Postcolonial Developments: Agriculture in the Making of Modern India

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'0

AgTlrian

Populi. m

!i'9

[0110"-;113 ~Ir -. b rmer'5 son" ",ould hot.! 1M flag o"~r 1M RnI Fon. He was no doube ... ferring 10 lhe: impending deuion, Aimostldentkai language is found among 1000l_ln~lltado:rs of tho: Kisan Union. At a m..,ting of lhe Dlnpur bn.n.ch in Bulandshahr. 0'" of IN: Ioc:all~adcrs .. !d,"On th. day thaI a farmcr~ SOn unfurls the flll! ovcr the Red Fon . thaI Is the d.oy ,.iKn OUr souls will sing,"'" Once agoin. thaI it should be: • farnu:r's son is n.ot O:ven an \ssll(, 80th 1M fa",...r and 1M poli. ially a'lttndolll offspring I ... assum..! 10 ht m.le. Male dts«nt Is pan of • larg<:r disooourse aboul llu: gend'" SJl«ifio'y of lint"&<', In which boY" inMrit the qllllilie< of their fathe" and girls those of lheir mothe,.,. Explaining why he: chose 10 stay apart f.,.,m. but not Ajh Singh. the son of Char.ln Singh, who originally found..! the: u o. TIbil ..id thal M had nolhing .pinst Ajil Singh. He did not like AJ lt Slngh~ ronfidants and OMOCialtS, ~r, He poinlw om lhal Iu: oouldn\ ~Ibly OPpo$<' Aji. Singh bttousc: of his dt$.t:ent, empha_ siling 1M point with a ..ylng'

""pose.

A gi.l~ like her mother; A son his f.,Iu: •. If "". much. Alle.. t a touch.'" with Raj; .. Gandhi~ I"'tcrnalllne was lherdon cnlinly ronsis.o:nt wllh Ihi:!t view of • gendertd genealogy. Anotlu:. way in which 10 vicw bow discouTSc$ of gender "'en: Com · plc:tcly na,u""liz..! is to ronsidtt their use in de.ling with subordinale groups. When asked what his organiz.tlon had done 10 help harijon •. TIkait I't.'lponded with . ,elling anall>g)C"Show me one instance In Ihis villoge of any barijon bring Iutrassffi and ' M .gg~r going unpun· ished. We.ro: oompassionale I"".. rd harijans. As fat.s ('Cuy quamls go. even husband and wife art en' itltd to tbem. People mertly U.tgger. a1< discom htotus< they walll to politicize ncrything." '" Hen: is a m mspositlon that exp!icitly equales social domination 10 gender In· equalities. TIu:rt: is no doube who is positioned as the .....·If.· in Ibe "ptlty '1uatTtls" bet",een 5uppon u s of ,he Kisan Union and harijon•. Whol 1 havc OUemplw to demonstr.lte in thi:!t s«tlon is ,hat the ve..,.. thclOlic which MIps eonsolldale 8harll IS a counterhegemonic popu· !iMn and ... IIiell m.kes ilS opposition 10 "India" evident Is built (m ecruin powerful exd uslons. Whcrtas in Ihe las, ""'Iion t ""plortd 'he limilS of unIty in 1M face of existing t.... ions, In this one I locus on lhe silen.ttS and evasions of "pcas.antist" discourse, TM complelo:ly uken· TIblt ~ roncern

for-granted , commonsensical d islon of place with p"uiarchy in IN: construCtion of Bh.r.tt has s-:rions impHcatiOns for gf'n
""ot.

no. W_

'_1 ....."'. In,,,, " ••,,11•• _11sM'"

The rclali~.J)· stable food regime ,hal op
ohorugu and inl\alionary prius. Tbis gon olbtr coun"i~ sucb as Brazil. which had can:fully nurtured surpluses will. • policy Ihal mixtd protKlion and lUb5idlt$, a cban« 10 win a significant marktt shar~ in hilh valut-adm the twin shoclts of skyrocu tlng grain and petroltum pr;cts, (Mtan_ while. \0 meet tM Soviet demand. American farmers borrowed 10 upaJ\d ope, 'Iions. lripling I~ farm debt in ,he '97<>5 alo .... !Friedmann ' 99J,.... I.J Tho I«ond group coMisled of COUIlln.s .... ch as Brazil and lnd;.,. which bad .....:cessful!)· "rn a variety of suppliu s. Tho co11apoc of Iht Soviet maru t in t~ 19k>s not only dron highly Indcblcd U.s. f.rmtrs into b.ankrup"y in rtrom numboors bu, .\so) ItI, a WO)rid rnarht in ",hich there ,...." both ~.tcr competition among no· tlonal agric:u hu~ and tlgb ter Interconnections f<>
""mc

""mc

I...

P-.:oloftial o.wlop .... n..

T~

""""ktt.lrt<:r.dly" rtforms lhol "Sl prolCSl lrom Th ird \\\)rld nation· otat.,. deal with biog""etic ,"",,«<s.I " Th. combined .ffect 01 I~ two changes h;os bttn ,hal in such na'lon_stat"" as India. wh . ... agricultunl policy lor ""et IWO .des h;os stcadily pUf"med Ih. gO>.I of nalional ",II-su!ficitncy, the agnorion seclor has bttn Ih"",... inlO lurmoil. Slructun) adjustmenl and the CATT hav~ split the populist farmor groups described .~ inlO f",, _ tion'! "'hieh suppon lhe Irtt ma,k.1 aoo Ih_ which 01'P""" il;n Ih~ name 01 nali"". li ..... .... pccli'·.ly. Biotechnology and th. ha"'''''ling of bio8(nctiC r<5Our<:t"j han introducul fun""r unce .. alnl;'" intO the pic_ lure. Finall)·. 'he ill(:o'l"''''lion of Indian agricuhu ... ln lo glu-bal markets \hrou~ mull inalional ""piIOI has jUM Mgun in ea....,;l . ...·i,h the ~nlry of P< psko.nd the giant Inding company. Cargill. inlO the pIeIU.... The """"rian ""'0' in India .. Inch on Ihe brink of . major SlNCIU"'! lro Mformalion. In ,,·hleh the connkts .nd confromltion'! d<:§Cribed abo,'. will be transformed by Ihe IntroduCtion "I new Is
Imp!icatiolL'i of policy shiflll for th~ ~~~ryda}- li~c:o; of ru",1 propl"', "'e loa"" to begin with the kind of map of the comple ~ kle<>logical field that 1 Iu,,,,, auempud to d",w h<:""

C-"..hIn this chaptoogh llut,-. conc..", ... tcd on SOme people in WCSI.~rn Utu. Pt-adcsh that 1 grew 10 know particularly wen. my p i has bttn to (onvey I broader $COS< of wh.t the !i'-N upericnc. of modunity might bc liko: in I postcolonial ""\ling. \\fhat . sp:clfica lly, is it about po5lOOlonial conditkms ,hal cnoblcs US to spt:_1t of "ahmo,iw modernltlC$"j I haw l'llUN that any"'''''''' to thot question muSt begin by k..,plng tl>< relalionship bttW1:en mode.nity and ,u,wlopmcn! in ,he fo"'groond. Tht pu",.,... of !hi< chapter has bun to ",nablish lhal one of the dimensions in which the cxperience of modernity in the Third World is signlftCIntly dine",nt than in 1M West is thotl $C~ of undcrdcvelopmml, of beillg "behind: of beillg " not IIkc" powerful Others. is • constitutl"" feature of soc;;,1 and pnll,kal life. t ha", uplornl how plrticular "'pn:Mnllltions of modunlly ( mbcddcd in natTItivos of dev.lopment dn:\llal~ ill Ig......n populism. Rathe. than seeing "dc""lopmcnuli:sm" '" a hcgcmonic idcclogy st"'iglufor..."rdly employ...! b)' a COItlilion of ntling clas...., I demon· SI."'I~ its intCTJUtI fi_...,..nd its romcntiou. redeplo)'JllC'nt in the disrourxs of .n'iurbo.n. rich pusan' groups. n ... .-do ... one has to be

coldul in assc:n ing thaI then is somt'h;ng aboot dtvdopm~nt Ihlt is Inhenntly l.gitlmaling of « no;n clas5l'S and stCIors. In bringing tog< .go.:ultu... 1 S«10 •. An u"""rslinding of III< broader diocYrsive !\tId of dtvdopment discou .... and th< role of "scientific" .gricultun within il. for example , qualifits Ih. d.bate about wh.ther the gn.n ....olution Im~ On lndi. by ul~mal a.ctQrs for ~rotegic rtaSO'" and 10 promote the tmo< """P' " Iulion 0 1 na,ionalagrkullural policy In India in lhe siI,its pn>mptcd • •hlft In the Institution and ",ctlcs of pasant politi<$, global d umges In Ihe .. cent plI" have cnll~ and ...i ll conlinue 10 enalc new ,ransna' tlo .... I . III.neG of pu,sa", groups and others who.n: .ITox.. d by t~ changes. And JUSt as populism has btcn appropnaltd and lurned api ..... ruling "'gimes, 50 ...ill COnt.,.tatio"" of tI.. "markel·friendly" Ideologles of muhllat .... 1 Institutions .nd multi""tio""l corpo ... tions shapt Illt ""Iu .. of II>< emerging world ~)'S\em . I have monly him~ . ,,""'" Ihem.,. h.", : Ihei. IlIto"'li",1 impo1Uncc is drown oul in Chap'er s.

w.o.

Agrarian Populism ' '''S

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lvingo>..:lShot 11K village: , 11101 off ch~ bus 0' 1M nul slop aoo walktd ba<:k lo,.,."rd Allpur. An oldcr worruo.n Mad;ng in lhe sam~ di=tion asked me .. host I>ou.., I """. going 1o. For " .... I

H

of. bttln IIlS'A'cr. I sald. -rhe: hcadman~." "Which """r she dcm.~. "we Nove 1"'0 headmen in DIll vill~_IM lI,adm." of 1M lhaku~.nd

t'"

1M headman of bnhmiUS." In this ..... nru:r. eve .. "'d or'< (n«ring AHpur, I ""d bttn Introduced 10 lis po[U;Clt divisions. A snun vi11. in ...·mom Un a, F'rodah WhOM population " ... oppmxim,ucl y $tven hundred pwplt in '914 (Stt Tablt . ), Alipu. had ..,on major changes not only in farming pnctic.. ond ,cchni'lUC5 but .Iso in II><: emln pancm 0/ >illagc lif., Including l<>eol politics as. COr>Scquence of lht wld<:sprud lOdo ptlon of high_yielding variclia of .... hul. In ,his chapter I .l!tmpt lO ,rac. ,he ",lllionship bctwun thesc poll,;c,a! divisions and ,h. high. yieldlng va,icli.. of ",hu.t Ilad dl705l.ically .Itered /OI'1Jl5 0/ agnculturt in Alipur. I argued in Chap", I th,u lilt postcOlonial condl\ion fo' ru",1 people in India necds w be collCtplUlHud "ilhin Ihrtt macrological rro",..,.-dtvdopmtnl. global apilalism. aOO lechnologies of food. production . Thest mi crologies inl,,~cltd In 1M glttn ... ",,1U\00n and in "It"""n populism_ EarlieT. I demollSlTII. ho ..... shaped by considcrolio"" of ""lio...1..,,,,,mgnty and compcthi"" ClecWT101 politics. tlte grttn """olulion aOO agJarian politiCS Irticuilltd at tilt nalional ",,,t!. Although that analysis helps liS UndCT_ sll1nd lite sue<: .... of lhe grttn ...""Iulion aOO of pusan! politics. il ~ not .tll US how th~ changl'$ ,..ttt t xptrio:necd by village'" in theit rvayday liv,"". How did Iht grttn . ... ollilion chang. rtlalions and pro,_ tic<:s of production! Wha. did populism mean In lhe lives of poo •• OO 1ow~lt people! Wha. diff.renet did IhOH phenomtna make 10 I....

,ha,

livN ~bhons of dominoncr ond subordination in ruTallndi.l By 1001<. ing <"-I)' •• social ~Iolio .... nd idwlogies of domin,llon in oteom...""cially (lTOoounccd In look. ing •• Iht implicaliorlS 0 1 d~""lorm.ntoli.m lOT ",btiorlS 01 dass .nd ...... in Alipu•. Nalionalist5 <","rgrd lkal l h~ d ... in 01surplus and colonial indiff."'n<~ Ih. wdra", 01 ,h~ population we'" rtSponsibic fot India~ underd .. elopm.nt. Therefo",. 1M .nd of colonill rule would inilil .. . n era of d.ve!opm.m ; indetd. developmenl Ixcame Ihe chief "'Koson 0 1 SLU." In ind.""nd.n' India . As a stale proJtcl. dtvdopmenI.hsm ",;,s n~vcr co""ep\uallzed In na.row economic terms_ Rather. in . he progrnoivls' id..,l<>g)' of ..... ional developmen •• «onomic ch.ng.. w~ s«n as triggering social .nd cultural lransforma,lons. Fm In· 5lance. i, ,,·as believed Ih •• economic development would rid ,he coun· It)" of social -..,.ils" such as untouchabili.l' ~velopmcn ... h.m had Ixeo"", SO much a pon ollhe «In.ctlv~ unconscious 01 nalionalisl plann,." and dit<s ,kat no juSlir"'.t .... n was nttdtd to .rgue thol ... ising Ih. living ' ... t>d> ms of 1"",'' '<:I''e 1'«>1'1. would ...·. ntWllly rtSult in th. d imin .. ion of cast. discrimi""lion. And. Indetd. &i'·en the lilgh OOr-

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~Iopmcntolil-m. ,... ..

Pow«. • nJ L.tw:-ol PoIl. ic:s

t07

.dallon Mlw«n d a.. and casI.~ in ", ,,,1 Ind ia, a n"'l~gy lhal v;.ualized dass mobility os. nc(tsS< political history" of lhe village i'I to presu me tlut tM'" uisl> a coh.",m and widcly-shamJ namltiv. of Alipur'S past. NOIhingrould b( furth •• fTOm the trulh_ It is p"'dStly In Ihe conlOSled narrali""S of lho: put tlut w~ find difftnnt visloll$ of devw>pmenl and VlIl)ing "al""OO", of 1M dcg"" to whkh ·dtv~lopmem" has provcd 5uct6.Sful. E""n the end o£ zamindari , which SO ck aTly maTkod.n n. asso<\attd with cololli.1 ",It, waol\Ol colI$idt",d in an unambigu<>U5ly posil\"" lighl by . 11 vill,,!e" Mally pwple who btIollgtd I<) tltt domi_ ""nl. landowning linagc of lbaku .. imc'1''''led poolcolonial d£an, 01 nation buIlding through d"..,lopment projcelS and quOtas in govcm· menl jobs fl)' sch.edukd <;aSICS as Init ialing a period lea, many thakuT> we", openly critical of tltt postcolonill,tale's development effons. In <Xmln5t \(I the views 1)£ SOme lluk.... §.loud liu: large majorily of ~pl~ in Alipu" .... h~ namllivos of lhe pasl " .• '" significantly config· ured by dcvclopmcntalism_ l't"cvIous vill,,!eiu:odmcn ,..c.. "",lu,,,ed In m",o I)f wltttht. th~y brought "progrcsi' 10 Ih. village a "" whetM. people lIved l<>gel"" harmoniously: in this mam..,. , Ih. pasl ,,·os ..... -.lIn l~rmS of dcvclopm.m discouI"SC. Some village.-s app.-oprialed ,hi: mnoric of ·dcv~lopmenl" and lIS claims of Improving Ih. living conditions of ~ple In the: vil],;,g. in ordt. 10 crillci' e S(ve .. ly lho: un· "lUll and ponLaI dlsuibulion 1)( Ihc bcn~fil$ of d"·~lop.um program •. The: structura l pos;lio... .,f people in Alipu ...dracled their . ..... menl of IItt ~Iopm~ntal .££ons of IN: SIOI. and Ihri. turral;VCS the. well· to-do farm . ... in AI· i"" •. welcomtd. Rather. what Up$C1 lhese: uppttt surptisingl~. It was pr«iS(ly thiS _b!lity to ... f1lS
_Ionia! Drwloplll
(XaCt;"" of labor and the capacity to OSSCrt their cq .... lity t .... t lower· ca,te Jlftl1'~ idenliMd a~ the g"'.I<$t "bc"",fi,," of development (Wad. le~ I~n).

Athorough undemanding of Ih. mOSI impolUm ",Iallons of """'C.

and Inequality in All!",' is r>«cssary .o explain the f"H elching tr.I.n$formatiom in discoufSn of cas .. and class I.... t we", an integnl pon of tlie (Ie.·elopmcnt elforts of the Stol •. This chapteT outlines Ihe ",lo'lon· ship he' ..... n the sp«ir" conjunctu~ of OIpit.:lh~m, dcvdopmen,al. ism. and 'Nhnological c.... nge p._n,nI in the P"''';OU5 chapter and ,he agronomicllind rcologieal p""'lict:§ detailed in the following IWO ch,plers. 1 begin wilh Ih. conflicling narralives of ,he political history of Alipur. Yillagm' .... rratives of th.ir Own histories and tho: history of II>< village COmmUnil)' we'" shaped by lheir posi tions and ptrsptctiVt:§ on the development discour$CS and policies of the postcolonial state. It is this ",Iatlon of the (onmCling na.",lIves of the political histill)' of the village 10 the larger Slruet"",l I"'nsformalions that I will ~ify in th. remalnlngS«tlons of thiS c .... pter. In the Kc(>nd scCtion or th. c .... p .. r. I u. C<)nlliCling narralives of politi<::s in Allput to c .... nging ..,lations or production. My con",m throughout i. to "mlcrstand how th_ c .... nges _re heing cxptrkoccd and understood by diff.",m clf"M .nd caste groups. 1 tho:n outline how changing relations of production articullted ""ilh ",lie ",di5tributiv. progratru;.

In tlli. scction I p~nt differmt narrativ"" of polit;'" in Alipur 10 upion: the cont<sted hiStory of "devc!opment" as well as to 'f1I« chonges in the ""lUre of dIS< and casl. dom lnltion In on. an:a of rural U....r 1'Tadcsh. When I first arTivnl tl>ne a<:~' Th. thakurs had hlstoriOllly hccn the village l.ndlonls, Although fore"'! 10 relinqUish much of , n. villag~ land 10 th.ir he.wh.ty tenamS under the Zomindari Abolition Act, they .... e'" as • CaSte group stin ,he largest landown.rs In the villag.:' WItile Ih.re was oonsidenbl. agrttmcnt "'garding thakur
Su •• P""",r•• nd '-'>co! 1'<>1,,'" '09

plasls III ""mil,-os about th~ time 0/ .. mlndori. TM Su bffiar and tM OLd Thaku ..... ho belonged to two of tho dominant thaku< lineages of t'" vililge, narnted a story 0/ lost glory. Th. Subffia, .. Id thaI lho ar.. had originally been a "blg jungle" whe", Englishmen came 10 hunt. The Ii..., InhabItantS .... '" lho """jotr"" {Cypsies) ... ho ""tiled In ,h. village whtlll"'y dug tM ground and found .... lOr allh. sil' thaI 1>«0."", , h. main vlliag .... oll. Desplt. ackn(n... ledglng tho boonjant5 lIS th.lirst SCI· tl .... of Alipur. howf,...,r. the SubWar procttded 10 claIm thallh. r.ljpulS had bftn [15 founding inhabitantJ. Thty brooght .10"3 ",me brahmin< and tho: scovtcc castes. who came Inltiany as one 0' 1"·0 household. and ~'" Sll~""n!lr followed by oth ..... TM mOSt ,«ent inhabltanlS of th. villag. tho: J.1". Acconiing to lho: Subffiar, WMn ht W'IS you"3. thtre had only been one or two pt families in the ,-iIIage. and they had no land of tMi r !>Wn. They uS<:t added. "wMn <>I\C has tn pay th~ .... dman lor evcrythi"3. and the "'latlonship is .nli",ly one-way." H. f.lt that while il ""as lrue Ihll Ih. umlndar had taken advantage of the pusom (. ai)'QlI. the pusanl bene· /i.N lrom his ",1.liot\shlp wllh th~ •• mindat as ",ell. So:rvl,e Cl$l"S like lho ""is (ba.bers. who also played an impunant role a. ritu.l.pteia!i,,,) and It.. cllolna.lrs (1caIMrwOrlt.rs) had bt~n brought to the .1Ilage by I'" tlutk .... and ""!tIed ;n Alip.... The: Subcdar ""';"tfully ftcalled thaI they uni,.,. hod to "'ork for free on the ""minda. !; i;r.nd. "Now. c'-cn If "'e pitatm . thty don\ " ... n. to work for u.: ... .. Id. Tht Old Thak.. r. a form •• Madman. village ~ldcr. and ",ialive of tM SubW.r. told me a similar story about his .n
,...,rt

moniol pmw($/; in ~ruggling 10 CUnlroll"" 1~.rilO')' Ipins! I h~ Mo. guls. Curiously. 1M Old TllIkur had li llie to .. y about lhe poriod und.. lkillsh dominIon; lnslcod , he ~lppcd 10 an car!;« hls.<>')' of ~is ... n<;<: agaiMl °M ... lim rule." Ii< claimM lhat when they lim ..... IM in Alipur. lhe lhaleurs brought aloll8 wilh lhcm 5O"'C bn.hmin and IlIrijan fam· ilks. "M"" of .he poopk in .M vilLag<: roow a~ 'M dimol desoc:tJ1dlnlSof the original familits. Only so"", brahm ins Ind j l lS have come Laler." TM Old Thak u. JUounled Ihe glorious days of lhaleur rul,,: "Allho: lime of ""mindari .bolilion . my f.lh.r and h;s brolhe. w . ... In. big "",n in 'he village . All ' he Land I>II:longM to US but we UsM '0 give it OU I 10 ,,,,;ous ",SICS on shamoropping fo. culliVltlion. " AlmOSl .11 1M caslCS cultiva,ed lind: one Qt 'wo rlmllics of 5O:"" i« c",' tS such ", NdMI! (",,,,.nl~rs). I""" ... (iTOfl.miln. ). ""i •. and dloohi. (" ... M .....,n) w~~ gi"en a liXM shart "r 'he har.·", In achang<: fot ,hn . spttiolized <eNiceo;.

Accuming 10 Ihe Old Thaku •. some of the "'Nke ",Sics " 'e,,, gi""n 6dds f.tt of charge as a gift fmm .M .. minda •. Olhe" We'" kascd land on plots wh"" localion var;"d from )'~a r to year. -SO""'li",.. I porSlm " 'ould 1>11: giv~n on~ plot. and &i" cn anolher lhe foHo"'lng ynr. In I\IS<>. pWpk "btained 'itle.o ...·ha'lribuled ""I"}' ~u.lly. They gOI lhe Land al mosl frtt."' III the Old Thakur's narra,;,·•. 'M passage of laws abolishing l.Imindart signaltd 1M d«line of thakur rule. Ahl>ough ,h.y corroho"ued 1M "0,), 1"ld by ,n. thak"",;n <>lhc. ~P«lS, pWplt from lc:s;o; po"'erful castes I"'n:";ved th. ~OO of .. mi,,· d.ri in • much m(>~ posillve Ughl. 1 was spoaking 10 IwO m~ who wc", of ,he "me age 50:, as lho: Old Thakur and Ihc SUbcd>T ( Ihal is. in lM ;r si xhtS) but " 'ho bdongM to 10000er castes. On~ of ,""m was a Ja', puha", Ihe most p""'poroU5 agricuhural caSle ;" Atipur. and lhe olhe. was a h yd,!h. who bad SI'''''M 1M .. mind." as a d erk and k«pu of village I. nd recum •. Suppl."",nling ...·h.IIM Olh~r had 10 say. or Inlc""pllng him to odd fun her de,.ils. 'hey spo,,", :as if one poISOn ; In 100... days. Ih...mind .. ",lied you and ..id . "You cuhivalc thai plol .rod you cult Ivai. Ihis olher onc." Th. te .... nl didn' have 10 l"'Y much by wa)' of ... nt. When 'M rain< came in th. ""'''_ soo" Sl'OSOn I. " .. " 'elll 10 Ih . .. mindar and asked for SOme fields . He gavc SOme.O Ont miln and SO"""O ano. h... Ir we ",cr. unabl( to pay .. nl. he ... iZM ,he fields lh. nal ... ISO" Ind !"CniN tn.m

",/tad i'"

Dw< •. • nd Locol Polil o

HI

OUt to !Omco... cI .... Wh~n umindari .bolitioo btto.m~ low, the umindar .".11«1 .11 the ",nanlS .nd d~ribul«l Iw.nly to Ihiny bighas to uch of IMm. TMy had 10 pay hIm for IhI: pro~ny. of courv, but in t"""'" days on. didn) hav~ to pay that milch for il. One. lho: plolS .... .... 1l0c0I«lIO Ind.ptnd.nt cu1tlVlIO<S. pt<>ple $lIn«l in~tlng In Ih.land. lido ... thaI, noon. had , ru, inCtnli~. to Improve lho: land. Why . I>ould thoy ...Mn II could be lOun away from them the nut ynr? Alltr gelting their own plot.s. propl~ staned diggIng w¢11s; tho:n Ihey hlSllIll«1 "'''lcrwh«ls; .fte. Ihat. IlIbt .... oils. Ratho:. lhon S« lru, . nd 01 umindari as signaling a dttli.... pcop!c fn)m Intermedille cultivating casl., lhoughl thai i. prteipilllt«l. n.w ..tla. lionshlp btlWftn cultlvalors .nd the land. 5i""e those who rteeivtd land afte .. umindari _boHI;"" w .... also i\S cultlvalOTS. , hey im"<Sled in irrlptlng the bnd. Thus. 1M end of zamindori .nablt
.bou.

no.

111

'"-oolunl.t Devclopmntu

"''''01.

had tt> pay land n:""nues tt> the ,hakurs but paid II>( IJO""mmtnt dl· n:ctly. Paying lan.d n:~enu(S din:cd y to the go~trnment, along with the end of the practice of cocl'ttd labor calltd btgaar, gn:.t1y dimlnishtd tht thakur's dominance In the pnliticol life of the ~m.gt. The following nart;ltl~e "f ,lit pasl was co~ruc,ed by Sum;h: Earlier, tht thakurs would COme In the morning and ... u wh'le~cr bullocks and plows ,I>(y I> would say, ·v.'e~ h.ving ' well built today. co"", aoo htl p US dig h ." And pwpk would ho~e to go out of compulsion. Since IlItn. lxgoa. has ended. Some pwple. Out 01 n:spttt for Iht ,hakurs. con tinue 10 Iwmor them .• nd that is .... hy they ho •• now 1>«"",,, II>( headman. ma""3tf lof the ,-jllase school] . ttC Thc lhakurs think lhat by ",
Implkolion w.s that b«ausc no f.nn.r cou ld survive without a pair of bulls o •• lractor, thc tllo ku ... still u pttttd to live off the labor of others rather than do their 0"'" work. The "lulncss" of II>( llLOku rs _ rommtnltd on I"",uend)' by Pffl1IIe of.ll other casltS in Alipur, and Sun:sh~ ,"'''men! iiI that pallern. The thaku<5 wen: oluon ctitkiltd for li~ing off tltco ptt$llge lhat ,It.
propcny. Aftcr the end of zamioo.ri, the thakurscontinutd to dominate village pulidG :;(Imt ti"",. Uke Suresh . must people in the village ..,mem· hued thaI Su khi Singh , a thakur from the domin.nt lineage whose fatho:r Sa'-era Singh had betn the: Unlindar of 'he vill.ge. became the headman In II>< period aft", .... nllnd.ri obolition . nd that durill3 his lenun:, ·,he village ,,--;IS onc." BUI ,I>( Old Thakur ttcallcd •• lightly diff• ..,nl •• nd mo,"" complicated , bi.",ry: "B,.(o,"" ls>6<>.J ahangirpur and Alipur weft considt..,.j " ne ymagc for t!cCloral purposes. and SO we ,,"d one Itcoadman who was ftl)m J.hangirpu', Then I becamt t .... neJ1t I>(adman , followtd b)' Sukhi Singh, Hari .. ran. Om Pandcy.l'r.lsad. and now Sho:r Singh. Until Suklll Singh~ Ii".., . electiOns w... held by raising bonds. The pulice II~a"~darl '" some othcr locol official used '" come .

r".

[~vd""m
SU« P"",u . • nd 1.0<-01 Polilia

IlJ

piM' evuro", In . ctnlr:ll plac<:. Ihe "",n on U". sid< and In. ...o .... n on anotn.r. and .. k Ih.." \Q Rise har.do." Tn. Old ThakUT\ cmkt of suc«SSiv. n.ad"",n Is im",,".nlln IOOng 1M [OnIO$l«l V ... alogl~ ul laclillnali5m in 1M village. In referring 10 1M Imu", 01 Su khi Singh .. a poriod ,...hen 1M village was unlt.d. Su~ In In. quoce al)(,,~ intmd«l IOConlnlSl Su kh; Singh ~ lerm wilh lhe I-U~Uenl JUs,tory of flclionallsm II"'tty·ltaoullln Ali"", . And the porson tnO$l people MId miponslbk lur 1M urigins of lacllonalism in Alipu. was Om Pandey The Old Thaku. lold m. thai Om. lalM' used IU be 1M lhalr.Urs' prltsl l"..mIt!l). and SO IMY had dunatal sn-enty bighas urland \Q him . From 1m n,11ei1 ~ ...... a m was inlernlM unly in ""Illies. no mallcr where h. ..."nt. H. was kicked ou, uf numnoUS Inslliulklt\S. Induding a colkV where he used to 'nch. fur suning diqurs and crealing lmuh!.. He came back 101M vin.ge lu 1.... 00 • school in lhe .... mol}' uf his hrolher. woo had died accidtntly. with Sttd money duRal...! by his flthe •. According \Q ,ho: Old Thakur. am man_ a&cd 10 <>bt.in . uMI."IIal "".... lrom 1M g""emmcnl 10 Opo •• IC Ih. school buHmbeuled allihe funds. Nu """... r had Om seltkd down in 1M vil~. than he staNt1.00 brahmin$:. The Odhs. ""ho li"<' "" the hr.hmin sidt of Ih. v1ll.ge. thr¢w their weighl bthlnd hIm 100. In Ihis m.:mr>:i . nOI everyone agreed Iha, lloCtio .... lism in Ihe village had btgun with Om Pandey. Solmpol and his ~""US<. Sanloshi Dcvl . l.-.ad ,he origIns of ,·i!lag<\\"id~ connk", 10 figh'" among th~ l!uku"" that p"",ed. d lhe arrival 01 Om Pandey in tho villago by ~ .... l y... rs. Aecording 10 Solm""l. the cunll;':1

firsl arost in slrugglrs ~r pro~r1y in Ihe dominant ,haku. lInuge . Save'" Singh , Ihe ddellof Ih",. brothers of the dominant lineoge of thakurs, was lhe umindar helo", il was abolished. H. had lour sons by his /irst ,,;I._Sukhi Singh , th~ Old Thakur. and IMir t""O young.r hnlll>oti!l<'oold. much youngu lhan h. "'' '', coughl his cye. H. broughl l>er 10 Alipur with him In lieu of the land ",nt and kepI Mr as hi, common_law ,,;fc. Sh< bore him Ihttt sons, Hard..,p, Bold.. n, and Chotu . With Save ... Singh aging, tho four sons from his firSl ",il. wenl to court to block the thtu - m.gal" heirs from inheriting a share of Ih. properlY, ' T hey 1051 the ca.se becaus« thdr undo ( fath.r~ younger brother, or ... ) go.... 'CS'imony ,lLata "'tdding proassion had gone to 'he woman~ hous« and a "'rtgular'" marTi.g. had acluilly liken pi""", Sa,'.... Sing!! had o'-en produced I b ... hmln prielllO 1<:Sllfy lhat h. had ~.-formtd Ihe wedding, Sompal, how",r, daimtd ,hal no.uch Ihing ILad ever happened; Sa,·. ... Singh had .imply broughllbe wom.n from Ih. olher vlllagt 10 his hom. and k. pt M r. Since tMn, Ihe", had been Inten.., con nicl belWttn the 1"'0 branches of the family, Somp.a" description of ronHkt among Ih. thakul'S "'" eonfirmtd by othe ... , ,,-ho cI . rifitd thal . ,'.n in lh. formal poUlical a .."" of . 1«lioll$ for h.adman , foellonlli5m pretJaltd a m ""ndey's ",Ium to lho vil lage, The previous ""adman, Sukhi Si ngh . .... ho ""os from , h. domlnanl lin· ..g. of lhakurs. was chall~nged in Ihc clCCtion f"r headman by his hollf bTt)thor, Ilaldaan Singh. M)' Inquiries as to whal prompled lhat chat· I.ng. wn. answered by Su..sh . who claimed lhal the rtas<m why Ilal_ dun Singh opp<>sW Su khi "'''' tholt . despite ha"ing an Djual $ha .. in their fathers propeny. Ih. )" :lUnger, "ilkgilimal<" brotbe.. !wi bee" kepI undtr Ihe conlrol of Ihe older ones. Sukhi Si ngh would IlOl allow Intm to farm lbeir own land. or I llow Ihdr fw;lds to ho: kascd 10 .. nantS. Who:n Ilaldaan Singh attem pted l<' gain popularity in lhe ~illage by O'll"ni~ing mu.icoI .voning.< l""",h' g""",, 1 at hi. hou..,. ,ho: old« brothe ... calltd the polic. to JIft-,'ent lhest ~.nts.· According to Su..sh , Ihere waS SOme I.nd (approxim.,.!y se .. en ly. Ii,.. bi.&!us) thol, was In be inh";:red < ..,...en """. of Sa,·"", Si ngh, But Sukhi Singh confiscattd th. entire a .. a. Ihus prev.nl_ ing Ilaldaan Si ngh from gelling his .h.... Cont~ling Ih•• 1«lion' f01' headman "-as Boldaan"s cenl ... 1.,"'togy For getting the l.nd '-'k. Had Boldaan wOn Ih. cl«,I,,,,. the additional pow« conferrtd on him ..

,ba,

rtt""..

I"",

headman mighl tw..., enablw him '0 his sha~ of 'he land. Aft .. Ont Itnn in office, howevtr, Sukhi Singh had alienal..! enough !'tOpic in the villagelhal public sentiment ""1lS mnning 'goins, him . It was lhen, Sumh oontinued. ,hat Sukhl d«i11s. So Haris.aran. Ihe ha>1"8 IO f.ce pcMible public humll;"lion at hepcr of >illage land rcoords. was dectcd Madman. Ha,;.,. ... n wa. oompkltly under the thumb of 1M lhakurs. Once. when h. mu,u.~d 1M COtl'"3" '" di .. ~ wilh Sukhi Ilpcnly. he was "brought '" his SCTI.W5" by a ferocious slap from Sukhi 5ingb. Thus Sukhi C<;Inlin ued to be lhe de f..:", headman until Om Panoky unseated him. Onee M was mad< hudm.n, Om Pandey ... ~ in the vil~ for only. shlln period . moving \(> the district heodqu.an.rs ' Il pursue S"'ndcr pIllitical .mbltio",. While Om Pandey h Vfll in town, he dole· gated the day·to-day .fT.i.. Ilf lhe Madman~ post '" Pnsad. II " "as during this period Pnsad OC<juit"cd 1M , kill:! to funclion as lhe viI;",. hcodman. When I ,uchw Alipur in l~. PT...d bad ah. dy bNn hudman for ... venll Y".rs, h.ving defeated Sukhl~ ncpl>e"; the lhalenr Shcr Sin&!>, In. two-"""y oontCSl. Yet ,he lm~t of Ihe e\tetion oould still be felt. For llne thing. thulection ....,mcd Ill ......, crystallized lints of conflict, forcin, peopk III take siclcs . nd subsequently lmplica'_ tMm In new mmiti ... ,' Pnsad won the tlte.;,;,n by CI~full)" m... hahng support from diffe ... nt cas'cs. for eumple, his assisl.nt and via-beadman. whose posi. lion """. la"ely symbolic. was a low-eas .. (khatlk) h"......,.n driv... Til his Iowf:r.astc supplln .... , Prasad promis«l .nd delivered benefitS flowing from 1M VJri()U$ developmenl scl>cmtS tatgcted al them. fQl" iTl5lan«. h. as6isted sorne ofhl:! l:andlc:ss. low-talnin, 'itltS 10 sman pitcn of w", . . land o .....,ed by the villag~ council. As beadman. he was officl:ally ~ponsihk fot idu~ ;n the eltelion lhe: harijans had suppmed Shcr Singh~ uIISu«o:o.sful bid 10 become hudman. She, made the most of this opponuni.y to demons'r."~ hi' lodcrshlp skills by takin, 'ho I.nd Pruad had k~pt .. ide for

,h.

,ho,

in,

Sin'"

1><1

P<»toolonlal Denlo"m",!>

,ho,

Tobie I. Caste and Ilwschoold Slruc.u ... Alil"" . 1!Ik-I~ p.f<.n",# of

'""

Brahmin

Thoku.

NUl"""'. of I"'
.,

pupuL"lo..

" .." •,

"

,~

J"

"".

~M' ~".,

DM .....

Kumho. T. ~

• "

"

,.•

"

KNti~

~

J....

n

Harijan TOlar

, , , ,.• "

•

--'

~

' 00

._..... Nu""'"'. of

.."

,,• , ,

.•

..

-' ,~

N", .., n.:.. ,.,,,,< "' """""bolds In ,Itt "m'3<. TIlt M.II eM« , which .""""'" Qf J"" 01>< bou""hoold. is not gi,' table. PlSU: VOIt$ h.d bet n dictaled by tM dcmographi.. of Alipur. 8 .... hmlll$ and thakuf!; w.t<: a minority and Ihus nceded 10 .. ek suppo., from mcmbe", of Iht o,ho.. clevtn <>lSI"". "."" 1IItJ'f: aU 10..... In ,h. rI, ...1 hicn...;hy. The "",hmlns. ,hi:: mo"" populous (:aS~ In 'h< vllI'g<. mode up I<so lhan .. quarte. of Ihe 101..1 populalion. Numout on.·.i~ ,h of tht total numbers In Alipu. ( Table , ) . E~n il a nndidatc had bttn ..... of gelling.lI his ca". "O't$ (and Shu Singh most ~fU;inly""'s noe) . he would still h.~ needed 10 obtain I larg' proportion of 10111<1-«>1< "0ltS 10 win ,he clttUon. Thus. UpPC'-(>ISlt osplranl5 10 Ie.dcrshlp com~led with one: anoth, • •o ONin the support of lov."tf-uslC villagers. And 0'"' of the

,w

most .«calv. WlIfS of obtaining lowu-ca$u: backing " "as for candidalrs to P" >Ini$o: thaI IMy would deb"". tI,e fmilS of devd opmen' '" ,I\(ir &uppon .....

One factor ,ha, may haye <:<>n'ribu,ed '0 Prasad's Suc(~ in ,I\( .k<:. lions was II\( dttJHtalN antipalhy f.JI by ""'ny YilLage ... 1000rd Shu Singh. The lenure of II\( previous heod"",n. Sukh! Singh. Sher Singh's unde (fathtn elde. brother. QI" FEB), had bten manN by what mosl ptopl. In the vlllage .. w ... unmlligaU:d grttd. Shu Singh hi""",[f had an unfonuMt. repulallon In Ihis and olher "'gllTd., and his support derioed mainly fro m his ability to hI-owbtat kss powenul I'Mple. In kinsman a ..d 5UpponC' of Sh • • Singh told mc thaI if any t9ls, a lhoku. othe. than Sher Singh had ContCSled lhe election. he would easily have won. I claim lhal l ... gardN wilh some skepticism. The same penon told m. lhat ptople d.librratcly called Sher Singh "headman" lpr...than.] to !:iunt hlm. Wha!Cve' their InlentlQns. It wa< de .. that Sher Singh tboughl M $till had a ltgilimlt. claim to 1M posl drspile having l""t 1M .....tion. Shcr Singh continued 10 wi.ld con.i< reason. acc:ording to ~ .... . wa< that SM' Singh hod coo< police. When I inqui.w why olher p«:>pl< In the village did not bo,her to cultivate good ~I.\io ... with the police. I was ,okI Ihat ""I)' few p
d._

,t.!

l'oMoolonlol D
another bid for Ihe headmanshlp. 0"" of his supro.-UtS informed me tI.." Prasad had Opled not 10 conltSl II>( tkclions btoIuS( I>( had ac. etpltUn ~ lilt< Str~leg;c.ll)" Stepped :asiok and. inSlead.lhttw his ...-dghl bthlnd R.:Im Singh . Ram Singh .... .,. an older j.ta~ nun who Ii~td on his fann 011 Ih. ourskins <>f Ihe village in • liulc hamlel lourxltd by his grandlalhtr and inhabited uclu$ivdy b~ his urendtd kin. Wlltn I .pokt "';rh Ram Singh , he upl"fS/;td u~me binemcs.s abour " 'har had rnn.pimJ in rh. d."i(mS. He lold m. rh .. he had !xcn hood""inktd LnlO) conlcsring II>< t Leeli"llS. fm Ihe p<:opk .... ho .",,<)uragM him ro run k"" .... , har h( did not stand a chanet <>f winning. So ..... ,ime lIdoTt rM ekc,ioru;. a pan_ chayo.. (villag. mating) "'OS ""tied ro amv. Ir a decision abour Ih. nut hcadman . Adtd • "propu"' tleelion ... )'ing that Ihey .... ould not acCtpl rhe oulcome <>f the: ...... Iing. Ar Ih'l poinl, Pr.osad and olhu. enoouragM Ram Singh ro conlCSl Ih. deelion. Tht)' told lIim thai the villag<' ..... limJ <>f Sher Singh's .nlles. They rusoned lha, ..... n ... ...·ould become thar much " '0""" if Sh •• Singh "'-;os cI«"" headman. They "".. vincal him lhal no 'III. would vote for Shu Singh and lhar h. ,,"O\!1d . ... il}' w;n II>< d.cr;on . Ram Singh claimed rhar had Ih. people oi,h. 5Iasti kay log l not p<:<suadtd him lhal he would easily be clC<:laI. he would nOI hav¢ ""ugh, Ih. htadmanship. H. wa5 nol ;m.KSltd in cKaling factio .... Had he nor been mislal and had he be ... ",Id 1M fun $lory, he "'ould ha,·. "I"td Out of the c"mpttlli<>n O<\·.n .h« decb ring his co ndid..:y. Ram Singh fel! thai , Inilially. p<:ople In Ih~ ,"illoge w.~ on his WIt, """Then . God knows ,,·h)·. rhey btgon ro oppose m. almosr """",ighl." Hi5 uploll:llu)n was tMI many peopL.: did nOI p<:ree;'.., him '0 be • K$ident of Allp..., "Although w. hv~ in Afipur. 11ohoUKh w~ vol< h.K , although our fields aK heK. w. IU still coru;idertd outside ... Propl. say lhat "'.., art Jus, Ilk. anY""e .Ist. bulln , he:i. h.tam the:y $1111 think QI us as outsid.... We u~ 10 h. in Shadipur but ha"< S(lrI.d I>cu fo. I klllg lim~." TheK was Inckal S'eiopmo:nl.llsm. So ... Power. • m! 1.0<-01Polill", nv

Tb.y art now cons.idtrtd port of tht villagt htaousc IMy 5lOrtN living wilhin Its boundaries 19oon ~i Mddl .• nd boughl IMir lInd from. I1tokur of the villagt_ Bd,,", Ih,u . lhey "'"Crt considered ft:'!lilkn", 01 Shadipur. Thty _d 10 VOlt IMft but thq now "OU: In Alipur. They haY<: altnsivt social rtl.llons "'ith pWple in Alipur. TM~ call all tht chama;lrs of Iht village for lho:it fusts and art in tum invitN. by tho: chamaars in the rillagt on all social occ:asions. By commt. only. Sl:kct ftw art invi.. d from Shad< indt!'(n
ctSSful in I"'rsua<:y would ug"'t making a cham ... , th~ I><:adman. Th~)' WUt told that wl>.MV"," t~ n«. long distance to his hamkt. In tu m . wh.n h. visited lkem. thq- would havt to _kome him and olI... 0 $Ca' him at .h. uPI"',.nd of the oot." T h.y ","<>IIld ha,"1' to beha'"1' in a dd.... nlill man"". wwani him Ind say. ·Pk..... . i •. do lalu: • ~.t" (Aao j l. prad""")i. ""lrlool. This tactic mad. ilS Impacl and "",naged to Swing a number of w,.rs IOWJni SIl<:. Singh, dtspilt h is g.n ....ny poor rtpula .ion .mong til<: brahmins. On. ~uch brahmin .old 1m .hat Il<: had v<>ted r", Ram Singh beaUSt he lhouglll 'Mt a 10""u~s,e I"'tSoll h.f ah jari) .... ould 0(1 ill a degrodrd ...... y. Apan from ... isillg doubu abou. Ram Slngh~ affiliation to tM vllJag~ .nd auackl"3 his I",,·e •.as.e .tal.... She. Singh also roon..! to ImimIdI .i(ln and fon:c 10 " in tho: eketion . In , his light. , he margin 01 vic.ory_ .1><: dilI.",,,,,. h<. w«;n .1><: twO""ndidl.tS in the number of vOl.tS m:cived _ _ a highly oom.,tr:d "f...,,: 1U ..... ti<:>us people lucmpud 10 guess whu.1><: dlffertnct _ bet,,'«n the "official" Count and lho: "actual" Ont. SIl<:. Singh~ oppo .... nU .ither Iklibcrotdy uagg~ ... ted the size of the margin of victory 10 highlight In. extent of cheating 0.reduced ,he official rna,!!in '0 suggcs, ho .... d_ ,I><: dtClion h.ad In fatl h<.n. A bnhmin ....ho rtput..!ly claim.d " 1,1,'. cl.c.ed She. Singh" .... vonM I... iMisted ,halShrr Singh h.ad "",n by • • et)' narrow margin of less ,han 4j VOICS. On ,he o,her hind. Ram Sillgh himsel f maln!.li ned .h.. as I rtSIlh of Ih. illi lmidl.ioll taclit:s. he rt«lved Ollly '1(110 100 '"Olt:S OU. of a7S on Alipur's voter lisl. Y~I another thaku. man 101d me tha, She. Singh had w (m by a SUbS"'1I1111 majorl,y of .PI'ro~lmatdy llS votes. AU the pwple I .""ke ,,·i.h . wMther suppon. rs or oppolltl1ts 01 St... Si ngh, ag •• ed ,ha, chu,ing had occum:d during 1M .1eclio..... And all anributN til<: chealing .0 .1><: faCI .hot some ....om.1I ....ho supponed She. Singh manag
no.

on

Drwloprnentah. m.. S..... I'ow ... and lDcall'Qlihc.

l>l

M •. dtpoSiltng a small sum of moncy fOT ~try vot •• lhal Ihoy ehal· Imged. Eltctlon Dffirial$. who ",.,," _ppoinltd by Iho go..ommtnl.lhtn had 10 verlfy 1M Idml;ly 01 1M vOlu by uking thll p"....,n oUl$idt and asklng lhe ptopl. sundtng around 10 Idmtily him Of M •. Given 1""10111"- pl'ttO.utlons wort in pia« 10 p(. in lhelr Own name and a sc( l'U"gniu tht """""n from 1M viIlIgt. Tht rtaSo)n why II was hardtr 10 Identify ""' ..... n was that il was cIIsto>(nary womtn. csp«ially thost fTOm the upper castCS. \0 COVer lheir factS WMII uolking 10 or pas$ing by =n. particularly okl<:r "",n and OUl5idtrs. A man who had grown up in Ih. vtIlagt could !""ha... idmlify aU tltt W"mtn by sighl . bUl " .... from "utsidt had "" hop" 0( doing so." Thus. alth"ugh wo"",n WUt "M ttprutnltd IS a ru!it!aICS In lhe tltt' lon. villag. politks hingtd cruclanyon womtn, and il WI. pucisdy tMi, ia<:k 0( Yislbility lhal enabled them \0 bccomc SO politically signiliconl. One< again , WOrn'" funclioMolo mtmbtr.;hip In Iht villagt <Xlmmun;,y_ A m.n~ lhilily '0 kknlify. woman yOl ... ucccssfully m.n. tltt .. I",.. , ",'"", posllionM at 'ht very «nttr 01. contest In the ovenly mas<:uline5pn." of village polilics. Ram Singh him..,1/ identified Ihis t" ht the major difficulty In his t\tth<m IJICtks: "Our problem was Ihat no 0 ... from hort Ihis ..,ul.· mentl ,,,uld l'U<>gnlu tM women [rom ,hat skit ,,11M vlUage. When t

I".

asktd ... mcone from In. vtI~ to he "u' agtTIl, " " Ont _""td . They we", . 11 ofrold Id!to.lWl ~""'" g,,}'tj . finally. MlrpaI la younger. lowcr· ca
of votillg. Mirpol h.d In fact chalkllgcd the credentials of One ",om.n . She< Singb~ agenl waS his paternal COUSin . a buTly .nd .ggttSSive nun . .... ~ SllI.ned qua=ling wilh Mirpol .nd lhen slopped him hard two (>' thrtt tim",. Aftu that. Mirpol did not da", to challrnv "nyo". . • nd TTUln)" wom. n voted .s. s u al timos. In this ...... )\ tM vot er tumnul was ruorded to be:. fantostlC 90 I'<...:onl. although. g..:'1 many f>«Ipl. on 1M I"t of rtgist.red VOl.'" we", not .nn prr:<mt in the vil~.t that time. If SM. Singb had not been .su", of victol)' by th .... ! "-os told Jo ~ingly. the vmer tumoul might ",ell hove ncuded 100 f><...:enl. WhtIl I spoke 10 Ram Singh . h. apf><ared d;.gusted wilh tilt ...·hol. process: "The thakurs imimidated the 'sman' llo ...er-ostd f>«Iple l£h.,. try logon It" dar"" diyal . J have TIC" " S«II. plac. whe", people: we", such """... rds as in thiSvilt.g•. And it wasn' JUS' II><: lowtr..:astc propl. ; the whole vinage was intimidated by him IShu Singhl . Even the 10..... ca5les did nOl support m. fuUy. They"'.... all af.... id of Shu Singh. Elrtlions lbes< days a", fougbl on the strtnglh of o .... ~ .rm." Othtrs in th. "illage "'f>1: ,·m"ge d 0$t:5. to the .haku",. SI>I:, Singh nun· aged 10 Sphl the votes of Jau arod brahmi .... T""",,, ""... groups had supported I'r.ls.ad in lh. p",vious election, Ram Singh had difficulty In gathering the votes of pcn based On ca5tt vOtt-honks could not acmunt for why Jata"" failc:d to .. Ily .""und Ram Singh." Sc->Ie.. l people gl"'. m. a delll.iicd b ..... kdown of who VOle«Ipk 1(11 Il>I:ir ciOS<':St fri.nds and then ""..yone com.. to ~now. For u.mpl(. peopk would ( 'H'. .., to III< .nd soy. Tlllak< on <>alh I" vOle for tbe c llldidate .hat )'011 hov. drtidcd 10 sUJlPOll: " !n this ...·ay. Som",,1 TTUlinlll.in.td . • 1· Ih"ugh n" One c"uld Idl for su", . every""e h.d "a good Id ... • of how individual. voted,

From lhot dt:s<:ription of "lll.ag~ poli lks givtn so far. 5':v~ral "'tm~ ~ d".rly. Thot ",,""lions for hu d ""'n W<:1't keenly "onlo:.lN . ffai .... in ",hkh lhot s"ocossfl11 candidale had '" make a concenN elTon '" obtaIn ,hot .uppon of l""..".cas\" voo.tn. No Iow ..~" p"rson had over bun """IN headman. and Ram Singh was In f"::l ,he fi ..... such P"""'" twn '" .. pino: ' 0 ,hal posliion. Ra m Singh~ d.e"". indicoiN. .h" ex",nl ID ",hich villag" politic!! was prtdicalN on g"n&. •. ,iroc" """ IoCknowledp Ihll SM. Singh won 1M eleclion becau5': women who supponcl him vOled muhipl. times. C.ndl:t was also cri,ical '0 ~n~ of ... h.o bd ongt'd 10 1M vll~ comml1nily and who did not ,. facl IhI, .Iso hun Ra m Singh. The winn,,'" of vi llog" "[""Iions ~.. nIed lhei. suppon .... by making IMm the be .... fi.o:kari~ of d.v.lop"",nl programs. In lum . VOI ..S· .u.:iswns ckp"ntlopn1"nl weno: lhus doso:ly Iltd 10grlhe. in villagt polilics. In addilion '" the M adman. vot .... also choso:. ninc-membe. ,..;lIage council !gmmf""'C''',yatl. Vin.ge governance ,,-as supposed 10 be in 1M hlr>'N In ,h_ h.admon alotu:. The v;Uoge was div;dcd InlO "wanis.. with a member of tht ,..;Ilagt council , hostn from """'h 0"" such lhal l""'f'lt from diffe .. nl ",sto:. and floCliom id".l1y f"" nd SOme I'tp.cscntalion on lhe ,..;lIogt council. Two of II>< cl« ttd ""'mbtrs of Alipu .'s col1ncil, lor ..... mpl", lold Sh". Singh explicitly Ihll lhey would ""...... sign any pntposal IhI, he pu' lonh as 'he h.adman. Allhough women weno: supposed ", be guaranl.N JO p""",nl of 1M toellS on I"" vll~ cOlI ""il by I"""mmcnl da-=, the .. w.rr no ...,,,,,,n on the ballol. AlIt. his "k olon. Shcr Singh:addtd (h. name of Santosbi Dn< "';llagt councn. pno:fu_ ring to make III dttlsiOl\S by 1ii.....,1f. BUI because he n • .,.jrd wri,,,,n proof lhal al kast fiv. of lhe nin. "",mbcrs of II>< council supponN him, af,u M had dKickd 10 u"""nob a pan lcula. CoUlY of action , h. would go round individually to II>< members 01 ,he council who w . .. hl5 IrI"ncb. nd c\("n lS .nd u k I""m ",.ign I"" ..glsl"" Unlike Pnosad, Sher Singh did nol "1'1""" '" be inlCrtStN in .. wardIng sUPPOf\( r"S. Ont p"rson, who was .w:nlwtlly .I«IN '0 I'" vill.g. council, hod OP"nly . nnounced lhal M w""ld " ", _ . fo r SIt •• Singh

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und.,. any ( i"'lunsune • . Instead of punishing this tn.:In for his opposition. one of the firsl Ihing!i that Shu Singh did .flu ttt.. <:;ng girl. . and th., .oo . houldn1 prove too difficult 10 . ... ng• ."" Th. significance of th.,.. remark. lay in ,he lac, that monq forliquor had 10 Ix cd th_ hQlIS<" hQlds agaIn and ,old 'hem thai. as head"",,,, h. would hal'. the hoIIS<' sittsofficil.lly .. gis .. red in thei. ""m.. in u chang. for 50mc ao!oh. . They paid up. bllt he just pocketed the money .nd .ook no action. 11 IVa. unlikely that th~ lIanj.", would ev.. ge. dttds to their po opcny. Altnougl1 She. Si"gl>~ elecl!on as htadman might well be intcrpn:ted ;OS ' he "..:turn" 01 thakur dominan"" in village politics. such an in_ lerpretation would s..t<,".I~ m ios Ih. u"""rly!ng .. rue. ura! chong"" tnat made SM. Singh, .. nu..: •• Madman so diffe..:m from that of his uncl •. Sinc. Sh • • Slngh~ time:. devdOl'm.nt prog"uns and ,h. grun revol ution had fundamcn ... lly . h red the nolu,", of y;Ul ge sock.y. She, Singh . 11k. an~ oth.. ""Mi< I>cd his earnIngs from fanning, aM took up 11\0$' of his tim •. Bul exactly how impoTtlnt did I.ndown
Po....,r. •nd Loc.1 Politi<:s "S

---"., .....-.. Qnc, ollht fi1'$l major pohctes of lhe posl(olonlal cn was Ihe aboIilion

of zamindarl , which 'ltVe. cd Ihe hold tha. large. mos.ly absente. land· Innis had nn tit( runl populotlon. Bn. BUI what did Ihe climinatinn nl zamindarl dn for doss privilege? Hnw did 1I change relalions belwttn 11!ldnwn.rs and landltSS pIMr kinds of government prograrm aimed .talleviatlng J>Owny and raising .he Hving standard. nr lower-ostc and poor people:. In lhe pre";"". 5«1;nn I chaned the histo
I'ootrolonlol o.wlopmenl<

In Allpur. t~nanry ...~ lh~ main kind of patron-chem ... iationshlp (Srh;IStava 1~) . An examinatk>n or .he dill. ... n. kinds of ",nanty lound In .Il< villagoo showed that It "ombinr< most C<)mmon form was the pun ~har«roP1ling lootaai I model. In this amngement. tl>< 1.""lonl ... nted. thc la nd It> thc t~nant for th. ontl ... agrkuhu~1 cycle. Th. COSI5 or all lnJR1lS . including purchased inputs ~uch as I.niliu •• irrigl'i,m W1", ... J'CS.lcides. and him:! Labo •. we", evonl)' "'ared bet" ·...,n own.. and tenanl. The t.nant " ... .-.:spo",ible ro. field p ... panuk>n . 5I>wlng. and weeding The cos.s or har."t$tlng with hlTed b bor w . ... spli •• and th• .-.:sul'ing gnin was <1j ....lly divided b._ t"'...,n I.ndlord and le" ant . Th. cost of th •.,.hlng " .. s bomt individually_ Slwrc<:n)fIplng had .he disad,.. nUlge that il '<1jui.-cd dllSe consulta.ion «,wren bndlonl and .pIlons consWed of leasing OUt Land for cash ( f"'$II<>gi ). By the tim. I first ",ached Ahpu. in 1\114. th;,; form of t.""fIC)· had. acconling tU ,·illog."" declined in Impo"anC • . ush tenu.ls had th. hallmark of slmplici. y: the .enan. paid" hed sum at.he beginning of ,h. agricultural Y"ar and then had 10 Ix•• all .-.:sponsibility fOf tM crop. A similar and ""'''' widd)' usa[ otn.ngemcn. consis.r m.n!bigha (appro~im.tdy S-6.} quintalslac .. ). Ahl>ough th. c<)n1"",1 " .. s fOf Ih. ... ti .. agricultural Y""'. the .. nan. could dttid. whether '0 pay none, hall, or all ,he ",n' a. th. ~OO of the first ..ason I.... rif J. It ";IS the u.....1praclice for tenanl< '0 pay hall the "'nt at Ihe.nd of th. kluorif ......,n and th. ", m. ini"ll half a. the end or .he nbi ".SOn_S.intt malu:, the usual cn)fI grown ' n th. kharif. sold for f•• I.,.. Ihan whca •. Ihe .... in crop in.he ... bi ..ason, i. mad< ....... lor ten.n'S to pay at 1.001 som. portion of Ih. allllual '~nl In maize rath ... han ..... it .o pay the en';te 'Iuan.ity ;n whe •• _ If .h.", was .n .,.""c;..lIy bad yca., a landlonl mighl agrtt 10 a.ha", of lhe .rop n'M' ,han demanding the ogrttd·upon quanti,y spcci6cd In the Jlns con tract: thl!;, howe ••• , ,,,;IS en. i.d )" .h. "ndlonl~ p"'mg;t.iv• . In addillon to these anllual k-ase.. a type of t.nancy c<)n1racl l.l.Kd

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lnI&th of rotItn<. roo- &no. th_ typd. 1tharif ..... obi oropa. l.t""hof .......... roo- cloauthaai Jill! kharif Inot ptriod. E~n ",... nlll whc '""ell: givcn plolll for tWO y~lrs had tc ..ntW lhot lease: II lho end ..r the fiBI Igncultu ...1cyd. (u","Uy defined ucovtrlng ,he kharif _nd ...1); MI"ICStS). Tho I'1'lr!y le_ ...... ,h~..,...,n mOSt cflt" d ted by ImantS fcr not applying ~uch productlvlly-enlu""i", inputs as orpnlc Or goten manure. fcr In ,he "lndigcncus" '~Itm of agronomy manure ...... conside. ed dfiCACk>US fo. as long u thltt Th, '1.... liLldve ch.o~ mAde t.... ncy ltts Impmtlnl as I form of ",,''''''''g' in Alipu ....... <"mpl, m,nled by I dedlne In lho freqIKnc:y of !e",mcy 11Se1£. ,. Ouring Ihe moin lul"ftl JtaS'nn'S t" Imo""bIious lhallenancy ..... not In importlnl ""'"lIS by which Ii> rcc:rull ditnts." As oppokd t" ~ time cf 1IrRln_ dart, by '!/Ai IandoIt.TICI'Ship had quite dearly c.-d '" br the nlnl Implicotlons lot ...11lo&<, pohtlcs_ as It made .>1dcn! lhat thoc labo. of k>wc.kh was ..., ""'gel" tied '" lhc land " ......"j by uppcN'J6l~. uppcr-c1as5 bndolo.....,rs...

