Primary and Elementary Education

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PRIMARY AND ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ii iii PRIMARY AND ELEMENTARY EDUCATION • Policy and Programmes • Growth and Development • Organisation and Management • Sociological and Psychological Aspects • Democracy and Education Edited by JAGANNATH MOHANTY Former Principal-cum-Professor of Education, Dr. P.M. Institute of Advanced Study in Education, Sambalpur and Radhanath IASE, Cuttack. Emeritus Fellow, U.G.C, New Delhi DEEP & DEEP PUBLICATIONS PVT. LTD. F-159, Rajouri Garden, New Delhi - 110 027 iv ISBN 81-7629-372-5 © 2002 JAGANNATH MOHANTY All rights reserved with the Publisher, including the right to translate or to reproduce this book or parts thereof except for brief quotations in critical articles or reviews Typeset by THE COMPOSERS, 20/5, West Patel Nagar, Delhi - 110 008 Printed in India at ELEGANT PRINTERS, A 38/2, Phase-I, Mayapuri, New Delhi - 110 064 Published by DEEP & DEEP PUBLICATIONS PVT. LTD., F-159, Rajouri Garden, New Delhi-110 027. Phones:5435369, 5440916 v

Contents Preface ix PART I POLICY AND PROGRAMMES OF PRIMARY/ ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL

1. National System of Education and National Policy on Education 3 2. National Education in India 17 3. Education for All: A National Challenge 29 4. Reschooling, Not Deschooling 39 5. Life-long Education: A Way of Life 44 6. Action Research for Teachers in the Context of the National Education Policy, 1986-1992 48 7. New Challenges of Education 53 8. An Educational Trip to Wales in the UK 57 9. Reminiscences of a Primary School Supervisor 61 10. Salient Features of the British Elementary Education and their Relevance in the Indian Context 67 11. Role of UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, World Bank and UNFPA in Financing Education 73 12. Rights of the Child and Universalisation of Elementary Education 82 13. Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) in Elementary Education 91 14. Constitutional Provisions and Amendments for Education 101 15. Research on Educational Broadcasting and Audio-Video Programmes for Professional Growth of Primary School Teachers 109 vi PART II GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY/ ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 16. Growth of Primary Education in the Free India 119 17. Development of Elementary /Primary Education since Eighties 143 18. Primary Education—Its Role, Objectives and Functions 157 19. Universalisation of Elementary Education 167 20. Equalisation of Educational Opportunities 183 21. Disparities in Elementary Education: Barriers in Universalisation 193 22. Innovations in Elementary Teacher and Adult Education 199 23. Operation Blackboard: A Symbol of Progress in Primary Schools 208 24. Principles of Curriculum Development 220 25. Curriculum Reconstruction 241 26. Elementary Education as Human Resource Development 259 27. DPEP: Much Ado about Something 272

28. UN System Support for Community Based Education 278 29. Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovative Elementary Education 295 30. Learning without Burden 299 PART III ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PRIMARY/ ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 31. Role and Responsibilities of Teachers 313 32. Effective Teaching and Successful Teachers 325 33. Inservice Education and Training for Teachers (INSET) 335 34. Classroom Organisation and Management 344 35. Headmaster: His Duties and Responsibilities 353 36. School Plant: Various Physical Resources 361 37. School-Community Relationship 378 38. Organization of Co-curricular Activities: Values and Principles 386 39. Art Education in the NPE: 1986-92 395 40. Children's Literature: Nature, Needs and Characteristics 401 41. Role of Juvenile Literature in Elementary Education 409 42. Evaluation of Students' Learning 414 vii 43. Media and Materials for Children's Learning 419 44. Teaching Techniques and Skills 425 45. Audio-visual Education 438 PART IV SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PRIMARY/ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 46. Elementary Education for the Underprivileged 453 47. Education of Girls 467 48. Education of Children from the Scheduled Castes, Tribes and the Backward Communities 481 49. Elementary Education for the Backward Learners 493 50. School Education of Specially Handicapped Children 502 51. Problems of Financing School Education 511 52. School Improvement Programme for the Elementary Schools Through Voluntary Efforts 514 53. Some Problems in Tribal Education in Orissa 520

54. Child Growth and Development 523 55. Physical Growth and Development 535 56. Intellectual Development 542 57. Emotional and Social Development 545 58. Children's Creativity: Meaning, Nature and Identification 551 59. Encouraging Children's Creativity 558 60. Individual Differences of Pupils—A Challenge to our Teachers 562 61. Language Development of Children 572 62. Promotion of Speech Activities Among Children 580 PART V DEMOCRACY AND PRIMARY/ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: CASE STUDIES AND INVESTIGATIONS 63. Impact of Democracy on Primary Education in India 587 64. A Study of the Inspection Reports of Primary Schools 594 65. A Study of the Methods of Inspection of Primary Schools in Orissa 610 66. Early Childhood Education (ECE) and its Need for Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) 624 67. A Study of the Efficacy of the Field Trip in the Teaching of Social Studies (Primary) 637 68. A Study of the Reading Interests of Children 642 viii 69. An Investigation into the Problems and Prospects of School-Community Cooperation for Democratisation and Improvement of Education 651 Appendices: 1. Government of India and UN System Support for Community Based Primary Education 660 2. An Extract from the Programme of Action (POA), 1992 689 3. "Learning the Treasure Within"—Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for Twenty-First Century; UNESCO Publishing, Paris, 1996 708 4. Norms and Standards for Elementary Teacher Education Institutions, 1995 720 5. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: A Programme for Universal Elementary Education in India, 2000 734 Bibliography 743 Index 750

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Preface Primary or Elementary Education has been the major concern of all nations, since it is the foundation of the entire superstructure of Education and is directly related with success of democracy. Its universalisation has been taken as an international challenge, a national commitment and an important concern of the States over the last five decades. Universalisation of Elementary Education being a Constitutional Directive has still remained unrealised and removal of mass illiteracy being a "national stigma" as pointed out by Mahatma Gandhi, has still eluded the grasp inspite of a large number of projects, schemes, experiments, drives and campaigns. A plethora of reports furnished by various Committees and Commissions have been implemented half-heartedly without expected results. Although the problems are still serious they have to be tackled as early as possible with a strong political will and a determined national commitment. This book is an humble effort in the form of a compendium on this major issue "Primary and Elementary Education" presented in 69 chapters under five parts. The Part I is entitled "Policy and Programmes of Primary/Elementary Education: International and National" in which there are 15 chapters dealing with the Role of various international bodies like UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, World Bank and UNEPA in the field of Universalisation of Primary/Elementary Education and Elimination of Mass Illiteracy, National Education System and National Policies, New Trends in Education like Deschooling Movement, Lifelong Education, Rights of the Child, Modern Media and Materials for Professional Growth of Primary School Teachers, Minimum Levels of Learning and the Constitutional Provisions and Amendments in Education and so on. All these chapters though concerned with education in general, seek to focus at Primary/Elementary Education in particular. x The Part II "Growth and Development of Primary/Elementary Education" contains 15 chapters directly concerned with the Growth and Development of Primary/Elementary Education, Role, Objectives and Functions of Primary Education, Universalisation of Elementary Education, Disparities in Elementary Education, Innovations in Elementary Teacher and Adult Education, Operation Blackboard, Curriculum Development/Reconstruction, Elementary Education as Human Resource Development, Equalisation of Educational Opportunity, Learning without Burden, UN System Support for Community-Based Primary Education, DPEP, Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Elementary Education. The issues discussed in these chapters are very vital and core to Primary Education in general and the Universalisation of Elementary Education in particular. The Part III entitled "Organisation and Management of Primary/ Elementary Education" embodies 15 chapters discussing the Role and Responsibilities of Teachers, Effective Teaching and Successful Teachers, Inservice Education and Training for Teachers, Classroom Organisation and Management, Duties and Functions of the Headmaster, School-Community Relationship, Improving Classroom Activities, Organisation of Co-curricular Activities, Art Education in the NPE 19861992, Role of Children's Literature in Elementary Education, Evaluation for Improving the Teacher Learning Process, Teaching Techniques and Skills and Audio-visual education. All these chapters seek to improve the quality and effectiveness of Primary Education. The Part IV "Sociological and Psychological Aspects of Primary/ Elementary Education" consists of 17 chapters which generally deal with various constraints and concerns of different groups of clientele The chapters therein mostly dwell upon Education of Girls, Children of the Underprivileged, Scheduled Castes and Tribes, Backward Learners, Specially Handicapped Children, Problems of Financing by Government and Voluntary Efforts. A good number of chapters have been devoted to the brief discussion of psychological issues and problems concerning Primary Education as it was felt that knowledge of them would enable teachers to do justice to their activities. Some of these chapters are on Child Growth and Development, Physical, Intellectual, Emotional, Social and a few of them deal with Promotion of Speech Activities, Language Development, Identifying and Encouraging Creative Activities of Young Children. The Part V entitled "Democracy and Primary/Elementary Education: Case Studies and Investigations" include seven studies and research xi reports in brief which are related to Primary Education in its various aspects and dimensions like Impact of Democracy on Primary Education, Inspection Reports of Primary Schools, Methods of Inspection of Primary Schools, Need of Early Childhood Education for UEE, Efficacy of the Field Trip in Teaching Social Studies, (Primary), Reading Interests of Children, Problems and Prospects of School-Community Co-operation for Democratisation and Improvement of Primary Education. The findings of these studies are quite relevant to the needs and conditions of Primary Schools and would help

planning, organising and evaluating various programmes. Lastly, in Appendices excerpts of four important documents of the Government of India, UN Agencies and NCTE, New Delhi have been given for enabling the planners, teachers and supervisors to perform their duties more effectively. Teachers can democratise the various activities of the Primary Schools, and follow some innovative methods of teaching. Supervisors can supervise the school programmes effectively, School-Community Relations can be improved and democratised for solving various problems of Primary Schools and Teacher Education Institutions at the Primary stage can be improved with standard infrastructure. In this venture, I acknowledge my indebtedness to various Government and non-Government Organisations, concerned International, National and State Institutions for utilising their materials very profitably. Especially, the keen interest shown and encouragement given by Mr. G.S. Bhatia, Managing Director, Deep & Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi in developing this book, is very encouraging. I hope, in view of the international challenge, national commitment and State concerns for making Primary Education universal as well as successful, this humble attempt will be received well. Bhubaneswar JAGANNATH MOHANTY xii 1

PART I POLICY AND PROGRAMMES OF PRIMARY/ ELEMENTARY EDUCATION: INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL 23

1 National System of Education and National Policy on Education BACKGROUND OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION India achieved her Independence from the foreign shackles after the historic struggle of peace and non-violence under the ebullient and dynamic leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the Nation on August 15, 1947. The Constitution of India was enacted and adopted in the Constituent Assembly on the 26th November, 1949 after a long period of hectic preparation and deliberation in a series of brain/storming sessions. India was constituted a Sovereign Democratic Republic on the four pillars of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. The Preamble, the Fundamental Rights, the Directive Principles of State Policy and other articles of the Constitution have all breathed a robust spirit of nationalism and visualised a national structure of strong federalism. The National Anthem and the National Flag are the bright testimonies of these national characteristics. The Constitution Fathers have made adequate provisions for maintaining national unity amidst cultural diversities. Education has ever been accorded an honoured place in the Indian society. The great leader of the nation when engaged in the Freedom struggle realised the fundamental role of education in accelerating the pace of Independence movement and stressed its unique significance for the national unity and development. Gandhiji formulated the scheme of Basic Education not only to harmonize intellectual and manual work, but also to unify various parts of the country into a national whole. Basic Education had most of the characteristics of a national system of education and it was intended to lay the foundation of a unified India. 4

GENESIS OF THE NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION Just after the Independence it was decided to reorient the educational system of the country in order to adjust it to the changing needs and aspirations of the people. Education was also regarded as a potential instrument of social change and national upliftment. It was taken as a vital factor of the national progress and security. It has been the major concern of Government both at the national as well as state levels and increasing attention was given to educational reconstruction and reorientation. Several Committees and Commissions were required to review the educational problems and make recommendations for bringing about desired changes in the structure and strategy of education.

The University Education Commission, 1948-49 made recommendations for improving the quality of higher education and the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 made suggestions for restructuring and reorienting the secondary education. The former one wanted higher education to be built on the foundation of Indian heritage and culture. It recommended to strike a balance between the material and spiritual aspects. It emphasized the quality of teachers and new methods like tutorial system. It advocated the use of mother tongue as the medium of instruction and stressed the need for moral as well as religious education. Having expressed concern over the deteriorating standards of education, the Commission suggested for raising the college age, introducing an eleven-year schooling and a three-year degree course. It pleaded for better admission procedures and recruitment of teachers based on merit. The Secondary Education Commission recommended for making secondary education a terminal stage as well as a preparatory one for higher education. It suggested for introducing practical bias to the study of theoretical courses. It pleaded for using the mother tongue as the medium of instruction throughout the school stage. It recommended dynamic methods of teaching and introduction of moral and religious education with a view to building character. It suggested guidance services in secondary education and reformation in the examination system. Attempts were made to implement the recommendations of these Commissions and the Resolution on Scientific Policy was passed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru, the erstwhile Prime Minister. As a result of this the development of science, technology and scientific research received special emphasis and encouragement. Towards the end of the Third Five Year Plan, a need was felt to get the entire 5 educational system reviewed with a view to initiating a fresh and more determined effort at educational reconstruction. The Education Commission, 1964-66 was appointed to advise Government on "national pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages and in all aspects." This Commission made a comprehensive review of education and worked out a five-fold nationally accepted goal of education, e.g. productivity, modernizations, social and national integration, democratisation and inculcation of social, moral and spiritual values. It recommended a clear-cut educational structure with reasonable flexibility for education at various levels. It urged the state and national level machineries to define, revise and evaluate national standards of education. It stressed the steps for improving the quality at all aspects of higher education, eradication of illiteracy and provision of continuing adult education. It suggested for setting up of National Board of School Education to advice the Government in school education and assess standards of education at all levels. It stressed study and research in agriculture and allied sciences on priority basis. It practically provided a basis for national system of education. National Policy on Education, 1968 The Education Commission, 1964-66 in conclusion suggested that "education should be given a statutory basis everywhere and in all sectors, and education Acts should be passed in all the States and Union Territories" and that the Central Government should issue a statement on the national policy on education which should serve as a guide to the state and local authorities. After careful consideration and nation-wide discussion on the Report of the Education Commission, Government of India was pleased to declare a National Policy on Education in 1968. It was convinced that a desirable reconstruction of Education on the broad lines of the Commission's recommendations was essential for economic and cultural development of the country, for national integration and for realizing the idea of the socialistic pattern of society. The Ministry of Education and Social Welfare (1974) has aptly said, "This is necessary if the country is to attain its rightful place in the comity of nations in conformity with its great cultural heritage and its unique potentialities." (P-2) The National Policy on Education (1968) embodies the following guiding principles for the development of education in the country: 6 (1) Strenuous efforts should be made for the early fulfillment of the Directive Principle under Article 45 of the Constitution seeking to provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14. (2) In view of sine qua non importance of the teachers, they must be accorded an honoured place in society and their emoluments and other service conditions should be adequate and satisfactory having regard to their qualification and responsibilities. (3) The regional languages should be adopted as media of education at the University stage and three-language formula should be accepted by all states.

(4) All efforts should be made to equalize educational opportunity by reducing regional imbalances in the provision of educational facilities and by adopting the common school system for promotion of social cohesion and national integration. (5) For the cultivation of excellence, talent in diverse fields should be identified at as early an age as possible and every stimulus and opportunity given for its full development. (6) The school and the community should be brought closer through suitable programmes of mutual service and support. Work experience and national service become an integral part of education. (7) With a view to accelerating the growth of the national economy, science education and research should receive high priority. Science and mathematics should form an integral part of general education till the end of school stage. (8) Special emphasis should be placed on the development of education for agriculture and industry. (9) The quality of books should be improved by attracting the best writing talent through a liberal policy of incentives. (10) A major goal of examination reforms should be to improve the reliability and validity of examinations and to make evaluation a continuous process. (11) Educational opportunity at the secondary stage being a major instrument of social change, facilities for secondary education should be extended expeditiously to areas and classes which have been denied in the past. (12) The number of whole time students to be admitted to a college or university department should be determined with reference to the laboratory, library and other facilities and special attention should 7 be given to the organization of post-graduate courses with adequate training and research facility. (13) Part-time education and correspondence course should be developed on a large scale at the University stage and this should be given the same status as full-time education. (14) The liquidation of mass illiteracy is necessary not only for promoting participation in the working of democratic organisations and for accelerating programmes of production, but for quickening the tempo of national development in general. (15) Games and sports should be developed on a large scale with the object of improving the physical fitness and sportsmanship of the average students as well as others. (16) Every effort should be made not only to protest the rights of minorities, but to promote their educational interest. (17) A broadly uniform educational structure should prevail in all parts of the country. The ultimate objective should be to adopt the 10 + 2 + 3 pattern, the higher secondary stage of two years being located in schools, colleges or both according to local conditions. Review of the NPE, 1968 and Afterwards It was mentioned at the end of the National Policy on Education, 1968 that the Government of India will also review every five years, the progress made and recommend guidelines for future development. In pursuance of this, at the time of formulation of every new five-year plan, a review has been undertaken to assess the shortcomings and achievements of education and decide upon the programmes for the ensuing five years. But these reviews though useful have served very limited purposes and are not adequate for taking decisions as regards long-term planning and reorganisation of education on the desired directions. In 1979, the educational policy was reoriented with the change in the nature of Central Government, the basic aims remaining the same as those of the 1968 policy. Greater flexibility was introduced in the context and duration of various courses. The draft Educational Policy, 1979 aimed at delinking of jobs from degrees, providing pre-primary education, implementing adult education as a national programme, regarding expenditure on education as an investment, linking education with Indian culture, book development, community participation and so on. The draft national policy was merely a pointer to the direction on the path of education. Its success depended on the inputs made by both 8

individuals and institutions. Government and community. But it could not have a fair trial due to lack of reasonable time. Before the Parliament could approve the policy, the Janata Ministry went out of office and the Congress (I) Government pursued the 1968 National Policy and programmes virtually ignoring the reforms proposed in 1979 draft National Policy. Prior to 1979 education was the responsibility of the States, the Central Government being concerned with certain areas like coordination and determination of standards in technical and higher education. A constitutional amendment passed in 1979 made education a concurrent subject being the joint responsibility of the Central and State Governments. The National Policy on Education, 1968 practically continued up to 1986 with a brief spell of some changes mostly in priority or emphasis. The review of the former is very well done in the latter which is worth mentioning here as follows: "The National Policy of 1968 marked a significant step in the history of education in post-Independence India. It aimed at promoting national progress, a sense of common citizenship and culture, and to strengthen national integration. It laid stress on the need for a radical reconstruction of the education system, to improve its quality at all stages, and gave much greater attention to science and technology, the cultivation of moral values and a closer relation between education and the life of the people." (pp. 1-2) It has also been rightly remarked in NPE (1986), "perhaps the most notable development has been the acceptance of common structure of education throughout the country and the introduction of the 10 + 2+3 system by most states. In the school curricula, in addition to laying down a common scheme of studies for boys and girls, science and mathematics were incorporated as compulsory subjects and work experience was assigned a place of importance." Unfortunately there were several bottlenecks which stood in the way of implementing the NPE, 1986. This has been very strongly pointed out in the NPE, 1986, "While the achievements are impressive by themselves, the general formulations incorporated in the 1968 policy did not, however, get translated into a detailed strategy of implementation, accompanied by the assignment of specific responsibilities and financial and organisation support. As a result, problems of access, quality, quantity, utility and financial outlay, accumulated over the years, have now assumed such massive proportions that they must be tackled with utmost urgency." (p. 2) 9 National Policy on Education, 1986 Education has been continued to evolve, diversify, extend and enrich its reach and coverage, since the dawn of human history. It has been aptly said in the opening paragraph of the NPE, 1986, "Every country develops its system of education to express and promote its unique socio-cultural identity and also to meet the challenges of the times. There are movements in history when a new direction has to be given to age-old process." The system of education in India has been undergone changes from time to time. But it has not been adequately realistic and related to the life, needs and aspirations of the people. Sporadic changes brought about in the same have not been well-planned and properly implemented in the past. India has now faced challenges from the continuing revolution in the world of technology and form so many problems relating to the quality and security of life. The country has thus faced the challenges internal as well as external and education is the most effective instrument to meet these challenges. Education can enable people to acquire knowledge, skills, values, etc. that are essential "for building a dynamic, vibrant and cohesive nation capable of providing its people with the wherewithal for creating better, fuller and more purposeful life". The country now stands on the threshold of the twenty-first century which may be impregnated with innumerable issues of unprecedented nature and characteristics. With a view to equipping children of today who will be the citizens of tomorrow, education has to be reoriented and revamped all-together. The NPE, 1986 has therefore observed, "Education in India stands at the cross-roads today. Neither normal linear expression nor the existing pace and nature of improvement can meet the needs of the situation." Every human being is positive asset and a precious national resource which needs to be cherished, nurtured and developed with tenderness and care coupled which dynamism. Every individual has his own growth problems at every stage—from the womb to the tomb. He has to pass through various social and political problems fraught with erosion of values. The national goals of secularism, socialism, democracy and professional ethics are coming under increasing strain. The catalytic action of education in this complex and dynamic situations should be planned meticulously and executed with great sensitivity. The NPE, 1986 has rightly said: "The country has reached a stage in its economic and technical development when a major effort must be made to derive the maximum benefit from the assets already created 10 and to ensure that the fruits of change reach all sections. Education is the highway to that goal." (p. 1) With this objective,

the Government of India announced in January 1985 that a new Education Policy would be formulated for the country. A comprehensive appraisal of the existing educational scheme was made, followed by a country-wide debate. A national document "Challenge of Education—A Policy Perspective" was published by the Ministry of Education in August 1985, for providing guidelines and relevant data for the purpose. The views and suggestions received from various quarters were carefully studied and the National Policy on Education, 1986 emerged as an important land-mark in the field of education. The salient features of the NPE, 1985 are as follows: 1. The NPE, 1986 aims at ensuring a national system of Education which implies that up to a given level, all students irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, have access to education of a comparable quality. The common educational structure 10 + 2 + 3 has been accepted in all parts of the country. The break up of the first 10 years will be 5 years of primary education, 3 years of upper primary and 2 years of high school. The new system of education will be based on a national curriculum along with a common care of India's heritage, freedom struggle and national values like egalitarianism, democracy, secularism, equality of sexes, protection of environment, population, education and so on. 2. The new Policy will lay special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to equalise educational opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have been denied equality so far. This includes education for women, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, handicapped, minority communities, etc. 3. As an instrument of liberation from social oppression and ignorance, adult education and continuing education would be providing through various media and programmes. 4. Emphasis would be laid on investment on the development of young child, particularly children from sections of the population in which first generation learners predominate. A full integration of child care and pre-primary education would be brought about as a strengthening factor for primary education and for human resource development. 5. The new thrust in elementary education will emphasize two aspects: (i) universal enrolment and retention of children up to 14 years of age, and (ii) a substantial improvement in the quality of education. 11 6. A large and systematic programme of non-formal education would be launched for school drop-outs, for children from habitations without schools, working children and girls who cannot attend whole-day schools. 7. Emphasis would be on consolidation of secondary education, vocationalisation and internalisation of desirable values and ethos. 8. Children with special talent or aptitude should be provided opportunities to proceed at a faster pace, by making good quality education available to them irrespective of their capacity to pay for it. 9. In view of the need to effect an all-round improvement in the institutions of higher education, it is proposed that in the near future, the main emphasis will be on the consolidation and expansion of facilities in the existing institutions. 10. The open University system has been initiated in order to augment opportunities for higher education and as an instrument of democratising education. 11. A beginning will be made in delinking degree from jobs in selected areas. The proposal, however, cannot be applied to occupation-specific courses like Engineering, Medicine, Law, Teaching, etc. 12. Research as a means of renovation and renewal of educational processes will be undertaken by all higher technical institutions. 13. In view of the likely emergence of changes in management systems and the need to equip students with the ability to cope with them, effective mechanisms will be devised to understand the nature and direction of change per se and to develop the important skill of making change. 14. Since the country has boundless trust in the educational system and the people have a right to expect concrete results, the first task is to make it work, i.e. all teachers should teach and all students study. 15. The education can and must bring about the fine synthesis between change-oriented technologies and the country's continuity of cultural tradition. In our culturally pluralistic society, education should foster universal and eternal values, oriented towards the unity and integration of our people. Such value education should help eliminate obscurantism, religious fanaticism, violence, superstition and fatalism. 16. The three-language formula and development of language will be implemented more energetically and purposefully.

12 17. Together with development of books, a nation-wide movement for the improvement of existing libraries and the establishment of new ones will be taken up. Provision will be made in all educational institutions for library facilities and the status of librarians be improved. 18. Educational technology will be employed in the spread of useful information, the training and retraining of teachers, to improve quality, sharpen awareness of art and culture, inculcate abiding values, etc. both in the formal and non-formal sectors. 19. Work experience, viewed as purposive and meaningful manual work, organised as an integral part of the learning process and resulting in either goods or services useful to the community is considered as an essential component at all stages of education to be provided through well-structured and graded programmes. 20. Environmental consciousness should inform teaching in schools and colleges and this aspect will be integrated in the entire educational process. 21. Mathematics and science education will be given emphasis for developing logical thinking, analytical mentality, spirit of enquiry, creativity, objectivity and so on. 22. Sports and physical education are an integral part of the learning process, and will be included in the evaluation of performance. A nation-wide infrastructure for physical education, sports and games will be built into the educational edifice. 23. Opportunities will be provided for the youth to involve themselves in national and social development through educational institutions and outside them. 24. Assessment of performance is an integral part of any process of learning and teaching. As part of sound educational strategy, examinations should be employed to bring about qualitative improvements in education. 25. The status of the teacher reflects the socio-cultural ethos of a society; it is said that no people can rise above the level of its teachers. The government and the community should endeavour to create conditions which will help motivate and inspire teachers on constructive and creative lines. 26. Teacher education is a continuous process and its pre-service and in-service components are inseparable. As the first step, the system of teacher education will be overhauled. 13 27. An overhaul of the system of planning and the management of education will receive high priority. 28. A proper management structure in education will entail the establishment of the Indian Education Service as an AllIndia Service which will bring national perspective to this vital sector. 29. State level and District level Advisory Boards of Education may be set up for taking effective measures for better integration and management of education at various stages. 30. Non-Government and voluntary effort will be encouraged, subject to proper management and financial assistance provided without any commercialisation of education. 31. The egalitarian goals and the practical development-oriented objectives of Indian society can be realised only by making investments in education of an order commensurate with the nature and dimensions of the task. 32. The implementation of the various parameters of the New Education Policy must be reviewed every five years. Appraisals at short intervals will also be made to ascertain the progress of implementation and the trends emerging from time to time.

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGY The most significant fact about the NPE, 1986 is the strong commitment and political will of the present Government of India for its implementation. Unlike preceding National Policies and Education Commissions, in this case well-developed strategies and carefully planned procedures have been adopted for implementing the provisions of the NPE. The Parliament discussed and adopted this Policy during its Budget Session in 1986. A promise was made at that time by the

Minister of Human Resource Development for presenting Programme of Action for the purpose in its monsoon session. Immediately after the Budget Session, the Ministry undertook an intensive exercise to prepare the promised Programme of Action. In the beginning, 23 Task Forces were constituted and each was assigned a specific subject covered by the NPE. Eminent educationists, experts and senior Officers of the Central and State Governments were associated with these Task Forces which were required to examine the existing status and to elaborate the implications of the specific statements embodied in the NPE. The Task Forces were expected to project the actions that would be necessary and indicate the broad targets and 14 phasing of the programmes. They were also asked to indicate the broad financial implications with reference to each phase. The reports of the Task Forces were discussed in a series of meetings taken by the Minister of Human Resource Development and then in a conference of Education Secretaries of States and U.T. on the 20th July, 1986. The Central Advisory Board of Education held at New Delhi on the 1st and 2nd August, 1986 carefully considered these reports and with the suggestions the Programme of Action (POA) was presented and adopted by the Parliament. The POA provided the nature of action that would be required for implementing the NPE effectively and a broad strategy for working out the Programmes. A certain amount of flexibility is assumed in order to suit the local and regional contexts and to make necessary modifications on the basis of experiences and emerging scenarios. It has been aptly observed in the POA, "Implementation of the Programmes will be a co-operative effort between the Centre and the States with full involvement of the community and the teachers and a constant process of consultations is envisaged." (p. 11) It is hoped that the successful implementation of the NPE will be able to realise the laudable objectives of the National System of Education. As mentioned in the NPE, "The future shape of education in India is too complex to envision with precision. Yet, given our tradition which has almost always put a high premium on intellectual and spiritual attainment, we are bound to succeed in achieving our objectives." (p. 26). The nationwide endeavour in Human Resource Development with education playing its multi-dimensional role is now hopefully in full-swing towards desired direction.

COMMITTEES, COMMISSIONS AND REVISED POLICY ON EDUCATION, 1992 In course of implementation of NPE, 1986 some new issues emerged and new concerns were expressed by subsequent Governments at the national level. Hence, some more committees were formed like Acharya Rammurti Committee (1990) and Janardan Reddy Committee (1991). The Rammurti Committee called "Towards an Enlightened and Humane Society" emphasised the development of common school system, removal of inequalities in education, promotion of girls education by providing various facilities and incentives, improving regional languages and using it at media of teaching, vocationalisation of education at all levels, Decentralised Planning and Management of Education, Facilitations of University Autonomy and Value Education. 15 Janardan Reddy Committee also reiterated emphasis on women education, education of the handicapped, common school system, Navodaya Bidyalaya, early childhood education and care, universalisation of Elementary Education, reorganisation of Adult/Continuing Education, Consolidation of Higher Education by eliminating sub-standard colleges and exercising rigorous control over colleges by the Universities. The Committee also laid stress on improving infrastructure of Colleges & Universities, developing NSS and NCC and developing curricula in different subjects and at various stages. Besides improving the content and process of education it wanted to establish linkages between school and community, preparation of national examination reform programme, reduction of load on school children and developing Information Technology and Management Education in the country. Revised NPE, 1992 In view of the emerging issues and priorities, the NPE, 1986 was modified in its various provisions. These are as follows: (1) Operation Black Board was given importance and was augmented with extra facilities like additional teachers, construction of additional rooms for improving the quality and quantity of Elementary Education. (2) The Non-formal Education was given priority and formed an integral part of the formal system of Education by facilitating the entry of children passing the NFE system into formal system. The National Mission would be launched for successful implementation of the Non-formal and Adult Education.

(3) The Secondary Education would be revamped and vocationalisation streams would be introduced. (4) For promoting Distance Education at various stages, the Indira Gandhi Open University and the National Open School would be strengthened. (5) For extending Technical Education All India Council for Technical Education would be strengthened and would function in a decentralised manner with greater involvement of State Governments and Technical Institutions of high standard and quality. (6) The National Literacy Mission (NLM) would be set up and would work hard for success of Adult Education with the national goals such as elimination of poverty, National Integration, Environmental 16 Conservation, Observance of small family norms, promotion of women equality, Universalization of Primary Education, Basic Health, etc. (7) The voluntary agencies would be encouraged to participate in the fields of Elementary Adult and Non-formal Education in a very big way. (8) Yogic Education would be introduced for physical and mental development of children. The implementation of revised NPE, 1992 has now passed about a decade, but its success is not yet up to our satisfaction. The national goals of education have still remain unfulfilled and sincere efforts are to be made by all concerned at all levels for efficiency and effectiveness of education. 17

2 National Education in India INTRODUCTION Education has always been accorded an honoured place in the life and culture of India. In the ancient India it was regarded as an instrument of liberation from ignorance and oppression both in this world and the other world. In the modern India it has been taken as a means of improving one's ability to read and write, of developing one's all-round personality and of enabling one to be an efficient citizen of the country. Education is therefore, regarded as a potential instrument of social change and national development. It is rightly said "the child of today is the citizen of tomorrow". He or she is the builder of the country. It is through a well planned and well-implemented educational system that the child could be equipped to realise his/her potential and to contribute effectively in national reconstruction. The curriculum has to be developed for facilitating the physical, intellectual and emotional development of the child. Education by its very nature influences and gets influenced by the cross-currents and dynamic forces of the society—its social, cultural economic and political parameters. The educational system must therefore, be responsive to changes in order to realise the individual and social objectives. It has to undergo various changes—modifications, adaptations, orientations and innovations.

NEED FOR THE NATIONAL EDUCATION During the national struggle for Independence the great leaders like Mahatma Gandhi realized the fundamental role of education and sought to rediscover India—here past heritage and culture, her values and ideals. The historic struggle for freedom was therefore more positive than mere 18 striving to get rid of a foreign power. It prepared the nation for entering a new era of modern science, industry and technology. Gandhiji, the Father of the Nation viewed education as a basic tool for the development of national consciousness and reconstruction of our society. He formulated the scheme of Basic Education with a view to harmonizing intellectual and natural work, individual and social development and making education directly relevant to the life, needs and aspirations of the people.

The fight for freedom visualized a national system of education for promoting national unity, integrity, patriotism, selfsacrifice and commitment. The salient features of this indigenous system of education were all-round development of the child-development of a secular national outlook, readiness to undergo trials and tribulations for national building, integration of knowledge and skills and emphasis on the development of mother tongues as media of education and expression. It was basically an endeavour to provide education for the masses for all-round development of the human potential of the country. With a view to accelerating the pace of national development and promoting emotional integration, it was felt imperative to frame an imaginative and unified educational policy for the country. As a corollary to this, various committees and commissions were set up to review various aspects of education and suggest measures for improvement of the situations. The University Education Commission, 1948-49, the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 and the Indian Education Commission, 1964-66 contributed immensely to the growth of the national system of education. Education has been designed as a tool for meeting the national challenges and geared to the needs of democracy, socialism and secularism as adumbrated in the Constitution of India. The Education Commission, 1964-66 visualised a revolution in education with its social, economic and cultural dimensions. This Commission was also appointed to advise Government on "the national pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the development of education, at all stages and in all aspects". A nationwide discussion on the Report of the Commission resulted in general consensus on evolving the national policy on education. Accordingly, the National Policy on Education, 1968 was resolved by the Government of India for promotion of the development of education in the country.

THE NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION, 1968 The salient features of the NPE 1968 are as follows: 19 1. Free and Compulsory Education With a view to realising the Directive Principle of the Constitution under Article 45, special efforts should be made for providing free and compulsory education for all children upto the age of 14. Necessary programmes should be developed for reducing wastage and stagnation in school and for ensuring successful completion of the prescribed course by every child enrolled in school. 2. Status and Service Conditions of Teachers The teacher is undoubtedly the most important of all factors which determine the quality of education and its contribution to national development. The success of educational endeavours must ultimately depend on his personal qualities and character, his educational qualifications and professional competence. The teacher must, therefore be accorded an honoured place in the society and be given emoluments and service facilities adequate to his qualification and responsibilities. He must be given academic freedom and teacher education including in-service education, should be given due emphasis. 3. Development of Languages (a) Development of Indian languages and literature is essential for educational and cultural development. Unless this is done, the creative energies of the people will not be released and standard of education will not improve. The regional languages are already used as media of education at the primary and secondary stages. Now urgent steps should be taken for adopting them as media of education at the university stage. (b) The state governments should adopt, and vigorously implement the three language formula at the secondary stages. According to this formula a pupil will be required to study a modern Indian language preferably one of the southern languages apart from Hindi and English in Hindi speaking states and Hindi along with the regional language and English in Non-Hindi-speaking states. Suitable courses in Hindi and English should be provided in universities and colleges for improving the proficiency of students in these languages. (c) All efforts should be made to promote the development of Hindi. Due care should be taken in developing Hindi as the link language as per the Article 351 of the Constitution. In non-Hindi states the establishment of colleges and other institutions of higher education should be encouraged for using Hindi as the medium of education.

20 (d) Sanskrit is essential not only for the development of Indian languages, but for the cultural growth and unity of the country. New methods of-teaching the language should be encouraged and possibility of including the study of Sanskrit in the relevant courses be explored at the first and second degree stages. (e) Special emphasis should be laid on the study of English and other international languages for enabling Indians to keep up their standard of growth and also to make their contribution to the world culture. 4. Equalisation of Educational Opportunity Strenuous efforts need be made to equalise educational opportunity, for removing regional imbalance in the provision of educational facilities and for promoting social cohesion and national integration. The common school system as recommended by the Kothari Commission should be adopted and the public should be required to admit students on the basis of merit. The education of girls should be emphasized not only for social justice, but also for accelerating social transformation. Special efforts should be made for developing education among the backward classes, specially among the tribal people. Similarly, educational facilities need be provided for the physically and mentally handicapped children and integrated programmes be implemented for enabling handicapped children to study in regular schools. 5. Identification of Talent In view of promoting excellence, talent in various fields should be identified at an early age and opportunity be given for its full development. 6. Work-Experience and National Service The School and the community should be brought closer through suitable programmes of mutual support and service. Work experience and national service should form an integral part of education. Emphasis should be laid on self-help, character formation and developing a sense of social commitment. 7. Science Education and Research Science education and research should be given high priority for accelerating the growth of the national economy. Science and 21 Mathematics should be an integral part of the general education till the end of the school stage. 8. Education for Agriculture and Industry High priority should be accorded to the development of education for agriculture and industry. There should be at least one agricultural university in every state and practical training in industry should form an integral part of technical education which should be closely related to industry. There should be continuous review of agricultural, industrial and other technical manpower needs of the country and efforts be made for maintaining a proper balance between output of technical institution and employment opportunity. 9. Production of Books The best writing talent should be attracted for improving quality of books through a liberal policy of incentives and remuneration. Early steps should be taken for production of quality textbooks for schools and universities. Frequent changes of textbooks should be avoided and their prices be kept as low as possible. Autonomous book corporations should be established on commercial lines and special attention be given to books for children and university students in regional languages. 10. Examinations Necessary reforms should be introduced in the Examination system for improving the reliability and validity of examinations and making evaluation a continuous process aimed at improving performance of students.

11. Secondary Education With a view to making educational opportunity a major instrument of social change, facilities for secondary education should be extended expeditiously to areas and sections of the society so far denied or deprived of. 12. University Education The enrolment of students to a college or university should be determined with reference to the laboratory, library and other facilities and according to the strength of the staff. New universities need be established cautiously and due care should be taken for maintaining 22 proper standard. Special care should be taken for organizing postgraduate courses and improving standard of training and research. Centres of advanced study should be strengthened and the institution of research should as far as possible, function within the fold of universities. 13. Correspondence Courses and Part-time Education It should be developed on a large scale at the university stage. Such facilities should also be developed at the secondary education stage. Such courses should be the same status as full-time courses. Such facilities will promote the cause of education and provide opportunities to a large number of deprived people. 14. Adult Education Eradication of mass illiteracy is essential for promoting participation in the democratic activities and for accelerating programmes of production specially agriculture. Employees in commercial, industrial and other concerns should be made functionally literate as early as possible. Industrial undertakings in the public sector should take initiative in this direction. Teachers and pupils should be actively involved in organising literacy campaigns especially as a part of social and National Service programme. Special steps should be taken for the education of young practising farmers and for training of youth for self-employment. 15. Games and Sports With a view to improving the physical fitness and sportsmanship among the students, games and sports should be developed on a large scale. Wherever ground and other facilities for organising programmes of physical education do not exist, these should be provided on a priority basis. 16. Education of Minorities Every effort should be made not only to protect the rights of minorities but to promote their educational interests. 17. The Educational Structures With the object of having a uniform educational structure throughout the country, the 10 + 2 + 3 pattern would be adopted by all States and UTs. Such restructuring of education might require increased investment so as to reach a level of expenditure of 6 percent of the 23 national income. It has been rightly said, "Considering the key role which education, science and research play in developing the material and human resources of the country, the Government of India, will in addition to undertaking programme in the Central sector, assist the State Governments for the development of programmes of national importance where coordinated action on the part of the States and the centre is called for." Lastly, it was also mentioned that the Government of India will also review, every five years, the progress made and recommend guidelines for future development.

REVIEW OF THE NPE, 1968 AND AFTER

The National Policy on Education, 1968 marked a significant step in the history of education in post-Independence India. Its objectives were to promote national progress, a sense of common citizenship, strengthen emotional and national integration and introduce a uniform pattern of education. It emphasized the need for a radical reorientation of education for improving its quality at all stages and for giving greater attention to science and technology. It also laid stress on cultivation of moral values and bringing about a closer relation between education and the life of the people. Since the adoption of the NPE; !968 there has been unprecedented expansion of education facilities at all stages throughout the country. The most important development has been the acceptance of a common structure of education all over the country and the introduction of the 10 + 2 + 3 pattern by most of the states. Attempts were made for restructuring courses at various levels and for setting up centres of Advanced Studies or post-Graduate education and research. In May 1979, the NPE 1968 was reviewed and reoriented by Government of India and the basic objectives were maintained and reinforced. Greater flexibility in content and duration of various courses was provided for in the Draft NPE 1979. It also envisaged delinking of jobs from degrees and high priority on adult education. But before this Draft NPE could be approved by the Parliament the Janata Ministry went out of office and the Congress (I) Government pursued the NPE 1968. The reforms as visualised in the Draft NPE were virtually postponed. Prior to 1976 education was the exclusive responsibility of the States and the Central Government was concerned only with certain areas such 24 as coordination and determination of standards in technical and higher education. A Constitutional amendment passed in 1976 made education the joint responsibility of both the Central and State Governments by putting education in the concurrent list. The NPE 1968 thus continued to serve as the basis for educational development and was supplemented by the guidelines adopted in the Sixth Plan document. The most significant of these programmes was related to the universalization of elementary education and eradication of mass illiteracy. The Planning Commission approved an outlay of Rs 2,524 crores for education during the 6th Plan indicating 26 percent of the total outlay for the plan. Education was made free upto secondary (Class X) stage in 11 states and 7 union territories. It was free for girls only in 6 states. At the higher secondary stages (Class XI-XII) it was free in 6 States including Jammu & Kashmir, West Bengal and in 6 Union Territories. Educational Surveys, particularly 4th All India Survey revealed that 53% of the primary schools have no pucca building, 40% no black boards, 33 percent no mats, benches or chair to sit on, 61 percent no drinking water facilities, 71 per cent no library facilities, 85 per cent no lavatory or urinal facilities, 35 percent are managed by single teachers. The number of illiterates aged 15 and above rose sharply from 208.1 million to 243.1 million between 1970 and 1989. Although literacy has improved from 16.7% in 1951 to 36.23% in 1981, female literacy was utterly discouraging. More than 75 percent of Indian women could not read and write in 1981. The 10 + 2 + 3 pattern of education was not adopted whole heatedly by many states. Particularly vocational component was quite unsatisfactory.

NATIONAL POLICY, 1986 After a year long a nation-wide debate, discussion and deliberation, the National Policy on Education, 1986 formulated and finalised. At the outset, this document has stated, "Education has continued to evolve, diversify and extend its reach and coverage since the dawn of human history. Every country develops its system of education to express its unique socio-cultural identity and also to meet the challenges of the times. There are moments in history when a new direction has to be given to an age-old process. That moment is today". It was felt that India has reached a stage in its economic and technical development when a major effort must be made to derive the maximum benefit from 25 the assets already created and to ensure that the fruits of change reach all sections of the people. In this context of NPE, 1968 and the position of educational development of the country was reviewed; and it was strongly felt that the present education should enable the coming generations to internalise new ideas constantly and creatively. The future citizens of the country—students should be imbued with a strong commitment to human values and to social justice. The NPE, 1986 has therefore said, "In our national perception education is essentially for all. This is fundamental to our all-round development, material and spiritual". It emphasized the development of a national system of education in the light of the constitutional provisions and principles. The NPE, 1986 has aptly enunciated, "The concept of a National system of Education implies that, upto a given level, all

students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, have access to education of a comparable quality. To achieve this, the Government will initiate appropriately funded programmes. Effective measures will be taken in the direction of the Common School system recommended in 1968 policy". This envisages a continued effort required to develop a National system of Education which does not mean a uniform and rigid educational system. It allows for considerable flexibility within a broad national framework. The concept of a National system of Education implies, (1) equal opportunities to all both' in terms of access to education of a comparable quality and conditions of success, (2) common education structure, (3) a national curriculum framework, and (4) minimum levels of learning for each stage of education. (1) Equal Opportunities to All The Directive Principle of State Policy in the Constitution of India has envisaged that free and compulsory education should be provided to all children upto the age of 14 years. Considerable efforts have therefore been made for universalisation of elementary education (UEE), which emphasizes universal provision of schools, universal enrolment, universal retention and improvement in the quality of education. Since there are many kinds of barriers and deprivations in the society, steps are being taken for providing elementary education to all irrespective of caste, creed, location and economic conditions by removing or reducing these shortcomings. Equalisation of opportunities includes the opening of schools within walking distance for children, providing residential facilities to children, 26 admission of children to all communities to schools, reducing the dropout rates, increasing the retention of children through various measures, provision of non-formal education centres for non-attending children and so on. These provisions have to be properly understood, and utilised by the deserving individuals. Besides financial difficulty, there are social and psychological restraints which have stood in the way of ensuring equality and equity in the universalisation of elementary education. (2) Common Education Structure The Education Commission, 1964-66 had recommended as a common structure of education throughout the country. Consequent upon the adoption of the NPE, most states accepted the structure. The remaining states were in the process of switching over to this structure, The NPE, 1986 has stated, "The National System of Education envisages a common educational structure. The 10 + 2 + 3 structure has now been accepted in all parts of the country, regarding the further break-up of the first 10 years, efforts will be made to move towards an elementary system comprising 5 years of Primary Education and 3 years of upper Primary, followed by 2 years of High School". (3) National Curricular Framework The NPE, 1986 has made it clear that the National System of Education would be based on a national curricular framework which contains a common core along with other components that are flexible. The basic features of the curriculum for the elementary and secondary stages are: (i) the realisation of the national goals of development, (ii) broadbased general equation to all learners, (iii) a common scheme of studies, (iv) common core comprising the components of the history of India's freedom movement, constitutional obligations, common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy, secularism, equality of sexes, protection of environment, removal of social barriers, observance of the small family norms, and inculcation of the scientific temper, (v) flexibility in learning experience, (vi) minimum learning outcomes, (vii) child centered and activity-based process, (viii) continuous, comprehensive and rational evaluation. (4) Minimum Levels of Learning It has been rightly said, "Minimum levels of learning will be laid down for each stage of education." This will ensure a comparable standard of education for each area of learning in the curriculum. The 27 minimum levels of learning will serve as a reference in the development of instructional materials selection of suitable teaching-learning strategies and evaluating learner's progress. It would also help maintaining a reasonable standard of education throughout the country. (5) Understanding Cultural Diversities

The NPE, 1986 has also stated that steps need be taken for fostering among students and understanding of the diverse cultural and social systems of the people living in different parts of the country. To promote this objective the link language has to be developed and programmes of translating books from one language to another and of publishing multilingual dictionaries and glossaries should be implemented. It has very succinctly observed: "The young will be encouraged to undertake the rediscovery of India, each in his own image and perception." (6) Facilitating Inter-regional Mobility It is suggested that in higher education in general, and technical education in particular, steps should be taken for facilitating inter-regional mobility by providing equal access to every Indian of requisite merit, regardless of his origins. The universal character of universities and other institutions of higher education is to be underscored for promoting a sense of national identity and mobility. (7) Pooling Resources In the areas of research and development and education in science and technology special measure should be taken for establishing network arrangements between different institutions in the country to pool their resources and participate in projects of national importance. It has aptly said, "The Nation as a whole will assume the responsibility of providing resources support for implementing programmes of educational transformations, reducing disparities, universalisation of elementary education, adult literacy, scientific and technology research, etc." (8) Emphasis on Open and Distance Learning Electronic media and other modern facilities are going to revolutionalise the whole process of teaching and learning. Lifelong education is a cherished goal of the educational process. This presupposes universal literacy. Hence, opportunities will be provided to the youth, housewives, agricultural and industrial workers and professionals to continue the education of their choice at the pace suited to them. 28 Therefore, open and distance learning system have to be emphasized. The national network of Doordarshan Kendra and Indira Gandhi Open University along with its regional centres have already started providing open and distance learning facilities to various groups of clientele. (9) Strengthening the National Institutions It has been emphasized that the institutions like, UGC, AICTE, NCERT, NEPA, ICAR, IMC should be strengthened in order to cope up with emerging demands at the national levels and to play their parts in giving shape to the National System of Education. Integrated planning should be instituted among all these bodies for establishing functional linkages and re-enforcing programmes of research and post-graduate education. In view of these imperatives and implications, education ought to be treated as a crucial area of investment for national development and survival. Although the National Policy on Education, 1968 had laid down that the investment on education be gradually increased to reach a level of expenditure of 6 per cent of the national income it has not yet been realised. The NPE has expressed its strong determination and political will to find adequate funds for implementing various programmes of national significance. It has therefore said, "It will be ensured that from the Eighth Five Year Plan onwards, it will uniformly exceed to 6 per cent of the National Income". But it has to be agreed and understood that money is not all, rather mind is more important than any other factors. Strong determination, true commitment, cordial cooperation and effective co-ordination among various agencies and personnel are badly required not only to make the national education a success, but also to implement the NPE, 1986 effectively.

REFERENCES Government of India: National Policy on Education, 1986, Ministry of Human Rescores Development (Education), New Delhi, 1986. Government of India: National Policy on Education, 1968, Ministry of Education and Social Welfare, New Delhi, 1968. Government of India: Programme of Action, MHRD (Education) New Delhi, 1986. Mohanty, J.: Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1984.

Mohanty, J.: Modern Trends in Indian Education, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1987. 29

3 Education for All: A National Challenge 1. INTRODUCTION: IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION According to Indian sages and saints of the past, education is that which liberates man from all bondages, i.e. Sa Vidya Ya Vimuktaya, "Such bondages may be worldly or all kinds of evils and ignorance. Education enables an individual to proceed towards light from darkness and towards immortality from mortality (Tamsoma Jyotirgamay, Mrutuorma Amrutogamay), Education is the means of self-realisation and self-expression. It helps bringing out the best in a person. In brief, it promotes physical, intellectual, social, emotional and spiritual development of children. Education is felt essential for success of democracy, for improving productivity and for bringing about desirable changes for social as well as national development. In 1946 the International community charged UNESCO with the responsibility for promoting education throughout the world due to its vital importance to the individual and social well-being. In 1948 the United Nations in Paris proclaimed Universal Declaration of Human Rights including the Right to Education. The Article 2(i) states "Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory." Education has been accorded a place of great importance and esteem in the Constitution of India. According to Article 45 of the Constitution, the State shall endeavour to provide universal, free and compulsory education to all children upto the age 14 years by 1960. It is however unfortunate that even after 46 years this Directive has not been realised and the target of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) is not reached so far. Especially, India being the largest democracy to the 30 world has greatest stigma and the darkest blemish of having the half of the world's illiterates. The UEE or UPE has been adopted as a national goal and Education For All (EFA) has been regarded as the International goal for promoting national well-being, individual excellence and successful democratisation.

2. NATIONAL SCENARIO: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS Education in India is now under heavy strain. It is still in turmoil. It is at cross-roads and facing a crisis of crucial significance. In many states, the Constitutional Directive of universalisation of Elementary Education is still far away to be realised and in some states the number of children outside the school is increasing. Disparities in education among states, between rural and urban, between boys and girls, between general and SC/ST sections of the society are increasing inspite of various egalitarian attempts by Government. The national scenario is characterised by the growing illiteracy, unabated dropout rates in Elementary Education, huge non-attendance of students in primary classes in backward areas mostly inhabited by SC/ST people on the one hand, overcrowding of students in urban areas on the other. Non-performance of underperformance in adult and non-formal education sectors has not helped adequately in this venture. The problem is getting aggravated than solved. At the primary stage it is reported that 93.63 percent of students have been enrolled and at the upper primary stage the enrolment would be around 50. But the growth of enrolment is plagued by alarming dropout rates of more than 40 percent by the end of primary stage and more than 30 percent by the end of upper primary or elementary education stage. Illiteracy is a national sin and shame. Though literacy percentage rose slowly from 16 percent in 1947 to 50 percent in 1991, the gross total number of illiterates today is greater than when it was in 1947. The male literacy rate according to 1991 census is tending towards 64.86 percent whereas the female literacy is only 39.42 percent, the total percentage of literacy being 52.11 percent. According to the fifth All-India Education Survey (1989) there has been rapid strides in the development of Elementary Education in respect to number of schools, students, teachers and expenditure. The hardcore of non-enrolled children, particularly at the primary education stage belong to the worker sections including Scheduled Castes and Tribes, agricultural workers and farmers, slum dwellers and so on. More than 31

two-thirds of the non-enrolled children are girls and more than 80 percent of the non-enrolled children are in the nine educationally backward states, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. It is claimed that 60 percent of the increase in primary schools took place in four of the above educationally backward states, namely, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and West Bengal. We made a Constitutional Commitment to reach the goal of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) by 1960. This target had to be revised in 1970, then in 1976, later to 1988, 1990 and 1995 (for upper primary stage). But the goal has eluded the grasp and is going slowly but steadily to the distant horizons. We have however accorded high priority to UEE in programmes of educational development. We have been fighting every now and then, but the enemy has not yet vanquished and the battle is not yet won. Dr. M.B. Buch 1989 has rightly observed, "The country adopted National Policy on Education in 1968 and the same was reviewed and in 1986, a National Policy—a revised version was adopted. Five years (now more years have passed) have gone, yet one finds a state of statements in many aspects of education. UEE has remained a dreams". The NPE, 1986 made a resolve that it would give the highest priority to solving the problem and of children dropping out of school and would adopt an array pf meticulously formulates strategies based on micro-planning and applied at the grass-roots level all over the country, to ensure children's retention at schools. This effort would be fully coordinated with the network of non-formal education. It was provided in the NPE that "all children who attain the age of about 11 years by 1990 will have had five years of schooling, or its equivalent through the non-formal stream. Likewise, by 1995 all children will be provided free and compulsory education up to 14 years of age." India is the largest single reservoir of world illiterates and constant efforts are made for enabling all in the age-group of 15 to 35 years to be functionally literates "as far as possible by 1995". But the unreached should be covered by the year 2000. Similar statements were made for children in the age-group of 6 to 14 years on 1-1-90, those who are not already studying in the schools to be provided with primary education through non-formal means as far possible by the year 2000". The new emphasis would be reinvented and reinforced. It is emphasized that the content and process of education should be revamped and the Minimum Level of Learning (MLL) need be achieved. 32 The unilateral and unvarying teacher's talk may not be interesting and meaningful. Teacher education should be reoriented and geared to meet the needs and challenges of the present times, not only in improving competence in using various modern methods and media. It is therefore imperative that the NPE, 1986 and its revised version, 1992 has given great importance to Teacher Education. The Teacher being the most important factor in the education process, its role as well as status has been adequately recognised and suggestions have been given for promoting their service conditions and instilling in them the higher values and pride in what they do. Since traditional mode and media are found inadequate, steps need be taken for provision of distance and open learning systems, use of educational technologies and effective as well as interesting media and materials. Besides Government attempts, the non-government and voluntary organisations and agencies are to be more and more involved in the teachinglearning process. But proper monitoring and management system should be developed for ensuring proper accountability and commitment through suitable code of conduct and professional others.

3. MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF EFA We are now standing on the threshold of the Twenty-first century, but our burden of illiteracy and educational deprivation is too heavy to carried to that century. The UEE has led to the formulation of the project "Education for All" (EFA). The target is now "Education for all" by 2000 A.D. After Independence the provision of UEE has been accorded the highest priority in the programmes of Educational development and the nation has been making all efforts to realise that target of UEE through (i) Universal enrolment, (ii) Universal attendance and (iii) Universal retention. Education for all co-visions quality schools which can not only hold students for complete on of courses provided, but also enable them to achieve Minimum Learning Levels. The schools have to improve their instructional programmes so that real learning takes place adequately. During 1990 steps were taken for fixation of targets of MLL. The fixation of national target should be followed by teachers in fixing their own target which should hopefully move higher and higher. Besides Elementary Education, all efforts need made for promoting meaningful and effective Adult Education. The tradition of adult education in India is very long and varied. Initially, it was known as

33 Social Education but it took various forms like Farmers' Functional Literacy Programme (FFLP), Polyvalent Adult Education Programme (PAEP), National Adult Education Programme (NAEP), National Literacy Mission (NLM), Jana Sikshan Nilayam (JSM) and so on. The year 1990 was declared as the International Literacy Year by UN Adult Education Programme are being implemented for the last five decades, but unfortunately India is still the largest country of illiterates. Adult Education and Elementary Education are like two sides of a coin and one effect another seriously. National Institute of Adult Education (NIAE) has been set up for some year and fixed the target of education 10 million adults in the age group 15-35 some other programmes like "Each one Teach one" and utilising school and collage student in Adult Education Programmes are being implemented. But we should be ashamed of the stalk reality that we are still far away from the goal of Total Literacy. Now the Total Literacy Campaign (TLC) is going on in the nook and corner of the country and unprecedented enthusiasm has been created at all levels. But a very strong political will and national commitment is essential for making EFA a success With a view to supplementing efforts of the formal education system and adult education programmes Non-Formal Education (NFE) has been implemented for providing education to children who are not able to attend formal schools due to so many difficulties and to the school dropouts who are leaving schools before completing their courses on account of various reasons. It has been estimated that out of 100 children enrolled in Class I, nearly 40 complete Class V and only about 25 complete Class VII. The wastage is thus around 60% upto Class V and 75% upto Class VIII. This rate of dropout is again much higher amongst girls, SC and ST and other backward sections of the society. Hence, mass illiteracy and huge dropouts are the great menaces which have to be tackled as quickly as possible for achieving UEE and EFA targets.

4. INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL STRATEGIES AND EFFORTS The international community having been convinced of the need and importance of education for all, initiated a number of strategies and efforts for realising the lofty and laudable objective. In 1987 UNESCO General Conference requested the United Nations General Assembly to proclaim the year 1990 as the International Literacy Year (ILY). The ILY became cattle cry of educationists and national leaders all over the world not only for that year, but also for all time to come till the goal is reached. The goal has been Education for all by 2000 AD by all means. 34 "Education for All" concept is an outcome of the combined meeting of the Tenth Regional Consultative Meeting of APEID and the Regional Experts Meaning on Universalisation and Renewal of Primary Education and Eradication of illiteracy in Asia and Pacific countries held in Bangkok from 20th to 27th May, 1986. This programme indicated a new direction to APEID for the Fourth Programming Cycle (1987-1991) and was known as Asia Pacific Programme of Education for All (APPEAL). This programme APPEAL was related to three major area: (i) Eradication of illiteracy (EAO), (ii) Universalisation of Primary Education (UPE) and (iii) Continuing Education (CE). This programme aimed at covering: (a) all illiterate adult population, and (b) enrolment and retention of all primary school-age children especially the disadvantaged and the girls who have remained out of the reach of all efforts to catch them. It was intended to improve the quality of Primary Education. The purpose of continuing Education Programme was also two-fold: (i) not to allow the new learners to relapse into illiteracy, and (ii) to realise the quality of life. The implications of EFA were not merely confined to the awareness and need of literacy but extended to mobile support for education in general. An international event of historic significance was a world conference in which four UN agencies UNESCO, UNICEF, UNIP and the World Bank joined hands to sponsor a Project "Education for All" for meeting the basic learning, needs of the world community. This conference on "Education for All" was held near Bangkok, Thailand from 5th March to 9th March, 1990. The hands of these four sponsoring agencies ensured that this conference would focus on action or be taken for the purpose. (a) CAPE and PECRP Countries of Asia and the Pacific first adopted universalisation of Primary Education as a common goal under Karachi plan of 1960. Ever since India and other countries launched several programmes. The CAPE programme was implemented on massive scale throughout the country. One of the most notable action plans for improving Primary Education was the UNICEF-assisted Project II which was known as Primary Education Curriculum Renewal Project and worked out intensively with 3000 primary schools covering all states and Union Territories. A good number of instruction materials were developed and produced for improving the quality and relevance of primary education under this project. 35

(b) ECCE Preschool Education Project was implemented as a school Readiness Programme in the rural and tribal areas for promoting the cause of UEE. It was renamed as Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) in the NPE, 1986 by recognising the holistic nature of child development and giving high priority through integrating it with Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) programme. It was regarded as a support service for universalisation of Primary Education. It aimed at providing day care centres which were expected to relieve girls engaged in taking care of siblings to attend schools and to provide and support service for working women. A full integration of child care and preprimary education could be brought about, both as a feeder and a strengthening factor for primary education. ECCE has thus been taken as a strategy for realising EEA. (c) Girls/Women Education Emphasis has been laid on education of the girls/women for ensuring women's equality. The NPE, 1986 has clearly said: "The National Education System will play a positive, interventionist role in the empowerment of women." Empowerment of women can contribute immensely to the success of UEE. Because that will promote not only girls' or women's education, but also boost their morale through equality of sex. It is rightly said that when male member is educated an individual is educated, when a female member is educated, entire family is educated. Since at present there is low percentage of women's literacy, less number of girls are enrolled and more are dropped out of schools. Hence, women's education may be a cause and effect of the success of EEA. (d) Education of the SC, ST and Other Backward Classes Similar is the case with the education of the SC, ST and other weaker sections of the society who constitute the hard-core of illiterate and non-school-going children population. The Article 46 of the Constitution of India requires the states to take special measures for the educational and economic development of the weaker sections, especially the SC and ST. The educational backwardness of these sections constitutes that of the states, in general. The rate of growth in literacy as well as enrolment of these weaker sections is far from satisfactory. Unless it is improved adequately. UEE or FEA cannot be realised in many states, particularly the educationally Backward states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, West Bengal and so on. 36 (e) Education of the Disabled Since a high percentage of children/persons are handicapped physically or mentally and having disabilities in different degrees, their education is hampered to a great extent. They are even deprived of minimum of education, either primary or elementary education. Besides children suffering from severe disabilities who need special schools for their education, there are many children having mild handicaps or impairments who cannot be educated in special schools. They can however be properly educated in general schools with special care and facilities. The NPE, 1986 very rightly stressed the seed for integrated education of these children in general schools with some special efforts. The POA (1986) emphasized the strengthening of the school through the project Integrated Education of Disabled Children (IEDC) to realise the goal of universalisation of primary/elementary education (UPE / UEE). Education of the Disabled is not only as per our Constitutional Directive, but also according to the Right of Education given in the UN Charter and in fulfillment of the global Commitment of Education For All (EFA). (f) Distance/Technology of Education With a view to accelerating the pace of universalisation of Elementary Education, it has been felt that conventional modes and methods may not be adequate for providing education to all. In order to make the teaching-learning process effective and interesting as well as educational facilities available in the remote areas, it is found essential to utilise educational technology and distance learning system as extensively as possible. The NPE, 1986 has rightly said: "Modern educational technology must reach out to the most distant areas and to the most deprived sections of beneficiaries simultaneously with the areas of comparative affluence and ready availability". Open school and Open learning contribute to the realisation of UEE and EFA.

5. CONCLUSION

Education For All is an international goal as well as a global commitment which is a matter of major concern both for the developed and developing countries. The former countries have responsibilities to extend their all kinds of cooperation for making this goal within everybody's reach so that the world as a whole can remain in peace and aspire for prosperity. The latter countries must realise that without "Education For All" adequate development and democratisation cannot 37 be possible. The Educational system has to be more diversified, flexible and open for entry, exit and re-entry at any point of time in life. The International Commission on the Development of Education (Learning To Be, 1973) has aptly remarked, "Thus, the universal right to education which contemporary civilisation takes such premature prides often refused, by a complete reversal of justice, to the most underprivileged. They are the first to be denied their right in poor societies, the only ones deprives in the rich" (P. 71). The various agencies of the UN have therefore come forward to help realising this laudable objective of EFA with the joint collaboration of all countries, developed and developing The developing countries like India have, however, the most important responsibilities of generating adequate awareness about the need and importance of education, particularly primary/elementary education and developing necessary infrastructural facilities for primary education with the easy reach of all individuals. The management of the educational system should be geared to meet the emerging needs of various groups of learners—rural and urban, remote and accessible areas. Different media, modes and methods need be utilised for making education efficient, effective and interesting. Research and Development (R & D) are to be promoted for identifying the problems for sorting out them properly with the use of suitable methods, media and materials. Research finding can throw light on various issues and help solving the problems and improving the quality and quantity of learning experiences of various cliental. Teachers need play a crucial role in the teaching-learning process and unless they are properly motivated and provided with necessary facilities for performing their duties as expected from and allotted to them. Education For All (EFA) will be distant dream, including more an Utopian vision even to be achieved by the mankind who is so much proud of its science and technology, democracy and socialism.

REFERENCES Buch, M.B., "Education For All by 2000 A.D.: A Challenge Ahead" Journal of All India Association for Education Research, Sept. 1991, June-1992. Ekbole, Gopal Rao, "Education For All", Progressive Educational Herald, April, 1991. Govt. of India, National Policy on Education. MHRD (Education), New Delhi. 1986. ________. Programme of Action, MHRD (Education), New Delhi. 1986. Mohanty, J., Current Issues in India Education, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1992. 38 Mohanty, J., Teacher and Education in the Emerging Indian Society, Takshashila, Cuttack,1993. OSSTA & UNICEF, Teachers for Universalisation of Primary Education in Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 1992. United Nations, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Paris, 1948. UNESCO, Learning To Be, International Commission on the Development of Education, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1973. 39

4 Reschooling not Deschooling Schools are the traditional institutions of learning. They have been imparting education through ages and have practically monopolized the sources of knowledge. But under the changed circumstances these age-old institutions are criticized to have outlived their utility. They are no longer doing justice to their jobs. Schooling has been made compulsory, mechanical, expensive, dead and dreary. Therefore, a revolution has started for a deschooling society initiated and inspired

by Ivan Illich, John Holt, Paul Goodman, Charles Silberman and many others.

ADVOCATES AND THEIR ARGUMENTS According to Illich, "All over the world the school has an anti-educational effect on society. School is recognised as the institution which specialised in education. The failures of schools are taken by most people as a proof that education is a very costly, very complex,.... and frequently almost impossible task'.1 Illich raised his voice against compulsory schooling in which curriculum is obligatory and certificate-oriented. He is extremely critical of the institutionalization of education where teachers are dominated by the managements (including government and administration) and children in turn by the teachers. This is a kind of hierarchical and bourgeoisie pattern working like a vicious circle. About hundred years back Walt Whitman wrote: It is the pile of brick and mortar, these dead floors, windows rails you call church? Why, this is not the church at all; the church is living, ever living souls. These lines are applied to modern schools with equal emphasis. Illich comparing schools with ancient churches say, "Neither justice nor learning is imparted by schooling because educators insist on packing 40 instruction with certification". According to him teachers have made a poor showing in their attempts to increase learning among the poor and that poor parents who want their children to go to school are less concerned about what they will learn than about the certification and the money they will earn. And middle-class parents sent their children to school to prevent them from learning what the poor learn on the streets. The prophet of deschooling is also immensely concerned with socially and economically deprived children who cannot catch up with a rich one even in schools of equal quality. Illich rightly observes: "Even if they attend equal schools and begin at the same age, poor children lack most of the educational opportunities which are casually available to the middleclass child. These advantages range from conversation and books in the home to vacation travel".2 According to him, therefore, the poorer student will generally fall behind so long as he depends on school for advancement of learning. Illich also feels that schooling involves colossal wastage of resources. He is of the opinion that school appropriates the money, man and goodwill available for education and in addition discourages other institutions from assuming educational tasks. Work, leisure, politics, city living and even family life depend on schools for the habits and knowledge they presuppose, instead of becoming themselves the means of education. This makes clear that "Learning can happen through work or leisure, not only schooling" and most people acquire most of their knowledge outside school. Citing an example of the USA, Illich points out that the per capita costs of schooling have risen almost as fast as the cost of medical treatment. But increased treatment by both doctors and teachers has shown steadily declining results. According to Illich the escalation of the schools is as destructive as the escalation of weapons but less visibly so. Everywhere in the world, school costs have risen faster than enrolments and faster than the GNP, everywhere expenditures fall even further behind the expectations of parents, teachers and pupils. Everywhere this situation discourages both the motivation and financing for large-scale planning for non-schooled learning. Strongly criticizing the monopoly of the school and appreciating the need for equalization of educational opportunity, Illich has aptly said: Equal educational opportunity is, indeed, both a desirable and a feasible goal, but to equate this with obligatory schooling is to confuse salvation with the church. School has become the world 41 religion of a modernised proletariat, and makes futile promises of salvation to the poor of the technological age.3 Illich has cogently mentioned that for generations we have tried to make the world a better place by providing more and more schooling, but so far the endeavour has failed. What we have learned instead is that forcing all children to climb an open-ended education ladder cannot enhance equality, but must favour the individual who starts out earlier, healthier or better prepared. In the forceful words of Illich. I believe that the disestablishment of the school has became inevitable and that this end of an illusion should fill us with hope. But I also believe that the end of the age of schooling could usher in the epoch of the global school house that would be distinguishable only in the name from global madhouse or global prison in which education, coercion and

adjustment become synonymous.4 John Holt in his popular works How Children Fail and Freedom and Beyond had held schools and methods responsible for failure of children in learning. He has also reiterated the view of Illich, "Like most people, I spent sometimes in schools; but most of education has taken place before schools, outside school and since school". Emphatically saying that schools are not the only places for learning, he remarked that children should be allowed to learn freely and widely. Paul Goodman, another advocate of deschooling in his books Compulsory Mis-education and Growing up Absurd has vehemently criticized formal schooling and compulsory education. Calling schools as "intellectual superstitions" with emphasis on diplomas, grades and certificates, he adds that human beings of 6-18 years should have the greatest freedom to explore the world inside and outside. Charles Silberman in his book Crisis in the Classroom argues that informal schooling is more effective than the formal schooling and teacher should facilitate learning and respond to the intellectual and emotional needs of the children. His role is neither of a disciplinarian nor of a source of learning.

CONCLUSION It is a fact that monopoly of schools should go and education is not only schooling. Moreover, schools that are tried rigidly to traditional curriculum, methods, grades, certificates and so on will not serve the 42 purposes of education adequately. Peter Buckman has rightly pointed out: The school does indeed hold some of the keys to a better future for those that stay its course, because of the monopoly it holds over the distribution of 'knowledge'. A society that decides that the best jobs should go to those with the largest number of certificates (Regardless of the relevance of those certificates to the jobs available) and which gives the granting of such certificates exclusively to schools, would be considered totalitarian or (worse) inefficient and corrupt if it licensed similar monopolies in the commercial field.5 It is true that institutionalized schooling cannot provide the education that we desire for a greater understanding of our society and for playing an effective role in it. Although most of the advocates of deschooling society have criticized compulsory schooling, it is to be agreed that minimum of education is badly necessary and in the developing countries universalization of elementary education is a prerequisite. Of course, the deschooling society is not against this and is in support of various means and media for providing education to children. There is no denying the fact that compulsion of any kind is aversion and monopoly of any good is harmful. In the modern school violence, truancy and dissatisfaction are increasing day by day and for solving this problem, students' involvement, initiative, curiosity and creativity have to be encouraged by all means. The students of today are the citizens of tomorrow. Unless they are properly trained in social dynamics, group learning and living, they cannot do due justice of their future roles. Freedom is to be ensured in the learning system and there should be no restriction and compulsion in this process. Knowledge should be accessible to all and no institution should have the monopoly of knowledge. Learning, living and working should go together. Life-long education is also life-wide and there is no end to learning. Twenty-five persons from 14 countries, having discussed the problem of life-long education under the leadership of Illich in the Centre for Inter-cultural Documentation (CIDOC) at Mexico said, inter alia, in their manifesto, "When we live, we learn. Learning is a function of living. People are learning all the time, all their lives. No one's learning is superior to anyone else's, just different".6 43 On the whole, education should be a multi-dimensional ever fresh and ever growing process, schooling may be only one source of knowledge and one means of education. It should be free, frank, voluntary and interesting. No certification, grade or class should be emphasized and all media and methods based on experience, interest and initiative should be utilized for effective and efficient education. Equality of educational opportunity should be promoted at all levels and special facilities should be provided imparting relevant education to the socially deprived and economically handicapped children. The entire school system should be revamped and reorganized to suit the individual life needs and aspirations. Piveteau has rightly remarked, "Illich is not the enemy of the school, but of the school system ... He wishes to destroy not the school based on free association and motivation, but the school system based on dictated obligation and compulsion".7 Thus attempts may be made not to 'deschool', but to 'reschool' the society by making education meaningful, lively, free

and interesting.

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society, Penguin Book Ltd., Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England, 1971, p. 15. 2. Ibid., p. 14. 3. Ibid., p. 18. 4. Peter Buckman (Ed.), Education with Schools, D. Mehra, Rupa & Co., Calcutta, p. 6. 5. Ibid., p. 2. 6. Teacher Today, October-December 1974, p. 83. 7. Piveteau, Didier J., School Review, Vol. 82, No. 3. 44

5 Life-Long Education: A Way of Life "Every individual must be in a position to keep learning throughout his life. The idea of life-long education is the keystone of the learning society". The International Commission on the Development of Education (1973) has declared this as the guiding principle for the educational policies of the world. The concept of life-long education covers all aspects of education embracing every thing in it and extending the entire life. This is a whole education being more than the sum of its parts. All tangible and permanent aspects of education must be life long. That is why, life-long education is not an educational system, but the principle on which the over-all organisation of a system is founded, and which should accordingly underlie the development of each of its component parts. And the Commission have proposed 'life-long education as the master concept for educational policies in the years to come for both developed and developing countries."

GENESIS Life-long education is not a new concept, nor it is quite unfamiliar with the human society. In all ancient civilizations like Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, it was atleast accepted as a need for teachers, scholars and elites. In many scriptures and mythologies, education was meant for the entire life and the devotees of many religions were exhorted to learn "from the cradle to the grave". Even according to Hindu Philosophy this education was regarded as a part of the permanent heritage, of the spiritual culture, a "Samskar" which was thought to be inherited by the soul through births according to the principle of transmigration of souls. Then such education is never ending i.e., even it starts before birth and 45 continues after death. Many traditional societies continued education through various ways of practical activities and professions of the individuals and families. As such education or the teaching-learning process was continuous affecting all ages, stages and phases of life. The concept of life-long education has however acquired a new significance, a new meaning and mass application and has generated a new awakening, an awareness and interest throughout the world. This is in reaction to or in response to the prevailing situations and existing systems of education which are far from the concept of life-long education. Asher Deleon (1976) vividly describing this state of affairs has said, "The basic pedagogical doctrine underlying the present educational establishment all over the world, both in capitalistic and socialistic countries, both in the developed and developing areas, are built on the assumption that life can be divided into water-tight stages: a period of preparation for life and work followed by the exploitation of acquired knowledge and skills for working and living. The once-for-all concept of education is still the predominant postulate for many educationists and pedagogues belonging to various schools of thought, disciplines or ideologies. That is, all existing educational philosophies, policies, strategies and structures correspond to a formalised education which is time-bound and space-bound". This education, according to Deleon, is a sub-system, a part of the establishment as a formalised, institutionalised set of activities aiming to prepare human beings for life. The emerging trend at present is that such bipolar or bifurcated system of education does not serve the desired purpose

either qualitatively or quantitatively. The schools and colleges alone are not in a position to satisfy all the individual and societal needs. They are not able to achieve the fundamental aims of education that a society expects from them. They fail to promote social justice, equality of educational opportunity, character-building, self-realisation or self-fulfillment. Neither they are liberated from indoctrination nor imparted training in citizenship. They contributed satisfactorily neither to productivity nor to development of the balanced personality. As regards quantitative development of education also desired outcomes are not evident. Educational expansion is neither uniform nor balanced. Existing facilities have not been able to prevent almost one billion of the world's population being illiterate. The gap between educational "haves" and "have nots", between the developed and developing countries is widening. Since schools are the main educational 46 institutions, half of the world's population have not entered into any school.

SOLUTION Various solutions have been suggested by educationists, scientists, social philosophers and so on. Important of them are the deschooling society, non-formal education, open schools/universities, distance learning system and teaching-learning process supported with educational technology. All these concepts aim at making schooling imaginative and enjoyable, reducing rigidity and irrelevance in the organisation and curriculum, providing learning facilities through various agencies, making use of various media and methods in the teaching-learning process, etc. Now attempts are being made to identify the dimensions of life-long education in our present life-situations and to see life-long education in an overall perspective. Life-long education has to be understood not merely as a "startling" and "promising" concept, but as an effort to concretise, elaborate and implement the "global approach to education". This is to be regarded as an organising principle of the "whole" education from the individual and societal view-point and from the school and out-of-school stand point. Life-long education should not be interpreted as on extension of schooling or college education, as equivalent to continuing education or a set of complementary educational activities after regular education. It also does not mean a lifelong schooling or a new fashioned name for adult education. Deleon (1976) has aptly remarked, "while all these trends are more or less present and cannot be discarded, the contemporary thinking about life-long education has much more complex overtones". On the whole, there should not be monopoly of any organisation in providing education or learning experiences. Education will be multidimensional, multi-media and multi-source, so that closed teaching systems can be transformed into open learning systems and the once-for-all educational pattern into life-long pattern of learning. Freedom and flexibility are to be ensured in the learning system. Learning, living and working should go together. Education will be coextensive and coterminous with life. Twenty-five representatives from fourteen countries assembled at the Centre for Intercultural Documentation (CIDOC 1974) in Mexico to discuss the concept of life-long education enunciated interalia in a manifesto. "When we live, we learn. Learning is a function of living. People are learning all the time, all their lives." 47 The modern world is flooded with resources and opportunities for learning. New media and methods are now available for making learning more effective and efficient. Various self-learning techniques are increasingly being available. A large number of agencies materials and individuals, factories, farms, museums, libraries, workmates and playmates, books, journals religious groups, political parties are playing their role in providing facilities. Proper environment and favourable conditions have to be created for self-learning and life-long education. Adequate planning for co-ordinated and collaborative efforts should be promoted through these multi-farious agencies, individuals, situations and resources.

A WAY OF LIFE The International Commission on Development of Education has rightly observed that the scientific and technological revolution, the enormous flood of information available to man, the existence of gigantic communication-media networks together with many other economic and social factors, have considerably modified, traditional educational systems, brought out the weakness of certain form of instruction and the strength of others, broadened the scope-of self-learning activities and enhanced the value of active and conscious attitudes in the acquisition of knowledge. The problems involved in instructing and educating pupils of all ages, adults included, require us to use a multiplicity of out-of-school forms of learning.

Life-long education questions basic premises of traditional educational systems, reverses established procedures and destroys some myths and dogmas deeply rooted in our systems. It is for a more dynamic, more flexible, more open and a more human education. It is co-terminus with life affecting all aspects of life and vice-versa. It is not only a philosophy of education, but also a philosophy of life. It is not merely a way of education, it is a way of life. 48

6 Action Research for Teachers in the Context of the National Education Policy, 1986-1992 1. INTRODUCTION The New Education Policy, 1986 visualised the system of education which could give a new direction to the society for facing the challenges of the 21st century. It aimed at producing "thinking citizens" who can not only acquire knowledge during their student career but also the necessary skills for solving the problems of the emerging society. The role of teachers in realising these laudable objectives was eulogised in the National Education Policy, 1986 which rightly observed, "The status of the teacher reflects the socio-cultural ethos of a society; it is said that no people can rise above the level of its teachers. The Government and the community should endeavour to create conditions which will help, motivate and inspire teachers on constrictive and creative lines. Teachers should have the freedom to innovate, to devise, appropriate methods of communication and activities relevant to the needs and capabilities of and the concerns of the community."1 Late Rajiv Gandhi, the then esteemed Prime Minister in his address to the Conference of State Education Ministers held on the 29th August 1985 at New Delhi rightly said that, inter alia, a mediocre teacher tells, a good teacher explains, a superior teacher demonstrates and an exceptional teacher inspires. He also pointed out that we must inspire these teachers to develop their professional growth and provide all facilities for the purpose. There has been an unprecedented quantitative expansion of education at all levels during the post-Independence period in our country. But it is felt that the quality of education has lagged behind and there is need 49 for qualitative improvement of education at all stages including elementary education which is the foundation of the entire super-structure of education. It has been realised that qualitative improvement in education can be brought about or must be accelerated through action research which not only forms a basis for desirable practices but is also responsible for solving various problems and for opening new vistas of knowledge. This kind of research therefore, is called "class-room research" or "problem-solving research".

2. MEANING AND NEED OF ACTION RESEARCH Action research is the "research a person conducts in order to enable him to achieve his purposes more effectively. A teacher conducts action research to improve his teaching, a supervisor may conduct action research for improving his supervisory practices and a school administrator can conduct action research to improve his administrative behaviour. Therefore, action research mainly deals with the practical problems faced by the workers in the field of education. This is an action scientifically done and intended to solve a problem or problems faced by them in their day-to-day working conditions. It is the general feeling that research is only done by some qualified experts and their findings are merely to be implemented by the teachers who are taken as consumers. It has, however been realised that teachers should be encouraged to conduct such research themselves on the basis of their felt need and findings of their research would be applied immediately in their schools to solve the practical difficulties. The quantitative expansion of education has resulted in enormous increase in the number of schools, number of students, number of teachers, etc. This expansion of education has created numerous problems and many existing problems becoming more complex. Besides, various new ideas and innovations in the field of education in this country and abroad demand for their acceptance in the school situations. The teachers are facing new problems and situations like crowded class rooms, double shift system, multi-class teaching, up-graded system, programmed instruction, modern mathematics, individually guided system of instruction, school complex institutional planning, radio and TV teaching and so on. Most of these new innovations have also been emphasised in the New Education Policy. 50

Of course, teachers are saddled with many responsibilities and required to carry heavy loads of work. Similar is the case also with inspecting and administrative Officers in the Education Department. But this activity should be taken up for the improvement of education as well as for their professions growth. They can do justice to their duties as action researchers by looking at these problems in their own perspectives and finding out solutions to them best suited to the prevailing conditions. There are many competent and creative teachers and supervisors who have their own innovative methodology and strategy of work which can help them in the applied research work.

3. PROJECTS AT THE NATIONAL AND STATE LEVELS At the national level, NCERT has been implementing a Scheme of Assistance for Projects and Experiments in Secondary Schools since 1957. Under this scheme, academic and financial assistance is given to these Secondary Schools which have innovative ideas to test or projects to carry out. The main objectives of this scheme are as follows: (i) To encourage teachers and schools to undertake projects directed towards the improvement of class-room practices. (ii) To encourage them to adopt scientific approach to the solution of their problems. (iii) To encourage institutionalisation of useful and successfully tried out educational practices. In the light of this scheme the State Institute of Education/State Council of Educational Research and Training, Orissa have been organising a scheme of action research called "Problem Solving Essay Competition" among Primary School teachers initially and also elementary school teachers subsequently. It was started in the year 1967 and is organised every year with a view to promoting professional growth of teachers and involving them in the solution of various practical problems. The main objectives are as follows: (i) To enable teachers to actively participate in solving educational problems. (ii) To make documentation of their experiences and constructive ideas in solution of the problems. (iii) To disseminate the new knowledge and skills through conducting studies and innovations. 51 (iv) To inspire them in enhancing their knowledge and in performing their duties. (v) To help teachers in promoting their academic and professional growth. In implementing these schemes it has also been intended that teachers can be made aware of these problems which can be solved by them and can have new ideas which can be put to test by them with financial support and academic guidance from the S.C.E.R.T.

4. ACTION PLAN FOR ACTION RESEARCH Government of India set up Task Forces for developing plans of action for implementation of the National Policy on Education, 1986. The Task Force on Research and Development, after reviewing the present scenario has inter alia pointed out that research suffers due to lack of appropriate linkage the absence of articulation of felt needs by the users. It has rightly observed, "Very little research is undertaken to improve the existing technology or applying existing or newer technologies to meeting the needs of villages and rural areas. Technologies which increase productivity and improve the performance of an existing process are not being developed. Imported technologies have not been suitably adapted to local situations. The Task Force has also reported that research is largely confined to traditional areas and inter-disciplinarity has not taken root. It has added, "Linkage between research activity and the improvement of educational processes is very weak. Research will have to be utilised for renovation and renewal of the educational process and energising modernisation of curriculum". It has been aptly said, "In the context of educational institutions it may be borne in mind that research is not only what one does to obtain a Ph.D. Degree, but it has also to be viewed as an innovative way of accomplishing things, of doing things better, of discovering new relationship among facts. It is the exploration of the unknown through observations, experimentations and other forms of systematic enquiry followed by an objective and penetrating analysis of formulation of conclusions. The under-graduates and post-graduates could take up studies, surveys, field works, projects and other assignments related to scientific, technical, socio-economic problems, for which there is limited scope and they could make a creative contribution to the larger studies designed to tackle national problems."

52 Thus, with a view to solving the local problems, the problems at the institutional or micro-level, action research has to be promoted at a larger scale by the workers at all stages of education. An innovative mind, a creative sprit and a problemsolving attitude will developed necessary competence for action research. Adequate orientation and training in research methodology may of course, help the research to design the study, develop suitable tools and techniques for data collection or experimentation and make necessary statistical calculation and interpretation for reporting.

5. CONCLUSION It may be concluded by quoting one of the suggestions of the Task Force. "Thus, the culture of pursuit of excellence and of thinking beyond traditional lines could be generated and brought to bear both on the quality of education and to the solution of real problem. Curricular and methodological changes, including changes in assessment systems would be called for, and the small resources necessary to take up new activities would have to be provided to the institutions. The benefits would be Immense." It is hoped that teacher's own initiative and involvement supported with adequate resources and facilities would take a long way in the direction.

REFERENCES Ministry of Education, Government of India, National Policy on Education, 1986, New Delhi. NCERT, Research in Education, 1966, New Delhi. NCERT, Research in the Class Room, 1979, New Delhi. NCERT, Class Room Research, 1969, New Delhi. SCERT, Samasya Samadhan Mulaka Nibandha Likhan Yojana, 1987, Bhubaneswar. SCERT, Sikshalok, March-June, 1982, March-June, 1985, etc., Bhubaneswar. Dr. J. Mohanty, Educational Administration, Inspection and Supervision, Vidyapuri,1979. Cuttack. __________, Educational Broadcasting; Radio and TV in Education, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1982. Ministry of Education, Government of India, Programmes of Action, National Policy on Education, New Delhi, 1986. 53

7 New Challenges of Education India has passed the threshold of the twenty-first century. Is it properly poised to meet the challenges of this new era? What are the real challenges from? They are expected from all sides and vistas of life— from industry and agriculture, from politics and parties, from administration and avocation, from trade and commerce, from transport and communication. In this age of science and technology changes in all these fields are very rapid and dynamic. These changes can be properly handled by the people with adequate education and orientation. Human resources, therefore, need to be developed to the optimum. The erstwhile Union Education Minister Mr. K.C. Pant in his speech at the conference of State Education Ministers, 1985 aptly observed, "Education is both an ingredient and an instrument of human resource development. All men and women and even more as, every child of our country has to be provided facilities for development of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values which promote development." Gunnar Myrdal in his monumental work "Asian Drama: An Enquiry into the poverty of Nations" laid emphasis on the development of human resources through education by higher investment which has positive correlation with economic prosperity and welfare. The Education Commission, 1964-66 has also reiterated, "While the development of physical resources is a means to an end, that of human resources is an end in itself; and without it, even the adequate development of physical resources is not possible." Education has been considered as one of the potential instruments for developing human resources of the country. India is now facing a complex as well as crucial juncture. It has been rightly said that we Indians are living through several centuries at the same time. A high percentage of our people live the lives of primitive subsistence whereas some are living the lives of luxury and extravagance: There are vast sections of men and women who silently suffer the lives

54 of drudgery in a traditional society, whereas certain places are always disturbed and dynamited; there are crores of people still steeped in illiteracy and ignorance whereas we have among its scientists and technologists who can compete with the best in the world. We have our countrymen in a large number who do not have a reasonable standard of decency and value-system whereas our country is proud of its many saints, philosophers, artists, authors and artisans. With a view to removing these disparities and discrepancies, of course high investment on education is necessary, but systematic planning and policy statement at the national level are also essential. This has led to a nation-wide discussion and deliberation on education inspired by our Prime Minister who says: "When we talk of education we are really talking of our people. For too long, we have considered our population as a problem and as a liability. It is time to change this, change our population into an asset and strength. This can be done by human development". The growing number of illiterates, explosion of population, deficiencies in the existing infrastructure, financial constraints and so on, pose great problems. But the Government of India is determined and committed to meet he challenges of education. Since the quality of life of the nation's future citizens is to be improved and the country has to be made dynamic, vibrant and cohesive, we have to utilise education as an effective instrument for meeting these challenges. The challenges of education can be viewed from five perspectives: (i) equalisation of educational opportunities, (ii) increasing educational relevance to national and individual aspirations, (iii) better utilisation of the existing infrastructure and improvement of the quality of education, (iv) modernisation and strengthening the content of science and technology, and (v) creation of a national system of education. These perspectives may be briefly discussed as follows: Inspite of multifarious attempts during the last 35 years, the Constitutional Directive for universalisation of elementary education has not yet been realized and the target has always eluded our grasp. This problem has proved formidable and can be tackled only with stronger determination and political will. Although there has been unprecedented expansion of education at all stages over all these years, it has been now estimated that more than one-and-a-half times expansion at the primary stage and more than three times expansion at the middle stage are necessary for universalisation of elementary education. Massive illiteracy in our country is a slur in the face of the greatest democracy of the world. At present the number of illiterates in the age-group 15-35 55 alone is over 10 crores. A wide net-work of non-formal and adult education centres is necessary to meet this challenge. Besides, various electronic media like radio and television should be deployed for providing educational facilities in the far-flung remote areas of the country. Widening access to education must be provided to all irrespective of sex, creed, religion and financial conditions. With a view to making education more effective and meaningful, first it is felt essential to make it more relevant to the individual needs and conditions as well as national aspirations. Due to lack of relevance not only education becomes unattractive and uninteresting, but also it fails to realise its objectives. Large number of dropouts and failures on the one hand and large scale educated unemployment on the other are indicative of this deficiency. It is therefore intended to give an employment and vocational bias to the entire educational system. Another suggestion is made in this context is the delinking of jobs from degrees. But there are inherent pros and cons in it. We have now nearly 7 lakh of educational institutions from primary school to universities and from technical schools to ITIs. Again there are crores of teachers and non-teachers working in these institutions. But what is the percentage of their utilisation? Although the country has invested enormous resources in creating this infrastructure, it is miserably underutilised due to want of adequate planning, co-ordination and foresight. Both the physical and human resources suffer from obsolescence, orientation and motivation:. Administration and management along with teachers should be reoriented and recommitted to the emerging tasks and challenges. In view of the dynamic changes in the society, the curricula at various stages have to be revamped and restructured to meet the growing needs from time to time. More emphasis is laid on teaching than on learning, on information than creative thinking and on traditional methods than on dynamic methods of teaching. Therefore, syllabi need be modernised with more content from Science, Civics, Mathematics and Technology and new methods, techniques and innovations should be introduced in the education system. The last but not the least is the creation of a national system of education which implies creation of an ethos and valuesystem reinforcing common Indian identity. Besides minimum core curriculum, content on composite historical and cultural heritage, our inspiring freedom struggle, biographics of our great leaders, current issues and problems should also be provided in our schools and colleges. In this national system of 56

education due emphasis should be laid on promotion of equality, fraternity, freedom, secularism and democratic values. Community should participate in the programmes of the educational institutions which must also be held accountable to the community. Education being a concurrent subject at present, it is felt imperative on the part of the Govt. of India to facilitate the growth and development of the national system of education. It is hoped that the present nation-wide debate would result in a New Education Policy with a set of feasible implementation strategies. Adequate financial resources with provision of atleast 6 per cent. GNP, judicious sharing of responsibilities among States and Central Governments, Local bodies, Voluntary agencies, strong political will and commitment will help realizing the national goal of education and to make this educational movement a spear-head of revolutionary changes in the desired direction.

REFERENCES Ministry of Education, Govt. of India, Challenges of Education: A Policy Perspective, 1985, New Delhi. Rajiv Gandhi, Prime Minister of India, Speech at the Conference of Stale Ministers of Education, August 29, 1985, New Delhi. K.C. Pant, Union Minister of Education, Address at the Conference of State Education Ministers, August 29, 1985, New Delhi. Gunnar Myrdal, Asian Drama: An Enquiry into the Poverty of Nations, Penguin Press, Middlesex, England 1968. D.S. Kothari et. al, Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, Ministry of Education, 1966, New Delhi. Jagannath Mohanty, "Eduction as Investment in Human Resource Development", Indian Education, January, 1982, (Price Article), AIFEA, Hyderabad. ________, Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1982, New Delhi. 57

8 An Educational Trip to Wales in the UK At last came the 12th March, 1979, the day for our memorable trip to Wales, the land of scenic splendour and warm hospitality. We all tried to occupy the best seats in the coach to get an unrestricted view of the outside world which was lurking us immensely. Mr. Tim Long, Director and Mrs. S. Rodwell, Co-Director of our course AR/25 for Educational Broadcasting and Audio-visual Media made a last-minute check whether all had come and everything was ready for the start. The coach started at 11-00 A.M. through the Northern parts of London. The sun was shining very brightly, a rare experience during our stay of the past eleven weeks. The adept driver of the British Council started informing us by his microphone that we were passing through Hampstead Heath, Bishop Lane called Millionaires' Lane, suburb and so on. Through the glass-panes I was getting the sunny warmth without feeling biting cold outside and enjoying the vast green meadows, trees with new buds, flocks of sheeps and shire horses. In fact, I was enchanted with the beauty and warmth of the day. On our way, we took tea in a Granada Restaurant and lunch at Sand-back and visited the old town Chester its lovely river Dee, big hydroelectric dam, old but renovated bridge, boats, shopping centres, market places, ancient wooden houses, massive Country Hall, Crown Court, beautiful church with old line woodworks and colour-painted glasses. We gathered that Wrexham—our destination was only 11 miles from there. Often I was taking the advantage of Mr. Long's presence in my front seat for eliciting any new information about the objects and places we passed through. We arrived at the gate of the Cartrefle College, Wreshamp just at 5.45 P.M. The care-taker took us to a hostel building where arrangement 58 was made for our accommodation. There were cosy rooms from No. 1 to 12, a number of baths and toilets and a room with bottles of milk, some coffee, and tea packets, a heater and a kettle were waiting for us with full readiness. At 6.30 P.M. we rushed to the Dining Room where ladies inspite of our delay were waiting for use. Food was quite warm, but

affection and hospitality of these ladies were warmer. In the morning of March 13, 1979 we were led to the Resources Centre at 10.00 A.M. and Dr. Clarke, Executive Principal with the help of a few transparencies explained not only the structures and functions of the Cartrefle College, but also the learning and communication system with various media. He also supplied further information in response to our queries. Since 1975 the College of Education in Wrexham became Cartrefle College and with other two colleges—Aston College and Kelsterton College were officially combined to create a single organisation under one administration known as the North E. Wales Institute of Higher Education. We were taken to different wings of the Resources Centre and Dr. Clarke and his colleagues explained various equipment and their functioning. The programme of Inservice Teachers' Training, particularly from overseas (e.g. Nigeria) is found to be an important one. But due to fluctuations in students' strength and finance, they have been experiencing a number of difficulties. There is also a Teachers' Centre for organising short courses of inservice training for teachers in the country. A large number of courses in utilising various media, preparing different support materials and curriculum development had been organised in the past. But at present since the Warden (a teacher) has been sent back to a school, no formal courses are being organised, but some information being disseminated and materials lent out to schools by a part-time secretary. In the afternoon we paid a visit to the Clwyd Country Council Library Service Headquarters at Mold. The Librarian in his preliminary talk informed us that the library was catering to various needs of the people. It was lending books, records, tapes and even wall-charts to the public as well as to the schools. There was a mobile wing of the library. A sum of one and half million pounds is spent every year. There were in all one and half billion books in the library. About 10 million books were borrowed by the public every year. Exhibitions by local industrialists and artists were often organised and the library extended all sorts of facilities for them and other research workers. Then the Deputy Librarian took us round the various sections of the library and explained the 59 different machines and process working there for facilitating library services. Particularly we were interested in preparation of catalogue on micro films and electrically operated bookshelves. On the 14th instant we had been to Educational Technology Centre where Mr. Clarks Jones, Co-ordinator and his colleague, the Deputy Co-ordinator offered us tea. The former gave a talk on the structure and functions of the Centre, which was set up in January, 1976 when due to inflation, money was running short. Still a sum of 3 million pounds was spent only on construction of the building where cinema, a theatre, a dance hall, restaurant, a bar and some other offices and shops had been housed. Here the Centre has been providing various services to the community in general and to teachers in particular like organising courses for operation and utilisation of A.V. aids, preparing and distributing multimedia packages particularly in Welsh languages. The Co-ordinator pointed out that unlike Schools Council in London, this Centre was emphasising the participation of teachers in developing materials which were found well accepted and more useful. The Deputy Co-ordinator took us round various sections of the Centre. He and his colleagues in-charge of the sections concerned explained their activities very well. Especially, the resources including TV Studio, Reprographic Machineries, Photographic equipment were quite amazing. During lunch so kindly arranged by E.T. Centre, I with few others had the opportunity of sitting with the Director of Education Mr. D.C. Jones with whom we discussed a large number of educational and cultural issues. Mr. Jones was quite free and congenial to respond to our queries. I had a special privilege of making interview with him and the coordinator separately on Teachers' Centres in the County and with reference to the Educational Teachers' Centre. The interviews were also recorded and photographed. Unfortunately the later one could not come out well. However, I was happy to get the interview with the Director well-recorded. In this I was thankful to my friends Bakran and Samuel. Then we had been to Alun Secondary School where the Headmaster with commanding personality gave a talk on the working of the school and replied to our queries unhesitatingly. The Assistant Headmaster took us round the Library, the TV & Radio Room, Language Laboratory and so on and his colleagues explained us the various functions going on there. The teacher in-charge of Resource Centre told that they had resource-based teaching instead of resource-based learning and the country was not giving due weight on the use of A.V. Media. We had the impression that Headmaster was not fairly democratic and not in 60 favour of introducing innovations. He and teachers were mostly concerned with administrative and organisational matters. The Headmaster openly said that he was not in a position to spare his teachers to attend any inservice training as there

were no adequate number of teachers to manage the work. Next day on 15.3.79 we had a meeting with Mr. Long and Mrs. Rodwell and I had a discussion on Teachers' Centres with the lecturer-in-charge who clarified many points. Then amidst a cloudy weather we left Wrexham and on the way halted for some time at Shrewsbury for tea and at Coventry where we visited the magnificient modern cathedral built on remnants of an old Church destroyed in the Second World War. Really I enjoyed the trip a lot and profited immensely from variegated experiences. We were grateful to our tutors for providing us all facilities both material and non-material to make the trip both pleasant and enlightening. 61

9 Reminiscences of a Primary School Supervisor How sensational were the experiences of a fresh college returned youngman moving on foot from village to village on the dusty and muddy roads of the remote rural areas! How romantic were the feelings amid the deep, dark and dense forest, resounded and vibrated by sweet sounds of the birds and rivulets. How exploratory and revealing were the experiences among the rural folk who were getting up from the deep slumber of age-old inertia and superstition! How heartening were their efforts and awakening from a "take off to a bright future! In my reminiscent mood, I am often filled with a sense of gratification, wonder and nostalgia for my past experiences as a Sub-Inspector of Schools, mostly primary schools. After passing B.Ed, from R.N. Training College, Cuttack in 1959 I was called to Berhampur for an interview by the Inspector of Schools for some posts of Sub-Inspector of Schools and assistant teachers of High Schools, that were lying vacant in the Circle of Puri and Phulbani districts. When I was asked by the Inspector of Schools as to my choice of such posts, I expressed categorically my preference for a post of assistant teacher in a High School to that of Sub-Inspector of School. But after some months I was offered a post of Sub-Inspector of Schools in which I was not interested at all. This case clearly reveals how candidates were recruited to some posts, without any consideration of their aptitude and interest for the job, but according to the vicissitude of circumstance and requirements of the administration. An individual may not get a job up to his choice, but he had to take keen interest in it on assumption of his new duty. He may not have natural inclination to his new assignment but he has to create and grow 62 a favourable attitude to it. I was, therefore, when appointed as the Sub-Inspector of Schools, Banapur, I had to accept the new post in consideration of my two personal reasons. Firstly, I was in need of job, secondly, I was allured by the natural beauty and cultural heritage of Banpur about which I heard of many things, Though before the appointment, I had a negative attitude towards the job, on assumption of duty I began to take keen interest in its every aspect. As 1 was a new entrant, almost fresh from the College, I felt myself a fish out of water. But in course of time I could adjust myself with the circumstances. I had no knowledge about and the problems of Primary Schools, the method of supervision and even the things to be supervised in a Primary School. The most thrilling and strenuous were my experiences in respect of my duty, the hardest task master. The place and people were completely new; the nature and condition of service were very hazardous; the work were quite peculiar and the way of life was quite unfamiliar and too unaccustomed to before hand. Now I feel what a long desired boon the proposed induction course would be to a new entrant in the inspecting line! This course is intended to impart some fundamental knowledge regarding Education Code, Rules and Regulations like Zilla Parishad Act in relation to Primary Education, Methods and manners of making correspondences, techniques of group discussion and so on and so forth, to the fresh inspecting officers and teacher educators. Over and above, even the experienced teachers of High Schools, who are likely to be appointed as Headmasters of Elementary Training Schools or Inspecting Officers, generally possess no experience and knowledge relating to elementary education and its peculiar problems. Although a separate B.Ed, stream for Elementary Education is being organised by the Regional College of Education, Bhubaneswar. It is practically serving no purpose. Due to absence of such facilities in the existing system, the seniors as well as the juniors feel almost similar difficulties in performing their duties and sometimes they cannot do justice to their onerous responsibilities. Any way due to my sympathetic attitude and new grown interest in the service. I could make use of the long experience and judicious views of some veteran teachers and tried to learn and acquaint myself with all peculiar problems and new methods of supervision. As Mr. E.L. Elmonds has rightly said, "Each Inspector then slowly involves his own way of doing things, a way that is constantly modified by experience and by new or unfamiliar demands". I steered clear my own line of

63 action. 1 found that the office and schools are too inadequate in respect of equipment, furniture, etc. and teachers are generally ill-equipped and managing committees mostly are inactive. Banapur is not too backward economically and educationally, although there are vast patches of forest region inhabited by tribal people, who are generally poor and illiterate. But my overall impression was that people were now awakened and not so much interested in education, progress and prosperity. However, it was my bitter experience that in the villages mostly inhabited by the educated and high caste people, public cooperation and participation in the improvement of primary schools and not so easily forthcoming, whereas it is very gratifying to note that a single teacher L.P. School at Arang inhabited by poverty stricken and uneducated Adivasi and Harijan people only was going to be upgraded and the school committee could start a good orchard and vegetable garden amid a dense forest. Really I was amazed at the unprecedented enthusiasm and cooperation of the people there. I know very well that in Banapur there were a good number of Primary school teachers, who were very old and experienced. They lacked enthusiasm and drive, but there were many teachers who are young and energetic, but they lacked knowledge and professional competence. Though majority of the teachers were trained, their training in methods of teaching and knowledge of psychology and school organisation have elapsed into oblivion and nothingness. The monthly centre meetings were good media for inservice training which were essential for efficient teachership and its orientation. Teachers should always keep the flame of knowledge burning. They will cease to be teachers, when they fail to learn more and more. R.N. Tagore has rightly remarked, "A Teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamp can never light another lamp, unless it continues to burn its own flame". I, therefore, tried my utmost to activate the centre meetings and made it a point to attend such meetings once at least in every month, where current educational problems were discussed, model lessons are given and discussed, essays relating to education were read and deliberated. These centre meetings not only acted as a sort of in-service education refresher training both for trained and untrained, but also contributed a lot to the progress, programmes and solution of problems in "host" schools, as the monthly centre meetings are held at one school after another in turn. Teachers can not be held responsible alone for discontinuance of learning and stagnation of their pool of knowledge. They do not get 64 proper scope for their intellectual and creative activities. There are no suitable libraries or funds at their disposal to purchase necessary reference books, journals and newspapers for such purpose. They in the mean time lost their interest and charm in reading and writing i.e., in intellectual pursuits. I, therefore, always encouraged them in this direction and tried to bring out a suitable medium for it. It was my pleasing experience that the teachers were in full support and appreciation of my effort. With their cordial cooperation, a quarterly educational journal entitled the "Arun" saw the light of the day and it was intended that teachers would be encouraged to read and write as their articles could be published in the Journal. During my stay in that circle three or four issues of the Arun were brought out with a high standard. A two day conference of all primary school teachers of Banapur Panchayat Samiti was organised, where educational problems were discussed by some reputed educationalists, administrators and lecturers like Sarvasiri Rajakishore Ray, Hrydanand Ray, model lesson was given by a primary school teacher and a good number of educational essays were read out and discussed by the teachers. Fortunately, during my five year service as Sub-Inspector of Schools, I experienced three different agencies of management for primary schools. At first District Board and Local Board for two or three years, then the Education Department were in charge of management of primary schools for a short time consequent upon the abolition of the Board System. Since the month of September, 1961, Panchayat Samiti and Zilla Parishad were the administrative agencies. But with the transfer of administration of Primary Schools to the Panchayati Raj i.e., local bodies at the Block and District levels, the principles of democratic decentralisation were being translated into action in the sphere of Primary Education. There were both pros and cons of the problem. Such transfer gave sample scope for public participation in the education of their children and for development of democratic spirit. It roused local enthusiasm and local initiative for improvement of primary schools. It developed a sense of responsibility and authority among the people. But as my experiences go, the advantages of Panchayati Raj were largely surpassed by its disadvantages. Most of the school committees, the Grampanchayats and Panchayat Samities were not much educated and conscious of their duties. They gave more importance to their rights that to their responsibilities. Local politics played havoc in the administration of Primary Schools. Instead of healthy competition and cooperation among the people, partisan spirit and group rivalry vitiated the atmosphere of good management.

65 Many teachers played as puppets in the hands of local administrators. They were transferred frequently at the personal whim and desire of the Chairman of many Zilla Parishads and Panchayat Samities. Some times they were used as instruments in the local election and litigation. Due to undue interference of a great number of people in day-to-day affairs and management of primary schools proper discipline and decorum could not be maintained. Though it is generally viewed that Sub-Inspectors are not mainly entrusted with the work of Supervision, they had administrative burden and they were often engrossed with various duties of management. Consequently, actual inspection lost its due significance and decorum. Moreover, sometimes suggestions made by the inspecting officers in the interest of public service were ignored in the interest of groups. The present status of Sub-Inspector of Schools consequent upon their transfer to the local control adversely affected their morale and strength of mind. They had function under the dual control of the local bodies on the one hand and the Education Department on the other. It is sometimes found that the Sub-Inspector of Schools had been converted into dignified clerks. Madras pattern of democratic decentralization had a good and satisfying feature distinguished from our set up. There, the inspecting officers were kept in fact under the Education Department. It has been my experience that Independence of Inspecting Officers is more essential now under the administration of Panchayati Raj than it was previously. Sri J.S. Mehta, former Director, Primary and Secondary Education, Rajasthan has aptly remarked, "Even in England, where elementary education is transferred to the country councils, an independent inspectorate is maintained under the national Government to supervise the work of the local bodies and advise them from time to time. If the maintenance of such an independent inspectorate is considered vital in England, where the local bodies are functioning at a very high level of efficiency, its need would be readily accepted in the Indian situation, where the Panchayati Raj Institutions are still in their infancy." This statement may be deemed as the right resounding and reiterating of the demands of the aggrieved sub-Inspectors. Their service conditions and job charts should be revised and reshaped for improving the standard of Primary Education. The Inspecting Officers working in the rural community have greater responsibilities, both in quality and quantity, then they had some decades back. The modern concept of Elementary Education has been widened and our children are being taught not merely for literacy, but for preparing 66 them as useful and responsible citizens of a democratic and socialistic society. The Sub-Inspector of Schools has a dynamic and leadership role to play in stimulating, guiding and advising the teachers in their efforts to develop democratic thinking, initiative and drive in the pupils. He is dealing not only with the teachers and pupils, but also with guardians and the leaders of the local community. Therefore, he has onerous responsibility for making the school a community centre and the Primary Education as the foundation for the community growth and development. Hence, he should be equipped with the modern educational thinking, scientific techniques of supervision or "tricks of trade" and "know-how" for improving education in general and primary education in particular. 67

10 Salient Features of the British Elementary Education and their Relevance in the Indian Context Every educational system has its peculiar features. In the United Kingdom due to her long democratic background, variety of practices based on autonomy, 'freedom, flexibility and heterogeneity have been developed in the field of education. These educational practices have not only reflected the British culture and milieus, but also have strengthened the English ways of life and value-systems. They might have some strengths and weaknesses but they have stood the test of time and proved their worth in that system. These important features may be examined and their significance be considered in the context of our own needs and conditions.

1. FREEDOM OF THE HEAD/TEACHERS Anybody from abroad is amazed to see the status and freedom enjoyed by the head of a British School. The powers given to him are unthinkable in any part of the world. He may be a headmaster of an infant school or of a junior school or of a Secondary School, he is master of his situations, the king of his kingdom. Of course, he is not a despot, an oppressive ruler, but he is a benevolent dictator and a constitutional monarch. The head of an English School is at liberty to organise his programmes and practices for different classes, select the text-

book of his own choice, teach children in any methods he thinks suitable, introduce any innovation he likes, try out any experiment he desires and evaluate his pupils' performance in any manner he wishes. Thus, he can shape his school according to his own ideas and values and can project the image of his school after his own vision. 68 But the unbridled powers are accompanied with enormous responsibilities. Nothing is set for him, nothing is imposed from above. Nobody is there to dictate, nobody to direct. There might be risk in granting so much autonomy to the head, but there is ample scope for gaining from free play of his imaginativeness and resourcefulness. He can take initiative, make experiments and introduce practices deemed to be desirable. John Blackie has clearly stated that in other countries teachers are, to a greater or lesser extent, told what to teach and how to teach, what text-books to use and how much time to spend on each subject. In England, all this is in practice under the control of each individual head teacher and a good deal of it is decided by the individual class teacher. (1) All foreign educators even the great liberation American teachers coming to the United Kingdom on exchange programmes are bewildered when they are not handed a "programme" for their classes. Blackie has aptly said, "even English people are frequently astonished when they realise how little general direction there is in English schools." In the absence of a uniform policy and standardised practices, many foreign educationalists find the British educational system as anarchic. But it has to be borne in mind that such freedom was not granted to the teacher nor such variety was there in the system from the beginning. Teachers were directed and required to follow a prescribed syllabus and a set of rules and regulations. But in course of time they were allowed more and more liberty with corresponding responsibility and they were found more effective and more successful in discharging their responsibilities using their initiative and judgement. Secondly, it was also felt that individual differences and local variations would be better taken care of in the situations of freedom and flexibility than under a uniform and rigid system. On the other hand, it is a fact that majority of teachers with average calibre would do better if they are spoon-fed and only a few talented and resources full teachers could do better when given full freedom and autonomy. Secondly, the British parents, particularly their children who constantly change schools, suffer more than any of their counterparts in other countries. They feel some difficulties as the change of schools mean change of text-books, methods, contents and so on, which would create problems not only for themselves but also for their children to catch up and adjust with new conditions of learning. Thus, there are both pros and cons in the system and to the British people the advantages outweigh and disadvantages. Moreover, their 69 system has stood the test of time and proved to be successful by producing very capable and competent persons in all walks of life.

2. DECENTRALISATION OF ADMINISTRATION Educational administration in the UK is decentralised and the Local Education Authorities at three levels—primary, secondary and further to meet the needs of their areas. Following the reorganisation of local Government in England and Wales outside Greater London in 1974 there are the elected councils of 105 countries and districts. The councils appoint education committees comprising some of their own members and persons with experience in education and knowledge of local educational condition. These authorities plan the arrangement of schooling in their areas and decide how children should be allocated between schools. They build their schools, pay-teachers and provide equipment and materials. The Local Education Authorities are quite independent to implement the educational plans and programmes in their areas under the broad national framework. Besides maintenance, these authorities also look after the developmental programmes like organising teachers centres, conducting pre-service and in-service training courses, promoting adult education, youth and community services to the mentally and physically handicapped children, providing school meals, text-books, audiovisual materials and so on. The elected members of the Education Committee freely discuss the policy matters and take decisions most democratically. LEAs maintain an inspecting staff of men and women, variously called inspectors, advisers, supervisors and organisers who usually spend a good deal of their time on administrative matters. These officers also visit schools, supervise the educational programmes, give guidance to teachers and organise in-service training courses. Thus LEA's provide multifarious services and facilities to the schools in their areas.

3. INDEPENDENCE OF INSPECTORS Although LEAs are delegated with a wide range of administrative as well as supervisory powers,\ the British Government maintains an independent inspecting staff called Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Schools. H.M. Inspectorate set up in 1839 is a national body numbering about 550 appointed by the Queen in Council, but working under the authority of the Secretary of State for Education. The head of the body called 70 Senior Chief Inspector is required to offer educational advice to the Secretary of State on the one hand and the LEAs on the other. Here Majesty's Inspectors (HMI) have no administrative function but they may inspect any educational institution in their respective areas. Though HMIs have variety of educational experience and qualification, all of them have been teacher themselves. From the HMI visits, teachers gain experts' advice and guidance and take them as opportunities to discuss with the persons who were teachers themselves and have wider experience and broader perspective. The Inspectorate is proved of its rich heritage and traditions of professional judgement. The HMI can inspect any or all aspects of the school and draw attention of the authority to which he thinks harmful or against the academic standards. He has no direct powers and cannot tell the head teacher what to do or not to do. But he can report his findings to the Department and the LEA, the school managers and also to the school staff. He is completely Independent of the LEA and works by influence not by authority. HMIs help teachers in their professional growth by organising refresher courses for teachers and their number is over 100 annually satisfying only a fraction of teachers' demands. The HMIs also conduct studies in the field and write up publication for teachers and parents. They not only work as eyes and ears of the department, but also operate as radars giving early signals by sensing internal currents and trends of events.

4. EFFICIENCY OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION Britain has not only made primary and secondary education compulsory, but also has made all possible provisions for effectiveness of the same. The British law demands of all parents to send their children to schools as soon as they attain the age of five years. The minimum school leaving age was raised from 15 to 16, since 1972. No tuition fees are charged in any publicly managed schools and suitable educational facilities are available for all categories of students including mentally retarded, emotionally disturbed and physically handicapped children in all parts of the country. Children get all text-books, supplementary readers as well as writing materials free of cost and also provided with free transport beyond a reasonable distance for attending schools and free subsidised mid-day meals depending on the financial strength of the parents. Thus, compulsory schools has been made effective as well as efficient. 71

5. AFFLUENCE OF RESOURCES The last but not the least is the rich resources and physical facilities available with educational institutions in the UK. The buildings are not only centrally heated, but also have well equipped accommodation for special purposes like assemblies, indoor games, kitchens, stores, laboratories, class-rooms, lavatories and so on. Adequate provisions are made in all institutions for art and craft, physical education, music, etc Audio-visual equipment and teaching aids of wide range and variety are provided and reprographic machinery and materials are abundant in almost all schools. Radio and television programmes suiting to specific needs of the students have formed part and parcel of the class-room instruction. Even in some schools video-tape recorders and computers have been used as instructional media.

6. SIGNIFICANCE IN INDIAN CONTEXT The Kothari Commission have recommended in the line of the British system for giving adequate autonomy and freedom to teachers for making experiments and innovations. The status of the heads of educational institutions has to be upgraded considerably with the implication that they will be given wide powers accompanied with enormous responsibilities. Nevertheless they have to elevate themselves to high standards of professional competence in order to deserve such status and powers. In India the principles of democratic decentralisation in educational administration particularly at the stage of Elementary Education has already been implemented in theory in many Statesland Gram Panchayats, Panchayat Samities and Zilla Parishad have been given adequate powers and functions for providing education according to the local needs and

conditions. But political interference, partisan activities, corrupt practices and so on have been proved obstacles in its successful execution. That is why, training in democratic practices and citizenship is felt essential for decentralised administration. With a view to ensuring better supervision, it has been suggested time and again that inspecting officers have to be made free from administrative burdens. Otherwise, supervision will not be adequate and effective. In some States there have been two sets of inspecting officers, one for administration and another for supervision. Besides, inspectors have to be provided with necessary supporting staff and a high standard 72 and independent inspectorate may be set up in the line of HMI at the national level. Without universal provision of educational facilities, compulsory education cannot be feasible. Inspite of Constitutional Directive, therefore, compulsory primary education has not yet been possible in most of the States. Unless adequate physical facilities and incentives are provided to schools and children, primary education cannot be made compulsory and the objective of universalisation of elementary education can never be achieved. Schools may not be made affluent in physical resources, but have to be provided with basic minimum of instructional materials and teaching aids and the teachers have to make the maximum use of these facilities available. Since a country's educational system is the growth of long traditions and practices, its salient features are mostly unique to the country's culture, mores and ethos. As such they cannot be blindly imitated or literally transplanted. However, the good practices and tested programmes have to be tried out with suitable modification in view of the local needs and conditions as well as national value system and policy framework.

REFERENCES British Information Services, London, Education in Britain, 1974. Tyrrell Burgess, A Guide to English School, Penguin Book, 1969. Jon Blackie, Inside the Primary School, HMSO, London, 1969. Department of Education & Science, The Use of Broadcast in Schools, Report No. 74,1972. BIS London, Fact Sheets on Britain, 1971. 73

11 Role of UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, World Bank and UNFPA in Financing Education INTRODUCTION International co-operation and support are forthcoming for education in particular and well-being of the mankind in general. One of the major concerns is to reduce geographical disparities and narrow the gender gap in education. Different international agencies and organisations are committed to bringing about decisive changes on their strategies and policy formulations in order to promote education. They are placing great emphasis on financing innovative programmes for improving the quantity and quality of education in general and of Elementary as well as Adult Education in particular. All attempts are being made by various international bodies to remove obstacles in the areas of universalisation of Elementary Education and eradication of mass illiteracy through different innovative projects and programmes.

UNESCO The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) is a specialised agency of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) both constitutionally and financially. It is independent of the UNO although its programmes are co-ordinated with the UN and other specialised agencies through the UN Economic and Social Council. This independence has helped UNESCO in implementing its programmes as the States having difference politically and ideologically in the UNO are apt to work together and co-operate such areas as education, science and culture. This has helped to breakdown the barriers of misunderstanding, doubts and distrust existing among various nations.

74 UNESCO formally came into existence on November, 1946 when only twenty States ratified the Constitution which had been drafted at the London Conference a year earlier. Most of its members are young nations that recently have broken off the shackles of foreign rule or the age-old territorial and political freedom, but also to improve their standard of living. Their aspirations were so high in different fields that it is rightly called "revolution of rising expectations". This has, therefore, a profound effect on the workload and action plans and policies of UNESCO and other agencies. The preamble to the Constitution of UNESCO has aptly stated in the opening sentence. "Since wars begin in the minds of men, it is the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constituted." Since the minds of men are of vital importance, UNESCO aims at changing and orienting the same through its programmes relating to education, science and culture. The Article 1 of its Constitution has laid down, "The purpose of the organisation is to contribute to peace and education, science and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion by the Charter of the United Nations." Accordingly, UNESCO has three main tasks, such as: (i) to collaborate in the work of advancing the mutual knowledge and understanding of peoples through all means of mass communication, (ii) to give fresh impulse to popular education and to the spread of culture, and (iii) to maintain peace and diffuse knowledge. UNESCO works through three bodies, viz. (i) the General Conference, (ii) the Executive Board, and (iii) the Secretariat. The General Conference meets every two years to adopt programmes and budget for the next biennium while the Executive Board supervises the execution of the programmes. The Secretariat carries out the programme, both at the headquarters in Paris and in the field. It functions through various National Commissions and Non-Government organisations. As per the Article 26(i) of the UN Charter of Human Rights, everybody has been given the Right to Education shall be, at least in the elementary and fundamental stage, compulsory, UNESCO has to implement this Right and translate into action through several programmes. In various conventions and conferences, decisions have 75 been taken and strategies have been determined for realising the objective. UNESCO has designed some programmes for increasing educational opportunities for girls and women. It has initiated some activities for the promotion of education of the handicapped children and youth. UNESCO has been conducting studies and fostering experimental activities in the member-states. It publishes materials on the trends of the educational development in the world. It organises regional conferences to help member-states to formulate policies and strategies oriented towards the advancement of education. UNESCO assists member-states to develop national policies and programmes for training abroad in the light of perspective national training facilities. UNESCO gives particular attention to the development of institutions for educational research and for curriculum development. It encourages activities for improvement of integrated curriculum planning and for developing educational materials, methods and techniques. It makes wide publicity for and utilisation of educational technology. It assists in the development and maintenance of institutions and services designed to support national efforts related to educational media, methods and techniques. UNESCO organises meetings and conferences on adult education. It assists member-states in promoting and improving their adult education institutions and practices through an optimum use of advanced methods and techniques including the mass media and space communication. It supports and strengthens adult education activities related to development and study leisure-time activities. UNESCO supports the International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods, Tehran. It develops systematic dissemination of information concerning the experiences gained in functional literacy by Governmental and non-Governmental organisations, public and private enterprises and regional and international organisations. It develops and implements experimental World. Literacy Programmes and promotes research on various aspects of adult literacy. UNESCO augments the provisions of training facilities necessary for implementation of various mass literacy, functional literacy and other experimental programmes by organising seminars, workshops, training courses and promoting the use of mass media for such training purposes. It also supports many regional training centres set up in various member-states.

UNESCO and UNICEF have been combining their financial resources and professional expertise to develop, expand and create educational 76 facilities all over the world. Projects for educating the blind the other handicapped children are implemented in various countries. Different teaching-learning aids are provided and guidance as well as technical services are made available by UNESCO and UNICEF. Assistance under the Swedish Funds-in Trust Projects is provided to Member-States in the form of fellowships, equipment, etc. for reform of educational structure and teacher education programme. UNESCO has played a very significant role in various international programmes relating to education. Education has been considered as a potential means of bringing about international peace and brotherhood. The International Commission on Educational Development (1972, p. 240) has rightly asserted, "it would have been impossible for a number of fundamental concepts related to theory and practice of education to have spread rapidly through the world without UNESCO. It adds, "and most probably, without UNESCO, many developing countries would have had far more trouble in improving their educational systems and especially, adapting them to meet the powerful emergent social demand for education." It appropriate for the UNESCO to give renewal of education an international dimension and consider educational development on a world-wide scale. The Commission has aptly observed, "We expect UNESCO to continue its work to increased intellectual co-operation. No other body is in position to do better in this domain, particularly in the field of educational reform where it must stimulate and develop the ferment required for a vast renewal of education" (p. 242)

UNICEF In December 1946, the United Nations Organisations (UNO) set up the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) for providing aid to the suffering children, initially in the war-devastated countries of Europe. Today, UNICEF is actively responsive to emergencies affecting children and most of its programmes are long-term operations closely related to the national development plans of many countries of the world. Now the UNICEF works with the Governments of developing countries to help protect children from diseases, malnutritions and other perils of the early years and to prepare them for healthy, productive lives as adults by helping Governments to develop the services needed by infants, children and youth. It is the only United Nations agency exclusively entrusted with the welfare of children. 77 In 1983, UNICEFs functions extended to the programmes of health, education, nutrition and vocational training. Family and child welfare and emergency aid in Asia, Africa and Latin America as well as in Europe. Although the official name was shortened to the "United Nations Children Fund" the original acronym "UNICEF" was retained and became wellknown throughout the world. The General Assembly of the UNO unanimously adopted a resolution on November 20, 1985 which is popular as "Declaration of the Rights of the Child". It says that "Mankind owes the child the best it has to give.......All children, without any exception whatsoever, shall be entitled to these rights, without distinction of discrimination." The Declaration affirms, "Every child has the right to affection, and medical care; love and understanding; to adequate nutrition, and medical care to free education; to full opportunity for play and recreation to a name and nationality; to special care, it handicapped to be among the first to receive relief in times of disaster, to learn to be a useful member of society and to develop individual abilities; to be brought up in a spirit of peace and universal brotherhood; to enjoy these rights, regardless of race, colour, sex, religion, national or social origin." In a special resolution, the General Assembly placed particular responsibility on UNICEF to implement children's rights. It declared that "the aid provided through the Fund constitutes a practical way of international co-operation to help countries a practical way of international co-operation to help countries to carry out the aims proclaimed in the Declaration." In 1965, the UNICEF was awarded with the Nobel prize in recognition of its outstanding contribution to world brotherhood in general and to the well-being of children in particular. Since 1970 the scope of UNICEF activities expanded and its funds were enhanced with full support of the United Nations Economics and Social Council. The year 1979 is a landmark in the annals of UNICEF activities. It was declared by the UNO in its General Assembly on December 21, 1976 as the International year of Child. Both Government and nonGovernment agencies supported its various programmes through which not only adequate awareness was brought about, but also noticeable improvement was evidenced during the period. Moor (1974, p. 11) has rightly observed. "Now, the United Nations by placing the Child in the Centre of World attention is inviting people in every country to review and reaffirm their concern for the present condition and the future of its children and to this is a practical way." All nations,

rich and poor alike 78 took this opportunity to their programmes for children and bring the basic facilities and services for better quality of life to many millions of children who still go without them. The UNICEF depends heavily on the voluntary contributions from Governments and from private sources. In 1976, for example, (103.4 million of the total and 135.2 million) was donated by 133 Governments. The reminder came from fund raising campaigns, gifts and the sale of greeting cards and calendars. UNICEF accomplishes many achievements with limited resources. UNICEF works closely with other United Nations agencies which provide experts, such as doctors, nurses, agronomists, teacher-educators and others who help plane and execute particular projects. The benefits of UNICEFs material and services is, thus, multiplied by being part of an integrated development programmes. Its aids consists mainly of supplies such as medicines, vitamins and medical supplies, heath and nutrition materials, stationeries and audio-visual aids, play materials and so on for effectively implementing various children welfare programmes. The UNICEF has been helping Government to provide basic services and facilities every child without any discrimination. It is bound by mandate from the General Assembly to respond to any crisis involving children. UNESCO (1981, p. 53) has aptly mentioned: "At the heart of UNICEF policy is the conviction that a nation's tomorrow depends upon its most precious treasure—its children. UNICEF has contributed to the growing awareness among Government leaders and international organisations that development concerns first and foremost, people (including children) and not just physical resources. The young are not only the beneficiaries of development; they are the principle contributors to it if they are adequately prepared,". The Government of India in collaboration with UNICEF have sought to realise the national goals of providing basic education for all children, improving social and economic opportunities reducing disparities in education among different groups, areas and genders. Particularly UNICEF in co-operation with NCERT, NIEPA and other national institutions of education has been working for promoting EFA and has provided financial as well as technical support of the implementation of projects of MLL and TLC. It has extended its help in developing literacy and positeracy materials, use of media and broadcasts. The Innovative projects like Teacher Empowerment Project of Madhya Pradesh, Education Projects in Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Orissa and Uttar Pradesh are being implemented 79 very successfully for improving quality and quantity of Elementary Education. The project on Integrated Education for the Disabled (PIED), the Area Intensive Education Project (AIEP) are being planned and executed in various parts of the country for integrating disabled children into mainstream. Primary education and for operationalising the concept of micro planning in making EFA a success.

UNDP In the year 1950 the major work of UNESCO was undertaken under the United Nations Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance. The purpose of this programme was to help countries at their request to strengthen their national economy through development of industries, agriculture, etc. and to ensure the attainment of higher levels of economic and social welfare for the entire populations. By 1965 such assistance was given to hundred countries totaling some 82 million USA dollars, mainly in the field of education and sciences. More than 5,000 expert missions for periods ranging from a few months to several years and more than 4,000 fellowships had been provided under this programme. UNESCO's main educational efforts were directed at helping the war-stricken countries of Europe to repair the ravages of the Second World War by providing books and equipments for schools and libraries and by taking up other post-war reconstruction works. UNECSO laid special emphasis on developing "fundamental education centres". Pilot Schemes for training rural leaders and teachers. The year 1960 marked another milestone in the history of UNESCO's work in education. This year the United Nations Special Fund together with Technical Assistance funds enabled UNESCO to give greater attention to education. At its 11th session that year its General Assembly decided to give top priority to educational programmes, particularly in the field of elementary education and eradication of illiteracy. By 1996 the Special Fund and United Nations Expanded Programmes of Technical Assistance were merged to form the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). A total of more than 6 million American dollars was provided for five literacy projects in Algeria, Ecuador, Iran, Mali and Tanzania designed to have direct impact on specific economic situations. Experimental Literacy Projects have also been started in two more countries Ethiopia and Guinea.

UNDP views education as the key of human development and considers education as more than a service. It is an investment on people. According to the Human Development Report the experience of 80 the fastest growing countries today shows that in addition to economic growth, the best means to sustainable human development is through the equitable distribution of both income and opportunities. Education is an opportunity for survival and growth. It empowers them to contribute to the well-being of their own family and to the welfare of the community in general. UNDP was one of the co-sponsor of the 1990 Jometien World Conference of Education for All along with UNICEF, UNESCO and World Bank. Since 1990 it has been increasingly involved in responding to country requests for support in basic education, mainly for the oppressed. It also supports and co-ordinates assistance and resources to realising UEE/UPE objectives. It pays special attention to the disadvantaged, poor working and street children, women and SC/ST children. In high population countries such as, India and the 8 others who gathered in New Delhi recently for the Education for 'All Summit,' this is challenging task. In' spite of all considerable progress made, including India there are still children. Youth and adults who have very poor access or even no access to education. Some of the 9 countries are close to achieving their goals of access and are anxious to improve the quality of education. UNDP is involved in universalisation of Elementary Education and eradication of illiteracy in the 9 highly populated countries according to their special needs and conditions. At present it is supporting with some US 30 million dollars. Projects for meeting basic learning needs and much more is in the pipeline. Much of the UNDPs support in these countries helps Governments in decentralising their educational activities, involving all sectors of population and all agencies of the society. In addition to other developing countries, in India UNDP has been actively engaged in supporting Government priorities and increased financial allocations to basic education as reflected in the 8th Plan which accords high priority to health and education of the people and allocation Rs.2000 crores more to education that allocated to this sector in the earlier plans. UNDP has provided preparatory support for development of basic education project for Orissa and is actively supporting the Government of India in moblising bilateral support for this innovative initiative.

WORLD BANK The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) of World Bank was set up on December 27, 1945 for assisting the 81 reconstruction of the war devastated countries. Initially, the Bank concentrated its activities on four main sectors: (i) production of electric power, (ii) roads, (iii) agriculture, and (iv) industry. But in 1962 the two organisations began participating in the construction and equipment of school building. Mr. G. Woods, the President of the Bank stated at the joint session of Governing Boards inter alia, "I believe that we will have to do more to help create the facilities necessary for the spread of education. Education is, of course, valued itself but it is also of central importance in the whole development process." The World Bank was an important sponsor of the World Conference. On Education for All held in 1990 at Jomtion had played a major role in providing funds for developing suitable learning materials and other facilities for expansion and quality of education. UNFPA The United Nations Fund for Population Activities is an organisation of the United Nations working as a financing agency for the high populated countries to control population growth through suitable device of population education. The International agency UNFPA has been collaborating the Government of India since 1980 to expedite the process of population education activities of the country. Similarly, it has been according financial assistance to other populated countries of world to popularise population control programmes through population education. In India, the UNFPA accords financial support to NCERT through the Government of India. The UNFPA assists the NCERT to spread population education among in-school, non-formal learners and to higher education through the UGC. Since 1980 UNFPA has made about 333 crore rupees available to the Government of India for population education activities to higher education students. The Government of India launches different plans and programmes and projects pertaining to population education through the assistance made available by the UNFPA. 82

12 Rights of the Child and Universalisation of Elementary Education 1. BACKGROUND The UNO, UNICEF, UNDP and some other International Agencies have been working hard for ensuring the Rights of the child and trying constantly to disseminate the knowledge about most of them. But prior to all these efforts, the Government of India and other Voluntary Organisations have been making their efforts for ensuring Children's Rights. Still in our country Children are exploited in the farms and factories and are not able to live their childhood happily. In the rich families the children are saddled with heavy load of learning materials and always pressed with "home work" in the families and curricular activities in the schools. But the children from deprived sections of the society are not able to get their food and shelter adequately. Education, health care etc. are dream for them. Even the developmental activities have been squeezing scope of children to enjoy their free and natural environment. The rapid growth of urban and industrial cities leads to shortage of play ground, park and peaceful atmosphere, which are essential for the physical and mental growth of children. A sizable section of children are also being exploited both physically and mentally. The child labourers, street children, orphans, handicapped, children of separate couples, children in slum and tribal areas are the worst victims.

