketing Management as a domain of activity requiring creative expertise at a strategic level. The argument now turns to the attempt to bring together these strands of research in a tentative model of creative expertise in Marketing Management - a metacognition of creative expertise in Marketing.

Creative expertise and marketing management - a model The ’metacognition’ of the expert marketer has been alluded to above (Hackley, 1997a) and refers to the way marketers think about their marketing knowledge and experience to find and solve domain related problems. The concepts included in the naive, and expert, metacognition of marketing are derived from

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a synthesis of the ideas of theorists in Marketing epistemology (particularly Hunt, 1991, and O’Shaugnessy, 1992), and from the work in expertise and creative problem solving described above. It is maintained, based on the findings from expertise research, that expert problem solving in marketing, a domain which offers up ill-structured problems for practitioners to solve, entails ways of thinking which share significant characteristics with ’creative’ thinking styles. High level expertise in Marketing, it is held, may involve aspects of the processes currently studied within the creative problem solving field and depends upon a well organised knowledge base of domain related facts and domain specific, possibly practitioner specific, procedures. That the field is ’creative’ does not imply that it is trivial. It may take many years of knowledge accumulation and compilation for an individual to learn to implement their creativity in successful problem solving. This creativity is manifested in successful problem solving through problem representation and heuristic search process which may be fundamentally analogical, at least at the problem recognition stage, as opposed to logical. An inference may be drawn that the long process of expertise acquisition may be better accelerated in novices through creativity orientated approaches to Marketing Management training and education, than through approaches based on a quasi scientific model of marketing decision making. Creativity promoting techniques or ’technologies‘ can therefore be seen as having a basis in empirical psychology as devices of training/education which mimic or model important characteristics of expert thinking, characteristics which take many years’ worth of knowledge and experience to acquire and which constitute implicit knowledge which is difficult to articulate in the artificial training environment (Hackley, 199%). The model below is offered as a representation of various components. The ’creative thinking’ and ‘rational/logical’ thinking and problem solving characteristics presented are, like the earlier polar conceptualisations presented in figure one, commonly used in creativity and problem solving research. Their use in this model is intended as a telling juxtaposition with the characteristics of high level expertise inferred from empirical psychology and which may appertain in (strategic) Marketing Management. The ‘naive metacognition of Marketing’ conceptualises the way that a novice Marketing Manager might think about the domain

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‘CREATIVE‘ THINKING ’Creative’ problem solving involving: ‘Messy‘ or ill-defined problems Preparation: activc data selection Re-organising experienceProblem constructed by solver /-Incubation , : parallel heuristic scarch I based on metaphor, analogy & ‘LOGICAURATIONAL‘ isomorphic concepts & problems in long THINKING term memory Information processing problem solving Inspiration: partially nonconscious. involving: non-serial decision on best heuristic Assumption of well -defined problem Verification: based on criteria of based on conccptual categories drawn from novelty/utility/aesthetics memory: data is proccsscd passively Serial heuristic search based on conscious I d memory of domain related conceptual categories: conscious logical operations Evaluation on most viable hcuristic based primarily on logical deduction Verification: testing/justifying choice: quantification paramount

L

Explanations are empirical laws of tendency Problem representation is in terms of a genre of accepted conceptual categories Practitioners are managerially orientated to control the environment

\

MARKETING Conceptual framework relativism: Problems have emergent characteristics Marketing laws arc not universal Isomorphic problem solutions are sought through analogy and metaphor Methods of discovery &justification differ Problem representation is in terms of concepts with analogical , rather than logical, relation Extension of ‘laws’ is not sought Marketing problems are heterogeneous but may be isomorphic Practitioners are pragmatic social scientists

Figure 2. A diagrammatic representation of creativelnon-creativethinking styles demonstrating the link between creativity and expertise in a model of expert metacognition of marketing management problem solving. 0 Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997

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Contradicting widely held assumptions

relevant knowledge which they utilise in order to solve Marketing problems. This is a metacognition which may be inferred from mainstream textbooks in Marketing Management in the absence of mediating experiential knowledge. A circular argument may be invoked here. If academic Marketing Management, as a socially constituted domain of activity, is dominated by a metacognition of practitioner problem solving which is founded on a version of the scientific rationality which underpins the more mature natural sciences, such a metacognition is likely to confirm itself as an effective one. This seems very likely to be what in fact happens. However, this may be metacognition of mediocrity. The highest levels of Marketing expertise, involving the generation of new products, product adaptations, adoptions and portfolio management decisions, and innovations in distribution, pricing, marketing communications or service delivery, may be considered, by an analogy from Kuhn, as paradigm breaking interludes in normal Marketing science. The salient point here would seem to be that the Marketing environment is not ’normal’ in the sense that nature is considered normal. It is axiomatic in popular academic Marketing that the Marketing environment is highly turbulent and that Marketing success depends, when not on monopolistic or oligopolistic competitive positions, on a high degree of sensitivity to environmental change and to the influence this process of change may have on individual consumer attitudes, perceived needs and preferences, and lifestyles. The naive metacognition of Marketing Management would therefore seem to characterise a cognitive style of thinking about Marketing knowledge and problems which may often seem to be effective in practice, but which contradicts the widely held assumptions concerning the turbulence in the Marketing environment and the axiomatic call for constant creative innovation in the delivery of new and better benefits to ever more demanding customers. The ’expert metacognition of Marketing’ is composed of elements which share many common features with the characteristics of creative thinking represented in the model. This expert metacognition assumes a high order of experientially derived problem solving skill. This domain relevant experience is seen as the source of the rich and well organised knowledge base which underpins expertise in other fields and, by inference, in Marketing Management. Experience does not, in itself, confer expertise. Expertise at its highest level, and sustained success in the

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highly competitive environment of Marketing is a rare achievement which it would seem requires the highest levels of expertise, depends upon a set of cognitive attributes which permit the fullutilisation of the knowledge base in effective problem solving. These cognitive attributes, it will be noted, share significant aspects with those underpinning and promoted by creativity promoting technologies. To some extent, the features of expert metacognition in Marketing Management may be inferred by analogy with empirical and biographical findings from accounts of scientific progress in other domains. Creative expertise in Marketing may be considered analogous to the highest levels of creativity in other, including the natural, sciences. Marketing Management may represent a domain in which well organised goal directed creativity is so fundamental to sustained competitive success that there is a case for creative approaches to Marketing and Marketing Management, and creativity in Marketing Management, to constitute a more sigruficant theme for teaching and research than it does at present. The model of naive and expert metacognition in Marketing Management is offered as a framework of an exploratory nature for such a case to be further investigated from within the beginnings of an evolving appropriate conceptual framework.