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landown.crshlp In ,iu: villogt ~on linutd 10 "" highly untqual .nd Sll'ltifiN, Figurt , shows thou th~ thrtt up~r ""'los-brahmins, lha· kurs, and jalS-<:OntroUed 90 pctC<:nt 01 agricuhu ... lland owned b)' all villa,ns." Su!",limposlng Figu ... 2 on 1M: first m.p MmOMl. ... ,~ lhal the largest plots in th~ vil Logt belonged to the:.. Ih ... e castes, and ""r' tkubdy tn the lhaku",. The mean si2:e of thakUT landholdings ...... .. high iOS ,hat for brahmins and Jats (1).6 acrtS p'" household os op· p<>5ftI to lt$$ than 7 acrtS for the Qllt.tr 'wo cast<$) . Taking Lond "IualilY into ronslderation W{}\IkI ha"" d.mo ........ u d an ~.n sharpu diveT' gence bctwttn , ... (on avc.-.ge) large plots of high-quali'y land owntd by uW', and ,ha, tlt.t art> devmed to whea, in lho: rabi ~rop had dottbltd in tiu: 101."'" ~riod. In contrast to the good. "Iualily land .....ntd by 'he uwr cas .. s. JUSt . few k>w...cast.•• mostly Ja"'v, {amHits owntd subs",n.iol pttttS of good-quali,y bnd . Do$pite 1M continuing i""'lualiti<:!( in 1.ndo" ·"..rsh ip, the decline of tenancy . nd the ')"Stem of patroNOge tha, dcpmded on t~llancy had tttmtndous lCptlcusslons far ",lallons wi.hin 'M vill.ge. FQ' Ins .. ,,«, I oncr walktd into a ""n!cula.1)' f~roci""" alJUmrnt in""lving a low~r' cute labour and one of the ,hakurs from ,he do miNO", lineag•. The w.putc .,..". btn u,," thel.oortr hel ped hitnstlf 10 • cucumber growing

,wi""

on tilt lhaku"" plot ... hllt .... lkin& pasI. Tilt lhaku. angrily cknotlJlCUl him . S1y1nl thai Joon'-(2Slt ptOpit bthavrd lIS If Ib(y had Ibt same ,;&hll .. durin, ,bt "m< 01 zamind..'; bu, _rr unwilHn"o l'L"ciproc:o,t in tht upmul mon ...... -,ha, is, by pmvidinl frtt bbot.nd by lhowi"l "d\lC'" I'Hptct '0 upptl'-<2$lt ~ . Tbt bbo",. , on ,lit Olbt. hand. complalntd ,ha, ,lit lkaku ... Iud btconw: sdnl)'.1\11 ptlly.nd ga..., os rvkknc:t ,lit fae' ,ka,such a fuM Iud bttn madt OVt. one cucumber. Ht odd«I,ka, lilt ,kakul1l faHuI U) pay ,1>(1. W(I, ktrsl(y could conlin"t 10 uploil -small" ptOJ>k os Ih~ had done hi.,ortcalll' Wha, '" slgnificln'.bom 'h", episode was nol m.",ly lha, Ih. tbok"..., and lhe: lo .... t.-a$,.l.bortr"s ... eymtn .. of toch oillta ' pmper" btboviot dl· " ......td !IoO much bul aoo Iml II>( boo",. could voict hit critictsm !IoO frttly.'" Othn UI'P"' -a$lt peopIt in Ali"" •• " '100 did not uptricna: W lhe SlIm< ckgu the: , hakUr$' ptlttpliclR olios! priYi"sr. _nhtlts5 posi. ,iontd l(r,o't'-aosIt ... If·~rtion Z'l pan of lilt bmokdown 01 • .....w.

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gically invoktd ptrind of villag~ hannony. It is In"~ing lha, Ihis ptriod of vil!. harmony was .un .... o«urring bdo"" massive Slote Inlcf ho", men dealt with OOf: another-and not at all in terms of .. lallonshlps btlw«n women. Thcst the ..... _"" elaborated and qWl1i6td by Ranbir Singh. a well· lo-dO pI farmer who had Inherited a f:ll. amount of very high-qualilY land fmm his uncle. Befo.. Ranbir Singh look ow. ,he daY'lo-day on. · oighl of Ih. fann, his unclt employed Iwo 10000r-<:
app<eciallon of lhe c"'nFS in social ... Ia,io.., wroughl b)' """ ltd!. nologlts. Ilanbl ..... lnl.lnnll ... ' ,,-hen lho: vilb.gr bo,bulrMJi1. ....'""pt, [w.a..,(I[ . .... llh 11<>11,,,1. """'~. carrie. [dhi"",r[ . uoilor•• nd so on "T'" ""Id a lind lmounl nny o.gricuhu..1 X~n [clldm4l, lilerolly. "$Ii monlhs-I . 'E~ryon¢ wo,1rcar"M I...,he,., or judps. If the child has the po6hlon 0( • joo,~. will tho: p-rmt WIllI '0 work in tho: Mid I Hr will .... nllO be lUpttltd ona: hlschUd Is a j~ l­ Accord;", 10 Ilanblr. ,his _ lhe diffr"'ntr be,,,,"," lhe ~ .nd lhe preoenL It \0'15 toOl IhIol he~llIry occup.uions could no long'" br lot· ""'oW young'" PftIP'" In ,ht.lM'rvI« C*SI., no long......",td 10 do IoW-$LOIUS work. Unhb: many UppU-aMC ""'". Ilanblrlt pt"ptctivc

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tl1c oxen and the plow ,.~th • t",ClOT thu. not only .. duces tht demand for tN: carpentu\ labor but also ",'uktns the .. t.,lonship of the farmer wilh 'he carpenter.

Thtre is. definite diffe .. nce in our .. Iationships. Whtn ...., have no business ,,-ilh s<>mwne. then we wont go 10 Il>(ir ~. or visit 'mly ",rely. l£ .... e vi,i t "ndy. we will no. dtv~lop Ittlings of affttlion Irr, m I. [ "'~ mighl Ihink .boUI visiling hut ask .1 Wha' wllI .... e do Ih.",) TOO.y. if I "eoo to dos<>. I'll go to l'he nr· pornter's place] 10 get a w<><>(rs who . ". .illing I~"' .• nd .11 of lhal cnoouragcs .dations with othe.." Tha, Increases ou. "lfcction for olhers inslead of dN",asing il. W. use 1M sam. rttkoning as you do when you "i5il us: you ' hink that thi5 i." place wht",! will receive SOme .ffe"ion Ipmn ~ij~ga~ ""' I. IY"" know tho' l when )"u(ome he ... " '. witt make arrangements for 'c •. "'e " ill make . rn nge .... nts 10< IO<>
"'.a'''.......

R,anbir IhU5 1ra<:C5 ,he w•• kening of Ih. onc •• Irong liC5 b.lwttn people in Ih. viII",. community 10 chonging muns of produCtion. OS wen OS 10 1M unpKCcdcnlOO ability 01 . younger gene .. tlon of low<.l"'::.. pwple ,<> distance 'hem5<'I''CS from low-status occupations. Bo lh lhese (honge. could be di.. ctl y traced to thc developmental effortS of tl\( p<>Sicol<>nial State. Alth<>ugh , h.ir sprcific origin. lay in di/f"",,, , dtvelopment Inlll.-

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, I

"Flgu .. 6. Wbu, Culh.... '1on A...... ""~h, 0;""",

,he mcthods of production associated whit ,he grun revolution Ind. "'pid txpo. ...;on in job opportunities /nr lowtr-ca'j'c people both raulttd from 1M .... l.~ dru"" 10 bring .oout o:ronomic

tivts, ch.tn~ In

dtwlopmtn1. OtM:r ptOpl. also comlMnlro on Iht dtdine of . lfactlon among vlllo~. T""(I olde' mcn 'ook. fr.",klf "",..1gi1: view of the ch.ng.. they had willlC:!l5Cd in IMi, 0"'" lifc,illl<S: "Th. dtgrtt ,,/ affection l",oII4bNr ] lhal ""esaw btfoft b no long<:r 10 bt wil~ todoy. Now broth.~.ro ., one: aootlKr's throats. Earli.., if 1M'" "'.... four blOt""...., Ihty ""'\lid sit toge,her In Int evening and shan: thelr)oys and so .. I'OWS. Childrm did not da ... "1"'01< 10 ,h.lr p"l'tnlJ. A younger brolhu wouldn\ .""" va.lu", II> smoke a hookloh in the prtstncc 0/ h .. ddt., " le • ..., alo ... ""maUy cal • meal. Now. even young 00).. ' CIlIMi, fathers, 'Ltt 1M tak. two or Ihl« puffs from the hookah. old m.n, ·· In this vlcw. lhe dedi ... ,"affection for othc<s is port 0/ ol..ge, transfomulion of an ordI:rly SQCIaI worId;n ....hlch age hieran:hies wcre Sln.:tiy TCSpoectcd." Mlny po:opl~ in the villagt OUggfSlN tluO! 01"" nf lh~ main ..,asons ... hy "bn;"htrs I_ l a , nne .no,hCT~ ,hTOlIS" ..."aS th.1 incTCaScd oonsumer15m and competition had ltd tn tho: growth nf tnvy. If somenne prospcmI. olhCTS "'ere ....101... and wi.htd him ill. If lho: growth nf con· wmu desl.., Coln Ix ch.rted \0 changing indus".... l poollc lcs in India ~ denlopmml pl.... , 1M change of abih'lcs In fulfill that desl ... can Ix I~ \0 1M surpluses geTlWlted by tM introduction nf glftn ,"",nlu· linn what \0 lhls ... gion. 11 w.. clear, however, Ihal ... lalin ... bel .... en In,",'., Ind uppe. caSt<$

'II''''

.nd cl~ changing for "'osons 014r lhan th. fact that ... rviet castes IwI giv.n up on "traditional" occupatio"". As my informants nud. duro th. majority of 10w..-ey "'.... paid Rs so In .ht facl"ries: thus. IMY prd.rnd not 10 ,.·",k for formeTll. " Ranbir\ W,omonlS ""td 10 be conlulUllizrd by noling lhot lho: high Cost of daHy labor waS Ih. mOSt fmJu.ndy rttur· nng thtm. In ,4 dis«>tl ..... of farm • ., and land",,·n'TlIln ... Iipur. l.ow..~t< .nd "",·.,...,Iass pc:opl< had I compktdy diff.",m perspcoiY<: on thls '1u<$'ion. 1 was spuking 10 • group of 10"""<35«: 1IM:n obout why th.y prd.rnd not to labor in tht fidds: "TM'" it I<S1i wtII"k lth. WlgtS ane low l in Ih. villag•. and it is not aVllILabl. On tim •. QUI_ sid. 11M viILa""I. th. ""'gos a .. good ond paid on ti m<'- W. can .... "..k for I momh or t.n day. outside. lht" com. NIck 10 th. vitlag. lad stay for fi,·. d.ys. 'Mn go nul and work for anoth., s""'tch ." NOll>
,...,1...

,ha,

"""'IS

you haY<: (0 KO (0 work bcl"o ... th. .... boring in Ih. ~;1\og. 5un is out .nd Otll return only 1 ft.,. lhe sun has ... t. Som~tirnes you g... nougl1'im. to ca, in lho .fternoon. aM som ..!m.:s you donl . Th.y mal«: you wo,k for fourt",n hourS. and altor t!uot. if ,I><: Llbo,.,. g<>os 10 geXt doy. M is told. "Your l unt IrhMchJI is not he .... com< In ,4 .""ning." If you go in ,ht ..,._ ninK, afto. th. u.ual formaliti ... you ... told, ' Your groadml Idcwli l has gOr!<: to su~h·.r>d.,uch plac •. she has laken lhe by ,.ilk h". com. back tomorrow and lal«: your monty." In this WlY, on. has to " ... 510 ,hT« days 10 g.t 0"'" day~ wag• . Whc:1"C win you got lhe monty to fad your famil¥ for 1M ...,,1 two days? In th. ~Iopm.nlali.m. Sial<

1'0..... . "" Local Polirics

m

town, \t..

wag"" art t..n" •. and you g'\ paid in cash. '" you can buy

provisions for )'QU' family_ For Ihis rt..son, people don\ !ike 10 wurk in \..., viIlag". Ani! narraled Ihls by uall&en.ting 000 mimicking Iho sU!omrnlS .bout "your aunt" .nd "your gr.ooom." 10 I"" omUSCm.nt of his !iSl"""TS. .. H. deHlltr;utly used \h.ese rerms w indlcolt ho .... wuk lilt t xCU5(S wtrt for nonpol"""nL In m05llabor-hiringhou ... l>okB. womon w= unliktly 10 /uove conlrolled lhe supply of cash or lhe: ""«so w it. The frustralion of working han! and n.Qt hoing paid on lim" struck a lamilLo, chord among ,..., men prc!iCnt. all of whom . liu Anl1. _rt I..-.-aslt labort .... Another group of lower-aste men wid mo Ihal labort... ""p«u.lly dl .... hkl;d _nlng for lhe lhakurs bttausc, thty claimed, tht lhakurs II.>d a /uobtl of nol paying .. promptly. This usN 10 bt a common prac· Ike aoo had dedin.cd to SOme degree SO '/uollhe situolion was bcu er,hul W worker al .....ys fac.d unCf:rt.ain,y. "Earlltr, i f IMy OIme 10 gf'< US, had 10 CO bttausc Iht)' we"'!10 p"wuful. Now 111.aSI OIn rdu ... if we don\ ..... nl 10 CO {work for Iheml."" Allhot time of this convus;uion in lhot last "'ttk of July '989, Ih" ... was franlic ("Ot1$Iruction K IM ly gotng on in Alipur as th" villa,,, pond was being widened 000 d""""n.cd uNkr • gov.rom.n. progn.m for villag. oodop mem. Tens of l.bouTs had betn hired for Ihls Job. bul nOl>< of IMm "'as from Ali!",'_ Wlttn ! asbd this gt"(IUp of I""'''-COSI'' mtn, who mad. I living emirtly from """,e labor, why Iht)' "'en: nol " "orkin, on Ihis projt<:I, tht)' ""i.d lha, lhey W ,,", ollol'ndy committed 10 somt othtr jobII which l!tty did not want 10 Invt. Most of d,,: )'Oung men prcftn-cd 10 _ , k in o.lhi 000 had pnmII><mly lofllhe vill . gt. Some " ..,rIr..d In W nearby tOwn of Mandi, 'lVh""" do""nding on tho kind of _ rk, Iht)' nmtd ~ 10 or Ib 1.1 for I day's labor. Som. jobs rt<juirc:d mon: sltUllnd Ihus commanded hlghe' wagcs_ 1 wanled 10 know why Ihty ,,'ould C"-IO go all th. way 10 lown .... hm. aft .. ,ubln.cting for In.nsponalion costS (~ 4), Iht)' could ,tl lho SlIme """l!:' in tnc'ina,e. Thty agrttd Ihat wag. n.t"" ""'n: about th. ""m. but daimtd that wotk ""'" nol .1.... Y' avail.blt in lhe ~inagt. Ram Singh, Ih. unsucctS/lful ""ooldalt for headman, lold me t/uo, Inc "",1 ... OSOn lhol tnc younge, &,JW:ra.ton p ... ftn-cd 10 work in I"" !Owns was bt<:ousc Ih")" could nol lole:n.le working for lhe: thakllTS. Work on lho vill. ,. pond . for ""ample: , although finan.:ed by the govtmm" nt . ,..as bo:ing an"""ted by Sl>
·o.u ..

w"

w.,

Ihe ,·illage. Ihu. ",moving Ihese mOSlly y<>ung men fmm the Ym.~ political 5<: ..... The b",.kdo"'"Tl of forms of .uloorily and deft",n« lhal characterl.ud . syStem of patronage in which I.bo",,, we", .k~MCnl on I.ndlords "',IS due both 10 the cha"lling mean. of production Introduced by tM grun ""'olutlon and to the new opponuniti(S fot t.ndks5 t.bo",,, tn s«k . mploym<:nt o"LSid • •M ,·illag•. Yet patronage did §Ome ..ru';ly. 110""."'" ullCd causa of proletarianizalion (lIp<:s lso11:). Traditional village ..",Icc Ca$t(5 had been displ"".d from Ihtl' It<:rcdi_ tary o<:cupatl<>",. both becau.. the cbonging melhods of production no longer ",quircd «ruin lools and skills and beea ..... industrial good. lI.d rq>1a«d t!>ci. products ( lIc.... rnan 19]1; Appadu",; '939). "Ck>..,iopment" In tM furm of the gr•• n ",volutlon ond consu"'''' goods broUghl wilh 1.lhe displac."",n. of « ruin kinds of labor, TIt<: dhin"",,, (......... carriers) of Alipu. becam. tenanlS and ?tlty slwpk« pcrs btta ..... Ih. Inlroduction of IUIx "..,lIs and the abandonment of .It<: village wdl made their occupation superfluous, Similarly, .11 but one ~rsotl from tile reli (oil pnsst. ) llad abandonrd their h.reditary occupatiome prim.,;ly Wlge laboI'CTS. Art<)ther cou,,", uf prul .... ti.nintio n. dittclly conneck
off.,

""st.

o.v.lopm
')\I

TM final caus<: of proktarianization wa:s Ibt fragmdivision of landholding:o as • ~uh of 1M coparu:nary syslem of inbt ritanee. In thb Syslem,.n IM ... M rt«ivcd an equalsba.. of lhe proptTl)''' Whl;n a family's landltoldlng:o w. .. splil inlO Stv .... l f' .gm had lost lheir niche, otMrs we .. lenanlS who had bun ~elcd. and >till ",Mrs had .h...ys bun I.ndless Iabortrs. I will dis-cllss how lhe landless ma~ 10 obu.in ... "'" Iond in 1M nal _ ,ion. T" . ,·oid ~rmlnologlcal ronfuslon. 1 ...111 honedonk nOt rdc. 10 th.,.. pcopk is "proletarian. with Iond" (which appars o"Y"'nronk ) bul as "the rural 5mliproktariat." To undtrstand Ihb phenomtnon beu er. Ihc following calC,,,,"!.. n.ted 10 be kepI disHnc!: rural s<:mlprolelarU01 . rurallandlcs.s . • gricuhurallabon:rs. and "'""8" labo",rs. Th. ",laliDn be,,,·un IMm. a. 1_ tt. can be Ulu$lralN by I.... lret in Figu'" 7. I ha~. d"'''"11 on ly half of I.... whole lret-I, can be loll"",ed Idcnl kally for landltokllng s<:ml· proktari;ms. I think of lites<: cal.gor~ as jointly exhaUSI;"" bul not mUlwolly exclusive, uc~pt for Ihelandh"ldingilandlcs.scalCgory. which 1s000h.

The chid polilical implicoII"n of Ihe proletarianin!!on of 1M rural poor Is In fosler a n ... klnd of dependence on vill.g. clllcs. The nurgin. alWlion of ""miprol...rta"" b .1'10 lrue in .li.....l s<:nsc: t.... ir land is marginal both in 1crm5 of lhe size or the holding and in tcrms of 11$ Iocali"n-Irs distanct from 1M S<:lllem~nt .nd from sourcCS of irrip· Ii"" . It b often als<> nurginal in tcnnS 01solI quality. A pair ofbullo<:ks o. a lra<:to. is nttdtd for piDwini ond 'lOwing, a lube ",·e11 for irriplion . and a thresher lor d eanlnl ,he grain . !!«aIlS< ,h. c.pital in'~lm.nl lIKC$5lry for ptI",l\uing lites<: marhi.... is nol juslifiod by Ihe siu "f lhe plot (.nd Is. In any case. bcy"nd lhelr fCSOUn:cs). 1M ponr ha,· •• o

,

.........-

-,

(Of

10, ..

lobo""

rtnillteso. macMnes from upptr-class ptasams. Th. new high-yielding v;u ictics an: very scnsitive to the liming 01 inpulS' a lwo-wrck slantial loss of outpUL. It is, IMl'd o ... no! m"""Ir" question of xa:o.s but of rimel)' access, .nd In lluo[ Soonsc, the poor art totally dtptndcnt on theIr UPI'..·<:I"55 suppb"",. One might wonckr. then. "'h}' scmlprolttarians would cuhi,... " thrir own plots 01 .n. Give" the unanalmy .ad susonoblc variability or employment . • """y contribuliofl 10 subsistence _ n«' 's'}'. " An Imponont p< compilation oloffldal statis.ics. 1 found I"", .vtn trulrgi.ul pusants ,,·host main 50Urtt of incomt _ ,,"s. JaboT invariobly ...,.p<>n
D .... t" m.~t', 2 " ."'. _

'M Or •• n IIIu 2trMi 2n

ln5tcad of .. stralghtforw.,d Story of <11pitallst upansion in which growing s,ro'ili"'ltion rtSuhtd In • poloriz.:ltlQn bt.w«Jt on inc,.usingly

mo .. I"""'!"'m..., d ass of capitalisl farm~ .. Ind largu numb.,.. of rural Londlcso. lhe grun .. voludon in Alipu. saw ,Ite riSCO of a o 'egory of ptolp[., who we .. primarily woge I.bo .... bUI who galnN. posH ,<.ion of tiny pLots of Lond. How did Ihis com~ abouI? Whol was Ihe . eLolionship bnwttn th~ p'"em of lan<\owMrshlp and ,hot develo~nl pollcln of lhe poslcolonlol sulci How did agrarian populis$hips in lhe village? In Ih is """tion I uplo .. some of the IUSOns f.,.. and ~ucnC<$ of land ... dis'ribu'ion. An unrkrstanding of this phenomcnon t.a, to Mgin with 1M widu oontut of Indln. Gandhi's populism Ihot I descril:..d in Chapler I. Agrarian populism was partially a r<$PO"'" '" ,I><: Incn:l$ing inatuali'y aoxomponying tbt sp",ad of the g_n rtVOlution.'" During the uri)' """Cnltt:., tbt govunmcnl InlroducM • senc:5 01 subsidi... and handouts oritnltd towlIrd producllon bu, wi,h essentially weUaris, ob;ec. lives. TargelM at small and marginal flm>ers. Ihesc tonslSIM of sman amounts of f_ setd. fenilizer. ra""rab[" crttlil for agrtculturallnvcst· nw:nl. and SO fonh and "'..,.., adminisluN by such ... w bun:aucracics as 1M Sman Fam>ers ~'1:lop .... n, Agency (s . oAI and tlte .gency lor Marginal Farttl(rs and Agncultunl Lobon: .. (" FALl. In tht dttadc Mfon: the inlroduclion of the grun revol ution. some legal cluing.. put in oo dftc\ to proltc\ le""nts . nd 10 b... k up large <SIales Ihmugh stipulating tl><: maximum a""'unl of land , hal an individual could own , o lltd • "land c..ill ng.·.. In lhe partkula. cantul of the $imuhallto..., grow, h of capi ... list .grt<:uhun: and gO"emm ent programs , II!.csoe la",.. were 10 ha"" unilllended conscquencc:s. On lhe 0 ... hand, lho suddenly Increased profilabilhy of agrtcuhure made cuhiv;illon by owners _ IUraCliv<:. aM ,Ite Mw law. sa'"" land· 0 ...... ,.. I justi6colion lor not rcncwi~ "'....11. leo ..... The land ceili ng. on tht other hind. lhough Sftmingly at odds with lite drive to Iccumu_ lalC, merely .ncouragtd the legal (although seldom II>e op..-.. lio ....1) .ubdivlsioo of prnptn)l lncrtased yields me.n, thaI profi15 could Ix raised wilhoul n"" ...... nly cult ivaling mon: land; and whm land w,,' pun:hased. it could Ix legally .. gislCrcd in the name or a family m<mho. of the cultivalor. At 1M vlllag« level . tlte eff« u of 'hesc changes wcre fcl' tn IwO distlocl wo)"S. A\1 nw:mioned lbo,"" , 1M OOli... of tcnancy and Ihe increasing relian« 011 woge labo.- ltd 10 lurtht< doss pola';""iO" . The joinl impact of developmen, programs !....g.IN to . mall farmers and land c..illng la",.. can besll>e illusl1lItc:d by In example. Ouring my firsl

w.'"

round of fi~Id"'Ofk. 1M hudman rns.d ,...as 1M eldesl brolh", of • jolnl family with a [airly subslantial plot of fen lle land. Ltg.ally, II>( Land had bttn cqu~lly divided among 1M hro,bt~" as a oonstqutncc, each of Ihem ""'" I«:hnially I ",m.ll f.rmu." Prasad proudly lold "'" whal' g<><>d St~'I'gy ,hal had Men. As headman, he nalurally had eXl<nsl.-e """ial.nd official nel"''Orks among I"" go>Iunmcnl burcaucra l$ ""'pan' sible for program. for sm.lI farme .... He m..de full use of these contacts, seldom losing an opponunlly u, ga,her fTtt tnputS for hi""",lf and ,ru, m;, of his family of smali fanners. If IbtK ...·ere allonlions 51i11lcft ""u, he would direcll""m 10 olMr cI .... fritnds and kinsmen, .1 ...... t .\1 of woom were, like him, pros~.ou, ""pital;st f.nne.... p...,g~.ms for sman farme ... ...·.re One 1"'" of lhe government strategy 10 bring de.dopm""IIO Ihe rural populallon. Tht:St: programs eQUid be pLae<:' of de.clopmem consisted of building infras, ,,,,,, uK in ru~.1 for eKlmple, electric conneclions, ~. lransportalion and COtn_ munka lion r..cilil~. clnals, housing. and .., fo" h." These dforu ",'eK c.hkal for legitimation pUrposd \)(causc they provided Jobs. Although Ihe aclual numbers of people 'h us cmplO)-ffi we", small, they lajui,w g"'"cr signifi""""e btcausc of 1M number of people each government employee actually suppo"ed." Funh ... ~rhaps more s ignificant Ihan Ih~ ~ umbe. of jobs ere.led was 'he promise of Job opportunities for an "'~n larg~r n um ber of people , particulo rly for th~ potemially lroubt-.SOmc gmup of cd"", .. d, unemploy.d youlh. It is doublful, h""",vcr. lhat the di recI and indimol :accounling or heads in thls ..... y goes v..y far in upl.lnlng the l~gllimizlng mi. of s.... institutions. lUthtr, Iheir importan« mly he In hov;ng usuIped, ,,,In.igo,,",ed . and enlarged lhe old paltimonial e' hic ol "klQking aft .. the linl. fo lk" ' hrough Ih~ provision of setvices. In 1M "" ... of ..lOCI, ioNI institutions. 'hese ... .-viccs wu c :accoml"'nkd by • conspicuously naliONli51 agenda. Populism added • distinctive Iwisl 10 Ih~ stal~" I'O&,,"lns aimed .llhe ....... lIed Sd.cduled ($cs) : rcs<:rvo1ions In government Jobo;, heavily subsi· dized cttdil for Ihe purchase of prnduC1ive InputS, diStribution ,,,,,,11

''''ItS.

Cas,,,,,

or

q .... ntiut:!! o;H public lal1!:r bid U) <>blllin tl>!: support of Iowcr castt:!!lnd d ow:s, Indira Gandhi bypaoo.ed the Congl't:Sl< Party """,bi... ry and at",mptN to tic: II>ose "OICrs U) he, regime dirtttly. Her ability to do SO dc:""nded on the 1""'" IS"!? that had gndually ",.. k . • ....,j pou .... 'ty-based tics of patronage describo:d in this chaptu , on the vigoroU$ pTOtnOtlon of an idc:ology of "SOdal justice" col"uTCd in her election slogan, aoo on I n:newulcmpbasis on the impkmenlltion o;H I~ agalNl di5criminatioo th.t tu.d.long bun on the boot... In Chapter t, I pn::scnltc rok p!aytc SIlIte fInn 011 whk:h I SIlIred while doing fieldwo.k ill Alipur. He ........ a low.r·lev.!, CIas.s 3 .mplo)'tt of II>c liP SIlIte government . He had obIJclncd tl>!: job by paying I small sum of.....,....y ' 0 • ''''If.... ppolntt contac' with the thakurs In the course of his work. f or their pan. 'hey .... en: cag.r to make friends with bim so lIS '0;> b< Ible to uliliu, on lhe: basis of "frlendsh ip' (tha, is. witli..out payment). some OftM equipmen' owned by ,h. SUt. f.rm. fo r .:umple. sev . ...! of lb. billllu landowners often borrowed 'he f.rm~ tractor and tractor trolley. Th. Manager, for his part, und.rstood ...... f(:COy ....lI why tbey wanted '0 make ftic:nds wilh him. H. utiliud the opportunity
tllaku. told"", (.derring to the Manag.:r): "As soon as ht sttS me at tht gat. (...·hieh ...,,~ at IIOmt di~tane. from the housc ), he orden bis wlf. '" makf IU. frankly. ev.ry tim. I drink In al his plac. , I g.1 bllsten on my tongue." TMI Ihls mon new:nbeicss ,...n. regularly to ,be Manager's bo .... and dclilN. bis personbood in drinking polluting cups of ~a upnp",mlzed by lhe bllslers) ' pok<: 10 Iht immense lransfomu.llons "",,"'ing from tht inl.rseclion of d .... clopm.nlprogr;l.mS with rel.otioons "f p""'ueti"n. Tbis case was inte~ing bttausc i. tkmOl\5lrated ru,.., the d......,lol>" mtnl program. launehN. by Ih. it"e as p;ln of ilSltgitimizill3 effon, Inltn ,,1ned " ilb Iht growing a5.SCnlv.nes.s of lo"... r" I"'"" d ..... lopmcm prag"'''''' aimed allo"",r-eas;lt.lo"·..-ela,., pen for populist programs ,a<· ,tted II I""..,. "asl.. and "l.osse< ""' 10 focus on one crucial ospttt of do""loputenl program •. This is whal is ~upll'mlsticolly rderred 10 as thc ' Iu~' of funds: corruption," Inslltutional .nd inf.... tructu ..1 programs usually difftf In this ~gard In that the former pro"ide snutll and regul.or opporiuniti.. for "!ukage: w"'reas 1M lautr m<>Sl.ly pro. ,·id. largo and singula r ol'P'>nunilios. TOSClher whh the fact Ihal ""finance has bttn . major const",;nt" (Dardh.n t9lc:re one of II>c: mosl fund.m""t.] shifts in Iht pollticol fun.:ilon of Ioca.l·I .... tlIo:O
shift is 1M IIlOVI: from pal"""'S' 10 bro~t.agt, a move . ha. under"')' .he changing basis Of.M rtprodoctlon of rtl .. loO$ of domlrulion at . he vii· lageleY1'1." Vil"'gt leaders no long" cuhi""ted diems chiclly through lbe u"" of their own proptny- by leasing It 10 lerunlS. by employing an und..,nglng group of laboKn. and SO fon h (. hat is. by acting as a polron) bUI ralker by facili"'ling Ike ddivuy of SUit programs and ""TViCa (that i., by acting as a broker) . The <:cnm,lily of brokerage ..... as wen iIlusmued by.ho: polilks of Alipur. Although Prasad was a ric~ £anno •. he was nol .... wealthy and domi""rrlng ... Sher Singh ond cor"'Inly ..""Id nol have ho:en oblc 10 become !>cadman in. scenario in which polro~ w.s an jmporun., He hod uSt
w.'"

,,,,,u

10 ,,·hom I dislribuled plolS h.,.., been requesting m~ to a::>ntt5t ItM eleetion] ' Apan from disuibllling farmland. Prasad claimed 10 have allocaled hous¢ plolS I" lower-c>stc (>(ople as weU. But his glowing as«'<"mtnl of his own a,,1ons was d~uted b)' Ram Singh. Prasad~ <>ed the f.nd diStribullon. hoplng lhal ,,'hcn IMY caPIUm! the hcadmanshlp. Ihey "'<mId be abk to dislribute it 10 lhe very SoImc pwple I. ..... Prasad sa'''' It toJ ond makc money out ofi •. The fact is that from the ~ . he headman l"nlsad s.ok money. Sher Singh stof. moncy, .oo if . third person htcomos headman. he tOO will steal "",n~- I ~""" . aha /wI . Everybody mars from ,he poor. from Ram Si .. gh~ per-spcctivc. the,. was hnle diffe .....,c bc.wan Pra· sad and Sher Singh. beca .... both wc .. Intcrosted primarily in lining their 0'''''' pockelS "'Ih.. than gc .. uinely doing somelhlng 1...- the I. nd· less. Ram Si ngh continued: TIla, land .lkngcIn grain gro .... th~ .. l" Ahhcmgh Ram Singh~ g.......1 ""IimenIS about the mit nl upperca. .. Itadcrs wtn soundly ~ndors«l by another group of 10wN·c-.... m. .. to whom I spoke. thl'}' directly contr.>dktt"d hi . . .... rtion th .. ",-..tdaoo could not be rehabililated. TI>< plolS that P..... d had dis.

[)""clOI'""", .. ll<m . St... Power. • nd local Politics 147

nibuted "it'" not uSt~. Why, thtn. did pwplt not chaos< 10 ...,lect I'ra5Id o. 10 .J~t sorow"" that he had put up for the .1. c, lon? The u planation ,hey off.red waS ,ha, k>,,"Cr-osU pwple votcd f'" She. Singh b«-ouS( "it is • herd menlility. Once 0 .... p"rson dttid<:< 10 vott a Cf:rutin way. t/tty .ll dttkk to do the .. mt. Dna. p"rson "')IS. ·r11 vol. for you ; he ..."ill vole for that andidale no mane . ...·ha, he sunds fd~ """""j l. TM ",ndidates 1001 the p"opI. by pmm;";ngthtm . 11 kinds of things. then they ' <en el«talto "'prtst:nt lheir hamlcl In tl>( village ro.md!' He claimal thaI Sher Singh opprDllchcd him to endorse: the drawing <: subsllntlal sum of Rs )0.000 in bribe<. In addilion • • roupl~ of w~al thy jOt peasants "" ere tyclng some propeT1y lhal I>e, Singll io gtl ' igl!lllto lhosr plots. So So n"" ",fused to . iJn lhe , egistor 10 indicate In.t , he village couno;1 had met ond approved the partidon ing of new plots. He IOld m~ lhal as 0 molln of principle. he did not sign the registe, ""hen lie thought Sher Singh ""'" doing the wrong thing. ond only erido ..... d ,host proposals tho, be thought ...-ould !)(ncfi. tht wholt villag~. In July ,~, at II><: timt this OOnvelSOl l.,n wllh Son·..,. took place , fresh nalionalclttlio\tS were imminent. The RajiY Gandhi regi .... waS dtspuotd y Il)'ing 10 woo ",teD in ru .. l .reas by Kcklng 1<1 ndnvigorat~ rural d ...... lopm.nt pro ..... ms. Seve ..1 new ""he""" for ru ral develop-ment had. b«n launched, the mOSt ambitiouS of ... hle" was theJ,aWlllulr Employment Guarante. S<;heme U. ""ha. Rojgoar YOjlna. or J OY ) . In addition , th~ .. we.. programs 10 build ho ...... for tile indigent ond

lo"·~ •..,,.t~ ~pl~

in evfi}' villag •. III a bold depan" ... from p ... vioos IJO"<'m""'nt progn.ms, these new seh~mes ftonded ov.. 1o.'l!C sum5 di...cdy to the ,IiJ development pTOg ... ms. On a hot and humid day in July. 1 "'as sitting and cha n ing with thltt men, t..·o of them from middle caSl.,. and o ne Irom . i"",·ct casle. sn.. Singh was passing by .nd. In response 10. '1UOStiOn from me about new gm",mmrnt progNntS, m.n tionrd that fiv~ n.w ho ..........'.'" to "" con_ struetrd for haripns and ton fOf OIM. • ..·u ker .... tions, - III addition. Iwo n~ ho ........ w .... to be constructrd undct the , u. She. Singh told us .h01 helutd hurd thil lh. "'gimo Iuid In ambitiousseMmc to build '" many as fifty n~ btirk l""m. 1 houocs in eaell village. He dismisscd i, as. gimmick 10 pur<:ha.soo vol.,. in lhe upcoming c1roions. w . ..",li t on to d;scuss 0.11 •• topics. including tN: ellang. In the man ... r in "'hieh gO"emJneIll mone).. w . .. bring disbursed . Sher Si ngh ... ;d. -rhis 1I'l,·em mrll. has""''' very good for tM health 01 headmen I"'r~~~" IUIy pradM"O ki ." poocket. Th. pI who was Sitting there at oncr criticizrd SMt Singh 101 sa:king his Own p.ufit at 1M e~p(llSC of the villag.... SII., Singh dd~ndrd. hlmstll: "This is a mall.r of o ... ~ Intelligenc• . Wht n th.",.", foolS around , , he ;meiligellt unoes profit. " "n.., only fools." ome the ,.."m. "are the ~ple who "wc•. Populist pr<:>gram. flH' redistributiOn of Io.nd. creation of job. 10' the u ... mplO)"rd . and construction of hot1St5 for , ... poor anod 1""'<:51 castes had ..,.ullrd in n~ upportun;ti., for tM Ia rg~Ie di"",_ slon of funds, 11 was easy to ~nd.rst.nod why tho rural upptr clo"", had •• adily shifted Ihel . activities from patronage 10 brok.... g~: lhe "Icos" to he C<)l\(ctrd "' broke.. fot tk.·clopm~nt pr<:>gr...ns we'" a sure,. "uleker. • nd ofl.n mo", SUbsl.nti.I source "' surpl us than th~ straigh.f""".,.rd

00'

upaMion of lheir agricuhunol operalions. Tt.. 1"'0 activih .. "..,... in any cas<':, not exclUsive. and funds derirtd frum one w. ... qui•• IlieTally. plowO< . such ad
Iknus<: funds fo< devdopm
uppt<.cLass r;""lry for Ihe suppon of Iow.r.cl_ and Io,,'.r_ cas •• 101l"",tfS. This ,,-as du. in Ih. struggle btt,..un Pnsad and Shtr Singh lor ,he position (II headman. Programs limtd ., 10""'N'as~ and poor propl., im.gr.1 '0 th. pro)ttt (If devdoping I modem na,ion, w .... intended to Ichi""e C(:O. n"mic .nd «
-,-

In Ih. p",viou. chaptn 1 demOnSlDI.d lhe ImporUnct of the grttn "'''olutlon Ind agrarian populism in the dl:vtl"pnu:n. Strategies the postcolonial ..." . In Ihis chapt.r I .... ,.• triM '0 sh"'" how ,he ""Iionll· 1st project of developing a modem ogricuit ur.i seCtOT inlersecled "illl populiSt policies '" shape local poliliG and ,he ("t'Yf proplt in On( north.rn Indian viILag•. TI>I: boI:rs and Lah"",.-s . .... """wn.~ In Alipu. ,..1to ..... n: net hi .. 1'S of labor alwlYs compl'illro III .. wagt D .... ...... risillg much fast.. ,han .he c<>s. "r ",h.,. goods and commodities; lab("''''5 grumbled thaI ... ages w.rt i""d",!u. " . "d ,hal i, was diflkllh '" sustoin, feed, anod c1",he lheir families al pre-vltiling wage rales, On ,he ",her hand .....,. p<:>hdes hod ais<> resuited in the ",disl ribu,ion "I maw""lland ," lbe landi.... so that "almffit "'I)--on.- in Alipur had ",m. small q ... nti,y of land (w.dtc), '~:7' . 2"), Th;,; had Ih •• If«t " f "","keni", class antlg. "nisms no, "nly because: It prom(Hed rciali"n' "I quasl.clltnlism, as , .. ted above. bullis<> beeallst ,be ""'''''OS "f 'heu .....11 pl",s gained. su k. In the subsidies ,hat sus ... incd ,h. " ..en ",,,,I,,'ion. Input ."l>. idies I"T f.niHzer, Ih. el«tririty Ih .. powerrd ,ube wells. and sud benefi,ed marginal f.,me .. IS ",.11 as big oOCS. Th..",o ... an.!state farme .. m"VementS 10 prrstr... IIItsc subsidies. like lhat Laut>Ched by , he Kison Union . had ,be potenlial,,, it>Co'PO ..... smoll and margl",,1 f.rm.... in addili""I" Ih. slIrpI" s·producing pelSOn •. Lowe....,. ... pwple alS<) benefilro from devd"pmen, pros..."" thaI "'ugh, '0 bring "d,vc!"pm.m " ,., lhem , .uch as . hOSot thaI .imed "'

"r

pmvUling housing. edUC;llion. child co.",. production loo ns. and SO on. These programs _'" imponant not only lot theo moterial benefits they dtliV1'ttd hut perhaps even mon: for th~ chang<:s they brought about in cll5l.c ldtologit.s aM opportunities for social mobility. Ram Singh. theo lo...".-cast~ min w .... WlS dtlu.ed h)' She. Singh in the el«tiell for headman. W2$ TCflccting 011 lheo chanp .h.1 he Iud witnessN during 111$ 0W1\ \ifctime_ itt felt thaI his gt;lndchildlUl had much bttltr prospects lhan he: did .. I child. n.".. we .. school$;n every vi l);,ge. ,,·M .... In hl$ lime. flOW people had thei r cllildrcn. educaled. "In my days. the: .. wert borru:rs. ptopll: used to 1, all children &" to schooL" Bill Ram Singh also m. imained Iltal children of his~t. had not bttn .bit to Ia't« adwnlage 01 govemment scheom<s SCt up 10 .n<:ou .. ~ tkem to be edUC;lted bta.~ It.. money Iltat was allOClltW 100" thot purpose W2$ "eaten up" by uppc. I'P"'"tuniti... to It.. go.:n-emment. h. also cri. lclzed it 10' ilS Inability to Impl. ment ilS pmgn<m. cff«tivd y. This crUict.sm ha. to be Sttn in theo light 01 theo mle Ihat development .... pbyW. in legilimi:ting postcolonial.-.gimn. Disrou ...... of developmenl have been ttntnd to tbe p<>Slcolonial lrtodian Slate as pon of brgn" straltglcs of dccolonw.llon .nd ... « n. ",1 st"'t.", fot building • modem nation . Colonialism was hdd ""'p"nsi!>k for the p",..,ny 01 tht counlr)l tha. Is, for ilS l..:k of develo pment. [kvdopm~nt program~, theon, wen: mecltanlsms not only 10 bring «onomic and social progr<SS bul 01$0 10 rstablish that ""Ito",,] Irtodq>Cndenc~ ,"",ked. oomplt te b ... k wilh oolonl. liom . nd 10 lo urlCh Ille ""lion firmly on .ht path to moo..mity. Ram Singh delh..,ttd an eloquent crilique of these: pn mi....: What"'" gov<:mmt:nt sct..mc:s hav. been started to finish casteIsm IrJooor....cIwolJ. it h.. bttn inSing. no. d«re ..ing. Proplt Ita'·.n\ bttn . bI. to elim!nate whO! is ntsted in their minds. Our Ihere Ram SI ngh was rdemng to tbe lower castcs] people build these: wonderful ""mrs lor tht: highc:. C25tts, but when the: housc Is complete and the

hunh is laid. then ""e con) go lmo the house-isn) this~.dsml This son of ca>I.ism [jo2dliv
in.o l int.",onneclions bel"'ttn sto" sponsorship of Ih. new ,..,h""logy of agricultural production. ""hleh worked to , ,,,,cc.bate doss divisions. and popUlist p,"V"ms Iho, sough. 1<) reduce 1",* divisions, A d_ anal)'sis of lheir Inkulalion in the ,0nlUt 01 one village ""11'5 explaIn ... hy «nain Ideologies of dtvdopmtm ha'" provod SO successful. as w.ll as ... hy challcn~ 10 Ihis discou.-sc of poslcolont..li.y continU( to be mount.d, The nut ChopltT hold.< up practiCC$ of apult"", to a mo .. 6 ... ly grained analysis. highlighting oln.r contestatio"" of dc-'d· opmcn. and differing choraclCriutions of th, postcolonial condition.

•

Uring my first spd! of fieldwork in Alipu. in 19l4-3~, . grcat p.oponion of my Ii"", WIll sIKRI conducting a sociottonom;': SU!'VC:y of _,ricuh" ... l production, covering 1M alii", vt11.ge in 1"'0 rounds of d.Wltd inU:""itws. During ,h. cOur'SC of admini5lering lhis intrkolC survey .bout fanning pNCli«:s. I notictd tko, ,1M:", was a yawning gulf"',...." the t.chnOSdcnti/ic language of the survey form, ",l1k h had bocn ldoplM from similar surveys usW by «(momisls. and . .... idiom In which ,he "m'gn< of Alip ... "'l"'U"nted ,Mi. own farming practictS (Appadutlli n.d .), To gain. benor appreciation of 1M .pis'cmolog;e. .nd pncIic"" of rarming. I conducud • series of detailed intcl'\'kws wllh ptOpl. from different CIlSlcs Ind d.~, It ....... , ... chutngJu", day in ,~ •• lmost.1 ,h •• oo of my firld.... u.i<. Th. IMrmomclOT had consist.nlly >l.I)"W atJo,.". on. hundred

D

dcgrus Fahrcnhcil. lor

,h. p...,v;.,us two months. Evon a, 7 A..... whl:n I

kIt lht brmhoolUt and headed to ,h, .culcmcnllo do my wo.k. 1M . un . trudy fell hot on the skIn . 11 was I good Ii""" how~""r. 10 s«1r. OUI la"".... lor ;nltrv~ ..... bttiu,,", ogrlcuhu ....l work WIS ~lty much al .. standstill To make full usc ollhe link Ii"", lhal I Iu.d Idl. I inlUv~ .... ed peopl~ in 1M .fltmoon , when no on<: tha. I ,.... ntMto lmtrvicw was likely U) be busy. It WIS 0' such I lime Ihall spoke wilh Su~h In tM moIn. . of my room. SurtSh was .. ,moll fa"".., (profiled in ~alcr detail below) .. ho was up1ainlng 10 1M why h. had plowed ,he field In which he hid pLonv:d moil~ only lour 11m.... This ........ quil~ unusual. fomKn in Alipur lriallo plow ali(ld si~ ,imes Or mo ... In p ... pa .... l;on for ~ng. Surcsh JUSllfial his Ikel.slon, kovo· ..... ~r. In ' M following terms; "Soy we plow six or eight times. Then lhe soil ...ill drink mort wo'or. If II drinks wlln, he.t will co .... out of the ground. whkh wIll

ror

app<ar IQ make Ihe sopling y.nQwish. Thus lhe planl k.eps siuing down Il>ctt imu:od of ~hng upward_ II o.loxsnl run upw:ard_ It jusl sloks inlo IIx unh and ........ im Ihue as a IWIg_ Undern.ath , its I'O()ts rot from the h.at I b~dbh~""I . If the fidd is plow..d I.... , then it i. profitahle . Plovoing many limes .utomalically ~ults in IQwer pr<.>dUClion" lIttous<: m.oize was 5<)wn j" sl b<:£o"" the monsoons. the logic of lhe "'pb""hon is as follows: TM grolmd had hordcnod Q"" IIx hot sum· mer months. When h ",OS plowod. Ih. soil was I_ ned up_The m<m; h was plo ..... d. lhe IDQ ... w.lcr· ... t.mive ,h. soil became_ Then ,..hen the rains come, lhe 5<)il Slc.mod beaus<: Ihe wa"r come into rontac:1 with .anh 111.1 had bttn stud; l)" hUIN ovcr Ih. dry su mmer months. Thi. steam deslroYN, he roots of Ih. planl and prov;dc:d .n environmenl far I"" hoI and humid fur ,h. planl.O gmw. Tht plant's develupment was stnolherN by In .Jwironmc:nl ,hal lackcd the proper balance: b<:twce:n moistn""" l od hco l. A smallcr n um bo r of plowinp. by ronlnsl. dUj up 1M "". N •• broughl ,hcm 1o Ihe surfoce 1o dry, and . Iso I_nod Ihc hard crusl of th. soli. which made il mu", PO"'US and Ihus .lkn.-ed I'lIinwate' 10 d l'llin. Paradoxically. Ihis enabled I b<:u .. balance 10 bo ",ach.d bel ..... . n moistu", and heal beaus<: it did n<>1 lI'lIp th. I'lIin"'.... ' as &«t;...,I)" as did a ,..dl. plo .... od fidd. Lik. <>the, famtcrs in Alipu •• Sur.. h brought an "indlgc"""ol)'" de· vdoped knowlrog<: of agro""m)" 10 bea' on an llgricuhu ... 1 co.-...lUctro 1argt:1r with ch.micol f.rtilizers, dc<:tric lub<: ,..ells. and -""i· tntifically" Imd h)'brid so:tds. Wl>c:n farmel"$ in Alipur Lalk«l about whul ,.,.riet l<:5. 1M names Numb.. 1>0.1, Numb<:. ~. RRl', s.... •. Kls.n , Wonderful. and K68 ron.d orr Ih.i, longues. Although hybrid varieties of other crops also e" (sled and W~tt used in tl>c arc., il "'"as the hlgh· r id dlng variClI.. of whut th .. we .. most widely ..dopIN. Not onlr w~", , he ... rietals . htmselves the prodUCI of bIOSd.nce:, bU1 50 100 was the emirr. Icchnoklgy of production. It . hus surprtscd me ' 0 karn Ih'l biosci. nl ific lCnn inology play«! a ""1.l i....,ly minor rol~ in th. discou~ of AIlp"r~ f.nners. Tlxir "ocabularics of apullu.., bon: 1l" le rcscmbla""e '0 lho: "Scie ntific" di""""r5< that had giv.n binh 10 ' he Icchnologits which Ihe)' employ«! in f.rming. Thi' i< not 10
""'''icc:

Chlld .. n both!ng nUl 'ube .... u

their conver$Otkms wi,h on( ano,l>/:. and in ,,,,- in"MtwS I condue,td with I""m. Such ahtrnativ. tpisl<mologi.. of agricuhurt and nllural rtSOurc .. !utvc usu;olly betn called "tndlgcnollS knowkdgc" In ,I>/: scholorly lI"ra. ,un:. In 'hl$ du'ptt. I uplon: W!utl il mighl .... an 10 c!utracttriz. the agronomkallenninology. knowkdg... and pr.oclk.. of "Iipu .... f.nners as "indigcrtOlIS." How docs One Ih(Oriz(' condl'lon In which disparal' tpis.crnologlH and prac:lict:S roaisl .nd inl • .".n...... wilh 5uch dt..rming case? Th. £ann= of "Iipur. aggrcssi'·cly uli!i.il1jll hybrid >«d •. biochemical inpulS, lube ..... Ll "chnology. and ... Ie institulions. hardly COrrt5pond 10 ckpk,lons of ", Iu; I~ltlonal fannu." Al ,h. sam. ,im •. tMy an: nol "esstnlially the Slm." as r.rm
PoottoIoni:ll Dnd "I'm
thmugh Ihls chaplt<. One of the chid pml:>lems Is rtprtSl'ntlng ,Itt in,..,mlve and comenlious uSt. of dlsparat~ Ind incommtnsurab!e d .... ~ourstS of agrlcullurt wllhout "clea ning Ihun up." Ihlt Is. dimhu.IIng th ... , messiness. FoTmtt5 in AlipuT oft"" uSt.d dis<x>urstS ..:gaming the ",,"hh of plants. which n:lied on • thc<»y about a pmp'" bal:ance of humors-that Is. clements that wen: hot, cold, dry, and moist. The bol:an« of humors dependcd on Ihe ~onSiltution of . plont . which depended un itS In trinsic pmp<:nies hilt also on the pmpenles of the soil. fertiliz.rs. wat ... and wind ...i!h ,,·hich II " " '''' InlO contacL All these Inrul. conveyed thelt pmpcrl les W the planl. which In tum con· ,·c)·cd ItS properties to humons whcn Ing~ . s food. As I demonstrale very clt.. I)·. however. humural aplono, ions wen: nol , he: only urICS ~mployed by farm .... "Sclmtific" II!wries of Igronomy " .... frtdy in· ""pe~ with humural onC"S in debates loom Igricu!turalls5ues. and wh.n UtK almined "''''lic .... th. sll\UIIon b«ome CVtn mo .. compli. CIted. Fanne",· explanations of ogrlcuituDI practices Int.""·",,. rtf. ucncrs 10 Ih~ polilics ul caSte . class. and gtndu wilh lheO,," uf agron. om)' What ...... on. lu make of I ,ituallon In which Iht disc""","" of c1t""lopmem promulgated by I modem nallon-5lal. and .subsumlvisl thffll)" of planl life Intermingled with "'=ling dJuniessncss1 Was the:", ",,,.,.Ihing specifically ' postcolonial" about t~ IInvtpectcd inters«tionsl In thiS chapter I employ an analysis 01 the epistemologies and procli«suI" agrlcllltu,"" lu dehneale Ihe h)·bridlti" lhal cluractertu Iht post. coloni ll condilion. In parlicular. problematizlng Ind""""". know!edg" ul agmn<>my enables me tu demonSlrale hu .... the bln'ltie. of modcmity-colonialaOO nalional_lrt desllbllized by I""'lColoniahty. Aliput"s fanners nelth .. fil Ih. mold of indigenous people who have bten unconlO minated 1». modernity nOr thaI "" p~lve f"rttM:rs On Ihe brink of ~nlering !h~ lOkwff ,,"g~ of apilllisl dt""lol""""n<. As . uch. they ... nd .. ambi valent narrallves of progrtSS ond modernity em· hcddcSlcoloniol discuu~ of d.""I"pmcn t. They panlclpated ( nllllosw , lally In gre.n ",volu tion ogncultun:. )..,1 much of Ih. time lbey employed. discou..., uf farming .MI was qui!~ stri kingly'" odds wilh • blosclemlfic understanding of agricuhu",. AI the ... me lim~. humoralundtrstandings uf ogttmumy cuns, ituled unly unc pan of u pl:a nalion. Ind justificalions gi'..,11 fo, panlcula, ognc\lh ural drdsMIns. Practl«s of farming ,..... upJalncd In t.rms of ! he rclatlunshi!, btl."..,.n humoral uplanations of .gronomy.1oca1poli tiC'!. development proj«1S and ptngf1lms . • 00 the politics " Fhousehold Ind caste. The destabilizing

implicalion< of postcolonialilY for Ihe id.ntlty oJ subj.CLS of a modem .... tlon~'" be ..... ,.. ope:!u.lly clear through .... eh. I.ns,'" farm"", In Alipur f. Ucd to confonn to Ih. dc"1'lopmenLlllst visIon of the cili•• ns of a modem nation. Tho n«cssarily condensed argumenl in this p"ntg ... ph willl:>ttomc darer IS il Is illusu,ncd through the d. IOiled mlpiricll material thol folio,"". ~fore doing that. ho .... ver. 1wish tU explain why I tMn Indig•• hov. ch<.·ttn the texl ~nd lhe woties ,hat I cncounterfll in Alipur. for exam pl. , pcas.anlli certainly p ...... nled 00 nidcnce uf it in theit discussions and pr;octicC$. E""n if 0 ...... ere 10 ""mlder 00. tho: Ayurvrda of tho and.nt Hindu texLS bul the syncretic. hybrid "1'rsion tMI Is the I.gacy of tho .. inc·

,n.,

,een,h cen,ury. ,,·hid, ",ook Over Wes,ern ideas OJf physiology and an,,,· omy and transbt.d in "yul"lltdic 'trms' (Ollf "mod«n' fanning spanning indcptnd.""e and me orlginary system QI muning. In conlrasting humonl agronomy with "g...,n """0I... ion biosct<:nc.: I intend no. OS milch to oppose "indigenous" knowl. wges 10 "sdentioc' 0 ..... 001 10 pose existing. hybridized Und..SI.nd· ings "f agrkultu ... Ih."""I""" Ihe ou'co"'. of ",ullipl. genealogies. ag»inSl on •. dc of agrkuitunl practice. wh_ Qrigin can h<: 'racw 10 Ihe particular condhlons OJf corpora,e agricuhurt in Ihe Un i,td Stotes in the twmtk. h century. In Ihis chaplu . inslud of ..a ",hing for Ihe H"ly Grail of.n indig.· nous S).... m of og",,,,,my. I h.~e paid close auention 10 the praclices and discou ...... of fa.me ... in Alip"', In So> doing. I have idtnti!\td 1"'0 fealures of fanning lhal art oft.n missed in struclurallst analyses and In

,""m

,ha,

'0

t"

· Indi!<nou." Knowl«lgesc Agronomy '¥J

rcc(I!lSuuctions of "'indi&~no", knowlNg~.· The firsl famrt is II>< ines· capable fact that agricuhur.o.] und~rst.ndings and practia:. Irt com· poo<:d of d;"junctl~~ and incommtnS~rably hybrid discourses, .... hkh 1 InC. to tht ponkular ~ondition of p<>ll\(olonlal !l\Od(mity. Second. discoul'St$ of ogricuhun: an: not a closed fitld of meaning Ind action but In: profoundly $h;Iptd by tho: politics 01 cas .. , d_. and gendtr differentiation. Wng tl>< analytic fn"'" of ]I06tcolonlallheory allo ...'S me to describe a veT)' dilJen:m pn>eti« of Igricuhurt thon ha. h.,.,· tofort!lttn the atSf'. TI>< maleriat In this cha",er dn ..... on 1M surveys, my obse"....tlons of forming and village me. and deui!cd intervIews conduct~ during Ih .... round:!< of 6e1d~k. My objec.i"" ...... 10 expl<>re systematically what 1 had heard rqarding knowledg.,. of agonomy. For Ihe P"t'pOOieS of ex· posiUon. [ will concentrate On tho: arr.hs of thn:e fanners .... hom Igol.o know quile ",ell. I first mn Suresh. the poorcSl of the Ihl«. a shorl. (ony-I,,·o-yu...,ld brahmin man wl.h d~ropped haIr and mischievous gny eyes , soon afler 1 ..achtd AHpur. He lived in • iarge cmlc shW Igwl on Ihe IlOnhcm edge of lho: village. The 01~1 of his lour chlldrtn "'.5 a seventttn·y.I •..,ld son. a"",her SOn and a daugh .., ...·OK in Iheir early IttllS. and there WI •• )'0\1"3 girl of nine. Suresh ,..,.. 0 .... of , ho, fe.... people in his g....... lion 10 have obLlined a fQftn.l1 rducotion beyond hIgh school. In 0 '" oJ tllte two little rooms in which his family lived. Suresh an:fully preserved a piclU" lhal shoWN him among tilt gradu. aUng class at the ""hnleal instilule . wben: he had t .. ined 10 be . w.lder. He cbimrd 10 ha~e moved bock 10 the villag•• s.acrifidng a potentIally financiolly "",... rding co",.r, beca""" hi' JlfC""nce "''as nttdN. to man· age the family fann. H. had no n:gn:ts .boUI h"d«;"ion because he had btud thaI many w~ldtrs ev~nlually wenl blind It In .,.rly .gc: he felt IlI;,t no amount of monty COUld po:ssibly compensale lor the gift of Sight given 10 us b)' God. Oue 10 conRiclS with hi. uncia, Su~ Ind hili flm ily II;,d moved from theirancesl ... l hom~ In the center of the brahmin pan of the village 10 their family's canle shed. a lorge )'Ird wilh high brick ..... lIs. Thert. In thIN small huts built In difrertnt WTt>l':rs around a huge nttm I"{adi· ,,,,hI" 1""1£<1111« in the cenlCr, lived the six family mWlbers wilh ,h~ir ,Ix animals. The twO cows old enough 10 give mil~ Wert, ho~vcr. too emaciated 10 supply much. Tbt family rtbed for their livc!ihoOO on !ncomr from their Iw<>-acn: fann and SUrt$h's Ictivities as the vilLog. prkst. In.be khori£ harYCSl, o. monsoon hi"''''" in 1914. Suresh Iu>d

plan.ed maile On ont-l"inl uf an acre; bajf1l,. Ur pearl mma. un about an 'ere; and jovnJt (a , .. rle'y of b;l.rley) fur fodd .. un .... r"Sl. TI\¢ willi rid d W05 >(10 kg of mai>:. and /j<)(> kg of poorl mill". or. if Ont assumes . four-mon,h growing """""n , abmn 1.1 kgl'w.y for eac" m.mber of I'" f,mlly. Bu. because lOO kg of mill •• "'as sold. the ""in Id. for COMump,I'm ",'O' ""'U«<\IO Ic:ss than lltsl. alld .I\¢ r i.ld. """'" mucb big ...... ) lb. ,000 kg uf ",heOl , 140 kg of must.rd, and zIo kg of barl.y lha. ",'e", produttd would have 10 feed.n. family up.o •• I"",. Ia.e lhe nul ran. when lhe monooon crop wo uld]", ha ....'<:Sled. MQSI oflhl< harval-1ll1 Ih" mu.\urd .nd barley aoo half Ihe .... h•• I_"... ""Id 10 .. IK CIIlih. TM family's lI.ed for cash "''OS mo« prt:SSi1l3 lhan ",.... I"""u", IN... InCUrrM 01 tho mornage of tbe older daugh .... needed 10 be paid hKk. Su~h e,'Cn pl.n,,,d a mung crop on Iwo-I"irds of ,n OC"" lhal summe" bUltack of ""ler and a ""anh of Input'!' """Ited in a f"ebk yidd. Tho< fa<;t ,hal Su~h managed '0 .u".;n • good ""pull"lon in a strife· ,om hltlo: villag. s""h OS Alipur was •• estame", 10 Ills ",Cl and SOme· whal do",ched demeanor.' Of cou...., ••1t.esl: qualitlts ..... "" also.],., (Quit of elurally an_ lagonis,ic ",lations with others. He had '0 .ptak CI",fully and (sam to) lis,en sympalhetiCllly to III groups. Apptarill3 d.",chcd from worldly ",,,lIu•• Iso conveniently pt..ycd InlO Hindu "". ions 01splrltualpurl.y. an im.ge that Su""h consciou.l)' aspi",d '0 ( ulliv:" ... H" d ld not farm , h. dalm.d , """USC W nta" with the ""il ...... contaminating and below lhe StatuS 01 a true blahmin and ],.,,,,,U... I>< wanted 10 ktep hi.....,lf ..... y from worldly cOMerns.· lherdono. he l.ft all tl\¢ ac. ual work to his SOn. and was content 10 .uptl"'iM lhem. He 'PO'" mo
"',,"n'.