2. CONSTITUTIONS OF INDIA, SUBSEQUENT ACTS AND UNO CHARTER Existing laws and policies of National and International bodies on rights of child are very critical. The Government of India specially 83 identified the interest of the children by giving priority in the Constitutions Directive Principles of State Policy. Article 39 reads that: (i) The health and strength of workers men and women and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economy necessity to enter an avocation unsuited to their age and strength, (ii) That children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment. The rights of the child adopted by U.N. General Assembly on 20th November, 1989, Article 32 reads that state parties recognize the rights of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the children of education or to be harmful to the child health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development. National Policy for children is framed to cater to the needs of the children. The Policy has targeted to provide adequate service to children both before and after birth to ensure their physical, mental and social development. The various measures include health program, nutrition service, compulsory education, physical education, special assistance for children belonging to weaker section of society, protection against neglect, cruelty and exploitation and attempt to strengthen facilities to realize the full potentialities of growth of children within normal family, neighbourhood and community environment. Juvenile Justice Act, 1986 which received the assent of the President on December 1, 1986 was Notified in section, Part 11 of the Gazettes of India on 3.12.86. The Act provides for care, protection, treatment, development and rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents. Some of its important concepts have been defined as follows: Juvenile—According to Sec. 2(h) of JJA, a boy who has not attained the age of 16 years or a girl of 18 years. Neglected Juvenile—Sec. 2(e) of JJA defines, who is found begging, a destitute, living in a brothel or with a prostitute, likely to be abused for immoral act Delinquent Juvenile—It means a juvenile has been found to have committed any offence or crime or misdeed. Institutions under JJA: Special Home, Juvenile Home, After Care Organisation. Juvenile Welfare Board:—The State Government may establish Juvenile Welfare Board for dealing exclusively with neglected Juveniles. 84 The Board shall consist of a Chairman and other members, of whom at least one should be a woman, to be appointed by the State Government Every member is required to have special knowledge of child psychology and welfare.

The inquiry and disposition of all matters related to neglected juveniles should, in no circumstances, exceed three months. The Board may, at its discretion, place the juvenile under the care of a parent, guardian or any other responsible person or send him to a juvenile home to ensure that he/she grows up in right kind of atmosphere. The Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC) drafted by the UN Commission on Human Rights and adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on November 20, 1989 is a set of International standards and measures meant for protecting and promoting the well-being of children in society. In 1993, 159 countries either signed the Convention or became State Parties to it by ratification, accession or succession, the goal being that by the end of 1995 all countries of the world would have rectified the Convention. The CRC recognises the exceptional vulnerability of children and proclaims that childhood is entitled to special care and assistance. It is guided by the principle of a "1st call for children" the principle that the essential needs of children should be given highest priority in the allocation of resources at all times. It obligates the State to respect and ensure that children get a fair and equitable deal in society. It laid emphasis on the importance of family and the need to create an environment that it is conducive to the heal the growth and development of children. It also advocates concerted public action by all individuals and agencies, Government and non-government, local, national, regional and international to promote the rights of the child. The CRC in a sense is an instrument of empowering children and creating an environment in which all children are able to live securely and realise their full potential in life. In general there are 4 categories of basic rights and the CRC draws attention to these 4 categories, i.e. civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights of every child. These are: 1. Right to survival: that includes the right to life, the highest attainable standard of health, nutrition and adequate standard of living. It also includes the right to name and nationality. 2. Right to protection: that includes freedom from all forms of exploitation, abuses, inhuman or degrading treatment and negligence including the right to special protection in situation of emergency and armed conflicts. 85 3. Right to development: that consists of the rights to education, support for early childhood, development and care, social security and right to leisure, recreation and cultural activities. 4. Right to participation: that includes respect for the views of the child, freedom of expression, access to appropriate information and freedom of thought, consensus and religion. The CRC also provides legal basis for initiating action to ensure the rights of children in society. It is derived from core set of human values and its ethical promise recognises the inherent dignity as well as inalienable rights of all members of the human family as the foundation of freedom, justice, peace in the world. Accordingly, the CRC states that the rights shall be extended to all children without discrimination of any kind, irrespective of the children or his or her parents or legal guardians race, nationality, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, social origin, property, disability, birth or other status. It draws the attention of the world to the fact that children living in exceptional difficult circumstances are to be given first preference and that such children need special consideration. It advocates measures for protection and harmonious development of the child that are consistent with the traditions and cultural values of different peoples. It provides safeguards against economic and other policies that have a negative effect on the will-being of children and it reaffirms commitment to promote social progress that will ensure a better quality of life and greater freedom for people in general and the children in particular. It also underscores the importance and potential of international cooperation for promoting and improving the living conditions of children in every country.

3. SPECIAL NEEDS AND IMPORTANCE OF CHILDREN'S RIGHTS It is of course a rule that children are given the same basic rights as adults. However, because of their physical and mental immaturity, children are vulnerable and they require special rights to protect them and to meet their unique needs. It is because of this immaturity that children must postpone the exercises of some civil rights until they become adults, thereby increasing the obligation to adults to ensure that rights of the children are defended. It is, therefore, argued that children should learn about their own rights. Every society hopes and expects that its children will grow up to be capable and responsible citizens who contribute to the well-being of 86 their communities. Yet around the world, children are denied the rights that could enable them to survive, develop fully and participate actively.

In both developing and developed countries, children cope daily with street violence, pressure to use drugs and sexual exploitation and abuses. They work long hours at jobs that are often damaging to their health without the opportunity for rest and recreation. Millions more who begin school never finish. Even in countries where enrolment is increasing, children of ethnic and linguistic minorities, girls and children with disabilities, may find that their chance to receive an education is limited or no inexistent. Too many children still die of preventable diseases. Mal-nutrition has yet to be radicated; access to clean water and sanitary facilities remains luxury in many places in industrialised and developing countries. The problems like pollution and environment degradation have caused various problems and in many parts of the world children of school age face conscription into the armed forces, torture, imprisonment and so on. Children, whose basic needs and fundamental rights are denied, cannot be expected to mature into caring productive adults, who will respect the rights of others. Rights violations are not only the cause of personal sufferings, they also sow the seeds for political and social unrest and violent conflict. For the sake of both individual and global development, children around the world need to understand the concept of rights, to know what rights they are entitled to empathize with those whose rights have been denied and to be empowered to take action on behalf of their own rights and those of others. Learning about CRC is one way to begin.

4. IMPLICATIONS OF CRC A child is every human being below the age of 18 years. Families and other adults are duty bound to care for the child. The best interest of the child shall be the primary consideration in all judicial and administrative action concerning children. A child capable of forming his or her views shall have an opportunity to be heard in judicial and administrative proceeding. All rights set forth in the CRC covers each child irrespective of the child's or his parents, race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property, disability, birth, caste or trade. In many countries, however, these rights are denied and 87 equal facilities are not given in schooling, nutrition and other fields. Freedom from gender discrimination underlines the rights of the girl child. More than 38000 children die every day throughout the world due to lack of food, shelter or primary health care. Although every child has a right to life, many children are thus, denied all such basic rights. Similarly, every child has a right to the highest attainable standard of health and to medical and rehabilitation facilities. But traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children are still persisting that need to be removed as soon as possible. Besides enduring deplorable living conditions children who live in poverty have great difficulty in gaining access to service and other facilities readily available to child/en who are better off. Hence, every child has to have a standard of living adequate for the children's physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development. Both parents have common responsibility for the upbringing and development of the child. The children of working parents are in need of special attention and services. Therefore, the society in general and the employers in particular have to provide adequate facilities for their care and development. In situation of armed conflicts between communities in villages or towns the law-enforcing bodies must see that no child below 15 takes part in the conflict. In current day conflict more than 90% of the victims are women and children. More than 10 million child refugees are around the world. It is, therefore, essential that children involved in conflicts and natural or man-made ravages should be provided all facilities immediately. Children with disabilities are common practices of discriminations. A mentally or physically disabled child has the right to a full and decent life in conditions which ensure dignity, promote self-reliance and facilitate participation in the community. Reports on the abuse of children including sexual abuse reveal a problem of major preparation at all levels of the society. Child prostitutes readily available from the growing number of street children are forced into this type of slavery by poverty. The government is bound to protect such children from all forms of physical and mental abuses, neglect or exploitation. There are over 100 million children throughout the world who are forced to work under hazardous conditions that are fatal to them. Many are employed under slave like conditions for any adequate pay. Children forced to work are deprived of their education and leisure time and often separated from their facilities. Hence, every child has a right to be 88

protected from economic exploitation and they are performing the work that may not interfere with the children education and hazardous to his health and development. Children need be protected from torture or other cruel inhuman or degrading treatment. Accused children have a right to be treated with dignity, presumed innocent until proven guilty in a prompt and fair trial. They must be detained from adults and have right to legal assistance and to maintain contact with their families. The child has a right to express an opinion freely and have that opinion heard. For example, many children dislike going to school or should be afraid and critical of teachers and even of their own parents. The media have a duty towards encouraging them to speak out their views about the matters which they strongly feel about. The young ones have to play and they are very inventive during play. This is the first stage of creativity. Play not only is required for physical and mental development but for their social and creative betterment. To deprive children of such valuable activity need be treated as offensive to the society.

5. INDIAN SCENARIO IN THE CONTEXT OF CHILDREN'S RIGHTS The CRC reiterates and elaborates what has already contained in the Constitution of India. According to Article 39 of Directive Principles of State Policy the State shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing— (1) That the health and strength of workers, men and women and the tender age of children are not abused and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter avocations unsuited to their age of strength; and (2) That children are given opportunities and facilities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment. National Policy for Children in 1974 affirm the Constitutional provisions and declares that "it shall be the policy of the State to provide adequate services to children, both before and after birth and through the period of growth, to ensure their full physical, mental and social development. The State shall progressively increase the scope of such 89 services so that, within a reasonable time, all children in the country enjoy optimum conditions for their balanced growth". The Government of India by ratifying the CRC on November 12, 1992, once again reaffirmed its commitment to children. This obligates the Government to: (i) review national and State Legislation and bring it in line with the provisions of the Convention; (ii) develop appropriate monitoring procedures to assess progress in implementing the Convention; and (iii) involve all relevant government Ministries and departments, international agencies, non-government organisations, and the legal profession in the implementation of the CRC.

6. IN THE CONTEXT OF EDUCATION According to the Convention, State Parties recognised the rights of the child to education, and with a view to achieving this right progressively on the basis of equal opportunity, they should make primary education compulsory and free to all (Article 28). In the Constitution of India, Article 45 of the Directive Principles of State Policy declares "the State shall endeavour to provide within a period of 10 years from the commencement of this Constitution for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of 14". But inspite of various efforts on the part of government, this objective could not be realised so far and the National Policy on Education, 1986, the goals set for Education For All (EFA) 1990 and the revised NPE, 1992 reaffirm the country's commitment to universalisation of primary education by the year 2000. But it is felt that without strong commitment on the part of government and massive involvement of public, it may not be possible to reach the goal even by the end of the 20th century. In the 8th Five Year Plan (1992-97) universalisation of primary education and eradication of illiteracy in the age group of 15 to 35 have been taken as the basic objectives of education. It is a major step in the direction of making primary education compulsory. Special attempts have been made for improving enrolment particularly among girl children of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and to reduce wastage and to improve efficiency of school management. It has also been emphasised to improve the quality of school education and to make the teaching-learning environment more enjoyable, accountable and meaningful.

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7. CONCLUSION It was, however, heartening to note that the Gujral Government declared elementary education as the right of the child during the year 1997 and it was hoped that the Government of India would muster the political will to put this declaration into practice. Although a lot of money is being spent on eradication of illiteracy, it is to be confessed that by universalisation of elementary education, the problem of mass illiteracy can be nipped in the bud and not be allowed to grow. Of course, without public cooperation and awareness, the U.E.E. cannot be achieved and for that multi-pronged efforts are to be made by the government as well as non-government organisations at all levels in a well-coordinated manner. The U.E.E. should be taken as a great national challenge which has to be faced with strong determination and deep involvement of the people and firm commitment and political will of the government. 91

13 Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) in Elementary Education INTRODUCTION The Constitution of India embodies in itself the principles of Sovereignty, Socialism, Democracy and Secularism as visualised by the national leaders, thinkers and educationists of the country and as conceived of in the National Policy on Education, 1986. "The concept of a National System of Education" observes the NPE, 1986 "implies that, up to a given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, have access to education of a comparable quality." With a view to ensuring such universalisation of education of a comparable quality, effective steps have been contemplated and taken up by the government of India, in the direction of the Common School System recommended in the NPE, 1986. At the outset, the National System of Education (NSE) envisaged and subsequently implemented a common educational structure 10 + 2 + 3 for the entire country. The NSE was visualised to be based on a national curricular framework which contains a common core along with other components that are flexible. The common core would include the history of India's freedom movement, the Constitutional obligations, and other content essential to nurture national identity. These elements would cut across subject areas and would be designed to promote values such as India's common cultural heritage, egalitarianism, democracy and secularism, equality of sexes, protection of the environment, removal of social barriers, observance of the small family norm and inculcation of the scientific temper, it was also emphasised that all educational programmes would be carried on in strict conformity with secular values, world peace, co-existence, international understanding and co-operation. 92

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF MLL "To promote equality", the NPE, 1986 envisions, "it will be necessary to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in access but also in the conditions for success. Besides, awareness of the inherent equality of all will be created through the core curriculum. The purpose is to remove prejudices and complexes transmitted through the social environment and the accident of birth". The concept of Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) emerges from the very basic concern for a minimum standard of education and is postulates of quality, equality and equity in education. This was emphasised by the NPE, 1986, and its strategy and parameters were laid down in he Programme of Action (POA), 1986. The POA (1986) has said, "The need to lay down Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) emerges from the basic concern that irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, all children must be given access to education of a comparable standard." Initially emphasis was laid on developing strategies for improving the quality of elementary education which should combine both quality and equity. The MLL "lays down learning outcomes in the form of competencies or levels of learning for each stage of elementary education. The strategy also prescribed the adoption of measures that will ensure achievement of these levels by children both in the formal schools as well as NPE centres.

MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS With a view to ensuring atleast minimum standard of Elementary Education, the education system is counteracting the problems of quality, quantity and equity which have so far been contradictory due to constraints of resources. The major focus of the Policy formulation for MLL is upon equity and reduction of existing disparities. The effort is to reconcile the quality concerns with that of equity keeping in view the developmental needs of children from the disadvantaged and

deprived sections of the society, the dropouts working children, and girls who constitute the majority of school-going age population in this country and to whom of atleast for some time to come, primary education will be the only opportunity for structural learning. MLL can be specified in a variety of ways. For example, these can be stated as expected learning outcomes defined as observable terminal behaviours. It may be done according to Bloom's taxonomy of instrumental objectives such as knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation 93 and so on. The learning outcomes as expected can be determined accordingly. The MLLs can also be stated in terms of learning competencies expected to be mastered by every child by the end of particular class or stage of education, irrespective of all kinds of variations as existing today. The National Committee on MLL has decided to state the MLLs in terms of terminal competencies and each competency has to be further delineated in terms of sub-competencies while specifying the content inputs or while designing specific measures of learning. NCERT has rightly noted that the set of MLLs would actually represent the rational criteria adopted for judging the adequacy of the curricular inputs provided and the learning outcomes to be expected. There can be no finality with respect to any set of MLLs. Two basic considerations should kept in view while formulating the MLLs. (i) The cognitive capabilities of the children at different classes or grades corresponding to different stages of developments; and (ii) the empirical reality in terms of the enabling environmental conditions that characterise the primary education programmes. Specifications of MLLs should meet the purpose of increasing learning attainments and serve as performance goals for the teacher. These are also indicators of output of the education system as a whole. The operational features and characteristics of MLLs as considered in their formulation are the following: (i) Achievability An important characteristic of MLLs is achievability which implies that the learning objectives that are laid down must be achieved by all learners. Curriculum objectives are not realised to a great extent and majority of students achieve them very inadequately. Attempts should therefore be made to set MLLs most realistically. In operational terms, 80% or more of the children mastering at least 80 percent of the prescribed learning levels. In a vast country like India the achievement level must vary from one region to another, from one district to another and even from one school to another. Hence, a great amount of flexibility is essential for implementing the MLLs throughout the country. For instance, what is easily achievable in a corporation schools of Puri. It is, therefore, expected that at best each district should examine the MLLs in relation to its own conditions. Besides intermediate targets may be fixed for achieving at the next phase and finally mastery level of attainment by almost all children in their schools. In the educationally 94 backward areas greater resources should be deployed for accelerating the pace of development, so that the regional disparities can be removed or reduced and standards can be equalised as far as possible in course of time. (ii) Communicability The MLLs are to be not only realistic and achievable, but also communicable and meaningful to all the teachers. These need be easily intelligible both in language and form to the teachers who are working in remote rural areas without any outside help and guidance. Besides, the MLLs should be made clear to the NFE instructors or facilitators, parents and community. The MLLs need be spelt out into simple terms in order to be understandable. This should also be equally useful to curriculum planners, textbooks writers, supervisors and educational administrators besides teachers. (iii) Evaluability The MLLs should be useful for effective evaluation which need be continuous and comprehensive. At present no systematic evaluation of learners is made at the primary education stage. Most of the schools do not follow any scientific procedures of evaluation. They adopt no-detention or automatic promotion policy, according to which children are not detained to repeat the course. This non-detention policy assumes an intrinsic ability of all children to learn provided they are taught properly. This placed the onus open the teacher and the school to create suitable conditions for learning. It should not be understood that no detention is no testing and no testing is no teaching. But mastery level of learning is the

target for every child and all attempts need be made of achieving the expected outcomes. The MLLs must ensure the assessment of the learner attainment in a continuous and comprehensive manner. (iv) Learning Continuity MLLs are specified in terms of competencies to be mastered in a sequence from Class I onwards in a continuum. There may be hierarchy of such competencies which may be grouped in clusters under each learning unit. Children are expected to make progress systematically and sequentially mastering one cluster of competencies after another in a meaningful and joyful manner. There is thus a learning continuity or continuum for each individual child as well as for each group of children. 95 (v) Both Cognitive and Non-cognitive Learning Although MLLs in the cognitive areas as given below have been delineated, attempts need be made to promote learning in non-cognitive areas also: (a) Languages (b) Mathematics (c) Environmental studies (including social studies and sciences) The subjects under non-cognitive areas as given below should be given due emphasis and MLLs be delineated: (a) Physical Education (b) Work experience (c) Music and Art Education Various co-curricular activities should be organised in and outside the school and competencies as expected to be developed need be specified as far as possible, taking the existing conditions and facilities into consideration.

EFFORTS MADE AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL Our country is committed to provide elementary education to children. Accordingly educational facilities are being tremendously, especially during the Post-Independence period. The number of primary schools in the country has increased from 2.2 lakh in 1950-51 to nearly 6.32 lakh in 1991-92. In addition, there are about 3 lakh non-formal education centres at present providing primary education out of school children in the age-group 9 to 14. The unprecedented expansion has enabled a large section of our people to get primary education with their walking distance. On the whole, a nearly 95 percent of our population are served by primary schools within one kilometer. This large-scale expansion has resulted in wide-ranging variations in the quality in terms of institutional infrastructure, teachers, teaching-learning processes, students and so on. The quality variations have been marked more spectacularly between schools of rural and urban areas, between schools managed by government and non-government agencies. An urgent need was felt at the national level to remove such variations and reducing the disparities as far as possible. The National Policy on Education, 1986 called for immediate attention to (i) improving the unattractive school environment, and (ii) laying down minimum levels 96 of learning that all children irrespective of their locations, sex, religion and economic conditions must receive at different stages of their education. The Programme of Action, 1986 laid down that the focus would be the development of competency, based teaching and learning and the main steps or strategies would be as follows: (i) Preliminary assessment of the existing levels of learning achievements. (ii) Modification of the MLLs to suit local situations, if needed.

(iii) Initial and recurrent orientation of teachers to competency-based teaching. (iv) Introduction of continuous and comprehensive evaluation of students and using evaluation results for remedial action. (v) Preparation of teacher-training handbooks for MLL-based teaching. (vi) Preparation of unit tests and other evaluation materials and putting them in an item-pool for using as and when required. (vii) Using MLL norms as and when curriculum and textbooks are revised. (viii) Provision of competency-based teaching-learning materials to make the educational process activity-based and joyful. It was also suggested that periodical and systematic programmes of performance analysis would be carried out to ensure improvement in the quality of education. Efforts would be made to involve the community in this process. A working group on Early childhood and Elementary Education was set up for formulation of the Eighth Five Year Plan which inter alia states, "The targets need to be spelt out not only in terms of participation, but also in terms of quality and outcomes. During the Eighth Plan, it should be our aim to bring about a substantial improvement in quality of education through improved infrastructure, improved teacher education and substantial improvement in quality of learning materials. In terms of outcomes it shall have to be ensured that minimum levels of learning are laid down with no reference to the conclusion of primary and upper primary stages and an appropriate evaluation system created to ensure a achievement atleast of the prescribed levels of learning. Significant efforts towards specification of MLLs have already been made by the NCERT during 1978 in connection with the UNICEF-assisted Projects on "Primary Education Curriculum Renewal" and "Developmental Activities in Community Education and Participation." 97 As part of these projects, a "Minimum Learning Continuum" was drawn indicating the learning outcomes expected to be achieved by all children completing Classes I to V. The PECR Project was evaluated in 1984 using a set of achievement tests developed for all the primary classes based on the competencies specified in the Minimum Learning Continuum. On the basis of the finding of this study and in the light of NPE, 1986 the NCERT developed a document entitled "Minimum Levels of Learning at the Primary Stage." In the light of these above exercises, the Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development organised a National Seminar in 1989 on the theme "Basic Learning Needs and Levels of Attainment." Various pertinent issues were discussed in the seminar and recommendation was made for laying down minimum levels of learning at the national level. The MHRD in the Department of Education set up a Committee in 1990 with the following terms of reference: (i) Draw up minimum levels of learning for Classes III and IV. (ii) Recommend a procedure for comprehensive learner evaluation and assessment. (iii) Looking to the non-cognitive areas of learning and suggest concrete way for improving teaching in these areas. The Committee was informed further that it would be dealing with both formal and non-formal systems of education. The Committee made several recommendations for formulation of MLLs. But it was decided to hold a wide range of consolations with practising teachers from formal as well as non-formal streams before finalising the same. Accordingly, consultative meetings of teachers were held in seven states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu with the help of concerned SCERTs and some voluntary agencies involved in Non-formal education programmes of the states. The suggestions given by these participants were collated and placed before the Committee in 5th and final meeting in August 1990. In the light of the reactions and feedback of the drafts were revised and the Committee drew up a Plan of action for implementing the recommendations of the Committee. (1) The salient points of this Action Plan are as follows: (1) MLL Project should be implemented in primary and NFE Centers in the country in a phased manner. The overall implementation plan may be implemented in 3 or more phases. In the phase-I the 98 project would be implemented in only a few selected districts or blocks in 2 or 3 states after a thorough preparation. (2) The main purpose of the first phase should be to understand how the proposed MLLs function in both formal and nonformal systems, what kind of orientation and aids are needed for teachers to achieve mastery by students, what kind of

modifications are needed in learning materials, how other administrative and academic measures should be taken for improving the learner's achievement. (3) For ensuring effectiveness, full participation of teachers, headmasters, supervisors and community members should be enlisted. The district level authorities including the DEO, DIET and other concerned agencies should take the responsibility of organising, coordinating, implementing and evaluating the programmes with the help of local agencies. The district should be taken as a unit of this innovation and state agencies like SCERT and State Education Department as well as national authorities should extend their expertise and guidance in implementing, monitoring and evaluation. (4) Every district should ensure that the minimum standards of achievement laid down at the national level in terms of MLLs as a basic and common criterion of reference should be attained by all as early as possible and even go beyond. Different districts and schools within them may need different time frames and resources they may set their own intermediate phases for moving towards the standards set by the MLLs. But within a time-span of ten years all districts in a given state and all states of the country must ensure the achievement of alteast the minimum levels of learning for almost all children. (5) It is necessary to prepare teachers' handbooks in different curriculum areas. The handbooks should provide all explanatory notes and illustrative material relating to MLLs and their effectiveness in teaching and testing. Suggestions for the use of supplementary texts, teaching-learning aids and activity-based methods should be mentioned in the handbooks. (6) Although MLLs are laid down notionally, they allow full flexibility for the use of local materials, Illustrations and other aids for giving more relevance and functionality. Training and retraining of teachers should be organised on the basis of MLLs. Integrated instructional materials may be produced in course of time for giving reinforcement and meaning. 99 (7) A continuous and comprehensive scheme of evaluation should be made on integral part of the MLL approach to quality control right from the first phase of implementation. Teaching and testing should be interwoven for providing ample scope for evaluation, remedial teaching, mastery learning and so on. (8) Based on MLLs, handbooks, textual materials and item pools suitable orientation of teachers should be organised before Phase-I begins and should be repeated before launching Phase-I and III under the expansion programme. Similar orientation should be provided to supervisors and other concerned personnel. The recurrent training should be of short duration and be functional and task-oriented. (9) Efforts need be made to involve the local community in a variety of ways. Cooperation of the Education Committee members, parents and other leading persons should be enlisted for ensuring regular attendance of children. There should be optimum utilisation of human physical and even financial resources available in the local environment for effective implementation of the MLLs. (10) School-clusters or complexes as suggested by the Kothari Commission should be organised for cooperatively working, sharing experiences and materials, solving instructional and academic problems jointly and thus helping one another in improving the quality of the learning process. 5 to 10 schools in a compact area may form a complex. (11) The implementation strategy to be effective must need a sound monitoring system accompanied by a resource support system. Adequate preparation should be made at the initial stage. Review of the MLLs should be made from time to time. (12) At the national level, the Department of Education of the MHRD should continue to play a leading role at the implementation stage together with NCERT, NIEPA, NEO and so on. The national programme of universalisation of elementary education can be a success to realise "Basic Education for All".

CONCLUSION: PRESENT POSITION At present, MLL Project is being implemented throughout the country in close collaboration with UNICEF, Government of India and State Governments. It has been rightly observed in the Revised NPE, 1992 that based on the experience gained in implementation of MLL projects 100 sanctioned during 1991-92 the programme would be expanded to other areas in a phased manner. SCERTs/DIESTs would be encouraged to take-up MLL projects so that this strategy becomes an integral part of pre-service teacher training. Project area teachers would be trained in utilising the teaching aids supplied under Operation Blackboard. MLL concept

would also be introduced in teacher training Institutes/colleges for pre-service training programmes. Since MLLs have already been laid down for the Primary stage, new immediate steps need be taken for deciding MLLs for upper primary stage. At the national level, the MHRD would continue to play a major role. A network of Resource Centres would be identified to assist the Ministry in training, development of instructional and evaluation material documentation, etc. At the state level, Department of Education and SCERT would take the responsibility for implementation. A national pool of resource persons drawn from various educational institutions would be created. A similar pool of resource person at the state level would also be set up and arrangements need be made for reorientation of these Resource Persons for effective implementation of MLL strategy. It has been contemplated that the Central Government could provide the funds at the initial stages, but as the strategy is implemented in a Project mode, the State Governments, atleast by the end of 8th Plan, would adopt the MLL strategy as an integral part of their responsibility towards quality improvement of elementary education.

REFERENCES Govt. of India, National Policy on Education, MHRD, (Education), New Delhi, 1986. _______, Programme of Action, MHRD (Education), New Delhi, 1986. _______, Revised NPE, 1992, MHRD (Education), New Delhi, 1992. Mohanty, J., Crucial Issues in Indian Education, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1992. _______, Teaching and Education in the Emerging Society, Takshila, Cuttack, 1993. NCERT, Minimum Levels of Learning at the Primary Stage, New Delhi, 1993. 101

14 Constitutional Provisions and Amendments for Education NATIONAL GOALS The Constitution of a country is the basic document which may be regarded as the source of legislation. The Constitution of India has provided a large number of clauses and articles which have a direct or indirect bearing on education. Its preamble has reflected the national ethos, values and aspirations and enjoined the objectives of the national policy. It has given the directions in which the nation would go ahead and achieve its aims. The national goals as envisaged in the Preamble to the Constitution indicate the vision of the nation and every citizens owes his allegiance to it. Democracy, Socialism and Secularism emerge and guide the national activities. The imperial system of education intended to prepare an army of ministerial assistant was to be modified and re-oriented to reflect the national ethos and aspirations and to prepare creative and productive citizens. This reorganised and reoriented educational system is operative for preparing the future citizens of the country.

DIVISION OF RESPONSIBILITIES At the outset educational responsibility was divided between the Government of India and the States. As the Entry II of the List III of the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution, Education was declared to be a State subject. Education in the Union Territory and generally administered areas became the direct responsibility of the Government of India. The Entries 63, 64, 65 and 66 of List I and Entry 25 of the List III are known to be the Central function and joint function of the Central as 102 well as State Governments respectively. Subsequently, Education was made a subject in the concurrent list by a Constitutional Amendment in 1976. Like in every federal Government, in India there is a clear demarcation of legislative powers between the Centre and the States. Generally, there are two ways of distributing such powers between Federal Government and its Units. In one way the Federal Government is given a number of specific powers and the remaining powers may be divided or vested in

States. This method is followed in the American and Australian Constitutions. In another way, the States may be given a number of specific powers and the remaining powers are vested in the Union Government. This method is followed in the Canadian Constitution. Thus, the Union Government is vested with many powers called "residual powers." The Canadian type of the distribution of legislative powers has been followed more or less in the Constitution of India. But there are some features in our Constitution different from the Canadian one. These features as regards legislative powers are three lists, namely, (i) the Union list, (ii) the State list, and (iii) the Concurrent list. As per the Art. 245 Parliament had exclusive powers to make laws in respect to the matters described in the Union list. The State Assembly can make laws on any matter given in the State List. Both Parliament and State Legislature are competent to prepare laws on any matters enumerated in the concurrent list. For matters not given in the list the Parliament can legislate. In case of conflicts between the laws prepared by the Parliament and Assembly, the former legislation will supersede. However, in spite of such conflicts. State laws may prevail if it is reserved for consideration of the President and received his assent. Parliament at any time make a law on any matter in the State list which acquires national importance. List I: Union Subjects This list consists of 97 subjects. Among them the following are concerned with education: 63. The Institutions known at the commencement of the Constitution as the Benaras Hindu University, the Aligarh Muslim University and the Delhi University and any other institution declared by Parliament by law to be an institution of national importance. 65. Union agencies and institutions for: (a) Professional, Vocational or technical training including the training of police officers; or 103 (b) The promotion of special studies or research; or (c) Scientific or technical assistance in the investigation or detection of crime. 66. Co-ordination and determination of standards in institutions for higher education or research and scientific and technical institutions. Entry 13 of the Union list: Participation in International conferences, associations and other bodies and implementing decisions made thereat. Article 239: Education in the Union Territories comes under the Central Responsibility. "Save as otherwise provided Parliament by law, every Union Territory shall be administered by the President." List II: State Subjects It consists of 66 subjects and the following are concerned with education. 11. Education including universities, subject to the provision of entries 63, 64, 65 and 66 or list I and entry 25 list III. Entry 12, libraries, museums and other similar institutions controlled or financed by the State, ancient and historical monuments and records other than those declared by or under law made by Parliament to be of national importance. List III: Concurrent Subjects This list is of 47 items. The following are related to education: 20. Economic and Social Planning. 25. Vocational and technical training for Labour. Official language of the Union has been an important issue dealt in the Constitution. English was introduced by the British Government as the official language, 1835. But during the struggle for freedom, Indians under the leadership of Gandhiji demanded that one of the Modern Indian languages preferably Hindi should be used as the official language of the Union in place of English. In Part XVII this demand was recognized and under Article 343 it has enjoined that Hindi in the Devnagari (with the International form of Indian numerals) would be the official language of the Union.

With a view to effecting a smooth transition and making it acceptable to all kinds of opinion, it was provided in the Constitution that English should continue to be used until 1965 for all official transactions of the Union for which it was being used immediately before the commencement of the Constitution. At first Hindi would be used in addition to English 104 and later on, it would replace English gradually according to the decision of the Parliament. In 1961, however, it was decided in the Conference of the Chief Ministers that English should continue to be the Associated official language of the Union even after Hindi became the official language. The Constitution also provides for the appointment of a Language Commission at the expiry of five years from its commencement and thereafter at the expiry of ten years. The report of this Commission would be considered by a Committee of Parliament on the official language and decisions would be taken on the basis of the recommendations of the Official Languages Committee as well as Commission. The Constitution has also allowed States to adopt Hindi or any other modern Indian languages for their official transaction. Besides, Article 351 enunciates, "it shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression of all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilation, without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expression used in Hindustani and in other languages of India. Language and Educational Safeguards have also been guaranteed in the Constitution under Article 29(1) which provides, "Any section of the citizens, residing in the territory of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script or culture of its own shall have the right to construe the same." Further Article 350-A states, "It shall he the endeavour of the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of Education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups". The Constitution also guarantees that, "no citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution, maintained by the State over receiving aid out of the State funds, on grounds only of religion, race caste, language or any of them." Article 30 declares that "all minorities, whether based on religion or language shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice." It has been further guaranteed that, "the State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions or, discriminate against any educational institutions on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language". Article 28 guarantees freedom of religion. It declares that "non-religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution 105 wholly maintained out of State funds." And also provides that "non-person attending any educational institution recognised by the State or receiving aid out of State funds, shall be required to take part in any religious instruction that may be imparted in such institution or to attend any religious worship that may be conducted in any institution or in any premises attached thereto unless the person or, if such person is a minor, his guarding has given his consent thereto. Article 350-A envisages that every State and every local authority shall attempt "to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups." Article 350-B provides for the appointment of a special officer for linguistic minorities who shall be responsible to the President and who shall investigate into all matters relating to the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under the Constitution. These two Articles 350-A and 350-B were inserted in 1956 after the re-organization of States. Safeguards for the advancement of weaker sections of the Community is an important feature of the Constitution. Article 46 of the Constitution under the Directive Principles of State Policy declares that "the State shall promote with special reference and care to the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitations. Since Article 15 of the Constitution has banned all discriminations against citizens on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex in order to promote advancement of the socially deprived persons. Clause 4 of the Article provides that "nothing in this Article or in clause 2 of the Article 29 shall prevent the State from making any special provisions for the advancement of any specially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Article 338 further provides for the appointment of a special officer for the S.C. and S.T. who shall be responsible to the President and shall investigate into all matters relating to the safeguards provided for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. According to Article 339 a Commission on the administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes is to be appointed before the end of ten years from the commencement of the Constitution. Again

Article 340 provides for the appointment of a Commission to investigate into the conditions of the backward classes. 106 Universalisation of Elementary Education was felt essential for the success of democracy. So Article 45 under the Directive Principles of State Policy provides that "the State shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years." Education and Concurrent List With a view to enabling the Central Government to provide adequate leadership and initiative for qualitative and quantitative improvement of education it is often felt that education should be kept in the concurrent list. Especially some advocate for including higher education in this list. This issue has raised the waves of discussion time and again. The Education Commission, 1964-65 have discussed the matter specially and observed, "We have examined this problem very carefully. We are not in favour of fragmenting education and putting one part in the concurrent and the other part in the State list—education should under any circumstances, be treated as a whole. We are also of the view that in a vast country like ours, position given to education in the Constitution is probably the best because it provides for Central leadership of a stimulating but non-coercive character." The Commission have apprehended that inclusion of Education in the Concurrent list might lead to undesirable centralization and greater rigidity in a situation where the greatest need is elasticity and freedom. They are also convinced that there is ample scope for developing a better Central State partnership in education. The Commission have felt that this scope should be fully utilized and amendment of the "Constitution may be considered after the existing provisions are found inadequate." They have therefore suggested that the problem may be reviewed after ten years or so. A Bill was moved in the Parliament in 1966 by Dr. L.M. Singhvi (Ind.) for amendment of the Constitution to put Education in the Concurrent List. Mr. Chagla, ex-Education Minister, Government of India supported this move and said, "We made a serious mistake when we drafted the Constitution making education a State Subject." Although Radhakrishnan Commission and the Sapru Committee had favoured making higher education a Concurrent subject, it was felt desirable to put the entire education in the Concurrent list. The Kothari Commission also in a sense accepted in principle making education a Concurrent subject. Although the Government of India was interested and took initiative in putting education in the Concurrent list, the proposal did not find 107 support from the States and most of the States were reluctant to make education a Concurrent subject. Lastly, however, as per the Constitutional Amendment of 1976, Education has been included in the Concurrent list which is a far-reaching step having substantive financial and administrative implication. The NPE, 1986 has rightly said that it would "require a new sharing of responsibility between the Union Government and the State in respect of this vital area of national life." While the role and responsibility of the States in regard to education will remain essentially unchanged, the Union Government would accept a large responsibility to reinforce the national and integrative character of education, to maintain quality and standards (including those of the teaching profession at all levels) to study and monitor the educational requirements of the country as a whole in regard to manpower for development to cater to the needs of research and advanced study to look after the international aspects of education, culture and human resource development and in general, to promote excellence at all levels of the educational pyramid throughout the country. Concurrency signifies a partnership which is at once meaning full and challenging; the national policy will be oriented towards giving effect to it in letter and spirit.

COMPULSORY PRIMARY EDUCATION AND 83rd CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT BILL Although Universalisation of Primary Education was to be a reality as per the Constitutional Directive (Article 45) by 1960, it still remained a mirage and has always been eluding the grasp. More than 54 years have passed after Independence and 50 years after introduction of the Constitution but the Constitutional Directive could not be realised. Emphasizing the importance of Primary Education, the Nobel Laureate Prof. Amartya Sen has rightly observed that Primary Education is of great importance for national development but has been neglected over these years. The UNICEF in its Report on the State of World Children, 1999 has stated that India would be the most illiterate country in the world by the end of the 20th Century. The Union Government, therefore, introduced the Constitutional Amendment (83rd) Bill in the Rajya Sabha for Compulsory Primary Education in 1997. Since then many Constitutional Amendments have been passed, but this Eighty third Amendment Bill is still in the cold storage. However, it has been recently reported that it

would be passed by the Parliament, particularly in the ensuing session and the Primary Education would be regarded as a 108 Fundamental Right. Under this Bill it has been provided that the State shall provide free and compulsory Primary Education to all citizens of the age of 6 to 14 years irrespective of caste, creed, sex and location.

CONCLUSION After passing of the 83rd Constitutional Amendment the actual implementation will face a lot of problems due to financial constraints of many States and dire poverty of a large number of people living below poverty line in the villages, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, etc. Unless the Government of India comes in a big way to help these backward States and people in education, it would be a colossal problem for everybody. The proposed Act puts responsibility on Governments at the Centre and States "to provide opportunity for Primary Education". A clause has been provided in the Bill that it would be a Fundamental Duty of parents and guardians. Of course, steps are being taken for involving parents and community in the Primary Education Sector, but due to real problems at the grassroot level particularly on account of financial stringency, it is therefore essential that the Government both at the State and national levels should implement the Constitutional Amendment with strong political will and whole-hearted commitment to the nation. It is also felt that we have to promote excellence at all levels of education and quality has to be improved for making education effective and relevant to the needs, aspirations and conditions of the people. With a view to making education the potential instrument for national development and implementing the provision of NPE, 1986 the Revised NPE, 1992 in the letter and spirit it is desirable to bring about improvement both in quantity and quality in education.

REFERENCES Government of India, The Constitution of India, Manager of Publications, New Delhi. _______National Policy on Education, Ministry of HRD (Education), 1986, New Delhi. _______, The Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1966. Mohanty, Jagannath. Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1985 ______, Modern Trends in Indian Education, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1989. ______, Dynamics of Higher Education, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1993. Parliament, Govt. of India 83rd Constitutional Amendment Bill, 1997. 109

15 Research on Educational Broadcasting and Audio-Video Programmes for Professional Growth of Primary School Teachers 1. INTRODUCTION: PROFESSIONAL GROWTH With a view to promoting quality and quantity of education, it was felt essential to develop the professional competencies of teachers. The National Policy on Education (1986) and the Revised NPE, 1992 emphasised the professional growth of teachers. It was also realised that professional growth is continuous process and not "once for all" business as was done in the past through pre-service training of teachers only. Both pre-service and in-service training of teachers are inseparable and indispensable. The International Commission's Report "Learning To Be" (1972) and the UNESCO Commission's "Learning: The Treasure Within" (1996) have laid stress on the professional growth of teachers for enabling them to discharge their responsibilities efficiently. The UNESCO Commission's Report has rightly observed in a very comprehensive manner (1996, pp. 141-42). "The importance of the role of the teacher as an agent of change, promoting, understanding and tolerance, has never been more obvious than today. It is likely to become more critical in the twenty-first century......improving the quality of education depends on first improving the recruitment, training, social status and conditions of work of teachers; they need the appropriate knowledge, skills, personal characteristics, professional prospects 110

and motivation if they are to meet the expectations placed upon them."

2. IN-SERVICE EDUCATION THROUGH DISTANCE MODE The International Commission (1996) have aptly said that there is need to update and improve teachers' knowledge and skills throughout their life-time. In-service education is as good as pre-service education, rather better for quality improvement. Emphasising in-service Education, the Commission have pointed out the importance of Distance Mode or appropriate Information and Communication Technology (ICT). They have succinctly mentioned, "It can use distance education techniques, thereby saving money and allowing teachers to go on working, at least part-time and it can be an effective instrument for implementing reforms or introducing new technology or methods." Hence, professional development of teachers has to be provided for teachers in service on a continuous basis in order enable them to work effectively. In-service education for Primary Teachers through Distance mode in true sense of the term was provided during SITE in 1975-76. "Enrichment" in-service training was organised by NCERT in science with the help of a multi-media package in which TV and radio programmes were an important component. At a time as many as 3,300 Primary school teachers were trained through the In-service Teacher Training Programme in India. During the eighties and nineties, the Government of India provided academic inputs for improving the subject competency and pedagogic skills of teachers through various innovations. During the SITE period, ETV programmes were regularly telecast usually every Saturday for Primary Teachers in order to augment the pedagogic and content knowledge and skills. Subsequently, such teachers' programmes were telecast during INSAT not regularly and now are done occasionally. These teachers' programmes are produced by SIETs or CIET, New Delhi for improving their professional growth. But unfortunately, most of the SIETs have deviated from the original perceptions and visions when they were planned and established by the Govt. of India. Educational objectives as visualised in the beginning have lost their significance and separate entity.

3. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS AND DEP The Expert Committee of National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) has strongly recommended Distance Education (DE) or Distance 111 Learning (DL) for effectively improving in-service teachers at all levels who have already obtained their first degree/diploma in teacher education. It pointed out (1995 p. 19), "Every teacher of primary, secondary and higher secondary level could successfully undergo a course of in-service education of specified duration at least once in every five years so as to be eligible for further increment. "Particularly, primary teachers' professional growth was stressed by the Committee through Distance Mode in view of their vast number and areas to be covered. DPEP, especially DEP aims at capacity building and professional development of Primary School teachers mainly through in-service education. The document entitled "Capacity building in Development of Distance Learning Materials and Multimedia Packages: Guidelines" has described the objectives, training inputs, strategy, participants, duration, outcome, facilities required and estimated cost. The self-instructional materials (SIM) have been developed in workshops by content and pedagogical experts. These were then edited and printed for wider distribution and use. Audio and video scripts were developed on various curricular subjects and issues related to content knowledge, teaching skills and general awareness, Documentation is an important activity of DEP-DPEP and case-studies and success stories were documented for wider dissemination and motivation. Video programmes were produced by Electronic Media Production Centre of IGNOU, Central Institute of Educational Technology (CIET) of NCERT and Electronics Trade and Technology Development Corporation Limited (ET & T.). Tele-Conferencing mode was adopted for training Primary Education personnel in various DPEP states.

4. RESEARCH INITIATIVES DURING SITE AND INSAT As mentioned earlier, during 1975-76 In-service Teachers' training programmes were organised in Science Teaching with the help of a Multimedia Package in which audio-video programmes constituted important components. A few studies of these components may be briefly discussed here. Mohanty, Giri and Mohanty (1998, pp. 437-49) conducted a study of those television programmes telecast during In-service Teachers' Training Course, 1975 and reported certain relevant facts with recommendations for improving the situations. Some of these suggestions were: (i) these ETV programmes should be produced on the curricular topics for Primary Schools; (ii) ETV Lessons on teaching technology can be produced and

telecast; (iii) Programmes should be 112 problem-solving for creating interest and initiative among the teachers; (iv) Science experiment should be presented through Demonstration-cum-Discussion method; (v) Care should be taken to encourage the trained primary school teachers for conducting science experiments. A similar study "Radio Programmes Broadcast during the In-service Teachers' Training Course, 1975" was undertaken by Mchanty, Giri and Mohanty (Ibid. pp. 534-41) under SITE programme. Educational Science Programmes produced and broadcast for upgrading the content and pedagogic competence of Primary school teachers. A few major findings and suggestions were: (i) Syllabus-based ETV Programmes were preferable; (ii) Specialisation in the science teaching at the primary school stage would be more useful; (iii) Improved science teaching need be encouraged; (iv) Programmes should be based on science topics, particularly day-to-day useful goods and equipment; (v) Duration of In-service training need be increased for making it more effective. In a study entitled "Impact of Educational Television on the Competency of Elementary School Teachers", Behera (1991, pp. 17) made an assessment of ETV programmes during INS AT on the teachers' professional growth in terms of knowledge, understanding and application in content areas, classroom interaction, attitude of teachers and improvement of the quality of programmes. The findings and suggestions for modifying the ETV programmes were quite revealing and useful for improving not only the quality of the ETV programmes, but also the professional growth of Primary School Teachers. During SITE some other studies were also conducted to ascertain the impact of ETV Programmes on attendance and enrolment, achievement of students and performance of teachers, utilisation and evaluation of the ETV programmes in Orissa (Pathy, 1991, Mohanty, Giri and Mohanty, 1976, Singh and Singh, 1983, Mohapatra, 1983). In other states also a few studies were conducted during SITE and INSAT, viz. Singh and Umare, 1990 for Maharashtra and Kanade, 1982 for Andhra Pradesh. Although these studies were mostly related to utilisation of ETV programmes, these were very much dependent on teachers' competency. Once teachers are motivated and interested, the extent of utilisation must be higher. The studies relating to teachers' programmes were very much useful for improving teachers' knowledge, skills and awareness. Goel (1984) in the comprehensive study "Educational Television in India: Organisation and Utilisation" has reported many valuable findings on the utilisation of ETV programmes in the schools of Maharashta 113 State and their organisation at Delhi, Bombay, Srinagar, Jaipur, Raipur, Muzzafarpur, Sambalpur and Hyderabad. On the basis these findings he suggested that there was need to reorganise the ETV programmes synchronised with school schedule; production of ETV programmes was neglected at DDK; infrastructural facilities for production should be provided at ET Cells; most of the ETV programmes were based on the entering behaviour of urban children who were more exposed to technology than the rural children. Mohanty and Behera (Mohanty, 1998 pp. 279-85) in their study, "Teacher Education Programmes under INSAT" reported that: (i) in 60% of the TV programmes emphasis was laid on technology of teaching and educational innovations, (ii) in majority of cases the objectives of attitude and interests were realised; (iii) 40% of programmes were overcrowded with facts leading to lack of assimilation; (iv) In 40% of programmes, visuals were flashed without giving much scope for observation; (iv) In 40% of cases there was lack of synchronisation of visuals with commentary. In a study, "Teacher Training Programmes: A Feedback" Patra, Pathy and Panda (Ibid., pp. 303-12) reported that: (i) 55% of teachers felt the training programme "essentially useful" while 45% "useful," and (ii) The programmes were useful because they provided content knowledge and improved teaching skills. These findings were helpful for improving the programmes. Since training programmes are essential for updating the content knowledge and skills of teaching, the studies relating to training programmes of the primary school teachers organised for specific purposes from time to time are quite revealing and enlightening, as their findings on new insights and experiences contribute immensely to the development, modification and utilisation of these programmes/materials for improving teachers' competencies and making up their deficiencies. Research in educational media particularly in the field of educational Radio, TV, audio and video programmes is a matter of only four decades. Importance of research and evaluation in this context cannot be overestimated for improving the audio-video material and through this, the quality of education in general. Coombes (1985, p. 134) has rightly observed, "It will take further research and evaluation to learn how best to use these new educational technologies; to blend them in with the best of the old technologies and most important of all, to treat each useful element in a more complex teachinglearning system—a system that can be more flexible for meeting the different learning needs, styles and tempo of various

groups in each society". 114

5. CONCLUSION: PRESENT POSITION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE Although in India, research and evaluation of educational broadcasting and audio-video materials, started in 1959-64, by now the number of research studies have been multiplied and have assumed new dimensions. Research and evaluation have been an integral and inbuilt component of the project. It is also felt essential for promoting quality and effectiveness of the educational broadcasting and audio-video materials. It is necessary that cost-effectiveness and efficiency of these materials has to be ensured and ascertained with the help of such research findings. Media research methodology has to be made inter-disciplinary, continuous and collaborative; the tools and technologies are to be developed with adequate insight, understanding and sensitiveness. DEP-DPEP have been undertaking a good number of relevant studies, but most of these are internally done by their own and persons directly or indirectly connected. Those who are experienced in the research activities in the context of educational broadcasting and audio-video programmes should be involved in this kind of research in order to ensure reliability and objective. A wide network of experts and professional involved in the DPEP and other projects should of course be associated in the work. These studies would provide adequate feed back for improving the existing system. In the emerging education scenario new problems are coming up and old problems are posing new issues particularly for universalisation of Primary Education. Both formative and summative research and evaluation are to be conducted with due awareness of the local needs and condition, national norms and directives; corrective measures have to be taken in the light of the feedback, insight and experiences gained through implementation of the project. It is reported that audio and video tapes selected by the DPET/ DEP are being duplicated for distribution and dissemination among the personnel involved in the DPEP project and others for utilisation and emulation. These would also go to the multi-media package to be used for training, development of materials and so on. But the quality, relevance and impact of these materials have to be ascertained and assessed by research studies. To conclude, it may be said that research and evaluation in ICT are of vital importance for success of the project and it has to be given due importance by the persons at the helm of affairs. 115

REFERENCES Behera, S.C., Impact of Educational Television on Teachers' Competency, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1991. DEP-DPEP, Professional Development of Primary Education: Personnel Through Distance Education, IGNOU, New Delhi, 1985. Goel, D.R., Educational Television in India: Organisation and Utilisation, CASE, MS University, Baroda, 1984. Govt. of India, National Policy on Education, 1986, MHRD (Education), New Delhi. Govt. of India, Programme of Action, 1986 and 1992, MHRD (Education), New Delhi. Govt. of India. National Policy on Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi, 1992. Mohanty, J. Ed., Studies in Educational Broadcasting (Vols. 1 & II), Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1998. Mohanty, J, A.P. Giri and P.C. Mohanty, "A Study of Educational TV Programmes Telecast During the In-service Teachers' Training Course, 1975", Studies of Education Television & Radio Programmes, ET Cell, Bhubaneswar, 1976. Mohanty. J., A.P. Giri and P.C. Mohanty, "A Study of Radio Programmes Broadcast during the In-service Teachers' Training", Studies on Educational Television and Radio Programmes, ET Cell, Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 1997. NCTE, Report of an Experts Committee on Different Modes of Education, 1995, New Delhi. UNESCO, International Commission on Development & Education, Learning to Be, Paris, 1972. UNESCO, Learning: The Treasure Within, International Commission for Education for the Twenty-first Century, Paris, 1996. 116 117

PART II GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY/ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 118 119

16 Growth of Primary Education in the Free India 1. INTRODUCTION On the eve of Independence Nehru (1963) in his historic address saids, "Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure. but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, while the world sleeps India will awake to life and freedom (p. 25). These are the eloquent phrases uttered at a sublime moment of achievement. After twenty years, the Kothari Commission (1996) also very cogently observed in the first sentence of their voluminous Repot". That destiny of India is now being shaped in her classrooms (p. 1). Importance of education as a potential instrument for bringing about national reconstruction could neither be overemphaized nor over expressed in better but simpler terms than this. The erstwhile Prime Minister Nehru also emphasized the revolutionary changes in education in the context of the attainment of freedom from colonial rule. In this inaugural address to the All India Education Conference in January 1948, he said, "Great changes have taken place in the country and the educational system must also be in keeping with them. The entire basis of education must be revolutionised".

2. THE CONSTITUTION OF FREE INDIA Moving the Objective Resolution at the Constituent Assembly on December 13, 1946 Sri Nehru expressed very succinctly, "we stand for democracy". The remarkable document of our Constitution was finalised after a period of hectic preparation and was adopted on January 26, 1950. Not only a number of important provisions concerning education 120 has been made in the Constitution, but also the democratic spirit and values have been reflected throughout. It has been rightly said by Chakrabarti (1961): "A Constitution is not merely the fundamental law of a country. It is a striving after the attainment of nation's ideal through the mechanism of a Government. As such it is in addition a delicate instrument for the fulfillment of the life of a people" (p. 266). Accordingly the Preamble of the Constitution has enunciated the nation's ideal and spirit in the following marks: "We, The People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Democratic Republic and secure to all its citizens: Justice, Social, economic and political, Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship, Equality of Status and opportunity, and to promote among them ail, Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the Nation, In Our Constituent Assembly this twenty-sixth day of November 1949 do Hereby Adopt, Enact and Give to Ourselves this Constitution". In this historic declaration, superstructure of democracy has been raised on the four pillars of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity and presiding deity of the individual has been installed on the sacred altar of the Fundamental Rights. Democracy has been accepted not merely as a form of Government, but as a way of life. So all attempts had to be made orienting the entire educational system with adequate democratic values and spirit in order to realise the goals adumbrated in the Constitution. The entire Part II of the Constitution has been devoted to citizenship. In this chapter conditions for acquiring citizenship, rights of citizenship for various kinds of persons like migrants and immigrants and continuance of the right of citizenship, have been vividly described. All these provisions have given due consideration to democratic rights and responsibilities of

the individuals. The Part III of the Constitution contains a Charter of Fundamental Rights which are fully guaranteed to the citizens of India. In every democratic set-up these rights are regarded as fundamental as they aim at individual welfare. Every individual can move the court for enforcement of these rights. The courts can also declare any law of the legislature or any Act of the Government null and void or unconstitutional, if it conflicts with any of the Fundamental Rights. Of course these rights are not absolute and can, however be suspended during the period of emergency. 121 The Fundamental Rights as contained in our Constitution are grouped under seven categories. The cultural and educational rights constitute the fifth category which ensure to every citizen the freedom to his own language, script, culture and education of his own choice. Part IV of the Constitution of India deals with the Directive Principles of State Policy. These principles constitute an ideal towards which the administration of the state should be directed. Although these principles are not mandatory, they are regarded as an amplification of the preamble of the Indian Constitution which solemnly upholds justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity for all its citizens. The Constitution sincerely hopes that these principles will work as an ideal before those who would be entrusted with the governance of the Country. Dr. Ambedkar has pointed out that the objectives of these principles are fold: (i) to lay down the form of political democracy, and (ii) to bring about economic democracy. The Article 38 of the Directive Principles very lucidly enjoins, "The State shall strive to promote the people by securing and protecting as effectively as it may a social order in which justice, social, economic and political shall inform all the institutions of the national life." In order to facilitate the growth of democratic practices even at the village level, the Article 40 says, "The State shall take as units of self-Government with a view to achieving economic democracy the Article 41 in a few concrete terms", provides, "The State shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and development make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of unemployment old age, sickness and disablement, and in other cases of underserved want." The Constitution Fathers were all aware of the importance of elementary education for the success of democracy. It is rightly said Universal Education should precede universal enfranchisement. Therefore, the Article 45 very ambitiously and significantly declares: "The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of Constitution for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years". Under the Article 246 of the Constitution in the Schedule VII there has been division of educational responsibility between the Government of India and the States. As per the entry in the State List II, Education has been declared to be a state subject. In the Union List, only a few items like Co-ordination, determination and maintenance of standards, establishment and management of institution of national importance and 122 determining national policies have been included (Entries Nos. 63-66). In fact, the Government of India directly and through various academic bodies like NCERT, UGC. etc. indirectly play a predominant role for expansion and qualitative improvement of education. Besides vocational and technical training of labour has been included in the concurrent list.

3. DURING THE PRE-PLAN PERIOD Since the problems like influx of refugees, constitutional and administrative reorganisation and liquidation of the princely states, claimed top priority, adequate attention could not be given to the development of education during the period from 1946-47 to 1950-51. The states, however, on the basis of Sargent Plan implemented a few schemes for the expansion and improvement of education and the Government of India created a separate Ministry of Education and Scientific Research and appointed the University Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishan during 1948. Inspite of the above difficulties the tempo of expansion in Primary Education had increased considerably. The following table shows the progress of elementary education during this period. TABLE 1 Enrolment in Primary Education during 1947-51 Total enrolment in classes I-V (Figures in Percentage of enrolment in classes I-V to total Population in the Millions) age-group 6-11. 1946-47

1950-51

1946-47

1950-51

Boys 10.36

13.77

53.1

59.8

Girls 3.45

5.38

17.4

24.6

Total 13.84

19.15

35.25

42.20

Although it is evident from the above table that the total enrolment in classes I to V has increased by 5.30 millions during 5 years from 1946-47 to 1950-51 and total percentage of enrolment in classes I to V to total population in the age group 611 gone up by 7.0% during this period, it is to be borne in mind that the date of 1946-47 and those of 1950-51 are not strictly comparable. Because the former includes figures of some areas which are now in Pakistan and exclude those from the areas of Princely States now included in India. Inspite of the pressing problems drawing urgent attention, the statistics show that the tempo of 123 expansion in primary education had increased immensely during the period mainly due to the public awakening created by the attainment of Independence.

4. DURING 1st, 2nd AND 3rd FIVE YEAR PLANS The era of planned development was ushered in since the year 1951-52. During the First Five Year Plan period (1951-55) the number of institutions increased from 2.86 lakhs to 3.66 lakhs and that of students from 255.43 lakhs to 339.24 lakhs and the No. of increased teachers from 8.04 lakhs to 11.07 lakhs. Similarly, the expenditure rose up to Rs.189.66 crores from Rs.114.38 crores. The main achievements in the field of education during this period were: (1) large expansion of Primary Education and (2) appointments of the Secondary Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr. Mudaliar in 1952, (3) establishment of the University Grants Commission in 1953, and (4) development of basic and social education. The Second Five Year Plan (1956 to 1960) witnessed an unprecedented expansion of education at all levels/stages. An amount of Rs.215 crores was provided and the number of educational institutions increased to 8.72 lakhs. Similarly, the number of students increased from 339.24 to 478.11 lakhs and the teachers from 11.07 lakhs to 15.02 lakhs. The main achievements to the period were: (1) further expansion of Primary education, (2) reorganisation of Secondary education (3) establishment of All India Council of Secondary Education, (4) the setting up the Directorate of Extension Programme of Secondary Education, (5) organisation of the first All India Educational Survey in 1957, and (6) large-scale development of technical education. The Third Five Year Plan (1961-65) marked a greater emphasis on expansion and qualitative improvement of Primary and Technical Education. A sum of Rs.418 crores was provided for general education and Rs.142 crores for technical education. The Government of India shared the responsibility of the state government in a greater way for universal Primary Education. According to the constitutional directive the State Governments were required to promote the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people which also increased the responsibility of the Union Government for the educational development of the country as a whole with a view to advising the government on the national patterns of education and on the principles and policies for the development of educational all stages and in all aspects except legal, medical and adult education, the Education 124 Commission was set-up under the Chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari in 1964. A number of State Institutes of Education were set-up in the country for bringing about qualitative improvement of education. If we review the achievements during these plane periods, it will be evident that the total enrolment in the country increased from 24 million in 1950 to 70 millions in 1965, the average annual growth rate being as high as 7.4 per cent. There is no parallel to this expansion in the earlier history of this country and even in the contemporary world. Some aspects of this unprecedented educational expansion as a result of the impact of democracy may be seen from the Table given below as mentioned by Safaya(1973 p. 63). TABLE 2 Expansion of Primary Education, 1950-66 (In '000s) SI. Item Sex-wise Total 1950-51 1955-56 1960-61 1965-66 1. No. of Primary Schools

Boys

196

263

310

375

Girls

14

15

20

25

Total

210

278

330

400

2. No. of Pupils

Boys

138

175

236

330

Girls

53

76

114

181

Total

191

251

350

511

Men

456

574

615

850

Women

2

117

127

200

Total

458

691

742

1050

4. Expenditure Boys Education

3

49

68

111

(In Cores Girls Education

3

5

5

11

36

54

73

122

5. Pupil-Teachers ratio 34

38

36

38

6. Average annual salary per teacher

544

651

872

1047

7. Cost per pupil per annum

19.9

23.4

27.6

30.1

3. No. of Teachers

of Rupees)

Total

The above statistics about the number of primary schools, pupils, teachers, amount of expenditure, pupil-teacher ratio, average annual salary per teacher and cost per pupil per annum give a clear idea about the progress of Primary education in the country. Similarly, the number of teachers increased by 24%, 7% and 40% during the First, Second and Third Five Year Plans respectively. The percentage of total expenditure during these three Plan periods were 50, 40 and 66 respectively. Thus, it is evident from the above data that the amount of expenditure has been increasing more than the other aspects. It is also interesting to note that the enrolment in Primary Classes. The 125 average annual salary per teacher and cost per pupil per annum have been increasing gradually and steadily. It is, of course, seen from the above Table that pupil-teacher ratio has not shown any mark change. It ranges from 34 to 38 during these plan periods. The total enrolment in classes 1 to V was 191 lakhs in 1950-51 the base year of the 1st Five Year Plan and this number increased to 511 lakhs in 1965-66. Thus, the percentage of increase in the enrolment during this period was more than 168 lakhs. Similarly, the percentage of enrolment in Primary Schools to total population in the age group 6-11 was 42.2 in 1950-51 whereas it increased to 80.2 in 1965-66. As already mentioned, the progress of Primary Education fell short not only of Constitutional Directive, but also of popular demand for primary education. The slow progress of primary education may be attributed to the following: 1. In all the three 5 Year Plans social services received about 17 percentage of the total outlay on development of education which was the most important of social services received about 7 per cent. Thus, The total resources available for educational development in the post-Independence period was not at all adequate. 2. Even within the field of education itself, university, secondary and technical education claimed the lion's share of the available resources. Consequently, expenditure on Primary Education was comparatively meagre. 3. In 1950-51 the population of India was estimated to be 8.36 crores which increased to 44 crores in 1961. This inordinate increase of population greatly nullified the gains achieved in the expansion of education. 4. The progress of the universal primary education was closely related to the social and economic development of the country since the progress in the latter sector was slow, the progress of universal Primary Education had to be unsatisfactory. 5. To most of the poor and socially disadvantaged classes including the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, education had not yet been attractive and meaningful to their life, needs and aspirations. Self-employment or any kind of employment was not possible, or readily available through such education. Therefore, the pupils of these classes are still out of school in a large number and wastage and stagnation were rampant among them. 126 6. In a sense it is said that in the democratic set up such expansion was inevitable. In 1951 the level of existing facilities for education was extremely limited. The attainment of Independence had created a great hunger for education especially

among those deprived classes. It is also impossible to resist the popular pressure in a democracy. It must also be recognised that expansion of education has played a dynamic role in the transformation of the Indian Society which was traditionally unequal and where wealth and rank enjoyed many privileges, the handicaps of the underprivileged were numerous and where occupational mobility was small and employment opportunities were neither ample nor diversified. In such a society it is only educational opportunity that can relatively be equalised by public policy. This expansion has, therefore, created new opportunities for the several depressed groups and thrown up new leadership and bands of workers. These developments have on the whole beneficial as well as congenial for creating a more balanced economy and democratic social order. Inspite of the very large overall rate of expansion, in the sector of primary education, it has not been as fast as one would have liked. It has neither met the popular expectations nor the Constitutional Directive. Here the difficulties have arisen partly from the growth of population, partly from cultural, economic, physical and social factors and partly for lack of resources. Similarly, inspite of considerable increase in the facilities during the period, the expansion of vocational and professional education (17.5 crores per year at the secondary stage and 10.6 per cent per year at the undergraduate stage) has not been able to keep pace with the demands for trained manpower. It has already been discussed that in a democracy popular Government cannot resist the public demand for education. Since a minimum expansion becomes inevitable, at least expansion of about 2 or 2.5 per cent per year was needed merely to keep pace only with the growth of population. A similar expansion was also required to clear up the backlog or illiteracy and an equal expansion would be needed to meet the hunger for education. Consequently, an expansion of at least 6 to 7 per cent per year was unavoidable. Moreover, in order to maintain and improve the standards and the quality of education the proportionate allocations were to be made to programmes of qualitative improvement or internal transformation. It was often found that the first version of the educational 127 plan started with a fairly big allocation both for quantitative expansion and qualitative improvement. But on account of various reasons when funds had to be reduced, minimum out, of course, was made on programmes of expansion with the result that are had to fall very heavily on the vital programmes of qualitative improvement. Consequently, the programmes of qualitative improvement were closely related to the life, needs and aspirations of the people and could not be given due priority during this period. However, a number of steps were taken in this direction and teachers' salaries were undoubtedly improved. The NCERT and State Institutes of Education organised in service training course, brought out teachers' handbooks and professional journals, conducted researches and arranged extension services and Educational Surveys. Thus, they brought to focus many issues and helped to take decisions and make plams. But it cannot be overlooked that educational standards deteriorated to a greater extent due to unprecedented expansion. In a democratic country, equalization of educational opportunities is essential. During the first three Five Year Plans, considerable progress has been made in reducing the glaring inequalities of educational opportunities that existed in 1951. The opportunities for free education has been considerably expanded. Primary Education as free or very largely free in all stages. Even a few states provided free secondary education and in other, liberal free studentships were available at the secondary stage. There were provisions for the free supply of textbooks, free meals, free reading and writing materials and so on. The scheme of scholarship was very much limited in 1947. Now it has been considerably expanded and about seven per cent of total educational expenditure was incurred on providing assistance to students. The inequalities of development at the state and District levels have been reduced to some extent and the educational gap between the urban and the rural areas has largely been bridged. There was an increase in the provision of facilities for the handicapped children and students of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes to get a large number of scholarships, concessions and friendships not only for school education but also for higher education.

5. IN THE THIRD ANNUAL PLANS The Fourth Five Year Plan (1966-67 to 1970-71) as it was originally designed, could not be implemented on account of certain inevitable 128 difficulties. The first three years of the original 4th Plan were, therefore, individually taken up the Annual Plans were prepared and executed for the years 1966-67, 1967-68 and 1968-69. The Fourth Plan initially attempted to face three major tasks in the field of education viz., (i) to remove the deficiencies of the existing educational system and link it more

effectively with the increasing demands of social and economic development, (ii) to remove internal strain and stress in the educational system which have developed in consequence of rapid expansion during the first three plans, and (iii) to extend the system in response to social urges and economic needs. Investment in education would seek to obtain better returns by avoiding waste and improving the quality of its content. Higher priority was given to the training of technical personnel and elementary education particularly universal primary education, elimination of wastage and work orientation of the curriculum. The emphasis was also given on vocationalization of Secondary Education improvement of science education, better teaching and research activities in colleges and universities. With a view to ensuring quality of teaching, greater insistence was put on training and increase of salaries of teachers, Research in curricula and methods of teaching as also intensified, adult education and bookproduction were promoted to a great extent. As a tangible step towards democratization of education, loan scholarships and other kinds of scholarships were provided in large number. It was intended that every student of merit should be able to study upto the highest level and poverty should not stand on his way. Special attention was also paid to the education of pupils belonging to the scheduled castes and tribes. The technology of education was to be improved to secure better results at less cost insisting on having large size institutions, utilizing the buildings libraries, laboratories for longer duration providing part-time and correspondence course, etc. Efforts were made to mobilize local resources for providing mid-day meals to school children improving physical facilities organizing programmes of improvement etc. and to establish close relationship between the school and the community. During the period under review, the general economy of the country was under great stress. Consequently the total plan outlay has fallen far short of the original target and since higher priority had to be given on agriculture, industry and family planning, the fall in the outlay in General Education has been sharper still. According to original proposals, the total outlay on General Education during the Fourth Plan (1966-71) was 129 Rs.620.38 crores. As against this, the expenditure was only Rs. 38.03 crores during 1966-68 partly due to continuance of the fairly big expansion that took place in 1966-67, the Election year and partly due to the recent increase in the dearness allowance. According to the proposals put forward by the State Governments for the year 1968-69, the above outlay was expected to increase still further to Rs. 83.35 crores. But the actual outlay approved by the Planning Commission was only Rs. 64.02 crores—thus, more or less maintaining the level of expenditure of 1967-68. The total outlay on General Education (Including Cultural Affairs) during the period under review would thus Rs. 163.23 crores or only 26.3 per cent of the total outlay proposed for the 4th Plan. This consequently led to shortfalls in the targets of expansion in every stage, created difficulties in providing physical facilities and teachers etc. commensurate with the inevitable expansion and drastically curtailed or postpond most of the schemes of qualitative improvement. During the year 1968-69 a National Policy on Education was evolved on the basis of the recommendations of the Education Commission, 1964-66 and a Government Resolution was formulated and placed on the table of both the Houses of the Parliament on 24th July 1968. The main features of the National Policy on Education were the adoption of 10 + z +3 pattern of education, early fulfillment of the Constitutional Directive of providing free and compulsory education for the age group 6 to 14 years, implementing special programmes of expansion of the education for girls, promotion of national integration development of languages, improvement of conditions of work in schools, promotion of book development programme, expansion and improvement of science education, introduction of correspondence courses, etc. Due to shortfall in the educational outlay, primary education was extremely hard hit. It received only 24.9 percent of the original outlay proposed for the Fourth Plan. Although it was hoped that the constitutional objective of universal education in the age group 6-14 would be achieved by 1981, at the present stage it was apprehended that universal education even for the age group 6-11 would be only possible during the 6th Plan period. Programmes of qualitative improvement by and large suffered a lot, some good work in this direction was done by the State Institute of Education. No State had any programme worth the name for reducing wastage and stagnation, the important evils at the stage. However, during this period, some efforts were made by Government of India for the reduction of wastage and stagnation, removal of disparity between 130 enrolment of girls and boys by providing special incentives, expansion and improvement of curriculum by introducing work experience and citizenship training. The programme of bringing the school and the community together and to seek community help in improving primary schools was also not being attempted on massive scale.

6. DURING THE FOURTH FIVE YEAR PLAN The Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66 just after its submission was discussed at the state and national levels. Government of India issued a Resolution on National Education Policy in 1968. During the 4th Five Year Plan various attempts were made to review all that was done earlier and to take further steps in implementing the National Policy on Education. This was mainly done through a series of meetings in the Ministry as well as through their important conferences namely: (i) the Conference of Vice-Chancellors, (ii) the Conference of State Education Secretaries, and (iii) Conference of the DPIs. On the basis on review and discussion several programmes were energized and details of some other programmes were worked out for introduction. One of the major difficulties faced in implementing the National Policy on Education was paucity of funds/finances. In the draft Fourth Plan the total provision proposed for education was Rs.1210 crores or 7 per cent of the total outlay. In the Plan as it was subsequently finalised education got only Rs.840 crores or 5.8 per cent of the total plan outlay. This was the lowest ever given to Education. The main reason is that sectors like Agriculture, Irrigation, Power, Industry and Family Planning were given a higher priority. In the Central Sector, the cut was not very large. Provision was made for Rs. 271 crores as against the draft proposals for Rs. 326 crores. But in the State Sector the cuts were drastic, a provision was made only for Rs. 569 crores as against the draft proposal of Rs. 884 crores. Further, the axe fall very heavily on primary education in particular and on all programmes of qualitative improvement in general. In pursuance of the recommendations of the aforesaid Conference, two Study Groups were set-up one to go into the problems of mobilization of resources for educational development and the other to formulate detailed proposals for pilot projects covering the fields of educational imbalances, wastage and stagnation at the primary stage, girls' education, education of the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and adult literacy. Another study group was to work out details of pilot projects in the field of vocationalization of school education. 131 The Indian Council of Social Science Research was set-up with the purpose of encouraging and developing research in the field of social science since August 1, 1969. The Ninth National Seminar on Elementary Education was held at Simla on October 14-17, 1969. The Seminar made various recommendations relating to: (i) making the core curriculum for primary education common for all states, (ii) expanding the school Feeding Programme and coordinating with the School Garden (Orchard) programme, and (iii) producing cheap textbooks and supplying them free to the poor and needy students etc. In implementation of these recommendations the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) prepared a standard curriculum for the primary stage, a handbook on the concept of work experience and a scheme for programmed learning for primary classes. Under the auspices of the NCERT, a National Conference on wastage and Stagnation was held at Delhi on January 27-31, 1970. A number of important recommendations were made in the said conference in order to energize the action programmes for reducing wastage and stagnation at the primary stage. An agreement of great significance was concluded by the Government of india with the UNICEF and UNESCO for reorganizing the teaching of science at the school level. Textbooks, teachers' guides and kits of laboratory science equipments were prepared and most of these materials were tried out in about one thousand primary schools commencing from the academic year 1970-71. Preliminary arrangements for equipping the schools and for training the teachers were made during the year. As long back as in 1967, a mission sent by UNESCO recommended an experimental satellite programme for India in pursuance of a decision of the General Assembly of UNESCO for exploring the possibilities of satellite communication of educational purposes in India which offers an ideal situation for trying out an experiment. Subsequently, the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting invited a mission from UNESCO to examine the question of training facilities for educational television programmes. The mission submitted its report in December 1969. It recommended the establishment of two training centres one at Poona under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting and another at the NCERT, New Delhi under the Ministry of Education. Then the Department of Atomic Energy concluded an agreement with the National Aeronautics Space Administration of the US for launching an experimental satellite over the Indian Ocean to try out the possibility of television transmission covering the entire country from one transmitter 132 in satellite. Accordingly a scheme was included in the Fourth Plan of the Ministry for the establishment of television cells at the Centre and in the States and also for an educational television centre on the campus of the NCERT. A proposal requesting United Nations Development Programmes assistance for the proposed training centre under the Ministry of Education was sent to the Special Funds authorities. Besides no stone was left unturned for accelerating the speed of expansion. Although the total number of educational

institutions in the country decreased from 16,58,711 in 1968-69 to 7,52,054 in 1969-70 on account of the large decrease in the number of schools for social (adult) education mainly in Maharashtra, there was an increase of 2,682 Primary and Junior Basic Schools during the year. Similarly, inspite of 2.4 per cent decrease in the total enrolment of pupils in all types of the above recognised institutions owing to the reasons mentioned above, the total number of pupils in primary schools increased from 3,93,76,548 in 1968-69 to 3,99,97,152 in 1969-70. The total number of teachers in all the educational institutions increased from 23,87,657 to 2,45,66,060 during the year. Only at the primary school stage the total number of teachers increased from 10,05,282 to 10,30,540. The total expenditure on education amounted to Rs 1,008 crores in 1969-70 as against Rs 898 crores in 1968-69 showing an increase of 12.2 per cent. As usual, Government contributed the maximum i.e., 75.5 per cent of the total expenditure. During the Fourth Five Year Plan the country passed through a difficult economic situation and with a view to controlling inflation, Government had to curtail expenditure heavily in all sectors. Consequently, there was a 10 per cent cut in the plan expenditure and 5 per cent in non-plan expenditure. The scale of operation had to restricted to the levels of the previous year or even below them and most of the new schemes had to be shelved and some new programmes were postponed to the Fifth Plan. It was originally decided that vigorous advance action would be taken during the Fourth Plan as a preparation for the Fifth Plan. But in practice owing to financial stringency, no such action could be taken/ initiated before 1972-73. A beginning was, however, made during 1973-74 and the scheme of Third Educational Survey was initiated in November 1973. Peliminary work was also done on schemes of qualitative improvement such as curriculum development and examination reforms. The Central Scheme for the Education unemployment was implemented during this period and the total number of additional 133 teachers in elementary schools was estimated to be about 76,000. The Budget allocation of Rs. 30 crores originally made for the year 1973-74 had to be reduced to Rs. 24 crores. A new programme of "Half a Million Jobs Scheme" was introduced during 1973-74. The Scheme was administered by the Planning Commission which approved the appointment of about 97,000 teachers. It was decided that those teachers appointed during 1973-74 should be paid stipends at the rate of Rs. 100.00 per mensum in the case of untrained matriculates and Rs. 150.00 per mensum in the case of trained matriculates. These incumbents would be appointed as regular teachers in 1974-75 and paid out of the Fifth Plan. Under the Educational Technology Project which was launched in 1973-74 for making full use of films, radio broadcasts, the expanded television coverage of the country and the new educational techniques such as video-audio records, programmed learning etc. The Centre for Educational Technology was set up as a separate institute of the NCERT, New Delhi. Development of innovations in Education, conducting training and orientation programmes for teachers, communicators and administrators, testing and assessing hardware and software in education, evaluation of materials, training programmes and their revisions were some of the programmes during the 4th Plan. Besides, Education Technology cells were to be set up in all the States in a phased manner. To start with such a cell was established in Maharastra which launched its Schools Television Project in 1973. Then Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan followed the suit. In pursuance with an agreement signed between the Government of India and UNESCO/UNICEF in 1987 for reorganisation and expansion of Science Teaching at the School Stage, various State Governments started in the Pilot Programmes, to try out the new instructional materials and in the light of the experience gained, introduced new curriculum. Accordingly, new textbooks and science kits were supplied to Primary and Middle Schools and in service training course were organised for the teachers of these schools. An agreement was subsequently signed in 1972 for extending further assistance by the UNICEF AND UNESCO Science laboratory equipment, selected library books, supervisory vehicles, mobile laboratory vans and paper for printing instructional materials were supplied to the training colleges, training schools and primary schools and training courses were organised for the teachers under this agreement. This scheme was being implemented in Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, M.P., Tamilnadu, Orissa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Rajasthan and some other states as well as the Union Territories. 134 Thus, during the 4th Plan Period various steps were taken for implementing the recommendation of the Education Commission (1964-66) with a view to making education a powerful instrument of social and economic change through a package deal comprising reconstruction of educational system on the 10 + 2 + 3 pattern, revision and upgrading of

curricula, production of better teaching and learning materials, adoption of improved methods of teaching and evaluation and above all improvement of education and training of teachers and their service conditions. However, paucity of resources and lack of political will to implement the educational schemes have resulted in unsatisfactory progress.

7. DURING THE FIFTH FIVE YEAR PLAN With a view to catalysing social transformation, promoting economic growth and accelerating the national progress towards socialism and democracy, it was proposed to include in integrated and comprehensive programme of educational development in the Fifth Plan. The main ingredients of these programmes proposed to be incorporated in the Plan would be the following and they are all indicative of the impact of democracy. (i) Transformation of the Educational System This was essential to make education a powerful tool of social transformation, economic growth modernization and national integration. It implied a radical transformation of the content of education accompanied by such related reforms as the adoption of improved methods of teaching, examination, improvement of textbooks and other teaching and learning aids. (ii) Improvement of Standards This included inter alia a programme of establishing a model primary school in each community development block as pace setting institution. Attempts would also be made to upgrade primary schools in particular and other educational institutions in general and to improve the curricular and supervisory practices and other institutions to the maximum extent possible through institutional planning and local support supplemented by guidance and assistance from the State. 135 (iii) Development of Pre-School Education The existing pre-schools were mostly fee-supported, privately managed and urban located and such facilities were not available for the poor and under-privileged, social groups who really needed them most. It was established that unfavourable socio-economic conditions, malnutrition and lack of education adversely effected the development of preschool children of the weaker sections of the community and thus led to a great inequalities of educational opportunities. It was, therefore, felt essential to develop a well planned and fairly large scale programme for the development of preschool education in the country. (iv) Provision of Universal Primary Education The provision of universal primary and middle school education for all children in the age group 6-14 is a Constitutional Directive and ought to have been realised by 1960. But for various reasons, it could not be done. It was therefore decided that universal primary education for all children in the age group 6-11 should be provided by 1975-76 and for those in the age group 11-14 by 1980-81. This was a basic programme of the highest priority and would naturally claim greater attention and a larger proportion of available funds. (v) Adoption of Uniform Pattern of Education The Education Commission recommended that a uniform pattern of education i.e., 10 + 2+3 classes should be adopted and this recommendation was also incorporated in the National Policy on Education. This would remove rigidity as well as inequality and help improving standards, enriching curricula and promoting diversification and vocationalization. (vi) Implementation of the National Scholarship Policy In order to remove inequalities in educational opportunity, a well planned National Scholarship policy was implemented during the 5th Plan. The National Scholarships Policy comprised two parts: (1) Scholarships on merit for talented students from the society as a whole; and (2) Scholarships given on merit, but within the most underprivileged groups in society. (vii) Strengthening Educational Administration Since it was felt that the administrative machinery in education was far from satisfactory, it was proposed to adequately

strengthen this 136 machinery to cope up with emerging programmes of the tremendous expansion and the most desired qualitative improvement. In the States, the main emphasis was on strengthening district level machinery and providing adequate delegation of authority. The State Institutes of Education were strengthened for implementing various academic programmes. At the Centre, the Ministry of Education NCERT and other bodies were strengthened to implement the programme for the expansion and qualitative improvement of education. As has been stated earlier, the National Policy on Education adopted by Parliament in 1968 laid down the goals and guidelines for the country's educational development. The various educational plans and programmes implemented with a view to achieving these objectives were periodically reviewed by the Central Advisory Board of Education. Particularly at the 36th Session in September 1972, the Central Board of Education made such review and recommended comprehensive programme for the 5th Five Year Plan. These programmes were estimated at Rs. 3320 crores during the 5th Plan period. It was noted with optimum that an outlay of this magnitude along with non-plan resources would help the State Governments accelerate the pace of progress towards the achievement of the major goals enunciated in the National Policy on Education. Prior to the finalisation of the draft 5th Plan however, it was feared that the resources available for education might not exceed Rs. 2200 crores. Accordingly the Standing Committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education prepared a modified programme in June 1973 indicating the priorities within priorities for implementation within a total outlay of Rs. 2200 crores. But in the draft Plan only a sum of Rs. 1726 crores was provided. Due to adverse economic conditions the amounts provided in the Annual plans came down below expectations. The Central Advisory Board of Education, therefore met again and considered this situation at its 37th session on November 45, 1974. Further, the Education Secretaries of all the State Governments also met and reviewed the position and placed their recommendations before the Board although they realized the reason for economy cuts, cautioned the Government that in the long-term interests of the nation, any disproportionate cuts in education would prove harmful. It also inter-alia recommended that there should be concentration of efforts on a few major programmes of identified significance and priority including universalisation of elementary education programmes on qualitative improvement and so on. 137 The total plan outlay was Rs. 187.77 crores for educational programme during the year 1974-75. Out of this a sum of Rs. 60.07 crores was for the Central and Centrally sponsored schemes and Rs. 124.27 crores for the programmes of the State and Union Territories. Nearly 50% of the total outlay i.e., Rs. 10.09 crores was earmarked for elementary education. The total number of Primary Schools was 4,43,461, the total enrolment in the classes I to V was 638.4 lakhs and the number of teachers in Primary Schools was 12.30 lakhs during the year 1974-75. Inspite of financial stringency programmes of qualitative improvement were undertaken in a big way. First mention should be made of the various training and extension programmes organised by NCERT. Similar training and orientation courses were also organised at the state level by different organisations like the Board of Secondary Education, the State Institutes of Education, State Institute of Sciences Education, State Institute of English, Educational Technology Cells and so on. The most important programmes sponsored by the Government of India relating to School Education especially Primary Education are: (i) Qualitative Improvement Programmes; (ii) Re-organisation and Expansion of Science Teaching; (iii) The Educational Technology Project; (iv) Universalisation of free primary education; and (v) Implementation of the 10 + 2 + 3 pattern of Education. For the year 1975-76 the total plan outlay for educational programmes was Rs. 189 crores of which Rs. 62 crores was for the central and central sponsored schemes and Rs. 127 crores was provided in the state and union territories plan. Nearly 46 per cent of the State's Plan outlay, i.e. Rs. 59 crores was year-marked for elementary education. With a view to achieving the goal of universalisation of educational facilities to the age group 6-11 within the Fifth Plan period, the NCERT concentrated on several fronts. Some of these are the development of non-formal education. Some mobilizing the entire community resources, the renewal of the primary curriculum and so on.

The Project of (1) Primary Education Curriculum Renewal, and (2) Development Activities in Community Education and Participation were implemented during the 5th Plan with UNICEF assistance. They were in line of democratising primary education in a more intensive and meaningful manner. The objectives are to develop innovative curricula and related instructional materials, techniques, etc. in keeping with the educational needs of a large number of children who are likely to remain 138 in school for only a few years or who are likely to remain out of school for their entire life. The curriculum is therefore to be adjusted to the life styles of the child and to socio-economic conditions. Similarly, the objective of the second project is to develop and test new types of educational activities as a feasible means of meeting the educational needs of a large group who are at present partially or totally deprived of any form of education. Another project of immense significance in the Educational Technology Project, designed to stimulate and promote integrated use of mass media and instructional technology at all levels of education including non-formal education. This would also help to achieve qualitative improvement as well as acceleration of the rate of expansion of educational facilities. It would also help to reduce wastage and stagnation. During 1975-76 this project gather momentum due to implementation of the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) which was a significant experiment in communication not only for national development, but also for international understanding. The experiment used a satellite loaned to India by the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for broadcasting programme to 2400 villages in six states selected for the purpose, i.e. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, MP, Orissa and Rajasthan. The programmes were broadcast in four regional languages and in two transmissions and were intended for primary schools children and the adult community. An important objective inter-alia was to prove the efficacy of television as a medium of communication for national development. The Centre for Educational Technology NCERT conducted the training and research during the year i.e., (from August 1975 to July 1976) in collaboration which Educational Technology Cell established in all the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment States. Primary School Teachers were trained in science with the help of a multi-media pack once in October 1975 and another in July 1976. This package consists of radio, TV programmes activities, enrichment materials and tutorials and 47,000 teachers were benefited from these in service training courses. Besides, Television User-teachers were trained in the beginning of the experimental year for properly operating the sets and conducting pre- and posttelecast discussions as well as follow up activities and script writers. Workshops were also organised for imparting know how to prospective authors. 139 It was expected that during the 5th Plan, universalisation at the primary stage (6-11 age group) would be near realisation. In 1975-76, 647.00 lakhs i.e., 83.9 per cent of the total child population in the age group 6-11 were in the schools. Hence, it was estimated that by 1978-79, 782.07 lakhs i.e., 96 per cent would be admitted so that the target of universalisation could be achieved. A Pilot Programme for the reorganization and expansion of science teaching at the school stage was started during the Fourth Plan and continued during the Fifth Plan with UNICEF assistance. The programme comprised supply of science kits and training of teachers. The total number of schools covers with UNICEF assistance during 1976-77 came to about 35,00,000 primary schools in the country. During the 5th Plan the UNICEF assistance laid emphasis on primary school application of science to the children's living conditions. A mid-term appraisal of the Fifth Plan by the Ministry of Education revealed that the programmes in the various educational sectors had suffered on account of inadequate financial allocation. Since the final outlay for education in the Fifth Plan might not be very different in the Fourth Plan, the Educational situation at the end of the Fifth Plan might well be a regression from the situation at the end of its commencement. The meeting of the Committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education held on the July 17, 1976 urged enhancement of resources for education during the remaining period of the Fifth Plan. As against a total provision of Rs. 1726 crores for education in the Draft Plan, the outlay finally approved for education is Rs. 1285 crores which is only 3.3 per cent of the total national outlay. From the analysis of the sectorwise distribution of the outlay it is evident that only Elementary Education provision during the first 3 years of the Fifth Plan were so low that they had not even kept up with the growth of population. The bulk of the children now out of school consists of girls, children of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes and children of the weaker sections like the landless labourers etc. The efforts made in many States to provide non-formal education to the children in the age group 6-14 were still on a small scale and could not make any appreciable dent on this major problem. Besides, most of the funds made available for elementary education were utilised for programmes of expansion only with the result that very little was being done for

improving quality. It was therefore resolved that intensive steps should be taken during the remainder of the Fifth Plan so that the target originally proposed could still be reached. 140 It may be inferred from the above discussion that the objectives envisaged for the Fifth Plan clearly indicate the consciousness as well as eagerness of the planners and educationists of the country for the democratisation of education particularly of primary education. Programmes both for expansion and qualitative improvement of education reflect the impact of democracy. Attempts for transformation of educational system, improvement of standards provision of universal primary education, adoption of uniform pattern of education, implementation of the national scholarships policy etc. merely show the anxiety of all concerned for democratising education. But the hopes and targets are partly achieved under the actual conditions Although the most important hurdles in this direction is said to be paucity of financial resources, the real and genuine difficulty is not the economic poverty but the intellectual or ideational poverty that is expressed in the lack of zeal and stamina of the national leaders for working out the Constitutional Directive and the sheer inertia and lethargy of the people to feel the pinch of ignorance and illiteracy. Once the latter kind of poverty is removed, the former type would automatically give way and democratization of education or universalisation of Primary Education would then be a fact, not a fiction and an image not a mirage.

8. DURING THE 6TH AND 7TH PLANS (1980-90) Inspite of all attempts, achievement of Universal Elementary Education is far short of the target. Rather "the target itself has been moving farther and farther," as reported by the Government of India Document Challenges of Education (1985), "to accommodate the failures arising from inadequacy of resources of sheer lack of a viable strategy". It is of course true that about crore of children constituting 76 per cent of the population of the relevant age group are in elementary stage. The country has reached a gross enrolment level of 93.4 per cent at the Primary level. But these aggregate figures hide tremendous disparities between States, Sections and sexes. These figures also include a large number of over/underaged children. The general enrolment is as low as 62.9 per cent in Assam and the enrolment of girls is as low as 17 per cent in some districts like Jalore in Rajasthan, although the enrolment of girls on all-India basis is 75.5 per cent. The enrolment ratios for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are 93.4 per cent and 81.9 per cent respectively. The enrolment of girls is particularly unsatisfactory in rural areas and among S.C. and S.T. On the whole, enrolment position is quite unsatisfactory. 141 The Challenge of Education (1985 p. 4) has very frankly reported that while it was correct that most children have a primary school within one kilometre of their homes, disaggregated data indicated that 1.91 lakh habitations or nearly onefifth of all habitations (9.53 lakh) of more than 300 persons had no school of their own where Schools existed 40 per cent had no pucca buildings, 39.72 per cent had no blackboards and 59.50 per cent had no drinking water. 35 per cent schools had a single teacher to teach 3 or 4 different classes. Some surveys also indicated that many schools remain without any teacher for varying periods of time and some teachers are not qualified for this work either by training or by experiences. The Fifth All India Educational Survey (1986) has showed that in comparison to the position of education particularly elementary education there has been marked progress during this period. There has been 26 per cent increase of enrolment at the Primary stage and 51 per cent increase of enrolment at the Upper Primary stage in all areas. Similarly, there has been a corresponding increase of teachers by 17 per cent and 24 per cent at the Primary and Secondary stages respectively at the all-India level. It is also evident from the 5th Survey that 32,000 habitations with a population of 300 or more are still to be provided primary schooling facilities within a walking distance of 1 kilometer and 13.5% of Primary Schools and 4% of Upper Primary schools are still without buildings of any kind. It is also found that 13% of teachers are still untrained at the Primary level and Upper Primary stage. The National Policy on Education (1986) resolved that the highest priority would be given to solving the problem of dropouts and ensuring children's retention at schools. This effort would also be fully coordinated with the network of nonformal education. It was also provided that all children who would attain the age of about 11 years by 1990 must have five years of schooling or its equivalent. Likewise by 1995 all children would be provided free and compulsory education upto 14 years of age. One of the very significant strategies adopted for implementing NPE, 1986 in the Scheme of Operation blackboard aiming at improving the physical facilities in Primary Schools. It has inter alia three important components as follows: 1. Provision of a building comprising of atleast two reasonable large all weather rooms with a broad verandah and separate toilet facilities for boys and girls. 2. Atleast two teachers in every school, as far as possible, one of them a woman; and

142 3. Provision of essential teaching and learning materials including books, blackboards, maps, charts, toys and equipments for work experience. During 1987-88 an amount of Rs. 110.61 crores was provided as assistance to 24 states and 3 Union Territories for covering 1,13,417 schools (Over 21 per cent of Primary Schools in the Country). During the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) restructuring and reorganization of teacher education was implemented as the Centrally sponsored scheme and both in service and pre- service training was imparted for improving teachers' competencies. Mass Orientation of about 5,00,000 school teachers annually was organised till 1989-90 to familiarise them with the major thrusts envisaged in the NPE and to improve their professional growth. About 400 District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs) were set-up either by upgrading suitable existing Elementary Teacher Education Institutions or where necessary by establishing new ones so as to provide total academic and training support to the Elementary Education System at the District level. During 1987-88 an amount of Rs. 32.47 crores was given as Central assistance under the above teacher education programmes to fifteen States and one Union Territory. 143

17 Development of Elementary/ Primary Education since Eighties Inspite of Constitutional Directive it has not yet been possible to realise universalisation of Elementary/Primary Education in the country. Although spectacular expansion has taken place in all sectors of education particularly Primary Education, the goal has not yet reached and many States are far away from the national goal of universalisation of Elementary Education for all children in the age group 6-14. Provision of Universal Elementary Education has been a salient feature of our National Policies and Programmes. A lot of plans and projects have been and being implemented in our country with all hopes and aspirations which have not brought us to our expected destination. The quantitative expansion is still far from our reach and quality improvement is our desired dream. The National Policy of Education, 1986 and revised NPE, 1992 have laid stress on provision of Primary Education for all children. This Primary Education would not only be compulsory but also be free and of reasonable standard. The Ninth Five Year Plan envisaged Universal Elementary Education (UEE) or Universal Primary Education (UPE) for universalisation of access, retention and achievement. Inspite of all emphasis, we are not in a position to achieve our objectives by the end of 9th Five Year Plan. Therefore, concerted efforts are being made towards goal of UEE/UPE. Access to Schools is no longer a major problem, as at the Primary stage 94% of our population are in schools within a distance of 1 km. Similarly at the Upper Primary stage 84% of population have schools within a distance of 3 kms. There are quite a few States where enrolment is not at all satisfactory. These include Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and 144 Sikkim. In these 9 States the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) is still lower than the national average and in most of the States literacy rates are also similar. The Hon'ble Supreme Court in its order in the Unnikrishnan case (1993) has declared education of children up to the age of 14 years to be a Fundamental Right. Significant strides have been made in this direction during the last decade and a survey conducted indicate that nearly 70% of the 6-14 age-group children are attending schools. In order to bring all children so far not attending schools to the purview of UEE/UPE, the following important steps have been made: (i) Recruitment of teachers and provision of teaching-learning material under the scheme of Operation Blackboard (OB). (ii) Construction of School Buildings from rural development fund and also by DPEP to foreign assistance. (iii) Holistic decentralised planning-based implementation of DPEP joint GOI-UN, System of Education Programme etc. for wide access, retention and quality in Primary Education. (iv) Provision of foodgrains under the National Programme for Nutritional Support for Primary Education. (v) State-specific initiatives like Lok Jumbish, Shiksha Karmi, Amo School, etc. (vi) Experimental and innovative projects in the non-formal education sector for children out of school or dropped out of

school.

DISPARITIES OF DIFFERENT TYPES State Disparities At present 94% of the country's rural population have Primary Schools within a distance of 1 K.M. At the upper Primary stage 84% of the rural population have schools within a distance of 3 K.Ms. While the Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at the primary stage in the country as a whole and in most of the States exceed 100%, there are still few states where ratio is considerably lower. These States include Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir and Meghalaya. At the upper Primary stage in addition to these States Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Sikkim have GER lower than the national average. It is also interesting to note that in most of these States the literacy rates are lower than the national average. 145 Gender Disparities UEE being the ultimate goal cannot be achieved without addressing itself to the gender and regional disparities. Gender disparities are conspicuous in regard to enrolment and retention. Girls enrolment has increased at the primary stage from 5.4 million in 1950-51 to 48.2 Million in 1998-99 and at the upper primary stage from 0.5 million to 16.30 million. Although the rate of growth of enrolment of girls has been higher than that of boys, disparities still persist as girls only account for 43.5% of the enrolment at primary stage and 40.5% at upper primary stage. Similarly, the dropout rate of girls is much higher than that of boys at primary and upper primary stage. SC & ST Disparities According to 1991 Census the population of Scheduled Castes (SCs) was 138.12 Million (16.33%) and that of Scheduled Tribes (STs) was 67.9 million i.e. 9.09% of the country's population. The enrolment of children belonging to SCs & STs has been increased considerably at the Primary stage, because of positive policies of the Government. Participation of SCs & STs is now more or less in proportion to their share in population at the primary stage. Even though dropouts have declined over the years, the situation is still miserable. Gender disparities are still spectacular among SCs & STs. Quality Vrs. Quantity As the NPE 1996 and the revised NPE 1992 have envisaged universalisation of Elementary Education of a reasonable standard India took initiative in 1991 to lay down Minimum Level Learning (MLL) for ensuring primary education of a good standard to be achieved at the primary stage. This new approach integrates different components of curriculum. Class Room transaction, evaluation and teacher orientation. The State Governments have introduced MLL in most of their primary schools including local body and private schools. The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) has adopted MLL as a major strategy for improving the quality of Primary Education. Non-formal Education (NFE) Programme has also adopted MLL as far as possible. The National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT) has taken up an intensive curriculum review to meet the needs of excellence with equity. 146 It has now been decided to upgrade the MLL programme through institutional mechanisms in the whole country. The National Resource Institutions like the NCERT, Regional Institute of Education (RIE), State Councils of Research and Training (SCERT) and the District Institutes of Education and Training (DTET) are now engaged in joint operation for the purpose. Curriculum revision, text book revision teachers competency enhancement, training teachers in the class-room transaction are the major activities being undertaken. Most of the educationally backward States have made their own need-based and local specific programmes by finding out their own resources for incurring loans from the World Bank or other lending agencies or getting financial assistance from various countries and agencies. The Government of India has reviewed the existing Elementary Education Schemes to provide flexibility of approach and for implementing UEE in a Mission mode based on the recommendations of the Report of the Committee of Education Ministers. All efforts are being made to implement a holistic and convergent approach like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) meaning education for all. Such a project would provide effective decentralised planning and community ownership of incentives in the Elementary Education Sector. It will be also utilise cost-effective and local strategies for UEE/UPE. The SSA is to be launched for ensuring all children in the age group 614 years to be either in a school or in an Education Guarantee Centre or a "Back to School Camp" by 2003, it has also

been decided to ensure 5 years of Primary Schooling for every child in India by 2007 and 8 years of Elementary Schooling by 2010. In order to improve the quality of learning, curricular framework has been reviewed and recast to make it more relevant and to promote competency-based learning. Work education, value education and activity-based learning being facilitate through community ownership and effective monitoring by the elected Panchayati Raj and Urban Local Body Representatives of the Municipality/Corporation.

SCHEME OF SPECIAL ASSISTANCE TO STATES On the basis of recommendation of the Saikia Committee a proposal was made to amend the Constitution of India for making education for children in the age group 6-14 years a Fundamental Right. This proposal was also approved by the Cabinet in May, 1997 and accordingly the 147 Constitution 83rd Amendment Bill, 1997 was introduced in the Rajya Sabha on July 28, 1997. The Bill was referred to the Department related Parliamentary Standing Committee which submitted its report on November 24, 1997. Basal on the recommendations of the Parliamentary Standing Committee it was proposed to reintroduce the Constitutional Amendment Bill that was under consideration. Special assistance would be provided to the States for implementing the proposal to make Elementary Education a Fundamental Right. This scheme would be implemented as a part of the Sarba Siksha Abhiyan. Operation Black Board The NPE, 1986 provided a very alluring and useful scheme called Operation Black Board (OB) which was launched in 1987-88 with the aim of improving the human and physical resources in the Primary Schools. During the Eighth Five Year Plan the scheme was revised in 1993-94. As per the revised NPE, 1992 it sought to provide a 3rd Classroom and 3rd Class Teacher to Primary Schools where enrolment exceeds 100 students. It was also extended to cover teaching-learning equipment and additional teachers to Upper Primary Schools. The scheme was implemented through State Governments with 100% assistance from the Government of India towards payment of salary on additional teachers and provision of teaching-learning materials. Under the scheme of OB, construction of school buildings was the responsibility of State Governments/Union Territories. In consultation with the Department of Education, the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment had worked out a formula to set aside funds for the construction of school buildings. According to this formula 48% of funds for construction was provided by the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment under the Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY) provided with the States raised 40% non-JRY and 12% JRY State share. The JRY has been restructured by the Ministry of Rural Development, renaming the scheme as Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY). Under the revised guidelines effective from April 1, 1999, the Central assistance has been available on 75 : 25 basis for construction of school buildings under the OB. The past experience on the Audit and Evaluation Reports showed that the funds sanctioned for teaching-learning materials under the OB scheme are lying unutilised in many States. It was felt that to a large 148 extent the above mentioned situation can be attributed to lack of sufficient flexibility and decentralised procurement and supply of teaching-learning materials. The broad categories of teaching-learning material to be procured and the specific items under each category were left entirely to the discretion of the State Governments which could decide the items to be procured as per local conditions. The State Governments have been advised that the procurement of teaching-learning material should be decentralised as far as possible and quality control should be scrupulously followed. It was also suggested that the involvement of representatives of Panchayati Raj (PR) Institutions, Village Educational Committees (VECs) and teachers/headmasters in this process to ensure timely supply of quality materials. The scheme is expected to improve school environment, enhance retention and increase learning achievement of children by providing minimum essential facilities in all Primary Schools. Thus, the Scheme seeks to bring about both quantitative and qualitative improvement in primary education. Non-formal Education for UPE The NPE, 1986 envisages a large and systematic programme of Non-Formal Education (NFE) as an integral component of the strategy to achieve Universalisation of Primary Education (UPE). The NFE seeks to cater to children who remain outside the formal system of education due to various socio-economic constraints.

The scheme has been implemented since 1979-80 and focuses children in the age-group 6-14 who have remained out of the formal schooling system. It lays emphasis on organisation, flexibility, relevance of curriculum and diversity of learning activity to suit the needs of learners. It primarily covers the educationally backward States of Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. It also covers urban slums, the hilly areas, deserts and tribal areas and areas with a concentration of working children in other States. Special emphasis has been laid on girls, working children and those belonging to the ST & SC classes. Central assistance is provided to States and Union Territories and voluntary agencies on the following pattern: (i) Co-educational Centres and administrative support—60% (ii) Exclusively girl Centres—90% (iii) Centres run by voluntary agencies—100% 149 At present, there are 2.97 lakh NFE Centres covering about 74.20 lakh children in 24 States and Union Territories. While 2.38 lakh Centres have been sanctioned to States and Union Territories (of which 1.18 lakh Centres are exclusively for girls) and 58788 Centres are run by 816 Voluntary Agencies. The performance of the scheme has been reviewed, interalia, by two Parliamentary Standing Committees, one on Human Resource Development and second on the problem and dropouts. It has also been evaluated by the Planning Commission and on their recommendations, action was initiated to revise the scheme. The revised scheme has been called the scheme of Alternative and Innovative Education. It would be more flexible and operationally more pro-active. Its salient features are (Government of India Annual Report, 1999-2000, pp. 68-69) as follows: (i) All habitations without an Elementary Education School/Centre within a radius of one K.M. will have one at the earliest. (ii) The quality of non-formal education will be upgraded to a level approaching the formal education system. (iii) The local community will be more active in the implementation of the scheme. (iv) It will provide instructions with enhance honorarium. (v) As part of the scheme, an elaborate school mapping exercise will be undertaken. (vi) It is a part of the much more holistic programme for the Universalisation of Elementary Education, namely, the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. During 1998-99 an amount of Rs 119.50 crore to States and Union Territories and Rs 39.97 crores to voluntary agencies was released for the implementation of the programme. During 1999-2000 till September, 1999, Rs. 36.05 crores to States and Union Territories and Rs 11.91 crores to Voluntary Agencies have been released.

NATIONAL PROGRAMME FOR NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT TO PRIMARY EDUCATION The National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NP-NSPE) popularly known as Mid-day scheme was launched on August 15, 1995. The programme aims at boosting the universalisation of Primary Education by improving enrolment attendance, retention and the nutritional needs of children in primary classes. This programme 150 also seeks to cover all Government, Local Body Government and Aided Schools. Central support under this scheme is to provide foodgrains free of cost to children at the rate of 100 gms. per school day, per student in States where cooked meal is provided and 3 kg. per month per child where foodgrains are being distributed, subject to minimum 80% of attendance. All States except Gujarat, Kerala, Orissa, Tamilnadu, Madhya Pradesh (174 tribal blocks and Pondicherry distributed food-grains). This programme has been evaluated in 10 States by an independent agency called Operation Research Group, New Delhi. The findings state that while the programme has promoted enrolment in Assam, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, it has made a positive impact on attendance and retention in Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Orissa and Rajasthan. Shiksha Karmi Project

The Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP) aims at universalisation and qualitative improvement of Primary Education in remote arid socio-economically backward villages of Rajasthan with primary emphasis on girls. The project identifies teacher absentees as a major obstacle in achieving the goal of UEE/UPE. It was realised that a Primary School in a remote village with a non-resident teacher often tended to become dysfunctional and both parents and children failed to realise that this has led to high dropout rates. Under SKP regular teachers are replaced by local teachers who may be less qualified but are specially trained. A Shiksha Karmi is a local person with a minimum educational qualification of Class- VIII for men and Class-V for women. To overcome the basic under qualification, Shiksha Karmi are given intensive training through induction programme as well as periodical refresher courses. The project has been implemented by the Government of Rajasthan through Rajasthan Shiksha Karmi Board (RSKB) with assistance from voluntary agencies. This Board has a Governing Council and an Executive Council. These bodies are represented through two representatives of this Department. Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) and community play a pivotal role in the implementation of the SKP. The Village Education Committee (VECs) have contributed to the improvement of school environment, augmentation of resources and improving infrastructural facilities. This has helped largely enrolment of children through school mapping and micro-planning in the SK schools. Enrolment of girls, their attendance and retention in Primary Schools is one of the serious challenges in achieving UEE in Rajasthan. The SKP aims at addressing these issues 151 through decentralise initiatives involving the community. At the grass root level, Panchayat Samities, Shiksha Karmi Sahyogis and subject specialist of NGOs, Shiksha Karmies and village community constantly interact for achieving the aims of the project. Under the SKP, Prahar Pathashalas (PPs) provide educational programmes for out of school children in their convenient time as they cannot attend regular day schools due to their pre-occupations at home. In the PPs, condensed formal school curriculum and learning materials are followed. At present 22,359 girls who constituted 71% of learners in PPs have benefitted from this scheme. Angan Pathashalas have also proved effective in attracting the girls to primary schools under this scheme. Mahila Sahayogis have confirmed their utility in motivating girls to attend schools in remote areas/integration of children with partial disabilities in to schools and PPs have proved successful. There is an inbuilt monitoring process at villages, Block Headquarters and State levels. There is also a provision of joint biannual reviews by the international agencies concerned, the Government of India and the Government of Rajasthan. Independent evaluation is done by teams consisting of national and International experts. It has been the practice to conduct mid-term review/evaluation through interactions with all functionaries and beneficiaries. The studies so far conducted revealed that academic achievement of Primary School children in SKP area are generally better than neighbouring schools managed by Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). The SKP has emerged as an important instrument of human resource development and enable 'rural youth with talent and potential to be capable para professionals with selfrespect and dignity. There has been 6-fold increase in the enrolment of children in the schools taken over by the project. The Project has covered 2715 villages in 146 blocks in Rajasthan. During the first phase of SKP (1987-94) an amount of Rs 21.12 crore was spent which was shared between Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) and Government of Rajasthan on 90 : 10 basis. In the second phase of SKP (till 1994-June 1998) a total expenditure of Rs 72.21 crore was incurred on the project which was shared between SIDA and the Government of Rajasthan on 50 : 50 basis. After an in-depth evaluation of the project Department for International Development of the UK has agreed to share the cost of Phase-Ill of the project on 50 : 50 basis with the Government of Rajasthan w.e.f. July, 1999. Phase-Ill of SKP would continue till March, 2003 and as per the terms and conditions of the agreement, an expenditure of 152 Rs. 240 crore would be incurred during the Phase-Ill. By the end of Phase-Ill of SKP, it has been proposed to cover 4,100 villages/Day Schools, 7,335 Prahar Pathasalas, 121 Upper Primary Schools covering the districts of Rajasthan with an expected enrolment of 3,24,345 students.

LOK JUMBISH Lok Jumbish (LJ) is the people's implementation of Education for All and an innovative project managed with assistance from the Swidish International Development Authority (SIDA). This was implemented in Rajasthan since 1992 with the basic objective of achieving "Education for All" through people's participation and mobilization.

The project has been implemented by the Lok Jumbish Parisad (LJP) an autonomous society registered under the Societies Registration Act. The first phase of this project was implemented between July 1, 1992 and June 30, 1994. The project cost was shared among SIDA the Government of India and the Government of Rajasthan in the ratio 3:2:1. The total expenditure incurred was Rs. 14.03 crore. The second phase of the project was implemented between July, 1994 and June 1998 with sharing of expenditure in the ratio 3:2:1 and the total expenditure incurred during that period was Rs 96.92 crore. After the Pokhran Atomic Explosion there was uncertainty about the continuation of assistance from SIDA for Phase-Ill. However, SIDA later agreed to continue during the extended period of Phase-II of this project till 1999. since SIDA funding to the project was not fully assured the Ministry of Education approached Department for International Development (DID), U.K. The assistance from DID was 31.43 million pounds as local cost grant and the pounds 3 million as technical co-operation for Phase-Ill during 1999-2004. The project has covered 75 Blocks and the programmes included environment building activities and school mapping exercise in a large number of villages. More than 500 schools were opened and an innovative programme called Saj Shiksha Programme was launched by LJP in more than 3000 centres. This programme caters to dropouts and out of school children specially girls. It works with the community and has resulted in an increase in the learning ability of the students. The LJP has improved management and other infrastructural facilities through decentralisation and delegation of authority. It also develops partnerships with local communities and voluntary agencies. Community 153 mobilization and school mapping exercises have shown good results and provided the basis for opening of new schools. The LJP has made a positive contribution, quality improvement through improved MLL-based text books and formation of vibrant block and cluster resource groups that provided academic support and supervision and organistion of regular training programmes for Primary School teachers. The training strategy was implemented successfully in cascade model. Teacher Education With a view to promoting Primary Education the NPE and POA, 1986 envisaged re-structuring and re-organisation of teacher education as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme from 1987. This helped in improving institutional infrastructure, academic and technical resources for orientation, training and continuous upgradation of knowledge, competence and skills of school teachers throughout the country. The Scheme also postulated setting up of DIETs in each district for providing academic and resource support to Elementary School Teachers and Non-formal/Adult Education Instructors. It also assisted in establishment of Colleges of Teacher Education (CTEs) and Institution of Advanced Studies in Educations (IASEs) for organising pre-service and in-service training for secondary school teachers and providing extension and resource support to secondary schools. The CTEs and IASEs are now engaged in promoting fundamental and applied research of interdisciplinary nature and in providing academic guidance to DIETs. The Government of India provided financial assistance to States for establishing DIETs, CTEs and IASEs. Generally DIETs were established by upgrading existing Elementary Teacher Education Institutions or by setting up new Institutions wherever felt necessary. The land required for the purpose was, of course, provided by the State Government. The Secondary Teacher Training Colleges/Secondary Teacher Education Institutions offering B.Ed. courses were upgraded to CTEs. Similarly, the selected Teacher Training Colleges and University Departments of Education offering M.Ed. courses were upgraded to IASEs. Under the Scheme by the end of 1998-99, there are 451 DIETs, 76 CTEs and 34 IASEs in the country. The State Governments have realised the important role of DIETs in the development of teacher education at the grassroot level and in implementation of new educational projects. The DIETs have been identified as the principal technical and professional resources institutions 154 in DPEP districts. The progress of implementation of the Scheme is being monitored through quarterly progress reports furnished by the States. The information received from States is being analysed and the institutions which are advised appropriately to take necessary action wherever necessary. The infrastructural development like civil works, filling of posts and organisation of pre-service and in-service training programmes are monitored regularly. The progress of implementation of the Scheme is reviewed in the meeting of State Education Ministers and Secretaries from time to time. The Scheme also envisaged strengthening of SCERTs, orientation of school teachers in the use of OB materials and implementation of MLL strategy with a focus of teaching of languages, mathematics and environmental studies. The Department of Education in the Universities are also strengthened through the UGC.

The multi-tier infrastructure of teacher education has been developed over the years. At the national level NCERT has been playing a leading role in teacher education curricular programmes and developing institutional materials etc. It also provides training through innovative programmes. IGNOU through its School Education offers Teacher Education Programmes in distance mode. The SCERTs/STEs are the State counterparts of the NCERT to provide direction and leadership for reforms in school education and teacher education. Under the Teacher Education Scheme 20 SCERTs have so far received Central assistance. Special emphasis is being laid during Ninth Plan on strengthening Teacher Education in different parts of the country. National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) was established on August 17, 1995 as a national level statutory body by the Government of India. It aims at achieving planned and co-ordinated development of the teacher education system, required proper maintenance of norms and standards of teacher education. It has laid down guidelines and norms for member qualification of staff members at various levels of teacher education. It has tried to prevent commercialisation of teacher education and control the standard of private Teacher Education Institutions. As per the provisions of the act Regional Committees for the northern, southern, eastern and western regions have been set up at Jaipur, Bangalore, Bhubaneswar and Bhopal respectively. The NCTE has laid down norms and standards for pre-primary, Elementary and Secondary stage Teacher Education Institutions through distance mode. It has taken up the task of preparing new curricular for teacher education at various stages, through consultation and discussion 155 with working teacher educators, eminent educationists and teacher organisations through seminars at different levels. The major achievements of NCTE have been the publication of monographs, reports and self-learning modules for teacher educators and teachers and steps for maintaining standards of teacher education and reduction of commercialisation.

CONCLUSION On the whole, effective steps have been taken by Government of India and other agencies in the field of Elementary Education. But universalisation of Primary Education and upgradation of the quality of Elementary Education has still far away from achievement. All kinds of projects and experiments have not been able to improve the Elementary Education up to our expectation. On account of the deficiency and failure of Elementary Education, eradication of illiteracy has been a great task. Government have been duplicating a number of institutions and multiplying the schemes over these years. But unfortunately due to the lack of co-ordination, co-operation and commitment on the part of the people in charge of their implementation, there has been a lot of wastage and duplication of efforts. Adequate external evaluation and monitoring of these schemes are badly necessary and streamlining as well as rationalising of the Government and non-Government organisations is felt extremely necessary. We are getting so much of funds from different sources both internal and external and sometimes we are incurring loans from the World Bank and other agencies, but the very purpose of improving the quality and quantity of elementary education is sadly defeated to a great extent. We have been proved very good planners but very bad executors of various programmes not only in other arena of development but also in the field of Elementary Education. However, a silver lining in the black cloud is visible as it is learnt that the Constitutional Amendment (83rd) Bill which was introduced in the Rajya Sabha for compulsory Primary Education in 1997 would be passed in the coming session of the Parliament. It would, of course, create a number of new problems in the implementation of this Act in its true letter and spirit due to dire poverty, internal barriers and other constraints. Since it is the Constitutional Directive over due and a national commitment much neglected we should act upon with strong will, deep devotion and great patriotic zeal. Besides it has been an international challenge to be taken up seriously. 156

REFERENCES Govt. of India, The Constitution of India, Publication Division, New Delhi, 1952. Govt. of India, National Policy on Education, 1986, Ministry of (Education) Human Resource Development, New Delhi. Govt. of India, Annual Reports, 1997-98, 1999-2000, MHRD, New Delhi. Govt. of India, Programme of Action, 1986-92. Ministry of (Education) Human Resource Development, New Delhi. Govt. of India, Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective, Ministry of Education,

1985, New Delhi. Govt. of India, Education Commission Report, 1964-66, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1996. Govt. of India, Revised National Policy on Education, MHRD (Education), New Delhi, 1992. Govt. of India, Education For All (Widening Horizons) MHRD (Education), New Delhi, 1993 (b). Govt. of India, Education for All (Indian Scene) MHRD (Education), New Delhi, 1992 (a). Mohanty, J., Modern Trends in Indian Education, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1989. Govt. of India, Education in India: Impact of Democracy, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1987. 157

18 Primary Education—Its Role, Objectives and Functions ROLE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION Living is learning and one has to undertake life-long learning for his all-round development. This is especially true in a modern society with its complexities and ramifications. There are, tasks where learning will brings satisfaction and rewards, while learning poorly brings unhappiness and social disapproval. According to Havinghurst (1957) there are development tasks of life which the individual must learn for his own personal well-being and also for the healthy and satisfactory growth of the society. A development task is a task which arises at or about a certain period in the life of the individual and the successful achievement of the task leads to his happiness and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual, disapproval by the society and difficulty in later tasks. Some of the development tasks are achieved by schools. The tasks in which the school specializes are those involving the learning of mental skill i.e., the 3-RS, of course, in some societies, the school goes far beyond this minimal programme and in some others, it lags far behind the minimum achievements. Moreover, there is no developmental task of children which the school can completely ignore. The tasks are so closely inter-related that difficulty in one task in the school is often tied up with difficulty in another tasks for which school has little direct responsibility. For example, failure in academic work may be due to failure in some other developmental tasks. The programmes and practices of primary schools contribute in one way or another to the child's achievement of the developmental task. Thus, the curriculum helps or hinders the accomplishment of every task. Every school is thus a laboratory for working out of these tasks. Consequently it seems useful to regard the developmental tasks as 158 objectives or goals of Primary Education. Successful achievement of these tasks can be described in terms of observable behaviour and these descriptions may be used in evaluating the progress of a child. The objectives of Primary Education are thus synonimous with the achievement of developmental tasks. Living-stone (1949) has, therefore, said, "Elementary education is not complete in itself. It is preparatory. It prepares the pupil to go on to something else and put his foot on the first step of the ladder of knowledge." Unless the schools properly discharge their responsibilities and help the pupils to achieve their development all tasks very well, they fail in their fundamental duties and also the entire generation of the future citizens would suffer with irreparable loss to the society. In this context, Howard (1950) has remarked, "If the schools do not do everything in their power in one generation to make their pupils feel that they 'belong', to knit them into the social fabric, to help them to become aware of their social responsibilities then the whole of our social life will be that much the poorer in the next generation."(INTRODUCTION V). Explaining Piaget's Concept Pulaski (1971) has mentioned that the learning of the development tasks is composed of adaptation as the basis of behaviour. Again adaptation consists of two processes assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation is what is done to what has to be learned in order that it can be learned, and accommodation is what the learner has to do, as it were, within himself in order to learn. In this way, a pattern of behaviour is established and it is called a scheme. It can be repeated and generalised. The unfamiliar features in the new task would need further assimilation and accommodation, so that the original simple 'Scheme' will have to be modified. Modifications will be continuously required whenever a new experience is encountered. This process of assimilation and accommodation begins at birth, increases in intensity in early childhood and continues throughout life. The ability to assimilate and accommodate

declines as the individuals grow older. The "Schemata" (Plural of Scheme) i.e., the generalised and repeatable patterns of behaviour, increase in number, grow more and more complex and interact between one another. In the early stages, according to Blackie (1967) learning is in the sensori-motor field. That is to say that children must experience things through their senses and movements for learning what they are, they cannot learn by being told. In early childhood, they cannot form abstract or imaginary concepts and as they grow older, the pattern of behaviour begins to include pattern of thought. Then they can assimilate abstractions and accommodate themselves to them. Nobody ever stops learning altogether. 159 There are two important points about the "Schemata" which concern children. First they need exercising young children learn the world they live in and should be allowed to do things over and over again. The other point about the schemata is that the exercise of them is pleasurable. As such, Primary education is not only important, it should be made pleasant and meaningful to children from the psychological point of view. Primary schools provide for universal education which is fundamentally a democratic conception. That is why Fascism could never tolerate this idea. Kilpatrick (1963) has cited flitter is reported to have said, "Universal education is most corroding and disintegrating poison that liberalism ever invented for its own destruction.....We must, therefore, be consistent and allow the great mass of the lowest order the blessings of illiteracy". Free, compulsory and universal education is considered a strong pillar of democracy, not only because all citizens will have equal opportunities for alround development of their personalities, but also because they will become creative and productive members of a democratic society. With a view to enabling the children to efficiently discharge their responsibilities as citizens, universal primary education is a pre-requisite. That is why John Stuart Mill has aptly said that universal education should precede universal enfranchisement. Primary Education is thus called "People's education" as well as education for the 'masters' i.e., voters. Education, especially primary education is mainly shaped by the social milieu in which it is provided. Considering the future of our society, the Philosophy and Sociology of Primary Education must clearly reflect the rural and urban differences, national and regional integration, industrial and agricultural values of life, population explosion and so on. The Kothari Commission (1966) have, therefore, observed. "But in view of the immense difficulties involved such as lack of adequate resources, tremendous increase in population, resistance to the education of girls, large numbers of children of the backward classes, general poverty of the people and the illiteracy are apathy, it was not possible to make adequate progress in primary education and the Constitutional Directive has remained unfulfilled." Education works as a lever in raising financial and social status of the individuals. Therefore, expenditure on education is regarded as useful investment not only by the economists, but also by the educationists. Economic conditions of a country depend largely on educational standards of its people since primary education is the foundation and should be the maximum or basic acquisition for the majority. 160 "We are in sympathy with this demand (Deadline for universal education) and we believe that the provision of free and universal education for every child is an educational objective of the highest priority, not only on grounds of social justice and democracy, but also for raising the competence of the average worker and for increasing national productivity." Since rural population constitutes a major segment of the totality and rural development will largely determine the prosperity and affluence of the country as a whole, primary education shoulders the greatest responsibility in the national upliftment. The pupil's future may depend heavily upon what he has gained in the primary schools. It has accordingly been mentioned in the UNESCO document (1971). 'For several reasons, the Primary level can be seen as the most sensitive area of educational planning and development, firstly, because pupils who enter at the age of five or six "Scheduled" to leave at 12 or 14, acquire at those impressionable ages thought patterns and habits that will affect them throughout their lives, secondly, because primary education bears the brunt of today's education explosion, thirdly because, many young people especially in rural areas, will never receive any further school experience, fourthly, because any egalitarian educational frame must provide minimum learning skills to all. Primary Education is also the largest single enterprise all over the world. A bit array of teachers, the biggest number of pupils, a large number of supervisors and administrators are involved in this programme. As such, from the point of view of magnitude, from the stand point of psychological preparedness, from the preponderance of sociological influences, in view of the economic necessities, and the philosophical background and in view of scientific enlightenment and humanism, the role of primary education is extremely significant and crucial.

THE OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS OF PRIMARY EDUCATION Primary education is shaped according to the prevailing social and philosophical milieu and is regarded as the foundation for the entire superstructure of children's moral, spiritual, intellectual and physical development. Since the middle of the 19th century onwards, it has been recognised as an endeavour of paramount importance in various countries of the world. 161 The University of the State of New York Committee for Elementary Education in their report (1932) entitled "Cardinal Objective of Elementary Education" have evolved out an adequate statement of educational objectives for young children. According to them elementary education is expected to help every child to: (a) Understand and practice desirable social relationships, (b) discover and develop his own desirable individual aptitudes. (c) cultivate the habits of critical thinking. (d) appreciate and desire worthwhile activities, (e) gain command of common integrated knowledge and skills, and (f) develop a sound body and normal mental attitudes. Educational Policies Commission (1948) have pointed out in their report that the good school was one which most completely reflect the highest values of the society and uphold the ethical standards which are relatively permanent. The Commission have identified the following three goals for elementary education: (a) The elementary school will help develop those basic skills, independence and initiative for successfully solving the problems, (b) It strives for the discovery and full development of all the humane and constructive talents of each individual, and (c) It emphasizes social responsibility and the cooperative improvement of social institutions. NCERT (1970) has mentioned the objectives of Primary Education as formulated by Educational Policies Commission for the Schools in Georgia (U.S.A.). These are quite self-explanatory as well as meaningful in terms of the qualities and competencies desired in citizens of our democracy. They may briefly be stated as follows: (1) Self-realisation, (2) Human Relationship, and (3) Civic Responsibility. The Primary schools have their orientation in the society and their objectives lie within the framework of the general purposes of education. In this context, the formulation of the general objectives of the elementary schools made by the Mid-Century Committee on outcomes in Elementary Education as pointed out by NCERT (1970) is quite significant. The report of the Committee has enunciated that Primary Education should be expected to bring about desirable behavioural changes in young children. The behavioural changes may be grouped under the following domains: 162 (a) Knowledge and understanding, (b) Skill and competence, (c) Attitudes and interests, and (d) Action pattern. The above four types of objectives may be realised through learning experiences under the following nine broad areas: (a) Physical development, health and body care,

(b) Individual, social and emotional development, (c) Ethical behaviour, standards and values, (d) Social relationships, (e) The social world, (f) The aesthetic development, (g) The physical world, (h) The communication, and (i) Quantitative relationship. These objectives have not emphasized so much on citizenship as on individual and social development of the child. The Central Advisory Council of Education, England (1966) have spelt out the objective of Primary Education as follows: "One obvious purpose is to fit children for the society into which they will grow up. To do this successfully it is necessary to predict what that society will be like. It will certainly by one marked by rapid and far-reaching economic and social change. It is likely to be richer by majorities and with more leisure for all, more people will be called upon to change their occupation". The objectives are expected to bring about the capability in young children to face the future society successfully and to "live with their fellows, appreciating and respecting their feeling". The Primary schools must impart knowledge, understanding, skill, ability and interests to be required by "good citizens" and most of the objectives of primary education have the "educated adult" as their frame of reference. The Kothari Commission (1966) have succinctly envisaged, "what is expected is that primary education should lay the foundation for a child to grow into a responsible and useful citizen of country". As given by the NCERT (1970) Hindustani Talimi Sangh have laid down the following four objectives of Primary Education in the context of Basic National Education: 163 1. All boys and girls in India should grow up as citizens of a new social order, based on co-operative work as envisaged by Nai Talimi Sangh and with an understanding of their rights, responsibilities and obligations in such a society. 2. Every individual should have full opportunity for the balanced and harmonious development of all his faculties. 3. Every individual should acquire capacity for self-reliance in aspects of clean, healthy and cultured. 4. Every individual should understand social and moral implications of life. These objectives reflect the harmonious and balanced development of children with special emphasis on citizenship training. Primary Schools have to discharge their responsibilities and play their role only in the context of these desirable objectives. Henry Otto and others (1955) have elaborately enunciated the objectives of elementary schools and assigned the following functions to these schools: 1. The school shall assist in perpetuating the culture by giving instruction on those essentials of the culture that are not learned adequately through out-of-school experiences. The teaching of reading is an illustration of this. 2. The second function pertains to the development of new special patterns, new ways of behaving in new situations. Society expects the school to instil children the idea of progress and to help them adjust to new and changed ways of doing things. 3. The third function is the development of creative role, children need to be encouraged to use their ingenuity in discovering new and better ways of doing or making or using things. 4. The fourth function is that of co-ordination by the school of all educational agencies of the community state and nation. 5. As a fifth function, the school is asked to supplement these agencies by accepting responsibility for those aspects of

child growth and development that are not adequately cared for by them. Thus on the whole, the school is required to conserve and recreate the cultural values and to prepare the child for various developmental tasks of his present as well as future life. Primary schools have been intended to promote the wholesome, all-round growth and development in children in the desirable directions. They are to perform the unique functions of enabling children to accomplish various development tasks 164 according to their maximum capacities. In achieving the objectives, learning experiences of the two major varieties are provided to the child, one dealing with individual living and another dealing with group living. The Central Advisory Council for Education, England (1966) have clearly analysed the role and functions of Primary Schools in contrast to family life and have lucidly spelt out the perspectives of living as the child different from the adult. They have stated: "The school sets out deliberately to devise the right environment for children, to allow them to be themselves and to develop in the way and the pace appropriate to them. It tries to equalise opportunities and to compensate for handicaps. It lays special stress on individual discovery, on first hand experience and on opportunities for creative work. It insists that knowledge does not fall into neatly separate compartments and that work and play are not opposite but complementary. A child brought up in such an atmosphere at all stages of his education has some hope of becoming a balanced and mature adult and of being able to live to contribute to and to look critically at the society of which he forms a part." As the Education Commission (1966) has envisaged, the objective of education in general is to relate it to the life, needs and aspirations of the people and to make it a major instrument of social change. It should be related to productivity, social justice and cultivation of moral and spiritual values. Although no specific objective of primary education were laid down by the Commission, it was expected that it should lay the foundation for a child to grow into a responsible and useful citizen of the country. The approach paper entitled "Curriculum for the Ten-Year School" (1975) framed by the NCERT Expert Committee in its Introduction observed that our school curriculum should reflect the aims and values as noted by the Education Commission. It further mentioned that primary education will be helpful to identify realistically the basic minimum to be achieved in respect of each and every child and leave enough scope for individual schools to go as far beyond this basic minimum as their circumstances permit. Since the objectives of education should be considered in the context of the social, intellectual, emotional and physical maturity levels appropriate to the age-group under consideration, the child's spontaneity, curiosity, creativity and activity should have free and flexible environment for expression and actualization. The two 165 objectives of primary education which are related to democracy as enunciated in the approach paper are as follows: I. The child should develop respect for national symbols like the flag and the anthem. It should be acquainted with the democratic processes and institutions of the country. II. The child should learn to cooperate with others and appreciate the usefulness of working together for the common good. Other desirable qualities of character and personality like initiative, leadership, kindness, and honesty should also be developed as well as understanding of its role as an individual in the home, the school and the neighbourhood. The latest document "Report of the Review Committee on the Curriculum for the Ten-Year School" (Iswar Bhai Patel Committee) 1977 has viewed objectives of education comprehensively as to "enable an individual to acquire knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and values necessary for successful performance of his responsibilities as citizen". It has practically reiterated the same objective of primary education as envisaged in the NCERT syllabus for ten-year curriculum. Besides acquisition of tools of formal learning namely literacy, numeracy, and manual skills, the objectives inter alia are: (i) acquisition of habits of cooperative behaviour within the family, school and community, and (ii) development of social responsibility by inculcating habits (individually as well as collectively) of appreciation of the culture and life styles of persons of other religions, regions and countries. All these objectives have boiled down to the conclusion that primary education aims at developing all-round personality of the child promoting expression of his innate qualities of head, heart and hand.