Concluding comments The model above is intended to illustrate the link between explanations of problem solving expertise based on a ‘creative’ conceptual framework and high level expertise in Marketing Management. The basis of the appeal of this link is itself, admittedly, partly intuitive. However, it may be agreed that Marketing, as a relatively new academic and practical discipline, is not a completely stable paradigm. Consequently it may be agreed that theory construction in Marketing, as opposed to hypothesis testing on a deductive model, is appropriate. It is hoped that the empirical research summarised in this paper offers some basis for broad support for the tentative theory construction approach begun in this model. As Kitchen (1996) writes, ”Constructing theory and applying theory indicates a series of methodological choices leading to adoption and usage of a particular research method. Such choices are not made arbitrarily on the basis of researcher whim or inclination but are dependent on the nature of the problem(s)

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to be addressed, mechanisms available for that address, and the theoretical background. Kitchen (1996) refers, in another context, to 'pre-paradigm' states in science, in Kuhn's phrase. He quotes Mills (1959) on the characteristics of such states, which include "still unformalised and unintegrated theoretical, hypothetical and methodological arguments". Crane (1972) is also referred to by Kitchen (1996) with the suggestion that "exploratory studies . . . are typical of an early stage in growth in a scientific discipline". The model presented above suggests that Marketing is, with its eighty year history of academic credibility, a relatively young science within which exploratory (or 'speculative') studies are not inappropriate. In particular, the study of the psychology of expertise within Marketing is, as a strand of research within general Marketing research, very young indeed. There is a further implication of a model of the metacognition of expertise in Marketing Management which is based on thinking and problem solving styles which are predominantly 'creative'. Marketing Managers try, in one important aspect of their professional activity, to design interventions into the marketplace which solve consumers' perceived problems in novel, effective and appealing ways. In this sense creative Marketers may be considered as researchers in social science who exist in a perpetual preparadigm state. Contemporary Marketers are, to the extent that they monitor constantly changing social conditions in order to integrate consumer products and services into the respective probIem task spaces of their consumers, perpetually seeking the concepts that will help to secure their Marketing Management activity on a rational foundation. Of course, many in Marketing Management, perhaps most, do not do this. They seek refuge in relatively routinised programmes of Marketing activity which are not, perhaps need not, be creative in any radical sense. It is, however, an article of faith in mainstream academic Marketing that most real firms do not practise Marketing very well. This paper has attempted to construct the basis for an argument that sets out a conceptual framework that may begin to explain, in the terms of creativity, the highest levels of expertise in Marketing Management, and has placed creativity-promoting techniques or technologies in a prominent position in promoting expertise and in facilitating a possible explanation of this expertise.

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References Abell, D. (1978) "Strategic Windows", Journal of Marketing, July. Alder, H. (1994) "The Technology of Creativity", Management Decision, 32, 4, pp. 23-29. Anderson, J. (1983) The Architecture of Cognition. Cambridge, MA. Harvard University Press. Anderson, J. (1986) "Knowledge Compilation: the General Learning Mechanism", in Mitchell, Michalski, and Carbonell, (Eds.), Machine Learning, an A.1. Approach, Vol. 2, pp. 289-310, Los Altos, LA: Morgan Kaufman. Anderson, J. (1980) "Acquisition of Cognitive Skill", Psychological Review, Vol. 89, pp. 369406. Ansoff, H.I. (1965) Corporate Strategy: A n Analytic Approach to Business Policy for Growth and Expansion. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bhaskar, R. and Simon, H. (1977) "Problem Solving in Semantically Rich Domains: An Example of Engineering Thermodynamics", Cognitive Science, Vol. 1, pp. 193-215. Buttle, F. (1994) "New Paradigm Research in Marketing", Editorial, European Journal of Marketing, Autumn. Buzan, A. (1974) Use Your Head. BBC Books. Ceci, S. and Liker, J. (1986) "A Day at the Races: A Study of LQ., Expertise and Cognitive Complexity", Journai of Experimental Psychology, 115, p. 266. Chase, W. and Simon, H. (1973) "Perception in Chess", Cognitive Psychology, 4, pp. 55-81. Chi, M., Feltovich, P. and Glaser, R. (1981) "Categorisation and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices", Cognitive Science, 5, pp. 121-152. Crane, D. (1972) Invisible Colleges and Social Circles: A Sociological Interpretation of Scient@c Growth. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. De Bono, E. (1982) Letters to Thinkers - Further Thoughts on Lateral Thinking. London: Penguin. De Bono, E. (1970) Lateral Thinkingfor Management. Hannondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin. Eysenck, M. and Keane, M. (1990) Cognitive Psychology - A Student's Handbook. LEA. Gentner, D. (1980) The Structure of Analogical Models in Science, B.B.N. Technical Report No. 4454.

Giddens, A. (1993) New Rules of Sociological Method. Polity Press. Gordon, W. (1961) Synectics - The Development of Creative Capacity. Harper & Row. Greeno, M. and Simon, H. (1984) Problem Solving and Reasoning. Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh, LRDC. Gregory, R. (1987) in Gregory, R. and Marstrand, P. (Eds.), Creative Intelligences. Frances Pinter. Gronhaug, K. and Kaufmann, G. (1986) Innovation - a Cross Disciplinary Perspective. Oslo: Norwegian University Press, pp. 87-139. Hackley, C. (1996) "Unravelling the Happy Enigma of Creative Expertise in Marketing Management - A Psychological View", conference paper, Proceedings of Marketing Education Group Annual Conference, Strathclyde University, Jury 9-12.