''''Y

This ltd to somt inur&ting contradictions that Su ..sh bridged nthrr cradvely. AI th. SOme time. he u"tleOSI One b",hmin household and was on ~peaking urms wlth othe .. (unhlle, for uample. the headman SM. SIngh, who had no contacl with most bnohmin famili .. ). AS In the case 01 $uresh. Sompol'S aMity to cross over was due to the combination of Sompoll tact and lack of poli tical and tcon.omk muscle.' Allhough not poor by vil la~ stand.rds. Sompal ...... 0 ... ollhe smalle, landholders among the Ihakurs. "wning JUSt ovet lout acm of ..,lati""ly Iow-1". Sompall'"'f.rud to ",nt "ul his.,....., propeny .nd e.rn his li" ing doilll! odd jobs,' H........ ""ry skillful in ""o,king with Ms hands. <51"'dally with mechanical equipment. Toward the end of my 6eldwo.k in Ahpu •. Som""l ""'" m.dily .mploym ....... t. f.nn. being paid to do maintma,," and i...... lladon wo.k on the fonn~ new lube wen. But his continued empk>ymcnt was jwpo.rdutd by the impending lrans!" of the manager who had. heromc his good frimd. It sumtd likely thaI, as in the past. his £amily. consisting ,,' hiS wife and lour young children. would ha"" to subsist on rent rrom their land .nd income lrom occa.Ional employment. lka...., Sompol~ £amily lacked their 0"'" source of rodder. they could not even offord to sdl mUk by kttplng buffalo and

cows.'· The mOl\5OOn and winter ha!"VC51S of 1~-81 >Ow Sompol tau up fanning for perhaps the first Ume aft .. he had broken ."'ay from his f.. her~ hou .. hold. BUI he did not farm his own Iand_lI.. t "'... renttd "'" as usual. His rather t~mpontrily ",ve him .. n bigha.s (app.oximately 0 ... and two-thirds """"') from his own 1'10\ on ,·ery favo ....bIe fixtd terms. In the kharifha....-ost. Sompolplanttd four diff~..,nl ~rops on thio bnd- maiu on tw,..thirds of an """', lentils on half on acre, oil~.ds on • quarter of an """'. and fodder on onother quaner of an .. ",. u ntils ~nd fodder .... ~ grown for sale in the market. whereas maue .nd oilSttds U..IIa; ] wert! me.nt for dOm ..lic (onsumplion. Sompal~ [nexperl
~igl\ly

kilograms 0' ol>(· ... lf man pu big.... which Sompo l c~imtd ~ulttd lrom improp<' sowing I«hnlq...s." The s.am~ lh lng hopI"'r.ed wilh Ih. I.nlils . ... hich ........ sown 100 clost. logrlher. n a consoqutnc •. lhe lenlil crop yielded. 101 ol ... ood bul...,'1 lillk mar· k~!l.bk OUlpUt. ~ ;owo'. inltJIdtd IQ "" sold as 0 ~!l.ndi", g,.tJI fodder. found no purchaot ... hc:aus<. acrordi"i IQ Sompol. no <me "'anini 10 come doily inlQ his I. thu·s property (" 'hieh Ih")' " 'ould nccd IQ dQ 10 horvesl il). Du ri", Ih. rab; horv~l. $om",,1 plamtd 1>0. 1")' .fl., during Ih. maize plol. ",heal Qn .boul hall .n acT« . • nd • fodd.. calltdjol (oots) Qn a quart., .,J an ac .... He t""k a gamble by solling aside the ~t _a qwtnu of an ac ... _ lor sug.o.ranc . flcau"" s .. p ran. ",k~ approx· imately ninc mQmhs tQ m.tu ... . he hod hr anmh .. )·ur. SUI his father understood Ih. pk>r and ... fused 10 extend the 1c~. Since il "'''s l<>O late to plan, an),hing else. Sompal th.n had no choice bu, tn leave the a .... fal\o.., Tho yields fro m Ih. robi crop w.... also conoid. rahlr mort '" spectacu· lar. All of the baTley .nd mOSt of the wheat had to be: poid as ... nt. GoaLS atc tit<: fodokr ... hil. il " "as still g,",n. That lofl a n.. rttum '" J"ot 250 kilogram. of whul. which ""as nQl much I.". . 11 Ih •• lfort lho, hod be ~n ... " ulm! to lann. Ouringmy 6 ... t round of6e1dwork, I did no! gO! 10 knowSOmpol .... cll unlil he slantd working r.-gularly on Ih. SUl~ farm on whleh I happc""""o live_ On subsequent visitS. I came", knoVl" his whole f.mlly much kner. At Ihirty.lh .... , "" "'... i"'l a f.... yurs old.r Ihon I ,..,.. in '914. and iMtinchvtly hil il olf. Whot struck ''''' aboul Sompol ""as hls abilil)' 01- 1 migh t ev.n soy cxJl"nise In-negotialing his ""'y through th. maz. of vl11agc politics . He had tna~tcm! thl: an of . tnblgu. ily, 'g,.,.;ng willwm commilmtJIt, if Ih. sit uation so r( art .,J ~prtSCnling int< loci of power, Appr(lxima, dy I..." nly. Dhoni Singh. ,h. y<>Ungdl of Ihe Ihree poopl. whose ~ok. Infonn. this chapter. was tl>< mKldl. child.,J a Jat family abys .... l

w.

who had movnl lnto tM villag~ ...i lhin 1M last ~ )'urs. Thq> bought a substantial pacbge 0( laoo. appro~imatcly SCVCn ICru split almost tqUally in tWO Stgtn(nts.juSI across 1M road on 1M usttm sital owtd. and the low .. ptice of maize as compared with .. heal made it pro6uoble to supply as much maiu OS possible. Tbe ",bI halYCSI SOw Dhanl Singh a.:Iopting a very unusual str:atcgy in plonting "'....1 on In tho l.nd, both ",nttd and owned . Whot was evon rno", surprising ...-as thaI most of the ...·h... t M planted was lhe l.,..;li.10 ....1. O. \ bought Sted to Ihis ,by." The: ykloh on exh plot Wtn predictably poo., ranging from a low 0( Lj

m.nslblgha to • high of about 4.0 manslbigha. The -!:>tnc .... f.nnus. ~ ct)mparison. achit"N yields of 1 to II nanslbigh •. Oha,,1 Singh u_ pl.inN tM poor yidd.. b)' poinling oul lhal he Iud ~n okl.y~ in plantIng and harvesting Ihc prnlous crop. thai I-.. bckni 1M rcsourc,.. to fmilizt lilt land al cOrl5idettd particularly inldligenl by <>Ihe. pot<>pk in tht village. In facl. when I was auempl;ng 10 SCI up a" in"I"\'itw wilh him , ...... n of hls 0"'' '' casle who prided hlmsetr on his fanning skills asked me wh)" I wan'N '0 was.c my time talking '0 """'tont who knt,.. SO liul. about agricnhu...,. Stveral people lold me lhal he Iud •• ken on mo ... land lha n he ct)uld possibly IIandlc and mlghl have bttn beuer off .rying '0 give .d!:qualc inpulS '0 the I.nd .hat he did own. Oh.nl Siogh.grttd wilh Ihem. claiming lhal his family would nol ""m «<"...u the .moutll of g"'in tkal they OWN for lbe lease. When lhe landlord Iud come begging 10 him 10 lease 1M land. bt Iud flally .... lusN. bu. his falM. ct)nstnled bthind his back. The ..suit waS thai Ihey ct)uld nol .!ford the inputS lhal wen: n
I""

~d

by firm"" in Alipur dtl'<'nd Mlvily on I humol1lllogic. a consld-

eralion of agricultural pl'llClices shows that tMy ar<: nOt simply the Oll! · oome of "indigenous' IbMry. J Ihtn .show how a discussion oIlgronomy br<:01tlt:'l evell mor<: compliaoled by oollSlderlng 1M politlcol CtIf\\cxl of agricultural p
Tbe pose be. cmpl<>yf clearing away ,ho confusions lhal .ulTOund Ihe lerm. '" os 10 rcvc.ol lIS "t ..... " meaning. I will ask ...·hal enables lbe Indigenous 10 lep",S(nt such I dlsf'lral. range of ",fermlS. tn other ,,"ottIs. why d
1M role pLoyni by Ihe ilka or"indigenousness" In oolonial and ""tI"".IiSt discourses In India tn undcrsund why it con, lnuos 10 "" SO im por_ ... nt ln tl>< poslcolnnlal world_p.,.n.ps mol'<: imporunl for my pUrpos<$ is 10 ask Ioow ideas of indig.nous!>eS5 find thel. ","y In lO postcolonial thoory and wh"ttl>< dilT.",ncc is I>
,ho,

lheir n:buionshlp. UI mo Imicip.u~ lhe "'I"mem 01 Ihi. chapter and suggGI Ihal lor I wide variely of TUSons, ... nging Imm lhe slroggks Iaunehod by Indil"nous proplo wo,ldwido 10 Imp"rialjol nostalgia ( Ro. saldo 1989), lhen: Is. n:COiRllion in globolly hegemonic diooouroo lhal Clpilllll$t expansion has Indoflillad" doklerious errttl on indigenous prople and indigenous cullun:. TM growlh of indu.tri.,. lhat n:ach rnon: and rnon: rtmoteloca,ions. ,hen:I" n:. is IC(:(Impanlcd by n:ncwed rour\da of romlntici:zing and ulobr:aung those who art four> IhMc PI'4XMoSCS. why is [n.dig.nous idonUt), th. one most privileged In analytic ducriptlon and pohticltl """""ilionl One _Id . - have It> he nO< \\1<'$1 gulp down 11\01I\(r container of Bf:n an.d Jerry. Rainlo","1 Croneh icc crcam or pay high p< "I ndigenous pnlple" ,,'00 Inhabll ,he ... in 10~lS." Needless 10 say. po ...."".. or cyn icism , .""n In mode .... l. dO$iS, hardly conslilbU:S In adequale n:spo,*- ldt:as aboul ineorpo ....lion 0/ doll\C:'ilic>uion do not acknowlcdg< lhe dcslllbilizing possibililiG inh~n:nl in oppositlon.1 posIllons like thaI oo:cupicd by "tho lndig<"""s." 11 is pTtt;sely Ih • • mbiVlI~nco of,he ind;g.nou. Ihat I wish 10 explon: m"n: lully in this chapter. In 1M nexl section. 1skelch 1M role played by Ihe notion ol"the Indig· enous" In ""Iionallst an.d colonial discours<:s In I""ia. I wlll lllen SM"" MW these anhudei to rho indigtnow;. far from ~iRg a distant mom",y. In: rolcploycd in curn:ntly popu];,r appro.chcs 10 developmenl.

e.ll' 1,1 __1.".1"",,,,, ••I_., __ ......

'.r.". ~

To undc ... ",n.d precisely who, kind of opposilional spac. is occupied by "the ir>
is! discourse:. on """tiye t ... ditions: I win outline an a'1!ument .bout the TCI.tiOnship betw«n "the indigenous: colonialism.•nd ""tional. ism In India. My puTJlOS< I>< oroe hand •• nd postooIonI.I vitwS. on , luo 011>( •. My <matk outIirK, leI uS begin wilh the obsc'Yalion thaI natio .... lism dcp:nds "n Ihe ..,,,,,~l . n"lthe dis,,,owal. of many bi""",,, thaI I.., ""nt ... l lo col"ntal ism (f'faklosh t\l9 .. :8). Thus. as demonst ... ted In Chapter I. .... ti"""llst !coders shncn;'1 vkws <>f -pm~: iflSlitutlo""Ii2ing these idea< in the postind.pwden"" pt'iOO lhmugh tM nOli<>n <>f pI.nn.d d.,-dopmenl (compare Ludden '\19'; Chand ... ' \19' )' These Ideas or ]>I1)gttSS Ind development had ~,· .... I r"'tUrd in rommon:. belief In historicity. a teleological narrat""', and . combining tM two. 1M notion lhat history charts the denlopmenl of "man· In • unidirectional . if nOt nt<:cSSarily line.r, t...Jt<:lory ColoniaI.nd ""Iionalisl history differed in who was oonsIdCTcd the Subj«1 "r history. tbe coIonizc< wru, was tbe Igent of d,illutlon or the native who wa< I~ fO'1!0uen hei" And 1M 1"'0 '·.... lons differed as ,,·.11 in Ih.tlhe .. w. <>f ""tionalist history was the attainment Or Independence. whe",as that ( dc:sired goat <>f rolonial historiography." Tbe "',· • ..,..1 of und ani<:ubt.d In a number or af Indian ( ivi!iution. whOSt shabby

pn:5m1 Wle Is Implk illy compa m! wiln all ell,-;.bl~ gol
.Iu.,

to tho: indigcn(>US mirtQ~ .,.,Ion ...1 dIs<:Our.;c . ThCial O'l!i'niu,ion , .nd aestl.., I( forms, " ften Identified "'ith lhe ]USt bu, S-ctlled Arpn anival myths. The mo'-" ",.. Ionalism employed tempo ... l dep,h as • ltgillm'"ing char. ler .hrough ilS equalion with. gloriolLS past . the morr problemati< bttamc ,he SLO ' ILS 01 firs' pc<:>pks who pKCdkd "glorious pasl." H. ", I ...·i.h 10 borrow an argument from Trouillol (' 99')' who has demonstra.ed t""ltk Rcn. i..... na built a lriadk Klalionship btl".-•• n the s''''''g' , u'opla, and ~once," i"ns 01 order" ""The Wcs" was COn· .. ru~tM as an ord.~ sta .. by jU ~laposing i. 10 ' J.nlls·laced O,l\(r, wh .... one side " .... th~ WCSI il..11 in lho: fonn of a uIopian projttlion .nd whose Otl\(r lace waSa SIal. of HalUK in Ih. form of tl\( ...,,,,,,. This . 5'\ .... ,11(' slot," far from boing a ~U;t'ion of "hnograph)". .....as 'he p_on. dition for ilS e ~i".""" the .. ruelural 5~. which made possible ' M ·disc",..rics" of a"lhropologi5!5 .nd which .1I0" -cd • discourse on -",v· ages '0 bo ~U;ttM and '0 bo: ",o(i,·cd ." Following rortho Chan erj« ( l~) . o n. (ouk! argue ,ha, . iI<: .hem.ti~ 01 na,lonalism Impli.d • simi· lar posi.ioning of. ulopion post in conlradistin~lion .0 ....... g. slol. Tribal pWpks occul'l<:d Iii<: 'sa'''g~ s1o" 01 nationalise thought . simul. taMo""ly a. noble 5av'gcs, .impl~ and prim i'ive . and OS "scheduled lrilw:s" most in nttd of "uplift me",'" boo",.. of Iheir lack of agricultu ... l. finanCial, and educalional fCSOUI"CCS" As Ihe ' modern' ;nduStrto);:in8 \ •• ,. has d".. Icpcd, ,I>< tcns;o..,; Inh ...", In lhest polar . uiludcs hll" only Il>
,ha,

vItw oftn. .. vage is ' ttOVUM by criti'!u<sof modernity articulated by

environmenlallSls. natu", .. ligionislS. spiril .... lislS. Ind thosf: Int<...sttd In ahmuli.." mmlct.... (Sft. for exlmple. Sm IW~: Ch.audhul)' 19\11). At tM ..",. Ii.... , "modernizing" vie"", of tribal JlC'oplos.", <:spousw. 1»bu",,"ucralS .nd nongOVf:rnmcntal organizations intertSted In Iribal "development : indu$lrialislS keen 10 e~ploh th .... w ma,e';'ls on ,tibal bnd, and ~mc "l>r"...u,.."I0!1'""nl" politicians. T he disooufSoO of Indig..,ei,y. thncforc. is unstable In tha, it so....• lim<S rde", 10 the "high tradit io"" ....lun! by Qritnlalim and national· isIS bUl ~ually 10 the bolid. and. prac\ic<s of "first peoples " For u· ample, disc\wio'" ollr>digenous s)'Stenu of medicine In South Asia "'gula.ly incluck A)"urvedo. ,,'l>ooc origin in 1M \Ifllas loat<s il unambiJuously in a nalionalisl consuuctlon of "high cuitu",," On lhe OIMr indigenous s)'Slems of medicine can Ilso inclu"" the "'" of wild. flowe",. I'OOIS, .nd berries among lribal groups. whk h may bear hllie Or nO .. lalion 10 "high cuhu",," While It could he malntlined lhot thcst arc ...."'ly lwo differenl kInd. of indi8<nou. I... dill""" one would then bo Placin& Jlck by!iidc: Iwo bodics of practices thol .'" in fOCI hierarchically ordcud in COmtmpo",1)' Soulh Asia, The only IUS(In for pI.clng Ihtm in the .."", calegol)' is ,hoi they.", bolh non-Weslern ·SYSlems" of medici ... They both o«upy "...sid.... l spaoc defined by 1M abstnce of "modt:rn: lhat Is. "Wcslern: medic 1m, So II is Imponant to hep in mind , hal tit( ,enn "indigenous' has many diffe",m ",f.",ms • • ve" '"same" .le, .... gtncous c""raelt •. The n.lereog.... ily of "the indigenous' is .I~ visihle In devdopmen. lal~dbconr.
""nd.

In.

".M .... '7

.,,..In'',U7 . - "' •• '71,. w The exltnl '" ",hk h "tn.digenous knowkdgc" has ~come. k~y ph ...... in tn.ll'lnalional ,colosiCllI. agronomic, and development discourses nn bo gauged from the facllh.:ot it has hccn devated to the St.ltUS of In acmnym (J K), which b also u....t .. II>. logo of. publicalion, II>< In· dig....,... K_' ledg~ ",.., Dt>-t!Dprntn.t Manilor For Ih. mOSI port , tM Indigenous kno ... ledg< tnO\Itmtnl has be,n led by I .mall group of Inle""'lional development odvi5t.. working In (nll.btmotlon with "".

~ iona 1scicn ~ifie U f>CTlS and burauc "'IS, ( <mSuhing foo- ogeneic:s such OS

lhe Uni~td SUl~ts Agency fC",, " wh.o rompik , s,.sInnoliz< , .nd 'IOrt Ihe dolO in n:lri.""bl. lorm," This is "'" 10 ,ugg$ or Imply tkal "i ndigenous peopl"" or thoit leade ... do "'" support Ihis endc.,·o •. Ali I wish to emphasiz< is Ihal the", Is a division ollabor thai is ..",ly (ornTIKnted on In tl\( li t,,-aturt <)II indigenous knowk
CitS. Thot status 01 "in.digmo... knowWge- is much mo.., ambivalent , how~n, h.tcaUK it ru.s chi.fIy bet:n uS«itO create a spact ror ah.m atin SlnOl.gics of "d<wlopnw:nl" within , hQSt In .. m.olional a8"nci<$. It is taktn as a truism lhal knowltdg. ;" "indig.no..." if it i. P",,=nI by, or .... kitS in .• "community,' Bul whal is. (ommunhy~ Th., lurns Out to be . I"",bllng and unproblemaLuni concept , Ollt built on implicil ...... mptions 0( ..... Il~l., localized, f.ct,to-fa«, boundnl , homoge, neous,.nd .",litari.n SOCittitS, Although Indlv"""s knowltdge is identified as"thot kno".. lo:d8" of Ind igenous peoples OS wen os any olhcr dt6ntd community: the .. Ia tlvdy weU.dtfinni "community" of sciwtlsts is quilt; uplidtly u· dudtd. "Community" I...., means something qUite specific (pooril;ops anthropologia lly sdl~,nt1), OS lhot various synonyms usN 101 "i n_ digmous knowlnlge" Indicll<, Sometim<$ indigenous knowlo,dge is oquattd with "folk beliefs" (Brokensha and Riley .98<>:"5)," .nd., 011>0:. points, wI,h spttificity Ind "1ht local" In an a. ticle arguing for the compLe""'ntarity 01 "indigenous agOcultu"," '0 .Itt 1"tSI':.",h of in""",_ .ional crop ...... arc:h iI!S.i ,ultS. Pablo Ey:zagulrrc stlttS: Indigenous ' ttllninl knowlnlge;" a body 01 inform.Jlion .pplitd to tht managem.nt of natu •• 1 rcsourc:es and Iaoo. within vuy <palfic ploLS. Fum,"' knowlnl,g<: l OOU' Ih. "",rift< conditloI!S in ,.,hieh they produce may be mOre ex":l ,h.n , Itt kno.... l«1ge of '>alnn! fCSClrchc" ...'ho a.., p. oducing new crop ,.. rieti .. o. oth •• ttthnologics for ll>o:SC environments_ This is no •• failu ... of Iitt Tf:$t.On::h system or the idealization of Iitt low-m;our« farm ... but a rttognitlon of 11>0: divisi"" of I. bor bel w<"n ""ien, lfic agricu It u ",I Tf:$t.Orch and ,he empirical knowWge th.1 farmers ocqui... in ord~. to produce with ....iI. bl. rt:SOUn::tS. (J!I9~:l9: emphasis added) Olhen;, nol OS enlhusiastlc about 'he p""n'ial of cO<)p<:ra,lon wi,h -v.'C$I~m" science, nevenhel .... emphasize th~ "Iocaln ...." of ;ndig~· DO... kDO..;I~dgc. This is how tl>o: 1"";8""0"" Kn"",ltdgt kh loxal crop ,.. rieli.. grow in di££ieuh environ"",nlS. and lradiliOftal of I.... ting human and Inimal disor.sa· (Mathios-Mundy '99)a;~ ; emphasis added ). Em· phasls On "the local" is he ... clnrly ,i«1 10 an und~rstanding of the "community" as a face _lo-bet, geographically circumscribed emity,

""Y'

on •. m ( 19IIp.46). This posilion is nunda! 10 ilS k>gical ron(luSion by .hQSc who ..ason lha •. bu::ousc: indigenous peoples form In in.. gral port of the environment thlt they manage. "Ihe best gu>ralllu for !~ ,u"';"al of naluT< is !he SUTV;"") of Indigenous peoples" (Malhlas-Mundy IWlb7). In this mann .... nall\'~ plants and nat ive peoples an: brought together by tl.eir shan:d uprri· cnee of""",un:," which In turn Is Chscrvatlon lhat "I ndig<nou, soclelies of Ama."ni. an: in rapid dedin • . There art a few aboriginal cuhures Still reLo.ivdy in"", •. bUl lilt"= .ime n:ma;n, to .. IVlg< !he ..... Iu.ble ;nform.. ion ~u)ling from millmn;" of

ACcumulatnl «ological knowledge," Just as Ihe argument .bout pK' servl1'lg naluet through ""Iive p«>ple rtSultS In lhe sptliallncan:.nuion of lhe ""Iive (Appadural '918:J7), SO doQ $IMge 'lh""'i'""'pby '!lempl 10 fix .,.,tlv<:s in time. I recognize lhal the agonistic relationship between "modern" Ind "indig.nous: rtSuhlng from 'he structural Inequahtl"" of lhe system. sometlm"" IeIV" no option but the strategic deployment of One pole of that binary. But when lhe struggle fOT su"~val of marginal groups comes 10 be tquattd 10 the often unabashtdly nostalgic goat of "plQtrvlng" th.lr "system of knowl~ : Is Ihei. agency ;ac. ImoWItdgMoIcI alone ..... pccttd? The ncnI to PT"""rvc Indigenous knowltdge in situ follows fmm itS pmpeny of being Int.grally connecltd to ~ryday life. religion. and rtlual." Unlike Wcotem ocicnce. which "paralcs religion .nd ritua l from [j""hhood . Indigenous knowltdge is holislk and culturally bound, Religious practlces and rilWlI ""rf"",,anees am be cenl",IIO managing and conserving the environment. a oonne.;tion Ihal is sev.red In "West· em" ",Ienee.'" Hol~c approochcs contrast with the disciplinary opedaliDtlons of sclmcc. This makes il difficult for cent.rs in the I ~ nel_ work to "atplure:" indigenous knowlfdg. syst.ms. Whereas W.,tem ocienli!ic: Ipproachts septnUC dl$ciplinr. such u agriculture . lorffiry. Nuu",l .....urce management. aquaculture:. human health . veterinary medicine. livestock managemenl. communication s~t<ms. and "'ganl. utionallhtot'y. Indigenous knowltdg. systems make no such distinction (MlthiD-Mundy l!19lh:6). or course. cha",etple who • •t thcmscl\~ pr.t<:ti\loncrs and prodUCIS of "Ihe West.m knowltdg. system" ..... n begin to identify and dcocrihe. I...Ione .nalyu. systems of know~~ which Irt radically olher Ind which ha"" been conStru<:ltd before . and He beyond . "the west"1 It is seldom Ippfttiattd In the "I n,lil"oous Knowlcdgc" li1
_.Id

and nallonal QII.ntS of lndi"nous kJlowltdg' wa", 10 C:I",mdy ,..:cur.ue. ""t.iltd and thoughlful obsc:n."tions. mad. ,w•• many " ... ralions. Wilhout Ihis basic 'sck ntlfic' knowltdg<: (.nd disrtgarding any ·i.,.,.· tlonal' mm.n,s) 11M: Mbt ... would nollutve survived in ' Mir ha ... h and marginalenvironm.nl . Th. point hu t: is tha , accumulattd f.miliarity and sha..,d expcrien« gh"tS ad"''''''g' 10 lndig'rlQUS nllh .. IlLan 10 uollc evaluations" ('930: US). · Su",;,'.I" and "evolulion" a", lhe h y Indices thai p"",We Ihe evidence fo. a progress;"e thcon , edly mosl u~li~, indi"nou. knowledge. In a fascinaling study of 'M mit of in .. Dogon villag. in Mali. va" St.1l alld Banga (0991:69) note lhat ,he bush was ""'nside""! the sourtt of lif•. w;sd"m. and knowltdg•. which ,..as ustd up and worn doY.·n in ,he ~ of bting applied ill th. villag• . Pwpk in the post w..e C
,rttS

ticul.rly ",.11 infonMd about htrbs. boys wl>o hud know. grul clul .bout I.ems. and Pablo EJIU3uirrc ( ' 99':16) tvahutes famoel'S· knowle dearly rrprds ... bring . """rior.'" The q ..... tion arl'ln as to which ITlLmcwork is being employed to make ,,",,Iuations about rationality. I nd hQw one detenni,," ,..hed ..:r proctic"" art safe 0' dangerous. Mv,," tat"" 0/ Indigenous knowl<:dge. there/on:. unwittingly fa ll back on the Sftmin.gly •... U..,.·idf:n'· nonns III W(Stem ''''• ...,. in making as.sessmenlSlbout indiKCno,," '~"SIems of thought." Simllarconuadictions arise in the claim made by advocat"" of Indigo:· nouS kno ...·IOI ~i!Y tant to c.... ngo: but readily utilized new cropi and technologies. Adop,Ions ,,~rt esp«i:olly lilu:ly 10 OCCUr when th." "rould be .bsoecontend with • flOW ccnturit$ of European colonial c0"'lucst in mOSt cases, hUI one must a\sQ d.al wi,h a much Iongu hlslory of conn..::. ion in which peopI •. goods. plants, animals. Ide",. cumnrics, .nd '" fonh ~ .. II'!

Postrolonial Dcnlopm.nu

uchangtd bot...... n Ih. fO' com.~ of lbo ,...,tld (~, ro. nomple, Frank 1993: F.... nk .nd Gills 199}: Abu.l Uf,lwd 1989: GIwsh 1993: Walk r_ "(in "H). AUOnlion to Ih.I011g hls.orr of conn«lion is nol • ~In legy todism"" (sscntiolizing daim~ 10 .uthentkily. Rather, ilenables I differenl kind of q~lion to, be J>O"'d .... koot goal is not primarily IMI of uncovering Ih. "trul"" about d. ims '0 indigenousness. Ins,ud of asking wiuo,h(r po" ,kulor prac,k<:>, btlid., or knowlcdges are ,rul)' "1n<1igf'nous" or "'we boen .ltered by ",h. W<$t," "'.• r.ccd to loot .. "'he indigeno",,' wilhin a discoul"$oC in .... hk h ,he qU<$tion of origins beeo""" pan mounl.

Locto''''-'''' Irq ""

n

, . . .

Postcolonial crillque. of na,ionalism ha~. made .he scI",h for origins • "",bl.ma.;c .nd•• VOI. enabling us 10 ~ IM\ on. way 10 undcnc.and lho flourishing of discou<s<s on "indigenousl>C55' in the la'.-upitolist world Is 10 reLu. "Ih. indigenous" 10 ,he noliotl of "traditio ...• Comp"" ing"tht indig.nous" wi,h "1M Indilional" helps US ..alize lhat "tndi· lion' .nd "i ndigenousnocss" an: t.... inned oonccpu Iha, QCCUI')' 'M roI. of tho: Other of modernity. Supporters of modernilY lind Ihelr Oohcr in "tradition" tha'. nOl surpr;.i"llly, happcns,o bo localed primarily in .h. Third World. Crit iCS of mod.rnity, by con'cast, lind thcir O,her in ",h. indigenou.: As lit< proj.c, of modernity ha. come under Inousing m ark, Ih. eva lu.live scal. has shifted; "tradition," Iong
tinuous!y 1000ng bottle to tltt fore" of tM modtm . it could Ittvc< be OOI.Illy .nnihillted. bcc,,,. St; i, prow>dcd ,ho: foil whh .. hich moouni'y dc:fined ItscU. " Tht modem proj«t thus bttame one of CortSUnl displaanw:n' of "tbt traditional" to tw:r mort «>~ ric.ed domains. " Tbi~ ill .. ho, made ", radillon " .n unSlobk . ..blfti"l! do,""in . and , hi. Is pK' cistly wbot made: tht tlrons \0 give It a pathetic privilege SO rutilc. To for 1M !"'""rvation of "tradition" was to ftght a bottle wlt.os<: outcome .....h....dy Kripted. Whol dots thb brid ucul"Suslmo the rtlltlon oo ....« n "modernity· and "tradition" ",U US about indi.gt"""sntSS? If I am ligb. in snggtSting that "thclnd igt:TIOWI" is. twin to "tradition : ,ho: otbtl" f.~ of J.nu •. thm ~ ",I"" ruch tho: disturbing conclUSion tlw $Oint 01 tltt analysis p"" St;nttd above ror "the tradilional" holds 10. "tM indiguwUJ" a. "".U. Indeed. I will "rgue that one nf the rtason •• perhaps the mlln rtlSOll . why "IN indigenous" turns ou, to be such • produC\i~ signifif:r is thot It t"" functions as" rt$IdUl.lattegoo:SS" art bu.h 1o<:o... d Jlmill.ly 15 tht Otl>cr of"tM mod~.n: thut Is an important dilf~",nce """"'c"" them: while "tM traditlo ... l" Is dc:fined as the: lack of modernity, "the In.dJstnoU$" Is defined by what tntldcm !.y lacks. It Is defined ...... by excess but by tM fai!urt of modernity. In . his St .... , the indi!!,,""'" is not strictly 1M opposlt. of the traditional. ThuJ. "indigenous" knowl· edge about agronomy, fQl'O:Slry. and wild!if. is prcmlsed on ~ustain­ ability. tquity. and hormony with ... tUrt . whcrus "mQd(m" selence is dGuuct;v.,. uploitati~. and patrla,d .. I;" ·indig~nou." soci~ti"" a •• t..sed on commullity, sharing, .nd lack of hic: ..",hy. wl>e",as "" H"krn" 5OCic:tl~ nt has~d on Individualism. ltC'Iulsltlvcl>CS5. and hlt ... ",by (Guho '\1'119). Very often, the contl'lt!iti"l! tutUS art left implicit, which only helps to undcrllltt the a'K"mml lbout "tlw: indigenous" lxlns dc:6ntd as.1te Othu of moderni'y.

Ii""

Th. f.rm.1'!' [ met In Ahpur p~tlt .n u""lltnt cast bt.ao us< thty brought an '"indigenous" unCtlctd with chemical re"illnl'!'. d«tric tuM ,,~US. and hyb rid 5«ds. The tertll5 in which (armel'S in Alipur fo""ulated . p~nled. and justi~ed tM;' agio (uh u",1 d.ct,ioll5 !died !tea,·ily. though not uciusively. on an "indigenous" und'l'!'uooing of .grkultu.... For this ...ason . pomaps. It mlghl be templing to ... fe' to it as • sh • .w syStem 01 kno .... ledg •. ThtTt arc several ,easons. how"~'. why rcferring 10 indig.nous agronomy . s a "sha.w s)'Stem of ~nowkdg." Is. In my opinion. misleadi ng. First. OS App.adurai has emphasized ( 1~7 ). knowledge is no! uniformly shared among diff... nl classes and nSiOS Of men and .... om.n In a vll!.g• ." In Alipur. ,rnltlon.1 agricultural COSIes sDch as lbe jau pride th.~h~ on being good agricuhur\su and often ex~ scorn for the f.rmlng abiliti... nd ""Ofk habiu of oth.r cast... bolh those them in the rlt .... l hi.ra,..hy and.hose below. S«ond • • ttribu ting. ~)'StunOlki'y" to indig.nous knowledges of agronomy curies with it SQIIlot question . • bk Implications. Tu begin wilh. Ihen: i. 1M ImplOlion tbat • cohen:m .nd SY1Mm.tlc t~."" of .gronomy is discul'!'ively available to ptasanU. It is fu"he. imphed lhat Indigenousl.:nowkdges of agronomy exist in some kind oI.stable (although not static) . quillbrium .nd achieve. . Ihtn . indigonOD' kno .... l.dg.. of . gronomy did not consti. ute a "s).,;,.m" Th. btst way 10 undcrstand "indigenous" .gronom!ca! kno.... ledp. I

.bov.

tbink, is to _ Ibem as acling in two ,....nlial ""'ys: as logics lbalenable lhe: classi~"'tlon of crops, soils, and othe:r inputs (moTe on this fol . lows), and as positing cuuin Unks or associalions Mlw..,n 1M pre_ disposilions 01 soil , crop, fm iliz ..., an.d irrigalion wal .., Of courso:, Ihc::.c: lwo fU!>Clio ... a~ closdy ~lat. d in that, on the on. hand, dassifi""ion en .. il. both separation and con"",ion and , on ,h. oth.r, n0tion< 01 compatibility bet'".en the crop an.d lbe .oil, for . ""mpl., p~­ suppose tbal both crops an.d soils a~ dividnllnto ,;ev .... l cat~gorics. From discussions wilh f.rm ..... in Alip'" in >914-BS, >989,.nd >119>9>, 1 discerned two important dimensions to classlfiC;Uion. Th.lirst of Ihc::.c: Is no, Limited ' 0 crops but is .pplltd tQ . \1 living organ is ..... In this vitw, . \1li ying mal",r must «HISi.st of .ppropriate proportions of hu""'1111 demcnlS-hot, CQld , dry, . nd wet." As one of my respondents t:c.l_ lenl, de .. iltd a""lysis of humoral.gronomy (''l'8l'lIlS):''' "Hot and cold rcspccIM:ly Ter.r to the expendl lur •• n(! CQASCtv.ltlon of ..... rgy.nd .... et and dry to lhe rtteptiyily and rt:Si:isl if sufficient leyd . of i"''''I' heat ond "". mess (lC<:ur. As kcot is cxpendtd, growth and dey.!""",e" t occuT- malter is tntnoformtd from mo~ amo'l'hous and maneable wetter forms to mo", rigld dTi .. forms" [I _c!c.r from .... ha, larmcrs bad IQ ...¥ ,hat., an)' point [n timo: , the: dis"""ition of • partkular crop depcndtd not only on lIS Innate disposition (which d~p"r>d:< on lIS spocks as wcn :as its s.. gc In tlit dc-.Ioptntn ..l cycle) but.l.w on the: disposition Q{ the: in pulS that lutd btc:" applitd to it and ,he disp05ltlon of the soil. Thus, a complex romhl"",IQn 01 fac'Qrs "'Qrlts to dt'~rmi .... ,he Malth of. crop ot a particular moment. A SttIlnd dimtnsiQn to th~ cb .sificalion Qf crops ....... proyided l»' Qne of my I'r.'jpondenlS, who broke down crops in to th..., Nsk ca,~go­ Tics; those which grow under lhe 5011 (po"tocS, onions, cant/ts, and SO on): , 1>05( which grow .bon tilt soil and han pod5 (l~ntiLs, pcas, gram. mung, and llit like): aM those which grow above Ih~ soil but not in poc:nts from bolow or whether they have shallow roolS am! gatlitr tlitir nutncnlS from surface soil. I ....... told tbat ill I"" cas< of crops with pods, it is esp«lany imponant to k.ep the ground dean and Ie,

I'o>tcolonw D..wlopmcn ..

flU of wred •. ThO)' .hould also M pl~n,td wieh enough spIICt btewttn roWSSO eha'lhe wind could pass "c1.~nly"" through lhem' lhe S«d insid. rip<ns fully only If il ~ves Ih. fulllm""ct of Ih. wind. The next SttIion is MVOItd to. cl"", .""lysi. of how classifications of ~rop$ and soU • • c. .... lly Ol"'nl< in . IM: di.sc<:lul"S"S and pracliCQ; of f.rm.... in Alipur. For lack of. btUOT trrm. "'Mn 1 fint wrote ahout this 10pic. I I~MlcClkes in Alipur.

I"'. .

• .... 1•• n .... - kftowh.' • • ., ......."'. 100 AI"""

TheK aK 1"·0 main Ioj!rkullu",lsusons in , h. Gangetic plains of " "<:Stem Uttar Pndtsh . The fiTSt is eh. monsoon or kharif harvest . .... hich Is US .... 'ly so .... n around Ihc lime of . Itt lint . ains in bit j une ", carl)' J uly and harvesttd in Septombtr .nd Cklobtr. T ht wimer or rahi crop is sown in N",..,mb", and I>tcembt • • M harvcslCd in April. Some farmers g""'. ' third crop. alltd _aid (1itnally. "<xces.s"). ",·hieh in Apri l and harves.ed 1». Iht end "f May_ lido", ,h. ad\'Cm of tubt ,,'.lIlechnology. farmers had 10 ,,-.it until Iht first nins.o S<>W Ih. ,_ soon ~mp. But Ihe abilhy to pump Ou t g.ound" ..!., . nabled thWlIO SlOn $<WI·ing btfort the nins COl'll(. Thus when I livtd in AJipur In 1?/4-S,. on earl y mornings in Ihe momh of M. y. btfo", the fimligh! spllltd ",'.r the horizon. I ~ould ""or tIM: O>eamc ."" hOI 10 do much W()rk: people and Oxen ..... '" dnlnc/: too ~ sheller btncath shody trees and thalcl>td "",f•. Ln. in tbe mom h . ..,me formen had .lrcody planled foddc. ljDwatl. although mosl "",lied unlil the beginning of Junc. Mal.e was plan.ed all through Ihe momh of June and c.speciony Inlensl,..,ly in Ihe l. sl week. around , Itt time . hal ehe monsoons _re expc<:ttd. r •• rI millet l ""j .~ 1 was sown .flt. the fint

is...,,,,,,

monsoon l'Iil1$, u~ually in II•• first hal[ of July, July and Augusl v..... 'p"n! .. «ding tM standing crops and ha~ting fodd .. for collI., G=n foddc:. was cspccloUy valuable at thaI time. for II coincided with 'M 1"=010 coule.brttding suson, Most of tM kharlf c'ops weI'<: harvested In Sept.mba. Including maize and tM pan of Ihe millet (jo...... ) crop which had not . I.....dy been empLoyed OS foddl:r. Some farmers used ,h. time bttWttn tht harvutlnS of tl>< monsoon crop and tM .., .... ing of tM wimer crop to plam a fost-growing relativo of muStard coIled lahal. This " ... also tllt tirne wMn chickpeas and peas Wf:1'<: sown. ThI; ham,Sting of pta.1 millet btgJn in lat. Stp«:rnbt. and uU'ndnlln.o OCtober. Aft.r tho fW:1ds Wf:rt d.artd of th. monsoon crop, .... ork bo",n in ... mat for the main ";nler crop, wheat . The fields Wf:rt plowed as much as possible to pr<:part .M:s.oil fo, ,lit win .., .. hut All through Oc!Ol><, and InlO December. Some varieties ha.d to bt sown early because they .0010 longcr \0 rip"n ,han others AfU', Illt hard work to SOW the whc.ot, tlttrt wa.s • lull in farming ""'tMUtS. MOIl' wbtlt plots ar. no longu wtnled, so lpan from ~upply· ing Irrigation, ,hlOrt WOS DOC much to be don. '0 'M Standing crop. ho had sown sugarcane, howeyer, WIOrt kept busy In January and Ftbruary harvtSting the "" .... nd s-lling or proc<S
n.o... ...

Fitld linn« pIo.~ wIth • p.lt ol bullocko In Ioropound .nd • polt olbufWo In t- ( 1oM1)' ,"'" .0 • ACndcml djvi· sion of labor I., AHpur. lIS In moil of northem India. Pktwins and !DfI" Ins ..orrt 1M only qricultural opetltions.;lon( excl usively by men." In all OIlw:r slagU of.M opic'uhural cyde. wornen ......, involved.. and SOIllt .... ces ofa&rinthurt ""trt 1a~ly .lw: oo.....ln of """"",n. Wring ..... carried 001 by tlw: whole faml1y. Including YOU"!! chlld",n. Itrip.Ion _done pnma rily by men. Fmllizrr _applied by both mm and .......... " . tbrvcstlng "'"'" IlOl ~ndt:HpCCir.c. and hatvQllabor ..... paid

Soils wur

c~fird

,tt

"""n

' ndl._· ~: A_

,~

05 • proportion of III<: q .... nlil¥ harv~ltd, Th~ing .nd winnowing "P" .... llons w~.., conducltd by both "",n . nd wom~n. although oth~. pos,han..,., tasks such OS I'" drying and pr«<$Slng of g... ins was do,,", enU..,ly by women. A 8"'al proportion of wo.k assoct.oltd with catll~ was do,,", by """m~n. Men mosdy.• hkough not ud"iivdy. op...• IItd the fodd ......:,,"ing mochin~. but letding taule. d~aning I h~m . and rtlnOYing cow dung was largely,'" job of wo"",,,ea.le Ind ,endc. inleracttd 10 sp«ify which jobs Wert doni' b)' womm. Thakurw"", . .. did nol do any work in Ihe fid ds• • lmosl n.ver leaving ,II<: confines of Ihe home fur work·..,bltd purpovs. Lower· ca'ltc wumcn "",",cd as " .. gt. \.abort ... aM thus had 10'" oUlSid~ Ihe home II10SI uf tho Ii"",. Wooncn btlonging to cast.. such . s IMahmins .nd jalS lhal uWTKd subs[.On'ial amOUnLS of iaM almos' nevcr wurktd as lol>urt .... although lhoy did. fair amqunl of work OIllhei, uwn famll¥ fanns. Women of an alii. . did .Imost .lIl he household ,,·ork. including child tart. cooking. cleanin,. washing .h. clulhtS, and pumping walet from hand pumps for OOuschold ... td, . Almosl aliI'" puTCh..,ing of houschold goudJ ..... , don~ by "",n . as they _rt ,he on.. ...·ho "" enl to III<: mOTket . B\lt """",.n. o. very ulten chlldrtn . did go U) ,h. H"le shops in the village that sold houschoW n~ilin. My "",lin , ... dctantd dcKripticms ol lmning pno<, l= . ha, ' onow to to dtmonst ... ,e llu.t an undusundi"3 0 1 , ... Ii"" of subahern Third World p<'<)fIl< such as the farmers of Alipu. is f:tctHlatcd by an a"en,lon to '1u<:Slions of postcolonLtlilY. Agncuhurt in Alipu. docs not conform 10 descripllons of ... raditio .... )" f.rming or ' u ,II<: i
I'"

er.0It,1 •• Cunlral)' 10 my _umptions when I ""~nt to "Ib~ lid"" fo, Ib~ lirsl lime. un<\cmanding fanne ...· decision. about crop choic~ proved anYlhing

bUI st ... lghlfo ....... rd. Th",c faclors $(cmtel ' 0 dom;"" 't Iitt explanations lhal I " "OS offertd lor "-Ry c. rtain crops ....", grown as opposed 10 <>thers. F;I'$I. ,h. diS1""';,lon of ,h. crop had ,<> be cardully caHbn.,"" '0 lhol Qf ' M SQil. Il lhc SQil in. partic-ular pll)' was weak, sandy. or "eQki." il eQuld suppon <>nly a crop lhal .uiltel tMoo. pro~nia T<> pI. ,,1 any I),her crop " -U 10 CTO' • • mismalch Ih., gu.ranletel low yidds and ~rhaps enn prcwonlCd regc ....... llon 01 Ihe soiL lkcause 1M tc<>logiaol eQnscqurn= of crop dwicc be explored more lully in Ihe nexl ChopiU. I will roncenlnUe here "" Ih. malch belween lhe ", ho=I"'" Qf I,", crop and lhal of Ihc SQil (Vasa"; , ~) . Thc S(Wnd expla .... tion. proffered qui,. IKq"""tly.lwl to do wiIR limi"3' QUtsIIo", of liming "-.re . lin ,h • ...-hlll • • crillcal not JUSI 100- crop $(1e<:lion bu,.lso 10< aU agricultu ... 1 <>~ ... tions. Third. thu e " .... 1M en. prcsml difficulty of adequal. rt5OUlCCS, Fm .... '" in ....""bly uplaintel the gap belween whal 'hey sh""ld ha~ do". and whal tMY actually did by referri"3 In IMi. inability to purchase nc-cc:ss:a." inp'" s, Somnlmes. resource problems look 1M lonn of . sOOru.gc of adeqwnc hnuseMld labor and 1M inability 10 hire ""tSio;lc labor fur agricultun.l taSks. To begin wilh Ihe 1i"'1 poinl. Ihe nOlion thaI the dis1""'ilion and "SIn:ng,h" 01 Ihe soli sh""ld m.tch 'he dis1""'illon of lhe ' ''''I' ...-;05 ve." wiru,ly",.red. The so;1in ctrtaln places was said 10 be able 10 "calch" or "gel hold or (pakad"",,] certain crops. The . billty of Ih. soil 10 gn !told of a pankula. crop Slemmtel from il< ;nhe",nl quali' ies_il$ d isp"'ition in term, olh.. .,;n..... slrenglh •• nd texlure," TIlt weens I)' failu .. of new varielles was ollen j udged in lermS I)f how ,.-.l1lh. soil reaCled 10 Ihem. whnN:r It "caugh'" .... n~ species " , ""I (pa""dli IuIi y~ MltlJ. A. Surcsh put it "There a.. places when IItt SQil gel6 hold of j<no..,. somewhere else It calches baJ .... and I" 5<>m~ orcas It helps main ml) ... In SQm~ areas. rice is mosdy grow". So whc .. ,Itt .. is a , rodllion, whcre".r 1M 5<>11 holds ontl) a ponicula, crop. pwplc: Ihen: .Ian growing thaI crop. Ou. Lond is sand); SO baj'" ","ughl lin wdl. It staned growing wcll, Ihu ......,,1)... "arted growing it." The agency allributtel II) the ooil ...... crilicalln Ih. eQnccptualitotll)n Sll' nn . ItS I)WH abilllY '1) aclon tM planL Th~ dispersion I)f $('",ral crops 1)11 Ihe sa me field ...... uplai ... d In lerrns 01 • c...ful .,....Iualilln of ' he SIKng. h of ,he soil in """"US pottS, as .....,11 .. lhe abililY of the ..,il W gtt !told oflh. crop, Dhani Singh had

,,·m

n:nl..! ~ plOl adjacl:nllo the 0 ... h. o ..'l\ed .nd in tach plolluod plant..! .orne palu wilh moi .. ~nd some wilh JOW'IIT. Pun led by Ihis. 1 asked wbtlbtr II would 1"001 so"ed him llna and labor 10 Iuove p1anled all thr malu In 0'" ploa and tht jowar in anolhe,. Hili uplanalion 10' what!Cal>ed, al 6m ,lanc.:. a classic "risk-.veTSion SlTal.gy",.... lhe following; "SuWQ$C a ~dd has I~ Slmlgth. thon we do lodd.. [ny""d or jowu in iL And moiu is grown only in I strong 6t1d SO lluol output is good. There won, smoll ponions in both ~o1ds lhat wen: strong. SO we rould STOW jn" a lilllo: maiu. If lho:,.., art some barnn spol5 (bin or ... nlln lhe field-usn meallS pl..::es whon: Ihe field has I~ Sl.n:nglhwe planl gw:al ln ,hal. And wbtn: i. is sllghlly bt"e •. whe,.., the soli ho:lps tlw: crop STOW ....,11. jcw:I.TIs pIonl..! 11w:,.." And IIw: land " 'hich is ~Il 51rongcr, lhal) when: ...., SOw moi ..." Tho:n:fo,..,. slgnioc..nt local varu.lion in lhe quali ly ttl' lhe.oil detennincd lho chotec of crop. wilh both tho: quallt~ of the soIl.OO IIw: prop<:n lcs of IIw: crop .ugg~ing 11M: baI cou...., of actloll. On. of IItt mosc important pro!'(n ies of crops. of cou....,. was 1M lime thal lhry lOOk 10 ri!'(n and halVftl. A delay in pI.nling or • longstanding crop could affecl ln. output of In. sut-qucnl crop. This was panicularly trut of lho: kharif crops. bec:oUSt IItt chid source ttl'incomr ...... lhe sale of wn.11 planted In 11>0 ... 1>1 growing season. Con«ms aboullirnlng wen:o ubiquitous In discussions about crop choke. An c.umplc ..... provided by Ohanl Singh .....ho was lelling m. why he eMs< 10 planl IcgUmt$ tn a 6t1d:

!Ia,..,

'Nt. didn~

$OW arMr or

wr..d !diff.,..,Ilt kinds of lenlibl ill that field bec:oUiI'O thr ntx! crop-what _is ddayed. 11 gtlS late. If, for .""mple. arhar is sown in a plol. then if you g•• laiC foT whul. what will you dol You will Ring ]""""angryl lWmty 10 I...·.my-li"" kH"" of fnti!i.ztT lor n"ry bigha, by broocka$ling It. Only lho:n wlll you plant h . For lhe sm.ll f. nnn. thallU"'" oullo be a ho:avy burden. 1t~ noo al 011 . heavy hurden for IItt big farnw: •. Tho: small fann .. ldlolry .1"",1 will wan! to gt! by wilh ft\<..,. inputs. Am.r should noo t.. SOwn because il is hannfullo lho: nexl crop_ The implication of Ih~ long cropping cycle for Ienills is thai It Ieav<s '"try Hulo: time 10 P""P""" the 6t1ds for wheal. whkh ili, after all, lho: moin food and C&'Ih crop. [)h."; Singh impli.,. that OM way 10 compen_ sale fo r IItt shontr p",p""-Ikm Ii .... l.ft aft .. hatvcSling Ienlils Is 10 apply largt dOSQ of chemical fmiltz ••. TWenty kilograms of fmilt ... !'(r bi"", ....... pproximalely double of ...·hat was consklc:rcd standard or

"good" pronic( In Allpu< In '984-&s_ Dhani Singh mack it cit .. lhal such high 00sts ol inpu15 w(t( htyQnd Ih( mn", of ~"",1l fll'm(rs, prau m.bl~ includ ing him ..U In . ",,11 . n l< 8<>'1. A. lilt OW"". of "'.5 bighos, h()'A-e"ct, he d;d nOt rully 6t socII. descriptlon_ 0"" ~ibk answer to the dilem ma of growing I.nlli. would be to SOW th.m early, "" tllat th"}' w .... Ila,wstrd In tim. to J'KP"tt the fi.ld. fOT the wimer wheat. DIlani Singh ruled Out such. st ... tegy for other fUS<)ns:

Suppnst you SOW lentils I ~""'r l ... rly I ~g""i l l , Then, it will grow t.xC<:Siivd y and the O\1lpul will be low. II. stem grows too much and "" 11 has f.",CI beans_ Now, if you plant late or in tn.: middle of Ih. pla nting ...,....,.. , then the p.odoction "'ill be vatu, Mo", bea", will 'pp<ar, itS stem will grow less, i\'11 spread Out • lot, Then production will be goniC., For t1tampk, the pc:rson wh .... field is Ofl this Hami. Singh. he """ planted kntils within hil; m.b. , After sowing the maize and l\aryCSting it , h. d ropped fertil. iur in the kntils, Onl~ then has his Output of k ntil. bttn . 11 right. T...... has be.n no significant soonag. , In . form of six highas, tt... ow ..... I""",HI hos PUt ten ~ks of fenih...,

0""

,id.,

"Ten sacks?" I (ould nol con lain my amaz(ment, "Ycs, ten socks. Ten of I dkadi [ten kilogram.l . ach," Normall)', one sack of fertilizer has approx· lmately fifty kilogram., I nd if trn no"""l~iKsacks had bttn applied, it would ha,'e been the equivalent of puning £itt hundttd kilograms In an 0"" • htde 1_ th.n In ac .... On. hundttd kilogram. of f.nillu, ..-.:o; still vor)' high, rspeciall~ for tn. monsoon harvest, but " ,.n within 1M r.nge of pos'Sibili. y, in Dhanl Slnl\h~ v' e\\', Int("''''pt>ing kntils with maiu " .... prrf. rable to . ny oth., stnllh In tn.: follOwing chapt.., £..:quently mentioned as a ... ason Finally, resourc. constnints for planting I paniculot crop_SultSh explained \\'hy he choso: 10 grow baj ra ( p
'01,,,

It. lik. tl>is. What Wt do d.pends on our cin::untSUlK'" at that time, The first thing is how muck ....~ ho"" by ""y of .....," cos. for .""mpl., ,,'hether we 1>1\" .... ter or not. I g... w bajra becaWlt I

thoughl il wou ld " OW with k .. inpuls and "'e "'ould be able 10 get higher y\<1ds-lhal ;s possible wilh boIj"'_ Moit. ",ould hove n:_ qUirt
Sumt.'. explonation of t"" choice of boll'" as flowing OUt of TCSOUrc. tonSt",inlS ".,.. perftetly compa tible with .he OIher factors tIl(ntiQt>(d above_n.anw:Iy. sowI"g ho]", _uld oot lead 10 probl,""" wi.h liming, and the", _ a match between the propenios 01bol'" and his land . Yel ~n ",,"'n f&lUtn oonSt",lnlS we .. mentioned as an ImpoTUnl r",,50n for plantlng 5O""'thing, !My we .. comblMd with expll",.tioru; that would ddy" Si",lghtlorwardly instrum.nlalisl!ogiC . f or ""ce. Ohanl S;ngh was I>Ot attOmpanled by anyone when I in· te"'~-N him in ,"" mom WMn: I li~td on I'" stale farm. We had. SCt up • time earlier at whkh ... had f.lled to show up _ We made )'<'1 anothe, appoi ntment, and)11§! "·... n I was "'gtnning 10 ...·ond., if on..ni Singh had. hid1"'rs , with quostions .bout,he k.... nf horvut .nd t"'n went "n '0 the winter crop_ Ohani S;ngh had made I"" highly unusual dec\siO)n of planling his tnt;n: plol wilh "tradilional- (des!) whe.t, Ihe only farmer in Alipur to d".., in '934-~- Every<>nc else had. swllChed II> Ih. new hlgh.),io:lding va'ic' io. which could be CDaXed 10 yteLd higher ",turns with appropriate dosn of f.n!lin, and " .. lcr. Ohoni Singh explained thai t'" tkd sion 10 plant de:sl wheat _ plnlally made bea ...... il n:quin:d In. """urees dUll the new ,.,.n.tles_ But on fun"" questioning. ht n:v ... led t....o other rnsons. One n:lS(ln _ that the rotis made from t"" ""'" vaneli"" wen: 00( as tasty as thoot made from dtsi wheat , an opiniollihat " ... almost universally s.... n:d in Allpu._ Ye'. that fact .Ione did "". pn:. vent othen from $witchlng to the new ~ igh.y;eld;lIg van elits. Whtn ! polnt.d that out to Diutnl Singh, he told til( that t"'y hod planttd whatever seed ..... In tho: house_ Although hi$ family mlgh' consider ..changi ng 5ftf the: ne'" varie. ies thus ~nt.red as

imponant qualifiaOlioll5 10 • sm.ighlforwanlly resourtt..:onsnaincd. dedsion_making modo:[ of crop chOI« . The quoll. ic< of II>.: Oloc of c"'P". A'lunt<:nl$ aboul com~""'ling fo, lhe lock of lime for p",poting Ihe field ... ilh additiona.l doses of chemle.1 (eniliur .nd discus..sloos of """.•he cholee of "">1' ls d~c""incd by lhe ..... ilabilily of wool« and fnti!;: .. _m ha nd in hand ... ith malching Ih. dis"",iUon of Ih. crop II, lhal oClhe S
"'.r<;

F_ ..I f ' ,II ... _ , ••• 10,. Pttporlng 11M: land 100- sowing was ",.haps 11M: molds in AlipUT nwned. l.-aclor. Ralh« Ih.n bear Ih. expense 01 kc<:ping nun . lh""" with vcry smallLlndholdings ..,.,..Iim.,. p..derriOd tn 1"'Y • lr,w:ln< Owner to plow lheir land rapidly. BUI, ,raClor o....'neTS "'''-'' Ioalh 10 work ..,mtOtl. clsc'5 liclds hefore IlM:i. 0 ....... . Thus tbose .... ho could arronl to kc<:p oxen did so MaUSC il .nabltd IMm 10 control beller Ihe liming of plowing. Although mO$l. farmers In AlipuT generally belie ..''''' thaI the more lim.,. the grounLi was plnw"" In p'"'poradon fnr snwlng. the hetle. II " 'OS for lhe
pIowI~

ha", • posi.i", .ffecl on .,..1In1. The 11>011' limes .,..1In1 is plowai . •he betl .... The.., _ .ilM ocrordi", 10 my ukllLoIIor15 '0 t.av.: plow«l .!&hlllmcs. Yes. I would lui", done '!&hl plowl..... If my ....lth had bttn okay. 1 would hl •• Con· !lnu«! 10 11K Ih. plow in Ihb field. II would c.Mlnly lui•• made 101M dlffeKR« . AnotMr Ihing ,...., llul. sine....."' was no graM In .hil field. "'" dldn~ ~n .hink ."". the rlgh' tl .... would pass. Thll~ why I thou"'l. "'Why waste IbM I" And SO I .... nt .... ad wi.h sowI",. T... '" _ no tim. kfL E.. n $0. wf SOt quit, Lot • . On.he ON' hlnd. lhe booJ .. _ ""~~ late . •hen we plowed 10 "'f g'" tvm """" lal• . To I • ...., ""'I 11_ ~lres ",,"pLonning. If we had pbontcd ........ in th;... il would lui.. &Iv", \OS lhe Ii"", to plow. PLan.iJlg booj ... did not.nabIe us 10 find lhe li"",_it Is cu. II .... than ........ I wholt motI.h liter. For .hls ",ason. I"" ,,·IIn. sowing had '0 M ... holr month lat. too. Mon:

.nou'"

'*""

Surrsh ..... "noble 10 plow ....... nr limrs as he wHMd to for tWO IUSOns. FlrR, both ... and hb two .«nag. sons f,III1I •• I"" lim. moM cri.lcal for sowing. x.:ond. he hlrvcs.w the p"",lou, crop of booJ ... I" • . which did not leave . nough Ii.... to plow.he MId proptrly for ......... On.c factor working in his favor ...... ha ••h. boaJ... fi,ld had very r....