Thus from the above discussion, it is quite evident that the objectives of Primary Education are multi-dimensional and broad-based. Since Primary Education is the foundation of the entire superstructure of education, all the objectives aimed at the various levels of education are more or less reflected and epitomized in this. All aspects of the human personality are expected to be developed and nourished through all these objectives. The physical, mental, ethical, aesthetic and social development is the most fundamental objective of all and an individual has to get acquainted with and accustomed to local, regional, national as well as international relationship through primary education. The primary school provides him with the right environment for all these learning experiences and adopts the methods, media and materials that are suitable 166 to his capabilities. As the child is not to be made merely a cog in the social machinery, but a creative force, a capable citizen and a critical adult with his unique talents and latent potentialities, Primary Education cannot but be the springboard for developing all the necessary qualities and the fountain head of all the learning experiences for making the child a "balanced and mature adult." 167

19 Universalisation of Elementary Education INTRODUCTION "Universal education must precede universal enfranchisement" goes the saying, An educated and enlightened citizenry is an essential condition for success of democracy. In most of the developed countries, education is compulsory upto the secondary stage. But in the developing countries like India education upto elementary stage is considered very essential for every citizen. The Constitution of India therefore, laid down under the Directive Principles of State Policy, that "the State shall endeavour to provide within a period of 10 years from the commencement of this Constitution for the free and compulsory education of all children until they complete the age of 14 years". This implies that all children in the agegroup 6-14 should have been brought to schools by 1959. But this Constitutional commitment made 40 years ago has not been realised up to date. The target has not yet been reached and the goal of universalisation of elementary education has not been realised so far. The National Education Policy (NPE) 1986 expressed strong political will and deep commitment to the universalisation of elementary education. The Programme Of Action (POA) 1986 for implementing the NPE rightly observed, "NPE gives an unqualified priority to universalisation of elementary education (UEE). The thurst in elementary education emphasieses: (i) universal enrolment and universal retention of children upto 14 years of age, and (ii) a substantial improvement in the quality of education.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The earliest attempt for enforcing compulsory primary education was made by William Adam in 1838. Captain Wingate, the erstwhile 168 Revenue Survey Commissioner in Bombay proposed to introduce compulsory education after collecting a cess during 1852. The enactment of the Compulsory Education Act, 1970 created a strong consciousness for the need for compulsory primary education in India. A number of Indian Leaders demanded for universal primary education in the country. The Government of Bombay even appointed a Committee in 1906 to examine the feasibility of enforcing universal primary education, but the committee rejected the proposal. The Maharaja of Baroda, however, introduced compulsory primary education in a part of his state. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a reputed national leader and an important member of the Imperial Legislative Council introduced the first draft of law for compulsory education for the age-group 6-10. He pleaded that universal, free and compulsory education was essential for development of the country and that the Government should provide adequate funds for the purpose. Gokhale's bill was, however, opposed by all the officials and some of the non-officials. Although its defeated, it generated an awakening in the country for universal education. Under the British regime the first Act of Compulsory Education was passed in Bombay during 1918. Since it was moved by Vithalbhai Patel, it was also called Patel Act for the then Bombay Municipality. It was meant mainly for children in the age-group 6-11 in the rural areas. It authorised the Muncipality to levy cess and did not bind the Provincial Government to finance the scheme. This Act of Compulsory Primary Education was followed by similar Acts in Bengal,

Bihar, Orissa, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Madras and so on. During the period 1921-47 there was phenomenal progress in the legislation of compulsory education. By 1946-47 as many as 176 rural areas composing of 11,779 villages were brought under the compulsory Primary Education Act. Mahatma Gandhi moved the Resolution on Basic Education at Wardha Congress Conference in 1937 and appealed that a national policy be adopted for free and compulsory primary education for all children in the age-group 6-14. This provided a fillip to the movement for legislation of compulsory education in the country, but was of no satisfactory result mainly due to the then Government Policy of consolidation in place of expansion and resignation of popular ministries in the provinces. In 1944, the Post-war Plan of Education Development did visualise free and compulsory period of 40 years. After 1947 on attainment of Independence, the Universalisation of Elementary Education was emphasized not only by the Constitution Fathers, but also by all the leaders of the country. When India became 169 free, almost 85 percentage of our population was illiterate and about 31 percentage of children in the age-group 6-11 went to schools. The Five-Year Plans laid emphasis on provision of elementary education and there was unprecedented expansion of education for the children in the age-group 6-14.

THE PRESENT STATUS The POA has aptly mentioned, "Determined efforts have been made since independence towards the achievement of this goal. Between 1950-51 and 1984-85 the number of primary schools increased from approximately 2,10,000 to approximately 5,20,000 and the number of upper primary schools from 30,600 to 1,30,000. Even so an acceptably large number of habitations are still without primary schools and nearly one-third of the schools in rural areas have only one teacher. The emphasis so far has been on enrolment of children—approximately 50% children in 6-11 age-group and 50% children in 11-14 age group are enrolled in schools, the corresponding figure for girls being 77% and 36% respectively. However, nearly 60% children dropout between classes I-V and 75% between classes I-VIII. "(p. 9). Thus, inspite of enormous expansion of education at all stages, there has been quite inadequacy in provision of schools, retention of students and enrolment of children in the age-group of 6-14. (1) Disparities in Quantity and Quality The National Policy on Education, 1986 has very precisely and emphatically said one important thing among others. This is, "The new policy will lay special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to equalise educational opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have been denied equality". The disparities are between men, women, scheduled castes and non-scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and non-scheduled tribes, rural and urban areas advanced and backward states, between various regions in the same State. Such disparities have also increased and the most desired objective of equalisation of educational opportunity has been eluding the grasp. Quality of education has also gone down in proportion to its quantity. Hence, disparities may be considered from two perspective Quantity and Quality. 170 (2) Variations in Enrolment among States There is considerable variation in the enrolment figures at the elementary stage among the schools. In 1981-82 the states having enrolment of children in the age-group 6-14 lower than that of India as a whole were Orissa (47.0%), Madhya Pradesh, (52.1%), Rajasthan (52.4%), Assam (55.1%), Bihar (58.0%), Uttar Pradesh (50.9%), Andhra Pradesh (63.1%), West Bengal (64.0%) and Jammu and Kashmir (66.5%) while in the remaining 13 states the enrolment figures in respect to the identical age-group ranged from 69% to 100%. The average all-Indian enrolment figure of the children in the agegroup of 6-14 years was 68.5%. Azad (1985) has, therefore, rightly said, "In fact, the problem of universalisation of elementary education is essentiality that of educational backwardness of these nine states." The scenario will be made clear through analysis of the data for 6-14 age-groups separately. During 1981-82 the enrolment of children in the age-group 6-11 attending classes-I to V was lower in six states. These states were Assam (58.7%), Madhya Pradesh (59.9%), Bihar (75.8%) and Jammu and Kashmir (79.5%). The all Indian average was 83.7% in 1981-82. The remaining 16 states including Orissa and Andhra Pradesh had achieved the target or were approaching the target. However, the enrolment figure of students in the age-group 11-14 attending classes VI-VIII in 1981-82 was below the national average (41.9%) in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh.

(3) Variations within the States Educational disparities are evident not only between the states, but also within the states. Rather such disparities are more prominent within a state than among the states. For example, as per Third Educational Survey in Balasore District of Orissa, the enrolment figure was as high as 98.0% whereas in the Kalahandi district it was only 36% in the age-group 611. Similarly enrolment in the age-group 11-14 was 34% in Cuttack and 7% in Ganjam in Orissa. It may be marked in this connection that educational disparities are very severe within the rural areas in respect to enrolment figures. For instance, as per the 4th Educational Survey of Rajasthan in Kota district the percentage of children attending classes I-V (age group 6-11) was 69% and in the Nagpur district it was only 11%. Such disparities are also perceptible in the age-group 11-14 attending classes VI-VIII, viz, Ganganagur (41%) and Barmer (13%) in Rajasthan. 171 (4) Variation between Urban and Rural Areas Educational disparity is more acute in case of urban vis-a-vis rural areas. This is an indicator of the urban bias in our planning system and now poses a problem for the balanced educational planning. As regards enrolment of Primary children in the age-group 6-11, the rural figures are less than urban. Such disparity is very glaring in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, J & K, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan as per the Third Educational Survey. But as far as the enrolment at the middle stage (age-group of 11-14) is concerned, rural ratios are uniformly lower in all the nine educationally backward states in comparison to urban figures. This shows a higher weightage being given by these states an urban areas. (5) Variation between Boys and Girls Although during and even after the British period there were traditional disparities in respect to enrolment of boys and girls, as a result of several specific steps after Independence such disparities have been narrowed down to some extent. The proportion of girls attending primary and middle classes varies very widely among the backwards states particularly at the Primary stage in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh where enrolment of girls is below 50%. At the middle stage, enrolment ratios are the poorest being less than 20% in Bihar, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. However, in 13 states, Karnataka, Tripura, Sikkim, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Manipur, Assam, Meghalaya, Tamilnadu, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Kerala and Nagaland, enorlment ratios are above the national average (19.1%). The states like M.P., Orissa, West Bengal, J. & K., and Haryana have occupied the position in between as regards enrolment figures at the middle states. The states with the numbers of non-attending girls in the age-group 6-14 above national (66.0%), Uttar Pradesh (63.8%), Jammu & Kashmir (56.7%), Haryana (56.2%), Assam (50.1%), Andhra Pradesh (50.0%) and Orissa (49.6%). (6) Variation among SC, ST and General The Article 46 of the Constitution of India requires the States to take special measures for the educational and economic development of the weaker sections, especially the Scheduled Castes and Tribes. The educational backwardness of these sections constitute that of the States in general. Although during the period from 1967-68 to 1981-82, the 172 annual growth rate of enrolment of S.C. children was much faster (4.0%) than that of all communities (1.01), the expansion of education is still unsatisfactory. The states having high concentration of SC population how great disparity in education between SC and General population. Particularly, the enrolment of SC children in the age-group 6-11 is lagging behind in 7 states like Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Haryana, Rajasthan, Orissa, Bihar and Karnataka. The enrolment of SC children in the age-group 11-14 is lagging behind in 8 States namely, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Taking both primary and middle stages together in the age-group of 6-14 the states recording significant disparities between SC and General population are Haryana, Karnataka, Bihar, West Bengal, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Similarly, the enrolment of ST children was faster (4.6%) than that of children of all communities (less than 1%) during the period from 1967-68 to 1981-82. But there is vide variation still persisting between the two to the disadvantage of SC children. It is found that majority of tribal population is concentrated in the Eastern, Central and Western parts of the country and about 25% of tribal population are in Southern part of India in all pockets.

The States having great concentration of tribal population show significant variation between General and ST in respect to their enrolment. The five States, having greater variations in enrolment of children in the age-group 6-11 between General and ST are West Bengal, Tripura, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa. The States that are lagging behind in the education of ST at middle stage age-group (11-14) are M.P., Gujarat, Tripura, West Bengal and Orissa. Taking both Stages of Primary and middle together the states showing significant disparity in enrolment between General and ST population are West Bengal, Tripura, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and Gujarat. According to the Fourth All-India Educational Survey (1978) about 93% of the rural population has been provided with facility of primary education either in the habitation or within walking distances of 1 Km., and approximately 92% of the rural population with that of middle education either in hahitation or within a distance of 5 Kms. The children enrolled in the age-group of 6-14 rose from 32.0% in 1950-51 to 68.5% in 1981-82. During the period 1950-80 enrolment of girls increased at the rate of 6.1% per annum and that of boys was marked with a growth rate of 173 43% per annum. On the whole, girls enrolment has grown from 17% in the 1950-51 to 37% in 1980-81. The enrolment of children belonging to SC and ST has also registered similar growth. Inspite of all these developments in enrolment of children in various segments of the society, progress is not upto satisfaction and target is not yet reached. Rather educational disparities have been found glaring. The nine educationally backward states, namely, Orissa, MP, Rajasthan, Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, A.P., W.B. and J & K have lagged behind the national target (69.8%) in regard to enrolment of children in the age-group 6-14. The enrollment in these states also varies from 47% in Orissa to 66.4% in Jammu & Kashmir. On the other hand, among the remaining eleven states the enrolment figures ranges from 73.5% in Karnataka to 133.3% in Nagaland. Educational disparities are equally wider within the States than among the states. The inter-district disparity is very significant, the imbalance between rural and urban areas is extremely acute. In all these nine educationally backward states enrolment of children in rural areas is lower than in urban areas. Girls enrolment is lower in most of these states than the percentage of non-attending girls which varies from 75.6% in Rajasthan to 49.6% in Orissa. Disparities are also more conspicuous in case of enrolment of S.C. and ST children. The variation between the enrolment of children of general population and that of SC population ranges from 39.9% in Haryana to 22.9% in Uttar Pradesh. The variation between the enrolment of children of general population and that of S.T. population also ranges from 52.5% in W.B. to 29.9% in Gujarat. Unless drastic steps are taken to remove these disparities existing in various sections of the population and areas, equality of educational opportunity will continue to be denied to a great segment of our people. These imbalances also actually pose as barriers in the context of universalisation of elementary education. The National Policy on Education, 1986 has, therefore, aptly observed, "Education in India stands at the cross-roads today. Neither normal linear expansion nor the existing pace and nature of improvement can meet the needs of the situation."

STRATEGIES AND APPROACHES With a view to promoting enrolment in all sections of the society and realising, on the whole, the Constitutional Directive of Universally and free elementary education, effective steps should be taken more 174 extensively in providing suitable incentive measures for removing all kinds of disparities as discussed above. Some of the important strategies adopted so far and to be adopted during these years for reaching the target are discussed as follows: (1) Universal Provision of Facilities The first step in the direction of universalising elementary education is to provide facilities for both primary classes (Class I-V and middle school education home of every child. For instance, Orissa among all the states has pursued this principle in locating new primary schools, but as per findings of the Third Survey our achivement was below the national level. The percentage of rural people served with primary education facilities within a distance of 1.5 km. was only 92.61 against the all-India corresponding figure, for middle state was 68.02 per cent against the national level 72.00 percent within 3 kms which was regarded as walking distance for the stage. If one kilometer is regarded as "easy walking distance" for primary school children, according to the Fourth Educational Survey (1978-79) as many as 53,096 (81.89%) habitutations covering a population of 21,192,954 (93.95%) are served with primary school facilities.

At the all-India level 1,90,000 habitations were without schooling facilities. Although a large number of schools have been established, in the meantime the number of habitations without schools has not been reduced a great extent. According to POA (1986), "All the State Governments will ensure that all habitations with a population of 300 (200 in case of tribal, hilly and desert areas) will be provided a primary school within the 7th Plan. Efforts will also be made on the lines of Mobile Creches, to set up special schools for specific duration for building and construction workers and other categories of people who shift their residence." The Working Group on Universalisation of Elementary in its interim report observed that in opening new institutions, the general policy adopted is to open them first in bigger villages without schools and gradually take up the smaller villages. But it adversely affects the tribal areas where population is generally small. It has therefore, been suggested that schools required for tribal areas should be given priority in opening new institutions. It was further suggested that adequate provision should be made for the establishment of Ashram Schools to meet the needs of tribal children in very sparsely populated areas. The POA (1986) has pointed out that detailed school mapping exercises should be initiated 175 forthwith and completed by the end of 1987-88, in order to prepare a Master Plan of Universal Provision of Facilities for E.E.. All India Organisations like NIEPA and NCERT has already initiated some exercises in this regard. The main objective of school-mapping would be to ensure that every habitation which can potentially have 50 children in the primary school should be provided with an upper primary school opened on primary school catchment basis. For persons belonging to SC/ST and other deprived sections residential schools and hostels will be provided on much larger scale. The programme of Ashram Schools would also be improved and enlarged. Effort would be made towards creation of an inexpensive system of hostels, using the school building and providing a kitchen room where local villagers would be engaged on part-time basis to assist with cooking and supervision. Possibility of providing free foodgrains to the students in those hostels out of the accumulated stocks in the country would be explored. In our attempt to set up primary schools in the sparsely populated areas, instead of reducing the number of single teachers we are rather increasing the same. But in our existing situations it is inevitable and adequate steps need be taken for augmenting their resources and improving their conditions. Of course in implementing the programme of universal elementary education, a good number of single teacher schools will have additional teachers because of expansion, particularly due to special importance given under the scheme "Operation Blackboard" in NPE, 1986. (2) Universal Enrolment and Retention The programme of universal elementary education aims at bringing every child into school and to see that he or she remains at school till he or she completes the elementary education on age 14. But previously we insisted on single-point entry in Class-I as result of which during enrolment. Drives more children are brought in and only a few continue to acquire an effective literacy. Further result is that every class is extremely hitherto generous and consists of children of all ages. For example, taking classes I to V as a whole more than 22 per cent of the enrolment is of children below the age of six or above the age of eleven. Such under-age and overage of learners put strain on good education. The Working Group of Universalisation of Elementary Education in its Interim Report (1978) has rightly said, "At present our motto is either full-time education or no education at all. This does not suit the hard realities of life because most children (about 70% of the total) 176 have to work in or outside the family and are, therefore, compelled to drop out on the ground that they can not attend on a whole-time basis." It is, therefore, desirable that they should get part-time education, therefore, recommended a new motto "every child shall continue to learn in the age-group 6-14, on a full-time basis, if possible, and on a part-time basis, necessary". In other words, there will not be any dropout and child can pursue whole time or part-time education according to his convenience. The Report of the Review Committee on Curriculum for 10 year school or Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee (1977) also recommended for reducing formal instruction to minimum of 2 1/2 to 3 hours for children in classes I-IV/V. But it is felt that as a first step the instructional hours in classes I-III should be reduced to 3 hours a day. The POA (1986) mentioned, "According to the Expert Committee on Population Projections, set up by the Planning Commission, the estimated population in 6-11 age-group in 1989-90 will be about 9.61 crores. The present population estimate for this age-group can be taken as 9.00 crores. Against this the enrolment figures for 1984-85 are 8.54 crores, the gross enrolment ratio for boys and girls being 110 and 74. However, nearly 22% of the enrolled are outside 6-11 agegroup mostly overage. The first aspect of the new programme of universalisation is that for some years to come we should

have no objection so long as children complete 5 years of education, or its equivalent through the non-formal stream, by the time they complete about 14 years of age." It has also been rightly observed that enrolment by itself is of little importance if children do not continue education beyond even one year, many of them not seeing the school for more than a few days. Emphasis would, therefore, now shift from enrolment to retention and completion by all children of at least 5 years of education. Enrolment drives would be replaced by systematic house-to-house survey in which the teachers, in cooperation with the village community would discuss with the parents the importance of schooling and regularity of attendance, attend non-formal educational centres, but it should be ensured that every child in every family receives instruction. All children should, therefore, regularly attend school or non-formal education centres. Elementary education should be really child-centred by making it a joyful, inventive and satisfying learning activity, rather than a system of rote, cheerless and authoritarian instruction, curricular and cocurricular programmes should be made interesting and meaningful. Corporal punishment should be banned by all means. Non-detention Policy would be effectively implemented upto class-VIII, while also ensuring that the 177 minimum learning competencies are reached. A comprehensive system of incentives and support services should be provided for all girls and children of the economically weaker sections of the community. The following items have special relevance to the new strategy of emphasis on retention. (a) Establishment of day-care centres for pre-school children and infants as part of strengthening of ICDS, provision of adequate support to the ongoing programmes any by establishment of network of new centres; (b) Provision to the girls of all families below the poverty line two sets of free uniforms free text-books and stationery, and attendance incentives; and (c) Free transportation in State Roadways buses to children attending elementary schools. Besides, a comprehensive system of rewards and recognition will be created for individuals and institutions who contribute in a significant manner to retention of children in primary schools/NPE Centres. These rewards may be given to the villages, schools and NFE centres which should serve as motivation. The Operation Blackboard (OB) has been proposed to ensure provision of minimum essential facilities in primary schools —materials facilities as well as learning equipment. Use of the work, "Operation implies that there is an urgency in this programme, that goals are clear and well-defined and that Government and the people are determined to achieve those goals within a pre-determined time frame". OB envisages: (i) two reasonably large rooms that are useable in all weather, (ii) necessary toys and games materials, (iii) blackboards, (iv) maps, (v) charts, and (vi) other learning materials. The programme of quality improvement must include provision of at least one more teacher in the large number of singleteacher schools. This will be emphasized during the 7th Plan and a detailed Plan of action would be prepared for providing one teacher for class during the 8th Plan. Every effort would be made to ensure that one of the two teachers in every school is a woman. Special training and opportunities should be provided for male teachers in remote rural areas. (3) Equalisation of Education As a corollary to the previous strategy, all kinds of attempts are being made for removing wide disparities as existing at present among 178 individuals, castes, areas and so on. It has already been discussed mass poverty is the great hurdle in bringing all children of the target group to schools. Unless various incentive measures are taken for the backward and under-privileged classes in order to get over their economic difficulties, many children will not be able to enrol themselves and attend classes regularly. Therefore, a number of scholarships has been introduced, free reading and writing materials are being supplied, uniforms are being provided freely, midday meals are being given to the children of weaker sections. Similar progressive steps need be taken for attracting the girls and boys of the deprived communities to schools and enabling them to continue their studies at least upto their age 14 or class VIII. This is extremely essential for universalisation of elementary education. (4) Improving Curriculum Relevance and Interest

One of the important reasons for massive wastage and stagnation is that curriculum followed in our primary schools is not relevant and attractive to our children particularly to those from rural and tribal areas. The Kothari Commission says therefore that education should be related to the life, needs and aspirations of the people and curriculum should be dynamic as well as flexible suiting to the children with diverse cultural, social and economic back. The house conditions and school atmosphere should have significant relevance. This would facilitate the child's transition from home to school. There should be adequate community participation in school organisation. The subjects of teaching and curricular as cocurricular programmes and practices should be meaningful and interesting to the students, so that they would like to continue in the schools and profit from them through learning and enjoyment work education should find an important place in the school curriculum and as the Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee (1977) has suggested, "there is need for more creative and joyful activities than formal instruction". (5) Adopting Suitable Methods, Media and Materials With a view to making elementary, education meaningful, interesting and effective, suitable methods and media should be adopted. Lively and learning materials, dynamic methods of teaching. Inexpensive audiovisual aids and appropriate learning materials would make education effective and appealing to children, particularly tribal and rural children, most of whom are first generation learners, introduction of socially 179 useful productive work, social service activities as integral parts of education, play-way methods, in lower classed and provision and use of low cost materials and equipments are necessary for attracting children to schools and enabling them took benefit from schooling. (6) Improving Teachers Training and Supervision Since teachers are the key-persons in bringing desirable innovations into classroom and making education effective and useful, they have to be trained and oriented in the modern concepts of school organisations, new methods of teaching, preparation and use of audio-visual aids, trying out action research studies carrying our experiments and maintaining better school-community relations. Although in our teacher-training schools and colleges, a good number of modern features and topics have been introduced, both the teachers trained as well as teacher-educators are not involved or committed to them and are taking up them half-heartedly or ritually, without understanding their need and importance. Similarly, attempts are being made to strengthen and orient supervision but in practice desirable change in attitude and understanding is still lacking. This is imperative for universalisation of education. (7) Bringing about Adequate Awareness and Interest The Programme of Universalisation cannot succeed without necessary social consciousness and enlightenment as well as awakening among the guardians and parents of children. Unless they are made to realise the importance of education for all irrespective of sex, class, religion and economic conditions, elementary education cannot be a fact, but a fiction. Mass media like radio, television, films, slides, newspapers, journals and books should be properly used to mobilise public opinion on the need of education. Parent-teacher associations should also be formed to contribute their mite to the growth of awareness and better relations, School Committees should be activated and convinced of their duties and responsibilities towards their schools. (8) Developing Alternative Channels It is found that the traditional system of elementary education cannot be able to cope up with the rising number of nonenrolled children as well as drop-outs in the age-groups 6-14. Children of the weaker sections in the tribal belts, urban slums and other economically backward rural areas share the family maintenance in a number of ways. Similarly, girls 180 help the family, particularly mothers in house-hold affairs and so on. If suitable part-time and whole-time schooling facilities are provided according to their convenience then they could be made literate and get elementary education in some way or other. Hence, non-formal education with flexibility in timing, curricluar programmes and other organisational matters would contributes immensely towards universalisation of elementary education. Lastly, it may be concluded that educational planners and administrators should provide both formal and non-formal systems of education with adequate understanding, insight and social, psychological, economic and political. The teachers and supervisors in charge of such programmes should work with sympathy, fellow-feeling and commitment to the values

of socialism, secularism and democracy.

NFE FOR UEE Non-formal Education (NFE) is essential for Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE). As discussed earlier, the formal system of education cannot cope up the increasing demands of elemeatary education for universalisation. Alternatives have therefore been developed in the form of NFE, Distance Education, Correspondence courses, Open Universities etc. Besides, provision of schooling facility enrolment and retention of students in the age-group 6-14 in the formal sector, it is felt imperative to bring the drop-outs, out-of school children and other deprived sections of the society to the fold of NFE. The NFE (1986) has aptly suggested, "The New Education Policy will give the highest priority to solving the problem of children droppingout of school and will adopt an array of meticulously formulated strategies based on micro-planning, and applied at the grass-roots level all over the country, to ensure children's retention at schools. This effort will be fully coordinated with the network of non-formal education. It shall be ensured that all children who attain the age of about 11 years by 1990 will have five years of schooling, or 1995 all children will be provided free and compulsory education upto 14 years of age." It is also assumed that NFE can result in provision of education comparable in quality with formal schooling. The POA (1986) has pointed out, "Modern technological tools—such as solar packs for provision of power in NFE Centres, audiovisual aids, radio cassette player will be used to improve the learning environment of NFE Centres, and learning materials of high quality will be developed taking into 181 which their education should be built. The essential characteristic of NFE are organisational flexibility, relevance of curriculum diversity in learning activities to relate them to the learners' needs, and decentralisation of management. Efforts will be made to evolve different models of non-formal education programmes and agencies implementing the programme will be encouraged to evolve and adopt the most suitable model depending upon the requirements of target groups. Besides, the above characteristics, the NFE will have the following features which will help in maintenance of quality of the programme: (a) a learner-centred approach with instruction as a facilitator; (b) emphasis on learning rather than teaching, and for this purpose the capability of the children to learn from each other would be highlighted; (c) organisation of activities so as to enable learners to progress at their own pace; (d) use of efficient techniques to ensure fast pace of learning, adequate lighting facilities and necessary equipment; (e) stress on continuous learning evaluation and certification; (f) scholastic achievements following the norms set in the formal system; (g) creation of participatory learning environment; (h) organisation of joyful extra-curricular activities including singing, dancing, plays, games, sports, etc.; and (i) ensuring all facilities and incentives given to girls, children of SC/ST and others in the formal system in the non-formal system also.

EVALUATION AND MONITORING With a view to evaluating the efficacy of the new strategies and the progress of UFE the present system of evaluation and monitoring is not felt adequate. Therefore, new evaluation and monitoring system are to be developed and utilised with the following features: (a) The greatest attention would be paid to creating a scientific system of evaluation of learners which would serve both as the basis for improvement of the academic programmes and as the measure of the overall quality of elementary education system. (b) Since the local community is mainly responsible for the elementary schools and NFE programmes, it should also be entrusted with monitoring and modifying these programmes.

182 (c) As the teachers/NFE instructors need be involved in the planning and implementing of UEE, they will also be involved in concurrent and participatory evaluation. (d) The emphasis in the monitoring system will shift from collection of information on enrolment to retention of children, regularity of attendance and levels of achievement. (e) The District Board of Education will be mainly responsible not only for implementation of the O.B., but also for monitoring and evaluation. (f) DIET will extend its assistance to all the above agencies in effective monitoring and evaluation. (g) The evaluation would be built into the NFE programme as an integral part and the instructors and supervisors would undertake these exercises on a continuing basis. (h) The State Advisory Boards of Education and CABE would set up separate committees to review the progress of UEE and should take the help of SCERT, NCERT, NIEPA and other agencies of education and social science research.

CONCLUSION Universalisation of Elementary Education should be regarded as a national drive involving and associating all concerned agencies and functionaries in the process of planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluation. Teachers committed and dedicated to the cause of education are indispensable for success of the UEE. They are required to play a vital role in indentifying children of the school-going age and persuading them to enter into the portals of either formal or non-formal channels of education. For the purpose, they may be called upon to approach and convince the community, its influential members and parents. Thy should provide their academic and professional comptencies for the effectiveness of both formal and non-formal modes of education. Teachers should develop a zeal, a love for learning and an aspiration of development in their students. They should acquire and utilise the formal and non-formal strategies of education at the elementary stage and help all children coming from either formal or non-formal streams in making up the deficiencies and accelerating their pace of learning in curricular as well as cocurricular activities. The UEE would be a great success and the Constitutional Directive in this connection could be a reality, not a dream. 183

20 Equalisation of Educational Opportunities 1. INTRODUCTION: MEANING AND IMPLICATIONS The Art. 26 (I) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights endows everybody of the world with the right to education. Education is his fundamental right irrespective of caste, creed, colour, race, location and socio-economic status. The desire of more and more people to get more and more education has its origin in the capacity of education to enable people to move up and up on the socio-economic ladder. Man has been aspiring for more and better education in order to earn more and improve his social status. It is the key to "the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and free development of his personality" (Art. 22). Modern democracy says that all individuals are equal and have equal claims to these rights. Equality of educational opportunity is closely related to the economic development of the individual as well as the country. More expansion of educational opportunities cannot bring about adequate economic progress unless these are equitably distributed throughout the society. Inequality of educational opportunity is the main barrier to economic advancement. Equality of educational opportunity is essential for improving the human resources and accelerating the pace of national development. One of the important objectives of educational planning is therefore to equalise educational opportunity among the people irrespective of caste, creed, colour and socio-economic status. The society which is ridden with various kinds of disparities and distractions, social, economic, religious and so on, is to be cleared of all its barriers for achieving this objective. With a view to promoting all-round and balanced development of education and utilising it as lever for upliftment of the under-privileged 184 sections of the society, realisation of this objective has been emphasized and continual, if not consistent efforts have been

made in this direction. This will enable each and everybody in the country to improve his/her capacity to the optimum and ensure building of an egalitarian society based on liberty, equality and justice.

2. THE BACKGROUND The Indian society, particularly the Hindu society has been suffering from a large number of inequalities and differences based on caste, creed and social stratifications. It is felt that unless an egalitarian society is reorganised, the desired national unity, integrity and solidarity cannot be brought about in the country. The British rulers set up the educational system in order to suit and manage their own colonial and imperialistic designs. They, however, tried to introduce equality in the system by giving to all citizens open access to educational institutions supported 6y public funds. Every child irrespective of caste, creed, sex or socio-economic status was allowed the right to get education by seeking admission to any school financed by the Government. The British administrators also promoted equality by giving opportunity even to the people of the lower strata of the society for seeking suitable jobs in the Government. Thus, education helped vertical social mobility and for getting better social and economic status for the people of lower classes who were being neglected and doomed to be "untouchables." On the other hand, J.P. Naik has rightly observed that these positive contributions of the British administrators were more than counterbalanced by their emphasis on the education of the upper classes or on the downward filtration theory by their neglect of the education of the poor people who formed the large majority, by their policy of neutrality in social reforms by the establishment of private independent schools for the well-to-do, and on the whole, by setting up an inegalitarian structure of the formal educational system. These steps of the British administrators in fact did not enable the children from the poor families to get educated and rather helped creating new classes favourable to the new economic and political order in place of traditional feudal system. Thus, the British rule could not succeed to remove class barriers and provide an egalitarian system of education. After 1921 the Indian leadership assumed control of education and took active measures for introducing equality in education, during that period the concept of equality of educational opportunity was getting 185 popular. The Indian Leaders were not satisfied only with the verbal symbol 'equality" by recognising the citizen's right to education, but they provided financial support to students of poor families. They also tried to provide educational facilities at the elementary and secondary level on the basis of free access to all without distinction of caste, creed and socioeconomic status. After the attainment of Independence in 1947, India has been committed to establishment an egalitarian society through economic and political action. The principles of liberty, equality and fraternity were at first reflected in the Gandhiji's reconstruction programmes and then in the Constitution of India. The preamble to the Constitution bears the bright testimony of the nation's solemn promise to secure social, economic and political justice and equality as well as opportunity for all. The Constitution guaranteed equality before law (Art. 14), equality of opportunity in matters of public employment (Art. 16), abolition of untouchability (Art. 17), removal of discrimination on grounds of caste, creed, sex, race or place of birth (Art. 15), prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour (Art. 23), giving special facilities to the worker sections of the community (Art. 46) a minimum living wage, full employment and social as well as cultural opportunity to all workers (Art. 43) and promotion of welfare of the people (Art. 38) in general. In implementing these Constitutional provision, the nation has been able to achieve certain result. The introduction of the universal adult franchise, abolition of Zamindari and princely order along with their special privileges, enactment of untouchability through legislation and other reforms have been some of these egalitarian steps. The enactment of large number of agrarian and industrial laws has promoted the process of equalisation in the economic field. A number of measures for nationalisation of important industries and commercial firms, for control of the private sector, for reduction of the concentration of economic power, for redistribution of land, for abolition of intermediates and for ensuring social security in general has helped in building an egalitarian society. The results achieved through these actions are not at all satisfactory. A large majority of our people are still living below the poverty line and a new class structure of peasants business magnates, industrialists and high salaried public servants has been developed in lieu of old feudal system. Certain evils like black money, tax evasion, corruption, nepotism have raised their ugly heads. Most of the benefits of the aforesaid social security measures have gone to the upper and middle class people and 186 not percolated to the teaming millions of the lower strata. Thus, the privileged few are still the main beneficiaries of the

planning processes, and the poor people are getting only some marginal benefits. These situations are prevailing and influencing the educational scene to a great extent.

3. DIAGNOSIS OF INEQUALITIES According to the Kothari Commission the inequalities of educational opportunities are mainly due to: (i) imbalanced distribution of educational institutions, (ii) mass poverty, (iii) varying standards of schools and colleges, (iv) difference in home environments, and (v) disparity in sex and class structure. Besides, inequalities of educational opportunity also arise due to physical and mental handicaps of the people. These factors may be briefly discussed as follows: In places where educational institutions do not exist at all, children cannot have the same opportunity as those who have these faculties in the neighbourhood. Due to deficient planning at present there are glaring imbalances of educational development in different parts of the country. Another cause of inequality is the mass poverty of the one hand and minority affluence on the other. Even in the same locality, children from poor families do not have the same chance as those who came from richer ones. Disparity in the standards of educational institutions also create inequality of educational opportunity. This is more evident when admission to higher institutions and selection to any public service or training are made on the basis of marks secured at the end of the secondary stage. Because these marks do not at all provide a common yard-stick for a student from rural area who attends an ill-equipped school. Similarly, differences in home environments lead to gross inequalities in education. A child from a rural household or an urban slum having illiterate parents does not have the same opportunity which is enjoyed by children from an upper class family with highly educated parents. Another situation peculiar to India is the wide disparity existing in the education of boys and girls, high caste and low caste children at all stages and in all sectors of education.

4. IN QUEST OF EQUALITY An egalitarian society only can ensure success of democracy. The inequalities as mentioned in the preceding paragraphs stand on the way of creating a society based on democratic values and social justice. It 187 has been aptly remarked by the Kothari Commission. "On grounds of social justice as well as for the furtherance of democracy, it is essential to make special efforts to equalise educational opportunities between these groups." Although perfect equalisation is not easily attainable particularly in the context of educational opportunity, we should make earnest efforts to remove the causes of such inequality as far as possible. Especially in a good educational system adequate measures should be taken for providing equal opportunities to all citizens irrespective of caste, creed, sex and socioeconomic status. The barriers to equality have to be eliminated or reduced to the minimum by taking some active steps like wide distribution of educational institutions consistent with economy and efficiency by instituting an adequate system of scholarships, by providing suitable hostel facilities, by making necessary transport arrangements, by providing needed ancillary service like mid-day meals, uniforms, books, stationeries at the concessional price etc. and so on. Otherwise many children will be deprived of equal opportunity to education and the system will be quite inequalitarian. Besides these socio-economic factors, there are a number of natural physic mental conditions under which thousand of our children suffer from disadvantages for having their education. Those children are called handicapped and for them education has to be provided adequately not merely on humanitarian grounds, but also on grounds of their democratic rights and social security as well as justice. It is found that suitable education can enable them to get rid of the barriers and make them into useful citizens. The universal elementary education as per Constitutional Directive cannot be realized without organizing suitable education for these handicapped children. We can learn much from educational advanced countries which have developed new methods, techniques, media and materials for them. According to the Kothari Commission the primary task of education for a handicapped child is to prepare him for adjustment to a socio-cultural environment designed to meet needs of the normal. It is essential, therefore, that the education of handicapped children should be an inseparable part of the general educational system. The differences lie in the methods employed to teach the child and the means the child us to acquire information. These differences in methodology do not influences the content or the goals of education. This form of education, is therefore, conveniently called as "special education." As the Commission has observed "determination of the size of the handicapped 188 population has eluded educator, planners and social workers not only in this country," but also in many advanced countries. From the available statistics, however, it is estimated that the total population of the blind, the deaf, the

orthopaedically handicapped and the mentally retarded is about 2.5 million in our country Existing educational facilities for such a high number of handicapped persons are quite inadequate. The progress in providing educational facilities to handicapped children has suffered mainly from financial constraints and properly trained teachers. A reasonable target was fixed by the Kothari Commission for providing educational facilities for about 10% of the total number of handicapped children by 1986. But this could be reached through implementing two programmes: (i) special, and (ii) integrated. In the special programmes the handicapped children should be isolated from the normal ones and provided with the special education according to their specific needs and conditions. In the integrated programmes the handicapped children should be taught along with the normal ones with special attention and facilities. The programmes could be implemented successfully if teachers in charge of the handicapped children either with or without normal ones, would be given separate training and research institutions should be set up in the country adequately and the existing ones be strengthened. It is also necessary to coordinate the efforts of different agencies working in the field both at the national and state levels. A number of experimental projects are being tried out throughout our country under the auspices of the Government of India with support from UNESCO, UNICEF and other international agencies. The NCERT have been implementing these programmes through various state organisations and private agencies like SCERT, STEs, Social Welfare Board, etc. Most of these programmes are intended to eliminate the inequalities in the educational opportunity. They are, for example, Integrated Child Care Services, Comprehensive Access to Primary Education, School Readiness. Pre-school Centres which provide special educational facilities to the socially deprived children, adequate nutrition and health services and preschool experience of the children in the backward areas. Because of the financial restraints, the programmes are not limited to most under-privileged groups in urban slums, tribal areas and remote rural areas. Inspite of all these attempts, however, our targets of universalisation of elementary education are always eluding our grasp and even after 42 years of the promulgation of the Constitution this goal which should 189 have been achieved within 10 years has not only yet been reached, but also is far way from its realisation. Therefore, the author in a study, has come to the conclusion 1988. "Since mass poverty and mass ignorance are the great hurdles in the direction of universalisation of primary education, provision of schooling facilities should be made universal, the course content more relevant materials and methods appealing and incentive measures adequate." It also needs a strong political will and commitment on the part of the nation to realise this Constitutional Directive. Our educational system is still not egalitarian and broadbased. It has not yet embraced a large section of the population who live below the poverty line. Although a large number of children drop into the system, they also drop out of it sooner or later. The benefits of existing educational system go mostly to the people of higher and middle strata of privileges. The people of lower strata are still illiterate and only some marginal benefits of our education reach them. The educational system should, therefore, be based on democratic values and social justice. It must provide for equality of opportunity in order to make education universal and relevant to the life, needs and aspirations of the people.

5. NPE, 1968 AND EFFORTS OF GOVERNMENT The National Policy on Education, 1968 is a great land-mark in the history of providing equal educational opportunity in the country. Declaring the policy, the Government promised to make strenuous efforts for equalising educational opportunity, particularly in the following lines: (1) Regional imbalance in the provision of educational facilities should be removed and good educational facilities should be provided in rural and other backward areas. (2) The common school system as recommended by the Kothari Commission should be adopted for promoting social cohesion and national integration. Efforts should be made to improve the standard of education in general schools and facilitate admission of students on merit basis providing adequate free studentship in order to prevent social segregation. (3) The education of girls should be emphasized not only for ensuring social justice but also for accelerating social transformation. (4) More intensive efforts are required to develop education among the backward classes, especially among the tribal people. 190

(5) Educational facilities for the physically and mentally handicapped children should be expanded and actions should be taken for developing integrated programmes in order to enable the handicapped children studying in regular schools. Equalisation of educational opportunity has been one of the major objectives of successive Five Year Plans and considerable progress has been achieved through various programmes and projects at various stages of education. Special emphasis has been laid on the following: (i) Expansion of primary and adult education facilities, (ii) Provision of incentives for helping the enrolment and retention of the weaker sections of the society, (iii) Provision of freeships, scholarships and remedial coaching for the disadvantaged group like SC, ST, nomadic, seminomadic and low-income group students. (iv) Providing residential schools for the scheduled tribes, (v) Improving schools in rural and urban slum areas, (vi) Promoting expansion of girls' education by special measures like employment of women teachers, grant of free textbooks and writing materials, free uniforms, mid-day meals, etc. (vii) Reservation of seats for SC and ST students in professional institutions, (viii) Provision of scholarships for students of weaker sections of the society to enable them to complete university education and to pursue studies abroad, (ix) Expanding educational facilities for the handicapped children by instituting special schools and special scholarships, imparting vocational training through special media as well as methods. (x) Granting special aids to the backward classes in order to eradicating regional disparities.

6. NPE 1986 AND THE NATIONAL COMMITMENT The National Policy on Education, 1986 has not only reiterated the efforts already made over the years, but also suggested some new measures to be taken for equalising educational opportunity. It has succinctly said, "The new policy will lay special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to equalise educational opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have been denied equality so far (p. 6)." It has been strongly stated in the NPE that education would be used as an agent of basic change in the status of women. It would not only 191 neutralise the accumulated distortions of the past, but also play an interventionist role in the empowerment of women. It would foster the development of new values through redesigning curricula, textbooks training and orientation of teachers, planners and administrators. Through social engineering womens' studies would be promoted to further their development. With a view to removing all the obstacles inhibiting their access, retention and participating special supporting services, effective monitoring and non-discriminatory actions in vocational, professional, and emergent technological fields would be given more emphasis. For promoting equalisation of educational opportunities among scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students, the NPE 1986 has promised or providing special incentives like scholarships, remedial courses, new curricular innovattive methods as well as media and suitable learning materials, etc. The NPE has also added "Suitable incentives will be provided to all educationally backward sections of society, particularly in the rural areas, hilly and desert districts, remote and inaccessible areas and islands will be provided adequate institutional infrastructure." Greater attention would be paid to the education of minorities in the interest of equality and social justice by providing special textbooks and other facilities. With a view to integrating the physically and mentally handicapped with general community as equal partners preparing them for normal growth and enabling them to face life with courage and confidence the Policy has enunciated that establishment of special schools and hostels at district headquarters for severely handicapped children, integration of teaching handicapped with other students, arrangement of vocational training to the disabled, orientation of teachers' training for effectively handling problems of handicapped children, and encouragement to voluntary efforts for education of the disabled would be given more importance.

The NPE, 1986 has laid down, "The whole nation must pledge itself to the eradication of illiteracy, particularly in the 1535 age-group. The Central and State Governments, political parties and their mass organisations, the mass media and educational institutions must commit themselves to mass literacy programmes of diverse nature. It will also have to involve on a large scale teachers, students, youth, voluntary agencies, employers, etc. Concerted efforts will be made to harness various research agencies to improve the pedagogical aspects of adult literacy." The mass literacy programmes would aim at improving functional knowledge and skills through various media, methods and materials. 192 The innovative projects like the Navoday Vidyalays have been suggested and vigorously now implemented throughout the country for promoting the objective of equalisation of educational opportunities. They would facilitate the growth of talents from all sections of the society particuarly in rural areas and encourage excellence in scientific, technological, cultural and aesthetic endeavours for bringing about the national progress and prosperity as a whole.

7. CONCLUSION: REVISED NPE Inspite of all attempts made by the Government, equalisation of educational opportunity has faced a lot of bottlenecks and the realisation of this cherished national goal has been very slow. The incentive measures are to be properly implemented, the administrative structure has to be strengthened and oriented to the spirit and ideals, various media, methods, and materials are to be developed to suit to the special needs and conditions of deprived and handicapped people and different systems or modes of education should be properly streamlined in order to equalise educational opportunities in true sense of the term. Otherwise this most desired objective would always elude the grasp and would betray the lofty ideals of the Constitution Fathers. Equalisation of educational opportunity is essential for ensuring national upliftment, national integration and national commitment to social justice.

REFERENCES Ghosh, S.C. Ed. Educational Strategies in Developing Countries, Sterling Publishers, Pvt., Ltd, New Delhi, 1976. Govt. of India, The Constitution of India, Manager of Publication, New Delhi, 1955. Govt. of India, National Policy on Education, MHRD, New Delhi, 1986. Govt. of India, The Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, Ministry of Education, Manager of Publications, New Delhi, 1966. Mohanty, J., Education in India, and Impact of Democracy, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1986. Mohanty, J., Teacher and Education in the Emerging Indian Society, Takshashila, Cuttack, 1993. Mohanty, J., Foundation of Education, Takshashila, Cuttack, 1994. Mohanly, J., Democracy and Education in India, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1983. Naik, J.P., Equality, Quality and Quantity: The Elusive Triangle in Indian Education, Allied Publishers. Bombay, 1975. 193

21 Disparities in Elementary Education: Barriers in Universalisation NATIONAL SCENARIO The National Policy on Education, 1986 very precisely and emphatically said one important thing among others. That is "The new policy will lay special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to equalise educational opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have been denied equality". The disparities are between men and women, Scheduled Castes and non-Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and non-Scheduled Tribes, rural and urban areas, advanced and backward States, between various regions in the same State. With enormous expansion of education at all stages, such disparities have also increased and the most desired objective of equalisation of educational opportunity has been eluding the grasp. Quality of education has also gone down in proportion to its quantity. Hence, disparities may be considered from two perspectives—Quantity and Quality.

ENORMOUS EXPANSION Provision of free and compulsory education to all children in the age-group 6-14 is the Constitutional Directive. Multifarious attempts have been made for achieving this goal as a result of which the number of primary schools has increased from about 2,10,000 to about 5,20,000 and the number of upper primary schools from 30,000 to 1,30,000 within the period from 1950-51 to 1984-85. Still a large number of habitations are having no primary schools and one-third of the existing rural primary schools have only one teacher. Approximately 95 per cent of children in 6-11 age-group and 50 per cent in 11-14 age-group have 194 so far been enrolled in schools. However, the corresponding figures for girls are 77 per cent and 36 per cent respectively. Again 60 per cent of children drop out between classes I-V and 75 per cent between classes VI-VIII. The enrolment of Scheduled Caste students in the age-group 6-14 has enhanced from 61 per cent in 1978-79 to nearly 67 per cent in 198182. Similarly, the enrolment of Scheduled Tribe children at the primary stage has increased by 19.4 per cent and that at the middle stage by 50 per cent.

VARIATIONS IN ENROLMENT AMONG STATES There is considerable variation in the enrolment figures at the elementary stage among the schools. In 1981-82, the States having enrolment of children in the age-group 6-14 lower than that of India as a whole were Orissa (47.0 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (52.1 per cent), Rajasthan (52.4 per cent), Assam (55.1 per cent), Bihar (58.0 per cent), Uttar Pradesh (50.9 per cent), Andhra Pradesh (63.1 per cent), West Bengal (64.0 per cent) and Jammu & Kashmir (66.5 per cent), while in the remaining 13 States the enrolment figures in respect to the identical age-group ranged from 69 per cent to 100 per cent. The average all-India enrolment figure of the children in the age-group of 6-14 years was 68.8 per cent. It has, therefore, been rightly said: "In fact, the problem of universalisation of elementary education is essentially that of educational backwardness of these nine States." The scenario will be made clear through analysis of the data for 6-11 age-groups separately. During 1981-82, the enrolment of children in the age-group 6-11 attending Classes-I to V was lower in six States. These States were Assam (58.4 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (59.9 per cent), Bihar, (75..98 per cent) and Jammu & Kashmir (79.5 per cent). The allIndia average was (83.7 per cent) in 1981-82. The remaining States including Orissa and Andhra Pradesh had achieved the target or were approaching the target. However, the enrolment figure of students in the age-group 11-14 attending Classes VI-VIII in 1981-82 was below the national average (41.9 per cent), in Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh.

VARIATIONS WITHIN THE STATES Educational disparities are evident not only between the States, but also within the States. Rather such disparities are more prominent within 195 a State than among the States. For example, as per Third Educational Survey in Balasore district of Orissa the enrolment figure was as high as 98.0 per cent whereas in the Kalahandi district it was only 36 per cent in the age-group 6-11. Similarly, enrolment in the age-group 11-14 was 34 per cent in Cuttack and 7 per cent in Ganjam in Orissa. It may be marked in this connection that educational disparities are very severe within the rural areas in respect to enorlment figures. For instance, as per the Fourth Educational Survey of Rajasthan in Kota district the percentage of children attending classes I to V (age-group 6-11) was 69 per cent and in the Nagpur district it was only 11 per cent. Such disparities are more perceptible in the age-group 11-14 attending classes VI-VIII, viz. Ganganagur (41 per cent) and Barmer (13 per cent) in Rajasthan. Urban vs. Rural Areas Educational disparity is more acute in case of urban vis a vis rural areas. This is an indicator of the urban bias in our planning system and now poses a problem for the balanced educational planning. As regards enrolment of primary children in the age-group 6-11, the rural figures are less than urban. Such disparity is very glaring in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, J. & K., Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan as per the Third Educational Survey. But as far as the

enrolment of the middle stage (Age-group of 11-14) is concerned, rural ratios are uniformly Power in all the nine educationally backward States in comparison to urban figures. This shows a higher weightage being given by these States in urban areas. Boys vs. Girls Although during and even after the British period there are traditional disparities in respect to enrolment of boys and girls, as a result of several specific steps after independence such disparities have been narrowed down to some extent. The proportion of girls attending primary and middle classes varies very widely among the backward States particularly. At the primary stage in the States of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh enrolment of girls is below 50 per cent. At the middle stage, enrolment ratios are the poorest being less than 20 per cent in Bihar, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. However, in 13 States, Karnataka, Tripura, Sikkim, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Manipur, Assam, Meghalaya, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Kerala and Negaland, enrolment ratios are above the national 196 average (29.1 per cent). The States like M.P., U.P., Orissa, West Bengal, J. & K. and Haryana have occupied the position in between as regards enrolment figures at the middle Stage. The States with the number of non-attending girls in the agegroup 6-14 above national average are Rajasthan (75.6 per cent), Bihar (67.6 per cent), Madhya Pradesh (66.0 per cent), Uttar Pradesh (63.8 per cent), Jammu & Kashmir (56.7 per cent), Haryana (56.2 per cent), Assam (50.1 per cent), Andhra Pradesh (50.0 per cent) and Orissa (49.6 per cent). S.C. S.T. vs. General The Article 46 of the Constitution of India requires the States to take special measures for the educational and economic development of the weaker sections, especially the Scheduled Castes and Tribes. The educational backwardness of these sections constitute that of the States in general. Although during the period from 1967-68 to 1981-82, the annual growth rate of enrolment of S.C children was much faster (4.0 per cent) than that of all communities (1.01), the expansion of education is still unsatisfactory. The States having high concentration of S.C. population show great disparity in education between S.C. and General population. Particularly, the enrolment of S.C. children in the age-group 6-11 is lagging behind in 7 States like Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Haryana, Rajasthan, Orissa, Bihar and Karnataka. The enrolment of S.C. children in the age-group 11-14 is lagging behind in 8 States namely, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab, Bihar, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. Taking both Primary and Middle Stages together in the age-group of 6-14, the States recording significant disparities between S.C. and General population are Haryana, Karnataka, Bihar, West Bengal, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Similarly, the enrolment of S.T. children was faster (4.6 per cent) than that of children of all communities (less than 1 per cent) during the period from 1967-68 to 1981-82. But there is wide variation still persisting between the two to the disadvantage of S.C. children. It is found that majority of tribal population is concentrated in the eastern, central and western parts of the country and about 25 per cent of tribal population are scattered in southern part of India in small pockets. The States having great concentrating of tribal population show significant variations between General and Scheduled Tribes in respect to their enrolment. The five States, having greater variations in enrolment of children in the age-group 611 between general and Scheduled Tribe. West Bengal, Tripura, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa. The 197 States that are lagging behind in the education of Scheduled Tribe at middle stage age-group (11-14) are Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Tripura, West Bengal and Orissa. Taking both stages of Primary and Middle together the States showing significant disparity in enrolment between general and Scheduled Tribe population are West Bengal, Tripura, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

CONCLUSION According to the Fourth All-India Educational Survey (1978) about 93 per cent of the rural population has been provided with facility of primary education either in the habitation or within a walking distance of 1 Km. and approximately 92 per cent of the rural population with that of middle education either in habitation or within a distance of 5 Kms. The children enrolled in the age-group 6-14 rose from 32.0 per cent in 1950-51 to 68.5 per cent in 1981-82.

During the period 1950-80, enrolment of girls increased at the rate of 6.1 per cent per annum and that of boys was marked with a growth rate of 43 per cent per annum. On the whole, girls' enrolment has grown from 27 per cent in the 1950-51 to 37 per cent in 1980-81. The enrolment of children belonging to Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe has also registered similar growth. Inspite of all these developments in enrolment of children in various segments of the society, progress is not up to satisfaction and target is not yet reached. Rather educational disparities have been found glaring. The nine educationally backward States, namely, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and Jammu & Kashmir, have lagged behind the national target 68.8 per cent in regard to enrolment of children in the age-group 6-14. The enrolment in these States also varies from 47 per cent in Orissa to 66.4 per cent in Jammu & Kashmir. On the other hand, among the remaining eleven States the enrolment figure range from 73.5 per cent in Karnataka to 133.3 per cent in Nagaland. Educational disparities are equally wider within the States than among the States. The inter-district disparity is very significant, the imbalance between the rural and urban areas is extremely acute. In all these nine educationally backward States enrolment of children in rural areas is lower than in urban areas. Girls' enrolment is lower in most of these States than the percentage of non-attending girls which varies from 75.6 per cent in Rajasthan to 49.6 per cent in Orissa. Disparities are also 198 more conspicuous in case of enrolment of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe children. The variation between the enrolment of children of general population and that of Scheduled Caste population ranges from 39.9 per cent in Haryana to 22.9 per cent in Uttar Pradesh. The variation between the enrolment of children of general population and that of Scheduled Tribe population also ranges from 52.5 per cent in West Bengal to 29.9 per cent in Gujarat. Unless drastic steps are taken to remove these disparities existing in various sections of the population and areas, equality of educational opportunity will continue to be denied to a great segment of our people. These imbalances also acqually pose as barriers in the context of universalisation of elementary education. The National Policy on Education, 1986 has, therefore, aptly observed, "Education in India stands at the cross roads today. Neither normal linear expansion nor the existing pace and nature of improvement can meet the needs of the situation."

REFERENCES Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, National Policy on Education, 1986, New Delhi, 1986. J.L. Azad and others, Policies, Priorities and Progress of Educational Development in India with particular reference to Regional and Social Disparities of the Elementary Education Stage: A Critical Study, Zakir Hussain Centre for Educational Studies, J.N.U., New Delhi, 1985. J.L. Azad and others, Programme of Action, N.P.E., 1986, New Delhi, 1986. Mohanty, J., Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1984. Professor S. Nath, Styles and Strategies of Education, Mayur Publications, 1984. 199

22 Innovations in Elementary Teacher and Adult Education INTRODUCTION Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) and Adult Education (AE) have been two of the most important national goals of educational development in the post-Independence India. Under Part-IV of the Constitution of India entitled "the Directive Principles of State Policy" the Article 41 says that "the State shall within the limits of its economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing the right to education" and the Article 45 enjoins "The State shall endeavour to provide within a period of 10 years from the commencement of the Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years. Since Independence, India has made considerable progress in the field of elementary education and eradication of illiteracy. The literacy percentage improved from 16.7% in 1951 to 36.2% in 1981 and 52.22 in 1991.

But the progress is not at all satisfactory and the country has still to go a long way both in the area of Elementary Education and Adult Education. The National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 strongly envisaged that "all children who attain the age of about 11 years by 1990 will have had five years of schooling, or its equivalent through the non-formal stream. Likewise, by 1995 all children will be provided free and compulsory education upto 14 years of age." Similarly, "The whole nation must pledge, itself to the eradication of illiteracy, particularly in the 15-35 age-group." 200 It is found that the twin national goals of UEE and universal adult literacy are closely interdependent. Literate parents send their children to primary schools more readily, their children are less likely to dropout and their achievement is higher. Progress of adult education would therefore help achieve UEE which, in turn could reduce the number of adult illiterates in the country. The NPE, 1986 also emphasized that besides universalisation of Elementary and Adult Education, "a substantial improvement in the quality of education" has to be achieved through various means, first indicator of this improvement in quality would be universal attainment of minimum level which is already reflected in the universalisation goal. Ultimately, however, the qualitative improvement goal is an open-ended one, and is best reflected in the Article 51 A of the Constitution which has sought every citizen of India "to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement. Thus, besides UEE pursuit of excellence has been envisaged as one of the guiding principles of elementary education and in the field of Adult Education, better quality of life has been visualised through functional literacy, life-long and continuing education.

DISTRICT INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING (DIET) ESTABLISHMENT The Education Commission, 1964-66 has rightly observed that "Of all the factors that influence the quality of education .... the quality, competence and character of teachers are undoubtedly the most significant character. All these, again in turn, depend subsequently on the quality of education and training provided for them. But it has to be admitted that teacher education as provided in the traditional training schools and colleges are far from desirable and the facilities as available in these institutions are mostly miserable. The elementary teacher education institutions were mostly engaged in providing pre-service training. The physical, human and academic resources in most of these institutions were quite inadequate even for this limited role. The curricula were traditional and the teaching or training practices were outdated in most of the institutions. 201 The NPE and Programme of Action (POA) 1986 envisaged an important innovation in the shape of District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET) for providing quantitatively wider coverage as well as qualitatively better support and facilities. Pursuant to the provision of NPE and POA on Teacher Education, a Centrally sponsored scheme of reconstruction and reorganisation of Teacher Education was approved by Government of India in October, 1987. One of the five components of the scheme was establishment of DIETs for providing "academic and resource support at the grassroots level for the success of various strategies and programmes being undertaken in the areas of elementary and adult education." Objectives The following specific but basic objectives were visualised for the DIETs: (i) Universalisation of Primary/Elementary Education, (ii) Universalisation of Adult Education through Functional literacy for the 15-35 age-group. As regards the pace-setting role of DIETs, pursuit of excellence would have the following two inter-related aspects: (i) Excellence in the Institute's own work (ii) Helping the Elementary and Adult Education systems in the District in achieving excellence. Functions A DIET must have 3 main functions; viz. (i) Training and Orientation (both of induction and continuing varieties),

(ii) Resource support (Extension, guidance, development of materials, tools, aids evaluation tools, etc.) (iii) Action Research. These functions are again spelt out into 3 types: (i) Training and Orientation, (ii) Academic and Resource Support, and (iii) Action Research and Experimentation. These are discussed as follows: (i) Training and Orientation would be meant for the following target groups: (a) Elementary School Teachers (both pre-service and in-service education). 202 (b) Headmasters, Heads of School complexes and officers of Education Department upto Block level. (c) Instructors and supervisors of Non-formal Education (NFE) and Adult Education (Induction level and continuing education). (d) Members of District Board of Education (DBE) and Village Education Committees (VECs) Community Leaders. Youth and other Volunteers who wish to work as educational activities. (e) Resource persons who would conduct suitable programmes for the target groups mentioned at (a) and (b) above, at centres other than DIETs. (ii) Academic and Resource Support to the Elementary and Adult Education systems in the district by (a) Extension activities and interaction with the field. (b) Provision of services of a resource and learning centre for teachers and instructors. (c) Development of locally relevant materials, teaching aids, evaluation tools, etc. (d) Serving as an evaluation centre for elementary schools and programmes of NFE/AE. (iii) Action Research and Experimentation to deal with specific problems of the district in achieving the objectives in the areas of elementary and adult education.

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE The model as suggested in guidelines of the scheme would comprise the following seven academic branches: (a) Pre-service Teacher Education (PSTE) consisting of faculty members in the "Foundations of Education and Pedagogy" as well as various school subjects (excluding work experience). (b) Work Experience (WE). (c) District Resource Unit (DRU) for AE/NFE. (d) Inservice Training (INSAT) Programmes., Field Interaction and Innovation Coordination (IFIC). (e) Curriculum Material Development and Evaluation (CMDE). (f) Educational Technology (ET). (g) Planning and Management (P&M). 203 Besides, there would be an Administration Section to provide necessary administrative support. Since DIETs would aim at organising various in-service training programmes, every DIET would need to have separate hostels for men and women. It must have a library which would be rich in professional books, and journals and a part time clinic. Each Branch should be headed by a person who would be generally designed as a senior-lecturer with necessary number of lecturers to support him, depending on the functions and work-load of the Branch. Wherever a DIET has full-fledged DRU, its head would be designed as a vice-principal instead of senior lecturer.

APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY Elementary Education has been envisaged as "child-centred" and by making Elementary Education child-centred, we would be introducing a long-awaited reform in the system. The most important aspect of this reform will be to make education joyful, innovative and satisfying learning activity, rather than a system of rote and cheerless, authoritarian instruction. "Adult Education Programmes also would be productive and functional, related to the life and needs of the people. Adults would be imported functional literacy in a participative, learner-active mode." All these would have profound implications for programmes of teacher education and training of instructors of AE/NFE. There must be a fundamental change in the manner of curriculum transaction. The role of the teacher/instructor would no longer be one of transmitting readymade knowledge to the learner, but of a designer and facilitator of learning experiences, a manager of teaching and learning expeiences, resources and an active contributor to the all-round development of the learner. All pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes and of training of AE/NFE personnel would be designed as to train the teacher/instructor in properly transacting the programmes. This basic approach and methods would be designed as to train the teacher/instructor in properly transacting the programmes. This basic approach and methods would imply the following (DIET Guidelines, 1989): — Programmes would be need-based. Even within a group of trainees/ participants, individual differences and needs would be identified and catered to. — Trainees would be enabled to experiment, discover, learn, practise, and innovate for themselves rather than being lectured to. 204 — Maximum possible use will be made of the local environment in the learning process. Curricula and learning activities would be suitably relevant. — Good work done by trainees would be duly recognised, encouraged, displayed and publicised. — The DIET would itself adopt the attitude of a life-long learner rather than that if an oracle or know all. It would receive as much from the field, as it would seek to give. The district would serve as the "school" for its learning experiences while it might develop some special areas as its "Lab. areas." The NPE 1986 has aptly said "The concept of a National System implies that, upto a given level, all students irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, have access to education of a comparable quality, it will be necessary to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in access, but also in the condition for success." This is quite the essence of the universalisation task, and means that, needs of educationally disadvantaged groups would have to be given maximum attention. The DIETs should give priority or special importance to promotion of education of these disadvantaged groups. These groups are: (i) Girls and Women, (ii) Scheduled Castes and Tribes, (iii) Handicapped persons, (iv) Minorities, and (v) Other educationally disadvantaged groups e.g. working children, slum dwellers, inhabitants of hilly, desert and other inaccessible areas, etc.

CONCLUSION The POA 1986 (p. 191) has observed that keeping in view the Central place of teacher education, NPE calls for its overhaul as the first step towards educational reorganisation. Giving particular importance to the training of Elementary School teachers, it is envisaged that selected institutions would be developed in DIETs both for pre-service and in-service courses and for continued education of the personnel working in NFE and AE programmes. It has also been laid down that DIETs after getting established, substandard institutions would be phased out. The DIETs, need be fully 205 equipped with all kinds of physical and human resources. Facilities of latest technology such as campus-based learning, VCR, TV, etc. will be provided at DIETs. The teachers receiving training at DIETs would be encouraged to develop their own programmes using the facilities available and to use these materials as learning/instructional resources. Capability of making copies of video cassettes, audio cassettes, etc. would also be provided in these Institutes. Besides, imaginative use of traditional teaching aids would be emphasized and teachers be encouraged to improvise their own instructional

materials. The DIETs under the District Level would be responsible for making substantive curricular and pedagogic inputs into all programmes of education at the District Level and would also be responsible for training of personnel and provision of resources support to programmes of UEE, NFE and AE.

DISTRICT RESOURCE UNIT (DRU) AND BLOCK RESOURCE UNIT (BRU) Since universalisation of adult education was given thrust the programmes of AE have to be streamlined and the State Resource Centres (SRC) for AE have been sought to be reviewed. Those SRCs which are found not functioning satisfactorily would be improved and if necessary shifted under the auspices of some other organisations. It has been suggested that much more provision of the world be made for improvement of infrastructure and staff position of the SRCs. The POA has provided that District Resource Units should be set up specifically for AE and NFE. These Units might be set up as internal parts of DIETs and in cooperation with the staff of DIET as well as other resource persons in the district, the DRVs would take responsibility for initial and continuing education of the field level functionaries. They would also design and oversee the methods employed in evaluation of learners. Generally, a DRV for AE/NFE would be established where there are at least 200 centres each of AE/NFE. In district of non-educational backward states, by and large, the NFE programme is either very small or non-existent. In such cases, the DRV would be for AE only. Even then, for a DRU for AE to be set up, there should be at least 200 AE Centres running in the district. 206 In the districts where the agencies like Nehru Yuwak Kendras (NYKs) University Departments of Education of other NonGovernment Organisations (NGOs) have done good work over the years in the area of providing training and resource support to NFE and AE, the State Governments would have to take a considered decision whether it would be better to assign the responsibility of the DRU to such an NGO or to create a new one as a part of the DIET. Thus, assuming the number of AE/NFE centres in a district warrant a DRU for AE as well as NFE, the following alternatives would be possible: (i) DRU for both AE and NFE being a part of the DIET: (ii) DRU for one (AE/NFE) being a part of the DIET but functions of the DRU for other (NFE/AE) being handed by an organisation other than the DIET. (iii) DRU for AE as well as NFE being outside the DIET —either a single agency working as a composite unit, or two different agencies working as DRUs for AE and NFE respectively. It has been provided that to the extent that a DRU (a composite one or for AE or NFE alone) would be outside the DIET. It would not be funded under the Teacher Education Scheme. Its funding would be done under the Scheme of AE/NFE, in accordance with guidelines formulated under respective schemes. Staff would be appointed accordingly for a composite DRU to be created in the DIET or for a DIET having DRU as part either for AE or NFE. Even when a composite or part DRU is outside the DIET, such a DRU, and DIET would be expected to function in close collaboration, especially if the two are located at the same place. In the latter event, there should be considerable sharing of staff and other resource between them. Whenever a DRU composite or for only AE or NFE is created as a part of DIET, it should enjoy considerable functional autonomy within the Institute. This is also reflected to some extent in the organisational pattern in the following manner: (i) If the DIET has a composite DRU, its head would be designated as Vice-Principal rather than as Senior Lecturer, (ii) The DRU would have its own nucleus of ministerial staff. Although the Vice-Principal/Sr. Lecturer in charge of DRU would be administratively accountable to the Principal, and through direct linkages with various national, State and District Level organisations, concerned with AE/NFE. As far as AE and NFE are concerned, the DRU would 207 not merely conduct induction training programmes, but would also carry out most of the functions which the IFIC Branch would perform vis-a-vis elementary schools. In the areas of continuing education and field interaction, the DRU's programmes would, however, have to fit into the overall annual calendar of programmes which the IFIC Branch would prepare for the DIET as whole, so that physical and manpower resources of the Institute are utilised in a well-coordinated manner.

Planning at the district level for eradication of illiteracy would be the responsibility of the District Board of Education (DBE), technical assistance would be provided to the DPE by the DRU. Block Resource Unit (BRUs) would be set up at the block level for providing technical assistance and resource support to the AE/NFE programmes. DBI would undertake the allocation of responsibility among DRU and BRU for implementing the various AE/NFE programmes. BRUs should be entrusted with the work of organising training programmes for the block level personnel and preparing locally specific need-based learning materials for the instructors and learners. Necessary resources support should be provided to the Block authorities for organising the AE/NFE programmes.

CONCLUSION In view of the diversities of local situations and needs, there should not be any set model for AE to be adopted in toto everywhere. There should be adequate variety of methods and materials, and flexibility in organising teaching-learning activities. Whether it is DRU or BRU, the content and methods of training programmes and learning materials need be developed for AE according to the local needs and NFE within the framework of the principles of flexibility, relevance and integration of resources. It is necessary to have periodic assessment of the needs of learners in terms of their age, ability, aptitude, social and cultural background and occupational status and requirements. The DIETs, DRUs and BRUs should join their hands and work cooperatively for attacking the problems of mass illiteracy, poor enrolment, attendance and dropouts with a view to making universal adult education and universalisation of Elementary education—the twin as well as intertwined issues not ever illusive and ever eluding, but actually a great success and great national achievement. 208

23 Operation Blackboard: A Symbol of Progress in Primary Schools THE NATIONAL SCENARIO The Challenge of Education--A Policy Perspective (1985) is perhaps the first Government document which has made an introspection and a self-criticism of the educational activities—its progress and drawbacks in the post-Independence Era of India. It has pointed out very clearly. "Inspite of a specific provision in the Constitution to endeavour to provide free and compulsory education upto the age of 14 by 1960, and several explicit commitments with regard to the achievement of Universal Elementary Education, progress in this sector is far short of the target. In fact, the target itself has been moving farther and farther to accommodate the failures arising from inadequacy of resources or sheer lack of a viable strategy." It has aptly observed that about eleven crore children constituting 76 percent of the population of the age group 6-14 are in elementary stage. The country has reached a gross enrolment level of 93.4 percent at the primary level. These national aggregate figures are impressive no doubt but these also hide tremendous disparities between states, sections and sexes. Furthermore, these gross enrolment ratios, if adjusted for over and underage children show performance of a much lower level. The general enrolment is as low as 62.9 percent in Assam and in the Jalore District of Rajasthan the enrolment of girls is as low as 17 per cent whereas the enrolment of girls on all India basis is 75.5 per cent. Similarly, the enrolment ratios for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are 93.4 percent and 81.9 per cent respectively, whereas the all India literacy rates of S.C. and S.T. are 21.38 and 16.35 per cent respectively as against 41.20 of nonS.C./S.T., population according to 1981 census. 209 The enrolment of girls is particularly unsatisfactory in rural areas and among S.C. and ST. On the whole, the enrolment position cannot be said to be satisfactory despite the apparent achievement in terms of gross enrolment ratios. The Challenge of Education (1985) has again added, "While it is correct that most children have primary school within one kilometer of their homes, disaggregated data indicate that 1.91 lakh habitations or nearly one-fifth of all habitations (9.53 lakh) of more than 300 persons have no school of their own. Where schools exist, 40 percent have no pucca buildings, 39.72 percent have no blackboard and 59.50 percent have no drinking water. 35 percent schools have a single teacher to teach 3 or 4 different classes". It is thus evident that these teachers cannot possibly look after the diverse interests and variety of educational methods of the pupils. Moreover, some surveys indicate that many schools remain closed without any teacher for varying periods of time and some teachers are not above sub-contracting teaching work to others who are not qualified for this work either by training or by experience. High priority has, therefore, to be given on removing this black picture. Further, in the interest of establishing a national system of education, these disparities are to be done away with as early as possible. Particularly, rural schools should increasingly match the urban schools in the matter of proper building equipment, sports, and hobby centres and an adequate number of trained teachers. It goes without saying that all the schools irrespective of their location have to be provided with minimum essential facilities both in terms of physical and human resources.

NEED OF THE OPERATION BLACKBOARD The National Policy on Education, 1986, has, however, envisaged, "The Constitution embodies the principles on which the National System of Education is conceived of. The concept of a National System of Education implies that, upto a given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, have access to education of a comparable quality. To achieve this, the Government will initiate appropriately funded programmes". The National System of Education implies a common education structure. The 10 + 2 + 3 structure has now been accepted in all parts of the country. The National Education System is also based on a national curriculum framework which contains a common core along with other components that are flexible. It is intended to remove the age old disparities, prejudices and complexes transmitted through social 210 environment and the accident of birth. Equality has, therefore, to be ensured not only in levels of learning, but also in providing essential facilities for achieving the same. The NPE, 1986 has rightly enunciated, "The Nation as a whole will assume the responsibility of providing resource support for implementing programmes of educational transformation, reducing disparities, universalisation of elementary education, adult literacy, scientific and technological research, etc. With a view to promoting equalisation of educational opportunity, the NPE, 1986, has clearly pointed out, "The new Policy will lay special emphasis on the removal of disparities and to equalise educational opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have been denied equality so far". It has recommended that provision should be made of essential facilities in primary schools, including at least two reasonably large rooms that are usable in all weather and the necessary toys, blackboards, maps, charts, and other learning materials. At least two teachers one of whom a woman should work in every school, the number increasing as early as possible to one teacher per class. A phased drive, symbolically called OPERATION BLACKBOARD would be undertaken with immediate effect to improve primary schools all over the country. Government, Local bodies, Voluntary Agencies and individuals would be fully involved in the provision of these minimum facilities.

MEANING AND IMPLICATIONS The Operation Blackboard (OB) aims at providing the minimum human and physical resources for each primary school for enabling it to work out the National System of Education effectively. The programme of Action, 1986 has therefore said, "The purpose of OB is to ensure provision of minimum essential facilities in primary schools material facilities as well as learning equipment. Use of the word 'Operation' implies that there is an urgency in this programme, the goals are clear and well defined, and that Government and the people are determined to achieve those goals within a predetermined time-frame." Thus, for the first time, elementary education has been promised a millennium by the historic proclamation of sixteen essential facilities which, if and when provided, will impart real good education to India's children and prepare them for the 21st Century." 211 The OB is the most remarkable and novel feature of the entire NPE, 1989. It seeks to provide the essential infrastructure for realising the objectives of elementary education by transacting effectively the curriculum and other ancillary features of the National System of Education. It lays the foundation of the national education system through elimination of disparities in the existing system and improvement of the quality of education. In inaugurating the Seminar on Implementation Strategies of the National Policy on Education at Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi. On June 26-29, 1986, the then Prime Minister of India observed, "The first is Operation Blackboard as our Education Minister has labelled it a question of building, furniture, teaching aids, sports facilities. Here I would like to point out that it is not just a question of a roof over child's head or giving him a better equipment to use, but the attitude that you build into the child in school. If in the school he is used to a tidy environment, he is used to proper toilets, he is used to a certain behaviour pattern, then he will take that out with him when he goes out into the world, ... so that Operation Blackboard is not just a structure that is around the child, it is something that we have to build into the mind of the child so that the child in later stages of his life carries it to the rest of the society". . . (quoted in Chaurasia Ed. Operation Blackboard and Educational Technology for Schools, 1987, p. IX-X). In replying to the depate on NPE, 1986, the erstwhile Minister of Human Resource Development stated. "If Educational technology takes another 15-20 years to reach that last village, the village is not going to rest content. Therefore, we have stated that new educational technology which we are going to use in teaching methods etc. ... will have to take a jump to the village. New Educational Technology does not mean only sophisticated things. We start with the Operation Blackboard. The Blackboard somehow caught the imagination of everybody, not the piece of chalk. Since it caught the

imagination of everybody during the national debate, we call it Operation Blackboard. And what it means is a massive programme of Schools improvement. Now who gives the blackboard is the question. Is it the village community or is it the Central Government or is it anyone in between?. . . In this massive programme the Central Government has taken a large responsibility in the case of some programmes which are considered of utmost importance. The Central Government is going for the first time, to take a larger responsibility" (Ibid p. x). This shows the urgency of the programme and concern of the Government for its effective implementation. 212

STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION It is evident from the above discussion that Government of India have taken keen interest and "a larger responsibility" for implementation of the NPE, 1986 in right earnest. They have particularly come forward to realise the Directive Principles of State Policy in our Constitution—Universalisation of Elementary Education, which has also formed a part of the Minimum Needs Programme as well as the 30-Point Programme, 1986. The NPE, 1986 has not only given unqualified priority to universal elementary education, but also laid down the strategies for realising the same, through the POA, 1986. The POA has recommended various measures for improvement of the quality and expansion of education in general and for provision of additional human and physical resources in the primary schools in particular. The Operation Blackboard is a very comprehensive and aspiring programme for providing minimum essential facilities in all the primary schools. These are the following three important components of the Operation Blackboard: 1 Provision of at least two reasonably large rooms that are usable in all weathers, with a deep verandah along with separate toilet facilities for boys and girls. 2. Provision of at least two teachers, as far as possible, one of them a woman, in every primary school. 3. Provision of essential teaching and learning materials. It has already been discussed how inspite of the Constitutional Directive and various efforts of the Government during the past four decades, the target of universalisation of elementary education has not yet been reached, rather it has gone further and further. Besides many hurdles in the direction, some major ones are lack of proper school buildings, insufficient number of teachers in schools and lack of teaching-learning material. The OB Programme has been formulated for providing these facilities in all primary schools in a phased manner. Owing to financial constraints the Government of India have decided to cover all these schools over a period of 3 years. It has been decided that during 1987-88 only 20% of community development blocks and municipal areas in all States/UTs would be covered, another 30% Blocks/ Municipal areas would be covered during 1988-89 and the remaining 50% during 1989-90. It is thus evident that the coverage of OB would be extended to all primary schools run by Government, local bodies and Panchayati Raj institutions. 213 With a view to collecting information regarding requirements of school buildings, a second searcher in single teacher schools and other essential facilities, the States/UTs have been asked to conduct surveys of existing facilities according to a proforma specially developed by NCERT for the purpose. Although in implementation of the OB programme, the Central Government have taken the greater responsibility, the State Governments have also been given certain duties. The sharing of such responsibilities is as follows: (1) Construction of Buildings The State Governments have to arrange funds for construction of buildings from the schemes for which funds were provided by the Government of India. They were also asked to utilise the funds provided by the Eighth Finance Commission for construction of school buildings. A decision was taken at the highest level for giving high priority to the construction of primary school buildings under the National Rural Employment Programme (RLEGP). The following guidelines were given to the states regarding construction of School buildings: I. Each of the rooms to be constructed should be 30 square meters in area and the depth of the verandah should be approximately 9-10 feet. Even if there are two rooms in existence at present whose area is less than the recommended area, new rooms should be constructed. II. Separate toilet facilities for boys and girls should be provided in the construction programme. Desired toilet health

habits should be inculcated. III. The design of the buildings should provide scope for expansion and every effort should be made to utilise local materials to keep costs low as far as possible. The buildings should be adequate without being ostentations, and should merge with environment. It should also be ensured that there is built in space for storage of equipment. Well-Plastered blackboards should also form part of the structure itself in the rooms as well as at both ends of the verandah. The role of local community has been defined in the scheme as follows: I. The local community should provide the necessary lands for construction of school buildings including land for sports and games. 214 II. It has to give a formal undertaking that they will accept responsibility for repair and maintenance of the buildings. III. It has also to accept responsibility for suitable fencing around the school compound. (2) Provision of a Second Teacher in Single Teacher Schools Although endeavours were made over the last forty years to reduce the number of single teacher schools, there are many schools in the country which are being managed by single teachers. Under the O.B. the States/UTs have been asked to appoint a second teacher in all single teacher schools. The Government of India would give financial assistance to the States for payment of the Salary of the second teacher during the 7th Five Year Plan period. The following rationale have been arrived at for implementation of this component: I. The State Government has to give a categorical assurance that all new primary schools to be set up will be provided with two teachers. II. To the possible extent, all new teachers to be appointed should be women. Every school should have at least one woman teacher. III. At the time of appointment of teachers, spatial considerations should be borne in mind, if trained teachers belonging to remote areas are available they should be given preference without disturbing the broad policy regarding appointment of teachers. IV. Likewise preference should be given to trained teachers belonging to SC/STs. V. The trained teachers appointed earlier should be provided with suitable refresher course (approximately of one month's duration). Necessary arrangements should be made for the purpose and materials prepared by NCERT for massive teacher training programme should be utilised along with other relevant materials. (3) Minimum Essential Learning Materials The Minimum teaching-learning materials for primary schools have been listed and the States/UTs have been asked to provide materials as per the list out of funds placed at the disposal of the Education Departments. The States/UTs may make some departure from this list with satisfactory justification for it, provided it does not lead to extra cost. The necessary funds will be provided by the Central Government 215 on a 100% basis upto the end of the 7th Plan. Thereafter, the liability will be transferred to the State Government. The following guidelines have been developed for the States/UTs with reference to the implementation of this component: I. The materials purchased under OB should be of good quality and specifications in respect of each item are being worked out by NCERT. The State Governments may work out their own specifications for purchase of various types of materials. II. The Ministry of Human Resource Development in collaboration with NCERT and the Bureau of Indian Standards has taken steps to work out unit costs of standard quality material which may be applicable in practically all parts of the country. The Central Government will give assistance according to the Unit cost and the State Governments will adjust their estimates within these limits. III. Work experience programmes in U.P. Schools and Secondary/ Higher Secondary Schools should be modified to

manufacture as many items required under the OB as possible. Even polytechnics and IT's should be encouraged to set up manufacturing units as envisaged under the "earn-while-you-learn" project. IV. The responsibility of replenishing the materials will be borne by the State Governments or local bodies. Funds for this will be provided in a systematic manner from the beginning of the 8th Five-Year Plan. V. Teachers will be oriented for building an atmosphere in which they make proper use of the materials provided and also improvise instructional material on their own initiative. VI. The teaching-learning materials may be incorporated in all programmes of pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes. VII. SCERTs/SIEs should also develop simple booklets to facilitate the proper use of materials. 214

SCHEME OF OPERATION BLACKBOARD LIST OF ESSENTIAL FACILITIES AT THE PRIMARY STAGE Sl.No.

Number

Amount in Rupees

I. Teachers Equipment (i) Syllabus

01

05

(ii) Textbooks

One primary set

25

(iii) Teachers' Guides

One primary set

15

II. Classroom Teaching Materials (i) Maps—District State Country World

One Each 175

(ii) Plastic Globe

01

100

(iii) Educational Charts (Health, Social Studies, Languages

One set

90

III. Play Materials and Toys (i) Wisdom Blocks (Construction of Different designs, Patterns, Objects etc.)

3 set

120

(ii) Bird and Annual Puzzles (Bigsaw Puzzle)

3 set

60

(iii) Toys (Dolls, Human Figures, Animals, Science Toys)

2 set

300

(i) Skipping Rope

10

60

(ii) Balls—Football

02

70

Volleyball

02

70

Rubber balls

10

50

(iii) Air Pump

01

35

(iv) Ring

05

50

(v) Swing Rope with Tyre

01

35

V. Primary Science Kit (On NCERT)

01

400

VI. Mini Tool Kit

01

300

VII. Mathematics Kit Teachers' Equipment

01

300

(i) Reference Books—Dictionaries Encyclopaedias

02,01

100, 100

(ii) Children's Book (at least 200) (NBT, Children's Book Trust, Nehru Bal Pustakalaya and Others)

01

1600

IV. Games Equipment

VIII. Books for Library

(iii) Magazines, Journals and Newspapers for Teachers and Children (One Newspaper, One Magazine and One Professional Journal) IX. School Bell

450 01

50

Dholak or Tabla

01

100

Harmonium

01

500

Manjira

02

50

For Teachers

02 sets

700

Mats

—

375

Boxes

02

300

02

400

*02

50*

X. Musical Instrument

XI. Contingency Money with Teacher (i) Mats and furniture for students & teachers (Chair & Table or one Teacher Plus Large Boxes

XII. Blackboard, Pin-up Board (Canvas)

30* XIII. Chalk and Duster XIV. Water Facility (Pitchers, Classes, and Ladle)

10

100

XV Trash Can

10

50

XVI. All Weather Classrooms (i) Classrooms (ii) Toilets—one for boys and one for girls. (iii) Mats and furniture for students and teachers. 217

CONCLUSION IN THE LIGHT OF REVISED NPE, 1992 The O.B. Scheme is centrally assisted and local oriented. No specific allocation of funds will be necessary for construction of primary school buildings. In rural areas it will form a part of NREP, RLEGP and other special area development schemes such as Border Area Development Programmes etc. The Central Government has taken the responsibility of financing on a 100% basis for the appointment of a second teacher in single teacher schools up to the 7th Five-Year Plan. It will also give the cent per cent financial assistance for purchase of essential equipment. After the 7th Plant this responsibility would be transferred to State Governments. According to NCERT 1986 the present responsibilities of the State include the following: I. Provision of Contingency @ Rs. 500 per annum to each Primary School. 218 II. Provision of land and fencing of schools. III. Repair and maintenance of school buildings. IV. Provision of funds for replenishment of equipment. The State Governments would give an assurance that in future all sanctions of primary school teachers and equipment should be provided at the level of schools under the OB. They need also take steps for detailed micro-planning for universal enrolment and retention at the elementary stage which is the main objective of the OB. Teachers, local community and Voluntary Agencies should be involved not only in planning, but also in implementation of the OB. It is hoped that an atmosphere favourable for the universalisation of elementary education should be created and administrative

as well as the supervisory structure be strengthened to cope up with the emerging demands and higher challenges for implementing the NPE, 1986. The OB, in fact, would work as a spring board for a long leap towards the bright and prosperous 21st Century. The external evaluation of the OB Scheme indicated that lack of training of teachers in using the teaching-learning material, supply of poor standard of materials, lack of their proper maintenance and also the lack of provision for repair and replenishments where some of the drawbacks in implementation of the scheme. Further, it was also reported in the media and found in the schools that various State Governments did not follow the Central Government guidelines and did not stick to norms and standard of materials they purchased. Corruption also crept in and created hurdles and delays in purchase and supply of OB materials. Consequently, in some States OB Scheme could not be implemented properly and regularly. The POA, 1992 suggested the following measures for improving the quality of OB implementation: (i) Teachers would be trained in using OB materials, (ii) State Governments would make provision for breakage and replacements, (iii) In the purchase of materials certain flexibility could be allowed suiting to local and curricular needs and conditions. (iv) At least 50% of the teachers appointed would be women providing better incentives for girls education, (v) OB should form an integral part of Microplanning. (vi) As far as possible low-cost and locally available designs need be followed suiting to local needs and conditions for construction of school buildings. 219 As in the past, Central Government would provide adequate funds for the plan period. The State Governments would mobilise resources under IRY and other schemes for construction and repair of school buildings, teachers' quarters and toilet facilities. It was also contemplated that OB scheme would cover all the primary schools by 1993-94. About 30% of the eligible schools would be provided three rooms and three teachers under the expanded OB by the end of the 8th Plan and the remaining schools would be covered by the year 2000 AD. But such a laudable scheme could not be implemented fully and timely in many States. Like most of our projects, this OB has still remained unimplemented as per the NPE provisions. 220

24 Principles of Curriculum Development MEANING OF CURRICULUM The term "curriculum" is variously defined in the educational vocabulary. Educational institutions like all other organisations have to realize certain objectives through various programmes and practices. A range of learning experience is provided by such institutions both inside and outside. Curriculum consists of the teaching methods, different curricular and cocurricular activities, interaction between the teacher and the taught, between the pupils and environment, textbooks teaching aids and functions. In short, all the experiences that a learner has under the guidance of the school constitute curriculum. Curriculum is viewed almost synonymously with the term "education" when the experiences are provided for which the school is held responsible. It is a complex of more or less planned or controlled conditions under which students learn to behave in their various ways. The Dictionary of Education (Goods) has pointed out that it is "a systematic group of courses or sequences of subjects required for graduation or certification in a major field of study, for example social studies". Similarly, it has been enunciated as "a general over all plan of the content or specific materials of instruction that the school should offer the student by way of qualifying him for graduation or certification or for entrance into a professional or vocational field", On the whole, curriculum is "a group of courses and planned experiences which a student has under the guidance of the school or college". 221 The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) has rightly laid down that curriculum does not mean only the academic

subjects traditionally taught in the school, but includes the totality of experiences that pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on in the classroom library, laboratory, workshop, playgrounds and in the numerous informal contacts between teachers and pupils. Thus, the whole life of a school becomes the curriculum which can touch the life of the students at all points and help in the evaluation of balanced personality. Although curriculum and syllabus are used as equivalent terms by some educationists and teachers, there is a very fine distinction between the two. Syllabus consists of a set of outlines or a statement of the main points of a course of study whereas curriculum is the sum-total of all kinds of learning experiences provided by an educational institution to realise its aims and objectives.

PRINCIPLES OF CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION Curriculum has to be relevant to the life, needs and aspirations of the people. It is a dynamic process responding to the changing conditions and requirements. It cannot therefore remain static in order to be effective and meaningful. It is the role of education to hand on the torch of learning from one generation to the next. It represents on the one hand, the cultural heritage that is considered worth transmitting and on the other, it embodies all the current trends and innovations that are necessary for making pupils creative citizens. Truman and Kelley have aptly observed that the determination of what constitutes an appropriate curriculum is a problem of estimating the future—the issue being what can be done now that will best serve the pupil in the future, immediate or remote. Brubacher calls curriculum as the "funded capital of social experience" and this utilised for betterment of the people. When a society moves into a period of rapid changes, there is a consequent need for curricular readjustment. A people's values, ethos, ambitions and endeavours are reflected in its curriculum. Hence change is the very nature of curriculum. Dr. Radhakrishnan has rightly said, "Education systems are built for a time not for all times. The curriculum which had vitality in Vedic period or the Renaissance, cannot continue unaltered in the 20th Century. Realising that the union of free man in a free society is the living faith and inspiring guide of democratic institutions, we must move towards that goal, adapting wisely and well to changing conditions". 222 Besides the national or sociological needs and conditions, the psychological requirements and development are taken into consideration for constructing curriculum for a particular course of studies. The pupils mental growth, emotional conditions, ability and interests are to be kept in mind and adequate learning experiences be provided accordingly. Therefore, review of the existing curriculum and research into such sociological and psychological needs are felt imperative for construction of curriculum. The following principles are generally considered for construction of curriculum. (I) Principle of Child-centredness The pupil is the key to all kinds of curricular programmes. His ability intrests and attitudes are to be taken into account in constructing a curriculum for him. Therefore, all attempts, need be made for making learning experience interesting and meaningful. Modern approach to curriculum construction is therefore paedocentric as well as democratic in the sense that the child occupies a central position in the entire teaching-learning process and actively participates in it. The childcentred curriculum is also free, open and individualized. The role of teachers is to guide, encourage and inspire the child to learn. (II) Principle of Flexibility As a corollary to the first principle, child-centred curriculum must be flexible. A general curriculum is not suitable for all kinds of pupils and all areas. The individual needs and local specifications must be emphasized in the modern curriculum. Days are gone when a steel frame of syllabus was imposed throughout the country or a state irrespective of cultural and economic variations. Modern curriculum must be constructed in consonance with the local and individual needs and conditions. The teacher has to play an active role in constructing curriculum in view of the changing environment and requirements. He has to develop his own textual material, teaching aids and evaluation tools. Success of such a curriculum largely depends on the competence of teachers to motivate, guide and inspire the learners. (III) Principle of Work Experience Many educators accord a high place to work experience in education and as such in curriculum construction. "Learning by doing" is regarded as an important principle and an integral part of curricula. Even Dewey

223 introduced certain occupations of home and industry—cooking, sewing, weaving, carpentry—as central activities in the curriculum of his own school at Chicago. Mahatma Gandhi's basic education curriculum had an important place for crafts which mainly provided work experience. Modern curriculum should have adequate provision for team work, project work, socially useful productive work etc. in order to realize the educational objectives meaningfully. (IV) Principle of Community Service Community should occupy a central position in the modern curriculum. The needs and conditions of the community should determine the nature and content of curriculum. Community involvement in curriculum construction should be encouraged to the maximum and it is felt essential for removing the ills of the existing educational system. "The school is for the community and the community is for the school"—is the magic formula for solving various problems. Curriculum should be so constructed as to facilitate the optimum utilisation of community resources for the development of education and the vice versa. Community needs must be properly taken care of in constructing curriculum and without that, curriculum cannot be relevant and useful for the society. (V) Principle of Variety As a corollary to the principle of flexibility and also other principles mentioned above, there must be variety in the curriculum in order to cater to the local conditions and individual needs. Besides, various talents of pupils must be developed and individual differences among them must be taken proper care of. There must be variety in the content, instructional materials, teaching aids as well as in the methods of teaching. This will ensure effectiveness of curriculum as a whole and make education interesting and meaningful in general. (VI) Principle of Correlation All subjects in the curriculum must be properly coordinated and in the construction as well as implementation of the curriculum there must be adequate correlation among the subjects. Teachers should realize that subjects being taught in the school are not watertight compartments and every subject must have some relation with other subjects which should be felt by teachers and pupils. It must also be emphasized that 224 all subjects in the curriculum has a general bearing on the development of the pupils personality as a whole. (VII) Principle of Integration As the principle of correlation, the principle of integration is important for the development of all-round personality of the child. With a view to ensuring better assimilation of knowledge and inculcation of values, attitudes, etc. an integrated approach should be taken in the curriculum construction and development. Various activities should be organised according to the principle of integration. That is why, instead of separate subjects like history, geography, civics and so on, as integrated subject of social studies, and instead of providing separate subjects like physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, general science, life science and physical science are being preferred particularly at the lower level. (VIII) Principle of Values Besides development of knowledge, understanding and skills, a number of desirable values are also to be inculcated in our children. Therefore, modern curricula must provide for inculcating values of socialism democracy fraternity. With a view to preparing our students for the emerging society, adequate emphasis should be given on the development of citizenship in true sense of the term. (IX) Principle of Totality On the whole, all the experiences provided by the educational institution through its various programmes and practices should have a perspective of totality. The Secondary Education Commission has also highlighted this principle by suggesting that there must be totality of learning experiences that are given to the pupil through the manifold activities in the classroom, play ground, library, laboratory, workshop and informal contacts between teachers and informal contacts must have totality in approach. In this way the Commission feels that the entire life of the school becomes the curriculum

that can touch the life of the students at all points and form the integrated personality of the child.

DEFECTS IN THE EXISTING CURRICULA The existing curricula are mainly examination dominated and do not provide adequate scope for the development of inititative, social intelligence, activity, experiments and innovations. There is more 225 emphasis on 3 R's (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic) and theoretical knowledge. Proper dialogue is not established between the life in the society and life in the school. The needs and conditions of the society are not properly reflected in the curricula. Although the modern education is said to be paedocentric, in the curriculum construction the child is not occupying a central place. Rather the subject content or quantum of knowledge is given priority. Teaching not learning is accorded greater importance. Self-learning is also not encouraged at present. Acquisition of knowledge not the skills to acquire knowledge are promoted in the schools and colleges. The present curricula are rigid without providing necessary changes in persons to societal needs and conditions. Since examination is dominating the entire educational arena, everything, every activity, every project not closely related to examination is not given due weight or even not properly organised in the educational institutions. For example, community service is regarded as useful, but given lip sympathy or halfhearted reception as it is not an examinable subject. The existing curricula fail to provide learning experiences necessary for preparing students for fulfilling the present social demands far from meeting the future needs of the society which will be faced by them. The pupils are not developing self-reliance, alertness, resourcefulness, painstaking nature as a result of which educated unemployment is increasing dayby-day and students after passing matriculation or graduation or post-graduate examination are hankering after service more for Government service which is comparatively easy, comfortable and free from risks or insecurity. The present curricula are also not conducive to teachers' initiative and participation or involvement. They are imposed from above and teachers are given spoon-feeding. Teachers are not required to prepare instructional materials or organise suitable learning activities. Educational technology which is used for efficient and effective teaching-learning process in the advanced countries of the world has not yet formed an integral part of our curricula. Only some audio-visual equipment and aids are occasionally used without systematic planning and proper coordination. In view of the speedy advancement of science and technology, our curricula are not quite adequate and have to be revamped and reoriented towards higher weightage on new mathematics, physical as well as social sciences. Reasonable emphasis is lacking on practical activities and localisation of treatment and improvisation of aids. Even in dealing 226 with social sciences local environment is not taken into consideration and whatever done in this respect is largely theoretical without having on-the-spot and direct experience. Curriculum, in brief, is very narrowly conceived and largely out of date without taking care of developing different abilities and skills and of making the learning experiences relevant as well as meaningful. The Indian Education Commission, 1964-66 has aptly summarised all the shortcomings when it has observed, "The curriculum places a premium on bookish knowledge and rote learning, makes inadequate provision for practical activities and experiences, and is dominated by examination, external and internal. Moreover, as the development of useful skills and the inculcation of the right kind of interests, attitudes and values are not given sufficient emphasis, the curriculum becomes out of tune with the life of the people. There is thus urgent need to raise, upgrade and improve the school curriculum."

NEED FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Curriculum in order to be effective and efficient must be related to the life, needs and aspirations of the people. It should serve as the mirror for reflecting the conditions of the society and as a potential instrument for fulfilling the requirements of the people. Therefore, in the dynamic society education has to be changed and for that purpose curriculum has to be modified from time to time. The need for curriculum development also varies from country to country and from state to state depending upon the felt needs and desired changes. The factors responsible for curriculum development may be mentioned as follows. (I) Societal Needs

Modern society undergoes tremendous changes under the impact of rapid scientific and technological advances. The very nature and sturcture of a society cannot remain unchanged for a long-time. The social and ethical values are also changing with their repercussion on education. All these societal factors are to influence the curriculum development. (II) Economic Needs Due to immense importance of education to economic development and vice versa, educational expenditure is regarded as investment in human resources. With a view to promoting economic progress, education has to be geared to the needs of the people human resources. Unless 227 manpower planning and training is adequately done, economic advancement cannot be brought about and for this purpose suitable curricular innovations and renovations are felt necessary. (III) Ecological and Technological Needs The modern society has now faced a number of ecological and technological problems like deforestation, extinction of rare flora and fauna, pollution of atmosphere, population explosion and so on. In order to solve the same, students needs be reoriented and well equipped through educational provisions. This makes curriculum development imperative for facilitating the changes in the desired direction. (IV) Political Changes Political forces like change of Government, attainment of Independence bring about powerful impact on educational system—its objectives, philosophy and nature. The political ideology of the Government in power and the aspirations of the people greatly determine the principles underlying the curriculum development. (V) Research Findings A number of studies conducted on important issues sometimes reveal very significant findings which have immense educational implications. When the USSR successfully launched as Sputnik for the first time the USA Government conducted certain studies to ascertain the factors responsible for achievement as a result of which the curriculum was drastically renovated and important changes were brought about in Science and Mathematics. (VI) Reports of Commissions The Commissions are often appointed to go through the problems of crucial importance or controversial nature. The indepth study is conducted or a comprehensive review of the problems is made and its findings are found revealing and its recommendations quite useful. Subsequently, on the basis of their suggestions, necessary modification and improvements are introduced in the curriculum. (VII) Needs of the Learners Since the child or the pupil should occupy a central position in the teaching-learning process, their abilities and interests must be taken into account for developing curriculum. As at present students are exposed 228 to various sources of education in their environment, curriculum planners must be aware of these forces. Similarly, if a large number of students are deprived of such facilities, they are to be provided some remedial teaching-learning amenities. Therefore, the first generation learners coming from the Tribal and Harizan Communities in a great number have posed some problems which necessitates suitable provision in the curricula. On account of these factors, curricula are subjected to constant changes. The Kothari Commission also remarked, "The school curriculum is in a state of flux all over the world today. In developing countries it is generally criticised as being inadequate and outmoded, and not properly designed to meet the needs of modern times". This is natural as the aspirations and demands in the developing countries are raising high and the existing curricula cannot cope up with them. Even in advanced countries like the USA many educationists are not satisfied with existing curricula and reform movements are always on. In India, it is also criticised that our existing curricula are not up to date and new curricula in the 10 + 2 + 3 pattern are now being implemented with emphasis on SUPW programmes, science, mathematics and national integration activities.

THE PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Development of curriculum is a complex process involving several steps and factors. There must be a sequence of steps in the process. Decisions need be taken regarding these steps for developing a curriculum. The following steps determine the process of curriculum development. 229 1. Identification and classification of objectives. 2. Selection of and content for learning experiences. 3. Organisation of learning experiences. 4. Evaluation of learning. 5. Feedback and implementation of evaluation results. All these steps are inter-dependent and are in mutual interaction. These steps are also more or less in a sequence, one step leading to another. The above diagram will give a picture of this process. 1. Identification and Classification of Objectives In any curriculum, objectives are the educational purposes towards which all programmes and practices are directed. These objectives are identified both at the micro as well as macro levels. The micro-level objectives are specific to each course and even to each unit of a course. These objectives determines the particular activities to be undertaken for their achievement. At present many teachers are not aware of such immediate objectives. For example, they say we will teach citizenship. But it should be stated clearly whether we will teach them rights of citizens or duties of citizens or to develop ideal citizenship among the students. On the other hand, macro-level objectives are the general aims and have broad perspectives. These objectives determine the direction towards which all the activities are directed by the teachers or educational institutions. As such, these objectives have wider scope and indicate general outlines of a course of studies. The examples of these objectives are "to develop all-round personality" "to promote creativity" or "to improve self-expression". After identification of objectives their classification is felt necessary in order to suit them to the conditions, facilities and abilities of teachers and pupils. Determination of objectives is the preliminary step and other steps follow in a sequence. Hilda Taba (1962) has rightly mentioned that the functions of objectives are to direct the decisions regarding what to teach, what contents to select, what learning experiences to impart and what to evaluate. Thus determination of objectives constitute the first step in curriculum development. General objectives are classified on two bases: (I) content, and (II) behaviour. But behaviour-based objectives are more effective and curriculum can be better organised according to these objectives, Bloom (1965) has classified educational objectives into three areas or domains. These are: (I) the cognitive domain, (II) conative or affective domain, 230 and (III) psychomotor or manipulative domain. The first domain deals with objectives, intellectual abilities and skills. The second domain relates to objectives of attitude, interests, values and appreciation. The third domain relates to objectives concerned with psychomotor skills and abilities. 2. Selection of and Content for Learning Experiences Learning occurs through the experiences of the learner. It is the outcome of the learner's reactions to the experiences provided for. The pupil learns from the educational environment created for him. Therefore, learning is resulted from there active participation of the pupils in the environment. It is the interaction of the learner to his environment and not merely the teachers, participation or his delivery of lessons. Experiences cannot be given to the learner in a vacuum. They have to be imparted through suitable content or subjectmatter. Since the learning experiences must be within the range of the pupil's abilities, the content is to be selected according to his comprehension and interest. If the content is too low or too simple in comparison to the pupil's capacity, it may not create any interest for learning. Similarly, when the learner finds the experiences beyond his reach or

understanding level, he gets frustrated for learning anything. Thus, learning experiences are to be provided according to the pupil's abilities and interests. 3. Organisation of Learning Experiences According to Kerr (1977) learning experiences are the interaction between the learner and the external factors in the environment to which he is exposed and can react. Therefore, for providing learning experiences, the external factors are to be so organised that the educational objectives can be better realised. Such an organisation means bringing together and arranging suitable learning experiences. A series of learning experiences may be necessary for effecting a single behavioural change. Particularly, for bringing about changes in values, attitudes and interests long-time learning may be required. The learning experiences should therefore, be so arranged as to produce a cumulative effect and strengthen one another. Arvinda Chandra (1977) has pointed out that the organisation of learning experiences involves the vertical and horizontal relationship. The vertical relationship among learning experiences is with reference to time is the first year, the second year, the third year and so on. The horizontal relationship is in terms of one area to another, for instance, 231 the unit on learning, and the unit on teacher's efficiency are reinforcing and supplementary to each other. Similarly, the course in public administration and the course in political science are, inter-depended. Thus, organisation of learning experiences is of great importance for ensuring their effectiveness. 4. Evaluation of Learning Experiences Evaluation as a step in curriculum development means an assessment of learning on the part of pupils. What and how much the students have learnt in course of organisation of a unit or units or even of a lesson is evaluated. Teachers also know from evaluation to what extent his teaching has been effective and what deficiency has been left in course of teaching a unit or a lesson. Evaluation helps in ascertaining the validity and practicability of educational objectives assumed to be realised in the beginning. It may show lack of progress in learning by pointing out the difficulties in the process. Many assumptions may be found wrong or impracticable on the basis of evaluation results. Since learning is modification of behaviour, it cannot be evaluated rightly only through one test of evaluation. Several assessments may be found necessary for arriving at conclusions. One kind of test may not be adequate. Only written or verbal or verbal performance test may not give a clear appraisal. Different kinds of tests and assignments should be used for evaluating learning. For example, for evaluating objectives of cognitive domain written tests or viva voce and for evaluating interests and attitudes observation techniques should be used. Thus, for collecting adequate evidences the teacher should utilise different kinds of tests besides written tests with which they are usually familiar. The students themselves may not be familiar with other kinds of tests. Therefore, both teachers and students should be exposed to different kinds of techniques and procedures of evaluation. Even some orientation courses or workshop may be organised for preparation and utilisation of various kinds of tests and tools of evaluation. 5. Feedback and Implementation of Evaluation Results The main purposes of evaluation are to assess the students' achievement and develop curriculum. Besides appraising progress of students in learning, improvement has to be brought about in curriculum on the basis of evaluation results. Both quantity as well as quality of 232 learning can be adjudged by evaluation findings which may lead to changes in the objectives, teaching methods, content, evaluative techniques and other aspects of school organisation. Thus, the evaluation results are implemented as feedback data to the system of teaching and learning for improving the curricula and achievement of pupils learning. A number of questions has to be asked as regards objectives, content, methods, instructional materials, media and means, examination and so on. Curriculum development can be made through implementing the results of evaluation. It can be done through cooperative efforts of teachers, students, supervisors and administrators. Because curriculum development means not only improvement of class room practices and programmes, but also some administrative decisions regarding completion of the course, examinations, maintenance of records and arrangement of time-tables and annual schedules.

An assessment of students learning reveals both strong and weak points. Consequently, it works as an eye-opener to effect necessary improvement by making up deficiency and also as an incentive for asking further progress. It functions, therefore, both as diagnosis as well as prognosis. The evaluation results will indicate the special needs, interests and attitudes of students which may help in planning curricular and cocurricular programmes accordingly. Thus, feedback and implementation of evaluation results constitute an important step in the process of curriculum development.

ACTIVITY-CENTRED CURRICULUM Most of the educators give high priority on activity. Froebel was one of the earlier educationists who laid a great stress on work in education. He regarded work as an essential means of man's spiritual development and an outward expression of the divine spark in him. Montessori, Pestalozzi Comenius, Rousseau and a host of educational thinkers and workers also insisted upon introducing creative and productive work as an integral part of curriculum. Some of them even emphasised manual work in education. A few distinguished educationists advocated for and also introduced productive work in education. For example, John Dewey adopted some occupations like cooking, sewing, weaving and carpentry as central activities in the curriculum of his own experimental school at Chicago. He believed that human culture is mostly the result of productive labour. According to him productive work should be an integral part of education 233 and as such, should constitute an important body of the curriculum. He of course, did not plead for a purely vocational education at the school stage. But he was very much for integration of academic subjects with productive activities. Mahatma Gandhi's Basic Education provided "craft" as the centre of all subjects. The principle of correlation was integrating academic subjects with productive activity. But Gandhi rather laid greater emphasis on productivity of such activities. The Kothari Commission recommended that work experience which involves participation in some form of productive work under conditions approximating to those found in real life situations, should be introduced as an integral part of education at all stages. According to the Commission, it would provide a much needed corrective to the extremely academic and bookish character of present school education. The Patel Committee (1978) suggested for introducing socially useful productive works in all classes at the schools stage and the Committee for + 2 stage entitled their report as "Learning to do" emphasising activities thereby.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVITY CURRICULUM A child is active by nature and opportunities of work should be provided to him for optimum development of his potentialities. It is a fact that learning which takes place through activity is more durable than through a theoretical discussion. The doctrine of "learning by doing" is very effective and activity, therefore, has occupied a central position in the curricula of the advanced countries. In an activity-centred curriculum, provision is made for a series of activities in schools suitable to various subjects. Of course, these activities are organised according to the facilities available and interests as well as attitudes of the learners. The school in implementing such a curriculum becomes a workshop or a centre of work. The spirit of project work, experiment and discovery should prevail in the school. It is more appropriate in case of subjects like social sciences, physical science, physical education, aesthetic education and so on. Since the child greatly involves himself in activities, the activity-centred curriculum is also a child-centred one. Learning becomes more effective as the teaching methods are dynamic in the system. Learners also develop at their own speed and according to their own interests. 234

ADVANTAGES OF THE CURRICULUM The following advantages can emerge out of the nature of characteristics of the activity-centred curriculum: 1. The learner finds activities upto his own interest, so education becomes meaningful. 2. He makes progress according to his own pace and ability. 3. Besides, individualisation of education, this curriculum also promotes team work and corrective activities.

4. This curriculum is mostly based on the needs and capacity of the learners. 5. It gives ample emotional satisfaction. 6. It promotes physical fitness, alertness, and intitiative. 7. In organising various project works, the school community relations are encouraged to the maximum. 8. Variety of activities, methods and materials makes education interesting and enjoyable. 9. The teacher implementing this curriculum cannot afford to be slow, lethargic and disinterested, 10. He has to be imaginative and resourceful. 11. The learners are made mindful of their progress and using their leisure time fruitfully. 12. A large number of hobbies and interests are developed through various activities like painting, drawing, craftwork, dramatisation, etc. 13. This curriculum facilitates the development of different desirable values like democratic values, aesthetic values, and social values through activities and project works. 14. Some activities become productive, so the principle of "earning while learning" is realised to a reasonable extent and the foundation for vocational education is laid at an early age. 15. This curriculum can bridge the gulf between work and education, work and life and school and society and increases the dignity of work which is necessary for development of culture and success of life.

LIMITATIONS OF THE CURRICULUM Inspite of these advantages the following difficulties may be experienced in implementing this curriculum: 235 1. The managements, even the Government are not in a position to provide the necessary equipment and instruments for organising various activities. 2. Sometimes more emphasis may be laid on practical activities and less on theoretical knowledge and understanding. 3. Teachers instead of becoming more active and enthusiastic, are apt to be idlers and lethargic leaving most of the work to be done by the pupils on their own without proper guidance and supervision, 4. Students may also be interested only in one kind of work neglecting the others. Adequate motivation and interest need be created in other activities through proper incentives and correlation. 5. Necessary field study and work as well as reporting are not given due weightage. On the whole, with proper planning of activities, adequate provision of facilities, teachers' orientation and interests, democratic atmosphere and cooperative spirit prevailing in the campus, this curriculum can be implemented with success. The International Commission on Education (UNESCO) has rightly commented that for too long a period in human history education has remained segregated from life and work. When one goes to school does not work. One begins to work after one finishes school. The dichotomy between work and education is unnatural and should be broken.

EXPERIENCE-CENTRED CURRICULUM Experiences are centred round an activity. These are end products of the activity. Since experience and activity are closely related, the activity-centred and experience-centred curricula are positively correlated. The experience-centred curriculum takes the past experiences of the learner into account, identify the present needs and conditions and plan various experiences keeping inview of his future demands.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CURRICULUM John Dewey is the greatest exponent of the experience-centred curriculum. He says that the curriculum should be based

on the natural interests and basic needs of the child which according to him are of four kinds. (i) Conservation and communications, (ii) inquiry, (iii) construction, and (iv) artistic expression. There are, he points out, "the natural 236 resources, the universal capital upon the exercise of which depends on the active growth of the child". He emphasises the selection of experiences from real life and the principle of natural interests of the child at the successive stages of development. The experience-centred curriculum seeks to promote happiness of the individual by improving his life. It leads to selfrealisation which includes satisfaction of his personal and social needs. It involves mastery of essential skills both physical and intellectual, adequate knowledge of healthful living, good health practices, better human relations, satisfactory social, economic and political understanding, sufficient awareness about civic rights and duties. In short, experience curriculum enables the individual to adjust himself to and to improve his social and physical environment in active support of others. It is not often practicable to chalk out an ideal experience curriculum without going to the field. It can not be developed without the participation of teachers and learners themselves. It is a cooperative activity to be taken up on the spot by the teacher and pupils. It cannot be preplanned and cannot be confined to the four walls of the class rooms. This curriculum facilitates the process of interaction which makes learning more meaningful to the learners through participation. The interactive process becomes streamlined through the active collaboration of the teacher and pupils. All the factors—content, methods, teachers, pupils, have their rightful place in the whole curriculum.

DEVELOPING EXPERIENCE CURRICULUM Although preplanning of such curriculum is difficult, designing it is necessary. All the persons concerned with the process, must be consulted. It is a democratic process and nobody is ignored therein. Pupils particularly, must be involved in the curriculum construction. Rather, each learner has to select his own curriculum. The following steps may be taken care of in designing a curriculum: 1. Selecting a few experiences for study relevant to a particular stage of development. 2. Defining area of such selected experiences, i.e scope of study. 3. Ensuring continuity of such experiences in order to make learning effective. 4. Stimulating children to use their best judgment at the time and situation. 237 5. Evaluating the process as it operates continuously in developing experiences. 6. Maintaining proper human relations and rapport for designing the curriculum. The role of the teacher is to guide and motivate. He should be clear about the learner's needs and interests, their developmental problems—physical, mental, emotional and spiritual. In earlier stage planning is made on daily or weekly basis. Subsequently it is done for a month or a year. Parents and teachers must be in constant correspondence. The management and supervisors also must allow reasonable freedom and flexibility. The community resources both physical and human should be utilised for organising educational programmes. Although development of such curriculum seems to be impracticable, it can be done with imagination, resourcefulness and with knowledge of various contingencies that can be encountered with. Of course, it is more difficult to plan an experience-centred curriculum than a subject centred one and requires longer period and more caution. The Secondary Education Commission, 1952 has laid down the following principles that are fairly applicable to this curriculum planning: 1. The curriculum should include all the activities planned and organised by the school whether inside or outside its campus. 2. There should be sufficient variety and elasticity to meet individual needs and interests. 3. The curriculum should be closely related to the community life. It must provide for productive activities suitable to local needs and conditions.

4. It must be devised to train pupils both for work and leisure. It should provide for a variety of activities, social, aesthetic, physical and emotional. 5. Different elements of the curriculum must be interrelated and well-integrated with adequate scope for better correlation.

ADVANTAGES OF EXPERIENCE-CENTRED CURRICULUM 1. This curriculum helps self-realisation of learners. 2. It develops social efficiency. 3. It increases individual competence. 4. It facilitates better interaction between students and teachers. 5. It is democratic in spirit. 238 6. It is collaborative in nature. 7. It makes learning meaningful and durable. 8. It provides for life-long education. 9. It promotes individual initiative, imagination and interests. 10. It provides for vocational and productive education.

LIMITATIONS 1. It calls for superior calibre and competence of teachers which are not ordinarily forthcoming. 2. It needs planning with knowledge of various contingencies and cautions which are usually absent. 3. It demands for sufficient funds and physical facilities in all schools, which are beyond the reach of any management or even of the Government. 4. Routine-bound and examination-dominated education system is not favourable to the development of experiencecentred curriculum.

CORE CURRICULUM A curriculum provides a series of activities necessary for the development of the child. It is often meant as a general plan, a common programme and a steel framework for all children reading a particular course of studies. But children have come from various environments of backgrounds which would give different experiences essential for their education. Hence, they cannot benefit equally from the same curriculum constructed for average children. Children coming from educated families or rich environments or those who are gifted, cannot find the curriculum stimulating and interesting as they are usually ahead of others. Similarly, those children who come from deprived environments or poor families or are backward cannot take advantage of the same curriculum as they are usually deficient or slow learners. But for a particular stage of education or a course of studies, one curriculum is laid down for all. In this process, individual development is sacrified and no scope is given for children coming from varied backgrounds or environments. Such general curriculum of rigid and inform nature is applied in all totalitarian countries. No flexibility, variety and dyanamism are allowed in the system. But core curriculum seeks to provide broad areas of experience with variety and flexibility. So it caters to the needs of all and satisfies the 239 individual abilities and conditions at the same time. Sometimes the minimum learning experiences for all and additional experiences for different groups are provided in the curriculum. The core curriculum caters to the needs of minimum learning experiences which are obligatory for all children. As the number of subjects in the curriculum is increased, no justice is given to any subject. The child also gets bewildered and teachers superficial in their subjects. Therefore,

important subjects like arithmetic, reading, writing, science, social studies are made compulsory for all students. Other subjects like Sanskrit, music, religious teaching, sports, handicrafts, etc. may be taken as optional subjects. Sometimes a centre of interest or central theme is determined and learning experiences are organised around the same. Thus, experiences are provided taking that central theme as the core. For example, basic education adopted one craft as the central subject and arithmetic, history, geography, mother tongue, music, etc. were taught around that craft. That craft or central subject was, of course, selected, suiting to the local needs and conditions. The principles of correlation and integration were practised through that curriculum. The concept of core curriculum was given currency by the recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission. Some subjects are regarded as central as well as obligatory and curriculum is developed taking those subjects as the core of it. Besides, languages and mathematics, general science and social studies are considered essential for all students. That is, topics of vital interest and current importance are included in the curriculum and learning experiences are provided on the same. At present, the curriculum for 10 + 2 + 3 pattern of education has been accepted by most of the states including Orissa. The "frame-work" developed by the NCERT has provided a number of subjects as core curriculum and also visualised some special subjects in view of the local needs and conditions. It has been laid down that the details of a core curriculum might be drawn on the national objective for all secondary schools and special needs of the talented, the backward and those coming from non-formal channels have to be looked into where possible schools should provide additional units for those who are keenly interested in, say, mathematics or home science or painting, etc. or those offer to study one or another advanced unit. Students coming from the less fortunate schools or from non-formal education may also need remedial units or bridging units which particular schools would have to provide. Thus, the core curriculum provides for national as well 240 as regional requirements and individual as well as social needs. It seeks to promote flexibility, autonomy and freedom in the educational system.

REFERENCES Good, Carter, Dictionary of Education, McGraw Hill Book Co. Ins., New York, 1959. Mudaliar, A.L. et al, The Secondary Education Commission, Government of India Press, Nasik 1995. Kelly, A.V., The Curriculum: Theory and Practice, Harper and Row, London, 1977. Brubacher, Modern Philosophies of Education, McGraw Hill, New York, 1950. Kothari, D.S., et al., The Indian Education Commission, 1954-66, Govt. of India Press, New Delhi, 1966. Bloom, B. ed., Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook-I Cognitive Domain, New York, David Makay, 1965. Chandra, Arvind, Curriculum Development and Evaluation in Education, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1977. Taba, Hilda, Curriculum Development Theory and Practice, New York Harcourt, 1962. Kerr, J.E., "The Problem of Curriculum Reforms in the Curriculum Context, Design and Development et al., Richard Hopper Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 1977. Faure Edgar, et al, Learning to be. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1977. NCERT, The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School: A Framework, 1975. 241

25 Curriculum Reconstruction CURRICULUM: MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE Curriculum is the sum-total of all learning experiences that are provided under the educational institution through its

different programmes, curricular as well as co-curricular. All this aims at bringing about desired changes in the learners. Curriculum is considered as synonymous to "syllabus", "courses", etc. It is, in fact, an organised plan of course—outlines along with the objectives and learning experiences to be used for the achievement of the desired outcomes. Syllabus gives only the outlines of aims and objectives along with various activities to be organised in schools and colleges. Curriculum thus embraces all the activities that children experiences as learners in the school and which others organise for the purpose. The learner is required to undergo these activities under the purposeful direction of teachers. The whole gamut of activities that the child might participate in the school constitutes, curriculum. Some educationists mention "hidden curriculum" to mean distinction between the whole of school activities or a part thereof. According to Kelly (1977) hidden curriculum means those things which pupils learn because of the way in which the work of the school is planned and organised but which are in themselves overtly included in the planning or even in the consciousness of those responsible for the school arrangements. Social roles and ethos, sex roles and attitudes to many other aspects of living are instances of such activities. Stenhouse (1975) has remarked, "A curriculum is an attempt to communicate the essential principles and features of an educational proposal in such a form that it is open to critical scrutiny and capable of effective translation into practice." According to Kerr (1968) curriculum includes "all the learning which is planned and guided by school whether 242 it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside the school. These definitions very well emphasize the planning, organisation and evaluation of the learning activities. A very comprehensive and more specific definition of curriculum has been given by the Secondary Education Commission (1953). It says that "curriculum does not mean only the academic subjects traditionally taught in the school, but it includes the totality of experiences that a pupil receives through the manifold activities that go in the school, in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop, play-ground and in the numerous informal contacts between teachers and pupils. In this sense the whole life of a school becomes the curriculum which can touch the life of the student at all points and help him in the education of a balanced personality."

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: FACTORS AND FOUNDATIONS The curriculum of a country like its Constitution reflects the ethos of the nation and its chief concerns and commitments. It prepares individuals of the country to be useful and productive citizens. In such preparation it is necessary to take into consideration the knowledge of how learning occurs and what factors facilitate learning, the knowledge of sociopsychological aspects of learning process that go to constitute curriculum development. Curriculum is developed by cross-currents of various factors and cross-fertilisation of multifarious ideas and philosophies. All these constitute the function of curriculum planning. The emerging objectives, the philosophy of education, culture, learning theories, and knowledge warrant change in curriculum. Research studies are undertaken to determine significant changes and also to inhibit unhealthy trends from influencing the curriculum. Curriculum development is known as currirenewal and so on. According to Arvinda Chandra (1977) there are mainly four foundations of curriculum development e.g. (i) objectives and philosophy of education, (ii) culture and cultural patterns, (iii) phenomenon of learning, and (iv) nature of knowledge. The philosophy and objectives of education have influenced the curriculum development over the years. For example, the elementary education is influenced by universalisation, wastage, stagnation, Constitutional Directives and so on. The Secondary Education is shaped by objectives like democracy, socialism, secularism, vocational guidance, personality and leadership development, etc. The 243 considerations and concerns for social reconstruction and economic development also influence curriculum. All these concepts effect the major decisions regarding what knowledge is worth and how it should be acquired by the students. The scientific understanding of culture is another foundation of curriculum development. Culture embraces a wide range of human behaviour as well as material possessions and achievement. The manners and customs, the way of life, the values and mores constitute culture. When cultural values and educational system converge, the social and psychological balance is maintained, otherwise conflicts emerge. Every society has some accepted cultural goals or values which are of immediate importance. Merton (1973) has viewed goals as "purposes and interests held as legitimate objectives of all or for diversely located members of the society. The goals are more or less integrated......and roughly orders in the same hierarchy or values." The cultural goals shape the behaviour and values of the society and educational goals shape the

curriculum development. The phenomenon of learning is the third foundation of curriculum. A knowledge of the nature of man and the nature of learning is essential for curriculum development. The theories of learning show how learning takes place, what factors promote or retard learning, how motivation's is related to learning, how transfer of learning occurs, what cognitive processes are the basis to learning and so on. According to Taba (1962) decisions about what to teach at any given age-level is dependent on knowledge of characteristic thought-forms at various age-levels. Knowledge about transfer of learning can enable teachers to teach application of learning to life-situations. Various behavioural sciences also influence the theories of learning which are essential for curriculum development. The nature of knowledge is the fourth foundation of curriculum development. The quantity and quality of knowledge influences curriculum planning. The types of knowledge and the methods about acquiring this knowledge form an important factor in curriculum development. Due to explosion of knowledge the task of selecting significant content in various subjects has been complicated and challenging. Basic concepts should be woven into the whole fabric of curriculum. Levels and categories of knowledge have to be determined to bring order out of knowledge-explosion. These constraints largely influence curriculum development. 244 Besides, a large number of factors call for changes in curriculum. Since education is regarded as investment, the society expects some returns—output of an adequate number of young people who have acquired the knowledge and skills that the society needs for its development. New subjects and additions or omissions of the content are felt necessary in the curriculum. Technological change leads to changes in the values and norms of the society and thus exercises pressure for change in the curriculum. For example, pollution, population, environment, sanitation, etc. now bring their impact on curriculum. The social and moral values of the society have their effects on curriculum development. Since abilities of students are of great importance, changes in their abilities force curriculum framers for bringing about changes. The new media, materials and methods no doubt bring to bear their impact on curriculum development. Political and academic factors of great significance also influence the same.

HISTORY OF CURRICULUM RECONSTRUCTION During the Freedom Struggle the School Curriculum was criticised to be an autocratic mould for producing white-collared English-knowing baboos. Gandhijee started craft-centred Basic Education as an alternative approach in tune with the Indian heritage. The Report of the Education Commission (1966) sought to incorporate the best features of the Basic Education with emphasis on "internal transformation" of education in relation to the life, needs and aspirations of the country. The values enshrined in the Constitution of India like socialism, secularism, democracy were gradually reflected in the education system in general and curriculum in particular. A pioneering step was taken by Gandhiji to revamp and renovate the curriculum in order to suit to a modernised and egalitarian society. He suggested a scheme of compulsory education for which he developed the following curriculum: (i) Craft—spinning, weaving, gardening, book craft, leather work, clay and potter, fisheries, etc., (ii) Mother tongue, (iii) Social studies, (iv) Mathematics, (v) General science, (vi) Art including drawing, music, aesthetics, (vii) Hindi, and (viii) Games and physical activities. The Secondary Education Commission (1953) pointed out that the curriculum for secondary schools had been narrowly conceived, bookish and theoretical. It was over-crowded and made inadequate provision for practical and other kinds of activities in order to educate the whole of 245 the personality. It was dominated too much examinations and did not include technical and vocational subjects in order to enable students to share effectively in the industrial and economic development of the country. The Commission, therefore, suggested the following broadlines of the middle school curriculum for educating children in citizenship and productivity. I. Language (Mothertongue, Regional Language and Hindi), II. Social Studies, III. General Science,

IV. Mathematics, V. Art and Music, VI. Craft, and VII. Physical Education. The following broadlines of curriculum were suggested for High Schools by the Commission: A. (i) Mothertongue or Regional language or a composite course of the Mothertongue and a classical language, (ii) One other language to be chosen from among the following. Hindi (for non-Hindi areas), Elementary English, Advanced English, a modern Indian language, a modern foreign language, (other than English), a classical language. B. (i) Social studies—general course for first two years only. (ii) General Science including Mathematics for first two years only. C. One craft to be chosen from the following list, (a) spinning & weaving, (b) woodwork, (c) metal work, (d) Gardening, (e) Tailoring, (f) Typography, (g) workshop practice, (h) Sewing, Needlework and Embroidery, and (i) Modelling. D. Three subjects from one of the following groups, (i) Humanities, (ii) Sciences, (iii) Technical, (iv) Commercial, (v) Agriculture, (vi) Fine Arts, (vii) Home Science. E. Besides the above a student may take at his option one additional subject from any of the above groups irrespective of whether or not he has chosen his other options from that particular group. The Kothari Commission (1966) emphasising "internal transformation" of education suggested the following measures for curriculum reconstruction: 246 (i) Most of the curricular revision attempted so far has been of an adhoc character and no careful research undertaken earlier to it. So the first step to be taken is systematic curricular research. The findings of experts instead of haphazard and whimsical action, should not lead to curriculum changes. (ii) Curricular revision could not be followed by preparation of suitable learning materials. But production of suitable textbooks is basic to the success of any curricular improvement. (iii) Curricula were used to be prepared at the state level and were prescribed uniformly for all schools of the State. So no teachers were involved in the process of curriculum development. Hence, they should be adequately associated with the process of planning curricula. (iv) Since teachers are to play a crucial role, they have to understand and appreciate the chief features of the new curriculum. Besides their teacher competence and skills should be improved in order to do justice to the new curricula. Hence, an extensive programme of in-service education consisting of seminars and refresher courses should be organised for orienting teachers with the revised curricula. (v) A curriculum should be related to the quality of teachers, the facilities available in the school and the needs of the students with reference to their socio-economic background. (vi) Schools should be encouraged to try out experimental curricula. As there is need for greater initiative and more competence on the part of the school, a liberal attitude and proper understanding of the management as well as curricula are necessary. (vii) Advanced curricula should be prepared and introduced progressively in all schools and all the subjects thorough a phased programme spread over a number of years. Ordinary curriculum should be used by the majority of schools and advanced curriculum by good schools with adequate facilities. (viii) Subject Teachers' Associations should be encouraged for different school subjects, and these would help in stimulating initiative, experimentation and upgrading the curricula. The Commission suggested a curriculum of the first ten years of schooling and a scheme of multi-purpose schools. The following are the broad areas of curricular studies for various stages suggested by the Commission: 247

1. Lower Primary Stage (Classes-I-IV) (a) one language—the mother-tongue or the regional language, (b) Mathematics, (c) Study of the Environment (covering Science and Social Sudies in Classes III and IV), (d) Creative Activities, (e) Work-experience and Social service, and (f) Health Education. 2. Higher Primary Stage (Classes-V-VII) (a) Two languages—(i) the mother-tongue or the regional language, and (ii) Hindi or English. (Note: A third language e.g. English, Hindi or regional language may be studied on optional basis), (b) Mathematics, (c) Science, (d) Social studies (History, Geography and Civics), (e) Arts, (f) Work-experience and social service, (g) Physical Education, and (h) Education in Moral and Spiritual Values. (3) Lower Secondary Stage (Classes-VIII-X) (a) Three languages. In non-Hindi-speaking areas, these languages will normally be: (i) the mother-tongue or the regional language, (ii) Hindi at a higher or lower level, (iii) English at a higher or lower level. In Hindi-speaking areas, they would normally be (i) the mother-tongue or the regional language, (ii) English (or Hindi) if English has already been taken as the mother-tongue and (iii) a modern Indian Language other than Hindi. (Note: A classical language may be studied in addition to the above three languages on an optional basis): (b) Mathematics, (c) Science, (d) History, Geography and Civics, (e) Arts, (f) Work-experience and Social Service, (g) Physical Education, and (h) Education in Moral and Spriritual Values. The Commission laid stress on the "Vocationalisation of Secondary Education" and for this it suggested a long list of subjects. In this 248 context Kochhar (1981) has aptly observed, "Thus it is obvious that the Commission was mainly guided by two schools of philosophy—Pragmatism and Essentialism. By outlining a programme of vocational education it relied on pragmatism. It further advocated that the school curriculum should be geared to the essentials or fundamentals". The Commission underlined national development as one of the most important concerns of education and visualised it as an instrument of peaceful social "change on a grand scale". The new curricula were suggested by the Commission for realising these objectives.