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Hackley, C. (1997a) "Management Learning and Normative Marketing Theory - Philosophical and psychological issues in the epistemology of a practical managerial discipline", article in review at Management Learning. Hackley, C. (1997b) "Tacit Knowledge and the Epistemology of Expertise in Strategic Marketing Management", in review at the European Journal of Marketing. Howe, M. (1990) The Origins of Exccpfional Abilities. Basil Blackwell. Hudson-Davies, R. and Moger, S. (In press) "Assessing the Impact of Creativity Training in Marketing Education: a 'Before and After' Examination of Performance Outcomes", in Rickards, T., Moger, S. and Tassoul, M. (Eds) Impact, Impulse for Creative Action. EACI, The Netherlands. Hunt, S. (1991) Modern Marketing Theory; Critical Issues in the Philosophy of Marketing Science. Cincinatti: Southwestem Publishing Co. Janis, I. and Mann, T. (1977) Decision Making. New York Free Press. Johnson, D. (1955) The Psychology of Thought. New York: Harper & Row. Kahney, H. (i986) Problem Solving: A Cognitive Approach. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. Kaufmann, G. (1991) in Henry, J. (Ed.) Creative Management. SAGE. Kirton, M.J. (1994) revised edition, Adaptors and Innovators, Styles of Creativity and Problem Solving. London: Routledge. Kitchen, P.J. (1996) "Developing a Research Framework Inductive Vs Deductive?"; in press as chapter 16 in Public Relations: Principles and Practice, edited by Kitchen, P.J. London: Chapman & Hall. Kitchen, P.J. and Hackley, C. (1995) "Psychology, Creativity and Marketing Communications"; Working Papers in Management, Keele University, pp. 1-21. Koestler, A. (1964) The Act of Creation. Arkana. Kolodner, J. (1983) "Towards an Understanding of the Role of Experience in the Evolution from Novice to Expert", International Journal of ManMachine Studies, 19, pp. 497-518. Kuhn, T. (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago, Ill: University of Chicago Press. Langer, S. (1951) Philosophy in a New Key. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Larkin, J. (1981) Enriching Formal Knowledge; a Model for Learning to Solve Textbook Physics Problems, in Anderson, J. (Ed.) Cognitive Skills and Their Acquisition. LEA. Leythem, G. (1990) Managing Creativity. Peter Francis. Majaro, S. (1988) The Creative Gap. Longman. MacDonald, M. (1984) Marketing Plans. Heinemann. Marlow, H. (1994) "Intuition and Forecasting - A Holistic Approach", Long Range Planning, 27, 6, pp. 58-68. Mandler, G. (1962) "From Association to Structure", Psychological Review, 69, 415427. McCaskey, M. (1991) Mapping; Creating, Maintaining and Relinquishing Conceptual Frame-

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works; in Henry, J. (Ed.) Creative Management. SAGE. McKeithen, K., Raitman, J., Ruchter, H. and Hirtle, S. (1981) "Knowledge Organisation and Skill Differences in Computer Programmers", Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 13, pp. 307-325. Mills, C.W. (1959) The Sociological Imagination. New York: OUP. Mintzberg, H., Duru, R. and Theortet, A. (1976) "The Structure of Unstructured Decision Processes", Administrative Science Quarterly, 21, pp. 246-275. Murphy, G. and Wright, J. (1984) "Changes in Conceptual Structure with Expertise: Differences Between Real-World Experts and Novices", Journal of Experimental Psychology; Learning, Memory and Cognition, 10 (l),pp. 144-55. Newell, A. and Simon, H. (1972) Human Problem Solving. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Newell, A., Shaw, J. and Simon, H. (1979) The Processes of Creative Thinking; in Simon, H. (Ed.), Models of Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press. Nicholson, N. (1988) "Organizational Innovation in Context", in M.A. West and J.A. Farr (Eds.) Innovation and Creativity at Work (pp. 179-204). Chichester: Wiley. Osbom, A. (1963) Applied Imagination - Principles and Procedures of Creative Problem Solving. New York Charles Scribener's Sons. OShaugnessy, J. (1992) Explaining Buyer Behaviour - Central Concepts and Philosophy of Science Issues. New York OUP. Patten, A. (1959) "Top Management's Stake in a Product Life Cycle", The Management Review. New York McKinsey & Co. Pettigrew, A. and Whipp, R. (1991) Managing Changefor Competitive Success. Oxford: Blackwell. Polyani, M. (1978) Personal Knowledge. University of Chicago Press. Porter, M. (1980) Competitive Strategy - Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors. New York Free Press. Proctor, A. (1993) "Product Innovation: the Pitfalls of Entrapment", Creativity and Innovation Management, Vol. 2, No. 4, Dec. Proctor, A. and Ruocco, P. (1992) "Generating Marketing Strategies: A Structured Creative Decision Support Method, Management Decision, 30, 5, pp. 50-53. Quinn, J., Anderson, P. and Finkelstein, S. (1966) "Managing Professional Intellect: Making the Most of the Best", HBR, March-April, pp. 71-80. Reimann, P. and Chi, M. (1989) "Human Expertise", in Gilhooly (Ed.) Human and Machine Problem Solving. New York Plenum Press. Rickards, T. (1985) Stimulating Innovation - A Systems Approach. London: Frances Pinter. Rickards, T. (1996) "The Management of Innovation: Recasting the Role of Creativity", European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 5 (l),pp. 13-27. Rickards, T. and De Cock, C. (1994) "Creativity in MS/OR: Training for Creativity - Findings in a

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European Context”, ‘Interfaces’, 24, Nov.-Dec., pp. 59-65, Inst. of Management Sciences. Roe, A. (1953) “A Psychological Study of Eminent Psychologists, in Comparison With Biological and Physical Scientists”, Psychological Monographs, 67, 2. Rogers, E. (1962) Difision of Innovations. New York Free Press. Rogers, B. (1996) ”Predicting the Future is Good for Your Prophets”, People Management, April, p. 21. Rosch, E. (1975) ”Cognitive Representations of Semantic Categories”; Journal of Experimental PSycholo~,104 (3), pp. 192-223. Spearman, C. (1927) The Nature of Intelligence and the Principles of Cognition. MacMillan. Simon, H. (1977) The New Science of Management Decision. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Stemberg, R.J. (1990) The Nature of Creativity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Thomas, M.J. (1984) ”The Education and Training of Marketing Managers”; The Quarterly Review of Marketing, Spring, pp. 27-30.

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Tulving, E. (1972) Episodic and Semantic Memory; in Tulving, E. and Donaldson, W. (Eds.), Organisation of Memory. London: Academic Press. Wallas, G. (1931) The Art of Thought. London: Cape. Wamke, G. (1987) Gadamer-Hermeneutics, Tradition and Reason. Polity Press. Wertheimer, M. (1959) Productive Thinking. New York Harper & Row. Winch, P. (1990) The Idea of a Social Science and its Relation to Philosophy (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.

Christopher Hackley is Senior Lecturer in Marketing, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK. Dr. Philip J. Kitchen is Senior Lecturer at the Department of Marketing, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK.