,,.

P....oIottIaI Dn-
"'ttds in it. H. t"'rdo .. r.1t that lit could go ah •• d and sow wlltat in it. d.,;pit. tilt low num!>tr 0/ plowings that the fitld had m:.ivtd, ""'IIy was pl_ing many tim.. helpful for tilt ",,1It.t crop ? T h. usual answCT w:as that the mOrt times the soil ""lOS turned. the mOrt producti". it !>team•. If tM soil was w.lI turntd [goonJ l. It rttlintd watCT bou.. and imp.rted its nutri.nts to the crop ",lativd y easily. Tho: wooden plow turned over the unh .lmost a (oot dco:p. which bolpcd to hold ...... t.... It ....,nt into tilt tanh .t • slight angk. opo:"'t. ing like a spade in ahernatively going up and down IS it pulled up and dug in by tum. B)· cont ..... t. the iron plow had • wide, euuing ed~ and . shorler hi •. It dug almost ven;':"lIy Into the gmund . dispiKing wud. but not turning th. soil onr, I was told that iron ptov., became poput.r only after the introduction 0/ ch.mial I.nilize .... as thts< plo ...·s ..... <1< the uS< of f.ttili" ... mlnd,"o,)"o maln ... in .h. pmductivity of th • ..,;1. How ma ny tim .. a ponieula, field was plow.d Ilso d.po:nckd on tilt number of wum p<estnt during the p",,·lous crop and aftc. It had !Itt" h'''''''ted. Suresh ".,.. pointing to tho diff.",nc. betw«"th",. '",as on his field. In tn. monsoo" ha",.,;t. he had pt.ntN maize. bal .... and j"""'. H. had piov.·ed the a",. with m.i•• rour times. that " i th bojra . hm: 'iIDCS. and th. lQ<1dcr fidd JUSt one •. What ..:counted I,,. the dm.",nli.1 t","t"",n! of the th", ••",as ? Suresh uplaintd that it ""lOS due to tht presence of weeds:

I(s Ilk. this: the field In whk h 1 ! this was the reaSOn. Th. m. ize fitld had bl..::k gr.oss SO il ntte<:au"" then: wa5 no gra.,. or Ita,,,,, und ...... I". It ...as d".n from btlo ... . w" have t., s« how much gr:ass then: is to d.dd. how much to plow.

'!'aS$

Th" desin: to plow ,he fi.1d as man)' Umn a. possibl. before plo nling wh ... , is t<mpo:rcd by ,Iu: no<:<ssity of nO, delaying sowing """rations.

(:truin ports of lhot 6dd art IMn ploww mort lhan olhus. d.!'(nding On lhot quantity ot w«
011000

.h, . ,.

Once Iheland "';15 plo ..... d. il WOS ",ady 10 be seeded. Fo. m(l51 'tral g""tr. adoM of ""mmtrcially mark.led " ·,,,.1 hybrids we .. in u.. in Atipu •. H.,.... did fa rmen dtltrm;nc: whkh varitty of ...·h••11O "''01/ Ho,",' new varielles of S«d inlroduced into the village? Tht most obvious muns. of CUUrK. WIS Ihrough tM .. rommtnda· tio ns of ",he. f' ''''''n. Surnh had planttd varietal Number a~ fu. the 6m II"", in Ike win ... of 198s. I asked him whe .. M !wi obtained infoTIILII, lon abou. this ""fin)' It lumrd Uul .hat Ttb.i~<$ of his had praised it ,..,ry hifohly the p"",io ... )'ur. So h. obtained ..,me S«d from them and planlCd It on his land, And .... M.. had his .. laliv<$ oblOlned lhe sc«ll They had procured It from a ntlghboring vllLogoo. By 1M time Su. csh acquired the Sftd, it "'-as alrtady II le .... , [-"'0 g. n.ralions old. This f":l did t>OI seem 10 bolh..- him . for he: claimed Ihal. simple ICSI IOId him wMn lhe seed had btcome too uld:

,,·.rt

Whtal sc«l lISts qu i.. a few y..... As king IS il k«1'" giving good production. w. understand lhe seed 10 be all righl . If Ih ... ;s any sl>ona,e In producllon. If Wt irrlga...nd (utilizt it. and I. SliT! docsn' grow. Ind if everyone around 51."5 s.>ying Ih •• )'OU' seed Is now old. th(n wt changt II. The: uld desl wheat seed used to) laSI a fal .!y lon, II ..... it lasled len to fiftent )".."'. And I~ new ,..ri· ctic5. lhoc laSI.1 lusl "'"n yu ... and "",medmes len. Now take Numhe:1 1UO!I: it has bun used for a fair amounl ofd ..... and ifw. 5ft ..,mc " '•• kn"",, in il. ,hotn "",11 changc it Uke lhe Number jU cane we hod. il worked for a fair ",·hile. Ihen il bttame wcak. il

~rtW

drying, i. Man~ uproo.ing,5JJ "'·c Slopped wh;"".ing i. becau.. II doies. uproo.s _ .. •h~ car>< dries .... I.\.M sa""' .... y wi.h wh.,. •. Suresh kad swi.ched fTQm Number 1009 to NUmMr UO-I iIta..... the lonner ' '';is not OS proC,uobk as .helaner. H. told m•• ha. Number 1009 fC!ch~ a I",,'•• pricr in the markel. Evcn if he " -eTC to .. U it at.!>t gov· emm.nt """l.... t up ". pun:hasc wh • • t surpluses",' p.--.announud ""tS. So I>c pricr . he would havc ", be rontent wi.h · num!>tr decided '0 culti"a •• • ".riely .hol would f.lch • higher p,-;"e on tlK markel. He did nol know if Number 1104 would "",.k on his lind. bceau.. It was rttmnmendw by J>(ople who !>tlon~ 10 a different .",a. But he docidcd.o u.k. a duo,,« and plan. it. If his land "gOt hold of" .M new ". ritt farmer who !Lad pi>n.W RR.1, 101d me .hal he p,d.rrcd RR.11 .0 another van.ly. So .... beau .. II n«ded f~e. InpUls_fertili2 .. and ......,-.nd •• i!! gave good yields. Iflo. 5JJme "'l5JJn on. _ unabl. to irrigaLC the crop on 'ime, t he yield. from Son. would drop sharply. bu • •ha. ,,c obtained good rtSulLS wilh RR". n. had plantal h for ,h",e }",ors in a row and bad not ""n.ured 10 'I)' any of .he ne""" ,-arieli.,. lila. bad bftn .. I.ased. His n.lghbor plan .. d a ""Wet .. ~ coU~ Kisan and achieved ,'el)l good yields. BUI 'his farmer ouribmed .h., yield .0 Ih. fact lha. his neighbor owned a .mall atnoum of land and wos .he ... fo .. abl. to pay fROn: .UetUion to his crops and provide high.. doses of Inputs for .!>tm. Then: ",as widesp",od a,,,,,,ment tila. the .",diuona] .... rit., in '984-AS. When .he wh.al crop "'os bei", horvrs.~. Roj Singh. an older , ha~u' and ownc. of ius' ove' s;x ,..,rtS of land. was pllI;"l", an "Improved· version of des; ... h .. , .. \led Kill. According 10 Roj Singh. it "'O, a oighl to bthold, with the grain fOUnd and fa,. a buutiful white ""lor. and It had an cKcc\len' '''''t; .f you .. w it he.ped alons with other piles of g"'in in ,!>t m.rkCl. i. would immedi.tely "'Ich yo~r anentlon. Fo. this moon. it ",Id for. higr.., pricr th.n MMr varieties. ItS lIour _ "nice and ",hi,.: as we ... itS ro'io. and it was g.nui""ly ""'y. The: prob~m wilh](63, he add~ , " 'as .h... he stalks ........ far.oo tall and thus tende:d 10 lodge. or f.11down. on windy and raIny da)'$. II _ also lho. mon: TC$pon'I>'" ' I) organ;.: manun: thon ( Mmia.l f~ .. ili2cr, . bca. .... important ill lighl of the constant compl. intS in .he villag.

1""'-

f,..,.

· [nd(g< ........ •

Knowl
Agronomy

''IS

[)j,g :,. btl", mack 1ft fio.U icM IniptiorI

abou' 1M "shoIuge" of organic n1lInUre (!hls IMme Is upLored ~I 1""'''' t.n,th In 'M !<>HowIn, ch.optc<). -'nolke< problem ..... , ...., ., ne:rded 1<> bo: planltopera· tlvu .... hleh Wert monitored closdy by 1oao1 officials. SU ..... h lold me lhal ho: d ...... noI 10 I" through u.. bonks Lo l"'",haK rw:w S«ds bo:. CJlUSt u.. officials etn,td lrouble 1,........1. Tho: 0Td0:r5 app"...:d by bank officials ~ valid only with porticular ckalers. ..-J,h the officta\s hod m.ck ."..ngt:mc:nts in advance.. The de.1ns polmcd off old sm:I .nd £ntiliur to IIw rarnw:t, ... hleh, pndleub1y; failtd \0 ""oform up to upcc.... tlo ...... This, In tum, SWttd. cycle 01 debt.. htt:oUSt ,!leo fam>e1" 00\11d noI afford to poy back .11 that ""35 ~Iml under .!Ieo t....... oItho: .... n. If .lwrt ...... 1...:1 halWllrl and_ 01. ClOp _10M. lit _ In d«p troublo: bcca ...... unlike 10-

.pa"

1"''''''''''

...nom

rarm.: ....

'" ..... ' l..iIaI Dno.I'FC"""

col monoyl. nd.", who "'.'" n.~ibl. in dl:mandlng rtpoymom . go.._ ~m"",m officiols blindly followw the rules in following rtpoymom sc hWul.s. .. 11 ""25 not only 1M fur of d.bllhat prtvcmw larmers fTOm .pproachinggovemme !'Oid. h.,.. no upori.""o or farming. TItcy would nOt TCCOgni:< a hud of wh... if Ih.y saw il. Milltoy k"" ... waS Ito... tQ . hum. papc •. BUln""ral' would nol dUllm of .clu.ing fund. !>efort thoy obtair>«l o rde", 10 do so. and by ,h. timt tltt Qrd.cos ca ..... il """OS invariably tOO lat. for tho /a.m<:.~ crop. Thty j ..... did not und..-..... rod Imponanc<: of liming In "g.ic .. ltural activilios. A con.idt"'tion ollh. _ d selection pnx<$.S of "",n. fow f.rm,!"'! ",,·..Is. complcx mix of d ... rmlnon",. Thc ro:omm.ndat;ons of l rustwQn hy ""ighbo!"'! .nd ",Laliv.,. durly played. <:<",ra1 roI •. On the ollt .. hand. 0 .... 1tad to lost ...·hel .... Ihe new _ds would "toh I>0Iey adoptM il ,,-holesak: the fQllowing ye• •. A ""w v:ari .. )· was sown OS long as . ""ul15 fTUm I. W<'r<: salisfacwry .nd no d •• rly .upcrior vari.ty was aval]"ble. Again .• ho dC"WMITlIlion oflUI or noigltbors was (ritlal. but It was hal.ncw by • car<:fu t (oMideTllt;"n of lite manifold fac....--s .hat wcnt inlO high )...,Ids Tltus.ho rarmo:t wh.o SOw his nctghboo- obuoini", good yi.lds wilh lho varictal Kison mrioolw it not to the v:aricly It.self but to lite applicalion of lafgt' doses of inputs. Although farmo:!"'! pttf.1Ttd oksi wheat for (oMumption .nd oft.n m..psodiud .boUI Its propcnles. as ,,-.11 aboul the high prices it fetchw in .ho , hoy rartly grtW It beause ol i!5 •• ndl:ncy .0 lodge .nd ooausc it< long growing ..asoo dlsruptw the cmps In Ih, p.~vious han'est. Tht I>Of\Ivaibbili ly of (ltdi. was SUf,gt:S.N as a faclOf that playw. part in """';ng decisloM. csp«:iolly ,h. facl tha, tlte timing of
tnc

.m.n

as

ma,""'.

.:...

CI'Of" .itl><, w .... sown In Stralgh' rows bthind • plow 0<"'.... "broad· ta5!" by .. king fi5tful. of Sttd and throwing il acJ'O$$ Ih. land. Alilh. ""';0. c"'I" in Alipur w.... S",I><, . On. ol"'ra:.d , I>< plow ,,·hik II>< 011><. tn,iled bthind dropping tht Sttd, Working in thls ""Y. il was possiblt to SOW appmximaltly (m<; ac ... in a < sud 100 d..,p mlghl 01 ...... [. In rot; «Jnvusdy. pb.nling il 100 high loft Ih. planl ""l... rabl. to lodging. TM d.pth al which,.tds ""' ... planlM was .n impnruom In attOunill of low yidds. I ask«I SI1 .....h why mosl rarmors prd.rTed iO do th. SOwing lI><m · ..Iy.,. whtn lhey could ... nla 'I"Iclm In SOW In a fraclinn of III. lim • . H• ... plied'

r.cto,

I ho~ I>nrd 0}IlJ; other thing 00011: lr.>CiOrs. nam.ly :hal lhe scod drill I""dll d""", tho grain 5om~hat high. So wh.n 100 much ""'10' is applied :0 It and II>< wind blows. IIll ""'Ill gl~ way. and Ih. ",1><01 falls over. Ofttn onc sees wh • • 1 sown by a 1r.>Clo. lodging. WIlli lho plow onc SOW!' slightly lowor :han tha:, :h. sud .... ches • bil low. tho:n il tannot fall. This is one hypothesi, hold by peopl •. :hat III. tractor pla= thc Sttd high. So lill ""': sb.nlll in 'his m.nn .... """I., Is appli.d, tho SCtor ha,." highe, ""'Ill. If Ih. r.nili .... i. of good quality, .00 applied , III., If III. ",;00 blows. ,hon the plan, will fall. and ,h •• esuh will lit low., production." It might app'" lhallh", i. an argum.nt for I'lan:in&"cds $(ItnCwhot dup. Bullhe ... an: . IS<) good TClOS<)1lS '0 ensuu that S«ds . ... nOI plac«l uCC5Siv<:ly deep, Dh.nl Singh accoun:ed ror

"'"I<. '"

•

,he poor production'" obtainnl from his mUSl.lrd crop by saying ,hal ,hot S«d been planted lood«p. H. Iud plowtd lhe Mldoncc. lhtn

'*'

b~

•..., 5«11, and plowtd ,h. fitld "Pin. The ruuh ..... thaL tht Ked ",,"S tmbtddtd £aT 100 clttl' intI) ,1I.:so1l and roued . Some planLS haphaurdly pu,h.d through ,II. t anh, but C'o't ... IheK grew only to. shoon h(igh, .nd roned 10 yield any mustard. Sc...,ral fanntrs ,old mt dUll I"" ruson whr~ plant«l too d •• p r.ned 10 yieLd anything WH ,hal . a•• p.tud.pth. [My could not obuoin ,..., Mallhal.hey netdtd co 1f"'O'I1. Constqu.enoly; they lOI,td from 1M ....1_. On !I~ atM • .... nd. planted., ,... correct bright , 'My rt«iytd jIUIlhc rigll. rom· bination of moisn.tt and bat to fJUlbk l~ 10 &rOW rapid". Ika..... d,If''''''1 crops ...rite! in tbti. COflSIitu,jon. as did dw soil In difT.mll plots, .he "oorna" ""&hl 01 which -a. had In hc pLon.td ... rt(d. Th...s, •• ki11lu! £armor uocd hI:> untighl5 and tim .... depending on tho pmptnia of 1M crop.nd the soil. Evtn fOT' po.nlcular crop .• he", was con$i ...... bl. dtba •• as \0 ",hal was lhe COITttI dtpth fot planting. Conm. ry III whll has bun 'luocrd .bovt. 1M pnocllc. of pbnling 1M oud ",Iodvdy high WlI5 supponrd by wmf farmers by ",Iening 10 changing prxllc.. oIlniplion. TM drplh .1 which 5etd ...... planlrd drprn
' 0 1M pmptrtit:5 of tht soU and 1M incru~ avaiLabilily of waleI', Sompal explainnl il thls way: "11 dq>mds 011 1M molslness of 11>0 ""U . Earlie •. lhe .. we ... 110 sou..xs of wale', and pcoplt d<po:nd"') 011 Ih. rain:<. So ,1>0 moisou .... maincd k>vo'tr do""" and the seN had 10 I>c plalll~ al a gtUIU dqKh. And !lOw thaI people irrigate I>cfo .. sowing. 1M seed shou.ld na,uJlI.lly he hlgh.r." By '9&1-15, tube: wells ........ n· abllng fllTllCrslO irrlglte lheir crops JIlenlifully and .. Lali,..,ly inuptn· slvdy. UndCT ,hose cin:umsta""CS, the argum.nt for planling seed deep was 1_ ptrsl1aSivt. 'II.'!-.cn farmers lkptnded on the noin , it m.d...~ to pia", 1M seed lower d",,'Il bc:causc the soil was mOTC mols' .he ccn pUI In a timciy manner. pLan.ing Late had pKV.n.N 1M crop from I>cing. good onc . Su..sh Ioid "'" Ihal 10 OSSUTC • good OUlpul, One new..,) 10 pLanl on lim. and provide adcq ... tc amoun .. of f.n iliu, and waler. All th,.., Ihings " .... .... ~ry for • good harvest. An addilional faclor Ihal aff."..,) .M liming of sowing was the lvailabilily of Labor, Su..sh ",as d<1.~ I>c. C&tISt he and his IOIlI ftll ill al the crilical po:riod whon Iho field had.o be: pknoo·~ and sow~. Sowing .ime was 0,," ptriod w!ten finding hlrN lobo, bc:camc mo.. difficult lhan nornul. altl>ough these .hortag.. WOTC minimal comPOrN wilh lhoK al harvtStlng Ind .h..shlng. wlten bbo, was shon dtspitc tho £Kl lllal ....age oat.,. wm: atlhrir ann ... 1p..k. From my inlavlcws. lhe: reasons dIN mos. of.. n for .h. 51lCttSS of sowing we ...... timing 105 w~111l5 ,''' d
as to ,he "'pro!",r" ld cash and labor supplios. tho propenies of t~ ""'chinos, and Ih •• e<:tsS Ihat indi,·id ..... l, had tn them. Trac'ors. , ub< wells. and h)·btid S«ds wcre the embkms of tbe gTttn revolution. , be revolution ' M' would "",I« agricultu re and ,he nation mod.m . sclf-sufftclcnl. prodUCliv •• pcd. A dose n.mination of the mkrot~hnl'lW:S of .gticuhurt. shows 'he .~ten' '0 which
st,

."""

"W«ding Once Is wonh two c""lS of f. n lllut." • ranner In Allput .old m•. emphosl:ing tho impon.ance of this actiYi'~' One. , be crop' """'n. , bey had to be periodicall~ w«drd and ilTigated. Thi. ,,;oS .im. oonsuming but <<mId b< dOn< Ovcr • ""nod rn days 1»' .he .n.ire family. For mos.ero .... a ,man hand hoe was u...... Th. ptr'iOn ..... eding would sq,ual in tho fidd. grob Ih. offending pia", with 0 ... hand. uSC Ih. hoc In the o.h..,. to dig up ilS tc)OlS. and then pm i. In an Impr<)Yi5ed bag slung arourod the ""ai". It was In extrt.mdy labo,...inten.iv. procedure bUI, oomparcd with tho ~ of herbicid •. «ologicall)' benign. I. was not unlls .....110 S« < sp«d of w«ding wa5 .-.gulot.d by the ... cd for fodder. Propl. us .....11y , .. ned fmm On. COm et of .h.l. pit» and slopp
w.'"

considered "neco -"ry"; 1M numb.. of lim ... one w..,Oino:d only if Ihe fidds "·eTC cI ... nc:d evuy lime w.ws 'p"".red. Afl", !(tWins. it look fifteen or twenty days for the plant to grow enough for four or five kay,," to appear. Thol5ignolo:d lhe: nshlli"'" 10 btgin Ihe fiTSI weedi"l!. One of the ad ..... ntage:< of lUing Ihe hand hoc was Wt il lUmo:d the soil and ma
Cludy. ,1uo most forttful notion ope ... ting bo:llind this uplanation is ,he humo ...1 Tusoning ,hlo, a burst or "hea." wHi pusll 'he gmwlh of 'he plan. in 'M crucial s.age of cob produc. ion. Weeding bo.h cleared . M ground of other plants thaI ....,rt competing with lhe maiu plant for nutric:nts and turned tht soil over. thus funher drying It. At the same time. a po •• n, r.niliur like u~ . which was ronsidued u.rtmdy Ito•• nddty. would ac""k ... te the procn/l. On« agoin . 'M timing of the Ipplicolion or ch""'ieal fmili.= " 'as based on a humo ...llog;c about , he life s"'s< of ,he plant as ,,-ell .s an understanding of ,he p"'p""ies of ,hlot r,,,I1_ i.er. SurtSh told mt rtlV', fully , hlol in his o .... n (",Ids only hlo1l 'he plants bore cot.. Maus.. h. did not have the money to apply fe"ilize •• oo the: bIt rains did not allow sufficient , Ime fOT ,he entir<: plot 10 be w'Udcd. Suresll loid m( th., if 1uo had had the money 10 apply feni liu •. he would ha' -e applied on. """' at 'M tim. of sowing. a_ht. one .fte. 'M 6rst ,ime Ihe rom "''OS weeded. and a scwoo dose ..-Mn lhe cob 6rst emerged. Those wlto did no. apply lenillu:r a•• h. lime of sowing ap-plied i, " fter the crop was weeded Ihe strond tim( . Bajra did not need 10 be woWed as often as maiu. because after ,,'«ding It ,wice. i, bccam( SO tall and grtw SO dense tha, One was unabk to ,;qUat in tl>l: field wlthou. damaging ,be crop. So Ille tigll"lme to woW "'as wluon tluo fil'lt 1<3"'5 emerged . nd IMn aft .. two or thrtt ", •• ks. And if ,h. field had been large. numhc. of ,imes to pll'" It for sowing.lhen i, could be w«o:I0re and afler the in,rodUClion of grttn ,.....olullo" "'hcat l Even in '9&4- IS. lamu::1'1 ill Alipur lypicall~ in",, · ~ 1 "1'p',d sever-oJ minot crops inlO' major one: thu. mU5tard was no.mally grown in the ... ised mounds tha, sepo.ra,cd plots of "" heat : a number or <mallcHrops we", typicolly ... is..d in com : and sup"", ... 100 had minor crops gro .... n I>o:tworn the roW3. Some fa"".rs sugg.. tr:d ,h., "'''ing crops in ""'-S, a praclice dormcd MCtSSOty in "ocitnli6c" agri . culturt 10 muimlu dlicleney of inputs . .... s a relatively «<ent pr.w::ticc ;n AII pur and may have bc.c" me "no,mal" onl)-.r'et .he in. rod UClion of high·yielding varieties. "Modem" form'"g . with crops growing In s tralgh, 1;1><5. had it. o ...-n aes,hetic in wh k h heavily Inl<"'ooppcd plots

p!ov.-w.

"'j"',

,n.

Ipptartd hop<:lQsIy hapluword and unk~mpt. Was Illis judgrnem incorponned In describing the uproollng ul " uds .. "lIolanding of the effeclS ul "'.~ing Ind t1:>o5c Imm I'" houS(hold~ rrquirtmenlS ror foddu and rrom 1M sut,. 5l.llUl1on dr.clS of plowing. S11J"Uh~ accoum , for example. drew on humonollgnmomy and lrom • pardck thoory of rru",er. 1oll,aUIft

TUM "",Us had enabled III<: fanne'" 01Alipur 10 grow multiple crop' In. yeor. Mosl larme", grew 01 I~ two, Ind lhoot wilh good soun:es of "'" ter .nd ampk supplies 01 household labor sometimes grtw '"' many as four cmp' In In InnuII cydt. Of the two main growing S(lSOns. tUM "",Us ""'''' u..d mostly for suppl .... entory ptlrpostS during I'" kharif growing,.,....., : by conrn.., I'" ...hi crop rtlied lIt.vily on Ihis ",lativdy new 1Cchnology." TUM wdls Irt SO named bccaUSf; lMy consist 01 0 thin pip<: that is sunk Into the ground and Iltached 10 I pump"" the .urf~. In Alipur, tM wiler I~lln 19&1-" .tood at. IMrt lhlny-sia to lorty-I,,"O feci. The pip<: On lhe 'Urflce pumped _t ... Inlo I .mall holding area. fmm whe", It was dislribuled by gravily flow 10 small irrigation canals. Fields ""'''' panltioned InlO rutangular plou by building cmbankIMnlS • few Inches high .0 separale them fmm one another. Tlttn. lhe inigation Cltnal was ".",1" to olio", Wlter into one plot untit il was "'In"'ted I nd SO fonh untillho omi ... field had Men Irrlgaled . wuing 11><:;01> done "'as I challenge undtr condllions of uncertain ~kctric supply. Moot lUbe ,.·ell, lu Allpur "'..... lectrically powered; M",e inigalinn could M ICcom" pllshc:d O<: supply of clcc· lrklty a11~rnaled helWttn daY" In on. week and nlghlS in the nexl. BUI Ih~ ""' ... olten limc5 when the ... was "" eleCtricity at IU. eith" he_ COUS( ,here was "" ~upply in I'" grid o. lleau .. aloc.1 tn.nslormer had burned OU •. If. fu. insuonee. the clc<:tric supplf suddenly .. opped .It.. ..... 1.. had been pumpnl for an hour and only two-thirds ol lhe fi"'t rccta"8"lar plot had rudved ........ ,. IMn whtn tht supply ",,"UInN th~ patch lhal had he~n p",vlously inigalM would hav~ 10 he ... tunlted 19ain bdo ... I'" ..... lor """,ked the unimgat.d portion of lhe plot. Thus . ..op-and-stan elc<:tric supply t xtractM a high pricc in t.rms of th~ [....!!kitnl Ultilz.alton of waIn One of IhI: a<Montages of tuhe wells was lhat ptoplt ILad j.UnM to

plan. crops befon: tl\( 6rst II"OOft'iOOTt downpour. ... ~.u pnviousIr .h(y Nod .0 .... it for .1\( "'ins. H",,-eveT. ahhou&h ~ad ••his ~. ti« was not can.idcnd desirable by cveryo .... In'M 6rst ... ttk of July. • I'CT • long. cxcruciatingly ho •.• nd ..emingly u ... nding 5UmlM •. I .al ked '0 dlffc ... nl indlvlduols aboul1 he df«:1 of mo,"""n nolns on .he CTOI". The mo,"",,1IS hod 'eased LU 1M pn:vlous "'ttk. providing a .prinkling Ins.ead of tht sheets of no;n lho. annouOoCed tl\( brginning of 'M nolny ...uon . ",e could ftellM moblun: In ,I\( hot .i. , .he wind "'ould "tn pltk up on occasion. bu.lhe ",In '\lI~ fNt.",.ingly OUt of rnc:h• •."ing OIl. pa.kncc_ ",alklng back on the main rood from the vlllage .o tl\( fann ...""... I liVfll. I Nod 10 JIM5 by .he ......11 • •ha,chW hUI of In impovm.hed Inhmln lamily. Th(y W1'''' SO poor ....1."" tldtst son. Hukum. had 10 ....... k on """"••nm ...,.gc: conU3<' wi.h. politically po",,,ful.hakuT family .., In eff.n , an indtn.umllabo ..... The younl'" iOn mafla3ed ."" family'l 0"'" land ",·hile .he ddt. ,ried 10!'lise 00 .... ash f.,. Inputs. In .he (~nlng. on my ""'y back to my room. I 50tw It ukum on the oidt of .he road. Ind "'e •• oncd talking .bou. ,I\( lack of nolnrallond .he .ta'e of .he crol". Ilukum announced .hol he belit\lN .h•• Or>( good monsoon rain "'IS equl .... lenl to irriga.ing four limes wi.h. ,ube "'til. The plants ... ned growing only of'(T .he mo,"",,1IS and would up rapidly

.hoo.

ona u.. ral ... anivrd. H~ pointrd to 50"'" lodd~r growing on .h~ sid~ 01 hI> plot and said .hal ll Ih~ ra\", had com~. Ihq would ha"" grown up 10 hI> cl\t$t. bu. btcouse .he monsoon had been delaya!. Ih-ty had nol ban doi", 50 w~ll . A. .... w~.., talking, al>lltMr young man. fkv.ndra. com. by and joined 0\1' tI>n""osadon. Devendra waS an en.crprisingja. wl>o:sc lamily W1IS widely coMiTC days. H~ had al..,ad)" had to rtplan. his maW: 0"'" ""oouse of .h. ligh. sprinkling 01 rain ,IK previous wcck. In5I.~ad of soaki", th. soil. th~ n.in had wet Ih. soil .nough to form 0 hard CNS•• ha,.h-t new serdhngs had b«n unable H, pi~ra:. Th ... , M had """"" maW: For a IIttOnd lim • . II il did nol ",in Ih~ Followl", ...·cck. the: serdtings ..."OUld break Ihrough the ground. and IMn the Uming and o""",nl of ",infall ","OUld mall .. 1_. If it rained h~avily. the ....hol~ """rod would bt sofl . and lilt Sttd linp would ~osily COme up through the moist soil. But il it rained lightly on« again . the sa"'" probltm would a~ and mOSt of the plants would Stay inside .he ground. Ih ... yielding a poor output. Most ol all. it was 1M un«fUinl)" of rainfall thaI was harmful. Many farmers had lost o:w:n th. sc<;ond rourod ofmaw: 1>«01.1... the helilhal ~Ir hid prtWrd 10 be too im._ for th. )'Qung shootS. Only ""'Y helry h l n would have wnlcd 'he land t!"lOUgh and provldrd tl>e moistu.., n.« .sary f(>1" a good han'CSt, On< diff""'t>« betwrm a crop "",,h OS maiz. and a mlll'lliu baJra was lhat tht 10"",,' rcquirrd ..,gula. ;mgation. Suresh ~mplw;i ..d Ih. importan« of .... t.. to """ "For all crops. 11. n<.., Is nO rain. and Iht douds go away IIOm~lim<S in Ih. middl. of tilt monsoon. ["'''WI ). it gtts d", Thtn Wt apply wal .. 10 the maize lrom 01.1 ' ,Ieclric tub< ",·e ll$. Boj'" stays put for many days. o1<,,",uglll< rrdUC" tl>e out· pu •• but malu drics completely. [Wi.I\ou.....I•• ) • liuk hi. "f baj ra 1$ "'ill produud." Tbt ability of boj'" 10 withstand 11Wgula. ilTigation madt it . I'avon« among peoplt wi.h poor access .o Iniga, ion wa' t •. Thls includtd form.." " '1\0 h.ad no IU"" _ II, who dld nol N,,"~ ."" I"OOUrcCS to purchase lnigalion water I'rom neighbors. or who did no. !La", ndghhnrs who ....., willing ' 0 sell ..... t(' to them , In tM winter !LaNes!., t"""" .... ith incoMiM.nt ICC<S< 10 .... I~r rt_ SOUItt$(h~ to grow ba.loy ... ho. than wh .... I"" much ,ht sa m• ..,a· lIOn. Su..",h,,~ that barky should not be inigalrd mo.., lhan four times. OS comp"rrd ...;th a dtsi..,d six 0' se,'cn !m gallons 10' wheal .

J INti"W Oil( irrigation late anyway arwl mo ... than four Irrigations should not bt apphtd for tM ... ason tlun harley d,," not grow with much water. In harlq. mort water is nOt naded because: when ils Itcod is
0""'.

~"

Timing was ul crucial impon.oncc. It "'OIS nul only lhal ...·hcalltad lu be irrigaled a grraler numhtr of limes but al$() lhal il was "'less forgiYing" if ""ICT ...... nOllppliN.at the right Ii"",. Barlq "allowed" grraler leeway OS long as il " OIS irrigaled onec 500n afl .. lite head 01 Jl"'in first emcflcd. Th. length ul the gfflwing se:ason was 01 greal OOflS<:quencc tlt .... f ...· que", Irrigation u"" n:'1ulral in lite last thra: woeks to. month bdon: whcal "'" as ha"~led. This waS when Ihc heat I>cgon to gCI morc intc""",. Ihe days knglhentd. and the (n)p ris1=l drying uul if its nad lor waleT was not d."..,l)· monilorcd. 8y ha,,·e:st lin>( . in Ihe first hall QI April . Ih. Sun ""s bluing. Hlrve:sling "". do ... carly in lhe morning ond in lhe la .. aflemoon. N(Jt ......,n people used to tit( It(.t daralto bt (>ulln thc fields bttwttn ten and lit,,", in Ihe middle of Ihe day. The fact lnat barlcy was har.'CSled nrlicr quite signioc.ntly rorrcLoted to ilS low.,. "denund" for IrrigoliQn waler. In spc:aking Ihus 01 Ihc crop as pMM'" Ing tit( "abilily'" tQ "ilhsund irregular Irrigalion . oJ bting "less l<><: ""'I.uenc<: in .. hieh tit( four Irrigations should be: applitd to barlcy. Onc In thel>cgin ning for wh.n IlIcficld is sown. TM ....,ond iTT"ip. tion wlt(n the plant btgins 10 pmgen it .... m growing u("';onl. when Ihe plant bccom.. approxinuncly one foot or onto ' Indigenou," Know\edll'" Agronomy

>M7

half fOOl. Tlltn the Mid i~lf I«ausc the ~il become> ~h from Ihe wat ... Tha'~ how boulq becomes yellow and weak. So 1"0. this reason , i' docs: no! n.ttd .... ,.. on ripening. If It "'i..... lhe barky will gel sp>lled 100. Tht cbanee of IlIin lal< in 1M hoNC$I ",,~n , wMn Ihe barley was alfllOSl ripe , ...... l1Llha ~U. The dange •. lhe.don: , ",-as nol as much from a f....k niru.torm as from an inc>llklhe: disa$.rous btoIusc lhe hoI and we, almospbc:re prov;dcd by the ",... Ia would COusc ,he ""In to lum yell_ I!y upscl1i"3 lhe: humoral bolallCf:. nassivdy moist heal damaged lhe quality.nd .bine of lhe ""in and go'-' it a slckly. )-cliow appea",nCt. [/ ru>t that. ,hen ,he soil btamc ~ soft ,ba, lhe plant\odgtd in lite $uff br.. zc pfn'llml II baNest lime. The mosl lnta6l1ng fealu", of Surcsh~ exposilion ..-as tbal ,he COtrect limc:s for different inigollons ....,'" . U lndicolrd wllh reference to the slIges of the plant~ growth. ra,he, ,ban by dlles on ,he calendar. ,he da)'$ [rom sowing. or lite interval MIWttn ""'g~ In [acl, a crucial imgallon . the third. depended enllrely on lhe land announcing a neW: ""The Mid i!$til tells you ..... The nolion of was comislS at .n stages of 'he plant~ growth. Surr:slt , for uampk. altempted 10 steer bclWttn the ."Ire""", of the le"'"QI sltrlvellng and W ""in becoming yellow. Wilh ",Ie..,nc. 10 h .. mustard cm". Surcsh lold .... ,h,l the Ihlrd and linallrrtplion wos applied aftcr lhe musurd was rudy 10 ripen. The water mteml the must.rd seed and mad~ il plump. "Aft.. nowering . ..hat h Sl.iIm bcoomlng. pod. then apply """I.. oncc. lt~ no! apl'lird during floy,-criu, btausc i f ....... is applied 10 the lhe now.. "' onCt.htd. and then lhe pod c.nnot lonn.- Bul why did imgoling lhe planl In ;15 £Iowcrl"3 phase ClUSC It 10 shrdl Again. Ih •• ~pl.""tion w,"" offe..,d in humoral ,~nns, "Whm wate . .. ap!'lird hclow, tlten rol .. ~ In lhe £lower btausc of.he weln.,.. of the ",:U... From a~. it n:ai~ heaL The flow<,r iHJlI..,mtly ddicote SO il ,hcds its petal. and

W '''ncss

flo""""

falls. So it afl~cts th~ crop. the output. bteaus< pod ..... nnot form . If WIII« is administered only wMn l! is rudy to form seed. I..... tl>c sccd will form compltlely." Tht nO'A'" poYCstd • finc • •i\1.ics. Thegrow'h .nd h ... hh of.M plant. understood in ",lalien 10 humoral categories.nd ""plaru.tion., thus detennined the timing.nd lreqlltnq 01 the application of """ter. At the same tim •. farmers In Alipu, abo discussed inigalion in relaIlon 10 'he propen lcs of electriC pumps and the de.slg.n of .ube welis. B<-caus< the method of inigalion .mployed was gravity now. an inti mite knowledg. o • •he .opography of.nc boo ,..as ~n .ial ' 0 undersland dlfl. ... ncn In the output of crops. Tal king to Ott. another, villag.... In Alipur did not ..... directional indicatOr< to ref.. to places within a field for ""ample. Instead of saying "at II>c so< field," One had to know I>Ot only where a pan iculot peasan.S fl(lds w.re but also its mi_ crotopography. 1 frequently found myself dueless on encountering SU'emenlS .lxm. Iocotion .hat were obviously very muninglul .0 ey_ ~ryone elst. f OT instlnce, I Onte ~lted Dftani Singh why he oboi....! . yield of only l Y. manslbigha In his ...·h.. t crnp . ....1I<... as o.he ... in .nc vill"'llc had obtained yi< had ilTigated it no I""" than .ix timo:s. He replied patiently: '"So how docs it m.tter] That field comes down like this-it:'. sloping ~eld, f ot cum· pie . If this Igesturing) is. 0... ic....... ri field .• I>
knowltdat of lho qualily of lho soU Ind lho 10MI'lIphy of 1M fitld was IhU5 tsStn!~1 for dt.:lSLaM lboul ",hal kinds of crops 10 grow. h.ow much ftnilizt. Ind ""'tr '0 glvt , Mm . Ind "'htl'l 10 supply inpu.s. Humol'lll tht<:lri(:ll rtiating '0 ...... tu'>tss· w(n: ,hU5 wo~tn Into '''planallom aboul 1M liming of Irri",tlon. tht numbtr of Irrl",lions p"" ~Iokd. 1M rtS!slarn:t of p"nlcula. crops 10 .h.om.,.. of WI .... Ind 1M topography of ~dd• . An undustlndlng of .M ...11'lonshlp M,wttn Irrl",'ion. crops. and bmd WId nol IImhrd to Ihlt wh ich rould lit p"" vidrd by humo ..! agronomy but romblnrd with olh., f"':Ion. The faIt ofthtcrop did no! depend mt ... ly on what ...... don. 10 il; It '00 had an octivt rol< 10 pia), TM crops and fields had dlsposilions and n«
fa""".

,.. :. ,,-

In '9I4-1S.• homlcalltnitlzus "'en: ~ by prac:ically.1I fllTllUS in Ali"" •• tJlCrpt tho&t f..... " 'hI> ~n:.oo poor '0 offord lhom. FenUize. _ notlpplied uniformly 10 III crops. btlng ~ much....,... heavily

lor the main cash crops-wheat, sus,...;:.. ne, and mustard-and lc:ss lor Olher crops. Th,u lyl"'S of le" ilb.er wcre rn()$1 Irtqucnlly employtd; diammonlum phosphale, popularly untd ' 0;' or DA ' ; N. K ( I mixm ... 01 sodiu m, ph"",hale , and polas/iium); .nd urea , ' nllrogmous lenlli.er lhat was by far the mQSI popular. FeniHur could be: .pplitd ei'her ., 'he time 01 so...-ing Or Late. on, when the crop " 'as growing. For (~ who could alford II. OA' was (Ite prelu ... d fcrtili2tr to sow .... ith (nlltd (he basal d"""ing), .hhough NH was .Iso u~ . U.... was almOSt .1· wa)"S employed as tOp dressing. MOSl larmers In Alipur "ppbtd at Inu one .up drcssing In wheat.nd SIlmelimt5 'wu. but vel)' ......1)' did tlte)' .pply u ... a Ihl'tt timos, I .... as 'Iuostioning SU .... h .OOUllhe amount 01 urca lie had applied in his whut cmp. Why had lie used 8 k!Vblghaand no. mort 1 ( The mt>w Is a r<>ugh (mximotion: SOW Of\< sock DAP on one ..... and appl)' two _ks of urn as • top drcssing at two dilf"""nt times, I j ust k«p the broad pri!}tiplt:s ImOf"'IIhJI" ! idh"""ll in mir.d ..... I Kmindtd 5uresh that he had oot actually stuck 10 lhese brood principles, for hc h.od used unly one _k of urea instead of tlte two f«Ommeootd . H. rtplied lhal the)' h.od 001 betn .ble 10 afford more fcnili:<er althat .ime. He continued: . , alSl) be:lievcd thaI Ihe", is some manu", lying Ite", lhat "" iII have a posilive . If«t. so why wasl~ mon~)'l Fo r thi<; re~ son, ....~ didn\ pul mo ... fenili:<er.· The 5Uperiotity of u'&"";c manul'< IU dtcml/;llJ fcnJII:<er " 'osa COmmon Ihcmt in th~ disrou ..... of farmers in Alipur, In lac. , clteminl I~nili%~....... """ COn'ii
ova ~ral yrars. Suruh~ aerounl Ih ..... fluly combintd fttomnw:ndo.

tions bt.saI on lhe n(td 10 supply ~ ccnain amount of nilrogen. I... ns.. lal"! by mta ... of. rough approximation inlO 50 many $leks pu a<:!'t . with a humo...1 IhroJ)' lhal .ncou .... ged Ih. SUbstitUlion of manurt for cheml<:al ~n illzu. Such v\gorou~ . d ttlicbm i5 nol I.rribly unu~WlI In Soulh A$io . OS nu~ studies or 1M usc of huling pl10Clices ha,.. dcmon>U"aled (Les!;• • "~; OIx)~kcrt 199~; Trawick t99l). H<>w<:~r. II Is !)(II mortly tht fact that fanners in Alipur !'tHed on radkllUy dlffUClIl. or J>(tNps inoommcnsu ....bIc, prcscrlptlons lor agricuhuT1lI pnw;ria \hal makes this such an Inltrt$l.ing cast. Rather. os I .... ilI prt5ently demons"at •. It Is lhal bioch.mlcal inpulJi .....rt slmullJ.ru:ously incorpo ... laI into a hu · m(mIl agronomy and retained wilhin. "scientific" discouTS< whose I U" lonomy _ fttogn\u:d and maintained. Conl ... ry 10 $Orne of lhe lune. liona1ist assumplio ... or lheories 01"Indig.nous knowledge: il was r>Ot only ltn.>wlrdgcs compaltbk wilh the "indigtlWlllS system" lhat found widesprup. OS. I<)p drt$Slng urea .... orks_ Ureo m.kes It grow. DAP m.kes ilsprout. For Ihi' ru.cn , th<: crop .. gDOd " i th oo,h\hings_ DA P

SUt"C$h luo... effun1cssly swit
~ ~Iopmcn ..

",Iiud" eh.m;.:..1 fenihu< SQ .ha. I•• pptattd in'eg",lto .M pmduclion p.oct$S "'tM' than a fairly r«.m inno,-.tion. &sal.nd tOP d.tiSillJS 01 fmih ... playtd veT}" diffu"nt rolrs i~ tM lil. of the pI.ne thor lenilizu plallltd " 'ith tM .. td gave it th. I.... required to make i. sprout • .... h.rclS top dressings mad<: thc plan. gain hdgh._. h.o. is. -shOOt up· Howevu im]>On.n. top dressing may h.,.., "".n to the "",,'(h of (h. plant. one hMl to be. carcfulaboUl llsing tOO much of it. Sompal Singh. th.thakuT illlmduC«l at the beginnIng of this chapte •. cxplalntd why: -If )"ou put "'utt f.n iliz ... baO'Si. ions .nd cor respondo:n<:es. Rather. what on. finds I. that fanners d ....w on di>'c"",, mo
-

a ... l.ctOT that mad•• n imponant difference to th. g. O\\1h of plants

was the wind . Explanations 01 good OUtput (OT. conve .... ly. 01 poor output ) frc<]uUltl)' d.pen8j) has pointcd ou'. air i5 consl
wo.

-lndig<no ... - Koo,,'kdgtl: Agronomy >ll

II. how can lhe podo monv1 They only comr OUI on lOp. on a lin!. bit of tlv salk. If lhe !'ntll (amar) is ",,"!'Kly planttd. lhen ;1 ~IS podo all ..ound t.cao...., It~ .... ~ on an four s ldts." Sum""l had broadcast lostnd of plant;ng;t;n ~ !.atklng upt'rit:n« In fanning, lv had lUtd 100 much Ked per unit of land. As a rr:suh. the plants g~w v~ryd.... too ... anolMr. Utt. help«! them grow. bu. thimply I ....,.ns to ensu~ thaI the lenlils art planted In rows and spKtd far Bu. tho. uamplt rn.lly points to • • 1ass of nplanaUons in enough which .he dlfUllon and liming of lhe wind o. Mid 10 br rr:sponsible rOO" ana;n CORKqlHtIUO. Thw;. t 1 v . - a erop did !.dly mil,hl lot ""plaine.,I In 1M village. lit .lIrib.J\td Ills supt'rior rarming skills lO . ho: fact lhol he: had grown up on a fann and , additionally. had learntd '1uhe I few thinp from lbe ''''rious governmcnl rlrnu: on .. hkh he hod servtd. Nlnoln "'"'" I«hnlcally a civil servant .nd was cmployfli lull-

.mar

a,"",

.""n.

.... "-
U"", on I'" governmenl 5CflI farm in All"" •. Bul M also did his (7"<0"1\ fanni", by mll;ng;n Ltnd f""" someo ... In 1M Yilla&t. NI";n managed w"", .... ,lit oqum."nl of two full-lime jobs wilh I gmtl dtpt. of ~i11, dly lold me lhal tvery picn 01 land he had ",nltd had yitlded 5IIpcrio. OUlpul hteoU5" lit !"In.•• sldmpcd on Inpu~ By.he II",. his whal would bt harv~.td . he would ha~c Irripled It ni... •Imu. "Can you lind ano.ht. farmc. in 1M v;ILt", who h.s pUlOS much .... It.ln lh.l ..... h.al as mel" he ;nqu;~d. NOI.ven 1hc p~ylous yea. (19&4). how~r, Na ... jn~ crop Iud nol b«n OS good as M upcotd. lnltrtSllngi)· tflOUl,h . 1M upbnallon he offered fot llul facl was lMl an ill ..·ind had aff«led il (IoI"i ""'_ ]a.!: .!:"Yul . A ~'mila. incio;lcnl invoh~ng 1M tfT«u oI ............. nl ..inds was Ittoll«.ed by. group of farmers on ._her..... ion. This waslM year 01 India's 6". a,omlc upIosion in lhot ntighborin& Slalt 01 IUojaslhan, They ..10:1 IMI .... whi
,ha,

,,]I."

ThreoklnA ... hu, w11h I n d«.rkally _ l t d machlnt. _ n ploy on Impo .... n. ",I< in p<»
our ...yand dc5trO)-uI our crops.." Thty round v~1')' lilllt grain ill.id~ tht pods. In u<;h ""ndl~ of cm groin for the bullocks \0 Stamp (for thnshing), then Wert hardly Ollt 01" two mom of groin. whem> IMrt 5hould ha..., bent at I.u: fifte.n. Some of tM fanners with whom I talked claimed that tM gov<:rnmenl had ddibo:ratcly supprtMcd the ""~ of Ih~ bad d focl5 of Ihe explosion. and tMY were h.nao: unable to estimate the extent to which tht explosion had darmgcd tM CTOp$. Onao: ltg.Iin. we lind an almosl st~rtOt)-pical instance of indigenOus knowledge-tM importan« of tM wind In humooal aa:rooomyIl:ndtrcd unsUlbie by lIS imbrkatlon in modernist discouI'SCS aboulth. nation-state. The .ffocts of an ill wind art aIm"" uniformly re.c:ogniz«i. but tht sourocs of tM ill wind art in disput~. Is it the wc.th .. or the des~nue tfforu of lbe poslColon;,,1 nalion-state \0 0SStT1 itself as • world powerl Rather lhan ironic.olly Juu'poslng 1M scltntilk ..,h1(".ment of modernity symbolized by the alomic bomb uplosion with the traditionalbm OfMpless farmers talki"!. about m;lkvolenl .... inds. LsugIt$!. that tbt Iwo phenomena .... intlm... ly link«i in 1M consciousr.css of forme,. tbtm$th-<:$. Tbe rr:sidcnts of Alipur kncw lhat Ih. atomic bomb W;ts connttltd 10 tlu: "
"'~I_wl'

"I: _.....

J,,-,__

It'"

What altcmotlvc tlcscriplions might on. provide lor tbe agrkuhuDI pDCli<<:$ po"DrN .""""11: has already bttn ltintcd :MI "'lndig.nous knowledge" b In i!\adcqua.c J..i. for understanding agriculture in AIiporr_ What other fontlS of upianation- hybridiztd . incommensu",ble. rnJttn,nslaled- mlght bt nttC$il1')' for, btu .. understanding of fann_ Ing In a plStooionial scttlngl In this secllon I argue that a move away from upWurlions lhat ..,Iy on :he dlltri!)' of"indig.nous knowlcd.gt" 10 those that embnra: contTlldictory and ~rhaps unmrurrkablc combi",,Ilons (Dnglng from the im~r.l:iyes of marke: pri<<:$. responsibility:o tbt family. caste solidarity. and humoralagTOnomy) is a ne<:e!6a1')' slep

in ordu 10 undu~lOnd Ih~ ~l'hMmologl<:s and p(ighbors. then: w.n: QlM' mo
·hough I never did find out .M ""um: of . his conllic. , I ga.heml .ha. i. had 10) do ",ith his dd., brotM'~ dissatisfaction ...·i,h the sharing ol lhe prvctto spttific actions uok.n b)' farmers In Allpur 10 «tmbal the cronic supply 0( " ..u. relied on an undcrsunding 0( IItt Ittal.h of crops ru,rivcd from humor-al agronomy_ for exampk, which crops we", Inltt",ntly hotter and well., Ind would lhe",f"", do "'ell wllh 1055 irriga'ion or ",hich crops "'.'" . bl. to main· tlin theIr molstu", for I long time and could suStiln long po:riod. of dryness wI,h minim..o.lloss of OUtpUt. Humo ..l theoncs bkr.dM Into cxpla""tlono .boUl social oblipllons 100 family polilic> 10suggOSl why. 10• • umple. Ohanl SIngh dld lKII. Irrigate his .... he.t n>O'" often or Instllll • ntW tube well. An up/amnion bastd .mi",ly on "indigcn~ knowl· edge" W{luld be unlikely 10 aeroum 10. Inis case. The po.lIem of Imp.Ion employed by Oh,,,,i Singh was inlormed b)' both an undcrstllnding oflhe h..,lth of h;. crops dnived from a humo ..1agronomy . nd. to lhe txl(nl ,hal they affected h;. abilily to oblllin " .. tcr, TKgot;'llons with ntlghbo.-, and con"'ets wilhin his family. Such a condu.km e""'rx<' I"'niculorly lon:.fully in lhoe case 0( Som pol Singh. who OWIIM a not insubstanlial pi«. of property_ about lw.nty--ide of the vinage. But instead 01 fannIng his own iand, which he had ",n.ed to """"'0""' elst, h. chost to cuhivau a small plot ",nted from his la,he •. Onec ...... lking Iowan:! • distant """e in search of .... ngO<$. I asked him lbom thls unusull amtnge"",nL 1 was unplTplml for Sompoto inle,,~ly rnlolional K' .ponsc. which revealed his troubled K!'li0n5hip wlth h;. poKnlS Al_ though Sompal h.-N in the 50me home as his 1'1"'''1$, he did MI l;...,

wit/o lhem. The lamily home: hod been portl!ioned imo tw<> sp;>CCS. each wilh a S(parate hearth. an aCl lh;l.l had crucial symholic signi6can«. As Ihe mlddl. 01 Ihm< b...,.hers. S<>mp'-I feh Ihol h~ pa~ntS ,~o,ed him unf.l. ly. gi'-in, him nm JlOlthoughl would be unfair. His f.tM. had held on to mosl of the: I.nd . po5tponing Ih. inevil.bk decision. bul had already gi'-cn S<>mpal a hule less Ih;l.n half 'he lotal . Ahhough his lalhe. had leased S<>mpal some land in .914 ...... s. h. had rtfused 10 do so tarl ier. inslrnpol did nol havc any Olhe. SOUl". of employment. y• • he contin ..... lly turned down s<>mJlOI .. I'n/Ut:'its to I...., additionallarod. When s<>rnpaltlicd 10 cu ltl.... t. SUS;"""'''' on lhe port 01 the land that he had k;tScd. his fath .. f1.t!~ lold him 1h;l.1 he cnuld lint up«' In rtlll thc I.nd Ihc fnn"""illg year arod thertfnn .hnuld ,Int plam an annual crop .uch ... ugamo .... S<>mpal\ disilluslonmem with his partnU Slemmed from lhe periods shonly afler Iht binh of his fitS. child and his )'Qungt:'i. mpal had ..., SOUftt of income on both occasions, He rtquesled $Orne mnnctary help lrom his JIOrtntS but was rtbuffed. "My partnlS could ,'cry "",II .ffnrd 10 >1"'00 some mo ... y 011 my sic k childrtn .nd m)' wife. butth.ty ju", .du..,.] 10 do so. Now. t'-tn ",htn [ fed SOOT}" when [$« myoid lathe' loiling in lhe fidds and mpol\ ...,;c" cracked as he spokt. reliving Ih~ biu.m= and disappoinlments nf the poSI. W. walked Silendy for a whil •. the 51'.'" "",wow US h.avy with this ""velalion, listtning 10 lhe "oady clan.. nf lhe bicycle thaI ho was pu shi"i with on~ hand. Snmpol pmcccded In tdl me lhal hi. partnlS had spent a lot 01 money payi"i lor . he trtalment of his elde. !trot""r. whn had been ""ouslr ill fM 1M prt,,;,,us two yea ... H~ did nnt grudgt the fact that his pGOrtnl. "..,rt looking afur hi. ddtr brolh .... what rtany hurt him .... the lact thatlh.,. had discrim lnaled again${ him." Sompal aplaincd his . atM. un"suaLsilualinn (of .~nlillg In propcny b'om his lother while rtnting oul hi' own land) by telling me thaI the main.......,n why h.t rtnled 0'" his own pmpcrty .... lhat h. had nn

rudy 0CttS/i Co il'1iplion. Tht culx wtll chac ~nPl'li«l ilTigaCion ..... Ie' Co Ills !'.tld was own«! by SIIe. Slngll. wilh wl>om lie was on polict. but distlncdy cool, lerms." Opaoling his own fitlds would ho~ plae«l him In a po5icion uqulring fKqutm conlaCt and u ehangu witll Sh •• Singh. uelwlgtS. moreove •. in which he would be In a "..,ak.,.. dq>m· dent pmhion. For Chis ~n, ht prdtn'td. to .. n. 0 <1( his po uptTiy. ""ming' combinacion 0( up-from cash .nd. II cM tnd of !he y.ar. a fix«l quantUy 0( tM wMat ~ ... His Ce""nl ~ 10 be. puson ".1>0 could ~c alung _II wich Sbe. Singh. M ..... ofttn than 001. SM . Singh hlnu<:1f d~ tho c.nan, and broughc him to Sompal fo. approval. Sompal fdl comforuobl. with this pn:><:MUtt bcuus<: If 101• • lhe: .. w . .. conllkts bctwun his ,e""nl and Slier Si",h, be did not ",,«I 10 got involftd on bchalf of his ,.nan . . .. might .,,"sonably have hccn expected of .I.ndlonl. On thei r pan , p .... pecliv. ttnants knew thai Shcr Singh was lho: ptrson who could got the:m land \0 lease. In turn. Sh • • Singh ca ..fully Iook«l for. man who ~ young. unwcd dauglu.rs with .... hom be could tnjoy SC:IUallialsons. A complex triangular .. I.tio" was !hus set up bctw.tn Sompal . Ih. tenant. and Sh.,. Singh . SIM:. Singh\ ability Co U$< his lub< .....,U as a soure. of powct fatm. an Im.restlng conlrast wilh Ih. case: nf Dhanl Singh mentioned tarlier. Dbanl Singh ..... lI ... bl< to IISC: his IUbc _ II .n imp't his.,,",,, fiolds In • !lonely man"", bcuu ... b< was "bound- by ch. arrongcmcnl mad. wilh his ...;ghbors '" share ..... , .. wilh lhe:m. Th . .. fo .. his o"'"TICrsliip 0( ch • .... ~ of prod uction- that is. 'M lub< ..... l1-did nOI. by itself. """hie him In uat control""., othus ei!h. , dirn:tiy or through IlM:i, rn:ruit · nu:n. as ditnlS. Shu Singh"s impoTUn« In vlllag. politics no .... od, ' s I hi"" argued In the: pnvIOIIlI chapter, from ch. InlCl"5ttlion of his d ass position and his Sl.JIUS as I broker by vinue of tIM: "contacu" h. hid in thc OIIIt burtlucracy. The lmpoTU",. of his cLoss positlun. In fae •. is wh.a, tnabled him 10 COn""n ownership of the: m~. ... of production inlo political power through his abili.y to rn:ruit elionlS .nd tStablish his position as village ,",ron"""n. By COlII ... C, Dh.ani Singh was Utub!( 10 push pwpk around. His family had arrhoM in Ih. village only a few y..... -go and ottupied a ptriph .... l position in ... cry 5atsc: of 'M ltntl- politic:all)l socially. and in tcml$ oJ pres'!g• • ' Ho had 10 ntablis h a bank of goodwill thl' could b< drown on for 1M loOn of everyday confilelS .hat fKqucndy .mictcd familieS in Ih. village:. Thus. ~ven though it somcUmn ~ aot. ...... effccts on Ills 0'"'" farming. lie had ""nO ehoice" but to distribu .. 11M: sale of imgotion ..... c.,. in • rcgubr .nd socwly """",pUb!( mann ...