During the succeeding years nation-wide discussion was made on formulation of new curricula for various stages of education. A framework then emerged and published by the NCERT in 1975. It emphasized adequate flexibility and dynamism in its provisions for coping with expanding frontiers of knowledge and changing socio-economic conditions of our society. It has rightly remarked, "Curriculum renewal should not be a sporadic and periodic effort. It has to be necessary component of any curriculum development at any stage. This means that the educational system of a State (as well as at the Centre) has to have a built-in mechanism for curriculum renewal." The school curriculum has to be made relevant and related social justice, national integration, productivity, modernisation and cultivation of desired value. The Report of the International Commission on Education (UNESCO) entitled "Learning To Be" says that for a long time in the human history education has remained segregated from life and work. When one goes to school, does not work and one when goes to work, does not read. This dichotomy between work and education is unnatural and should be done away with. This report also emphasised self-learning and use of new methods, media and materials for the purpose. That is why, the N.C.E.R.T. besides endorsing the above views, has laid stress on education of drop-outs, multiple entry, semester system, core curriculum, modernised textbooks and other learning materials, etc. for realising these objectives. The scheme of the areas of school work and the time allocation as suggested by the NCERT are as follows: Areas of School Work Percentage of Total Time Classes I and II 1. First Language 25 2. Mathematics 10 3. Environmental studies 15 (Social Studies and General Science) 249 4. Work Experience and Arts 25 5. Health Education and Games 25 Total 100 Classes I11, IV and V Percentage of Total Time 1. First language 25 2. Mathematics 15 3. Environmental Studies I 10 (Social Studies) 4. Environmental Studies II 10 (General Science) 5. Work experience and the Arts 10 6. Health Education and Games 20 Total 100 Classes VI and VII-VI11 Periods 1. First Language continues 8 and a second language is added 5 (Hindi or English) 2. Mathematics (including Algebra 7 & Geometry)

3. Social Science (History, Geography, 6 Civics) 4. Science (Physical and Life Sciences) 7 5. The Arts 4 6. Work Experience 5 7. Physical Education and Games 6 Total 48 Classes IX and X Periods 1. The First and second language 6 continued and a third language added 5 (English or any other Indian Language) 2 2. Mathematics (including Algebra and Geometry) 7 3. Social Sciences (History, Geography, Civics, etc.) 7 4. Science (the physical and life sciences) 7 5. The arts 3 6. Work experience 5 7. Physical and Health Education and Games. 6 250 Total 148 The above timing-distribution and scheduling is tentative as well as suggestive. The Ishwarbhai Patel Committee set up for reappraisal of the NCERT ten-year school curriculum suggested for three main components of the curriculum—Humanities, Science and Socially Useful Productive Work (SUPW). The following curriculum pattern along with time allocation was given by the Committee for the different stages of school education. Classes I-V

Time Allocation

1. One language

20%

2. Mathematics

20%

3. Environmental Studies (Social Studies, Nature Study and Health Education)

20%

4. Socially Useful Productive work

20%

5. Games and Creative Activities (Music, Dance and Painting)

20% Total 100%

Classes VI-VIII

Time Allocation

1. Languages

7 hours

2. Mathematics

4 hours

3. History, Civics and Geography

4 hours

4. Science—an integrated course

4 hours

5. Arts (Music, Dancing and Painting)

3 hours

6. Socially Useful Productive Work and Community Service

6 hours

7. Games, Physical Education and Supervised Study

4 hours Total 32 hours

Classes IX-X

Time Allocation (per week)

1. Languages

8 hours

2. Mathematics: Alternative I or Alternative II

4 hours

3. Science, Alternative I (Theory and Practical or Alternative-II)

5 hours

4. History, Civics and Geography (as one course)

3 hours

5. One of the following: Arts (Music, Dancing, Painting, etc.) Home Science, Agriculture, Commerce, 2 hours Economics, Social Reconstruction, Classical Language. Classes IX-X

Time Allocation (per week)

6. Socially Useful Productive Work and Community Service

6 hours

7. Games, Physical Education and Supervised study

4 hours Total 32 hours

251 The National Review Committee for + 2 curriculum under the chairmanship of Malcolm S. Adiseshiah recommended the curriculum for General Education and Vocationalised spectrum. The allocation of time for the General Education spectrum at the + 2 Stage is as follows: Course Content Time Allocation 1. Languages 15% 2. Socially Useful Productive work 15% 3. Electives 70% The Electives suggested by the Committee are: Languages (i) other than the one offered as a compulsory language, Mathematics, Economics, Chemistry, Political Science, Geography, Sociology, Biology, Philosophy, History, Fine Arts, Physical Education, Commerce and Accountancy, Psychology, Physics, Home Science. The allocation of time for Vocationalised spectrum is as follows: Course Content Time Allocation 1. Language(s) 15% 2. General Foundation Course 15% 3. Elective subjects 70% The Vocational subjects suggested by the Committee are: Inland Fisheries, Basic Programme in Fruit and Vegetables, Agriculture, Farm Mechanics, Soil and Water Conservation, Small-scale and Cottage Industries, Animal Management, Small Farm Management and Rural Reconstruction Technology, Educational Services, Business and Office Management, Journalism, Para-Medical, Home Science and other general services, etc. The Ishawarbhai Committee recommended that in each subject, the main ideas should be given and the concerned agencies/bodies/schools 252

should fill in the details. The subjects should be few, but important and whatever subjects would be taught, should be taught thoroughly.

NPE, 1986: NEW CURRICULUM The National Policy on Education, 1986 has called for changes in the curriculum at various stages. It emphasized: "The curricula and process of education will be enriched by cultural content in as many manifestations as possible. Children will be enabled to develop sensitivity to beauty, harmony and refinement". In this context, "National Curriculum for Primary and Secondary Education—A Framework", 1985 was developed by NCERT as a result of quick appraisal of the existing curricula and discussions as well as deliberations by various working groups, steering committees and Seminars at the national level. The much-cherished constitutional imperatives, socio-cultural factors, pedagogical concerns, etc. were taken into consideration in this connection. The National Curriculum Framework (1985) has the following basic features: (i) Emphasis on the attainment of the personal and social goals and propagation of values enshrined in the Constitution. (ii) The development of human resources for the realisation of the national goals of development, (iii) Broad-based general education in all learners at the Primary and secondary stages, (iv) Learner-centred approach rather than the teacher-centred approach to the transaction of the curriculum. (v) Provision for flexibility in terms of selection of content and learning experiences which would facilitate the attainment of the expected learning outcomes. (vi) Applicability of the curriculum to all learners irrespective of their modes of learning, (vii) Provision of threshold resources (physical and academic) necessary for effective transaction of the curriculum in all schools/non-formal learning centres. The essential learnings envisaged in the curriculum would be attained through a common scheme of studies at the primary and secondary stages. A curriculum based on these essential learnings and a common scheme of studies is known as the core curriculum. As pointed out in the National Curriculum (1986), "The core curriculum, therefore, will 253 be centred around certain essential learning outcomes common for all learners. It will thus provide basic uniformity to the expected attainments of learners and standards of education throughout the country. The core curriculum will, therefore, augment mobility of the learners, both lateral and horizontal, within and between different modes of learning. However, the core curriculum will be characterised by a great degree of flexibility in respect of content and designing learning experience based on local situations. The essential learnings under the core curriculum would be provided through content and learning experience related to different subject areas. The core curriculum or common scheme of studies as suggested by the NCERT (1980) for various stages is given below: (a) Pre-Primary Education The basic mode of learning of children at this stage should be through group activities and play-way techniques, language games, number games and activities directed to promote environmental awareness, etc. These should be used to make the learning experience joyful to children. No formal teaching of subjects should be undertaken at this stage. (b) Lower Primary Stage Percentage of Time Allocation (i) One language—the mother-tongue or the regional language 30 (ii) Environmental Studies

15

(iii) Mathematics

15

(iv) Work experience/Socially Useful Productive Work

20

(v) Art Education

10

(vi) Health and Physical Education

10 Total: 100

(c) Upper Primary Stage (i) Three Languages

32

(ii) Science

10

(iii) Mathematics

12

(iv) Social Sciences

12

(v) Work Experience/Socially Useful Productive Work 12 (vi) Art Education

10

(vii) Health and Physical Education

12 Total: 100

254 (d) Secondary Stage (i) Three Languages

30

(ii) Science

8

(iii) Mathematics

12

(iv) Social Science

12

(v) Contemporary India

6

(vi) Work Experience/ Socially Useful Productive Work 12 (vii) Art Education

8

(viii) Health and Physical Education

12 Total 100

NPE: IMPLICATIONS AND INTERVENTIONS The parameters of the NPE, its implications and interventions with particular reference to curriculum as worked out in the Programme of Action Document (1986) are given below: 1. Access to education of a comparable quality for all irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex. 2. Introduction of the norm of minimum levels of learning for different stages and provision of threshold facilities (Operation Blackboard) so that learning becomes a more enjoyable experience even for slow learners. 3. Articulation of a national system of education with a common structure, national curricular framework which contains a common core. 4. Examination reform and introduction of evaluation as an on-going process in schools for the improvement of teaching and learning. 5. Development of culture-specific curricula and instructional material for the tribal people and educationally deprived minority groups keeping in view their rich cultural identity. 6. Overhauling of the system of teacher education and strengthening of the technical and resource support structures, including the establishment of District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET). 255 7. Decentralisation of educational administration, creation of a spirit of autonomy for educational institutions with greater role assigned to the institutional heads and development of professionalism among teachers. 8. Promotion of non-governmental and voluntary efforts and people's participation for giving impetus to innovative ideas

and practices and mobilisation of resources. 9. Effective use of modern communication technology for generation and dissemination of educational programmes, training packages, and for creating awareness. The intervention programmes would broadly cover orientation in curricular areas, in-service teacher training, support systems, use of technology for motivation and monitoring. The modes of intervention and the corresponding programmes as deduced from the NPE are as follows: (a) Content Reorientation 1. National Core Curriculum 2. Revised Work Experience Programme 3. National Curricular Framework, Syllabi and Instruction Packages (b) Process Reorientation 4. Reorientation of In-service Teachers 5. Special Training Programmes for In-service Teachers in (i) Work Experience (ii) Art Education (iii) Physical Education 6. Examination Reform (i) Reorientation of functionaries and teachers through special programmes (ii) Establishment of Educational Testing Service (c) Both Content and Process 7. Strengthening of the Technical Support System (i) Existing Institutions (ii) Linkages and Networking (iii) Establishment of DIET (d) Mobilisation and Motivation 8. Communication Technology (i) Terrestrial Radio & TV (ii) Audio and Video Cassetes Service (iii) Micro Computer, Electronic Notice Board and Teletext 256 9. Networking of non-traditional Resource centres, Voluntary agencies and Social Activities of groups, (e) Triggering and Monitoring 10. Planning, Budgeting, Coordinating, Monitoring Network.

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES Within view to ensuring the effectiveness of curriculum reconstruction At is imperative to develop professional support

for in-service training of teachers and supervisors, educational technology support for communication efficacy, infrastructure for teaching of work experience/ SUPW, and institutional and organisational reform for increasing knowledge and skills. According to POA (1986) the reorientation of content is proposed to be brought about by simultaneously launching three programmes. The approach to be followed in the preparation of instructional package is linked with the method of teaching, learning and evaluation recommended under the national curriculum framework. Similarly, there is a need to reorient the educational personnel responsible for management, supervision and for provision of technical and logical support." The strategies for implementing the national curriculum are linked with (i) reorientation of teachers and other education personnel, (ii) development of professional capability at all levels, (iii) phased preparation, production and distribution of textbooks and other instructional materials. In order to achieve these objectives it would be necessary to decentralise the technical support system and to standardise the methodology for diffusion of the programmes with reasonable flexibility. To ensure success of the process, a good number of curriculuar/learning materials have to be brought out by the NCERT and other organisations. The implementation of the national curriculum in a systematic manner by the educational authorities would be to a great extent depend on the creation of a favourable climate both within the education system and at the societal levels. The present organisation structure should be made more efficient through suitable measures administrative as well as academic. In order to provide professional guidance at different stages of implementation, administrative programmes need be planned, organised, evaluated and coordinated "by dedicated groups responsible for providing professional guidance at different levels of implementation". 257 A large number of institutions should be identified at various levels for providing technical support and expertise. POA has rightly observed, "Since NCERT and the State Directorates of Education, SCERT/SIE and Boards of Education are engaged in the implementation of several collaboration programmes over a long period, the whole operation of recorienting the content and precess of education should be jointly planned by NCERT and the State agencies concerned. Accordingly a detailed plan of action was designed and mass in-service training programmes were carried on in quick succession for teachers at various levels. Immediate steps are being taken for monitoring and reporting to the concerned authorities on implementation of various programmes. Development, Production and Distribution of suitable textbooks, guidebooks, workbooks, handbooks and other support materials have been crucial issues in view of their vastness, variety and time-boundness.

CONCLUSION The National Curriculum needs to be realised in action through various instructional meterials, appropriate teaching, learning and evaluation norms. The National, State and other educational authorities to be strongly committed and deeply involved in these programmes. The curriculum guides, model syllabi and exemplary materials are being produced by the NCERT at the national level. Necessary review and evaluation of the existing textbooks and other learning materials are being undertaken for bringing about desired improvements. The NCERT has been assigned the responsibility of bringing model syllabi and exemplary instructional materials in the following ten core curricular areas: 1. History of India's Freedom Movement. 2. Constitutional obligations. 3. Content Essential to Nurture National Identity. 4. India's Common Cultural Heritage. 5. Egalitarianism, Democracy and Secularism. 6. Equality of Sexes. 7. Protection of the Environment. 8. Removal of Social Barriers. 9. Observance of the Small Family Norm.

10. Inculcation of the Scientific Temper. 258 Besides, NCERT is required to bring out exemplary packages on 20 activities which should be organised by schools under the curriculum area of Work Experience as model programmes. The teacher has to play a pivotal role in implementing the new curricula. He has to know and understand the content and process of learning, elaborate and interpret the syllabi and textbooks, analysis and concretise the curricular elements, provide relevant learning experiences adopting various teaching-learning strategies in realisation of objectives, produce learning resource materials including teaching aids from locally available low-cost materials, make effective utilisation of various mass media like radio, television, etc. and evaluate the learning outcomes of students systematically and continuously. It is therefore emphasized in the NPE, 1986 that "no people can rise above the level of its teachers. The Government and the community should endeavour to create conditions which will help motivate and inspire teachers on constructive lines.

REFERENCES Govt. of India, Report of the Secondary Education Commission, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1953. Govt. of India, Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1966 Govt. of India, National Policy on Education, 1986, Ministry of Human Resource Development, (Deptt. of Education), New Delhi, 1986. Govt. of India, Programme of Action, MHRD (Deptt. of Education), New Delhi, 1986. Kelly, A.V., The Curriculum: Theory and Practice, Harper and Row, London, 1977. Kerr, I.E., "The Problem of Curriculum Reform" in The Curriculum Context, Design and Development, edit, Rechard Hopper Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 1977. Kochhar, S.K., Pivotal Issues in Indian Education Sterling, Publishers, New Delhi, 1981. Mohanty, J., Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1984. NCERT, National Curriculum for Primary and Secondary Education: A framework, New Delhi, 1985. NCERT, The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School: A Framework, New Delhi, 1975. Stenhouse, D., An Introduction to Curriculum Research & Development, Heinemann, London, 1976. Taba, Hilda, Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, Harcourt, New York, 1962. 259

26 Elementary Education as Human Resource Development 1. HUMAN RIGHT TO EDUCATION A Chinese saying rightly points out: "If you are planning for one year, plant grains; If you are planning for ten years, plant trees, If you are planning for a hundred years, plant men" The Golden Wisdom of this proverb indicates that man is the measure of all things, and he is the key to all development for a longer period. Manpower planning is always a long-term one and of far-reaching significance. With a view to bringing about lasting improvement of a society, it is felt imperative to develop its human resources at first. In this context, education is regarded as the potential investment of national development. Education mainly deals with improvement of human resources. It is through education that a nation transmits its heritage, recreates its culture, strengthens its economy and conserve its values. It is the means of promoting "individual excellence" as Nunn has said. It

is due to such immense importance that education has been enunciated as one of the fundamental human rights. The Charter of Human Rights framed by the United Nations Organization in 1948 declares: (a) Everybody has the right to education. Education shall be free, atleast in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education will be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. 260 (b) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations racial or religious groups and shall further the activities of the United Nations (Francois, 1948).

2. EDUCATION FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Although there is still a vast gap between such announcement and real achievement, continuous attempts are being made at the national as well as international level for universalizing and reinforcing education. It is mainly through education that development of all nations has been or can be brought about. Since development is multi-dimensional, multipronged efforts are to be made for making education effective and relevant to the life, needs and aspirations of the society. Saxena (1979) has therefore, aptly observed, "governmental is a multi-dimensional process and it can be meaningful if the people are given opportunities to develop individual excellence and this contribute to the advancement of the society." Education is especially an effective means of economic development. The relationship between education and economic development is very close and this has been realised even by the classical economists like Adam Smith, Alfred Marshall and so on. Marshall was a great exponent of such relationship has expressed his concern for the presence of a large number of unskilled workers whose working conditions were miserable and whose cultural as well as educational equipment was poor. He therefore strongly demanded for a high expenditure on education and bitterly criticized the people who denied necessary funds for financing educational programmes. Dr. V.K.R.V. Rao (1964) said "He (Marshall) repeatedly emphasized the role of skills in increasing production and specifically identified education not only as a target but also as an instrument of economic development. But somehow the relationship between education and economic development through fully described in Marshall's works, did not catch the attention either of economists or of educations." It is only during the postwar period that education has come into its own as both a condition and stimulant for economic growth. Karl Marx laid emphasis on free universal education and pointed out that his desired class struggle could be promoted with the help of mass 261 education. He also rightly observed that a society that is divided into an owning class and a working class would never have free and equal opportunity of education of the masses. Advocating for combining productive work with education, Marx appreciated the initiative taken by Robert Owen who set up a school in his factory in Scotland during 1799. The school was meant for the children apprentices to impart moral, physical and intellectual training. Marx (1954) mentioned, "From the factory system budded as Robert Owen has shown us in detail, the germ of the education of the future, an education that will in the case of every child over a given age, combine productive labour with instruction and gymnastics not only as one of the methods of adding to the efficiency of production, but as the only method of producing fully developed human beings."

3. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES THROUGH EDUCATION Human resources are the most important factor in any economic endeavour. Particularly in the developing countries it is more significant in terms of trained and skilled manpower. The additional capital may be available from abroad which is generally used for formation of infrastructure and equipment. But human capabilities do not keep pace with physical resources and becomes limiting factors in economic development. According to Schultz (1964) the process as followed for estimating physical capital formation can be followed for the formation of human capital, that is, by the expenditure to produce them. Since the expenditure on human resources enhances knowledge and skill, they also increases the value productivity of human efforts and yield a positive role of return. The important programme that improve human capability are: (a) health facilities and services that include all expenditure that affect life expectancy, (b) on-the-job training, (c) formally organised education at elementary, secondary and higher levels, (d) study programmes including extension services, and (e) migration of individual's families to adjust to changing job opportunities. Thus, out of these, education is a very important component and expenditure in education is regarded as investment.

Efficiency and working capacity can be increased by means of education and training. The acquired knowledge and skill test adds to productive capacity of an individual to taken as capital from economic point of view. Development of human resources through education and 262 training is capable of bringing positive returns to the individual and community resources. That is why, expenditure in education is productive in the sense that it pays back and leads to acceleration of economic growth. Rao (1964) has therefore remarked, "Since education is considered an investment leading to economic growth, this is a very good way of getting more funds for education. Many educationists, therefore, started talking of education and economic development to justify their demands for more money for education."

4. THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL STUDIES Attempts have been made through theoretical as well as empirical studies to assess the economic contributions of education and several approaches have been developed by economists and educationists. There are mainly four approaches of determining the contributions of education to economic growth. There are: (a) the simple correlation approach, (b) the residual approach, (c) the return to education approach, and (d) the forecasting manpower needs approach. Explaining the first approach. Mishra (1975) has said, "The simple correlation approach consists of correlating some overall index of educational activity. Inter-country correlations at a fixed point in time constitute one of the well known member of this group. In this approach the emolument ratios and GNP per capita, have been correlated. Similarly, inter-temporal correlations inter-industry and inter-firm have been made. In case of inter-temporal correlation approach, education and GNP within a given country over time are correlated. In case of inter-industry and inter-firm correlation approach such measures as proportion of work force that had training beyond school level or percentage of gross receipt spent on research and development activities are adopted. Correlation can then be made between one of these indices of educational emphasis and the profitability of industry or firm. The second approach of residual factors is the outcome of the economists' attempts to analyse the factors that contribute to the growth of the national economy and to an increase in the national income. It is realised that investment alone did not explain the whole process of economic growth. It is of course found that investment in terms of physical inputs like coal, steel, power equipment and raw materials not only fails to explain the whole process of economic growth, but also can not account for the rate of economic growth. The economists have discovered "that besides capital, there is another factor which may be 263 desired as residual factor that contributes more than 50 percent to the quantum of growth. This residual factor consists of so many components including some invisible elements. Among these components education forms a significant part of the residual factor. The other components are science and technology organisation and innovation and certain entrepreneurial qualities. Thirdly, the Direct Return to Education Approach Studies the economic consequences of education by contrasting the lifetime earnings of people who had more education with these of people who had more education with these of people who had less of education. The additional earnings of the educated persons can be expressed as an annual percentage rate of returns on the cost of obtaining education. Thus, the educational benefits are related to educational costs in a way that provides useful information concerning the adequacy of overall level of investment in education and extent to which economic benefits accrue to private individuals. But there are certain difficulties in this approach, for instance, persons with some educational qualification may differ in terms of other attributes which are likely to influence earnings. Besides, there may be some non-monetary attractions in direct benefit of jobs. Fourthly, the forecasting manpower needs approach aims at providing educational planners with information as to likely future needs for personnel with various kinds of training. Such forecasts may be expressed in terms of broad aggregates of people (e.g. matric, graduates, etc.) or in terms of specific occupational or in terms of specific occupational categories (physicists, economists, etc.) The great advantage of this approach is that it offers necessary guidelines for taking decision in the planning process. But one serious difficulty in this approach is that in a dynamic economy, future developments can not be foreseen adequately. During the first quarter of the current century when Lenin implemented the first great industrial plan for USSR the Soviet Economist Strrumlin in a communication to the Father of the Nation pleaded for adequate investment in education and mentioned therein that the big hydro electric power project, steel mills and machine tool factories and mechanised forming would not yield satisfactory results without suitable education and training. Lenin appreciated the suggestions of strrumlin and changed the pattern of planning by making necessary provisions for the mass education as a result of which within a

decade only more than 90 percent of the Soviet people could be made literate. Similarly in the USA, Benjamin Franklin was the first eminent American to emphasize the practical contributions of education to 264 agriculture, commerce and industry. He preferred the classical education of the day in favour of the useful knowledge and century later that view gave rise to Land Grant University Movement which placed higher education at the service of the total economy and all elements of the population. Technical high schools and vocational specializations in the community colleges were the outcomes of the same trend. Kerr (1969) has aptly observed that economic growth is a complex phenomenon and its requirements vary from stage of development and one situation to another. The United States has had less access to vast new inputs of labour and capital investment on a percentage basis. It has had to rely more heavily on other sources of growth. A recent study by Denisen (1967) shows education was a major source of growth. For the period from 1955 to 1962 Denisen claims more than one-fifth of the increase in national income per person employed is explained by higher educational levels. Advances in knowledge related particularly to higher education, added about one-fourth. It is also suggested by economists and educationists that even in future the US must rely increasingly on greater skill and better technology as sources of economic growth and both are based on education. Lastly Kerr (1969) has concluded," whatever the exact measure, education has increasingly been shown to be a basic and important element in carrying nations to higher levels of economic output as Benjamin Franklin intuitively sensed two centuries ago." After the Second World War, the United Kingdom faced a stringent economy for reconstruction and rehabilitation work in 1949. The Labour Party Government made comparatively less provisions for education and more provisions for developmental works. The Education Minister, however, threatened to resign if the Education provisions are not adequately augmented. He forcefully declared on the floor of the Parliament, Education is not an expenditure but an investment in man. It was realized by everybody that development of human resources could not be ignored in view of the rapid reconstruction. Consequently, sufficient funds were made available for educational development by the British Government.

5. MAN DOES NOT LIVE BY BREAD ALONE A few empirical studies have also established the positive correlation between education and economic growth between education and enrichment of personality. The monumental study (Myrdal, 1969) "Asian 265 Drama—An Enquiry into the Poverty of Nations" revealed this correlation in a lucid manner and emphasized the universalization of education for accelerating economic growth. Myrdal, the author of this study has put forth summary and conclusions in another publication entitled. "The challenge of world Poverty: An World Anti-Poverty Programme." In outline he stressed the need for radical reform in the entire educational system mostly of qualitative nature in the underdeveloped countries. The reforms are not for the quantity of education least of all, as simply measured by financial expenditure. Emphasis should also be given on "distribution spread" of the educational inputs among social classes and the two sexes. The reform should also concern what is taught with what intention, in what is taught, with what intention, in what spirit and with what effect for instance in regard to the willingness to perform manual work. Myrdal also points out that much education in the underdeveloped countries is miseducation and apt to raise impediments for development. He further agrues that the investment in man model is a sort of extended capital output model and so blocks the way to realistic and relevant research. Education is, of course, closely related to economic development. It should not be taken just as a functional concept. It should not be regarded just an instrument of economic growth. One should not take the impression that all education is linked with economic development. Rao (1964) rightly emphasized, "It is important to realize right from the start that education has a dual aspect. While education is necessary for the promotion of economic development, education is also essential for enjoying the fruits of life. One needs to be educated in order to be a better man, to have a richer life and to have a more integrated personality. We must never ignore what on-could call the self-discovering and the self-fulfilling aspect of education the aspect that relates to its enrichment of human personality. Thus, besides economic significance education has a great cultural importance which cannot be estimated in terms of money or tangible results. Because, man does not live by bread alone as declared in the Bible.

6. NATIONAL ASPIRATIONS OF INDIA

At the dawn of Independence on August 15, 1947 the resurgent India faced a large number of problems which are social, political and economic in nature and gigantic in magnitude. Although the country is endowed with rich natural resources, particularly human resources, the teeming 266 millions were engrossed with ignorance lethargy, illiteracy and poverty. In 1949 the new Constitution adopted by the Constituent Assembly laid the foundation of a sovereign democratic republic securing to all the citizens justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. As per the Constitutional Directive for universalization of elementary education for all the children in the age group from 6 to 14. There has been tremendous expansion of education not only at the school stage, but also at the tertiary and university level. However, it is complained that educational standard has deteriorated and education has not been related to the life, needs and aspirations of the society. The Indian Education Commission (1966) has rightly mentioned, "In a world based on science and technology, it is education that determines the level of prosperity, welfare and number of persons coming out of schools and colleges will depend on our success in the great enterprise of national reconstruction whose principal objective is to raise the standard of living of our people. The population of India or human resources are her greatest asset, but unfortunately it is, as told earlier, ill-equipped, ignorant illiterate in a large majority, unless they are awakened from the deep slumber, lifted from the cold lethargy and energised by the new light of hope and aspirations, they cannot do justice to their duties and responsibilities as free citizens and cannot contribute their best to the development of the country. Education may be regarded as the powerful instrument, not the panacea of course, of curing all these ailments and removing all the hurdles standing on the way of national reconstruction. It has to be used, as a potential means of social, economic and political change and will have to be related to the national goals the programmes of national development. Enunciating the problems of national development, the Commission has pointed out the shortage of food as "the first and most important" and colossal poverty of the masses, the large incidence of underemployment or unemployment allied to this. Lack of national integrity and democratic values are also some of the problems. But the Commission is confident that education properly reformed and adequately geared or revamped will bring about desired improvement in our national conditions. The Commission 1966 has cogently observed "In our opinion therefore as reform is more important or more urgent than to transform education, to endeavour to relate it to the life, needs and aspirations of the people and thereby make it a powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural transformation necessary for the realization of our national goals."' 267

7. DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES With a view to realizing national aspirations, the physical resources of the country are to the developed undoubtedly by mechanising agriculture, modernising industrialization, adopting a scientific technology, promoting capital formation and investment and providing the essential infrastructure of transport, credit, marketing and exchange facilities. But more important than this is the development of human resources though a properly organized programme of education. The Kothari Commission, 1966 has aptly remarked, "While the development of physical resources is a means to an end, that of human resources is an end, in itself and without it even the adequate development of physical resources is not possible." The reason enunciated by the Commission for the development of human resources have been made amply clear. The realization of the nation's hopes and aspirations involves change in the knowledge, skills, interests, attitudes and values of the people as a whole. This is very much fundamental at all programmes of social and economic development which India stands for and is called upon to implement heart and soul. For instance, there can be no hope of making the country selfsufficient in food unless the farmer himself is moved out of his age-old conservatism and is deeply interested as well as involved in a technology-based agriculture or mechanical farming and in high-yielding cultivation techniques. This is possible only through science-based education and motivation. This is also true of industry and all other sectors of life. The Commission has succinctly pointed out. Similarly, economic growth is not merely a matter of physical resources or of training in skilled workers; it needs the education of the whole population in new ways of life, thought and work. In this context the views of Robert Heilbrener (1963) who described such economic development as the "great ascent" are extremely significant. He strongly points out that the essential condition for its success is human change on a grand scale. The mere lay in of a core capital equipment, indispensable as that is for further economic expansion, does not yet catalyse a tradition bound society into a modern one. For that catalysis to take place, nothing short of a pervasive social transformation will suffice a wholesale metamorphosis of habits, a wrenching reorientation of values concerning time, status, money, work and an unweaving of the fabric of daily existence itself. 268

Such a change on a grand scale and without violent revolution can be brought about only by means of one powerful instrument i.e., education of course in collaboration with other agencies. The Kothari Commission, 1966 has observed that the national system of education is the only instrument that can reach all the people. It is not, however, a magic want to wave wishes into existence. It is a difficult instrument whose effective use required strength of will, dedicated work and secrifices. But it is a sure and tried, instrument which has served other countries well in their struggle for development. It can, given the will and the skill, do so for India.

8. INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION Due to such crucial importance of education, any expenditure on education should be regarded as investment. From the point of view of human resources development, India ranks among the level three countries i.e., semi-advanced countries, but from the point of view of GNP per capita she is among the level one countries. The figures of literacy and enrolment at primary level are highly unreliable and the national figures conceal the distribution of enrolment between different regions, groups of people and between sexes. Especially enrolment is low in case of backward states, districts and groups like Scheduled Castes and Tribes as well as girls. Myrdal has also felt such data as completely unreliable. The literacy figures for under-developed countries like India generally overestimate the actual spread of literacy and the enrolment figures give an inflated account of school performance. Myrdal (1970) therefore concludes "a major prerequisites for national planning of the radical reform of the Education system in under-developed countries that is urgently needed is very much improved statistics founded on the crucial questions." Such distorted data or inflated figures are mostly due to economic backwardness and the wrong impression of the educational planners to get more funds for educational expansion. It is estimated that about 40 percent of the people are at 1960-61 level prices and those people are said to be below poverty line having no capacity either for investment in physical capital or human resources. Hence, the parents belonging to this group can hardly send their children to schools. The wastage and stagnation rates are also very high in case of these children. 269 It is revealed from the data presented in the Third All-India Educational Survey, 1978 that out of every 100 students enrolled in Class I in the Koraput district, Orissa only 7 continued upto Class V. This shows that there is massive wastage of educational investment and output tends to be negligible in relation to input. The unprecedented expansion of education has also resulted in deterioration of the quality of education at all levels. This calls for improvement of the quality of education which means increase of costs for organizing orientation courses, enrichment programmes and upgradation of the content of education. Myrdal emphasizing the importance of education to the development process has also made it clear that the investment in man formula should not be treated in the form of financial expenditure having a financial return. Prof. Nath (1974) remarked, "mere widening the concept of investment from the input-output model of investment in man is meaningless unless the problem is attacked primarily in relation to the content of education and its impact on attitudes and institutions in particular, those of economic and social stratification. It is rightly said that development in under-developed countries is primarily an education process. But if the process is confirmed to shackles of fiscal planning, the inadequacy is simply obvious. The famous Asian Drama has clearly shows that the main reforms needed in education in all the under-developed countries are of a qualitative nature. Hence, attempts need be made for improving standards of education and integrated approach to human resources development should be taken as a complementary to investment efforts in other sectors of economy. Although it is desirable that education should relate to economic development and be subjected to application of some functional criteria and linked up with the supply and demand principle, we should take a liberal view, a cultural outlook and correlational attitude towards individual excellence and social efficiency.

9. CONCLUSION Since development and education are positively correlated and human resources are basic to all these processes, any expenditure in this connection has to be regarded as investment which could bring about returns many times and in variety of ways. "A dollar or a rupee invested in the intellectual improvement of human being", pointed out the former US Ambassador. Galbraith, "will often bring a greater increase in the 270 national income than a dollar or a rupee devoted to railways, dams, machine tools or other tangible capital goods." This calls for a judicious manpower planning and an integrated approach to the entire development process. Coombs (1970)

had laid down an important dictum inter alia "Educational Planning must be concerned with the qualitative aspects of educational development and not merely with quantitative expansion." India has committed herself to the creation of a secular democratic and socialistic society. She is called upon to discharge her responsibilities as the leader of an emerging and resurgent world which has a vision of the new destiny of the mankind. On the background of her spiritual and ethical heritage, she is now deeply engaged in the programmes of national reconstruction having physical, social, intellectual and ethological dimensions. The Kothari Commission (1966) has rightly mentioned, "One of the major progress in national reconstruction is the development of our human resource and in this there can be no limit to the education to be provided. But in any given society and at a given time, the decision regarding the type, quantity and quality of educational facilities depend partly upon the resources available and partly upon the social and political philosophy of the people." Human Resources development is of crucial importance and all educational endeavours are directed towards this issue. Education must ever reach the frontiers of mankind and spread out to horizons of eternity. It must encompass all aspects of the human life and all dimensions of the word. It cannot confine itself only to preparation of the nation's citizens or to training of the tomorrow's leaders. It can not shape the young mind once and for all, for a predetermined scheme of values and structures. The International Commission on the development of Education (1973) has aptly observed, "Education is no longer the privilege of an elite or the concomitant of a particular age; to an increasing extent, it is reaching out to embrace the whole of the society and the entire life span of the individual." With this wider perspective education must be deemed as an investment in human resources development which is basic to all advancement and excellence that are deemed of.

REFERENCES Nunn, T.P., Education! Its Data and First Principles, Edward Arnold & Co. London. 1949. Francois, Louis, The Right to Education from the Proclamation to Achievement, 1948-49, UNESCO, Paris, 1968. 271 Saxena, S. (Ed), Educational Planning in India: A Study in Approach and Methodology, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., N. Delhi, 1979. Rao, V.K.R.V., Education and Economic Development, Regional College of Education, Mysore, NCERT, 1964. Marx, Karl, Das Capital, Foreign Language Publishing House, Moscow, 1954.M Schultz, Theodore, The Economic Value of Education, Columbia University Press, New Delhi, 1964. Mishra. D.C., The Economics of Education in the Orissa Education Magazine, Sept. Dec. 1975, Directorate of Education, Orissa, Bhubaneswar. Merr, Clerk, Education in the United States: Best Accomplishments and Present Problems" Essays on the World Education, Ed. G.Z. Beredy Oxford University Press, New York, 1969. Denison Edward et.al.. Why Growth Rates Differ: Post War Experience in Nine Western Countries Brooking Institute, 1967. Myrdal, Gunner, Asian Drama: An Enquiry into the Poverty of Nations, Penguin Press, Middle Sex, England, 1968. Myrdal, Gunner, Challenge of World Poverty, The Penguin Press, London. 1970. Kothari, D.S. & et.al., The Report of the Indian Education Commission. Ministry of Education, 1964-66, Govt. of lndia Press, 1966. Heilbroner, Robert, The Great Ascent, Harper Row Inc. Newyork, 1993. Directorate of Public Instruction, Orissa. Report of the Third Educational Survey, Orissa, 1978, p. 140. Nath, S., A Study of Education: Gunnar Myrdal in The Orissa, Education Magazine, Dec. 1974. Coombs. H. Philips. What is Education Planning, UNESCO II, Paris, 1970. Edgar, Faure, The Report of the International Commission on Education (Learning To Be) UNESCO, Paris, 1972, Sterling Publishers, Delhi, 1973, pp. 1960-61.

272

27 DPEP: Much Ado About Something 1. GENERAL STRUCTURE AND OBJECTIVES The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) is a Centrally sponsored scheme providing special thrust for achieving Universalisation of Primary Education (UPE). The programme takes a holistic view of Primary Education development and seeks to achieve the maximum result through implementing various new strategies for UPE. The DPEP was mainly operationalised by the district agencies specific to the local needs with emphasis on decentralised management, participatory process, empowerment and capacity building at all levels. The DPEP has been structured to provide additional inputs over and above the provisions made by the State Government for Elementary Education. It has visualised to fill up the existing gaps in the development of Primary Education and to revitalise the existing system of administration and supervision. This programme is called contextual programme with stress on gender equality and improvement of the infrastructure by construction of class rooms and new school buildings, opening of non-formal/alternative schooling centres, appointment of new teachers, establishing Block Resource Centres/Cluster Resource Centres, Teacher Training and Orientation, research-based other special interventions for education of girls. SC/ST Sections of the society. This programme has also planned to include components of integrated education for disabled children and Distance Education component for teachers to improve their professional competency. The DPEP mainly seeks to provide access the Primary Education for all children, reducing primary students dropouts to less than 273 increasing learning achievement of primary school students by atleast 25% and reducing the gap among gender and social groups to less than 5 %.

2. SELECTION CRITERIA AND COVERAGE For DPEP, a district is taken as unit of implementation and is selected on the basis of the following criteria: (a) Educationally backward districts with female literacy below national average. (b) Districts where Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) have been successfully leading to increase demand for elementary education.

SI. No.

TABLE 1 Different Activities and Achievement by October 1999 Name of the activity Achievements up to October, 1999

1.

Districts covered

42

2.

Blocks

146

3.

Villages/Day Schools

2715

4.

Prehar Pathshalas

4829

5.

Enrolment Shiksha Karmi Project at a glance 2.16 lakh

Source: Government of India, MHRD (Education), Annual Report, 1999-2000. The programme which was initially launched in 1994 in 42 districts of seven States have now extended to cover 219 districts of 15 States, namely, Assam, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan. The Programme is likely to expand further to eight districts of Orissa, six districts of Gujurat, 9 districts of Rajasthan.

3. FINANCING DPEP is a Centrally sponsored scheme and 85% of the project cost is borne by the Government of India and 15% by the concerned project State. Both the Central share and State shares are passed on to State implementation societies directly as grant. The Government of India share is resourced by the external agencies through bilateral and multilateral agreements.

The financial assistance is also provided for the 274 DPEP by the World Bank through credit amounting to US $ 260.3 million (approximately Rs. 806 crore) under Phase-I DPEP 1994-2001. The European Community is providing finance by an agreement with the Government of India to provide a grant of Rs. 585 crore as programme support for DPEP in Madhya Pradesh (1994-2000). IDA has come forward to provide credit amounting to US $ 425.2 million for DPEP, Phase-II (1996-2002). The Government of Netherlands has provided as grant of US £ 25.8 million for DPEP in Gujarat. A grant of pound sterling £ 42.5 million (Rs. 220 crore) for DPEP in Andhra Pradesh and $ 7 million (about Rs. 207 crore) for DPEP in West Bengal is also available from DFID (UK). UNICEF has further released a grant of US $ 10 million (Rs. 36 crore) for DPEP Phase-IH in 27 educational districts of Bihar. Similarly, Rs. 571.50 crore is available through IDA credit for expansion of DPEP in 14 districts of Andhra Pradesh. In 10 districts for Rajasthan DPEP Phase-IV is funded by IDA credit of US $ 85.7 million. Similarly, 38 districts of Uttar Pradesh financed by IDA credit of US $ 182.4 million and 5 districts of West Bengal through DFID (UK) grant of pound sterling 30.0 million.

4. REVIEW AND ACHIEVEMENTS The programme is supervised through periodic Supervision Mission. In the mean time 5 internal Supervision Missions and 10 Joint Supervision/Review Missions consisting of representatives of Government of India and External Funding Agencies have been carried out. The first phase of the programme which was launched in November, 1994 in 42 districts in 7 States was subjected to an indepth review during September and October, 1997. Second one was conducted in November, 1999. These reviews and studies have revealed with the programme as achieved significant results by increased enrolment, learning improvement, reduction in dropout, etc. with increased community participation and classroom improvement. The major achievements of DPEP as reported by the reviews are given below:1. In order to widen the access to about 3,00,000 formal schools existing in DPEP areas, DPEP has added 8000 new formal schools and then 15,000 schools. Besides 38,000 alternative schooling centres of various kinds have been set up and another 75,000 are in the process of functioning. 275 2. In districts under DPEP Phase-I, there was 6.2% growth of enrolment in 1995-98 as against zero overall enrolment growth in the country during the period. 3. In Phase-II/III DPEP districts there was an overall increase 2.5% enrolment during 1997-98. 4. The gender gap in enrolment is closing rapidly as enrolment of girls has been faster than boys and Increases of Gender Equality (IGE) in 23 distracts as against 15 in 1995. 5. Out of 75 districts in Phase-IL'III covered under the study 35 have IGE greater than 95 as against 31 in 1997 and 8 have IGE less than 85 compared to 14 in 1997. 6. Increase for Social Equity (ISE) for Scheduled Caste children is more than 100 in all Phase-I districts. This was more than 90 in 1996. 7. Out of 67 districts stated in Phase-II/III where SC population was more than 5% of the total, ISE for Scheduled Caste children is over 105 in 55 districts and less than 85 in one district. In 1997, 54 districts had ISE over 105 and 3 districts less than 85. 8. Out of 22 districts studied where ST population is more than 5% of the total population in Phase-I, ISE for ST children is over 95 in 14 districts, as against 6 in 1995 and less than 85 in 3 districts compared to 12 in 1995. 9. In Phase-II districts, out of 31 districts having ST population more than 5% of the total, 22 have ISE more than 95 and 2 districts have less than 85. In 1997, 23 districts had ISE more than 95 and one district less than 85. 10. Overall repetition rate of children has shown a marked decline in Phase-I areas. The average repetition rate which was 7.5% in 1995 has been reduced to 5.2% in 1997. However, the relatively higher repetition rate in DPEP districts of Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh is explained by the fact that most of these areas are backward. 11. Dropout rates has also come down ranging from 4 to 20% points. Now the dropout rates are still higher in some districts. The DPEP districts have shown 70% efficiency in 1996-97.

12. Learning achievement has also been perceived in DPEP districts particularly in language and mathematics. 13. The average performance of students has been encouraging through pedagogic reforms. 276 14. The DPEP calls of reducing the areas in achievement between boys and girls to less than 5% has been achieved in 11 out of 13 districts, in both the subjects in Class-I, in all the 13 districts in language and in all about one districts in Matha in Class-III/IV. There has been considerable progress in reducing learning gaps between children in socially disadvantages groups and others. 15. Classroom process has also improved in the DPEP districts with adequate provision of teachers improvement of their competencies and motivation, availability of teacher learning materials and other infrastructural facilities. 16. A study on teacher attendance in 2 districts of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh has reported the same between 78 to 86%. 17. All the 8.5 lakh teachers in DPEP system have received in-service training through 5 to 10 days training every year. 18. There are also improvements of Class-room transaction due to the better text books, Distance Education Inputs and strategies for teacher empowerment. 19. Community involvement in VECs with participation of weaker sections and utilisation of school grant of 2000 per school per annum. 20. DPEP has provided training to more than 3 million community members for building their capacity. 21. Diets and similar agencies play a key role in providing support to teachers in better classroom management and teaching-learning process. 22. School building reforms have also been spectacular bringing about improvement in basic infrastructure.

CONCLUSION DPEP is getting funds from different sources through grants and credits beyond our reach. Besides free assistance, loans are released in heavy amount, may be from World Bank or DFID or other agencies. Hence, due precaution should be taken in its accounting, monitoring and auditing. In most of the States allegations are made about uneconomic expenditure and ineffective and untimely utilisation of funds. Since corruption is rampant in every sphere of our life and cheap money is available through different agencies for DPEP, there is likely to have extravagancy and luxuries in expenses. Hence, proper documentation, accounting evaluation and reporting are essential. External evaluation 277 and monitoring should be introduced to a greater extent for ensuring transparency and accountability in the DPEP system. It is badly necessary not only for making universalisation of Primary Education a success, but also for improving the quality of education in general. Since we get adequate funds for various improvement programmes, we cannot afford to neglect in our performance. We need strong commitment to the objectives set for the programme. 278

28 UN System Support for Community Based Primary Education NATURE AND OBJECTIVES The collaborative effort of five UN Agencies (UNICEF, UNDP, ILO, UNESCO & UNEPA) has been made to provide programme support to on-going efforts of Government of India towards making Primary Education more accessible and effective for Primary School-age children, especially girls and those from deprived communities. This is a co-ordinated attempt for tackling the burning problems of Primary Education in general and Universalisation Primary Education in particular. The general objectives of this project are: (i) To enhance capacity for community participation in effective school management,

(ii) Improving performance of Primary School Teachers in the use of interactive, child-centred and gender-sensitive methods of teaching in multi-class-room and community schools, (iii) Improving the social conditions which affect the attendance and performance of children.

COVERAGE AND CRITERIA This programme is currently operative in eight States, namely, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In Orissa, the programme has been launched in 1999-2000. This programme has been named as "Amo Skool" which is now operative in eight Blocks and two Urban slum areas. These are: 279 (1) Puri District: Puri Sadar, Brahamagiri, Krushna Prasad and Puri Town Urban Slums, (2) Cuttack District: Athagarh, Mahanga, Nischintakoili and Cuttack City urban slums, and (3) Jaipur District: Danagadi and Sukinda The selection of Blocks is based on the assumption that there are educationally backward blocks in educationally advanced non-DPEP districts. The following criteria are followed for selection of the Districts/ Blocks: (i) Blocks with low female participation, low female literacy and low socio-economic status. (ii) Districts of programming importance to co-operate UN Agencies, (iii) Districts including large percentage of SC and ST population, (iv) Designated child labour districts, (v) Districts with high total fertility rate.

BASIC FACTORS AND FEATURES The basic factors of the programme are as follows: (i) The programme is additionality like DPEP in the sense that it provides support to on-going Government of India and State Governments efforts for UEE. (ii) Its strategies, initiatives and interventions are specific tragetted towards the difficulty to rich sections of children: girls, working children, tribals, Scheduled Castes, minorities, disabled children and children in remote geographical areas. (iii) Decentralising of educational management has been stretched beyond the District that is unit of planning the programme is a Block. (iv) Environment building for creation of favourable climate to initiate and sustain change process: empowering community and community-based mechanisms. (v) The programme intends to convert a Government Primary School into a "Amo Skool" (Lokshala) a "Community School", a school of the community, by the community and for the community. The community ownership of schools based on a new management culture. (vi) Planning the programme is bottom-up, rather than top down, based on intensive consultative processes with stake holders and therefore contextual, local specific and realistic. Strategies that will strengthen policy and planning will be evolved from the grassroots. 280

SPECIFIC STRATEGIES The following specific strategies are to be followed in implementing the programme: (i) Strengthening community-based mechanisms for school management and support. This will involve establishing Village Education Committees (VEC), training them and other community-based organisations in micro planning, school mapping, monitoring and serving in and out of school children and their attendance and establishing purposeful links among VECs and Zilla Parishads, Blocks, Panchayats and Gram Panchayats.

(ii) Improving schools for making them Lokshala meaning "Community Schools" by empowerment. (iii) Improving teaching methodology for multi-class room transaction through pre and in-service teacher development programmes. (iv) Developing a teacher empowerment package including motivational training, skill development and staff development by providing initiatives and strengthening capacity. (v) Facilitating information technology through exchange of better class-room practice and community participation. (vi) Applying integrated social development approach organising educational and development activities through better resource inputs.

EXPECTED OUTCOMES It is expected to achieve the following outcomes through the UN System Education Programme: (i) Institutional capacity building of Key Community Institutions including VECs, Panchayats Faculty Education, relevant NGOs. (ii) Increased educational opportunity and improved learning process in Lokshalas for all children of school-going age and their protection from exploitation. (iii) Using in Lokshalas a multi-grade curriculum methodology based on the content of the official primary school curriculum. 281 (iv) Developing professional growth of Lokshala facilitators or teachers who must learn how to use the reorganised multigrade curriculum/ methodology. (v) Improved assessment system for monitoring and evaluating children's performance by proper monitoring and evaluation. (vi) Developing and utilising an empowerment package for teachers including refined community-based teacher selection and placement mechanisms, orientation of untrained teachers through skillful participation in in-service training programmes.

MANAGEMENT STRUCTURES The programme envisages management of the programme at four different levels- National, State, Block and Village. The programme lays emphasis on States as the operational focus with necessary guidance provided by the Centre working in the lines of decentralisation. The State Department of Education shall take the leadership in developing work Plans, allocating resources and monitoring programmes. The programmes also seeks to enable people and communities to find their own way in improving the quality and relevance of basic education. The community shall articulate their needs and priorities and emphasis the principles of values and ownership. The programme activities shall be implemented in clusters of villages with Block as a unit of intervention and not district as a whole. The structures at different levels are: 1. Village Education Committee (VEC) VECs shall be the core structure at the grass root level for planning, implementing and co-ordinating the communitybased Primary Education Programme. These need be broad-based representing all concerned and be sufficiently empowered to function effectively in management of local primary schools through training, visits and other motivational activities. These are to perform a number of activities such as micro-planning, school mapping, community level monitoring of school programmes. The Education for All Society, Department of School and Mass Education, Govt. of Orissa (1999) developed the strategies for implementation of the scheme in the light of the Central Government guidelines. These are as follows: 282 2. Block Level

At the Block level, the management structure shall be called Block Level Programme Implementation Committee (BLPIC). It shall consist of following members under the chairmanship of the Sub-collector: (i) Sub-Collector: Chairman, (ii) District Inspector of Schools, (iii) Deputy Inspector of Schools, (iv) Block Development Officer, (v) S.I. of Schools, (vi) CDPO, (vii) Teachers' representative, (viii) Local educationist, (ix) Representative of CBOs, and (x) Seniormost S.I.: Member Secretary. 3. District Level Block being the unit of programme implementation, the programme, in fact, does not envisage any formal structure at the district level. Nevertheless, the District Collector who looks after the total development of the district shall have a key role in overseeing the programme implementation in the Block. Similarly, the Inspector of Schools shall also have a critical role in the programme. 4. State Level To ensure flexibility and expeditious implementation, the programme is being implemented by a registered society called 'Education for All Society'. The programme places emphasis on the State Government (Department of School and Mass Education) and the Education Secretary, School and Mass Education is the Chairperson of the EFA Society. The EFA Society has a Governing Body vested with all executive powers headed by the Secretary, S & ME Department. In addition to this, the State Programme Management Unit consisting of a Director, Associate Director and Technical Advisor assisted by a core academic and supporting staff. A State Level Co-ordination Committee with representation of all social sector development departments, educationists, representative from NPMU, and NGOs acts as the advisory and policy-making body under the chairmanship of the Secretary, S & ME Department. The SLCC is expected to facilitate inter-departmental convergence. 5. National Level The programme support would be nationally executed by the Department of Education, Ministry of HRD, Government of India. The National Executing Agency will work closely with the Government of 283 the participating States and the UN System (UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF, ILO, and UNFPA) for purpose of this programme. A National Programme Management Unit (NPMU) will be responsible for day-to-day management and coordination of the programme.

ACTIVITIES TO SUPPORT THE ATTAINMENT OF OUTCOMES The underlying purpose of the programme is to support the performance of institutions to carry out tasks and to manage a process of change. Inherent in this assumption is that the programme shall help to put a process in place which leads to an empowering of communities, with support from NGOs and other governmental institutions to plan, manage and enhance the education of their children, especially those marginalized sections that remain out of school, and become actively engaged in creating a lifelong learning environment in their communities. In this process of social change and through the application of the principles of effective learning, all stakeholders must be engaged in achieving results. The following activities are examples of the types of activities envisaged for the attainment of outcomes and related benchmarks. 1. Capacity Building for Community Action With a focus on capacity building, an approach for integrated social sector development (focus on health, education, care and nutrition, water and sanitation, child labour, population) shall be pursued with active involvement from the Department of Education, the Department of Women and Child Development, both within the Ministry of Human Resource Development, and through collaboration with the Ministry of Labour, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, and the Ministry of Rural Development. The National Institute for Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) shall be the nodal department responsible for the coordination and implementation of the capacity development activities. The capacity building for community action approach shall focus on strengthening the working capacity of the Panchayats at the district, block and village levels to institute integrated social sector development to plan for reaching children in school who are disadvantaged as well as those children out of school. Possible activities include: 284

• PLA/participatory micro-planning training, • management training, with focus on selection, interaction and change, • advocacy and social mobilization for reaching children out-of-school, especially girls and working children, • public policy dialogue on decentralized planning and "ownership" of integrated community action by the community (workshops, seminars, study tours), drawing on successful experiences in India, notably, the Lok Jumbish Project in Rajasthan, • information sharing activities (workshops, seminars, study tours) in order to generate viable indicators to monitor progress in school effectiveness and participatory process (both qualitative and quantitative), • establishment and empowerment of social-sector committees at various levels (especially VECs and PTAs at the school/community level), with clearly established lines of communication and appropriate membership, • appointment of appropriate staff at all operational levels with requisite skills, • school mapping exercise in participating district blocks, • baseline studies of participating districts/blocks, • needs assessment of out-of-school children, in particular working children, girls, deprived children (poor, migrant, children with special needs) and children with disabilities, • gender training for functionaries of social sector committees at various levels, and for educational administrators at all levels, • advocacy and mobilization of necessary resources (financial, human, capital) from internal/external, central/state, public/corporate/community sources, • providing technical assistance and establishing close links with relevant local NGOs in order to plan and implement locally defined programmes for "reaching the unreached", • parent participation in enrolment and retention'of all school-age children, increased community awareness on child rights, and their protection from exploitation, • prevention and early detection of disabilities through community action, • using adult education programmes and techniques to target on mothers/fathers in care and development practices of young children, 285 • conducting family life education awareness campaigns among parents self-government bodies, and NGOs to create a supportive environment for learning, especially for reproductive health concerns, • participating in social festivals and functions, and • community being invited to school functions. 2. Reorganisation of the Primary School Curriculum to Facilitate Multi-grade Teaching Through the expansion of schools through DPEP and other GOl efforts, the government is now exploring ways to have multi-grade recognized as a legitimate area of enquiry for teacher educators and teacher trainees at the national level. The UN System strategy should play a key role in this effort. The organisation of the multi-grade methodology should be done through a process that builds on the experience of teachers, and should engage NCERT, SCERTs and DIETs as key units. The primary method used for preparing appropriate multi-grade methodologies will be a series of teachers' workshops (held at the State and District levels) which shall provide the forum for: • reviewing the strategies developed by UNICEF, DPEP, and other local efforts, and from examples of other countries engaged in multi-grade teaching, • introducing/augmenting classroom practices which support more activity-based, student-centred and interactive methods,

• reorganizing the curriculum, possibly across grades and subjects to establish a scope and sequence which is compatible with and introduces multi-grade methodologies for primary teaching, • reducing gender-biases in classroom interaction, • suggesting activities for schools to become health promoting, • incorporation of family life education in classroom interaction (e.g. what is family, gender relations and role of various members of the family, parental roles, the role of family in society, learning about my body, personal hygiene, reproductive health etc.) adapted to the cognitive level of primary school age children up to age 11. The treatment of these subjects should prepare the children for subsequent more advanced information on adolescence education (sex education, responsible parenthood, respecting the opposite gender, drug dependence, HIV/AIDS, etc.), • exploring the possibilities for developing teaching/learning modules using multi-media approaches, and 286 • production of materials (textbooks/workbooks) in cost-effective ways locally, which allow for their use by students for a minimum of two years (Grades 1-2) and for a maximum of three years (Grades 3-5), 3. Development of Self-Instructional Materials for Multi-grade Classrooms to be used as Supplements to the Curriculum These materials should be developed alongside the work on multi-grade methodologies through teachers' workshops, and the nodal departments responsible for their preparation is expected to be NCERT and SCERTs. As much work has already been done in this area by these departments, DIETs and by selected NGOs in the country, no duplication of effort is perceived. Activities should include: • reviewing examples of child-centred, interactive, and problem-solving materials from around the world and India (regional/State efforts of NGOs will be especially relevant) which are appropriate for multi-grade classes, • prepare materials which (a) encourage the initiative and creativity of the teacher, (b) encourage children to develop sets of materials, activities and games, and (c) particular emphasis shall be placed on materials that involve groups of children, • developing materials with the involvement of practising teachers and possibly children, • field-testing of materials in classrooms, • organizing the materials in easy-to-use form and language, • making materials creative and fun, • developing flexible materials to motivate a greater range of pupil needs, • making materials 'low-cost' for easy replacement and duplication, and • preparing materials for older children to assist them in managing group learning. 4. Development of Improved Teachers' Handbooks to be Used with the Multi-grade Curriculum As the curriculum is reorganized, there will be a need to develop guides which follow the restructured approach, and which incorporates techniques for multi-grade instruction. The nodal department charged with this task shall have to be determined and is expected to be NCERT. 287 Much of the work is expected to be carried out by DIETs and the technical input of relevant local NGOs. Towards achieving this output, the programming should: • safeguard clear linkages and active coordination with relevant teacher training units, • ensure a participatory process, involving teachings, supervisors, curriculum planners and administrators, • review examples of teachers' guides from other programmes, both within India, and from other countries, in an effort to

incorporate best practices, • put in place a mechanism which not only prepares teachers' handbooks which reflect multigrade, child-centred, selfdirected and girl-friendly methodologies, but also a system that has a built-in, on-going process of change and revision based on assessment, analysis and action, • ensure that the improved Teachers' Handbooks: — have guidelines that (a) encourage the initiative and creativity of the teacher, and (b) encourage children to develop sets of materials, activities and games, — includes strategies for multi-grade situations, — include suggestions of how to combine similar units of study in one subject across the grades, and • ensure that Teachers' Handbooks are attractive and easy-to-use; assistance may be sought from marketing/IEC resource firms. 5. Development of Teachers' Resource Books and Provide Teacher/Facilitators with Principles of Good Teaching and a Foundation of Multi-grade Methods These resource books should complement the training of teachers and the orientation to the curriculum. The resource books should be developed through a cooperative effort of NCERT, SCERTs, DIETs, universities, faculties of education, and key resource persons from several levels, including especially master teachers with multi-grade experience and community mobilizers. The resource books should contain suggested modules related to specific topics. A list of possible topics are suggested here, although it is recommended that a final selection of topics be made through a needs assessment and exchange of ideas from stakeholders. 288 — principles and methods of multi-grade teaching, — roles and responsibilities of an educator/facilitator, — flexible timetabling and setting of routines, — classroom organization, — group formations, — preparation of teaching/learning aids, — thematic learning and integration of subjects around development activities, — assessment and evaluation of student performance — community participation and community school management, — child rights and responsibility of the community in fulfilling them — convergent community action, — management of sensitive issues in the classroom and the community (e.g. reproductive health, HIV/AIDs, drug-use), — roles and responsibilities of a school towards health promotion , Some of the activities envisaged in the design of these modules are: • identifying a team or teams of specialists and practitioners, • putting together a 'basket of ideas' for each of the modules; using relevant examples from current practices, • testing these ideas in practical ways for their optimal use, and • testing the resource books for their cultural and gender-sensitivity.

6. Development of an In-service Teacher Development Programme The Teacher Empowerment strategy, now being implemented with UNICEF support in a variety of forms as Joyful Learning/Teaching in several States as an in-service teacher training strategy for mobilising teachers on a mass scale, has demonstrated success in motivating teachers to change their classroom methodology and has led to a rethinking about the nature of teacher development programmes. Five main principles underpin the Joyful Learning/Teacher Empowerment strategy: — In-service training should be participatory in approach. Teacher empowerment programmes provide an innovative style of teacher training, adopting a Teacher-teach-Teacher approach drawing on teacher resources from the district, block and cluster levels, aimed at empowering the teachers to make their own decisions. A top-down cascade model of conventional training models which assumes a top-down transmission mode where knowledge is 289 diffused from lecturers to teachers, has provide ineffective in changing teachers' attitude and practice. — Mobilisation strategies are needed to be employed for a critical mass of teacher providing peer support in a block or cluster level to ensure successful adoption and implementation of innovations. — There is a need to improve the status of teachers, to increase motivation and to achieve a renewed commitment to teaching. The involvement of local administration and community leaders, VECs and Panchayats is essential in this regard. Particularly important is the recruitment, training and placement of teachers/ facilitators locally through the involvement of NGOs, and Block and Cluster Resource Centres. — Providing a basic repertoire of teaching skills and a set of self-made teaching/learning aids for visibly transforming the classroom and to achieve a maximum impact for changing the "classroom climate" from an authoriatian/rote mode of teaching to one which is more meaningful, interactive and joyful for the child. Skills in multi-grade teaching are particularly needed. — Decentralising the management of in-service teacher training in regular recurrent training sessions given at the cluster level enabling the teachers to meet regularly in resource centres close to their schools, giving them professional support through self-help groups. This establishes a sense of collegiality and allows the teachers to find local solutions to common problems. The programme at the cluster level includes trouble-shooting/self-help sessions as well as a participatory approach to skills development based on specifications of teacher competencies. The UN1CEF Joyful Learning/teaching methods using NGOs and local institutions therefore present many promising elements, which should be studied, refined, expanded and integrated with a larger official structure of teacher training which shall serve the Lokshala facilitators. It is expected that the UN System programme shall utilize female university graduates and locally recruited female secondary school graduates for teaching/facilitating in Lokshalas. The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), with active support from Regional Teacher-Training Colleges, DIETs. universities (including the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), faculties of education and relevant NGOs, are expected to be responsible for developing and implementing an in-service teacher training programme. The UN System programme will define elements of such as in-service teacher-training 290 system which is designed and implemented through the cooperation of DOE, local universities/faculties of education, local institutions and NGOs to train these teachers/facilitators. The system could include the following elements: • dear links between departments and institutions responsible for the development of the multi-grade methodology and those with the responsibility for delivering teacher training, • an assessment of organisational development (OD) needed of key institutions, • strengthened capacities of higher education institutions, universities, NCTE and its 6/7 regional centres for in-service training, • adequate resource secured for on-going teacher training, • an on-going programme of in-service training which spans the whole academic year, and is yet flexible to adapt to the seasonal needs of facilitators,

• reinforcement of the intensive in-service programme through ongoing supervision, • strengthening supervision of teachers through training of field supervisors (DOE staff), possibly supported through technical supervisors (NGO staff), the training of educational administrators (especially women), and the detailing of monitoring tools which enhance teacher performance, • developing a mechanism which further strengthens DOE efforts in joint planning and training of the Lokshala facilitators and government school teachers from other schools (including DPEP). • developing a system in cooperation with universities and faculties of education to certify 'under-qualified' teachers through accreditation of training hours/days, and self-study, • developing teacher skills in multi-grade, child-centred methodologies, which encourage student-driven learning, • developing, redefining and strengthening the role, structure and broad programme outline of the cluster centres in offering recurrent in-service training and practical support to teachers within the clusters, the role of the cluster coordinator shall be strengthened and supported by enhancing skills of head teachers/teachers, and • encourage teachers meeting to be held in schools in rotation supported with leadership training for school teachers/heads, especially female teachers. 291 These activities could be accomplished through reinforcement and support to teachers/facilitators provided by: • introducing class visits by trainers and experienced teacher, • clustering of schools and teachers for professional support and exchange, • introducing the training of teachers through monthly meetings, • production and dissemination of periodicals, newsletters, activity sheets, based on teacher initiated ideas gleaned through frequent inservice sessions (monthly cluster meetings, school visits); a magazine by and for children may also be produced, • enhancing the capacities/credentials of underqualified teachers through supervision and apprenticeship of self-study modules, essays, 'best teacher' competitions, and documentation of 'best -practices', • establishing minimum teacher competencies for evaluating and upgrading teacher performance, • linking teacher cadre groups at the district/block level for further support and guidance to teacher (in particular establishing 'lead schools', primary counsellors, master trainers) for motivation training and competency-based training, • developing teacher competency instructions together with NCERT, SCERTS, DIETs teachers and other stakeholders in order to define effective teaching raining need by specifying the classroom procedures, inter-personal skills and enabling/support mechanisms required by primary teachers, • supporting SCERTs and DIETs to establish performance-related criteria to be used by teachers, head-teachers, local administrators, community organisations and village education committees for the informal assessment for learning achievement and the quality of instruction, • conducting studies on teacher motivation and conditions of service, in order to establish a package of incentives for the performing teachers, these could include building self-esteem and respect through community involvement; rewarding good performance and creative thinking; enhancing the status of high quality teachers through additional responsibility for clusters; etc., and • induction of performing teachers/facilitators in family life education subjects and materials for a culturally sensitive learning of concepts in the classroom. This shall include involvement of community workers outside the formal school system, e.g. health care providers, NGOs, Anganwadi workers, etc. 292 7. A system for the Training of Trainers

Trainers are needed to facilitate the training of teachers/facilitators of the small schools, and are expected to function at three levels; at the central level, at the district level and at the Block/Cluster level. A training of trainers' programme shall need to be developed for all these three levels, and will lead to a participative model which facilitates the training of teachers at all levels, and which will be supplemented with intensive in-service training described above. At all levels, it is expected that staff of DIETs, faculties of education, teacher training centres, NGOs and local motivators should form a cadre of Trainers. It is expected that NCTE, with support from SCERTs, DIETs, universities and faculties of education shall help design and facilitate the Trainers programme. Important principles and necessary steps in the design of the TOT should be: • identification of key training institutions and their capacities at all levels, • identification and development of trainers, • preparation of an annual work plan and budget, • building in a system of evaluation and forward planning based on feedback from the evidence of children's learning, • starting the design with a needs assessment of teachers, • building in a system of trainers and teachers sharing and using pedagogical practices as a source of reflection analysis and learning, • emphasize the importance of creativity, fun and reflection in teaching and learning, • establish a harmony between the school curriculum and the teacher eduction curriculum, and • introduce study tours and tailored training packages for trainers. 8. Reforming the Delivery of Pre-service Training for Teachers/Facilitators of Lokshalas Higher education institutions and DIETs in India are responsible for the delivery of a pre-service programme for teachers. The NCTE shall be the nodal department to coordinate the efforts for improved pre-service training. Effective approaches for a pre-service training programme to serve Lokshala facilitators (many of whom shall be locally recruited 'untrained' staff like the Shikshakarmis) might include: 293 • skill development of under-qualified teachers/facilitators through a short intensive pre-service training programme rather than a long one spanning several years; experience of the Shikshakarmi Project shall be drawn upon, • management of pre-service training by local universities, and training centres, • inclusion of practical experience through placement in schools/ classrooms under guidance as a substantial portion of pre-service training, • pre-service training that is linked to regular, cost-effective in-service training, • inclusion of a 'motivational training' of new recruits to build self-confidence and communication skills, • integration of 'gender-training' in the pre-service training programme, • inclusion of components that improve basic competencies in language, math and science, • inclusion of components which impart child-centred teaching methodologies and encourage student-driven learning, including cooperative learning techniques, • inclusion of components which orient newly recruited teachers to foundations of child development, acquisition of language and communication skills, and the definition of behavioural objectives, • inclusion of components which orient teachers to address the needs of disabled children, and • developing a department/section on multi-grade learning within all faculties of education, and strengthening facilities and capabilities in a selected few to make them "lead" institutions. These "lead" institutions shall also develop capacities for ongoing research and may establish professional formal links with universities/faculties abroad.

CONCLUSION It is encouraging to note that in the beginning of the 21st Century, a Multi-Pronged and Multi-National Project is going to be implemented in full swing. Inspite of expansion of the Primary Education System, the country has still far away from the target of Universalisation of Elementary Education. A great number of children are still left out and they have to be brought to the ambit of Primary Education System 294 irrespective of barriers of language, caste, creed, religion, culture, economic disparity or geographical inaccessibility. Besides, many children also drop out in the middle of their study on ground of lack of relevance or practical utility and attraction to children. Internationally through the joint GOI-UN System Education Programme is expected to support the ongoing efforts and initiatives for Universalisation of Primary Education in India. Since many agencies are involved in implementation and many groups are involved as cliental in the transaction of the teaching-learning process, it is essential that a lot of co-operation, coordination and collaboration will be needed to make the programme effective. The culture friendly terms like "Amo Skool" (our school), "Janasala" (community school) may not ensure the expected amount of congeniality or belongingness unless workers and officers involved in the project have adequate understanding, sympathy and commitment to it. This is a golden opportunity which India cannot afford to miss. We have to extend all co-operation to the UN agencies and work with honesty, integrity, devotion and transparency at all levels. 295

29 Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovative Elementary Education The Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovative Education (EGS & AIE) is the latest attempt (2000 AD) on the part of the Government of India to reach the unreached and for meeting the needs of the children who are still left out of the education system. The Sixth Educational Survey in 1993 indicated that there were 1.8 lakh inhabitations without Primary Schools in the Country. Of course, during these past seven years a large number of these inhabitations have been provided with educational facilities through different projects being implemented by the Government of India. A great number of school-less inhabitations without formal primary schools are still there. To provide access to schools to the children living in these inhabitations has been recognised by the Government of India for achieving Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE). The ambitious Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovative Education (EGS & AIE) has recently been launched by the Government. The main aim of the scheme is to cover the non-formal education sector with a more holistic and flexible approach. It is actually a modified version of the centrally sponsored non-formal education scheme initiated in 1979-80 for supporting the formal education system. The NFE Scheme was providing education to all children up to the age of 14 years as envisaged in the Directive Principles of the Constitution. However, the deficiencies and failures of the NFE as evident from very poor community involvement and releasing funds in time, inadequate investment and several quality issues like training of volunteers, insufficient teaching hours per day. It was therefore felt to develop as in the past a new 296 programme that could help achieving objectives of the NFE, so that UEE can have a better chance of success. The EGS & AIE envisages community support and diversified strategies for reaching out of school children. It recognised their great heterogeneity of situations and issues. These children living in remote schoolless inhabitations could be living in urban slums or on the roadside, they may be migrating children or girls belonging to minority community or children engaged in domestic chores. This scheme also aims at implementing various types of strategy for making Elementary Education effective.

SALIENT FEATURES 1. The EGS & AIE should have three components such as: (i) State-run/EGS Schools or different types of schools or school camps run by other Government Agencies, (ii) Learning Centres/ alternative schools run by voluntary agencies, (iii) Experimental Projects for innovative pedagogical strategies and DRUs run by voluntary agencies. 2. The scheme should form a part of the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA) and might be merged at the beginning of the 10th Plan with the SSA programme.

3. Preference would be given to the ten educationally backward States, viz. Assam, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The Scheme would set up schools in the small, scattered and unserved habitations and this alternative educational facility would be meant for specific categories of very much deprived children, e.g. child labour, street children, migrating children and elder children in the 9+ age group and particularly elder children and adolescent girls. 4. The scheme would focus presently and primarily on non-project, that is non-DPEP, LJP districts. In project districts EGS and AIE would support interventions for out of school children under some prescribed conditions. In the non-DPEP and Non-SSA districts the scheme would be implemented during 2000-2001. 5. The scheme would give priority to establishment of alternative (EGS Schools) in unserved habitations where schools are not available within the radius of 1 K.M. and atleast 15-20 children in the age group of 6-14 years are available. 297 6. Under the scheme, expenditure ceiling would be Rs.845 per child per annum at the Primary Level and Rs.1200 per child per annum at the Upper Primary Level. 7. Micro Planning would be conducted including house-to-house surveys and taking community demand as well as commitment into account with preference and priority.

ACADEMIC INPUTS The EGS & AIE would provide recruitment of educational volunteers to transact teaching-learning activities and the minimum qualification for appointment of these volunteers would be Matriculation (Class-V) at primary stage and Graduation or Class-XI at Upper Primary stage. These volunteers would be selected and appointed by the Village Community/VEC/Panchayats. After selection and appointment, an induction training of 30 days duration would be conducted for the volunteers for the primary stage and 40 days for the Upper Primary stage. This training would be organised by DIETs, DRUs, etc. located outside DIETs or selected VAs for imparting training resource groups would be formed at the State, Districts and Block levels. There would be reviews and planning meetings of education volunteers for atleast 2 days every month and adequate academic support would be provided from the beginning itself. The class room process under the scheme would have child centered approach in which suitable activities would be organised for children. As the children under the scheme are expected to be merged in mainstream of formal schools, and for that system of testing and certification would be ensured for children at these centres. These Volunteers/Head Masters of formal schools, CRCs/ Sub-Inspectors of Schools might be involved in the assessment procedure for such children to ensure their smooth transaction from informal or non-formal system to formal education system.

DURATION AND MANAGEMENT Centres under the scheme would function for a minimum of four hours a day and timing should be suitable for the learners, may be evening or night time. There should not be any rigidity about the duration and timing and the EGS schools would function for several years till their upgradation or till the out of school children in that area are covered. 298 There would be separate management structure for EGS & AIE till the SSA becomes fully operational. The management would be responsible for planning, supervision and monitoring of the scheme. The management structure at different levels are given below. (i) There would be School Committee/Mother's Group/VEC/Gram Panchayat which would be given the responsibility of managing the EGS & AIE Centres. (ii) A cluster level management would be there which would comprise about 20 centres and would be responsible for implementation of the various tasks under the scheme. (iii) A Block Level Committee would be there for guiding the implementation of the scheme at block level. (iv) A District Level Committee would be there for advising the District Collector or the Chief Executive Officer of Zilla Parishad for proper implementation of the scheme. There would be representative of VAs, Panchayati Raj representatives and DIET staff, Project Officers and others concerned.

(v) State Level Society would be constituted for receiving and distributing funds and making the overall co-ordination of the scheme. (vi) A National Level Organisation would be set up as SSA mission to oversee the implementation of EGS & AIE which would have an Executive Committee and Government Council. These bodies at various levels would be assigned responsibility for implementing the EGS & AIE. Intensive monitoring would be done and the SCERT, DIETs, District Resource Groups and Selected VAs should be involved in the process.

CONCLUSION The EGS & AIE scheme, it is hoped, should provide quality educational facilities with the help of multifarious strategies and approaches for the children remaining outside the formal school system. It is also expected that this scheme would be able to give fresh impetus to the non-formal education sector in the country which has been criticised for non-functioning, corrupt practices, non-co-ordination, lack of proper monitoring and evaluation. The national goal of Universal Elementary Education has to be achieved without further delay. It is yet to be seen how far this fresh attempt would be able to achieve this objective of providing quality education to all children upto the age of 14 years. 299

30 Learning without Burden 1. INTRODUCTION The Revised Programme of Action (1992) while reviewing the implementation of the National Policy on Education, 1986 in the country, suggested measures deemed suitable under the emerging situations for realising the national goals. This document inter alia considered the issue "load of the school bag" and observed, "The tendency on the part of some schools, particularly in urban areas to recommend a large number of books, has contributed to over-burdening of students. The Ministry of Human Resource Development requested the State Governments, UTs to instruct the schools not to prescribe more books than necessary." This matter was raised by some members of Parliament like Mr. R.K. Narayan, the distinguished author and was discussed in and outside the Houses, in Press and in media. Lastly, the Ministry of HRD set up a National Advisory Committee on March, 1992 under the chairmanship of professor Yashpal, former chairman of UGC to advise on the ways and means to reduce the burden of the school child. The Committee submitted its report on July 15, 1993 and in order to examine the feasibility of implementing its recommendations, the Ministry formed a Group under the Chairmanship of Sri Y.N. Chaturvedi, Additional Secretary, Department of Education, Government of India.

2. RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE NAC The terms of reference of the National Advisory Committee were "to advice on the ways and means to reduce the load on school students at all levels, particularly, the young students, while improving quality of learning including capability for lifelong self-learning and skill formulation." In doing this, the Committee examined all aspects related 300 to curricula, entrance criteria and exit attainments at various levels and also looked at the impact of examinations, admissions to higher educational institutions including professional courses. Then the Committee made certain valuable observations and recommendations which are summarised as follows: (i) The problems of load on school children does not arise only from over enthusiastic curriculum designers or poorly equipped teachers or school administrators or book publishers or education authorities. There is a deeper malaise in our society which impeach our young children. We "continue to value a few elite qualifications for more than real competence for doing useful things in life" and "to spend for doing our effort in designing hurdles, instead of opportunities for children to learn with joy." (ii) Besides "Knowledge explosion" major problems are connected with "images of our civilisation, self-esteem and societal goals". Hence, these problems need be discussed through a set of seminars, meetings and media by academics, thinkers and so on. (iii) The question of medium of instruction, particularly in early life will not be fully resolved till the time we continue to give more importance to elementary graces in a foreign language than to intimate connections with the vernacular

knowledge which our children gain during every week of their growing up. Mother-tongue should be the medium of instruction at the Primary stage. The specific suggestions of the Committee are given below: 1. A number of organisations and departments organise competitions at district, state and national level for students in various fields such as school subjects, exhibition, essay writing, education, etc. Perhaps the spirit behind these activities is to recognise and reward the talent in diverse fields. But, unfortunately this tends to produce somewhat unhealthy singling out of people for their brief moment of glory. Competitions where individual achievement is rewarded, need to be discouraged since they deprive children of joyful learning. However, group activities and group achievements must be encouraged and rewarded to give a boost to cooperative learning in schools. 2. (a) The process of curriculum framing and preparation of textbooks should be decentralised so as to increase teachers' involvement in these tasks. Decentralisation should mean 301 greater autonomy, within state-level apparatus to district-level boards or other relevant authority, and to heads of schools and classroom teachers to develop curricular materials on their own, best suited to the needs of local environment. All the schools be encouraged to innovate in all aspects of curriculum, including choice of textbooks and other materials. (b) Voluntary organisations with a specific commitment to pedagogical innovations within the formal or non-formal system be provided greater freedom and support in development of curriculum, textbooks and teacher training. A suitable and adequate mechanism be evolved for wider dissemination of the experiences of such organisations. (c) We endorse the idea of setting up education committees at village, block and district level to undertake planning and supervision of schools under their jurisdiction. (d) Sufficient contingency amount (not less than 10 per cent of the total salary bill of the school) be placed at the disposal of heads of schools for purchase, repair and replacement of pedagogical equipment. 3. The culture of writing textbooks be changed so as to involve a much large number of teachers in the preparation of textbooks. The scientists and experts in various disciplines may be consultants and not as writers of the books. Initiative in this regard should rest with groups of enlightened and innovative teachers who should be provided training in book writing. 4. At least three parallel systems of school education (syllabus, textbooks and examination) are running concurrently in different states. In each state majority of schools are affiliated to the State Board of Education while a few are affiliated to either CBSE or Council for the Indian School Certificate Examination (CISCE). The schools affiliated to CBSE in the States other than Delhi enjoy the prestige of being elite schools. The CBSE curriculum becomes an trend-setter for the State Boards leading to heavier curriculum for majority of children. Therefore, the Committee recommends that jurisdiction of CBSE be restricted to Kendriya and Navodaya Vidyalayas and all other schools be affiliated to the respective State Boards. 5. (a) Appropriate legislative and administrative measures be adopted to regulate the opening and functioning of early childhood education institutions (Pre-school). Norms regarding 302 accommodation, staff, apparatuses, play materials be laid down for the recognition of these schools. It should be ensured that these institutions do not perpetrate violence on young children by inflicting a heavy dose of over education in the form of formal teaching of reading, writing and numbers. The practice of holding tests and interviews for admission to nursery class be abolished. (b) Norms for granting recognition to private schools be made more stringent. This will prove conducive for improving the quality of learning of the one hand and arrest growing commercialisation on the other. The norms, thus developed, be made uniformly applicable in all schools including the state-run institutions. 6. There is no justification for torturing the young children by compelling them to carry very heavy bags of books everyday to schools. Textbooks should be treated as school property and thus, there should be no need for children to purchase the books individually and carry them daily to homes. A separate time table and the assignment of home-work and for the use of textbooks and notebooks be prepared by the school and be made known to the children in advance. 7. The nature and character of home-work needs a radical change. In the primary classes, children should not be given

any home-work, save for extension of explorations in the home environment. In the upper primary and secondary classes, home-work, where necessary should be non-textual, and textbooks, when needed for work at home should be made available on a rotation basis. 8. The existing norm for teacher-pupil ratio (i.e. 1 : 40) should be enforced and an attempt should be made to reduce this to 1 : 30 at least in the primary classes, as a basis for future educational planning. 9. Greater use of the electric media be made for the creation of a child-centred social ethos in the country. A regular television programme addressed to students, teachers and parents and possibly called 'Shiksha darshan' be launched, along the lines of the Krishi Darshan's programme. 10. (a) Inadequate programme of teacher preparation leads to unsatisfactory quality of learning in schools. The B.Ed. programme should offer the possibility of specialisation in secondary or elementary or nursery education. The duration 303 of the programme should either be one year after graduation or three-four years after higher secondary. The content of the programme should be restructured to ensure its relevance to the changing centred. The emphasis in these programmes should be on enabling the trainees to acquire the ability for self-learning and independent thinking. Pre-service teacher education programme, being a professional course, has to be a rigorous, thorough and intensive programme. Therefore, B.Ed. degree courses by correspondence be derecognised. (b) The continuing education of teachers must be institutionalised. The organisation of service education programmes and other activities aimed at professional growth of teachers be systematically designed and conducted imaginatively. 11. The public examination taken at the end of Classes X and XII be reviewed with a view to ensure replacement of the prevailing text-based and quiz type questioning by the concept-based questioning. This single reform is sufficient to improve the quality of learning and save the children from the tyranny of rote memorisation. 12. (a) A project team with a number of sub-groups be set up in each state to examine the syllabi and textbooks for all school classes. The sub-groups be required to decide the following: (i) The minimum of topics required to be taught. (ii) The minimum number of concepts to be introduced within each topic. (iii) The total time needed for teaching this minimum number of concepts comfortably by a teacher in the total working days realistically available in a year. (b) Mathematics curriculum for primary classes in all parts of the country be revised with a view to slowing down the pace at which children are required to learn basic mathematical concepts, and broadening the scope of primary mathematics to include areas other than number work (e.g. space and shape related concepts and problem-solving). The tendency embedded in the syllabi and textbooks of primary mathematics to accelerate children's mathematical skills by teaching them mechanical rules at the expense of understanding and intelligent application ought to be discouraged in future syllabi and texts. (c) Language textbooks should adequately reflect the spoken idiom. An attempt should be made in future textbooks to give 304 adequate representation to children's life experiences, imaginary stories and poems, and stories reflecting the lives of ordinary people in different parts of the country. Pedantic language and excessive didacticism ought to be avoided. (d) Science syllabi and textbooks in the primary classes should provide greater room and necessity for experimentation than they do at present in place of didacticism in areas like health and sanitation, the text should emphasize analytical reflection on real-life situations. A great deal of trivial materials included in primary-level science texts should be dropped. (e) The syllabi of natural science throughout the secondary and senior secondary classes be revised in a manner so as to ensure that most of the topics included actively linked to experiments or activities that can be performed by children and teachers. (f) Besides imparting knowledge of history and geography, the social sciences curriculum for Classes VI-VIII and IX-X should convey the philosophy and methodology of the functions of our socio-political and economical system and enable

and students to analyse, understand and reflect on the problems and priorities of socio-economic development. The repetitious nature of history syllabus should be changed. The history of ancient times should be introduced for systematic study in secondary Classes (IX and X). The History syllabus for Classes VI-VIII should focus on the freedom struggle and post-independence developments. The civics, as it is taught today, puts a great load on children's capacity to memories. Therefore, it may be dropped in its present form and be replaced by contemporary studies. The study of geography be related to contemporary reality.

3. DISCUSSION ON THE ISSUE RAISED BY THE YASH PAL COMMITTEE AND CHATURVEDI COMMITTEE (i) Physical Load of the School Bag The Yash Pal Committee conducted a survey in Delhi and found that the weight of the school bags on the average in primary classes in the Public Schools is more than 4 kg while it is around 1 kg in ordinary schools. The weight of the bag of a child in Class IV reading in an English Medium School located at Bhubaneswar was found to be 4.3 kg 305 on the 31st January, 1994. Thus, the physical load 4.3 kg varies from school to school and it is heavier in so-called Public and English medium schools in comparison to common schools. (ii) Academic Load of the School Bag The Committee felt that in the school "a lot is taught out little is learnt or understood". The load of non-learning or noncomprehension is therefore, more than the actual learning and understanding. And this is the real burden on the school child. The Committee rightly looked at the academic burden of the school bag. The Chaturvedi Committee has observed that the real academic burden is mostly due to inadequate teacher competence, insufficient teaching day and inadequate classroom facilities. (iii) Extra Load due to Competitions The Committee realised that various competitions organised by different organisations and agencies for awarding prizes tend to produce somewhat unhealthy singling out of people for their brief moment of glory and observed that competitions where individual achievement is rewarded need to be discouraged since they deprive children of joyful learning. However, group activities and group achievements must be encouraged and rewarded to give a boost to cooperative learning in schools. The Chaturvedi Committee has rightly taken a different view and observed that the educational system should promote performance of students 'both as an individual and as members of the group'. Further, all intellectual works cannot be properly undertaken in group. Hence, individual efforts in cognitive field must be encouraged and individual excellence should be promoted through various incentives like competitions. (iv) Decentralisation of Academic Programmes The Committee recommended with greater autonomy, so that schools can be encouraged to innovate in all aspects of curriculum including choice of textbooks and other materials. The Chaturvedi Committee has agreed to the proposal for involving teachers to a great extent in the development of curricula and textbooks, particularly in the lower classes, but it has not supported decentralisation in the preparation of syllabus and textbooks of the district and school levels as it would be difficult to ensure adequate projection of national identity and of composite culture of India. It would not be possible also to ensure minimum standards in 306 all parts of the country in such a situation. Hence, it might be desirable if a compromise of these two approaches is made by relating educational content both to national goals with socio-cultural background as well as the spoken dialect or languages of the local communities. (v) Involvement of Voluntary Agencies The Yash Pal Committee recommended that greater freedom and support be provided to voluntary organisations for involving themselves in the development of curricula, textbooks and teachers' training. The Chaturvedi Committee has felt that the voluntary organisations with commitment to education should be encouraged as far as possible, but has rightly

declined to favour decentralisation in curriculum and textbook development to the extent of entrusting it to NGOs due to sensitivity of the matter and other implications. (vi) Education Committees The Committee recommended that Education Committees at village, block and district levels be set up to undertake planning, monitoring and evaluation of educational programmes under their jurisdiction. This has been fully supported by the Chaturvedi Committee as well. (vii) Contingencies of Schools Adequate amount of contingencies (not less that 10% of the total salary of the school) be placed at the disposal of the heads of schools for purchase, repair and replacement of pedagogical equipment. This may not be a feasible proposal under the existing situation (viii) Participation of Teachers in the Development of Syllabi and Textbooks The Yash Pal Committee recommended and the Chaturvedi Committee also corroborated that teachers might be involved in the process of developing syllabi and preparing textbooks as writers or experts or consultants. (ix) Affiliation to Various Boards The Yash Pal Committee recommended that the jurisdiction of the Central Board of Secondary Education be restricted to Kendriya and Navodaya Vidyalayas, and all other schools be affiliated to State Boards. The Chaturvedi Committee, has, however, seen no reason whey there should be any bar on the part of any schools to be affiliated to CBSE. 307 (x) Regulation of the Pre-School Education Both the Committees have recommended that suitable legislative and administrative measurers be adopted to regulate the opening and functioning of early childhood education institutions. Appropriate norms need be decided for according recognition to these schools in the private sector. (xi) Reducing the Load of School Bags on Children The Yash Pal Committee recommended that children should not be compelled to carry heavy school bags and the textbooks be purchased by the schools for their preservation as well as their use by students in the schools only. The Chaturvedi Committee has not endorsed this suggestion however. (xii) Giving no Home-work to Pupils The Yash Pal Committee recommended that in Primary classes no home-work should be given save for exploration in the home environment. In the upper primary and secondary classes, home-work should generally be non-textual in nature and when textbooks are needed they should be made available on a rotation basis. The Chaturvedi Committee observed that there should not be any formal teaching of subjects at the pre-primary school stage and there should be no homework at the primary stage. (xiii) Introduction of Shiksha Darshan Both the Committees were of opinion that there should be greater use of the electronic media for education called Shiksha Darshan like Krishi Darshan. An evaluative study may be conduced at the state as well as the national level to ascertain the role and impact of ETV programmes in primary schools. (xiv) Teacher Preparation According to Yash Pal Committee Pre-service Education for teachers being professional should be thorough and intensive. There should be scope for specialisation in Secondary or Elementary Nursery Education. Besides, continuing education of teachers must be institutionalised. While the Chaturvedi Committee endorsed the above has felt the need for

correspondence B.Ed. course for certain categories of students. 308 (xv) Reorganisation of Examinations The Yash Pal Committee felt that the Public Examinations taken at the end of Classes X and XII be reviewed to ensure replacement of "textbooks" and "Quiz type" questions by "concept-based" ones. The Chaturvedi Committee has suggested for continuous and comprehensive evaluation of both scholastic and non-scholastic aspects of education throughout the course period. (xvi) Review of Syllabi and Textbooks The Yash Pal Committee recommended that a Project Team be set up for examining the syllabi and textbooks for all classes keeping in view the reduction of academic load. The Chaturvedi Committee felt that the MLL at the primary stage has an important place, but it is not viable at the higher level. (xvii) Additional Suggestions of the Chaturvedi Committee In addition to the above, the Chaturvedi Committee has suggested the following: (i) The age of admission to Pre-primary Classes and Primary Classes should be raised by one year. (ii) The total number of teaching days need be increased to 210 in a year. (iii) Class-room facilities and teaching aids should be improved to a great extent. (iv) The professional support system should be strengthened as far as possible for improving the teacher's competence.

4. CONCLUSIONS The recommendations of both the Yash Pal Committee and the Chaturvedi Committee has now been discussed very intensively throughout the country, particularly in the context of universalisation of Elementary Primary Education and for realising the Education for All. The suggestion of Yash Pal Committee "textbook should be treated as school property" to save children from carrying heavy bags to and from school "has been felt as" an extreme point of observation as a large number of schools do not have the place to keep these books and students accepts their books as their very personal assets of great psychological satisfaction and confidence. It is also said that the 309 Yash Pal Committee, presumably "has not had a good enough look at the school bag where the burden is largely made up not of textbooks but those whose content and quality are wholly in question." It is alleged that booksellers almost always do not sell the prescribed books unless pupils buy the "made easies" that go along with them. The "cheap" easy books are actually costly and heavy ones and their publication is the "bread and butter" business of many. The Yash Pal Committee's recommendation for abolition of "homework" at the primary level and its minimisation at the secondary level has stirred up "a hornet's nest". The average teachers' role in the classroom is questioned and most of the teachers' activities are criticised for being far from satisfactory. Rather the pupils are found to resort to private tuitions on payment of high charges and teachers are asked to form or strengthen the trade unions to fulfil their demands, providing "vote-banks" to politicians. The Committee also rightly suggested that schools should do away with the evils of admission tests "at the nursery stage" without inventing complicated admission forms that record the parents' union and lineage. It has been aptly observed in an alightened Editorial {Statesman, March 11, 1994), "Genuine educationists are so frustrated that they think it may be a good idea for pupils to be admitted to the nursery on the basis of a lottery. It is too much to expect that a Committee under Government auspices will consider how to keep politicians and politics out of schools and learning." It is also felt by all concerned that education should be kept free not only from politicization, but also from commercialisation. Education of the child must be kept aloof from politics and money-making rackets so that schools can be the places of joyful learning experiences and not places for over-burdening the "school bags" of children with many useless materials. 310 311

PART III ORGANISATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PRIMARY/ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 312 313

31 Role and Responsibilities of Teachers I. IN THE ANCIENT PAST The role of teachers in the life and culture of the people has been eulogised through ages both in the East as well as in the West. The most ancient literature not only of India but also of the world, the Vedas have rightly observed, "Matru devo bhavo, Pitru devo Bhavo, Acharya devo bhavo". i.e., the Mother, the Father and the Teachers have been given the highest regard by the society. An ancient Indian prayer also sings "Guruh Brahma, Guruh Bishnu, Guruh Devo Maheshwar" i.e., the teacher is Brahma, the God of Creation; he is Bishnu, the God of Maintenance; he is Maheshwar, the God of Destruction. He is the whole universe and God Supreme". Manu, the ancient Law giver, has said, "A Teacher is the image of Brahma, a father is the image of Prajapati and a Mother is the image of Earth." Education has always been regarded as a joint venture and as a cooperative process. That is why, the Upanishad enunciates that the teachers and students should live together (Sahana Vabantu) eat together (Sahana Vunaktu), acquire knowledge together (Saha veeryam Karabavahei), make the education dynamic (Tejaswina Vadhawitamastu). Concomitant with joint endeavour there are general human weakness of hatred and jealousy may be due to self interest or professional rivalry. The learned work Upanishad has very candidly observed, "Let not hatred divide us" (Mavid-weshavahai). The meaning of the very term Upanishad implies "sitting together and discussing an issue" in a relaxed manner. Thus, the ancient Indian education was very much in accordance with the principles of modern psychology which emphasize that learning in order to be effective should be interactive, participatory and self-discovery. 314 Similarly in the West, Socrates, "the wisest man in Greece" went about the streets of Anthens giving knowledge through dialogues and discussions. It is reported that the rich men from far and near used to send their sons to follow, Socrates on his walks and listen to his wise words. About Aristotle, the famous Greek Teacher, his student Alexander once expressed "I was grateful to my father (Philip of Macedon) for living and to my teacher for living well". According to Aristotle teachers should have benevolent disposition of parents towards students and talk frequently about virtue. Even prior to him Plato distinguished teacher of Aristotle in his immortal work "Republic" writes about the role of teachers for "improvement of mind and body" and "promotion of virtues". Like intellectual and spiritual father, the teacher of the ancient East and West led his students ' 'from the darkness of ignorance to the light of knowledge".

2. DURING THE MIDDLE AGES In India, Buddhists and Jains held the teacher in high esteem. In the famous birth story of Sutosmu, son of Sudas says "You are my master, my teacher, yea, my deity. I honour yours words accepting them with bowed head". Similarly, according to Jainism, Tirthankar is the greatest and ideal teacher and his words are of the highest authority. The teacher (Guru) was regarded as above all gods and the grace of Guru was the supreme benevolence beyond words. According to Manu, Charak, and others, the teacher was revered by his students like a King, parent and God. It was believed that only through blessings of the Guru that the real knowledge could be acquired by students. Even in the Mahabharat and Ramayan, the preceptors like Viswamitra, Vasistha and Dronacharya were given highest reverence. Medieval saints and poets like Tulsidas, Surdas, Sundardas, Kabir, Nanak and others praised role and significance of the teacher and advised the people to pay the greatest devotion and deference to the Gurus. Kabir has very nicely said, "If Teacher and God both are standing before me, whom should I pay obeisance? I bow to you my teacher who guides me to God". In the 18th Canto of Bhagbat Gita, Arjun as a true disciple told to Srikrishana, "All my doubts are cleared. I have got wisdom my mind is now steady. Your advice will be carried out Modern teachers should make themselves capable and deserve such glowing tributes from their students. In the Roman and Anglo civilizations the teacher was given high regards and required to play a very important role in imparting knowledge to and moulding character of their students. 315

3. IN THE MODERN AGE

Swami Vivekananda exhorted teachers, "Serve the children of the Lord, if you have that privilege. If the lord grants that you can help any of the children you are blessed. Do it only as worship". Dr. Radhakrishnan (1949) in the Report of the University Education Commission has aptly observed, "The Teacher's place in society is of vital importance. He acts as the pivot for the transmission of intellectual traditions and technical skills from generation to generation and helps to keep the lamp of civilization burning. He not only guides the individual, but also, so to say, the destiny of the nation. Teachers have, therefore, to realise increasingly their special responsibility to the society. On the other hand, it is incumbent on the society to pay due regards to the teaching profession and to ensure regard to the teaching profession and to ensure that the teacher is kept above want and given the status which will command respect from his students. In the recent past, measures have been taken to improve the economic, social and professional status of teachers and I have no doubt that in the years ahead such difficulties as remain will be removed". Dr. Zakir Hussain (1959) has also very strongly described the role of teachers, "The teacher is indeed the architect of our future. Society can neglect him at its own peril. The teachers too should unequivocally reciprocate to the society's interest in their welfare and try to do their best for the welfare of students under their charge. The Secondary Education Commission (1953) succinctly has mentioned, "Every teacher and educationist of experience knows that even the best curriculum and the most perfect syllabus remains dead unless quickened into life by the right methods of teaching and the right kind of teachers". Humayun Kabir (1961) has also added, "Teachers are literally the arbiters of a nation's destiny". Smt. Indira Gandhi (1966) has said in the same vein, "Our two million teachers are the custodians of our future. We talk of honouring and cherishing teachers, but do our actions match our words? We have no right to hold teachers alone to a vow of self-sacrifice?" Teachers of today as in the past have to play a leadership role. They are in quest of truth and creative artists. Dr. D.S. Kothari (1966) have rightly discussed in the Report of the Education Commission, 1963-66, "The role of education is vital for the progress and development of our country. This places a special responsibility on teachers at all levels of education. Equally, it is important that Government and other institutions concerned do the utmost possible to provide to teacher's conditions of 316 work and service which will enable them to do their best for education and research". According to H.G. Wells, "the teacher is a Real Maker of History. Henry Adams remarks, "A parent gives life but as parent he gives no more. A murderer takes life, but his deed stops there. A teacher affects eternity, he can never tell where his influence stops". Sir John Adams says, "The teacher is maker of man". Henry Van Dyke has aptly observed, "I sing the praise of the unknown teachers. Great generals win campaigns, but it is the unknown soldiers who win the war. Famous educators plan new systems of pedagogy, but it is the unknown teacher who directs and guides the young. He lives in obscurity and contends with hardship. For him no trumpets, blare, no chariots wait, no golden decorations are decreed. He keeps the watch along the borders of darkness and makes the attack on the trenches of ignorance and folly. Patience is in his daily work; he strives to conquer the evil powers which are enemies of the youth, He awakens the sleeping spirits. He quickens the indolent, encourages the eager and steadies the unstable, He communicates his own joy in learning and shares with boys and girls the best treasures of his mind. He lights many candles which in later years will shine back to cheer him. This is his reward. Knowledge may be gained from books but his love for knowledge is transmitted only by personal contact. No one has ever deserved better respect than the unknown teacher. No one is more worthy to be enrolled in a democratic aristocracy. King of himself and servant of mankind".

4. RESPONSIBILITIES The role and responsibilities of teachers are inter-related and interdependent. The teacher is required to play different roles and even the same role changes over the yeaRs.The teacher's role also differ from one stage of education to another. To illustrate this, it may be said that the role of teachers working in primary schools cannot be equivalent with that of their counterparts in higher education. Similarly, the teachers of the ancient times were not playing the same roles as being done by the teachers of today. Teacher's responsibility vary through ages and teachers are required to perform various functions according to the needs and requirements at different stages of education. But on the whole, teachers have to discharge a number of basic education, But on the whole, teachers have to discourage a number of basic responsibilities irrespective of time and stages of education. These functions can be categorised as follows: 317 (a) Teaching, (b) Class Management and Planning of Lessons, (c) Evaluation of student's Performance, (d) Research Activities, and (e) Co-curricular and Extension Activities.

4.1. Teaching Teaching is the most fundamental responsibility of teachers irrespective of their time and stage of education. Especially at the stage of higher education a great quantum of knowledge is required to be imparted and a vast area of topics need be covered by teacheRs.As we know well, teaching is an intricate and complicated process involving artistic skills and sensibility as well as scientific principles and procedures. Teachers should not only acquire the quantum of knowledge that is required for various groups of learners but also use different methods and techniques of teaching for which they have to master a good number of skills. There are vital and general principles of teaching e.g. teaching from known to unknown, from analysis to synthesis, from simple to complex, from empirical to rational about which teachers should be made aware so that knowledge accumulated over the years can be transmitted to students effectively. The quantum of knowledge is being multiplied so fast and some of the theories and concepts are getting outdated so quickly that there has been explosion of knowledge and information in all subject areas. The vast volume of contentknowledge is to be imparted to the students' community. This calls for high intellectual efforts and preparedness on the part of teachers. An actual teacher cannot just repeat the same content over a number of years. He cannot dictate from the notes prepared by him during his student career or dictated by his teachers. It has to be transmitted through a series of lessons transacted with a particular method of technique. A lesson cannot delivered by the same person as before. A good lesson is an artistic creation and a unique presentation of facts. The teaching process is also not an one-way traffic or transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the students. There is an hierarchy of objectives starting from knowledge and understanding to application and critical thinking. Besides cognitive, conative and effective domains of students' development, their psycho motor skills are to be nurtured and taken proper care of. Passing in the examination or securing high marks in the present system of evaluation should not be the main objective of higher education. Raza and Ferandes (1988) have rightly pointed out, "Teaching at the higher education level is required not only to impart indepth, uptodate and relevant knowledge of the subject concerned to 318 the student, but also to develop in him critical and analytical abilities as well as the capability to relate knowledge so received to real life situations. In the context of explosion of knowledge it has been imperative on the part of the students to develop capabilities to locate, acquire and process information, to interpret and choose what is most relevant for a particular purpose. Teachers of today should be more concerned about "learning than teaching". That is why pedagogy has given way to mathetics. "How to Know" has been more important than what to know". Emphasis is being laid on "Knowing than known, "Education has been increasingly becoming learner and learning centered" instead of being "teacher and teaching centred." Now students are exposed to wide ranging sources of knowledge. A lot of media and materials are available for acquiring knowledge and skills. Teachers should be aware of all these things and properly guide the students to make use of them as and when necessary. Teachers should know various methods and techniques of teaching and utilise the same according to the learning objective to be realized as no single teaching method can help in realizing all the objectives of higher education. Modern teachers should adopt these teaching methods and techniques not only in the classrooms, but also outside the classroom. Raza and Fernandes {Ibid.) have therefore rightly suggested, "It follows from the above fact that the time spent on this function should not be calculate in terms of merely the time spent in the classroom. A suitable mix of teaching methods requires great creative efforts spread over a considerable period of time both within and outside the classroom Besides teaching methodologies as discussed earlier, a vast range of technologies are now available for making the teaching-learning process effective as well as interesting. Educational TV and radio programmes, audio and video programmes, audio and video materials, computer programmed learning software, films and slides, even maps, charts, models can be used by teachers according to the availability of time and facilities. The use of the materials must enrich and support the teaching activities of teachers. Hence, teachers should have a media mix or multimedia package at their disposal for teaching different topics. These materials need be used in the right time in the right place and in the right manner so that outcomes of the teaching learning process will be maximum. Teachers like physicians should keep themselves abreast with the latest trends, knowledge and skills through self-study, participation in various orientation and refresher courses and conducting research 319 studies. Their preparation and acquiring knowledge and skills is not once for all, but a continuous process. Their award of post-graduate degrees or diplomas are to be regarded as entry certificates to the vast empire of knowledge not as be-all end all of their academic achievement and excellence. 4.2. Class Management and Planning of Lessons

With a view to making the teaching activity very effective, it is felt essential that teachers should know and practise certain skills and techniques of class management or school organization, even planning of lessons and preparing teacher's notes. These are administrative, organizational and management programmes/activities which help teaching programmes to be effective and useful. Before proceeding with actual teaching programmes, the teachers should plan the curriculum as a whole, the topic in the subject is required to teach and divide them into monthly and weekly units. He should fit in his teaching units/ lessons with the time table. He should think of the questions to be asked for introducing, illustrating, elucidating his teaching points and explaining and even for assessing the students, performance. He should plan the use of audio-visual aids and materials well in advance. Class Management contributes a lot to the success of teaching and forms an integral part of the teaching-learning process. A class is an organization of students brought together for achieving the desired objectives efficiently. The proper management of various resources, disciplines, control, rapport and relations immensely influence the learning outcome of the teaching objectives. The teacher as the leader of the group exerts a great impact of his personality, his teaching and interaction on the achievement of students. He should ensure democratic organization and active participation of students for optimum realization of the goals. Authoritarian management of the classroom with restriction on freedom and interaction of students adversely affect the students performance in the long-run. 4.3. Evaluation of Students' Performance Conducting Examinations and Evaluations is an important function of the teacher. But it is not meant in a stereotyped mechanical and traditional manner but as a creative, continuous and built in mechanism in the total teaching-learning process. It should not be used only for grading or rejecting and passing of the 'gods' that are produced in the factories of educational institutions. Rather it should be looked upon as 320 a tool for providing the relevant learning experiences and for improving the quality of education. Student's knowledge can be assessed through recall, recognition, classification, comparison and discrimination of data, detection of errors, identification of relationship, elaboration and interpretator of facts. Teachers should know the preparation and use of various kinds of test items under the three main categories of essays, short-answers and objective types. Besides knowledge and skill acquisition, teachers should develop a positive and objective attitude and interests in the evaluation system. If teachers will be partial, superfluous and suspecious in nature and involve themselves in malpractices or connive at the same, then their very honesty and integrity will be questioned which may lead to so many undesirable issues and problems. On the whole, the very purpose of examinations will be defeated and smooth conduct of various tests is like to be jeopardised in the college and Post-graduate Departments. It has been aptly observed by Raza and Fernandes, "Evaluation of students performance is an integral part of education and calls for clear understanding of the educational process, intellectual innovativeness of a high order, deep appreciation of student responses and intensive backbreaking work spread over the whole year." The NPE, 1986 has therefore stated, "Assessment of performance is an integral part of any process of learning and teaching. As part of sound educational strategy, examinations should be employed to bring about qualitative strategy/improvements in the education" . There should be adequate improvements in the conduct and management of examinations in which teacher have a great responsibility. The POA, 1986 has also reiterated the suggestions of the NPE and recommended for introducing continuous institutional evaluation particularly at the Post-Graduate level. It has suggested for improving the conduct of examinations through effective decentralization and for maintaining students' records for facilitating continuous institutional evaluation. Intensive training programmes should be organized for paper setters. Programmes of training and orientation of teachers would give special attention to new evaluation methodologies, setting of question papers, measurement of performance, etc. On the whole, teachers must assume more responsibilities for smoothly conducting the various examinations and should be given adequate training as well as facilities for enabling them to perform their functions properly. 321 4.4. Research Activities Research activities of teachers are of crucial importance not merely for getting promotion or any other financial benefits, but for promoting their professional growth. Research not only helps in acquisition and generation of knowledge but also gives a scientific bent of mind and self confidence in a particular field. It also helps in accelerating the pace of progress, sociological, scientific, political, literary, technological and so on. Teachers of higher education are engaged in research activities usually before or after the commencement of their career. But they work as apprentices so to say, "learning the

trade from a master craftsman and working generally as a member of the group. It may be noted that a doctoral degree only provides the necessary training for research pursuits and may be considered to be the starting and not the culminating point of a research career". Subsequently, the teacher of any university or college gains experience and expertise in the field and goes for his own post-doctoral work or for supervision of the research work of the young faculty members or research scholars. Having acquired an adequate degree of proficiency in research work and competence in the areas of his special interest and expertise, he can take up research studies big or small sponsored by various organizations, at the regional, national and international level. At present UGC, NCERT, NCSS, etc. have been providing funds for research programmes. He can even work as a leader of the group engaged in research activities or problem-solving studies and experiments. It is not always necessary that research studies should be large scale calling for huge funds and sophisticated instrumentation. Small scale projects of problem-solving nature seeking solutions to the local, regional or even classroom problems are rather more useful and meaningful. It is, of course, a fact that due to pressure of work and lack of library/laboratory facilities, teachers are not able to make desirable progress in this direction. There should not be any conflict between teaching and research, rather one should support and sustain the other. The findings of the research studies should be given due weightage and implemented by concerned authorities in the actual situations. Research should not remain just a theoretical exercise but as a practical tool of improving education. It requires constant and planned efforts on the part of the faculty members. It has to be realized that "applied research leads to reforms and basic research leads to revolution." 322 4.5. Co-curricular Activities Co-curricular activities are not considered equally useful for students' development. Previously these were considered extracurricular and teachers excepting a few were not given any responsibility. There were also occasionally and haphazardly organised by the Educational Institutions, but now the Psych logical, Physiological, Ethical, Academic, Social, Civic, Aesthetic, Cultural and Recreational values of co-curricular activities have been emphasized and due attention has been given on their effective organization and management. A large number of deficiencies and constraints as existing today are reducing the desired values of the programmes. Lack of proper planning, paucity of various facilities, lack of proper qualified staff, have posed a large number of problems which need be sorted out for ensuring success of these activities. It is therefore essential that proper attention should be given to the organization and management of the co-curricular activities. Selection of these activities should be judicious and according to the physical and human resources available. The number of activities should be as varied as possible to suit the students' needs and capabilities. Teachers should be held responsible for organization of these activities according to their interests and experience as far as possible. Students need be properly motivated and encouraged to participate in a large number. Records of all activities should be properly maintained and be checked by faculty members and steps need be taken for maximum utilization of resources. Periodic appraisals and review of the activities should be done to assess students' performance, problems faced and impact felt by students and teachers. Necessary improvement should be brought about in the planning and management of their activities on the basis of such evaluation and feedback. 4.6. Extension Activities Teaching and Research were so far considered only two important functions of the teacher, particularly at the stage of higher education. Colleges and universities were regarded as Ivory towers kept aloof from the society and its life. Teaching was mostly theoretical not directly related with the life, needs and aspirations of the people. But gradually it is being realised that teachers of higher education cannot do justice to their role and responsibilities if they are not adequately involved in the day-to-day societal problems. Extension activities have therefore been taken as an important dimension to the teachers' role and responsibilities. No educational 323 institution should remain isolated from the society and no teacher should keep himself aloof from the current social issues. Various extension activities should be taken up not only from sociological points of view, but also pedagogical considerations. These activities enable the teachers and students to be involved in the community problems and make teaching as well as research more meaningful and relevant. By participating in the developmental activities, the teachers and students contributes their might to the realization of the national goals and come closer to their social commitments.

Extension activities are generally organised through National Service Scheme (NSS), National Adult Education Programme (NAEP), National Cadet Corp. (NCC), etc. Besides there are programmes like Community Health, Social Forestry and Flood or Drought Relief Works in which teachers and students are involved with great success. Proper planning and operational strategies should be developed for effective implementation of the programme. The Extension activities can be selected in view of the problems faced and resources available in the community and the colleges/PG Departments of the universities. Teachers should play the role of coordination and leadership in the planning and management of this programme. They should develop certain skills for early discharging their responsibilities. They should conduct surveys for identifying the problems and resources; plan, organise and monitor these programmes; hold group discussions and make personal contacts, analyse, disseminate relevant information and evaluate as well as report on the programmes. On the whole, teachers should know the problem-solving techniques and skills for analysing and attacking the social problems successfully.

5. CONCLUSION It has been realized of late that for all-round development of the personality of teachers and students, equal emphasis should be laid both on curricular and co-curricular activities, and for making education meaningful and relevant, various extension and community-centered activities need be organised from time to time. There should be close relation between the society and education institutions. Teachers should be more responsive and sensitive to the societal problems and do their best not only in involving themselves but also involving the students in these varied programmes. Such participation will be conducive to the promotion of national development and making education more realistic 324 as well as goal-oriented. Teachers need play a pivotal role in the programmes like extension or community-oriented activities and co-curricular programmes. For this their attitude should change positively and they should acquire necessary knowledge and skills for perperly planning, organizing, monitoring and evaluating these programmes. The Faculty members should thus perform as wide spectrum of function starting from teaching to research, from students' performance evaluation to extension and co-curricular activities.

REFERENCES Aggarwal, J.C., Educational Administration, School Organization and Supervision, Arya Book Depot, N. Delhi, 1967. Government of India, Challenges of Education, A Policy Perspective, Ministry of Education, N. Delhi 1985. Government of India, National Policy on Education, 1986, Ministry of Human. Resource Development, N. Delhi. Government of India, Programme of Action (1986), Ministry of Human Resource Development (Education), N. Delhi. Mohanty, Jagannath, Modern Trends in Indian Education, Deep & Deep Publications, Delhi. Mohanty, Jagannath, Educational Administration, Supervision & School Management, Deep & Deep Publications, N. Delhi, 1990. Mohanty, Jagannath, Dynamics of Higher Education, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1993. Mohanty, Jagannath, Educational Administration, Supervision and Finance, Takshasila Cuttack, 1991. Raza, Mooins & Fernandez, N., "Functions of Teachers in Higher Education", Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 13, No: 1-3, UGC, New Delhi, 1987. Sufaya, R.N. & Saida, School Administration and Organization, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi, 1969. 325

32 Effective Teaching and Successful Teachers 1. INTRODUCTION: STUDYING QUALITIES OF A TEACHER

The qualities of head, heart and hand mainly constitute to the teacher's personality. His intellect, knowledge and thoughts are the qualities of head; sympathy, understanding, fellow feeling, love and affection are the qualities of heart; and handwriting, drawing, painting and other muscular activities are the qualities of hand. Thus his personality traits, academic achievement and professional efficiency determine his image as a teacher. The secret of his success lies in his love for his work and love for the students. K.G. Saiyidain pointing out love as the secret of his personality says, "Love that unlocks all doors and conquers all obstacles. With affection he will gain confidence of the child, win his heart and releases his dormant force and energy. Sacrifice and dedication to his service enables character and humanitarian qualities of love, sympathy, compassion, affection and so on are more important than his intellectual achievements. Teachers should be the living incarnation of the great trinity of Truth, Goodness and Beauty. He must have a deep sense of reasoning right and wrong; he must cultivate non-violence and objective outlook towards everything and he must appreciate beauty and orderliness. Teacher must have robust optimism and be free from frustration and pessimism. If he lacks in idealism and compassion, his personality will be a dead wood without any tender feelings for anybody. His vision of life must be based on love sympathy and affection for all in general and for the needy and deprived classes of the society in particular. 326

2. CHANGE IN THE EDUCATIONAL SCENARIO Gone are the days when the teacher was the supreme master of the educational arena. He was the school, he was the textbook and he was the moral force. Nobody was there to rival, to share his responsibility and to supplement his efforts. The school had the monopoly over all sources of knowledge and was the only light-post of education on a vast area. But the conditions have changed and the situations have improved. Many agencies of education have come several media have emerged and variety of materials are being used for education. Now schools have lost the monopoly of learning; teachers have ceased to be the only providers of education; no curriculum is obligatory and no certificate is a licence for anything. Ivan Mich, the prophet of the Deschooling Society has emphatically said that most of education takes place before the school, outside the school and since the school. Schools are not the only places of learning and children at present are allowed to learn freely and widely. There are radio, television, newspapers and other materials; there are meetings, conferences and congregations of all kinds, political, social, cultural, literary and religious. And all these have also educational roles to play and individuals are all exposed to such learning. Therefore, teachers have to labour hard for keeping themselves not as the only source, but as a main source of learning and knowledge. They have to keep themselves abreast with the latest trends, ideas and practices in their respective fields. There has been "explosion of knowledge" in every field. Unless the teacher continuously learns himself, he cannot be a good teacher. He will fail in his duty if he is not able to satisfy the educational needs of the students. He will not be able to do justice to his duties and responsibilities, if he is not up-to-date with the modern knowledge, techniques, methodology and media. He will have to keep in his mind the following words of the Viswakabi Rabindranath and work accordingly; "A lamp never light another lamp, Unless it continues to burn its own flame A teacher can never truly teach, Unless he is still learning himself. Today students are quite advanced in their mental age in their intellect, ideas and outlook. They are curious to know and have many doubts. Teachers have to meet the queries and satisfy this hunger with confidence. Therefore, they have to democratise their approach, methods and class 327 organisation. There must be adequate freedom flexibility and frankness in them. Questioning must be encouraged and responsibility must be shared in school administration as well as organisation. There must be equalisation of education opportunity and adequate interaction between the school and the community. The International Commission on Education for Development has aptly said, "Democratising education does not only mean giving more education to more people, but also involving more people in educational management." But unfortunately most of our schools are divorced from the society and the conditions prevalent in the schools are adverse to the growth of democracy. Our teachers should recreate education and reorganise their approaches to education in order to cope up with the changed situations. With a view to deserving a responsible position and status in the society, teachers

have to play their role more effectively and meaningfully and for that, they have to be well-equipped with adequate knowledge, skills, attitude and interests suitable for this age of science, technology and democracy. These are the challenges to be taken up by the teachers and on their success depends upon the success of education as well as prosperity of the nation.

3. CHANGING CONCEPTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING Over the years, not only the role of the teacher has undergone changes, but also the very concept of "Teaching" has changed and assumed new meaning and significance due to various reasons. Previously, teaching was synonymous with giving or transmitting a quantum of information. But this work is now very well undertaken by a machine like computer. When such information is received by and accumulated by a person like the student, it becomes knowledge and as the latter is assimilated and utilised for modifying one's behaviour and for solving the various problems in life, it becomes wisdom. These differences are very well manifested by T.S. Eliot and the immortal poet of the 20th country in his poem, "The Rock" as follows: Where is Wisdom? We have lost in knowledge. Where is the knowledge? We have lost in information. If the information or knowledge does not properly form a part of the cognitive development and is not used for promoting thoughts in 328 individuals whether students or adult learners, we cannot say that they have been wise. The distinguished educational philosopher Alfred Whitehead has very rightly said, "I have been much struck by the paralysis of thought induced in pupils by the aimless accumulation of precise knowledge inert and unutilised." Teaching is not merely enabling students to accumulate and reproduce dead and dry facts and figures, knowledge or information. No actual learning takes place in this process of teaching or transmission of knowledge and information. That is why, it is said that whatever is taught is not learned and whatever is learnt is actually taught. Teaching is incomplete and ineffective if no learning takes place. Actual teaching is thus not merely giving some information or knowledge, but enables the students to properly utilise the same independently and thoughtfully. Teaching is therefore more a facilitating, a motivating and promoting process. It is helping students to acquire knowledge, skills, ideals, attitudes, interests, and appreciations, leading to changed beahviour and growth of a person with a balanced personality. Without this, there is no learning and mere memorisation is not learning. Our education system is therefore very much criticised as it does not help actual teaching and learning, Benjamin S. Bloom (1958) has voiced this contention has follows: "The system consisting of examination, syllabi, teaching methods and instructional material-has formed a grand conspiracy to persuade everyone involved in it that learning is to be equated with rote memorisation. As a result, learning is a heavy task to be undertaken for a system of rewards not directly related to the beauty and power of subjects like Mathematics, Chemistry, Literature or History. The fact that students may come through this process with an interest in or even a love for Chemistry or Mathematics or History, must be explained by something outside the system. They develop this zest for learning and for a particular subject, if they do not at all in spite of the system and not because of it." Teaching was given too much importance and learning was not given its due place. That is why, in the teachers training programmes, teaching was emphasised and pedagogy—the science of teaching behaviour found an important place. The entire education system was teacher-dominated and teacher-centred. Now the scenario has changed and teaching has given way to learning. The science of learning called mathematics is accorded high priority. "How to learn" is more important than "What to 329 learn". Thus, learning is now found more significant than teaching and learners or students are given prominence in the entire teaching-learning process. The education has been student centered, and the needs and conditions of learners are given due consideration. The International Commission on Education and Development (1972) has aptly observed, "With explosion of knowledge, explosion of student population, explosion of aspirations of students, the problem of higher education have acquired greater complexity and magnitude. The teacher is now expected not only to inculcate knowledge but to encourage thinking. He has to become more an advisor, a partner to talk to. He has to help seek out conflicting arguments, rather than hand out ready made truths. For this he will have to devote more and more time and energy to productive and creative activities. Thus, "the teacher's role is changing in that the authoritative delivery of knowledge is being supplemented by spending more time diagnosing the learner's needs, motivating and encouraging study, and checking the knowledge

acquired." Teaching is therefore to create interest and motivation in learning. It is a creative, motivating, encouraging and inspiring process. As Torsen Eusen has observed, "more emphasis will be put on learning, not on teaching. The focus will be shifted to the economic management of the teaching function, to a close analysis of its real import and of the purpose it is supposed to serve."

4. SUCCESS AND EFFICIENCY OF TEACHING Henry Von Dyke has rightly observed, "And what is teaching? Ah! There you have the worst paid and the best rewarded of all vocations. Do not enter it unless you love it. For the vast majority of men and women it has not promise of wealth and fame, but they do whom it is dear for its own sake are among the nobility of mankind. I sing the praise of the unknown teacher, King of himself and leader of mankind." It is a basic fact that teaching is the fundamental duty of a teacher and it has to be made effective in order to make a successful teacher. "Successful and "effective"- these two terms may be used as synonymous in the context of goods teaching. I.L. Mursell has, therefore, aptly observed, "Successful teaching is teaching that bring about effective learning." The question is not what methods or procedures are employed, or whether they are old fashioned or modern, time-tested or experimental, conventional or progressive. All such considerations may be important, but none of them is ultimate, for they have to do with means, not ends. The ultimate criterion for success in teaching is results." 330 Now the question arises. By what kind of results should be success of teaching be judged? Such a criterion needs not only the knowledge, understanding and skills of the teacher, but also his attitude towards teaching. Of course, the commonsense answer to this question is that teaching should be judged by results that last and that a learner can and does actually use in his life. No teaching can be considered truly effective if its results are not durable or quickly vanish, however, impressive its immediate results, or effects. The effects of teaching must influence the pupil's behaviour, his personality, his values and attitudes. The learner should use the results of teaching freely and flexibly in his life. Such results must enter into his personality of shape, his mental development or affects, his thinking or influence, his action and mould his character. Teaching may be called the organisation of learning and the successful teaching is to organize learning effectively. For this, the teacher has to master certain secrets of his trade. It has to be realised that good teaching involves skill in learning. Such guidance is done by suggestions and persuasion rather than by command and enforcement. The teacher should create such situation, which can lead to desired types of activity. Teaching is an activity, a unique, creational and human activity. It is called not merely an art, but the most difficult of all arts and profound of all sciences. Teaching is therefore complex and conscious activity. Effective teaching must ensure maximisation of learning experiences, Its aims at achieving the objectives of education to the optimum. Effectiveness can be achieved with the help of skillful teacher, well-planned curricula, suitable infrastructural facilities, trained laboratory and library personnel. Teaching and learning are the two aspects of the same coin, and Educologh implies the study of teaching skills and practices. Teaching to be effective must be handed by effective teachers. If the destiny of a nation is being shaped in its class room, teacher is the architect of the destiny. It is rightly said that the more efficiencies the teacher has, the more efficient the teacher is and the more effective is teaching. Teacher effectiveness is related to the outcomes that reflect the achievement of students and the objectives of education. The major goal of teaching is maximising teacher effectiveness which is quite pertinent to school effectiveness which is in turn determines students' success. The characteristics of an effective teacher have been summed up by Krishnan and Nightingale (1994) as follows: (1) He can teach using different methods of teaching, employing a variety of audiovisual aids, (2) he should have moral prestige, (3) he should have intellectual depth, (4) he should have a sense of humour, (5) he should 331 be man of all-round personality, (6) he should be confident and at ease when teaching, (7) he has a good relations with the pupils, (8) he manages the class well, (9) he plans the lessons well, (10) he explains points clearly, (11) he pays attention to revision and examination reforms, (12) he tries to make lessons interesting, (13) he conveys high expectations for work of the pupils, (14) he stimulates and motivates pupils to think independently, (15) he should be creative, constructive, innovative and helpful in criticism of pupils, (16) he should be resourceful in providing the varied experiences to the students' and (17) he should flexible, alert and democratic in nature.

5. STEPS IN GOOD TEACHING

In the teaching work the teacher should try to give a good start, because it creates interest and motivation in learning. It is rightly called that to make a good start is half way to win the battle. The teacher must remember that nothing bores and audience more than monotony. His movements, his pronunciation, his gestur and posture, all should have variety, novelty and realisation, Stereotyped or dry presentation of facts, too much achievements like a shuttlecock or standing in a statuelike position are not liked by students. Preparation of the lesson is a pre-requisite. The teacher should not feel that because he is a first class graduate or a postgraduate or he is a teacher with long experience to his credit, he can deliver a good lesson without any planning or preparation. He should think, rethink and plan his sequence of teaching points. Good teachers continue to plan their work and prepare their lesson afresh even if they teach the same subject to the same class for years. Edwin Arnold was teaching the same subject in the same class of the Rugby School for long 25 years, still he was requiring preparation. He once forcefully said, "I want my pupils to drink from aliving fountains and not from a stagnant pool." Therefore, good teaching must be planned carefully allowing sufficient flexibility and novelty in approach and methods. Good teaching is kindly and sympathetic. True understanding of and love for teaching and students are essential. Successful teacher must create confidence in the pupils. The good teacher must be neither too firm nor too soft. Justice and impartiality are virtues which must be cultivated for successful teaching. Teaching is a cooperative affair between the teaching and the taught. Successful teaching must create a congenial atmosphere in the classroom 332 for mutual interaction between the teachers and students and among the students also. Hence, democratic spirit should prevail in the classroom for making the teaching. Successful teaching should be invigorating and stimulating. It may be done through his action, behaviour and personality. It must be creative and promotive of all the good activities and qualities of students. Successful teaching must develop initiative and independence in thoughts and actions of students in the classroom. It must liberate the student and his mind from lethargy, inertia and indifference. Lastly, Vpasani (1980) has cogently said, "There is no single royal road to effective and successful teaching. There are many roads, high way and by ways, royal roads and narrow lanes, delightful paths and even rough ones which need to be used for meeting particular needs, situations and goals."

6. CHALLENGE TO THE TEACHER The Teacher is the backbone of the society. He works for welfare of the nation. His functions affect eternity. Therefore, teaching in order to be effective and successful must influence the thoughts and action of pupils most remarkably and perceptably. The successful teaching must be effective with the help of various modern media, means and methods. Gone is the age of "talk and chalk". The modern age of science and technology demands creative, dynamic as well as multidimensional and multi-media approach. Therefore, radio, television, films, tapes, etc. should be used with profit along the traditional media and materials. It may be concluded with an observation of the same forceful author Henry Von Dyke. "He (teacher) communicates his own joy learning and shares with boys and girls the best treasures of his mind. He lights many candles, which in later years will shine back to-cheer him. This is his reward. Knowledge may be gained from books but the love for knowledge is transmitted only by personal contact. No one has ever deserved better of republic than the unknown teacher." The modern society very hardly needs such teachers who are not only knowledgeable, but also good towards their students, committed to their profession and sincere in their efforts for doing good to the society. For success of democracy such teachers are invaluable assets and they can be really effective for bringing about desired social change and accelerating the speed of national reconstruction. The National Policy on Education, 1986 has rightly remarked, "The status of the teacher 333 reflects the socio-cultural ethos of a society; it is said that no people can rise above the level of its teachers. The Government and the community should endeavour to create conditions, which will help motivate and inspire teachers on constructive and creative lines. This shows the concern of the Government of India about the role and functions of teachers and the need for providing high status and adequate facilities for enabling them to discharge their onerous responsibilities with great success. However, teachers should take up the challenges and deserve themselves the respect and responsibility by acquiring the qualities of hand, head and heart and by doing their best to realise the cherished goals

of the nation. In conclusion, it may be pointed out that A poor teacher informs An average teacher gives knowledge A good teacher explains A better teacher demonstrates An excellent teacher gives experience. A great teacher inspires.

REFERENCES Adams, Jone, The Evaluation of Educational Theory, Macmillan London, 1958. Adams, Jone, Modern Developments in Educational Practice, American University of London, 1957. Bloom, Benjamin S., Evaluation in Secondary Schools, The All India Council for Secondary Education, New Delhi, 1958. Govt. of India, National Policy on Education, MHRD (Edn.) New Delhi, 1985. Illich, Idvan, Programme of Action, MHRD (Edn.) New Delhi, 1987. International Commission on Education, Learning To be, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1978. Kochhar, S.K., Methods and Techniques of Teaching, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1978. Krishnan, S.S., "Understanding Effective Teaching University News, and Nightingale M.A. August 8, 1994, AIU, New Delhi. Mursell, J.W, Successful Teaching, McGraw Hill Book Co. Inc. New York, 1954. Mohanty, J., Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1986. Mohanty, J., Modern Trends in Indian Education, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1989. Mohanty, J., Dynamics of Higher Education in India, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1993. Rusk, R., The Doctrines of Great Educators, Macon Han Co. Ltd., London, 1918. Saiyidain, K.G., The School of the Future. Saiyidain, KG., Education for International Understanding. 334 Saiyidain, K.G., Problems of Educational Reconstruction, Asian Publishing House, Bombay, 1947. Taneja, V.R., Educational Thought and Practice, Jullundhur, University Publishers. Upasani, N.K., Effective College Teaching: Foundations and Strategies, WSNDT Women's University, Bombay, 1980. Wasi, Murrel, The Romance of Teaching NCERT, New Delhi, 1964. Whitehead, A.N., The Aims of Education and other Essays, Macmillan Co., New York, 1979. 335

33 Inservice Education and Training for Teachers (INSET) 1. NEED AND IMPORTANCE

Viswakavi Rabindranath Tagore has aptly said, A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own flames, a teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. The teacher has to be engaged in self-study and has to continue self-learning in order to keep himself abreast with the latest trends and knowledge in his subject or subjects. Education is realised from time to time and from one society to another education is inevitably becoming dynamic. Hence, teacher education particularly, preservice education has to vary and undergo modifications according to the changing life and needs of the society. No teacher can afford to spend working life time relying only on the capital he has acquired in the years of initial education and training. There is therefore urgent need for re-equipping or re-training the teacher from time to time. Education and Training once received may be good for a particular time, but cannot be adequate for all time to come. Unless the teacher refreshes his equipment keeping in touch with the latest developments, he is likely to got out of date and lose his professional competence. The training received before one enters into the profession is only a beginning and may be regarded as a foundation course. But it has to be added, enriched, revised and modified continuously. Preservice training usually leaves significant gaps in the knowledge, skills as well as attitudes of teachers. The principles of methods and techniques learnt in the course take new shape and meaning in the actual teaching-learning and organisational situations, It is during the course of actual service that a process of reconstruction and reorganisation of experiences takes place. And this leads to professional growth arid increase in competence of teachers. 336 Especially, in this age of science and technology, there has been explosion of knowledge and skills in all branches of human and natural sciences. Teachers as the caterers and catalysts of knowledge and skills cannot be left static and when there are dynamic changes in all disciplines. In order to help teachers for keeping themselves abreast with the latest developments in various disciplines and pedagogy continuous renewal and enrichment of their knowledge and skills are to be ensured. Unless they are themselves made upto date, their work cannot be effective and meaningful. That is why, Inservice Education and Training (INSET) is found essential for improving the efficiency of teachers and making the teaching-learning process relevant and successful. That is why, inservice education is also called as life-long education and aims at providing the teacher with the knowledge, skills and competencies that could not be given in the initial training programme. Such life-long inservice education is essential for the teacher in order to enable himself to cope up with the changing conditions and increasingly multifarious tasks that are entrusted to schools. It is also necessary for teachers to bridge the widening gap appearing between what they had learnt at their preservice stage and the curricular that is to be handled by them at present. The International Commission on Education, 1972 (1973) p. 216 has rightly observed, "One of the essential tasks for educators at present is to change the mentalities and qualifications inherent in all professions, thus they should be the first to be ready to rethink and change the criteria and basic situation of the teaching profession, in which the job educating and stimulating students is steadily superseding that of simply giving instruction. The Commission has also added, "that the divisions between formal and non-formal, school and out of school, child and adult education are steadily fading and teachers trainee today will be in the profession even after 2000. Therefore, "Conditions in which teachers are trainee should be profoundly changed so that essentially, they become educators rather than specialists in transmitting pre-established curricula, the principle of first, accelerated training stage, followed by inservice training cycles, should be adopted". The UNESCO in its document "Education on the Move" (1975) has mentioned, "This constant training is more effective and more direct than the training provided before entry into the teaching profession. The teacher with some practical experience is more aware of the inadequacies of his basic training and may concentrate on the important problems posed by the need to improve the quality of education". 337 Since teachers themselves should improve their competencies and promote their professional growth through self-study and life-long education. But the UNESCO (1972) has correctly observed that they, "have little indication to continue studying on their own and thus making it a necessity for provision of organised efforts for containing teacher education". It has also added that if teacher training is to achieve its purpose, it must be continued throughout the teacher's entire career. "This is the simplest and most effective way to disseminate the principles of educational reform as rapidly as possible, with a view to continuing education". The Commonwealth in its Report of the Seventh Conference," Inservice training is of key importance to the maintenance of standards in the schools. Teachers should not be expected to implement new methods of teaching or tackle new curricula without inservice training. It is vital, therefore, that programmes of inservice training should be planned within the context of teacher education as a whole". Thus the importance of continuous inservice education has been emphasized by the International Organizations and has generated adequate awareness for redesigning the curricula and strategies for organising inservice education for teachers through various agencies, media and methods in almost all countries of the world.