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Should the Studies in Creativity be a Serious Scholarly Enterprise? A Continuation of a Friendly Discussion with Teresa Amabile and Scott G. Isaksen Istvan Magyari-Beck Background

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Heroism and creativity

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wenty five years ago I began to study the phenomenon of creativity in a small country (Hungary) isolated by its political system and international situation. My goal was to defend that precious ability of people who had faced permanent oppression, not only in my country, but in most cultures of the world as well (except for a few civilizations over very short historical periods). This precious ability we call creativity. The most striking fact (which I found studying the history of art, philosophy and sciences) was that those who also waited to come up with really new and valuable ideas had to have a strong and even heroic character. Although I was aware of the existence of special literature about creativity, my attention had long been focused first of all on the empirical data of creation deliberately intended to avoid the accumulation of the merely second-hand knowledge about the topic. From that time on I firmly preserved my interest in the real-life events of creativity and have always tried to compare the mirror image (literature) with the original givens. Step by step, Central Europe, and Hungary within it, became free. Consequently I was able to read more international literature published in my field of interest. I made a lot of comparisons between the results which the international literature reported and ``discoveries'' achieved by me in my isolated condition. Needless to say, I learned and am still learning a lot from the books and papers issued by creativity scholars outside my native land. However, one impression began

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to bother me gradually. It seemed to me that there existed a certain contradiction between the world-wide phenomenon of creativity with its inner variations on one hand, and the narrowness of perspective that the literature on creativity presents, on the other. However I regard this contradiction as a quite normal state of affairs, especially at the beginning of a science's historical career. The essence of development of a science and/or theory is nothing else than the process of approximation of the scope and complexity of its subject matter. This is why recently I picked up a few statements of some well-known creativity scholars and tried to look into the depth of this small sample of ideas in creativity. I firmly hoped that those distinguished creativity scholars with their well-established positions and authorities in the scientific community will accept at least the necessity of continuous enlargement of scientific and theoretical views based on the directions indicated through critical thinking.

The challenge paper Issue number 2 of the 1994 volume of this journal kindly published my paper ``Creativity Studies and Their Paradigmatic Background'' in which I raised the aforementioned problem in a more detailed manner. I got two interesting and valuable replies to my ``challenge paper'' (Tudor Rickards' term, personal communication). The first was written by Teresa M. Amabile: ``Recognizing Creativity: A Reply to Magyari# Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

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Beck'' (Creativity and Innovation Management, Number 4, 1994), the next one by Scott G. Isaksen: ``On the Conceptual Foundations of Creative Problem Solving: A Response to Magyari-Beck'' (Creativity and Innovation Management, Number 1, 1995). Although both articles disputed my own contribution in the spirit of scientific discussion, a thorough examination of their arguments shows that agreement between us is broader than the disagreements. Accordingly, I shall start this paper by pointing at the instances of agreement and only then at the differences in our view. In this manner, our discussions will hopefully approach a sort of fruitful cooperation. In fact, for me any honest scientific discussion (I had plenty of them in Hungary) has always involved cooperation. However, it is sometimes useful to reiterate the common ground.

Amabile's response Here, I shall first deal with Professor Amabile's article. This article has been written about a major issue of the identification of creative results: a problem which ± in my understanding ± has to be put in the focus of the whole science of creativity. On the other hand Amabile's response appeared first on the pages of the journal Creativity and Innovation Management. In her article Amabile writes: ``Like Magyari-Beck, I believe that creativity scholars must attempt to stretch beyond the bounds of our current theoretical concepts and methodological frameworks. And like him, I agree that we need more rigorous empirical research on creativity'' (ibid. p. 245). Thus, it can be recognised that we share a common goal. Now let us see how Amabile qualifies her ``operational'' definition of creativity product as an important methodological issue. ``It is also true that judgements of today's experts in a field might well differ from judgements of yesterday's ± or tomorrow's. Likewise, it is true that any assessments of products or ideas at the frontiers of any domain are likely unreliable''. (Amabile, ibid. p. 245.) This is almost a perfect expression of my own view also. However, this citation contains a much deeper truth which is very important to creativity scholars. Any creative results can be identified only in a certain frame of reference. It means that what is creative for a certain period of time or for a certain group of people (domain, culture and/or civilization) in space cannot only be noncreative for other periods or people but also directly disastrous for the latter. If we do not keep in our mind the relativism of creative product the

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whole domain of creativity will soon disappear from our sight. ``I would argue'' ± continues Amabile ± ``that ultimately, reliable identification of creativity levels at the contemporary boundaries of any domain is impossible'' (ibid. p. 245). Two questions are justifiable at this point. First, if we accept the relativism concerning the nature of any creative product and its level, then why would it be forbidden for us to accept the ultimate, reliable identification of creative result and its level ``at the contemporary boundaries of any domain''? Secondly, if Amabile refused the possibility of an ``ultimately reliable identification of creativity levels at the contemporary boundaries of any domain'' then why is she practising ``the consensual assessment technique'' which is nothing else than the identification of creativity and presumably its levels ``at the contemporary boundaries of any domain''? Does it perhaps mean that she has already given up the ``ultimate and reliable identification of creativity levels''? Maybe it is not so difficult to escape this contradiction. We can accept Amabile's ``consensual assessment technique'' but not as an ultimate and reliable identification of creativity and its levels per se, but as an ultimate and reliable identification of creativity and its levels within a given frame of reference. But if a community of scholars labels something as creative in a domain and in a period of time, this can mean nothing for another community of scholars. The most interesting example of the relativism of creativity discussed above and accepted also by Amabile is when this ``other community of scholars'' contains only one person. For example Giordano Bruno in the sixteenth century. In this particular case the method of identification of creativity and its level must be just the opposite of ``consensual assessment technique''. In this particular case the highly creative is what directly contradicts any results of the consensual assessment technique''. To our not very great surprise, those results which are accepted by the way of ``consensual assessment technique'' can nevertheless be creative, e.g. Giordano Bruno has not only stupid, but creative enemies as well. That is, something can be creative either if it is accepted by ``consensual assessment technique'' or if it is rejected by the ``consensual assessment technique''. Quod erat demonstrandum. Teresa Amabile herself is very familiar with the limitations of this ``operational'' method: ``Although we have successfully applied the consensual assessment technique to the work of professional artists, we have not attempted to use it for truly avant-garde work in any domain'' (p. 245). For the time being, it is

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The relativist nature of creativity

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amazing to what extent we: Teresa Amabile and myself are in a perfect agreement, in all likelihood, the only disagreement between us is in the manner of acceptance of the consensual assessment technique. Amabile accepted it explicitly as the ``operational'' definition of creativity, having ± nevertheless ± been aware of its limitations, whereas I shall not accept such a general ``operational'' definition which collapses vis-aÁ-vis the most interesting and the most difficult instances of my subject matter. ``Science involves the systematic search for regularities and the explication of those regularities'', says Amabile (p. 244). True. The only addition I am intending to put down here is that a discovery and/or an invention reported by one person or by two, three, etc. persons (in any event by a small minority within a given scientific community) which denies the widespread official view of the larger part of the community in question ± and consequently the consensus found in this community ± is the most important regularity in the domain of creativity. I am deliberately avoiding going into detail of the following question here: What is in fact measured frequently by the ``consensual assessment technique''. Creativity and its levels, or just their opposite, the conformism of an ``innovator'' ? The ``consensual assessment technique'' can work ± beyond question ± in the instances of ``small creativity''. Thus, it is usable to a certain degree. What we have to do is to go beyond it at our earliest convenience, preserving this method for the set of unimportant events in arts, philosophy, sciences and practical actions. Now, we are at the heart of our domain. Here, I was challenged by Teresa Amabile in the following way: ``Unfortunately . . . Magyari-Beck does not provide his own definition of creativity'' (p. 244). I am very grateful to Amabile for this challenging remark because it allows me to again come up with my position concerning this problem. This time, let me quote myself from one of my recent works: ``The first and perhaps most important research was done in the problem area of creativity products on the level of culture and society (square 1.3.1.1 of the matrix; Magyari-Beck, 1976). The result was that creative products help with the survival of the culture for which they are ``produced''. This thesis or hypothesis was published by me in Hungarian in one of my books (``Kiserlet a tudomanyos alkotas produktumanak interdiszciplinaris meghatarozasara'', Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, 1976) as early as 1976 and presented to the 1990 International Networking Conference on Creativity in Buffalo. My presentation was published in the book ``Understanding