TM politics of agricuhural d~o"" iIl ustraled Ihrough Ihis con Ira'>! bel .... een She. Singh.nd Ohanl Singh add~ . !unhe. IwiSI \0 the consid~"' tKm of -indig~ous_· pUl"$ued through the dtt"l1(d discussion of Iptdlic agricuhural practk~ It um;nds us 0 1 the importance of nOt o" crlooklng Slru<:tural inequalities In discussions Sitions thoy occupi(d had u .onnOUS co~uences for . hoi. "".ryou.... N."."helcsli. 1M TtMriclion IMllhey could <><>I. work in 1M liolds did con'lnin th. bou ... hold labor supply In crucial ..-.ys. Inlerestlngly. tho: mccn,m l%ali{m of postharvest operat;.l prd.rred to umaln unem· ployed and do odd jobs nuhcr lhan become a tenant himself. WI>/:n I askpl. do ,enl I.nd"). Obviollsl~. o ...'ning land had diff"",nl Implicalions for trnancy in Ihe case: of thakul'S Iha .. in II>/: case of jalS. These ImpHca· hons w"'" SO ol),-ious to Somp>.1 tha. it did not .... n ~rikt him as a "Indige""",- K"""'ledges: Agronomy :"J

oont"!k:tlon that the f.ct of landownership .. tisfactorily cxpLaint:\lId a Ihakur, Ion! oilkc village, become. tenant and "work for ..,.....,n. d ",' l Althou,h no tong... incone';""hl., be· coml", a ttltanl couid nOI have heen an appealing prospeCt 10 SOm.one lilt. Sompal. Tkc hegemony of 1M landed cast.,. ploytd. vny imponlm rolc in tbe Justifications glwn fo r ."""",1", "proper" or · .ppropriale" 1';U<:'I for goods Ind StrvlttJ, For exampl., wages "".'" find al I.n .upttS per day"'" fo r III ogrkultunol taSb performed by men tJrC.pl for • brief ""rio pmvldi",. sharp contrast to the indlvidu.alistic and m.n"", Critic Ideology of ",hal a "jUSt _ge" should "natun.lly" have heen. Howeye. , • lobo .... who mode a ... putation for himself as • "good ",..".ker" could choo:sc wnt .. he ""anted to """ k hut could not demand a hlghe. wage. A num"". of farm.rs in lhe vil~e C"imed that th. n«d to ohuin fodder for lhelr anima15 was an Impo
lIu, farmo:T1 (TCq .... n'ly cited ~ tkoi", £or homtgrown foddu lIS lhoe _ imponan' ",..,n for plan,;ng. portlcular crop. TM ..... nnn In ,,·hieh production HI illu .... nled by lhoe uam· pie of Su~h . SuTelh owned a plot of f.lrly rich land 10 lhoe IIOnhoem .lde of 'he vlllagc Ihll was cOll!lidcrcd smlll tvcn by vHlalle sl.n
UJ

Ahrr "" ClOP • ~. I•• ~ mlO ....all bundla; 0YefY rwmlie.h bundlo • CfYc:n 10 tho I.... lIS . . . .

iii'

spcndinl'nnum~ ... bl<: hou~

with 11K. SurtSh nn'U din:etly IIolktd ,0 11K .bout his problems. Whilt In.~rvIo:winl him .bout his farminlac_ dvidcs. I dlscn:tlly noised 1M 1M... by aklng him ... hy M did n.ot obtain ftnili2tr on emllt rrom 1M SocltlY. 1 h:.od hoped h~ would lau""h into 1M dtllolls or hi. own e... to uplaln why he did nOI UK 1M Socie.J'. bu, he b:pl his prldt.nd 8"vc 1'M • ·sl ... l&lu" .""...·or I"",.ad. The "slnoighl" .nswor WI.'! lhollh~ coopera,lve r.l1td 10 deliver fertilizer !O ,he ronner In time for sowing .nd If for lOme !"tawn 1M crop was rulntd. lilt Inttft:Sl COtlllnutd 10 accumula,e. provIl\j! ,00 bunkn50m~ 10 ""y back. ArlOr 1M dt.,h of his father, Sumh .........111 lIY1ng with his lWO unc:lQ In. jolnl hololKh.oId. TM f.mlly "'nds wcrt also farmtd joinll)' A, thol ,ime, lhey cItcidcd to tab: • Jftd loan rrom lhe Sorit'y. ..,.;,h Sun:sb IO!I .I\( offidol bon-owtT. The ""ndl"';nl told 11K tNI I""rae! of sowing I'" Kft! to obulntd, Surah~ ullClQ dtddtd lilcraJly"to cal I • • 11 up." On their .. rt. Sumh~ u",,1rs Ille~ thot he h:.od JOId ,he sw:Il1'l .he morl
prc5 : ol(."lal~lopa .. n..

lo,m "''lIS no! paid back and lh~ !n!~resl 5L:med 1<> mOunl. To add '" lho: complicolions, 'ht Sttr<:"''1 of 'ht cOQpcra li"~ soti('Y "''lIS alltl;fll '" havc manipulaled 11>1: hooks '" inCf1!a5¢ th~ amount of th( ou15Ur>ding 'oan. A, firsl, Stlresh ,tfusffi '0 pay on prlnciplo. Latcr, 1>«0....., M had split to t$",bli!.h his own hou~old ."" was no long.,. in ~ of enough land 10 ""'U a go of it, paying bock the loan "'lIS beyond 1,15 means. BUI 'ince he was Slill "'gaIly responsible, M had hct:n )ailcl f.,,-. f...... do)"s In .9&-4. Who:" I was in Alipur in '98s, at that time of tho: yo.r "'Mn .he Soci(ty\ hooks we .. balanced , h( was alntid tha •• M poli« W(tuld he informed again and ho would f.nd himsdf in }IiI on«, mor<:, Ht thus "'il IM villago tt mporarily. and rathrr lhan risk tho humili' llo" and pcrh .... lho: fina""ial hurlkn of imptisonm.m, he spcnt a moolh and • half wilh ",lali,-es In a ncarloy chy. This COS( 15 inttr<:Sling hccous<: il dt"",nslrales ,-ory cltarl)' why paying anonlio" to 1M polilics of produclion .. SO imponanl. Ali a highly rfgard. d priesl. Suresh~ falh.r occup;.d" position of gKal monl aUlnonty In thl: village . Even when I \0115 in Alipur, pcople lalked of him wi.h an arr«tion nordcting o n "'Vor<:llCe. Ahnough ho: Iud IlOt form«l, Su... h ~ falhn d e..ly oonlroll«l lhe familY. agricullunol ac· ' l\'Ities. After h;. dcalh , the idwlc>gy of mUlual l'f:Sponsihihty undet_ lying Iho joint family io",«1 Suro:sh. as 1M only «IUCitI«l person, inlo the po:o;ilion of offici.1 norm",'.r, Bul Su"",h had hct:n U","" .'" of the Impcnding dis60IUlion of the joint family. When the family spli., Suresh~ rtSQurn ~ dWlndlod to hl5 . mall shan: of . hI: propcny, • positio" from which he would hav~ had 10 ""'AAI( ~try hard to pay back ' he loan. Lacking bolh his f.lher's aUlhority 10 fOTte his undes to paj' lho:l. shar<: aM Ihe ability 10 mUSI(' tho suppon of other villagers. Sun:sk was unable 10 pin Ih.... pomibi!iIY for the loss on his une ..... " Furth." Ihc c{)nnkt In hl5 family and his periphe",1 position in the village ttIabl«lthe COQpcrati~( offiCials u, "'ke adv:&n"'go of h;. Sltua_ lion. Dnhmins did not hav. much of • .. y in 1M manageme"l and functioning of lhe roop' •. On. of Ih. ways of 1Io1a""i"3 the books w., 10 pa .. on lho: unpaid loans oflocally f'O"'<'rful men to the a«Ounl$ of Ihoso: who wen eilh.. itlil. ra't or w• • k. prdcrmo ... his c...." position wos ""'lEinal: he had neilher the r<:SoUKes nor Ih. conllCClions to rtvis< Ih( doctortd accounlS. Deeply in debl, Suresh mighl easily fit the classic modemiution the· 0'1 profil. of • "backward.looking." tradition· bound nonadopt~r. Y", if

anythin" lhe opp<>Sil~ "'as true. II is dar that Suresh~ agricuhu ...1 dttisions could ho: un.dtrstood only by placing him in tho: COnte~ t of a ",Wkr politlal5phe",_ lIu.t [s., by SIlWll ing his :Ktions at tht lnterstt· tion of the poli tics of fam ily, village , Ind sUM. The im.'lI.... rational lensions ImpHd t in lho: joint family pr«ipitatod. wplall y. In a TOpeU'" ~nly oft .. 1M ck.th of the polliarrh . Till: politics of f.mlly lif•. In tllm , pLaynl imo wkat ....... now In <:ven mo", p"ripn..ral cLas. position. Stporalil)n from his uncltS kit him withom ' he _1l·tSublish..J contacts n«Cy and quasi'-Slat. innitutions such as lho: ogric" hu",1 coop"",th·._ nu, ckuiltd namlnation of Igric:uhural pn>OUs knowiNg.,.: how can we Ih«>S· mun in tht po6tcolCll'lial world? Nexl. I e"Plo'" these lhemes by survep ng the rok played by "ike Indigenous" in postcolonialt ...... .,..

_ , " or l_.

V.",,,, 01_ '" . 11"'

".R

The", 0", m;o.ny c<>n'TllSLS_ and "" doubt S<>m\Is' in IIItiolllhsm and ill postcolonialthWT}'. Instead of "'Marsing the deNtes .bout the term -p.:.s.c<>lonial" I truon.;otkd In .he In.roduc\lon.o .hls book. [will [or my limlttd purl"""=" Itt", group what may apptar to "" ~ery di!ftnnl approaches undOT this rubric. I will interpretth. ' post" ;11 "'p<>stcol""lal" broadly. ""I merely I" indical. the: end of colonial rule Or odmlniSU"ti,~ cololllal;sm but also .0 slgnily .Itt endltss ddennen. or .elwloglc:lll ""motives or p~. the abdication of ,,·hat tTUly be calltd the: "Innpo",1illng Impt",tivc." ! imerp"'t th. "001",,101" In "postcolonial" to be inlerm&"tlng .Itt limitS " f . he WCSle ... er isteme . as questionIng the applicability of Enlightenment cateKOries and epistemological grids to .he "'Thin;! World." This Is ob>-iously a mlnhn.list Stl1ll"lO' thatlhrows 'oge."u posilions which may be ( haTllct<:riHd as an.imodcrn;s.. subaiternis •. and 1 stance defined both by Inticolonialism and Imiliitlona\ism. Al the v.ry lust. whot makes t~ positions dille"'"t from colo· nial ..... i"n"I;s.. and d ....dopm.n"'liSl d;sc"ursc is that ""tM indige""us' occupies I much mnrt c<>mplu location wi.h!n p<>Socolonlallhwry. For the pIIf)XlSC of this ..... pt... I ...i ll make 0"" "'ther rough cut within pos.""lonill th«>ry: between thos< ,,,rsi,,ns which seck to C",ate • spKe for Indigelli. )· Ind thos< whle" can iLS entl", .he.o", and pon_ , ks Int" question. In ,he fi~t group. 1 will distinguish bet""«n four diffen:nt.pproachts To beli n With, cen. in approaches a", p",mised on the negalion of mooernlty, He",. "Ihe W<st: colonialism . or nationalism can stand for modo:"';'y (Nandy 1930. '9$j; Cllauerje~ 19M), In "Smallpox in TwO S~)lems of Knowltdge : acomplex and rkhly de ... l1td Study that mltSt",tOS th is viewpoint deafly. FrtdtriqllC Apffel Marglin (1\190 ) arg"'" .hat small pox ,.. cd rullion "'placed In Indigenous system of Inoculation that "'·a. instpa",bly connec.ed with t"" wo~hip of the godcll'SS Sillil. Tile Ilri. ;"h KOvern"",n, 's Western, ..... ist .• nd Iogoccntrk apP",",h to .he cnulicati(m 01 smallpox Is c<>ntr1lSled with tile Indigenous. popular. and nonlogoccmric oppr,,"chcs to c<>ntrolling tile dise_ .hat uisttd prior to colonial rule. Although 1M n~ ,.. eeination ..... technically suptrtor 10 Ih. indigen"". method of Inoculation i. replaced. Marglln .mphaslu s thaI its wid .. p",ad employment "'.. s aCCn-

.n..

elusion fOl«fuUy brings out btl ~rtliqU<: "Today\ p<>. '9-S). Wbtrtas Ih. WCSI 6~ assai" lhe indi~l>I)lls ;n lht I:&"llon. the rtCupt"lion of Candhl as In antimoI)'ISn ......: Is .mbl~m.lic of both ;1< "mbi... and Its m~!tiv"l ... a. " His criticisms of modem"}' dtriv. both from his con"" .... tion with "Wellern" aruimodc:miSts and from his crealive rtimerpttta'ions of "Indian uadiliOfl : a. wd l as an inlimat. knowledge of ",,,,1 IIf~ gleaned from living for 5C""n l ytars in the counlryside" TMrt Is I $u!:KI. bue importam difference bttween thosf: .... ho em_ brae. the "IndigenOUS" for lIS Imirnodernlsrn and I!>os< wko posit thaI il i. implicated in a nCe . (Th~ is the second approach 10 "Ihe Indigt, no",," lhal I wish to highlight.) I ha"" alreldy rtfcrttd 10 Tmulllot~ "'Iumcnt that the "uvagc .101" a""", In a lriadic opposi,;un 10 Rcnais.... 1>01: ooI>Ct]Xions 01 UlOpia and order, The Indigenous. the"'lo"', ,.... "d~rtd: dc:w:ribcd. and mapped within. discursive fi.ld whosf: origins pr-.«ded. lhal of 1M discipline of anthropology ilSl:1f and pt,haps e""n CttItN the conditions lor II< emergence .'" Y Y. MudlmM (' 983: .6->-3) mokel the: funM' point lhal Ihe ",ificallon of "1M prim;lin" OttUrs in a period in which both iml"'rlalism and anthropology take shol"" Far from bc:ing I , .. mage: poinllhal ls opposed 10 mockmilr because: It is "outside" iI, "1M lnd;g.nmts: Ihtsc analysts sugge;t , is. position thaI 1$ t>Ot ""'ttlf I nticipated by mockrnity bul demanded by h

lt"".

as well. Michad Taussig makq Ihis p<>in' mO$l [o"",fully wl>l:n lit says lhol "the pluonlom figm" of It.. pUrt looian bttomtS It.. obJ«1 of dtsirt by tM Firsl World " ( tn):O~2). h is , h. d .. irt for 1M iooig.nou. Iho, e""bl.. "Ih. w...• ". construet [lS Own idenlity through ahertt)' Taussig .. noduli"", th.>. ·.lteri.y ls .very inch . rtLo. iol15hip. nol a Ihing" (199):lJ/l). and one of ,he mOSl powerful ways in which ... mon6S """ bo: mainlained thmugh . I«:rily ls by desiring a pU rt space: of OIl>1:mcss. inhabited nOI by those who .tts... bill.u (onsu·U(. ions of StU and Olher bm by phantom fig ....... who occupy . spaer of PU'" Oflll'O'ilionalily. III ,his ,·i(w. Ihe Indigenous "'pl"tSCms Ihe desi", ferr dilT. ... nce . ncoded in v.~tplcs to proputy rights ond nalive p..Clic<s. I " .. nl losugg<sl lhal lht "invenlion of lradiUon" "'lument is far mor< opon ... ntkd. p<>lhlcally and praclically. In ilS applica· lions. On. of Ihe (oltSt'l""nces of ~l'tSSing lhal Ir:oditions . '" in,·.nled is lhal il fract"res Ihe chain ,.·hich links "ulhemicil)" to .. mflOl"l depth. bocaus< the qu ... lon of origins becomes paramo"nt with. td«llogic:ol view of hislory. Thus. 1M possibilily of immobilizing """,ermnts of """"nee or Ihe construclion of opposilionol idenlilies on Ihe grou..m tn.t they art "invenlOO" is "n ... t deplh of I~ idtntilios 001 lheir uis"nct. TM ... fo ... . cLoims 10 T«Ompt .... liofl m;ode by poopl. disptrsed by genocide. lon:cd l"tSCulemem . ond slavery I\ctd b< J",ttfioo nol by ",{e ... nct 10 an origino!)' or (onttnuing coh._ sion bUI becaUM" of Iht 'H ong; commiUed agolMC Ih~m (S« ChlTord '938 lor. hrilli.nt (2S( Study OI IM Mashptc Indians). A mort dirttoly eRective p<>Utic:J.I St"'t
I.""n:

CS5C"-

"Indigenou." Kno.. l
'19

position , .... t ",ho Indigenous' ;' loca,ed In a ncc ...... ry ",tation of ~l· t~nty within ho&~monic constructions of dlITe",n(t. A st"".gic ~n· ti<>lisrn would K knowledge tho imbrico.tion in h~g.mon)· but would ",claim I.... t idc:ntity s''''lCgically within lhe logic of an unfolding war of position. Enm pl~ of such s,n'tglc U$t:S of positi~e ~n'iaUsm might he tlte cblm. madc by aboriglnol groul'" ag>.inR colonizill3 immigrants in .. ttings such as Aus,,,,lia. and ,he United StItt .... I now tum to th_ "Wroacht$ which ",.., not as much conccrnffi wilh (OGting and defining a spa« for Indigenousness as 'My a,.., in bringing lho notion of "the indigenous" Into question. Hw' 1 will dis· Ilnguish Ih .... closely ,..,laud posltlOfls. Tt.. first of tn.... folio .... from Spivak~ call to employ "what history has writlen lOT me" Ind tmb...cc tltt hybrlditlts ell3endtrcd by tltt mulliple" hlstort... of (olonlll;,m in lite Third World. This would mun uplonng lhe: "str.ltegits of mimicry, hybridi')'. incommcnsurablilty or tnonsLation" that a,.., "the unspoh:n . u ..... plott"lew of h)·bridiIY as a Singular Iocalion that Is an In../)ctwttn . tempon.rily suspended spocc. bet ...un two (nr mo,..,) nlhtr 1'tCU,..,1y posilioned and .",bk locations. Only by poyill3 anentlon 10 lhe: specificities of the hlsloOOI conslruction 01 place, ~ out of 'M o.1olen' hlstn; GupUl and Ferguson 199:>; Ong 1917; Prashad 'W4; Rushd" >989; 5,oid '9Il; Wolll99')·

Ca....w..

"""or

A""th~.

way to lheorize wh)' Ihe p<>Sl<:oIonlal (onlin~ 10 urwl: sdf-conslruc. iQn of "Iht WtSl" is suggr:stal by Homi B.... bha. in_ sight thot 0'" has alw.~ to kup in mind I ttmponl di'ljtlnctlon t .... t Ii .. It thel>l:.n of modernity (,9\lp-6) . At lhe lime that dvll sOde ty. tit( Sl .... Iht nalion . c;" iliz.o. ion. anod ciliunship we.e hcing consoli. datal In lhe < very c.. a.lon " f th. notional. W<s,ern melmpo'itan nllion is al· WI )'S in I dlrre .. ntial .. lalion to Ihe colonies upon .... hieh il pmjecl5 il5 ,,"TI inl.mal. conlradictory. cuitu",l ,,,,ce; 0'. in an . It.ma,l,,,, S<Stu..,. it "hen consli,ul<$ il5 mttt<)politan ~I)' by disavowing Ih. colQnl:ll space" (1_.). Whal is Ih. err«1of 1M col""y' c...Ii"" as the disjunct;"" doub), or In. mod.rn . "WCSlern" nallon l To put It simply. It is 10 < W$ " Is 5,_biliZ«!. n TI>< "indig.nous" pus.:m l5 ,,( Alipu. ".It., .nthusilSli<::olly USt chemical re.tilizers: the native ,,'Ito "'Urs. "tradilional" n«klact .,.,..fully coital Irum lightbulbs (Cliffo.d .9M); the shaman who uses Colb bottles In • healing .it ual (Taussig ' 987): In a .. "inal'l'ropril" sub;":l5" ..... ho spurn th. desi .. [0 •• pu .. difTertnl: W"5, ," Clurly. Iho ",nder ambi""lent Weslern na'''lIiv,", or the: odf. .,r progrrss. Ind.,r modernity.", 1\01 doing so otll of Ihe desirt'o make chok.. or demOnstrale resistlnee. I " ... nltO) Slcc' du. O)f ""Y sugg"5tiQn of , h.e celebra'ion .,r culturat pluralily and p<>inl in_ .. ead '0 , It( ovetdclenniMl: ... hon o. ",111m. for UJtmplt, natTlllliv"5 of P"'V""" in the W""employ "In. indigenous" as • point of conlnsl in "rde. '0 redeem a Ulopi.n vr.ion or capillll>1 cornucopia. a liboralion from .... nl. Til;..;.. ,he t.lc.:>II>g)'. <x thwlngy. lhall ics b<:hind d ..... lopm ...1discourse. and this is ..... hy nationaliSI proj«1S of dev.lop .... nl In the Tbird Wo.1d contin u. 10 produc. "th. tnd;genous" as IMi' Othe: •. Opposed 10 ",. dempliH uses or "the indi!!"n""s" in nomoliv .. or lihcralio" an: Iltox of n" ....... an . umplt of which is pmvldal by some of 'ht rro--frltndly discou,-,es o[ cn" ;ronmentalisl5 and ex!"'"", on tK n:ferred to .a.lie. , He", . ,he: no)liQn is tho, sust.i ....bi. and Sustaining pr3C. i
or

a,

"Indlg<"""," """"i~ Agronomy

1,1'

omy, fol'UUy, and SO on an "" rtcuptnutd from th_ who cam~ "'ft> .. or "-00 SllIyed DUuUir the West. Ahhough tne... namui\
I.. F and the World Bank contillu~ to repon the: ne...-s of "development" with I hoppy fae( , whllt more j>n aroond tht world , moll: children dioc from malnulritlon .nd " .. t , and more ecological ",fugtt'I, displ aced by "dr.·tlopmtnt : abandon t .... count~ido and migntlt to ovt;rburdc:ned cities and FiTSt Wo
•

T

"

pre~iOll$ d\ap"~t cnanN II>< ....bt;"ns~ip bo:'wt:
"""s- knowlrdg.,; 01 agonomy aoo "modun: scimlilie discoursu of agncuhu .... 10 dell .. ca •• the specitid.;cs of p<)S.colonialll>O d " 'picr I um\d 'M con«m with ind;g.nou$ knowkdg~ 01 agmnomy ,,,uaml,,,, the e<:(Ilogieal understandings embadiN. in !Mm. Con«m ont 1M quality of the Land and lhe aV2ilabilily of """er Ioomrd large in diKu..ions . bout f..",,;ng in ... lipu,. I.MmOrt coneentra,. on I~ r•• ,tl"", of , h. agraltan "",,,1010" il l. not s.. rplising that fa"""", .hould be "" on. aOOlhn This lack 01 u,coiorhy is uhlbi.N most ck arly in ,h. Inlima" relationship bo:,wttn tlu: production of food and its consumption. T...., fcatu.u Sland Out In !armeos' discoul"SCS .I>oU{ (he produc. lon 01 crops.nd tlu:ir usc.s food. TIu: fim i. Ihe s;milari.)" bt',,·ttn 1M I.m" employed 10 undcrstaoo In. hco lth 01 plams and Ihe soil and Ihe health of hu"",,,,. I was inWally lempled to cons;dtf Ihls an example of analogical think;"" in which undersundings of 1M body had becsc discourses m.de ;t cl.a, lhal . uch I prl"Spech~e was que;lioruble. The he.lth of lhe soil and plants Is . - In"logou. in the s<:nsc that th<]l coru.lllutel;vi", syot."" lhat parallel and mimic lhe body. lUther. they In: conn«.ed 10 each other and 10 ,h. body In In inltica.e web in which acllons thaI innue....,c the qualily oIlh. soil. for example. have direct

.,...,.t.

,h.

""pee'

,h.

elT«tS on 1110: '1u.alily of lhe food prodl.lc«l: lhe food, in l1.lm, has 1m· plic "lons for .M hulth of . IK ""ople "'.... a/nsume it. In Ihls "",nne., .hmugh 1M cru.in of pr<><<ss<s InvolvM in quali.irs or propsant understandings of .he ",lo.lionships bc'''''ccn .he soU, pI'ntS, .1., wa.cr, and humans under Ihe rubtlc of "1"«)1ogy" wt)uld mug. diffutnl con~ptual his'o,~ and gen •• logics lha. mighl btllu be "sed to inttrrog.lt tach OIhu, Do Ih. connolalions of "ecology" Ihus ha,'. to It.: " ",,,ht;d beY'>nd ",rugn;.lon.o uk acooun. of in.erp"' .... lions of lhei, "''''iron"",m" by Alipur's f.rm ... ' Sun-lant;,iJt exp!.nalions of lhe ",blion.hip bclw~n plantS and lhe wind, for exampl., _'" daTI)' quil' diff. ",nl from II>osc discourses of "ccology" . .... , a", imbri_ e.,«I ln m.e .... nist" and .ys•• ms-IhCO""ical p",misoes a!>QuI "nalu", ," I tuogniz. lhal ,h"", .'" rm"y di ff. ",nt posilions on ' ecology: and many ecologistS qUCSlion vlew 01 na,u'" as an eOOS)'SlCm In homf<)"'Iic habnc.: (f", $Orne .ltern'liv.., «< Bolkln 1990: CoI",en 198,: Jos.ph 1990: Ptlull. 1980:}O-)4, 60-14, 10)-'; Sneddon 1996; and Zimmere' 1994). Sut ",h .. diffcn:nc .., if any, txls. bet",~n rtvis«l and rtformulal«l lheories of -W"lun" e""logy and subsllnlivist lhco,;"; .!>Qul bod .... plantS. and Ihe earlh . ....1 btgin from radically diITt",nl posilions ( Kurin l?lil: ZimmtTlnann 1931)1 In Ih. prtVious C.... pl.. I dcmons,r"ed how Ih. qu.alill" or Ihe soil , w,o\tT. and other inputs an: pass«! on 10 crops. wn.n th~ crops a", Ing~ by humans as food . lhei. qu.alili.. lpowsl illlu"" 1M body 01 Ih" nlu ( Danicl l¢4: Manioll IfJo8.\I: Trawick 1974 ). TI>( concern wi.h the propcn ies of crops .nd , heir possible ",Lalion. ship 10 "",01og;0:..1 processes.nd , he body is alllh~ mOK lleul. given lhal Alipur has SttM d"'~I" chang.. si nc~ 1110: la.. si~lirs. bolh in lerms of Ih" crops INoI al. boing po"", and the mtlhods ~mplojiM to grow Il><m. There ru.vc been 1"'0 "gn:tn n:volullons" in II>< last Ihird of II>< I",enlitth "nlmy Ihe firsl referring ' 0 inctcaS«l lood produc' ion in II>< Third World_ the promi5t of g",en fields ""erflowing wilh "",.Isaidtd by high d~ of biochcminl inputs and "'.....: .nd lhe seosc p",moo and ,.,mlts if anylhing. di.mt.ri""Uy opposed 10 11 . My o".. n pcrsp«tive on the "«ological" co"""'{uenc<:< of high_ yielding ,.,.riely agrku llu", has been sru.pcd by • ooncern "ilh sus1.lnability ar>d "gtecn- roli, lo;. Yet , an <nsagement in Ihls (""p.er with

now

,h.

"'=.

1M "ecologicar pracllce,; and dioca u.....,; of pta51nts In Allpu. , whlullons, has enabl«l m~ to re"",h I diff~m ptr$p«lin in m)' own ~nYiTOn",",1.I1ism, Implemcnt. i", a complex triangulation bct""""n an OCMusly "",re "modem" btcallSt they worc ecologically green bcfnrc they became hlgh·input fa""~ ... nd /n. "" btca11S¢ lhey l;ack«llht purpnsiV1' dirttlin""Hly nf sdenlific "prog. I'C$I!i" (which would find lhoi. ~nl practic.,. to M .... lU\lSl.Iin.blc·n In Ihls chapin, raiM. lhan pronounce judgment on their praclice;, I haV1' c"-'n 10 pn:stn1 Iitt InlC'Prel.lt lon< .nd uttl.Iln grote. prtti,lon by asking Ilttm 10 .. lato Iht time lhey we ....ferri", to by conne"i", It to Ih.i. own lif. cycle, to the ages 0. ~""" of tbti. ch ild .. n, 0. Iholik. . .....'as you. eldt$. IIOT1 bom It thaI tim.r -'ItS, bt mUSlhavo be.n, il .... $Om.· lime: thm." "Had you. _ond child bern born y.l?" "'I"" il "'as som.· wbt .. In thost days' And $0 It ..."¢lIt. My attompt 10 uso: .thnog....phlc tridu of Irlangulatlon "'err "",I wilh 1M disdain thal ... ch nil_picking dcstrvcd Cradually. I Stopped Irying 10 USC the seal. nf ,.mpcmoli.illj! prrvaknt In my 5Ch
"",t.rial that folkro.-s. "tk pasl" Is continually Im..,1w;I in thiS mannet to spe.k of tcologically meaningful chang~. What do Ih(Sl: IthlUd(S 10 limt and -the environment" ;mplyl A", ..... to ",.d Ih, ecologiClllly s"sta;""bl. agncult"", p ... cticed by fanners before tht .d,·.nt of tho high_yIelding .."'; the fanners of Alipur chtl,!"" t<:clogiOiI deslruction ""u.cd bj' 'mod.m " f. rmi"ll? Or, co'w...... ly, .K they .nthusiastic supponus of lndusl1ial agricuit"", .nd "nconcerned about itS «:ologico.l COtt5«!""IXesJ Far tno ofltn. tltt ecological prac tic... of indigtnOll'!l prop!... hlv, provided I m.ans to Construcl romantic ctillques of tho looustrial world. Altematively. the , ... nsf.r of tt<:hnology from the FitSl World is s«n as a crudal ~ltp in halting en,ironmenlal destruction in the Third World. Wh.r. do Ille ecological ",,"Cliees of Alipu"" peasants fit ,,;thll\ Ih(Sl: dlcoo.omi<sl H.Y( th. bm>ers of Allpur been ",refully p~rvlng ,Ite environment for ccnturi<s hefo .. the onslaught of "modem' technology. or do the)' n«< ,,·al., table and suggested di'''rso: uplanations for it. In II>( 5«000 ..clion. lhe",fo",. 1 pro<:ttd to analy.te 'a"""rs' discourstS on wate, resources. In the filllli soction [o n.mpt to link "ecological" degra· dation with I"""'plions aboul the dedine In the well_helng of lho popu_ lation. <spedoll)' that of the poor.

Con«'rtu aOOull . oo quality w.re pervasive in lh. disco" .... of fatllKrs in Alipur. This is not entirely surprising. becau .. their lh'elihood depended on • knowledge of the soil . I have .l'tady upblned lhe ')'$1.", of classificat ion by which soils "'eK graded. Farmers often used th. terms for lat>
the ooil. The decline of lhe qualily of the land was <xpr~d

primaril~

In con«rns abouI'he ~ak""5S' of tltt soil' As indicav;d in tltt previoUS dU'pl", 0". of th. mOO fau!"'S< " n land quality was Ih .... """ that t ... l.nd lutd ito own ag.ncy and .... os ""t mcn:1y incrt ra'" matcriltl to be .mp~ as an input 10.... rd human end$. · TI>c act;,." 1"""iW esp'dolly '""ell' Talking .bout the Importanc. of liming in il1ig;tli"3 barley, Surt:'lh told me that lhe fietd i'-Stlf "letts you' when it needs more irrigation, and then you know the lime is righl. w... these SIlttemenl< m(rely mctonymld The agency of the land. comblr.td wilh humoral th.oric$ of agronomy and gun ... ""lution agricultural PI1lCtict:s to shape a unique form of I1>
t'"

•_

.. .-1....... 0 _ _ . . . . . . . .",

According to'M farmers of Ali pur. crop so:i
dirk",n. p<:~pc<.ivcs on wht.h~r such £"'f'S OS ,uV""''''' and haJr.I weak(n II\( soil. TI\( obj«livc is 10 givc • :;(1\5<' of II\( di""tgf'II' ~s-­ tn(nlS of Ihi5 ph~nom~non in.,.,w,. II) em p~;tt Ih., indigen<7l1S ptr. 'pc(opk ""host. opinions diffu <0 .hallh¢)' an b" rud .",ins, 0"" InotM •. Ram Singh was an older.lowcr-ca'>l( man who livro "ilh his family Ind.1\( faml1i~ of his .htte bro.hus In In il>lk]>(ndent little dU"er of hou_ . ilualro al one .dge of 1M vilt.ge land. Then: wCre 111t~ ,,,,h hamltlS .round AlIpu •. two shu.ltro b,,".... n lhe vinage and adjoining villa&", and ORe "",,,,,un 'M village and the pa"", each bro,h« rarm<:d independently of .he o.hen. Unlik( his r.,M, . who. dcspilc bting t l\( sok heir 10 a fairly subs,anlial piece of propc:ny. •ook lillie inl"':" in farming. Ram Singh had h«n involv<:d in farming oclivitiCS for almost an his life. At the tim. (,99: ) of.he oo.wcrsatlon repon ed b"low. "" con,inuW '0 ""nicip:"e ttgulatly in farming "". t;vilics .• hl>ough mosl of 'M ",·ork "'.,.,. now done by 0"" of his adult sons. [ndc. Singh .....1.0 ".,.,. .lso prcs..nt during .h( interview. Ram Singh distingu ished ht. weU! crop.; ""hich welke""d 'ht soil gTell.ly and ,hose which did <0 only s lightly. o. ~ell .... ngth • ....:I it. by dis( .. ~illg .1\( p.lr.lOOxic.a1 properties of mill~t: "Ilajr.l is .h. On. crop that "",.ken, tM Iond : o.huwi:;(, .he.. a .. n~ any lhat .... cak.n.1It tlnd excessively. In ~.li!y. hajra weakens .he farm. hut It ala)'d-this !sone of lIS distir>Ctlv. ma,"'." 100.. Singh in'et">'enc
nov.'",... "'.,.,.

.bou,

Ram Singh : GrDWing maize r"'luim; .he U:;( offenihzer. We have ' 0 apply both manu,," Ibkooday "" khaaJl and market f. niliz« I""·

z....r It.! ."""-ll..nod w. han 10 w.td .. Singh; IIoj .. ext,,"cl5 nUlricnli frorn the lOp. Trn.1 i. " 'Mt enables It 10 pw SO well. OOllhat also weakens the tanh . If we SOW =P'!' that pun nutrtcnts from ...10..... if ..... had sown r ... lla green iqumcl Or sown .mar U.ntih l. they would M'''' pulled nutrtcnts from the bouom. This way. bo, h crops. baj .. and .... h(lll . ba:omc lOp crops. f or Ihis fuson , lhe wh.al Is w. ak. f armtl"ll bod . cho;.,., betwun planti"3 rnaiu afWI baj .. in 1M mono ooon~, and lheir choto: of crop had I ""II impKt "" Ih. sub.<· quent crop. wheat. BaJ.. cnnln0st5 with maiu In l.rmS of 1"'0 fealuJ"CS that had • !>taring lhe ~ual qualUy of the soil; the of Iht Inputs required 10 grow lhe Curnnl crop. and the deplh 10 which lho: rootS of lhe crop had 10 go 10 draw nutrition. The cultlv;llion oJ mai .. I"n!.uired thaI !he fitld be wuded on s..""..l OCcasiOM and IMI holh o'Pnle rnaUurt and chemiOll fen lHzus ... used . IIy cnnlr;tS •. i l was no. poo.sIbic to wftd hoJra mo.., lNon on",,; the plonl5 """"' so close 10 0"" """'the. lNo •. 0'""'" tht =1' had grown more than a f..... IncMs. lt he· came impoo.siblc fOl" anyone 10 sit In the field and ,,"CCd with a hand hoc. In • simILar ''''In. although th.re W1're no prohibi lions on doing 50. mlng fmih, ... was comldcrtd a wasl. bttau ... hoj .. did root nud hlgher levels of inputs_ Growing maize. Iherefore. had favorable con ... qucl"OCQ for 1M production of wheal, tht chief food crop and Ih. main cash crop In Alipu •. AI< we will ...... lurning the soil over and using organic manure .... ere wnsldtred IwO of lhe mOS! Impon..n. m«ha_ nisms for prcsavlng.nd Improving soil quality. The SttOnd asp«1 of Ihis aplanation untered on tht sout'ttS of nutrilion ror various crops (sec Chapl ... }). a fealure lNoI had Imponanl co~u.e""($ for .he crop cycle .>Growing wheal QI"l I haj .. field lurned oullo be an unstlcu:uful stral.gy ~usc both lraiM dre,., lheir nu· ttic:nts from the 101' loym of soil. Thus. It was. qucslion nol ""Iy of whether a ccnain crop wnkcncd Ih. soil bu l also of .h~ Slnlum al which 1M " ·eokcning occurred. Ram Singh and his son argued .halJoW~' (anolher mille, ) and hoJ .. should no{ be grown on "good land : thaI is. in fi.lds thaI retaint
on

.rrm

\0 lrrig;uion. They grow bWeT In s.ndy soil. We don' plam d>cm in otber ' ",Ids b«:IlI~, If tM ......... accumulat(!;. thef won' grow. n..-y !>ffiI 1= wale' and So1ndy soil. Ih.tl is. fields wilen: Ihe waler k«", drying. The "",ttl' shouldnl be s,"nding in tbe Mid." Going 0 .... step fu"hu. Ram Singh and his son pointed 0111 that a good . "strong" field was at\uallf wasta! On baj .... and .1<>""" boocallSe such . fidd . ..... lIkely to "'tain Di n"",,,r longer tha n did sondy soil. Thus, not only did th""" crops grow boo" .. in ""uk fields but they should olso 001 have bttn cuhi..... 'ed on lenile fidds beClu~ they wc:aker>ed the soli aM tl>(y may aC' Wllly ha~ railed to grow . cy don' really ~aken the land. They .re pnga'''' ' IK uampleol sugamne. w~ bc: ....Ii. ~ial dfect. on Ihe soil " 'Crt questionable . and addl'<:SKd thci r absmt into.locu,ors (,IK majority of fa"""rs who held. rotltr.>ry opinion ), "When you up""" cane. I, isn' as if \he lidd dOtsn' have any , tKngth Idt. If. aher cutting the conc. you h"'e it pl"wcd whh 0 tnctor, the ,,·OOt lhat lollo ...-s imrnedialah~! !~g­ dily S"y/\oon J. The trac'or jUM sh""ds the root.S. Then we plow In the "" ..... indc•. and it produc<:s ~ery good fertiliztr. 11~ like putting manurt . h makes the SOil black. Mal.e. whea' -all ,hcso. crops grow very ...·ell on a CO"" f!CId." Although cone " -;I$ tent" crop tMt was ....l<1c1y """,eivec n nt stumps ,hot remai .... d In ,be soil wert uprooted bul WOK unlikel)' to bc shredded. By contr.>SI. plowing with . l""tOr ton: them in.o Utde Strips. and th .... turned tl>( soil black. j" St

llke manure. relnoigol'lting 1M ooil.., lbal a good harves. of wheat Or malu could be obtained .rIC' h.arvesllng the sugamone. This upla .... tion of the bendidal impoCt of sugarune on the ..,i! " ... disputed by Pnosod, 1M p"",,,,,rous brahmin " 'ho " "as the pn:vioU$ htadroan of Alipur (sec Cbaple•• ). Prasad advanced an alternative undtf$l;l.nding lbal owed a ltI'Cal d ... l _ '" "SCientific" uplanotlons. pubaps as a result of his higher !n'eI of formal education and his clo$t-r lic5 to the govemmtnl ""nauenlS who adminis.en:d agricultunl prognoms. ' In PTuod. explanations, I'" cont .... t bttw~n crops ""hich benefited tho: soillnd those ",hich Ia~ed il was c1 ...riy ma.ked : The do..!dl c. ops Ilegumesl. li!", of """rything. If we plant Inothe. crop immediately Ifl<:. h..v~ting cane.' it doesn't do "",n because cane "",akens Ihe field . The ... arc..,,,,., crops lhat do "",II in a co.n. field, for e.... mpl •. p..s . If you planl pu$ .f'e. harvnting ""ne, it wlll grow welL Prasad thus artlcula.ed an import.anl v[c,,·poin. about the clrcets of growing sup"",n. on soil quality. In this persp«live, th. sngaru.IU: crop~ eno"""us ·.ppetit<:" fl)< InpulS dcmonstnued that cane actually ronsumrd many lIut.vms [rom the lar>nnly ".gall..-.: <:<>nSf:'Iuenccs lor pl'Oductlvlty. He acknowledged th.at some crops, [Of exampk , peu. muld still do ""til ill. Cine 1ic:1d. He added lhat if 1M h.arv<:St of pcas was follo"'ed by maiu. lh~ moiu crop ""O\11d do oxctedingly""ell. Asked to compon: the offeel5 o[ n...., Vllri.tios of ce",.1s wilh "tradi_ tional" ones. Prasod categorically denied Ihatlho ......... any dill.",nc.: "Tlw:n: ;'; .. o .freet on land, but 1M'" ;,; mo", effeel on ..... I.r.· Despite 1M Implication' of PTasad. state"",nl. !!>OSt fann ... denied any n:la· tlol>5hip belw~n n"'" varieties and th. falling _t« Lobi. level (th.is Is ."plom! funhe. in Ihe second pon of this d",pter) . Pitting Prasad and Rom Singh.·s lnlupttlalOons againsl llw>5o of • Iman £armer. Sun:sh, MIl" us gain a pcl'Spccli"" from onothu class

po!>itk!n. Whon 1 lirst Im."";"n~d him In '9k. Sur$' ""'-hoId_ !Uffcrl", lrom .~re .-esoun:. crunch. It. had 11_ no money 10 pay !of inpILlS liU Itnilizn .nd 5ttd. H. was rnUi", • lnnSIllon from (onni .... an O«"ILI".ion I I ,.·hich ho _ nol ""n\cILLorty~ . 10 b..-omin, .lull·ll"", p
w. y.

.... ~

.

Tho knowledge lbo, ba;", woukI ..'hersely off«1 his land did not "",,¥cn. SuttSh from planting il. hfi:oUS( lbot was .ho only crop for .... hlc h ho cooukl afford the ....' " I"). ;npull. Although mal .. ","Ould ha,.. bt<:n btun. its good propocn ks ~htd panty lrom I", n«d lo.upcn~I'·. Inpuls. SurfSh olltmpl(d to hoLonc. his crop mlx by IIS&<SSI", lilt imf'ICt of different crops on tilt soil: Tile WI)· Ihls Is . houghl Olll. Ii!"!t. llut our fi. ld~ growing powe. nOI be dlmln"htd. Fo •• xam ple. i/ 1 continue JVUwlng what.nd 1>0;... Ihtn th. S! ..ng.h of Our fields is reductd. Tbcy IaU UJo mu.c;:h nunilion lrom our /Kid!.. B)· conlrMI . If Wf kttp ,rowillA ..... IIt. then II hilt Lond] gttS.somt ~IC. 1M farm ,"IS so_ 11m(. l.ais n ... titian IS """ from the /Kid. Main Is CUt ...1)1 , ho: ft.c:1d is plowtd. It may '''In. tho: soil " IUmtd ovn . and Ills w~ con.;nl>O\1Sly. ........ soil I< conlin......,.,. lurned and Is lao; dcple.td . (The ptObItm l "'~Ih """,i flf, ,,·ho:.t and haj .. Is lhal bajr:l .... k.r:o 100 much nUlrilion. Tn.: hoj .. Is ,.....dtd. bul It laktlo mott nUlritlon lrom lh. toil llun ma,;:c-thal\ lilt only Ihlng. i, ... k ... lbe nUlridon ''';\)1

Who:' ra5 I h~ .. was • 1.1. d
No. one should never plan, co."" in a cal>( fid d , Us .... lly. firs, .he ,ugarea...., fitld is turntd OVn', then tho fidd i. prq>Om!. Ptoplo grow a 10' of maiu. for u.mplt . afttr CUttlng ,he cane. ]A gap of ~ral months Kptratts ,hese .WU croplS. ) Thty I.... '" the plot emp!:y and kttp P"'ptri"3 U. Thotn they grow maiz • . Olh« crops . '" not sown because thC«' .... 100 many w«ds lying in ,hot sugar· ane. Tlltn il bte<>m<:o necasary to pr. pt ... ]"make"j IAc fidd in the SUmm.,. to kililh. grass. When lho: field is dean. lhen mai., is 5oWII. ]Tho: ,n,i", cydo ) ... kts 0"'" and a half " .... rs. Can. u.kto ntO'" lilnt. Fo. this rnson .lhost woo ha," mo ... lanod grow suga •• ant. k.'" th.!OIl quite . lot. JUSt as t.j ... does, WIth sugarcan., tho: crop In.t is planted aFt.,..,."rd docs not g. t a good yI.ld. Only by giYing. high dose of Inputs <:an an),. hl"3 lit grown ]afltTWl.rd] .

eo..........

Growingsuga!a.ne "",ant ti"3llmoM a )"ar anod a h.lf to on. crop. Su.-.:oh made it dear tn.t small fanners could not afford to Kt aside a part of thd. land for such a long tim • . Only lhost who had mort land could afford to grow sugo,.,..ne. Thtn:fort, Sun:sh\ u...urstandi"3 that a .... weakened the soH was ... inloTttd by ,h. obs<,...,.,lon ,hat 'he "P' portunlty to gro .... cal>( varin! dHT. ",nU.ally according ' 0 one\ das5 posIlion-in PIIrtic.,I ... according to how much land a farme. C)YI'nN.. Unlike the <Mhe .., Su ....h ""s II.., ........ upliclt . boUllhe del .. erious effect of ,,·heal. which " ... by f.r Ihe main C"'P ,hi: ...... on ..,il quality, Wb(n I asked him wh)' h. uKda large q.... ntily of manu", in a fi.c:1d when: he had jusl pl.nted baj .... h. e~pl.i .... d that h. had ~" whea' in It tarU.. anod ,hi: land had II>cn:fort bccolnt "'tau •. TI>c .... nun:......, ..... n. to ...duee the: _Ik...,.. olth. field. Su ....h pointed '0 ,he: positive n:sul,. of plan.[ng len'ils In con,,,",- to crops such .. suga!a.ne and ...·heat "U:ntils l.!allum ] impart nutrition 10 the field. For Ihls reason. Ih. field is SI ... nglhened , and ,h. s«ond crop is st",nger. Fo.- (umplt . _ might w:lnt I big whea, narvnt. The Kcd which has two pods ]d~f<1
"r

One 01 ,he m<>St Interesting things about thes<: ~'ltemcnts was the e~tent to wllicll tile lISt 01 the .«h""logf associated with hLgh.yic1ding varieti<:s \wi ~n completely - naturalind" ItS If It rep..st;nted tilt prop.nl(5 ol.he C[(IPS themS<:lv~. Thus. SUKS" cxpLaln.td tlla. loss nutri· tion ...~ 1051 from I main M id than lrom on. In which min.t " ... g""".... as i f the chemical Ico liln<s lha. "~,,, nc<:CSSOT)' lor .... i•• pm. dUClion ... e", a Ica,u", of.1It main plant. R,"hcr .han ""ing ,.cn ItS a suppkmcntary inpu •. •he addi.ional nutrition suppl ied to the Iitld bf using chemical I.n ilin, was compktdy naturalized lIS I feal,.", of maize. Sirnilafiy. Ram Slngh~ defen,. 01 ClIne "'";IS pmlic;Jted On .he USC 01 t""'U)<S which shml.he Clll< intu littk pi<:C(5 .ha. lonr>ed a valwtbk Imilizer for the MllogylS intriM;C to ca ne production ""'s 1<35 com· monoH.nce di"e",,,,,es ""iSlcd in .he deg..,., to "'hieh .he .ttlmologyo£ produc. lon had bte" .ssimllated '0 .he propenies of.he <[(Ip. The lann ... quoted he", help d aril)' .. veral aspectS of .he ",Lation· ship btlwccn crops and soil q"..lif)'. Firsl . diffe",nl crops s uch 05 len· tils. bans. main. whul. cane. and baJ.... could bt arrayed In I rougll orde •. "'nging from btnefid "l lo delrimental effects on lhe land. Ho ...• .ver. su<:h 0 S",,,,ment has to he qualified at " numbt. of diffcrcnl leve1s. NOI Ill l~ crops could or _ Id grow cquall¥ well on.he same kind 01 land. Thcrd orc. whe", ... whe", a..d am. ""'''' polent crops Ihol l"C<juin:d StTUng Land . baJra ...";IS a polen. crop thaI could grow on "'eak soil. Those whose IQOts we", shallow. suell as baj .... or whca •. did no. have a .. rung effect on other crops . such., len his 0' he . .... ",,,,""'" " 'elll dtcper, Then I.... . " ... s a C[(IP !;I,e ,naize. Th. delrim,,,. ",1 df«1S of malle " 'e", countered lo5o'e ....1 times. wllich tum«! .he soil and pn:parcd it for Ihe plallling of whut. To consider t'" 'J/uu of Individual emps on.he !.nd ,,-os , hus.o miss .he Intenwined nalu", of cropping cyck:.. in "'hich the mix 01C[(IPS .Iany 0""' time was d<:tcrmlned ~' the eff«. uf p",vluus decisions On soil qu>lily and whicll

"'"<.

in lu m htlpo:d determi... whal could bt I.own in Ihe Ihis topic of (TOp rotation lhal 1 now lum.

en."I.""_"~"".

<""••

fUlu~

II is 10

TI>/: (roWing cycle 1j4sa1 dl was a ttturring topic in discussions aboul tl>/: lOil. In ",feTTinl to the eff~ .. thaI individual crop" had on the soil. farnt.l:rs in Alipu. Inevitably linked soil quality 10 f rops that had bttn grown prtviously. They also dlimed thai Inc cu.,..nl crop was trSuictlng o. influcndng lheir d~isions on what could bt planted subsequen tly on any panlculor plot. In considering 1M emi,.. mix of ( roJll' that had been yuwn on any p1t:>t of land. farmers ",lied on """Iuations aboot tn. "wtnglh" I""'tall or "weakn~" I tdm~or) of ttu: soli . TI>/:y contllOSted the pTCScnt SYSlem of multiple 0' seriol cTOpping wh ll their prodi<:" in tn. p..t, "'~'Icdly pointinl out lhal .h. tanh did nm g<:' .he .ime W ..lax any mO"'. The btliC£ thaI the stTength of Ihe soil de""ncicd on ilS abilily to ",In 100 1'ttO,..,r from the prtvious (rop WlIS widely held. Al the .. me lime. however. thi. btlid " ... "'prdcd ""ilh some ambivalt n.cc . Some famw:rs thought thaI tht new technology made it .. nnee. S'Ty for II>/: land 10 ",lax bttwttn crops and lhat not allowing land to lie fallow had mad. lhem Mlltr off finandally in th. shon run. Comparisons wi. h . past tha. was II odds with the p«SCn\ we .. often Invoked by Inc Subcdar. I vete.. n oIlhe Brilioo;pltol whm: his leg WlIS amputated. his family denied him land '0 cuh i... t. or I I>ome to !iv. In. argUing tha, his ,,"nslon should bt suf[",;.n. for him W suppo" himself. Eventually. 1w: ma""'lled W obtain a PO" 01 hi."nccs,,,,,11000 w ( ullivote on his ",,·R. In ""n,rast to 'he sptti6d . y with which tlw: Subcda. rttOUnicd the dot6 of his tt"" in IIw: <"Olonial army. ho was surprisingly ... gl>< about tho time ...·hon farm.rs lotopp
"..,n.

....s

P"""",loniol Dcvdoptntnu

....

.(jo~

:<>8.,.1_)1 ."""''''''''1 _

1" 'I1'Ilu"-,,. ~llllnq"" '~>II 'I'll " 1,"..02h~u,,,, 0' v>d1"l .'IlU!l">J.. >I!II"" J'>A!' ».l PI:>1J ''II '''''1 ''1' 1"'1' P!I>q ''II OSJ.. In'l ""'II·J sri''! ""."1 0, s.mwoJ p>\ ' ....1 "OUri]J.11 jO ,~ ''I' I'"f IOU ....... II •..OJ"""Il .·'Ull l lx>tl ' UO "'110 ''1' ld"'lA''1 ' ',wp '1'11 ",Oll"j pl:>1J .uo Id' 'I A><jI JI 'dOJ' .Wft ''II ",04 ~UP!P 1"'0 srl>!/ 'Iluliu ...."'.lu, ld''I .b'l1 l""U ''111<11OJ JOJ II.,...n -'>.( .uo )1-'"'1'1 ' OJ PI>!! "II i»Sn oU'Il II " OUIl"''' ''II ~I ' lIUI'l"wOS p>."os ·dOJ. "'I' J»liu....' '1.10:>.1 'II~ ' ... ,~r ,p~""' 1 u!luOllS .\ilO:»q PI""'" PI"J ' 'I!. 'I»"u!lu,,", J"tJ'>'InS >Ill .·PI''1 "'l' '1lOJoilA'" 01 .,...., II. ·U! ~ !IP ' uOIIOSl'AUO) "'0 0, lIu!u' IS!1 A[lU.IIN 1"" ""''I' iup"s u »<j 1"''1 ""'" ''I'lu1S IN""'S 'lulO<1 ''II JOJ 'W!I OU'1 """II ""'N ''IIWJ~'" ~UIl5 ~I P>AI'».l AllmullUO) 'I 'I' IPt 1"'. I"'q >." .... '">!I'''l ' '1'UU~ AU. 2.0.1'»> IOu s:oop PI''1 ' '1 1.. ""[»<[ns ''I I PI" .. S>.~. -p>~~. I •.1 """,,,, '1'1''1 :iu1'lnlJ 01 ')I"IUIU,,", 1"'11 S>O(J • .-sdoJ) »J'I1 '0 0iII1 , ,,"1 OIIU~ ...ou >jdN.I ''''OJI") $p[>!1 S<>"""[ .un au "-"ON 'n... " s.. 'j>I,snf 1(0" IJ'I - . UN.Qi"iI u>>q 1"''1 dOJ) W"'I'I "II '1)1'1'" U! PI''1 "II 1"'11 p>11OJ!PU! " p >qns >Ill 'p>U!Ol"" >q 01 AI'''' I 0"8." """"!OW ""om >Il' 'IU'''' 'UO 'xiRp "II >sn~ 'lnO ,(,1' Plno,", II . .... ' '1SU • svo. """'I' '»OJ-'TtS "I' OJ .,sop p>lu"!d ,.,."" I! JI 'd»fJ [»Iu"[d "I 0, 1''''1 dOJ) "IU~'" ' 'II U! p»< ~II"'II u""""" '1'11 '01 0"8.... II '''IU!", >I U~' 1"'"I'OS ''I' wnl 0' AP"ISU>I"I [»"'01.1 "-".,.. u<>\' ..... "",,"UOW >Ill U! "'011"1 lPI ""''1l ''11'''1 1OJ ..... In'l u........ \ru!"""lI " 'u,,", ''11 ,0 dOJ) UOOSUOW ''1' "'J "'1'1'.,...., :u.'" SlOM

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'UIOJ ''II 110 pu,.,bp 01 1'"'1 dw. ''11 ~U,,!I.,j'JJ! .'uo I,i \ UP"P 'I '.Up Plno", p»< ~l "~Il'" 'I '1in",'I ' oll plno,", JI" ~'I' " "'ISI'I AU~ ' J"1 _ I! JI ' ~I"'l'l \ru1"'O['1;lU, 1"" ,"" [»IIQ]PV' "P"'Ins ''1' 1d.>f' Sl'll P»<'l(l Ind plno,", ~''II U''I1 ':unlSiOW Sli uln:lJ punOJi >[ 1"'0 '1' P"I Plno", U''11 '" SU''''Old d"" o,]»Sn ~,1'1'" S.' "'Il l·"""S sdo..o, ''I' p]no." ..... ''1 ':unlSloW '1 l1nou> \ U",,", ""~I JI ':unl<,ow 'IS""". U!"I"" I.UP"p PU"! ~J. '!'!OJ JOI ....,d ' >1110 1"'" J!' "'l~ JOJ SlOld 'WOS.,...., >idOl.I

•.• !!..... "1m ",oJ>q s.'''I' "I'" 1" ""''11 'I'"'' sw'l1od j[ulddOJ~ ,u>S>-1d p>1S<""0~ "p>qns "IJ. 'IU""'I""-'! ~I!nb >q 0, p;uxld .... '"'I' '1)1'1'" u, 'D.' "II p:U"l'fSUOJ ' '1 ' puncui ~, ~n wcuJ p>dwnd >q PI""" "I"'" ' '''11 ","''1 "I u''1.'' ,(WJ. >
1M ~~. F.llowing wa:!i IhUi!i crucial MaUSt il .11o ...·td 1M fidd 10 "relax." In addillon. Ihe fields thaI wtTC lefl fallow wen: not ustd 10 grow 1M sam( c."" ~ yar. ncr "'-w. IMy ..,,«1 ustd in the same gro",ing 5taSOTl . Thus. if. plOI wa:!i ustd 10 grow thl: khanf crop OI\C year and tM ...hi c."" In lht folloooing ytar. It was .nOWfl! 10 n:moin uncroppN for Just over . year. A. the Subcdor pointtd OUI. no r.nner In AUpur would allow lhal to hal'l"'n today. Tho: nlding Ihnu, !>nu",",00ldJ and the: holMS oIa KrouP of will_lcd. Both brothtos wen: now ""ell On In y.ars: thdr adult ~ns managed ,he day_to-day lcoiville< 01 farming. The brothers recounted WMI had changed from Ihe lime when then: we", no well< and hcncc no lorm of inigation on Ihci, !.and: In lho5c days. lor the khanf crop. _ gn:w moons. bajra. urad. j<>w2r, maize , cotlon - a Ioc 01 cotlon \1st
Referring ." .he domlnon. p~.i<:. , l askN if l>Tl' whu. (rop .."uld cvcr ~ l" n<)Ww, In .he nut )tlr, wi. h • ..".!>er WMOl crop. Ch<>tu ",pllcd.:

"ne

N", n", """ Un tho p;lSl l .h. fiold h..d w ~. fmse:a50n buausc: tlu:", w ....: "" f.clli.k$ f" , ..... , .. and fenlli:u .h.n. N<)W people

grow I ... man~ ... I.h",. crops! The", ".., ... n<> f.dlittcs fI)w than ""'fo"" The ou.pu. is g",.,e. lhan tldo ... , Because: c.rli ........ h..d.o be conlUl' withjuot 0 .... crop, and now we ta ke .h,.. crops, 11 $hould hcevid.nt .h •• ", Iu: p;IS." was not btingem pIoYNjuo' .... n

ecologlally susu\nabl. ""nu g. poln •• 0 crhidn lhe prcS< jauv me .. d .i mN lhal high OU.pulS in the p"'S.item 'It~ of "'ht pas'" wen: ",,,,",kobl)' uT>< - prog..,.,.;",' f.rm.r quoted carli... . poI< ...... i.h ..,me pride oJ 'he grea"" Intensity of cuhiva'ion, while defending.he pranict 01 crop rota1ion: "Now, . Iu: ~\'Stcm Is ,hal peoplc usually grow !hI'« crops: first m.i..,. af.... main. mustard Il
_bou,

I".