2. BACKGROUND OF INSERVICE EDUCATION IN INDIA The Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 (1965) has also observed, "However excellent the programme of teachertraining may be, it does not be itself produce an excellent teacher. It can only engender the knowledge, skills and attitudes which will enable the teacher to begin his task with a reasonable degree of confidence and with the minimum amount of experience. Increased efficiency will come through experience critically analysed and through individual and group efforts at improvement. The teacher training institution should accept its responsibility for assisting in this inservice stage of teacher training. The Commission was adequately conscious of the need for inservice education for teachers. But it expected only the teacher training institution to provide the same under the circumstances. The Commission also suggested in this context that teacher training institutions should provide or collaborate in the activities like (i) refresher courses (ii) short intensive courses in special subjects, (iii) practical training in workshops, (iv) seminars and professional conferences and consultancy services for schools. The Education Commission, 1964-66 338 (1966) has reiterated the need for inservice training and continuous professional education of teachers. It has pointed out, "In all professions there is a need to provide further training and special courses of study on continuing basis, after initial professional preparation. The need is most urgent in the teaching profession because of the rapid advance in all fields of knowledge and continuing evolution of pedagogical theory and practice. The programme has to be developed through a number of agencies". According to the Commission the fist of these agencies is the school itself which must provide opportunities to the new teacher to learn from his experience and through consultation and discussion with experienced teachers in the school. The head and the senior teachers have a special role to play in providing guidance to the new teachers through planning his work and through organising suitable activities such as staff study circle and discussion group. Education Departments, training colleges and teachers' organisation can also play a significant role in the programme. Besides, the Commission felt that there is need for organisation of a large scale, systematic and coordinated programme of inservice education, so that every teacher would be able to receive at least two or three months of inservice education in every five years of service. The curriculum of these programmes should be planned and organised systematically, materials being developed with great care and the staff in charge being properly oriented. Good textbooks and source books, audio-visual materials and children's work should be exhibited. Over a period of 10-15 years, every training institution is staffed and equipped to take up extension work, advisory service and inservice training programme like refresher courses, seminars workshops and summer institutes. The Education Commission, 1964-66 has, however, found that very little is being done for the inservice education of primary teachers and has emphasized such programmes which should form an integral part of the annual work of the training colleges and schools as well universities. In this connection, the Commission (1966) suggested: 1. Arrangements are needed for systematic follow up after a long term seminar, course of summer institute. The organisers and resource personnel should keep in touch with teachers who participate in the programmes, and teachers should report the new activities that have been undertaken, the results achieved and the difficulties met with. A news bulletin may be published to facilitate exchange of ideas or experiences. 339 2. There should be active collaboration and coordination among the agencies concerned with inservice education and those responsible for school education. The impact of summer institutes organised during the last three years would have been stronger if the collaboration of the education departments and the Boards of Secondary Education had been available and modifications had been devised in the curricula, syllabuses and the external examinations to reflect the new trends. 3. Continuing inservice education of teachers needs the support of research in education. The results of research should flow down to the classroom and stimulate him for experimentation in his work. Similarly, the problems of the classroom must climb up to research institutions for an effective and practicable solution. This two-way traffic could be considerably stimulated by the summer institutes and state institutes of education.

3. TEACHER'S CENTRES IN ENGLAND: A MODEL In England, teacher's centres have been playing an important role in providing INSET for teachers of primary and secondary schools. Although they are of diverse nature and structures and are known in many names, they are well equipped with both human and material resources for organising inservice education at various levels and in different areas. These institutions are geared to satisfy the professional needs of teachers and provide all kinds of physical and

academic facilities. Harry Kahn (1977) has aptly said, "The teacher's centre is both a place and a concept, a place where skills are improved and innovations shared and a concept of professional growth which values the integrity of each teacher's work. Teachers' Centre can easily respond to the needs of teachers and enhance their professional growth in a positive and constructive way. In organising courses of INSET teachers are accepted as both providers and contributors of INSET. Teachers can freely express their strengths and weaknesses and courses are designed to meet the specific needs of teachers. Although in many courses headmasters, college lecturers, inspecting officers and advisors are taken as participants, all kinds of barriers give way to free and frank discussion. There are at present more than 600 teachers, centres in England sharing a common philosophy— improvement of professional competence of teachers. But they vary from one to another in the structure, nature and functions. For example, only under the Inner London Education 340 authority (LEA, 1987) there are now 10 multi-purpose centres and 38 specialist centres. A wide range of inservice training courses is provided by the centres in an informal democratic atmosphere. In the line of true English spirit of democracy and autonomy, every teacher's centre is individualistic and unique in their organisation and administration. Though historical and geographical factors have affected the development of centres, the head's personality and IEA's interest greatly influenced their structure and functions. The head of every teachers' centre is known as warden or director or coordinator. His minimum supporting staff are a Secretary, a Caterer, a Care-taker and Cleansers. There are additional staff in many centres like deputy warden, media resource officer, A.V. technician, librarian and advisory teachers and so on. All professional staff are recruited from among experienced good teachers. Besides personnel each teacher's centre has office accommodation, catering facilities, conferences hall, meeting rooms' workshop, reprographic room, cloak room and toilet facilities. Many centres have adequate number of AV materials and equipment, darkroom facilities, reading and exhibition rooms. Teachers' centres not only organise training courses in different subject areas but also in the production and utilization of audio-visual materials and equipment for classroom teaching. Such inservice training courses are usually organised during vacations and evening hours through lecturers, seminars, discussion groups and workshops. The training courses are determined in consultation with teachers according to the priorities of various subject needs.

4. INSET IN NEW EDUCATION POLICY The National Policy on Education (1986) has aptly said, "Teacher Education is a continuous process, and its preservice and inservice components are in-separable. As the first step, the system of teacher education will be overhauled. The new programmes of teacher education will emphasise continuing education and the need for teacher to meet the thrusts envisaged in this Policy". The POA (1986) has mentioned in the context of inservice education of teachers, "A great deal of responsibility would be given to SCERTs. They would have the major role of planning, sponsoring, monitoring and evaluating the inservice education programmes for all levels of teachers, instructors and other educational personnel. The needs of inservice education of teachers arise from several sources, such as changing national goals, revision of 341 school curricula, additional inputs in teaching-learning systems inadequate background of teachers etc." These needs of teachers should be taken into account for preparing programmes of INSET. The District Institutes of Education and Training (DIET) would be the major agency for conducting programmes of inservice education for primary school teachers. Necessary assistance would be sought from school complexes in the district. In case of secondary school teachers the programme would be extended through teacher training institutions and the centres for continuing education. The District level education officer would help in effective organisation of the programmes. Teachers' Centres (TC) or Resource Centres (RC) would be set up in the DIETs and outside for organising training courses, workshops, seminars, etc. and preparing as well as utilising various audio-visual materials. These centres should be well equipped with different media and materials. POA (1986, p. 144) has, therefore, pointed out that all Inset Programmes cannot be organised in face-to-face modality, especially in view of the numbers involved. Distance education service and materials would be developed and extended with the help of broadcasting agencies. SCERTs and Teachers' Centres would be equipped with necessary resources for production of learning materials other than print. Minimum essential equipment to record audio and video programmes would be provided to each SCER/TS. The comprehensive college of education as well as DIETs/TCs may not be of high professional quality which would produce materials that can be used in their own training programmes and can also be

shared by other sister organizations. Experiences especially those of voluntary organisations should be drawn upon in designing courses, development of material and strategies for inservice education.

5. TEACHERS' CENTRES The Teachers' Centres can take up induction level and continuing education of non-formal and adult education instructors and supervisors. They would organise training and orientation of heads of institutions in institutional planning and management and micro-level planning. These centres may also hold orientation of community leaders, functionaries of voluntary organisations and other influencing school education. They would provide academic support to school complexes and other educational agencies for effectively implementing the quality improvement programmes. Action/research and experimentation work 342 shall be taken up by these centres. They can serve as evaluation centres for primary and upper primary schools and extend necessary consultancy and academic advice to the concerned organisations and agencies. NCERT (1983) in its Report of the National Seminar on Future Oriented Teacher-education has inter alia recommended for emphasising self-learning, development of techniques of self-learning and establishment of well equipped resources centres to be shared by a group of school and teachers. Mohanty (1979 ) in his study, "Teachers' Centres in England and Wales and their Implications for INSET in India with special reference to Orissa" has come to the following conclusion. Inspite of the existing problems and difficulties teachers' centres have been playing a significant role in organising inservice education courses, promoting curriculum development, providing resources disseminating information, facilitating social activities and community participation. As in India there has been a dearth of such organisations at the local level, attempts should be made to set up new institutions and activate the old ones in the light of teachers' centres in the U.K. It has been rightly reminded by Ankrach Dove (1977) that "it is interesting for overseas participants that doubleprints have emerged. If a particular form of the teachers, centres model work, whether in Britain or overseas, it works because its devisers wanted it to work and fashioned it not as a standardized article, but as one locally inspired locally developed". That is why, the following suggestions may be made for starting teachers' centres in India. 1. That the Centre Schools being the traditionally accepted formal agencies/institutions at the Primary School stage, they may be strengthened and will equipped with adequate resources for enabling them to play a leadership role in the locality in holding meaningful centre meetings, lending audio-visual aids and disseminating information and innovations. 2. That supervisors, teacher educators and administrators should be oriented with new ideas, so that they can advise the Centre Schools to develop suitable programmes and organise centre meetings as means of INSET. 3. That teachers' Centres at least one in each educational district should be set up within the campus of a centrally located and well developed secondary training school. 4. That one teachers' Centre in each Teachers' Training College should be set up with adequate to staff resources. 343 5. That the State Council of Educational Research and Training should play a role of leadership and guidance at the State level.

6. CONCLUSION In course of implementing the National Policy on Education, a large number of institutions are proposed to be set up for improving the quality of education. The establishment of Teachers'/Resource Centres is felt to be of great significance and immense possibilities. Particular Institute of Advanced Studies in Education (IASE), College of Teacher Education (CTE), District Institute of Education and Training (DIETs) would promote and ensure establishment of such centres at various levels throughout the country. It is hoped that these institutions would usher in new era not only in the history of teacher education but also in the realm of inservice education of teachers by providing adequate facilities both physical and human for bringing about qualitative improvement and expansion of education at various stages.

REFERENCES Ankrach Dove : Educational Report of a workshop held by British Council & University of London, Teachers' Groups and Centres of Developing Countries, London 1977.

Government of India, Commonwealth Secretariat: Report of the Seventh Commonwealth Conference, London, 1977. Government of India: The National Policy on Education, 1986, Ministry of HRD, New Delhi, 1986. Government of India: Report of the Secondary Commission, F952-53 Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1965. Government of India: Report of the Education Commission, 1964-65, MHRD, New Delhi. International Commission on Development of Education: learning To Be, UNESCO, Paris, 1972. ILEA: Resources for Teachers' Centres, Save Our Teachers' Centres, London. 1978. Khan, H.: Time Educational: Supplement Land, 1975 Mohanty, J.: Teachers' Centres in England and Wales, British Council, London 1979. Mohanty, J.: "Organisation of Teachers' Centres for Qualitative Improvement of Education" Journal of the Board of Secondary Education, Orissa, Apr.-December Cuttack 1980. NCERT: National Survey of Elementary Teacher Education, New Delhi. 1970. NCERT: A Report of the National Seminar on Future Oriented Teacher Education at Delhi from March 21-23, 1983. UNESCO: The School and Continuing Education, Paris, 1972. UNESCO: Education the Move, Paris 1975. 344

34 Classroom Organisation and Management 1. INTRODUCTION The Education Commission, 1964-66 in the opening sentence of its report rightly says, "The destiny of India is being shaped in her classrooms". In fact, classrooms are the places where the future citizens of the country are trained, educated and enabled to meet the new challenges and to face the changing situations in their life. Classrooms are the places where pupils get new knowledge, develop understanding and insight, acquire new skills and interests and form their attitude and values. The group interaction and group dynamics prevailing in the classrooms actually mould their personality and develop their physical, social, mental and spiritual powers. Classroom climate determines to a great extent the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process on the one hand and the social and character building process on the other. Improving the classroom is an important function of the teacher. It is one of his major responsibilities. It is a precondition for his performance. A class is an organisation of students who have assembled for the main purpose of being educated. Like any other organization, it has to be directed and controlled in order to achieve its objectives efficiently. It cannot be expected that students will administer themselves in the classrooms. Although occasionally, they may be given then chance of administering the classroom or any other activity, it has to be done under the direction and control of the teacher.

2. MAKING THE CLASSROOM EFFECTIVE An effective teacher is not only the master of his subject, but also the master of his classroom situations. He should know how to manage the 345 class for effective teaching and learning of students. He should have adequate skills for organising the classroom activities in a planned and disciplined manner. Classroom management is therefore concerned with the "set of teacher behaviour at activities that are primarily intended to foster students, cooperation and involvement in classrooms" (Enner, 1987). Effective classroom management implies that the teacher has effective control over the class and can provide learning experience in a manner desired by him. It also implies that the teacher can secure the student cooperation and involvement in the teaching-learning process. The effectiveness of class management can be judged by the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process. The effectiveness of this process depends on the efficiency and competency with which it has

been organised and the quantity and quality of learning that has taken place in the learners. Such effectiveness is assessed in these three aspects and as such these three types are called: (a) Presage effectiveness (b) Process Effectiveness, and (c) Product Effectiveness. These types are discussed as follows: 2.1. Presage Effectiveness The quality of learning depends on the quality of teaching which in turn depends on the quality of teachers. And the quality of teachers is dependent on their qualification and personality in a great measure. That is the qualities of head, heart and hand (3 Hs) determine the effectiveness of his teaching. The teacher's cognitive development-his qualification and training, his mental equipment and preparedness, his knowledge and understanding, all these constitute the basic components. But his character and commitment to his work, his attitude and interest in his job, his love and dedication for the profession constitute his effective faculty development which greatly influences the effectiveness or success of his teaching. Similarly, his methods of teaching, skills in handling equipment and aids, in using blackboard, his artistic ability even his handwriting contribute to the success of his teaching process. All these components determine the presage effectiveness. 2.2. Process Effectiveness All the above quantities are observed in action, in actual transaction of the teaching-learning process. How is the teacher actually teaching? How are the learners attentive? How are they receptive? What is the extent of discipline in the classroom? How much interest and motivation of pupils are evident? Answers to all such questions measure the process 346 effectiveness. The teacher may assess himself, students may evaluate, supervisors may judge and even colleagues may check the effectiveness of teaching through interaction and rapport. In the process of teaching, the presentation of the subject matter-fluency and mastery in the content, skills in using various methods and techniques-use of different audiovisual aids and equipment, maintenance of discipline, creation of interest and humour generation of motivation and morale are taken into account. Evaluation of teaching by the teacher himself, by the supervisor, by students, by peers and colleagues can decide the reliability and validity measuring the effectiveness. Thus, actual teaching work, teacher's behaviour and climate in the classroom determine the process effectiveness. 2.3. Product Effectiveness The end result of the teaching process determines the product effectiveness. The input of teaching resulted in the outcome of learning. It is evaluated through achievement tests, performance tests and personality tests administered on students. The difference between the pre-teaching and post-teaching scores secured by students measure the product effectiveness of the teaching-learning process.

3. STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING THE CLASSROOM The teacher should be expert and proficient in improving the classroom. He should develop and practice a good number of techniques and strategies of improving the classes. He acquires through experiences a repertoire of methods and approaches where he adopt according to the behaviour patterns manifested by student in classrooms. A technique found effective in one classroom situation may not be effective in another situation to the same extent. The classroom management strategies need be varied and dynamic in nature to be paid according to the individual and group behaviour of students as well as the classroom climate and culture. The teacher as an efficient staff manager and skillful artist should try his best for bringing about rhythm and novelty in the classroom management. Some of the strategies and techniques generally used by him are discussed as follows: 3.1. Knowledge About Himself "Know thyself is a concept of crucial importance to man in general and to a teacher in particular. The teacher should be conscious of his 347 own strengths and weaknesses at first before he tried to know others in any situation like classroom. He must know his personal qualities, namely, whether he is democratic or authoritarian in approach, whether he is easily irritated or tolerate any odd situation, whether he can control his own emotion in the classroom or is easily disturbed by a slightly untoward

incident in the classroom. He should have mastery in the subject or top he teaches and have confidence in meeting all queries and doubts of students. Otherwise he should improve his conduct and knowledge about the subject. 3.2. Knowledge About the Students The teacher should know his students their background, their needs, their interests, their previous knowledge or entry behaviour, their language level, even their personal problems if possible. Students should not be regarded just as young children or mature adults but individuals with growing mental, physical or emotional abilities. They cannot be controlled by authority or power. They should be convinced that what you want to do is for their good. They should be encouraged to think and reason, not to memorise blindly and reproduce in the examination papers. Teachers should know students' previous knowledge, the level of their knowledge and understanding in the topics so that they can teach accordingly. Similarly, they should have the students' language level so that they can communicate with them effectively and intelligently. They should also know the interests, attitudes and needs of students so that teaching can be related with the areas of their interest and be made more relevant and meaningful. It would give teacher dividends if teachers can know about their personal problems and be sympathetic in helping them to overcome their difficulties. 3.3. Class Control The teacher should have adequate control in the classroom which is essential for ensuring effectiveness of the teachinglearning process. His approach should be democratic not authoritarian nor even laissez-faire. He should not only maintain proper rapport with students but also promote a clam and cheerful atmosphere. He should not get excited, worried, irritated, even under provocation. He should address all students keeping eye contact with all of them as far as possible. He should not only make his presentation interesting and intelligible but also put questions occasionally to test their understanding. It is desirable to put questions to inattentive and mischief-mongering students as frequently 348 as necessary. He should be firm in dealing with indisciplined students without getting angry or emotional. He should remember that we should not condemn indisciplined students, but their conduct and misbehaviour. He should be fair and impartial to all students and students should not have slight suspicion or doubt about his dishonesty and integrity. Teacher should have ability to identify disruptive behaviour in the classroom. More quickly they do this, better it is for class control. This requires promptness to know what is happening underneath or to see what is happening behind one's eye. Teachers even while writing on the blackboard should take note of students' comments or behaviour that is taking place in the class. This quality of promptly identifying disruptive tendencies in the classroom is termed as "withitness" by Kounin (1970). Teachers should develop the habit of developing such withitness and quickly dealing with disruptive conduct of students for ensuring adequate control in the classroom. The University Education Commission (1949) has also pointed out that teachers should keep their eyes on the students' audience to have estimation of the extent to which the students are following the classroom teaching. Teachers should exercise some verbal control devices in the classroom. A good many teachers report to verbalization as a strategy to control disruptive students, but it is not always proved effective. It is said that soft reprimand which is directed and heard only by the concerned students is found more effective than a loud reprimand. Praise in appropriate cases or for desirable beahaviour is proved effective. The tone and intensity of teacher's reprimand should not be severe. Soft reprimand should be exercised at the first instance, to be severe when disruptive behaviour is repeated. 3.4. Class Discipline As a corollary to class control, discipline is an important factor for achieving classroom effectiveness. Various models of discipline have been developed in accordance with the scientific, emotional and psychological principles of student's growth and behaviour. One of these models worth mentioning here is (i) Behaviour Modification Model which says teachers need use appropriate reinforcement devices to share student's behaviour in the desired manner. Generally there are positive and negative reinforcements. Praise and awards being under former and blame as well as punishment being under the latter category. According to Tanner (1978) three emergent models of discipline are: (i) the Psychodynamic Model (ii) the Group Dynamic Model, and 349 (iii) the Personal Social Growth Model. The Paycho dynamic model emphasizes the need for understanding the individual

and dealing with him accordingly. The Group Dynamic Model deems discipline as an integral part of teaching-learning process. Teachers should see that discipline is not the end in itself; it is a means to optimizing learning experiences. The Personal Social Growth Model lays emphasis on self-management, self-discipline and self-development. The discipline should come from within not from without. A clear knowledge about these models can help teachers to maintain discipline properly in the classroom. 3.5. Mastery in the Subject Area Teachers' intellectual ability and acumen is the basic factor for better classroom management. Those teachers who have proficiency in the subject particularly in the area in which they teach, do not face so many classroom management problems. It is rightly said that students are the best judges of their teachers' level of knowledge and understanding in the subject areas. They generally pay regards to those teachers who are quite competent in their topics. That is why the University Education Commission (1949) have rightly observed: "No teacher who is not a master of the field, who is not in touch with the latest developments in his subject and who does not bring to bear upon his duties a free and untrammelled mind will ever succeed in inspiring youth with that love of truth which is the principle object of higher education. Teachers should acquire more and uptodate knowledge in the topics they have been teaching so that they can clarify all doubts and difficulties of students. Continuous study can improve mastery of teachers in the subject matter and subject areas. Viswakabi Rabindranath Tagore has aptly said. "A lamp can never light another lamp unless it continue to burn its own flame; teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself." 3.6. Suitable Methods of Teaching Among other things, teachers should adopt appropriate methods for teaching various topics to ensure effectiveness in teaching activity. Now-a-days dynamic methods are appreciated more than lecture or demonstration methods. Interactive and participatory methods are preferred to teacher-centred and expository approaches. There should be variety and novelty in teaching practices and methods. Selection of appropriate methods according to the nature and need of the topics and learners' group is necessary, for smooth and successful teaching and 350 class management. Teachers should therefore be aware of learners' profile and their background, their knowledge levels, needs, interests, attitude etc. so that suitable methods can be selected for teaching. There should not be any rigidity and watertight compartment among various methods. Mixed methods like both teachercentred and student-centred methods needs be used for ensuring effectiveness of teaching. A large number of teaching topics in the classroom. No method or approach can be prescribed for teaching. It depends on the proficiency of the teacher-his own strengths, etc. and available facilities as well as resources. It should be used according to his own strategies which are psychologically and socially sound and suitable. 3.7. Teacher Attention Teacher attention is an important factor in classroom organization. It has a great influence on students' behaviour. With systematic and strategic use of his attention, the teacher proves successful in modifying students' behaviour in socially and academically desirable ways. When a teacher pays attention to a good behaviour, it is likely to be reinforced and get enriched. Similarly, if he overlooks a non-productive behaviour, it is usually reduced or occurs less frequently. Tanner (1978) has suggested extinction approach, i.e. withholding attention purposely towards disruptive behaviour can be more useful if it is not so serious or dangerous and occasionally found in case of students who are usually well-behaved. Too much focussing of attention on anti-social or unsocial behaviour may hamper progress in teaching and creating more problems than solved. It is rather advised that teaching should give positive attention to desirable behaviour and negative attention to undesirable one. Vedanayagam (1989) has rightly observed "The effectiveness of the praise will be enhanced if students' improved behaviour is praised very shortly after it reoccurs. The teacher's acceptance of praise can be in the form of a smile, a part or a nod or a note on completed paper, depending upon the nature of response and how it is made." It is therefore imperative on the part of the teacher to be careful and tactful in focusing his attention to and in appreciating or depreciating the desirable and undesirable behaviour of students respectively. 3.8. Classroom Interaction

Teaching is not an one-way process of communication and class management is only the teacher's job. Both are interactive and joint processes. Teachers influence students through their activities in the 351 classroom and even in the outside by giving directions, imparting instructions, asking questions, stimulating students' participation and so on. Students also influence teachers through their activities namely by making queries, giving responses discussing and organizing various programmes. Thus, both teachers and students influence each other. They participate and reciprocate in the indoor and outdoor activities. All these behaviours exert a great influence on the classroom management. The teacher should promote interaction not only between students and himself but also among learners themselves. But such interaction should be properly guided to bring about satisfactory results and for this, teachers should develop and acquire various requisite skills as well as techniques. 3.9. Inter-Human Relations An educational institution or a classroom does not exist in vacuum. Teachers and pupils are main participants in the classroom activities and management. Inter-human relations indicate the process and product of interaction not only between teachers and students, but also among non-teaching staff members, management supervisors and administrators. Human relations are closely related to the interaction and communications. In order to maintain meaningful communication, teachers and students must enjoy a loving relationship with each other. If the process of communication and interaction is blocked. Inter-human relations are thwarted and classroom atmosphere is vitiated.

4. CONCLUSION Teachers should play an important role in improving the class-room its teaching-learning process, interaction, climate, control and human relations. The qualities of their head, heart and hand influence classroom atmosphere and transaction ensuring desired effectiveness. They should use their authority and leadership as twin key to improve the classroom. Teacher's authority does not mean imposition, threatening, domination and use of power. It is inspiring, persuasive, cooperating, assisting and guiding. The teacher's behaviour should therefore be democratic and not autocratic. His leadership qualities determine the extent of effectiveness in the classroom. He should follow the strategies deemed suitable for promotion of group leadership, class, climate, individual creativity, inter-human relations, cooperative behaviour and academic excellence. It is rightly said that ordinary teachers speak, average teachers explain, good teachers demonstrate and outstanding teachers inspire. 352 Teachers to be effective should not be merely the source of knowledge, they ought to be the source of inspiration and motivation to the young people in realising their potentialities and achieving the objectives of education.

REFERENCES Enner, E.T., "Classroom Management" in M.J. Denkinds (ed.) The International Encyclopaedia of Teaching and Teacher Education, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1967. Kounin, J.S., Discipline and Group Management in Classrooms, Holt Rinehart and Winston, Newyork, 1979. Ministry of Education, Government of India, Report of the University Education Commission, New Delhi, 1949. Ministry of Education, the Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, New Delhi, 1966. Mohanty, J., Educational Administration, Supervision and School Management, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1990. Tanner, L.N., Classroom Discipline for Effective Teaching and Learning, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1978. Vedanayagam, E.G., Teaching Technology for College Teachers, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1989. 353

35 Headmaster: His Duties and Responsibilities

1. INTRODUCTION: TEACHER'S ROLE The headmaster plays an important role in an educational institution. He is compared with the captain of a ship. He is also described as the solar web round whom all the teacher planets revolve. In fact, his is the head of the school both academically and administratively. The headmaster is the head of the masters or teachers or teachers in a particular school. He holds the key position and plans, coordinates and organises various programmes. He ensures proper maintenance of discipline in the school. He promotes the harmonious development of the institution. He carries the traditions as well as project the image of the school according to his own ideas and ideals. It is, therefore said that a school is as great as its headmaster. The headmaster should be a man of great head and heart. He must have good qualification in general education as well as in professional training. He must be a person with character and integrity. He should be a learned person and should have faith in himself, in his profession, in his staff and in his pupils. He should inspire all staff, students and public. He should, therefore, have adequate proficiency in maintaining proper human relationships with all concerned. The headmaster is the team leader and the spirit of cooperation should permeate the entire dealings with the staff, pupils, and community. He, with collaboration of his staff, would work for accomplishing the objectives and ideals of the institution set before them. The success and achievements of the school largely depends on his efficiency, ability, alertness, imagination, experience and resourcefulness. In fine, he is the friend, philosopher and guide in the school. 354

2. FUNCTIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES The headmaster has large number of academic, organisational and administrative duties and responsibilities. But for convenience shake, these can be classified into the following: (a) Planning, (b) Teaching, (c) Organising and Administering, (d) Supervising and guiding, and (e) Maintaining discipline and relations. A. Planning Planning is the first step in any academic and administrative assignment. The headmaster is to plan all kinds of his activities in time for implementing various programmes with success. He is required to plan his duties and functions throughout the year, but mainly at the following stages: (1) before opening of the school, (ii) during the first week of the session, (iii) during the session, and (iv) at the end of the session. (1) Planning before the Opening of the school

Unless proper planning is made before opening of the school, there will be a chaotic condition in the school. There may be teachers without students, classes without teachers and so on due to lack of timely planning. The headmaster should, therefore, plan all arrangements before opening of the school so that everything is found ready and as per the needs and conditions. The following tasks need be taken up at this stage. The headmaster should announce the opening of the session after the summer vacation, the date of application for admission, the date of any admission tests for that purpose and so on. All these may be notified on the Notice Board of the School and/or advertised in the newspaper: (a) He should make plans for admission either on the basis of class promotions or holding necessary tests or adopting certain process dures and criteria. This has to be planned according to the prescribed in-take capacity, available accommodation and teaching strength. (b) He should ensure physical verification of all kinds of stock of the school like equipment, furniture, library books and journals, etc.

355 (c) Necessary registers and files should be opened or made up-to-date according to programmes and projects being or to be undertaken during the session. (d) A calendar of activities should be prepared for the whole session in advance. It includes, inter-alia, steps for admission tests and other examinations, for admission, for applying for fee concessions and so on. school calendar and students' diaries can be printed if funds permit and necessary information should be given in these publications. (e) Steps should be taken for appointment of new staff members, due to additional sections/classes, death and transfer of teacher. (f) If the school is Government managed/aided, necessary proposals should be submitted to Government earlier, e.g. for creation of posts, releasing grants/sanctions and so on. (2) Planning During the First Weak of the Session

Planning should be made as regards the following during the initial period of each session: 1. Teacher-wise, student-wise, and room-wise time tables should be prepared. 2. Individual teachers should develop their scheme of lessons/ activities. 3. Earlier to this, distribution of work, particularly teaching assignment should be done among the staff. 4. Distribution of various co-curricular activities/projects should be made among the teachers. 5. Making arrangements for necessary physical facilities like furniture equipment etc. should be done. 6. Students' assemblies may be convened to orient the new students and for giving necessary instruction. 7. Announcements should be made for purchase of textbook, note books etc. (3) Planning During the Session

The following tasks should be planned by the headmaster throughout the year: 1. Organisation of the instructional work. 2. Organisation of various projects/co-curricular activities. 3. Organisation of the evaluation/examination programmes. 356 4. Organising external talks/extension activities by experts. 5. Organising class-supervision and verification of records, students' works, etc. 6. Organising guidance services, school Broadcast/Telecast programme and so on. 7. Making correspondence, furnishing proposals to Government for improving infrastructure and academic programmes. (4) At the end of the Session

The headmaster has to make planning for the following works: 1. Holding Annual sports, prize distribution ceremonies, etc. 2. Preparing abstracts of attendance, enrolments, fee collection, expenditure statement, etc. 3. Recording supervision remarks, making class promotion, etc. 4. Preparing Annual Reports.

5. Taking preliminary steps for the next session. In this context it may be noted that the headmaster should plan mainly for two kinds of work: (i) maintenance and (ii) development. Any headmaster has to manage the school by planning and doing some routine activities. But the innovative and resourceful head teacher should make plans for new projects, developmental programmes and improvement of the school programmes and improvement of the school plant. (B) Organising and Administering The headmaster, besides planning, is required to organise and administer various programmes and projects in the schools. At the outset, he must procure adequate furniture, equipment and instrument for the school. He has to get the old equipment and furniture repaired, to set up libraries, workshops and other physical facilities in an effective and improved manner. The headmaster has to develop curricular preparation, classify pupils, distribute teaching jobs among teachers and to allot other duties among staff through discussion and celebration. He should organise sports, listening to school broadcasts, viewing telecasts, holding of festivals, scouting and redress activities, organising parent-teacher associations, faculty meeting, staff meeting and so on. Office work is also an important component of the headmaster's responsibilities. He has to make budgeting, correspondence, accounting, 357 verification, checking the up-to-date entries in the registers and documents of the school. Unless he is alert in the matter, there may be forgery, corruption, misappropriation and other difficulties in the school administration. Office is the life centre of the school and the headmaster has to maintain it properly. (C) Teaching The headmaster is the head of teachers. He should be the teacher first and then everything else. He should take some classes, give guidance to teaching and see that teaching work and standard in the school is not impaired in any way. He should command due respect and play a leadership role only by making himself good in teaching and better in knowledge and understanding the teachers and students' problems. He, of course, cannot be an expert in all subjects or fields, but he should have skills, interests, and positive attitude towards academic activities. It is, however, found that many headmasters keep themselves so much engaged in administrative and non-academic work that they do not spare time for academic and teaching activities. They thus become the administrative head, not the academic head which is more essential than anything else. They should realise the standards of students and teaching work of teachers, their problems and difficulties, so that they can render necessary guidance for improving the conditions. They should act as the light-house of knowledge and inspiration. There cannot be any hard and fast principles or criteria regarding the number of periods, higher or lower classes, subjects of teaching and so on, to be taken up by the headmasteRs.It depends on the volume of his administrative and supervisory responsibility, his expertise in the subjects, nature of schools and so on. On the whole, the headmaster has to take up some teaching work according to his interest and convenience. (D) Supervising and Guiding In traditional sense supervising and guiding are taken as components of administration and organisation. But in the modern days supervision has acquired new significance and it needs new skills and insight. Administration, for example, means providing physical facilities and ensuring successful functioning of the institution, whereas supervision is concerned with improving the total teaching-learning situation. Modern supervision is not "fault-finding", but encouraging and guiding the teachers and students, even the parents for improving quality of the educational process. 358 A headmaster should supervise the work of teachers in order to help encourage and guide, not to criticise and find faults. He can do this through participation and in a spirit of cooperation. His supervision should be regular and continuous. The headmaster is required to supervise the following work in the school:

(i) Supervision of the Teaching Work

The headmaster should supervise the teaching work done by the teachers regularly and in actual situations. Sometimes he may be required to demonstrate through teaching any difficult point or concept. He should discuss any defects found in teaching of a teacher afterwards in his own office, room of course, not in the classroom in the presence of students. His attitude should be friendly and cooperative. He should instruct by way of guidance and suggestions. The headmaster should also supervise the work of students. He may prepare a schedule according to which the monitors will submit the note books of students to the headmasters. He should give his brief remarks regarding the nature and extent of correction and suggestions for improving the situations. The standard and neatness of the students' writing should be evaluated by the headmaster who can give his views for guidance. (ii) Supervision of the Practical and Out-door Work

Students are required to do map work conduct surveys undertake projects, carry on practical and craft work in and outside the school. They play games and sports, hold meetings and go on picnics and field trips. The headmaster should supervise these activities every now and then and extent necessary cooperation as well as guidance. (iii) Supervision of Welfare Services

Provision of adequate physical facilities and welfare services for better teaching-learning activities. For example, physical facilities like water and light, seating accommodation and furniture, hostel provision, for boarding and lodging and services like medical inspection also contribute to the students' welfare. Some other facilities like cycle stand, common room, canteen, etc. are necessary. All these facilities are and services have to be supervised regularly by the headmaster. (iv) Supervision of the Office Work

An Office as mentioned earlier is as important as the heart of a body. It has to keep communication both vertical and horizontal. It has to deal 359 with admission, attendance, maintaining registers and accounts, etc. The headmaster should supervise all these office work and check up the files and registers from time to time for ensuring proper maintenance and regular drawal as well as disbursement. Otherwise, indifference and callousness on the part of headmaster will create problems for many seriously affecting the discipline and morale of the personnel. (E) Maintaining Discipline and Inter-human Relations Discipline is of vital importance for proper functioning of the school. It mostly depends upon the competency of the headmaster. It is not a particular functioning or duty of the headmaster. It is an overall outcome of all his activities, dealings and rapport with others. The headmaster has, therefore, to maintain his proper relations with others—staff, students, parents, and community. (a) Staff

He must be just and sympathetic towards staff members. He is not an autocrat, but a democratic leader. He should show respect to others' personality and maintain human relationship as congenial as possible. He must recognise the individual difference and capitalise the uniqueness in everybody. He should participate in the actual situation himself and share the burden of work as well as responsibility. He must give instruction and at the same time seek advice and suggestions from teachers both individually as well as jointly. For this purpose, both personal interviews/discussions as well as staff teachings are to be held as frequently as possible. (b) Students

The headmaster is not only the leader of the staff, but also a well wisher of pupils. Through democratic administration he should promote willing participation and sharing of pupil in the management and organisation of both curricular and cocurricular programmes. The headmaster should take keen interest in students self-activities and provide all facilities for all round development of their personality. He should maintain friendly relations with student in order to encourage and inspire them.

(c) Parents

The headmaster should maintain both direct and indirect contacts with guardians. It has been found that teachers close relationship with parents and students' achievement as well their behaviour are positively 360 correlated. Parent-teacher association may be formed for the purpose and the headmaster should involve guardians in the annual functions and occasional celebrations in the school. The headmaster should be cooperative, sympathetic, and courteous towards them. (d) Community

Since the school is regarded as the centre of community development, headmaster should maintain close liaison with the community. There are experts in art, literature, craft, etc. in different sectors of the community and they can be invited to schools to give talks and demonstrate their work to students and teachers. The headmaster should keep contacts with various voluntary agencies and philanthropic organisations to enlist their help and cooperation for promoting school improvement.

REFERENCES Ryburn, W.M., The Organisation of Schools, Oxford University Press, 1970. Govt. of India, Report of the Indian Education Commission, 1964-66, New Delhi, 1965. Mohanty, J., Educational Administration, Inspection and Supervision, Vidyapuri, 1980. Govt. of Orissa, The Orissa Education Code, 1965. Govt. of Orissa, Report of the Secondary Education Commission, Ministry of Education, 1965. 361

36 School Plant: Various Physical Resources 1. MEANING The "School-plant" is a comprehensive term meaning building, play ground, furniture, equipment, library, laboratory and so on. All the physical facilities that are required for achieving the various objectives of the school constitute the school plant. The school plant includes not only the existing facilities, but also the future requirements to meet the changing demands of education. The school plant is the "Child's home" during school hours and the "community centre" afterwards. It may be called a "living laboratory" where children learn through living and doing. It is also known as a Youth Centre or "Enterprise" which provides recreational Civic, educational, library and other cultural facilities for multifarious development and growth of the youths. In this context, the following aspects may be considered for adequate and better provision of different facilities.

2. PLANNING The important principles that may be kept in mind for provision of the school plant are as follows: 1. The immediate as well as ultimate needs as required to realise the objectives of education at particular stage and in a particular area should be clearly identified, formulated and phased according to urgency. That is why, both short-term and long-term plans should be chalked out. 362 2. This planning should ensure reasonable flexibility in order to facilitate necessary adjustments suiting to the changes that

may occur in educational programmes in future. 3. There should be sufficient room for additions and alterations in the school plant to accommodate changes in curricula, roll strength and personnel. 4. A ' 'blue-print" or a master plan should be drawn up before starting any major construction work. This should provide all the present and future needs of the society. The school should be functional, not ornamental. There must be widespread changes in curriculum, methodology, use of various instructional materials and so on. The American Association of School Administrators have laid down the following seven principles for planning the school plant: 1. Curriculum Adequacy—The school plant should be adequate for organising curricula, co-curricular and community activities. 2. Safety and Well-being—The school plant should protect comfort, health and safety of pupils and have adequate lighting, heating and ventilation. 3. Inter-functional Coordination—Each unit or portion of a plant may be well planned for its specific use, but if they are not properly coordinated, plant as a whole cannot be effective. 4. Efficiency and Unity—The entire plant should be well planned and well designed to give unity and promote total growth, so that efficiency can be ensured. 5. Beauty—The school plant as a whole should be attractive, cheerful and pleasing. 6. Adaptability—The plant should be so designed that future adjustment to changing requirements will be possible without much difficulty or dislocation. 7. Economy—The school plant should not only be constructed economically, but also be maintained and utilised for different purposes without much expenditure.

3. SITE AND LOCATION The importance of a suitable site and its location cannot be overestimated. The site should be healthful and free from disturbing noise and adour. There should not be any danger for life and health from any 363 natural and artificial elements in the local environment. Since the students spend their impressionable age at school, the school plant should be made beautiful and dear to them. This will also inculcate love for the school and develop habits of cleanliness and healthful living. The site of a school should not be located in a congested area or at the heart of an industrial area. It should be accessible by different communication facilities and at the same time it should be located in a quite and pleasant environment. It should not be close to the market places, bus stand, railway station, burial or cremation ground, factory and stagnant pools. The school site should avoid water logging, muddy localities, rubbish heaps and unhealthy surroundings.

4. AREA FOR THE SCHOOL PLANT Area is an important factor for selection of a site for the school. There is no hard and fast rule in this matter and it depends on the following points: (i) Strength of the School: Since at least 10 square fee of floor space is necessary for a pupil, the area of a school will largely depend on its total strength of students. (ii) Nature of the School: Residential schools must require larger areas than the days schools as they must need additional space for hostel and staff quarters. (iii) Courses of Studies: The Schools with teaching and working facilities in various technical, agricultural and animal husbandry subjects must require bigger areas than the schools providing only traditional and art subjects. That is why, at present schools are in need of more space for teaching. Work Experience or Socially Useful Productive Work subject.

(iv) Co-curricular Programmes: With a view to organising various curricular programmes in the school a large area is necessary. For example, play ground for games and sports, big area for gardening and so on are required to enable students to play and to work in the garden.

5. DESIGN AND DIMENSIONS The Secondary Education Commission has said, "Provision is made in such schools to see that there is free circulation of air, proper light, shelter for monsoon weather and it is also laid down that the rooms 364 constructed should have a minimum area to accommodate a certain number of school children in a class". The Commission opined that the number of students in any class should be limited so that classrooms are constructed to accommodate this number. But now-a-days this number has gone up and classes are over crowded. With a view to establishing personal contact between the teacher and the taught and to exert a wholesome influence on the pupil, the optimum number that should be admitted to any class should be 30 and the maximum should not exceed 40. As each pupil must be provided with more than 10 sq. ft. and the minimum, area of one room should be 500 sq. ft. A school with 500 pupils should have 10 sections and have 10 classrooms requiring 5,000 sq. ft. floor area. Besides additional space should be provided for verandah, office, library, play ground, lavatory, agriculture, craftroom, etc. The larger the number of classes and sections and more subjects are provided in the curriculum, the larger has to be the area for classroom and playground. The School Building Committee of the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) has recommended the following minimum area: No of Children Area of Building Area of Play Ground 160

1/2 acre

2-3 acres

320

1 acre

4-5 acres

480

11/2 acres

6-7 acres

The school building should preferably be single storyed and have ample scope for expansion in future. In case of hilly densely populated areas in a two storeyed or even three storeyed building can be erected by way of expansion and extension. The school buildings can be of several designs. Generally, ETH and U designs of building are popular as they are convenient and attractive. Different facilities like common rooms, conference hall or auditorium, library, visitors room, office rooms, etc. should be provided in the same. The 'E' plan is said to be the best form of building in which rooms are open to the light, the hall is in a central position and two wings can easily be added, the hall is in a central position and two wings can easily added to it. Sometimes when expansion is felt necessary a double "g" or "H" form of building may be constructed, which is good and beautiful. . 365

6. VENTILATION AND LIGHTING Ventilation in classrooms greatly influences comfort of pupils and teachers and efficiency or teaching-learning process. The ideal standard for circulation of air in a school building is 30 cubic feet of fresh air per minute, per pupil, Ventilation of a room depends not only on air movement, but also on humidity and temperature. Therefore some safeguards are taken by making rooms spacious and airy with provision of many windows, cross-ventilation and ventilators would be provided for free movement of air and removal of foul as well as intake of fresh air. Temperature in a room is dependent on the relative humidity inside. When is heated, relative humidity comes down. If moisture is not added to air when heated evaporation of moisture from skin take place rapidly. It becomes unbearable. Even in the rainy season when humidity of air goes up it becomes uncomfortable. It is stated for a room temperature of 70F, the relative humidity should be 40 to 60 per cent. In the winter when humidity goes below the standard pupils feel more cold. The following suggestions have been given by I.P. Vyas (1977) in this regard: (i) Windows should be wire gauged, so that even when they are opened, wire gauze may protect the room from dust and insects.

(ii) The height of windows should be about three feet above the floor. Windows should have ample width and height so that sufficient air and light come in. (iii) There can be certain supplementary measures, e.g. ventilators for outlet of foul air and floor ventilators to admit fresh air from outside. (iv) In a warm country like India, ceiling fans are necessary in every classroom. If fans moves freely in summer and rainy season, over perspiration, draught and suffocation can be considerably reduced. Lighting should be adequate in the classroom which should be flooded with sun throughout the day. The light can come through windows and doors. The height of windows should be usually three feet from the floor, so that light falling on the pupils' desk is adequate. If the pupils sit on the floor, this height should not be more than two feet. In this matter utmost-precaution should be taken due to increased frequency of short-sightedness among pupils. Pupils cannot see distantly the writing on the black board in less lighted rooms. The strain put on their eye daily may badly affect their eyesight. Therefore, the following measures may be adopted to ensure adequate lighting in class-rooms: 366 (i) Classrooms and other rooms should be so designed that they do not face the sun at all times of the year, not should they be deprived of light in any season. Therefore, the building should face the south direction. (ii) The rooms must have a larger number of windows and doors to admit light from outside. (iii) More light should come from left than from right so that when the pupil write no shadow is cast on the paper. (iv) Dazzling light should be avoided. (v) Light should not shine on the faces of pupils, teachers of the blackboard. (vi) Walls should be white-washed and windows, doors or pillars may be coloured in light green or blue. Dark and crimson colours should be avoided. (vii) There should be proper colour combinations in the equipment and furniture without presenting colour contrasts and glare. (viii) Artificial lighting arrangement is necessary in the rooms without sufficient natural lighting.

7. MAINTENANCE AND UPKEEP Without proper maintenance even the most magnificent building and expensive equipment and furniture go waste. The headmaster should either himself attend to it or entrust this work to a vigilant staff member. Since a stitch in time saves nine, there should not be undue thrift in timely repair and maintenance. The headmaster as the custodian of the school assets, should feel a sense of ownership or pride. He should take regular round and observe keenly the conditions of all rooms, equipment and furniture. Registers of maintenance and repairs of the school plant should be properly maintained.

8. OPTIMUM UTILISATION Although the school plant, particularly building is used for educational purposes community should also be allowed to use the same for village meetings, a wedding reception, elections, family planning, etc. It is also suggested that school buildings should be used to the optimum by holding two independent schools in shifts or for the programme of nonformal education. 367 The Indian Education Commission, 1964-66 has aptly observed that since it is very costly to provide and maintain the physical plant of educational institutions, it becomes necessary to utilise it as fully as possible for the longest time on each day and for all the days in the year by making suitable administrative arrangements. The laboratory, library, workshops, craftshed etc. should be utilised for at least eight hour a day. Institutional facilities may be utilized for community service, adult education and so on. Although it is evident from the Third Educational Survey, 1979 that the community participation in the school activities is greater than the school participation in the community activities., he position in fact

is not encouraging. It has been emphasized in study (1980) that for democratisation and improvement of education, such cooperation and collaboration should be promoted between the school and the community.

9. THE SPECIAL ROOMS In addition to the classrooms for teaching subjects of general nature, a number of special rooms for teaching some important specific subjects like Science, Music, Craft, etc. is found useful. The need for the special rooms is felt more at present than earlier due to modern educational theory and changes in the syllabus. The special rooms also help in creating an atmosphere congenial to the nature and scope of the subjects concerned. Much of the time and energy is also saved by teaching the subjects in the special rooms and utilising all the necessary equipment, apparatus and other aids without moving to another room and without asking anybody else to bring the same. It is risky to take not only breakable and delicate materials from one room to another, but also durable objects are defaced and mishandled if moved from one class room to another. Hence special rooms are found conducive to teaching the subjects concerned under favourable conditions. The special rooms which are important under the present conditions are discussed below: 9.1. The Science Room A special room is essential for effective teaching of science and the science room should have three parts. 1. A Science/Lecture Theater. 2. A Science Laboratory. 368 3. A store room. In the elementary school, all these three parts may be combined in one room. Even one or two almirahs will suffice for safe up keep and custody of the valuable equipment. A big table should be kept in one fixed position for class work and another for laboratory work. Gas, electricity and water connections should be available to this room. The size of the science room is determined by the number of students using the room at a time. For example, the size of Science Room should be 48' x 25' for a class of 40 boys in demonstration and 20 boys in laboratory work. The front part may be used for demonstration and the hind part for practicals. There should be 2 long wall blackboards, one in each-part of the room. The demonstration part should be provided with tables and chairs for boys and a long table for demonstration by the teacher. There should be three sinks in the room one for the teacher and another for the pupils. There would be adequate number of almirahs for storage purposes. Everything should be cleaned and oiling of the machines should be done regularly. After each experiment, the apparatus should be cleaned and dried and kept in its place. One of the important features of the Science Room is the Museum where natural and scientific specimens and models can be kept. The exhibits may consists of leaves, flowers, seeds, birds, insects, skeletons of animals, shells, nests, fruits, roots, ores, weeds, charts. A cup board, a few shelves or almirahs with glass fronts should be used for arranging them systematically and properly labelled. 9.2. The Social Sciences/Studies Room With a view to creating social climate and making all necessary aids available in a room, a special room for teaching social sciences or social studies is felt useful. In this room a wall chalk board, a bulletin board and various audio-visual materials like maps, charts, graphs, pictures, models, specimens, films, slides, radio sets (Television set if available), tape recorders, etc. should be properly preserved and used whenever there are classes. A library may also be kept for ready reference. Some show-case a few cup boards, some shelves and two or three almirahs should be used for storage and display. There need not be any separate room for history or geography teaching. There need not be any separate room for history, or geography teaching. This room can fruitfully be utilised for the purpose. 369 9.3. Arts and Craft Room

Arts and crafts have found an important place in the modern school curriculum. A separate room provided with adequate number of tables, chairs, storage facilities, stands for apparatus and equipment is found helpful for these activities like toy making, modelling, woodwork, embroidery and wash basins as well as sinks should be fitted in the room for cleaning. A teacher's demonstration table may be placed at a central place and all-kinds of apparatus necessary for different activities should be kept properly. 9.4. Home Science/Domestic Science Room Previously, Home Science or Domestic Science was only an optional subject meant for girl students. But under the new curriculum as a subject under Socially Usefull Productive Works, it has acquired special importance. Its scope has also been widened and now it encompassed instructions in simple cookery, laundry, dairies, child care, hygiene, decoration and furnishing. The equipment for home science room include electric heaters, gas stoves, a cooking range with ovens, sinks for hot and cold water, refrigerators, electric irons, tables, sewing machines crockery, utensils pots, tables for preparing food, wash basins and storage facilities. Thus, the entire room will have three parts, i.e. (1) the workshop, (2) kitchen, and (3) the store. Although for proper maintenance of the room and equipment, there will be servants and menials, the teacher concerned and the students should take personal interest in the matter. 9.5. The Assembly Hall Auditorium The Assembly Hall is a multi-purpose room and can be used for different programmes. It can be used for morning assembly, dramatics, debates, public lectures, symposia and film shows. Hence, this room serves the purpose of an auditorium. It can serve as gymnasium, an audio-visual room, a reading room and a refreshment room. Last but not the least, the Assembly Hall provides facilities of a community centre. Therefore, size of the Hall should be quite spacious with all the facilities of a public Hall. It should not be less than 40' x 60'. The Hall should be so located that there is access to all sides and no disturbance from any side. As far as the internal arrangement is concerned, some special measures should be taken to make it more convenient and useful. There should be a big stage with green room on its both sides. There 370 should be a permanent arrangement of seats, so that a programme can be organised with a short notice. The walls of the Hall should be decorated with photographs, oil paintings of great men, previous teachers of distinction, reputed educationists and beautiful scenery. Lastly, there should by adequate ventilation and lighting arrangement. 9.6. Library Room Library is an indispensable part of the school. It has been the centre of modern educational activities for organising seminar, symposia, project works, in-service training courses and so on. There should be a reading room adjacent to the library and large number of seats, desks, book shelves and almirahs with artistic effect for making it pleasant and attractive. There should be sufficient provision for light and air. The library should be conveniently located with easy access to all pupils of various classes and all teachers of the school. Modern library is not merely a place for locating books and journals in the advanced Educational Institutions in the West. It is called a "Learning resources centre" which provides different kinds of resources like audio-visual media and materials including slides, film strips, educational films, radio resources and TV programmes. That is, all kinds of facilities and resources are made available in the centre for promoting learning experiences. The library room in our country should be planned accordingly with a vision for the future growth and development. 9.7. Office Room The office room is the nerve centre of the school and successful organisation of various school programmes largely depends on the efficient functioning of the office. It should be well equipped and provided adequate facilities like type writers, duplicators, almirahs, shelves, etc. The office room should be centrally located and the headmaster's room should be adjacent to it. It should be accessible to all students, teachers, guardians and officials. Besides, a waiting room should be situated close to the office room for enabling visitors to wait there comfortably. 9.8. The Hostel and Its Superintendents

Although importance of the school hostel has gone down with the expansion of schools in the nook and corner of country, it is regarded as 371 a centre of citizenship training and second home of the pupils. Many good qualities of head and heart are developed at the hostel. The hostel should be provided with adequate sanitary facilities. It is desirably to set up a single storeyed building for the hostel. The superintendent's quarters should preferably be attached to the hostel. The Hostel should not be traced merely as a place for boarding and lodging of the pupils. It should provide all the opportunities for promoting healthy habits and developing good qualities like fellow feeling, cooperation, mutual help, punctuality. The hostel life should cater to the needs of the future citizens by providing ample opportunities for civic training. The Superintendent sometimes known as the warden is chosen from among the staff members. He should be democratic minded and work as the "friend, philosopher and guide" of the inmates. He should have personal love and affection towards children of the hostel. He should be professionally and academically well equipped to guide the inmates successfully. His sociality, sympathy, understanding, sincerity, broad-mindedness and impartiality must win the confidence as well as regards from the students. He must be a man of character and vision. The warden should pay frequent visit to the physical, academic, and living facilities and ensure proper functioning of various mechanisms and agencies involved in the hostel administration. The inmates should be encouraged to share the hostel administration and decision-making, so that they will be trained in democratic management and community living.

10. EQUIPMENT AND FURNITURES In many States, the Education Departments or the Boards of Secondary Education have developed their education codes and lists of minimum equipment and furniture for different stages of education. This has been done with full realisation that without these minimum facilities education can not be efficient and effective. They are also necessary from the health point of view and for convenience as well as comforts that are badly required for making education attractive and interesting. Adequate care and precautions should be taken for providing suitable equipment and furniture otherwise instead of promoting, they will stand on the way of better teaching-learning process. The Secondary Education Commission reported to have noticed many schools where there was hardly any equipment and subjects were taught 372 under conditions where the boys were forced to memories rather than understand what was taught. The Commission have also felt that the laboratories were hardly ever used, except as store houses for odds and ends; theoretical instruction in such important subjects as Physics and Chemistry was given in the class room. Geography is said to have been taught without maps, physics without models and instruments and Chemistry without rudiments of a laboratory. Therefore, all attempts should be made for providing suitable equipment and furniture and also for optimum utilisation and maintenance. All the classroom equipment may be divided into two categories: (1) Essential, and (II) Desirable. 10.1. Essential Equipment are as Follows (i) Desks and Chairs for the pupils or Matting on the floor. (ii) Black Board or Chalkboard either on a wall or resting on an scale. (iii) A chair and a table for the teacher. (iv) A map stand and a pointer. (v) A few chalks and a duster 10.2. Desirable Equipment are as Follows (i) An almirah or a big cupboard carved into the wall for keeping books, registers etc.

(ii) A notice board, a bulletin board. (iii) Ceiling fan and artificial light. (iv) Drinking water in jars or buckets. (v) Some relevant illustrations, models, specimens and other A.V. materials. (vi) Projections media for films, slides, transparencies etc. Furniture and equipment are important and greatly affect the physical, mental and emotional development of children. P.C. Wren writing about this has rightly remark, "Furniture plays an extremely important part in the physical, moral and mental welfare of scholars. If the desks be of the wrong kind, or if benches be used instead of desks, curvature of the spine, contraction of chest, roundness of the shoulders and a confirmed stop may results as physical injury; bad discipline, irritation, discount and discomfort may result in a moral injury and inability to sustain 373 attention and concentration owing to lack of bodily case may result as mental injury." But it is expected that neither the headmaster nor the management realise the importance of the right type of furniture. Far from furniture even the floor without any meeting is used for seating of the pupils in most of the primary schools wherever there are chairs and desks, they are not of right size. There are backless and deskless branches in a number of secondary schools. The students sitting there continuously develop very bad postures affecting their eye sight and spinal cord adversely. The desks and benches are also often so much fixed and dumped that, pupils have to observe only one posture throughout the day and feel discomfort both physical and mental due to lack of flexibility. It is necessary that the pupil's legs should be free to move and they should have flexibility in sitting and standing. 10.3. Desks and Benches The height of the desks and seats should also be according to the age and height of the pupils. Therefore the height must vary from school to school, primary, middle or high. The seat should not be so high that the legs do not reach the floor and remain hanging. The seats also should not be so low to force legs stretching in slanting position beneath the desk. There should not be any pressure under knee. The height of the back of the seat should not press the neck. The height of the writing surface of the desk should allow the child to sit erect with ease and the arms should rest on the desk top immediately. The sitting space on the chair should be adequate enough for a permitting free movement of legs. The top surface of the desk should not be flat but must have a slope of 15 degrees. The relative position of seat and desk is shown by three illustrations: (i) Plus Position. (ii) Zero Position. (iii) Minus Position. In the Plus Position there is a positive distance between the seat and the desk. In the Zero Position, the vertical line from the inner edge of the desk exactly meets the inner edge of the seat. In the Minus Position the seat is thrust inside the space beneath the desk, i.e. the distance between the seat and the desk is minus., It is advised that the Minus Position should be avoided. The Zero Position is suitable for writing and the Plus Position for reading as well as standing. 374 Dual Desks are to be preferred to long desks. Each pupil should be provided at least 18 inches of sitting space. Gangways of 18 inches may be left between the desks and walls. The rows of desks should be arranged at right angles to the window walls. 10.4. Black Board or Chalk Board Black board has been the most simple, but very useful teaching aid in the classroom. Although it is a very traditional equipment being used for the entire class for demonstrating, for teaching and for writing as well as drawing on it is no found in various types and colours. According to difference in mechanism used there are at least four types: 1. The wall black board means a painted area of the wall being used for writing purposes. 2. The framed wall board is a wooden board fixed on the walls through hooks.

3. The sliding wall board which rests on pulleys and is movable up or down. 4. The black board that rests on an easel. Each type of black board has its own merits and can be used under the existing limitations. The wall black board is the most economical one and can be provided in each room from the very beginning of construction. It provides ample space for writing and drawing on. But its disadvantages are (1) it cannot be moved and may not be visible to the back benchers due to glare abstracting eyesight. The sliding black board can be easily moved up and down and writing on one black board can be concealed for test purpose. But it is comparatively costlier and requires technical know-how for preparation. The framed as well as hooked board is not convenient for use. Rather the black board on the easel is the best for use and economical in preparation. It is mobile and can be used in any place and in manner according to convenience. The black board should be placed conveniently, so that writing is seen by everybody in the class and the light does dazzle on writing. The black board should not be placed near a window obstructing light. But it should be located on the left hand side of the teacher at an inclination of 45 degrees with the class. It should be placed very near the teacher dais or his table so that it can be used conveniently. The height of the black board above the floor should vary from 25 to 40 inches. The height age can be adjusted on easel. The size of the black board may be 4 ft. x 2¥i ft. In Primary Schools a black board railing 2 ft. high above 375 the floor on all sides of the room can be proposed for facilitating children writing on it at their will. Black or green colour is found best for painting the chalk board and varnishing it should be done regularly after reasonable intervals. The surface should not be glossy, otherwise the eyesight of pupils may be adversely affected. Wet dusters should be used for cleaning the black boards. Since dry dusters are usually used, it would be better if blackboard are washed daily before and after the school hours. Although white chalks are preferred to other chalks, coloured chalks may occasionally be used for special purposes. There should be cup boards in every room for keeping chalk pieces and duster. 10.5. Cup-board and Almirah A cup-board or an almirah in every classroom is essential for storing chalk box, duster, map, globes, pointer, attendance and other registers. A few reference books, library books, charts, models, pictures, posters etc. should be kept there for use in the classrooms. The cup-board or almirah should be kept away from insects and cleaned of dusts regularly. The cupboards should be constructed into the wall and preferably be glass fronted. 10.6. Teacher's Chair and Table The teacher's place for setting and delivering his lesson should be fixed conveniently, so that it will be possible on his part to supervise the entire class and glance over the activities of the students. It is preferable to have a raised dais or platforms for the purpose. P.C. Wren has rightly remarked, "The teacher's table or desk and chair should always be upon a dais raised to one foot or eighteen inches above the floor level to enable him to see the desk surface before each boy in the class".

11. AUDIO-VISUAL MEDIA AND MATERIALS With a view to making the teaching-learning process effective, various audio-visual media and materials are used by teachers at different stages of education. Educators in the advanced countries are utilizing and developing new materials to make education meaningful and interesting. The use of A.V. materials in our teaching-learning situation is not at all satisfactory. The research studies conduced on the impact of A.V. Materials on education have shown that knowledge, thinking, 376 understanding, attitude and skills are improved by the use of A.V. Aids. It is also evident that students of all categories whether bright or dull gain from the use of A.V. Media and materials irrespective of their age and grade levels. The audio-visual materials are divided into three categories: (1) visual, (II) audio, and (III) audio-visual. The materials which appeal only to sight are of the first category. Examples of these materials are slides, film strips, transparencies, silent/motion pictures and projections with opaque and overhead projectors. Other materials traditionally used in the schools are texts books illustrations, prints, graphs, charts, maps, globes, posters, etc. Which may be taken as visual aids.

The chalk boards, felt bulletin boards are also visual materials appealing only to the sense of sight. Displays exhibits like specimens, models, puppetry, pantomimes, dancing etc. are regarded as successful visual materials. Radio, tape recorders, gramophones and different magnetic recordings provide audio materials which are appealing to the ear only. The television programmes, video tape recordings and films audio-visual materials which appeal both sight and sound. Dramatic plays, role playing, socio, drama etc. are a few types of dramatisation that can be utilised in education with a great success. These three types of materials audio or visual or audio-visual, cannot be exclusively classified. There is no compartmentalisation and the list of such materials is not exhaustive. Imaginative and sourceful teachers can invent, explore and discover various sources of collecting and developing these materials. Linder (1959) has rightly observed, "Any device which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete, more elastic, more dynamic—can be considered audio-visual material". The following guiding principles may be considered for effective utilisation of A.V. Materials: 1. No one type of material should be used in the exclusion of others. That is, in using one-medium or materials others may be used for support. For example, for effective utilisation of radio programmes printed materials like Teachers, Notes and Graphics like illustrations, slides may be used with profit. 2. Certain materials seem more appropriate than others for teaching some objectives or units. 3. Too much materials should not be used at a time as they may confuse rather than clarify the concepts. 4. Preparation for the use of these materials should be made earlier. 377 5. The pupils should be encouraged to actively participate in the process of utilisation. 6. Materials should never be used haphazardly nor work periods be allowed to become unduly over-entertaining.

REFERENCES 1. American Association of School Administrators, Inservice Education for Administration, 1962, Washington, 1963. 2. American Association of School Administrators, The Superintendent as Instructional Leader, NFA, 1952. 3. American Association of School Administrators, The American School Superintendency, 30th year book, Washington, Dec. 1952. 4. Government of India, Programme of Action, Ministry of HRD (Education Deptt.) New Delhi, 1986. 5. Government of India, National Policy on Education, M.H.R.D. (Edn), New Delhi, 1986. 6. Government of India, Report of the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53, Ministry of Education, New Delhi. 7. Kochar, S.K., Secondary School Administration, University Publishers, New Delhi, 1964. 8. Linder, I.H. and others. Secondary School Administration, Problems & Prospects Charts Merril Books Inc. Ohio, 1963. 9. Mohanty, J., "An Investigation into the Problems and Prospects of School Community Cooperation for Democratisation" Experiments in Education, State Council of Educational Research, March, 1980. 10. Mohanty, J., Educational Administration: Supervision and Finance, Takshashila, Cuttack, 1991. 11. Vyas, J.P., School Plant, Correspondence-cum-content Course for Elementary Teacher Education, NCERT, New Delhi, 1970. 12. Wren, P.C., Indian School Organisation, Longmans Company, Bombay, 1947. 378

37 School-Community Relationship

ROLE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SCHOOL THROUGH AGES Schools have been in existence as formal institutions of education since the time immemorial, not only in our country but also all over the world. The word "school" is derived from a Greek word "skola" meaning 'leisure'. Formal education was initially made available to those who were rich enjoying ample leisure. The child of the rich only used to receive education and other facilities that went with it. As Nath (1984) has observed, 'But leisure is no longer the exclusive monopoly power of a particular class. It is a universal phenomenon of the society. This has been possible due to science arid technology. Therefore education was not limited to only a 'Class' of elites but was made available to 'mass; of common people. Schools were the centres of learning and related to life of the people. However, the school was gradually alienated from the life of the people. Instead of becoming a replica of the society, the school became an island of education. The gap between mass and elites became widened and the division between the life and the school was brought about. The school became the knowledge-shop doling out inert information. It gradually receded to the background of the community. In India particularly, education became anti-national and pro-British. The Freedom Movement openly blamed this education system and the erstwhile leaders criticised it bitterly. Gandhiji declared the British system of education as wasteful as well as harmful. He, therefore, propagated a national system of education called Basic Education which laid emphasis on productivity, nationalisation and community service. According to him the school is to be a life-long institution and community centre. After Independence, all attempts were made for making education relevant to the life, needs and aspiration of the people. Different 379 Committees and Commissions were set up to review the educational system—its content, method and structure and to suggest measures for improving the quality and quantity of education. According to the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53, 'The Secondary School must make itself responsible for equipping students adequately with civic as well as vocational efficiency—and the qualities of character that go it—so that they may be able to play their part worthily and competently in the improvement of national life. They should no longer emerge as helpless, shiftless individual who do not know what to do with themselves.' The school is one of the most popular formal agencies of education. It plays an important role in imparting knowledge and ideas, developing skills and interests, moulding attitudes and inculcating values of children. It is a social organisation for catering to the needs of the society and for serving the ends of the people. The school trains the citizens of tomorrow and prepares them for the future life. It should provide all facilities and suitable environment for development of their allround personalities. Dr. Zakir Hussain (1959) has aptly remarked, "All our educational institutions will be communities of work. In all these educational institutions, the pupils will have facilities to experiment, to discover, to work, to live where work will fashion character and living will shape lives and like healthy work and like all good life they will form into homes of cooperative communities engaged in elevating cooperation, initiative and accepting responsibility through an inner use for selfdiscipline, self-realisation and mutual helpfulness." The school should not be viewed as a place of imparting traditional knowledge only, but as a place where experiments in life are carried on and experiences are gained for enabling children to live better, richer and effectively. The school is to be the reflection of the larger society outside its four walls and there children will learn by living. The school is to be the "epitome" of the life outside, and children need be given all kinds of experiences. Since the society is dynamic, the functions of the school must change from time to time. During post-independence period the functions of our schools have been reshaped in order to cope up with the democratic set up. Our country is wedded to democracy, socialism and secularism. All these are based on mutual love, fellowship, cooperation, tolerance, dignity of individual, equality and fraternity. India is a country of diversities. But unity is its spirit and its strength. National or emotional integration is, therefore, felt an imperative need and our students have 380 to be trained in promoting all these qualities through their activities in the school.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "SOCIETY" AND "COMMUNITY"

"Society" and "Community" are usually used a synonymous terms. But there is a very subtle difference between the two organisations where people live together. It refers to a definite group of people living in a geographical territory and being conscious of their life-styles and having the same purposes of life. A community also means a group of people living in a geographical territory. But they are not conscious of their life-styles and purposes of life. That is why, children constitute the community, not the society. Unless they are conscious of the way their society functions and of their rights and duties as its full citizens, they cannot be taken as members of the society. According to Ottaway (1962),"A community is everybody, adults and children, social and non-social persons living in a certain territory where all share a mode of life, but not all are conscious of its organisation or purpose. A society is a kind of community (or a part of community) whose members have become socially conscious of their mode of life and are united by a common set of aims and values." A society is, therefore, a part of the community. It is well-organised and specific, whereas a community is not properly integrated and it is general or broad. A community or society is never static. Both are dynamic, always changing. But in a society its members are more conscious of their values, needs, hopes and aspirations. The members are socially more conscious and emotionally more organised than those of a community. Both the society and community possess some common characteristics—a group of people, a geographical territory and a spirit of belongingness. But the members of the society are more aware of their social life and are more integrated emotionally. The members of the community lack in social cohesion and emotional integration.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY Ryburn (1970) emphasizing the close relation between the school and the community has rightly said, "There must be vital connection between the life of the pupils in schools and the life of the community from which they come. There must be a vital connection between the 381 school, which is the corporate life of pupils and teachers and the community. Otherwise, the school can ever succeed in its aim of enabling its pupils to go out and to face society and make necessary adjustments nor can it, as a corporate body, even have the vital influence on the community which it ought to have." In a democratic set up, relationship between the school and the community is essential in the interest of national welfare. There should be mutual exchange of resources and sharing of facilities between the school and the society. The channel of communication should be made free and open for facilitating such cooperation and collaboration. Brubacher (1962) has therefore said, "No communication, no community". The bond of cohesion, integration and belongingness is strengthened by communication. Communication promotes the real meeting of minds which facilitates social consciousness. The school should act as an effective form for communication and interaction of the community.

COMMUNITY RESOURCES FOR SCHOOLS There are vast resources of the community which can be utilised for improvement of the school. The community, even at the stage of its under-development, possess abundant resources like firms and farms, temples and monuments, flora and fauna, fairs and festivals, rivers and hills which can be utilised for the benefit of the school, particularly for effective learning experiences. A community may be backward and poor in economic conditions, but rich in natural resources. The teacher should recognize these assets for their utilisation in organising both curricular and co-curricular programmes. Similarly, there are local artisans, artists, carpenters, blacksmiths, ironsmiths, painters, etc. whose expertise can be utilized for teaching school children. They can be invited to schools for talking and demonstrating various skills to children even teachers. Retired teachers, doctors, engineers, etc. as well as unemployed educated youths may be engaged for teaching children in their own fields. Such employment of local resource persons for organising curricular and co-curricular programmes leads to bring about awareness about the needs, deficiencies and paucity of resources. This helps in collecting funds and supplying necessary equipment etc. on the one hand, and ensuring better school-community relations on the other. In the initial stage even the community provides its club house, temple or churchyard and such other public places for accommodating new schools. 382 Some disadvantages are also pointed out by a few critics of community participation. They argue that more the community provides facilities for the school, more will be its interference in the school affairs. As such the school

discipline and decorum may be adversely affected. The academic activities are also likely to be hampered on account of this. On the whole, it may be concluded that advantages must outweigh the disadvantages. The physical and human resources of the community should be utilised for organising various school programmes which would promote social awareness and better relations. Mohanty (1983) has, therefore, suggested "With experience, enlightenment and training in citizenship, these disadvantages can be reduced to the minimum and the school would be made self-dependent, self-respective community centres".

SCHOOL RESOURCES FOR THE COMMUNITY Child grows in the community as well as in the school. He learns by living as a member of the community. He is trained to grow in a desired manner in the school and to live his individual as well as community life effectively. Both the physical and human resources of the school belong to the community. The students, the teachers and other staff members come from the community. All the physical facilities are provided by the community either directly or indirectly through government. There should not be any difficulty in utilising these resources for well-being of the community. Rather, there are many advantages in it. Now-a-days, the programmes of the school should not be carried on in the ivory tower of the school and the learning experiences should not be limited to the four walls of the classroom. The school should provide all kinds of experiences by sharing in the community activities. The services for participating of children in the community work are, for example, literacy drives, health campaigns, road construction, etc. This will break the barriers between the school and the community and make the school life lively, realistic and meaningful. The school halls can be used for organising villages meetings, and marriage reception, the school playground can be utilized for village sports and games, the school furniture and equipment can be borrowed for holding meetings and functions. The Education Commission, 1946-66 have aptly remarked that since it is very costly to provide and maintain the physical plant of educational institutions, it is necessary to 383 utilise it fully as far as possible for longest period on each day and for all the days in the year by making suitable administrative arrangement, the libraries, laboratories, workshops, etc., can be utilized for the community programmes. The modern school is a community centre and the teacher is the "friend, philosopher and guide" of the people. By organising the community programmes and providing school resources for the community work, the position of teachers is improved and they gain confidence and respect. It is also contended that through utilisation of school resources by the community there will be many disadvantages. The school materials like furniture and equipment will be mishandled resulting in missing, breakage and out of order. There may be undue interferece by the villagers in the school affairs adversely affecting the school organisation. But on the whole, the advantage would outnumber the disadvantage which can also be reduced to the minimum with public consciousness, responsibility and experience.

CATEGORIES OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION It goes without saying that the school is for the community and the community for the school. The school should contribute to the development of the community and the community must contribute to the development of the school. The school has to share its resourses for the use of the community and the community is to make its resources available to the school for organising various programmes. Thus, there should be a two-way traffic between the school and the community in utilising their resources both human and physical for bringing about their mutual improvement. It is also understood that community participation is necessary for improving the school-community relations in general and school programmes in particular. Generally, there are three categories of community participation: (i) Spontaneous—persons come forward of their own to participate without any external support or force. (ii) Sponsored—persons participate because some official instructions or endorsements are issued. No force is imposed, but it has been externally supported. (iii) Compulsory—persons participate because it has been made compulsory. Violating it may lead to coercion and

punishment. 384 With a view to removing deficiencies in the physical resources of the school the community may decide to send their children to the school for increasing enrolment. It is voluntary or "spontaneous" participation. If the community is persuaded for the above action by appropriate authority with some incentives like matching grants or creating posts of additional teachers, it may be considered as "sponsored" participation. If the parents are forced to do the same with some coercive measures, e.g. disallowing children or withholding the results or any other steps, it is called "compulsory". In a democratic country like India, compulsory participation is not better than the former. But spontaneous participation in community activities/services is the best. This sustains for longer period and establishes the ideal of cooperative participation. It has, therefore, been rightly observed by the NCERT (1987), "The NPE has besides many other things, envisaged expansion of educational facilities to remove disparities in educational opportunities making education relevant to the society needs, decentralisation of management etc. which are not likely to be achieved without active participation of the community. It emphasizes decentralisation and the creation of a spirit of autonomy for educational activities as well."

METHODS OF IMPROVING SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONS Although improving the school-community relations is a two-way process, the onus or the main responsibility lies with the school. The teachers, particularly, the headmaster should take initiative in promoting the better school-community relations through various methods and strategies. Some of them are as follows: 1. It is essential that teacher should know the community well—its culture, values and life-styles, its problems and prospects, etc. It can be done through mixing with the people, participating in their social and cultural functions. 2. Only knowing the community is not enough. It is more important that teachers should identify themselves with the community and try to approach the community on equal terms and with due respect. 3. It is also desirable that teachers should appreciate and understand the problems of the community with sympathy and instead of imposing their own ideas or preconceived notions on them would try to persuade and motivate. 385 4. It is found that teachers go on finding faults with parents and pupils, may be on genuine grounds. But such complaints cannot help much. Rather teachers should give positive suggestions for removing the faults or solving their problems. 5. The cooperation of the community leaders should be enlisted for solving the school problems. These leaders may be from among emerging youths or elders. 6. Teachers should attend the social, religious and other functions of the community, so that they can come closer to the people who can take interest in the school issues and improvement. 7. There should be some formal organisations or forums for facilitating school-community relations and coordination. Some of them are parent-teacher associations, guardian meetings, parents Day, etc. There should be free-exchange of ideas and mutual cooperation among the school teachers and parents. This will democratise school organisation and administration and improve support for implementing various school improvement programmes.

REFERENCES Aggarwal, J.C., Education Administration, School Organisation & Supervision, Arya Book Depot, New Delhi, 1987. Brubacher, John S., Modem Philosophies of Education, McGraw Hill, New York, 1950. Dewey, John., The School and Society, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1936. Hussain, Zakir, Educational Reconstruction in India, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1981.

Mohanty, J. & Satapathy, K.M., School Supervision, Nalanda, Cuttack, 1981. Mohanty, J., Educational Administration, Inspection and Supervision, Vidyapuri, Cuttack, 1980. Mohanty, J., Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1983. Nath, S., Education: Styles and Strategies, Mayr Publications, Bhubaneswar, 1984. Ottaway, A.K.C., Education and Society, Routledge & Keganpaul, London, 1962. Ryburn, W.M., The Organisation of Schools, Oxford University Press, Calcutta, 1970. Safaya, R. and Shaida, B.D., School Administration and Organisation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Jullundur, 1969. Saiyidain, K.G., Facts of Indian Education, NCERT, New Delhi, 1970. 386

38 Organization of Co-curricular Activities: Values and Principles 1. INTRODUCTION Co-curricular activities are now considered essential for all round development of human personality. Previously they were taken as extracurricular signifying thereby no importance given to the programme. At present these activities are intrinsic part of the total educational endeavour in the educational institutions. They have formed an integral part of the regular curriculum. Curricular and co-curricular programmes are in fact complementary to each other, both deserving equal weightage and emphasis in the total educational programme. Besides the obsolete term extracurricular activities cocurricular activities have also been known as semi-curricular, collateral, intramural, extramural, social and community activities. But success of such programmes largely depends on their effective organization and management which are usually done haphazardly and in a unplanned way in the colleges and Departments of the Universities.

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Co-curricular activities have their roots even in the system of ancient Indian Education. In the Gurukul Ashrama each disciple was required to fetch fuel from the forest and water from the streams perform kitchen gardening and physical exercise, do social service and some other community activities. Theoretical lessons were supplemented by practical work and a good number of hobbies as well as arts were practised by the students. In Buddhist system of education many practical activities were undertaken by pupils as part of their education. Manual work was 387 never tabooed and pupils were not only working their daily chores but also helping their teachers in various tasks. The Chinese travellers like Hien Tsang, Itising reported a number of physical, antistic and other activities which were popular among students of Nalanda, Taxila and some other Buddhist Vihars or Universities. The number of such activities were multiplied to as many as sixty-four kinds of arts and skills. Debates, discussions, oratory, archery, wrestling, dancing mimicking, charioting and many types of artistic as well as literacy activities were in vogue. During the British period the theoretical and liberal education as emphasized and manual or practical activities were denigrated or underestimated as a result of which such activities find an important place in the curriculum neither at school nor at college level.

3. VALUES AND IMPORTANCE OF CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES There are many values and advantages of co-curricular activities for students of higher education. These advantages and values are classified as follows: (I) Physiological, (II) Psychological, (III) Ethical, (IV) Academic, (V) Social, (VI) Civic, (VII) Aesthetic, (VIII) Cultural (IX) Recreational, and (X) Discipline. (i) Physiological Values Co-curricular Activities provide a useful channel for the surplus energy of the people. Besides they contribute immensely to the normal growth and development of their body cell. All the physical co-curricular activities like sports, NCC, ACC, games and other athletic activities help improving the physical strength and stamina endurance and vitality which are

essential for the future vocational life and personal happiness. (ii) Psychological Values Co-curricular activities fulfil many psychological needs of students. They act as agents for the sublimation of instincts Gregarious instinct, example is very predominant and tend to express in social behaviour. If no opportunities are given, they will be secluded or form their own groups or gangs which may be harmful not only to the individual but also to the society. Thus, the energies will be misdirected and they will indulge in anti-social activities. Various co-curricular activities, e.g., scouting, guides self-government, social service leagues, tournament 388 and other group activities will be conducive to sublimation of the instincts like sex, self-assertion, self-abasement, curiosity, acquisition can be properly sublimated and channalised in constructive lines. Suitable activities should therefore be organised to promote socially useful and individually essential values through sublimation of these instincts. (iii) Ethical Values Many co-curricular activities are helpful for building the character and inculcating moral values in the students. Moral principles like truth, love, justice and non-violence are learnt and practised by students through their participation in various co-curricular activities. For instance, as NCC cadets, students have to fulfil their pledges and follow certain laws, as office bearers in charge of finance in any association they have to behave honestly and act justly in meetings and discussions; as presidents in functions and celebrations they have to behave with integrity and courtesy. No amount of giving moral instructions and advice can have any real impact on the development of ethical values among students unless adequate facilities are given or practising them in actual situations. Hence, suitable opportunities should be provided for training the moral conduct of students, throughout co-curricular programmes. (iv) Academic Values Any academic work should have two components: (i) theoretical and (ii) Practical. All class-room teaching and interaction are theoretical which ought to be supplemented by practical work. It is rightly said that practice makes perfect. Cocurricular activities provide opportunities for practical experience through active participation. Theoretical knowledge is made clear and reinforced through application and utilization of learning experiences. For instance, excursions to historical and geographical places enrich the relevant learning experience of students; election and organization of students' councils give them practical ideas about various local state and national elections; writing and editing the college journals supplement the teaching of language and literature; nature study and science exhibition promote scientific knowledge and skills. Thus, various co-curricular activities provide practical learning experiences which develop academic values and scholastic performance of students. 389 (v) Social Values According to the Secondary Education Commission, 1952 co-curricular activities are useful for training students in the "Art of living" which is more comprehensive than the mere acquisition of knowledge. Art of liking includes training in the habits of social life and cooperative group work; it calls for good temper, patience, sincerity, discipline and felloe feeling. Through curricular programmes, students learn these social qualities and get themselves habituated with. Students engage themselves in social service and acquire the art of social living. They know how to cooperate with others, how to behave properly, how to live with others and how to interact with others. Thus they get complete social training and a team spirit develops in them as a result of which selfishness gives way to mutual sharing and individuality to sociability. (vi) Civic Values The educational institutions should be a training group for democratic citizenship. It should be managed and administered through democratic principles and students should get all opportunities for learning and practising democracy in action. The organization of student government and student councils provide them with experience in functional democracy. Students for examples, should elect their own representatives and office bearers determine their own programmes of action, conduct their own meetings, hold discussions and take necessary-action decisions. While working out self-

government, they know how rights and responsibilities go together and are equally significant. They learn to live in cooperation and in a democracy by actual practice, not by theory. Students can even organise cooperative store, manage cooperative canteen and many other institutions for themselves and even for others. An educational institution should be an epitome of the society and a true democratic organization of citizenship training. (vii) Aesthetic Values Aesthetic sensibility is not only a fine feeling for beautiful objects and ideas but also a pre-requisite for good quality of life. It is one of the objectives of education to develop aesthetic sensibility in students. Keats has rightly sung "A thing of beauty is joy for ever", and it is also aptly said, "Truth is Beauty and Beauty is Truth". In order to make our life pleasant and civilized it is essential that students should have aesthetic value which means intrinsic love for truth and beauty. Activities like 390 drawing, painting, sculpture, toy making, clay modelling, cardboard modelling, preparation of maps, charts and models etc. can promote aesthetic sense. Colleges and Universities can organise flower festival, fancy dress show, folk dance, variety show, dance drama, music and other exhibitions for the purpose. (viii) Cultural Values Co-curricular activities are apt to promote cultural value in one way or other. They provide opportunities for better understanding of our cultural heritage—its variety, multiplicity and novelty. A good number of activities like dramatics, pageant, folk dance, musical and poetic symposia—variety shows and celebrations of social, religious and national festivals may be organised by students under the guidance of staff members having genuine interest and experience in such programmes. All these can develop knowledge of our culture, foster cultural value and promote cultural interest among students. (ix) Recreational Value Proper use of leisure is an important condition for good life. Co-curricular activities provide adequate scope for using leisure fruitfully students need be taught how to use leisure properly, how to keep themselves engaged in healthy recreations conducive to moral and mental hygiene. Co-curricular programmes like art, music, dance, painting, modelling exhibitions, games and sports, literary activities, etc. provide opportunities for healthy recreations in contrast to anti-social and undesirable pursuits like indulgence in gossiping, eve teasing, gambling, loitering, reading obscene books, and viewing blue films on video programme. The recreational activities have a positive role to play for making life pleasant, happy and meaningful. They can also reduce drudgery and monotony of daily routine type activities. They can ennoble life, improve its quality and make it joyful and useful. They can save many delinquent and prevented young men from wrong paths and recreate their life constructively and positively. (x) Disciplinary Value Discipline when properly understood and practised becomes self-discipline and self-imposed. Through proper organization of co-curricular activities, students can understand the need and importance of discipline, so that the rules and regulations can not be regarded as constraints and 391 limitations but as helpful directives for going ahead and improving their own life and society. In sports and games, debates and discussions, art and literature everywhere students can learn inner discipline. There will be formation of habits for obeying laws and principles which are not restrictions, but provisions for freedom. These will promote disciplined life and low-abiding nature among the students who will enjoy life themselves and can make others' lives pleasurable and happy.

4. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION OF CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES There are certain essential principles which should be considered before, during and even after organization of cocurricular activities. These are related to selection, planning, management, motivation and evaluation of co-curricular

activities. They greatly influence the success or failure of such programmes in educational institutions. Selection of activities particularly should be judicious and well balanced. It is better to organise a selected few in a well planned manner than a large number of them, haphazardly. These should be organised in proper time and place. These are discussed as follows: (a) The number of activities should be varied and large as far as possible to cater to the needs of students of varying abilities and interests; (b) Attempts should be made to involve as many students as possible in these activities; (c) It will not be advisable to organise programmes in such a wide number and variety that they would impose excessive strain on all concerned; (d) Activities for which students are not forthcoming on which are uneconomical or beyond the resources of institutions may not be introduced at all; (e) Co-curricular programmes should be organised under the guidance of teachers as far as possible; (f) All students should have equal opportunities to participate in such activities; (g) In selecting co-curricular activities, priority should be given to those which have greater educative value; (h) Activities should start in a small way and develop gradually in number and variety; 392 (i) Activities must be in accordance with the interests and ability of students and nothing should be imposed on them; (j) They should be selected and organised as means to the end and not ends in themselves; (k) Activities should differ from area to area, institutions to institutions, class to class and student to student; (1) These should be organised in appointed time and place with adequate information to all concerned; (m) Students need be properly motivated and be encouraged to select appropriate activities from among the available ones; (n) Organization of these activities should be left to the students as far as possible; (o) Initiative should be taken by students rather than by staff who should act as advisers only; (p) All associations and organizations for such activities should be planned and organized democratically; (q) Aims and objectives of each of the activities being organised in institutions should be well defined and its scope of functions be clearly delimited; (r) A system of giving incentives or rewards should be adopted for encouraging the best performers and talents; (s) For encouraging group activities of team work, shields running trophies, flags and other groups; (t) Dignitaries from outside should be invited to preside over the prize giving functions in order to inspire and honour the students; (u) Records of all activities should be properly maintained and be checked by the concerned staff members and by the Head of Department of institutions occasionally; (v) Activities should be less expensive as far as possible and adequate funds should be provided for the programmes which are selected; (w) Staff members with interest and experience and sympathetic attitude should be kept in overall charge of one or a few such programmes. Nobody should be overworked or overburdened; (x) All activities should be organised in keeping with the traditions and ideals of the institutions; (y) The objective of organizing these activities should not to show off but to realise the educative values and increase the

honour of the institutions; (z) Steps need be taken for maximum utilization of resources—play ground, equipment and other facilities; 393 A. Co-curricular activities should be in general of the students, by the students and for the students. B. Provision should be made for periodic appraisal and review of the activities in order to assess their performance, problems faced and impact felt by students and teachers. C. Publicity improvement should be brought about in the planning and management of these activities. D. Publicity should be given to the activities being organised and the public should be well informed. E. Necessary improvement should be brought about in the planning and management of these activities on the basis of evaluation and feedback.

5. PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS A large number of defects are experienced at present in the planning and organization of co-curricular activities. All these deficiencies nullify the very purpose of such programmes and reduce the benefits that could be gained through the activities. These defects can be obviated and reduced to the minimum for promoting the desirable values of the programmes. (a) Lack of Proper Planning It is often found that very useful and interesting programmes are planned very haphazardly so that no benefits are accrued to the students. With adequate preplanning, resourcefulness and imagination such programmes would be more effective and successful. (b) Lack of Accommodation and Equipment Due to paucity of suitable infrastructure, very good co-curricular activities can not be organised properly with the result that educative values are lost to the students. No programmes can succeed without proper place and other physical facilities. Many of our institutions suffer from dearth of accommodation and equipment which are badly necessary for various activities. (c) Lack of Variety Many institutions cannot provide variety of programmes in order to cater to the needs and interests of all students. Very few co-curricular 394 activities are organised and consequently a great majority of students are deprived from participating such programmes. (d) Lack of Students' Participations It is observed that a number of programmes do not or cannot participate in co-curricular activities due to want of facilities or motivation. A handful of students take part in almost all programmes of such nature as a result of which such activities are not organised democratically and all kinds of potentialities are not nurtured and developed through the programmes. (e) Lack of Adequate Staff In the teaching staff there are few persons with interest and experience in various co-curricular activities who can guide and advise students in different contexts. A limited staff members are forthcoming for the task and most of them need training and skills for organising different programmes effectively. They try to shirk responsibility and avoid work of this kind as far as possible. Whenever they are given any responsibility it is very perfunctorily done and ill-organised with poor results.

(f) Overemphasis on Academic Work Education is generally understood as only academic achievement and nothing else. Achievement in co-curricular activities is taken as something extra, over and above the academic performance of students. Not only students but also their parents are mad after securing high marks and scholarships, awards through hook or crook. This lopsided emphasis has led to underestimation of co-curricular activities. (g) Excessive Workload of Staff Members In many institutions of higher education staff members are found to be excessively busy or overburdened and do not find time to spend on these activities, since many colleges and departments are under staffed, they have to take extra classes. To teach for more than 40 periods a week take most of their time and energy, and little is left for organization and supervision of all such activities.

REFERENCES Aggrawal, J.C.. Educational Administration, School Organisation and Supervision, Arya Book Depot, New Delhi. 1987. 395 Fuihramann, B.S. and Grasha A.F., A Practical Handbook for College Teachers, Little Brown & Company, Boston, 1982. Govt. of India, Challenges of Education: A Policy Perspective, Ministry of Education, 1985. Govt. of India, Programme of Action, MHRD (Education) New Delhi, 1986. Govt. of India, National Policy on Education, MHRD (Education) New Delhi, 1986. Govt. of India, The Education Commission Report, 1964-66, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1966. Mohanty, J., Modern Trends in Indian Education, Deep & Deep Publications. New Delhi 1987. Mohanty, J., Educational Administration, Supervision and School Management, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1990. Rama Moonis and Fernades M., "Function of Teachers in Higher Education", Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 13, No: 1-3, 1987, UGC, New Delhi. Safaya, R.N. and Shaida, B.D., School Administration and Organisation, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi, 1969. Srivastava A.P. and Srivastava, A., Acquiring Excellence at College: A Tutorial Handbook. The Learning, Laboratory, 'K' Block, New Delhi, 1985. 396

39 Art Education in the NPE: 1986-92 1. EDUCATIONAL INNOVATION AFTER INDEPENDENCE After Independence it was felt by everybody that the educational system evolved by the British Government during nearly 200 years was out-dated and unsuitable for the free resurgent India. Besides discussions and deliberations at the state as well as national level on quantitative and qualitative improvement of education, three Education Commissions were appointed by the Government of India to study the educational system in depth and suggest ways and means for removing its defects and for making it serve the developmental needs of an emerging society. These Commissions, after careful study of the problems confronting the country in the field of education, submitted their comprehensive reports with necessary recommendations for bringing about desired reformation in the nature and structure of education according to the growth needs, aspirations and demand of modernising an egalitarian society. Particularly, the Education Commission (1964-66) has incorporated the best elements of the Basic Education developed by Mahatma Gandhi and laid emphasis on the "internal transformation" of education according to the values and ideologies enshrined in the Constitution of India. According to this Education Commission there is need today to transform education so as to relate it to the life, needs and aspirations of the people, and to make it an instrument of social change. It was emphasized that the school education

should be related to national integration, social justice, productivity as well as modernisation of the society and cultivation of moral and spiritual values. Work experience was highlighted as a concept of crucial importance and as a source of 397 learning. It should provide an opportunity to learn from the use of hands, give insight into the physical phenomena and human relationships involved in any organised productive work.1 The International Commission of Education (UNESCO) has pointed out that for a long time in the human history, education has remained segregated from life and work. When one goes to school, does not work and when one enters the world of work, rarely goes to school. This dichotomy between work and education prevails and is found quite unnatural and pernicious. Education should come closer to the community, so that the school will be able to promote equalisation of educational opportunities and bridge the gulf between education for the elite and that for the masses.2

2. ART EDUCATION FOR FULLNESS OF LIFE With a view to removing such isolation between work and education and making the latter more productive and relevant, work experience was given an important place in the school curriculum. Nevertheless this curriculum was adopted under the new 10 + 2 + 3 pattern which is being implemented all over the country as a uniform national system of education. Work experience or work education which was provided at all stages of 10-year schooling was switched over to the term "Socially Useful Productive Work" (ISUPW) after the Report of Ishwarbhai Patel Committee on revised 10-year school curriculum. The difference between these two concepts lies in the more emphasis on work than on experience and on productivity than on knowledge and skills. Experience does not really mean practice. One may experience thrill of doing work even by chance or occasionally. But real learning takes place through repeated practice. In SUPW such practice leads to better performance or competence. Artistic experience and expression are an integral part of work education of SUPW. It is an area of aesthetic activity. It is felt that education remains incomplete without aesthetic sensibility which enables the child to appreciate and enjoy the beauties around him. The child is also helped to express himself creatively through artistic activities. Viswakabi Rabindranath in his educational experiment at Shantiniketan laid stress on the development of the sense of beauty. He created a favourable atmosphere in his school for adequate creative self-expression of children. This is what Tagore calls education for fullness. It is one of the important objectives of art education. 398

3. PLACE OF ART EDUCATION IN THE NEW CURRICULUM Art education is one of the salient features of the new school curriculum in which interest in beauty and the ability to integrate it with one's personality are woven into the entire texture of educational activity. Every child should be provided with ample opportunity to preserve and develop his originality and creative talents. He should develop a taste for the good and the beautiful and should take care of his environment. He should be enabled to express himself freely in creative activities and to acquire habits of self-learning. The NCERT curriculum for the ten-year school mentions that art education begins with creative and aesthetic activities. As the child grows in capacity and understanding, he should be taught in course of his education to add aesthetic taste and refinement to power and provision. At first he must be shown, made to appreciate and taught to love the beautiful, lofty, healthy and noble things whether in nature or in human creation. It is however stated, "Art education is a neglected area in the school curriculum. Whatever little are education is imparted, the emphasis is on the learning of skills, whereas the goal of art education should be to develop the aesthetic attitude which permeates all activities and not only the learning of skills of the arts."3

4. ADVERSITIES IN ART EDUCATION Art education has been subjected to a large number of adverse situations. The attitude towards arts in the educational system is full of prejudices. Arts have been provided in the schools at +2 stage, only as an optional subject. Therefore, students learn these subjects as hobbies. These are not taken as examinable subjects in the sense that failure in the arts does not affect their promotion. Due to poor weightage given to arts, adequate funds are not provided for purchasing necessary materials and contingencies required for teaching arts in the schools. In many schools there are no art-teachers and in schools where there are art-teachers, due status and prestige are not given to them. Since they are less qualified and teaching arts is regarded as of little importance, art-teachers are asked to do other jobs in addition to their own work.

Even in the training schools and colleges, where teachers are prepared for teaching various subjects and are required to produce different kinds of teaching aids, art education is not given due importance, although there are art-teachers in all the secondary training colleges with adequate 399 facilities for discharging their responsibilities. Performance in art and aesthetic education by the pupil-teachers should be taken into account not only for success, but also for award or merit in the final examination.

5. PROPOSALS FOR CONSIDERATION At first the aims and scope of art as a subject has to be redefined. The old concept of teaching the skills of drawing should be changed. Art should be regarded as an integral part of the whole programme in the school and the child should be considered as the centre of all activities and artistic expressions which are so natural to his interests and instincts. Through art education aesthetic values and attitudes are to be developed and students should be led to appreciate and enjoy the beauties in everything, in decoration, in keeping all the materials in order, in keeping environment neat and clean and even in conversation and conduct. Art should be taught to all students rather than to the handful of dropouts or slow learners. The principle of "learning by doing", which forms the basis of all methods of teaching, should be given due recognition in teaching art through self-discovery and self-expression. Art education should be regarded as a training in seeing, sensing, feeling and finally, in doing. The teaching of art should not be fragmented into different disciplines. It should be an integrated total experience. The instruction should revolve around the relationship of the child with his own environment, both within and without. The teaching approach should be such as to provide to the child the maximum enrichment materials for developing his skills, interests and aptitudes. Proper guidance should be provided for motivation and mobilisation of all his available resources for self-expression. More and more media should be utilised for his exploration and realization. Learning of art by children should not be imitative and repetitive in nature. There should be adequate freedom, flexibility and novelty in the teaching-learning process, so that art education can be really meaningful, interesting and effective. Art-teachers should, therefore, be trained properly in these modern approaches, methods and media for enabling them to do justice to their duties and responsibility.4 To conclude, art education should be given its due place in the modern school curriculum. Its subject content, methods and approaches of teaching and media as well as materials used for learning the subject should be revamped and renovated. It should be an examinable subject and students' performance in the subject should be taken into account 400 for class promotion as well as award of scholarships. Its scope should be widened, instead of narrowed down, gradually as Dr. Sriman Narayan has observed in case of work experience, "As you go higher, it becomes less and less". Art education should aim at self-realization and self-expression of the child for enjoyment and enrichment of life as a whole. NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Government of India, Ministry of Education, Report of the Education Commission,1964-66, New Delhi. 2. Report of the International Commission on Education, Learning To Be, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1973. 3. NCERT, The Curriculum for the Ten-Year School: A Framework, New Delhi, 1975. 4. Mohanty, J., "Children's Art Education" in The Child Art, Orissa Lalit Kala Academy, Bhubaneswar, 1987. 401

40 Children's Literature: Nature, Needs and Characteristics 1. STATUS OF CHILDREN "The world of children is the world of innocence, of joy and of life. They are a civilization's base for the future and as such constitute a valuable source of its perennial renewal. It is on them that humanity can build a foundation of a bright future. "This is a message given by the United Nations Organisations on the occasion of the International Year of the Child in 1979. With a view to laying a firm foundation of a happy, prosperous and just world, have to take care of generations of children who need to be nursed and nourished, helped and equipped to play their role effectively in the

world of tomorrow. The UNO, UNESCO, UNICEF and other International Organisations have tried to generate consciousness about the need for providing the children with necessary amenities. Our Constitution Fathers also enshrined their firm commitment to children's all-round development, in Article 45 for Universalisation of Elementary Education, in Article 24 for prohibition of children's labour and in Article 39 for prevention of abuse of children in their tender age. Many laws have also been enacted for their protection and care. The National Policy for children has also recognised children as "the nation's supremely important asset" and we have accepted "their nurture and solicitude as our responsibility". We have expressed out deep concern for their physical, mental, emotional and aesthetic development through our programmes and policies. We love our children. Even poor parents do not fail to love their children. We are aware of the importance of children's growth and care not only for our personal life and for our family welfare, but also for the social development and national upliftment. But the questions are whether such love and awareness are quite adequate, whether we know exactly 402 how we can facilitate our children's welfare and whether we know specifically the society they live in and the exact nature of literature they should read for promoting their capability to live in a better, healthier and happier society.

2. SOCIETY THEY LIVE IN The UN Declaration of the Rights of the Child, amid other things, has recognised the rights "to learn, to be useful member of society and to develop individual abilities to be brought up in a spirit of peace and universal brotherhood: to enjoy these rights regardless of race, colour, sex, religion, national or social origin". The children grow and learn: they grow to learn and they learn to grow in the present as well in the future society. They desire to learn, to know and understand their environment—internal and external. Their clear perception developed out of their learning and experiences enables them to equip themselves for enjoying their rights and discharging their responsibilities with success. 2.1. Internal Environment The Internal environment of children comprises their physical health and sanitation on the one hand and their psychological, mental and emotional growth and conditions on the other. All these aspects are interwined and interdependent. Again all these differ from adults to children, and also from one age-group to another. Although in general, physical health and sanitation have been improved over these years it is far from satisfactory in case of children, particularly in the deprived and underprivileged sections of the society. The national standard of health and longevity is far below the international norms with special reference to the developed countries of the world. The research studies both at the micro and macro levels have clearly revealed the correlation of physical health with mental, emotional and psychological growth and conditions of children. Many studies have also demonstrated the impoverished growth and malnourished status of Indian children in respect to their physical stamina, mental strength and emotional growth. All these variables are concomitant of the interplay of both hereditary and environmental forces and factors. Both nature and nurture have their roles to play in the physical, mental, emotional development of children. But the modern psychologists and educationists have indicated, rather vindicated that nurture i.e., environment has a far more and greater impact on the all-round personality growth of children. 403 Children have basic mental and psychological needs. They have to be provided with adequate facilities for meeting these requirements. A major part of their mental growth is completed during childhood and emotional as well as psychological development is also on a great stride during their early years. Children need to love and be loved; they need to belong and to be belonged: they need to know and to be known by others. That is, their ego, self-esteem, security and curiosity have to be properly recognised at all levels. Although children differ in their mental and psychological needs at various agegroups, no water-tight compartments can be made and their basic needs are more or less the same. We, however, for our better approach to their problems, can roughly form age-groups like 0-3, 3-5, 5-9 and 9-15 years. We have here no scope for detailed discussion about the specific characteristics of these age-groups. Normal children have enormous fund of physical energy which they utilise in various activities. The motor mechanism of the children urges them for keeping themselves engaged in useful and interesting activities. Motor abilities and manual skills contribute to the mental development of children. The child is also endowed with five senses—gateways of knowledge. Particularly, his eyes and ears are very important senses for learning from his environment. Other three senses like touch, smell and taste also if properly utilised, can help in developing his perceptions which are necessary for learning.

Emotions are essential for psychological development of children, love, affection, security, esteem, belongingness, etc. shape their behaviour and personality. To know a child is to know his emotions which colour all his behaviour. Children are very much apt to be affected by emotions and children are required to be dealt with sympathy and understanding. Through love and affection they enjoy satisfaction, self-confidence and security and develop refined personality. Children live in a world of make-belief and their imagination is rich in colour and grandeur. Their curiosity and fantasy have long flights which stimulate their intellect and develop their interests. They pose problems and problems are posed to them. They try to solve them and gain experience. They learn to live and they live to learn. Thus, their intellectual development takes place and grows on and on to enable them to take decisions in life. 2.2. External Environment Society provides the external environment to children who see the lives and objects around them. The social conditions, events, ethos and 404 milieus influence their life. Even the blind faiths, superstitions and discriminations adversely affects them. They are sometimes motivated and sometimes inspired by the various factors in the society. Occasionally they revolt against wrong deeds and discriminations. They try to identify themselves with various characters and personalities in the society. The political, economic and religious conditions of the society are hard realities in the children's lives and they are affected in someway or the other. They experience the differences and difficulties owing to wide variations and deprivations in the society. The crises in values create problems not only in their moral and ethical lives, but also in their day-to-day mundane existence. The scientific age has its impact on the children's mental and psychological make up. Children grow curious to know everything. "What", "why" and "how" of all events and occurrences. The cause and effect relationships have a key role to play in scientific methods and techniques. The problems of science and technology like space travel, environment pollution, electronics, automation, etc. have to be reckoned with by the children. All these social, economic, religious and scientific forces constitute culture. Children are wrapped around by the culture from their very birth to their last breath. They are deeply involved in the cross-currents of these forces and seriously affected by them. They can not keep themselves aloof from the good as well as bad influences of electronic media, local, national and even international problems. The communal, religious and linguistic issues have their distributing results, corruption, nepotism, sex, violence, consumerism and such other problems have their evil effects on the minds and hearts of the children. The children today are growing up in an environment of tensions, insecurity, discriminations and so on. Modern living has been complex and complicated, full of uncertainties. The children take their lives very much challenging at all levels and phases. Due to fast-changing environment and complex circumstances prevailing at present, children have to be made cautious, receptive and responsive. They have to develop adequate sensitivity towards the problems in their environment.

3. LITERATURE THEY READ 3.1. Learning and Reading Children are capable of learning from their environment. They are born with certain abilities and endowments which help them learning. Learning is, as we all know, modification of behaviour through which 405 they adjust with their situations around them. That is why, it is called "living is learning" and "learning is living". Both living and learning go together and one is not complete without the other. Reading is one of the important means of learning and is enables an individual to make up his deficiencies, to overcome his shortcomings and to acquire new knowledge and understanding about himself, about his environment and about all the world around him. The life of the child is incomplete and even biologically he is called "unfinished". Learning helps him to complete the unfinished task of the Nature. The UNESCO report "Learning's to Be" (1972) rightly says, "He never thus becomes an adult, his existence is an unending process of completion and learning. It is essentially his incompleteness that sets him apart from other living beings, the fact that he must draw from his surroundings the techniques for living which nature and instinct failed to give him. He is obliged to learn unceasingly in order to survive and evolve". Human life is thus a continuous learning process and reading is the most potential means of learning.

Today there is "explosion of knowledge" everywhere, at all aspects of our life. Knowledge is growing at a breath-taking pace and getting accumulated as well as modified very fast. It is doubling itself in less than ten years. In order to keep themselves alive and prosper, children as well as adults should acquire the functional reading ability and skills which would enable them to keep themselves abreast with the latest developments in different fields of knowledge. Reading will prevent them from being inundated and submerged by the strong avalanches of knowledge which are being witnessed by the present world books are thus the bulwarks of strength and security as well as the sources of peace and inspiration. They help in developing both cognitive and effective abilities of children in training them to react intelligently to situations, incidents, and characters, to think independently, to increase sensitivity to the beauty and ugliness, tears and laughter, silence and noise that make up the fabric of our beings. 3.2. Books for Children: Nature and Characteristics Books have unique importance in human life. They embody all knowledge and wisdom. They symbolise our culture and civilization. They have everything of our society. But now our concern is "Children for Books and Books for Children". Psychologically children are interested in books. They love to read books. But books should be made suitable to them. They will not study books only to get knowledge, but 406 also to get pleasure. Interest and illumination should go hand in hand in children's literature. Einstein, the world renowned scientist once said that imagination is more important than knowledge, for knowledge is limited. Books for children should therefore be informative as well as imaginative. Torrance (1966), an eminent expert on creativity has laid great emphasis on the use of fantasies and fairy tales for children. He has cited the example of a Russian Professor of Applied Mechanics who taught many of today's outstanding Russian Scientists. At the end of his distinguished career in science, the Professor expressed his conviction that fairy tale has been his companion in creative and scientific achievements. He has said that the engineer who is not brought up in his childhood on fairy tales will not become a creative engineer. Chukovsky (1963), the famous Russian Psychologist had made a plea that fantasy is the most valuable attribute of the human mind and should be nurtured diligently from the early childhood. In reply to those who oppose imaginative reading in favour of scientific and factual reading he observed, "We must develop the child's imagination or at least we must not inhibit its natural development. In this connection the reading of fairy tales is very important for little children. We often meet parents these days who are against fairy tales. They do not make them available to their children, seeking to bring up sober practical individuals. I always say to such parents that their children will never become mathematicians or inventors". Children's books should open doors to the storehouses of knowledge and widen the horizons of perception. They should be creative so that the process of creativity can be facilitated and developed in the young children. Unless the writers of children's books are quite knowledgeable about the psychological needs and conditions of their young learners and about the research findings on the nature and growth of creativity, they cannot do justice to their onerous responsibility for developing creativity of children through their books. Jafa (1939) has aptly observed, "A children's book draws heavily on the creativity of the writer, just a performing artist in his, creativity. The product of his effort may look small but so is a piece of jewellery or a painting". The authors of juvenile literature ought to be conscious of the children's internal and external environment—its physical, sociological, religious, economic, scientific and psychological perspectives for selecting suitable themes, developing presentation styles and strategies. Children should be able to identify themselves with characters of their 407 books and realise their self-esteem as well as achievements leading to proper ego-development and self-realisation. The burning issues like population control, environment, sanitation, national integration, democratisation, socialisation, secularisation, etc. should find important place in children's books. Too many facts and figures and too much sermonization are not liked by children. The books should, therefore be well-presented and well balanced in content and styles. The authors should give more attention to presentation. They should remember that "What" is not so important as "bow".

4. CONCLUSION The Children's Britannica (1988) has mentioned, "Today people accept children's books as both entertaining and instructive. But it was not always so and it has not always been easy for children to find books to read. If you were able to talk about books to children living in the 18th Century, you would find that they knew very few—and of those they knew, few would have been written for children. Until about 150 years ago, children thought of books only as lesson

books full of instructions about good behaviour. Only in recent years have authors written books to be interesting, amusing and exciting for children instead of merely to teach them something". It is, of course, a fact that good children's books aim at creating and nurturing an integrated human personality. For that authors should not be worried about the quantum and nature of themes but should identify topics from various branches of knowledge and present them in lucid and interesting styles. The writers should write their books for children with adequate empathy and love, with necessary skills and understanding. They can not visualise everything for the children who are living in a different world at present and will pass to a different world in future. They can not so easily delve deep into the mysteries and intricacies of the children's life. Khalil Gibran has rightly pointed out to the children's writers, "you may give them your love, but not your thoughts, for they have their own thoughts. You may house their bodies, but not their souls, for their souls dwell in the house of tomorrow, which you can not visit, not even in your dreams".

REFERENCES Brahma, D., Children's Literature and Education in India, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1989. 408 Chukovsky, K., From Two to Five, Berkeley, University of California Press, California, 1993. Encyclopaedia Brizannica, Children's Britannica, London, 1988. Jafea, M, "Promotion of Childen's Literature", Writer and Illustrator, Jan.-March, 1984, AWIC, New Delhi. Jafea, M., "Better Books for Children", Writer and Illustrator, Oct.-Dec. 1989, AWIC, New Delhi. Malhotra, P.L., Reading to Learn, NCERT, New Delhi, 1989. Mehdi, B., and Gupta, Psychology of the. Child and Curriculum, NCERT, New Delhi. Mohanty, J., The Books Through Ages, Chatrasathi, Cuttack. Mohanty, J., Oriya Children's Literature, Progress, Perspectives and Prospects, Oriya Sahitya Academy, 1993, Bhubaneswar. Mohanty, J., "Oriya Children's Literature for Preschool Children", Writer and Illustrator Oct-Dec, 1987, AWIC, New Delhi. Torrance, E.P., Techniques and Materials for Developing Creative Readers in Williams F.E., (Ed.) Misnesote, 1966. Sharma, I.S., Children's Literature, NCERT, New Delhi, 1982. UNESCO, Learning to be, Paris, 1972. UNESCO, Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO, Newsletter, Jan.-March, 1979, New Delhi. 409

41 Role of Juvenile Literature in Elementary Education About six hundred years ago, it has aptly been stated by Dante: "A man's proper vernacular is nearest unto him in as much as it is more closely united to him for it is singly and alone in his mind before any other". Really man's mother-tongue is nearest and dearest to him. It provides the raw materials, the fundamental concepts and basic factors, with which a child can grow to his full stature, can unfold his latent talents and will develop his total personalty. Hence, in the stage of Primary Education, the child's mother-tongue plays a very important and significant role. It is the basic medium through which knowledge is communicated to the child and his experiences are expressed. The child's own language has the most lasting values for him of all subjects that are taught in the elementary school. It is even the personal experience of all adults that through his mother-tongue only he find his most easy and convenient means of experiences and expression. As the mother-tongue is the medium of instruction for all school subjects, proficiency in the mother-tongue is very much necessary for acquisition of knowledge. The child thinks and feels through his mother-tongue so that his competency in using it, ensures improvement in thoughts and feelings. According to Professor P. Gurrey, "the mother-tongue being the

child's most valuable social instrument", the "improved skill in expression and in communication of his experiences enables the child to attain greater mastery of his experiences, both inner and social and to grow in self-control and confidence" that is why, success of various activities in his future, depends largely on the efficiency of child's education in his own language. As such the mother-tongue plays a crucial and vital role in the elementary education. 410

NEEDS FOR JUVENILE LITERATURE 1. Under the democratic set up of our country and scientific and technological progress of the world, our Elementary Education is far from satisfactory. The curriculum is narrow; the methods of teaching are stereotyped; the instructional materials are inadequate. Recently of course in some States like Orissa, Rajasthan, etc., attempts have been made in framing a suitable curriculum or syllabus in the elementary stage. But production of good literature for children is badly needed for their proper education in the Primary Schools. The Text-books are to be supplemented by adequate juvenile literature to fill the vacuum of the present day schooling. 2. It has been recognised that children are more interested in reading than the grown-ups. If reading habit is formed in childhood and is properly guided and nourished by parents and teachers, it will enrich their life and accomplish their growing personalities. Books are best companies. Joseph Addison has rightly said: "Reading is to the mind, what exercise is to the body. As by the one, health is preserved strengthened and invigorated; by the other virtue, which is the health of a mind, is kept alive, cherished and confirmed". "Really nothing refreshes and ennobles the mind more than a concentrated efforts at reading, of interesting and useful books. Life-long love of books leads on and on to the children immature in brain and body to higher strata of life and thinking. A survey conducted by the Union Education Ministry revealed as general desire among our children for reading pleasant and educative books. This is a very happy symptom indeed and should cultivate such auspicious desire of our young folk by providing suitable juvenile literature. 3. Reading of good and entertaining books by children has been proved by experts as an effective deterant to juvenile delinquency. It is the psychologists' view that anti-social elements in the children, even in the adults are better controlled and guided in the socially useful directions, through providing suitable diversions and of all diversions reading of good books is the most important. Promoting the reading habit among youngsters is the very potential medium of channelising the excessive energies into constructive lines. Healthy books are essential for mental and emotional development of growing children as nutritious food for their physical growth. 4. Our distinguished educationists and educators opine that we have already crippled the intellectual development of our children by putting before them narrow objective of passing examination. In order to achieve 411 such narrow objective, the children deliberately or in instigation of teachers and parents, take recourse to blind memorising of text-books or their note-books. Our children, generally know nothing beyond their text-books and what is expected in the examination papers. Consequently, this sad phenomenon has resulted in clipping the wings of originality detering the spontaneous efforts of children and confining their mental horizon to the narrow groves of text-books. Children are the leaders of our future, the custodians of our country and young vanguards of our future prosperity. Hence, they should be provided with all sorts of reading facilities to enrich their mental make-up for enabling themselves to be worthy citizens of our Sovereign Democratic Republic. We can no longer neglect this vital aspect of elementary education for our blooming generations. We should have to provided them with suitable literature for extending their mental horizon and for facilitating their emotional growth. 5. Not only our children should be encouraged to read, but also to write juvenile literature themselves. Through this medium, they can express their experiences, emotions and interests in a healthy and useful ways. Thus, their latent talents can be unfolded and uncoiled to the best possible extent. Their exuberant emotion can be richly sublimated and their inborn instincts can be usefully rationalized through these means of self-expression. As they proceed on the path of such literary activities, they can enjoy pleasure of achievement and pride of creations. Ultimately they can be reputed writers of remarkable works in future.

CHARACTERISTICS The special features and characteristics of juvenile literature may be the following: (1) Psychology

In the past, this sphere of literature remained almost unexploited. Children were taught the same literature as adults irrespective of their psychological and emotional growth. But such works became unattractive, unintelligible and boring to the children. Due to the improvement of sciences both physical and social, it was realised that knowledge of psychology of children in different stages, is as essential prerequisite for a writer of juvenile literature as for an elementary teacher. Their interests and instinct, their attention and aptitude are to be understood to deal with them successfully. Through the children's literature, the writers have to utilise such psychological aspects of the children, so that 412 they will find their personal experiences to be very much intimate, pleasing and profitable. In this direction bookish knowledge of children's psychology will not be very much helpful to the author. He has to share their experiences through patient and close observation. (2) Language Children's literature must be written according to the graded vocabulary. Simple day-to-day language, that is within their active vocabulary will be comprehensible to the children. Pedantic words and stiff language will not be attractive to them, however, valuable and pleasant things may be written. (3) Style Even where language is simple, complicated and clumsy sentences, metaphorical use of words with abstract and sturdy meanings will be aversive and unintelligible to them. Hence, clarity of thought, simplicity of style and straightforward dealings are to be followed with due solemnity. (4) Reality The writers of children's literature should mainly associate the real thing and people with the subject-matter. Too much of vague imagination, fantastic narration and absurdity will not be effective, rather it will spell disaster in their mental growth. Daily experiences of children as to be the important theme of juvenile works. In short, children's literature has to be living and concrete, not dead and abstract. (5) Curiosity Mere description of day-to-day events or experiences will not be fruitful for children. A piece of children's literature has to lead them to the new horizons of experiences and to the new sphere of joy and curiosity. This will create in them an unquenchable thirst for pleasure and inquisitiveness to know further and curiosity for entering into new wider frontiers of knowledge. (6) Illustration Children's literature should be profusely illustrated. The pictures will catch their imagination and provoke their thoughts. They must be of various colours and reflections. But they must not be too fantastic and out of touch and feelings of the young ones. 413

STUDIES AND EFFORTS The grim paucity of suitable juvenile literature still persists not only in Orissa but also in various States. Recently Delhi Public Library undertook a survey of reading habits of children. The conclusion drawn was that though the Library had more than 30,000 books for children, neither the number of books for children, neither the range of subjects was sufficient to meet the growing needs of the modern children. Books on adventure, travel, games, sports and recreation are in great demand by children, but good books on such subjects are not available. The school libraries are inadequate and poorer still. The dearth of good juvenile literature hampers the growth of children's reading habits. Our Vice-President, Dr. Zakir Hussain, inaugurating the Third Children's Literary Conference at Madras on the 20th May rightly said, "we display our lamentable ineptitude and lack of comprehension of children in the books, we the writers, the parents, the teachers, the publishers provide for the captive audience. Children want real books, books written by persons versed in the craftsmanship of writing, well-written books which represent the best work of which the writer is capable. They want to read of adventure of living in its diverse manifestations. Yes, they want to understand the world into which they are

growing—the physical world as well as the social world. But they want understanding and not the bare bones facts." Fortunately in the post-Independence era, attempts have been made by the Government and private bodies to accelerate the pace of production of juvenile literature. Entries are being invited to the All-India and State-level Competitions of Children's Literature and outstanding works are being awarded prizes every year. The State Institute of Education have been established in every State with an aim to improve the quality and standard of elementary education and to achieve such objective they have interest and initiative in producing suitable as well as long-felt kinds of juvenile literature, which are expected to supplement and enrich our present syllabus and curriculum for Elementary Schools. But in these national ventures of basic importance sincere and ceaseless efforts and close co-operation and collaboration of all concerned agencies, e.g., writers, publishers, artists and even parents are most desirable and essential. We have still to realise the valuable contribution that good juvenile literature can make and the significant role that it can play in our social and educational reconstruction. Now we all are called upon to rise to the occasion of such national importance. 414

42 Evaluation of Students' Learning 1. IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION OF STUDENTS' LEARNING The primary task of education is the all-round development— cognitive, effective and psycho-motor domain of the learner. The role of the teacher is not only to carry on the teaching-learning process in the direction of the total development of the teacher but also to assess how far the teaching-learning process has been effective, to what extent an objective fixed has been fulfilled and how far the learning experiences provided have been appropriate and useful. But the traditional examination system measures mostly scholastic areas neglecting other objectives. This type of traditional procedures and practices use for testing pupil's progress and for overall assessment do more harm than good to the students. Moreover, this traditional system has given scope to unfair means in the examination hall as well as rote memory. Further, it has provided room for partial coverage of course contents and instructional objective. Since traditional system assesses scholastic achievements only the school programmes in turn also do not lay emphasis on the development of non-scholastic areas of children. In order to make up the deficiencies in assessing non-scholastic aspects of development of the learner, continuous comprehensive evaluation is considered as most suitable device for the purpose. Thus, continuous comprehensive evaluation should substitute the traditional pattern of examination. This type of evaluation augments the process of all-round development of the learner to an optimum level. The emphasis should, therefore, shift from classifying the learners into classes or divisions in examination to assessing their total development or improvement. Instead of assessing pupil-progress at terminal point or at the end of the year, the clarion call is to regularly assess the progress made by the learner, their potential or deficiencies for taking appropriate measure to bring 415 about the designed growth. Such type of broad, regular and detailed treatment can be carried out mostly at the school level by the school personnel but not by any external agency.

2. MEANING OF OBJECTIVE-BASED EVALUATION An objective is a point or and end-view of something towards which our actions/activities are directed. In other words, objective refers to goal what we set out to do. The objectives that we want to achieve through education are termed as educational objectives. The objectives of education are derived from the environment, socio-political system, cultural needs, national and constitutional imperatives, economic needs, psychological development, cultural heritage and current stock of human knowledge. Obviously, the objectives should not be confined to academic areas only. Rather they should have wide coverage of learning to the total development of the learner both in scholastic and non-scholastic areas. B.S. Bloom and others have classified all the educational objectives into three domains such as: (i) Cognitive, (ii) Affective or conative, and (iii) Psycho-motor. Cognitive domain, includes objective like knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Knowledge objective includes remembering of facts, terms and principles. Comprehension includes understanding of materials or facts, (i.e. comparison, classification, contrast, interpretation, error detection, etc.). Application aims at using generalisations or other abstractions appropriately in concrete situations. Analysis identifies parts of the whole, expresses relationship between ideas and concepts, analysis elements, relationship and principles, etc. Synthesis refers to combining elements with new structure presenting, systematically. Evaluation includes judging, appraising, evaluating the materials for a specific purpose. Affective domain includes such objectives which describe change in interest, attitude, values and development of

appreciation. This domain gives description of the categories like receiving, responding, valuing, etc. Psycho-motor domain includes objectives related to motor skill or manipulative work. The various objectives under psycho-motor domain are development of mechanical skills, manipulative abilities, etc. According to Horrow (1972) psycho-motor domain includes perception, imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation and naturalisation. In order to realise the heaps of objective stated above, the content of instruction as well as approach to teaching and learning is to be devised 416 in a broad-based manner through appropriate teaching-learning situations. In order to realise the objectives fixed, learners are to be exposed to the teaching-learning process to attain learning experiences. After that efforts are made to evaluate the extent to which they have been successful in helping learner to attain the objectives. In other words, evaluation will be objective-based when the evaluation procedure is designed to measure the objectives of the lesson/topic/subject. It is worth mentioning that evaluation should be objective-based. For this, the teacher should see that objectives should be pin-pointed, specific and concrete. Moreover, specification of each objective should be determined. In short, it is to be noted that if items are constructed keeping objective in view and test is used for evaluation, the test will be called an objective-based evaluation tool, and such evaluation known as objective-based evaluation.

3. MEANING OF COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION The dictionary meaning of comprehensive is having the power of containing much. It indicates that when the evaluation is broad-based measuring different aspects of learning outcomes, it is termed as comprehensive evaluation. In spite of long encompassing of examination reforms all over the country, evaluation is limited to academic aspects, mostly knowledge aspects and skill. The non-academic areas are not brought to the purview of examination, although education aims at allround development of the learner. As a result, the goal of harmonious development of the child still remain a distant dream. Keeping in mind the harmonious development of the child the curriculum designers have now incorporated non-scholastic areas like health education, physical education, SUPW, adult education, etc. in the curricula. In addition to curricular approach, different co-curricular activities are particularly tailored to suit the development of non-scholastic areas. Not only the scholastic areas but also pupil's growth in non-scholastic areas should be brought in the comprehensive compendium of school evaluation system. As such, evaluation is made comprehensive encompassing all the facets of personality development, personal and social qualities like sincerity, punctuality, regularity, initiative, cooperation, health habits, etc. of the pupils can be evaluated. Musical, artistic, dramatic, literary and cultural interest of pupils can be amenable to evaluation. Socially desirable and healthy attitudes like democracy, socialism, secularism, patriotism, internationalism and love for school 417 can also be assessed. Similarly, proficiency in various co-curricular activities are to be evaluated all these with cognitive areas can be evaluated simultaneously in order to make evaluation comprehensive. For comprehensive evaluation cumulative record card is a good method of measuring pupil growth. True and controlled observation of pupil-behaviour, a pupil's record of interest, initiative, participation in different social and school activities, creativeness, etc. can be used for evaluation of non-scholastic domain.

4. MEANING OF CONTINUOUS EVALUATION The traditional system of annual or end-of-the-year examination is criticized as it encourages chance factor, memorization and unfair means in the examination. The half yearly, annual or biannual system of examination lead to selected study at the eleventh hour burning midnight oil which contravenes the very essence of the education. To overcome such criticism, evaluation is to be made continuous. Evaluation is a continuous process. There is no end to it. It goes on continuously. It involves three things such as goal, means and assessment. The following diagram depicts the same: First of all, the goal is determined. In order to attain or fulfil the objectives or goal, appropriate learning-experiences are provided. Then evaluation is made to know as to what extent the objective or objectives have been fulfilled. If an objective or objectives are not fulfilled again new learning activities are designed and learning experiences are transacted.

After that evaluation is carried out. From the evaluation, if it is evident that objectives have been materialised, new objectives of high order or new course contents are formulated and the same process is on 418 the fray. Thus, it has become continuous and regular process. Through continuous evaluation it is possible to regularly obtain informative data about pupil's progress and weakness. This sort of information helps the teacher in providing remedial and improved teaching. Thus, continuous comprehensive evaluation may be a panacea for many evils of traditional evaluation system. For this, unit approach in teaching and testing deserves special mention. Entire course content of a year can be conveniently grouped into certain units. Each unit consists of closely related subject-matter. Objectives of each unit are determined, learning experiences are provided accordingly, and at the end a unit test is given for comprehensive evaluation. This process continues. Continuous comprehensive evaluation is not an end itself rather it is a means to an end. It facilitates the teacher to make necessary modification in teaching as well as testing. 419

43 Media and Materials for Children's Learning 1. INTRODUCTION: SPECIAL NEEDS OF YOUR CHILDREN Childhood period is significant for intellectual as well as emotional growth. It is also of crucial importance for personality development. It is the period of maximum learning and as such as crucial for education of the child. Every child is endowed with the built-in physiological as well as neurological mechanism for learning. This mechanism is, however, to be exploited, fully by providing learning experiences adequately. The foundation of all values, attitude and even achievement is laid in the early years of an individual. Further, development of all kinds of intellectual, emotional, social and physical is very rapid during this period and any deprivation or stimulation is most active either causing obstruction or acceleration in the growth process. Although both nature or heredity and nurture or environment play their parts in the development of personality in all its facets—intellect, emotion, values, attitudes, physiques and so on, ceiling for ultimate is determined not only by inherited potentials, but also by environmental stimulations, particularly received during childhood. Thus, the child's developmental ceiling is lowered or highered according to the extent and quantum of nurturing facilities. This holds good for children from any country or culture. But in India it is more important as high percentage of population are deprived and disadvantaged both socially and economically. The environment of most of the Indian children is poor and unstimulating. The child is, in many cases, the first generation learner and does not get adequate stimulation and support from his parents, peers and siblings. He is left to himself for development and education. 420

2. LEARNING MOTIVATING The Research findings in this field reveal that our children when they enter pre-primary or primary schools have serious handicaps in learning. The vocabulary is very limited, their concept formation is very limited, their formation is very poor and their psycho-motor coordination is quite inadequate. When these children are required to respond to certain standard of learning in the schools, they start disliking and develop a kind of aversion. This leads to heavy dropouts and stagnation, particularly at the primary stage. All the attempts made for universalisation of primary education are, therefore, found mostly unfruitful and inadequate. It is therefore felt imperative to make primary school an attractive place for children and to make its programmes interesting to them. Learning in the pre-primary schools should be made joyful and entertaining instead of dry and drab. Gone are the days when the teacher was an autocrat and pupils were mute subjects. He was only to talk and they were to hear silently. But now the situation has changed. Children need not be stuffed with facts and figures only and be treated as empty vessels to be filled up with knowledge by teachers. It has been rightly said that an ordinary teacher tells, a good teacher explains, a superior teacher demonstrates and a pre-primary or primary school should love its children and inspire them in their learning activity.

Once children are inspired and motivated, they must take interest in learning from the tender age and that would bring down the present high percentage of wastage and stagnation at the primary stage. The Education Commission, 1964-66 have also suggested that children should be provided with suitable environment so that they will be interested in learning and dropouts will come down. Pre-primary schools should be up along with primary schools and they should compensate for the unsatisfactory home environment of children from slum areas and poor families.

3. LEARNING INTERESTING With a view to making learning interesting as well as effective, various media and materials should be used in the primary and pre-primary schools. They should be inexpensive and easily available. Education and entertainment can be well integrated through their use and children's learning can be a joyful activity. 421 It has been confirmed by all concerned that play-way method enables the teacher to teach effectively and pupils to learn efficiently. In this context, various play materials like toys and games can be utilised with profit for educational purpose. In our country even in remote rural and tribal areas, there are a good number of materials and games which are of great educational implication and potentiality. But unfortunately, our schools have not tapped them in the teaching-learning process and have remained isolated from toys, games and activities of the community. The National Council of Educational Research and Training, New Delhi through its Children's Media Laboratory Project have made laudable attempts to identify and replicate the indigenous toys and games which are educationally very useful. Teachers are being trained and manuals being developed for effective use of these materials for education.

4. MATERIALS AND MEDIA AS AIDS TO LEARNING Some research studies conducted in our country have shown that Indian children experience a great deal of difficulties in learning to read. Besides in various developmental tasks like concept formation, auditory discrimination, discrimination of norms, colours, etc., our rural and tribal children are found deficient to a great extent. Language developments proved to be of crucial importance for other cognitive development. Adequate provision of picture books, story books, rhyme books, children's magazines and illustrations helps language development are making up the deficiencies mentioned earlier. With UNICEF assistance the NCERT at the national level and the SCERT at the State level are bringing out a large number of well illustrated story and poetry books for children. Children love to listen to stories and poems which are also educationally useful. There are good number of flock tales and songs, nursery rhymes and puzzles in different parts of the country. They are being collected and printed in books and journals for children. Stories, poems and features developed by talented writers according to the interests and needs of children are being recorded and played back by Radio and Tape/cassette recorders. These are very appealing to children who enjoy the same very much. Training courses and workshops are being organised by various national and State organisations for effective production and utilisation of these audio materials. 422 Lastly, television slides and film projectors are potential media for education and attempts are being made for production of suitable programmes and materials for children. Special care has to be taken to blend enlightenment with entertainment, inspiration with interest and needs with joy, so that these TV programmes, slides and films can made really useful to children. All these methods, media and materials which constitute educational technology would make primary schools attractive and their programmes interesting. These would enable children to play, to enjoy, to read and to write, to talk and to sing. Primary education can be made entertaining as well as enlightening. This it can be universalied in true sense of the term. Dr. S.K. Mitra, a psychologist of national repute has pointed out that if children were made to take interest in learning right from the tender age, then it would appreciably bring down the present high percentage of wastage and stagnation during early years of primary schooling. The Education Commission, 1964-66 have also mentioned that the pre-primary and primary schools are required to provide suitable environment to the boys and girls hailed from urban families whose small tenements of flats are hardly appropriate for the children's proper growth. These schools also seek to compensate for the unsatisfactory home environment of children from slum areas or poor families. With the use of suitable media and aids, teaching-learning process can be made more interesting and school

situation more attractive.

5. TYPES OF MEDIA AND MATERIALS All the media and materials are aids to teaching and learning. They are roughly classified into: (i) audio, (ii) visual, (iii) audio-visual. Tape/ cassette records, gramophone records, radio programme, etc. are of the first category: picture, charts, slides, film strips, etc. are of second category and video recording, TV programme, activities, etc. belong to the third category. These aids are mainly divided into: (i) Projected, and (ii) non-projected media, film strips, slides transparencies are projected aids whereas picture, charts, sound audio recording, models, etc. are the instances of non-projected media. Wilbur Schramm has classified all kinds of media into two. One consists of big media like films, television, video cassettes/records and 423 another aids are little media like radio programmes, audio/tapes, gramophone records, slides, graphics. These aids are again divided into six categories as follows: (1) Display Boards

Chalk boards, flannel boards bulletin boards, peg boards, etc.

(2) Graphics Media

Pictures, photographs, flash cards, chart, posters, graphs, maps, diagrams.

(3) Three-dimensional Media Models, Objects, Specimens, Puppets, etc. (4) Projected Media

Slides, film-strips, transparencies, TV, Video tapes, films, etc.

(5) Audio Media

Radio, Video tapes, films, audio cassettes, gramophone records, etc.

(6) Activity Media

Field trips, dramatisation, demonstration, role-playing etc.

6. USES AND ABUSES OF AIDS It is not possible to discuss the advantage and limitations of each medium on this paper. But just to have a cursory view of this problem, we may discuss on broad categories of media: (i) visuals, (ii) audio, and (iii) audio-visual aids including activities. Sight is regarded as the most powerful of all senses through which we perceive. This is by far primary source of information. There is a saying: "I hear and I forget, I see and I remember". It is also said that one picture is equal to a thousand of words. But the visuals should be lively, clear and meaningful. They need be prepared according to the social, cultural and psychological background of the clientele. For example, posters are used for disseminating messages and generating awareness but the picture should be clear and lettering needs be precise and bold. Models and specimens are useful for making ideas and structures comprehensible, but the scaled down sizes should be properly explained to the audience, e.g., needs of setsefly in Africa, Similarly, magnetic board or flannel board are useful for displaying visuals, but they should be used with proper understanding of the viewers. Otherwise, simple and unsophisticated children and people will be merely amazed by the magnetic power without understanding the actual message. A slide is called "a headful in a handful" since it can explain many things, but it has to be prepared with proper sequence and relevance. 424 Activities like field trips, excursions, dramatisation should be properly planned and well organised. Otherwise, time and resources are wasted and educational gains or learning outcomes are not satisfactory. Even films or TV programmes with all glamour and music, audience lacking in "Visual literacy" fail to get the real message, e.g. UNESCO film on Ghana Mosquitoes with Sweet Ashantic music.