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and Recognizing Creativity: The Emergence of a Discipline'' (1993), edited by Scott G. Isaksen, Mary C. Murdock, Roger L. Firestien, Donald J. Treffinger, Ablex Publishing Corporation, Norwood, New Jersey. In the same first part of this conference book one can find an interesting work by Hill and Amabile: ``A Social Psychological Perspective on Creativity: Intrinsic Motivation and Creativity in the Classroom and Workplace''. The hypothetical definition given in the quotation from my article can perhaps be generalized. In this respect everything which is problem-solving might be called creative, no matter that the problem be conscious or subconscious (in this latter case the presence of a problem is indicated by the conscious activity of idea generation which serves the solution of the subconscious problem). Only the blind stereotypes (both individual or social) fall outside of the scope of creativity. I am creative in the subjective sense if I solve the problems which are only my own. By these solutions I serve my own survival. I am creative on the group level if I solve the problems of a team. By these solutions I serve the survival of that team. I am creative on the level of organization if I solve organizational problems. By these solutions I serve the survival of an organization, e.g. on the market. Most of today's creative studies have been conducted in the framework of organizations and corporations. Finally, I am creative on the level of cultures and civilizations if I solve the latter's problems. By these solutions I serve the survival of a culture or civilization. Keep in mind the relativist nature of creativity which is valid also in these vertical relationships. For example, certain organizational innovations can be disastrous for certain cultures. Unfortunately, our days are full of international conflicts of this kind. But, also, my hypothetical definition of creativity and its levels is only a conceptual one. Thus Amabile's question should be accepted by me as a valid one: ``What operational definition of creativity would Magyari-Beck have us adopt?'' (p. 245). Well, it has to be admitted that at present, I myself have no operational definition of creativity which would ± as any normal operational definition does ± connect the conceptual level with the level of empirical treatment of the facts concerned. For the time being, I have only a proposal, an idea of a research project for elaborating such an operational definition of creativity through its results. According to this proposal or idea, we shall have to work out a multidimensional questionnaire ± with a sequence of decision-making almost in a form of a precise algorithm ± which has to be filled in by the

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experts of a domain in which the result to be evaluated belongs. The method I am thinking of ``enforces'' the right answer from the knowledgeable experts, slamming the door against human weaknesses of envy, laziness, conformism, prejudice, and so on. Unfortunately, these weaknesses have always played a substantial role in the (by the way, historically well-known) ``consensual assessments'' of creative results and the highly creative people. To my mind there is no reason for urging practical actions in a domain before a firm theoretical foundation has been laid down. The first serious scientific ideas on the possibilities of space flight were elaborated by the great English physicist Isaac Newton in his famous work entitled ``De motu corporum, liber secundus'' and written in Latin in 1683±84. But it took centuries for the application of these ideas into the practice of actual space flight . . .

Isaksen's response It was extremely interesting to read Professor Scott G. Isaksen's paper: ``On the Conceptual Foundation of Creative Problem Solving: A Response to Magyari-Beck''. This paper contains in fact the material to form a large book in a very condensed form. A part of one of its first statements is central to the present discussion: ``. . . I thoroughly agree with . . . call for critical thinking with regard to studies in creativity . . .'' (p. 52). Why is this statement so important for today's studies in creativity? Particularly because it has been announced by one of the leading scholars and perhaps the most prominent manager of creative studies. The reason is comparatively simple. Since Alex Osborn came up with a technical proposal of ``deferred judgement'' (applicable in the framework and during brainstorming sessions), many scholars of the field tended to overgeneralize this strictly technical guideline and use it as an organizing principle of the community of creativity scholars. But the history of sciences and humanities shows that it is impossible for a discipline to develop in a healthy way without critical reasoning. This is so obvious that there is no reason for further elaboration on it. I suspect that some of my colleagues from the field are anxious about the ``psychological climate'', and this is what leads them to prefer the avoidance of mutual criticism within our community. My opinion on this point is absolutely different. Conflicts and debates won't make worse a good psychological climate, if they (conflicts and debates) occur precisely in the respect of objective subject matter and do not even

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touch upon the subjective personal side of those working together. If I appreciate and like my colleague then no objective scientific debate between us is able to put an end to this fruitful and pleasant relationship. The words of Professor Donald Treffinger cited by Scott G. Isaksen in his response also reflect my opinion: ``The issue is not that we lack a definition of creativity, for in fact, there are many definitions of creativity throughout the social and behavioural sciences, literature and philosophy. The major issue is that there has been no widely accepted structural framework or synthesis among the models and definitions before us; as Kaufmann (1993) also argues, there is little or no conceptual clarity in the field'' (p. 56). In my opinion, this constellation calls for a careful selection of the readily usable approaches and also for their synthesis, which is unimaginable without a thorough critical evaluation of our theses vis-aÁ-vis the empirical facts and each other. Director and Professor Scott G. Isaksen is interested first of all in the CPS technique. This is quite understandable for me, as The Center for Studies in Creativity at State University College in Buffalo has been developing the CPS method for a long time to such an extent and with such a great success that it would not be an exaggeration to regard CPS not as a simple technique. Today, CPS is more like a large creative technology. As a result of this hard and extended work ``CPS was identified as good for all problems and revered by many of its proponents to the level of religion or panacea'' (p. 58). In my opinion, two factors can stop this process of over-estimation. First, the CPS inability to solve the problems beyond its competence (a limitation from below); secondly, the examination of its theoretical (paradigmatical) background (a limitation from above), which sooner or later introduces the ``conceptual clarity'' Treffinger and Kaufmann are claiming (see the corresponding citation above). As I am not an active practitioner of this wonderful technique (or technology), the only way I can proceed is through the conceptual examination and analysis of CPS. This can be my contribution to the question also raised by Treffinger and Kaufmann in a general sense. Having tried to reproach this endeavour, I expressed myself in the following way: ``The main characteristic of CPS method is the sequence of idea generation and idea selection by the participants'' (p. 107 of my ``challenge paper''). Isaksen's response to this sentence is as follows: ``I cannot accept the assertion that the main characteristic of CPS is the sequence of idea generation and idea selection by the participants'' (p. 52).