.0

tn. ....... crop is grown in a plot. th~ Mid impart:i a littl. Itss .tr~ngth [to tn. crop.)" f'I 'ad~ description of crop roution _ prtmiwd on tM pIion that. plot ...-as unable to impan tn. .. me degru of nutrients in tn. _ond round as In the first. At the SOme time, p, ad st.adfastly maln!.liMetS ...·ho did Mt sha ... Pruad's even ",b'iveiy min<>< doubu about th~ new method:. of farming. Stt""Sh """ one. sudt pen<)n, He stressed both tM impoflar>ec offallowing for agr kultu", a5 It had been pn>Ctkcd in "the past" and lts ITfCkvancc fo r the present: "Ahr growlng wM.t . ncd • tube w.u. Bu,. Io.t ...... rntd. to """ .,.,..nllal now 10 provide • "wry good diet" to the land by using 1a'IC quantities of chemical rc"ilizer and ",.. ter. As long as adequate nutrition was supplied to th. soil, he malnlOined, il mad. no diffe",n.., how often one soYI·ed or how quickly 0"" crop followed .notlo.tr_ "!I. lor ""~ .... J years togctlo.tr. whcatl"",i%e or hoj ....".·h.at .... gro .. n in one field. (lttn tn. ..,it wilt 1>«0,""", weak fro m boIh tl>ooc things that the OUtput wilt k.ep decreasing. It is only because of the crop C)",1c tha, ,n. soil is affected . Qo.h.rwioc ,lit", 15 no weakn<S$ in ,h. soil. It has llo.t .. me poniclc:s, the .. me everything else. it .. just a maner of nutri,ion_ Tlie crop c)'de is . polled_ One Icropl should be with high I"00I$. and one sbould hoc .... ;th cktp TOOl$." 5umh. stltcm~nts bet",-)' .n int.rc:;odng tension be,w..., divergent m<>'~ral ytan_ He then .... nt on to soy ,ha' . as long as adoquatc Inputs we .. Ipplied to the soil. it mad. no diffe",nc. how many crops one g..'" in a year. But Io.t also ... med to hoclkv<: that specIfic crop cycles dkl aff.ct the

soil ad~rsdy and 1....1 CTOPS whh shallow I'OOIS should be .h~"",~ wilh crops wilh d«p 11)<)1S_ AllhI: SOme hme, he maintalntS for Iht ",it I" bo: gttling "'u~r. H~ s«mt:d 10 d ... w on I panicle theory of malleI' 10 show Ih.1 sail was no diITe=1 fmm olhc. subsu!'>Cts. Then: was, .hl:rd"Oft, a disjunction b(.w(en hi5 "scienti (l(:" Insme!'>Ce .ha. odcqua" nu.rilion ....... . n(hal " ... s "'Iuin:d to n:pltnl. h Ihc soil and his acknowlt:d"""n' , hat ,hi: sail was gtlling wtake. as a .-.sub of high)itlding whtal bt<:oming a vinual monocrop in Alipur\ winler growl",

se..SOn. A view .imilar 10 .hat of Su~h was odvancrd by Salish, • small. t.mt:d man belonging 10 Iht odh Cil5lt (w::ording \0 Gm-cmmenl of lndi. "..egorits. Ihc odhs m: a -backW1lrd" ClSle), tle.nd his brolhCT$ ownrd. small pi= of ~nd lhal ""as in.adtqlllue 10 suppon. Ihtir fam· ilies. So Soll5h ",,,,,ked as a lenanl fam>eighboring vil· l'ge, .nd I ... on a pittt of cloth in the middle of I pantally weeded ..... izt fitld. The .hoots, iUS!. a r.w inch,"" oul of Ihe ground, had Ihe glossy sru:en of young planlS in Ih. m"nsoon_ It was laIC July: .he monsoon was still in full swing Although II was a brighl and haz.yday, Iht lnuze, "'MII il "'lSn~ d",,,·nt:d oul by 1M horns of bU5C5 pasoing each OIru:r On Ih. naTT(>W rwd, blew noisily inlO my tapc TCConlcr lying in our midst. Solish agrttrl wilh Ihe <Mn.. farmtrs quoted MK lhol Ollt should n01 grow a oi",l. combina tion of crops fo r .ny !tnglh of lime. BUI h. also fell .hal whol manered mOTe was Ihe quanthy "r InpulS employed: "Baj.. weakens tht la nd Ihe mOSI,pulls.U iU; we",lh; Ihtre· fOK, ..... ...ill j uS! ha.'. to pul a hilI< more f.nihz ••. Ho ...·cvt. much e£fon )1)11 put In.o .M (tOp, !>Qwcv<:r much y., .. . pply by ...... y of inpulS, il will product Ih.1 much more, If yOt! don~ pul .nylhing in ii, ntxl ilme: tht crop won~ bot plenliful unlcss you pul f.nilizer. Evtn if I Wtre 10 love Ihis field f.now . nd didtll opply f. n lllu, with the nUl crop , Iht crop w"n~ he .ha. gO<>0: sail by luving il fallow was an inadcquatc m.IOOd to "",Icc it productiv • . lt would stll1 need fen iliz.r, and 11>0: m_ lenilin. 0 ... could put , In. moK plentiful 11>0: crop would lu", out 10 be . More clca.ly lhan lhe
Ahpur . r. dit<:"'ponl and conttll.d vtr.... on 1M lmportan,"" of Ih. cropping cyck and crop mix 10 lhe quality of lhe: land. On the OM hanpS fo r any KI.... n plol co.·cry )'ar. No one secrMd to Ihlnk ihltl loaving land fallow was. good option for lhe PlGOnt. On lhe 01"', han
I'"

I'"

atlaoas.".:"PI I So lar, I ha"" described the: efT""", of ponicular crops .nd cropping p.o.u ....... on the qlLllt.y of I'" soil. Dttislons aboul which crops 10 grow .nd the order in which Ihq .... grown "'.... dirutly tied to .... 0".;1· ability and , lmlng of inputs Of lhe Inputs used in AlipuT. lhe 0 ... co ...i
",'.""rI.

iubly poln.od ou •• he difrtrtl\C($ be,w«J1 manurt and cbeml"'] fenil. iI" alld be',,·ttn dlff.,."n. kinds of chunical ~nillun. Thry had diffor_ ing t 'planalio .... for wh}' lh.,.t wa e"'PIling in.en· sily. Similarly. II>< far"", .. I ~ wilh aUtmpled II> make ..""" of why .1>< g[(lund nQw nttdcd largo amOuntS of chtmi<:al f.nlllt .. "un in the past. Finally. as I will ""plain shonly. tht lenm in .... hich f.orm<,.. spoke of manUrt and ehtmical ftn iliur revtaled a great d.al_boul how Ih~ locolcd thtmsdvu " i lhin • larger polillcol !Glm. Ali lh. fanners lhatl 801 '0 kno .... In Alipur .boughtlhlt (organk) manure "-as beue. fo' tltot land .Ilon . hemlc:ll fen illurs; nunurt ,... !.ast< follo,..ing manner: TI>rmous quan.ity of "itrogtn in SoN,' (cow dung! fenihttr. !>;o Olher ftnlliu, has as much nilrogen as goba. forlil. izer. "". tvt" N.t:. The ...000 Ihing Is goba. fcn lliu. In· cn:aseo the gn>"ing strength of tht boo. Goba. (utilize. 1lIIlte:s even hard land soft and fcnile I ~adi tD","" ka ",uJay"m """"" ciaYlU ""I. UI1I't(1l./to WtNmnurri """"" d.lylu ""il. When tl>< land becomes fen ilt. tht output willlnc ... _ . If YDU PUt gobar f. n iliur once. itS cffccls lasl lar ,h...., yea .... It docsn) dMol"" aU.I Ona: I g~1I
.ha.

w...

The same point •• 00u1 manU ... being. kind of tlme-rele ... ico ill.... ,,-as tru>M.o mt by a"".n.. farme •. P.-.sad · In .... la.cd· this knowledgt .bonl tM effcclinMSS of nunurt into ttntl. ~ui,.. lenl to I...... em_ p\QyW to ~pt.oin the po1cncy oi nitrogeno .... chemical fertilizeT5, He claimed Ihat it ...-as Ihe nltmgen in m;'"un: thaI mad. it eff«tI",,: how .1.. could mt<: ""pbl" il5 SI. ... ngthming im""ctl)n 'M solll But Prasad did nm.hink .hI •• he pmpcny of . Iowly ... Itasing Its he •• ""'. tht only thing , hal mad. CQw dung nunure .so . ffect;'· •. 11 did ."" .. thing d .., It madt the land soh Ind fenile. which chemlcal ltruliz .... for an their pottncy. " 'ert unable to do. It " .., f", th;" rta..,n dtat. although chemi_ col fenilite.. failed to be usdu! in such circum"an<xs. manun: could be u5cd 10 nuke ",'tn ,,-asttland l""nj~r ~""""'J fenile. The diff.... ne. betwun the sudd.n rei .... of!>ell displayed by chern-

lal f.niliItTSlnd 1M -rr«uoi monu,.. "'25 gI~.n a diff.,..nl.mp/'ouis by Ram Singh and Ind.. Singh , "·00 COnIT1l5tN. 1M Kal stKllllh ;m· P'",ud 10 lho: 5O11 by monuK wilh Ih ..... ddoon KI....s- of .nagy provided by ch""lal fcniliu. (thei. commm ... a •• JlfHC'ntN. in SK'''' d ... illn 1M Introduction). Despit. tM perception thaI monu,.. t..""filcd land q""Uty In tho: long I.rm . I, was nol appllcd In tit. n«ty wllI .. t and product cow dUIli .... hich ... ould go back InlO tM b rm. Now 0"" can\ g<'t mough manu,..," iltt,,"UJl my first u tended field trip in 1984 and the tlme: 01 our conversation in 1991. lhe number oI ..nlc: had grown dramallally. tlurnks to. conctned dfon by the .latC 10 il\Cl'HOOt milk I nd ch~ production lor the major rmtropolI.os around Ali"" •. The govemrmnlllabtl lor Ihls development program. Inlended to) .mula .. tlw: ' succcss" of tit. gr«n rtvolUlion. " 'OS "the white KYOIUllon." For SOme ".50n.lhe visible inc .. _ in lhe total population 01 c;tult was not Icknowlcdgnl by ..... ny farmcos. When t1w:y spoIInlt lW,ai"s. &""yl, Ph 'M on t~ matt ... t~y we,.. 1I...ly to acknowlcdg<' th,u the number of cottle had go"" up, But they quickly add.d tlt:lt the additional <>Inle could t\OI mett the incTUKd demand for manU,.. IIt:II fcn~ mon: Inlensive culh'... tion. The following conv.... tion with Ram Singh and h;s $On demonstrates this point ""nlcula.ly clta.ly. AG: Vou _an. an: lhen: loss caltle now than bcfo.c1 lndc:r SinEh: T~n: Irt mart thon btfort. But th. production lof fO<>,... Ea.lier. what","", the le...,1of productionl Ram Singh: We c;tn·t rna'" enough Imln u,..] for .11 our fannilll, only one plOt c;tn bt provided for.

In.,k. Singh: 0"" O. two ploLS art fill..!. But It Is not ,ha, all fipk prrl.. to uSt It 10' Iud.· Pr.LSad drew "n his knowlwge the'" we'" 5uc«$$lul gobo. g.os planLS operating in ntam,' di.... irts (ahllOugh ,hen: wen: no ... in Alipu' or its adjoining villag",) to uoderline lha, Ahpu. was an ' ''' 'plion: "In ou r village i,ls used mon: 10. cooking.· These planl5, a1"'" lrom scntrating ""Iuablt _,hane go:< for rooking, had th. addilional advantage of leaving a highly cone.n· t"'t..! rtSid"" thaI Strv, d as an .xcellen' le"Ili' er, thus ",,,,,Ing ,he choice bet,,·..,.. coolr.ing and f.n ilizcr production, The Subeda. propos..! a diff.n:m apl. na'ion ror ,h. dttline or "'g.onlc manurr. In tho middle of • convelS:ollon abou'lhe USC of chemical I."iliztrs, Jsuggt:Sttd thatth ... wa. a t.... d amonglarmers in the Unl,w States '" s...·itch to orga nic inputs. Catching the impllca'io n, he laughed "'an lly bul expressed pessimism .t,he p.ospect ,,[ substitu,ing "",nurt lor chemical lenlhzercomple.. ly. When gobo. gas plants "-' ''' fi .... built in tho ''''',' nun,lx. 01 people had tll<m irutallcd.1"' . t1y btt.._ they we .. h",ily ~ubsidizw by tbe govomment. SuI aher. while. the plants "'~n: abandonw kauSt ,hcy "'.,,, consi
'0

,ho,

allribultd 1M lack of inl~'r$1 in gobar gas planrs snown ~ pwple In In. art. 10 In. lacl lhal Ihey had bo::oomt Iur aoo did 001 "'.. nl lodo Ihe "'' ''k and maintain .hes< planl$. lhal "'... ""luirr make il. Th;, "'as Ram Singh~ .'iew: "The... iSlhi< difft"'n« bc:lw«n manu"".nd Id><m leal renili:e.l. If <me "",kes manure in a pil. Ihen il takes Ipro.,.,nits l from diUu.nt dem<:nlS and bc:comc:s vcr)' good, Now n<> one does Ihi, . On~ should kav~ th~ knowl_ edge to do il: II Ih. la""",. putS s.oh in h . tlt.l. Tlru •. 0 ... had to go M)'Ond me .. lazi~. tile presence of machines. and ,h•• asy availablli,y 01 chemial fc:nilW:. 10 mwlersr.ooo "'hy manu .. was no longer USCtl •• 1_ though these ,"ClOlS may Indeed have bron responsible_ In lact. Ram Singh and his son wtlll lunhu and claimed th.t th. <.mry reason ",'by anyo ... tven carr
0.,.,.....

Ibm Singh: If Ihc:n:. ...... enough organic ' tnihzer In. all "ut (..ids. we wouldn\ tI,w:I> marke. renili:ct Inlsl,,""n ~"n"" I"yl . Indr. Singh: T htn no one would ge. market !feniliurl bee. u ... organk manurt makes good gas Id(h ... ga,I>a"""" dyl I in Ih. soill . I. waS undu. w me wh.ll><. Ram Singh and h;,; son usN Ihe English term "gas" b.olUS< tlley som<:how conneCted tho: I«;undi,y of manurt 10 gGba. gos (m.,ita",,) plants or .... h. IM. 'h~y had SOmt mort. sl"'<' lI;< and dlrt.Ct explanation fur ",by "gos" mad. land m<>n:. I.nil• . They .vilkmly f.1t strongly , ital "';ng ma.kel f.nihut ....., a ne.($Ory evil ..~tlt.<. than • < lam> M h.d lusal from hi. fatM' in 1~-8s: "Thl5 is ,I>< tif'St )'co ' tho: plot has ~" ...:J1..:uiti... ,ed . An outSide. wi!! n.,.",. PUI oop nk manUK : h. will onl)' uS<: chem ical I. n ili"" •. Once. ccnoin amOunt of ,be rnie.1 fenilize. Is JI'lt. if a small .. amount is p". subsequt ntl),; the: prod"", ion will k~OJI d.c",aslng_ If you PU' II>< sam. ''''''tlm of fenih ... 'If more, its output >S6 Posllolonlal DcwIQpm
will ",main Const.nl. Now. it ~ nOt posslhle lor m~ '0 pu, SO much d>cml(.lll /(nili.('t. _•. I've &0' 'he field 10. 'me yur. why should I put any org:mie m:muu 1- TIu, (,wn( ' of a lorm who I(.~ it lor . stu •• '" of ,h. t( y... ,.,; . isked losing it .n'iuly t>< Iu.d "'gul.rly coltl,.. IW lor th ..( y.ar,; or more . lIut even if" wen: possi hl. '0 1<:iS< a fann 'Q ,h( s.om( tenan' lor ,h... ycors. Som!,"1 d.. imed ,Iul"he tcnaltt would ne"e' u... ,nanu«. I ..... puzzled, would,,', it be to ,h. ten.nt~ .d,.. "t",. to .pply manu .. since ils dlcet lasted only three )'ursll1ut SomI"I n:plied ,Iul, the .. nant would first liSt ,I>< m.nure on his ","'n land, -Wl>cn it is insullic;" t\l fOT hi. ","'n I.nd , who "'in put m'nu", on .notlu,r~ prop" Cn)'?" The theme 01 •• hortage of man ure "'lIS thus Tt[>< .... y in .. ·1\;.,11 he 115N manu", . na me ly. th.t it was always applied first to ones own land as oppos«l to )and tlult Iu.d be.n rented. Tlult may h",. been dU<" to tl>< Ixlief that a b"",d ... nge of long.t<ml Ixne~" flowed from manu .. and ,hat using it did not .nu.'y inc ...... outpu, in the shon run. W!\a,.,-.. the ",asons gi"en by f.rm .... In Ahpur 10. the ' lack" of m.nu", . the fae' was .!\a •• hey had hec:ome ineTt.slngly dependen' <m .he II ... of chemical fen,lize". A. compared wi,h f,n kilogro m. pc. bigh> 01 dla tnmonium phosph .... or " ~P, . nd ton kilogroms pc. bigha 01 ur~. u5N ""rlier. farmers in '99'-9' U$ed 'en kilogroms per blgha t>f ooeh . I'ntsad poln,~d Out ,h.. one musu .. 01 ,h. inc ...... d u ... of fo" il· iz.. was that farmers Iu.d su tlcd fcnili.ing maiu. tradi. ionally a lowinput crop. t,,;«. H","~v", applying In.ihur in th€ ",Iny "'OSOn was a lfkky business: "When .he.. Is ex,t55 w.ter. uua disS<.>I.,cs in It and got. undernuth and docsn't give its Ittnefi" to tl>< crop. Jf I put uru . • nod the n It ",in. ",ally hard . it ",11 h.v. go .... to wa.te. Sui'll""" ,,"" pUI i, now. ,n.n if" doesn't roin fW whe., ou'pu, of nOi mO", ,!\an /iv•• o s ix m.ns p.. blgha obl . i""d ten '" fifteen l""'" .go "'i,h ,h~ pn:5<", w;as. chance that its Ittn.fits would be ,,!uandered. The "hance of r~;n occurring unprcdlctahl)' ..... p"nlrul ...ly high duro ing tho: rnon~ns. when maize was ha",.. tw. I'ntsad did not "I"'.t

.It"

lwo poillts mad. «ornt 1"''' of tht dis<:u~v. consdollsnt$S of Alipur~ fa"".". de5pi lt 1M;. shon h~toric.l uperitnco wilh Ih;, I«hnology: ank"la'..! lion Ihal cht mical f••_ tili ..... did oot give ,,,"aining "",ng,h ,h. soi l bul m<:>d. bUl if I pUlI<$. ,hen I won) gt' much . Tht ",ason is ,h., II>< "'",nglh of Iht land d«lin<S. It ""n', ge' wh., i, nttds: Th;" "'" cormb'mll1..! hy • man fr(lm tho: ntighborlng ~iUag< of Su ltm.npu •. who gave the txlm pl. of somtla"" usl produce as much as w..uland I"""jar bIwomi l, Tn. man f.1t ,Nt, ,t.. d«linc: in p.oductivi,y ""lOS caused by ,h. u'" of ,he new r." l1iHrs and se<:ds. Then: ,,-as. solu, ion to soil dtgnoWlion Ihough. "" Ideh "'''' to plan, ramls (a bo:.n . Do>licho» SI"t ",iS). " g.ttn feruliu •. • 110w it ,row Mighl 01 ,wo Ittl. and Ih.n 1'1000.' i, inlo Iht ground. Aft • • INt, . on. could us< Ih. n~w chtmical Icnlliurs wi,hou, lea ... o,h.rw;s,;. ' hey .... '" capable 01 compltldy dt$lro)'ing Iht soil. Tk<", ...."'. ho,.,.... ... . htma,;'·• • xpl.... 'ions for why I.rge. qu.n· ti,ies of chem lc.1 I.o ill«. W<:n': n« ..-sal)'. one of "'hich focuS«! on ,he quality of fe"ill.u ov. ilabk in Iht tlUr~l. Thi. was Iht Subtd..,~ vkw :

'0'

'0

'N'

'0

'0

"",."" ha,

'0'

We now hovt '0 pUI mort Itn iliu. '0 gtt tht ...1lK OUlpU' as 1>0.10"'. Th. rcason? F. n ili•• , is no, SO good . n)·mo",. A, firsl, al uminum sul fate ...as ..S«!. now you don) ..en Mat il~ nam. , I Iud maL.te in my 6dd .• boullwO lett high. atld it got w.ol< .loggtd once, I ... id. - p", aluminum sulf.tt : and Wt put i, .ighl in ,Iu; wa'cr. Instead of .uming )"ellow. tho, crop turned block . and il prod",..! Itally fltl cobs. Tlutl ftrlm.e. is no kmgn avail.blt. Now that . Mmical r.nilh ., has 10 he I'ut in la rger quan'i" es, the fac.o_ rics Mvt ,,,.....! che.ting. The)" I!a,.., inc ......d Iho p.ice . nd ",. duced ,he " .... Ii'y of 1M prodUCI. A. firso )'ou hod lJA'" which was n cc11.nt; nOW ,v
A< ,.,.~ sh.n p..".,nlly Stt. Ih~ Sllbtdar's suspicion of ....aclo'ies· "'..... founru,d on a fundanlcn">l opposilion inscribed in Ihc namco gh·en 10 chemi",,1 fenili%~<s. Thus h~ vi~w (>1 Ihe moiler "'-as ....,. idlos}"c""lic but dupl}" enmeshw " ;llIin lite calegorits in ,,·" k lt farmers made s<ns< of Ih,i, uS<" 01ch~m kallenih'ers. A ,,,mpleldy differenl ""plan~li"n I", Ih. tiUlS 1>«,,,,",, fa,ming sud. I...... wo uld not be fIOS'ible wilhoul Ih. aid nl la'll' '1""",ilits of irrigal ion .nd chem k al l.nilizcf"S. BUI Ihis <xplana,I.", appear< '" displac. , h~ problem of ..... h.. her chem ical fenilizcrs ....... Its<; effecliv,. fot olher larmers con· sistenl ly m.ln,.i...-.l (os. in .... d . did P......d al ",h.. momt nlS) llul ev.n pioos "i," fen il. land ... cd.d m"'" bo.xhcmicallnpulS INn bo, 10... Prasad, h",,·('Vcr. m3)' MVC boe,. '1uite right in su~ling .... hy agg .. g.le '1""nlilies. as ,,·.11 a. Ih •• ,.. ... g. intensily. of Imili zrr u'"" had gone UI" m..ginall and ,ha' had pn:viousl)· been 1.fl ""rn:n was ""'"', being broughl m>dcr C"lli" alion wilh lhe h.11' ch.mical f.nilizrrs. It is c1~ar from Ihe '''''em.'''s '1Uol«l in Ihis ,""cliO<1 llullh. ;n<:<eaSing uS< of ( h.mical f~rlili"rs. Ih~i' dttn:asing .rrecti "eM5S. and lack of monuTT. which ,,·os conside.. d ,uprrior in im.... "ing "TI"nglh 10 Ihe soli . all had ntgal l" e conS«ju.n<:<:s for bnd '1""lily. TIw:s<: effects COm · bl...-.l wi,h other cn .... nu in ' he ,'cry 'UrnS Ih. , lamtt<s u..... in ",fc" ring 10 man" .. and chemic.1 f.nilizc•. Man" .. "'" . called 'counlry ft.,lIi",·ldrsJ .""""1. 'cow dung knili«." Ig00.:.1 .1 .haod l. "wasIC k'liliu,' I~oodaJ .i U""dl. or ""meli,n .. ",n;mal k rt jliu:r'" I"">II.",, kl kllacod J. By c""'''''', biochemical fenill .... .... re .clerK
"r

.i

policies and urban m~n:hams. This conv~'X"ne~ 01 disCS lay~­ hiM I~ Suboiar~ anxi~l y abQm r~n lli:~r la,wries chul lng lannc<s by I""hl", low~""uali ly rnamial onto Ihem. On~ It.. land c.nnm do withoul ch~mlcal IUlilinr, I>e elaim«l , it bttomes possible lor 1M produccrs 01 fertilizers 10 -ine",. "" Ihc prlCt and tWa<:' Ihe qualily." Sim_ ilarly. Ram Singh's insislenc~ lhal hc would nol ~v~" Iu,.., I"",henied It.. n«cssi1y 01 pun:haslng Inputs. Whtn fa"""rs in Alipu. upr<:Uonymously to
So In. 1 ho"" deah wilh the impa<:1 "f crop I'(Ilalion. ,h~ cuh lvolion "f panicular cl'OJ'i'. ,, 00 feni!iur useon the quality of ,Ile ""n. I now ,u rn to tho: err.." of wttds " ' , mort accuralC, 'ht errCC15 of wtcding on lhe wil. Wh<:n 1did my fim round of fieldwork in ... Iipur in 1?S4-8j, almost no on< In Ihc '·illag~ us< numbt r of pwfIlc using Ihtm, iUliIl '""1)' low.

Hod ",.eds incr....d in th. I~,t f.w )'ens1 \\.he tiw:y
"".ttl.

Hocing docsn) rtmnvt I.... eedsl compl< Ik h.'pi l ",nn) 1"" ,h'o"gh I,. Earher. ninc or .. " ineltes u..d ,o",para te the lines ror ""wing. Now. I, is th .... or four inchcs.' ml)Sl.

Pra>ad o<pressed a pn:f~r.nc~ for herbidd. beca ~ ... unlik" "'eeding, il "'a s' mort radic.1 solulion, removing w"ed. compl
In lhe plOI. On. ol lh • ..,IUllonS 10 Ih~ ... mpanl growlh of ",~td, 10'", 10 plonl tkc<:§S "'M" ",td in Ih. pk.. and 5pac<' the TOWS cI~r log"t.e •. Unh~ the I... dilional WMOI ..... hlch nenlnl mort spa«: bet",,,,,n rows to grow. thiS waS a 51.llmgy Illal Ih. new, hi~h·yieldj ng "3ri" ties had ma..k po<sibl• . But 0 .... of II><: ronsooqu'''''<s uf SpotCing TOWS th",. ' J< f"". incll5 apa rt ..... Ih.t il made it moeh mot. difficult 10 us< the hand 1><><. 'hus fortlng f.rmers I" US( hem lcides. P ... sad\ enthusiosm ror h ..bi· cid<s ""as he .... dirtttl y conneclnl to the wid<sp,uJ uSC m high_ yk ldlng ,.. rictles. It is significa'" thai Prosad did not react fa'ol"ltbl)' to m )' suggeslion tilal the presence of ,,"e«is might be eKpbintd by lhe "he.l" pnwidnl b)' cMmi•• l re"lhz... He .-cjcclnl an exp lo",nl()fl baS«! In hum.,.,01 agronomy and inStead " S«! IM "English" calendar 10 make his cut. This is. good ..... mpl. mh(>W rannu s in Ali!",' somelimes expliCitly turned . ..... y from indigenous knowledges 10 justify lhei. ogn_ c"It"1'01 doc;"io" • . Other farm~rs I .poke 10 "'e,,, no I.... impI""",d by th. wo nderfu l ru:w -..,Iution-; however. 5
If Ih. ", arr weeds. Ihey a... mostly taken oul \\; Ih hoxing. W. can't uSC Iha, many medlcin"". W" don\ even know enough I. bout medidnes) . Some farmers kn"w lhow 10 US< mnlidnel. and 5 good. We h.,..,n' 1'111 tM medici.... the on.: that IMYsay bum s Ihe grass. d""ll"OyS it 1';"1"" d
~I

Ille pm~ time.llis "oic~ con~ycd hi! ,,·ondu. l.cttl ,,"illl skepticism. allhis n. w substanc. Ihot (QulJ sd«ti"dy kill weeds wil00lit -""nn_ ing"" the crop. H• • t"s,•• d 110.. "_ -didn) know enougll- .bout th.,.., ntw mftliClne5 and 110>1 hi' could oot .ven .. membor the ... me of tilt IIttbi_ cid~ d&ussed by other f."""IS. He tll,,,,fo,,, c"nunuttl to a~n the dl«ti,·.ncss 01 tr-.dltional forms of we.ding while u!""S§ing his won_ d., .. the n.... tecllnology. Not c"tryone. however, "'as con~i .. cttl of tile utility QI hctbidge m.,hod, and th.t of expcnsiv. mroidn ..... He emph:.slztd ,hat .p.n lrom hoeing th ... ",as -no o, her ",mttly fo' ..·.eds. Out he. oo .cknowledgtd thot thiS technique ...·ot kttl bost for , h~ who had .nough f.mily members to do th.labot·intensive "'o,k <:>f slu ing in the field and taking ou,e..,h ..·..d "'it h . ""nd hoe (I did not como:..,..,.., a single n.mple "f the use "f hi,ed I.bo, fot w~eding), Despite the lact that he h.d to do the farming on his 0"'" aTld had • difficult time ",.ttling his plot. I>e did not endorse th~ .... 01 hClblddcs, W~eding hy hand haJ nth .. bonefits. Sotish, "'hose plot lackight into , he ",I.. tionsll;p be· t"'.. n ""'edi"3 . nd irrigation . Pointing ' Q his pl()t. s..tish commented that ,h~", we", 1£5$ ..... tds On i, btto,,,.. ,h. soil " ·a. - poor.- By de6ni· tion, poor ."il is I..... condue,ve to.1I pl.n,s. including ",.eds. tIc 60Id that ",'rcding mad. a big diH~",nce In .1I0... ing him to ""t
uncatainty for him. Ihis was no sm;ol1 bene/il. "'pan from al1o"'ing tht crop to be grown "";th lown inputs. II made hIm a liuk 1cssdqoendent on lhe person from whom ht had to pun:ha$e water fo. hlscrop. The insight oIJered by S...1sh aboullhe ~J.,lion he....·etD WttdiDg and Inigotion could be rtvf:rsN for fa"""rs who o....n.d th.i. 0"'''' tube wdl. Beau.. fa""." _~ _tding toss. lhert ams< the diStinCt possibilily t"". irriga.lon was beiDg used as a 5ubstltut. fD' J.,oo._lo"nsi ... wetCCossity of herbicides and ~IaUy .boUl,h.i. cast. which may ""v. hlndcttd thei. mo .. "'i despread ..... Although ""0"" intcrvicwtd mentioned the tumingof the soil as one of.M bcndicioleff«tsof "'cflil", in the contutof the .... of "mtdici",,: it was raised In otherconlUts. In 'llSI1-9J I fratuently heard the comm(m I""t people no Ionge. bothe.-N to wttd wheal plots. pa._ tl.ally btta.... growing 1M hybrid ""ri.ti.,. in rows 100 clost togctru,. left no room to wield the hond hoc. The consequences of OOIlUrning the .0H """r for the productivity and "r<:ng,h of ,ru, SOil. how...... we .. rar<:1y tntntiontd. although they remained implicit in 1M d:ou.pproving tone UMd in moklng 5Ilch Sl&temtnts. In bringing the first section of this chopt .. to a conelw;ion, let mt rttIlpitulate the main points. J haVt txplo .. d the elTKts of crop$. Ctoppi", 1"'ltt rn5. fcnilizc<. and weeding praoctkes on the .11t",lb of ' he aoil. I have .ndeavored to pt<$CTlt bolh a range of position. on .... ry issue and to not. significant convergences. Indcfli. my ./Jon has be ... to underline, ralher ,hon explain .way. lhe contradictoly .... \u.lio'" and Iogi.,. employN hy Allpu<'s farmers In understanding how each of these factors ;nRuenc.,. tt.. qu.lity of the l.nd. My point ls thaI il is p.. ctsc:1y this mix of hyblidity. mlstra""J.,tlon. and incomm.nsurability that Ii<:'! .1 the htan of postcoloniol modemitks. ~ eager to discover systems of indigenous lcnowltdge h ..... too often. downplayed 1M .htOttl_

mua

ielll imporuonce 01 Ih.sc romradictions. Yt.. ~aSOn is lhotlny cffon to rcCOnslru(1 a "system" can accommodate conuadiction only wilhin an ovuan:hing unity, ",h( raillng 'strength" of th. ""iI.

,rd.,.

• .... "-.. ",c.. The fim pan of Ihis chapter dealt wilh ,he effects 01d iffere", laclors on land qUIHIy- The: Ot"". primary "c«:logiCII' oonc AHpur;n 1984-85. lhe ""'te' icV1:1 had dmppN 10 '''''ice its former deplh. I botgin b~ pr.scnling f.nnt'" P"'_ «p'ions and undersundlngs of the drop In the ,,-" '" ",ble 1C" d , P"'dictably, ont of 1M chi'" upl.nations Iht}' offered WlIS lhal of a lack of rainfall . 1 ne" t allemp1 lo snow how all understanding of the US<; of w.l~r is tied ' 0 1)'peS of Irrigation technology, Ihe cropping pallcm. and ,he in'ensi'y of cul'in,lon.

TM'....... _ .. . - .. v.. Al'ho: time of m)' most ... cent visit in 19')1- '» . the", ....s near un;m lmhr among rrsiden ... of Alipur liIa'lhe ",.,Ilu levclhad fallen d""nallaolly in Ihe II" decade or..,. I w" med 10 obtain Ihe pe,",pcc1ivr:s ol lhe fa ..... ,", I met on Ih.sc queslions: How much had Ihe ,,
w..~ 1M chid rnson:s fo, Ihis faU? Whal wouLd happ( fumttl [n Ihis oc<:tion, 1 uplott II>( first and lasl of lhese questions. Th~ olh.,. ~bs«tion:s of Ihis p;lrl of II>( chaplc, uplan: Ihc (","prfi~g c~plolll1' tion:s &i~n by farmers [n Alipur for why Il>(y thougbllbe level of Ihe "",Icr IlIblc had dropped. Compo.ring II>( dftclS alII>( n<'W v:lrk,i<s on land and wal ... dftt. on ""'I
II>( monlh of June, II>( crop doa: not ge, any ",,,cr. 001 'he othu oidc: . thc supply alclcctridlY is also low. When l""'lerl goes do"'.,. 'oo low, ,I>( pump""n\ pun It up. The pump .oo has a lim it. it ""n putt from a cCTta[n depth and Ih",,.. it up to a « .,..in ho:ighl . IWbcn you came earlicr]. Il>(n the ..... Icr suWI)' was good. Now evcn thc IUbo ....,n. can' pump il oul. Lasl ye.r. lhe ni"" "'-"" good, SO wc malll1gcd 10 get "",Icr. This summc:T, "'-" got ""'Icr, bUI it ....... not much. Now it is TJlining. 11 it continues .o n in hke Ihis. lhen II win Incrta~, thc level of "",ICT will comc up. P[dCnlly """ry<>nt is irrlgaling with pumpffi ..... 1<,. M.y.nd Junc ....c,. th~ drlesl 000 holiest months in the agricultunl yUT. 110:10'" tubo ",en. bttamc oommon in Alipur. almost no onc could Krow. crop du,;"" May and June ex«pt th .... who had plots adja«nl to Onc 01 thc vllLoge wells. 1 must conless lhal when I ho:ord PTasad blame lhe lowmng ol the WlI,r IlIblc enU",ly on a Lack ol rainfall. I "''as ""mcwhallncr.dulo"•. OUt PtHod "''IS by no ..... no I n cxccption . AI· m_ CV1:'Y"nc with ....hom I spokc had . simi!.. explanation. It is 'n>< tho, II>( p""'iom Ihrtt yea .. had ...,n • !>t,ioing down. If [I kepi .. [ning. Ih,n lhe Icvel would be high. Now ,hal tl>(,. .'" nun)'

tub<: ...~ll. all ""... , .... pl.e~, 1M'" cln be II<) .nonage of wal~r," For from blomins lube ,,'~11s lor lowering the gmundwatu k,"'l, RlIm Singh ",. v~rstd Ihe chain of co.u~lity. HadlMft ~n enough rain"'lIltr, lile luhf; .... ells could h;J\'e done the job of distributing il $p'lIially Ind lemponlly. BUI without nlnfall. 1M ".,lIe. I~el would kup dropping, The only pe1'5On who admiuw. a link btl"'«n lhe operalion of lube w(11s and 1M folling watn table level waS the Suhedat. But '"""" Itis uplanalion wlS qualified : "I T'" falling kvdl is due to the lack of rainfall and, of cou~, dll< to ,he opcnlion of lube .... elis. The wale' is pulltd QUI rap;dly. Now Ih. level 101 groundwatul can ti5< only if Ih...., is ra in. Tltat's why i. lusn\ '; ... n and It k«1" going d""'"I\." BUI how fa. hadlh. " 'ale. tM>1~ dropped? By seeing the oper;tlion of varioustubt well",nd lal king to peoplcabout h;md pumps. I had an ioka Ihal "-..t.,I.,,c1. had dcd i""d at rat.,; that I w(mld ... gard as prttipilou,. BUll "-:IS inlertSltd mo ... in lhe "..,upfloru of the dedine .mong farmers in Alipu •. Ck. rl)', gi'".n Ih.i. imprtSSion lhal il was linkcUIN il to the fact 11I011h. rrgion had passed through" r.w dry )"'ars. Pns.ad uplained JUSI h"",· much vcmmcnt lhat u~. _ dy mo,-e (ompl ic.,N 1«lInology 10 pull wal • • from a <.kpln of one hundred f.~1 or mo",. Whc",as the old design "';os One Ihal «m Id be "'pol.-.:d by I'co,,1e in the vllbg<:, the new one depcndtd Oil Ih< inte"'tnliOll of cxpcn m..,h.ni"" from Ih. block offi", .... .-by, ConS<'1l1
,,-..1<.

ans_", I fUtl,·N. lOOk mt rompltlely by surprlsc btcau ... 01 1M mau ...~-r""'l aUhudt aOOpled by farm.", 10 th. possible: demi ... of awk .. hu~ in It\( .~ • . As ""fly as my 6nt mp. In I~. I m.n from a ntl,hborin& ¥Ilia", had lold IDt lhal II>. hl,h yKJds being obtained by I"" MW vanc:tlc:s would nO! Ia&!. The: entire "rei ...ould 5<XKl be Convtned ' 0 I ~n as Iht ..."Ucr In lhe: ground was dryinl up. In 1992 I asked P~, rd~ning lO the txperien« oIlh. lUi decad •. "If I"" wIner 1e>1:1 continues 10 drop in (his fashion. wha, will happen I" farmi", In 6~ M U:n ), hue. 11 will cost 1101: of mOM Y10 di, . had nO Id .. ...·h.'" Ihe canal wa,.r would co ..... from. I asbd the Suboed.o.. I .I mlb. q...,;lion: Whal W9U1d II'Iq do if lhe: ground ..... t•• Icvcl kepi dropping as quickly IS il had In ,"" p;tsl few y<:arsl He ~ndcd in this mann<:r: "Whal will happtn. fllmli", Is soin, to collal'"'" I IIIap Mnay wooli ""I ~ I; .... h.'" will lhe: wal.' COlD¢ from! i£!here i5n't t"""gIl '" drink. whe", willihe ......I.r for flnnl", C some ""he:me to g.. drinltlng "",u:r." I dldn\ know If th. Subeda.'5 Lauahler Indiomd htl~ or rrsignolion or "";oS th~ lau,h 01SOmeO'" .... ho suddenly .... Iius the o~, of a calamily. If fUlur. rainfol\ proved inadequatt and t"" Wiler level dropped 10 a poinl .1 which farming couLd no 10",... be .ustalncd. lhe ,ov.;mmcnl was upcctcd 10 inle~n •• nd tttlify ,"" silualion. But poo< rainf.ll ""'. nol It.. only cau ... 10. Ih. dmpping waU:. tabl.le",,1. A. t 1.lked 10 Ihc:sc l.rmC15 in grtal.' de,.il, IIll>c:r uplanalions cmcoged .

'0

......... 10,'.

I ', , _ _ _ _ _

Prtdkuobly. all !he fanners I inlerviewed saw lhe od>-.nl of lube w.lls as a I>(ghly significant cpiso
The fi rst tube ...-011_ sunk and ",n by the government and depended on I"" llllian,nlen of ",rol dtclrk ltnes. The Subeda. I'tcollttttd how l• • 11 bcpn when I asked him abl!Ultm, firsl IUbc wdl in tht area: the -ru",l li",,- [hen: IhI: Subcd.a. usW Ihe English wun;\!;! s toned , Ih~ gov. uS th. g~mment tube ",oil. Oncr'M Ii"" was lll5lOlIcd, Ih.n ptiv:ll. lUbe w.lls bepn IOlpt"uingl. Tbe people from Ihe ol:lle sanclioned lbe: privott on"" ai mOSI undtr th. m, ""ar Ihm>, SO Ih. state tube ...·.lIsl:ln.d being less lsuccessfu ll . Farmers n.e>,by jUo,ttd \.Oklng ks5 ..... I
As w. sa' and tolkcd. m:lny ycal"l .h.. Ih. fact. lhe Subcda. could a!fortl to bugh as m, rraol1cd tm, Slruggl<5 he hid had to .ooun: 10 ~l:In h .. own tube ,... n. H. expl(Js .. 1 surprise ,hal lhe: lrrigation depanmenl that managed ,he SUte tube wd l would unveTed th.t il "'as cheapt. and mon: rtllable '0 ~ink one for lhelllS(lvts. The Subeda. atulhuted his Olwn pioneering role 10 fam· ily p ..... urtS and h .. ove....as upeticncc: Thal~

It, l was .!so th. fItS! IOl put. tube well. I Cam. b;.ck from the

milital'}l My £amily ..... sn) giving me land. lhey wertn) giving me I hollS< eith ••. r Th~ told me.! -G.t out of h.n:. go .nyw...... you like. - I soid Ito m)'Stlf l: I ha,·. bttn sonetioncd. lXnslon Olf d ...·.n rupees, my in·laws artn' rich enough to support my ramily. and I have 'hr« ( hild ... n. Wh.... ",'iUl,.kc thomllt was difficult. r too wa> not . bl. 10 do things "" m)' own b«::iusc my ltgs w(", usclcs.s. Then I .g.~ 10 tak. what lillIe land m)' f.mily g.&,·c m•. Now then: waS nn pro'·"ion for waU. on it. Then I thought hard Ind ""-Id . "!lIIaI. in As.syri. th. unh throws " .. I• • room below in pi~. from ~ Iwdl) bQring.-" was n~

SU rt t had hurd (o .. tcdy. "'\Vhe.d In AusI",lilI.l- Wilhout misslng a bea•. he continued. "In A ~"",lia , Th. water comos from below." r " "os g.n ~il\Cly puulcd. "How do )'0\1 know .bout Aust",lIa1" He laugbed at my prtSumption : "Why wouldn~ I knowl So I lhought hard. I told myself. wh.the. it works or n<Jt. l shoukl moke amo.nge·

"""nlll for watu. So I 6,,11 oOOwN. il "·as r-slb[" with a boring for a hand pump. At twenty-four. water came out. At twenty·fou, hand.that means .t lhiny-six f«t." 11t( Story of tN: SubWat\ struggle to Sink lilt boring and oJIUI,c 1M first tuM well is a fascinating O!\c. TM ... were nu"",rous r.lse Stans. and Ilt had to endu ... the jealousy of OIN:' villagers. ThI: eITons to sabo ...,. , Ilt pro;CCI ",v<:al ,hat a privatdy ownN. tuN: ,,·ell ..-as pen::c1vN. 10 hi: a Ihreat, although it was undHJ .. ho was saboUtging it and what kind of ,h .... th constituted. 11 signal«l lhe rearrange .... nt of If:lations of production and prophlslN. thl: M gi" . " ing of . PJ~ of wcial diITcrenllaUon ba$N. not as much on land ownership as on ClIpital investmenl . When the Suhcd,,, .tancd his boring. """e of 1M equipmenl for it could hie obl.:tinN. in the nnrby marke. town. To obtain. If:flu nlve. hi: h..d 10 go an the ..... y to !kIhi. The boring." simple hole in thl: ground that ,,-as open to tilt element •• was ",It uposal in his obsc""e . When ht came back, he found lhal tilt boring had been filled wilh liltle pebbles and sand. When he lried ." remov<: the pebbles. they did no. come 0<11. Thtn ht discovered that the ... "",rc two..,...\1 stic .... at lh.c bottom , clOSoSCd together and ti'!d with a Ius¢ wi .... The pebbles had b«n heaped on top (If Ihl. contraption. It was de ... that this was not an ottidcn •. Som«lr>e: h..d delibe .... tdy t ried lo].am IN: boring §O that il could not hie used. ~ite clearing it as much as possible. that boring did nOi yield any waler. Th. m«hanic who was responsible for the boring d«ided it would hie best.o abondon .h •• One and btgin artCW. So they staned digging a. anoth • • pI.~. This tl"",. they hit wa", at twenty-two hands instead of twenty.four. The Subtdar ' hought to hl"""lf. is on my sid<:.- TN: mechanic had 0 ... long pipe of approximalely t,,·.nty fttt and a""'h.c, piece thaI was much .mallu. He Insen«l the . man piece unc: decided that It might be bell.. to put the longer pip< un
pri'"''

"F.,.

hom~:

0"" of his ... h·es ...~ In ~rious trouble, He asked lakhanpal. w!.o hadlx<:n t",l ning to Ix a mcchonl<:. to guoni tlK . ulx ...·dL t.okhan. pal assum! him lilal nothing would llapptn to it 'When Ihe Subcdar gol home. he diD duing1" "NO.hlng: l2me .h. nonchallnt "'ply. "I "'" iU'it chtckinX ilS sp«d: So much ""00 Iud Ix<:n pumped oul in an hour thall h. cnti", plOI was while. AI first. lhe Subedar relt .hat misfortune _ assailing him rrum In sldt$. bul when h. disco...."'" lhol no damog. had !>Mn do"" to Ih. motor, h. con· cluded thai fortune "'OS lruly " itk him. The Subedat'S namui .... , with lIS plo.line of eventual utumpk OV'(r Idversity, stOpp"d wi. h the instillation of tM tlllx ,,·.n. Th il: is imporu m to note: h. did not talk .!.oulth. bt ....jili, agricuhural or finan.cial. tho. /lo....ed from tke .uc~ul Op""'lion of his . ube: welL Tile narr;o.iv. SlOpped. not ""ith an Image of the bumpu 1\''''"(5' Ihll en.wcd but with th~ succ,"", of t'" instillation itself. Tluo arrh .. l of th • .,.,. of the tubt "" en was thus . marked momenl. From that time on. agricultural practien in the vin~e "..,re permanently altemi. from cropping pattc"", to labor requi"'ments. Of cou<s<. Ih. Sial. tub< well Initiated SOme of lhOSt chlngt$. Bu. bulU.., owntf'Ship of the Stale lUbo: well w.lS not in the hands of Iny 0 ... p"'rson .nd b<eau.., a lar~ number of pwpk sha"'" its ""I
.1Ia.

"*n«.

Implicil ;n Ihc Sui>edar'5. 5WI'y is 1M puml5o: lhallM lubt ....ell . ..... a bmdicillicchnology. Not ev.ryI,,: olh., hand. ,he ""pital COIi\.'l entaIled In buying diesel pump s..IJI prcv<:med lhoei. CIIlploym.m solely as a I»ckup. 11 was Ihis dependence On dttlri(ily Ihal N•• rpal Sinsi' d.r<:riflI: Talklng of the 'cum:n,: whoen lMy don\ give il. tha, 6t1d dotSn\ gtt Wiler. Thq never give it. tM governm.nt gives .ltttridty whc:ncvn il wlslKs. TI>c gov.rnment ownS It and decides whal It .... n\.'l. Now. whom docso,," go and ... H Nobody fe.1s fot anyont .bo:. 11 is.11 in the hands of the "",unmenl. Someti""" ;1 ..,00 • • leclricily. Whenever il ",ishes. il sends .lectricity. Ev.rythlng Is in lIS hands. waltr. tI «I ...... for ,h. farmer. is all in ItS hands. Earhu It _ 0\ lilt.. thh. Eariier. It was individually own.d .. . . w. sank • _II and uocd bullocks 10 draw ....1••. You could iniplc Iwo bighas Or four bighas.... The wheal produced was SO much . Iha' with four bullocks, you could prod uce o n. hundrM rna ... or fifty mans. Now the wheal Is mw:h ,,·eak. r. Ntcrpo.l Singh ouggesl.ed lhal despile bting abl. 10 iniple only a few bigltas of bod with the older teChnology. farmers _r<: C(lmp<'lIS"-lM by much higher yi.lds than ,hey obtait>cd in Ih. presenl. Wilh the omc:1of It.. ne:w lechnology. he Implied. Ihey had lost much autonomy. Ev.ry' Ihlng that 1M fanner needed _ no .. in Ike 1..",<1:. of on un""'pomive govcmmcnt .... hlch did things ocC(lrdlng to itS ()"A.·n whims and was 1101 ao:c:ountablt to farm.rs. It """ for Ih .. r<:ason lhal N..,rpal Singh C(lm_ ploincd lhal"nobody f..,1s for . nyone ebo:.· TI>c "nobody' 10 whom ke was referring w"", SIlltl: offio:ials In ~harg<: of ,he various Sf:"'iccs nttdcd by flrmers. In addition lo....-vmg .. the chief fOUrc. of com ploinlS .mong .gricII!turislS. lhe l.ac:k of reliablil,y In Ih. supply of el""uicjly helped de,U· mine: 1M "'" of WIlt< ~urc ... in a nllmbcr of ways. Tt.. infrft/uenl supply of dttllidly limited 1M amOllnl of waler 1n.1 cou ld he pumped

oul of 1M g,,,,,,,d. TM, " .... !",nly a consequence 01 Ihe s)'Stem of billing. Based on Ihe sin of 1M m<>Io< Installed In tM;' rube well. farmers had to!"'y a fiKed amount pt. month for c1«Ui,;ly. The.don:. if ~!«tric supply wa.. pl~nlilul. larm~rs me.dy pumped oUI mon: ....... Ier b«a u5O' 1M addilional ,,,",I 01 pumping out ground ..... l.,. _ OStnlially zero. For 1M olcclriclly department . cntin:ly owned and operated by the Ultlr Pradesh Slale g<:Iv~rnmen •. Ihis also me.nlllta' lhty w~n: o!:>t.in. iog loss n:venuc ptr unil tlum IMY would if Ihey IImiltd lbesupply 01 e!«tridty. So the only ..... y "f "'gulaling .he prlet "f dtt. rici.y " .... 10 conlrol l~ $uppl)" This had "",eral uninleOOtd. con~""nCts for the US<: of gmund""ter and lor "'1'1101 1,\\"<;5t"",ol. SOme 01 which arc brought oul "cry clearly in . Com"",nt made by Rom Sin&h in Tnpous<: we had SO much land. So.l1 Our work was don. with on. rube well. AI Ih.1 dm~. th~ eltttri(: supply ....... also very good. Then we .... M.d gming!no el«lririly. When ..... first installed tM tube ....<:11, uSo
w.

Ita'·e. Al fi"'t tho:y had put a mos< houlS. Funh(rmon:, ~i~cc: a LUbe ..... 11 n:l""t:S"'nttd a very substantial ClIpital inve;tm.nl. thl: "'pilat in" v<;5tnu::nt pe.un;, uf Irrigated an:a muhipli.td manyfold wilhout a «me.

Spo""ing inc..,OSl' in produclivi.y. Th, agg.r
pri"""

uccss .....' Is bring pum~ in sonu: places an.d ,h • .., is a "'ason for it. Earb... the.., ..... .., only a few tubr well •. just one or t""o. Now, ,he Ilnditio",d l ,,"ells • .., lying empty. Why af, ,hey cmpty? Because tube wells are pulling the wate, aWlO)' Too many ",bit wells have IIftn sun k. Each plact has two lube ....,ll•. 11\ lik. ,hi •• that if the ... a.., ....0 bro.hers. 0"" of ch.m pUIS it h • .., . n.d th. oth.. th..., Iindicatlng adjacent spot. on ,he ground J. They pull ..ch olh.. ~ water SO lhat ilone of lhem ,,·o.ks. 'ht 0'00 one . hul$ ck>wn. and if . he o,her Ont .... orks. 'htn this 0"" !hulS down. I... u.d.,... Insid. the villag. , ,hCK a.., thT« working hub. ,,·eU.]. JWhfn J one of Ihtm works, the ocher 1" '0 connot b. OJ'!'Illtcd. The ,hr« lubr .... Ils 'n,ld. Ih. village ..,1...0 chose on the boundolies of .he scultmtn. and t\OI. '0 ,1>0 number of ,ubit ",..11. on village farml.nd. AU,hre. "",re 10Cl,ed at one end of th. scttlement. scpo"ued from one another by. dislanct ol lpproxlmalcly fifty yards. When \ 6" t w,nt to Allpur in 1!i84. they cou ld be opcnt«l simuhanwusly without .ny

Bu, . by '9'9~. th~ ..... ter ",bl~ had r..1I~n '0 such an u ,en"ha, , his ... as no Iongu ,i>( C:115t. Explanalions about , .... drop in the WlI.,. ",bk 'hus dmv<:( well. in 'u rn, was pa n of an cffoo, '0 "moouniz.- agriculturc and b«.mc possibl. on ly " 'it b , .... ill5U II" ion 01 .ketrle lind. Th. "d..:trHiation" of rural arca" (1 am hen: using official govcrnmen"Cfminology) w;tS. and continues to be . ,h. benchmark of I "modtrn" nation·.IO 'C. Ad~erti5tmcms by , to,e go~.rnm.n{) proclliming ' .... ir SUCct50 in "dc,·.lopmem" rarcl)' f.il<:
,h.

c"" ..

I_,•.t ... a"

In. _ _ _ _ 1nI-' 01 .... "1,,. How did ch.nges in what " .,." gro ...n and .he manner In ",·hich it was grown affccllh. USC of gmund""'e.? Ckl ,ly. d ..... ic chong"" had nc-

Cllrrtd in cropping palltm'i and cropping intensity in the laSl t,,·o de· <:ados. For example, sinc~ 111M ...ells "'ere fim Introduced into Ali· pur. new ..... rkllo:s of W",,"I had completely "'pbcN traditional d.,;i wbeat. With tlot encoungtmtnt provided by suppon prices. farmeos had . lInN cu!tivatlng .lIgalane as I>CV<:r befo .. , Not surprisingly. new typos of crops~ .. acwmp.mic(l by altered pouc"" of land usc . Double cropping had «Come the nonn. Some f.nneos anempted to obtain three or,..,.,n rOUT crops in an agricultural ~r, a pan.. n of cuiti'''tion that would ct.lIlnly not have bun posIiible "it""'" a ",gular and de· pcndoble source of irrigation, As compared with the elabonte dis<:oul"St suTTOllndlnglond quaUt)\ whal f. rme .. had 10 Idl 1m aooul the us. of ground"""u ""as decidedly .ktlck), Whal lillie thq had 10 soy 'OOllt 1M ",lotionship bct" 'ecn the decline of groundwatu. tho: kind< of crops grown. and th¢ In tensity of cultivation displayed far . h.rper disagru· """,t than did tht .lItem.,," .boul load qu.lily pn:s.nted In lhe first K<:1;on of Ihls chapler. Farme., noled thaI tUM ,,'elb e""bled them 10 extend dnunaticall), the: area undu cUh lv:ttion IS oftcn as Iltty rema.Ud on Ihe Imponanc. of tube """llJ In extending 1M growing season. I was lOki that lniga tlng wilh the lealh .. tn .. ha" fiTS! began. The ..hats (supplied enough "",ter! 10 enable tM fields to bt plowed. Only • lillie bit of fanning """ possible wilh il. An the fields could not be filled. TI>cy remained unirrigated (p<>dW
erli)l1gh to 'he govt:mment ,ubt wen alsQ managN to gt. some Irrip • • iQn. II.II ,Mt was iUSt <""ugh 10 ekt QUI a living. Dopi" ~ing I lot of Lond. they did no. prodlKe a ~urplu$ [rom it unllltMy 5t>nN irrigating by ,uhe: ,,·ells." Tubt wells we", probably (ven mo,.. tmponant for 1I;,,..lng "-,,t.nded the growing ..a""", Earli ... mo:st of th. land could bt used to grow only on. crop. NQW.• ubt wen •• nablN almos' all ,he land '0 bt double ~ropprd. Ram Singh explaiMd: The mortSQQn ~rop. ,ha, which a:>u\d bo: grown from the .. ins. was the onl~ crop "'hieh grtW, The rt:St "'" ldt uIKfO!I!l'<"'I lasMdii . Now, each farm is taking two crop'. The moistu,.. of th. Bins did """ las!. !f it ..inW a !inl. bit ,he crop would sprout som• ...,w. and it would prog~ a bi. , bu. ml>mrol by pl""';ng 1.00"" mai" /W, day jy(}/. k"yl wuuld ,.. ... in molstu,... G.. in was sown the,... But we (ouldn~ cuhi,.." , nth. land. Due to ,"" .monge"",n, of ..... teT from tl>< wdl . , , only a liule land cQUId bt usN . All the land (ouldn~ bt farmN. 11 allo ...,.d produc. ion only for one ......n 1<1",,,...; 1, AU this ( hanged with tubt w.lls, h then became mort conv.nlen, . Now. w:I.lCf reaches (\"(:1)' field. ! ..'onderW .bouttnc d.gree to "'hieh , he rail in ground-A...., level (ould bt all,ibmw '0 the v.'cns!on of cul.!,.. tion and !>ow much of It was due to th. kirid. of crops btinggrown, ',\,'a.lh. falling wat.. k-vcllo bt explained by ,I>< fact tlla, mOrt bnd "'.. s being irrigated now) And th.atthu land "'as !:>ting cullivated for a,ieas, two staSOns .. ther .han one I Or ..... It due '0 the gTQ\O-·, h in "''''age dC\'o"d '0 sugart.ne and to Il!gh.yil:lding ""ri'ion. The combination of .ui)( _!15 and hand JI'Imps Id. V1 by (mps ,ha, "",u;,.. more iTt"iphon bu. by the incrnse in ,I>< cultivated arca. Uis view ",-..s _onded by r "'sad . .... t.o also felt thaI .h. dccrea.
'1''' '

".,.. .Ito••

,wo

.ha.

irrlp.ion. I poim<:d ou •• o nim barley 1j<Jn 1, for uampl~. I"tqul..,d. lot ~ ......,.han wna'. Bu. ~ was no' eon,,;nc<:d: "A 10' of jon is bting sown ~...,n now. Bm ... htn .n"",,, no w".~r .• ~.., .... oni bt ~nougb even fOTjon. Ilf lhe """""nl of ""tic' dec..,asesl .• h.n ~·en kso om boo u$<: save .....10' was limhed by .he (;w: •• h., .hty ........ alrtady culti ..... <:d quh. ut.nslv.ly. All ",molnlng cr0p5 ..,_ quired roughly ftIual amoonts of inil!:. lion; henc •. cha",ing .h. crop mix would do little 10 save ""'lOT. Prasad emphasi.<:d ,h,u '0 conserve 'NIter. on<: rould always Irrig.l.e such crops IS suga""'''' less. BUI. he pol n.<:d out. .he mo.. l im~ i. " ... irriga.M, .h. be"er .he ri"1ds ....... It ,.-as ,he same for eTOps like wh,.. •. Wlter~ .• h...do... de.,.nd<:d less on the crop than on ,"" okcisions mack b)' 'M f.rmer abou' lrrig:lllon (irriga'ion decisions. In 'u,n . ltoomp;tnl<:d chok es .bou. Ih. quan.i.), of r.rtlltur. the numbu of ....... Ings. arod SO fon h), Corrda. lng " ... ,eT uSO: .0 ,he crop. ,herefore. _ a kind of shorthand .ha. byp.osscd ,he oomplu <:akulallons aCtually wen. In.o .he USC of wa' OI.be. ,""ult '" utending ."" Irriga.td a"", was that poo..,r-quali.y l.nd ""'. btin, b.ough. inl(> cuith"" io n. (Th. comcqu. nces of ,his fact lor ""n qu.lity already bMn cxplOKd in .h. firs. part or .h;,; ehapo teT.) I ,,"Ishtd '0 find ou, if pooo-·qulli,y I;ond """dM more "",.et in addition ' 0 1;01'1" quanti, i" '" ren iliur. 5o, ;,;h .old m. hi'< field was "cold" Ind ,ha, he had I(> irriga •• I, mo .. frequen. ly .han normal." I asktd. him .... hy, if.h< field " .... "cold: il n.td<:d mo.." .. ,he •• han 1.... irriga.ion . He replied:

.ho.

.nat,

Ita...,

,Ita,

Fen ile (..... malhl I,md S,am drying from ,h. bonom. I, appc:ars ." be """I on 'op, bu. If you dig It, it is Ibsolmuydry: Thls lpointlng.o his plotl land is dry on top. bu. if you dig h . you will find it absolu.ely "..,. 114t!. TIltre is nolhing wrong .... th 'Ilt land , All i. lacks is WO',T. Th. O00, ""', ••. good land an go for , ,,'en.y-fiv. days, Bu • •1tt ou.put .... i1l IIt.Ilt ... tnt if you PUt wa.er.n ,his plot .,'.ry .. n da)"l and. In .h. o.h ... land, every .wOnly or ,wenly-liv. days. Only irriga.ion .~ .,.nso:s will lit higlw:t. , hors aiL

.ha.