7. CONCLUSION It must be realised that media and materials are aids to communication and particularly useful to young children for making the teaching-learning process interesting and meaningful. But all care and precaution must be taken in planning, preparing and utilising these media as effectively as possible. Life too much verbalisation, too much pictorialisation is

bad. Every medium should be used in right time, in right place and in right manner. Active participation as well as interaction should be promoted in the classrooms. Reasonable feedback should be provided for improving the media as well as ensuring success of the communication process. Children are inquisitive, curious and active by nature. They are sensitive as well as possessive. Therefore,, adequate scope and facility should be provided to them for free participation, discussion and activities. More actively they are involved in the process, more will be the success of the teaching-learning process. Media and materials even may be prepared by children themselves under the guidance of teachers as far as possible. Because this will promote their ego involvement belongingness and awareness about the various aspects of the subject matter. Aids, however, should be made slaves, not masters of the situation.

REFERENCES Government of India, Ministry of Education, The Education Commission, 1964-66, New Delhi. Mohanty, J., Educational Technology and Communication Media, Nalanda, 1980. Mohanty, J., and B. Mohanty, Early Childhood Education (Pre-School Education), Cuttack Publishing House, Cuttack, 1980. Sampath, K., et al. Introduction to Educational Technology, Sterling Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1981. Schramm, W., Big Media, Little Media, Agency for International Development, New York, 1974. 425

44 Teaching Techniques and Skills 1. INTRODUCING THE LESSONS Teaching is a scientific, controlled and goal directed activity. It is accomplished through a number of lessons which are delivered to the students of desired age group, in Specific course-content. This is again pre-designed and the aims of lessons are pre-determined by the teacher. All good lesson have some common identifiable characteristics. Teacher in the classroom has to follow these foot prints in a way he intends to bring desirable changes in the personality of learners. Introducing a lesson in the classroom is the first fundamental characteristic of the teaching-learning process in the field of educational psychology. The teacher has to be very careful in planning the lesson in general and the introduction stage in particular. This is a skill of teaching which pre-supposes a process of motivation. A teacher can take help of any one or many techniques that are available to introduce the lesson in a limited span of time. The teacher has to plan, think and act in a class while he introduces a lesson. The children, while they are in school situation, are likely to face a number of subject teachers in a day through a number of school periods. Different topics relating to different subject areas have to be understood and remembered. Teachers are to take a note of this psychological factor and introduce the lessons in their respective subject matters in an interesting manner and motivate the learners. The new knowledge to be imparted are to be correlated to the introductory stage. The following few techniques are adopted to introduce a lesson in general: A. Story Telling Technique. B. Through Audio-Visual Aids. 426 C. Question-Answer Technique, D. Creating a Problem. E. Initiating a Discussion. A. Story Telling Technique A lesson can be introduced by telling a story which has some relevance to the new knowledge to be imparted. This is best

suitable for the lower class students at the primary school stage. A story can be narrated in form of a poem which can be recited by the teacher to bring the class into the perfect order of psychological motivation. B. Through Audio-Visual Aids Some topics can be introduced through Radio, Television, Maps, Charts and Models. Students will be asked to see the performance of some events in the television or they will be required to listen to radio which may describe some activities in relation to the new topic. The teacher may like to show some maps or charts or models which will help the students to relate their new knowledge from these facts as they are exposed. The students are curious by nature to see some objects or concrete facts in a natural environment. Once their attention is diverted to the operated stage (classroom with audio-visual aids) it is easy to move ahead with their topics in the book. C. Question-Answer Technique This is a technique where the teacher has to ask some specific questions on the basis of their old (past) knowledge which has already been taught to them. This is a kind of testing their previous knowledge. This may be done in a continued lesson or in a new lesson which is based on the specific structures already learnt, which are to be used in the lesson selected for introduction. Here the questions are supposed to be framed on the restricted sense so that the questions are well understood by the students and the answers are supposed to be known. From a known atmosphere the children will be taken to an unknown situation where they will be interested to know the answers, which will help teacher to present the matter (topic) in the subsequent stage after introduction. D. Creating a Problem Teacher some times, desires to expose problems to the children. There are also some topics which can be taught in a problem-solving 427 approach to meet the requirements of the children's feeling. By performing an experiment in which the children will participate or they will watch some reactions or observe the subsequent happenings of the experiment. The problem thus posed in the classroom by conducting an experiment or arranging the data will have to be solved by the students in the subsequent stage of presentation. The experimental evidences will create interest and pleasure in the child. They will concentrate on the topic which will help the teacher to collect a number of possible hypotheses for the solution of the problem from the students. The topics in Science and Geography are best taught in this method because they demand a cause and effect relationship which is to be understood by the learners. E. Initiating a Discussion There are certain topics which are to be introduced through a well arranged group discussion. The classroom teacher has to initiate this discussion in the introductory stage. Mere asking some questions will not help the teacher to introduce to topic. Discussion may start from the propositions by the students. These may relate to the daily life situation or day-to-day events of the child's environment where the child is brought up. The child, if asked may ventilate his feeling which is very much interesting to the whole class. Topics in social sciences or civics can be taught through the introduction of the discussion which is based on the events of environment.

2. USE OF BLACK BOARDS Black Board is the most essential aid for class room teaching. It is a visual three dimensional aid fixed in the classroom wall which can be used for the whole classroom population. As far as possible the teacher should see that the Black Board is clean before he starts using this. Main points are to be written on the Black Board which help the teacher to initiate discussion. The teacher should use the Black Board keeping the following points in view: A. Legibility of the Hand Writing. B. Neatness in the Black Board work. C. Appropriateness of the facts. A. All the students of the class are interested to see how the teacher writes and what he writes. So the teacher should write clearly with

428 spacing of letters and different works. He should read aloud what he writes. His hand writing may not be necessarily artistic but should be legible and visible to all the students. B. The teacher should see that his Black Board writing is neat and clear. There should not be any ambiguity in expression. The sentences should be properly spaced and arranged in a systematic manner. Many things should not be put here and there on the black board. Points should be underlined and white chalks should be used on the black board. The sentences should be short and they should be written in horizontal lines, parallel to the length edge of the black board. There should be adequate sunlight on the black board when it is used in the day time. Coloured chalks can be used to underline the particular words and naming and drawing the sketches. Overwriting should be avoided. Neatness can be maintained throughout the class to exert impact over the writing style and influence the children. C. Facts under discussion should be abridged and central points which are appropriate to the facts of lesson should be written on the black board at the exact time of presentation of those relevant topics. Salient points should be written one after another as they are being developed throughout presentation. The teacher should read aloud while writing so that students can take down those points on their notes. The points written on the black board should have continuity and they should be linked logically with the previous point. The black board summary should be brief and simple so that students can be able to view the whole lesson at a glance. Summary should have a heading. Those points can be underlined which the teacher wants to draw the attention of the students. Tables, figures, diagrams, symbols, etc. should be simple, large and clear enough to convey the details. Mistakes, wrong calculations should be strictly avoided. A pointer can be used to explain the particular points. Other General Skills of Using Black Board 1. Use the Black Board according to the requirement of the various topics. 2. Avoid making any noise by means of chalks on the Black Board. 3. Press the chalk while writing in such a way that it does not strain your finger but at the same time the writing is bright enough to be seen from the last row of the class. 4. Avoid writing at random on the Black Board. 429 5. Keep in mind the size of letters to be written on the Black Board in a continuous form. Irregular sizes of letters both bold and small in English do not create good impression. 6. Use of Black Board may be different for the different subject matters. The specific style and order are to be maintained for all those different topics. 7. Remember when to use only phrases and when to use only full sentences on the Black Board depending upon the age range of the children.

3. ILLUSTRATING WITH EXAMPLES Making illustration is an essential teaching skill in the modern classroom teaching. The explosion of knowledge of facts, terms and rapid change of social customs, manners, etc. have been responsible to add new abstract terminologies to the existing curriculum of the educational system. The teacher has to face the challenge in the changing context of teachinglearning situation. The skill of illustrating with example involved describing an idea, concept or principle by using various types of examples, situations or objects in which principles or ideas are being applied. This skill is important as it takes the learners from known to unknown. It also involves the principle of securing and sustaining the attention of pupils and hence creates interest in the lesson. In order to create such interest the teacher should try to simplify the difficult ideas. In a prescribed curriculum there may be some or many abstract ideas, rules, laws which a learner has to understand and apply and a teacher has to guide with clarity. In order to convey these abstract ideas, concepts, laws, rules, principles, formula, the teacher should try to adopt simplified techniques in such a way that interest and curiosity of students are around and at the same time the concept is

clarified. Research studies have revealed that minds of learners are ever striving to comprehend and assimilate the unknown. They attempt to realise unfamiliar objects through familiar objects or principles. The teacher should lead the students from simple to complex concepts. The teacher having mastery over this skill should be able to formulate suitable examples related to an idea, concept or law and present the examples in the most effective manner and verify it by asking examples from the students. Therefore, the skill of illustrating with examples 430 involves two stages. The first stage is to clarify the ideas or principles to the students and the second stage is to verify whether the pupils have actually understood the idea or not. The examples should be simple and related to the concept. The presentation aspect of this skill involves the use of appropriate media and approach. Illustrating is a process of making clear the concepts taught by linking it with something already known and understood by pupils. Hence, illustrating with the examples requires the use of such examples which are best suited to pupil's previous experience and interest level. Examples can be clarified according to the type of sensory channels through which the learners receive them. So examples may be: 1. Visual. 2. Auditory. 3. Factual. Oral examples are auditory in nature. Factual examples involve use of objects but learners understand the concept by the sense of touch. Examples can also be classified according to the media through which they are conveyed to the learners. These can be. (a) Verbal (b) Non-verbal. Verbal examples involved mental exercise like telling a story or giving analogies. Non-verbal media include concrete objects, models, pictures, diagrams, maps, charts, sketches and experimental demonstration. Real objects can be used as examples to clarify some concepts or principles. Similarly non-verbal examples of models are specifically prepared to describe and illustrate an idea, concept or principle. The models are replica of reality. A good model should have all the necessary characteristics which are related to the idea of principles in question. When concrete objects are not available for use in classroom, pictures may be used for illustrating an idea or concept. Diagrams, maps, charts, sketches are useful in teaching history, geography, science and such other topics. Experimental demonstration is an important illustrating device in teaching of different science subjects like physics, chemistry and botany.

4. EXPLANATION Explaining is an art every teacher has to develop this art as it helps him in earning his reputation in the classroom. It gives a scope for the teacher to bring an understanding about a difficult concept to children at their own understanding level. You can say it to be a difficult process or activity which ensures permanent leaving. Children in the classroom 431 try to understand certain concept or principle in their own way but when the gap exits it is the duty of the teacher to fill it up and allow the children to proceed in the right direction. Thus, it depends upon the past experience of the learner to accept the new phenomenon. The understanding to be enhanced is the main objective of explanation. The teacher has to give detailed particulars, events, rules, descriptions, reasons, causes, results and so on. In the present classroom situation the teacher has to present his explanatory ideas in a set of inter-related statements which are related to a phenomenon or idea. The antecedents and causes are to be well arranged by the teacher. Language and vocabulary are the most important concerns of explanation. The teacher has to increase his stock of vocabulary in order to help a large size population (student) within the understanding level. The language should be simple, sweet and effective. The words and phrases chosen for explanation should be within the reach of vocabulary stock of their children. Explanations need not be ornamental by nature. But it should clearly indicate the relative strength, similar effect and other aspects of those concepts, ideas, phenomenon which are to be explained. Verbal and non-verbal illustrations may be the means of explanation but the teacher has to point out the exact source and result of the events. Explanations in co-operation with children are always preferred to the independent explanations by the teacher. Textual contents are not be repeated at the stage of explanation. Abstract concepts can be explained through

the non-verbal media with the help of a diagram in the blackboard. Students' mental growth, age status, achievement and sex factors are to be considered at the time of explanations.

5. QUESTIONING A question acts like a stimulus. In teaching-learning situation it makes the child active, it awakens him. The child reacts and responds when exposed to such a stimulating situation through questions. So a question is said to be an instrument to shape the thought provoking process of the learner. The teacher has to build up the habit of asking questions to the children in a way which will arouse interest in their minds. Thus, it is a teaching skill which is to be carefully used in the teaching-learning process. A good teacher always takes the help of good questions to be successful in his classroom. 432 A question gives clues about the child if it is answered. It speaks about the behaviour of the child. It is a powerful communicating agent. One can know many things about the respondent when questions are put and answers are obtained. Some times some questions do not have strength to elicit responses. These questions are called as "dead questions" which should be avoided. A question if well designed should obtain a response. In the way of getting responses the questions are of two kinds: (A) Free Response Type, and (B) Fixed Response Type. (A) The Free Response Type questions are those through which the child can answer from his own choice. He is free to select and supply the answer as per his understanding and he has to exercise his thinking to an unlimited area of response. Such type of questions are again sub-divided into the following 3 sub-groups: (a) Long Answer Type. (b) Short Answer Type. (c) Very Short Answer Type. The long answer type questions may demand a child to write an essay about a cow. Here the child is free to employ his own idea of description and narration. There is no direction as to where to start and where to stop. He may write 10 or 20 sentences or 100 sentences as he wishes. It gives a scope for creative expression, language style evaluation and such other behavioural phenomenon of the child. These types of questions pose a problem for evaluation. The subjectivity is more in these types of questions. As there is no specific direction for learning points, the scheme of valuation will stand automatically subjective. But now-a-days to overcome these difficulties, such questions are being structured and the system of valuation is becoming somewhat objective in nature. While asking about writing an essay about a cow the questions setter is giving a direction to the child by way of providing some points on the topic. Through these points only the child has to answer. Similarly, the short answer type of questions are free response type questions and they are asked with some specifications basing on the learning points covered in the question, e.g.: (i) Give 5 sentences on the cause of Malaria. (ii) Write 3 properties of matter. 433 Very short answer type questions are somewhat more objective than long answer or short answer types. It gives a scope for the respondent to choose the word or a term or a concept, e.g. given an example of air borne diseases. The child is simply to report the name of the disease. Another question of this type is—name the capital of Orissa. Each long answer type of question should be based on atleast 6-10 (12 to 20 for higher age group) learning points. The time limit to answer this question should be at least 6 to 10 minutes. The total marks to be allotted to such a question should range from 6 to 10. There should be a link between the learning points. Time allotment-Mark allotment for each question. Similarly, each short answer type question should cover at least 3 to 5 (6 to 10 for higher age group) learning points, to be answered within 3 to 5 minutes and should carry 3 to 5 marks (credit points). On the other hand, a very short answer types of question should cover one or two learning points (2 to 4 for higher age group) to be answered within 1 or 2 minutes and should carry 1 or 2 credit points.

The teacher should keep this properties of questions in view while asking the students. The questions should be well planned and carefully designed before they are applied to work in class room situations. Fixed Response Type of questions are those through which the child is to select on and only one correct answer from the given choices. These are otherwise known as objective type of questions. The modern practice puts emphasis on these types of questions. These are of different kinds: (a) Fill in the gaps, e.g. Choose the correct answer from the bracket to fill in the gap. In the atmosphere the percentage of______is more (Oxygen, Carbondioxide, Nitrogen, Vapour) (b) Matching types, e.g. In group 'A' we have the states and in group 'B' their capitals. Match the states with their respective capitals and write them in your answer sheet. (A) States (B) Capitals Maharastra Madras Punjab Bangalore Uttar Pradesh Lucknow Tamil Nadu Chandigarh Bombay 434 (c) Multiple Choice Type e.g. (Correct Answer type) The magnetic middle always indicates the directions of (a) East and West (b) North East (c) North South (d) South East The objective type of questions cover only one or two learning points and carry only one credit point and can be answered in a minute of time. By the help of these questions a larger amount of content can be covered within a short time. Another advantage of this is to tap higher level of behavioural objectives. All these questions should evaluate some sort of behavioural objectives. Then only the purpose of questioning will be justified. So an objective type question is the need of the moment. The essay type of questions are also helpful to discover creative talents and to assess language style. The teacher should always ask questions to — help the children in knowing and correcting themselves. — help the process of evaluation. — plan topics to present in the classroom. — help the students to recollect their past learning. — help the students to apply to new situation. — plan better and improve his own methods of teaching. Those questions are best effective:

(a) which are simple in language. (b) which are straight-forward and direct. (c) which maintain a continuity of flow. (d) which are not repeated. (e) which elicit answers in a definite manner. The questions should not be asked which will — hurt the emotions and sentiments of the children. — discourage the children. — give no particular answer. — be meant for only a few in the class. — be unreliable and invalid. — fail to evoke response. — give 'Yes' or 'No' type of responses. 435 So questioning is an art to be practised by the teacher. It is a teaching skill. It adds to other qualities of a good teacher in modern classroom.

6. REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement may be defined as any event whose occurrence increases the probability that a stimulus will on subsequent occasions evoke a response. Reinforcement refers to the occurrence of an event, like the giving of food or water, following the desired response. In classical conditioning (Learning theory) reinforcement elicits the response. School teachers, while using social reinforcement, can help children solving their behavioural problems. For example, social reinforcement can change the behaviour of shy, withdrawn children who spend most of their time lonely and resist all attempts to encourage them to play or to join group activities. Reinforcement schedules can be developed by the teachers to change the behaviour pattern of the students. There are two types of reinforcers, positive reinforcers (such as food), which on being presented increase the probability of a response, and negative reinforcers (such as stock), which on being terminated increase response probability. Factors Affecting Reinforcement There are a number of reinforcement variables on the course of learning. The amount of reinforcement has been found to be an important parameter. Under certain limited conditions the greater the amount of reinforcement, the more rapid the rate of learning. The delay of reinforcement is another important parameter of reinforcement. A common assumption in training animals or young children has been that it is most effective to reward or punish the organism immediately after it responds. The effectiveness of immediate reinforcement in a laboratory learning situation is demonstrated by the following experiment. The apparatus used was a T. Maze having goal boxes equipped with food dispensers that could be set to delay the presentation of food pellets. One group of rats received their food immediately upon entering the correct goal box (zero second delay) another group was fed following a five second delay, and a third group was delayed thirty seconds before receiving their food. 436 Figure given above shows the learning curves for each of the three groups. The zero second group and the five second

group both reached near perfection responding by the 9th day, but the zero second group learned at faster rate. The thirtysecond-delay group was marked by inferior and never achieved a very high level performance. There are modern studies on brain stimulation on reinforcement. Electrical stimulations of certain regions of the brain can be reinforcing (Olds and Sinclar, 1957). Pavlov's experiments on classical conditioning of the dog brought to light the principle of reinforcement which is useful in the understanding of habit formation. Skinner's experiment suggests that operant behaviour acts upon the environment to produce or gain access to reinforcement and becomes strengthened by reinforcement. According to Hilgard and Bower (1977) a reinforcer is defined by its effects. Any stimulus is a reinforcer if it increases the probability of a response. The stimulus that happen to act as reinforcers fall into two classes (Skinner, 1953) such as positive or negative about which discussions are already made. The positive reinforcers are food, water, sexual contact, etc., whereas the negative reinforcers are loud noise, bright light, extreme heat or cold, electric shock. These negative reinforcers are also called as aversive stimuli. These types of reinforcers are classified according to their presentation or their removal strengthens a preceding operant. 437 Punishment is not negative reinforcer. Punishment is rather an experimental arrangement in which presentation of an aversive stimulus is contingent upon a designated response. Schedules of Reinforcement The reinforcement of operant behaviour in ordinary life is not regular or uniform. The farmer does not always receive a harvest from his planting, yet he continues to plant. Hence, the problem of maintaining the response through intermittent reinforcement is more important. Skinner identified two classes of intermittent reinforcements, such as interval schedules and ratio schedules. Conditioned Reinforcement Through conditioning, a stimulus acquires the power to act as a reinforcer. This is a often referred to a secondary reinforcement or acquired reward. One of the most important consequences of the development of secondary reinforcement is the emergence of a class of generalized reinforcers. This generalization comes about because some secondary reinforcers tend to accompany a variety of primary reinforcers. Money is a convenient illustration, because money provides access to food, drink, shelter and this becomes a generalized reinforcer for a variety of activities

REFERENCES Wrightstone, J., Wayne et al: Evaluation in Modern Education, Eurasia Publishing House, New Delhi, 1964. Hilgard, Ernest R, et. al: Introduction to Psychology, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta, New York, 1979. Edwards, Allen J. and Scannell, Dole P.: Educational Psychology, Allied Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, 1975. Chauhan, S.S. Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing—India, 1978. Gronlund, Norman E.: Readings in Measurement and Evaluation, Educational Psychology, Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 1976. Morgan, O.T., et. al.: Introduction to Psychology, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Co., New Delhi, Indian reprint, 1981. Mohanty, J.: Fundamentals of Teaching Practices, Cuttack, Publishing, Cuttack, 1981. Das. M.: Educational Psychology, Nalanda, Cuttack 1980. 438

45 Audio-Visual Education

THE CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION The term "Communication" is derived from the Latin word "communism" which means mutual sharing of give and take. This word denotes the sharing of ideas and feeling in a mood of mutuality. Communication is the art of conveying information, ideas and attitude from one person to another. It presupposes the human need to build common understanding which can be developed through the skills; how to share, how to sympathise and how to develop sensitive as well as imaginative awareness. It also involves interaction or give-andtake which provides feedback to persons engaged in exchange of ideas. The Communication Process in Education Taking our educational condition as an example we may say that teachers transmit their knowledge, ideas and attitudes to pupils. This process is called communication in which teachers and students are in constant interaction. But unfortunately adequate feedback is not encouraged, as a result of which common understanding or sharing of feelings and ideas is not developed. Consequently, teaching-learning process fails to be effective as communication system. In the communication process, sender of any information or ideas is called "source" or encoder for which it is sent is known as "destination" or decoder the medium through which it is delivered is called changed or medium and the content of such transmission is "message" or signal and response or reaction of the receiver to the source is called as feedback. The following diagram will give an idea of this process. 439 Nature and Purpose of Communication The purpose of communication is to transmit any message to others through certain channel and get feedback for sharing knowledge, experience and feelings. John Dewey emphasising such shared experience has remarked, "Communication is a process of sharing experience till it becomes a common possession. It modifies the disposition of both the parties who partake in it". Wilbur Schramm (1969) has also pointed out that communication deal, with all the ways in which information and ideas are shared and exchanged. It includes, therefore, all kinds of signs and symbols, the spoken word, signal, gesture, picture, printed material, broadcast, films that are used in conveying message from one to another. Every body has his own background, physical, intellectual, social and emotional. He understands messages from his own background or past experience. One thing or concept may convey different meanings to different persons. There is no definite meaning of everything. Edgar Dale (1969) has rightly said, "we should not accept the idea that communication flows along an one-way pipe-line and that the message actually transmits the meaning from teachers to learner". Berlo has also reiterated this when he says, "communication does not consist of the transmission of meaning. Meanings are not transmittable, not transferable. Only messages are transmittable and meanings are not the message, they are in the message-user". Thus, messages are interpreted by the listeners according to their own background of experience and conditions. Besides, messages are interpreted according to the interests and attitudes of the receivers. Sometimes messages are even distorted by them. They screen out the features of the messages which do not go in the line of their preconceived ideas, Dale (1969) has aptly said. "Receivers see what they want to see, hear what they want to hear, distort messages unintentionally." This is called "selective perception" 440 which is exemplified by him by pointing out that heavy cigarette smokers do not quit smoking when they read about the harmful effects noted in research, rather they quit reading about cancer studies. The teachers as the source of learning experiences should try to make his teaching meaningful to students from their own background and experience. Sometimes he has to change the negative attitude and interests of the children. The very purpose or objective of communication need be made clear both to the teacher as well as students. This can be done effective through better feedback and interaction. Communication as a Teaching-Learning Process It has already been discussed how teaching and learning process is merely a communication process with all the important elements of source, message, channel and destination. Teaching is transmission of message and learning is reception of the

same. But mere handing out the message is not real teaching and only messages received by students cannot contribute to learning. Learning is modification of behaviour and change in behaviour is caused by experience. Mere presentation of a message or a lesson in the class-room may be communication, but it can not be effective unless it leads to true learning. For example, a teacher teaches a new word. The child can repeat the spelling of the word correctly, but he should be able to use the word rightly in subsequent occasions. True learning can take place only when teaching as an act of communication succeeds in making a permanent and meaningful addition to the students' own communication: James W. Brown and others (1964) have, therefore observed that classroom communication involves more than the unilateral presentation by the teacher of new words or new facts or new ideas and it requires inter-communication between students and teachers, a mutual sharing of experiences, a continual feedback process. The different principles of learning like readiness, exercises, effect and insight are useful for success of communication. The various theories of learning like association, emphasising, stimulus and response behaviour, environment and past experience, field theories laying stress on the learners' perception of the whole field of events etc. are also applicable more or less to the communication process. 441 Communication Barriers The difficulties or distractions that stand in the way of communication are called "noise" or "barriers". These barriers may be physical, intellectual, psychological or social. Clarity, simplicity and intelligibility of the message are the characteristics of good communication. They help in its reception and understanding. Too slow or too loud, too simple or too complex message may be regarded as barriers posing problems for understanding. Thus, defective sound, faint images, poor print, bodily discomforts, extreme temperature, mechanical defects are the instances of such barriers. As the mental frame or disposition also affect communication, the negative attitude and interests of teachers and pupils work as barriers. Deficiency in the past experience or poverty in the learner's environment also act as barriers. Jargon or high sounding technical words, generation gap and pictorialism may also be treated as barriers. Verbalism is resulted from use of words without knowing their true meaning or without having basis for understanding. Sometimes too much abstractions having emotional overtones create barriers in communication. What Teachers Should Do? With a view to ensuring success in communicating ideas, information, attitudes, etc. the teacher should try to remove these barriers. The teacher and students should have similar background as well as common experience. He should make his message clear, straight-forward and simple as far as possible and deliver his lesson either too loudly or too slowly, without much verbalism, pictorialism, abstractions and jargons. The teacher should utilise suitable means, methods and media for making the teaching-learning process effective and meaningful. They are undoubtedly aids to teaching as well as learning. Good teaching also needs active and constant interaction between the teacher and the taught. A mutual sharing of experience and a continual feedback process are necessary for ensuring effectiveness of the messages. Adequate audiovisual materials and media should be used for making the process more attractive and successful. Meaning of Audio-Visual Aids Learning becomes effective when students are actively involved in the process and various media and materials are used to make it interesting as well as meaningful. Since these are aids to communication 442 and are mainly based on sound and sight, they are called "audio-visual aids" in education. They are also called as audiovisual materials or instructional materials. These materials and aids are at present used not as ancillary or supplementary only, but as an integrated part of the entire teaching-learning process. Sometimes the methods and techniques are emphasised more than the materials and aids. Therefore, they are known as audio-visual methods and techniques. On the whole, learning experiences are made relevant and appealing by relating different senses of the learners through the use of audio-visual aids.

Classification of Audio-visual Aids The materials like pictures, graphs, charts, maps, slides, films, film strips, transparencies are visuals. The traditional visual aids are chalkboard, textbook, illustrations, globes and so on which are meant only for "vision". Radio, gramophones, tape recorders provided audio materials which are appealing to "listening" only. But there are some important and useful aids which are both audio and visual. These are television, video-tape recorders, tape-slide programmes, dramatisation, roleplaying and films which appeal both sight and sound. Thus, we can divide the audio-visual materials into 3 main categories: (i) audio, (ii) visual, and (iii) audio-visual. But these are not exclusively divided and there is no distinct compartmentalisation among these three categories. The audio-visual materials are also divided into two categories on the basis of projection: (i) Projected, and (ii) nonprojected. Projected materials are those which can be projected on a screen. These are, for example, films, filmstrips, slides and transparencies. The remaining materials are non-projected, like illustrations, charts, maps, tape-records, etc. The A.V. materials are again divided on the basis of cost which is important in most of the developing countries. These are of two kinds, (i) low-cost, and (ii) high cost materials, Some of these audio-visual aids may be discussed in brief just to give an idea about their special features and function. But it is to be noted that these are not at all exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. They are closely related and can be utilised in a "mix" manner selectively. Visual Aids Pictures, posters, charts, maps, diagrams, flash cards, etc. constitute this category of material. These are low-cost as well as non-projected 443 aids to teaching. These are also traditional and familiar with the teachers. Printed materials like books, journals, pamphlets, class or school magazines also come under this category and are very familiar as well as inexpensive aids to the teaching-learning process. All these aids come under graphic materials. Another series of such aids range from black board or chalk boards to magnetic boards, bulletin boards, flannel boards which are mostly display materials and very useful for group dynamics or class room teaching and publicity. These materials can easily be prepared by teachers in cooperation of students. Some orientation or training may be given to teachers in certain work shops for producing these materials and utilising them properly. An emerging set of visual materials which are now catching the attention of teachers and gaining popularity with the students as well as teachers, consists of slides, film-strips, silent films, transparencies. These are called Projected materials and different equipments like slide or filmstrip projector, film projector, overhead projector, opaque projector and screens of different size and quality are utilised for projection. Three-dimensional aids are traditionally being used in the class rooms and are quite useful to teaching and learning. These materials are innumerable and of great variety. Some important examples are models, objects, specimens, puppets and study kits. These materials give more reality and expedience as they are sometimes natural objects or animals and can easily be handled in the class rooms without much technical knowledge and equipment. Teachers and students can collect some of them from their environment and can prepare them without spending much. Hence, aids are mostly low-cost and improvised as well.

Audio Aids Radio, tape recorder, gramophone, stereo-recorder are important audio aids and used to provide useful learning experiences. In many countries of the world educational broadcasting is being used as enrichment as well as supplementary to teacher's teaching in the classrooms. Even in the field of non-formal education radio is found to be quite potential and inexpensive aid to learning. Teachers and students are now being involved more and more in planning and utilising educational broadcasts and training courses are being organised for writing suitable script and for conducting pre and post-broadcast discussion as well as follow up activities in order to ensure effective utilisation of radio programme. 444 With a view to eradicating or reducing the limitations of radio programmes like its sole dependence on 'sound' and its transiency, attempts are being made to provide slides, illustrations, film-strips in synchronisation of the radio programmes

(radio vision), teacher's notes etc. as support materials, Tape recorders are now being used extensively for teaching music and language in particular and they are found very effective. At present radio programmes are being recorded on tapes and played back in the classrooms according to the convenience of teachers and teaching lessons. Gramophone or phonography and stereo records are also very useful aids for learning music, phonics and oratory. Audio-Visual Aids The aids which provide both sight and sound are called audio-visual materials and are very effective as well as attractive. Films, Television, Video-tapes, Tape-slide and radio vision programmes are the most significant media and materials for teaching and learning. Films are popular medium even in the educational field. Any topic in any subject whether in natural science or physical science or social science can be presented in an appealing manner to the audience with the help of films. Now-a-days besides the Education Department, different departments like Public Relations, Cultural Affairs, Sports and Recreation Directorate have their own specific film which can be used with immense profit for realising teaching-learning objectives. In educational films, both pre-screening and post-screening activities are to be organised in order to create motivation, interest, awareness and reinforcement. Sometimes running commentary is given by teachers in the language and style suitable to the particular group of students by making the sound system inactive while showing an educational film. One special advantage in showing film is that unlike television or radio programme, the teacher when wants to highlight or emphasize a particular frame or scene can repeat the same at his convenience. Television Programmes can bring the outside world into the classrooms and make difficult, complex and abstract concepts very clear and interesting. The natural mysteries and phenomena are made very lively and revealing to the students through educational TV programmes. Since ETV programmes are very powerful expensive, no pains can be spared for their optimum and effective utilisation. Training courses and workshops are, therefore, systematically organised for prospective 445 scriptwriters and TV user teachers for better production, utilisation and evaluation. Videotapes are used for recording TV programme and playing back the same according to the convenience of learners. Sometimes model classroom teaching or practice lessons, particularly in micro-teaching methods videotape recording and playback is found very useful. To use videotapes at one's pleasure and for focusing attention on particular points provides additional advantage over TV telecast. Tape-slide programmes are now used for educational purposes increasingly on account of low-cost and convenience in production as well as utilisation. That is, a lesson or a programme can be recorded on tape and a series of slides to represent the same usually can be prepared, so that both sound and sight can be provided simultaneously. Although production of a tape-slide programme does not involve much technical knowledge and skills like in TV and radio programming, it requires some special skills of making proper synchronisation of both audio and visual materials. Radio-vision and audio-vision are of the same kind and are used to provide visual supports in shape of pictures, slides, charts, maps etc. to the audio lessons in the form of radio programmes and tape recordings. These are low cost as well as improvised materials. Activity Aids consist of field trips, dramatisation, role-play, socio-drama, demonstration and so on. These aids do not involve much expenditure, but adequate planning and preparation with interest and skills make them educationally useful to a great extent. For example, field trips are educational excursions to historical and geographical places of interest, to factories and farms which provide very relevant learning experiences to the students. Dramatics, role-play and socio-drama are more or less of the same type and they provide satisfaction of psychological and social needs of the learners and at the same time, contributes to realisation of educational objective through action, dance, music and caricature. Demonstration is utilised in all practical activities of science, SUPW and teacher's training programme. It should encourage pupil's participation and mutual interaction. It should be accompanied by discussions for clarification of doubts and elucidation. Adequate use of aids, equipment and materials for conducting experiments and giving demonstration is extremely helpful for educational purposes. 446

Use of Audio-Visual Aids The following principles may be followed for effective utilisation of Audio-visual materials and aids: 1. No one type of method or materials should be utilised to the exclusion of others. 2. No particular material of aid is suitable for all situations and all materials are not suitable for a particular situation. 3. Too many materials should not be used at a time. 4. Preparation or pre-planning should be made adequately for using various A.V. aids. 5. Pupils should be encouraged to actively participate in the process. 6. They may be given specific responsibilities for any part of the activity according to their interest and abilities. 7. Aids should not be used haphazardly or without adequate integration and coordination. 8. Objectives of using different aids should be made clear to the learners. 9. All aids should be used according to the background and conditions of the learners. Mohanty (1980) has summarised the precautions to be taken care of in the use of audio-visual aids. The proper utilisation of Audio-visual materials demands planning and organisation of resources appropriately. Adequate skills in operating and integrating the materials with suitable methods and media, proper preparation of the materials and students physically and psychologically, wise selection of situations suiting to the needs are necessary for effective utilisation and richer results. The degree of interaction and inter-communication between the child and his learning environment determines the extent to which learning takes place in a particular situation. The Cone of Experience The concept "Cone of Experience" has been introduced by Edgar Dale for showing the progression of learning experience from direct, first-hand participation to pictorial representation and on to purely abstract symbolic expression. The following diagram represents the classification of audio-visual materials based on the idea that instructional materials can be arranged on a scale of continuum from the concrete to the abstract, from thing to symbol and that different materials supply and enrich experiences at different stages of this continuum. Dale has 447 therefore said: "This classification will help the teacher to see more clearly how materials of instruction can promote thinking, develop firmly grounded concepts". The Cone of Experience indicates the broad base that direct experience provides for our learning and communication. The Cone classified various kinds of instructional materials according to the degree of concreteness and also suggests the interrelated, inter-dependent nature of learning experiences and instructional materials. For example, although the Cone 448 moves upwards in the direction of increasing abstractions, the most abstract of all the verbal symbols are used at every level. That is, a pupil continues to use wards in all his learning experiences and at every level of the Cone, he is engaged in some degree of abstract thinking. The base of the Cone shows the concrete, direct first hand and purposeful experiences that lay the foundation of our learning. Children then move toward increasingly abstract experiences when they can begin to work with and under stand such contrived experiences that are provided by models and mock-ups. These devices help us to overcome the limitations of our direct experience. For example, it is very difficult to imagine or experience the real physical condition inside a coal mine for a young child. But a model of the internal arrangement of a coal mine will help him to know and conceive the actual conditions inside a coal mine. Edgar Dale (1969) in explaining the merits of contrived experience has rightly remarked that we deal with a representation that differs from the original reality in size, in complexity, or in both. We simplify experience, and make the real-life situations and accessible to the students' perceptions and understanding. A contrived experience is therefore an "editing" of

reality a "leaving out" process that becomes necessary when the real thing or situation cannot be clearly perceived at first hand when it is too big or too small, or when the things that we are interested in are obscured or confused or simply too complicated. In such circumstances, the edited reality is better for teaching purposes than the real object or situation itself. The contrived experiences help us to overcome our limitations of space, i.e. with physical objects. But we are also limited in the dimension of time and in relation to psychological conditions, i.e. thoughts or ideas. We cannot have direct experience of an event that occurred before we were born or of certain ideas too abstract or symbolic to be conveyed by a contrived experience. Through dramatisation we participate in a reconstructed experience, even though real event is far removed from us in time dimension. Historical events like the War of Plassey or Kaling Battle or Buddhist Nirvan celebration can be recreated or enlivened through dramatisation. No much preparation or costuming is necessary and creative as well as histrionic abilities are utilised. Dramatised experiences can thus convey meaningful messages to the pupils. Role-playing or socio-drama also create awareness, sympathy and understanding about some crucial problems of the society and develop proper insight into them. 449 Thus we will find that from the base of direct experiences, abstraction increases and concreteness decreases progressively as a result of which learning experiences become less meaningful gradually towards the top of the Cone. For example, at the pinnacle of the Cone we find verbal symbols which do not look like objects or ideas for which they stand. The word "elephant" as we write it does not look like or sound like or feel like an elephant. Usually we agree on the meaning of a term only by abstracting every thing from the original. When we do not agree, we face the difficulty in understanding. But it is interesting to note that verbal symbols are used together with every other material on the Cone though they themselves are more abstractions. The Cone can help us to understand the relationship between media and messages they convey. The media themselves also interact with one another. They are not undimensional, they are rather multi-dimensional. For example, films and TV Programmes include pictures, language, dramatised as well as contrived experiences. Even film strips include prints and pictures. A study trip makes use of verbal symbols and demonstrations, may utilise visual symbols and still pictures. The Cone also suggests that we should not use any one medium in isolation and variety of materials will help the pupil to gain learning experiences meaningfully. We should remember that the more numerous and varied the media, the richer and clearer will be the concepts. The Cone of Experience also provides a visual model for knowing about the ways in which concepts develop students.

REFERENCES Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, Macmilian, New York, 1963. Schramm, Wilbur, The Science of Human Communication, New York, Basic Books, 1969. Dale, Edgar, Audio-visual Methods in Teaching, Holt Rinehart and Winston Inc., New York, 1969. Berio, David K., The Process of Communication: An Introduction to Theory and Practice, Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1960. Brown, James W., et. al, A-V-Instruction Materials and Methods Mc-Graw Hill Book Co., New York, 1964. Mohanty, Jagannath, Educational Technology and Communication Media, Nalanda, Cuttack, 1980. Lillian. M.C., Marshall, Understanding Media, The Extension of Man Mc-Graw Hill Book Co., New York, 1964. 450 451

PART IV SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PRIMARY/ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 452 453

46 Elementary Education of the Underprivileged

1. INTRODUCTION The Erstwhile Education Minister of India in his address at the Conference of State Education Ministers on August 29, 1985 rightly observed, "There is, first of all, repeated emphasis on reduction of inequality of educational opportunity. We cannot talk about fair opportunity to all, when a vast majority of our people cannot read or write and when majority of the children below 14 years of age drop out of schools before they complete even five years of education. Foremost importance has, therefore, been assigned to widening access to education. He has also aptly pointed out that this has formidable implications as it would involve more than one-and a half time expansions of education at the primary stage and more than three times expansion at the middle stage. The number of illiterate persons in the 15-35 age group alone is over 10 crores and extension of literacy and functional education to them is not merely on educational task, but is also a political and social responsibility of the whole country.

2. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS Prior to Independence, various efforts were made by political as well as educational leaders of the country for expansion of education in the country. After Independence the fathers of the Constitution also laid utmost importance on the universalisation of elementary education in India. The Article 45 of the Constitution enunciates, "The State shall endeavour to provide within period of 10 years from the commencement of this Constitution (i.e. by 1960) for free and compulsory education for 454 all children until they complete the age of fourteen years." This presupposes universal enrolment and retention by providing educational facilities throughout the country and by enforcing compulsory schooling through legislation. The Article 45 of the Constitution further directs, "The State shall promote with special care the educational and economic interest of the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of social exploitation." This calls for special efforts of the Government for improving education of the weaker sections of our society by providing incentives like various scholarships and stipends, free textbooks and stationeries, free uniform, mid-day meals, board and lodging facilities, and even by reserving in admissions and subsequently in the appointments. Universalisation of Elementary Education is essential for strengthening the fabrics of democracy and for laying the foundation of the personality, self-confidence, general awareness, communication capabilities, learning skills and attitudes. Hence, so much weightage was given by the Constitutional fathers in including it in the Directives of State Policy and further however not adequate steps were taken for implementing the same.

3. CHALLENGES OF EDUCATION India, as mentioned in the "Challenge of Education: A Policy Perspective," has made considerable progress since Independence in term of increase of all types of institutions, enrolment and the sophistication and diversification of educational programmes. It has natron's aspirations from the view point of overall converge, equitable distribution and quality education. In terms of literacy, India is still amongst the most backward countries with literates accounting in 1981, for only 36.2% of the total population, with women, S.C. and S.T. still at the level of 24.4%, 21.4% and 16.4% respectively. Literacy among males is 46.7% as compared to the female literacy of 24.38%. The bulk of adult illiterates women are in rural areas where literacy rate is very low. We are thus very far from reaching the targets of Universalisation of elementary education as provided in the Constitution. One of the important reasons for this is the high dropout rate (Class-VII) which continues to be above 75%. It is discouraging to note that out of 100 children that enter Class I, only about 40 complete Class-VI and only 455 25 complete VIII. The wastage is thus around 60% upto Class-V and 75% upto Class VIII. This rate of dropouts is much higher amongst girls, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Girls in general and children belonging to SC & ST in particular constitute the bulk of non-starters and dropouts. There is heavy dropout among these children just in the primary school, particularly in the first two classes. Since stagnation has a very demoralising effect on pupils and parents leading to wastage, non-detention policy has been adopted by most of the States at the elementary stage. In order to reduce wastage and stagnation some states have implemented the ungraded system according to which a few primary classes like I to III or I to V are integrated into a

continuous course and children are grouped on the basis of their general ability and achievement in each subject and are transferred freely from one age group to another according to the pace of their progress. There is also no promotion examination at the end of each grade. With a view to making universalisation of elementary education a success, state as well as Central Governments have taken a number of measures like providing better staff, and equipment, improvement of curriculum developing textbooks, adopting dynamic methods of teaching, better evaluation, process and providing modern media like Radio and Television. To make elementary education free for children coming from economically, backward families, schemes like free textbooks, uniforms and mid-day meals have been introduced by government. Inspite of all these efforts, as discussed earlier, the goal of universalisation of elementary education has still been remote like the distant horizon never to be reacher—In the country nine states, i.e. Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal have been identified as educationally backward. These states hold among themselves 80.3% (percent) of the total non-enrolled children in 6-14 age-group. It is interesting to note that these states have 62.43% of the country's population. 88.08% of the geographical area and have 73.73 percent of inhibited villages. These states have high percentage of girls and children from SC & ST. Again these states have higher concentration of the weaker sections and communities like SC and ST.

4. EDUCATION FOR WEAKER SECTION Equalisation of Educational opportunities is a pre-requisite for success of democracy. Unless adequate facilities are provided for the weaker 456 section of the society, the country cannot realize its Constitutional Directive for Universalisation of elementary education. Who are the weaker sections of the Society? There are a number of socially disadvantaged people who are not able to achieve satisfactory economic, social and cultural status and are subject to all sorts of oppressions, harassments and constraints. These people are under-privileged who constitute the weaker section of our society and the lower castes, tribes, women, slum-dwellers constitute weaker sections or the under privileged. Most of the non-starters and drop-outs usually belong to these deprived and disadvantaged groups of our population. Since the progress in universalisation was not satisfactory through the formal school system and the measures taken by Government for attracting children to schools were not found adequate, alternative were thought of, for accelerating the pace of enrolment, retention and attendance through non-formal system. Non-formal education centres were opened all over the country to impart education to all those children who could not attend or continue in the formal schools. It was during the Sixth Five Year Plan that more emphasis was given on non-formal education for elementary age group. In the educationally backward states non-formal education was given high priority. More than sixtyeight thousand centres were opened for non-formal education and about 90% of them were for primary education and the remaining 10% for the middle education. In these centres 14.7 lakh students were enrolled across the nine educationally backward states and of these ninety-two percent were at the primary level and the remaining at the middle stage. On an average, each non-formal education centre for primary education had nearly twenty students while for the middle state it was fifteen. The non-formal system caters to the needs of mainly three categories of children for whom the formal system could not be adequate. Children from the weaker sections of the society who either have never been to schools or have dropped out without completing elementary education constitute the first category. These children are required to help parents in a number of ways and the school timing and curriculum do not suit them. If they are given the facility of schooling at a convenient time and place with a meaningfully structured curriculum, they might like to rejoin the formal school in due course. The non-formal centres will help such children to cover the prescribed course within a shortest possible time. To facilitate their admission into various classes in the formal schools, multipoint entry system is adopted by Government. 457 The Second category is composed of girls in the age-group 6-14 who are not interested in the existing programmes of education available with formal schools. This may be due to their socio-cultural background or for economic and other reasons. These girls who are the future mothers and citizens of the country may benefit from the non-formal centres with curricula tailored to suit their needs and interests. The third category consists of boys and girls in the age group 6-14 who are engaged in economic pursuits which did not allow them to take advantage of formal schools. These children therefore should not be prepared for formal schools but given special programme of a general education focussing on their vocational development, functional literacy, numeracy, technicacy and citizenship training. Non-formal education should not be regarded as a casual and unsystematic educational activity carried on outside the rigid framework of the formal school system. The latter very well caters to the needs and interests of various groups of learners

ranging from children to adults. Non-formal education system actively supplements the efforts being made by the formal one in universalisation of elementary education, eradication illiteracy and meeting the challenges of a democratic world. It is made free from the inadequacies and rigidities of the formal system and enable the learners to improve the quality of life and developing professional or vocational efficiency. Non-formal education is also provided in the learner's own environment without disturbing their native life styles, economic pursuits and cultural patterns.

5. PROVISIONS UNDER THE NPE, 1986 The National Policy on Education, 1986 has laid special emphasis on the removal of disparities as well as deficiencies and equalisation of educational opportunities by attending to the specific needs of the deprived and under-privileged people. The provisions made therein are as follows: 5.1. Girls' Education 1. In order to neutralise the accumulated distortions of the past, there would be a well-conceived edge in favour of women. 2. The National Education System would play a positive interventionist role in the empowerment of women. 3. It would foster the development of new values in favour of women through redesigned curricula, textbooks, teacher training. 458 4. Women's studies would be promoted as a part of various courses of and educational institutions for promoting women's development. 5. The removal of women's illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their access to and retention in elementary education would receive top priority through provision of special services, facilities and incentives. 6. Major emphasis would be laid on women's participation in vocational, technical and professional education at different levels. 7. The Policy of non-discrimination would be pursued vigorously to eliminate sex prejudices in vocational courses and occupations. 5.2. Education of Scheduled Castes 1. The central focus in SCs educational development is their equalisation with the non-SC population at all stages and levels of education in all areas and in all four dimensions—rural men, rural women, urban male and urban female. 2. Incentive would be given to indigent families to send their children to schools regularly till they reach the age of 14. 3. The matric scholarships would be awarded to children of families engaged in occupations such as scavenging flaying, tanning. 4. Constant micro-planning and verification should ensure that the enrolment, retention and successful completion of courses by SC students do not fall at any stage. 5. Remedial courses need be provided to them for imparting their prospects for further education and employment. 6. Recruitment of teachers from SC should be encouraged. 7. Hostel facilities at district headquarters be provided to the SC students in a phased manner. 8. Schools, Balwadis and Adult Education centre would be located in such a way as to facilitate full participation of the SCs. 9. NREP and RLEGP resources need be utilised so as to make substantial educational facilities available to the SCs. 10. Constant innovation should be tried out in finding new methods to increase the participation of the SCs in the Educational Process.

5.3. Education of the Scheduled Tribes 1. Priority would be accorded to opening primary schools in tribal areas. 459 2. School buildings would be constructed there on priority basis. 3. Curricula and instructional materials would be developed for tribal students taking their socio-cultural milieu into consideration. 4. Tribal languages would be the media of instruction and instructional material at the initial stages with arrangements for switching over to the regional language. 5. Educated and promising ST youths would be encouraged and trained upto take up teaching in tribal areas. 6. Residential schools including Ashram Schools would be set up on a large scale. 7. Incentive schemes such as scholarships would be formulated for the STs keeping in view their special needs and life styles. 8. Special remedial courses and other programmes would be provided for remove psycho-social impediments for improving their performances. 9. Anganwadis, NFE and Adult Education Centres would be opened on a priority basis in the tribal areas. 10. The curricula at all stages of education would be designed to creates an awareness of the rich cultural identity of the tribal people and also of their enormous creative talents. 5.4. Other Backward and Minorities The NPE has also added, "Suitable incentives will be provided to all educationally backward sections of society, particularly in the rural areas, hills and desert districts, remote and inaccessible areas and islands will be provided adequate institutional infrastructure" It has been made dear that some minority groups backward or deprived educationally would be paid greater attention in the interest of equality and social justice. The Constitution of India as mentioned earlier has given some guarantees for protection and promotion of their individual cultures and languages. Thus, all people measures need be taken to promote an integration based on appreciation of common national goals and ideals in conformity with the more curriculum recommended for the National System of Education. 5.5. The Handicapped In India there are a good percentage of mentally and physically handicapped children who deserve suitable education and constitutionaly they have every right to it. The NPE, 1986 has therefore said that they should be integrated with the general community as equal part by 460 preparing them to face life as normally as possible with proper education. The following measures were suggested in the NPE (1986). 1. Wherever it is possible, the education of children with motor handicaps and other mild handicaps would be common with that of others. 2. Special schools with hostels would be provided as far as possible, at different district headquarters for the severely handicapped children. 3. Adequate arrangement would be made to give vocational training to the disabled. 4. Teachers' training programmes would be reoriented, particularly for dealing with handicapped children propers voluntary efforts for the education of the disabled would be encouraged in every possible manner. Revised NPE, 1992

Consequent upon the operationalisation the most of the directives of the NPE and POA, 1986 the number of primary schools has increased from 5.29 lakhs in 1985-86 to 5.58 lakhs in 1990-91, and the upper primary schools has increased from 1.35 lakhs to 1.46 lakhs during the same period. The details of the increase in gross enorlment ratios are given below: TABLE Gross Enrolment Ratio Total Enrolment Ratio 1986-87 1990-91 Classes I-IV Classes V-VIII

Girls 79.21

85.97

Total 95.96

101.03

Girls 38.95

46.13

Total 53.14

60.11

Girls 64.8

80.6

Total 84.8

102.22

Girls 26.5

33.3

Total 40.0

47.7

Girls 68.0

78.6

Total 90.1

103.3

Girls 21.9

27.5

Total 34.1

39.7

SC Enrolment Classes I-IV Classes V-VIII ST Enrolment Classes I-V Classes VI-VIII 461 The dropout rates decreased from 47.6% in 1985-86 to 46.97% in 1987-88 in respect of classes I-V and from 64.42% in 1985-86 to 62.29% in 1987-88 of classes VI-VIII. The central focus on the SC/ST educational development is their equalisation with the non-SC/ST population at all stages and levels of education, in all areas and in all the four dimensions—rural male, rural female, urban male and urban female. The measures as suggested in the Programme of Action, 1986 have been reiterated in the Revised NPE, 1992 with greater force and more relevance. The dropout rate among SC/ST students continues to be very high at all levels of education. The dropout rates for the year 1987-88 amongst SC/ST and general population are given below: TABLE Dropout Rates, 198788 Classes Sc ST General IV

52.60 65.21 46.97

I-VIII

68.81 80.01 62.29

IX

81.98 87.62 75.30

Most of the centrally sponsored schemes are being continue in the 8th Five Year Plan (1992-97) for SCs, STs and other backward classes. There are: (i) Post-metric scholarships, (ii) grants-in-aid to voluntary organisations; (iii) Pre-metric Scholarships for children of those engaged in urban occupations; (iv) Book banks; (v) Boys and Girls's Hostels, (vi) coaching and allied schemes. Besides, two schemes in the central sector have also been approved, viz. (i) special educational development programmes for girls belonging to SCs of very low literacy levels, and (ii) educational complexion low literacy pockets for development of women's literacy in tribal areas. Progress of education for the SC, ST and other backward sections of the society and the measures to be taken for accelerating its pace are discussed as follows: 1. Elementary Education (a) Access and Enrolment

(i) In order to ensure universal access and enrolment of SC children in rural areas, henceforth, in opening primary and upper primary 462 schools, priority would be given to the needs of SCs habitations and hamlets, (ii) As far as possible pre-primary sections would be an integral part of primary schools, (iii) Every ST habitation would be developed in an integrated manner, that is, pre-school centres, NFE, Elementary Schools and adult education would be organically linked and integrated, (iv) Besides formal and non-formal systems, distance education centres would set up to ensure universal access and enrolment, (v) Traditional and folk media should be very effectively utilised for reaching parents and children in remote areas to motivate them. (b) Participation

(i) Adequate incentives would be provided for the children of SC, ST and other backward classes in the form of scholarships, textbooks, mid-day meals and stationeries. (ii) All schools, NFE Centres and pre-school centres in SC/ST habitations would be equipped with essential infrastructural facilities in accordance with the norms laid down for Operation Blackboard (OB) and for achieving Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL). (iii) All schools in Tribal and Harijan areas need be covered by OB with two years irrespective of the date on which school was set up. (iv) The indigent families among SC/ST would be given incentives to send their children, particularly girls, to schools. (c) Achievement

(i) Children from tribal communities would be taught through the mother-tongue in the earlier stages in primary schools. (ii) Teaching/Learning materials would be prepared in the tribal languages for this initial period. (iii) There would be change over to regional language by Class III both as a teaching medium and language of the textbooks. (iv) Standard teaching/learning material would be rewritten to make them intelligible to the SC/ST children especially in the areas where the standard language and defeat of the students are different. (v) The MLL already set up for primary schools need be achieved and necessary standard of 3R's be achieved by all SC/ST children. 463 (vi) Effective methodology for measurement of MLL would be implemented. 2. Adult Education (i) Adult education programmes would be an integral part of educational micro-planning in all tribal areas, (ii) SC/ST population would be the major focus for achieving total literacy. (iii) Special attention should be given to adult illiterate women. (iv) Adult education programmes for SC/ST would essentially the programmes of empowerment. Special curricula and materials should be developed for this purpose, (v) Post-literacy centre would be set up in SC/ST areas where literacy campaigns have been carried out for continued literacy or for neo-literates. 3. Incentives

(i) The rates of pre-metric and post-metric scholarships need be linked with the increase in the cost of living index, (ii) Scholarships for SC/ST students in Elementary Schools and onwards would be distributed through back or post office, (iii) Coaching training and remedial teaching classes would be organized for students of SC/ST and other backward sections in order to enhance the scholastic achievement of these students, (iv) Residential facilities would be provided for SC/ST girl students preparing for competitive examinations, (v) Additional scholarships would be provided for SC/ST girl students in the secondary and senior secondary classes, special coaching and remedial courses need be organised for these students, (vi) Books of proven quality including classics from Indian and foreign languages would be abridged, adopted and translated for making them available at subsidised rates to the SC/ST children, (vii) Merit scholarship schemes for A Grade students would be implemented in all the states. 4. Reservations Reservation rules should be adhered to unscrupulously. Proper monitoring of their implementation should be made and failure in the same should be punishable. 464 (i) Reservation in recruitment of teachers from SC/ST communities would be ensured in all educational institutions. (ii) In Navodaya Vidyalayas, admission for SC and ST are reserved on the basis of either the national norm of 15% and 7.5% respectively or of the percentage of SC/ST population in the district, whichever is higher. This principle would be considered for adoption by State Governments in other educational institutions. (iii) Reservation should be provided for SC/ST students in reputed public as well as private educational institutions of high quality. 5. Teacher Education/Training (i) Crash Programmes for giving training to suitable to eligible persons from SC/ST would be started where teachers are not available in schools located in SC/ST localities, (ii) Some training schools/DIETs would be earmarked for training SC/ST teachers on large scale, (iii) In order to encourage SC/ST students to become teacher's special integrated training courses need be devised with adequate facilities, (iv) Wherever possible, husband-wife teams would be appointed as teachers in tribal areas for ensuring their better participation in schools. 6. Additional Measures (i) A chain of pace-setting institutions from primary to higher secondary would be established in SC/ST areas for providing quality education to talented students for upgrading their achievement, (ii) Appropriate co-curricular activities need be organised in schools in tribal areas as many tribal children are found very good in sports, games and other outdoor activities, (iii) Adequate coaching would be provided for these talented students at early stages to excel in respective areas, (iv) Scholarships would be provided for such students paying special attention to their dietary requirements. (v) There should be improvement of provisions and facilities in the hostels for SC/ST students and girls' hostel need be constructed in the vicinity of educational institutions. (vi) Philosophy or biographies of social workers like Dr. Ambedkar be taught to SC/ST students particularly to imbibe the

spirit of untiring efforts for improving the lot of the depressed. 465 (vii) Teachers and students need be given an understanding of the richness of the culture of SC/ST, and their contribution to culture and economy. 7. Other Educationally Backward Sections Special efforts need be made to improve the educational infrastructure in remote areas, border areas, island and hilly and desert areas with concentration of educationally backward sections. Measures would also be taken for ensuring incentives in the form of scholarships, uniforms, books, stationery, etc. for the needy students. 8. Planning and Monitoring Planning and Monitoring of education in ST/SC areas would be entrusted to the local community/village education committee with adequate representation of SC/ST members specially women. In most of states and at the Centre the incentive programmes like scholarships, hostel facilities and Ashram Schools for SC and STs are being implemented by the Welfare Department. The Department of Education run programmes of setting up of schools, appointment of teachers, preparation of textbooks, curriculum, etc. catering to the needs of SC/ ST students as a part of the general education programmes. Besides monitoring being done by the concerned Departments, Joint Monitoring System should be developed for this purpose the MHRD, Planning Commission and Ministry of Welfare. 9. Evaluation and Research Research and evaluation being effective means of ascertaining the impact of various projects, it is essential that various agencies and individuals should be encouraged to undertake relevant improvement of the existing conditions. Many studies have been conducted by the NIEPA, NCER, Tribal and Harijan Research Institutes etc. but there is no proper coordination and follow up of the findings and recommendations. A systematic documentation of utilisation of the findings of the reports should be done for taking corrective action. Hence, multi-pronged efforts should made for tackling the massive problems faced in the field of education of SC/ST and other backward sections of the society. Coordinated and cooperative planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation need be undertaken for 466 realising the national goals as well as removing the disparities and deficiencies in the existing system.

REFERENCES Government of India, NPE, 1968, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1968. ______, Challenges of Education, New Delhi, 1986. ______, The Report of Education Commission, 1964-66, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1968. _______NPE, 1986, MHRD (Edn.), New Delhi, 1986. ______, Programme of Action, MHRD (Edn.), New Delhi, 1986. ______, Revised NPE, 1992, MHRD (Edn.), New Delhi, 1992. 467

47 Education of Girls 1. INTRODUCTION: NEED OF THE TIME

Women are regarded as the life-partners rather "better halves". They constitute about fifty per cent of the total population. In an ancient and rich civilization they were given special recognition and accorded high esteem. That is why, it was mentioned in our literature that in countries or place where women are respected, gods and deities are apt to live there. In the Vedic age, Indian women enjoyed an equal status and they used to participate very actively in all aspects and arena of the life and social activities. In the medieval India, however, various political and social occurrences adverse to national harmony and peace, lowered the status of women. Society had built prejudice against women and discrimination was perpetrated against girls. Biased views against the female child influenced all aspects of family and social life and equality of sex became an alien concept to the Indian ethos and values. It has an unhealthy impact on education, health, employment and other kinds of human enterprise. Such discrimination has been a hidden killer of more and more female children in India leading to an alarming decline in the ratio of females to males. In spite the improvement in the economy and provision of basic needs and services, the sex ratio has been deteriorating from decade to decade in the 20th century, viz. from 972 in 1901 it dropped to 933 in 1981. Only in Kerala which takes the credit of having the highest literacy rate in the country has a favourable sex ratio, i.e. 1032/ 1000, but five states, viz. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh have sex ratio's over 950, whereas in all other states males outnumber females by almost 10 per cent. Girls as compared to boys are greater risk of dying during infancy in the States of Haryana, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. 468 As reported by Population Crisis Committee, Washington (1988), "Education is one of the greatest forces for change in women's lives. It is also one of the areas in which, universally, women have made the greatest recent gains. Even in the poorest countries, governments have made impressive investments in education over the last several decades. Since education influence a women's chance of paid employment, her earning power, her age at marriage, her control over child bearing, her exercise of legal and political rights, and even her ability to care for herself and her children, increased access to education is often the forerunner to a host of expanded opportunities for women."

2. IMPORTANCE OF GIRLS/WOMEN EDUCATION Education of girls/women is considered to be the most sensitive index of development, social or national. It is worthwhile objective in itself and an important means of improving the life and quality in all respects. Girl's or women's education immensely influences fertility rate, infant mortality, population growth, marriage age, life expectancy and national productivity. It is not only plays a significant role in counteracting the cultural ills that impair the status and empowerment of women, -but also in engendering self-esteem, confidence and equal partnership in all walks of life. Education is regarded as a panacea of most of the cultural maladies—sexual discrimination, prejudices, superstitions and ill-will that have been passing through centuries in many developing countries. With a view to equalising the status of women with men and removing the disparities and prejudices, the Constitution provides for equal rights and privileges for men and women and also special provisions for their development and upliftment of their social, economic and political status. Articles 15(i), 16(i) and 16(ii) respectively state that "The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds of only religion, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them" and that "There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment under any office under state." In pursuance of the Constitutional Directive, various attempts have been made by government at the national and state levels, necessary provisions have been made in the Five Year Plans to improve the infrastructure and quality of education at its different stages and aspects. Education has been given an important place in the developmental system and structure for eradicating the existing disparities and deficiencies and increasing the empowerment of women and equality between both the sexes. 469

3. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR DISPARITIES In the various developing countries in general and in India in particular the girls child is born into indifference and inferiorities. She is caught in a web of cultural malpractices and prejudices that divest her of her individuality and mould her into a submissive as well as self-sacrificing individual whether as a daughter or a sister or a wife or a mother. She is reared through sheer neglect and discriminations. Her tireless exertions ensure the survival and well-being of her family, but robs her not only of her innocent childhood and her rightful womanhood. She continues to suffer from malnutrition, hunger, diseases and ignorance. The very relevant questions are therefore, asked, "Is this the only future we can offer the 130 million Indians who are girls below the age of 20? Is it possible for Indians to march into 21st century if almost half

of tomorrow's citizens have to struggle for basic survival? We expect tomorrow's woman to become the pivot of social change and development, yet today we deprive her of her rightful share of food, schooling, health care and employment, (MHRD, 1992). In India, education has been regarded as a catalyst that would give the girl child and woman the equality, justice and dignity they had been denied. During the past forty-five years after Independence, the educational infrastructure has grown by leaps and bounds, but 75 per cent of India's females are still illiterate, compared to nearly 50 per cent males. In some remote areas, female literacy rates are even lower than 5 per cent. In almost half of the country's districts, female literacy ranges from 10 per cent to 15 per cent and there are about 250 million illiterate women in India, equivalent to the total population of the USA. For such a vast population, illiteracy and inequality are life-long burdens. The reasons for such mass illiteracy among women are not far to seek. Disparities in school attendance between boys and girls is mainly due to the age-old discriminations as mentioned earlier. Secondly, mass poverty is equally responsible for this poor enrolment and mass illiteracy among girls and women. For the vast majority of India's rural people, sending a girl child to school is to pull her out of paid labour or domestic work involving an opportunity cost even though education itself is free. When a child at all is made available for education that child is invariably a boy. It has been aptly said that the tyranny of the household takes over a girl's life as soon as she can perform the simplest tasks. Shouldering upto 30 per cent of the work of the household, girls between the ages of 6 and 11 not only sweep, wash, collect water 470 and firewood, mind younger siblings and live-stock, they also work in the fields and help their mother in beedi-rolling, gem-polishing or any other home-based piece-rate work she may be engaged in. The girl child's labour is as continuous as it is unrecognised, unpaid and unrewarded. By releasing her parents for more productive and remunerative work it is often the deciding factor in ensuring her family's survival. But, by keeping her aloof from education and training, it also denies her many of the basic skills or information that would enable her to earn a decent livelihood or fight for her right in and outside her home. Thirdly, cultural values go against the girl child and women in respect of education. If the school is far away, she has to be escorted or if it is co-educational and teachers are male, she is not allowed to continue there for long, at best she may be withdrawn from that school around the age of puberty. Her education is also too often cut short by early marriage. Child marriage although prohibited by law is still prevalent in the rural areas of India. Parents are keen to wash of their hands by getting her married as soon as possible. Marriage of girls is a determining factor in their education. Particularly, early marriage in UP, MP, Bihar, Gujarat and Rajasthan has been responsible for depriving girls from attending classes. Fourthly, irrelevance of curriculum is found to be largely responsible for higher rates of dropouts among girls. The decision to send a girl to school or keep her at home is influenced by relevance and utility of education as it is available today. The low value attached to literacy and abstract knowledge for its own sake, particularly in relation to girls pose problems for girls' education. Today's girls tomorrow's citizen who should be empowered with adequate knowledge and skills about nutrition, sanitation, children, animal husbandry, modern fanning and embroidery, housekeeping and accounting. She needs to be given basic competence in handling pumpsets, tubewells, farm machinery, market economy and distribution system, banking and loan facilities, cooperative and citizenship practices. The traditional gender stereotyping should go and girls no longer be pushed to low skill, low pay and low status occupations. Hence, both formal and non-formal education should be geared to the individual and social needs, so that girls/women can be brought to the mainstream with equal competency like boys/men. Fifthly, a corollary to the above there has been gender bias in the selection of topics and their treatment in the textbooks which depict girls as mere home-makers, wives and mothers. Girls are shown as non471 achievers, passive, timid, dependent, meek and mild whereas boys are shown as high achievers, courageous, daring, bold and active participants. The NPE, 1986 has therefore suggested for removing sex biases in the curriculum and textbooks. All these factors coupled with ignorance, poverty and mass illiteracy have contributed to the poor progress in girls' education and disparities between boys and girls' education.

4. NATIONAL SCENARIO The Committee on the Status of Women in India, National Plan of Action for Women, National Policy on Education, 1986 and the National Perspective Plan, 1990 have studied and analysed in depth the present educational position in special reference to women and girls. The national scenario as unfolded today reveals that women enter into the fields so far

monopolised by men in political arena, science and technology, journalism and the like. In certain professions like medicine, teaching, nursing, social work and so on, women have been proved to be better than men. At present, they are venturing into higher places of administrative, scientific, research academic and political significance. Those who have acquired such excellence are only a minority. But it is the silent majority whose education has been the major concern of the Government at the national and state levels, otherwise the nation will continue to remain deprived of their contributions to the mainstream. In spite of all endeavours made for promoting girls education, for every 100 boys, there are only 62 girls in primary schools, 43 girls in middle schools, 36 girls in secondary schools and 31 girls' at different stages of higher education. Although according to the 1991 census female literacy rate is 39.42% compared to 63.86% for male total number of female illiterates is 197 millions which is more than male, counterparts by 70 millions, even though the female population is less than the male population by 32 millions. There are again rural-urban disparities and among women, rural female literacy is about half of the urban female literacy. A striking finding is that for every 100 girls in Class I in rural areas, there are only 40 in Class V, 18 in Class VIII, 9 in Class IX and only 1 in Class XII, the corresponding figures in urban areas being 82, 62, 32 and 14. If 10 to 12 years of general education is the basic requirement for entrance into technical and professional education, rural girls would therefore stand excluded. A high proposition vocational, technical and 472 higher educational facilities are located in urban or semi-urban areas were participation of girls continues to be low, and unsatisfactory. Similarly, proportion of women and girls in engineering and agriculture-based courses is woefully low (Revised POA, 1992). The National Policy on Education, 1986 rightly provided that the National Education System would play a positive intervenist role in the empowerment of women and be used as a strategy for achieving a basic change in the status of women. It would foster the development of new values through redesigned curricula and textbooks, the training and orientation of teachers, decision-makers and administrators and the active involvement of educational institutions. The removal of women's illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their access to and retention in elementary education would receive over-riding priority through provision of special support services and other facilities. Major emphasis would be laid on women's participation in all types of education at different levels. Now girls account for 41.73 per cent of the total enrolment at the primary stage compared to 28.12 per cent in 1950-51. The corresponding figures for upper primary stage are 37.79 and 16.13. According to the Ministry of HRD (Education) substantial gender disparities continue to exist. Thus, the gross enrolment ratio of girls at primary stage is only 38.1 per cent compared to 116.6 per cent for boys and at the upper primary stage the figures are 47.4 and 74.2 respectively. This is compounded by the fact that the proportion of women teachers in the low literacy States is extremely poor. The percentage of women teachers at the primary and middle schools is 21 per cent and 23 per cent in rural areas and 36 per cent and 57 per cent in urban areas. It is therefore imperative that the entire educational system is alive to the gender and regional disparities (Revised POA, 1992).

5. PROGRAMME OF ACTION, 1986 AND 1992 (A) Targets The following targets were fixed by the POA (1986, p. 105): (a) A phased time-bound programme of elementary education for girls, particularly upto the primary stage by 1990 and upto elementary stage by 1995. (b) A phased time-bound programme of adult education for women in the age group 15.35 whose number was estimated to be 6.8 crores by 1995. 473 (c) Increased women's access to educational, technical, professional education and to existing and emergent technologist. (d) Review and reorganisation of the educational activities to ensue that it makes a substantial contribution towards women's equality, and creation of appropriate cells/units therefor. (B) Strategies

The main features of the targets and implementation of strategy would consist of the following: (i) to gear the entire education system to plan a positive interventionist role in the empowerment of women; (ii) to promote women's studies as a part of various courses and encouragement to educational institutions to take-up active programme to further women's development; (iii) to widen the access to women in programmes of vocational, technical and professional education; and (iv) to create dynamic managerial structure to cope with the targets envisaged. The above objectives and parameters were also endorsed by the Revised POA (1992) and laid down suitable strategies for implementing the same as mentioned below: (i) All the Bureaus of the Department of Education will prepare a concrete action plan addressing gender-related concerns in their specific area of work. Relevant nodal institutions like the UGC, AICTE, ICSSA, ICHR, CBSE, ICAR, ICMR, IAMR, State Boards, Vocational Education Bureaus, etc. will also prepare similar action plans. (ii) A monitoring unit will be created in the Planning Division of the Department of Education to ensure integration of gender issues into policies, programmes and schemes. This unit will develop indicators for monitoring, implementation, ensure effective dissemination of information and coordinate action. (iii) Similar monitoring units/bureaus will be set up at the State level. (iv) Annual reports of all the bureaus and institutions will clearly spell out the steps they have taken to enhance women's and girls' access to education, ensuring that the content and process of education is sensitive to gender concerns and equal access is assured for science and technical education at all levels. 474 (C) Education for Empowerment of Women Education can be an effective tool for women's empowerment, the parameters of which are: — enhance self-esteem and self-confidence of women; — building a positive image of women by recognizing their contribution to the society, polity and the economy; — developing ability to think critically; — fostering decision-making and action through collective processes; — enable women to make informed choice in areas like education, employment and health (especially reproductive health); — ensuring equal participation in developmental processes; — providing information, knowledge and skill for economic independence; and — enhancing access to legal literacy and information relating to their rights and entitlements in society with a view to enhance their participation on an equal footing in all areas; (D) Measures to be taken The following measures will be taken for achievement of the above parameters and the concerned bureaus and institutions will report on progress as stated above: (i) Every educational institution will take up active programmes of women's development; (ii) All teachers and instructors will be trained as agents of women's empowerment. Training programmes will be developed by NCERT, NIEPA, DAE, SRCs, DIETs, SCERTs and the University System. Innovative training programmes will be designed with the assistance of concerned organisation and women's groups;

(iii) Gender and poverty sensitization programmes will be developed for teacher educators and administrators. An environment will be created whereby all the sections of the education sector will become alive and sensitive to the role of education in eliminating gender disparities. (iv) In order to create a greater confidence and to motivate parents to send girls to school, preference will be given to recruitment of women teachers. (v) The common core curriculum is a potentially powerful instrument to promote a positive image of women. Department of women's studies, NCERT will intensify activities already initiated in the area of developing gender sensitive curriculum removing sex bias from textbooks and training of trainers/teachers. SCERT and the concerned State level boards and institutions initiate similar work, (vi) Funds would require to be earmarked in all education budgets for such awareness and advocacy related activities. 475 (E) Research and Women's Studies (1) Women's Studies is a critical input to promote better understanding of women's contribution to social processes within social, technological and environmental change, their struggle and aspirations, conceptual obstacles that make them "invisible" in many areas of scientific enquiry. The programme aims to investigate and remove structural, cultural or attitudinal causes of gender discrimination, and thus empower women to achieve effective participation in all areas of national or international development. The four dimensions to be supported are: (i) Research to advance the frontiers of knowledge, develop human resources and produce teaching-learning material in pursuit of the above aims, (ii) Teaching to change present attitudes and values of men and women to one of concern for gender equality. Existing biases and deficiencies in curriculum will be addressed, (iii) Training of teachers, decision-makers, administrators and planners to enable them to play a positive interventionist role for gender equality, (iv) Extension of direct involvement of institutions in women development activities among the community. (2) Special efforts will be made to make the Women's Studies Centres set up in 20 universities and 11 colleges to become more effective through intensive training of their staff. Eminent institutions and well known women's organisations will be involved in the process of revitalizing existing centres/units and helping in the establishment of new ones. (3) Networking between different institutions for research, extension and information dissemination has demonstrated high cost-effectiveness as well as potential for coordinated growth. Such networks will be initiated to increase output of quality teaching materials especially in regional languages, training and curriculum design, and decentralized area-specific models of intervention. 476 (4) Foundation course should be designed and introduced for undergraduates with a view to promote the objectives of empowerment of women. This will be done within the 8th Plan period.

6. UNIVERSALISATION OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION AND ADULT EDUCATION (1) It is impossible to achieve Universal Elementary Education (UEE) unless concerted efforts are made to reach out to the girl child. Girls who cannot attend formal schools or have had to dropout will be provided educational opportunities through Non-Formal Education (NFE). Efforts will be made to design special NFE programmes for out of school and adolescent girls with a view to get them back into the formal stream or quality for technical or vocational education. The Open School, distance education system and other innovative educational programmes will reach out to girls in rural/remote areas and urban slums. Voluntary and community-based efforts will be encouraged in this sector. The above tasks acquire a greater significance in the SAARC decade of the girl child. (2) The rural girls are double disadvantage by non-availability of educational facilities and by the work they have to do related with fuel, fodder, water, sibling care and paid and unpaid work. Coordinated efforts, albeit with other Departments/Ministries, need to be made to provide the necessary support services to enhance their participation and performance. Provision of support services and child care facilities should be seen as a necessary and integral adjunct of

UEE. (3) An important constraining factor for female education is the lack of women teachers in rural areas. The Revised Policy Formulations postulate that at least 50 per cent of teachers would be made to recruit women teachers and to augment teacher-training facilities for women so that adequate number of qualified women teachers are available in different subjects, including Mathematics and Science. (4) Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) being taken up should pay special attention to women in the 15-35 age-group as it has been done with very positive impact in many districts. NFE should be dovetailed to TLCs in order to reach out to girls in the 10-20 age-group. 477 (5) Programmes for continuing education should be designed to ensure that neo-literates and school going girls have access to reading materials. If necessary, books and magazines should be made available to women in their hamlets. The medium of radio will be utilised to sustain enthusiasm and motivation. (6) Efforts should be made to coordinate the different vocational schemes both within the formal system and those initiated by the Departments/Ministries.

7. WOMEN'S ACCESS TO VOCATIONAL, TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL AND EXISTING AND EMERGENT TECHNOLOGIES 1. Improvement of girls' access to technical, vocational and professional education requires a national programme to strengthen Science and Mathematics teaching in all girls' schools. A special scheme will be designed to meet the shortfall of Science and Mathematics teachers in girls' schools. Serious efforts should be made by the Centre and State planners, curriculum developers and administrators to consciously encourage participation of girls in non-traditional and emergent technologies at all levels. Guidance and counselling for girls' should be undertaken as a necessary precondition to encourage participation. 2. Women's access to technical education will be improved qualitatively and quantitatively especially in rural areas. Women's ITIs and Polytechnics and women's wings in general Polytechnics and ITIs will be revamped with a view to diversify disciplines, trades and courses to encourage participation in new and emerging technologies. 3. Information about credit, banking, entrepreneurial abilities will be developed in technical and vocational institutions. The apprenticeship scheme will be strengthened to increase the coverage of women.

8. MEDIA AND MATERIAL The electronic, print and traditional media will be used to create a climate for equal opportunities for women and girls. It will thus play a complementary and supportive role in awareness generation, dissemination of information and communication. Given the fact that almost all rural areas are covered by radio, special efforts will be made 478 to utilize this medium to reach out to women. Various audio-visual materials and folk cultural modes need be utilized for generating awareness and disseminating information.

9. MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE AT CENTRE AND STATE LEVEL (1) Women's cells should be set up forthwith in all Central and State agencies concerned with curriculum development, training and research. (2) A Monitoring cell will be set up within the Planning Bureau of the Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development. Similar units in the states should take responsibility for monitoring and evaluating progress. (3) A high level Inter-Ministerial Committee will be constituted by the Department of Education, MHRD to: (i) review implementation of POA on a continuing basis; (ii) advise the government on policies and programmes related to girls' education; and

(iii) activate planning mechanisms in consultation with each other to ensure provision of essential support services that will enhance girls and women's participation in education. (4) Similar committees will be constituted at the State level.

10. SOME MODELS, SOME SUGGESTIONS The National Policy on Education, 1986 and National Perspective Plan for Women (1988-2000) have suggested that all media should be utilised for promoting awareness among masses on the importance of girls' education. Report has to be established between the society and the teachers and other educational personnel, local leaders, voluntary agencies and political people should be involved in promotion of the girls' education. The economic condition of parents should be improved and some compensatory assistance be given for sparing their girl children or daughters for education. Besides employment avenues need be opened to the women more and more. Ample opportunities should be made available to educated women in various sectors of the society. Curricula as well as textbooks should be revised accordingly and sex bias should be abolished as far as possible. Early childhood education should be expanded so that girls can properly be adjusted with the environment 479 and avail themselves of the maximum advantage of the teaching-learning process. Similarly, philanthropic and social service agencies may be requested to extend assistance in the shape of cash and kind to the girls of the poor families. In Maharashtra a scheme "Savitribai Phule Foster Parent Scheme" is being implemented which helps girls of poor families to complete atleast primary school education. Under the scheme well-to-do parents and organisations are persuaded to adopt one or more school-going children (girls) and help them in completing their education. They may provide uniform, stationeries, textbooks and even food materials for girls. Panchayati Raj authorities and Headmasters play a leading role in implementing the scheme. Similar to this scheme is the Foster Parent Scheme launched in Tamil Nadu to celebrate the SAARC YEAR FOR THE GIRL CHILD. The scheme envisages social service minded citizens to adopt girls reading in Class I to Class VIII by paying Rs. 250 a year to the child's parents. Another scheme called Moovalur Ramamirthana Ammalyar Assistance Scheme was introduced a few years back to provide newly married persons to give Marriage Grant of Rs. 5000 each to girls. These girls hail from very poor families who have completed Class VIII standard. More than 1,00,000 girls have already benefited under the scheme. The scheme Operation Blackboard launched during 1987-88 has brought about marked improvement in the human and physical resources of primary schools by providing inter alia a second teacher preferable a woman in single teacher schools for boosting the morale of girl students and promoting a feeling of hope and confidence in the educational system.

11. CONCLUSION The education, particularly at the elementary stage for girls and women constitutes the hard-core issue in the Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE). The NPE, 1986 rightly affirms that a new structure of equality between two sexes must be based on the cornerstone of education for girls. It has aimed at removing the age-old discrimination and consequent disparities, traditional males bias and sex stereotyping by various effective efforts like diversification of school curricula, orientation of textbooks, promotion of the access of girls/women in vocational and professional courses, boosting up the employment opportunities and so 480 on. Empowerment of girls/women must help improving their social status and education has to play a crucial role in this venture. Since it is an innovative endeavour to break the age-old ice of traditions and prejudices, adequate awareness should be generated through the use of mass media and wider community involvement at all stages from planning to execution. Some experiments have rightly proved that education geared to fulfil the need and provided for closer community participation has ensured great success. Education has to be regarded as a major concern of the community which should collaborate with government, non-government and voluntary agencies for making it meaningful and effective. Adequate incentives like compensatory allowance for opportunity costs or rewarding for successful efforts or encouraging for sincerely implementing educational programmes would take a long way in the desired direction. An integrated and holistic approach to the girls'/women's education is essential for creating a congenial environment for

its success both quantitatively and qualitatively. Optimum mobilisation of different resources for supplementing formal schooling with non-formal education, and traditional system with open-distance learning modes would help in the realising UEE objectives in general and girls'/women's education in particular. Emphasis has to be laid on generating wide-spread awareness and realising the need of education for empowering half of the people who have suffered from age-old discriminations, prejudices, gender stereotyping and disparities. The whole-hearted support for and strong commitment to the Constitutional mandates in relation to the girls'/ women's education are now urgent and imperative for bringing a very vital section of the society to the national mainstream.

REFERENCES SAARC, The Girl-child in India, UNICEF, New Delhi, 1990. Government of India, The Lesser Child, MHRD & UNICEF, New Delhi, 1990. _______National Policy on Education, MHRD (Education), New Delhi, 1986. ______, Programme of Education, MHRD (Education), New Delhi, 1986. ______, Education for All: A Background Note (xeroxed), MHRD (Education), New Delhi, 1993. ______ Revised NPE, POA, 1992, MHRD (Education). New Delhi. Mohanty, J., Current Issues in Education, Cosmo Publications, New Delhi, 1992. ______, Modern Trends in Indian Education, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1988. Population Crisis Committee, Population Briefing, Paper No. 20, June 1988, Washington, DC. 481

48 Education of Children from the Scheduled Castes, Tribes and the Backward Communities 1. BACKDROP Thousands of years back the Varnashram (caste system) was started by the Vedic society for convenience of the people. It was originated partly for promoting the division of labour and partly for ensuring the stability and uniformity in the communities. The four Varnas or Castes— Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra formed the basic classification of the Verna system. In course of time, the system gave rise to various ills and evils due to too much rigidity and self-interest of the privileged castes, who wanted to perpetuate their status and position in the society by depriving the low caste people who used to earn their livelihood mainly through manual work and skilled as well as non-skilled professions. On the other hand, high caste people were living on intellectual and academic activities who gradually developed hatred and inferiority towards manual work and also towards the low caste people. Thus, a wide gulf and charm developed not only between intellectual and manual work, but also between high caste and low caste people. The backward castes and communities were also deprived of education and other intellectual activities, partly by the socalled high castes and partly due to the inertia and alienation of the low castes themselves. The privileged castes used to say that if any individual from the low caste or community took education he was committing great sin due to which serious trouble would arise and his family would be damned or condemned to terrible curse. That is why, the backward castes not only continued to remain at dark corridors of the society but also gradually receded or relegated to the background by moving from bad to worse. 482 These people remained backward educationally as well as economically. They had to live a life of illiteracy, ignorance and poverty through generations.

2. PRE-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD During the British regime in India, the caste system or Varnashram reached its zenith of disrepute, oppression and evils of all kinds, social, psychological, economic and cultural. The backward castes particularly low-case Shudras were deprived of education and kept away from participating in the mainstream of social and cultural activities. They could not get equal educational opportunities. In the year 1855, establishment of the Education Department by the Government of India,

education was made available to all castes. But the system of untouchability, the barriers between high and low castes did not allow the people of low castes to take advantage of this education due to dominance of high caste people in the society. Sometimes authorities also could not venture to allow admission to the so-called "untouchables" with the fear that students of high castes might not be available in the schools and would remain away from them. Hence, Government's liberal policy also failed to provide education for all. In many cases, the people of low-castes did not feel the need of education and wanted to keep themselves aloof from the social mainstream without aspiring for education at all. At the primary stage particularly, the schools were conducted in temples or common-rooms of villagers or rooms provided by village leaders in the middle of the villages due to non-availability of separate buildings for schools. The low-caste children were not allowed to attend schools in these circumstances. In 1882 a Commission was set up by the Government to assess the progress of the backward classes and the Commissions expressed that Government should take bold steps for provision of education for the backward communities. The Central and State Governments decided to implement the Commission's Recommendation but actually they could not make a dent in this direction. Some benevolent leaders and social activists like Maharishi V.R. Shinde and Dadabhai Nauroji made special efforts for education of the backward classes. For example, Shinde set up "Depressed Class Mission" in Pune and Nauroji in Bombay opened schools and appointed teachers from the depressed which facilitated enrolment of low-caste students in the primary schools. These teachers were able to use the languages of the tribes and low castes and helped in promoting education among the so-called "untouchables." 483 Then came Mahatma Phule who revolted against untouchability and pleaded that all human beings are sons of God and all are equal. He also realised that ignorance and illiteracy are the main factors responsible for backwardness of certain communities. He started schools for girls in Pune in 1948 and later on he established another school for children of lowcastes or untouchables like Mahar and Mang near Pune city. He also opened night schools for the workers and farmers. His wife Savitribai Phule actively participated in his husband's revolutionary services, especially in the field of education. She was first educated herself and then started teaching work in schools mainly meant for Shudras or low caste students. She was so popular as a teacher, a social worker and as leader of the oppressed that she was called the mother of the poorer revolutionary lady. During the struggle for freedom, Mahatma Gandhi, the father of the nation sought to solve the problems of untouchability and promote expansion of education among the deprived sections of the society. He called the so-called untouchables as sons of God or Harijan and tried to achieve justice for the oppressed people. He was followed by Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, the main architect of the Constitution of India who made liberal provisions for education for the low-caste people. Having born in the same condemned caste himself he made continuous efforts for expansion of education among the deprived sections. Education and development were found quite inter-related and the pace of educational progress was accelerated and economic as well as cultural variations and disparities were tried to be removed by all means. In 1937 Dr. Simington and in 1946 D.N. Wandrekar made separate provisions of education for Denotified Castes and Tribal children respectively. Their educational activities promoted education for all, but could not achieve success adequately. The Sargent Report or the Report on the Postwar Educational Development (1944) without specifically mentioning about the education of the low-caste people laid down that a system of universal, compulsory and free education for all boys and girls between the ages six and fourteen should be introduced as speedily as possible though in view of the practical difficulty of recruiting the requisite number of trained teachers, it might not be possible to complete it in forty years. Hence, no special efforts were made for enrolling the children of low-castes and tribes even though education was formally provided for all irrespective caste or creed. Some Christian Missionaries however tried to educate the tribals and Criminal Tribes Act was passed for rehabilitation and education of their people. Financial 484 assistance was given by Government for educational activities of these Missionaries and other organisations.

3. POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD (i) Constitutional Provisions Since it was felt that a vast number of people belonging to low-castes and tribes could not be kept aloof from the mainstream of national life, all attempts were made to promote education among these sections of the society. The various low and depressed classes were ascertained and were called "Scheduled Castes" and the different tribes were known as Scheduled Tribes. The Constitution of India made the following provisions for education in order to improve the lot of these Scheduled Castes and Tribes.

1. Through the Clause 17 untouchability has been declared as a social crime and the persons practising at may be prosecuted. 2. The Clause 15 gives freedom to the Scheduled Castes people to use wells, ponds, hotels and riverghats like people of other castes. 3. According to the Clause 25, all the worship places of Hindus have been opened to them as well. 4. The Clause 29 gives equal right to admission in all schools and colleges maintained by public funds. 5. According to the Clauses 16 and 335 reservations have been made in their favour in all public services. (ii) Non-Government and Government Provisions As discussed earlier, a good number of social organisations, philanthropic agencies and national leaders took initiative and important steps for providing education specifically for children of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes. They instituted scholarships and stipends for encouraging children of these communities. Adequate funds were also provided for their boarding, lodging, reading and writing materials, uniforms and so on. Specific provisions were made in the Five Year Plans for expanding education by Chaube (1986, p. 260) in the First Plan 15 crores of rupees, in the Second Plan 41 crores of rupees, in the Third Plan 53 crores of rupees, in the Fourth Plan 70 crores of rupees, in the 5th Plan 100 crores of rupees and in the 6th Plan 200 crores of rupees were earmarked for education and development of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes of the country. 485 (iii) The Dhebar Commission of 1960-61 With a view to finding out actual condition and problems of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes, the Government of India set up a Commission under the Chairmanship of Sri U.N. Dhebar in 1960-61. The Commission studied the activities of various agencies and institutions of the country and observed that adequate arrangements have not been made for the education of the SC and ST children. Hence, it requested both the Central and State Governments to make special attempts in the direction and recommended the following for expansion of primary education among these people: (1) The children of SCs and STs should be trained in some handicraft or practical skills. (2) They should be given food, clothing, books and stationeries free in the schools. (3) Primary education for these children should be imparted through their mother-tongue and suitable books should be published for this purpose in their mother-tongue. (4) The teachers should be appointed in those schools should be provided special allowance and residential facilities. (5) They should be trained in the training schools and colleges established in these areas so that they may be get themselves familiar with the life-style of the SC and ST people. (6) They should be conversant with their culture and languages. The Commission felt that residential Ashram schools are useful for the children of SCs and STs and they serve as centres of social and cultural education of these children. Therefore, the Commission recommended the expansion of these schools throughout the whole country. (iv) The Education Commission, 1964-66 The Education Commission, 1964-66 inter alia made significant recommendations regarding the education of the ST and SC people. It considered that special attention need be given to the education of children from the backward classes which include the SCs, STs, denotified communities and a few nomadic groups. The recommendations of the Commission (1966, pp. 139-40) in this context are summarised as follows: 486 (1) Insofar as the SCs are concerned, the problem has been a little easier because of the diminution in the rigorous of untouchability. For its early solution, however, we recommend that the existing programmes for the education of the SCs should continue and be expanded.

(2) Under SCs there are several nomadic groups in the country whose educational needs have been hitherto neglected almost completely. Such groups have to be assisted in developing more settled ways of living and credit, marketing, health and educational facilities can be provided in a mobile form wherever there are sizable nomadic groups. Similar facilities need be extended to the communities which migrate from their homes for several months in the year. (3) The problem of denotified communities is small, but complicated patient work over years is needed and provision of hostels for such children be made for enabling them to live and learn together. (4) The tribals who live in "small pockets" or are mixed up as it were with the rest of the population and constitute a smaller part special attention should be given to the needs of tribal children to ensure that they receive a fair share of the benefits of education. (5) The predominantly tribal areas provide an opportunity for an integrated development for which three tasks stand out imperative. These are: (i) development of communications, (ii) transformation of the present system of shifting cultivation into a developing agricultural economy, and (iii) development of a system of education related to the scheme of economic and social development and responsive to the cultural and economic needs of the people. The Commission was of the opinion that the problems of education among the tribals have received a good deal of attention and they have been examined in detail by the Commission on Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes under the chairmanship of Sri U.N. Dhebar. They were also discussed in two seminars organised by the Planning Commission in New Delhi and by the NCERT at Udaipur. The Commission endorsed the recommendations of all these Commissions and Seminars. (v) Government of India Programmes The Government of India have implemental programmes for education of the SC and ST people mainly in three forms: 487 (i) directly organising, (ii) supervising and monitoring, and (iii) through various State Government agencies. They are briefly discussed as follows: The Central Government ensure reservations in Government services in favour of SC and ST people. Since suitable candidates are not available from among those communities, coaching-cum-guidance centres have been opened in several places like Kanpur, Jabalpur and Madras for providing relevant information and imparting pre-service training to SC and ST candidates for specific jobs. Since 1953 more than two dozen scholarships have been instituted for sending SC/ST persons to foreign countries for higher education and training. 17 1/2 per cent of seats in educational institutions have been reserved for SC and ST people and in Engineering and Medical Colleges some seats have been reserved for them by the Central Government. Post-High School Examination Scholarships are awarded to the SC and ST students for continuing their higher education. There are about 20 centres all over the country for coaching SC and ST candidates for IAS and IPS services. The Central Government also gives grants to State Governments for constituting and instituting scholarships for SC and ST students. More than 20 centres have been established in different parts of the country for undertaking research on SC and ST people. A Central Research Advisory Council has been established for correlating the activities of these research centres spread over India. The Government of India extents different kinds of financial assistance for rehabilitation and education of SC and ST people. These financial provisions are made for meals, hostels, residential schools, scholarships, examination fees and tuition fees in favour of students of these communities. The State Governments receive financial grants from the Central Government in the shape of loans and block grants for the following kinds of programmes: (i) Opening and maintenance of Ashram Schools, (ii) Providing hostel facilities, (iii) Organising and developing teaching materials, (iv) Awarding stipends for Primary and High Schools,

(v) Providing mid-day-meals. (vi) Supplying reading and writing materials to pupils, (vii) Giving dress and uniforms to students. (viii) Exempting SC/ST candidates from tuition fees and examination fees. 488 (vi) National Policy on Education, 1968 The Government of India resolved to promote the development of education in all sectors and levels, particularly for reading the Constitutional Directive of Universalisation of Elementary Education, strenuous efforts were to be made for equalising educational opportunity by removing regional imbalance in the provision of facilities especially in rural and other backward areas. More intensive efforts were required to develop education among the backward classes and especially among the tribal people. A number of programmes were suggested for expansion of education among the SC and ST people both quantitatively and qualitatively. Challenge of Education. 1985

The Government of India (1985, pp. 32-58) made a critical appraisal of the then existing position and aptly reported that insofar as the participation of children from the SCs/STs was concerned, even though participation of STs, except for the States of the North-Eastern region, was not as high as in the case of SCs, the trend growth for both the communities was "extremely impressive" during the period from 1977-83. However, the spread of education among girls of SCs and STs was not as much as among the male members of these groups. Again, this gap between the enorlment across the sexes was much more in the rural areas than in the urban. The enrolment ratios for SCs, STs are 93.4 per cent and 81.9 per cent respectively and the enrolment of girls was particularly unsatisfactory in rural areas and among SCs and STs It was also felt that these disabilities could not be removed only by the provisions for reservation. It was recognised that the majority of SC and ST students were first generation learners and suffer from the after effects of early childhood malnutrition, a sense of social inadequacy, unsuitable work habits and lack of self-confidence in realising their potentials. National Policy on Education, 1986

Since the adoption of National Policy on Education, (NPE, 1968) there was considerable expansion in educational facilities all over the country at all the levels. More than 90% of the country's rural habitations could have schooling facilities within a radius of one kilometre. Although attempts were made to eradicate or atleast reduce the disparities between rural and urban, boys and girls, SC/ST and general sections of the society, position still remained far from satisfactory the national goal of the common school system could not be achieved. 489 The NPE, 1986 sought to develop a National System of Education which implied that upto a given level, all students, irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex should have access to education of a comparable quality. Effective measures would be taken in the direction of the Common School System as enunciated in the NPE, 1968. The NPE, 1986 laid emphasis on promotion of equality of educational opportunity not only in access but also in the conditions for success. The main objective would be to remove all kinds of prejudices and complexes transmitted through the social environment and the accident of birth. The NPE, 1986 sought to lay special emphasis on the removal of disparities and equalisation of education opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have been denied equality and social justice so far. The Education of Scheduled Castes

The central focus in the SCs educational development was their equalisation with the non-SC population at all stages and levels of education, in all areas and in all the four dimensions—rural male, rural female, urban male, urban female. The measures contemplated for this purpose included: (i) Incentives to indigent families to send their children to school regularly till they reach the age of 14;

(ii) Pre-matric Scholarship scheme for children of families engaged in occupations such as scavenging, flaying and tanning to be made applicable from Class I onwards. All children of such families, regardless of income, would be covered by this scheme and time-bound programmes targeted on them would be undertaken; (iii) Constant micro-planning and verification to ensure that the enrolment, retention and successful completion of courses by SC students do not fall at any stage, and provision of remedial courses to improve their prospects for further education and employment; (iv) Recruitment of teacher from Scheduled Castes; (v) Provision of facilities for SC students in students' hostels at district headquarters, according to a phased programme; (vi) Location of school building, Balwadis and Adult Education Centres in such a way as to facilitates full participation of the Scheduled Castes; (vii) The utilisation of NREP and RLEGP resources so as to make substantial educational facilities available to the Scheduled Castes; and 490 (viii) Constant innovation in finding new methods to increase the participation of the Scheduled Castes in the educational process. The Education of Scheduled Tribes

The following measures would be taken urgently to bring the Scheduled Tribes on par with others: (i) Priority would be accorded to opening primary schools in tribal areas. The construction of school buildings would be undertaken in these areas on a priority basis under the normal funds for education, as well as under the NREP, RLEGP, Tribal Welfare Schemes, etc. (ii) The socio-cultural milieu of the STs has its distinctive characteristics including, in many cases, their own spoken languages. This underlines the need to develop the curricula and devise instructional materials in tribal languages at initial stages with arrangements for switching over to the regional language. (iii) Educated and promising Scheduled Tribe youths would be encouraged and trained to take up teaching in tribal areas. (iv) Residential schools, including Ashram Schools would be established on a large scale. (v) Incentive schemes would be formulated for the Scheduled Tribes keeping in view their special needs and life styles. Scholarships for higher education would emphasise technical, professional and para-professional courses. Special remedial course and other programmes to remove psycho-social impediments would be provided to improve their performance in various courses. (vi) Anganwadis, Non-formal and Adult Education Centres would be opened on a priority basis on areas predominantly inhabited by the Scheduled Tribes. (vii) The curriculum at all stages of education would be designed to create an awareness of the rich cultural identity of the tribal people as also of their enormous creative talent. Other Educationally Backward Sections and Areas

Suitable incentives would be provided to all educationally backward sections of society, particularly in the rural areas. Hill and desert districts, remote and inaccessible areas and islands would be provided adequate institutional infrastructure. 491

4. PROGRAMMES OF ACTION, 1986 With a view to implementing the provisions of the NPE, 1986 the Government of India in its Programme of Action (POA) 1986, has laid down appropriate guidelines for effectively realising the desired objectives. The All India Literacy rates of SC/ST were 21.38 and 16.35 per cent respectively as against 41.20 of non-SC/ST population according to 1981 census. The literacy rates of women for the above categories are 10.93, 8.04 and 29.43 per cent respectively. The proportion of enrolment of SC/ST children continued to much less than their population proportion and dropout rates continued to be

very high at all levels of education. The situation, therefore, called for very systematic efforts for development of education of the SC/STs. The POA (1986) observed cent per cent enrolment of SC/ST children in the age-group 6-11 and ensuring their retention in schools leading to satisfactory completion of the primary stage or non-formal stream should be achieved by 1990. This would mean enrolling approximately 15.5 million SC children and 7.5 million ST children in the age group 6-11 by 1990. Similarly, atleast 75 per cent of the children in the age-group 11-14 would have to be enrolled and retained in school leading to satisfactory completion of Class VIII to achieve the desired goals in the NPE, 1986, The operational strategy for achieving the above goals would be as follows: 1. Incentive Measures Need be taken (a) Incentive to indigent families to send their children to school regularly till they reach the age of 14. (b) To ensure timely payment of pre-matric scholarships. (c) A single nodal agency to be identified for disbursement of scholarships. (d) Payment through banks, post offices or other agencies. (e) Rates and amount of scholarships to be raise adequately. (f) Prompt payment of post-graduate scholarships. (g) Implementing effectively the incentive measures like provision of uniforms, books, stationeries, etc. to SC/ST children. (h) Pre-matric scholarships for children of families engaged in occupations like savings, flaying and tanning. 2. Constant micro-planning and verification would be done to ensure that enrolment, retention, and successful completion of courses, by SC/ST students do not fail at any stage. 492 3. Recruitment of teachers from SC/STs need be encouraged. 4. Provision of hostel facilities for SC/STs should be made at least at district headquarters. 5. Location of school buildings, balwadies and adult education centres in SC/ST villages need be given preference. 6. Utilisation should be made of NREP, RLEGP resources to provide educational facilities for SC/STs. 7. There should be constant and value-orientation of the curricula textbooks and other learning materials in respect to SC/STs. 493

49 Elementary Education for the Backward Learners 1. INTRODUCTION Rousseau once said that man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains. Really the human child without any fault of his own takes birth amidst inequalities—may be due to genetic to some extent, but mostly due to physical, social, economic, political, religious, geographical, historical and so on and on. Such inequalities lead to all kinds of disabilities and discriminations. The innocent individual whether the child or the adult is deprived of the minimum facilities for his growth and development. This creates injustice suppression and even torture of all kinds, mental, physical and psychological. The Education Commission, 1964-66 (p. 108) has aptly observed, "Every society that values social justice and is anxious to improve the lot of the common man and cultivate all available talent, must ensure progressive equality of opportunity to all sections of the population. This is the only guarantee for the building up of an egalitarian and human society in which the exploitation of the weak will be minimised." But one of the objectives of education is to equalise opportunities, enabling the backward or underprivileged classes and individuals to use education as a lever for the improvement of their

condition. This chapter seeks to study the nature and types of such under-privileged or disadvantaged children, their problems and how education can help these unfortunate ones. The Backward learners are found in every country, every region and in every culture. They are also found in every socioeconomic set up, in every ethnic group and in all strata of the society. Disability is a kind of deprivation which kills the child's creativity, stunts his growth, retards his development, impairs his potentiality and ultimately results in wastage 494 of human resources. It is very difficult to ascertain exactly the extent of such disadvantage and disability in the population and what is the total number of such disadvantaged persons in a society. It is, of course, a fact that in the developed countries where resources and facilities are abundant and adequate, the number of disadvantaged people must be less and deprivation can be reduced to that extent.

2. NATURE AND KIND OF BACKWARDNESS Backwardness is a relative and comprehensive term. It is a kind of deprivation and disability. Havinghurst points out, "Disadvantage is a condition where the fulfilment of human potential is blocked". According to Barbe "the term disadvantaged implies a cultural background" which does not contribute to the child's educational development. Some education can be an disadvantaged as a social deprivation which obstruct or prevent the natural development of the inner potentialities. Backwardness may be of various types, Geographical or Physical. In places where no educational institutions exist, children do not have the opportunity to get education as others who have these facilities in the neighbourhood. It may be economic when a section of the population live in poverty and others live in affluence, although all live in the same neighbourhood, because children of the rich families can study in well-equipped and better managed public schools whereas their counterparts from the poor families can attend only ordinary common schools where proper teachinglearning facilities are not available. Backwardness or disadvantages also emerge from inequalities in home environments. A child from a rural household or an urban slum having illiterate parents does not have the same opportunity which a child from an upper class home with highly educated parents has. That is why, the first generation learners are disadvantaged or under-privileged. Sex discrimination is another cause of inequalities between boys and girls or males and females. Girls' education is ignored or often neglected by parents in the traditional Indian society. That has led to low percentage of literacy and enrolment of girls in schools. Wider disparity between the advanced and the backward ones viz. SC and ST is mainly due to historical reasons. The latter were neglected or suppressed over countries and were deprived from the educational facilities available to others. Most of the reasons are social or cultural in nature. For examples, sex discrimination and caste discriminations are mostly of this category. These discriminations have been perpetrated over hundreds of years 495 and a large number of people have been deprived from the facilities available to other sections of the society. On account of these discriminations and deprivations, they are disadvantaged and underprivileged with respect to many things, most important of which is education.

3. IDENTIFICATION OF THE DISADVANTAGED/BACKWARD As discussed earlier, the disadvantaged child is found in various strata of the society. He always does not live in a rural area or in a poverty-stricken family. The socially and culturally disadvantaged or deprived children, can be identified by what they lack than what they possess. "The easiest and spectacular identification index is their lack of proper linguistic expression. They are not familiar with formal speech patterns, they rely more in motor and concrete expressions than verbal and abstract modes. They fail to handle complex language forms and symbolic expressions. Disadvantaged children are interested more in immediate and temporary gratification, i.e. "right here and now" than in a better and distant satisfaction. They denegrate themselves to a low self-image and cannot have high aspirations in life. As a group they display indifference and unreadiness to cope with the group demands and activities in the schools. They often withdraw from school programmes and dropout. Havinghurst opines that the disadvantaged suffer from social and economic discriminations of upper classes or privileged groups. Although socially and economically they are well off they lack educated and educable family atmosphere.

Some psychologists mention certain personal characteristics of the disadvantaged. These are: (i) inferior auditory discrimination, (ii) inferior visual discrimination (iii) inferior judgement of time, number and other concepts. They say that this inferiority is not due to ill-health or physical disability, but due to inferior habits of hearing, seeing and thinking. A typically disadvantaged child is generally a slow learner on account of various discriminations. Ausubel (1965) has given very graphic description of a slum dwelling child who is supposed to be disadvantaged. "The child is the child of another world. Our laws do not bind him, our standard middle class ambitions do not inspire him . . . teacher in the first to third grade feel he has fallen behind ... his mind closed, his behaviour religious. By high school age he is more than a dropout headed for chronic 496 unemployment, disdaining "outside" middle class world that already disdains him secretly, contemptuous of himself, a waste of a human being, failure." This picture holds good with a majority of disadvantaged children.

4. PROBLEM OF BACKWARDNESS AS GUIDELINES FOR SUITABLE PROGRAMMES Language disability is the most serious problem of the disadvantaged and backward children. Their transition from concrete to abstract modes of thinking and understanding is very slow. Ausubel feels that this transition take place very slowly due to lack of adequate practice and facilities for communication and abstractions. It becomes slower on account of their unreadiness for school learning and participation in school activities. Besides general unreadiness, they also suffer from unreadiness or unpreparedness in specific subjects. Due to poor home environments and poorly educated parents the disadvantaged children do not get adequate extent and kinds of stimulations that are likely to result in the development of average or higher intelligence. This deprivations pose problems for rapidly growing children with relation to a wide variety of stimuli to their senses of hearing, feeling and sight. Psychologists believe that development of intelligence greatly depends on a wide range of pre-verbal experiences of the child. Non-availability of a congenial and appropriate social climate and lack of physical facilities sanitary and nutritional amenities pose problems of health and hygiene for the disadvantaged children. Backward learners suffer from poor socialisation and they develop suspicion for talks, books interaction and communication that are connected with classroom. Their inability to speak, read and deal with abstractions woven into curricular programmes of schools gives the feeling to the teachers that they are intellectually inferior. They also face the problems of intellectual retardation, cognitive failure and negative attitudes and interest towards the school. They also experience the problems of social adjustment and acculturation due to want of suitable stimulation and various deprivations, communicative, cultural and socio-economic.

5. EDUCATIONAL SOLUTIONS Education is found to be the most suitable and potential instrument of solving the problems of the backward children. But at the outset the 497 personnel concerned with the problems of the disadvantaged-teachers, supervisors, administrators, planners and even parents should have true love, sympathy and understanding. They must first of all identify and understand their problems and try their best to solve them as effectively and as efficiently as possible. The backward learners should be identified at an early age and their specific problems be recognised with love, sympathy and understanding. Individual programmes should be chalked out after assessing their strengths and weaknesses, the extent of their disabilities and deprivations their problems and prospects. We must realise that the disadvantaged children/persons must be educated for empowering them to face the challenges of their life and world. Education is the basic requirement for enabling them to overcome their disadvantages and disabilities. Mere provision of facilities would not solve their problems which need be approached with proper empathy and understanding. The disadvantaged must first be taken to confidence, their problems be understood and their strengths and weaknesses be assessed for chalking out suitable programmes. Our approach towards the disadvantaged and their problems must be positive and not negative. With a view to developing appropriate programmes for the backward, their socio-genic and bio-genic factors, the background of their parents, the causes of disadvantages, economic, social, psychological and physiological, should be considered properly, and the learning needs and learning readiness be ascertained adequately. Since the disadvantaged children have certain deficiencies, cultural, linguistic and so on our instructional materials should be provided accordingly and various audiovisual aids be used, for making their learning effective and interesting. Particularly for teaching abstract

and unfamiliar ideas and topics, emphasis should be laid on the use of concrete examples, audio-visual materials and activities. According to Goldberg (1967) the following points need be taken into account for preparing programmes for the backward or disadvantaged; 1. Exploration of the content to be taught must be followed by sociological, psychological and school factors which underlie the learning process and procedures. 2. Developing original ideas and testing them in school situation. 3. Utilising the most suitable methods and practices in the classrooms. 498 4. Ascertaining individual student's status in each learning area—his learning needs, interests and conditions. 5. Appreciating each pupil's efforts and understanding his problems psychological, sociological, physiological and so on. 6. Providing maximum of positive reinforcement and minimum of negative reinforcement. 7. Relating learning materials to the world of the learner and not limiting only to the immediate environment. Pre-school Education or Early Childhood Education is found to be very useful for the disadvantaged. Brunner (1967) has rightly pointed out that as the young child interacts with his environment, his self-concept begins to form, the content and patterns of his language develop, skills in social processes evolve, attitude towards learning takes place and that concepts which enable, him to interpret and organize his environment begin to form, pre-school period is potential not only for identifying the disadvantaged children, but also for providing suitable learning experiences to them. Various research studies have reported that the children with pre-school education show an improved level of socialisation which is essential for the disadvantaged. They are able to make up the deficiencies experienced due to their disadvantageous condition; they can acquire better language skills which otherwise prove disaster for academic achievement and they attain higher intellectual development when compared to children without pre-school education. Early childhood education should be used as an instrument of reducing or minimising the disadvantages. In many cases it is proved to be a school readiness programme and an intervention environment between the disadvantaged home and the Primary or Elementary School. The National Policy on children specially emphasises early childhood education for children from sections of the population in which first generation learners predominate. Millions of the disadvantaged comprise the poor, rural and remote sections of the society, street and working children, nomads and migrant labourers, ethnic, racial, religious and linguistic minorities, refugees, and girls cutting across all categories. These are the disadvantaged as well as deprived of education without any access to basic instructional facilities like teachers, schools media and materials. Their participation in the normal or general teaching-learning process is dismally poor and the quality of education which is at all available to them is very low and the level of their learning is naturally miserable or far from the standard. 499 Educational disadvantage means a situation which shows either a lack of conditions favourable to utilise and take advantage of the various kinds of facilities available to the public or as is more usually the case. Such disadvantage arises from a complex interplay of various factors— birth (in a race, caste, sex or religion), geographical, cultural, social and economic. Generally, disadvantage is the end result of the cumulative influence of more than one of these factors. The educationally disadvantaged have various degrees of intensity among the groups depending upon the extent of their deprivations and disabilities in different forms.

6. BASIC NEEDS The National System of Education provides education to meet the basic learning needs and the general goals of education should be the same for all individuals. There are, of course, variations due to the distinctive socio-cultural-educational needs of different sections of the population. Some times lower level curricular objectives are fixed for the disadvantaged children on the ground that their cognitive capacities are low. In Australia, for instance, programmes for schools in aboriginal communities often have objectives at lower levels than the general or public schools for children of similar agegroups. However, such differentiation is severely criticised and some research studies have proved that these disadvantage children have the same intellectual or mental abilities as other children of the same age. Similarly, gender bias in education has led to lower level standards for girl students. But actually sex-variations should go and so-called sex

differences at the intellectual or cognitive level do not exist to justify such differential provisions in the curricula. Hence, educational facilities need be provided universally and similar standards or levels of academic achievement should be laid down for all irrespective of variations existed already. Rather steps need be taken to remove these deprivations and variations as early as possible. The goal of education should be assimilation of the disadvantaged into the mainstream or dominant culture. Besides, it may be ensured that distinctness of each culture or sub-culture also is maintained. Therefore proper balance should be struck off between unity or uniformity and diversity or deviance in culture. Although there is vanity and sentimentality involved in each culture, there should be uniformity or unity amid all types of culture. There need not be any conflicts and 500 emotional involvements. On the other hand, the mainstream of an important culture can easily comprise of distinct subcultures. The World Conference on Education for All (1990) has laid down the following points for consideration in this context: 1. The overall purpose of education is to promote equity and social justice by enlisting the participation of all people in the development process so that all are able to contribute to common good as also equitably share the fruits of development. 2. Empowerment of individuals has to be within a social context and this implies that the disadvantaged population groups which have been hitherto unreached and underserved are to be brought into the mainstream through enhancement of their competencies. 3. A fundamental aim of educational development is the transmission and enrichment of common and moral values. It is in these values that the individual and society find their identity and worth. 4. Traditional knowledge and indigenous cultural heritage have a value and validity in their own right and capacity to both define and promote development. 5. Sound basic education is fundamental to the strengthening of scientific and technological literacy and capacity and thus to self-reliant development. School success of the disadvantaged and backward should be determined in terms of neutral objective criteria applicable to all. Education should be treated as a normative undertaking which can be meaningful in terms of failure and success in school learning. It must have valuations of "good education", "good schools", "successful learning" and "Successful teaching", which also reflect class or cultural biases. Quality and achievement of learning should, therefore, be based on universal criteria applicable to all learners. Formal schooling in all societies is mainly a middle class enterprise due to socio-economic reasons. Almost all school practices and procedures are oriented to middle class culture. They become alien to the disadvantaged. Hence, question arises whether education is to orient to the values and culture of the masses or that of the classes of the disadvantaged. It is to be accepted that both should be reconciled and both the school and the pupil should change to come to a middle position. 501

7. CONCLUSION The disadvantaged and backward children should be provided with adequate teaching-learning facilities, and suitable interventions need be provided for achieving academic excellence by them. There should be suitable infrastructural provisions for making up the deficiencies of the disadvantaged and bringing them to the mainstream of the national culture. Schools should be made congenial and interesting for all sections of the student population and provide favourable environment to all children irrespective of disparities and distinctions, so that Education for All can be made a great success by 2000 AD.

REFERENCES Ausubel, D.P., Madri Youth: A Psycholo Ethnological Study of Cultural Deprivation, 1975. Brunner, J.S., "The Cognitive Consequences of Early Sensory Deprivation", SensoryDeprivation, p. 202, Harvard University Press, 1961. Govt. of India, Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, Ministry of Education, New Delhi,

1966. Govt. of India, Education for All, MHRD (Education), New Delhi, 1993. Havinghurst, "Who are the Socially Disadvantaged"? in Educational Planning for Socially Disadvantaged Children and Youth, Journal of Negro Education XXXIII (Summer, 1964. Havinghurst, "Who are the Disadvantaged? (Education), LXXXV, April, 1965. NSSE 66th Yearbook, Part-I The Educationally Retarded and Disadvantaged, New York. Rao, Jay Prasad, J.T., "Education of the Disadvantaged", The Education Quarterly, Spring, 1985, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India, New Delhi. 502

50 School Education of Specially Handicapped Children 1. INTRODUCTION Handicapped children are no longer regarded as the burden of the nation. They are made assets of the society and useful citizens of the country. Adequate and suitable education is to be provided for them in order to develop their full potentiality and enable them to occupy rightful places in the society on their own merit. The Education Commission, 1964-66 has rightly observed, "Their education has to be organised not merely on humanitarian groups, but also on grounds of utility. Proper education generally enables a handicapped child to overcome largely (his or her) handicap and makes him into a useful citizen." (1966 p. 123) This has to be done by the country not as a mercy measure, but as a social justice obligation. Therefore, the Constitutional Directive on compulsory education also include handicapped children The advanced countries of the world have done a lot for these disabled and disadvantaged group of people and have reduced their social and economic deprivation to the minimum. But in our country, progress of education for them and their suitable rehabilitation are far from satisfactory. Although a large number of measures have been taken by Government both at the national as well as state levels, much has yet to be planned and implemented in providing education and employment to the handicapped children. In the greatest democracy like India all children irrespective of their handicaps, social, physical, mental or psychological, have to be properly cared, nourished and developed adequately. Necessary provisions have been made in the country for general education of the normal children. But in the developing countries like ours, it has not been possible to 503 provide facilities for education of the abnormal children. Unless suitable education is provided, a good number of handicapped children cannot become productive members of the society and capable individual for adapting with the circumstances effectively.

2. SCOPE AND SIZE OF THE PROBLEM The handicapped children may be classified into three major categories: (a) The physically handicapped, e.g. blind, deaf, dumb etc. (b) The mentally handicapped, e.g. idiot, morons, imbeciles, etc. (c) The social handicapped, e.g. delinquents, orphans, destitutes etc. The physically handicapped may again be divided into three main groups; (i) Those children who are deficient in one of many senses like blind, deaf, mute, etc. (ii) Those children who have motor deficiency and orthopaedic difficulties, (iii) Those children who have defective speech power. Similarly, the mentally handicapped may also be divided into two broad categories: (i) the mentally deficient children, and (ii) the mentally backward or slow-learners. The first group of children are not radically different from the normal and simply possess lower intelligence in comparison to the average. But the children of the second group may not be mentally

deficient, but are not able to make normal progress mainly due to lack of proper guidance relating to physical illness or any other problems. The socially handicapped children include orphans, delinquents and destitutes. They do not differ drastically from other children, but need special care, guidance and nourishment as they are deprived of minimum social facilities. It is very difficult to determine the size of the handicapped population which is necessary for the planners, educators and social workers. According to the Education Commission, 1964-66 the estimates of the blind, deaf, orthopaedically handicapped and mentally retarded alongwith their institutions are as follows (Ibid., p. 123). 504 Category

Estimated No. of Children Institutions

The blind

4,00,000

125

The deaf

3,00,000

70

The orthopaedically handicapped 4,00,000

25

The mentally handicapped

14,00,000

29

25,00,000

239

3. DIFFICULTIES INVOLVED The following difficulties are faced in solving the problem of Handicapped Education: (i) Lack of Awareness Majority of our people are not conscious of the causes and extent of damage on account of various handicaps some of which are natural and accidental, but most of them are due to lack of knowledge and awareness. Ignorance and indifference to this difficulty often aggravate the problem. (ii) Paucity of Funds Due to financial constraints it is not possible to provide adequate facilities for educating the handicapped children whose number is increasing day by day. The Government very often make cuts in the budget and non-government agencies are also not coming forward in a large number, (iii) Inadequacy of Institutions Consequent upon the above two difficulties, there is dearth of educational institutions both for training teachers as well as for imparting special instruction to the handicapped. As a result of this, these children are deprived of education. (iv) Dearth of Teachers The handicapped children cannot be taught in the traditional way as it is done for normal children. Hence, specially trained teachers are required for teaching these children and handling their problems with the help of suitable equipment and techniques. Due to dearth of such teachers, these pupils are not able to receive proper education and take 505 benefit of the education that is provided for them in general classrooms or in separate schools.

4. PROVISIONS FOR EDUCATION Since education is regarded as the lever for upliftment of the handicapped children, special schools are being provided for the deaf, blind, crippled, mentally retarded and socially deprived children. Although the number of such schools are growing day by day, they are quite inadequate. Besides extreme cases, it is felt desirable to provide education for the partially handicapped children alongwith normal children. For example, partially blind children may be provided with suitable eyeglasses and with special care they continue their studies in normal schools and colleges. Similarly, the stammerers and children with mental or physical defects of low degree can be integrated with normal ones. Besides their educational development, they can benefit immensely in the company of the normal children. As Sufays (1970, p. 379) has

aptly said. "This promotes social cohesion, stimulates the slow-learners and safeguards formation of mental complexes." Whether in special schools or in normal schools, suitable methods need be developed and adopted for handicapped children of different categories. These methods should be developed according to the deficiencies and potentialities of the handicapped children. In the educationally advanced countries new methods and techniques have been developed on the basis of advances in science and technology. For example, blind children may be deficient in eye-sight, but very good in hearing and music. Hence, adequate planning and provisions for lessons in music should be made besides other curricular and co-curricular programmes and in addition to Braille System, various scientific equipment and accessories can be used for effective teaching to blind children. Syllabus and curriculum for the handicapped children should be designed according to their special needs and conditions. Adequate scope should be given for catering to the individual needs and interests. That is due flexibility and individualisation need be ensured in their course of studies. Teachers' Training or preparation should be properly emphasized in view of its special needs for the multifarious problems and difficulties involved in the education of the handicapped children. Besides knowledge and skills of teachers, abundant love, sympathy and understanding are 506 necessary for handling efficiently their curricular as well as co-curricular problems.

5. ATTEMPTS IN THE PAST The Sargent Commission, 1944 in their comprehensive report on education very adeptly dealt with the educational problems of the handicapped and made the following recommendations: (i) Provision of education for the handicapped children should constitute an essential part of the national system of education. (ii) Education of the handicapped should be administered by the Education Department, (iii) Handicapped children should not be segregated from normal children. Only when the nature and extent of their defect make it necessary, should they be sent to special schools, (iv) The blind and deaf require special educational arrangements including specially trained teachers. Central Institutions need be set up for the purpose, (v) Steps should be taken for training the handicapped for fruitful employment and to find out employment for them. The Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 (1956, p. 43) was also aware of the importance of education for the handicapped and remarked that there should be a few schools in each State for such children when methods specially suited to their need may be adopted. This is also necessary in the interest of the smooth progress of normal children. Prior to Independence practically, no provision was made for the education of the handicapped children. But in the First Five-year Plan, steps were taken for award of scholarships to the blind, deaf and the physically handicapped. Initially, 100 scholarships were given to the blind children and 42 to the deaf children. During the 2nd Plan period, however, the number increased to 185 and 256 respectively. During the Third Plan 535 blind children, 516 deaf and 831 physically handicapped children received scholarships. Subsequently the number of scholarships has been increasing from year to year. The Government of India extends assistance to the autonomous institutions for the education of the handicapped. In the Second Plan this assistance was to the tune of 60%. But in the Third Plan it was increased to 75 percent. 507 A number of training centres have been set up for training handicapped workers. There were three such institutions by the end of the Third Plan. Some Scholarships were also awarded to the trainees. Training has been provided by the Indian., Handicrafts Board for a number of handicapped persons in craftsmanship. Inspite of these recommendations of the different Committees and Commissions and attempts made by the various Govt. agencies, educational facilities still are extremely inadequate. For example, for the total 25 lakh of physically handicapped children, only 12000 children are getting special facilities for their education in about 240 institutions in the country. On

the whole, only .5% of the handicapped children get education facilities in various special institutions. Further, due to hazards of modern life the number of such handicapped children is increasing day by day.

6. PROGRAMMES FOR THE PRESENT AND FUTURE The Kothari Commission after carefully reviewing the then position of education for the handicapped children, rightly observed that the progress in providing educational facilities to handicapped children would be limited by two main considerations; teachers and financial resources. A reasonable target was fixed by the Commission to provide by 1964, education for 10 percent of the blind, deaf and orthopaedically handicapped children and for about 5 percent of the mentally retarded ones. Thus, it was proposed to provide educational facilities for about 10 percent of the total number of handicapped children. As a part of the programmes, it was also suggested to set up one good institution for education of the handicapped children in each district. As discussed earlier, this target can be reached through the adoption of two programmes, (i) special, and (ii) integrated. In the special programmes the handicapped children can be isolated from the normal ones and placed in the special institutions. But in the integrated programmes, education of handicapped children can be integrated into the regular school programmes. There are two advantages in this system (i) reduction of costs, and (ii) promoting mental understanding among all the pupils. But there are also disadvantages in it as, for example, many handicapped children find psychologically disturbing to be placed in an ordinary school. However, experiments may be made with integrated programmes for bringing many children into educational arena. 508 Children who are partially-sighted, the speech handicapped, the brain injured and emotionally disturbed pose peculiar educational problems. But there are no adequate facilities either for teachers training or for education of such children. Although some attempts have been made recently in this direction, they are far from satisfactory. It was therefore proposed that some more centres should be set up for these children. It was estimated that as many as 16,000, teachers should be trained for teaching the blind, deaf and mentally retarded children only, assuming a pupil-teacher ratio 10:1. This will require considerable increase of in the capacity of the existing training centres and establishment of new institutions. With a view to tackling such a massive problem, it is essential to coordinate the endeavours of various agencies working in the field. These agencies are, for example, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Health, the Central Social Welfare Board, and Voluntary Organisations interested in the problem. Such coordination is necessary both at the national as well as state levels. The Kothari Commission has also recommended that the Ministry of Education should develop a programme for conducting research studies in this field and the NCERT should also set up a Cell for the study of the handicapped children and acting as clearing house of information and research findings in the field. Suitable materials might also be prepared and produced at that level as models for others in the country.

7. THE NPE AND POA, 1986 The NPE, 1986, very clearly stated, "The objective should be to integrate the physically and mentally handicapped with the general community as equal partners, to prepare them for normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage and confidence" (p. 8). It also suggested various measures, viz. Integrated Education for the middle handicapped establishment of special schools for the severely handicapped children, imparting vocational training to the disabled reorientation of teachers, training and encouragement to voluntary agencies, for improving the existing conditions of education of the handicapped children and making them productive members of the society. The Programme of Action (POA), 1986 has provided, "As education in special schools is very costly it will be ensured that only those children whose needs cannot be met in common schools, are enrolled in 509 these schools". It is therefore felt desirable to integrate education of the moderately disabled children with of normal ones. It has also, emphasized that war-footing efforts need be made to cover the entire population of the handicapped under Education For All (EFA). Because in spite all attempts, at present not more than 5% of them have been covered. With a view to achieving the goal, enrolment and retention of these children were proposed to be increased by 25% each year. Although a large number of these children do enter the common school system, they drop out due to lack of special

facilities and sensitivity in the system to their needs. Concerted efforts should therefore be made for covering children with motor handicaps and other mild impairments in the common schools providing essential physical and human facilities in the shape of special aids, learning materials and training of teacher, etc. There are at present three categories of handicapped children who need to be served for achieving the national goal of UPE/UEE as envisaged in the NPE and POA, 1986. These 3 groups are: (i) handicapped children who are already in general schools and whose retention can be ensured through special support, (ii) Children with mild handicaps who are out of school and can be brought within the general school system with adequate facilities, and (iii) children who will need education in special institutions because of the severity of their impairments.

8. CONCLUSION: REVISED NPE AND ITS AFTERMATH The Government of India and UNICEF have joined their hands in implementing various programmes of integrated education for the disabled in many States and UTs of the country. The Centrally sponsored scheme of Integrated Education for the Disabled Children (IEDC) has Project Integrated Education for the Disabled (PIED) are very important of them. These projects seek to provide educational opportunities for the disabled children in common schools with supporting physical and service facilities. The former scheme is implemented with 100% central assistance and the latter one with large financial support from the UNICEF. The NCERT at the national level and the Directorates of Education and SCERT/SIES at the State levels are in charge of implementing and monitoring the projects. These agencies have been identifying the disabled children producing suitable learning materials for them and organising training and orientation courses for teachers, supervisors and other personnel involved in the system of education for 510 the disabled. With a view to implementing these projects effectively, warfooting efforts in true sense of the terms, need be made at all levels, micro as well as macro, so that the national goals of universalisation of education and can be reached as per schedule. Otherwise, the target will go on eluding the grasp. The Ramamurti Committee (1990) emphatically suggested that the general educational system should take care of the education of all children including the handicapped. It also suggested redefinition of the role of special schools to break their isolation. It recommended: (i) Early identification of children with handicaps and formulation of stimulation programmes for them and community. (ii) Education of the handicapped children who cannot be educated in general schools upto the point when they can be integrated, thus breaking the isolation between the general and special schools. (iii) Service as resource agencies for implementing the integrated education programmes in general schools. (iv) Bringing about mutual reinforcement of the pedagogies of special and general education. Education is the birth right of all children and Education for All (EFA) is an International Commitment. Besides UEE is the national goal of our country and a Constitutional Directive. Hence, all attempts need be made for providing education to all children whether in general schools or in the special school according to the nature and extent of the handicaps of children in India whether in rural or urban areas irrespective of their socio-economic condition.

REFERENCES Government of India, Report of the Education Commission, 1964-66, Ministry of Education, New Delhi, 1966. Government of India, Postwar Education Development in India, Sargent Commission Report, 1944. Government of India, Report of the Secondary Education Commission, 1952, New Delhi, 1966 Government of India, NPE/POA, 1986, MHRD (Education), New Delhi. Mohanty, J., Foundation of Education, Takshashila, Cuttack,. 1994. Mohanty, J., Crucial Issues in Education, Cosmo Publication, New Delhi, 1992. Mohanty, J., Modern Trends in Indian Education, Deep & Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1990. Sufaya, R., Current Problem of Indian Education, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi, 1970.

511

51 Problems of Financing School Education Education, particularly School Education has not yet received its due share neither in the public budget nor in the private accounts. This apathy has been ascribed to the ancient Indian ideal, of "plain living and high thinking" and its old tradition of "self-denial and renunciation" nourished by learned and holy men under Vedic and Gurukul system of education.1 But this may be mainly due to the lack of awareness about the importance of education for national development and about the expenditure on education as an investment. Inadequacy in financing school education is largely due to expediency, indifference and apathy of the planners and political leaders at the helm of affairs. Rather, school education being the most democratic segment, should claim the lion's share from the private purse as well as from the public exchequer on the following grounds advocated by a host of distinguished educationists. According to Dr. J.P. Naik the first and foremost is the significance of elementary education which is the one level in which the entire population of the prescribed age-group is expected to participate. For a long time to come, this will also be the only education which the vast majority of children in the country will ever have. It can play a very significant role in unifying the people in increasing productivity and in creating a new social order. It is also indispensable if equality of opportunity is to be fostered and if equality of status is to be approached. Secondly, the provision of universal elementary education forms one of the directive principles of state policy. No other sector of education has been so singled out, and this indicates the great significance which the framers of the Constitution attached to elementary education for providing social justice and stabilising democracy. Thirdly, the expenditure on 512 elementary education now forms about 35 per cent of the total educational expenditure. As elementary education expands and is improved in quality, this proportion will tend to increase and ultimately it is expected that the expenditure on elementary education may form 50-60 per cent of total educational expenditure a fact which testifies to the relative priority and significance which attaches to this sector. Finally, the problem of elementary education is also of importance because it is the "unfinished business" in education. Article 45 of the Constitution directed that free and compulsory education till the age of 14 was to be provided by 1960. This could not be done. A revised programme was then prepared with the object of fulfilling this constitutional directive by 1976. It was also not possible to this goal and the general thinking is that this objective may be realized by some states in 1981 and by the others in 1986 or 1991. There is a very strong feeling in the country that the provision of universal elementary education is extremely vital to the overall progress of the people and that it will be disastrous to postpone this programme to so late a date.2 It is thus evident that elementary or school education should receive the maximum attention and the largest share of finance. It is the considered opinion of many educational thinkers that the problem of finance is not so vital in other sectors of education as in the sector of school education. According to Naik, several significant problems of curriculum making, teaching methods, preparation of teachers, educating, public opinion, production of textbooks, teaching aids etc. could be more effectively and more rapidly solved if the major provision of universal elementary education of a reasonable standard could be tackled satisfactorily.3 In the underdeveloped stage, the total expenditure on education is generally low and the bulk of it is spent on school education. As the society becomes developed as well industrialized, the total expenditure begins to grow and an increasingly larger part of it comes to be devoted to higher education and research. The Education Commission, 1964-66 have therefore mentioned that before Independence the position remained more or less stationary in India for a period of about sixty years—the direct expenditure on school education decreasing only from 71.1 per cent in 1881-82 to 67.8 per cent in 1946-47 and that on higher education rising only 9.3 per cent to 14.8 per cent during the same period. The position, however, changed radically with attainment of Independence. As industrialization increased, greater expenditure was incurred on higher education, technical and technological education, research and so on. 513 Subsequently, therefore, expenditure on higher education increased considerably and as is evident from the data collected by Education Commission, 1964-66, the present position is that about one-third of the total expenditure is devoted to the first level of education, i.e. pre-primary, primary education; another one-third is devoted to the second level, i.e. secondary, special and vocational education and the remaining one-third is devoted to higher education.4 Due to various historical reasons, a multisource finance system has grown in the country and education is now financed by the Central Government, State Governments, local authorities and through fees and "other" sources which include endowments, donations and other voluntary contributions of the public. It is found that the largest increase has taken place

in the expenditure from government funds by 55.5 per cent to an average annual growth of 13.3 per cent. In 1965-66 the government funds contributed 71.2 per cent of the total expenditure as against 57.1 per cent in 1950-51. Consequently, the contribution of all other sources proportionately declined, although it increased in absolute terms. The next important source was fees which contribution has increased by 294 per cent or 9.6 per cent per year; it then accounted for 15.3 per cent of the total expenditure. Then came other sources whose contribution increased by 225 per cent or 8.1 per cent per year and which born only 7.2 per cent of the total expenditure. The local authorities whose sources are inelastic, particularly in rural areas, accounted for 6.3 per cent of the total expenditure only and they also showed the lowest increase in contribution by 20.2 per cent or 7.3 per cent per year.5 It is, therefore, imperative that both the State and Central Governments should augment resources for financing school education in a big way and all attempts should be made to pool all kinds of non-Government and local resources for improvement of education. Unless public as well as private resources are tapped to the maximum and public co-operation and support are enlisted in a planned and co-ordinated manner, education, particularly school education cannot be developed upto our expectation.