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Instead as he says ``The process within the stages of CPS alternates between divergent and convergent thinking'' (p. 53). It is relatively easy to find the source of minor misunderstanding between us. We simply gave two different meanings to the word ``idea''. I have to admit that Professor Isaksen uses the term ``idea'' in a very special sense, as it is actually used in the literature on the CPS technique. Idea generation and idea selection is ± according to the relevant literature ± only one of the stages in the CPS process. While I myself am using the notion of idea in a much wider sense. For me the ``idea'' is a meta-term. Mess, problem, acceptance, data, and so on, all are based on the ideas and are ideas themselves. Or rather, are special cases of ideas. Even if I accepted this part of the CPS terminology (which would be very difficult for me), it would be necessary to coin a meta-term for the various products of different CPS stages. This is a logical necessity. In the conclusion to Professor Isaksen's article we find the following sentences. ``There are numerous paradigms and theoretical foundations of CPS. It would be worthwhile to make them explicit and then examine their role in shaping research and practice. Magyari-Beck's article, although well-intentioned, contributes little towards the ends because the major theoretical paradigms underpinning CPS were never identified'' (p. 60). The first two sentences of this conclusion say what I myself was saying in my article. However, it is difficult for me to understand the third sentence of this conclusion. Because, why should I wait for the identification of ``the major theoretical paradigms underpinning CPS'' in order to make my proposal ± namely to discover them ± valuable? Not to speak of the fact that it was I who raised first or almost the first the question of importance of identification of ``the major theoretical paradigms underpinning CPS''. Of course cooperation of the scholars in our field is needed to complete this task. I myself am only one scholar among the many, with restricted conditions. Thus,

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my contribution can only be a modest one. Having admired the rich and detailed picture of CPS Professor Isaksen gave us, I still have no reason to give up my (hypo)thesis according to which one of the basic ± or perhaps the most important ± paradigm behind the CPS method is the random generation of ± so to say ± ``mental results'' (for myself: Ideas, until we find a better meta-term) and their reduction. This is clearly an application of a well known and successful western way of thinking and acting.

Conclusions What kind of conclusion can I arrive at? Reading the responses to my ``challenge paper'' I have the impression that Amabile, Isaksen and myself are in a perfect agreement as far as the essence of the questions raised in my work are concerned. Moreover, Amabile even outlined a much more detailed and much more critical picture about ``the consensual assessment technique'' than I did. It also seemed to me that Professor Isaksen accepted the challenge of a deeper theoretical and critical examination of an otherwise brilliant CPS method. As for the numerous details of the responses, I found them very useful and usable in the course of further work both on the definition of creativity and CPS. The science of creativity (which I call creatology) has to reach the standard level of well established sciences. This is a common interest of all the scholars in this field. The intention of my paper was and is to help with reaching this standard level. I am convinced that if not my contribution, then the responses, could really contribute significantly to this end.

Istvan Magyari-Beck is Professor at the Budapest University of Economics, Hungary.

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Book of the Quarter Reviewed by Tudor Rickards Weick, K.E. (1995) Sensemaking in organizations, softback, 231pp, £14.95. ISBN 0-8039-7177-X, reference, author, and subject indexes, Sage, Thousand Oaks, Ca.

K

arl Weick occupies a highly venerated position among behavioural academics for a lifetime's work that has had a shaping effect on social psychology. His classic The Social Psychology of Organizing (1977) ranks among the most quoted textbooks in the field. One of his recurring interests has been the manner in which we make sense of our worlds. The interest recurs in his examinations of the nature of complex organisations, and their pathologies, such as humanly mediated disasters. Here the author contributes to a series of monographs for students of organisational studies. His own view is that sense-making `is best described as a developing set of ideas with explanatory possibilities, rather than a body of knowledge' (p. xi).

Sense-making, interpretation and metaphoric thinking Weick has arrived at a coherent and lucid appreciation of a notion which he explores in depth and with considerable elegance of style. At its core, it presents sense-making as a process of particular salience in situations of uncertainty, and resulting in some surprising conceptualisation or reconceptualisation. In these terms sense-making has features commonly associated with the creative process. The context of sense-making is one in which the discovery involves a personal jolt or shock ± perhaps because of something experienced that was not expected, or perhaps because something did not happen that should have happened (`The dog that did not bark in the night', in the famous Sherlock Holmes story). It may be helpful to distinguish this from interpretation, which according to Weick is closer to the legal process of revealing that which was there to be uncovered or recovered. His argument is subtle and recognises overlap in usage of the two concepts. `The key distinction is that sense-making is about the # Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

ways people generate what they interpret' (p. 13). Nor is sense-making intended to be taken metaphorically. In this the author differs from a view that has been advanced (Morgan et al, 1983).

Aspects of sense-making Seven distinguishing characteristics of sensemaking are presented: The constituting elements reveal a process that is: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Grounded in identity construction Retrospective Enactive of sensible environments Social Ongoing Focused on and by extracted cues Driven by plausibility rather than accuracy (p. 17)

The historical roots of sense-making are dealt with quite remarkably. First Weick makes it clear that consistent with sensemaking, any historical account risks retrospective reinterpretations influenced by biases and ignorance. He then provides a chronological list of over fifty key references that cry out for a whole book of readings based on them. The list starts with William James' observation that selectivity and salience are essentials of consciousness. Other early influences include George Mead, and Roethlisberger and Dickson's theories of organisational reality as meanings attached to objects. Festinger's theory of dissonance reduction through sense-making is followed by March and Simon's notion of organisational routines that free up attention for disturbance handling. More recent work includes Berger and Luckmann's model of social reality as taken for granted patterns of action; Gidden's structuration theory and Mintzberg's emergent strategy approach. Weick makes it clear that he does not consider there to be `a theory of organizations that is characteristic of the sense-making

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paradigm. Nevertheless there are ways to talk about organizations that allow for sensemaking to be a central activity in the construction of both the organization and the environments it confronts' (p. 69). This meta-theoretical point is not elaborated upon. His earlier remark that sense-making is a developing set of ideas with explanatory possibilities suggests at the very least there are the beginnings of a theory of organizational sense-making struggling to find voice. There is one pervasive difficulty I encountered in the book that has something to do with the activities of making sense of one's own social realities, and the double-looped process of making sense of other people's sense making. For this or some other reason I did at times lose track of whether Weick was dealing with making sense in the former or latter mode.