Crops. such as whea, . •hat llav ••hallow roou a", obYiollsly btu •• suittd I(> land "'hich retains moislu.., O
"(<)Id" plot that h' ,,"'s c-uhi.... tlng ... ould n,td twice as mIlCh ........ , 1<) obuin a< good • yitld IS r,nil, land. S.t;sh~ o~"",tlon Ihlt poor.qu .lity land rtquim:! hight!" inputs of imgatinn b..:omes mO", signifi<1lnl ln light of Statcmcnts qoottd c •• lieT aOOut the <xtonsion of ( uhi .... tion. On. of tltt impo ..... nl poInts mad, .!>out tho lnc"",~ in a culli .... ltd . .. a was lhal il mabltd p<><>Tn-q".lIly land< 10 M f.nntd. If Satish ,..ti righl. land, ...·ilh poo ... soil ,""ui m:! more irrigalion lho n did hlgh-qualilY land W yield. gi"m I~el of <)Ulput. Th us. incre,",ing the cu hiyOltd . ru , .. uhtd in I more Ih.n propo"io ... l i"",," st in Ih, u .. of ground ...... ICT ..sour«:i. My a"<mpt tt, undu stand I',,"s;mt PC"'''I''wns of tlu: d«1i'" in grouoo"""cr . 00 thei. .... pl .... ti""" fm Ihi. Mclino have ,hus broughl a numM' cl considc"'lkm, inw focus. These oxplan.otl',"s havo cOmbintd in ..... ious ......ys , Itt txtcmi,," of cul. i.... tion 10 t>(w 0..,",. the inc ..... in ,he intensily of cuhi .... tion 10 Iwo or thru crops • )'nt •• I nd Ih. culti''''lion of poo. -quatilYla nd. Foflllers ""ere much Ir:ss oon"r>«d lhal Ihe crop mi x 0. Ihe cuhi''''lion of hlgh-yiclding , ... tictles was tl:sponslhk fo r tI,,: sharp drop In ground ........ .. Tubt " 'ens Wetl: "..,tcomtd beco.u.. ,t..y mId. il pos.siblo . .....:n COfIV<:nltnl . 10 gro .... st,·.",1 crops on • la rgeT culth"'led ITO ,hal inch>dtd fields with poor soIl. Alth' som, tltn( . the uc=iv, pumpingof ...... te. made ntccssary by muhipl. crops. large: cu l'i .... 'td . 1US. • nd poor soli WIS held to M an Impon.n •• tUOn for tIM: d.clln<:<)f tM """cr Llbleltv,l, T he ..rut: pme"""",, lhal afftcltd land qUIll,)· and ...... Ier ..soU'"". or, mo.. gone ... lly; Ih. health of ,h. cnvironmcnt •• Iso h.d an impacl on the health "f humans. The n<xt s«tion .xpl,,~ S<>me oJ these ",Ia,ions.

HI

.I"'_",.~_"'I[_"L,,"L"

The (,ological understandings ad"al'b!;td by f.flIlcfl; In A1Ipur Mpcndtd on "'!>sIan';.·... inl<rpn:talions of phcnomona ill which propeno.:.. and not men:ly dcmmtS. wen: J'lSS
ehe YO"'. He concluded hi. narneh·e by emphasizing eM role of wac •• in CM constltutlon of lilt body. Al thaI time. 1 was u""wa ... ofSuTtSlls Incllllllion to altribute ocriptunll orlgins for hi. pronounccm~n~. H~ attributed this insighl CO lord Krish"", "'NaleT createS food. aoo food (mittS ttl( body" IJaIS$lcal notion thaI nttdcd no upla"". tion in Alipur. Tht idt. is not m=ly thaI waIn is n«essary for tM production 01 grain bm that It ls constltutiv. 01 It. B4n1adi,Jnl .nd .hus promo«: good heallh. BttaIl5< fruit could also be calen hke • ,-.:gelabl. by .... ling .nd cooking h. It has a laSle slmil.T CO lhal of okn and ,,-as consldtred I dtlicious vcgctablt. One ""rkty of I><mp. called f'<1l ·.I<.t growtt with chemical Imi1iun did nol p< He"" .he qualieles of lTadi.lonal ,·amtles. Tbtso: qualities or pmpcniC$ ..... re up'u"d In lenns of Its pU rllY. ..... Wne:l5, "'"", sIrength-giving nature .• nd ..,ftnfM. (An exe.ndcd example of these hc:Hd.1s given in the Introductinn.) A (nnv ...... lion In

"""1<1

,n.

1991 w;lh a gro"p 01 moslly 10w-C;ISle jallOv mtn who well: (ommenllng on lhe changc In dicllOI)' ,,""cms broughl O\Illhrse bo::lids qulle clearly. u . hcr. whcn pcople >OW1:d ",hcal. Ihoy d;,Jn) apply lertiltu •. thoy didn) apply chemical fenili.e •. They uS«! U) apply m.nuIl:. ThaI grain ~ pUll:.• nd chk kpcas. pc.s. whul .• nd jon _rt to,.n. WIl: was ooth ing hcal·producing in Irn.s., grains. Chkkpeaswhe.t rotls help purily the blood and dunst the siomach l4the""" ~hoon ""MaW!)' ~,.r 1"')1 ~I 5CS III )"u, SI(m1och. They ,,;11 cause only trouhk. uri,. •. "-" had d.s; "'he",, which ",.. very strwgthening.nd good 10 cat. If )'Ou nuode • roli 01 thaI in the morning and kcpl iI , it would stay soh like a 00110 .. bolilill th. cv.ning: il waS SO sofl. T~ ro. is. you .. k. IlM:m out of the Ii", and pUllhcm on Ih. plat •. and Iht)' a", lik.lealher. It is a mallu 01 lasle and also of "''''ttglh_ the •• is. lot of diff. ",ncc bo,w•• n Ihis grain and lhal. " urlltr. _ uS«! .o c.t a lot of cklckpcas. now .,'.n Ih. gods canl g.t it Idb ella""" no milay ko; l.ughsl,

a'


Th. laslinr.ss of rolis mod. from desl ,.-he.1 W'5 I"-Mly due to ilS solm0S6. The sohn0S6 also i..dica,ed ,hal il ",IS cas)' 10 digest. lhal II wouldll) lodg. ill the slo1ll""h lik •• 5." ne, and lhat i. ~ nOl ures-sive!y he., producinR- Unlikc 1M new ""n.ties, which uciled the body by Ih.lr ex«ss hUI. rolls m.d. from d<Sl wOOl iml"-Med • ....1SlIl:nglh that SUSLOined han!, physicallabo. for long periods . lIS d f«. tiv.n<:s;s owed much 10 II>< st ... nglh of lhe organic manUll: 115td to grow d<Sl wheat. By contrast . new ""neti.,. . .." .."i.1Ied by chemia! f.nili•• rs. "'·ert. I<ss PUtt and . hus Ics'S sustaining and $u·"nKlh 3;,11180, In fact, rotis mode from a combina,ion 01 chickpea.< . wh.at. and bart')' wen coruid • • rut mOil: nut!1t;oWl ond .u....;II;"g thon l'-c "",de from plain wh<:.I_ BUI the pric. of chickpeas hod risen SO much lhal o:>'cn ril". 1 offerings hod boen cunaifed. Ihus pTO\loking Ih. ironk ",I.rtnee 101M depr;,... tion suff.r-c. lurn of phTllSC indica,.d tkat humo.- "'''as Ih. only ...·.apon in Ih. I"", of dtprivalion. Fanncrs in AI;pu. h.d Slopped pl.ming chkkpcas beo,,~ the oulPUI h.d bccn declining to tl>< point wlM:n: Ihey could n.o ' onge. t(COvcr

~"~II

tlK cost of tlK suds. Th.y attribulnl this d ..di ... 10 11K fact .Ilal the soil had become w... k from tl>c ,..ic chickpon f.l1td to grow. Th. pllnts g~ till. bu. llKn: would b<: very few pods on them. Thu •. one could n,hl>c. pu",h_ Ihcm on Ih. marktt no, sucussIully grow small quantities fot domestiC production. TM .oH had b<:como too "'.Ik to suppon a crop liuchlckptls: this. in tum. contributed to.he p<>Ot hu.lth of humans lx<:aUS( ,hey could nO long.. Ifford to ... tsuch nutritious food. Chomical r.n Hiu .. w""" llso dirn:tly bLamtd for Ih.. poor h ... lth of th. population. It ""as bdievtd thot o.ting grain gro,..... with ch. mical fcnili.... Lail.d III providt tM nourishm.nt ntccssary to ""nd off disc..,. . During Ike .. m. con""FSllion with th. jltav men d=ribtd ea,li,,,. Anit I young man. anlculau,d a common ptr«ption lboul th. spn:ad of lllncss. -The: ... w... nl as many d~'S6u,Ii<.lchl>rus of agreement from otll... ). Ea.ll• •. HlnC$.5C$ sp!" ground"",t .. was kss dirn:t. it was .vid.m 10 evcryone. Aniloniculated his misgivings. wilh ......". Mlp from'M o.lttr m.n p~nt. with ponicular role..,"". '0 the J'OOIC "Earl;" •. the.., wos goo and milk for lood ; and in grain. w ........ tly (,\(1 chIckpeas. pas. and bark)' V.~lh ...·h.~I. h w;IS likt thls II • ..,!aliv. CJ.~, mtb ......., mar b""h.r·

in_Low 01 One of Ihe doughier'S 01 lhe house. Apan ff"'" Ihese ....... occasions when wheol rods w .... mode in lhe house, lhe .""ryday food u~ to consist of a 'SI"'nglh_glvlng" combinotion of g.... ins lilu chkk· p":lS, borlty, and p"as. My upp"r.coSI' informams told me lhallhcsc "co"S<" grains " ..". eolen mainly by Ihe low.,. caslcs such as ;.\.O\'s ond thai lhey ne~ .. Ot. anything bm wheal, whkh s<emtd very unlikely .....c.pI for Ill.. ricool housincd 01 a high 1e",,1: and Ih.y II(came pT<)' 10 differenl kinds of disuscs. Anil wuu on 10 ..... plain why people hod S\;Ir\N . ating I"", nUlritious food in th. p...scnt: Th. food (cat.n in the post ( .till ..... g",at.r .... ngth . If someone wants 10 cal ii, lh.., lhal food still has g",al sl",,,,lh. On. of 1M ",asons why peoplc.", nol able to eollt now is thallhclt famlli'S ha,.. II(come tOO big. Few In til.. huusebold cam and many cat l.alll«ause II>cy .... consl",incd. Th.~ cat wheal instead. Anil id..,lifiN Iwo primal'}' causes for Ihe inabilily of pcoplt to .allhe food lhallhey u~ to III "the past." One ...... lhal the populalion had in.c",ascd, and f.mlli<$ "had 1xcom~ too big: with the .-.:suit thai .h~ "'lin of dependents to .am i", m.mbers ill a family had goll. up. The other rusoll was Ih.t the ~c of the markel forud pcopl~ to sell products such as chic kpeas !>«au.. I"")' f~tch.d • much higher price than suplcs such as wlw:at. The · oo ....... ints" that he ldenti6tcr. So Ihty feh .hat .hey oouid no, aITord to consume chkkpca. wh.n ch.aptr food was a""ilable. In a similn manner, despil< Ihe large incruse in the amounl <Jl milk productd in .h~ village. almost.n of it was sold. The ",oson was

w.'"

lhal urban mnsu""'''' in 1M larv town<; around Alipur could afford 10 I"'Y a 101 lor the milk, and fa .....", nudeCTY. and .Onsumer goods. As a resull. ""TY lew child",n in Ih • ..illagt drank milk. Most bousebolds kept Jw.t enough mllk 10 mak( ICa and • lillie bil of yogun. Thr res{ """' sold (.'!ulso Sen and Ah·.,,, 19\1~ ro. dlsIIISoC who owned m<>ugh land 10 grow thrir Own whral could al las! eat th:;u for the cnlltl: fUr. BUIlt.. siu.... hou in pootl:. hoU5¢bolds was much

,9/1,

wo.,.'

[PtOple[ cat a lot of potato<:s. WMrt,., potatO<$ art nol good ro, one\ health. In wintH IIMi' growing seasonl . potalO<$ art used much mon: than anything else. If. poor mln dMs run have pin to .. I in his houso:. hr will &"t OtIC kllo 01 whrat Dour and lwo kilos of potatOCS for hl5 family. boil the poUIOCS and Sluff Ihem inlO lhe rotis. and fttonu of agrttmcnt) . Tbeir situalion Is WO'", Wbcn d",i. pasi. lion is down (silualion Is bod!. Ihey .rt unabl. 1o caTn la wagel . If Ihcy art nol able 10 caTn. the poo;slbilily arUc:s t""tllttl. childrtn will dle ofhungcr. This period 15 quile N.nIIlul lor lbe poor.

"·""",,rI.

In Anil~ viC"O!, lbe prcs5Urt 1o cal Icss nUlnl;"US bUI cheaper lood rtsul,(1.i in the consumption of potot<)oC$. PotatO<$. while quite filling, did not supply much by way of stnngth. Tt.. potalO output had sOOt up in rttenl )1'ars because of. ri-k P".":,,loni.ol Dev
by.n tho mm p;tnicipatillg ill the conv<:rs.tion. They co...:urm:l ...·hen h. suggcstni thot .atlng unhealthy food IlIScw. hlgh·)iclding ,...ri(lics of chiC kl"os. ""os. borky. aoo mai .. w.rt aim",t unknown. Farm< ... in Alipur. lik< othc. fa",.. .. in I\OT\l><m looi •. hod almost cornplctrly stoppcd gro .... ing chkk""u; thi!; is ,..hy th. price 01 chickpeas had risen SO shorply that ".,..11 th. gods couldnt cot\Sum • •Mm " By contras •. th. poUtO harvCSt had boom«l McH se the numbo:. of co\d."o"'g' ",.. rtho" .... had Inc •• ...w, ""hich enabled the consumption of potat .... to be sprcam a signi6canl radius .round 1.rg<: mctmpollscs such :os Dr:lhi. The pulis I)f the marko:t .hus ....... krd In mulllplc: w-.ys 'I) draw I)ut nutri. ious food from tho: ,·ill;r,se.nd to forte the poor to d'p"nd on food thaI " ... filling but no! suSllIlning.

---

In unfl"o",bly comparing thoi. prcscnt Slate 10 ",he poSl : a tIme whon th.y had nuu1til)US food tl) eOi. poor p"asalllS in Alip'" w'''' d"'wing

IU"nlion to tc<>Jog;al changes lhal had I dil'ttl impacl on IMir di.uory Inuok<: . Wlu.11 lound especially significanl ln "illag",,,' J1I. ..... ,;,·es 01 "Ih" past" _ IWIl li1al such ~QIits "'!prd to de"'rmi .... ","Mlh" ,''''' poor "aclually" .'" bc:ller in "1M ptiI" lhon in ,''' JlRS"nl 001 lhol Ih.,. d.lI11td how villagtrs txptritnctd ,"'" chongf:5 Ihal Ih.y wT _ ","(>IS< now lhan bc:fo", _"n d O'!U.nl criliqut 0f,h. clalms madt b)' 1M modtmizing stal" aboul I'" "devdopm.nt" 0( 1M countrySide .nd I.... lifling of ruonI numbc:rs 01 pc:oplc . bov" Ih" "pov"ny line:, " T .... very PTOgnoms , hot W<'" SIlpp<>5rlly "improvlng" '1>< lot of II>< runol a",os 'hrough high .uppon priCts, cold·.,oro,. £adlil;"',.nd lhe: orpnization of milk produ.c.:rs toopcnlives....,.., also sucking out aU Ih. nutrilious lood from t... viUagu to supply COnsUlru:rs ln urb.an a",os wbo had ,''''' """,,un:es to poy 10' IL

This chopte, has demonslnltd lIul th. degradalion of th. quality 0/ food Ind th"" 0/ humin hulth was nol m.,.dy 1M ttliult of market pttSOutt$ bUI aao 01 changes in Ih. prodUCtion pnX.s&. Hybrid w .... al, chankal f.n!llz.rs. and IUbt ...·dls "'p"'l<:nl • ru:w tCThnology and . mo,.. important. I nOt IS '''''0 ".ysu""," lhal lntuacl wilh each otlto. but at Hnktd by. highly conjunttunlllow 01 qualities o.

propenits.· Substanlivif.t thtorics of IhI: n:Lalionship 01 tht soil. f"nili ..., air. wal.,.. plants. and bodio:s 10 One .nolMT a", V''Y similar 10 Ih""ries of IhI: in .. rwnnrcw:lntSS oJ I II ' hings in natu", in c"uoin strains ofwtS\.

~m ~nviromlKmalism.

Taking I"" uampk of England. Keil h Thomas . hows ho,.· Ihe ... L1.Iion belWttn -man" and the natural wOTld c .... nged. lrom the ",v~n'«n,h e~n'ury. wh~n th~ dominion of man "".. nalu ... was on unqUG lioned Obj«lj,·. of human .ndeo'·OT. 10 the ninelttmh ""nlury. when doublS about human dominion of nalu ... and Ihe unique· n.,.. of humons began 10 an", h98p;-9') . Se..cn'eenlh...:emury lrav.1... ,.. .... -!>amtd" by the Jain. Buddhis •. and Hindu ftSpc<:t for lhe liv.. of all animal •. .,.·en ins«lS (lLJ. Th~ elevOlion of na1u ... l0 a sub]«t worthy of swdy in ilS Own right and nO! m.... ly for lIS ulilily 10 humans anov..cd nawralislS ' o fttOnc.p"u.oli.te the ... Lationship bttwttn pLanlS • • nima1s. and Ih.i, en';ronmem . II ....... s in lhis conlexl 1....1 Ih. German zoologist Ems. Hattkd coined the t.rm -uology": -By uology wt: mun lhe body of knowledge con""m ing lhe ~conomy of nalure-Ih. invesltv,ion of lhe loul ... La,lons of ,h • • nimal b",h '0 ilS l""rgonic and '0 lIS orgonic environ men!" (!Ial. 1991:36). Thus. from ,h. ' .• ry begin_ ning. uology was con",,;vcd of as a holistic sde""" conc~mcd with ,h~ ... lalionship bt''''.en living things and their environment From ilS bH;s as a meatU 10 underst.and plants and animals. nolioTlS of ecology "'.... Utended 10 denole Ih~ s)"Rlbiolic ... Ialion,hip posiltd bel"un lhe economy of ""tu... and Ih. acliviliG of humons by ninet•• nth...:.n.ury writ~rs such as Tho .... u and Wordsworth U6-6,) . Ioottd. Words-

worth's nolion of "dwdlin&" in ""'uno app"'rs 10 "rain agoins, ,n. origi",,1 scpaTllO,ion betw~~n hu"",,,, and na, uno ,ha, "",k(s Ih~i< rtt<>ncilia,ion a possible g""I. " And i, Is prr;cisoely ,h~ niM' ttn'h_a:ntuty IIoO, lon of holism ,ha, c..m\yn Me~han1 und..lines in her inOu~nlia\ ,ex, Thc Death cf Narurr. in whlc~ st..: makes a di$tirt(:tion bctw«n tcOlogy and its philosophy of na,u"" holi$m, "Tht id.,. of cyclical pit>«$0§6, 01 , ... In le"",nn«udntSS of alllhings . • nd 1M ..... urnplion thaI nalu", i$ lelive and all"" an: lundomental 10 ,''' hi$,o'Y 01 human lhough," h9l<>'>9) ." Mrchanistic and cybernetic tnOCC'cdt>0S5 01 .n living beings ..,..,mble It..: sub.lIntl.... ' thtories of pHSInlS In Alipur In lhal 100 posil Illal chan&<S in OM spbc:re will mike Iheir "'1y through It..: «OS)"SlOm 10 .ff«t humans. Fo< example. cllanglng the microbes and nutritnts in the soil "'ould "enlually . ffect humans through ,he lood ellain. Vet "'trIO· ,hing lundomenllily disrupts too strong an id<:nli6eali(m between holistic 'PIlI'OllCh.ts to ecology in ,t..: West . nd lhe substantivist idtas of Indian p"asanto, I nd lhat has to do with ontologicalossump'KmS tha, und..lk thoso: underslandings. P.,.....nts in Allpur tMugl1l lhat allllv· Ing ntaUcr was connect.... becall.St it ...... inl.,dulngeah\( . Such. vic", 01 <:onnccttdness rulOd on • belirl in the transmigration 01",uls. It ...... no, me ... ly lhe ..... , IS Me",hanl (198<>:193) .rxu<s of «ology, Ihat it levels ,''' value hi ...",hic. MI"'em Imnta .... and olher IMng Ihlngs bttauso: any part of the «os~,em Is as ""Iu.ble as . ny other part ; ""t..:r, any olher fonn ofille In I'" ,,",x, birth. It was • human lile could • qu<stlon no, of lht c'l"aJi,,. of all foTll1S of lif. bUI of thnr 'Mn$' mKJ4bil;,,.. It "'... for ' hl5 teasO~ thaI ~u"lng down WiOS con.ide..,d a pollUling oct to be performed only by speci6c lo", ..-coste peopit (sec abo Gold n.d. ',.). Substllnliv;s"hcori<s of ,he interconncctcdneMof all living beings thus rat on 5Ome",hal difl.,..,nl p",misc$ ftorn IhO$< supporti~g holistic «ology. Subsuontivi.st theories of "'Ollogy" w • .., abo • key ingraliem in a critical con'-crsotlon about ind~cnous proct;""" thaI ernuged arnang AlIput's farmas. to which chtrn icallcrtilizen .nd the ""'''' .gri<:Uhu....1 technology w .... In tcgntL Whot I SOw was no, the loss 01 indigc:nous knowl ....!", wilh its ollmdant imphcotioru; of Ih. lack of agency of indigenous p"0pl<s to n'Sis1 ,he fon:<s 01 hls,atical cllango, but It..: ca ... ful ...... lu.tlon 01indigc:nou. practiC<:$. Arguments for Ihe prcscrvo-

''''y

be,,,,,,,,

'ree!<

lion of indigenl>US knQwkdge. whtn nol buW on n<>5 ... lg" . a~ built on 1M utili ... rian p~ mist of sa,ing k""wlNge polenlially "usdur for "hu· m.nkind. " Bll! for wl>om is slIch knowlWg.: usefllil ~ positing a unl· tory slIbj«t (humankind ) thaI ~ul"''''ncing thi. I.,... the discon ..... or indigtnl>usncss Ignon:s lhat lnc<).ualilic5 of pow., might result in dive .. gen. nttds, t(feelS, pt"'ep, lons,.nd exppI<: as to .... hat «lnSliIU"'" a "loss" of Indi~nous knowINg<: and which looses are .ignificant. Di'oCU"';ons or dlo". to "prest""," indig.no.... knowkdgfo m d up privlltging unain kinds or kn.owlNg<s QW:r Olbers. In ""me Ins"''''<$, Ihe int~n:s1S of "first" p«>pltS and First World c""",,,... t;,,,,i.ts hay. co;ncidod in p..,..rving indigo""'IS knowlodg.,.: Itowev.t. when that Is not the case.nd sub;olttm groups find tbem.selvcs in oppositlo" to thost wlto wanl to prcsoorve "indigtnOUS knowledge: whose nttds .nd nnmlS of"indlgmo"" k"",,·ledg." have d ...ly ployod . n import.nt ",It in tmpo,,'utng marginalized I""'pl<s, who have been oble 10 ",... bltsh th.t tMy haVt 0 culture . nd on Id< politica] dlicacy of 5""h claims be und<>" such claims. I r.ar that thcore is a lItavy p'ice to be paid for II>( ~mphasb placed by proponentS or indigenous knowkdg~ on cuitu",1 purity, con· ,inuity, . nd .It.rit)' Such efrons .t cultural ~rval i<>fl make no I'OQm ro' the ,_ majori.), of .ht woo-Ids poor, who liv~ on the ","'Sins of subsisteru:•• nd the m<>Sl degradNi uological (onditions" but ,..Ito cannot d.im to 1:>0: "indigenous I""'pl." in the limited definition ac· (orded lhat t., m. Uk~ Ih~ ,,,,ldents of Ahpur, 'he t.,&( pl'Oponlon.,r the most indigent p«>pl. in , h. Third World find tl>
'''''''1)'

laking an analytic .nd polillal position that ignoTCS such people or, WOI"5O:, regards th~m with contempt for h.ving lOSt "tMir culture: I would liu to argue for. oonctpt of cuhure that i.J ",bust enough to enabk tn. empo""ermc", of disparate groups 01 .ubahe""" Instead of using Ideas of rohu",1 ahcrity embedded in Enlightenmenl rmJ«1S (>f modtmity (ott Chapter J for d ... il.), might il be pos;siblc to rethink oodons of aherity SO that alternallve formuLallons of ruhure and difI...", models of political affiliation .nd political practice emerge? h wuuld, for ' !lampl<, hove been usy to conclude thai the ,uktonti_ vIst connection mad. by .,..sa1l1S in .... Iipur betwttn the Iw:ahh of the soil, of pLanlS, and of humans repr..senlS a form of TCSistancc to Ihtir Imblication In "modo:m ," "scientific" forming. BUI one would then haye to ignore thrir cnthusiasm for tube wdis or 1M "",,,,iment, c~ by many, thai hlgh-yiddlng v;uletios and chemical fcnilizers had ban beneficial to f.rmus bccoUS<': th~y had incre.scIogy Is '15(If. hybrid, oo~ IlUlcd of incommensurab~ discourst$, practices, and eval. uallons that ('OnnOt be n ... t1y erKOlpsulatcd In tl>c: master ""mllvos of modernity and dtvclopmcnt. TIM: postcolonial subjects of Allpu, frustrate IMir posllioning within rel.tions of Itt.rily that would make of tl>c:m examples of l>an the 01>( hand , and lost aanplars of «ological.u.tainability, on tM other, They mimic industrialagneuhure, yet erhki.. ilS dfeclS. They an: both TCSisunt subJ«1S who crlllqu~ the « ologial dt:!.truclivenns of "modern" farming and "industrlal' larmc~ who employ n:5oUras ultSuslai""bly. SlmultantOtlsly positioned within 1M discou1US of modernity promul&1ltd by In inttmalio ... l system of dcv~lopmcnl and as tlUlrgi... t subJ«tS at ~Ite limilS of "'M W"'," ' Mir critique of"«ologiCIl" destruc _ tion ha.s itSelf to he read in ahernat~ tUTt'tS. I have Inemptcd to demon· Slratetltat their underslandings of ill health, based In substantivist theotitS. 1ft tl>c:msclvtS incom .... "'u .. bl. wilh cxpLa""llons of "ecological " destruction, b«auso: the Ian .. pt'CSUII\t;S a conaln kind of relationship betw«n subj«1S and "nltun:" that is nOt shared by 1M peosanlS of Alipu •. It Is predstly t"= s",,,egtcs of mimtery and hybtidity lhal cltaractertzc lhe postcolonial condition-technologies of r.nning that an: tlte sa_ and l'" very dm.ren., and und.rstandings of the ".nviron· me"," that IIUtU their critiques al onc~ rlmilia. and very strange.

>90

Postcoloni.l o.tv.lop ...""u

•

,-

Form of Go,",nm I nt.'1ty1

ht p",,,ioll< chap'~r ch.ned Ih. ecological df~cts of • globol discourw of de...,lopmem incorporated in the grew <eVolution . The ecological crisis prttlp;tatcd by globally dominan, modClion "'; Ih othu inlerrunional ,,,,.tks. promises 10 .h, dcostic':.tly ru .... ] ~lcs' ",l"ionships with agrkultlll1:, Ntg.... {ialions fnr thts< glnbal conducted half a "'orld ..... y, IKVcrth.I"", d~ >IIung prottsts from f.rme~ groups in India. On March j. 1991. bet ...... n '8.000 and lOO,OO<> farmers from diff.",nt

T

''''.ti<:s.

pottS of Indi. converged on No:w Delhi ' Ltd by M. ...""... Singh TI_ Itoil. presioknl Oof II>( BIt.ratiy. Kisan UniQn (lit.rally, Indi." Fa"""", Union), .... ho cam. leod ing "",,,n thou .."" tractors and trolleY' overIlo" ing wilh ptoplc, th. Karn," .ak.o RolJY" Ryolll Sangha ( URS; Ide·ReI.,ed Imell«luai P' ''I'''ny rights (n , ps) "":Iion of Ihe Gen.ral Agrttmtnl on T.rifTs and TJ'l>d. ( mo,. popularly kJ\O\OTl oS G"TT) . The forme", called 10' an amendmem tl.> ,hi: constitution to ma ke m.ndatot')' It,. ratifiC'lltion of.n inl.,.n.. ';o""l .grttmcnts by I m.jo.i,y in bo.h houKS 01 po,lilmen' ... well as by •• leas. lull .M l.gistalu~. Th. Dunhl Draf•. lhey inslsl.d. muSt br discussed In.1I Stale legisLatu.-cs brl"n: tIK Gqyunmcnl " f India sign«! the Uruguay Round of
st.,.

f,.

Stll suds" light thallhty " 'ouk! Ilgiaphlcal lOC1llion. For many poor poopleliving in difFerenl pans of Ih. globe. b(n.~e., lhe eIJ«ts 01 lnlun.ational gov.rnance ..... visc....1 and oltcn cabmilous. &og.n.tk """"'rttO ha,·. become a highly charged iMUt not only in the Context 0( GAT"1" but ogainSt the backdrop of Ihumin: debolt on blodiveJSily (Khoshoo 1993: Vyasulu 1993)· Trod. ond environmental issUG COme together bcu.usc .he new trod. tcgimc adopled in the Uruguay Round prop" 7M lor tIu: first limo. stondard lor the patentl"l! of life fonns,' pocus nu.dc .asi.r by Ih. Earth Summil. whi<:h pronouncm tho g.... lie mattrial lound in "natun:" to be a glomi comm""" (mon: on this bc!ow).- Envlronmon\:ll "gKC""'" ts such OS the Rio Accords I n: In CSStl\t..1 part of • St. 01 i"mum.nts bei"i lorged for global gov<:m.anct that hav<: gravo implications for Iitt curum world ord... 01 nati",, ·&\lIt.,.. r ...... nt groups in lnd .. an: . wore Ihat global ac
W.,,-ld oounlriCS, Ihe", Is a corwo'X"nce belween lhe actions of lhe dr:'"dopmenl 'ppa""US and Ihe InleTCSU ol l",nsn.donol COpila!. Whal lmpliWCO]oni.ll\;m) Or a", tho ",lations of lnequalily establl\;h«l by Ihis a"kulatlon genui ...!y postcolonial, in the StJtSC of goIng beyond . mode of domination that <dolS on the centrality of the ""lion-stat.? If !IO. whal Is this "",W global oro.. lilltly tf) h.,.., on the everyday livcs of §ubahe tn pcorLc In lhe Thiro Worldl 1 argue thai In the S.me way Ih.t li>c nOllon of "po$.colonlallty" mar'" a tempo ... ] bruk WMrt man)' living, clemenlS of co!Qnialism a", rteonligurM inlO' n<w str;"', il .1110 marks a brnk willi the 'p'unance . Pemaps no odt.r iss .. e 110 c"'OTly and d .... matially iIlus. ... tcs Ihi' proposition Ihon globalenvironmtnurl "'gubtion. En,'ltQnment.1 Cf)""ems. ho ....","... art imp,,"ant _ JUSl fo. Ihe oUention thaI rteenl speclac1 ... lilo:t 1M unll Summit have foeus86:>;1) puts it dramatieticcs lhal make up, In Foucauldlan turns. a new ' tthnology of gonmmcnt. To talk about lhese changes rnli",ly in Ie"", of the gr<>graphi
.rreelS

P<_n... nd Global En>i ronm<""]"'"

'~J

biodiversity, and 1M o.one !..~r, provo 10 bo • ""niculorly good subjecI '" inlCrmgale a so:ries of con«plS Iha' n.", "" f.r pnwki«i the moonS I" map Ihe r<:1.llon of "local" pwplcs such as po:osonlS 10 "I'rger" [nslilu· tions .nd Slructuus such as Ihe world ec<)nomy.' Th. oncs tn.1 I will ooncenln1\. on in !his chapter or<: 1"""'= of lerriloria lity, 5OVc..,ignly, and , .... nation-$to lc. Togelhtr. Ihis triad. has been comp"'tcly nalu .... lil«i 10 consli,u,e the social ocimces os a fonn of knowledge 1n.1 inn.billl the discursive space of "'"io,,,di5.... The conll'(mtodon bolwecn nalionalism and colonialism (or neocolonialism) ill rruwk I"""'iblo by ,harN con· « plio"" of tcrrilOrialily and 5OVO..,ignll' The optic of nalionalism. I wi!! argue. pnwe5 especially limiting in Its ability to 5« the pe<:ulin dango", po$Cd by .nvironmcn...1 prohltms. Y.t . lIS hegemonic '''''''s has the lunction of loushortening lhe discu",ive horizon. such tn.1 « lUin ....Y" of concq>ntali.ing t .... '1ucsllon of environm. ",al degr.odotion ar<: m.... phoric. lly "QUI of sighl," while olhrn; ar<: 5qUttUd u!\ComfolUbly inlo, Manichaean logic. I begin by analy~ing the dis<:<Ju1"$CS surrounding environmcn ... t problems. cspe<:ially those: CiKUlati"i.t the Ean h Summit. I dncribe lhe agru .... m. reached at ,he Earth Summil .nd pul Ihem into Ihe conle~1 of other ,..,.tics and a«(>rds Iii .. have been signed .nd imple· ment«i In tM mor<: recent past. The ne~1 section proyjd. . . criUeol onalY"ill of tWO of the main Intcrp ....... tions that ha"" been oIT.rN of ' he Rio Accords. Although the proponcnlll of each have emphasiud tho diff.... ncu between the two Intcrp ...... ti"ns. I will demonstrate that IMY n.v. a ""at ....1in rommon a. wcll. Th"", poin lll of convrrgencc e""ble me to reach my SttOnd " bJ""t\"". which is .o ...so: "'" wm. of IMi' to".. ,1>w... tiCl\ imp!iCltio"", I ,ugg.,;1 how one migbt begin to ... Ihin k 1M question 0( environmen tolism ;IS • new disciplinory l""h. nology. This leads me 101M final obJ""tivc of this chapter. which is 10 analyze fanners' collcctiv~ ...actiom 10 new instillltion'tn.1 aIT""t teo-!ogic1tl practic.,; in IrmL'I of thei, likcly imp!iaotions for Ihe IlItu .... lend by ",Ialing forms of gOVf:mmcn ... li,y wilh the "rgoniuhonal StruCtures emerging to conlesl , ....... \tcw disciplinary Icchnologi.,;. It is th .... n",,,,1 forms of discipline and usis"'''''c that cha .... c:.. ru. postcolon ial cond itions. 1 usc 'M tum "poMco!onialily" In indkltte thaI 1M ternin on which Ihe new forms of govemmen ...lily a ... opcr>. lng has (""Thaps ir,""vocably) ah..-t
why cltongi ng lo,ms and mod .. 01 global ~gulati')n art bting rt$isltd by pcasont groups lho.l art .fraid of Iht cOl\5OOqUt ...... 0 1 global envlronmental and lnode tre.Oo;s.

hLii."I. _ _ M_..nll.~ two:" TI>( Earth Summit !>tId in Rio d~ Janeiro (rom Jun. ) toJune •• . ' 991. wa. organiud by the Uniled Nalions Conltn at an inler· na.ion.1 conlertn"". and by 3j ,000 OC(;",diltd panielpan .. from ' 78 counlri .. (f IKIS o~ file.June lB , 440) . The gk>bal w:&rmlng conv.nlion almtd 10 ",duee the o:mis.slons of carbon dioxide and olltt, g« levels by 'he ycar woo. U.S . op~tion loony"'"." sculIkd tlfons ," .., binding desl na'ion . Br.uil. The ",her major .. eOly slgnnl al tit<: EaMh SUmmil"'-as Ihe Co,wenIi,," on BiologiCllI Diversily. ...·hich W ,,", int.nd. d ," pml«t endong.ted pl.nt and animal species. This .imn! '0 mlue.. 'lit alanning depklion of gUlelic diversity on ,he pla""t. Sig""'ories
.rea.Ocs.

'".n.

.0

'''''W

" ....n .. . r>
Environmentalism ""

,t.. world uists in ,b.

poor countri., of "tM Somb: wben:as lbe pri. mary irxlustruland com .... n:!_l de"",nd for it uists in tM rich coun· t';" of ~b( Nonh." The most comesl.d aspect of this t.. aty called on indUSlrialiu:d counu;., 10 shart IhI: tc$ults and pr-ofits from bOolechnologi ....l inventions with the coumries lbat suppllN them tM ge. ntlic raw lllilterials, Th. United Kingdom and Japan, countri.. lhat we"" initially b(sl\llnl, signedlhe 1..... ly at th. bst mo .... nt . This isolaled the United Statts, whleh ben ..... the solt ""'jOt poweT ""duse 10 .ndol'S( IhI: pact.' By lho: .od of Ih. SUmmil, 1~~ nal;O ... had sigr.ed 'M Con""ntion on Biologioll Oi""rslly ( f",iS "" filt, June 18, '9\1'. 44'; Grubb ct a1. 11/9,:81). In addition to Ihese ""'jot'"at;", an agreement was also ..ached on a """binding S\llttmenl of Forest Principles, This was ""rhaps th. most contm""rsial SUbjoc<:I, wtth ncb and poor coumnes \liking Slrongly oppost
'9B6 for a d~tailM sLudy of Ih~ "'oed fuel crisiS) . Similarly. •1>< glo,,"1 "'anning ronvc~ lion rould lndlnc, ly raise prices r", oil-b:asM chtmical fcrtlllu ... II i. ,he hiodiveTSi.y convention. hown'Cr. mas, dirtttly Ihrea.ens tl>< inlen:sts of Indian fanner;. It d«lan:s Ihe g,n .. lcdlvcrsl,y cardully nurtured by fann . ... pracllcing "'radilional" agriculture over milk" .. ia to be "Ih. common herilage of m.nkind [sic]" but abrogall:S 1o (mostly First World) capitalis. Inslitulions.1>< -;"'eU..,,,,,,1 propcrty gen.lically all.ring Ihls painsrights" .hot flow from linkering ,,;th "'kingly p,cservM moure. (Agarwal,"d Naraln 1991) . ,.

,ha,

aoo

'I

Ahl>ougll was 1M 1arge;1 and grandesl Inlernalional en"ir(Lnrtl(ntal ronf,nlle<: 1o be Convened un.il .he... i, would be inrorrr.c' 1o vicw Ihe Earth SummlL as initialing a new era In lransnalional en,ironmemal n:gula.ion. By 1991. IMn Inn mort lhon '70 envir(Lnrtl(ntal Inotles alread)' in errc" on I... ues ranging from owne deplelion 10 pollu'ion of acid rain. pn)t CClion of endongcrrd !!,""in. and Ibt Pft'o"rva· tion of Ihe Antarctic (FTl' .. k .~) ." Nearly holf lhese ,,,,,,lies hove come in.o dr.ct .Inee the '97>- UN Confenm,," on .he Human Environ ..... n, held In S1ockholm. which was a ""' .... hed .,,,,nl In lhe sro""lh of c", vi'on"",,,,,,[ consciousness al the level of nalion'Stales tA. Aga",..1 I98S:4; French '991;6-7). Al the time of tbe S.ockholm confert"'•. Iht proj.." of "de"clopmcntaHsm- rtignrd suprtm~. This "'"" on ide. ology of nonsu< prolectlon o' Stals In Ihe Antarctic ( Hecht and Cockburn 1991:843-soJ, Of the many treaties conduded aher Stockholm . the OM mosl widely ngarded as being I model of ;ntcrn,,,ional environmenlll ngulation", Ihe Mon.nal Pro' ocol on SUOsllnces Th.1 Depl... th. Ozone Layer. which ..... signed in September ''/37_ Th. '
""".ns,

'0

P.,.sonlS , n
Ind lhall'lpid ell' expllin the In:al)'~ flIpid Icceptance Ind impl~m~n lalion . Developing countries wen: given a tcn· year period to slabilite c~c emissions. Puni tive m.... u,..,. In Ih. form o[ ,~ .mbargoes against n.oncomplianl nolion-su.l~ we .. built InlO ' he ogrttm~nt. Whm n~ evidence emergM ,hat the OU>ne layer ...~ being dcpkted fos'et wn Initially t$l.lm.IM. nlnely.lhrtt nalions sigr.ed a new Irtaty in June '99<>, agrtting to SlOp using C.C5 complelely by ,he yca. lOOO. Pnssun: rrom India and Chino. ,..Meh arguM ,h., ,h. txpen"" of switching 10 cFc substiluteS would constltulC an un[li. burdO'Utllional m
.ho.

0"_',:\ ' - , , _ Environment.l ltt.lics COIlSlllUle bul On< component 01• wide. pan e'" or global accords .nd ins. I'utlons tha ..."'" '0 ha"e S"'~pl OCIOS5 Ihe world of na'ion-$lItcs, partkula.ly since the carly sevenlics_ Envimn· menlll Igrttm~n" hove 10 "" ..en alongside mtchonisms ek ' 0 regulale and pmmou: in .. rna,ional trad. , finance, tcchnologi.... llran.· f..... communlauio .... , lravel. wnpons. dC\'clopmenl cfforLS . • nd humin righlS. In th~ ca.. or agrkultu",. thcort hove been .".... inn! at· Icmp15 LO boost outpul In developing countries through a network of int.rna,lon.1 ill5titutioll5 of which Ihe Consultallve ernul' "n In ...• national Agricultural Researeh (emAa) is pcm.ps the best known . TM$c ins,itu'ions have ""en rundn! by . gondes such as the f ord and

,IIa, ..

'
PO>Kotonial

~lopmen ..

Rockdeller FouOOalions, V$AID, C.""di.:m InIOtn.aLion.a1 [kvdopmrnl Age""y (e , DA). and 01N>. First World 'd<:vdo~nl' age""i .. , wilh infrostruClural support pW\·ided. by Ihe World !lank 1m! bll ...... 1","1ICie5. A primary "",chanism in Ih. «onomic a .."" is lho GUT. which dalOS lrom '948 and eighlh round (called the Uruguay Round) was .igned on April ,S. '99<1 . During the IISI two dtcloo. Iht growing inte. nalionallntiOn of th. world «onomy has bttn . ccompani«l as well by gtu,.r conlrol of Third World economi.. by lhe World Rank and Ih. I.... AI.., ruched during Ihe sam. Iwo decades w.'" such "S..."",n'" as lho Convt:ntion on 'he RighI< of Ihe Child , Ihe Convention on w.tlands of Inlctn.ahon.al lmporta"". of '971; Ih. World Heritag. Conv.ntion of 197'; Ihe Convt:ntion on Trod<: In End.ng.red Specks (CIT . . ) of '973; lhe: In lemaliMal Conv.ntlon for Ihe P",vcntion of Pollulion from Ships ( •. Convt:ntion o n Ih. Prohibilion of Chem;".1 We.pons of 1991. Th. scope. "'idlh, .nd b... dlh of global . coords. of which environ_ menial agrtt"",nl< fonn In .ss.ml. l pan . havt: gnv. constquenc.,. fo r lhe .. rriton. l bases of natlon_SlaltS . UQw dQ sociltl-CCplS. lha' .... th.tmot:"~ nughl within IN> f... me of ""lio""llsm. e"",bl. ,,. limil Qllr undemanding of global accQrdsl DotS lhe pmlif.... lion Q( glQbal agrttm. n .. initiate. spa.ial order . hat repr"",n" an imporUnl shift 'rom Ihe terri' Qrial claims of cQlonialism ami nationalism-a"postcok,"ill" ,pact? How ... peasantS in India positioned by Ih"", t ... nsn.a· tlQn.1 fields of powe • • nd knowledgd In Ihis book I hove attempted IQ chart Ih. rcI.otiQnsili p hel""",,, Qne sel Qf ",... \. 'UMh~ m pcoplo In India and Ihe global p!.enome ... of developmen" capl",h,m , glttn "vQluliQT1 .cchnolo~'. and. In thi< ch.aptcr.•"vi",n"",ntalism , in Ihe p"""ess delin_ eating Ih. condilions of poslcoloniality. IIc:fo .. [can .dd..... Ih. q uestion' aboul glubol ..,vi",nm.n,allsm posed .bow •. 1 will p.... n. the dominant interp .. tal[OnS of global ag ..~menIS such OS Ih. Eonh Sum_ mit. whkh .... ill . ... hl. me 10 <'X.mine IN> role Qf uisting f... m....·orks in und ...."'ndlng ~nd criliquing .ueh agrttmonls. AI Ihe SOme tim •. an .""Iy.is of dQmlnanl posilionS o n the (nvlronmenl will also d<:mon· Slnle bow pre,.,.iIlng paradigms plac. eclUin kinds Qf Inlerp"!011on$ bcyo..d the discu .. ive horimn.

,,,,hose

r .... n.. . ndGlt>bol Envimnmtn ... ll<m

199

...., "",.110•• QI '.' I;; , 10 01.".;' ." .... Two poshlons on global envlroomemal issuG ~mcrge most ckarly from debou'$ surrounding the Eanh Summi" The first position .mphasius lhe environmenl .... global commons.• u~lS trun it is a problem for.n Inhabit.nts or tM planet. and urges that -w." ...·ork for "com· man" solutions. The ~ major posillon Sft$ the cnvironmcnt.:os a staging ground for conflict bctw«n the rich counllies of the Nonh and tM poor countries of the: South. This is a vio:w widely shared among governmentS. poUcymakcrs. industrialists, and environmen",1 . ctivis .. in poor counll'ics (for eumpk, Indu; Today. lhe: I~ading mainslrc.m. pronbuslncss. fnglish,language magazl"" In Indio M.dlined tM Rio . " tr-JVagllllU "Earth Wars"l. Although It will be evident that 1 .ndorse many or th. crilici!ms In 1culatN by activists and leaders of the $oulh. my analysis Iuds me to . posltkm thaI goes beyond m.rcly validati~ that view. A position thaI follows fron. a "Non h" "" .. us "Soulh" vkw of the environmtnl provides an ""planalory foundation with. moll'spd why global .nvironmcn",1 governance is s....:h an 1mpo._ ",nl phenomenon. I OU'Jl«1 tMI tM obvlouo""" of lhe di ff.... nc.. !)(twttn North.1I(\ Sou.h Iuds to an uruJc .... ppltti;"ion of their £I)mmonalill.t:o. My $C"'tcgJI ill counlUpO$illg "One World" 10 "North VCn
So\I' h" pos;'ions on &lobol.ovil'OllJT>tntlllstn Is ailMcusiion of """Iillo.... dtmonStra'a lhal govern .... n. "'p"""nta,iVft •• nvtn:tnm.tm.1 organiutions. .nd g.-oou groups ha..., nry diIJe",nl ";"'" of gIobol.nvimn ...... ta.I probItrns and ...,..,..,imtS punut qui.. d lnrK .v.nues of IOCtK>a (al. though wha'lsfq .... lly in'trCSling Is Illt nltn. 10 whic h ,hc;,dlscoursn (OnvtTJ<). I do not pursut ,his quation In g""" ol t nvironmmtalisl discoul'K s hould IlO1 bt t~lctn lIS. criticism of an kinds of inttma.ionalism o' a poa.imi<m about •ht pnssibi II, y of col\'i.runing tmpo ....rI"I fonn< of Inmna.ionai cn;o Ii· 110m. My Irgumen •• in facl . lead. to Iht conclUsion ,ha. It is '''ry Impor. •an, '0 build ,n m n ••lon. l <>'Vnlu'l<>ns lhal ... n rcslltt (ht kind of goVt . nmt ntoU,)·lhal is bting imlitUltd through gJnI»lllCCOI"I"tVIo"" mndtis

Es,,,,...

of interna.ionalism bu. also modlfy th~ modds to "",et 'M d "m ging c<mfigunllion of ,he na'ion-..... systcm. It is well beyond the scopeof thill chapter to spell OIl. a 'heory of the now world order. My obj«.ivc. for now. is 10 draw allenlion to 'lOme imporunt proc.,...... and I rely on other ""hola~ to fill in llS1"'cts of what is. very la,",," picw", ind.ed (St:<: Agliet'" 1979: B",nnor and Glick 199t; Davi'l ' 9i11 . ' 934; lipieu t98s. '9M. 19i1SJ; and Maodd t915). finally, I ha •• not h..., a'''mptcd to uptain OOW p.lobal environ"",n",l tratios have b«n forga!; th.t is. ",Iated. but enti",ly "'parate, 'I"""tion. Instcad. I am In'ert:)la!ln 1M assumptiOns that.", implicit in dominant global dlscou ...... surrounding envi ronmc"",l problems and thd. Implications for poor rund pwpIc: inlhe Third World. such ... ,lie farmer.; I workM wi.h in Alipur. WhIle 1do not bell,...·. thot this is the only or should bt Ihe uc1" .ive WIly to study thtsC 'IuesUons. my contcnt;"n is that. close c:u.mlnation of gIobalem·l..,.,,,,,,n,alism """,. ls a grtal deal abou, '10m. conlral q~io"" ",,,,rding tM na'ion-st.atc .nd the oondilion of poslColonl.lily. Wi,h this long lisl of ",v.. ts in mind . •hen. I tmn to the .nalysts of "(ln< world" poshi.on. on global environmcn ... hsm.

""""''''I)'

In his openIng specch al Ihe Eonh Summit, U"CEO general Mautice Strong said: "The mosl imponant ground We must arrivc at in Rio i'l the undersundlng lho, we gr< ,,/I iK rhi! .oge/Iocr. .. If Ihe agt«menLS re. cha! he", do 1>01 serve 'M c",""mo" In'.' '''"'-< cf 'N: oUI,.. h~""'K -",mily; if I.... y .... d ....... id of tM mo:a"" and commltrnenLS requi",d to implemenllhem. If Ih. world lapses back to ·busintsS ... usual: We will llaw m~ a h!$loric opportunity.oncwhk h rna)' no, ",cur in our limes. (f ever" (H~""gaard 199~:t.; emphasis addtd ). The idu tllal "...e an: an in thiS logel h.." forms ~ cO""'fStonc of global ellVironmcntolist dis<:ou ...... During lit.: late eightk>. when I,,"dc~ 01 'lOme of 'he most imporunl industrtal c""ntries such ... Mikhoil Gorba(lt.:v. MIrv"" Tllalch ... GCQ~ Bush. and Gro Harlem Brundlbnd starra! prodaiming 'Mlnsdves 10 be cnvironmtnral(sls .nd "comp<:ting '" Ix the greenest ":IOOS {In lhe world slage" (Frtnch 199>:7), this was a comnwn slo",n (Nnv York n",e., May 10, 19119; May 'S. 1939). Thls is abo Ihe ... nllm.nl ,bat lay behind Ih. efforts of nongo,·cmmelltol Orv" izalions. Ihink "'nks. and cdcbrtly cltiz.ns '" foster global environmental ron.d Olls· 1lCSIi. Ttuo notion of ' one ... ,th: a fragile ccosys .. m Susptnda! in the vast spa« of ,It.: 'IOlar S}"slcm. is captured in ,he ",curring motif of "Spac<:sh lp Eonh" and tM vI.... of the earth from oulu spac •. The

Brundtland Cc:>mmisslQn r-.:p<>f1. In fac •. I>f:giru by nming the po .. n, lal IImori",l.igni6can~ of .hi. moment: "In .he middle of .M 10.11 ~n­ lUI)'. we saw OUT plane. from space lor the fir.;t .ime. HilitoriaM may (ven.ually find , ...... hi. vision had a gr-.:a'(T imp;o<' on .hough ...... n did .M Copunlcan r-.:yolu.lon of d,,: 16.h ~n,ul)< ... From space. ,,-.: sec • . .....II .nd l"'lI:ile hall domina.ed not by hum.n .c.iyi.y .nd n1i~~ but by a ,,"uem of cloud •. o<eollS. gfttnerr. and >oils ( Brundtland ' 9117:f.S.... l ." Apan from .he obvious '1utS.iollS of who is Il:pr-.:sen.ed by tmnS 5uch ",""we" and ' our" (Who had .ho privilc:gt 01 soring "OUT plane."n ••he EUl"O«mrism of .hi.s•••• is stri king. Far from rtprtsentl ng an • ...,nnous historical hreak. what is striking abou, , his pic.ure is its 6S). "' T he Na.ional Aeron.utics and S""~ Admi nist ... ion (NUA) rontrol Crew brought ou' the premises implid. in .h. Whol. Earlh inug. ~ ""lIing it tM "Cod~ eye .i(w· of Eanh ( lU ) This no.ion of in~nitt yi.ion. whe .. nothing is hiddtn, ,,·he, •• he distnc .... nting rca
m.'"

'0

I.nd"""""

r ...."' • • "" GI<>ba) Environmt" .. )i""

)0)

~e,

cla.i6ificalion, and rtpr.,.nlallOIDy arc becoming OnO'" lnlerwoven-locally, "'gionally. natJonally, md globally _ lnlO I Sl'1"',," nel of cou~ and effecLS" (Brundtland 1il'8;r:ES-,,),Th.,.., is Ihu. a structural uplanalion for ' one W(t,Id' .. hich goxs beyond. red-good libc .... rism tb.l. in Ihe face of all aVlillble evkicnce, declar<:.i · 011 ......• wilh the ...1of humanily, U. ;", this explanatlon llS a backdrop, the BrulldtIand Commission repon promOtts lhe notion of "susuinab1c dc'~Iopnu:nt" as a solution 10 lhe """.Id's inlCl'Woven ecological and economic dilem",... S."ai..al>1c dr.... Icpmc>u has become lhe new man,,,, af Ihe la'Ee I",nsnatk",.r insl;'u_ lions tb.1 dominote developmenllhcory and pr;tCliet (Ihe World Bonk. "'
"'I

in .... hieh a r~mini%td tropical ""mrt Is sought 10 be ptOtttttd by .... hit~ sci~ntists as th~ patrimony of mankind." It is ~gnificam tMt < g.alhering for fliling to addn:ss issu.s of o'-eTp5cd d<>p<""lon that . uch a cri'ique "",ults in a in tM crea lion of new institutiorts that Cut aCmss ,raditional lssu~ a", .. and s§< ~""h othu in tlut the pTCSCn"" of , .... na· tion is "l'. omistd on the uislence of analogous national unUs in a global co mmunity of ""tions." h is the existence of (It ..... similar entities <.Iltd nations lhot ~ nabl .. aoother major premise of global environmentalism. namdy, thot of "tke human ramily." Ihe un;'-usali.ing w"'''gies e mployN by global environmentol· ists, tlte notion 0( humanity as a family is absolu,ely cenl"'!. II 6nds II< way, wilh minQr mQdl/iC'lltiorts, in almost all the justi6C'11,ions given fOT whal il is .lul;'; "common 10 us . 11" in duling wilh the em·imnnw:n, . M.urice Stron&. !~ his previously cited s p<( enti", human f.mil), " Th. nolion of the human family;'; intclVIlly connecU
"r

eon

or

r .... nts.nd Global Envlron .... n .. li<m .\
iud.'" Tha I il i•• MIC","",,.i., ,. p.uriarchal family is Idl in no doubl : .... (J,pho .. of 1M "'Iimcnl discoul"S(O i5 '0 nalu ....1iu 'M conlrol curctscd by 1M rich ind ustrialized eountn .. over the fCSt <>llhe world. In global environmental disroul""SotS. Ihis i5 donc 'lull( O\"crlly. Th<: !"\lUng dows in lho Third World oflen occupy tM rolo of child,..,n who nttd 10 b. di
" tc: u." In COIltrul to the humanistic pronounce"",n!> 0 1 ".haring one wo.ld : made mostly by leaders .nd activis!> from the Non h. Is Ih. view of ... prtsWtatiyrs "I poor coumm 1"'1 the environ"",m is a crucial a ... na wh.,.., conflict hotw« n ,he havtS and "',"". oots manif~ itstlf. This is

... , ..-tIo" _ - ' n

)06

Poslmlonlal o.""lopnu:nI<

• perspective Ih,u 1$ li kely 10 incmo5¢ in Imporunct in ' "" rUIU"" Ali Cus Spc,h. p,,:sldtn, "f ,Itt World Rcsuun:cs Institult. PUI it aflu Rio. lilt Unlted Sl>1Ie5 "lias lOOlll)' missed Iht point IlIat lhe axis of world .rr.lrs has shifted from East· Wesl 10 No"h-5o\1th" (N""' . ..... k. Jun. n . 1?9~. 46). 1.burice Sirong. Ihe liNn" w:n: LOry gtntral. emplla>iud 1M same polnl when I>< said. ". f w. fail al Ri<). il will be Ont of lhe. gn:al. est brea kdowns tvcr in Internalional ",Iolions. espec;;,\ty concerning North and Soul"" (Indio> Too..y. Jun. I~. '9SI~, /'I) , The. gen.",1 oudines of ' he argument madt by tht Soulh art th. fono"'in~: ]I.t"'t of In. pollution in the world (e re .missions. <:a, bon dioxide emissions. toxic wasles. pollution of octans) and tht (lVU· whelming provonion "r t(!;<'un:t depiction llave bttn ClUsN by rich ("untries In the Nonh In ,he pro<:U$ of Ind ustrialization. For Ihls u'" of common rtSOUrtt'l. tht No"h did 11(11 pay .nything, Now thaI poor Cln",U'ks In the SOl"h are induStrializing. tM Nonh WIn .. 10 put up ""rriers on Ih. grounds that the e<>rnmonsconnot be allowtd to de~no. ral. any furth.r. As N"",..,,«k pilhily PUI it, ..,-hls 15th< global .pplica. tion of 'he ,.-.II_kno .... n ph.nom"""" , bal Ont~ willingnt:S/l 10 ma ke ·..orifices' for tM e",'ironmtn, ~oes up in proportion 10 Ihe number 0 1 Vokos one al",ady "",,,,," Uun. I. 19SI~. 12) . Th. Soulh Wlnts 10 ~I <:qual acc<:S.5 10 the COmmons, Or. PUI anOlher way. it ·. .... n .. (ompensa· lion from tM Nonh for 1Ia"ing u5td up (Omm"" resources '10 lhal il con induSlrialize without u.in~ Iht same polluting. "'asldul lechnologies employtd by Ihe Non h in ils indUSlrialiUUion. How""",. 1M (ounuies of lhe Nonh OTt not willing 10 mob: such lransfus . • nd bcco ..... IMy control tht f~w inslrument< of internalional gove rnance INoI nisi. Ihey usually ha, .. lheir way_" I witI IlIUSI"'t. Ihis ";ewpoinl by a""l),%inl in g",.I .. detail -bility. and .. pil.tion ""'''' ignon:d on Ihe grounds Ihal thO<)' we'" "local" issues bestlelt for sove"'ign nalions 10 d",,] with (C~nt'" fOT Sci.nce and En" ironmenl le u I 11/92:1: '""i~ Too..jI. Jun. I}. '?9:. 90)," EnvinmmI •• mallers rel.ting to prul«:,lunlsrn p ... ctictd by north«n (ounlri"" or an end to larirr discrimination againsl goods manufaclu",d in the Soulh we", .,'oided. Dawood Cham avi . he~ of tho: Pnsan" and Global Environmt",.tism

)01

Worldwi
'''''''1''

-=

soc,,'.