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Singh, R.P., Secondary Education: The Democrative Approach, 1963-P-8. 2. Naik, J.P.. Elementary Education in India: The Unfinished Business, 1966, pp. 118-119. 3. Ibid., p. 119. 4. Op cit., p. 70. 5. Ibid., pp. 471-172. (The journal of the Board of Secondary Education, Orissa). 514

52 School Improvement Programme for the Elementary Schools Through Voluntary Efforts INTRODUCTION The expansion of education at all levels during the Post-Independence period has been unprecedented and conspicuous. Moreover, during the implementation of three Five-Year Plans, emphasis has always been laid on the quantity or expansion of elementary education. This stress has a constitutional implication with a view to ensure compulsory free primary education for all the Children of our Sovereign Democratic Republic. But the quality has lagged behind the quantity and proper standard of education has not kept pace with the rising tempo of expansion. Both qualitative and quantitative aspects of education are more or less important for the success and growth of Democracy as it has been rightly stated by Dr. K.L. Srimali, the former Education Minister of India. "You cannot make democracy effective unless you provide the minimum essential education to every child. At the same time you cannot provide requisite leadership to run democracy unless you improve the quality of education......To my, mind the controversy, whether there should be expansion or improvement, is futile. For the survival of democracy both these processes must go on simultaneously". Therefore, not only some education but also good education to every child should be our main objective. In spite of our ceaseless and strenuous efforts we are still far away from the goal of universal primary education. But at the fag end of the Third Plan nearly 80% of the children in the age-group 6-11 would already be in schools and at that stage the emphasis should naturally be shifted from expansion to qualitative improvement. The Fourth National Seminar on compulsory education held at Puri 515 during the month of May 1964, therefore felt that in the Fourth Plan a new policy should be initiated under which, while adequate financial provision would be made for the inescapable minimum expansion, the bulk of the finances available should be devoted to qualitative improvement and this policy should also be continued throughout the next two plans. It is only under such a policy that it would be possible by the end of the Sixth Plan to provide "Good" education to every child.

In the direction of achieving good elementary education for every child, the school improvement programme would be the most promising step forward. This may be called a movement of farfetching importance, and implications, which should be initiated, executed and maintained on a Nation-wide scale. Through this movement community co-operation, public participation and collective collaboration would be forthcoming for removal of difficulties, for fulfilment of wants and for improvement of school as a whole. This programme would be emphasized upon throughout Fourth Plan subsequent ones.

BROAD OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAMME (1) Community To establish and maintain a closer liaison between the school and community is the keynote of success of the programme. A better and healthier school-community relationship is expected to prevail. That is, Society should be encouraged to evince keen interest in the education of its children and to provide all sorts of facilities for betterment of elementary education. (2) Teachers Since teachers are the supreme architects of the primary education, they should be assisted in enrichment of professional equipment, and in preparation and increased use of teaching aids. The teachers may be encouraged to extend the horizon of their knowledge undertaking small researches and experiments. They will be helped to improve their instructional programmes, both curricular and co-curricular, through the practices of better methods of teaching. A comprehensive programme of inservice training and continuous extension services would be rendered to them. Above all they would be provided with better working and service conditions for their professional competency. 516 (3) Students Student, being the life-blood of all educational institutions, should be given an ample scope for development of their personalities and unfolding of their latent talents. Every child boy or girl must be enrolled in any primary school. Enrolment will not suffice; their regular attendance must be emphasized upon and no efforts will be spared for reducing their wastage and stagnation in the schools. Appropriate instructional amenities would be provided for under-average, average and gifted or talented children. The poor and needy pupils would be provided with reading and writing materials. Better health service would be reached or should be within easy reach of all children . In every school there must be wide scope for creative activities for their self-expression. (4) Inspecting personnel Inspecting officers are the friends, philosophers and guides of the teachers and pupils as well as of the parents in the educational matters. Hence, at first such personnels must be made resourceful and rejuvenated. They would be oriented to new role and methods of supervision through inservice education and extension services, so that they can be capable of better performances in their respective fields. (5) School Schools are the fields where the children will be bloomed to blossoms of good citizens. So the Primary Schools would be provided with all physical facilities like buildings, playgrounds, gardens, water, sanitation, etc. Adequate furniture, enriched libraries, suitable laboratories or workshops, sufficient teaching aids are some of the necessary things with which the schools are to be better equipped. (6) Local bodies Then the non-officials of local bodies are not less important, as they have taken over the reigns of management of Primary Schools. They are to be properly oriented to the needs and problems of the programmes and they will have to be motivated for successful execution of the projects.

ORGANISATION A comprehensive programme for school improvement will be built upon certain general ideas, which would be executed

throughout the 517 country. But any such ideas or programmes are likely to be abstract, which do not appeal to the teachers or parents in a given situation. Hence, the programme should be based on the generalisation and dynamism of a nation-wide movement on the one hand and on a realistic and concrete conditions of individual schools on the other. Because the extents of effluences and deficiencies vary from one school to another. The stage of progress achieved differs from school to school. Naturally, therefore, school improvement programmes must be prepared on such individual differences, so as to provide adequate answers to local and topical problems of various schools. In this direction Madras State has taken the lead and initiative, from which all should learn many things. Under this programme this State has started three pioneering projects through which the people have exhibited amazing spirit of selfhelp and self-reliance. These three projects are: (1) Free Mid-day Meals, (2) Improved Schools, (3) Free Uniforms. The first one Free Mid-day Meals was started as a voluntary measure in July 1956 and in August 1962 out of 27,999 Elementary Schools 27,103 were providing free mid-day meals to poor boys and girls. As large as 14 lakh of pupils were receiving free meals entirely out of people's contribution, without any subsidy from Government. For every free meal centre there is local committee of donors. After a year the Government, greatly impressed by the enthusiam and sincerity of the people in this project, has extended a regular subsidy on the basis of 60 per cent of recurring cost, so that this voluntary movement has gained further momentum. The astounding success of the first project encouraged another one for Improved schools. Deficiencies and inadequacies of buildings, furniture, teaching aids, etc., in almost all Primary Schools are very miserable. The problems were tackled successfully in Kadambattur area of Chinglepur district in Madras, where people's goodwill and cooperation were forthcoming. At first a comprehensive survey of actual conditions of individual schools was undertaken in that area. That survey exposed the grim paucity as regards accommodation, furniture, equipment, teaching aids, library facilities, gardening, play activities and sanitary arrangements. Then the people in the neighbourhood were approached formally or informally and were persuaded to do the needful individually or collectively according to their capacity. This novel attempt resulted in generous responses. Then at Kadambattur a conference of the public, donors and of teacher was held on the 20th February 1958, and things donated to the schools were exhibited at a large scale. They 518 demonstrated to others the possibility of social reconstruction though voluntary co-operation and self-help. This project has now covered up nearly 25,000 schools in all and the estimated cost of all such benefits have come up to Rs. 800 crores. Free Uniforms—Project was the third one, that was undertaken on voluntary basis by the public. Misery of illclad and even naked children in our rural Schools is really very heart-rending and thought-provoking. Hence, earnest appeal to the people was made for providing clothing. In most schools it resettled in uniform patterns of shorts and shirts. This scheme not only filled the felt needs of the pupils, but also brought about a silent social revolution breaking down distinctions of caste and creed, high and low, among the children. Due to this scheme nearly six lakhs of children have been provided with at least one set of free uniforms. I think in our State also at some places such projects have borne fruits to a great extent which may be brought in to lime light. Based on such practical experiences, school improvement programme can be prepared for individual schools by the concerned school committee with the assistance of inspecting officer, Headmasters or Headmistress of the local E.T. and C.T. Schools. Lady S.L.O., Gram Sevak and some other Extension Officers of the Block. This programme of action should be in two parts: (1) fairly long range projects spread over about 5 years, and (ii) fairly detailed schemes for the next academic session. This will be modified to suit the conditions in each individual Schools.

THE BASIC ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE PROGRAMME (1) Will and effort of the people concerned are the main spring of the programme for improvement in Primary Schools. The concerned agencies are: (1) Parents, (2) Teachers, (3) administrative and supervisory personnel, and (4) Students. The basis of this movement should be to motivate these human agencies to put in their best efforts in a co-ordinated manner for a continuously long period. (2) The quality of education can be improved only through better planning and harder work. Though attempts should be made to provide better physical resources to elementary Schools, suitable planning and labour will take a long way in the desired direction.

(3) It is necessary to take each School as a unit complete in itself and to prepare the School improvement programme accordingly in order to secure the best results. 519 (4) The secret of success of the Programme depends mainly on: (a) intelligent planning, and (b) continuity of efforts which should animate all activities in the School. (5) In the present situation of India, the Programme will accrue more success if human resources can be more and better utilised than the physical resources. (6) The people must be given an ample scope serving their Mother Land and for enjoying a sense of achievement through such Programmes.

ROLE OF THE STATE INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION The S.I.E. will have to play an important role in the Programme. It will take the responsibility for its planning and execution, for inservice and Orientation training of the inspecting officers and teacher educators. It is expected to hold conferences and seminars of the important non-officials of local bodies connected with the Primary Education in order to make themselves acquainted with and enlisting their maximum cooperation in the Programme. The Extension Branch of the Institute will also look to the effective implementation of the Projects in the practical field. The Institute will have to produce all sorts of literature relevant to the Improvement Programmes. But in all such efforts of the S.I.E., the concerned agencies are expected to extend their sincere and cordial cooperation for success of the Programme. 520

53 Some Problems in Tribal Education in Orissa Educational advancement of tribal children is, undoubtedly an important pre-requisite for the general welfare and upliftment of the country. Education promotes a better understanding and appreciation of the problems and relations affecting them. It enables them to adopt a modern and better way of living with their full participation in the national plans and programmes for economic, social, political and cultural progress that the nation as a whole is making. Amongst all the schemes for tribal welfare, tribal education should receive topmost priority. With this realisation, Article 46 of the Constitution under the Directive Principles of State Policy enjoins upon the Government both State and Central for promoting "with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes". In order to translate into actions the spirit of the Constitution, increased provisions have been specially made in successive plans for the educational development of the tribal people. But it is felt by all concerned that tribals have not been able to take full advantage of the opportunities for which educational progress among them has not been possible up to our expectation. The State and Central Governments provide assistance in form of free distribution of clothes, reading, writing material, stipends and scholarships. They are exempted from fees in Schools and Colleges. Orphanages, boarding houses, are also provided. There is reservation in various categories of posts for tribals. In spite of these they are still groping in darkness of age-old apathy and inertia towards education. The reasons for those deserve consideration. Some of them as diagnosed by the field officers, administrators and social workers are extreme poverty, superstition, indifferent attitude, superiority complex of non521 tribals and so on. But these complaints of officers and workers are applicable to all welfare schemes. The most important hurdles in the direction of tribal education are: (1) language difficulty, and (2) want of right type of teachers. If suitable steps could be taken to eradicate those difficulties, considerable improvement in the spread of education among tribal population, could be achieved. Mother-tongue plays a vital part in the life of individuals. It has numerous emotional attachments and cultural heritage with the people. Due to its importance, this factor should be given due cognizance in the planning and execution of educational programmes. But owing to the following difficulties it is not so easy and practicable in case of tribals. Firstly, there are a large number of tribal languages or dialects. According to 1961 Census tribal population of Orissa is 4,223,757, which constitute nearly 25 per cent of the entire population of the State. In all 58 languages are in vogue throughout the State and 25 of them are tribal languages. Secondly, those languages have no script. Thirdly, the tribal languages are not equipped to provide technical, scientific and advanced education.

There vocabularies are poor and inadequate. Fourthly, imparting education in tribal languages would incur a huge expenditure, which the State can ill-afford. Fifthly, paucity of technical and administrative personnel would make such attempts impracticable. However, there is considerable thinking, that the tribal children should be imparted education in infant classes in their own dialects. This has not been possible due to the above handicaps. It is widely felt that on account of this drawbacks existing in primary education which is the gateway to all types of education, tribals are lagging behind in education. Under these circumstances, Dhebar Commission have suggested the policy, that "A possible compromise seems to us to be that in the first two years, lessons, be imparted invariably in tribal dialect so as to make them understandable to the tribal children. We have found during our tour that the tribal children pick up their subjects much more easily when the subjects are taught even verbally in their own dialect". Since preparation and publication of text-books in such a large number of tribal dialect are difficult, the maximum that can be done in this line is bringing out primers in certain dialects, written in Oriya scripts. But they should be so prepared as to enable the tribal children to learn the Oriya language with ease and spontaneity. Though a good percentage of their words, idioms and phrases may be used and materials: for texts should be adopted from their own environment and culture, Oriya words be used in the primers to make up the deficiency in their vocabularies. 522 This will slowly introduce modern and scientific civilization and to facilitate a slow and steady switch over to Oriya medium of instruction. Experience in compiling primers in tribal languages in association with the Tribal Research Bureau, Orissa, has shown that persons having technical known-how and proficiency in the dialects along with phonetic and philological knowledge in the same are few. Hence, the better method for approaching this crucial problem would be preparation of hand books in the tribal languages. These handbooks leased on the latest linguistic and phonetic principles are to be shaped in such a manner that they can be immensely helpful in using the Nationalized Test-books successfully and effectively by our teachers. There may be two kinds of guidebooks: (i) for overcoming language difficulties, and (ii) for making the attitude of teachers and field workers favourable and sympathetic towards tribal life and culture. Sometimes it is found that teachers, workers and officers maintain their supremacy over the tribals and show themselves as self-appointed benefactors. These do not help the situation. So in order to bring about and fostering clear understanding, friendly spirit, fellow-feeling and better appreciation of tribal culture among the field workers, suitable handbooks should be brought out for them by the Tribal and Rural Welfare Department without delay. Teachers are pivotal and catalytic agents in the process of transformation of tribals' education. All our efforts for bringing about desirable changes in the present set up may go in vain if right type of teachers are not available and posted in the tribal areas. With the existing conditions it would be useful if after undergoing general training for teaching persons with favourable attitude towards tribal life and culture, are selected to learn tribal languages. They may be deployed in the schools in remote tribal areas. This orientation training should be organised as inductive courses for them before they enter into a new and different type of life. This will provide rudimentary knowledge of tribal dialects, customs, ethnography for sympathetic understanding and appreciation of tribal way of life and problems. The teachers should certainly be given incentives and facilities like special allowance, free residential quarters and other service incentives. These ideas may go a long way in promoting education in tribal areas. 523

54 Child Growth and Development The human being is never static. From moment he is conceived to the time of his death, he undergoes constant changes. Growth is otherwise known as maturation. It is a natural phenomenon. Development, by contrast, refers to those changes which are qualitative in nature. These changes lead towards the goal of maturity. In this process also we must know what happens to a child before he is born. Consequently, the study of child development now encompasses that span of time which begins with conception and extends to the period of adulthood. Maturation as a natural process and development as an effect of environmental conditions influence the child as he grows. These are the two factors basic to teaching-learning process. Knowledge of these processes is fundamental to the setting up educational objectives, to the planning of curriculum and to the devising of teaching techniques for all learners of their various stages of development. The bases upon which educational theory and practice are built include a pattern of physical, social, emotional and intellectual growth and development as well as the general psychological principles

fundamental in these four areas. Thus, for teachers of today and tomorrow, knowledge of the growth and development of children is essential to understand their behaviour.

Meaning of Growth Growth usually indicates physical changes in height, weight and other limbs of the body. It means the increase and enlargement of the body or different parts of the body making it heavier and larger. To make it more clear, growth is change in the body which can be observed and measured in quantitative terms. In short, the biological growth in height, weight, increasing of the muscle-size and the deepening of voice which are easily observable is called maturation or growth. Then, as a grownup person, the child is called a man or woman. 524 Growth is a gradual and continuous process from the beginning of a new life onwards. So common is the phenomenon that teachers as well as parents may take the growth of a child for granted. A human child does not start standing, walking and climbing stairs all at once. He has to do it in quite a period of time. Each individual has his rate of growth and this he maintains throughout his or her life. Too often parents and teachers feel that one child does not learn as quickly as others of his age or class are doing. There are large differences among individuals in their rates of growth, development and learning and these differences continue throughout their lives. Thus bright children continue to be bright and the slow children continue to be slow. So, generally growth is not random, but orderly. All human children sit before they crawl, crawl before they walk and walk before they run. In the growth process, the person moves from the dependence of infancy to the maturity and responsibility of adult life.

Meaning of Development All living creatures develop. Many people use the term "growth" and "development" interchangeably, one for the other. In reality, they are different. They are inseparable and neither can take place alone. Growth, refers to quantitative changes, increase in size and structure. Not only, does the child becomes larger physically, but there is also increase in the size and structure of internal organs and of the brain. The child has a greater capacity for learning, for remembering and for reasoning. He grows physically as well as mentally. The sense organs are ready to function at the time of birth, but the sex organs do not reach maturity until adolescence. This aspect of growth in a particular period of time is known as development. Development also means the whole sequence of life from conception to death. It is not merely what happens, but how it happens, the order of its unfolding. The more complex the creature, the more of development it has to go through to achieve its evolutionary potential. For example, mammals develop more slowly than other animals. Again, human beings develop more slowly than other mammals. Human infants among all animals have the longest period of development before they are capable of adult behaviour.

Growth and Development and Education Growth and development are closely related; they are different from one another. Growth refers to changes of the body. Development implies the organisation of the human being as a whole. Thus, the term 525 "development" is more comprehensive than the term "growth". Growth does not continue throughout life. A person can develop even after physical growth stops and maturity is reached. Development may be possible without any significant growth. It is a fact that some children do not grow in size, but they do develop ability. Growth of the child can be measured, but development can only be observed by noting changes in activity and behaviour. Any person who is concerned with the education of an individual at whatever age, must recognise the presence of and the rate of development of various areas of human growth. School men and women must taken cognizance of not only of the fact that the potential learner consists of brain, but that he is complex of many phases of growth. Rate of growth and development is different for each child for each trait. It is not unusual, for example, for a teacher who has taught a child at 7 years of age to discover that at the age of 12 the child displays a much greater and a much lower degree of mental alertness than was found in earlier years. Some children develop rapidly in one or another trait during early years and then seen to reach a plateau, which means there is no further growth. Still others appear to be retarded in early years. But they show sudden rise in development beyond the normal lines. These possible variations in growth must be taken into consideration, if curriculum and techniques of teaching are to be adjusted to the individual needs of learners. The chief function of the school are to inculcate in children certain commonly used skills: reading, writing, figuring and so on. These areas of education are important. If education is to be functional, it must spread out to include all-round

guidance of the learner in fitting him for successful participation in all phases of his present and future life. If we accept the premise to be successful, learning must follow the learner's progressive and varying ability to benefit from instruction. It is necessary that teachers understand the developmental potentialities of each individual learner. Taking the changes of the child in size, in proportion, of both the physical and mental development into consideration, the teacher must adjust his teaching to the following: (a) The effect of efforts to learn depends upon the degree of growth and maturation which has been dealt in detail in the next chapters. (b) Rate of growth of the child is more rapid in the early years. (c) Each individual has his own rate of growth. So the individual differences in growth and development must be taken into consideration by the teacher. 526 (d) In the early childhood, fantastic imagination is the apparent mental development of the child with little reference to reality. (e) Heredity and environment both are essential to any growth. (f) Growth may be retarded or accelerated.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT As you already know, child's growth is gradual and continuous. Growth refers to changes in various aspects of the body. It is a fact that growth does not continue throughout life. It continues for a period of time. But development continues a set pattern. It is a progressive series of changes till the end of life. Psychologists have studied and found that development is possible without any significant growth. But this growth and development of human beings is not an automatic process. They can be helped and hindered under certain conditions. Neither can occur in vacuum. Certain factors are definitely responsible for the growth and development of the human child. Let us look into them as a whole. 1. Heredity From the surface it appears that heredity and environment are the major factors for growth and development. Neither heredity nor environment is the sole factor as such. Each individual is in a sense unique as per the natural endowment. Children of the same parents differ in their constitution and proportions of potentialities. Hereditary factors contribute to the internal secretion of glands, blood circulation in the system which mainly control the body structures. Besides, there are other factors also which are responsible for the growth and development of the body, viz. Food, Exercise, Learning, etc. 2. Environment Since we have no control over the chance occurrence of the union of ovum and the sperm, no body can change the effects of heredity. So, much depends upon environment in which the child lives. Mainly, the human child passes through the home, school and neighbourhood environment in the process of growth and development. The child, it is said, is the product of interaction between heredity and environment. These twin factors will be analysed in detail in the next chapter. 527 3. Food Every living being must eat and drink in its own way. The human child needs food both in the pre-natal and the postnatal environment. It is well said that even God takes the shape of man, He will need bread. Right from the mother's womb, the human features grows as a parasite, sucking its requirements from the body of the mother. The mother during her pregnancy eats for two lives—for herself and for the child in the womb, without proper food, the child does not grow upto expectations. Want of sufficient nourishing food affects both mother and child. Malnutrition of mother during pregnancy is responsible for the birth of deficient child. This also is responsible for the high rate of infant mortality. 4. Exercise

This does not mean the physical exercise as a discipline. The functional activities of the child comes in the fold of exercise of the body. We do not mean any law of growth through use or atrophy (the reverse of growth) through disuse. The growth of muscles from the normal functioning of the child is a matter of common knowledge. It is a fact that repeated play and rest built the strength of the muscle. The increase in muscular strength is mainly due to better circulation and oxygen supply. The brain muscles develop by its own activity-play and other activities provide for these growth and development of various muscles. The child may not play or engages himself in various functions with the knowledge that they will help him in growing. This style of functioning of the child is but natural. 5. Hormones There are a number of endocrine glands inside the human body. Endocrine glands are ductless glands. This means there are certain glands situated in some specific parts of the body. These glands make internal secretions locally. These secretions produce one or more hormones. Hormones are physiological substances having the power to raise or lower the activity level of the body or certain organs of the body. For example, the gland pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, not into the blood, but into the intestine. Here it acts upon food and plays an important part in digestion of food. This pancreas also discharges into the blood, a substance called insulin. This being carried by the blood to the muscles enables them to use sugar as a fuel to add strength to muscles. If the 528 pancreas fails to produce the secretions, the organism, lapses to the unfavourable conditions of growth and development. Similarly, the adrenal glands are very close to kidneys. These make a secretion of adenine, a very powerful hormone, which is responsible for strong and rapid heart-beat, release of stored sugar from liver and which controls blood pressure. Gonads are glands, which secrete hormones that have important effects on growth and sex behaviour. A balance of male hormones controls development in the direction of masculinity and that of female hormones steers it toward femininity. At puberty, these sex hormones promote the development of genital organs. Lacking the gonads, individuals of either sex develops into rather a neutral specimen without strong sex characteristics. Pituitary is called the "master gland". It is attached to the under side of the brain and its secretions controls the brain function and also the blood pressure. It stimulates other glands like adrenal and gonads. If this gland is over-active in childhood, the muscles and bones grow very rapidly and the individual may become a giant of seven to nine feet tall. Learning and Reinforcement Learning is the most important and fundamental topic in the whole science of psychology. Development consists of maturation and learning. Without any learning the human organism is a structure of various limbs, all other internal organs with muscles and bones. But it is not human being with maturation. Learning includes much more than school learning. Learning goes to help the human child in his physical, mental, emotional, intellectual, social and attitudinal developments. All knowledge and skill, all habits, good and bad, all acquaintances with people and things, all attitudes built up in your dealing with people and things have been learned. Reinforcement is a factor in learning. Exercise or activity is necessary for learning. It may be a motor activity, as in playing on a musical instrument. Or it may be a sensory activity as in listening to a piece of music. Whatsoever, there must be activity in some form. "We learn by doing". It is an old psychological proverb. Now it is that our activity should be repeated till we get the desired results. So the proverb should be, "We learn by doing and getting results".

HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT There are two schools of opinion: one holds that the character and conduct of children is unalterably fixed by what they inherit from their 529 ancestors and the other maintains that it all depends on what opportunities are provided by their environment. The controversy between heredity and environment is raised by the biologists, psychologists and other exponents. Rousseau, Pearson, and Galton are the chief exponents of the "heredity" school and offer two main lines of argument in support: (1) They work out a close relation between the child's physical and moral qualities. Children physically healthy and fit, are morally good. Statistics show a high degree of correlation between the two kinds of qualities. Since the physical qualities are no doubt inherited, the moral qualities must be so. (2) The researches which Galton and others have made into the ancestral history of twins, scientists, judges, artists and kings seem to demonstrate fully the fact that distinctive mental ability is the result of inheritance rather than of education.

All education is limited by certain capacities and interests which the child inherits from his parents. Thousands are placed in similar surroundings. Only a few reach the heights of achievement and distinction. It must be mainly due to their inborn nature and genius, which shines inspite of obstacles. Therefore, it is argued that inherited traits, original nature or native endowment finally determine character, conduct and personality. So, the inborn nature is the chief factor in development. It determines the possibilities to which the child can be educated. Meaning of Heredity Heredity means that "like begets like". The child is what he is, because he is a member of a certain family, race, and sex. The child resembles its parents not only in bodily form, but also in likes and dislikes, abilities and intelligence, habits and character. Biologically it has been defined as, "the sum total of the traits potentially present in the fertilised ovum". It has been seen that a cat gives birth to a kitten, a dog to a puppy and a human being to a human baby. Still there we find much variation between different dogs or cats or human beings, even if they are born of the same parents. Why this happens has been explained by Galton, Weismann and some other biologists. The origin of every human being's life can be traced to a single cell called Zygote. A new born infant is the product of two family lines. When a sperm unites with an ovum, Zygote is produced. The discharge of the ovum takes place first in the fallopian tube of the uterus and then in the womb. There it is fertilised by the sperm. Chromosomes are the real determiners of heredity. 530 Fig. 1: Individual Child a Gamble of Chromosomes. Meaning of Environment In ordinary sense of the term, environment means all that is found around the individual. Bougls and Holland in their Educational Psychology define the term "Environment" as a word which describes in the aggregate, all the extrinsic forces, influences and conditions which affect the life, nature, behaviour and the growth, development and maturation of living organisms". The environmental condition's influence the individual's physical and psychological growth. 531 The genius is as much a product of his environment and education as the idiot is. The mind of the child is like a mass of clay, passive and plastic, to which environmental may give any shape it likes; or it is a clean slate, a 'tabula rasa' of Locke on which experiences impress its forms. Man grows into what his environment, training and education make him. The ancestors and descendants did not show the same degree of talent and achievement as Babar, Akbar and Sivaji. These individuals were the product of social, economic and political influences of the age in which they lived. The culture of the past and present of a social group constitutes the social heritage of the society. This heritage is transmitted from one generation to the next, not through the germ-cells of the father or the ovum of the mother, but through the customs, traditions, language, literature, manners, etc. of the race. Heredity and Environment Man is a product of the interaction of heredity and environment. The inborn traits give a distinctive mark to an individual, but it is for the environment to shape him in a proper form. In other words, we can say that environment and heredity are complementary to each other in moulding an individual in all aspects. It is a wrong assumption that heredity and environment are two forces directly opposed to each other. Actually, they are not opposed to each other. The question is not, whether heredity or environment, nature or nurture is more important. These two terms are not separable. Neither of them has any meaning apart from the other. So, every growing organism, whether a plant, animal or man, is not exclusively either heredity or environment, but heredity and environment. What it grows to be, is the result of both its inherited capacity and environment, which not only co-operate but also interact. The true relation of heredity and environment will become clearer, if we study the parts played by seed and soil in the growth of a plant, The seed has the power to grow into a plant. But how ill or well it will grow, depends on what soil it gets. If it falls on a stone, it will germinate. If it is sown in a poor soil with too much of heat or water, it may germinate, but will not thrive long to bear any fruit. And if it falls on a good soil and has favourable influences like manure, water and sun, it will grow into a very good plant. Of course, the plant cannot grow without either the seed or the soil. It needs both. 532

What is that children inherit? Do all the brothers and sisters inherit alike? Are defects also inherited? These and a score of other questions trouble many a teacher and psychologist. A lame parent will not beget a lame child, nor does a blind mother beget a blind daughter or son. In the hereditary process, the child grows from the union of germ-cells from father and mother, and starts as a little speck of jelly called embryo. In 9 months time it grows into a fully developed baby, but during the period of development it has received nothing from outside except food and water. What it grows into was potentially present in that little speck of jelly. At each conception, cells unite which have thrown away different chromosomes (as in Fig. 1.) The number of possible combinations, which can be made by taking two sets of 23 chromosomes each. These cell divisions run into millions. No two cells are alike. They are drawn from the distant ancestral chromosomes. Thus, each child inherits from the father and mother. But it must be remembered that each parent was also the inheritor in equal part from both his or her parents, who in their turn inherited equally from their parents. Thus, each child owes half of his original equipment to his parents, one-fourth to his grand parents, one-eighth to his great grand parents and so on. The stream of life flow on and the child inherits his capital not from his parents but through his parents. This should explain why the child has got the chin of his mother, the forehead of his father, the grey colour of eyes from his grand father, the hair from his uncle, the nose from his maternal uncle etc. Many children do not resemble any near ancestor at all and draw from some remote member of the ancestral line. It is not uncommon for tall parents to have short children or for short parents to have tall children. It is a well known fact that a genius son of a genius father is an exception rather than a rule. Many often, the nature seems to pull the progeny of a genius to the average. When we call a child a born writer, painter or musician, all that we mean is that he has a natural aptitude or bent of mind for the acquisition of that skill. He has a native disposition or tendency towards it. But by specialised inheritance it does not mean that if the mother can cook and sew well, the daughter will be born with such an ability. No child is born with ability to cook, sew or perform any other kind of skilful work. Skills of any specific trait are acquired by learning from the environment. From all the evidences it is fairly certain that both heredity and environment are potent factors. They both cause human beings to differ in ability and personality of the twin factors which are more powerful. Also this question does not matter much. By all means the environments 533 should be improved. The children should be given good homes and neighbourhoods. They should be given good education in adequately equipped schools. Some say, the children should be endowed with good heredity. "That is hopeless; you cannot do anything about heredity". Still the young-men and women should not be in a hurry to choose their mates. And the society can do something. Society should encourage young people of good physiques, abilities and personalities, even though their financial resources are meagre to educate children. These children will have good heredity and good home environment as well. After all we would not desire to have all people alike. Growth and Development and Role of Education Education is the potential instrument of a person's mental and moral make-up. The history of civilisation bears testimony to the fact that man once a wild animal, has built a glorious heritage of culture, art, science, philosophy and religion. Heredity and environment are the two most important factors of growth and development. Heredity endows each individual with capacities, attitudes, and interests and it is for education to provide scope for their expansion and expression through favourable environment. A happy co-ordination between the twin factors leads individuals to the highest level of growth and development. In the areas of human values, it is not capacity or ability that counts, but achievements of success and efficiency by education and training are important. Capacity without training is blind and may not work upto expectations. The most important thing for the teacher is to try to study children and to know what their native traits are. All children are born with a number of bodily and intellectual tools. Of course, they differ in degrees. It is not their possession that matters. Rather, the right or wrong use of tools is clearly the responsibility of education. Happily selected environment has worked miracles with many hopeless delinquents, criminals and sinners. Tests have revealed that a large number of delinquent children are normal. And their fall was due to harmful influences of environment. A change of environment has regenerated many of them and enabled them to develop into honest and selfsupporting citizens. And finally, the teacher must see that he himself is a very vital part of child's environment. In teaching various subjects to the child, his mental maturation is to be taken into consideration for chalking out educational programmes. And mental maturation depends upon the physical growth and

534 development. Since the rate of growth of boys and girls differ, the same educational programme for both boys as well as girls will not prove fruitful. So, various individual differences as regards physical and intellectual growth and development must be taken into consideration. Also, a too-fat child or a too-thin child, a very small or a very big child will have a feeling of inadequacies. Teachers and parents must take care of these physical deviates. Mentally deficient children also must be taken care of in the teaching-learning situations. Keeping in mind the challenging characteristics of growth and development of adolescents, the educational activities should be carefully organised. Development of sex plays a very important and significant role in the life of an individual. So a sort of sex-education should be given to the child as well as to an adolescent. Sex education aims at the development of healthy attitude among boys and girls with a view to leading a good social life. Some teachers blame children for lowering the standard of the class and abuse them saying, "mangoes cannot grow out of cotton seeds". No doubt, heredity sets limits. Certainly, mangoes cannot grow out of cotton seeds. Only, the quality of mangoes can be improved by a careful regulation of the environment, such that mangoes can be better mangoes, and one can make cotton grow into productive plants and yields a larger harvest. So, the appropriate education requires that inherited inclinations, capacities interests of every child should be studied early. And all facilities should be provided in his environment to develop all that is best in him as an individual. 535

55 Physical Growth and Development It has already been said that physical development means growing in height, weight and body proportions. Parents and teachers are aware that children grow taller and heavier and stronger everyday. The growth in body is very rapid in early years, particularly from the birth to the age of two. Then the growth slows down till it again becomes rapid with the coming of puberty, the stage of maturity both in boys and girls. Educationists and psychologists have studied that physical growth and development come under four distinct periods. Two are characterised by slow growth, while two other by rapid growth. These periods can be differentiated as follows: 1. The pre-natal period, 2. The stage of Infancy and Babyhood, 3. The Childhood-Early and Late Childhood, 4. The period of Adolescence, which leads to adulthood.

THE PRE-NATAL PERIOD This is the first development period in the life span of any individual. This period begins at conception and ends at birth. It is approximately 270 or 280 days in duration. In other words, this period is nine calendar months or ten lunar months (one lunar months is said to be 28 days on average). This period of growth and development takes place in the body of the mother before the birth of the child. The word 'natal' is an adjective connected with birth. Since the period of growth and development occurs before the child-birth, it is called pre-natal development. During this pre-natal period the human organism passes through three general stages: germinal, embryonic and fetal. The term germinal is applied to egg-like organisation. This exists in the mother's womb for about two weeks after the union of female ovum with the 536 Fig. 1: Diagram of the Young Embryo Suspended in the Mother's Womb. male spermatozoon, This union, in the language of physiology, is called conception. In this union, the ovum is fertilised by millions or billions of cell divisions. After a continuous process of 270 or 280 days the new born baby comes out. By the 8th week of development it is known as embryonic stage. Now the structure displays human characteristics. From the 8th week to birth, the development is known as fetal stage. Now it is called human foetus. This has grown after the conception and now, continues to develop human structure and organs. After birth, the new born sees the light of the world and grows and develops into a human being. Then starts the post-natal period of the child. It is really a wonder, as to how this microscopic single cell ovum becomes a seven or eight pound baby with arms and lags, a large number of bones and all other internal complex organs. An one-called fertilised ovum has a supply of

nourishment and proceeds to grow and divides into two cells, four, eight and so on, up to an enormous number of cells. All this descend from the same union of the male and female cells. 537 Fig. 2: Age Changes in Height and Weight.

STAGE OF INFANCY AND BABYHOOD Infancy is the beginning or the early period of existence of the newborn. It is now a separate individual and not a parasitic in the mother's body. Infancy is the shortest of all developmental periods. It begins with birth and continues till the infant is two-week old. During this period the infant makes adjustments to the new environment outside the mother's body. The rapid growth and development which took place during the pre-natal period, suddenly came to a stop with birth. There comes a halt in growth and development till it adjusts to the post-natal environment. It continues for a period of two weeks. Once these adjustments have been made, infants again resume their growth development. It is a fact that some infants are born prematurely. This means some children take 538 birth before the scheduled period of time, while some others take birth post-maturely. So it is obvious that not all infants will show the same level of physical and mental development. Malnutrition of the mother during pregnancy has been found to be responsible for premature births and still births. At birth, the average weight of an infant regardless of sex and race is 7 or 8 pounds. And the average height of an infant is about 20.5 inches. Of course, weight in relation to height is less at birth. It is found that, boy infant is slightly longer and heavier than girls. With the birth cry, the lungs are inflated and respiration begins. The eyes of the new born are almost mature in size. The nose is very small and almost flat on the face, while the tiny mouth may look like a slit if the lips are narrow. The neck is so small that it is almost invisible. The hands and feet of the infant child are miniatures. At birth, the baby has no teeth and can suck only milk and water. As teeth appear, soft and solid food can be chewed and swallowed till he can break and digest hard nuts too. Although the infant's heart starts beating before birth, he breathes only after he is born. With breathing, circulation of blood increases. At first, the infant's heart-beats are 140 per minute. Gradually they decrease to 100 and come to 72 for a normal adult. Changes also take place in nerves, muscles, bones, and joints which become larger, stronger and firmer. Glands too change in their size and function. Physical Growth and Development 539 In the process of growth and development, babyhood occupies the first two years of life following the brief two-week period of infancy. Babyhood is often referred to as infancy. But the only difference is that babyhood is distinguished from the extreme helplessness of infancy. This babyhood is the true foundation period of life of human beings. Also babyhood is a period of rapid growth and change. Babies grow rapidly both physically and psychologically. Babyhood is an age of decreasing dependency. In other words, rapid development of baby leads to decrease in dependency on others. Fig. 4: The Stages of Growth of Human Foetus. 540 Babyhood is one of the two periods of rapid growth during the life span of human beings. The other period comes at puberty. The general pattern of growth and development is similar for all babies. There are variations in height, weight, sensory capacities and other areas of physical growth. Some babies start life smaller in size and less development than the norm. This may be due to prematurity or to a poor physical condition resulting from maternal malnutrition, stress and strain or some other unfavourable condition during the pre-natal period. As a result, such babies tend to fall behind their age-mates during the babyhood years.

THE CHILDHOOD STAGE Most people think of childhood as a fairly long period in the life span of a human being. It is a time, when the individual is relatively helpless and dependent on others. To children, childhood often seems endless they wait for the prestige time which the grown-ups enjoy in society. Childhood begins when the relative dependency of babyhood is over. Approximately, this period extends from the age of

two years to the time when children become sexually mature—13 years for the average girl and 14 years for the average boy. By the time the children become sexually mature, they are known as adolescents. During this long period of time,roughly 11 years for girls and 12 years for boys, marked changes take place in the child, both physically and psychologically Today it is widely recognised that childhood should be sub-divided into two periods— Early and Late childhood. Early Childhood Growth during early childhood proceeds at a slow rates as compared with the rapid rate of growth in babyhood stage. Early childhood is a time of relatively even growth. Height, weight, body proportions, body build, bones and muscles grow to make the child ready for adulthood. Early childhood extends from 2 to 6 years of age and late childhood extends from 6 to 13 or 14 years of age. Thus, the early childhood begins at the conclusion of babyhood. It is the school-entrance age. There is relatively little difference in the physical growth and development of children before and after they are six year old. Radically it makes little difference between five-year-old and seven-year old children. 541 Late childhood is also called stage of pre-adolescence. The development of the child at this stage depends on his motor development. By motor development, it meant the development of strength, speed and precision in the use of one's arms, legs and other body muscles. It is important because it has great bearing on child's emotional, intellectual and social development. Motor development takes place at a rapid pace during childhood. Motor skills develop in the child from more generalised to more specialised form of activities. At this stage, some left-handed could be made right-handed.

THE PERIOD OF ADOLESCENCE It cannot be said with accuracy as to when adolescence sets in. This is the period of maturity. Generally, it is described that the teen-agers are the adolescents. It is the most critical stage in the life span of human beings. The boy of fourteen is characterised as "neither useful nor ornamental." This is the period of maturity. It is told that maturity marks the end of growth. Growth of any organism from an immature to a mature state is called maturation. In this period, child's legs and other muscles grow to size and strength sufficient for standing, walking and running to the maximum. His hands grow into excellent instrument for manipulating objects. His teeth already present in rudimentary form grow for harder work. His mouth and larynx grow into flexible speech organs, His brain grows not only in size, but also in fineness to do its share in all human activities. Sexual maturity also reaches by this age of adolescence, while many animals reach maturity in a few weeks or months after being born, it takes human beings about 18 to 20 years. And during all these years he is maturing and learning; what he is an adult always depends on how well he has grown. There are really great physical developments at this stage. 542

56 Intellectual Development It is said that sound mind only exists in sound body. The word "intellect" means rational power or power of mind to understand things. So an intellectual is one well-endowed with mental power or power to reason. In the literature of psychology all the mental processes by which knowledge is obtained about objects are known as "cognition". This term refers to knowing, reasoning and judging things. So the word cognition has got the same meaning as "intellection", the act of understanding and reasoning. And as such, Intellectual Development may mean the same thing as cognitive development. They are synonymous. Intellect like intelligence is an aspect of mind, but is different from intelligence. A child's intelligence enables him to adopt to the various environments. It is the capacity or ability of the individual to do the work of knowing, understanding and judging. It is the natural and native endowment from the every moment of conception. But intellect as a variable grows and develops. People continue to learn and develop with the power of intelligence. Binet's method of measuring intelligence is based on the fact that children become more capable mentally as they advance in age. The upper limit reaches in adolescence. There cannot be much mental growth before birth. But there is a rapid rise in the first two years after birth. The two yearold establishes contact with the environment, both physical and social. In physical development there are striking changes at puberty. A parallel spurt in mental ability also occurs in adolescence. With growth, young people develop in understanding their environment and its problems. To be intellectual, it is required to add to the stock of knowledge and information. But it should be accompanied by perfect understanding and wisdom. Intelligence tests show that intellectual growth is rapid in infancy, moderate in childhood, and slows down in youth. Intellectual

543 development deals with faculties other than intelligence, which is called 'native endowment'. As a child grows from infancy to maturity, there is an increase in his mental power. The common opinion is that mental ability increases up to middle age and then declines. Intelligence Test scores, however, show a decline starting as early as 25 or 30, though this decline is very slow at first. Intellectual development consists of better and greater use of language, the medium of communication. During first two years, through sense organs the child explores his environment. Then he slowly learns the use of language. After vocal grunts and babblings the child makes various types of sounds till he learns to speak out words. Words are pegs on which ideas hang and the facility to use language is considered as a work of great mental development. Words acquire meanings and their use in the home, the school and the market. Number of Tests have shown that children from higher socioeconomic classes have better language equipment. The child increases his vocabulary. In a bi-lingual environment, learning of two languages is slow in the beginning, but in the long-run, such environment is helpful to the language development of the child. Maturation provides a state of readiness to understanding. Before understanding can take place, the child's brain and nervous system must develop and the sense organs used for perceiving must become functionally mature. Understanding always parallels mental growth. When mental growth is rapid as in a very bright child, understanding is above the norm; whereas in a dull child, understanding lags behind the norm. Understanding is based on concepts. Concepts are not to memorise, but to understand by experiences. Concepts of children generally change and grow with experience. That is why the system of education for younger children like the Kindergarten, and the Basic system emphasises experience with concrete things and visits to places. The child's concepts are important because they determine what the child actually knows. Concepts develop readily because of the child's curiosity about the world in which he lives. It is required that before children enter school, they have a store of several hundred concepts. By adolescence, the child has to build up a store of several thousand concepts. This goes to make an individual, an intellectual. All children of the same age and level of development will not have the same concepts. Children's concepts differ from those of adults. Children's concepts are often erroneous. The child often misinterprets what he hears or what he 544 observes. He may see, hear, smell, taste and feel correctly, but associates faulty meanings with what he has observed. A Swiss biologist Jean Piaget with his collaborators has done the most outstanding work in the development of cognitive processes in the children. Cognition primarily refers to knowing, reasoning, judging, etc. It develops very rapidly in the early years of life. Although cognitive development begins soon after birth, it is not so distinct at the time of birth. But as the child grows older, cognitive development becomes more and more distinct. A child's intelligence enables him to adapt to the world around him. Cognitive development, therefore, is the reorganisation of mental structures. The reasoning of children is often vague and inconsistent. The first ideas of right or wrong are taken from the parents. The teacher can be much profited by a knowledge of the mental development of the child. He can plan out the curriculum and methods of teaching and choose books suitable to the mental maturity of the child. 545

57 Emotional and Social Development EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Different psychologists define emotions differently. Standard dictionaries give the meaning of emotion as moving of feelings, or agitation of mind. However, emotion is a state of mind. Always it denotes a state of being moved, stirred up or aroused in some way. All of us must have experienced various feelings of anger, fear, disgust, love, joy, etc. Seeing a snake anybody may get frightened. When an action, you do not like at all, is repeated again and again, you definitely get angry. At the sight of the mother, the baby smiles and the mother kisses out of love. These are common feelings, which are in the language of psychologist's-emotions. Emotions disturb the state of mind. In what way, emotional development takes place, is a very important question for the

parents and teachers. The teachers should know the mind of the child with a view to helping him to learn against emotional disturbances in teaching-learning situations. And as such, it is binding on teacher to know some common emotions of the child.

COMMON EMOTIONS OF CHILDHOOD After the early months of infancy and babyhood, a number of some common emotional patterns may be observed in children. Each of the emotions has its own specific form of behaviour. Let us look at them as follows— Fear A baby is carefully protected as much as possible from fear-provoking stimuli. These begin to affect the child before the end of the year of life. 546 And with each passing year, his environment goes on enlarging. Gradually more and more things that are likely to frighten him appear in his ever-enlarging environment. With progress of learning and intellectual development of the child, he recognises some threats in objects, situations and even in some persons. Most fears are learned. Mothers frighten the child some way or other in order to stop crying. All fear-stimuli in children occur suddenly and unexpectedly. They frighten the individual as a warning for danger. Often, most children learn to fear things that are not dangerous. Worry Worry is an imaginary form of fear. Like real fear, it is not aroused directly by a stimulus in the environment. It comes from imagining situations which may be dangerous. It may come from books, movies, comics, radio, television or other popular recreations, what so ever worries are caused by imaginary rather than real stimuli. These are almost absent among very young children. The child is required to reach a stage of intellectual development in which it is possible to imagine things. Many of the so-called fears are in reality worries. Anxiety Worries when frequent and tense may lead to anxiety. It is a painful uneasiness of mind concerning anticipated ill. Anxiety is characterised by apprehension and uneasiness. It is always accompanied by a feeling of utter helplessness. It is more vague than fear. But it is said that anxiety develops from fear and worry. Anxiety does not come from a real situation, which the individual can perceive. It comes from an anticipated one. Anger Anger is a more frequent emotional response in childhood. That is because, there are more anger-provoking stimuli in the child's environment. Many children discover at an early age that anger is a good way to get attention of mother and others to satisfy their desires. Besides, curiosity, jealousy, joy, pleasure, delight, affection, love, etc. are the important emotions, which play an important role in the child's life. The parents and teachers should look to the emotional adjustment of children. 547

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD Infancy and childhood are the most formative periods of life and strong emotional experiences are likely to have lasting effects on habits and attitudes of children. That is why, modern education in the home and the school, insists that children should be treated more kindly and tenderly. The outbursts of anger, intense fear and the like which agitate mind should be avoided. Emotions play a role of major importance in the child's life. They add pleasure to his everyday experiences. These also serve as motivation to action. Every child enters the world with both pleasant and unpleasant things. They give him personal pleasure and satisfaction and also some of them make him unhappy and dissatisfied. Childhood is the critical age in the development of emotions. People those who have predominantly happy memories of the childhood are better adjusted as adolescents and adults than those whose memories centre round unhappy experiences. A healthy chid is a

happy child. Most parents want to guarantee their children a happy childhood. Parents often fail to recognise that happiness can not exist, if the pleasant emotions are dominated by the unpleasant. Children's emotions are brief and also, they are intense. Again, children's emotions are transitory. That is due to child's rapid shifts from laughter to tears, from anger to smiles and from jealousy to affection and the vice versa. It is a fact that children's emotions appear frequently and their emotional responses are different. The emotions of children change in strength and also change in their pattern of emotional expression. As for example, a baby in distress gets tense and excited. A small child may break and throw things in anger or he my shout and wail in distress. An older child may curse or even abuse. A young man may just turn round and walk away or may protest by keeping silent or even being noncooperative. In course of emotional development, another type of change occurs in emotions due to increasing understanding of the environment. For example, emotions that arouse anger, fear or joy gradually change from simple to complex. Loud noise, violent pushing etc. cause fear. Later, children are afraid of darkness, dog or policemen etc. Still later, probability of failure, punishment or any disgrace frighten them. In the beginning the sight of mother and feed gives joy. Later, sweets, toys, ride in a car or affectionate patting of father gives pleasure; and still later, the prospect of winning a prize, getting the applause of teachers 548 and friends or a cinema show is highly pleasant. That is because, young people's emotions are centred round concrete objects and places. Emotions are good. They are called the spices of life. Individuals enjoy doing and making things, mixing with people and contributing to the general welfare and prosperity of society. These should be the objectives of all those who are responsible for the education of the young people. The adolescents, when keep themselves engaged in constructive work, much of stress and strain of emotions are avoided. A highly educated, cultured person is he or she, who keeps his or her emotions under check. Sometimes he conceals in such a manner that other people are not able to find out what his or her inner feelings and emotions are. Emotional control may mean just suppression of emotions leading to maladjustments. The modern education does not advocate suppression of feelings and emotions, but expression of feelings and emotions, in a decent way.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT According to Sorensen, "By social growth and development we mean an increasing ability to get along with oneself and others". The child is very selfish. All the interests are centred round himself. He wants others to watch him, to see him play, eat, sleep. It is only gradually through play and work with other children of his age that he learns to think of others and shares his things with them. The individual interacts with his environment. He tries to adjust himself continually. Thus, this social growth takes place. The children in their childhood are dependent on their parents. When they become mature, the dependence should give place to self-care. This is what is meant by progressive improvement of the individual child. The child's development consists largely in becoming a social being. Social development means growing in ability of an individual to live, move and work as a member of the society. Gradually he learns social forms of behaviour, manners, customs, etiquette, traditions, etc. The child, as he grows, learns to examine the social institutions of the community. He tries to get acquainted with the ideals of social responsibility of educational institutions which prepare young people to live in society. This preparation begins in the family to work, to live and to co-operate with others. Social growth of child implies that the child continually adjusts himself to the social environment around him. The development of social behaviour is linked up with other types of 549 behaviour—physical, intellectual, emotional and attitudinal. One might take it for granted that the child is simply forced to become a social being. Stages of Social Development The child passes through several stages for his social growth. As soon as he is capable to take notice at all, he notices people. The first object that he definitely looks at is some human face. It is about the age of a few weeks the infant becomes aware of people in the home. By the age of two months, his own face looks bright with a smile at the sight of faces of the members of family. Some psychologists also hold that it is the second month, that the infant hears adult calls and begins to distinguish his mother. In about six months, the child begins to respond to other members. At 10 months, he

delights in playing with an adult. By 12 months, he enters the initiative stage and he tries to do what he sees others are doing. Child's social development follows a pattern. No child is born social, unsocial or anti-social. He is even not gregarious at first. It is said that "socialisation does not proceed in a vacuum". It the child is to learn to live socially with others, he must have opportunities to learn to do so. For the first year or more, the social environment of most young children consists of persons who are his superiors in strength and ability. They are in other words, adults. With this experience the child cannot learn how to deal with his equals. So the child should be placed in a group of his contemporaries at the age of 18 months in a Nursery School or the like. By age of 3 years children like to play side by side with the same materials. They play house with several other children by the age of 4 years. Year by year the children grow and develop. The social development depends very largely on the growth of intelligence and knowledge. Even before a child enters school, he benefits from social contacts with persons outside his family and neighbourhood. A Nursery School or Kindergarten provides a child excellent opportunities for learning to be social. The pre-school child is very much self-centred and plays alone. He does not like to share his play-things with others. Only after joining a school, the child begins to share things with his friends. Of course, he chooses some with whom he is more intimate. The child keeps contact not only with children of his own age, but with adults of different ages. As a result, there is a gradual increase in social participation and interaction with others. 550 In course of time, social awareness increases and so does child's social responsibility. During adolescence, he strongly feels that he has a right to be accepted as an adult. His first social contacts are done with adults. As adolescents, they want to join counsels at home and also at the school. Wise parents and teachers should allow them to share responsibility and manage affairs. Young people follow the examples set by parents and teachers. Often the adolescents take one of their friends as model and start all that he does. Some psychologists lay stress on harmful effect which unhealthy home environment has on social adjustments of children. Homes in which parents are always quarrelling with each other, where there is great poverty, where parents drink, commit crimes, beat their children or quarrel with neighbours, turn out children bad adults and anti-socials. Similarly, schools in which discipline is very strict, teachers are hard-task-masters, punishment is common and server and pupils are cursed and hated, adversely affect the healthy growth of children. Happily, modern educators and psychologists are aware of the harmful effects of such factors on the social development of children. 551

58 Children's Creativity: Meaning, Nature and Identification About 40 years back, creativity was attributed to a divine source being termed as "spark of genious" or "revelation". But today it is defined as the psychic functioning of human beings. Though, a unique power, it most often seems to be mystical. The earliest scientific approach to the study and understanding of the nature and implications of "creativity" was undertaken in the 1950's in the USA under the initiative and guidance of J.P. Guilford of Southern California University. Guilford developed the 'Structure of Intellect' model which is a three-dimensional figure presenting various intellectual factors. He tried to show how content, operation and products interact to give a unique factor of the mind. He identified five factors: (i) Cognition, (ii) Memory, (iii) Convergent production, (iv) Divergent production, and (v) Evaluation. Creativity is generally associated with divergent production which is a problem-solving activity involving originality, flexibility, fluency and sensitivity to new problems, definition skills ability to abstract, synthesize, organize a wide variety of ideas into a coherent, meaningful whole not seen before, elaboration, etc. For instance, if a child is asked to write the use of a knife in as many cases as possible, he exercises his divergent mental operations and gives a number of nobel uses of the knife, different from the ordinary or traditional functioning of the equipment. This unconventional or unusual style of thinking or mental operation is, according to Guilford, the typical form of creativity. Creativity is regarded as "the ability for divergent thinking or open-ended thought" (Page and Thomas, 1979). The factors of creativity are generally described as "associative and ideational fluency, originality, adaptive, and ability to make logical evaluation" (Good, 1950). Creativity is a novel problem-solving behaviour and is expressed through original 552 discoveries, new innovations, unconventional approaches to problems in systematic and organized ways. There are different kinds of creativity and are identified in various forms like music, dance, painting, art, sculpture, literature, science, mathematics, industry, technology, and so on.

Creativity is not the prerogative of a selected few. It is distributed among all people in a continuum. It is universally found in all persons in varied degrees and shades. The most salient feature of creativity is orginality. It is revealed through uncommon clever responses to new situations. It is usually displayed in the form of original capacity to organize ideas in novel juxtapositions. It is the capacity to grasp vast, complex and intricate conceptual structures. It is viewed not in conformity, but in novelty. Creativity stands for "the capacity to accept challenge", "the readiness to change oneself, "the capacity to change one's environment". According to many psychologists, creativity should form an integral part of intelligence. There have been a lot of controversies about the relationship between intelligence and creativity (Getzels and Jackson, 1962, Torrance, 1962). In general, there seems to be almost no relationship between measures of figural creativity and measures of intelligence, and only low positive relationship between verbal measures of creativity and intelligence. It was the belief that at birth there are individual differences in characteristics associated with creativity, e.g. responsiveness to environment, curiosity, etc. But a study by Pezzullo, Thorsen and Madaus (1972) showed no evidence of hereditary variation in either verbal or figural forms of creative thinking. According to Torrance (1977), the "heritability index for the figural and verbal measures of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking approached Zero and were statistically insignificant". Torrance (1971) summarised the results of 16 different studies conducted in various localities in order to ascertain the relation of creativity with socio-economic and radical factors. It was revealed that in some studies, there were no racial or socio-economic differences and in a few others, black children excelled whites on certain tasks and whites excelled blacks on others. The same was true where socio-economic differences were studied. On the whole, there was no racial or socialeconomic bias to the distribution of creativity. Creative activities seem to have a built-in motivation power. Positive reinforcement and external rewards seem unnecessary, though not 553 contradictory to creative activities. Rather it is found that in spite of discouragement or negative reinforcement, motivation of creative activities continues to sustain (Torrance and Myers, 1970).

IDENTIFICATION OF CREATIVITY Education aims at developing all kinds of creative talents in students. But identification of creativity must proceed any kind of arrangement of developing creativity. Since there are various creative talents, we have to adopt multiple-talent approach—there cannot be any one way of identifying talent. Again, there are aspects of talent which are not always amenable to testing or identifying so easily. We have to adopt, therefore, both testing and non-testing devices for identifying talents. Researchers have shown that if we consider academic talent alone, about 30 per cent of the school population will be missed. But the major emphasis in school today is on academic talent alone, which is, of course, not less important. It is, however, to be emphasized that by concentrating on academic talent alone, we are wasting a large part of talent available in the school. This is a great loss to the nation in terms of available human resources. It may be conceded that high achievers in the academic field have been found to possess other talents also, even though it cannot be taken for granted for all cases. We find a large number of poor achievers who are highly talented in other fields. Instances are not rare when we find cases with poor performance in schools have turned to be highly creative in inventions, writing, art, architecture and other fields. Research studies conducted by Donald Mackinnon and Frank Barron of the Institute for Personality Assessment, University of California at Berkeley, have revealed that out of highly creative adults—architects, authors and scientists— on school grades only a few were straight "A" students. For the architects averages on grades were around "B", whereas for research scientists they ranged somewhere between 'C and 'B', Baqer Mehdi (1977) has aptly observed: "Regarding the relationship between creativity and intelligence they found that no simple relationships existed between the two". It has been established that intelligence is a necessary, though, not the only, condition for creativity. Every creative person must have a certain minimum level of intelligence, but a highly intelligent one may not necessarily be creative. The famous study by J.W. Getzels and P.W. Jackson has shown that traditional measures of intelligence alone cannot spot out creative students. They arrived at the conclusion that creative students have 554

something else and something more than what the intelligence tests show. The correlation between intelligence tests and tests of creativity with emphasis on divergent thinking has been found to be positive, but low. Such correlation, again, exits up to a certain level of IQ, not beyond that point. Torrance has also equally confirmed that there is hardly any correlation between IQ and creativity test scores above at 120 IQ. The minimum level above which creativity and IQ may not show relationship will certainly differ from one field to another depending on the role intelligence plays in it. For example, it may be found that scientific creativity requires a higher level of intelligence than creativity in art or music. All creativity tests do not measure each and every creative ability equally. Tests of divergent thinking alone do not constitute complete tests of creativity. They, of course, represent an important factor of creative thinking ability. There are a number of personality traits which are also involved in the making of a creative person. According to Torrance, we miss about 70 per cent of our more creative youth when we depend in IQ tests alone. Another findings of Getzels and Jackson's study which was later confirmed by Torrance that teachers preferred to have children of higher IQ in the class rather than creative ones achieving well in the class. This distinctly shows that it is not only the intelligence tests that are biased against the highly creative child but also the teacher. It is also evident that teachers with limited concept of creativity give more emphasis to academic aptitude. "Such an attitude on the part of the teachers", as observed by Mehdi (1977), "is surely a great hindrance in the way of identifying creative talent in the classroom". It has been rightly concluded by Mehdi that we will have to depend on tests of creative thinking for identifying creative talent. However, we have to develop some non-testing techniques which would enable us to assess those facets of personality which are not generally amenable to teaching. Teachers should be made more conscious of the true nature of creativity. The most popular tests of creativity are those by Torrance and Guilford's tests based on a factorial study of creative talent are also used by many researchers. The tests developed by Mehdi for measuring creativity were suitable for the schoolgoing children in India. His was a battery of creative tests based on Torrance's concept of creative thinking. It was meant to identify creative talent at all stages of education except pre-primary and primary. It consists of two parts, viz. verbal and non555 verbal for measuring a unified dimension in the intellectual domain designed as creativity. With a view to identifying creativity in the students, one should be aware of the personality traits or general characteristics of a creative person. Research studies have shown that a creative person is self-sufficient. That is, his cognitive style is such that he will not depend on others for support. He can take his own decisions and can think for himself. Secondly, as a corollary to the previous characteristics, the creative person feels himself competent to plan for his own things. He does not need the help and guidance from others. Thirdly, the creative person is one-minded and free from dogmatism and partisan spirit. He is independent in thinking and independent in judgement. Fundamentally, he is a non-formist and non-traditional in his cognitive style and approach. Fourthly, the creative individual is conscious of his own emotions and impulses. He is self-accepting and self-asserting as a result of which he can express his creativity under all circumstances. Even "adverse circumstances serve as a kind of spur for his creative expression" (Raina, 1977). Fifthly, the creative person is very strong-minded and is not at all worried about opposition and criticism of others. Even he is unmindful of any kind of loss or persecution. Socrates and Copernicus are the bright examples of this type in the history of mankind. Sixthly, the creative people are found to be persistent. The quality of persistence or perservance is very innate, or inborn with them. They show a high degree of energy and activity. The biographies of the Nobel prize winners are replete with the examples of persistence and doggedness in spite of all odds and adversities in their life. Seventhly, many creative persons are felt to be accentric and egoistic. It is natural to their mental make-up and cognitive style. Although they appear to be absent-minded, they are not so in general, they are psychologically healthy people and mentally alert. Creativity is a very complex phenomenon. It is the product of many complex and diverse forces and factors. The characteristics mentioned above are only rough indicators of creativity and tests are also not self-sufficient in identifying creativity. Hence, we have to utilize various occasions and conditions for observing creative potentialities. Creativity

556 can be identified and ascertained from different intellectual and non-intellectual behaviours of individuals.

CONCLUSION The world is changing very fast and the child of today has to face a new world in the future. Education aims at preparing him not only to face dynamic and complex situations and phenomena but also to contribute adequately to the growth of a happier, richer and more prosperous world. This world would be possible only if students of today with creative capacity are identified earlier and then their talents developed properly. Teachers, parents and others who share the environment of growth and learning of children should be receptive, sympathetic and helpful in this challenging adventure. The home and the school should provide an atmosphere of free, democratic and creative activities. The media, methods and materials should be developed adequately for their creative activities. The spirit of enquiry and discovery should transcend the entire environment of the child's development and learning. In fine, all should extend their helping hand to the child of today not only to ensure "a soft landing" in the uncertain future, but also to enable him for bringing about a "take-of " stage of the scientific world as early as possible.

REFERENCES Getzels, J.W. and Jackson, P.W., Creativity and Intelligence, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1962. Good, Carter V. (Ed.), Dictionary of Education, McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc. New York: 1959. Guilford, J.P., "Creativity", American Psychologist, 1950, 5. Guilford, J.P., The Nature of Human Intelligence, New York: McGraw Hill, 1967. Macinnon, D.W. (Ed), The Creative Person, Berkeley: California University, 1961. Mehdi, Baqer (Ed), Creativity in Teaching and Learning, Mysore: Regional College of Education, 1977. Page, G. Terry and Thomas, J.B., International Dictionary of Education, London: The English Language Book Society and Kogan Page, 1979. Pezzule, T.R., Thorson, E.E., Madaus, G.F., "The Heritability Jensen's Level I and II and Divergent Thinking, American Educational Research Journal, 1972-9, 539-46. Rama, M.K., "Identification of Creative Talent Non-Testing Techniques", in Creativity in Teaching and Learning, Mysore: RCE, 1977. Torrance, E.P., Guiding Creative Talent, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice Hall, 1962. Torrance, E.P., Encouraging Creativity in the Classroom, Dubuque, Iowa, 1970. Torrance, E.P., "Are the Tprrance, Tests of Creative Thinking Biased Against or in 557 Favour of Disadvantaged Groups?" Gifted Child Quarterly, 1971, 15, 80. Torrance, E.P. and Myers, R.E., Creative Learning and Teaching, New York: Dodd Mead, 1970. Torrance, E.P. and Torrance, J.P., Is Creativity Teachable? Bloomington Ind., 1973. Torrance, E.P., After Twenty-five Years: What do we Know about Creativity" in Creativity in Teaching and Learning, IRC, Mysore, 1977. Vernon, P.E. (Ed.), Creativity, Penguin Modern Psychology Readings, Penguin Books, 1970. 558

59 Encouraging Children's Creativity 1. PERIOD OF CREATIVE EXPERIENCES

Man is a potential creater. The important difference between man and animal is that man creates intentionally, whereas animal does not, if at all, rather instinctively. Young children are by nature active as well as creative. They show evidence of creative potentiality through the interaction with their environment. Adequate facilities need be provided for identifying as well as promoting creative experiences in Pre-primary and Primary Schools. Mrinalini Sarabhai has rightly observed, "Creative experience at this stage is not important. It is essential that the potentiality hidden in the child be discovered and nurtured, that he or she finds the freedom to make his own adjustment to the world, in fact, to understand the significance of life itself."1

2. WHAT WE MEAN BY CREATIVITY The concept of creativity is very delicate and complicated. It is explained by many in various terms as viewed by them differently. According to Torrance, creativity is a process, a product, a personality, or an environmental condition. He has defined creativity as "the process of sensing problems or gaps in information, forming ideas or hypotheses, testing and modifying these hypotheses, and communicating the results."2 Smith has described it as "putting these (past) selected experience together into new patterns, new ideas or products.3 Rogers has also viewed creativity as a process "emergence in action of a novel relational product, growing out of the uniqueness of the individual on the one hand, and the material, events, people or circumstances of his life on the other.4 559 According to some educators like Guilford, an individual who develops new activities and thoughts, is creative and creativity is the capacity of an individual for mental and development activities. Patty and Japsen have summed up all these definitions by saying that "creativity becomes the contribution of something of an original nature, the opposite of conformity, the placement of isolated experience and ideas in new combinations or patterns, a departure from the main track and the adaptation of ideas and information to one's needs".5 Generally the creative products and processes are associated with imagination, curiosity, innovation, discovery and invention.

3. IDENTIFYING CREATIVITY Creativity is evident in the fields of literature, music, art, architecture, dance, drama and so on. It is also found in many activities that we usually do not recognise as requiring innovation, imagination, invention or discovery. He accepts these activities as routine, stereotyped and ordinary. For example, house-keeping may be regarded as an activity of routine nature not calling for creativity. But also decoration of house, proper arrangement of house-hold material, intelligent selection of menu 'for everyday, even entertaining a guest represent genuine creativity. Although mathematics is called a dry, dreary and mechanical subject Rowen has described it "as creative as music, painting or sculpture."6 Creative activity is also regarded as spontaneous. For instance, a large number of expressions are spontaneous. Some of them may be merely parroting; some of them may be only mechanical and all these activities do not call for any imagination or innovation. Creative activity is also called voluntary and closely related to spontaneous activity. But preparation is necessary in almost all kinds of great activities and objects. According to some people, creative activities do not have utility and utilitarian products may not be creative. For example, they feel that letter-writing having utility is not creative. But this is not always true. Similarly, some people hold the view that whatever individuals do, say or write in their own ways is creative. From this point of view, all activities and objects are creative weather or not it has utility. We should not make a hard and fast distinction between creative and practical or utilitarian. 560

4. CULTIVATING CREATIVITY Creativity is not always inborn. It is to be identified nourished and developed by providing adequate facilities. It is, of course, an outgrowth of the child's natural curiosity. No child can be creative all on a sudden. Teachers and parents must recognise his originality, his individual talent and interest and foster the same to flourish. Marksberry maintains that creativity should be developed through a process of four steps; (i) Preparation, (ii) Incubation, (iii) Insight, illumination or inspiration, and (iv) Verification, elaboration, perfection and evaluation. We usually expect children to be at the final stage. But unless we see them through all these stages, their latent talent or originality may not be properly developed. Due to our negligence very often the creative potentiality is nipped at the bud.

5. AREAS OF CREATIVITY

Language development is an important area of creativity. Although virtually all children possess the ability to speak and to express their feelings and needs, some of them only develop effective and interesting communication which may be called creative. Language development occurs all the time and along with it personality as well as creative expression takes place. Children should be given ample scope for talking and writing, i.e. both oral and written expression. Children take delight in pretending as parents, grand parents, beggars, street vendors, etc. There is no limit to their "make-believe" activities. Dramatic plays, sociodrama, psychodrama, pantomima, puppetry and varieties of such activities are called "creative dramatic which promotes creativity in language learning. Dramatic play is the initial form of creative dramatics. It is an imaginative play of the young child who imitates life as he or she sees and feels it. It may not be a dramatic activity in true sense. It may be regarded as a play activity. Children express their feelings and ideas with natural enthusiasm and spontaneity through dramatic plays. Such activity strengthens and broadens their ability to use language in various situations. All dramas should be creative and improvization takes place in all dramatic activities. Spontaneity or improvisation is facilitated when the story or poem or event or the object of dramatization is familiar and simple. Children play various roles as they feel and like. That is free 561 expression is allowed to all children and all these dramatic activities are also known as "role-playing". Role-playing is a purposeful group activity in which "learning process takes place not only on the verbal level, as in general, but also on the sense level, the action level and then on emotional level."7 Through such activities behavioural modification or training takes place and creative abilities are developed to a great extent.

6. WHAT TEACHERS CAN DO? The teacher has to play a crucial and catalytic role not only in recognising the creative potentiality but also in providing adequate facilities for developing the same to the maximum. He knows the environment and also the local resources. He has to organise various activities which can provide opportunity for improving the latent potentialities of children. He has to motivate his students and promote his interest and aspirations creatively. The teacher can take up various experiments and innovation according to the students' needs and available resources for developing creativity in children. He is to nourish their natural talent as a true gardener does with the plants. Vikram Sarabhai has nicely said, "He has to provide the soil and the overall climate and environment in which the seed can grow. On, has to be a cultivator rather than a manufacturer".8

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Sarabhai Mrinalini, "The Creative Experience", Balak, Vol. V. No. 1, Feb. 1991, Quarterly Bulletin of the Indian Association for Preschool Education, New Delhi, p. 6. 2. Torrance, E.P., What Research Says to the Teacher: Creativity, Washington D.C., National Education Association, 1963, p. 4. 3. Smith, James A., Setting Conditions for Creative Teaching in the Elementary School, Boston. Ally in & Bacon, 1956, p. 4. 4. Roger, Carl, "Towards a Theory of Creativity," Creativity and Its Cultivation edited by Gerakd H. Andarson, New York: Harpar & Brothers, 1959, p. 71. 5. Patthy, Walter T. & Jensen, Bulie M, Developing Children's Language Allyn & Bacon Inc. Boston, 1980. p. 304. 6. Rowen, Halan: The Wonderful World of Why," Saturday Review, No. 2, 1957. p. 42. 7. Hoode, R.C. & Jarial, Gurpal Singh, "Development of Creativity Through Techniques of Role-playing" Rajasthan Board Journal of Education. October December, 1983, p. 20. 8. Sarabhai, Vikram, quoted in, The Creative Experience" by M. Sarabhai, op.sit., p. 6.

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60 Individual Differences of Pupils— A Challenge to our Teachers A. ALL MEN ARE NOT CREATED EQUAL At the outset, teachers are likely to observe and think of the pupils as being very much alike. But as they grow up in their professional life and gain new experiences in the classrooms, they usually and invariably become conscious of the fact that children are not at all equal. They are very different; different in height, weight, strength, intelligence, temperament and so on. They are led to realise of their distinctive qualities of physical appearance and striking variations of their mental and moral abilities. In short, every child is unique by himself. We find some children are prompt in grasping new ideas; some are very fluent in story-telling and recitation; some are too quick to work out the sums. We often admire the good hand-writing of some others. We are often annoyed by the naughtiness of some students, by verbosity of some and shyness of a few. As Charles E. Skinner has aptly stated, "Behaviour, intelligence, drive and physique are but a few of the clues to what can be expected of children, what the home situation is like, or what the child thinks of himself. In course of classroom management and teaching the teacher gains experience, by means of which he can assess the abilities of his pupils more accurately and realise the basic fact that not only there is a wide difference in their aptitude, interest, attitude, aspirations and so on, but also such differences are assets for individuals as well as for the nation. As such one of the most significant and urgent questions in modern education is what kind of organisation and adjustment will encourage the fullest development of the varied mental capacities and inclination of students. 563

B. EXTENT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES— THE NOTION OF TYPES It is not possible to represent a man in his entirety by means of a single index. No single psychological test will reveal all the aspects of an individual's personality, his ability in arithmetic, language, general intelligence and so on. One device can measure or describe an aspect or segment of the individual. Thus, curves portraying human variability represent only some selected traits, rather than the total personalities, so the scientific doctrines of human abilities and differences are not in conformity with the popular opinion that all persons fall "naturally" into distinct types. According to the erroneous notion, a person is either bright or dull, artistic or unartistic, of good disposition or bad disposition and so on. Thus, the previous notion of 'types' has been exploded now. As a matter of fact human beings can not more be classified properly as members of one type or another. This does not mean that there are no individuals at either extreme. It means that when persons in general studies, it is found that instead of two dimetrically opposed types, there is a continuous gradation from one extreme to the other. In brief, individual differences are matters of degree and are distributed along a continuum.

C. PHYSICAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DIFFERENCES The most easily observed differences in individuals are physical and developmental. In a classroom we find the variation in height, weight and appearance. If we are to divide the pupils numbering 36 in the class into six groups with the tallest at one and the shortest at the other, majority (24) will cluster about the average, few will be found at the extremes. Measurements of large groups as regards any one trait usually follow the same bell-shaped curve called the normal curve. Intelligence In the class, we can easily observe the bright, responsive youngsters as well as unresponsive and dullards. It is also surprising to note that the less communicative pupils are with high I.Q.S. Conversely, among the more expressive are few of the less bright. If we can collect the intelligence quotients for the class, the scores will take the form of the bell-shaped curve. The scores might range from a low of 60 to a high of 160. Most scores, however, will cluster about 100. 564 Achievement Prior to teaching in a new class, we should know the extent of achievement. Wide ranges in achievement are normally

found in reading and arithmetic. If we can test the pupils of class IV, the achievement will range from below the average of children in the second class up to almost the seventh class. In reading comprehension, the range of individual differences extends from the Class II to Class IX and in arithmetic computation from the Class III to Class VII. There may be differences in achievement, if the pupils are about the same in intelligence. Intelligence is really a composite of various mental faculties. One of the two pupils may be superior in the verbal component of intelligence, the other in numerical. There are also other factors like experience, instruction and interest. Intelligence, achievement, physique, etc., generally constitute the personalities of pupils. "These traits are outward signs of dynamic forces that act and inter-act in an infinite number of ways. That is why the integration of these traits or personalities is never the same in any two individuals. Personality is unique" (C.E. Skinner). Nature and Nurture The problem of individual difference owes its origin to a great number of causes. All variations and diversities found among individuals may be thought of as joint products of heredity and environment or in other words of nature and nurture. Under nature we can include such biological factors as immediate to ancestry, race, sex, age and under nurture all of the social, educational, cultural and other environmental agencies, which shape and fashion our behaviour from cradle to grave. Now, it has been the major task of differential psychology to evaluate the relative contributions of these two groups of influences. The relative importance of nature and nurture in determining individual difference is an old controversial question. At first, it was believed that heredity is the sole determinant of all human potentialities. But now this belief has given place to the greater significance of environment. It is to be borne in mind that heredity and environment are not "forces" to operate independently and exclusively although many individual differences seem attributable primarily to one or the other influences. For instance, the colour of a child's hair and eyes, his mother tongue, etc., are considered to be the product of environment as they depend mainly on the country or region in which he is brought up. But these distinctions are not like watertight compartments as they appear at our 565 first glance. Physical characteristic like the complexion of skin and hair, height and weight are affected by climate, diet and disease and the attributes such as the use of mother-tongues and garments are also determined by the elaborate structure of throat and vocal cords and economic condition respectively. So, neither nature nor nurture can be held exclusively, responsible for any mental or physical traits of a child. Every human child is born with certain skeletal and muscular structures as well as with a certain mental traits, which are native and inherited. But this equipment should be enriched and moulded by learning and experience. The factors like immediate ancestry, sex and race always operate in some environmental setting. In any given act whether it is pronouncing a word, shooting a bullet, or building a bridge, both native constitution and specific training enter. In any behaviour beginning from simple reflex to the most complex literary and scientific achievements, there is no clear-cut demarcation-line, where heredity left off completely and environment tookover. Thus, we can safely conclude that same trait differences originate in heredity, some in environment and some are influenced by both. Whatever their origin, such factors as health and physique, experience and learning, home-and-school relationships profoundly influence the extent of individual differences. In short, both groups of influences are indispensable to growth and both must be studied to understand individual differences.

D. SOME STUDIES AND FINDINGS The eminent English scientist Francis Galton (1822-1911) is best known to psychologists as a pioneer investigator of heredity and the first man to apply statistical methods systematically to the problem of individual differences. Galton was much interested in the problem of nature and nurture. In the study of imagery, he found that "the reported absence of imagery is largely a result of training and of thinking and working". But Galton witnessed considerable evidence of hereditary influence on imagery. He reports for example that imagery tends to run in families, is stronger in women than in men, is stronger in younger than in older persons. According to Galton, imagery is not necessarily correlated with eminence as a painter or imaginative writer. Great individual differences exist in the "kind" and "amount" of imagery. Galton at first studied the question of the inheritance of conspicuous ability or talent. In order to study the influence of immediate ancestry 566 upon achievement, he selected for study 977 eminent British men, each of whom he judged would rank as one man in

4,000 in ability. These selections were based upon a survey of the man's achievements upon his biography and upon other available information. Among those included were judges, Statesmen, Prime Ministers of England from 1768 to 1868, miliary commanders, literary and scientific men, poets, artists and clergymen. Galton's method was to determine whether those persons had more reputed relatives, fathers, brothers, sons, uncles and other than would be expected of 977 men selected at random from general population. His findings showed that his selected group of 977 had a total of 332 close relatives just as eminent as themselves against an expected number of only 1. These eminent relatives included 89 fathers, 114 brothers, 129 sons. The same group of 977 had also 203 equally eminent grandfathers, grandsons, uncles and nephews, as against a problem number of 3. The expectation of 1 and 3 here stated mean that the statistical chances are 1 and 3 respectively, in any unselected group of 977 men. In another study of the heredity of artistic ability, Galton found that in 30 families wherein both parents were artistic, 64 per cent of the children were artistic, while in 150 families, wherein neither parent was artists, only 21 percent of the offspring showed artistic ability. Galton also conducted some other studies of related individuals, which revealed a similar degree of particular traits in both parents and offsprings. Galton hereby ascertained that there is a great superiority of inheritance to environment. He concluded that even the best environment cannot raise a man to a position of eminence unless he possesses natural gifts of high-standard. The statistical studies started by Galton, were extended and enriched by Karl Pearson, Galton's professor of Eugenics at the University of London from 1911 to 1936. In one typical study by Pearson, 2,000 brothers and sisters were rated by their teachers for intelligence vivacity, conscientiousness, popularity, temper, self-consciousness, assortiveness and handwriting. Correlations for all eight trait average; .52 between brother and brother, .51 between sister and sister, and .52 between brother and sister. Pearson, in another study found that the correlations between such attributes as eye-colour, hair-colour, height, etc., over which environment can have little effect if any, also average from .50 to .55 for siblings. From these conclusions he argued that both mental and physical traits must also be basically the result of hereditary influences. He says, "we are forced, I think literally forced to the conclusions that 567 the physical and psychical characters in man are inherited within broad lines in the same manners and with the same intensity". These studies carry much importance by virtue of the eminence of their authors and careful compilation. But there are some difficulties in accepting predominant influence of heredity whole-heartedly. First difficulty is the error of selection. Galton's choice of eminent men was inevitably affected by subjective factors. It is really debatable whether eminence as a statesman, in which political and social conditions play so large a role, can be equated to eminence as man of letters or of science. It is also doubtful whether a person's true eminence can be judged from his biography or from impressions of his contemporaries, and it is equally significant to note that we do not know what part social factors, family tradition, wealth, education and opportunity played in determining the eminence of Galton's Group. The error of selection is also certainly present in Pearson's ratings and environmental influences. Although such early studies had many limitations, their conclusion emphasizing the greater efficacy of heredity over environment has not yet been falsified, by later studies. One important experimental investigation is Terman's study of gifted children. In Terman's sense, a gifted child meant a child with an I.Q. of 130 or above. Nearly one-fourth of the members of the Hall of Fame were related to these children and many of their parents and near relatives held or have held important political officers, College Presidencies, Professorships and major business positions. Follow-up studies showed that these gifted children have received their superior status in comparison to average children. Besides the potency of heredity, on the side of environment we find that these gifted children came in general from superior homes. Economic condition was affluent, educational level of parents was high and the divorce rate was low. It can be stated that intelligent parents have intelligent children and the good environment leads inevitable to superior achievement. As Henry E. Garrett has put in a figurative language, "A not unfair analogy is that of an automobile engine. Good oil and careful handling will undoubtedly make a cheaply built engine run better, not even the best oil and the most careful handling cannot make it perform for long like a first-class machine"

E. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS We all know that the child's education begins at his birth. Since his abilities as well as his traits of personality and physique are the products of the integration of inherited potentialities and environmental forces, 568 the importance of education for mental growth is apparent. Therefore, we should regard the duration, quality and intensity

of educational forces as important influences on individual differences. The differences between sexes in interests and aptitudes are not growth of sex-linked psychological characteristics. They are rather to be attributed to social forces. But sexual differentiation in education in certain fields are desirable on a basis of social physical factors. The best procedure is to educate individuals in a manner consistent with interests, abilities, etc. to minimize the sex factor as such. It is a major task of the archers to identify and cultivate the superior and creative minds and to bring the inferior to their maximum level of effectiveness. Although classifications are possible as regards a given aspect of individuality, it is the integration of various traits that give a person his individuality. So, fallacy of mass instruction is clearly evident, even for average children. The school should provide for the individual differences by means of differential curricula and individualized instruction as far as possible. Although each child is unique, all children have much in common. They have the same kinds of basic psychological needs. Majority of pupils have approximate extent of skills, abilities and interests. Indeed in many pupils the similarities are greater than the difference. True understanding of individual differences will help teachers to make and evaluate remedial programme realistically. Knowing that all aspects of personality are interrelated we will be better able to teach special classes, whether the backward or the gifted.

F. SCHOOL ADJUSTMENTS TO INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES As our pupils differ widely in aptitudes, attitudes and interests, we should not treat them all alike in a class. We are expected to develop the capacities of each individual. But in our schools generally education is geared to the whole groups rather than to individuals. Modern educationists therefore advocate "the knell of class-teaching". We have to find ways and means, through which the school can satisfy the needs of individual learners. The necessary adjustments are considered to be mainly in three categories; (i) Grouping, (ii) Curriculum, and (iii) Methods of reaching. (i) Grouping Many plans and programmes have been tried to suit the instruction to different individuals. Pupils are to be grouped on the basis of mental 569 age and intelligence quotients. In grouping pupils, the modern concept is that not only chronological age and mental maturity but also physical maturity, social maturity, emotional maturity should be considered. Even with the best sort of grouping, some plan of individualization of instruction is desirable and necessary. The pupils of the Class I at the age of five plus are heterogeneous in capacities and interests. There may be some children with a mental age of four years and some with mental age of eight years. Usually, they are given the same assignments and are expected to do the identical works. Therefore, the classification of pupils according to their mental ability is desired to solve the problem in a better way. Such grouping in classes called homegen ours group. Thus, pupils of high, average and low abilities are taught in sub-groups within the class in school subjects. But the following reasons are cited against the homogeneous classes: (1) They are apt to segregate the bright and stigmatize the dul. (2) They diminish the opportunities for growth of leadership among the talented pupils. (3) They encourage antidemocratic attitudes among the pupils. (4) They deprive the average and backward pupils of the stimulation provided by the bright or gifted children. Some modern educational systems like Dalton Plan are more ambitious efforts to cope with the problem of individualizing instruction. An important aspect of these plans is that traditional classrooms are transformed into subject-matter laboratories. Pupils are given assignment sheets or self-instructive exercises. The teacher is free to render assistance to the individual pupils and there are group activities also besides individual activities.

(ii) Curriculum Adjustment Modern schools should adjust their content of study to the varying capacities of the children. The curriculum should be flexible. There must be a common core of subjects and basic skills required for children to effectively participate in the democratic and economic system of our country. There must be a wide variety of educational offerings to serve the different interests, needs and abilities of individuals. Adjustment is absolutely necessary for bright or gifted children. For their proficiency we have to enrich their programme of study by adding the number and variety of applications of principles and by adding 570 advanced materials for problems in the ordinary subjects. At first the gifted children should be identified by the teachers and they should be given special guidance and help. But sometimes they are placed in "rapid advancement" classes in which they complete the regular school work in less than normal time and this results in emotional maladjustment. Similarly, we have to make adjustments for backward or pupils of low ability. As practical workers, we have to evolve suitable devices. One of these is simpler content, exercises and experiences in arithmetic, skills and interests in reading, nature study in the General Science and work-study in the social studies. Another adjustment to low ability is to make similar assignments less extensively. Similarly, we find that some children have certain disabilities to master a particular skill or concept at particular time and thus find themselves unable for more advanced work. So we have to pay special attention to such pupils. In a reading class for instance, we see that a pupil is unable to pronounce a word accurately owing to mal-movement of tongue and lips or due to some difficulties in his eye movements. In this case the teacher has to give some demonstration or drilling to the disabled pupil in the same class or in special remedial classes. Adjustments to physical defects may also be made by giving special attention and supervision to pupils and maintaining class co-ordination with parents and clinical agencies in the locality. (iii) Methods of Teaching Adjustment In a class, we have to adopt methods of teaching appropriate to the ability of pupils. Bright pupils can master easily the abstracts, concepts difficult informations from books. The slow learners require very concrete things through direct experiences. Because they often hail from less privileged homes. They should be provided with much of experiences in and outside the school. Taking them on trips, and exploring community resources for and with them are important for this group. Adoption of multi-sense approach is more helpful to the slowgoers. We all know that appealing through various senses strengthens learning for all children. But it is more effective for the slow. For example, audio-visual aids of various kinds, are to be used for the purpose. We have to select subjects and examples of immediate interest and practical significance for the backward. More efforts and attention are to be paid for motivation of the slow. Because bright children can find their environment rich in matters for self-motivation. The talented are still to be provided with more opportunities for intensive individual 571 works according to their interest in curricular subjects like reading, writing, arithmetic or in hobbies like stamp collecting, drawing, gardening, etc. Sufficient facilities should be afforded for free creative expression in various arts. They can be selected as "Mantries" and office-bearers in different fields to assume greater responsibilities for planning, executing and co-ordination group projects and works.

G. CONCLUSION Lastly, we can safely conclude that a good knowledge of the problem of individual differences is most essential, if the teacher is to improve the education for all children. The basic idea we should have is that variations in ability and interests of children are not undesirable liabilities, but desirable assets. The teacher must be familiar with various approaches to adjust the learning situation to the individual needs. He is to acquire skills either to increase and enrich or decrease and to discourage the existing differences among children. Each approach or device occupies a significant place in the modern school system. It is our sacred duty to ensure that every child must realize his educational growth and development through carefully planned and administered adjustments suitable to their wide individual differences. 572

61 Language Development of Children 1. NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE Language is known as a medium of communication. In that sense some animals and insects like dolphins and beas have language. But their language lack the unique features of human language. In this context Susan Ervin Tripp (1964) lists three particular features which characterise the human language: (1) the combination and the recombination of a limited number of elements, the creation of arbitrary meanings for combinations which are conventional in a social group and the reference to distant objects and events and to abstract concepts. These three characteristics make human language expandable and flexible in form and in meanings. In this process we can invent new terms and give old terms new meanings which are gradually accepted and used by various social groups. Even nuclear and missile programme, space programme and computer application which did not have their place in most of the world languages, the Chinese, Russian, French and Japanese have found no major difficulty in expressions, discourages and descriptions. All nations are now engaged in various universal communication with facilities and flexibilities through languages of their own. Recently however language has been known as a means of thinking, feeling and reacting to things. Particularly in childhood, language plays a formative role in the development of the child's personality and abilities. Krishna Kumar (1996) has aptly said, "It acts as a suitable, yet strong force, shaping the child's perception of the world, interests, capabilities, and even values and attitudes." Hence, language is not merely a medium of expressions but it is a means of feeling, thinking and perceiving. Every child in this world, whatever his or her mother-tongues, uses language to fulfil certain objectives, immediate or remote. Language is thus an excellent tool to realise our purposes and its influence in a child's life is multi-faceted and multi-dimensional. 573 It has been rightly observed by Krishna Kumar that children's use of language is closely related to the things they do with their hands and bodies and the objects they come in contact with. Words and action go together in childhood. Action and experiences create the need for word, and words provide access to an experience after it is over. With the help of words, children enrich their relationship. With the objects they come in touch with. On the other hand, words without action or contact with objects remain empty and lifeless for the child. For example, words like mother at walk, run, red, blue, river, sea, rough and smooth mean very little to the child unless these words have first been used in a context where the child is actively involved with an object or in an act. Only after such involvement do these words become associated with an image and become available for meaningful use in future. The relationship between words and the child's experience poses a unique responsibility on adults—parents, teachers and writers of children's books. The adults have to provide a wide range of experiences to the children whether they are at home or school. Children need experience and keep contact with various objects and events in their environments from early childhood to adolescence. We often deprive them of a wide range of experiences in anticipation of their physical injuries or damage of valuable goods. It is therefore suggested that more and richer experiences need be provided to children, whether in homes or schools, so that they can learn the words and their meanings in different contexts. That is why Krishna Kumar (p. 2) has said, "So a school (for that matter a home, italic is mine) where children are not doing a variety of things with their hands, where they are mostly sitting and listening to the teacher and where these are no objects to touch, manipulate, break and remake, cannot be a good place to develop language skills". These experiences of children are better to be direct and personal, but can be indirect and recreated like reading children's literature. But the children's literature should be related to their immediate environment, actual life-situations, familiar subjects and objects. Importance of language in a child's development cannot be overestimated. Most of his learning depends on language which is the basis of all social communication. The transmission of culture from the generation to another which is one of the important aims of education, depend largely on language. The acquisition of words is essential for abstraction and concept formation and in fact, almost, all higher learning and higher mental processes, such as thinking, planning, reasoning, paying attention, 574 remembering and judging. Failure to become skillful in communication (speaking writing, reading, etc.) greatly impairs a child's general mental or cognitive development. Process of Language Development The process of language development is immensely influenced by environmental conditions and learning. The

psychologist and linguists feel that learning theory can not fully explain the complex and extremely rapid development of the child's vocabulary, grammatical and semantic knowledge. Ability to vocalise speech sounds and write the symbols of alphabet depends on the neure muscular maturation. The child must learn to use language for communicating with others, for understanding others and for thinking. A child begins to understand language and to make meaningul associations between words and the beings what they stand for. It is found from a study that the average two-year old spoke 37 different words. But this is minimal estimate of the child's vocabulary. The range of individual differences among the two-year olds is too wide from 10 to 120 words. A child's effective vocabulary, that is, his ability to speak or understand words, expands immensely starting with the second year. The following table shows the increase in the size of average effective vocabulary between the ages of eight months and six years. During the second year, a child develops the use and understanding of these words and his speech becomes more accurate, adult like and hence more comprehensible. He also increases comprehension of directions and questions.

2. LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT DURING PRE-SCHOOL YEARS The structural pattern of speech changes rapidly and remarkably during the Pre-school years. The research studies have revealed that nouns and interjections together constitute 60 per cent of a child's speech at 18 months. But the percentage of such words comes down as he grows older. Gradually pronouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, and prepositions in crease in frequency. Between the ages of two and three, the child's speech consists primarily of nouns, verbs and adjectives, 575 TABLE 1 Growth of Vocabulary between 8 months and six years of age Age in years and months Average number of words 0-8

0

0-10

1

1-0

3

1-3

19

1-6

22

1-9

118

2-0

272

2-6

446

3-0

896

3-6

1222

4-0

1540

4-6

1870

5-0

2072

5-6

2289

6-0

2562

Source: From Smith, M.E., An Investigation of the Development of the Sentence and the Extent of Vocabulary in young children, University of Iowa study, Child Welfare, 1926, Vol. 3, No. 5. comparatively a few pronouns and virtually no connectives. But by the time a child is 3Vi or 4 years old, the distribution of words under various parts of speech in the daily conversation approximates that in an adult. His vocabulary greatly expands and he used the same more efficiently. His speech becomes more comprehensible and frequent. His articulation and pronunciation improve very rapidly between the ages three and three-and-half. By the age of eight his pronunciation does not differ much from that of an adult. The sentences used by the child gradually become longer, more complex and more elaborate. Average sentence of a 2-year old child consists of 1-2 words and of 3 1/2 year old child has 3 1/2 or 4 1/2 words. But only six months later, i.e. at about four years of age on the average, children use complete sentences, six to eight words in length. Although a child may not know or tell about the grammatical rules, but he can use plurals, past and future tenses, subordinate and

coordinate clauses. Sometimes children's early mastery of the usages and structures becomes amazing. 576

3. STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT According to Harold Vetter and Richard Howell (1971), there are four stages of language development: (1) Prelinguistic stage, (ii) a stage of one-word utterances, (iii) a two-word stage, and (iv) a stage of morphosyntactic development. (i) Prelinguistic Stage Vetter and Howell (1971) believed that the child's prelinguistic behaviours are his first attempts to develop the phonemic system of his native language. They described the child's phonemic system as "collapsed" because it fails to make the sound-intonation distinctions made by the adult speaker. The system include crying, babbling, Iallation etc. (ii) Stage of One-word Sentences During the last part of the sensor motor period (from 1 to 1 1/2 years), the child speaks in single words. Vetter and Howell observe that the child is learning patterns and structures rather than particular words. By linking the use of single word to the child earliest construction of grammar, Piaget's signs and symbols are related to this system. Vetter and Howell also believe that the single word would function only as indexes. (iii) Stage of Two-word Sentences This period starts from the end of the sensorimotor period and the child reaches the level of pre-operational thinking that allows him to represent objects with signs and symbols. Vetter and Howell (1971) described the period of two-word sentences is more than a mere joining of two independent entities. Words belonging to this period are modifiers that indicate quantity (viz less) and quality (viz. beautiful). Words are mostly nouns indicating categories of objects (for instance, bread, mango). (iv) Morphosyntactic Stage Vetter and Howell (P. 23) described this period as containing a number of inter-related process: analogic formations, over generalisation, expansion of telegraphic speech, increase in sentence length and increase in mastery of syntactic rules. The examples of these types are as follows. "Cast/Casts to Coat/Coats. Analogic formation but over-generalisation 577 can yield forms which are not found in the models, as foot/foots, or of the suort hit/hited show that the child has a rule for generating the plural and past tense, respectively." Children of three to four years seem to be aware of parts of speech, pictures depicting action for verbs, mass for "Count" nouns and containers for particular nouns.

4. INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT Environment plays a significant role in the language development. Growth of vocabulary and speech may be accelerated or retarded according to the quality of environment. Social interactions have a great influence on the language development during early childhood. For example, orphans adopted into foster homes are more advanced in vocabulary, articulations, sentence length, complexity and structure, than those living in unstimulating orphanages. Moreover, these effects are found to be lasting. One Longitudinal study showed that spending the first three years of life in an orphanage may result in a restriction of verbal ability which is not likely to be overcome even after a period of schooling, family life and community experience. It is also found that twins usually progress more slowly than other children in all aspects of speech. This may be due to be the twins' social situations as they play together and talk to each other without depending much on the adults' communication. However, they soon improve their language of speech after their admission into kindergarten or nursery system. It is evident from the research findings that the widening social contacts with other children have immediate effect on twins' motivation for and learning of language skills. Only children tend to be more advanced in verbal abilities than children from larger families. This may be due to the fact that only children generally have more contacts with adults and better interaction with the outer society. They have also more regards and incentives for speech.

Social class differences have also a great impact on the language development. Studies have shown that children from middle class homes have better vocabularies, articulate more clearly, speak more correctly and use longer sentences than do children from lower class homes. One study has pointed out that three-year-old children whose fathers are in the professions use more than twice as many words per sentence as the children of unskilled labourers. In comparison to lower class children, those of the middle and upper classes talk more with their parents, are more interested and also regarded for language accomplishments. The 578 results of an interesting experiment by Prof. Orvis Irwin of the University of Iowas how that increasing the stimulation of the environment of a young child from lower class would heighten his interest and abilities in language and speech. Since the social environment immensely influences children's language development, a related study called Socio linguistics has been developed. Benjamin Bloom (1964) presents evidences which indicate that deprivation in the early childhood can have for great consequences that deprivation in later years. Bloom based his conclusions on several types of studies: identical twins reared in isolated environments and then educated in enriched environments and so on. Bloom has shown "hypothetical effects of different environments for three age periods" from which we can see that one-half of the development of intelligence occurs in the first four years. Early deprivation, therefore, can be much more serious than deprivation in the ten years from 8 to 17. Although there are three theories of Language Development, the theory enunciated by Piaget is found to be quite convincing According to Piaget, language merges only at the end of the sensorimotor period of intellectual development. By the end of this period, the child is able to master the idea of objects that are independent of his body and the existing space and time, objects exist only as "indexes and signals" at the end of the sensorimotor period. Indexes signify objects, but are not differentiated from them. For instance, the mother's voice is an index of the mother (for the child), but not distinct from the mother. Signals are also not distinct from the objects whose presence they signal. For example, ring of the bell is not differentiated from the bell. In the second year of development, the child acquire a symbolic or semiotic function—the ability to use signs and symbols to represent an object that is not present.

5. INTER-RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND BEHAVIOUR Research studies have reported that as a child's language skills improve, his behaviour becomes increasingly controlled and regulated by the words and instructions of others. Particularly, the Soviet psychologists like A.R. Luria and his colleagues have found language as "the essential means whereby the child finds his bearings in the external world." According to them although language functions primarily as a means of communication, gradually it becomes the most important mediator and regulator of behaviour. 579 Adult's verbal instructions do not have much impact on the motor behaviour of infants of a few months of age. But children of one or two years of age make orienting and investigatory responses to an adult's speech. Verbal instructions to a three or four-year-old can be effective in releasing action in the child. Since the language of the three or four year old child is more highly developed, he can carry out rather complicated instruction given by adults. He may begin to regulate his activities on the basis of self-instruction. As the regulatory function of speech becomes further developed, it shifts from overt to covert or permanently internal behaviour. From the age of five-and-a half, am almost all new learning involves language. According to Russian Research reports behaviour that is learned with the use of language is acquired quickly and is highly stable whereas behaviour learned without verbal participation are relatively unstable and are easily forgotten. Paul Mussen has observed, "children over five years of age function and control their behaviour primarily by means of Verbal stimulation, that is, by means of what American psychologists call mediated generalization or verbal mediation". Thus, it may be concluded that mental or cognitive development of the child is of great significance and language development is an important part of the whole process. Language influences the child's cognitive development to a great extent and is itself influenced by his environment. Language is an essential tool for personal and social adjustment. It is an important means of learning and communication.

REFERENCES De Cacco. John P. and Crawford, William R., The Psychology of Learning and Instruction, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1988.

De Cacco, John P., Ed., The Psychology of Language Thought and Instruction, New York, Ricnhart and Wiston 1967. Vetter Harold D. and Howell Richard W., Theories of Language Acquisition, Florida State University 1987. Smith, M.E., An Investigation of the Development of the Sentence and the extent of Vocabulary in the young Children, University of Iowa. Krishna Kumar, The Child's Language and The Teacher Handbook, UNICEF, New Delhi, 1990. Mohanty, J. and others, Methods of Teaching Mother-Tongue, Durga Publishers, Sambalpur, 1987. 580

62 Promotion of Speech Activities Among Children Although speech is a basic skill of language learning. It is mostly neglected in homes and schools. When children are found busy in talking, we feel they have no serious preoccupations. Hence, we try to stop them talking and ask them to read or write or do some gardening. At present in educated families children are either busy in watching TV or doing their home work even at the pre-school stage. This situation has led to negligence of "enormous uses of talk as a resource for learning. This is true for all stages of learning, but specially true for learning at the earliest stages. For young children of pre-primary school age, talk is a basic means of learning and consolidating their learning. A school where little children cannot talk with freedom is a useless school. Indeed, teachers who don't let their children talk have no business complaining about lack of funds to buy books or other resources, they are already wasting a highly valuable resource which costs nothing at all". (Krishna Kumar, 1966 p. 9). Modern homes are worse than that. In poor families, all are busy for earning their livelihood or wasting time as well as energy in ordinary mundane activities whereas in rich homes both parents are busy in getting ready and keeping away for home for their occupations. Even during holidays they stick to TV or other entertainment making no time for interacting with their own children. The early childhood education and primary education have been no much overloaded or children are given so much home assignments, not only children, but also their family members and tuition "masters" are busy in writing hometasks ignoring "talk" or giving no importance to children's speech. Talks have various purposes. Children talk for frittering away time, they may talk for asking for something or clarifying their doubts. They 581 may talk for amusement or they may discuss certain points or events. They may narrate some of their daily experiences or anecdotes. We have to develop sensitivity to children's talks and if necessary, to have patience for listening to them. Krishna Kumar has rightly said, "In order to become aware of these various functions of talk, we must get into the habit of listening to children's talk. This looks simple, but it is a difficult thing to do because as adults we are used to thinking that our job is to tell children what they should do. that it is their job to listen. Such a belief hinders us from becoming good listeners to children's talk. By good listener, I mean someone who can patiently notice the purpose for which talk is taking place and the possibilities of learning that the talk is opening up. It is aptly pointed out that if you develop the habit of listening of children's talk patiently, you will be able to mark that these functions involve the use and development of intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis, reasoning, comparing, contrasting, etc. It is educationally desirable and psychologically useful to provide such facilities tor developing such skills through talk. Parents have to make out some time daily for talking to their children and listening to their talks. Similarly, teachers should use children's talk as a learning resource that can create a positive ethos for talk. They should encourage and facilitate talks and children need feel free to talk. Further, they can plan the activities of talk relating to curricular needs. We can discuss the following activities for providing student's adequate opportunities for talk and interaction in the classroom.

(i) Talking about Oneself Krishna Kumar has rightly observed, "Given the freedom and chance, all children like to talk about their life, things that have happened and things that they anticipate. Some teachers treat children's personal life as irrelevant to their learning at

school. Such teachers insist that children should only discuss impersonal matters in the class, matters that have been portrayed in the textbooks. Faced with this demand a lot of children find themselves unable to participate in the class in any form. The impersonal matters discussed by the teacher do not interest them, and their personal matters (such as a recent visit by a relative, what a rainstorm did to the house, or getting a stick) do not interest the teacher." Under the above circumstance, it is desirable that teachers have to locate opportunities for children to tell others about what is happening in their lives at home, on the road, in the bazar, in the shops and in the 582 farms. Children need be encouraged to talk about such things freely and happily. They will gradually feel confident to express themselves and think aloud on their problems. Eventually, they can relate these wide range of experiences to the knowledge and facts imparted in the classroom or read in the books. Thus the curricular subjects like language, Mathematics, Science, Geography, History and Civics can be made realistic and meaningful.

(ii) Talking about School The School and its environment provide ample opportunities for learning experiences. Children can see, observe and explore the resources available. There must be some of the things like garden, dogs, cows, goats, crows, butterflies, hill, river, shop and so on. Anything of them can be a subject for observation and discussion. Krishna Kumar says, "Talk is an excellent means of doing all this with little children. As some of the activities given below will show, a teacher need not take large groups of children for a formal excursion, sending three or four children at a time to report on one object may do equally well. Excursions are of course exciting, and teachers who can afford, to all children can go to places that may not be close to the school. But a teacher who cannot take children with her to a museum or a post office need not make the excuse of not being able to take them to the small broken bridge just outside the school or the filthy outlet of water behind the school. The important thing is to provide ample occasions for all children to talk about what they have seen during an excursion. "Teachers have to be imaginative to create such occasions.

(iii) Talking about Pictures In this context Krishna Kumar has said, "Pictures are a great resource for creative and analytical talk. Just about any kind of pictures can be used. In the daily newspapers and in weekly magazines we can find pictures printed as a part of advertisements and news, calendars, stamps, labels and posters are other sources of pictures that can be found just about anywhere even in a small village. The teacher can build a collection of such sources for use in the classroom year after year". Resources are thus available everywhere. Now question arises how to utilise the pictures for talking. Children can be shown and asked to talk what they see in the picture freely and frankly. Such talks should be informal, spontaneous and joyful. These are necessary for developing their perception and intellectual abilities, 583 but more so in developing their language. Children need be encouraged to describe the various aspects of the pictures— actions, objects, beasts, birds and so on.

(iv) Talking about Stories Stories are interesting learning materials for children. Many stories are about animals and birds, men and women, events and anecdotes. Characters in those stories are identified by children and their experiences of sorrows and sufferings, pleasure and adventure are shared by them. In time, children gain learning experiences with delight. Teacher should tell stories suitable to the age-groups of students and children are encouraged to tell and retell these stories. In the past also, the grand fathers and mothers used to tell fairy stones and folk tales to children in the evening and leisure hours not only to entertain, but also to teach values. There is a long and rich tradition of such story telling in the families through ages. This has laid the foundation of children's education and literature. Story-telling is an art and only a few teachers are very good in this. But many teachers are made good story-tellers through training and experience. In this context children's language development is accelerated by telling and listening to stories. Suitable stories need be told and retold with profit and interest.

(v) Participating in Dramatic Activities

Like stones, dramas are attractive to children. In dramas, children participate and play different roles. They enjoy and educate themselves in many ways. Besides, histrionic values of drama, children's personality is moulded and their language is improved with fluency and vocabulary richness. Unfortunately, as opined by Krishna Kumar much of the dramatic activity that takes place in schools does not leave room to improvise. Children are assigned certain roles, and they are given dialogues to memorise. Drama is used as a special occasion—associated with a festival or the arrival of a guest. Such use of drama has its own merits but it does little to extend children's use of language. Only a few children participate in the final product, the rest merely watch. And throughout the preparation and the final presentation, everyone is constantly afraid of going wrong. So there is no freedom and sense of fun. These two characteristics—freedom and fun—are essential for the use of drama as a language activity. 584 Drama should therefore be enacted as a part of language teaching of children and not be regarded as a special or exotic activity for them. Rather drama should be considered as a part of their daily life. Children can use dramatic activity as a learning and entertaining material. Many of them have histrionic skills and can act various characters as lively as artists. Even in class rooms teacher should encourage them to dramatise stories taught to them, so that many teaching points can be made clear and well-imprinted in children's minds. No formal and stereotyped activity should be organised in this connection. Improvised dress, stage, even screens and musical instruments should be used for the. purpose. Simplicity, spontaneity, enjoyment, freedom, fun and frankness should characterise the dramatic activities of various forms in the schools.

REFERENCES Hurlock, Elizabeth, Child Development, 4th Edition, McGraw Hill Book Company, New-York, 1956. Bell, G.B. and Hall, HE., "The Relationship between Leadership and Latency," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 1954. McCarthy, D., Language Development in L. Carmichael (Ed.) Manual of Child Psychology, New York Wiley, 1954. McCarthy, D., Language Development Monogr, Sec. Research, Child Development, 1960, 25, No. 3, 5-14. Lewis, M.N., Infant Speech: A Study of the Beginnings of Language, New York, Humanities Press, 1951. Mohanty, J. and others, A New Approach to Methods of Teaching Mother Tongue, Sri Durga Pustak Bahandar, Sambalpur, 1985. Krishna Kumar, The Child's Language and the Teacher, UN1CEF, New Delhi, 1996 585

PART V DEMOCRACY AND PRIMARY/ ELEMENTARY EDUCATION CASE STUDIES AND INVESTIGATIONS 586 587

63 Impact of Democracy on Primary Education in India The study aimed at ascertaining the impact of democracy on education in India with special reference to Orissa. With a view to providing a theoretial framework to the investigation, the historical background of democratic education in the country and the State has been presented alongwith a detailed discussion on the philosophical and sociological foundations.

1.BACKGROUND In ancient India, democracy found its expression in various institutions called "Sabha", "Samiti", "Sangha" and "Gana" and democratic spirit was adumbrated in its ideals of universal peace, brotherhood, fellow-feeling, freedom and sympathy through the glorious cultural heritage and literature like the Vedas, the Bhagavat Gita, the Jatakas, the Ramayan and the

Mahabharat. The democratic values permeated the entire educational system prevalent in the Vedic and Buddhist age. The medieval India witnessed a dark age of democracy as evident from the continual wars and rivalry among kings and monarches. The teaching-learning methods followed in Islamic education also did not promote democratic principles and practices. In the British period, the East India Company accepted the responsibility for education of Indians since 1913. When most of its time and energy was spent on "Commerce, conquest, consolidation" the Missionaries accomplished pioneering achievements in the field of women's education and modern Indian Languages. The main objective of the British education in the beginning was to prepare a group of persons for manning white-collar jobs for the British Empire. However, 588 after 1853 a number of democratic features were introduced in the educational system. After Independence, consequent on the introduction of the Indian Constitution, a number of provisions were made for the success of democracy in general and for democratisation of education in particular. An important Constitutional Directive was the Universalisation of Elementary Education by 1960 which is still far away from being realized. Although there has been unprecedented expansion of education at all levels, it is felt that its quality is still to be improved and democratic spirit is yet to permeate the educational system fully.

2. THE PROBLEM Democracy is not merely a political system of a form of Government but a way of life and a comprehensive and integrated concept meaning liberty, equality and fraternity. Democratisation of education is essential as well as imperative for the success of democracy. There are two aspects of democratisation, qualitative and quantitative. Expansion of physical facilities, enrolment, attendance, etc. is quantitative aspect and diffusion of democratic spirit and values like individual dignity, self-discipline, freedom, initiative, cooperation, participation and fellow-feeling, etc. is qualitative. In the context of the latter, the progress seems to be miserable. Authoritarian as well as autocratic practices are still prevalent in various aspects of Primary Education. As primary education is the foundation of the entire educational superstructure and is the nursery for developing desired qualities and habits in the young children, democratisation for this stage is not only a necessity but also a prerequisite for success of democracy in the country.

3. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The study was primarily intended to determine the impact of democracy on all aspects of primary education—curriculum, teaching methods, school organisation, administration, supervision, evaluation finance, etc. The objectives were as follows: — to find out conceptual background of the teachers and supervisors, — to ascertain as to what extent they are aware of their responsibilities in the context of democracy, — to make a stock-taking of the democratic practices and programmes in vogue, 589 — to determine the impact of democracy on various aspects of primary education, — to find out the consequences of democratisation, — to identify the hurdles and handicaps standing in the way of democratising primary education, — to pool the suggestions of all concerned for their removal, — to evolve suitable methods and techniques of democratisation, and — to suggest the guidelines for early democratisation.

4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY All kinds of institutions and all the practices and programmes at the primary stage in the State of Orissa were brought under the scope of this study. The aspects of primary education taken under its purview were: (1) Democracy and Primary Education, (2) Curriculum and Syllabus, (3) Methods and Materials, (4) School Administration, (5) Inspection and Supervision, (6) School Organisation, (7) Finance and School Improvement, (8) Examination and Evaluation, and (9) Status and Service Conditions of Teachers. Methodology The study mainly came under descriptive research involving data collection, tabulation, interpretation and evaluation leading to inferences and conclusions. Two sets of identical questionnaires were prepared—one in English for supervisors and another in Oriya for head-teachers. Observation technique was adopted to study the on-the-spot practices and programmes. A number of interviews were conducted with selected educationists, administrators and Senior Inspecting Officers for eliciting their views on some crucial points of problem and a structured schedule was used for making data guided and controlled. Besides, the experiences of the researcher in the UK, France, Switzerland, Netherland and West Germany provided additional data and greater insight.

5. SAMPLE The questionnaire was administered on 580 supervisors and 3176 head-teachers of whom 410 (71% and 1%) responded respectively. The total number of interviews was 25, of whom 10 were interviewed personally and 5 had extended their comments in response to an interview schedule. Thus, the total percentage of interviews was 60.6. 590

6. FINDINGS Democracy and Primary Education 1. Most of the respondents understood democracy either as a political or a social or an ethical concept and not as a comprehensive and well-integrated one in its true perspective. 2. The concept of Primary Education was not clear to large number of supervisors and head-teachers. 3. Although majority of supervisors and head-teachers opined that India was a true democracy. Most of interviewers observed that she was in the process of becoming a true democracy slowly, but steadily. 4. According to most of the responses the eradication of mass illiterate and mass poverty would make India a true democracy. 5. Due to educational, economic, political and social difficulties, schools did not yet belong to the society. 6. The school as a conservative agency was not in a position to assume leadership for bringing about desired social changes. 7. The students were not being trained for democracy on account of education, political, social, economic and psychological difficulties. Syllabus and Curriculum 1. The syllabus merely enunciated but did not enforce the provisions for democracy. 2. The programmes and practices conducive to democracy were not adequately organised in the primary schools. 3. Teachers and supervisors were not properly associated with curriculum planning. 4. The preparation of the instructional materials by the teachers is not given due importance.

Methods and Materials 1. Modern methods were not followed by most of the teachers and traditional methods were adopted for case and expedience of execution. 2. Innovations and experiments in teaching were not encouraged. 3. Work experience was not given due emphasis. 4. The teachers did not make attempts to impart knowledge and skills in democracy. 591 5. Special methods and materials were not adopted for teaching the slow and the advanced learners. 6. Text Books and supplementary readers were not produced properly. They are also not available in time and at inexpensive prices. 7. Text Books are not accompanied with teacher's handbooks and pupils' workbooks. School Administration 1. Careful planning was needed in setting up new schools and for efficient utilisation of the existing ones. 2. Public awareness was not properly generated and education was not made relevant to the life, needs and aspirations of the people. 3. There was no regular attendance in many schools. 4. Mass poverty and ignorance were the greatest hurdles in the Universalisation of Primary Education. 5. Democratic decentralisation was not a success due to political interference and ignorance of the personnel about their duties and obligations. School Organisation 1. Inter-personal relationships, were not satisfactory in most of the Primary Schools. 2. Villagers' inertia and teachers' indifference were the main bottleneck in making adult education programme a success. 3. Freedom and flexibility were lacking in school organisation. 4. In most of the schools, student-government was not in existence. 5. Corporal punishment was still resorted to in many primary schools. 6. Various kinds of rewards specially non-material ones were yet to be introduced in most of the schools. 7. Community service was not provided in many schools. 8. Staff-meetings were not regularly held in most of the schools. 9. School-timing and holidays were not arranged according to local needs and conditions. Inspection and Supervision 1. Class-teaching was not regularly supervised by the Inspecting Officers. 2. Mistakes were often pointed out to the concerned teachers in the classroom. 3. Demonstration lessons were not given by many supervisors. 4. Supervisors did not often hold discussion on educational matters in staff/faculty meetings.

5. Discussion by the supervisors was occasionally held with the community members. 6. Centre-meetings were not often held democratically and meaningfully. 7. Leadership qualities in teachers and pupils were not properly identified and encouraged. Finance and School Improvement 1. Funds for physical facilities were inadequate. 2. Provision of ancillary services was poor and unsatisfactory. 592 3. A large number of children were not able to continue their education owing to economic, physiological and physical barriers. 4. Educational costs increased to a great extent mainly on account of reading and writing materials, donations, examination fees, dress and mid-day food. 5. Many schools were ill-equipped and unattractive. 6. School Improvement Programme was not making head-way due to lack of initiative, cooperation and resource fulness of supervisors. Examination and Evaluation 1. Majority of supervisors and head-teachers were not aware of an important objective of examination, i.e., diagnosing and giving guidance to students. 2. Undue importance was given to cramming Assessment of pupil growth in citizenship was not done in the examination. 3. Many of the respondents viewed the abolition of Upper Primary Public Examination and class examinations for promotion from Classes I and II as the reason for deterioration of the general standard. 4. Cumulative Record was not yet introduced in most of the primary schools. Status and Service Conditions of Teachers 1. Many head-teachers and supervisors were not satisfied with the present status of teachers. 593 2. Majority of the respondents were not happy with the promotional prospects and service conditions. 3. Academic freedom was not adequate for teachers' professional growth and introducing innovations. 4. Many respondents felt that teachers' organisations were not working in the right directions. 5. Teachers' organisations were not implementing academic programmes adequately for the professional growth of teachers. Lastly, on the basis of these findings a number of relevant suggestions were made for bringing about democratisation of Primary Education through suitable methods and techniques. 594

64 A Study of the Inspection Reports of Primary Schools I. INTRODUCTION The Education Commission, 1964-66 have rightly remarked that supervision is, in a sense, the backbone of educational

improvement.1 Importance of inspection in the total educational process can not be overemphasized. Previously it was authoritarian and autocratic and was mainly intended for maintaining discipline and for observance of departmental rules. But now it has given place to supervision under the democratic set-up and is aimed at improvement of total teachinglearning situations. Present supervisory services are expected to inspire, stimulate, co-ordinate and guide teachers in their professional growth, which ultimately leads to improved instruction for better and efficient citizenship. Modern supervision promotes initiative, freedom, resourcefulness, belongingness and enthusiasm among teachers, pupils and the community. At the primary school stage specially in our country, role of supervisors is much more significant, since here teachers are not properly qualified and well equipped to do justice to their work and suitable facilities for inservice training are lacking for the professional growth. But mere paying certain perfunctory visits to the schools will not improve the situation and will not contribute to the growth of teachers in any way. Hence, comprehensiveness, frequencies and methods of inspection are the basic considerations in judging the effectiveness and success of supervision.

II. NEED OF THE PROBLEM During recent times though some studies have been conducted by M.Ed, students on inspection and supervision in general, no specific 595 attempts have been made to investigate into the process of reporting. Inspection reports are the most fundamental and useful records and like mirrors they reflect the quality of supervision. The inspection reports also indicate the methods, comprehensiveness and frequencies of visits. From these evidences the effectiveness of supervision can be judged to a great extent. The duties and responsibilities of supervisors have increased many-fold during the years under panchayati raj. It is felt that under the pressure of administrative work the inspecting officers are not able to supervise the schools properly and adequately. The present study is therefore intended to know how far inspection is up to the expectation as regards its comprehensiveness, frequencies, various methods, strengths and weaknesses. On the basis of the findings, stuggestions can be given for improvement of supervision. In short, this is a depth study highlighting on specific aspects of supervision.

III. OBJECTIVES The study was undertaken with the following objectives: (i) To know the comprehensiveness of inspection, (ii) To study the frequencies of inspection, (iii) To identify the good practices followed by supervisors, (iv) To examine the general weaknesses of schools as reported by the inspecting officers, (v) To assess the follow-up activities and the results achieved.

IV. SCOPE AND METHOD OF STUDY The scope of the present study is confined to inspection or supervision of Primary Schools having classes from I to V in its true perspective. For this purpose inspection reports written by all concerned and frequencies were taken into consideration. Data were collected from the original sources, i.e. Inspection Reports of three separate educational as well as revenue districts. One of the schools is situated in Puri, as coastal district, one in Dhenkanal, which due to its geographical location represents the average condition of the state and another in Koraput, an educationally backward district. Nature and status of these 3 schools are also varied, one is model U.P. School, one is Girl's U.P. School and another is an ordinary U.P. School. Moreover, the inspection reports which were taken as sources of data, are of three different years, i.e. 1955, 1960 and 1965. These years are significant from administrative 596 point of view. In 1955 these schools were mostly controlled by local Boards and District Boards. The year 1960 was a transitional period as the Boards were abolished and schools were under the direct control of Inspecting Officers. Since 1961 the control of Primary Schools was transferred to the Panchayati Raj. Hence, the reports for the year 1965 indicates

the conditions as under the control of the Chairmen of Zilla Parishad and Panchayat Samiti (over primary schools). All the inspection remarks available throughout the years 1955, 1960 and 1965 in respect of these three schools have been studied carefully and necessary data were collected scrupulously. For clarification and elucidation of certain points, some sub-inspectors of schools were interviewed and their opinions and suggestions were taken into consideration. At the outset, it should be made clear that through the evidences collected for the study are not adequate, they represent the conditions of the State in a general way.

V. ANALYSIS OF DATA The inspection reports for the years in questions were studied with great care and relevant data were collected and analysed. The reports used for getting these evidences and data analysis are as per the following table: TABLE 1 Inspection Reports Utilised for Analysis Number of inspection reports SI. No. Name of School Name of district Total 1955 1960 1965 1.

SL.I

Koraput

5

6

3

14

2.

SL.ll

Dhenkanal

2

4

1

7

3.

SL.III

Puri

3

4

2

9

10

14

6

30

Total

From Table 1 it is found that 30 inspection reports were analysed for collecting relevant data and the school I has been paid largest number of visits. Next to it school III and school II have received 9 and 7 visits respectively. From the table it is also evident that in 1960 all schools have been visited more frequently than in the other two years, i.e. 1955 and 1965. The year 1960 is a transitional period, when the Education Department was directly in charge of primary schools as the District 597 Boards and Local Boards were just defunct and Panchayat Raj was yet to take the responsibility of managing Primary Schools. (A) Frequency The data were also studied to examine the frequencies of visits paid to these schools. Though the data were not sufficient to guarantee reliability of conclusions drawn, they would safely, and to a great extent indicate the general tendency. The following table will show the time-gaps in between inspection:

School I Year

Date of 1st inspection in the year

1955 25.2.55

TABLE 2 Frequencies of Visits Paid to Various Schools School II

Time-gaps between next visits 5 months

Date of 1st inspection in the year 14.7.55

Time-gaps between next visits 5 months

School III

Date of 1st inspection in the year 15.2.55

1 week

Time-gaps between next visits 3 months 4 months

2 weeks 3 months 1960 19.1.60

1 month

12.1.60

8 months

1 week

1 month

3 months

1 month

1.1.60

3 months 3 months

2 months 2 months 1965 28.8.65

4 months 2 months

30.11.65

1 month

28.8.65

4 months 2 months

From the above table, it is evident that these time-gaps left between visits range from one week to eight months. One school i.e. school I has been visited, six times in the year 1960 whereas the school II has been inspected only twice in the years 1955 and 1965 each. Though no school has gone unvisited for a complete year during the periods under investigation, lack of planning for systematic regular inspections is evident. It may be observed that school I, which is a girls' school has attracted the largest number of visisters and has gained more attention from the inspecting officers. Some visits have been paid after intervals of one or two weeks: The largest time-gap between visits paid to this school is hardly five months. In case of school II time-gaps range from 1 month to 8 months and it does not indicate a good practice. But in the case of school III such time-gaps are uniform to a great extent, as 598 excepting only one visit that has been paid after two months, all visits have been paid after periods of 3-4 months, which are very reasonable time-gaps between inspections. This shows a good and healthy practice. (B) Agencies Though primary schools are normally inspected by sub-inspectors of schools they are also visited by the Circle Inspector of schools, the District Inspector of Schools, the Deputy Inspector of Schools, Chairmen of the Panchayat Samities and Zilla Parishads and Heads of the Elementary Training or Secondary Training Schools. The following table will show the agencies, involved in inspection of the Primary Schools in question. The above table indicates that in the year 1955 only inspecting officers have inspected the schools. School-I has been visited thrice by Sub-Inspectors of Schools and twice by Deputy Inspector of Schools and District Inspector of Schools or Circle Inspector of Schools. School-II and School-Ill have been inspected by only Sub-Inspectors of Schools twice and thrice respectively. In 1950, the Sub-Inspector of Schools and higher inspecting officers have visited School-I four times and twice respectively. School-II has been inspected twice by the Deputy Inspector of Schools, the District Inspector of Schools and the Circle Inspector of Schools and twice by Headmaster of Elementary Training and Secondary Training Schools. School-Ill has been inspected four times by Sub-Inspector of Schools only during the year 1960. In the year 1965, School-I has been inspected twice by Sub-Inspectors of Schools and once by higher inspecting officer. School-II has been inspected once by the Headmaster of Elementary Training or Secondary Training School only. School-Ill has been inspected once by the Sub-Inspector of Schools and another by his higher Inspecting Officer. From the evidence it can be inferred that since School-Ill is a girls U.P. School, it has regularly been inspected by Deputy and District Inpsectress of Schools every year, besidies the normal inspection of concerned Sub-Inspector of Schools. In case of School-II, it is evident that since the Headmaster of local Elementary Training School is the controlling and Inspecting Officer of the same, except in the year 1955, the Sub-Inspectors of Schools have not paid visits to that school. The Headmaster of the Training School also has inspected the School only once and twice in the year 1965 and 1960 respectively. It is not a satisfactory state of affairs. The Headmaster should have paid more visits to the practising U.P. School for giving academic guidance and 599 Year

Name of agencies

Name of the Schools School I School II School III

1955 Sub-Inspector of Schools

3

2

3

Dy. Inspector of Schools

2

__

__

D.I. of School, C.I. of Schools

—

—

—

Chairman of P.S./Z.P.

—

—

—

Headmaster, C.T./E.T. School

—

__

__

4

__

4

2

2

—

—

—

—

2

—

2

—

1

—

—

—

1960 S.I. of Schools Dy. I. Sc. of Schools, D.I. of Schools, C.I. of Schools Chairman of Panchayat Samiti Zilla Parishad

Headmaster, E.T./C.T. Schools — 1965 S.I. of Schools Dy. Inspector of Schools

D. I. of Schools, C.I. of Schools —

—

1

1

—

Chairman of P.S/Z.P. Headmaster, E.T./C.T. Schools —

professional expertise. School-Ill has been inspected only by Sub-Inspectors of Schools except on one occasion, when the District Inspector of School paid a visit to the school. One agency which is most conspicuous by its absence in the field of inspection is the Panchayat Samiti, Zilla Parishad authorities. Especially in the year 1965, when the control and management of Primary Schools have already been transferred to the Panchayatraj, there has not been a single visit paid to any of these Primary Schools by the Chairman of Panchyat Samiti or Zilla Parishad. (C) Comprehensiveness of Inspection Modern supervision embraces the total school programme and is directed at improving all factors involved in pupil's learning. As Neagley and Evans have rightly said, "Gone are the days of attempting to improve the teacher without regard to the totality of the teaching-learning situation in the school. The modern supervisory role reaches far beyond the traditional class-room visitation1." But inspection is mainly intended to ascertain whether or not teachers were performing their normal duties and to give necessary instruction for improvement of their work. Under the present circumstances an Inspector of Schools at the Primary level has to discharge multifarious responsibilities. But his activities in regard 600 to school inspection can safely be divided into two categories, i.e. (i) Academic, and (ii) administrative. The Orissa Education Code has similarly enjoined in its Article 82, "The proper scrutiny of a school consists of two principal parts viz. inspection and examination. By the former is meant the process of seeing a school at work during its ordinary routine, noting, for example the suitability of the building, the sanitary conditions, the arrangement and organization of the classes, the furniture and apparatus, the manner in which the accounts and registers are kept, order and discipline, the relation between teachers and pupils and the methods used in teaching. But the latter is meant by the process of testing of pupils in order to discover how far they have profited by the instruction of their teachers and how far weakness in the methods of teaching is born out by resultant weakness in the class."3 Roughly here the inspection is referred to the study of administrative matters and the examination denotes the study of academic matters. (D) Weightage Data were collected from the inspection reports in respect of these two kinds of activities. These evidences have been tabulated in terms of emphasis given by the inspecting officers. The table will give a picture of weightage laid by inspecting officers on various aspects of curricular or more specifically academic programmes in different classes. The general tendency evident from the available data is that more emphasis has been laid by the inspecting officers on examining curricular subjects in lower classes than in upper ones. It is also further seen that the subjects which are newly introduced in the Primary School curriculum like English and General Science though deserve to be paid great emphasis have not been given due weight in course of class inspection. This is a very unsatisfactory state of affairs. The inspecting officers are also expected to verify the examination results and scrutinise certain answer papers as far as possible, so that they should be satisfied with the standard and procedure of class promotions. But it is found that in most cases the inspecting officers have not cared to look to this aspect. It is found that usually the programmes and activities of the schools are moulded and shaped according to the interests and attitudes of the supervisors, though it is also true to a great extent that the teacher is the school. The subjects which are mostly supervised and enquired of are attendance, staff, building and accommodation, gardening, games, 601 cleanliness, records, discipline, furniture, aids and so on. The mostly neglected or less supervised and enquired of matters are library, gardening, follow-up activities, community relations etc. But these matters are not less important for better school organization and effective supervision. Especially, poor attention of inspecting officers towards School Committee and community relations is very much conspicuous. In the Art. 73 of the Orissa Education Code it has been specifically mentioned that the Sub-Inspector of Schools "should also arrange occasionally to see the parents and guardians of the

pupils of primary schools in order to explain the necessity for regular and punctual attendance and to induce the people generally to take an interest in education." Moreover, the inspecting officers are required to discuss the problems of Schools with members of the School Committee. But it is a pity that in case of School-I out of 14 visits, not even once the inspecting officers have cared to meet the members of the School Committee. In case of the other two Schools the inspecting officers have discussed with the members of the school committee only for once. Similarly, follow up of the previous remarks either made by himself or by other officers is extremely significant. But out of the 14 visits paid to School-I only in one case, mention has been made regarding follow up. In case of School-II and III this matter has been referred to only for once and twice respectively by the inspecting officers. This is a very sorry state of affairs.