Sense-making and innovation Within this analysis of sense-making, Weick suggests that `organisational forms are the bridging operations that link the intersubjective with the generically intersubjective. And it is these bridging operations that fit best with descriptions of sensemaking' (p. 72). Earlier in the argument he makes use of a stratified model of sense-making. Individuals make sense of their internalised beliefs at the intrasubjective level; individuals in and through communicating can make sense at the interpersonal level. At these levels we have the makings of a team, and `beyond' that there is a level of shared norms, and the emergence of a social structure. (Realists can conceive of a level `above' the generic subjective, in the realm of highly abstracted notions and phenomena.) Weick makes some very interesting points about innovation in this passage. He points out that the widely held view of organisations is in tension between innovation and control. In this view innovation is regarded as intersubjective, and control as at the abstracted or generic level. The bridging function of organisational forms has much to do with sustaining the forces of individually created innovations, and institutional means of preserving continuity. It is at the interpersonal level that there is scope for (organisational) creativity. `The creative potential of intersubjectivity is precisely what people like Tom Peters . . . fear will get lost when managers shift from management by walking around . . . to email and management by screening around . . . Control drives out innovation, organization becomes synonymous with control' (p. 73).

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Occasions for sensemaking Problems have no physical reality despite their widespread treatment as such. Indeed, problems offer scope for a sense-making treatment. Weick prefers to avoid an identity between the two constructs, as problems imply solutions, and that is the end of that. However, the general idea is that problems can fit into a wider notion, if only as `occasions for sense-making'. In the creativity literature this relates to the work on problemsensing, and problem finding. Two important aspects of the process being explored are the context of disruption of a flow of activity, and the consequential processes of coping. Sense-making also makes do with fewer cues, so that uncertainties are psychologically dealt with at one level at the cost of increased levels of arousal, and stress, and decreased performance. A multitude of examples of human errors in disasters follow such a pattern. Here is the downside of sensemaking ± a reduction in rationality when rationality would have survival value, and when gut feel or intuition is not so much creative but over-narrow. In this chapter on occasions for sensemaking Weick emphasises the creation through sense-making that accompanies disasters. He does, however, hint at the coping mechanisms of invention of what had previously been unreal. These occasions, presumably, are potential disasters for the status-quo. The loneliness of the inventor, the intrapreneur, the leader is as well accounted for in these terms as in more frequently offered formulations. I was reminded of the Schumpterian description of innovation, the entrepreneurial gift to the world, as accompanied by gales of creative destruction.

The substance of sensemaking So much of sensemaking about sensemaking attracts our attention to the process at the expense of the stuff that is being processed. For Weick, the essential stuff is symbolic, which he tends to associate primarily with discourse, words in action. In a powerful analysis following Perrow he returns to the issue of organisational control, at direct and indirect levels. Indirect control is exercised through premises, which informally relate to assumptions or mind-sets. In this approach, paradigms become vocabularies for action and control, as do new technological structures that support the third-order constraints rather than challenge them.

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BOOK OF THE QUARTER

Thinking and acting Various forms of sense-making can be understood as connecting together beliefs and actions through social processes. Here the account is split up into two sorts of sensemaking starting from beliefs, and two sorts of sense-making starting from actions. The first deals with sense making involving arguing around beliefs. (Weick tends to use the active sense of verbs rather than the abstractive noun forms, as a deliberate point to emphasise processes and activity over structures and permanence.) The second is sense-making involving expecting. (Or around expectations, which though uglier, is sadly a term widely in use.) The action-driven processes involve committing, a process emerging from the actions within organisations; and manipulating. In spirit, much that is written/enacted about involvement and empowerment (to sneak in two terms in the abstract noun form that Weick dislikes), captures the committing process, much as vision and re-engineering captures the manipulating one. These descriptions in the book are from thoughtful sources and insightful, although I would have liked more integration, for example in considering meetings at which arguing and expecting dance in and out of the spotlight. From my own sense-making, these processes of beliefs and actions are so interpenetrating as to make the concept of a starting point important and conceptually tricky. That being said, the four kinds of belief/action connection outlined are worth careful examination.

Making sense of sensemaking The reviewer need not stick totally to a sensemaking perspective of the book. To do so would be to risk a category error. I may, for example, be interested in sense-making as an example of a dangerously faddish notion that opposes well-established methods of investigation of human behaviours at individual and social group levels, say within the disciplines of psychology and sociology. The book succeeds for me in its declared intention of triggering off a sense-making process in the reader. In that respect the reader does not have to make sense in the same way as does the author. For example, I would have liked more regarding the necessary and sufficient ways in which vocabulary connects to processes of change. The case for argumentation might have at

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least nodded towards more radical views of organisational tensions expressed by members of the critical school of theorists (see Alversson and Wilmott, 1996, for a recent introduction). Is sense-making something worth investing some time and effort in? Or, to shift metaphor, is it a dark horse, not at all fancied in the academic respectability stakes, but perhaps worth a side-bet? Or is the horse a rather well-shaped and eye-catching novice in the parade ring, but with little to support its high-spirited appearance? It comes from a good stable, and has an impressive pedigree, and is particularly well turned out. There may be a doubt about its lack of track record in the most prestigious academic events, although this may be excused on the grounds that it has never been given many chances of competing with the entries from better regarded stables. As reviewer turned tipster I have some strong positive feelings towards this particular nag. To return to a more literal mode, I suggest that Weick has made sense of sense-making, and communicated his sense-making so as to present a case for it to be taken seriously. Much that occupies researchers into creativity and innovation takes on a very different appearance when approached from a sense-making perspective. I began to make a case for this recently describing innovation as `the process whereby individuals enact new social procedures; creativity [as] the associated process in which the meanings of the enactments are discovered and labelled' (Rickards, 1996: 13). Weick's contribution provides a means of taking these and related ideas far further ± so that new sense might be made of and through them.

Connecting beliefs and actions

References Alversson, M. and Wilmott, H. (1996) Making sense of management: A critical introduction. Sage, London. Morgan, G., Frost, P., and Pondy, L.R. (1983) `Organizational Symbolism'. In L.R. Pondy, P. Frost, G. Morgan and T. Dandridge (Eds.), Organizational Symbolism. Greenwich, CT, JAI Press, pp. 3±35. Rickards, T. (1996) `The management of innovation: recasting the role of creativity', European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol 5 No 1, pp. 13±27. Weick, K.E. (1979) The Social Psychology of Organizing, 2nd edn. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.