)<>II

\'Q$ta)LonIal DndopmmlS

;1 being lhe resuh of"land c1taranct ror agrkulturt . and IItt poor'$ ust or wood fo' fud" u)· He negltel5 10 15k if 1M d earing of 10T$lands or cutting of wood may be rtloud to th~ us< Qf lhe bcsl agrlcuhuralland to grow crops for expon or the usc: "I wood In indUStriol prodUCtS.!ro tmpl"l'«I 10" lhe gmt purpow. Tht wunlen""lual quot;on shQuld 1>0:. II tM Fi,..t World~ rollSumptlon ptr capita Wert lhe so"", as lho. of tht t,,·cnty must densely populat«l Thltd World cQunlritS. how much de· stTIl(lion "I r"res!!; WQuid Iltt' t be ? The pott nlially mQrt "Qptn" .gricultu ....1trade "'gimt thot ,,111 resuh from GATT ctnalnl)" dotS not hod< ,,·tli lor the f.. t..", of sus ... inahLt agricul tu", In II><: Thltd World. Thost regions lhal ll"" mtehonl<ms to' I.,..,. priers " I agricultural good. to ",ntel ulemalili." such as non",n""... blHly Or pollution would find their marh !!; f\ood.ed ...·;th chtapt' rommodili.. from rtgi0: highly ravo ... blc lur poor countri<:s and may .,·.n turn out I" be only on. hod ho,,",," aWlly from being tu:g,..iv. (""" .IS<) BUIlnd h.nce mJudng fortign debts for poor nation-510'<:s. but they would. as a ","ult. make debt-for-nalD '" SWlIp5 less allT10Cllvt lor banks. donors. and en,·ironm.ntal org.nlnlions. II would Ihus utukr· cut otu: of lilt kry prognms mQUnled by First World en,·ironmenl.1 olplliZlltions to promot ••"'tainable gro"·lh." TT1lnsnatlonal trade is on. of the most clrcet;'·. WlIys to .... nsmil the ...:ological cos'" of ov.",o"",mpUon 0"' to olh.rs. 0... ...... y .o Ih..".i•• lltt tn nsfu of "",I.rials p~ at .normous .",·ironme"tal CO'lI5 in th. Soulh 10 the North through ·f.... " trade is to se. thot such transfers "'prt.S<:n. a subsidy 10 nonhern c"n,umt~. A report bJI .1tt u:ntre ro' Sci. n« and Env;ron"",m (J~1:1-l) !lUke. this poinl very d u rly " [)e.. vdoping (ounlries export S...... inabillty .... hik Indus. rializM rounllt<:s import it 01 1'" (0<1Qftll. former. This di..,oun!!; .hto

lbe wOfld~ POO' living on Iht margin.< of IMi, ~1I,'i"'nmc ,."'" ol lnod. lum again" Ih. now ""'1§." II Iht currI-·."ul modify. and ,..U iralls.rtational corporalions. Farmus. who now SI:cds Olf high_yielding >"ari.11es 10 one . nolher will be; p",,,,,nled from d<Jing SO by 1M ntw arrangementS. A ,..nsc of Ihe importance of farmerto-Iarmcr lrollsf•• of..,cds ClIII be; pup f",m Ih. faCt 1n.1 only 'pprox· imalely,s percenl oIlhe ..ed ""Iuiremenl of Indian ag,icultu", is sold by fnr"",1 agcnc\cs" Heno:dnrth. Ihis will be II>c exciusi"" righl of , h. comp.lllies thai hold It.. Planl·Brttdtrs RighlS 10 II><,..cd in question (N..... Yo,. May 16 . '939) . PalOnl righl. (lnl.UcclUal Propcny Rights) th us 11«<>"",. cook to tho "righlS" Olf multinationals 10 com .. Ihe su",lus from Ihe solt of 5«d va!"klios. AII)'o", who h"" Ihc rcsoUftt$ 10 aher SI:cds gtnctinlly and then . very impouanl. has the obililY 10 patent such an "invtntion" ootains 1M monopoly lOl markct such SI:cds ( Khoshoo 15193; Ec"""",isc, May )0. '991, 6.4;J ..... I). '991, 9j\14)." It Is fo r Ihl. TCllSOn Ihal II>c leader of tht Komuakl Iormus .nnoun«< Soulh's expon 01.ustainabihty find< suppon in the fatl Ih.1 northcm counlries .re wllling 10 promole globol en· vironmenl.lI.m "" long os it doesn' affcci lheir consumplion prochc"," , n.., da", here is e<>mpelling; ""The haves form iust 23 PC' cenl of Ih. population. occupy SO pcr etnl of Ihc land .rea, >CeQulll for 60 per Cenl of Ihe enCl'!lY consumed and earn 8~ PC' cenl of Iht wo.Id's ;ncomc .... an ovc"'gc Amcr\oln consuTIIC$ Olver lwo IOn""" of slOcI ~"'ry liv. )"nrs inlh. form of cars and <:aU m kg ofm•• I, WhCIM' bcd. Iamb 0' pork, every yea•. And consumes 7.8.. kg of oil «]uivalenl annually. In conIra>! . an avc"'lJe Indian consUTllC$ SO kg uf sittl in 'he fOTm "f a <:)-.:1. and eal. only, kg of moal annually. And ooltSum.. ba..,ly IjL kg of oil in lhe form of .ne'!D'" (India Today; Jun. IS. 199'. 91\ )" If. as a lhoughl experimenl. on. w• .., 10 multiply r ndi a:' PC' ClIpi lll c Un ited Stal.. would OIill."" up .. sing ICII lim", as much "ccl and oll as Indians. This Is t nlirely consislelll wilh olhe • .studies of consumplion ( Bldw.1 199':S5) . Thai WCSlern slyies of consum ption we", "." sus-

sa".,

n....,..

pro""

loinable ...1IS evidenl' long lime ago. In .90S, Gandhi osked, "If it look Bri"'-in th •• ~ploh-"tion of half th. globe 10 be what it b today. how many globes would India needl " (eiled in en t9')l:~). Soulbcm leaders al Rio insisted thallhe ral issue was ovc",onsumption by lhe Nonh: predictaN y, there: was olmost no ackno .... ledgm.nt of this fae. u<;¢pt In Gro Harl.m Brundtlandl; oJl(ning ~t.m.nl, in ""hich she soid. -v.'. can\ 1.U1M Third World , 'The wastc·baskel is full beeau.. " 'c fiUrd ii, now you .... ,-.10 help us emply if" ( Fam "" Fik June .8, ' 9')2, 40U)." T~ positions " ..... promin.ntly displo)"Cd In lh. d.bltC$ o""r I.... glohal " .. rmill3 I... aly. which calk d on .11 industrial nations to re:tum 10 their .9'/O 1"".1s of emissions of holhouse: gases. Developing counlriC$ would be pnmilled 0 ten.year gm« Jl(riod lIdon r.,nriclions we ... im~ on lhem. The Iwelv. notio"" of Ihe .c had mode .n e.rli ... pledge to reduce Ih,i, omi"';o"" to tWO lev,ls by Ih. ycar >000, and th.y ... pealed thai pledge .t .he summit. G.rm.ny. ...·hieh is rc:sponsibl. for P JI(",ent of global carbon emissions, unilat.rally .grttd to cUI Ihem by po",enl by the year In lhe [oct o[ stiff U.S. opposition, t..,,,n..,,, the t.... ty was signed whltou, 'podfic dcodlirKS. TognMr, the Unit«! SUt'" and the formu S<wi.1 Union account fOf over half I.... carbon dioHid. cmissio"" in 'M world , and os a group, 1M Nonh is rc:sponsibl. for 90 JI( .... n. of the co,bon dioxide that ha5 .o;umul.t«!ln Ihe .arth~ . t""""ph . ... so for ( N .... yQ(~ Ti ......, Moy I , '989: Tokar '989: Bidwai '991:8S4 ). Yel a plan to impose a carbon \;Ix in IndUstrialized nalions " "as [oiled owill3 10 heavy 10bbyill3 by oil-producing countries. Gh"c" Ih. inbuih incqu .lilios in Ih. t .... ly Ihat [a'~ industri.1 co.lnu-ics, the U.S. re:luclan« 10 5ign was surprising." P.-.ful Bid .....1 off.rs ,he following tx.mplc: "If U.S. P<:' capl"'- ann ....1 .missions (s.l IOns) w.'" to be frozen .nd India~ (0. 12 tons) w'''' to grow., rttf:nl ratC$, India would not "",ch one ton . )""a, untiI1-Olo!-.1~·el surp;oss.d b)" . .... Unl,td SUt.. w.1I btl"", ' 900" (t99l:8s4). Although Indu,tI-b1 countries .... l"C<J.uiJ"Cd under lhe t ... oW 10 IssiSI dc,..,lopi"i natio ... financiall)' .nd ,ccllnologlc.olly to control thdr emissions 01 gr-c.nhouse: glSd, the financial comm;, mcn .. do not approacll ,he tru. cool of al!I\OSp/luk Uhaustioll. "If No"he, n .missio"" could hot , .. dod with lhe South at $,\ PO' IOn of carbon C<ju;,·.lem and damages were 10 bt paid a, h\ PO ' ton . the top ftf.. en pollutus would have ' 0 pay $110 billion t" Ihe Soulh: the Unil.d States alon. would hav. to P"y 5. , billion • ~r" (Bid""'i t\l9l-:8S4). Wh
2'

200,.

r .... nu .nd Global EDvtronm.ntalism J Il

virollll>tntal probl~ms faced by Ihe Soulh (an offon INllhty t:Slim.al~ will cOM $6.s billion annually), Ihoy mel wilh hllle success, MemNrs of lhe!e and ocher Induslrial rounuin agr..d 10 1nc:r<:0S( Iheir aid Iev~1s 10 0-7 pe1ttnl of Ihelr e .. ~ "as ooon os ~ibl.· (bul wilh no dole spttlfinl). Tht Uniled SIlIICS rdused 10 agru lO!he aid IlIrgct lhol il . • 10"& wilh oth~r lndllsui:al nallons, had pledged to meel dulinglhe Stockholm Conf~n:n<x in 11»11 Many pwpl. in lbe first World, poIicymaurs and cnvironmenlllUs\s aliu, held up !he MonlrCal Prolocol on Substanccs ThaI Do:pt.lclhe Ozon.e Layer (1987) OS on example lO be emuloled in Ih. dtSign of Inlernallonal cnvironmenlll lrCatic:!; (Babbill '991:)6; french '?II1:U- 14; Ec"""",iu, June I), '?Ill. ,,). Tht Monlreal Prolocol had delayed dud· hn<:S for (\(v.loping countrks, a prov;..wn 10 I.... nsfu ~Ul'tt$. and punHi"" lradt mCl$urcs for nonimpiemenuulon, The view from Ih. Soulh. """"""e., sow lite MOn' l.rt. , ..... 'Y os a disastrws pact lhal WOIlId pl:nrulncntly Institutionaliz. global iMq ....1iIIcs. Bid"""i off~rs u.;" opinion; "SI n« no responsibili'y is "la(;hod 10 different roumrits for Ilteir ""ryi,,& contribullons 10 Ihe e Fe burden. no tights and obliga· IioIliS follow So lhe Soulh. 'o';,h its current omission of IJ pl:l'CCnl of (Fe., is askod 10 malu the .. me commltm~nl, a1bei, over a long." pl:liod of \lme, .. Ibe North, which product:S 88 pe1ttnt of lh. IOUl. Th. un(\(rly_ lng assumption 15 IItaI il would be. disasler if ..... ry Chi~ or Indian ( not Am.r1Q1n or Japano:sc) hod a rcfrlgcnllOT. bul thaI il is nol rl«o:ssary for lhe resl of lhe wo.1d 10 find substilll't:S for CFes" (1?\I>:8H), Whot has gom unnoticed aboullM ow .... loyer .greement is lhal il was ~nlhnsi· asUc:olly suppontd by \h. handful of muhina'ion.l corporolion-; who produce Cf es. The rt050n is lhol lhey art .\so) the only companlcs lho, manufacture e f e substllU ICS, and -. world han on ( FCS was obvionsly • n id ..l way to lock up the largo.< ~ible ""'rk"lor 'UbsliIUl"" (Cai rn' cross '99u8), Coumrits in lhe Nonh ....ert .00 for mort conoo:med oboul the co"""CSI, how,nr, over Ih. poop< J ,d 10m;1 con""nlion, wh ich was $OIled hack to a nonbinding SUlemerll of forest cO ......... lion principlt:S in It-.. tHlh of :te", Junc ~s , 1?II1, 6.; FOI ••• >; Lakshman '99') ' N
licular a ... excellent "Sinks" thaI abs<>.b <:a.b<>n dioxKk aM tlu: ... b)· min!mlze 0' ,everst global wanning. Tlu:y art also the sil" ,,-lu:.e _ I of ,b. wo.k!'. g,""ie dive",lty l< pttSU>.N. ... T"" northern cOIlntri.,. thll5 Idl lholtMy would bt... lil on 1"'0 diff.... nl fronts ",-jIb 0 ... policy. COUnlr>es sucb as M.Joysla I nd lndla lf8u.d lhol lorcsu wen: • sovertign rtSOUl't • ." Malaysian prtme mlnlsler Malu,bir bin Molumed .aid tlul a 10rtSI convention made ..."'" only alter a worthwhile o.gr«men! on industrial em issions was .... choo. like otltt. developing COun· tti(s, Malaysia Ielt lhatllu: Uni'OO Sl>ltC$ h.ad no jU"ification 10. push_ ing lor a fo.-.st ronvention while lailing to Ig"" to a timetable for hlthing global "!arming.'" !.Iahathir bin Moh.mn1 (1991:57) a.-gued ,hat tlmbt. sal.,. "".e crucial ' 0 tho: eCOMmie; devdopment of his CQtln,ry: "Tbe. u,rachon of timbu can nes would b<: respon.ible lor shuning down their inefficient fann • • M ,hei. polluting InduS'riC$ .nd fOK$llng , ho: laM On which ,hey stood ('992:sA)." So far. I have allemplw 10 draw I comra .. bttwun 'one world" ve",ions 01 global c",;ronmcmali.m "!>d. - North-Soulh conO;Ct- vicws tlf Ihe same phenommon . Both thtSc pcrspc<:tiv.,. underplay Ihe signlfi_ anI diff~renc<:§ he,wun su,.,.. tnvironmtn,al groups. and .ubaltern groups .... ithin ,he North and the South. 5ugg<:§llng a degree of homogede· nel,y tlu, docs IIt)t in rac. oiSl. In ,ho: n<xt ~C\;"'n . I argu~ spite th.ir .horply opposed Viewpoints. 'one world- and - Non h """'u. Sou,h- posltitlns .hart a modernist d!s<:ul"Sive space shap«l. by commOn ide.. about .. rritoriality. ""..,uignt)'. and the nalion ........" 11 is thiS modernisl space; lhol .nabled Or. N.njunda ...... my of the Karnata"" Farme", As'!OCiation to say. ""Our g
,Iu,

".11....... _eo. ,n'eII_Oueo •• ".rl.III._ .Weo""n':

Global mriron"",ntal probltms h>."e brought about an in .. "",ting con_ YOOKonee bet"un otherw\so: n<\icolly distinct political and thwTCtical poshions_ Pwplt who hold diffeTCnt pc.-sp«tiVCS On environmental is.'l~.n agttt that thoy",,",",ow bring into qu.. tion tltt p ... mi« of national ..",cn:lgnty on which the O" isdng oeder 01 nation-Slates is basnI (Wallt~.in 199.b: .-40: ,(oung 1981, 1989 )." What continutS 10 differentiate people along lines 01 "one world" or "nonh-south connlct' Is their undcrsundlng 01exactly how nationol soven:lgnw has become problematic, whal ll; to be don( to deal wi,h this new ~It""'tlon. and how ollt g
an

Similarly. In 1M wake Qf the pessimism cxp....scd by many" the lailuTC "I the Earth Summit 10 app: o •.., binding trutlo. the .. wen: thOst who pointed OUI that ,he =II gains 01 Rio should no, be ovcrk>okod. One Qf tlot bmcfi" of tlot El.rth Su mmit ..~ that "for the fi"'t time in history, nations vowed I" ... ke inlO ac<"un' gl"bal ~nvironmcnllli con«TnS when making Illurnal economic decisions' (N' ...~wulr, June n. 1992,

016 ). J~in Tuch""," Mathn.-s.

viC~

prt$i( World Rtsourct:S I ttSlitut~. 15 quo<w as saying. "I T'" global warming nnty l has ,... II'>' tnni.l of forcing g~rn""'nts to c.... "8~ domtStiC pollcit:S '0 I degrtt I.... n any international .grttmtnt I .... n Ihink of" (N""s ....... June IS. I\I'IIl. » ). Maurict Strt)rtg bttrughl tk at opinions about th~ role "f i"'enl/lll"",,1 organiza_ tions in
gin''''

.0

WIlt"'"'

P.... n,. .nd Global Environm
)1.

S)'ut1r1 of im(rn;ltion.IIOStilutlons is n((( " .,y." Then: is thus a recog·

nition thot tnvil'Onmcnl.ll iss"" an: raising '1l1tStions alxrut ""Ilonal SOV"I:n:ignty and IntCTllllliorwd govcrn;ln« .•bout ""lI"",,1 order and lhe onkr of ""lions. But to undcrsl.lnd precisdy "'hal this chall""ge me:ans tlw:ortl!ally. I ..-ill fim nOy t......, the historical ",lolions b..tWttn ",,·.n:;gnty. tcmtoriality. and lhe: nat;"n·51.11 • . H()Wc..." odd it may appca' from lilt pers~live of the prt$(nt. lilt OOIlon Utat syst.ms of rul • .should be . or need be. tarltorial is not It .11 5c1£-erld(tlt." It Is a ~uliariry of ,he particul,tr history of mOOtTII Europe thol a s)"I~m ofrul. camcto be Institulionaliud ,haillad .IILS basis Slales thaI ~ uni,,,,,,,,I; IMI wen:, mormver.terrilOrially fixed; and IMI ""1.Ii1'" the; mun,,!! ""dusi"" of olhers from lhe: t.rrit<>ry (Agnow and Coomono' mous_variant of SIlUCIUring ~nilOtiaI iopOCeis thc familiar wOO"ld of l""";toriGlly di.joint. mwtJutUy ad... lvc. jlul(11"""Uy sl .. lIa" sov-cn:lgn Slalo5" ( RuUi': '99PS'; (mphasis added)." A Slrong cemralizcd admln· iSlr:llivc $IlI.~ is not found in Europe unt~ 1M end of lilt fiflttm h cenlury (Foucault '99UO) . and it Is anolOO Iwo cenlUries befnn: a S)'sttlll of 51.1105 rotn(S In lo err\"CI (Young 19), Ch:a,les Tilly callol. lhe , ixlttnth cemury "lI time of signi6camly rising $IlI.tf;ncss" and charactcrtud the latt!" ...""ntttnth cenlury ... constituting ". frenzy of Slat.· making" ('91SO~)." ln OIher words. along ptriod of a mnia ""'" 11>0: ""'Wl't of polilical unil5 was foU()Wol. b)' conflicl 0"'" the bowtd.:t'itS of thote unll5 auggic '99); Tilly 1975O::!II). Yet by tilt beginning of the eigb.lttnth ""ntury. ,he practlce of the: mUlual ackno ... lol.gmcnt of §(lV· .rtlgnty thol il trrmM th~ "stal~ oyst.m" was al",ady in TMI thi>...., a highly contingent OUtCOme was underlined by nlly ...!>tn II<: wrot~: 'Tilt Europe of ISO<> includt:d SOme: liv~ hundred RIO .. 0' I~ Independent political unll5. lite EufOJ'" of 1900 aboull .... my-li"". The Gennan $IlI.\C did nut uiSI in 'SO<>. Or cwn '800. Comparing 11>0: histories of Fronct, Gennany. Spain, Bdgium . and England (0'. for llIal mallCT. any other set of Wesl European rountries) for illumination On I'" pt"OCt$StS of Slale.making ... eighl5 I'" who!.. in<juiry loward a ct!· 1.Oin kind of OUtcome which _ . in facl. quit. ran:" (197sa; ' S) .... Stale sov''''lgnry. which is to
,g.S8,

pl."","

.""''S''''

complt.~

idNlogical """,mooy. Scholarly work Iwi ,~.-.kd'o und.ru. im ••~ ... nously lhe imporu"". 01 lhal hyphtn. " 'hich oimul .. ncously • .-...co and ... ,u",li,,,, whal i•• u",ly .n Incid.ntal coupling ( K";"'j 199~: Naooy 1991). TIlly ~mplwiil:«Ilhi:; ","'n),. &aid. "In Eu",!", ... lnalion bUlldingl genc",lIy occurred .her ,he lon"," ;on "I sc ,008 nd by no muns os a difttt or .mom.,ic con~ ... nc. of ...... building alo .... • He .ummarized the contributions a volume "n stair building In Europe by .mplwiiling tha, the aUlho.,. "Insis, un ,he ..... I)~ic SOp'"",lon of stl". buildlng from "".ion.building. .nd coMick. 1M nati",,·uar~ ""I)' one of """,",,,I "",.iNe OIIl1" lall : wha,enabks.hem.o get ,hings done. to defend Ihrir borders. and .0 S«u'" thrir exlsten~. When ,I>t cancep' of nali"",,] ""',mg'u), came to be conjoined ,he laritotial basis of ..... hood. ,hen ,he ideology of ,n. modem onk. 0 1 nation-stal".1IS i, "'6) ..... Just . s stain nttd Ih. int'IS"I~ s)'Mem ' 0 .sublish terriUlri.lly bosni au.hority. SQ do na,lons ... ed .h. in .. rna, lonal sys •• m 10 ~ngtnd ... "'Kulale. ond n,,",,"liz<: th~ I. ding'! . hal 0'" dubbrd "na.ionalis ... • In fact . ""i.h.. s....hood M ' na,ionalis ... is possible 0' intelligible wlthoout II\(: Interstale and inl~rna,ional s)'sums." Whal has be und .... ,ood ahoou'lh. n.tion-'Ial~ is ,hal it lusn these JIO""'rlul lo",es In 0"'" en.;.y. No •• nough a ... n.ion has bttn paid in .he 5<:hoIarly lil~ra,u", '" lar 10 ,,," implic:llions 01 'his fusion. both for the sludy of na,ionalism .nd "thr "01." and. equally imporullll . f(>1" II>t Sl udy of Im.madonah.m and Ih. In l.DU.I. S)"lcm.· · Qoc.c .h. problem is laid oul In this manne •. It becomes clu"" wh)' .h~ id •• of "",~ .. ignly is '" paradoxi",l Th. claim of "",...ign'y b on. tha, a,,,mplS '0 stabilize . nd fix 1<:"";'(>1";.1 boundarlcs. specify id.n,i· ties, and e:Ih. r units tha, are diff.ren, in Ih.i. ctt1tu",.nisu",,.. • nd ~en

""<:s.•

'0

'0

'0

"Umpt...... nt" but aUkt in Ihtl. CUnstilUlIV<' mQ<\alily, Ih~n Ih. PTelense 10 self-suffiden<'y Is rev.aled for whOl il is ( M.lkki 1994). In olhe, words. SO)verrlgnly Is . ",lad "" lhol. 10 be e"".dscd. muSI "miSJeOOg' nin " itself 1$ a self-sufficient identity. Storting from Ihe prtmise of $UJtc _rtign'y. Ih.,.d:ore. already SlfUClurtS Ih. a ""Jy~1s of "Inttrdeptn· Yitz em. ' 99'0) Thot paradoxical .... IU'" of soYell:ignly 1$ absolule Indh'!dualion first beame vlslble:.,..;th probltm. of diplomacy. The question ...-as how 10 rttognlzt lhot S<>V<'ll:ignty 01SOme othotr state .. illli" you. o" 'n lgduclions ol n.lion· .... les. W1"1,largc QI 0..... 11. As £Ii
''''It

of 'M Euro~an Communi,y. "The ,oday in Euro~;s orilllc, 11<1'iorull , upt0 long.. vi.bI • . Fordiil mass production proved 10 br on unusually efficient cngi ... of gdltS 10 Iransn.,ion.1 cotpon.';o .... Whal ls on. 10 moke of 'his relreat Of"5tol~-ness· in Ih. '-'ry h.an of 'M capitolist W.,;l l And how is Ih. ,;eIeCti"" rollback of .h. functi"ns of Ih. 5"''' ,n br TC~ltd 10 lilt vjntl.nce of an exclusionary, racially chargtd nationalisml A", Ihes<: lwin mo'-emen15 conn"'ltd in .ny way to postcolonialilyl Whal I ",i5h

.,>r

.rgu.

10 ~ugg$ is IMI if ..... Icolonialily .. It.. condiUon lhal I'tgi-'le .. 1M cxMu-'lion 0( lhe: prom;se of Ihe modem ""lion ;n Ihe lormer coloni ... ilS (ltM. lact is the ~ul"'nnnuation 0( the Fordisl nalion in "1M .....$ ." The 1..0 movemtnts, 0"" tGw:nd """tsLale lorms 01 capiuliSI "'glInizalion in "the W""I" and the Olhe:. lOW>rd poslcokml.lily In Ihe Third World . come to "" llnked al Ihl:!; hl:!;lo";cal Junelu", by ntW modahlies of global dlsdplinc and "'gulalion." Instead 01 II.. dc.::linc 0( Ihe nalion"sIOIe , I p",lcr 10 Illk about the lenslon belw«n "nalion" and "stale: arguing IMI a ""rtkula. ",lotion· ship IMI coo.\esct:d In It.. 10...... lion of I\lllon~l<:5 may be un",,,,,h,,&COlIne, In many pon.s 0( 1M ...·"'Id. ,,"n!cularly lnos.. whose borde.. Wfcre arbl\rully d/"llWtl by deponing colonial rukrs. Ilia, n:1a'ionship bel""..,n nallon and slllC was nt:Vcr I convincing ~Iion!' Another way 10 lheorize the growing ctisl. of Ihe hyphe:n I. to shift OUr anemion 10 • prottSS lhal Fouconlt (199 1) has termed "SO"crnmcntahly: Br g""ern_ mem nlionoUly or govcrnmcntalily, Foucault rele .. to In.lenscmbk 01 instilutions. procedures. and laClia 1n.1 allow Ihe cxen:is<: of . certain kind of Il"""'r whosfc object is populo.ion Inlhe seltSC Ilia. il seeks .o regulate It.. ulations bel,..e.n pn>pk and Ihi,,&, (Gcrdon 199' ). In Eun>pf', the problem 0( SO"ernmml upandcd in the SIXI..,nlh cemury in 'M fl(c of opposing tendcno:~ $late oI'tSCIlLalion. By lhe middle of the dgh,..,mh century. the c",fl of govern · In& "",II IhW!i bee."", It.. an of managing the «onomy and Ike popula_ tion for the: common ,,·dlart 0( . ll .'" Tke sole purpo5'< of rule ""as no 10"3'=r jU$l ,he defe"", ar>
or

'0

, u ti,,,,),: ra,fier. it btco ..... th~ provision of s«unty lex form of p< n:mga.ni1.O,'on of capit.lism In tM Last qua n. r of this century (Mandel .m: Ha ..e)' '989}.Just . s the nation·state was illl.,ral to Fordi5t manul""lu", by mul,i"",;"",,1 corporations. which had th. backing of Jl'O"'. rful lmperi.liSt stat~. ~ IS .he .ension b(.w""n nation and Sta'e n:Lattd .0 ,he industrill dominance of "Clv. . . mbival~ntly J>O'5 itioned in "'gards thei. ... 'k>nalil)l But ,htS( .... w mod.. of govemmen.ali.y on: n Ot going uncnoU.ngffi b)' group< thai an: likely to be adversel)' affected b)' 'hem. I 'Urn now to an analysis of tn. actio,," of peasant group< in India ,hat nov. organi,ed a scrics of sU
"'''''m ....

'M'"

'0

_..... _....

No 0 .... can predict how emergIng mod .. of gov~m""'''tali'y wlU

.ff"",

lhe ~v~ryday lives and p""'lices of p<:
l1'

anot""r a.:t, tM daring -".id" of o.c~m""r >9, t99>, in ,.'kick membcos of tht Kamataka Farme.. AS50Ciatlnn nnsacked the Il;Jn&olor¢ corporom offic"" of Cargill Suds India Pm;"e limited, an Indian subsidi_ ary of tM giant U,S. grai'Hnding mul!inabnnal. Sevcnty-livc farmtrs climbed tht four nighu of 'tairs to the: Cargill office, burst through tho: doo., annou""r:tt the j,(aCk of papClion drew a formal p",;bili,y for 1M actions of its Indi.n subsidi.ory in lhe: Bhopal d\satau.. of the pn:scncc of a hydrog<:n plam nullO Ih.largeled f..:lOry_ In Nonjundas_my\ d~ou .... , the Fa"""TS Associalion waS carrying on I struggle "3"'i"" colonialism Ihal had firsl !xcn launched ~' ,n. na,ionolisl m",·emenl_ He proclaimN tht f.rm~rs' imemions as hoing "t" banish.11 multinational sa:d comp;mks ,,·h;.,h a .. Mr,- to ransack our COUnlf}'" He cxplkidy ...,furN t" tht f.rm .....· actions as initiating

the ~cond Quit IMia MO"~rru:nt .goinsl imptrio.lOO" .nd ro:lter:attd tMi, C<)mmitm.ntlO G.ndhian socialism, "which hos bttn forgot .. n by all polilical panics" (nm<'> of I"diI'C lhan Nanjundas,",.. my. n:produced a nationaH.. discourso. in which P"""p<:ril y and mod .. nity cO""litu .. Ih...I"" oJ n. lioNlliI,....· lion. Bolh leade .. usn! dcvdopmem discouIWS, pKmi..ro on tekolo· gics of lhe n.,lon. Ihat had bttn hegemonic inlCrnotionany unlil Ihe righ.itS.o o.-goni" againSI th. C<)nt~mp'm.ry p,,,adigm of "o""n" "",n· omi.. touted b)' Ih. intemalionalaid system. The n.tlonaH .. rhelOtic of .uch ""asant klde .... nkailarod Nanjun· daswomy might apposis of.n ;ndigt"nou~ ilknlily. I... osnatiOllal ooalitioOS Ihal are simultaneously abo.... and Ixlow the nation· .ute, ptasanl koders wo.kro ac. lvcly 10 make C<)nncClions with olh", groups across Ihe world . Thus. of Ih. resolullons adopled al lhe meet· ing. on. prod "i"""" thaI "planl """,Ith, Sttd ....Ith, and In"lItt" ...1 property wen: tM property of Ihe fann . .. '" ,h, WQ.1d arod called upon all countTit$ 10 launch. din:C1 slTUggk lO pmlCC' the: colke. I". rightS lof farmersl and pRv.nl "'em from I>bol Envi ..... ""'n ...b.m

J.l.J

.uhong. 01 StMs among Ilnn.rs of thl: Thin:! WQrld. ThI: International instifUte lor sustainabl. agricuhlll't was lonna!!y inaugurated On May)O. tm. OS a joint proj«t 01 the u n and ,he Third World Net· work .• development and .nvironm.ntal orgalliUtioll b;,scd In Malay51 .... A.... n from the promotion olorganic lanning ttchniq ...... the aims of the lnstltute include hl:lplng fanru:rs Stol'f: tDdilio"",) varietks of cultivars in community Stttl bonks .nd rtvi ... lwttion 01 tho6c c"hinrs to p~~ g..... tic div.rslt)' Farmers broughttw<> hundred varieties of vanous mlp" .... ;th tMm 10 $Urt lhe I~litute" suds banks. Explaining tho need for the institute. Nanjunda5w;omy soid that fanners bod bun incu.mng mounting d.bts bectuse of input-intensive modes of cultivation. tNt, tht:y had become dependent on a f.... ~aril:l ks of cuill..... rs promoted by 1aTgt' ... ttI com .... nies •• nd that It.. ""il had betn mowl. Infenllt by large r 'm)."' Nanjunda5wamy featured prominently in an anti-Dunkel protCSl meeting of fanners. I:C01ogistJ1, and consumer groups from around the ....orld In Ge""",, on December ... 199J. while the final GATT negotiations _ .. taklnl pia"'" Contn.ry to pnsitions attribu ted to him ••rli... he maintained. "Our sta nd .. that India should n:main I mtmber of GATT. but ol>ould ha..., do .... ndtd drastk amendmenlS in tbe ag".".,em " (F'."uli.... J. nuary .... 1994. .0). In .... hat follow:.. I "i ll bridly pursUt ,.... lllterCSIing contradictions betwttn the upHdt .mp~is On nati<>na.1 sov=ignty.nd Stlf-detenninalloo and the populist appeal to "f.nners of th<: wOOd" and 10 other tn.nsnalional. Inte~ic (1 .,emationaV dOlM"sric) co.oHtlons that put soYen:lgmy Inlo question." These tensions ....... harder to find in the SlItemenLS of various peasanI> Itlhe M.rch rally. which, in con$Clou. rcf=nce to the In.dcpen. denct Movanenl. was called the "s«d protCSl" (bu) SIiIY"gTAha)."' As 0"" farrncr put il. ~'c Irc """'''' lhal th.,... fon:ign proposals .... In allttMJX to dony the: best suds to uS and pul US ot a disad""mage when mmpHfil to formers of riche:r nallons. If lhe:y an: acttpted.1he multina· tlonal companies win SlaIt dotennlnlng '"IT Jomcsii< agricultu ... policies. W. an: also pm!$lng against othe. antl·fanner SI.ps LOk.n by the g(»..:rnment in the past" (TImn of India, March 4. t99): crnphaois odded). In viItu.ally ,t.. same """"""". ,his farmer aIticui.led both . he kind of nationalist pnsitlon histoncally espoused by the 1I0vernment in In.dia.nd a critiQ,lte of tt.. ijOl"'" go~ernment for .mp~l.ting the industrial, as opposed 10 ,he: agricultural. 0«10. in lIS pursuit of m<>
uP. ,"l)icM • trulrt unamblguous ""lio""USI posilion , "Our I...d~rs lu",,, ...id Ihal 1M lor.ign pa~r lDunko! Drahl i. all ,viI desigll 10 ... 11 MOlh.. Indi. 10 lortigners. FOl •• iurn Ilann". I ' h" Hf••upport .n: hi, land. S«d arid plough. lf tM Rao Govcmm.nl s-:U. Ihf:S<: 10 lon:ig.... rs whal .... ill hap~n to 1M ""lio",,1 prid. r ( Hindl.S/an Tim ... March 4. ,~). S) , Another f.rmCT. from Ih, prim. minislU's .Ittioral intw II>< crisis of lood pmeln.lion lhat had plaguw th. COIlntry in Ih. s«ond half of 1M ,itc tit$: "Bul not loday. Wr. an: now ..,If-suffic;''nl in crop produclion. So .... hy this ..,1I..,ut [0 M NC. I multinational corporations]?" ( HindlOS/an Ti...-s,

l<,

~bn:h 4. 199), S)

It would boo miskading t" p""ray ,h. mas<

Dunkd proposal. as il.tt p" .... nl5 w.rt unanimously I>I>I>""$o"l$ a", 1M nation. lradilional farmus. prtlilical app"al. such a dichotomy is not dd,ruihl •. Th< gre.t majority of Ih, ,Upp""CTS of the v,,",ifcrously .n,i· Dunkd BKU w~", rtlali.·tty wett. to.do landowning farmers. wi,h 10'1' nurk< SM,k.ari Songathana, declared: "What~ wrong ",;th Dunkel ? [p",fer 10 pay royalty for good quality .... ds than pick up bad subsidised " ..... (India T<>d.>y. NOrth Amerlca" ~ition. January's. '99-1 , ,,). l h. pmDunkel group also held a farm.rs Tllily in New Drlbi on Ma",h JI. 199). Explaining It..: signl fieance of ,he demonstr;I'io n, Joshi SUIW.: · We fully ,uppon 'M Dunk.! proposals and I totally frt. economy. W. ,ball ..ok on allianet wilh other fo", .. which sund lor a fTC< economy. This will boo a produce.. ""rsus paf1lShcs demonstration' (Hindu""" Ji"' .... F,bruary 17, 199J). Joshi pronounced 1M end of ,he firs, "'puhlic in which P~n ... n
Globol Envl,.,nmentali>rn

J.'I

1M SUI~ controlled Ihe <:<:onomy. and hc Issued a call for the second republic. wilh no gI')¥emment control on .~ports. imports. or the rest of ' M <:<:onomy (HI"m.~a" n",,,,. fe bruary 17. 1993)." This was in k .. ~ ing ... ith his bdkf that if g""em""'nt restriclion. on them " 'cre lifted. farmers In India could prolitably ...II on the world "",rut without subsldieo. The orpnizahon'l p ...... nt at the meeting p ...... nted • five_ point chart~r of demands to the g",·. mmcnl Ihal Included calls fOT ~owlng the dumping of agricultural produce from abroad on the Indian market ( TiMnoJI..di~. April I . t99l). TM Shetkari So.ngalhana\ posilion urul
"'&I"""."'

st."""

_.... ... ,

I Mg>.n this chapt.r by j .. ~taposing two ",·cn.S .hal. fm .ll p"""ico\ purpo5CS. may h..ve <X(:urrtd in dllf... nl workk on •. I rustic
I~'·els

of analysis 10 Ihink pn<eisoly of lho OVOTlaps b.",,~n lho discourses and actions surrounding biodiV<':rslly oflSOtM Itwli,n f'''''''1"$ . nd the e. ",b,...1 machinations of highly placed poli Uc,",,,,, . nd bu· ",aucr.. tS acting on the w",ld~ stage. 1 have bttn Slruek by IN: .,.troor· dinary conveWnee thai discou"",,, aboul the envirollllKm di.plltyed in the Iwo cases: po!iilions on biodiversilY in bolh Inslances WeTe engen· dered by con«pl> of lernlnrioUty and snveTeignly enshrined in , Ite nati"n·.t.... It should "" empnasiud lnall do nol wish 10 ncephonaliu Rio bm iMle. d locole it as on ;M"'''''' of mOTe profound ehangcs o«urnng in Ihe world. The Eanh Summit Teprcst:ntcd not . beginning but a focused formali ... tion of • ..,n es of p;ecemeal mvironmm tal ' ''''I~. of ,,·hiell mo", Ihan 17<> Iud .lTCody bten signed btlo", Ih, Eanh Summit. A close analysis of lite differ.nt positions prCS<':nled at Rio sh",,-.. lltallJllting lite high road in conceptualizing en'·iron"",n!>.1 problems in I""" 0 1 "our common fUlu", : in f. cl. univ ...... liz.d and nalu ... lized exiSling globo.l hi ...."'hies and inequalities. Crilks from , Ite South '1uile comedy saw lhe environmentalism of Ih, Nonh as rnis6ing the poim, insofar as II failed to conlrom lu lly Ih. f;W:I Ihal PTCS<':nl consum ption p ... clkcs aTe diTeuly responsible for most 01 tlte world~ en,·iron"..ntal degrac:l.alion ond ' herdo", for Ihe dedining lif. chanen of Ih. workl's poor. Thl)" poinl oUl Ihall"" iml"TSOnalily of m.. ~.ts and th. invisibilily ofth.ir effeci. should nol anow nonhern consumers t" forx.t tlta. "".'" " ... g. ing a daily Nule againsl III""", living on Ihe margin. of subsislence In tM lar com ers of th . .... orld. I argue Ihal whal m.kes Ihi' crilique ""w.n ul is. p"raple and Ihlngi On a global seal. an: bl"'uling across this "un·

r .....n.. and Global Environ""' ....1iom ll7

bundltd" spac~, c..,ating nov~1 sites and modes of rt.isunce. Those who fed ""poocially vul""rable \0 the disciplinary mechanisms insti_ tuted by this new mod~ of govmun.c. uperi~"". its impendi", arrival with a grut deal of [til, and unc.rtainty." As mani/OS! in farmen.· prol<:Sts against tho ~t.tion of biodiversily Implicit in the unh Summit and the GATT, they express t""",, criticism. within contradktory logics. 0... strand of the critiqu. draws on familiar analogies with nationatlsc struggl.,. apins( oolonial p
S(;l l~ (onsolidatlQn and drcuDlS(:nPlion ," bul lh~

most malign fonn lhal such a JIfO«"'i could (;Ike would "'Suh in a "world Qfbanditry, of halted, of 1"rochialism, and of gross iMqullily" ( ' 9\1'1'717). In ~ntUling 10 go inlO uncha"ed lerrilOry, I ..i sh 10 pursue lhe implications of this now mod. of g<>v~rnmcntaUly fOT ,he: Iypes and forms of politlCllI organiLalion thaI it .nohles. As long as I'us;onts a,.. v;~wed as helng tied 10 the ,,'orld economy primanl)' through the na,ion.st.I., lhe analytic impor_ tance 01 new modes of disciplinc that a,.. nul .1 ~",la rly n!ali.ted 'hrouglllN: n.lio'Ht:I'. bUI have powerful im~ts on pusont lif. will be ml~d. Bo,h those "'ho odd",,,. the now world "compact" ."" lnos.: who denounce i, as impenalism On ,he 1"rt of ,he North fail to gI25JI aoicqltoldy how ,hc:s<: new modes Qf 8
P..",nl>.nod Gl<>hol Envi,o ...... n .. li....

J.l9

T

he prot""" by rarmus groups in India
Klsan Union. rallies cmpllasiud rcmUlU:raliv( prices, cqull.ble d'''''Iof'nu:n, of lh. countryside. and the cnd of corruption (d~rlbffi in Chapter , ): 11$ Joint agll.Otlons with the Kamataka F."".,rs Ai5OCia_ lion Wert >gah'SIIM GATt. nIP , and muhlMlional Sttd companIes (do$cl"ibftJ. in Chap«:r s); and the lalCSI.mo of agilOllo ... by 1M nu have been agoin§.( .-.stau",,,! e","ins own«l by tr.msruuional COfl'O",. lions, 1M potcnUng oJ agricultural products, and ncolibuol cmnomlc policies. Op.ning markus 10 inlunatin ....! cQmp"li'i<)n and disman· tling the "poormlt_li«nse "'J" "'ere high on the agenda 01 the CongTtS6 rtgi_ hodcd by Narasimha Rao ( ' 991-96). Libt ... liza,i"" h..... lded. shift in tho: SlOIf:~ dis. je<:t;"" of "drvdopmUl' " was twllong .. 1M .,... Inmen! of ".110....15<11suffiCiency and S(WC",iglltl' What .ff...:u did nwhbuol poliCitS novo: on runll areasl How Wert ""v<:lopmml poIicltli changed by glOOallutlonl Why ~ policie!. opening up lbe food seelor 10 muhin'lio",,1. ,.."isl«l SO vi8Qrously by Iht 1
I ..... l)";~ ...-hy ,h~ nu has ",ken a n.:ition;lhst poshion In attlcking food·_to r tralt5 .... ' io""} corporations. Fi""lly. I uplo .. the implica' ions of recent forms of pU s.;\nt resistan« for undtrstandings of tM condition of postcolonlality. Slr:"~gitS.

Si""" ' 909) . much of , he a"entlon gh-en \0 .,.......nt groups has turned on IItt fann~rs mo".ment in ,h~ is<)Ull>cm Sto,~ of K:l.matllta. Prof<:S50r Nanjundaswam}\ ludtr of the un, has 5pCameadt:d a ... ties of attacks on tltt Qffl<"5 and restauranlS owned by trarlSnation;tl eorpo ..ll ions itwoh-cd in tM food _,or. Aft ... J une '99S. whtn Ken, ucky Frini Chicken (~fC) . • subsidiary of Pepsico. Ol"...ed a rcstlurant in Bango· Ion. tltt indUStrial C~nt~r .,r Ka""'tolta , Nanjundaswamy launchtd a campaign 10 disocrtdi, H e is<) as 'Cl fom i, to shut down il5 optr:lliorlS. In buo J uly. h. ga'" Kfe an ultimatum to lea". tM country within a w .. k '" fa<;<: "di.-.Ct actiQn" fm selling carcinogenic Junk food. NanJun. daswamy~ SCllln:e QI InfOTm.tion was • U,S. xnate .-.poOT people. By inc",osing tM demand fo, li".. tock. tnUu .... nt choi"" serving m.al· based foods would dl~ert gnin lrom poor people to .nlmal f«d. whk k fetched kigl>cr profi ... In ,kei, $lTUggle agailt5' 'he multlnaLional fastfood iooustry, farm ....·I.o.d~ ... "-err joined by prominent • ."iron m• ." ,.l!st$ $uch as Manelta Gandhi. fonneT minls'er lor Ihe environment 'fhe nos ,he n plonned a m.ssive ....lIy '0 disrupt t:F~~ busint:S$ on N"".mbc", 1m. One of the activiti .. leading up 10 the .... Ily ....... to be the rem",,,1 of Pepntd .... e5" (pn, Novem" ber I. ,~). it ....... ",ported thaI lh. ~ " ', quietly obtaining tltt support Qf labor unions .nd local ,,' g.:m i>a'iOrlS lor an ~.nlual d id on tltt ""'t.urant. had p"'l"'",d a stralegic blueprint 10 a'l2Ck mullinotional

Epil<>t!uo ).),

corpor.lions (.... co) $0 as 10 obtain lite mallimum miltag. from 'M act. In . esponw. poltc.: authorities St.pped up lite .l .... dy liihl , ' ...·.my· four-hour 5«uil,y around the: ~u",nt. local.d in an upscale ..... 01 the city. Despile ddivntng th .... ts to Ilk. "dirul aClion ; , h. pta ... m group carefully bided lu time: , xv ....1 mon,hs later, on Jan .....,. , 0, 1~, il struck. A groupoh'iO larmers bursllmo lhe: IT:WIuranlallunchtitn< atwi ".oe«ded 10 brtak windows. smash lumitu"" bum ledgers, and ,hrow ut.nsils oul from II>< IVl'i>-Storied !'$.Iurant onlo lhe: St1"«t ~g('lO(, F,,,,,,. f'rnM. Fcbrwtry " I~), Th. "",lIunlnl ""'" dosed iOOdinilcly, ' Nanjundas""'my an!>Ounct< raid. I>< was 1l:leascd in I few days .fter posting ball wunh. $.,0]'0.' How."" •. ,h. coun "'jttted ,he bail appli«ltions 01 lhe ,Ol nu .upponcrs aITCSIed during ,he lockicnt (Railers. F.bn.tary 9. 1!1')6). In II>< .ftermalh of the .. id, tke polic. comm"'l"""r posltiontd 6"" .nncd guards around lhe offices of all 1()Tt)'·... v.n l",nsnallonal companies in f1anplon: . Th. com m""""'r silled his mol"" nol 10 al· 1_ • "'pttition 01 the K" incldem anywhe ...lse in the city (Dnilsch. P",...,·Agcntw," Februa.,. I, I~ ). The "suttcs.o" of the ~'C; . .Id appca .. d to gl"" Nanjundas" .. my's campoign .. ntWtd vigor. When Pepsico announud it would OJ'(n a PUu Hut rcsuu",m in Bangalo", In Ju"", Nanjuoo.." .. my defiantly $bled.: · Plna Hut will haw: 10 pull Its shullers, We have .ttacked CargillSttds IUId Kentucky Fried Chicken w. WlIn,ed 10 inl· t;'l •• deNtc 00 the role of multinationals" ~g<",c Frana Pm", June 'S. I~). How.""r, he rdUSo«! to "".. al what form the pr"OteSt agalnsll'll:za Hut would take (Rnuc,-" June 8, 1996) , p.psico ob ... ined. a coun ordt:r onJun. 15 prt>".nting demonstrations ftom bo:ing held within the vlcinlty 01 Ih. 1l:SlauranL N.njunda."",my wall quoted .. saying iNt he would go ahead and make a spttCh at .he Street COrner where the ~u ..nt was Iocoled, bcca_ "'freedom <>I up .....i<m can· not bo: rcs.trkted in a public pi"""," Th. un planned 10 petition Ih< High Conn 10 squa:>h the order and. 011« .galn. , h ... tcnnl. tnat i ,

.n.,

oown

btt._

WQuld ~n tQ -di ""'t actiQn," as it had agains!. Kentucky fried ChicM" (Agt",r Pms., JUM IS. ,~) , OpPQ$ltion til fas t-food rranch\sof:S ,,~ !lOt limited to tile fanners m<)v~mOds and fast.food ,ro nsnolionols btoIm~ II>< focal poinl of di<s;ltislaction with "frivolous" fo r.ign inv .. tm.nt. OW. watll mkrochips. no{ potato chip<;: w.m th. opposltion:S slogan, Oig-iJay Singh or tho: So.majwadi Pany put Ih. m."cr mos. ~",clnClly: "In. counl!)' wh~", o rdin'I)' propl~ C1nnot grt 0""" S<j ...... me.l . do)'. " ·r .... in,iting multinationals 10 pttport fas t lood. " 'hich only til.. amu.m ...11 afford" (Vrw!so:hr P~-A~.,.rw" AugnSt 13. '9!lS) · Crilicisms of the CongrtSS Pany~ libr ... liuti<m pol" icit:s s«m to hav~ hit thdr m.,k, Although ttl) pony CQntnling th~ national rlectioo. (hrld ill lal< April and r .. ly May .9\16) "'!"iou.ly contemplated rolling back ncoliboral KrOTmS. the CongrtSS Pany ""as humiliated . t . he polls , finishing . hird bohind th. IlharatlyaJa""uo Pany (~, .) and the Unltcd Front. This follo .... ed scrious IOSSG In by-elections .nd Stat••1«:ti0Il5 .nd aw.KIIC<' , .nd impact 01 """olib",,,,1 pdas" "m y's 1tKW."",nt was s«klng to tap_ W.lI-to-do fann. rs had. di... ctlntcTCSt In the "';CCtion Qf norolibrral pOn prices (Qr fo,m OUlpu •. Allh<:>ugh (arnu:rs mOnm.nLS "..... activo in ""rions pons 01 tn. count." N.njuOOa~wam)' IwI bc<:om. lhe mOit visib!. ~ym_ bQl of ru ....1 diSSOtisfac. lon with the ntoliberal agenda_ UnUM nkalt. N.njundaswamy mQv.d .osily In cosmOp9'1 ). It i. importanl '0 no', tM' tbr 1(.... nataka r.rmcrs " ..... nOt narrowly locused on tK(Ilibrral pol ki<:s: instrad, altacks o n lron,nolional CQr-poro. lons we", a m~ans 'O ankulo"'" mo... r. .... TeaChing criliqur 01 dr".lopment that "'.nt btyond th~ pol. ieks Qf th. Indian SUI". Obviously, dtv~lopmcnl agt:n.hs WO'" implicit in n«:>libr",l «:onomk policlu: hovo·~v.r. th.~ ""as no OIlO-!O-
F,,,,,,c

w,_

Epi logur JJJ

_ys. ~ay simil", 10 I~ Kisan Union dt:scribtd in C"'plt. 1. an.d Ihe lWO groups wo.lu;d IOgether quile dosdy to organize major ",lIies . nd protCS!6.

Tho: Karnatoka farmers' t ri'k ism of n..,libtr.ol St ..... gi.cs of dcvclOJ>' mcm had Ih,.., "'Pft'\S.' TM fim. d o... ly ronntcltd 10 lilt al tacks on fast-food outltts. had 10 do wilh 'he df«ts On thco poor In In.dla 01 . 'ys\cm o""mtd 10 1M world ma.ktl.' Unit"'" .uch P,,"SOnl groups IS tl>c Shelbrl Sangalhana ltd by Shar.>T f(>l' grain. As Sc .. ~ (193' ) . ... lyob of Ih. Ilcnpl f.mine kas rtvealed. unlc:M muhanisms Irt In pia« 10 gu .... nlce 1M poor a minImum lev.l of . nlitl.m.nts. wtll· conntc\M marktl5 can umovt fQOd vcry dT«Uvtly from ,holr plates. Th. second pan of In. K.mataka f.rm~ ..· crllicism of III~ ... olibtral dev(lopmenl ago:nda is Iltal maTkct_frkndly poUclcs hav. ~ulted in a grtaltr concc nlrotion of ",,,oIlh and havt increased lntq",,]jly In tht country_ Individuals "'i th tM eapital to lnyC$l In agco-Industrlcs Iltal eatucd 10 .mu.nt co",um... abroad or ricll co"",,,,,,.. in l ooia~ u.bon a ...... ~ood to btnclit dispr-oponiOnatdy from lhe · Ol"'nlng up' 01....... ""'IS.' The . bllity to..,l1 good. and l.bor on Iht inl.rnati"",,1 m.rk.11u.s durly sl.... tif.cd Ihco domestiC « onomy, ~ thO$< with educat ional and Ii... nclal capital ha"" captum! lilt built of tht btntlilll flowing from globr.lu.tk.... As nc:w agm-Industries ltav. 5prung up to product food. flow. ... fruil, and fish for the global """""'1, Ihis p~ Iu.s heg"n to aff«1 rurol artas. Kamataka, in panic"I... kas bun . Iea
lng honkultunl upons, and SO rur.ll a ... as In tha, 5U'~ no,"" txl"'ri_ ~n<:td I~ ~ffec~ oflibtr.lh.LIIlion tarli.,. than th_ in oth.tr stotts, At a me~ting of t.... Agrarian '""'y, an organiza tion of 0 ... hundrtd produ«J . 00 1. 001<55 groups from f(my·fiv. countries in Mulco City. NanJundas ...... my niltd agailtSl 1M con<:entr.ltion of .... u llh caustd by ntolib.ral polic"": "Pulling land, we.l,h, and pow.. in tht hand. of largt land""....... and transnational corporations unjustifiably, and inJuriously, "'nits fa""" ... 1M right to . on!rollheir 0"'... dostiny" (InlttP ..... S.""lu, Aprll16, 199'\). In Nanjundas.....my~ analysb, JUSl as Inns",,· tional <:oTpOr.I'lons (:OmprUmise t~ SOVC ... ignty of t~ nation, SO do tMy undtrmine farmus' rights 10 .. If..!<:lcrminalion. Tht third aOO stro ng<st aspal 01 faf1nt rs' crilicism of nwliberal pohc:ics b aimtd ., hs effects on hUm;Jn h..lt h and tho: environment. One of 1M main agenda< of tM KarnaLOk.a F."""r5 As.soclilion b 10 w.. n its .... mbe .. off Ihe;r dtl"'ndtncc on cMm i",,1 farming. Such farming makes the soil inftnile and rtdu«s gt ... Uc di,.. rsity by m;Jking IgricUlturt o (lit ' hem. In ilS cri,icism of ol"'n markel policies. Ih, Karruo tak.a Farmers ASS'i '994). It is significant tnot the critique of • nrolibcral development $lraltg)' should foo;us so much on th~ rol~ of transnalional corporation., Why did the un devote SQ much 01 ilS tne..gy ' 0 physit:lllalLOCks on mnhi_ national corporalions! Why did il ma k~ ... ch .n uplkit con"""lion bc,w«n actlorlS .i mtd at pro
important dirru"nc~ bttwt~n ",lit, modds of drvdopmrnl .nd ,n. cum:nl 0 .... As • «nl.. 1 justifi",ulon 10, th~ postcolonial Matr. ·d~· ... Iopmrnt" was alWll)'S tnvisioned os. poo«ss th:ot would fortify and consohd'l~ national J()v~ .. ignty. Thudo.., Ittack.. on tM slrl,.gy of ~Iopmcnt bring p"rsu«l b,.- the gov .... ment. such as those dC!iCfibtd in Chapt~, '. could bt mount«l in tho: nam~ of tltt "glrms oaounlllbil_ ity I() the people . The Icgitlmacy of th~ Kisan Union.nd oth.,. fa,,,,,, ... gn>Up!lloy pm:iKly In lhei. claim I() $pCak for the rund a .. os. wh~ .. tht majonlY of peoplt In India still Hvt' Wt Iuov~ to n:mt mba. I>o"..~ ..... tluot the Kamalllb fannen' .ttack on ntolilx .. l development In tho: nlrm of tho: ru,...l poor e"actS its OWn Stts of ud""I0",. likt tht Kisan Union. the b.d,bo"" of tltt un ""os lormed of n:lotlvdy well-to-do agrlcuhuristS; it ""as Ih"" unclear how much u.. poptllist ~u .. of attacking multinalionals was. sU"l.ttgic weapon employed I() legitimize its campaign and how incl""ivt the uu~ ownJ>PO$ing 1M pol~ of tTaIU""tio",,1 corporations. By doe..,mpluo.izinr. 1M objeclivc 01 ""tlonal SOVtrtignty; """Jibe,...l modds 01 development also tnadt it mort dlfficull 10< policies 10 be n:s;s..d and ... formulaled b,.-
hon of SUSLalrutbie agrlcuhurt nttds I/) be inlerprt1ed in Ibis COnlUI. According 10 tb~ uu, troIogiatUy susuirutble fanning nol only prt1.Tntrd tr.. dcgnod.adon of 1M soil, incrusrd p..sam pmlllS, and p( bealtb of tbe soil. environmenl, pLonl<, Ii>( humans wh.o co",umed the food produced in thb man ..." and, by e~lenslon. the heahh of III<: "", lI)n ilS<:lf. The ull f.,.- • Str'"eg)' for self·sufflCient. «<:>Iogiatll)' sustainable farming has 10 be inlcrprcttd in this light_ In addlt;on to ilS dloru 10 p",,,,,,le healthy famling. the Kamataka rOml.rs "'"""iahon atlempttd 10 rorge Illln.natio". 1 OOlllid"", "'itb 0111<:, pcasanl groups .•"'ironmental orpnitalions. _nd Consume' associaUons a' <)lInd Ibe world (a pmc<:$S documented In Chapter 5). It is ror litis reason thalli "'ould be a mistake to 5« in the actions ol lhe

Kamalaka lanners ).. t another ex.mpl<: of -1"",,1" n:sista!ICC to "global" proctSSt$ of dominalion. All , Ite cb.plcl'$ in this book, p.,,'icularly Chapters I .nd s. dcmonstra,e lhal "global" dlscour:s6 of d~dopment , m:o,kc\S. technology, and nationalism an: pan .,[ "Iocal" lives .nd "local" f... mcs of meaning and .'" nOI. for example . externally ImJ>06'l'd on Ih~ .,,,'}'day lives of rural Indians! In faet . I sn&g<:St tMt lb. dichotomy belw«n 1M globoland tbelocol is largel)' prtdic.atM on lhe nahon. lOt one pol. of thai dicltotom~ indicU", lba, which is ou\Side and tb~ O(Mr that ",hich is inside lhe nation .- II better way to understand tb. aclions or formel'$ group' in India wculd be to sec lhem .s pan of (~Icrm..tlc (intrm.lionalldomCSlic ) coalitions lbo. art all~mpti", 10 ,,,,;'t forces of g"''-~mm~nt.lity whicll. rr operating across aoo Ihrough the .pacos of nation·stateS. To cxamin •• pan iculor sit. cardully; as I have dun. throughout the book. ;. nOl lo do a "Ioc.al" p"'iec!. P"",;'tenl analytic confUSion Mt",'«n plac •• nd .~. help" "'!nat. a "loco!" study "'ith 0 ... lhat pays .n ~n((on 10 plar~ and 0 "global" ~1tIdy as on~ thaI locks such a foclL'i, It ;. for Iht. rr&SOn Illat a 6ne.g ...;t>«I. hlstoric-ally nuanced . Int.rpreti,'e study atn b. praised or dismissed fo, Ming ""pa,Ilculat." issu.. of the scale "I uplanotl.,n. the location of the study, .nd tM spatial fra me or the anal)~;s art Ihus collapsed. into lhe confusing dkllotomr of "'panicular" and "gen",al." Tr..v""'ing differenl seal", 01 , " planation and different discursive .~ l'«Iuln:s lhe kind of inlerdisciplinary apprnach 111.1 I have em·

ployed in Ihis book. Tilt btntfo, of pursuing such an inLtrdiscipllruu)" anal)"'lis is thaI h brings «na!n fULUrcs of _ili lif. into viow b).' o~n· i", up .""n.... 10 do$<:ribt and In'trp«' thorn. 1\ is not my oonl ..ruion lhat.,..-,y work on India oughl 10 look al Illt kinds of fuLUru ,hat I ha,~ idontili«l In this book as being """Ino.l Lo Ille condilion of poslCoIonialit)". BUI it is wonhwhik 10 nOlc that foc using On questions of hybridity, 11;0 ro]" of tht S!.al. (lhTOll'" di!.cou~ of dtv<:lopmtm) In ..... iliag.:" India. and lilt p...scnce of conm,dictO01.;'" OT commonl in lilt schola rly liLtralur• . In this SC"~, inl.rdl.sciplinarily has tnabled US 10 ask a diff.... nt set of q~tions and liltrefore 10 look for diff=nt kinds of .mpiriCiI maltrials in Illt SlUd)" of SoUlh Asian ~ty For .ump]" ....1", I....... lations bol..,t.n pus.nl m"".mtnLS and opistcmologies of agrlcuitufC holp5 makc connections btlwoen knowledgt Ind po"".' lhat I.... '~rso di'ICiplines. """les of analysis. and spatial knls. Issu.. of mobilization and ... i.t.anc. run through I.... book. and it is to lilt ...latlon bttwttn Tc5istanc. and liltmcs of poII{coloniality that I now IUrn . Whal .... tht irnpliollions of tllt shifts in ptasatlt rcslstonct docu· rrtCnted in this . pilogue for an und.os .. ndi", of poII{colonialityll hav• • rg.... d lhat any understanding of postcolonlolily for rural people in India hinges on Iht .rticulation of dl.scoul"S(l; of dtvtlop~nl. global capi.. limI. and lechnologies of food producllon. I ha,~ .l>IkavORd 10 dtmOl"l!tlrat. lhal Ih. glttn ... voIUllon and SlOtt dtvtlopmtnt policio:s had a profound im]»C1 on lito .veryday live; of ru ....1 ptopk. Tht .rfects 01 suSf: idenli,iCS have now bttn \h.., .... n intO """'" confuslon. This is ... fkcted in tilt di .... io"" within 1M ~ .... nl

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~'"

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101 , r..-

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hu ..... , hat

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modo:..,.

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1o." ..

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_
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