Tudor Rickards

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Book Reviews David L. Collinson and Jeff Hearn (eds) (1996) Men as Managers, Managers as Men, Masculinities and Management, ISBN 0-8039-8929-6 paperback, 275pp. Sage Publications, London, £13.95

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s the title suggests, this book examines why the male ``empire'' in management in most organisations in most countries, whether developed or developing, persists both in ``theory'' and ``practice''. The issue of gender relations in organisations and the consequences of the relationship between male and female employees in organisations and their positions in organisations are dealt with critically. This book is the collective efforts of a group of contributors who are experts in their respective areas of expertise such as sociology, organisational behaviour, gender relations, accounting and business law, humanities and history. They offer a diversity of perspectives when addressing the issues of masculinity, its underlying mechanism as well as its interrelationship with management and organisations that help to perpetuate the male dominance in managerial positions. This book is organised into twelve chapters. The editors present Chapter 1 with an introduction on men in management, their dominance in managerial positions, hence the disadvantaged positions of females generally and in management in particular, amidst the claim of increasing participation of women in the labour force. A very brief account of the focus of each of the remaining eleven chapters is given for the benefit of readers. Chapters 2 to 5 concentrate on the theoretical aspects of gender, men and masculinity

while the remaining chapters are empiricalbased, looking into organisational and managerial dynamics, processes and practices within specific settings. For example, Rosslyn Reed (Chapter 6) examines paternalism and entrepreneurialism in the Australian context while Kate Mulholland looks at entrepreneurialism based on data collected from a Midlands county of England. Management practices in corporations and educational establishments throw light on how these practices reinforce power which is a constitutive aspect of gender relations in organisations, which in turn determines the disadvantaged positions of women, vis-aÁ-vis men. Overall, this is an excellent book that examines incisively the dominance of men in management and the underlying organisational structure and dynamism that ``protect'' and perpetuate this dominance. It has its advantage in being both theoretical and empirical when addressing the issues of men, masculinity and management. However, a chapter on management practices in an Asian context would make the book more complete. Fon Sim Ong Division of Business Administration Faculty of Economics and Administration University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Beth Rogers (1996) Creating Product Strategies, ISBN 0-415-13256-8, 154pp, International Thompson Business Press, London, £9.99 This is an easy to read book on marketing management for marketing managers. The advantage of this book lies with its effort to integrate creativity with marketing, outlining the importance of creativity in new product ideas. Drawing on her vast experience, the author offers many examples on new product

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development besides providing answers to the ``how to do it'' question on product and service innovation. Exercises are extensively included for the benefit of practitioners. The book is divided into seven chapters with a summary at the end of every chapter. In Chapter 1, the author talks about creativity # Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1997. 108 Cowley Road, Oxford OX4 1JF and 350 Main St, Malden, MA 02148, USA.

BOOK REVIEWS

and its impact on product strategies with emphasis on invention. The treatment on creativity, and how creativity can be used to advantage for new product ideas seems to me to be too brief. She then goes on to discuss teams and the different roles needed in team work in order to build a creative product development team. The roles proposed in the book are very similar to the ones developed by Belbin. The first part of Chapter 2 is about a technique called forced recombinations that can be applied to encourage a high volume of abstract new product ideas whereas the second part explores examples of need-based innovation. Put differently, she has treated product-led innovation in the first part of the chapter (though brief) leaving market driven innovation to the second part. Different types of needs are classified using a two-dimensional approach: ``number of users'' and ``degree of risk''. A needs analysis checklist is provided to help managers to find solutions to customer needs that they (their organisations) are trying to fulfill. This is followed by an analysis of product development approach that can be employed to best develop the product. In Chapter 3, she discusses ways to define and perfect the product core. At this point, she puts forward a technique known as ``murder-boarding'' for scrutinising product ideas. She then examines the concept of ``core benefit'' by offering eight dimensions of quality that can be used to assess the likely benefit that the new product concept can offer. Intangibles and services form the main areas of discussion for Chapter 4. Many examples are given to demonstrate the importance of intangibles and services in developing a ``winning'' product. In Chapter 5, she explores the possible variations to a product concept. This is to enable organisations to identify a range of

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products to meet the differing customer tastes for a bigger slice of the market, and at the same time extending the product life-cycle. Techniques for product variations are included. At the end of the chapter, a table containing a summary of the service/intangibles life-cycle variations indicating product life-cycle style, customer type, service levels and intangibles helps readers to better understand the chapter. Chapter 6 is about strategy development. Here the 5Ps (with an additional P called ``people'' added by the author) of marketing are dealt with though the treatment of theory is remarkably lacking compared to the practical considerations of the marketing mix elements. Before concluding the chapter, the author talks about strategic adjustments throughout the product life-cycle that managers must consider. Implementation issues (risk assessment and contingencies) are discussed in Chapter 7. Before going into details of the implementation issues, she discusses employing the force field analysis to examine the factors that help/hinder implementation. For gauging the risk element she has suggested using the impact and probability scales. The implementation issues that managers must be mindful about include strategic fit, product advantage, market opportunities, etc. She concludes the book by reminding readers about the importance of offering a good product, i.e., product really matters. The obvious target market for this book is the practitioners. The many exercises and techniques are worth trying for those who want to make things happen. Fon Sim Ong Division of Business Administration Faculty of Economics and Administration University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

M. Alverson and H. Wilmott (1996) Making Sense of Management: a Critical Introduction, paper, ISBN 0-839-8389-1, 256pp, Reference and contents indexes, Sage, London, £13.99 Alverson and Wilmott have set out to introduce to students of management a broad treatment that falls under the rubric Critical Theory (CT). The distinguishing features of CT include a belief in the need for critical challenge to the taken-for-granted aspects of organisational life, together with a belief that many of the taken-for-granted aspects derive

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from a world-view that diminishes and dehumanises employees. Through challenge, and rising self-awareness, participants may find means of understanding and changing their conditions. The authors examine a range of management disciplines from this perspective, demonstrating its explanatory value. In this

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way they can certainly be said to be engaging in sense-making. The material was presumably prepared at roughly the same time as Weick's 1995 book on sense-making (reviewed above). Here is one particular approach for making sense ± that is also the content of that sense-making. That is to say, Alverson and Wilmott describe the sense made through a CT treatment as evidence of the potency of CT as sense-making vehicle. The constructed view of organisations seems to me to approach some of the realities of unequal power distribution that are glossed over within the rhetoric of participation and empowerment delighting the customer and the unthinking acceptance of the positive laws of economics and competition. The authors are scholarly, and provide a valuable document for those wishing to

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explore Critical Theory. The material, in vocabulary and style, seems more likely to appeal to managerial researchers rather than practitioners. This suggests an opportunity that leading critical theorists seem to disdain or feel unable to act upon. In what more potent ways might Critical Theory be introduced more directly into organisational life? Might there be some sense in deploying irony directly at those suffering organisational imprisonment? Perhaps wall posters for that space above the duplicating machine? Or maybe a new genre of CT management books such as `The One-Minute Critical Practitioner'? Why not? We have nothing to lose but the iron cage of rationality. Tudor Rickards

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