VI. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF INSPECTING REPORTS The previous section dealt with comprehensiveness of inspection mainly gives a picture of quantitative aspect of inspection. But here attempts have been made by the investigator to highlight certain significant points in the reports. These aspects are like samples of a large number of subjects or like snap-shots on a vast body of materials to be superivsed by the inspecting officers. They have been collected from a depth study or keen analysis of the inspection reports. It can be said that these are clear indications of good or bad inspection. Therefore, we have to encourage the good features and discharge the bad features in inspection in order to make it effective and dynamic. The issues involved in this may be divided into two categories: (i) Academic or curricular, and (ii) non-academic or curricular. 602 (A) Academic or Curricular Activities In an inspection report of School-I the inspecting officer has given importance to self-expression activities like storytelling, recitation, etc. in Class IV, but no care has been taken regarding this in lower classes, where it has greater significance from various points of view. It goes without saying that self-expression is essential for the growth of competency in language and for making the School programme attractive and interesting. Sometimes, it is found that teachers are not well-acquainted with the syllabus and they teach the topics beyond the prescribed syllabus. Therefore on one occasion the D.I. of Schools has remarked that certain things in grammer, though are not in the syllabus are being taught in the class. The same D.I. of Schools has also very pertinently advised the teachers not to encourage key books in the subjects on which no book is prescribed by the competent authority and he has suggested that the concerned teachers may dictate notes duly approved by the S.I. of Schools. It is to be appreciated that the D.I. of Schools having inspected School-II has suggested some experiments, viz. on spelling and handwriting to be taken up in that practising U.P. School under the guidance of the Training School. In many cases, inspecting officers do not verify progress in various classes as per the schemes prepared for the year. But in case of School-Ill, in one of his visits the Headmaster of the Training Schools has very well examined the progress according to the schemes. It is also a good feature in the inspection report of the Headmaster to specifically mention the type of mistakes in written works. The same supervisor has also given a note of modernity when he has remarked that since it was a model school, experimental projects should be undertaken, new methods should be tried out, schemes should be scientifically prepared and aids should be improvized. This indicates progressive outlook in the supervisory practice. In the inspection report of School-Ill, the concerned S.I. of Schools has given emphasis on the growth of competency in General Knowledge and personality traits of pupils in various dimensions. He has also suggested new methods of teaching e.g. field trip etc. for successful and effective mental and emotional development. On one occasion, the supervisor has also demonstrated suitable techniques of writing good hand and has laid emphasis on application of knowledge instead of mere cramming and reproducing in the examination. In paying a visit to School-Ill, the D.I. of Schools has suggested for joint efforts of the S.I. of schools and teachers for better planning and executing to make the 603 school a model one. This is a modern concept of institutional planning for making all-round improvement of schools. (B) Administrative and Organizational Matters It is generally found that the inspecting officers devote most of their time and energy to administrative and organizational matters of the schools. This is also reflected in their inspection reports. In one such report regarding School-I, a senior inspecting officer who happened to be a D.I. of Schools has criticized the concerned S.I. of Schools for "his brief and flying visits." Centre School has an important role to play for giving academic guidance to the neighbouring schools, as it is not always possible to get from the S.I. of Schools. So it is in the fitness of things that one S.I. of Schools while inspecting School-I has advised the Headmaster to take guidance from the central school. Usually the inspecting officers

do not find time to supervise the activities and programmes of schools relating to character development and body or health-building of pupils. But this aspect should not be overlooked and the experienced and enthusiastic supervisors do not neglect this aspect. In course of their supervision they find certain instances, which indicate good or bad conduct of students and accordingly they draw attention of teachers for doing the needful. Such evidence has been received from the inspection report of one D.I. of Schools, who has remarked regarding formation of good manners and healthy habits of children. The said D.I. of Schools has also aptly mentioned that parents and guardians should be invited to various functions of the schools with a view to enlisting their co-operation and making them interested in the activities of their children and schools. It is felt extremely desirable to advise the head-teachers of multiple-teacher schools to supervise the class-room-teaching of his assistant teachers with a view to giving practical guidance and suggestions for improvement of lessons. Therefore, one S.I. of schools has rightly remarked in one of his inspection reports that the Head Pandit should pay visits to classes of his colleagues and his inspection remarks should be verified by the S.I. of Schools. It is very essential that inspecting officers in course of their supervision should verify the examination results and give their views for betterment. One S.I. of Schools in the report on his inspection to School-I has advised the Head Pandit to teach language (Orissa) in Class V on account of consistent poor results in the subject in the public Examinations. On one occasion the Inspecting Officer has discouraged the preparation of schemes in slip-shod manner. 604 But he has given certain remarks about teacher which is not palatable. The English version of his remarks is "in order to cheat inspecting officers they have prepared eye-(windo-dressing) washing schemes or lessons." However, it is very gratifying to note that the said inspecting officer has suggested for holding of weekly examinations, preparation of lessonnotes and Head Pandit's supervision of teachers' work, which are very significant for effective teaching. The inspecting officers seldom verify and analyses the examination results with the specific purpose of maintaining proper standards and bringing about improvement in results. But a rare evidence has been available in the inspection report regarding School-I that the supervisor has analysed the examination results in details giving the number of students showing satisfactory as well as poor performances in different subjects. On another occasion the supervisors has laid emphasis on Head Pandit's supervision of teachers' work and their clear knowledge of the syllabus. It is often found that the inspecting officers do not look into the follow-up activities on the part of teachers and school committees for implementing the suggestions of supervisors. But fortunately one sub-inspector of schools has remarked that nothing was done for fulfilling the needs of School-II as suggested by the D.I. of Schools in one of his visits. Staff-meetings should be held as frequently as possible for discussing instructional problems specially in connection with the nationalized textbooks and curriculum. This is useful for the professional growth of teachers for promoting mutual cooperation and good understanding and help for solving academic and administrative problems of the schools. One S.I. of Schools has emphasized on the holding of staff-meetings for the purpose. In order to check inflatory promotions and wrong procedures in examination the Inspecting Officers are required to analysed some of the previous year's power papers. This has been rightly done by one of the supervisors. He has also given special emphasis on the steps for removing backwardness of some students in Class V. It is also heartening to note that the said supervisor has advised the teacher not to be particular only in completing the course, but to be sincere in reviewing the progress frequently planning lessons in a better way, doing more exercise and so on. It is always desirable that new methods and techniques should be tried out with a view to improving education. One such innovation has been cited by the supervisor in connection with School-Ill. It is the subject teacher system instead of class teacher practice that was tried 605 out in the school and the changed practice has been evaluated. It is also gratifying to note that the school was inspected continuously for 3 days. It is often seen that supervisions do not give adequate attention to certain important aspects of school organisation viz. attendance and enrolment. It is desirable that they should look into these problems in their true prospective, analyse and compare the data and arrive at the solutions in co-operation with the teachers and parents. The Headmaster of the E.T. School in supervising School-II has analysed the position of attendance and recorded the number of students remaining absent class-wise and suggested necessary steps to be taken for parental co-operation. Similarly, the supervisor in question has mentioned a large number of good practices of students as regards improvement of written work and given suggestions regarding the proper use and systematic maintenance of the school records. In case of School-II also it has been remarked by the inspecting officers that attendance of pupils was not taken for several days and the attendance register was not signed by the concerned teacher.

Supervisors are required to pay special attention to the problem of teachers' attendance in schools. The inspecting register was not properly maintained and even sometimes teachers were absent without taking permission. On one occasion both teachers in the two-teacher school were absent resulting in the complete closure of the school. Hence, the school was visited in the presence of the secretary (now the chairman) of the Managing Committee and the explanation was asked for from the teachers by the inspecting officer. It is in the fitness of things that after inspection, remarks should be recorded without fail on various aspects of the school. But on certain visits to School-III it has been found that no comments have been made on anything. The supervisor during his inspection to School-Ill has pressed his desire to make it a model one in view of its location and other facilities available. He has taken interest in framing a plan devoting one page of the Remarks Register for listing down the needs of the school. It has been rightly insisted by a few supervisors that compliance reports should be furnished within a reasonable period after inspection. It goes without saying that any supervision without follow-up activities is meaningless and ineffective.

VII. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS It has been rightly remarked by the Kothari Commission that supervision or inspection is the backbone of educational improvement. 606 In this context the inspection report is the most fundamental and useful record and like a mirror it reflects the quality of supervision. The present study is mainly intended to know how far inspection is up to the expectation as regards its comprehensiveness, frequency, methods, strengths and weaknesses. The scope of the present study is confined to inspection of Primary Schools having Classes-I to V and the data have been collected from original inspection reports of 3 separate educational as well as revenue districts, i.e. Puri, Koraput and Dhenkanal. The inspection reports which were taken as sources of data are of 3 different years, i.e. 1955, 1960 and 1965, which are significant from administrative point of view. Hence, the evidences collected for the study are not adequate, they only represent the conditions of the State in a rough and general way. 30 inspection reports were studied for collecting relevant data and in 1960 all the schools have been visited more times than in other two years. The reason is attributed to the transitional period, when the Education Department was directly in charge of Primary Schools as the District Boards and Local Boards were just defunct and Panchayati Raj was yet to take the responsibility of managing Primary Schools. Though no school has gone unvisited for a complete year during the periods under investigation a lack of planning for systematic and regular inspection is evident. The activities of a supervisor in regard to school inspection can safely be divided into two categories, i.e., (i) academic, and (ii) administrative. The general tendency evident from the analysis of data is that more emphasis is laid by the inspecting officers on examining curricular subjects in lower classes than in upper ones. It is also found that the subjects which are newly introduced in the Primary School syllabus have not been given due weight during class inspection, and supervisors very rarely scrutinize answer papers and examination results. In the sphere of school organization and administration the subjects that are mostly enquired of are attendance, staff, building, accommodation, etc. and the mostly neglected matters are library, gardening, community relations, etc. Attempt has also been made by the investigator to highlight certain good or bad features in inspection reports. It is evident from one inspection report that self-expression has been given importance in Class IV, but no care has been taken regarding this in lower classes where it has greater significance. A good feature in the inspection report of a supervisor is to specifically mention the type of mistakes in the written works. The same supervisor has struck a note of modernity and 607 progressive outlook in suggesting certain experimental projects to be tried out in one model school. Similarly, in one inspection report advice has been given for improving personality traits of pupils and adopting new methods of teaching. In another occasion, the supervisor has demonstrated suitable techniques of writing good hand and laid emphasis on application of knowledge instead of mere cramming. On one occasion the senior inspecting officer has criticized the concerned S.I. of Schools for his "brief and flying visits." In one inspection report the supervisor has advised the Headmaster of a Primary School to take guidance from the Centre School. One inspecting officer has suggested that parents and guardians should be invited to various functions of the school for enlisting their cooperation and good-will. It is rightly remarked by one supervisor that Head Pandit should pay

visit to classes of his colleague and his remarks should be verified by the S.I. of Schools. In one report the inspecting officer has discouraging the preparation of lessons in a slip-shod manner, but his rough remarks in this connection is not found desirable. One supervisor has emphasized on the holding of staff meetings for discussing academic and administrative problems of the schools with a view to promoting professional growth and facilitating mutual co-operation. It will not suffice if a supervisor merely gives statements of figures regarding enrolment and attendance. So a supervisor has rightly analysed the position of attendance and suggested necessary steps to be taken for parental co-operation. In one instance it has been remarked that attendance of pupils was not taken for several days and the Attendance Register not signed by the teacher. On one occasion both teachers in the two-teacher school were absent resulting in the complete closure of the school. On certain visits no comments have been given on anything in the relevant Register. It has been rightly insisted by a few supervisors that compliance reports should be furnished within a reasonable period after inspection. On the basis of these findings the following suggestions may be offered under the categories of objectives laid down for this project for making inspection and supervision effective and successful. I. Comprehensiveness of Inspection 1. The Panchayatiraj authorities should pay more visits to schools for checking attendance of pupils and teachers and enlisting public co-operation in the school affairs. 608 2. Emphasis should be laid by supervisors on examining curricular and co-curricular subjects both in lower and upper classes of the school. 3. Newly introduced subjects in the school curriculum deserve greater attention of supervisors. 4. The inspection officers should not lose sight of character and body-building activities and discipline of the school. 5. It is imperative on the part of inspecting officers to supervise the curricular activities of the school for making teachers and pupils interested in them. 6. The supervisors should make time to see and enquire about library services, community works and other ancillary activities of the school. II. Frequencies of Inspection 1. Systematic planning should be made for regular inspecting schools as per the departmental rules. 2. The Headmasters of training schools are expected to supervise the practising Primary Schools with greater frequency and comprehension for giving academic guidance and professional expertise to teachers. III. Good Practices followed by Supervisors 1. It is desirable that supervisors should look into the problems of enrolment and attendance in their true perspective. The should analyse and compare the data and arrive at solutions in co-operation with teachers and parents, and mere statement of figures will not help. 2. With a view to increasing competency in the language and making the school programme attractive and interesting selfexpression should be emphasized by supervisors in Primary classes. 3. Experimental projects may be encouraged by inspecting officers to be tried out in the schools. 4. New methods may be suggested and demonstrated to teachers for effective mental and emotional development of pupils. 5. For giving group guidance supervisors should utilise centre-meeting and staff-meeting of teachers. 6. They should encourage teachers for inviting guardians and parents to attend various school function for facilitating popular support and public co-operation in the school affairs.

609 7. Head-teachers of multiple-teacher schools should be given advice and guidance for supervision of class-teaching of other teachers. 8. With a view to ensuring maintenance of better standards of evaluation and due adherence to prescribed procedure, the inspecting officers are required to scrutinize the examination results and certain answer papers during their visits to schools. 9. Innovations should be encouraged by them for bringing about improvement education. 10. Supervisors should try their best to meet and discuss with the members of the school committee in particular and guardians in general regarding school problems during their visits. IV. General Weakness of Schools 1. Adequate knowledge of the syllabus and textbooks should be acquired by teachers as well as by supervisors. 2. They need not emphasize merely on completion of the course or progress, but on proper understanding, application of knowledge and development of skill on the part of learners. 3. Co-curricular activities are to be given due importance by teachers as well as supervisors. 4. Library services, gardening and community activities should not be neglected in the primary schools. 5. Physical facilities in majority of schools should be adequate as they are not at present. V. Follow-up Activities 1. Senior inspecting officers in course of their tours should check certain inspection reports given by junior ones for getting a clear idea about the methods and frequencies of inspection. 2. They should insist on the compliance activities on the part of teacher and school committee for implementing the suggestions of supervisors. 3. Follow up of the inspection remarks by the inspecting officers themselves is extremely essential for effective supervision.

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Government of India, the Kothari Commission Report, 1964-66, p. 260. 2. Ross, L. Neagley and N. Dean Evans—Handbook For Effective Supervision of Instruction, p. 7. 3. Government of Orissa, the Orissa Education Code, 1965, p. 58. 610

65 A Study of the Methods of Inspection of Primary Schools in Orissa 1. THE PROBLEM FOR STUDY The responsibility of the supervisors has increased much during the last few years. In the present set-up the supervisors are required to perform three main functions under the panchayatiraj. He is responsible, to some extent, for some administrative control of the primary education, for supervision proper and extension work. The supervisors under panchayatiraj are designated as educational extension officers. They are not trained up in that line. Their attitude has not changed. They have hardly accepted in their heart of hearts their new role and new position in the new set-up. As a result of lack of training and experience, most of the supervisors feel dissatisfied with their job and very little originality, resourcefulness and adaptability are revealed in their work. Some of them have grown indifferent and others feel frustrated. This is not a happy state of affairs.

We got occasions to discuss freely about their difficulties in the last orientation seminars of these supervisors. We felt that the problem of supervision at the elementary level is a neglected one. So we propose to undertake a research project in order to know the problem as it is and to suggest measures for its removal. Regarding problems of research in the field of supervision it is rightly stated in the yearbook of Education, 1964 that "At present, the work of supervision is conducted more or less in rule of thumb manner and inspection still smacks strongly of a police character. It is to be raised to the level of scientific and democratic supervision. We shall have to undertake research into methods of working with teachers, evaluation of their work, valuation of schools as functional 611 entitles in the communities where they are located etc. These are problems to which the National Council of Educational Research and Training and the proposed State Institutes of Education would have to devote a good deal of their time."1 We have posed some questions to study the actual state of affairs.

2. OBJECTIVE The following objectives were proposed for this project: (1) To identify problems relating to supervision and supervisors. (2) To examine critically the supervisory practices in vogue in the state. (3) To evolve the modern methods of supervision suited to the needs of the present days. Procedure For this study a questionnaire was prepared and sent to all the sub-inspectors and assistant sub-inspectors of the district of Puri. Taking things as they are, we believe that problems of supervision and supervisors throughout the state are alike. The method of supervision, we suppose, is the same everywhere in the state. Further we learnt from our discussion with these sub-inspectors in the orientation seminars that their difficulties are related to administration, adjustment and education. So this study was confined to the district of Puri with a view to getting a general picture of the state of affairs in the field of supervision at the elementary level. Analysis The questionnaire was sent to 43 Sub-Inspectors and Assistant Sub-Inspectors of Puri District. 17 out of these 43 SubInspectors responded. So the percentage of response is 40%. The following analysis is made out of these 17 questionnaires.

3. GENERAL INFORMATION REGARDING THE QUALIFICATION AND EXPERIENCE OF SUPERVISORS Out of these 17 Sub-Inspectors 4 are matriculates, 5 I.A. and 8 B.A. 9 have received either secondary training or basic training, 8 graduate Sub-Inspectors have received B.Ed. training. Most of them have 612 experience in teaching line and it ranges from 8 to 17 years. Some of the Sub-Inspectors have served in the inspecting line for more than 15 years. One Sub-Inspector has worked in this line for 25 years. It is a good sign that about 60% of the Sub-Inspectors have more than 6 years experience in inspecting line. All are above 30 years of age and only one SubInspector is 51 years old. It is revealed that the number of institutions under a Sub-Inspector of schools ranges from 37 to 70.11 out of 17 subinspectors have schools in the range of 40 to 50, 3 in the range of 50 to 60 and three in the range of 60 to 70. 60% of SubInspectors have schools below 50 under their control. This shows that the average number of schools under a subinspector is not much. The workload of the sub-inspectors is not very heavy. In the Bombay study of the problems of inspection and supervision it was found that "an optimum work-load of an inspecting officer in conditions organising today would be about 40 schools or 100 teachers."2 The work-load becomes too heavy to be tackled when the number of schools under a Sub-Inspector exceeds 60. But from the above table it will be seen that only 18% of the Sub-Inspectors have schools above 60 under their control.

4. VISIT TO SCHOOLS The total number of institutions under these Sub-Inspectors are 832. During 1964-65 they visited 211 schools once, 266 schools twice, 169 schools thrice. 33 schools have not been visited at all. These Sub-Inspectors have supplied information wrongly. Leaving aside the schools under these three Sub-Inspectors only 60% of the schools were visited either twice or thrice. Needless to say that frequent visits and guidance will go a long way in improving the school conditions and the teacher. It is regretted that, for some reasons or other, 33 schools have not been visited even once during the whole year. These 33 schools are under four trained graduate Sub-Inspectors. One Sub-Inspector having 70 schools under his control could not visit 11 schools and the other having 66 schools, under his control failed to visit 12 schools. This shows that these sub-inspectors could not visit all schools as they have more schools under their control. However, other subinspectors who could visit 4 and 5 schools have only 51 and 43 schools under their control. This should be avoided as far as practicable. The work-load if calculated in terms of number of visits to different schools under his control would be 90 visits on the average to schools under a Sub-Inspector. 613

5. MEETING WITH THE TEACHERS Meeting the teachers in group has some advantages over meeting the teachers individually. "Supervision is the emotional, intellectual and professional leadership of groups of teachers as they study and improve all of the factors involved in the creative art of teaching." The good supervisors will always arrange situations in which the teachers participate in stimulating experiences in connection with their profession. For this group discussion has some advantages. Throughout his entire work with the teachers in groups, he will minimise the power aspect of his position. On the contrary, the individual conferences have some advantages too. There are occasions when meeting informal meeting with the teachers may help the supervisors in strengthening his bond with the teachers. Further, some teachers show apathy for discussion of his defects in the group. For emotional adjustment the individual conferences have some advantages. It is found from the study that all the Sub-Inspectors meet the teachers in the staff meeting after inspection. Very few subinspectors meet them in between the inspection. About 50% of the sub-inspectors have informed that they meet the teachers before inspection. All these three procedures have some merits and demerits. It is desirable that different methods should be adopted in different situations, keeping in view the improvement of primary education and the teachers' improvement. TABLE I Aspects Discussed with the Teachers in the Meetings SI.No. Administrative aspects Frequency Supervisory aspects Frequency I

2

3

4

5

1.

Co-operation with villagers 2

Syllabus

5

2.

School Improvement

4

Method of teaching

6

3.

School building

2

Enrolment

1

4.

Circular

1

Attendance

3

5.

Milk feeding

1

Correction work

1

6.

Panchayat control

1

Lesson note

2

7.

School affairs

1

Gardening

4

8.

Repair

2

9.

Teachers' difficulty

3

Total

17

22

Generally sub-inspectors meet the teachers in a meeting after their inspection. They discuss different topics in these meetings. From the 614 table it is revealed that frequency of topics relating to supervision and guidance is more than the frequency relating to administrative matter. This shows that our primary school teachers need more guidance in matters of professional growth and improvement in curricular knowledge.

6. PROBLEMS FACED It is reported that most of the Sub-Inspectors encourage the teachers to participate in the discussion freely. Problems placed by the teachers before the sub-inspectors in the staff meeting for guidance may be classified into personal, educational and administrative. Frequencies of occurrences of problems under these three major heads are as follows: Personal 4 Educational 14 Administrative 12 This figure supports the statement that our primary school teachers are conscious of their responsibility and are eager to discharge their duties properly under proper guidance and condition. Aspects discussed during 1964-65 Sub-Inspectors were requested to supply five significant aspects which they discussed with the staff members during 1964-65. The topics discussed may also be classified under three major heads as personal, educational and administrative. In 6 cases discussion was related to administrative matters and in 6 cases it was confined to personal problems like provident fund and regular payment. But 28 cases of discussion were referred to educational topics like difficulty in teaching English, working out the new syllabus and increasing the attendance. These problems call upon the sub-inspectors to work with these teachers like a friend, philosopher and guide in solving problems. Demonstration Lessons Demonstration lessons help integrating thinking and doing. Observation of a lesson and discussion of it afterwards will be a very fruitful means of integrating thinking and doing. It is better to arrange this demonstration lesson during the centre meeting. Generally, teachers are unwilling to volunteer themselves for this work. Much depends upon the leadership of the supervisors, his technique of planning the lesson. It is sure that frequently use of the demonstration lessons does require a high degree of professional spirit in a corps of teachers. For 615 this reason it may be well for the supervisors themselves to give demonstration lessons first. The supervisors should submit his teaching to the judgment of the teachers under his leadership. If he is honest, self-critical and professional in his comments on his own performance, the teachers under his leadership will be much more willing to follow his example and teach future demonstration lessons and it will go a long way in developing their professional outlook and growth. It is revealed from the questionnaire that one Sub-Inspector delivered no demonstration lessons during his visits in 196465 and one Sub-Inspector delivered demonstration lessons in all his visits. The range of the demonstration lessons delivered by the rest 15 Sub-Inspectors is 2 to 25 and the median is 5.50% of the Sub-Inspectors delivered only 5 demonstration lessons during their visits in 1964-65. Needless to say that this is not encouraging. Increasing the number of demonstration lessons may not improve the condition in some cases. However, the supervisors should try to encourage the teachers by his own example to deliver demonstration lessons.

7. METHODS FOLLOWED BY THE SUB-INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS DURING INSPECTION 14 out of these 17 sub-inspectors have reported that they invite suggestions from the teachers on their demonstration lessons. Teachers are encouraged to give their free opinion regarding these demonstration lessons. About 49% of subinspectors observe the teaching of every teacher subject-wise. Most of the sub-inspectors have opined that they don't get enough time to observe every teacher class-wise. Time devoted for observing a particular class ranges from 5 to 45 minutes. The median is 20 minutes. It depends upon the sub-inspector to decide how long he should devote to inspect class of a particular teacher. An experienced teacher may not need guidance in his class room work. In his case the subinspector may devote 5 minutes or so in inspecting his class. But in case of an untrained or newly appointed teacher, the sub-inspector's guidance becomes a 'must' and he may be thorough in his inspection in this case.

8. RESULTS OF CENTRE-MEETING Follow up programme of the centre-meeting is generally neglected. However, the following results were achieved in

different circles as a result of the organization of centre-meeting. 616 Though the results achieved in different direction is very poor, it can be predicted that much can be done if follow up programme be strictly undertaken. TABLE II Name of the item

SI. No.

Frequency Percentage

1.

Improvement in co-operation

1

5.9

2.

Beautifying school building

1

5.9

3.

Professional growth of untrained teachers 4

23.5

4.

Improvement in attendance

4

23.5

5.

Gardening

2

11.7

6.

Schemes

2

11.7

7.

Teaching aids

1

5.9

Evaluation (a) Pupils' Progress

About 82% of the sub-inspectors have adopted the method of evaluating the pupils' progress from the written exercise of the pupils. 59% of the Sub-Inspectors have told that they assess the pupils' progress from the examination results, 88% of sub-inspectors from pupils' responses at the time of inspection and 47% from the pupil's responses to teachers' questions. (b) Teaching Work

SI. No.

TABLE III Methods adopted Frequency Percentage

1.

Pupils' progress

13

76.6

2.

Teaching in the class

14

82

3.

Correction work

16

94

4.

Schemes

13

76

5.

Co-Curricular Activities 6

35

6.

Community Co-operation 6

35

From the above table it is clear that most of the sub-inspectors evaluate the teachers' work from the correction work of the teachers. It is desirable that one method under whatever care it is adopted will not yield desirable result. Different methods should be adopted keeping in view the special condition of the school, the community and the teacher himself. There should not be any hard and fast rule as to the application of a particular method for evaluation of the progress of the teacher or the pupil. The 617 sub-inspectors should be free to select his own method in assessing the progress of the school.

9. Community and Supervision About 70% of the sub-inspectors meet the villagers during their visits. During the course of their talk they discuss the following topics with them.

Sl. No. 1.

TABLE IV Name of the topics Attendance

Frequency Percentage 14

82

2.

School building repair

10

59

3.

Teachers' difficulties

4

23.5

4.

Co-operation in school work

9

52

5.

Supply of reading and writing materials 6

35

6.

Fencing and gardening

5

29

7.

School improvement

4

23.5

8.

Community work

1

5.4

9.

Fraction of school committee

4

23.5

Attendance in primary schools is a headache to the teachers and the supervisors. It is revealed from the above statistics that about 82% of the sub-inspectors discuss with the villagers about this problem. Most of the guardians are educationally backward and given the proper inspiration they will co-operate with the teachers in this respect. Our sub-inspectors should steal into their heart and in a sympathetic way the schools persuade them to send their children to the school regularly. The next problem is physical facilities in the schools. Villagers can do a lot in removing many difficulties if they can be properly mobilised. Much depends upon the teacher who often comes in contact with the villagers and the sub-inspector who is the guide of the teachers. Only 11% of the sub-inspectors have reported that the co-operation of the villagers is encouraging. The rest have supplied a discouraging picture. For this not only our villagers to be blamed but also the teachers, the society in general, the administrators and the social values that we have accepted are responsible to a great extent. Parent-teacher association is the medium through which the supervisors can do many things. But very few sub-inspectors have organised such associations. In the questionnaire the supervisors were asked to give their opinion regarding the methods for bettering the relations between the villagers and the teachers and between the villagers and the supervisors. Most of the 618 supervisors have reported that advising, encouraging, and participating will improve this relation. This is no doubt vague. No sub-inspector has given due weightage to this problem and proper thought has not been given to it. 10. METHOD OF REPORTING Sub-Inspectors were asked to tick the following procedure, which they follow, in respect of reporting.

SI. No

TABLE V Different procedures

Frequency Percentage

1.

Maintaining remark-book

14

82.3

2.

Maintaining check-list

6

35

3.

Individual discussion

13

76

4.

Discussion with the member of the school committee 15

88.2

5.

Discussion in the staff-meeting

13

76

6.

Discussion with the controlling authority

11

64

For effective supervision, reporting of the observation made during inspection is very important. It is true that the supervisor is the right person to select his procedure keeping in view the progress of the particular school. He is the leader, he knows how best he can control the school situation so that the desired outcome will be good. However, he should be guided by some general principles. It is better to discuss with the teachers individually and in the staff-meeting and to focus their attention for the defects observed. He should be sure that his remarks are appreciated and accepted. He may stimulate the teachers but he should not hurt their emotion. With caution different procedures mentioned above may be adopted. It is found that 88% of cases referred to the discussion with the school committees. Only 76% of SubInspectors have reported to have discussed with the teachers individually and in the staff-meetings. This is no doubt encouraging. Matters relating to building and attendance may be referred to the school committee. But all other aspects of internal management of school should be solved by discussing with the teachers.

11. IMPROVEMENT AS A RESULT OF REPORTING (SUGGESTION) In this respect very poor percentage of replies have been received

619 enrolment, in regular attendance, and 35% in school improvement. This shows that the reporting has very little impact on school improvement programme or on the improvement of the professional growth of the teachers. It is time for the supervisors to evaluate their own work in the light of this experience and achievement. He should plant his future work accordingly.

12. DIFFICULTIES FACED BY THE SUB-INSPECTORS

SI. No.

TABLE VI Name of the item Frequency Percentage

1.

Need of an assistant

2

11

2.

Need of a peon

3

17

3.

Need of co-operation

1

6

4.

Irregular attendance

3

17

5.

Work-load

5

29

6.

Teacher's absence

4

23.5

7.

Want of fund

3

17

8.

Want of equipment

6

35

9.

Communication difficulty 3

17

10.

Want of accommodation 1

6

It is clear from the above table that difficulties differ from sub-inspector to sub-inspector. We cannot point out one or two difficulties which are experienced by most of our sub-inspectors. 29% of the sub-inspectors have reported that their workload is heavy. 35% have reported that want of equipment in the primary schools is their major difficulty. However, it is true that for effective supervision the difficulties, as far as practicable, should be removed. They should be provided with some facilities which may encourage them to work out their programmes successfully.

13. SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE THE QUALITY INSPECTION The Sub-Inspectors were asked to give their suggestions regarding the improvement of the quality of inspection. Their replies have been analysed and classified under the following main heads. 620 TABLE VII SI. No.

Suggestions

Frequency Percentage

1.

Work-load should be reduced

7

41

2.

Control of primary education to Dept.

2

11

3.

Single-teacher schools should be converted into multi-teacher schools

1

6

4.

Untrained teachers should be trained

1

6

5.

Inservice training for the teachers

1

6

6.

Appointment of a clerk

1

6

7.

One sub-inspector suggests that all teachers should be transferred to schools in other than his home area.

It is true that for effective supervision the supervisors should be allowed some facilities. 41% of supervisors have expressed that the work load has become heavy. From the job chart of the supervisors it seems that the supervisor's work has become multifarious. Some of the suggestions like the inservice training for teacher could be solved by the State Institute of Education. Some Headmasters of Elementary Training Schools are now organising one day conferences with the teachers of the primary schools. If this programme will be carried out more intensively a large section of the primary school teachers will receive some sort of inservice training. Realising the problem of the backlog of untrained teachers our State Government started one year's condensed Elementary Training Course in different high schools of the State. It was expected that within a few years the backlog would be cleared. About the problems of single teacher schools and their

conversion into multi-teacher schools, we may refer to the suggestions made by Sri J.P. Naik in his book, "The Single Teacher Schools". Considering the rural habitation and economic backwardness of our people, he has recommended the "Single teacher schools is a must in our Country as a whole." When it is a must in India as a whole, we can't think of any other alternative in our State at present. However, we may think of ways how best these single teacher schools can be organised in order to achieve the desired result. Transfer of power of the control of primary education to panchayati raj institutions has created problem in the country. This problem was discussed in the Fourth National Seminar on compulsory primary education held at Puri. It has some merits and demerits too. As regards its drawback the seminar has expressed, "It had serious drawback in that it crippled the authority of the Education Department to give a direction to elementary education. It also blurred 621 the responsibility of the inspecting officers to the development of elementary schools as their services were continuously utilised, to a very large extent, for non-educational programmes."3 As the transfer was effected only before four or five years back no proper evaluation was worked out and so we should wait for its smooth working. At the present state we should not give any opinion regarding this problem. Regarding the work-load of the sub-inspectors it may be said that in the present set-up the supervisors have to attend multifarious work and they find very little time for guiding teachers and for providing them with some inservice education. "It is regretted that there is very little research in problems of inspection and supervision of elementary schools. The only known investigation on the subject is that conducted by the old Bombay State in five districts of Kholapur, Kaira, Ahmedabad, Baroda and North Satara."4 The study was conducted keeping in view the four main groups of work of supervisors. They are: (a) supervision proper, (b) unavoidable paper work, (c) administrative work, (d) time spent in journey. The study reveals that 45% of their time is spent in supervision work only. For other work 55% of their time is spent. This is no doubt, an unhealthy state of affairs. In case of sub-inspectors, we have not conducted any study in our State. However, from the statement made by the supervisors in course of discussion with them during the inservice training courses, it is learnt that most of their time is being spent in the above three categories of work, i.e. paper work, administrative work and time spent in journeys. Very little time is left for supervision proper. The sub-inspectors are extension officers. As educational extension officers, they have to do some extra work.

14. CONCLUSION The picture that emerged from the present study is that the inspecting officer has to work under very difficult conditions and has very little time to look after the work of supervision proper which, by and large, gets neglected. The responsibilities of our supervisors have increased after the transfer of control of primary education to the panchayatiraj administration. He is now concerned, not only with elementary schools, pupils and teachers, but also with the leaders of the local community. He is to help in making the school community centre. Considering the role of sub-inspectors in bringing about qualitative improvement in the elementary education at the present set up the following suggestions are offered: 622 1. The qualification of sub-inspectors should be raised and trained graduates should be appointed to these posts. This has become imperative in view of the fact that matriculate teachers have been posted in the primary schools and the successful implementation of the present syllabus demand higher academic achievement on the part of the Sub-Inspectors. 2. Both pre-service and inservice training for job-orientation of the sub-inspector should be provided. 3. Special pay should be allowed to these sub-inspectors of schools. 4. A clerk should be appointed to assist him in maintaining the office work. 5. The maximum number of schools under a sub-inspector should be 40. In case of hilly area or areas where there is no communication facilities, the number may even be less. 6. The sub-inspector should be provided with a quarter. 7. Uniform method of recording the inspection report should be adopted. 8. The centre meetings should be activated and utilised for different improvement programme. 9. The Panchayati authorities should see that the sub-inspectors' recommendations are implemented.

10. All the schools should be visited at least twice a year. 11. The sub-inspectors should try different methods for implementing their suggestions for improvement of the school. 12. They should study the individual problems of the schools with an open mind and should do all he can to create a better atmosphere for work. 13. Criteria for evaluating the teacher's work and pupils' progress should be evolved by the State Institute of Education and the sub-inspectors should utilise the criteria of evaluating the school work objectively. 14. The sub-inspectors should discuss with the teachers individually about the individual defects observed during the inspection. In matter of professional growth he may discuss in the group. 15. Most of the teachers are eager as it is revealed from the study to increase their professional knowledge. The subinspector should take advantage of this situation and should arrange for demonstration lessons either by himself or by a willing teacher. 623

NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. NCERT, New Delhi, The Indian Year Book of Education, 1964, p. 365. 2. Ibid. 3. Report of the Fourth National Seminar on Compulsory Primary Education, Puri, 1964, p. 33. 4. NCERT, New Delhi The, Indian Year Book of Education, 1964, p. 364. 624

66 Early Childhood Education (ECE) and Its Need for Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) 1. NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY Early childhood extending from two to six years of age is a period of great importance, when the child seeks to acquire control over the environment. He gets himself ready to explore his environment, know its components, to know how it works and how it feels. This period is, therefore, ideal for learning. He acquires new knowledge and skills through curiosity, adventure and activities. The child develops egocentricism and animism. Still, he learns the basics of social behaviour and as a member of the gang he gets interested in the company of others. Many leadership qualities develop at this stage and shows his interest in toys, plays, drawings, dance, music, etc. Educationally, this period is therefore very significant and paves the way for effective learning. It enables the child to profit from early childhood education in all respects. There are mainly two reasons for giving importance to ECE, firstly, for bringing about development— physical, social, emotional and intellectual and secondly, for reducing the high wastage and drop outs in primary schools. The Kothari Commission emphasized ECE for the first generation learners and as support for working mothers. Some studies also revealed that children passed through pre-school education show regular attendance and better progress at the primary stage. The National Policy on Education (NPE, 1986) and the revised one, 1992 have pointed out the importance of ECE for child development as a whole, through nutrition, health, social, mental, physical, moral and emotional development. That is why, these documents have termed ECE as Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE). 625 ECCE has received high priority from the government due to its contribution towards universalization of elementary education. At present, besides Anganwadies and Balwadies, a number of ECE centres have been established through private initiatives and most of them are English Medium Schools. Since UEE is a matter of great national concern, ECE has been emphasized by various Committees and Commissions as supportive and contributory to the success of Elementary Education.

A comprehensive review of related studies gave no conclusive findings about the contribution of ECE towards enrolment, attendance and achievement of children. Especially, no adequate studies have been undertaken relating to the role of ECE in UEE in India in general and in Orissa in particular. It was, therefore, felt necessary to conduct a indepth study of the ECE centres for ascertaining their effectiveness and relevance to UEE.

2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The objectives of the study were as follows: (a) To make a survey of ECE centres in all aspects and managements. (b) To find out the strengths and weaknesses of their programmes. (c) To know their contribution towards the achievement of UEE. (d) To make a comparative study of exposed and non-exposed groups of children in ECE centres with Oriya and English Medium as regards their achievement and dropout. (e) To suggest measures for improving ECE centres so that UEE can be promoted and be a success.

3. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS The entire state of Orissa was taken as the universe and all kinds of ECE centres were brought under its purview. ECE centres both in English and Oriya were selected through the method of random sampling from all the three Revenue Divisions taken as clusters. The study was also delimited to the curricular and co-curricular programmes, management and other aspects of ECE centres with special reference to their efficiency for realization of UEE.

4. SAMPLES One sample of 100 Anganwadi Centres (AWCs) with Oriya medium and another sample of 56 ECE centres in English Medium Schools viz., 626 Convents, DAV, Sri Aurobindo Integral School, Saraswati Sishu Mandir, Maharshi Vidya Mandir, Satya Sai Schools and other such schools were taken from three Revenue Divisions: Central, Northern and Southern. The districts of Balasore, Puri and Cuttack in the Central Division, Sambalpur and Dhenkanal is Northern Division and Ganjam, Phulbani and Koraput in Southern Division were selected for collection of data. One sample of 25 managements and another sample of 25 educationists, administrators and supervisors were taken for eliciting their views through interview.

5. TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES For making a survey of ECE Centres, a detailed questionnaire for heads of ECE centres was developed and tried out for collecting data relating to general information about the teachers, and ECE centres, academic programmes, structure, media, materials, management, supervision, finance and other relevant aspects. Prior to this, two conferences of the ECE centres and experts were held at Bhubaneswar and Sambalpur to identify the problems and issues relating to ECE and feedback of the conferences was taken into account for developing the questionnaire. One interview schedule was developed for enlisting the views of managements of ECE centres regarding various their issues and problems. An opinionnaire was drafted and finalized for pooling the opinions of the educationists, senior administrators and supervisors on different aspects of ECE centres and their contribution towards UEE. Besides, two information sheets were developed, one for children of exposed group and another for non-exposed group under both English and Oriya Medium, for collecting data regarding their attendance, dropout and achievement. Data regarding achievement and dropout were collected from the school documents like Examination and Admission Registers in respect of the students from Class-I to Class-V during the period 1990-91 to 1994-95. However, daily attendance registers were not available in most of the primary schools and as such data regarding attendance could not be collected. All these tools were administered and data were collected personally by the Principle Investigator and Junior Project Fellow (JPF) through on the spot visit of the ECE centres. During such visits it was possible to observe the programmes, discuss with teachers and managements and interact with students and other persons concerned. Therefore, both

627 quantitative and qualitative data were collected for better analysis and interpretation.

6. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION Data were compiled and analysed with the help of percentages in most of the cases. As regards the achievements of children belonging to exposed and not exposed groups both in Oriya and English, Standard Error of Difference Between Means (SED) was employed and calculation of 't' value was made for better comparison. Analysis of data regarding ECE centres (both English and Oriya) revealed a number of interesting findings about teachers, students, accommodation, qualification, pay, methods, etc. TABLE 1 Information of Workers/Teachers Regarding Sex (In Percentage) Central Divn. Northern Divn. Southern Divn. Total Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female ECE(O) Nil

100

Nil

100

Nil

100

Nil

100

ECE(E) 50

50

83

17

80

20

71

29

Table 1 indicates that all Anganwadi workers belong to female sex whereas 71% and 29% were male and female teachers respectively in ECE(E) centres. The ECE(O) and (E) centres were established during the period from 1974 to 1993. Most of the AWCs were located in villages and slum areas whereas 100% of ECE(E) centres were located in urban and semiurban areas. Most of the ECE(E) centres (76%) were housed in rented buildings whereas only 42% of ECE(O) centres were running in rented houses. Only 24% and 08% belonging to these former and latter groups had their own buildings. In majority of the ECE(O) centres workers were matriculate (33%) having inservice training whereas, a great majority of teachers (85%) in ECE(E) centres were graduates with inservice training (40%). Table 2 shows the qualification of teaching staff. The workers of ECE (O) centres were paid according to their qualification and experience, but there is no rationality in the pay of the teachers working in ECE(E) centres. 628 TABLE 2 Information about Qualification of the Teaching Staff (In Percentage) General Qualification Professional Qualification Metric Under Matric Post Matric Graduate Post Graduate Inservice

Pre-service

ECE(O) 53

31

16

—

—

100

—

ECE(E) —

—

—

85

15

40

07

Table 3 gives an idea about the distribution of students according to their sex in ECE centres (both O & E). TABLE 3 Distribution of Students According to Sex(In Percentage) Central Divn. Northern Divn. Southern Divn. Total Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls Boys Girls

ECE(O) 51

49

36

64

63

37

50

50

ECE(E) 71

29

78

22

80

20

76

24

It is interesting to note that the distributions of boys and girls in ECE(O) Centres were equal whereas, in ECE(E) centres the percentage of girls (24%) was less than that of boys (76%). In ECE(O) centres children were in the age group 3 to 5 whereas in ECE(E) centres they were in the age group 2 to 5 years. In the former education was quite non-formal and in ECE centres it was formalized to a great extent. Table 4 gives the information about the age level and structure of ECE centres. TABLE 4 Information about the Age Level and Structure of ECE Centres

Age Level ECE(O)

(a) 3 + to 4 + (b) 4 + to 5 +

Structure

% of centres

Anganwadi classes 100

(a) 2 + to 3 + Nursery

15

ECE(E) (b) 3 + to 4 + K.G.I./L.K.G. etc. 85 (c) 4 + to 5 + K.G.II/U.K.G. etc. It is evident from the Table 4 that 100% children attended Anganwadi centres of two years, whereas, in 85% of ECE centres students attended K.G. classes and 15% attended nursery classes. 629 In ECE(O) centres, a set of guidelines has been provided by the government to carry on various activities and in ECE centres syllabi have been developed by their concerned agencies. In the former, activities were organised due to heterogeneity of the syllabi. The nature of such activities was recreational and developmental in the former category. It was mostly academic in the latter. In the AWCs the activities were stereotyped and in ECE(E) centres they were mostly unintelligible and traditional. However, in the former the children had the pleasure and joy of participation, which was lacking in ECE(E) centres. Due to lack of space, sports and games were occasionally organised in both kinds of ECE centres. In ECE(O) centres, books, story chart, alphabate chart, dolls, maps and pictures, etc. were provided by government long back and most of them were found broken and damaged. In ECE(E) centres mechanical toys and quizes were purchased but rarely used. The primers, nursery rhymes, stories, etc. printed in English were supplied to students on payment. Student in these centres were actually hard pressed due to the demands of parents and joyful learning was found absent. Workbooks were found unnecessary in ECE(O) centres whereas, in ECE(E) centres workbooks were used in most of the subjects. There were no guide books either in ECE(O) or in ECE(E) centres. But the guidelines provided by the concerned authorities were taken as guide books. In ECE(E) centres Oriya was the medium of instruction with some difficulties for children of the minority communities and tribes. In ECE(E) centres English was the medium of instruction with difficulties of understanding and enjoyment. English was preferred by 84% of parents for its social and economic values. In ECE ('O' & 'E') centres story telling and recitation of poems were followed generally. Activity and playing method were followed in most of the centres. In ECE(O) centres there were no formal examinations whereas, in ECE(E) centres both written and oral and different types of formal examinations were held without adequate understanding and appreciation. All the ECE(O) centres were managed by the government, whereas, the ECE(E) centres were managed by Missionaries and other non-government agencies. Although most of ECE(E) centres said to have been set up to spread education, but actually profit motive was found to be an important cause. In case of ECE(O) and ECE(E) centres no accounts were made available and there were some /Clements of commercialisation due to lack of transparency in the financial management of ECE(E) centres. The former was supervised by 630 Supervisors, CDPOs and DWOs and the latter by Secretaries,. Presidents, heads and other important members of the Advisory Committees. In spite of free education and provision of supplementary food the percentage of attendance widely ranged from 36 to 94 in the ECE(O) centres but due to payment of fees and parents' awareness, the range of such attendance was found to be very narrow i.e., from 90 to 100 in ECE (E) centres. As revealed from the responses of heads in case of ECE(O) centres the academic problems were lack of training (39%), dearth of teaching aids (29%), heavy workload (22%) and the administrative problems were inadequate accommodation (53%), low salary (36%), irregular inspection (28%) and irregular payment of salary (26%). In case of ECE(E) centres, the heads have pointed out academic problems like heavy course of study (73%), lack of inservice training (47%), lack of preservice training (41%) and the administrative problems viz., absence of play ground (57%), low salary (55%) and inadequate accommodation (54%). According to 77% and 72% of interviewees of ECE(O) centres the academic problems were low educational qualification and inadequate learning materials respectively and under administrative problems low and irregular payment of pay (97%), inadequate contingency (89%), poor quality materials (85%) and poor accommodation (85%). In case of ECE(E) centres the highest percentage (91%) pointed out inadequate accommodation, lack of government assistance, low salary, etc. under administrative problems and as high as 91% have felt workload on students too heavy as the most important academic

problem. Table 5 shows the significance of academic achievement of students exposed and not-exposed to ECE(O). And the result has shown that there exist no such significant difference (t = 1.95) between these two groups of students in their achievement. TABLE 5 SED of Exposed and Not-exposed to ECE(O) Groups on Overall Achievement Group N M SD t s/ns Exposed

49 218.50 50.63 1.95 ns both at

Not-exposed 54 214.23 64.27 631

.01 & .05

Table 6 shows the significant difference between exposed and not-exposed ECE(E) students in their achievement scores (t = 4.53). But the matter of great surprise that the students not-exposed to ECE(E) are at higher degree in their mean score (M = 421.50) than their counterparts (M = 361.90). It may be due to the coaching of educated parents and their personal attention. TABLE 6 SED of Exposed and Notexposed to ECE(E) groups on Overall Achievement Group N M SD t s/ns Exposed

78 361.90 55.80 —

—

4.53 s Not-exposed 42 421.50 74.70 —

—

The findings on inter-class achievement indicated that children exposed to ECE in the regional language have shown gradual improvement in their course whereas, those exposed to ECE in English have not such gradual improvement in their achievement. TABLE 7 Percentage of Dropout of Students Exposed and Notexposed to ECE(O) and ECE(E) Exposed Not-exposed Groups No % No. % ECE(O) 53 51.90 47

46.7

ECE(E) 22 23.97 55

69.88

It is evident from the Table 7 that the continuance of children exposed to ECE(O) in Primary classes was not found to be better and rather the children not exposed to ECE(O) have recorded less dropout. On the other hand, the continuance of children exposed to ECE(E) was found to be better than their counterparts, since the percentage of their dropout was less in primary classes than the children not-exposed to ECE(E).

7. MAJOR FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (a) Major Findings On the basis of analysis and interpretation, the following were major findings: 632 (i) Although in Anganwadies all workers were female, in English Medium ECE Centres, percentage of female teachers (29%) was less than male teachers (71%). (ii) Almost all ECE(E) centres were located in Urban and Semi-Urban areas, whereas most of the ECE(O) were located in villages and slum areas of towns. (iii) As high as 76% of ECE(E) centres were housed in rented buildings, whereas 42% of ECE(O) centres were running in

rented houses. In the former case 24% and in latter case 08% have their own buildings. (iv) Most of the AWs were found to be less qualified, but trained whereas most of the teachers in ECE Centres were highly qualified and some of them trained. (v) The teachers' emoluments both in ECE(O) and ECE(E) were not found adequate in comparison to their qualification and workload. (vi) In the ECE(O) centres the percentage of boys and girls were the same, whereas, in ECE(E) centres the percentages of boys (76%) was higher than that of girls (24%). (vii) The structure of ECE(O) was uniform and ungraded, whereas in ECE(E) centres the structure of education was diversified and multigraded. (viii) In ECE(O) centres curriculum was mostly uniform and informal, whereas in ECE centres the curriculum were very much divergent and too much formal. (ix) The nature of activities in the ECE(O) centres was mostly recreational and developmental, whereas in ECE(E) centres it was mostly instructional and academic. (x) In ECE(O) centres the teaching-learning materials were quite inadequate and occasionally provided, whereas in ECE(E) centres there were too many of them either brought out by their own agencies or by private firms. (xi) In the ECE(O) no workbook was used, whereas in ECE(E) there were workbooks used in some subjects. (xii) As high as 100% of ECE(O) centres and 81% of ECE(E) centres reported to have used guide books, but actually they have misunderstood guidelines given by their concerned authorities as guide books. (xiii) Oriya was invariably used as the medium of instruction in ECE(O) centres with difficulties to tribal and minority communities and English in all ECE(E) centres with difficulty in understanding and enjoyment. 633 (xiv) Both in ECE(O) and (E) centres, story telling and action songs were emphasized and activities and play ways were occasionally used as methods of teaching. (xv) In ECE(O) centres there were no formal examinations, whereas in all ECE(E) centres there were formal examinations —written, oral or both. (xvi) ECE(O) centres were managed by the Government of Orissa and ECE(E) centres were managed by various private agencies like Missionary, New Life Education Trust, Siksha Vikas Samiti, Sai Baba Trust, etc. (xvii) Although 85% of ECE(O) and 81% of ECE(E) centres reported that they have been set up to satisfy local needs, actually ECE(E) centres came into existence to earn money. (xviii) No accounts were made available in the ECE(E) centres and their financial management seems to have some elements of commercialisation. (xix) The ECE(O) centres were supervised by Supervisors, CDPOs and DWOs and ECE(E) centres by the Secretaries and other members of the Advisory Committees. (xx) In ECE(O) centres the percentage of daily attendance ranged from 36 to 94 and in ECE(E) centers from 90 to 100. (xxi) As reported by the heads of ECE(O), the academic problems were—lack of training, difficulty in using teaching aids and heavy work-load with less importance of educational activity and administrative problems were inadequate accommodation, low payment of salary and irregular inspection. (xxii) In ECE(E) centres the academic problems were—heavy course of study, lack of inservice and pre-service training and the administrative problems were inadequate accommodation, low salary, etc. (xxiii) The difference between exposed and not-exposed groups of ECE(O) was not found significant in achievement, whereas the difference in achievement between such groups of ECE(E) was found significant in favour of not-exposed ECE(E) group. (xxiv) As regards ECE(O) in case of exposed group there were more dropouts than not-exposed group in primary classes

whereas, this result was reverse in case of ECE(E). (xxv) In primary classes continuance of children exposed to ECE(O) was not found better than that of ECE(E). 634 (b) Recommendations In the light of the findings mentioned above, the following recommendations are made for improving the system in order to achieve the desired objectives of ECE: (i) Since ICDS is likely to cover the entire country, ECE centres should be set up both in villages and towns in order to provide facilities for school readiness so that UEE will be a success. (ii) Irrespective of management whether government or non-government, the ECE centres have not been provided adequate and suitable accommodation which has resulted in adversely affecting the progress of students and smooth functioning of centres. It is therefore suggested that, early steps need be taken for provision of suitable accommodation in all ECE centres in a planned manner. (iii) In ECE centres well-qualified and well-paid teachers should be appointed irrespective of medium of instruction and nature of management. (iv) Teachers working in ECE centres should be provided both pre-service and inservice training with due emphasis on practical activities and methods of teaching oriented to the needs and conditions of young children. (v) Since different structures of ECE were in vogue, there is scope for more heterogeneity, duplication and commercialisation. It is therefore suggested that ECE should be provided for two sessions for the children in the age group 3 to 5 years. (vi) The curriculum for ECE should be flexible, activity-based and need-oriented, according to the psycho-social and cultural ethos. (vii) In all ECE centres activities should be organised mostly for giving them different learning experiences through joyful and playway methods. (viii) In ECE centres no workbook should be used and more comprehensive guide books with detailed instructions for organising various activities should be provided free of cost. (ix) Psychologically it is unsound to impose English on young children who are not able to enjoy and understand the instructions and activities. Hence, in all the ECE centres mother-tongue should be used as the medium of instruction particularly during the first year. 635 (x) There should not be any formal examination and students' progress can be evaluated through teachers, personal observation of their participation and interest in various activities and behaviour. (xi) Excepting Anganwadies, all the ECE centres were managed by Private agencies with various interests and motives, leading to unhealthy environment, over-loaded curriculum and commercialisation. In view of the great importance of ECE it is suggested that a well-organised institution or Board should be set up under Government for fixation of standards and norms of establishing and maintaining ECE centres in the State. (xii) Due to lack of transparency in the school accounts and high rates of collection from the students, it is suggested that action deemed suitable should be taken up to check such commercialisation. (xiii) There should be an Advisory Committee in each ECE centres for extending their advice both for academic and administrative issues. These committees should be representative, active and sensitive to the problems of the children. (xiv) The ECE centres should be supervised regularly by competent authorities, not haphazardly, but in a planned manner for giving practical guidance and suggestions for improving their activities and functioning. (xv) The ECE centres should be made attractive, motivating and congenial for promoting daily attendance of students. (xvi) Like the students of ECE(E) centres, almost all children of ECE(O) centres should go to primary classes for making

UEE a great success. (xvii) The ECE(O) centres should be supplied good quality materials and sufficient contingencies. (xviii) In all ECE centres rich learning experiences should be provided by teachers through provision of better working conditions and infrastructural facilities so that better achievement of children could be evident. (xix) Since teachers are expected to play a significant role, particularly in ECE centres, they should be appointed with due consideration of their genuine interest and attitude for working with young children with love and commitment. 636

REFERENCES Bakshi, A., Performance of Primary School Children with and without ICDS Exposure, Deptt. of Human Development and Family Studies, Baroda University, 1986. Buch, MB. (ed), Fourth Survey of Research in Education, Vol. II, NCERT, New Delhi, 1991. Govt. of India, National Policy on Education, 1986, Ministry of Human Resource Development (Education), New Delhi. Govt. of India, Programme of Action, MHRD, Department of Education, New Delhi, 1992. Govt. of India, National Policy on Education, MHRD, Department of Education, New Delhi, 1992. Govt. of India, Programme of Action, MHRD, Department of Education, New Delhi, 1992. Govt. of Orissa, A Report-20 years of ICDS in Orissa, Department of Women and Child Development, 1995. Kaul, V. and Bhatnagar, R., Early Childhood Education, NCERT, Department of Pre- School and Elementary Education, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi, 1992. Kaul, V., Early Childhood Education Programme, NCERT, New Delhi, 1991. Mohanty, J. and Mohanty, B., Early Childhood Care and Education, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1994. Mohanty, J., Education for All, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, 1994. Mohanty, J. and Mohanty, B., Pre-School Education (Early Childhood Education), Cuttack Publishing House, Cuttack, 1984. Mohanty, J., Indian Education in the Emerging Society, Sterling Publishers, New Delhi, 1981. Mohanty, J., Mohanty, C, Tripathy, S., Research Abstracts, Dr. PM IASE, Sambalpur, 1994. Paul, J. and Srinivas, R., The Future School-Strategies in the Classroom, Education Planning Group, 4, Rajnivas Marg, New Delhi, 1995. Verma, A., and Mohite, B., "Research and Early Childhood Education—a Trend Report" (pp. 1217-48), 4th Survey of Research in Education, Vol. II, NCERT, New Delhi, 1991. 637

67 A Study of the Efficacy of the Field Trip in the Teaching of Social Studies (Primary) I. NEED OF THE PROJECT The syllabus for Primary Schools in Orissa enunciates, "This Programme of Social Studies is quite different from all other Programmes in the syllabus in that it is not so much learning of facts, like such other disciplines as Mathematics, Literature and Grammar and Science. It is indeed not any sort of information stuffed into the child's mind, but the very formation of his character, his attitude to life-situations and personal habits. Success of this programme may be taken as the education of the child much more than knowledge of the 3 R's. (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic). It wants drilling of

the child in the virtues of citizenship, in civilized ways of living and in the awareness of group obligations and loyalties". However, in practice, it is found that Social Studies is taught in the way only to impart certain facts to be crammed by the pupils for passing the examination. The important objectives of teaching Social Studies such as inculcation of the civic virtues, formation of civic habits, understanding the physical and social environment in the life-situations and training in citizenship, are not adequately realized through conventional methods like lecturing or text-book reading etc. It is felt essential to provide learning experiences through the study and exploration of the immediate and local surroundings. Hence, the use of field trips as and when possible, with a view to supplementing the theoretical knowledge with practical experiences is immensely important. Therefore, it is advisable to study the efficacy of the field trip through experiment and to ascertain its real significance for achieving the objectives of the Social Studies. 638

II. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The following come under the scope of this mini-experiment: 1. Only students of Class III were included in the experiment. 2. Three days only were utilized for their experiment. 3. Only one topic in Social Studies was dealt in the experiment.

III. METHODS OF STUDY The Class III of the Government U.P. Schools, Unit-I, Bhubaneshwar was taken for experimentation. It was felt that experiment would be conducted under the existing set-up without creating any problems of dislocation or regrouping. Since Class III has 4 sections, it was a problem to select two equal sections—equal approximately in merit and achievement of the students. For this purpose, the results in the last Annual Examination, 1972 were taken into consideration. General achievement of the students appeared was taken as criteria for grouping the students for experimentation. The following table will show the basis for selection of the Section B and C from among the four Sections. TABLE 1 Comparison of the Sections for Selecting Approximately two Sections Range of the percentage of marks Secured Section A Two Sections Section D Section B

Section C

1-20

12

6

1

4

21-40

14

23

17

22

41-60

5

2

6

6

61-80

—

1

1

—

81-100

—

—

—

—

Total

31

32

31

32

It will be found from the above data that Section B and C will be approximately comparable in achievement as well as in merit. After selecting the sections, Sections A and B were taken as Control and Experimental groups respectively. It was decided that teaching would be made separately in both the groups in traditional methods with necessary teaching aids and only the students of the Experimental group would be taken on a field trip in order to give them direct experiences. 639 In the syllabus for Class III there is a topic "Post Office," which is taught haphazardly and no attempts are made to give students proper insight and experience in the actual life situations. It was also thought proper to entrust the same teacher for teaching both the groups. So the experimenter himself took up that responsibility and taught both the sections. The topic was divided into two units, (i) Functions of the Post Office, and

(ii) Organisation of the Post Office. Thus, excepting one variable, i.e. field trip, all other variables were the same for both the groups. Both the groups were taught in two units about the Post Office separately in the narration-cum-discussion methods with adequate use of real objects and illustrations. Lastly, the students of the experimental group were taken to the Capital Post Office and introduced to the Staff-members there. The students were explained about each and every object and activity in the Post Office. They evinced keen interest and the persons dealing with different activities there explained to them with so much interest. Even the participants shared the experiences of the students and helped clarifying their own concepts as well as of their students. Participants (Head-teachers) Lastly the participants, who are all experienced head-teachers of Primary Schools from different parts of the State, were requested to give their suggestions for evaluating the achievements of the students reading in Control and Experimental group. It was decided that students should be orally tested, as students had not yet acquired the skills for writing down their answers. A set of questions was prepared and finalised in the joint sitting of participants and the experimenter. The participants were divided into 5 groups and each group was given a set of questions for collecting the oral responses from the students. Attempts were made to create rapport between the examiners and the students. Some questions had to be written on the black-boards for convenience of the students to give answers. Each group was asked to administer the test on about the same number of students both from the experimental and Control Groups for counteracting the subjective elements. The experimenter kept himself aloof from the evaluation and was supervising the groups with a view to maintaining the same standard uniformity in following the rules and procedure of examining the students. Hence, all possible precautions were taken for safeguarding objectivity, reliability and validity of the tests in evaluating the performance of the students. 640

IV. INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA The scores so collected have been tabulated as follows: TABLE 2 Comparison of Scores Secured by the Students of Control and Experimental Groups Appeared in the Test Control Group Experimental Group Frequency of the scores secured Number Percentage Number Percentage 1-20

3

10

2

8

21-40

12

40

6

24

41-60

6

20

6

24

61-80

7

23

9

36

81-100

2

7

2

8

Total

30

100

25

100

It is evident from the scores secured that the students of the Experimental group have fared better than those of the Control group. The average percentage of scores in the Experimental group is 55, whereas that in the Control group is 49 only. Similarly, the larger group of students, i.e. 40 percent of students in Control section have secured scores in the frequency of 21-40, whereas the larger group of students in the Experimental Section have secured scores in the frequency 61-80. It is also to be found that majority of students in the Experimental group have secured comparatively higher scores. But the majority of students in the Control group have secured lower one. Moreover, it is the general feeling of the participants that the practical or first-hand experiments of Experimental group gained through actually visiting the Post Office and its various sections, talking to the persons engaged in the different functions of the Post Office and so on, have made the teaching more effective and meaningful. Thus, the participants became convinced of the efficacy of field-trip.

V. CONCLUSION The objectives of Social Studies are better realized through providing learning-experience in different real contexts. The stereotyped method of teaching Social Studies by mere lecturing or reading from the textbooks in the class not only makes

Social Studies dull and boring, but also it fails to make pupils realize the true worth of Social Studies. Especially in the Primary classes, students should be provided with 641 ample facilities of gaining direct experiences through field-trip, interview, dramatisation and so on. Unless we make the teaching of Social Studies interesting and relevant to the reality, the students are not benefited by it. Hence, teachers should supplement as well as enliven the learning experiences of students in Social Studies by arranging field-trips as far as possible. This mini-experiment is just a fact-finding study and a small action research project to ascertain the efficacy of field-trip in the teaching of Social Studies. 642

68 A Study of the Reading Interests of Children 1. NEED OF THE STUDY Children's reading interests are of crucial importance in preparation and production of Children's literature. The development of suitable literature largely depends upon the knowledge of children's reading interests and their liking for different types of books and journals. A Chari (1972) has rightly observed, "Children learn to read more easily if the material is meaningful to them and if they are interested in the ideas and/or the way the ideas are expressed. Therefore, books which deal with the ideas familiar and interesting to children will be more successful teaching tools than books which deal with ideas unfamiliar and uninteresting from the children's point of view. The authors of Children's literature have to take the psychological needs of the child into account and write suitable materials for children according to their needs and interests. Mohanty (1972) has also mentioned in this connection, "Children were taught the same literature as adults irrespective of their psychological and emotional growth. But such works become unattractive, unintelligible and uninteresting to the children. Due to the improvement of sciences both physical and social, it was realized that knowledge of psychology of children at different stages is as essential prerequisite for a writer of juvenile literature as for teachers of different stages. Their interests and instincts, their needs and aptitudes are to be understood to deal with them successful. Children's interests are determined partly by the environment and partly by biological needs of children. Interests also vary from age to age as a three year-old child will not have the same interests as those of a twelve-year old. It is also found that sex, age, ability, culture, socio643 economic and educational status of the parents strongly influence the interests of children. Studies so far conducted in India in general and in Orissa in particular are, however, too limited to provide necessary information and data to the authors of Children's literature. The present investigators have, therefore, conducted this study of children's reading interests in their regional language (Oriya) with the following objectives. The findings of the study are, it is hoped, will also be more or less applicable to different parts of our country.

2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The objectives of this study are as follows: (i) to know the interest of children in different forms of children's literature; (ii) to identify the different fields of children's interests; (iii) to ascertain children's likings in different physical aspects of children's books; (iv) to know their favourite journals; and (v) to find out the reasons of their likings for the magazines.

3. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The Children in the age group 8-11 have been taken as the subjects of the study. Therefore, the students reading in Class II to Class IV have been included in the sample. The questionnaire was administered on 120 children reading in these classes of three urban and three rural schools. Both the children's books as well as journals have been brought under the

purview of the present investigation.

4. TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION A draft questionnaire was developed and tried out on a sample of children in the age group 8-11 and on the basis of the responses, the questionnaire was finalised for administration. The teachers of Class III to Class VI of the concerned schools were oriented about the needs and objectives of the study. Particularly they were requested to give full freedom to children in filling the questionnaire without any kind of interference. Only in the cases of queries and doubts of students they might come to their help. However, the investigators had to go personally 644 to some of the schools and observed the data collection as objectively as possible. The questionnaire had the following aspects: (1) what form of children's literature do children like to read; (2) what content areas are liked by them, (3) what physical aspects of children's books are liked by them, (4) what books they would like to purchase if a sum of ten rupees is given to them, (5) what journals do they read beside their text books, (6) what journals they like most; and (7) why do they like these journals most. The children were requested to give their free and frank opinions. In case of question Nos. 1 to 3 they were asked to give weightage to different items according to the degree of their own liking. The next four questions were open ended allowing the respondents to mention the books and journals of their own liking and to give their responses for the same.

5. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA After compilation of data, the necessary analysis and interpretation were made under the following heads: (i) Forms of Children's literature; (ii) Subject content; (iii) Physical feature; (iv) Individual choices; (v) Magazines read by Children; (vi) Popular Children's journals; and (vii) Reasons for Children's liking. 5.1. Forms of Children's Literature In consideration of the characteristics and affinity of different forms of literature suitable for children the following categories were made: (a) Poems and Songs; (b) Stories and Novels; (c) Dramas and One Act Plays; (d) Biographies and Autobiographies; (e) Travels and Adventures; (f) Essays and Compositions. Since there are six categories of items, the first option of children has been given weightage of 6 marks, the second option 5 marks, the third option 4 marks, 5th option 2 marks and sixth option 1 mark. Accordingly the option given by children against the above six categories were tabulated and the total weightage presented in the following table. 645 TABLE 1 Distribution of Weightage to Various Forms of Literature (N12) SI. No. Forms of Children's literature Weightage P.C. Ranking 1.

Poems and Songs

609

23.88 1

2.

Stories and Novels

428

20.70 2

3.

Dramas and One-act-Plays

432

16.99 4

4.

Biographies and Auto Biographies 384

16.23 4

5.

Travels and Adventures

321

12.58 5

6.

Essays and Compositions

246

9.46 6

It is evident from the above table that the highest percentage (23.88%) of children like to read poems and songs. The next percentage (20.70%) of them have expressed their interest in stories and novels; 16.99%, 16.23%, 12.58% and 9.64% of children expressed their options in favour of Dramas/One-act-Plays, Biographic and Autobiographies, Travels/ Adventures and Essays/Compositions respectively. According to the weightage given by the children it is found that poetry has occupied the first rank, fictions the second rank, dramatics the third rank, travels the fifth rank and compositions sixth rank. This ranking shows the order of children's preference to various forms of children's literature. 5.2. Content Areas/Fields of Interest

There are different subject matters and all children do not like the content to the same degree. Although there are such individual differences, it is felt necessary to know the general interest of children for various fields. The children's options have been elicited in respect to the following categories of content, (a) Discoveries and Inventions (b) Mythology, (c) Fairy tales and Folk literatures, (d) Patriotic writings (e) Human/Comic books, (f) Ghost/Mystery stories, and (g) Romantics and Detectives. Since there are seven categories of items, the first option of children has been given weightage of 7 marks, the second option six marks, the third option five marks, fourth option 4 marks, 5th option 3 marks, 6th option 2 marks, and seventh option 1 mark. Accordingly weightage of different options were calculated and the following table will give the picture of general interest of children in different types of content. 646 TABLE 2 Distribution of Weightage to Various Types of Subject Content SI. No Subject Content Weightage P.C. Ranking 1.

Discoveries & Inventions 714

21.34 1

2.

Mythology

603

18.07 2

3.

Fairy & Lock literature

414

14.17 4

4.

Patriotic Writings

480

14.34 3

5.

Humorous Books

387

12.46 5

6.

Ghost/Mysteries

390

11.65 6

7.

Romantic and Detective 257

7.98 7

It may be seen from the Table 2 that the highest percentage (21.34%) of children have expressed their interests in inventions and discoveries. It has been followed by 18.67% in Mythology, 14.24% in Patriotic writings, 14.17% in fairy/folk literature, 12.46% in humorous writings, 11.45% in ghost and mysteries and 7.98% in Romance and Detective. Talking the various options into considerations, the weightage has been registered in the following order, (i) Science; (ii) Mythology; (iii) Patriotism; (iv) Fairies and Folk Culture; (v) Humour; (vi) Ghosts and Mysteries; and (vii) Romance and Detectives. 5.3 Physical Features It has been found that physical features of children's books and towards also determine their popularity. These features are mainly (a) Good illustrations (b) Clear Printing (c) Big size (d) Big types (e) Strong binding and cover. Since there are five categories of physical features, the first option of children has been given 5 marks, the second 4 marks, the third 3 marks, the fourth 2 marks and the fifth 1 mark. According to the weightage, different options have been calculated and the following table will give the picture about the general interest of children in physical features of children's books and journals. TABLE 3 Physical Features of Children's Books and Journals (N120) Sl No. Physical Features Weightage P.C. Ranking 1.

Good Illustration

541

29.30 1

2.

Clear Printing

547

24.66 2

3.

Big size

345

19.03 3

4.

Big types

270

14.90 4

5.

Strong Binding and Cover. 219

12.08 5

1812

100.00

647 It is evident from the Table 3 that the highest per cent (29.30%) of children have expressed their liking for books having a good number of illustrations. It has been followed by 24.66% for clear printing, 17.03% for big size of books/journals, 14.90% for big type of letters used in printing and 12.08% for strong binding and cover. In brief, the ranking order of children's interest for different physical features is clear in the above table.

5.4. Individual Choices for Different Types of Books An interesting question was asked to the children in order to elicit their individual choice on different types of children's books. The question was "which books will you want to purchase if a sum of Ten Rupees be given to you? Give a list of such books. It is interesting to note that the children have mentioned their options which constitute a long list of subject matters This list along with the frequencies has been given in the following table. TABLE 4 Distribution of Subject Matters of Children's Choices (N-120) Sl. No. Types of Books Frequency Percentage 1.

Fiction

70

65

2.

Drama

69

57.5

3.

Songs

66

55

4.

Poems

63

52.5

5.

Compositions

57

47.5

6.

One act plays

33

27.5

7.

Novels

30

25

8.

Livers

27

22.5

9.

Prayer Songs

15

7.5

10.

Science

30

25

11.

Ghosts

24

20

12.

Mythology

18

4.5

13.

Social Science

6

5

14.

Books on films 3

2.5

It may be seen from Table 4 that the highest percentage (65%) of Children have registered their desire to purchase fictions. The next percentage (57.5%) desires for drama which is followed by 55% for songs, 52.5% for poems, 47.5% for essays and so on. Some percent of children have mentioned subject matter of their interest against the serial from 10 to 14. The highest percentage (25%) have expressed their interests in Sciences, 8.20%) in ghost stories and 648 7.15% in Mythology. It may be mentioned in this context that 12.5% of children have shown their interest for prayer songs, 5% for social subjects and 2.5% for books or films. The order or preference given by children for different types of books in response to question Nos. 2 and 3 or less holds good with that of the question No. 4. 5.5. Magazines Read by Children Since children's journals constitute an important segment of children's literature, a question was asked to mention the names of journals of their own liking. These journals have been given in Table 5 with frequencies mentioned against them each. TABLE 5 Distribution of Children's Journals with their Weightage (N-120) Sl. No. Name of the Journal Frequency Percentage 1.

Jahnamamu

74

70

2.

Shishulekha

54

45

3.

Manapaban

48

40

4.

Barmaja

42

35

5.

Tikifula

15

12.5

6.

Kuniraija

12

10

7.

Sunapila

9

7.5

8.

Jahnaraija

9

7.5

9.

Kunatara

6

5.0

10.

Baliraija

3

2.5

It is evident from Table 5 that the highest percentage (70%) of children usually read Jahnamamu, 45% Shishulekha, 40% Manapaban, 35% Barmaja, and 12.5% Tikifula. Although Jahamamu is the Oriya version of Chandamama and printed at Madras, it has been found to be the most popular and Shishulekha being the State Government publication and being printed at Cuttack has not been made so available to the children of Orissa. 5.6. Popular Children's Journals The question No. 6. "which journal do you like most?" has a great relevance and similarity with the question No. 5. This question has been posed with a view to Cross checking with the previous responses. 649 TABLE 6 Distribution of Children's Journal liked most (N = 120) Sl. No. Name of the Journals Frequencies Percentage 1.

Manapaban

45

37.50

2.

Jahnamamu

24

20.00

3.

Barmaja

18

15.00

4.

Shishulekha

15

12.50

5.

Tikifula

6

5.00

6.

Jahnaraija

6

5.00

It is found that the Jahnamamu which is read by the highest percentage has been ranked second in the order of popularity. But the Manapaban which is published by a private agency and has been brought out for a longer period, now being printed with the off-set process has occupied the first position in order of preference. However this journal ranked third position in response to the question No. 5. The Shishulekha, the State Government publication has got the 4th position and the Barmaja has gained the third position in order of preference. 5.7. Reasoning for Children's Likings for Individual Journals In response to a query made for eliciting the reasons for their liking towards the journals mentioned at 5,6, the children have mentioned the following: (a) There are more illustrations; (b) There are many stories and poems; (c) There are stories from far and near; (d) There are enough materials for pleasure and entertainment; and (e) There are new themes to be learnt. It is found that these reasons have been attributed to their liking for all the magazines mentioned in Table No. 6. These reasons are, therefore, found to be general in nature and not specific to any particular journal.

6. MAJOR FINDINGS The following are the important findings of the study. (a) The highest percentage (23.88%) of children like to read poems and songs. The next percentage (20.70%) have expressed their interests in stories and novels. It is followed by 16.44% in 650

dramatics, 16.23% in lives, 12.58% in travels and 9.64% in compositions. (b) According to children's ranking of their choices for different forms of literature, it is also revealed that poetry has occupied the first position, fictions the second, dramatics the third, travels the fifth and composition the sixth positions. (c) The highest percentage (17.34%) of children have expressed their interests in inventions and discoveries. It has been followed by 18.07% in mythology, 14.34% in patriotic writings, 14.17% in fairy and folk literatures and 12.46% in humorous writings; (d) The ranking order as given by the respondents are: (1) Science; (2) Mythology; (3) Patriotism; (4) Fairy and folk culture; and (5) Humorous and zest. (e) The highest percentage (29.30%) of children have expressed their liking for books containing a good number of illustrations. It has been followed by 24.66% for clear printing, 19.03% for big size of books/journals, 14.90% for big type of letters and 12.08% for strong binding and cover. (f) The highest percentage (70%) of children usually read Jahnamamu 45% Shishulekha, 40% Manapaban, 35% Baramaja and 12.5% Tikifula. Although Jahnamamu is the Oriya version of Chandamama and printed at Madras it has been found to be most popular and Shishulekha being the State Government publication and being printed at Cuttack has not been so popular 'with the children of Orissa. (g) It is revealed that Jahnamamu which is read by the highest percentage has been ranked second in the order of preference but the Manapabam being published by a private agency and printed with the offset process has occupied the first position. The Shishulekhe, the State Government publication has gained the fourth position and the Barmaja the third position. (h) The journals containing more illustrations, many stories and poems, more entertaining materials and new themes to be learnt are liked by the Children most.

REFERENCES Chari, A., "Consideration in the Development of a Reader Services" in Teaching Reading A Challenge, NCERT, New Delhi, 1972. Mohanty, J., The Book Through the Ages, J. Mohapatra & Co., Cuttack, 1972. 651

69 An Investigation into the Problems and Prospects of School-Community Cooperation for Democratisation and Improvement of Education 1. NEED FOR THE STUDY In a democratic set up, close cooperation between the school and the community is not only essential but also imperative. But unfortunately such cooperation seems to be absent and a gap is being maintained between the two. The school works in isolation without concern for the community which in turn does not care to look after the needs of the school. The school is said to be working in an "ivory tower" and the community in a house with doors closed. But for democratization of education there must be two way traffic between them and the gap as existing must be bridge through intercommunication and interaction. The community, even at the stage of its under development, possesses abundant resources like farms and forts, old and new buildings, temples and monuments, places of social, economic, historical, cultural, technological, artistic and aesthetic importance. Besides, there are fairs and festivals, rich heritage and customs as well as abundant human resources like artists, and artisans, craftsmen and clergymen, doctors, teachers and so on. On the other hand, schools have buildings equipment, furniture, playground, libraries and laboratories etc. They are not merely meant for children. The whole community must benefit from those resources. The Community Schools in the Philippines, the Folk Schools of Denmark the Tusheges Institute for Negroes and the Gary Schools in the U.S.A. 652

are the notable instance of the school-community interaction. Thus the resources of the school must be thrown open for public use after the regular school hours are over and community resources should be utilized for school purposes. The Education Commission, 1964-66 have aptly observed that since it is very costly to provide and maintain the physical plant of educational institutions, it becomes necessary to utilise it as fully as possible, for the longest time on each day and for all the days in the year by making suitable administrative arrangements. The libraries, laboratories, workshops, craftsheds, etc. should be utilised for at least eight hours a day. Institutional facilities may be utilized for community service, adult education and so on. But it is found that such cooperation and mutual sharing between the school and community are not encouraged under various pretexts. Hence a study is felt desirable to find out the real facts in the field.

2. OBJECTIVES The following are the objectives of the study: (i) to find out the extent of utilization of the school plant by the society; (ii) to ascertain the advantages and disadvantage in such utilization; (iii) to find out the extent of the use of community resources for the school; (iv) to make a stock-tacking of both pros and cons in using community facilities for the school; and (v) to make suggestions for the betterment of school-community cooperation.

3. SCOPE All categories of institutions at the primary stage were brought under the scope of the study. The utilisation of both the physical and human resources belonging to schools for community and vice versa was taken under its purview. Both advantages and disadvantages in such utilization were studies for the purpose.

4. METHODOLOGY Although data were collected mainly by means of two sets of identical questionnaire, one for the inspecting officers and another for Primary 653 school teachers, observation technique was adopted to study the problem directly and interview was conducted with some selected educationists and senior inspecting officers for eliciting their views on the problem. Besides, the experiences of the researcher in the United Kingdom, in this context provided adequate data and insight.

5. SAMPLE The questionnaire was administered on 580 supervisors out of whom 410 responded. The overall percentage of responses to the total Sample 71.1. Another questionnaire was administered on 3176 head-teachers out of whom 1170 responded and the overall percentage of responses to the total Sample was 37.2.

6. ANALYSIS OF DATA I. Utilization of School Resources for the Community In order to know whether the physical facilities of the school were utilized by the society, a relevant question was asked to both the groups of the respondents. 40.8% of supervisors and 48.6% of the head-teachers admitted that physical resources of the school were utilized by the community, whereas 33.6% of the supervisors and 28.0% of the head-teachers replied negatively. Further 25.6% of the supervisors and 23.4% of the head-teachers remained silent. This shows that the physical facilities of the school were not always utilised by the community. With a view to ascertaining the kinds of advantage that were gained due to utilization of the school plant for the community, an open ended question was asked. The responses of the supervisors and the head-teacher may be classified

into four main categories and their frequency distribution may be seen from the Table 1. It is evident from the above mentioned table that the head-teachers (49.8%) are more conscious of the better school-cumunity relations consequent on the utilization of the school resources than the supervisors (32.9%). On the other hand, supervisors (30.0%) are more aware of the advantage of this in community cooperation for improving the physical resources of the school than the head-teachers (21.7%). But neither of the two groups of respondents is found to be adequately conscious of the maximum utilization of the school resources through this process. Moreover, such utilization of the school resources by the community will promotes reciprocal involvement and interest in each other's activity. 654 TABLE 1Advantages of Utilization of School Resources by the Community Supervisors Head-teachers Sl. No. Advantages N-293 % N-598 % 1.

Better school-community relations can be established

135

32.9 583

49.8

2.

School resources can be utilized to the maximum

85

20.7 152

13.0

3.

Needs of the Schools can be fulfilled by the community. 123

30.0 254

21.7

4.

Reciprocal involvement in each other's life activities

12.2 —

—

50

But this point has been marked only by 12.2% of the supervisors and by nobody from among the head-teachers, Besides, silence on the part of the 29.2% supervisors and 34.0% head-teachers indicate their indifference or their lack of interest in the programme. However, 88% of the interviewees observed that school-community relations could he improved due to use of the school resources by the community. It is also complained that a large number of difficulties is experienced by teachers in such utilization of the school resources by the Community. In response to the question "What are the disadvantages in the utilization of the school resources for the community"? The supervisors as well as the head-teachers gave a number of difficulties which have been categorised as follows with the frequencies mentioned against each. TABLE 2 Disadvantages in the Utilization of School Resources for the Community Sl. No.

Disadvantages

Supervisors

Headteachers

N-318 % N-658

1.

Mishandling of the school resources like furniture, library etc.

139

33.6 283

2.

Undue interference and trespassing by the villagers in school matters.

91

22.3

3.

Petty village politics and bickerings adversely affecting school organization and administration.

89

21.3 375

% 24.1

32.0

655 It transpires from the above table that comparatively a large percentage of the respondents of both the groups (supervisors 33.6% and head-teachers 24.1%) were concerned with mishandling of the school resources like furniture, equipment, libraries, etc. Further 22.2% supervisors pointed out that under interference and trespassing by the villagers in the school matters was another disadvantage, whereas all the head teachers were silent on this point. Closely related to this was another difficulty felt by 21.8% of the supervisors and 32.9% of the head-teachers. That was the petty village politics and bickerings adversely affecting school organization and administration. As high as 43.9% of the head-teachers and 22.4% of the supervisors gave no response. It may be concluded that the advantage undoubtedly outnumber the disadvantages in the utilization of the physical resources of the school by the community. While the use of the physical plant of the school would contribute to better school-community relations, maximization of the resources, improvement of public support, greater involvement, etc. It is also apprehended that mishandling of the school resources undue interference of the villagers in the school affairs and petty village politics and quarrels might adversely affect the school organization. But a large majority of senior supervisors and educationists advised for the extensive use of school resources by the community. II. Utilization of Community Resources for the School With a view to knowing whether the primary schools used the physical resources like buildings, furniture, playground, etc. belonging to the community for organizing various activities, a question was asked 47.0% of the supervisors and 45.3% of

the head-teachers responded affirmatively, whereas respectively 14.4% and 22.7% gave negative responses. Besides, 38.6% of the supervisors and 32.0% of the head-teachers kept silent. In order to ascertain whether the school gets the benefit of human resources such as the village craftsmen, specialists, unemployed youngmen and others, a question was asked to both the groups of respondents. It is equally encouraging to note that 42.6% of the supervisors and 49.3% of the head-teachers reported affirmatively and 16.6% and 21.8% negatively. As regards advantages accepting from such utilization of the community resources by the school, both the groups of respondents pointed out a number of benefits. These responses have been classified mainly into three categories and the respective frequencies are given in Table 3. 656 TABLE 3 Advantages in the Utilization of Community Resources by the School Supervisors Head-teachers SI. No. Advantages N-272 % N-747 % 1.

Making up inadequacy of facilities

90

21.9 495

42.3

2.

Improving School-Community Relations

205

50.0 518

44.2

3.

Bringing awareness in the Community of the school's needs 85

20.7 468

40.0

It is evident from the above data that more head-teachers (42.3%) than supervisors (21.9%) were conscious of the advantage of making up inadequacy or deficiency of the school facilities through utilizing community resources. But according to the highest percentages of the supervisors (50.0%) and of the head-teachers (44.2%) school-community relations were improved by this. As many as 40.0% of the head-teachers were concerned with bringing about awareness of the school's needs. Similarly, responses about the disadvantages in utilizing community resources for the school purposes may be classified into three categories with frequency given against each. TABLE 4 Disadvantages in Utilization of the Community Resources for the School Supervisors Head-teachers SI. No. Disadvantages N-310 % N-905 % 1.

More Public interference in school affairs 120

29.3 486

41.5

2.

Discipline to be adversely affected.

16.5 378

32.2

3.

Academic activities likely to be hampered 132

32.3 61

3.7

68

It may be seen that as high as 41.5% of the head-teachers were conscious of more public interference in school affairs, whereas only 29.3% of the supervisors were of the same opinion. 16.5% of the supervisors and 32.2% of the headteachers apprehended that discipline would be adversely affected on account of the school's utilization of the community resources. It is surprising to see that when 32.3% of the supervisors were concerned about academic activities likely to be hampered, only 3.7% of the head-teachers expressed their apprehension 657 about this. It is also interesting to note that 75% of interviewees were of the opinion that local resources, both human and physical should be utilised for organising various school programmes, which would promote social awakening and better relations. It may be concluded that in the case of utilization of community resources by the school, there are also advantages like making up the deficiency of facilities, improving school-community relations, bringing about awareness in the community about the school needs. There are also apprehensions that there would be more public interference in school affairs, that the discipline would be adversely affected and that academic activities are likely to be hampered on account of this. It is however felt that with experience and training in citizenship not only these difficulties would be reduced to the minimum but also the school would be made self-dependent and community-centres Only in those cases where the school could properly maintain its discipline and status, it would utilize the resources of the community both, human and material and the school resources would also be allowed to be used by the community. This would facilitate better community relations and improve the school programmes and practices.

The Third Educational Survey (1979, pp. 144-145) has recorded some relevant data which reveal that the total number of Primary Schools where the school participates in community activities is 3,496 constituting 12.4% and the total number of Primary Schools where the community participates in school activities is 8,364 constituting 26.2% of all the primary schools in Orissa. Although it transpires from the above data that the community participation in the school activities is greater than the school participation in the community activities, the position in face as evident through on-the-spot study, is not encouraging and is left with mush to be desired. It may be emphasized that for democratization and improvement of education and cooperation and collaboration should be promoted between the school and the community. It is also found by the researcher himself and mentioned in the pamphlet of the British Information Service (1974) that as per the recommendations of the Plowden Report on "Children and their Primary School's community schools were set up as "open beyond the ordinary school hours for the use of children, their parents and exceptionally for other members of the community", community schools have been established mostly in Educational Priority Areas where they would try to improve the educational experience of disadvantaged children and adults. As a result of the Educational Priority Areas Project several 658 schools not only have given ample scope for mutual cooperation and involvement of the schools and community, but also have improved their relations and quality of education in general.

7. FINDINGS (a) 48.6% of head-teachers and 40.8% of supervisors are of the opinion that school resource are being utilized by the community. (b) More head-teachers than supervisors are conscious of better school-community relations and aware of the fact that needs of the schools can be fulfilled through the utilization of school resources for the community. (c) Although more supervisors than head-teachers are of the opinion that school resources can be utlised to the maximum, they are concerned with mishandling of the school resources in utilization by the community. (d) Although supervisors are particularly scared by the undue interference by the villagers in school matters, more headteachers than supervisors are afraid of petty village politics adversely affecting school organizations. (e) 47% of the supervisors and 45.3%: of the head-teachers are of the opinion that physical resources of the community are being utilized by the school. (f) According to 42.6% of the supervisors and 49.3%) of the head-teachers human resources of the community are being utilized by the school. (g) 50% of supervisors and 44.2% of head-teachers have opined that school-community relations will be improved due to the utilization of community resources in schools. (h) More head-teachers than supervisors are conscious of making up the deficiency through utilizing community resources, but are concerned about the public interference in school affairs, discipline activities being adversely affected by this.

8. SUGGESTIONS (i) With a view to promoting better school-community relations school resources should be intensively used by the community. (ii) In order to make an efficient as well as economic utilization of resources in the developing society, the physical facilities of the 659 schools should be allowed to be used by the people to the maximum. (iii) Mishandling or misuse of resources, undue interferences, local politics, infringement of school discipline, etc. can be minimize by giving civic training and generating adequate civic awareness among the people.

(iv) Community resources, both material and human should be utilized by the school, for making up the deficiency as well as for enriching the learning experiences. (v) Primary schools should be developed into community centres for making education more democratic and more relevant to the life, needs and aspirations of the people.

REFERENCES Central Advisory Council for Education: The Plowden Report, Children and Their Primary Schools, HNSO, 1962. A.K.C., Ottaway, Education and Society, Routledge and Paul, London, 1962. Burgess, Tyrrel, A Guide to English Schools, Penguin Books 1970. British Information Service, Education in Britain, London, 1974. Directorate of Public Instruction, Orissa, Bhubaneswar, Report of the Third Educational Survey, Orissa, 1978. 660

APPENDIX 1 GOVERNMENT OF INDIA AND UN SYSTEM SUPPORT FOR COMMUNITY BASED PRIMARY EDUCATION 1. PROGRAMME OUTLINE I.A. Background Education has been recognised as one of the cornerstones of the edifice of development in India's development goals and strategies articulated in successive Five-Year Plans since 1951. However, it was only in the Seventh Five Year Plan that the focus on education became sharper and it moved into the forefront of the list of priorities. The National Policy on Education, 1986 as revised in 1992, reiterates the Directive Principle of State Policy in India's Constitution. It resolves to provide free and compulsory education to all children till the age of 14. Although the Constitution envisaged fulfillment of this obligation within a period of 10 years since its commitment, this goal has not yet been achieved. There has been a renewed commitment to achieve this goal after the Education for All Summit held in Jomtien in 1990. The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-1997) identified human development as its ultimate goal. Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) is currently among the top priorities, reiterated in the Approach to the Ninth Five Year Plan. The Ninth Plan focuses on marginalised sections, including the girl child and out of school children belonging to different disadvantaged groups. The UN System Support for Community-based Primary Education (SCOPE) is a collaborative effort of five UN Agencies (UNICEF, UNDP, UNESCO, ILO and UNFPA) to provide programme support, in a coordinated manner, to on-going efforts undertaken by the Government of India towards UEE. The GOI and the UN System recognise that certain sections of populations continue to remain marginalised. 661 Therefore, it is the goal of the Joint GOI-UN System Education Programme to target girls and marginalized population of children in selected areas and to improve their attendance and performance in primary education. Children who are marginalized by the formal education system are working children, those belonging to scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, minorities, disabled children, and children in remote areas. Girls from these population groups are severely marginalized.

I.B. Programme Support Objectives Three main programme support objectives are:

(i) to enhance and sustain community participation in effective school management and the protection of child rights, (ii) to improve performance of teachers in the use of interactive, child-centred and gender-sensitive methods of teaching in multi-grade classrooms, and (iii) to redress social constraints which affect attendance and performance of school-age children (mainly girls) in selected districts.

I.C. Approach and Strategies Six key elements of the approach and strategies of the five-year (1998-2002) programme support are: (i) Strengthening community-based mechanisms for school management and support. This will involve, in particular, establishing Village Education Committees (VECs)), training them and other Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) in micro-planning/PLA exercise, conducting school mapping, community-level monitoring system for enumerating all eligible children (including both in-and-out-of-school children) and the attendance of marginalized children (especially girls), and establishing purposeful interaction between VECs and Zilla Parishads, Block Panchayats, and Gram Panchayats. (ii) Develop Government and Local body Schools as 'empowered community schools' as envisaged under Lokshala Initiative of Bharat Jan Vigyan Jathan.1 The aim is to work with Government l. It encapsulates the philosophy of 'empowered school', which is community managed and professionally supported, serving the needs of the community as defined by themselves through their active cooperation and participation. 662 schools, and through a process of change emanating from fostering ownership of the school by the community, turn them into "empowered community schools". The schools shall be promoted as centres for community learning to target not only eligible children, but also adolescents, young parents, and parents in general for literacy, adult education, and care and development practices of young children. The central characteristic of this approach would be the establishment of a process of learning for facilitators, children and trainers at all levels. The process involves reflection, analysis and learning based on shared experience. The focus will be on communities with highest numbers of out-of school girls within groups of working children, or those from scheduled castes and other backward classes. (iii) Improving teaching methodology for multi-grade classrooms through pre- and in-service teacher development programmes offered through District, Block and Cluster level institutions, including NGOs. Basic distance education methods will be initiated at the District level for staff development. (iv) Developing a teacher empowerment package for teachers of empowered community schools, including motivational training, skill development, and staff development/accreditation incentives, and strengthening local capacity to utilize community-based teachers. (v) Facilitating information exchange on best classroom practices, policy and community participation. Emphasis shall be placed on implementing a communication strategy for promotion of primary education in urban and rural areas, and the enhancement of community awareness and responsibility for respecting, protecting and fulfilling child rights. (vi) Applying an integrated social development approach which converges educational and development activities and resource inputs by all agencies and ministries.

I.D. Outcomes In line with these key elements, the Joint GOI-UN System Education Programme shall achieve the following outcomes during the five-year (1998-2002) period: (i) A strategic plan and implementation of it for institutional capacity-building of key community institutions including VECs and Panchayats, as well as Department of Education (DOE) units, 663 faculties of education within the purview of SCOPE strategy, relevant NGOs, and skills of community institutions to sustain the process of community-based planning to improve quality of primary education, and to plan convergent community action.

(ii) Better educational opportunity and improved learning processes for all eligible children, and their protection from exploitation. Concomitant with this outcome shall be the increased community awareness and responsibility for respecting, protecting and fulfilling child rights, through, for example, establishing prevention of exploitation as a panchayat obligation. Educational needs of handicapped children, especially the integration of partially disabled children, into schools shall be one of the thrust areas in increasing access of educational opportunities for all children. (iii) A multi-grade curriculum methodology based on the content of the official primary school curriculum for use in primary schools. The reorganised curriculum methodology shall emphasize: (a) student-centred learning, problem-solving and analytical skills, (b) increased relevance to the needs of targeted communities, and (c) gender-sensitivity. The curriculum shall be supplemented by teachers' handbooks and resource books, as well as selflearning supplementary materials. The curriculum/methodology shall be developed in collaboration with a wide partnership of governmental and non-governmental stakeholders. (iv) A capacity-development programme for facilitators or teachers who must learn how to utilize the reorganized multigrade curriculum/methodology that uses new technologies as appropriate and can be replicated on a larger scale. By training is meant, not simply the transmission of knowledge and skills, but the establishment of a process of learning and staff-development. The training programme shall contain: (a) a Training of Trainers, programme, (b) pre-service training, including courses for both university and non-university graduates, and (c) in-service training and supervision which provides regular support and skill upgrading to teachers in multi-grade setting. UN System Technical Cooperation (TC) shall build this training programme into existing MOE institutions with a plan for phasing out the TC at the end of five years through capacity enhancement of the government institutions to sustain the programme over the long term. The training programme will concentrate on strengthening the capacities of District, Block and Cluster-level units of research and training 664 to formulate and implement teacher-initiated in-service teacher training programmes, using participatory, learner-centred approaches, with a distance education element, and with emphasis on multi-grade teaching and the teaching of children (mainly girls) from marginalized sections. (v) An improved assessment system for monitoring and evaluating children's performance in Grades 1-8. The monitoring and evaluation system will demonstrate the merits of integrated programming for total well-being and improved school performance of children (mainly girls) from selected regions of India, and will measure impact in terms of increased enrolment, improved learning achievement, reduced drop-out, and reduced morbidity (at school-going age), and other key indicators selected by the community which together will reflect progress towards fulfilling of child rights as defined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). A Child Development Index (CDI) and a related Girl Child Development Index (Girl-CDI) will be developed (similar to the Human Development Index) to measure differences in States/ Districts/Communities, and the impact of proposed interventions. The Index (CDI) will essentially be a profile of children to measure their progress towards fulfillment of child rights, including child health, nutrition, safe, environment, early stimulation and care, school readiness, learning achievement/cognitive development, amongst children. Simple basic indicators shall be arrived at through community involvement, and the communities shall have the responsibility for monitoring them. The rationale for developing such an index is provided by the focus it will bring to viewing 'the child' as a composite person, whose total well-being is met through inter-sectoral interventions, the combined (rather than individual) impact of which determines how well the child learns in school. The Girl-CDI will measure the same basic capabilities, taking note of inequalities in achievement between boys and girls. (vi) An empowerment package for teachers, including refined community-based teacher selection and placement mechanisms, accreditation of 'untrained' teachers through successful participation in in-service training programmes and teacher motivation initiatives organized through "school complexes" or "lead schools" along the lines of Shikshak Samakhya experiences. NGOs will be instrumental in selection and development of community teachers (e.g. Shihsha Karmis), most of whom will be female. 665

I.E. Location and Time Frame The programme is expected to extend over 5 years (1998-2002) during which it will be operationalized in districts not covered by the World Bank-financed District Primary Education Programme (DPEP). These districts have both the

absorptive capacity for additional funds in primary education (which several DPEP districts may not have) and large sections of unserved marginalised children. Districts and Blocks will be selected jointly by the Department of Education, participating States/Districts, and the UN System on the basis o the following criteria: • blocks with low female participation, low (female) literacy, and low socio-economic status, • districts of programming importance to cooperating UN Agencies, • districts with a high proportion of tribals and scheduled castes, • designated child labour districts, • districts with high total fertility rate, and • districts/blocks which demonstrate 'readiness' for programme approach and operations Phase I of the programme support implementation (1998-99) will focus on those Districts, Blocks with Panchayat structures demonstrating strong leadership and political will. A relatively favourable environment for trying new methods and identifying new processes is desirable in the initial phase. Lessons learnt in this phase can be more easily refined, documented and transferred to more difficult, complex areas. Phase II of the programme support implementation (2000-2002) will apply the shared experience of lessons learned to other Districts/Blocks, with the ultimate objective of handing over the programme to District Departments of Education. A primarily rural focus is envisaged in the selected blocks, although in some districts of operation, urban slums and small towns with special educational needs shall also be targeted for programming purposes.

I.F. Programme Support Coverage and Capacity-building Targets The programme support will commence in 20 blocks in the first year (1998) of its implementation, working with 2 blocks in each of the 10 participating States and gradually expanding to other blocks as per the felt needs of the States. The choice of blocks per State will be determined according to the criteria for selection of Blocks specified above. The 666 second, third and fourth year of operation, the programme support will expand to other blocks reaching the total of 100 Blocks of operation at the peak. The number of blocks per State may very depending on the demand and size of the State. Availability of additional funds from the UN System and other bilateral and multilateral donors, envisaged in the resource mobilisation plan, will enable inclusion of additional blocks depending on the success of the plan.

Year of Operation

The phasing of the programme support coverage would be as follows: Number of new Number of Total number primary schools to be transformed as Blocks continuing Blocks Empowered Community Schools'

Year 1

20

20

2,000

Year 2

20

40

4,000

Year 3

20

60

6,000

Year 4

20

80

8,000

Year 5

20

100

10,000

According to national estimates, there are approximately 10 blocks per district, 100 schools per block (estimated according to an average of 20 schools in each Cluster). The development of Empowered community schools will involve working with the government schools in most instances and establishing alternative avenues in some. It is therefore difficult to estimate precisely the total number of schools to be covered by the end of programme implementation. A rough estimate would be 10,000 schools at its peak. (100 schools per block x 100 blocks). It is difficult to estimate the total number of children, teachers and panchayats that they will benefit from the programme support. Accurate estimates will be available after initial baseline surveys of the selected blocks are completed. As many VECs and gram panchayats will be targeted as are schools. Additionally, each block should have an operating Panchayat, therefore, with each block coverage, as many block panchayats will also be targeted as beneficiaries. In each district, the

Zills Parishad will also be targeted for selected interventions.

I.G. Programme Support Activities to Attain the Outcomes The underlying purpose of the activities to attain the outcomes is to support the performance of institutions to carry out tasks and to manage a process of change. Inherent in this assumption is that the programme would initiate a process resulting in the empowering of communities. 667 The programme activities to support the attainment of outcomes will be identified after a proper need analysis of the selected blocks is done during the programme preparatory phase. However, the following activities are examples of the types of activities envisaged for the programme: • Capacity building for community action. • Reorganisation of the primary school curriculum to facilitate multi-grade teaching. • Development of Self-Instructional Materials for Multi-grade Classrooms to be used as supplements to the curriculum. • Development of Improved Teachers, Handbooks to be used with the multi-grade curriculum. • Development of Teachers' Resource Books that provide teacher/ facilitators with principles of good teaching and a foundation of multi-grade methods. • Training of teachers for adoption of joyful, activity based, child centred and gender sensitive teaching methodologies. • Reforming the delivery of pre-service training for teachers/ facilitators of empowered community schools. • Survey of incidence of child labour. • Identification of educational needs of children in urban slums and small towns. • Developing processes for meticulous block level planning for UEE.

I.H. Benchmarks The benchmarks related to the expected outcomes of the programme support are as follows: This programme support shall establish mechanisms for community management of the common schools of the Government of India in approximately 100 blocks by the end of the fiscal year 2002. The community school that emerges from this process shall be termed as empowered community school. The empowered community school shall be the term for a community managed educational facility (the government school and/or an alternative establishment at the community level). Although the primary purpose of the empowered community school shall be education of children of school-going age, it will also enhance the learning of the community as a whole. All Empowered community schools (be they government schools, community learning 668 facilities, Learning Without Frontiers Centers2, or others) shall be identified by a common pictorial logo signifying the concept of a "community learning centre". A visual portrayal of empowered community schools shall be developed. Simultaneous to the development of empowered community schools shall be the establishment of Village Education Committees, with professional and support links with Panchayats at various levels. Experience of Rajasthan's Lok Jumbish project in emerging community empowerment process for school management (though, for example, Mahila Samoohs), shall be drawn upon. In addition, an interactive student-centred and gender-sensitive multi-grade methodology, teachers' handbooks, and the related pre-and-in-service teacher development programme shall also be applied to an estimated 10,000 empowered community schools by the end of the programme support period. • It is expected that the multi-grade curriculum methodology and teacher training for children of Grades 1-2 shall be developed during 1998-99 and for Grades 3-5 during 1999-2000.

• The multi-grade methodology involving thematic/topic-wise organisation of subjects across Grades and subjects, giving the existing curriculum a refined scope and sequence shall be developed with the participation and approval of the DOE, and be introduced into a first set of empowered community schools by the beginning of SY 1998-99. • Gender-sensitive self-instructional materials shall be prepared for children of Grades 1-2 with the participation and approval of the DOE, and be introduced into a first set of empowered community schools by SY 1998-99, and for Grades 3-5 at the beginning of SY 1999-2000. • Teachers' handbooks to complement the multi-0 grade methodology of Grades 1 and 2 shall be prepared with the participation and approval of the DOE; and introduced into a first set of empowered community schools by SY 1998-99, for Grades 3-5 by SY 1999-2000 and for grades 6-8 by SY 2000-2001. 2.Leaming Without Frontiers (LWF), a UNESCO programme, aims at establishing a culture of lifelong learning for all. LWF is not a programme to reach one or the other specific as yet unreached or underserved target group, In focusing on diversity, it aims at creating a multi-channel multi-purpose learning environment for multiple users. LWF Centres which fall under the purview of this programme shall be designed done the lines at an "empowered school" in order to safeguard consistency between all Empowered community schools. 669 • A set of teachers' resource books on principles and methods of multi-grade teaching, roles and responsibilities of the educator, flexible timetabling and setting of routines, classroom organization, group formations, the preparation of teaching/learning aids, thematic learning and integration of subjects, assessment and evaluation, community participation and community school management, child rights and responsibility of the community in fulfilling them, development activities, convergent community action, and management of sensitive issues in the classroom and the community (e.g. reproductive health, HIV/AIDs, drug use), roles and responsibilities of a school towards health promotion, shall be developed with and approved by the DOE, and introduced into a first set of empowered community schools by 1998-99. A unified system which continues to refine the multi-grade curriculum, staff development, and monitoring and supervision shall be in place by the end of fiscal year 2002, with wide participation from government and non-government stakeholders, as well as a system to continuously evaluate skill aquisition of all learners in functioning of empowered community schools. A teacher selection and training system shall also be put in place by 2002. This would maximize the use of faculty/DIET graduates, select, train and supervise 'untrained' community-based facilitators to teach in multi-grade classes along the lines of the Shiksha karmi project experience, in consultation with States. This strategy shall include a plan for certifying these teachers, for example through organized training courses offered by universities and faculties of education that allow them to accrue credits through self-study modules and defined lengths of training. • A Training of Trainers' programme to train empowered community school teachers and facilitators in the use of the reorganised curriculum along with multi-grade methods shall be prepared through participatory methods involving practicing teachers and trainers, DOE staff, NGOs, universities and faculties of education at the State level, and shall be utilized by a first set of trainers and teachers by the beginning of 1998-99. • A pre- and in-service training programme shall be developed and utilized by the appropriate DOE institutions at the district level, in cooperation with practicing teachers and trainers, universities, facilities of education and relevant NGOs. It would focus on the 670 reorganised curriculum that supports the practice of student-centred, interactive methodologies, analytic, problem-solving skills, creativity, and gender-sensitive approach. By the beginning of 1998, a first set of educators for the community schools should have received training in the new multi-grade methodology for Grades 1 and 2, by fiscal year 1999 for Grades 3-5 and by fiscal year 2000 for grades 6-8. The training programme will also include methods appropriate for establishing a 'culture of learning' in the community through the leadership of the empowered community school facilitator. • A training programme for community leaders, and leadership training for educational supervisors, especially for female teachers and women administrators, shall be developed, and the first batch of leaders and managers trained by the beginning of 1998-99. It is expected that the first cohort of school children to benefit from the community schools using the reorganized multigrade methodology and teacher training shall graduate from Grade 8 of the empowered community school in School Year

(SY) 2002-2003. It is expected that 'the first set of community learning material reflecting the concerns of young children, adolescent girls and youth, as well as adults shall be developed during 1998-2000. The materials will integrate the concerns of mothers and children as reflected in the different social sectors, i.e. health (especially reproductive and adolescent health), education, nutrition, population, water, sanitation, employment, etc. Multi-channel approaches and modest distance education methods will be applied to this effort. An improved assessment system shall be developed and put in place for monitoring and evaluating children's performance in Grades 1-8 by the end of SY 2002-2003. This shall be coordinated with on-going efforts of the NCERT, and with other funding agencies. A monitoring system to assess the progress of communities in effective empowered community schools management shall also be developed. The steps inherent in these benchmarks, using a participatory process of assessment, reflection and design shall include, but not be limited to: • organizing a design team/committee which includes practitioners with relevant experience, • preparing a work plan and budget for the design team/committee • assigning tasks to sub-committees, • giving the curriculum, guide(s) or training programme a structure and preliminary design, 671 • field-testing of appropriate materials, • revision and preliminary production, • piloting in empowered community schools under guidance with children, • evaluation and revision, • preparation and/or production, and • supply/distribution.

II. EXECUTION MODALITIES II.A. Programme Support Execution Programme Support Execution refers to the overall management of the programme, together with responsibility for production of outputs, achievement of programme objectives and accountability for the use of resources. Programme Support Implementation refers to the procurement and delivery of programme/sub-programmes inputs and their conversion into programme/sub-programme outputs. The Implementing Agents are appointed by the Executing Agency and are accountable to it. The Ministry of Human Resources Development (Dept. of Education) shall be the Executing Agency for the UN System Support for Community, Based Primary Education.

II.B. Programme Support Management Structure The programme support would be nationally executed by the Department of Education, Ministry of HRD, Government of India (DOE). The National Executing Agency will work closely with the Governments of the participating States and the UN System (UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF, ILO, and UNFPA) for purposes of this programme. The Joint Secretary (Elementary Education) in the Department of Education, Ministry of HRD shall be the National Programme Director (NPD). The NPD will act as member-secretary of the Programme Management Board (PMB). He/She shall exercise overall control and superintendence over execution. This would entail sub-programme development, identification for Implementing Agencies (IAs), enduring timely approvals, coordinating between IAs and GOI or other concerned agencies, monitoring programme implementation and ensuring availability of GOI counterpart inputs and providing general

guidance to IAs. The NPD would also act as member-secretary of the PMB. A National Programme Management Unit (NPMU) will be responsible for day-to-day management and coordination of the programme. 672 The National Programme Management Unit will be a special arrangement to meet the requirements of this unique collaborative initiative of five UN agencies, namely, UNICEF, UNDP, UNESCO, ILO and UNFPA with no past precedent. It will function till such times that the Executing Agency (DOE) and the UN System are able to evolve a more viable, dynamic and sustainable structure to cope with the coordination responsibilities entailed by participation of five UN agencies and eight States. DOE, the Executing Agency will establish a Programme Management Board (PMB) to provide policy guidance and direction to the programme. It will also establish a Standing Committee chaired by the National Programme Director (NPD), which will function under the guidance of PMB. For implementation of the programme, DOE will select and appoint implementing agencies, in consultation with the UN System and State Governments (with reference to tasks and activities envisaged in the sub-programme of each participating State) and clearly specify roles.

II.C Programme Management Board (PMB) The Executing Agency (DOE) shall establish a national level Programme Management Board (PMB) for providing the policy framework and guidance for the programme. It shall consist of the following members: (i) Secretary, Department of Education, MHRD, Government of India (Chairperson). (ii) Representative of the Department of Economic Affairs. (iii) Representative of Planning Commission. (iv) Resident Representative, UNDP or her/his nominee. (v) Resident Representative, UNICEF or his/her nominee. (vi) Director, UNESCO or his/her nominee. (vii) Director, ILO or his/her nominee. (viii) Representative, UNFPA or his/her nominee. (ix) Director, NIEPA. (x) Director NCERT. (xi) Two Representatives from reputed NGOs in Elementary Education Sector. (xii) Two distinguished academicians. (xiii) Two Education Secretaries (on annual rotation) from the participating States. 673 (xiv) Joint Secretary (EE), Department of Education, MHRD and National Programme Director (Member-Secretary). Education Secretaries from the participating States shall be invited to the meetings of the Management Board. The Board may invite officers from the Ministry of Labour, the Department of Women and Child Development and Department of Health, and experts working in elementary education sector as special invitees as and when required. Representatives from NGOs and academicians will be nominated to the Board by the Department of Education, Government of India. The functions of the PMB will be as follows: • to provide guidance for development of programmes within the framework of PSD, especially with regard to the following issues:

(a) balance between the thrust areas of the programme, (b) incorporation of cross-cutting issues such as gender equity, opportunities for disadvantaged sections and children with special needs, • to lay down policy guidelines, • to examine sub-programme proposals and extension or modifications thereto as may be necessary, • to monitor, review and guide implementation of the programme, • to effectively coordinate with all other externally assisted programmes and projects of primary education and to promote close linkages with them, • to ensure achievement of the programme objectives within the given time frame, and • to discuss and initiate action on policy, planning and implementation matters considered necessary for an integrated socio-development of the identified programme areas. The Management Board shall meet at least once in six months.

II.D. Standing Committee (SC) The Executing Agency (DOE) will constitute a Standing Committee (SC) to facilitate programme implementation. The Committee will be headed by the Joint Secretary (EE) and NPD and will have representation from DEA, IAs, UN System (UNICEF, UNDP, UNESCO, UNFPA, and ILO). The SC may meet as often as considered necessary, but shall meet at least once in two months. The functions of SC will include to: 674 • provide guidance for development of sub-programmes; • set output milestones for integrated development of the programme; • approve annual work plans and budgets of IAs; • ensure provision of counterpart inputs; • prescribe sub-programme specific guidelines and eligibility criteria for training study tours; • examine proposal for foreign training, study tours, and employment of consultants;• monitor implementation of sub-programmes; • provide feedback for annual review by PMB; • resolve issues requiring inter-agency coordination; and • such other functions as may be entrusted to it by the EA.

II.E. National Programme Management Unit (NPMU) A National Programme Management Unit (NPMU) will be established by the Executing Agency (DOE) with support from UN System. NPMU shall be headed by the Joint Secretary (EE) in the Department of Education. The day-to-day management and coordination will be the responsibility of the National Programme Manager (NPM), who would be appointed to assist and advise the NPD and the participating UN Agencies in programme implementation and supervision. The NPM would be appointed jointly by UNDP and EA, along with necessary support staff and would be on contract with UNDP. He/She would work in close cooperation and under the control and superintendence of NPD.

II.F. State Level Co-ordination Committee (SLCC) At State level, the management and implementation of the sub-programmes will be overseen by a State Level Coordination Committee (SLCC) chaired by the State Education Secretary. The Committee will have representatives from all

other social sector development departments, CBOs, NGOs and representatives of UNICEF field offices who will coordinate the role of UN System in programme formulation and implementation at state level. In States where autonomous Societies are proposed to be established, the functions of SLCCs will be performed by the Executive Committee of the Society.

II.G. State Programme Management Unit (SPMU) Each of the participating States will set up a State Programme Management (SPMU). SPMU will be responsible for implementing specific State plans and would work closely with the National Programme 675 Management Unit and the UN System facilitating overall coordination and implementation of the state sub-programme. The State Programme Co-ordinator will be identified by the State Government in consultation with the Executing Agency and he/she will oversee functioning of the SPMU. The State Governments will provide and finance the required staff to be part of the programme team. A Block Level Programme Implementation Committee (BLPIC) will be set up in all the selected blocks. The Committee will be chaired by an eminent educationist from the areas and she will be nominated by the State Government. The Committee will comprise of representatives from all other social sector departments, CBOs, NGOs, PRIs and VECs. The Block Education Officer (BEO) will be Member-Secretary of the Committee. The District Education Officer (DEO) will guide the BEO and assist the Chairperson of BLPIC as District Co-ordinator of the programme. Village Education Committees will oversee implementation of the programme at local level. These Committees will have representatives from all sections of local communities. VECs are expected to play a major role in improving school effectiveness with active cooperation of local communities especially, women and disadvantaged sections.

II.H. Programme Support Execution Procedures The Executing Agency (DOE) will identify implementing agents for the programme. The Implementing Agencies for distinct programme-related purposes may include: • State Governments with reference to inputs and approved sub-programme outputs, consistent with state government plans for primary education. • UNICEF—India Office for implementation of programme components, including support for management, recruitment of technical expertise, procurement of supplies and such tasks as may be entrusted to it by the Executing Agency in respect of UNICEF, UNESCO, ILO, UNFPA funded operations/components, if any, of the sub-programmes to be undertaken in accordance with extant rules, practices, guidelines and procedures. UNDP contributions to the Joint GOI-UN System Education Programme will be made and utilised in accordance with National Execution (NEX) Guidelines for UNDP assisted projects in India issued by the Department of Economic Affairs, Ministry of Finance vide D.O. 676 letter No. F. No. 2/15/97-UN of 1 July 1998. For funding other than that of UNDP, extant GOI rules, procedures, guidelines and practices would apply respectively. ILO and UNESCO would implement selected activities that will be identified under this programme. UNEFPA shall be responsible for the incorporation of a family life and adolescence education component in relevant project activities. UNFPA funds for this purpose will be channelized through mechanisms as above.

II.I. Financial Accounting (a) Implementing agencies other than UN Agencies utilising UNDP assistance shall follow the arrangements specified as per extant GOI guidelines including the NEX Guidelines for the UNDP supported projects. (b) UNICEF will follow its established rules and procedure in financial accounting and reporting. The expenditure by the field offices of UNICEF will be incurred according to work plans prepared by SPMU and the National Programme

Management Unit (NPMU) and approved by the Standing Committee. (c) UNICEF will make necessary arrangements for submission of financial reports to the UN System and the Government through the National Programme Management Unit. (d) UNICEF will include, among its contribution to the programme, as an implementing agency, administration and operational service costs related to its role, in accordance with extant rules, procedures, practices and guidelines.

II.J. Audit Comprehensive management audit to ensure adequate control and accountability for funds provided for the programme will be arrange as follows: (a) In the case of UN System funds placed at the disposal of any of the Departments of Government or any autonomous agencies promoted by the Government as implementing agencies, such Agencies/Departments shall be required to get the accounts audited from statutory and/or Government auditors as per relevant rules and procedures of the Government. (b) For funds provided to any of the participating UN Agencies for undertaking Agency implementation, the appropriate agency will follow its audit systems and procedures. 677

II.K. Monitoring and Evaluation An extensive Management Information System (MIS) will be evolved after considering the District Information System of Education (DISE) developed by GOI in collaboration with UNICEF, and the Community-based Monitoring Systems of LJP and SKP. The programme will endeavour to develop a System which includes indicators of process and qualitative achievement in five areas viz., Universalisation of Primary Education (UPE), Community Convergent Action (CCA), Community Participation (CP), Teacher Empowerment (TEM), and Financial and Physical Monitoring (FPM). The detailed mobilities for monitoring and evaluation shall be finalised once the programming cycle sets in, and areas of intervention as finalized, both in terms of geographical areas as well as technical areas. Nevertheless, it is envisaged that annual progress reports will be prepared for monitoring purposes through Annual Review exercise and special evaluation studies will be undertaken at appropriate instances to assess the impact and efficiency of the programme. A Mid-term Review will be carried out during 1999 to assess the progress made towards the attainment of outcomes, and other management and capacity-building measures in place for possible revision and strengthening. Some of the major inputs envisaged for the programme monitoring and evaluation include short-term and long-term technical assistance, as well as training, production of software for training purposes, and documentation of the processes of change through periodic evaluations. The documentation of change may include but be not limited to: • documentation of participatory community-action efforts for improved child care and development, a focus on the girl child, and special programmes for marginalised children, • documentation of processes at the community level that have been successful for integrated social sector development and basic education, • community mobilization activities that enhance the quality and performance of teachers in primary schools, and that lead to better schools, • community mobilization activities that have succeeded in attracting and retaining all children in school, away from working conditions which restrict their participation in school, 678 • coordination of UN Agencies to enhance policy dialogue on primary education, access and retention and school effectiveness, and • coordination of UN Agencies to develop, monitor, and use child/ school/community indicators that lead to quality education. An improved assessment system for monitoring and evaluating children's performance in Grades 1-8 will also be

developed. The monitoring and evaluation system will demonstrate the merits of integrated programming for total wellbeing and improved school performance of children (mainly girls) from selected regions of India. It will measure impact in terms of increased enrolment, improved learning achievement in, reduced drop-out, and reduced morbidity (at schoolgoing age), and other key indicators selected by the community which together will reflect progress towards fulfilling of child rights as defined in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). A Child Development Index (CDI) and a related Girl Child Development Index (Girl-CDI) will be developed (similar to the Human Development Index) to measure differences in States/Districts/ Communities, and the impact of proposed interventions. The Index (CDI), or children's profiles, will measure achievements in terms of progress towards fulfillment of child rights, including child health, nutrition, safe environment, early stimulation and care, school readiness, learning/ cognitive achievement amongst children. Simple basic indicators shall be arrived at through community involvement, and the communities shall have the responsibility for monitoring them. The rationale for developing such an index is provided by the focus it will bring to viewing 'the child' as a composite person, whose total well-being is met through inter-sectoral interventions, the combined (rather than individual)) impact of which determines how well the child learns in school. The Girl-CDI will measure the same basic capabilities, taking note of inequalities in achievement between boys and girls.

II.L. Risks Management of a complex programme of this type with involvement of a large number of agencies currently operating in specific environments and introducing for the first time coordination mechanisms for close collaboration and working of the Government, the UN System and the NGOs naturally involves risks. One of the underlying assumptions of the programme is that the GOI and the State Governments will coordinate the implementation of the programme at various levels. The 679 programme will be implemented through existing institutions and operational structures of the Government. Though this is expected to ensure sustainability of the programme, there is a possibility that inherent weaknesses of the existing institutions and structures will reflect upon the programme operations at least till such time the institutional capacity building measures take shape and stabilise. The UN Agencies are expected to ensure smooth flow of resources—financial and technical to the implementing agencies, and to actively associate and participate in programme formulation an implementation at National, State and sub-State level. This will require firm commitment of the collaborating UN agencies to the programme initiatives at all levels. The NGOs are expected to play a major role in performance of activities identified to meet the assessed needs of targeted population in the selected blocks. Selection of proper NGOs and sustaining their interest in programme implementation in the remote areas will be a challenging task both for the NPMU and SPMUs. Efforts would need be made to select implementing partners that have adequate technical expertise and previous experience of working in the participating States. The key functionaries for the programme will be selected carefully to carry out programme implementation in a mission mode. Both the Central and State Governments would need to ensure timely placement and continuity of the identified functionaries for the programme. Another major challenge of the programme will be to mobilise communities for the effective participation in school management. This will necessitate development of State-special mechanisms by working with through the communities. A community participation state would be drawn in consultation with the participating States, the National Apex Institutions Education, NGOs and the UN Agencies. To minimise the risks and ensure sustainability of the programme, the National Programme Director (NPD) will identify and prepare an action plan of sustainability aspects of the participating institutions and initiate appropriate studies and reviews, the outcome of which would be an input strength capacity of such institutions.

II. M. Legal Aspects Legal procedures established by the Government of India with the cooperating UN agencies viz., UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF, ILO and UNFPA, shall be adhered to. 680 681 682

III. IMPLEMENTATION III.A. Implementation Plan and Schedule

Year

Major Activities

Estimated Budget (US $) & number of Blocks/ Empowered community schools covered

School mapping be Blocks: social service converge for marginalised populations Baseline Studies of new Blocks Identification of key partners, including NGOs, leaders, functionaries Establish VECs in 2000 schools/villages through PLA method Develop teaching methodologies for Grades 1-2 for multi-grade, gender-sensitive and interactive classes Prepare Teachers' Handbooks to complement 1998 multi-grade methodologies Prepare Teachers' Resource Books for Empowered community schools Prepare community learning material (ECD, adolescents, illiterate adults) Establish criteria for evaluating materials and methodologies National Seminar on Multi-Grade Methods Study tours (incountry and outside) Preparation of an MIS system and related training/ capacity development Annual Review and Work-plan formulation for following year

3 million 20 Blocks 2,000 Empowered community schools

Field-testing finalisation and production of Grade 1-2 methodologies, Teacher's Handbooks and Teachers' Resource Books Training of teachers (Grades 1-2) of all targeted 4000 Empowered community schools in 40 Blocks Training of VECs: establishing links with Block and Zilla Parishads Establishing CRCs and BRCs: establishing links with Empowered community schools in 40 Blocks Introduce new classroom methods and new set of self-instruction materials and teachers to Empowered community schools in 40 Blocks (ISY 1999-2000) Introduce community learning 1999 materials in Empowered community schools in 40 Blocks Initiate activities in another 20 Blocks (PLAs, VECs, Baselines, Mapping, identification of partners) Develop appropriate methodologies for Grades 3-5 or multi-grade gender-sensitive and interactive classes. National Seminar on School Governance through Community Participation Refine MIS System for monitoring learner participation and achievement and for calculating CDI and G-CDI. Annual Review and Work plan formation for following year

5 million 40 Blocks 4,000 Empowered community schools

Field-testing, finalising and production of Grade 3-5 methods, self-learning materials, and Teachers' Handbooks Training of teachers (Grades 3-5) of all targeted Empowered community schools Training of VECs; strengthening links with Block and Zilla Parishads Strengthening CRCs and BRCs in 60 Blocks; strengthening staff development of Empowered community schools. 1st year MIS results analysed for initial Blocks/ Districts. First assessment of CDI and G-CDI completed for initial cohot. Start school mapping, baseline studies, PLAs, establishing VECs, identification of key 2000 partners, staff development in 20 new Blocks in 10 new Districts Training of teachers (Grades 1-2; 3-5) of targeted Empowered community schools in new Blocks Develop appropriate methodologies for grades 6-8 for gender sensitive and interactive classes Introduce new classroom practices. Teachers' Guides and Resource Books in targeted Empowered community schools of new Blocks Introduce community learning materials to Empowered community schools in new Blocks National Seminar on Teacher Empowerment Mid-term Review: Annual Review and Work-plan formulation for following year

5 million 60 Blocks, 6,000 Empowered community schools

Training of VECs; strengthening links with Block and Zilla Parishads Strengthening CRCs and BRCs in new Blocks; strengthening staff development of Empowered Community Schools 2nd year MIS results analysed for initial Blocks; MIS introduced to new Blocks 2nd year assessment of CDI and G-CDI for initial cohort: sample expanded for following year assessment. Start school mapping, baseline studies, PLAs, establishing VECs, identifying key partners, staff development in new 2001 Blocks Training of teachers (Grades 1-2, 3-5; 6-8) of targeted Empowered community schools Introduce new methods, self-instruction materials. Teachers' Handbooks and Resource Books in targeted knew Empowered community schools Introduce community learning materials to new Empowered community schools. National Seminar on Community School Empowered schools. Annual Review and Work-plan formulation for following year.

5 million 80 Blocks 8000 Empowered community Schools

Collaboration and complementarily shall be sought with on-going large scale. GOI programmes in primary education, notably, DPEP, Lok Jumbish, and Shiksha Karmi. Other collaborating institutions, for special or selected areas include: • the Tribal Welfare Department, • the Department of Women and Child Development, • the Department of Health and Family Welfare, 683 • the Department of labour, • the National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT), • State Centres for Educational Research and Training (SCERTs) • National Institution for Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA), • State Governments, especially the Directorate for Primary Education, • District Institutes for Research and Training (DIETs), • the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), • the National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE), • the Maulana Azad Centre for Elementary and Social Education (MACESS) of the University of Delhi, • the Centre for Learning Resources (CLR), • relevant Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs), • Block and Cluster Resource Centres (BRCs and CRCs), • Panchayats at different levels, and Village Education Committees of targeted districts and communities will also be partners and stakeholders, as will other community groups, e.g. Mahila Mandals, and • Private sector Institutions, including Rishi Valley Public School, Delhi Public Society and Others, and

III.C. Workplan The annual work plan will be formulated on the basis of sub-programmes (State Plans) which are expected to be finalised in accordance with the Programme Support Implementation Arrangements (PSIAs) as envisaged under the agreement of 7 March 1997 for the Programme Preparatory Assistance (PPA) and the Programme Support Document.

III.D. Resources The programme will be initiated through the joint available funds of participating UN Agencies, which include a minimum contribution of US $ 8.7 million from UNDP, US $ 9 million from UNICED, and US $ 2 million from UNFPA. During 1998-2002, it is envisaged that in addition to the earmarked resources, additional funds will be raised for this programme by DOE and the UN System. UNICEF will draw upon its General Resources to the extent of US $ 9 million over five years for the programme. These funds are a proportion 684 of their education programme funds earmarked for their on-going Bridge Programme (1996-98) and the new Country Programme (1999-2002), managed by them, for their programme of cooperation with the GOI in their geographical areas of intervention. Currently, their estimated budget for the next five-six years is between US $ 30-35 million for 145 Districts of operation, including the Bihar Education Programme. The figure of US $ 9 million has been calculated as an

approximate proportion of this figure for 100 blocks, the coverage target of the joint UN System Programme. UNESCO is committed to dovetail resources committed to TSS-1 studies on distance education and female teacher training in school management to this programme, as well as resources it mobilizes for distance education capacity creation for in-service training of primary school teachers. In line with this commitment, support shall be provided to those elements of the NAP for teacher education through distance learning, as are compatible with the objectives of this programme. UNFPA and ILO have on-going education programmes, which also have components of relevance to the joint UN System programme. It is expected that at least US $ 2 million will therefore be available through UNFPA resources. ILO is a participating agency providing relevant technical assistance sought by the programme. With the joint funds of UNDP, UNICEF, UNFPA, and UNESCO (including additional and committed funds), the total working budget for this joint UN System programme is US $ 20 million for five years. This budget is subject to upward revision as and when additional funds are mobilized, and the geographic coverage of the programme will be enlarged accordingly. A consolidated budget by broad areas of intervention is given as Annex 2.

III.E. Programme Preparatory Assistance (PPA) The Department of Economic Affairs, the Department of Education and the five UN Agencies, namely, UNICEF, UNFPA, ILO, UNESCO and UNDP signed an agreement on 7th March 1997 for the PPA amounting to US $ 900,000. The agreement envisages provision of assistance to the participating States for the formulation of state sub-programmes by 31 December 1997. These arrangements are envisaged as follows: • Selection of States and blocks for programme operation. 685 • Designing of Management Structure, including staffing norms for Programme Management Units (PMUs) and Programme Support Implementation Units (PSIUs) at all levels. • Defining financial disbursement modalities and coordination of UN Agency inputs. • Geographical and population coverage in each State, with a list of operating Blocks. • Monitoring and Evaluation arrangements, including indicators of process and achievement. • Policy coordination framework. • Norms for engaging consultants. • Staffing requirements of the UN System Education Programme Coordination Office and its relationship to the PMU and the National Programme Director. • Job descriptions of National Programme Director and National Programme Director at Central level, and Programme Managers at State Levels. In pursuance of the agreement, the following arrangements have been made so far: • A National Steering Committee has been constituted as an interim measure comprising representatives of five collaborating UN agencies, academics of repute, and representatives of NGOs. The Committee is chaired by Joint Secretary, Elementary Education in the Department of Education. The Committee is monitoring the formulation of the sub-programmes as per the PPA agreement and has held 9 meetings so far. • A National Level Consultation meeting chaired by the Union Education Secretary has been held on 24 April 1997 with 8 State Education Secretaries. • State Consultation Meetings have been held with officers of 8 States. The processes to prepare State Plans (subprogrammes) were discussed in these meetings. • Eight States viz., A.P., Bihar, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and UP have given their formal concurrence to participate in the programme. The Steering Committee has decided to include two more States from the educationally backward northeastern region. 686

As a result of national and state level consultations, processes to prepare sub-programmes, as envisaged in the PPA agreement, have been initiated. States have identified some of the key functionaries for the sub-programme. A National Orientation Workshop for these functionaries was held in NIEPA from 31 July-2 August 1997. • The National Programme Management Unit (NPMU) has started functioning with Joint Secretary, Elementary Education in the Development of Education as the National Programme Director. • Office accommodation for the Unit has been arranged. • States have submitted their respective Work Plans for the Programme Preparatory Assistance (PPA). • States have tentatively identified geographical areas and blocks for programme implementation. • Operational Management Structures of the programme have been designed. • Financial Modalities and Audit Systems have been defined. • As a part of the capacity building measures for the key functionaries identified in the participating States. Study Visits to three states namely, Rajasthan, M.P. and Karnataka have been organised. • The process to evolve a comprehensive MIS has been initiated. UNICEF is coordinating with NIEPA to prepare a database for the programme. It has been agreed that MIS for the programme would be a further refinement of District Information System for Education (DISE), and Community-based Monitoring Systems of LJP and SKP. It would include indicators of process and qualitative achievement in five areas viz. Universalisation of Primary Education (UPE), Community Convergent Action (CCA), Community Participation (CP), Teacher Empowerment (TEM), and Financial and Physical Monitoring (FPM). The PA agreement of 7 March 1997 has been extended till 30 June 1998 to complete the establishment of Programme Support Implementation Arrangements (PSIAs).

III.F. Sub-Programmes In keeping with the Programme Support Document, the participating states will prepare a comprehensive state plan (subProgramme). These sub-programmes will be based in: AP, Bihar, Karnataka, M.P., Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and UP. The Steering Committee has decided to include two more States from the educationally backward North-eastern region. Details being worked out under the sub-programmes are given in Annex I. 687

INDICATIVE OUTLINE OF THE STATE SUB-PROGRAMMES The sub-programmes would be based in the states of A.P., Bihar, Karnataka, MP, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and UP. State plans are being worked out. The State Plans will, among other things, contain the following: • Identification of Geographical Areas and selection of Blocks for programme operations. • Present status of primary education in the Sate and selected geographical areas. • Profile of Selected blocks on the basis of baseline assessments and social mapping. • Selection and strengthening of executing partners including NGOs, CBOs, PRIs, and other programme-related structures obtaining in selected areas. • Management structures at State, block and village levels and linkages with UN offices and staff. • Activities for the programme. • Financial budgeting specifying costing of each activity-year-wise and organisation-wise. • Time schedule for each of the identified activities. • Review and Monitoring arrangement specifying indicators for financial, physical and qualitative monitoring

The state plans will be reviewed, modified, amended or endorsed by the National Steering Committee of the programme. Each of the participating states will sign a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) jointly with the collaborating UN Agencies viz., UNDP, UNICEF, ILO, UNESCO and UNFPA, the Department of Economic Affairs and the Department of Education in Government of India, MOU shall contain the following: • Agreements on the arrangements for setting up SPMUs. • Assurance of continuity of staff assigned to SPMUs. • Commitment to honour recurring expenditures and end of programme liabilities • Operational arrangements with implementing partners, including civil society institutions. • State plans of action. 688 Areas of Intervention Management, Coordination, informationexchange and public policy dialogue Capacitybuilding Measures

Consolidated Budget by Broad Areas of Intervention (In US $ Millions) Year Year Year Year Year Description 1 2 3 4 5

0.2

0.5

0.5

1.0

0.5

1.0

0.5

1.0

0.2

To support management of the programme and facilitate informationexchange on school-effectiveness and efficiency

0.3

To strengthen community-based mechanisms for school management and support, in particular, to strengthen participatory planning in Zilla Parishads. Gram Panchayats, and VECs for integrated social sector development; to enhance community mobilization for increasing demand for quality education through the involvement of NGOs and community leaders

Curricular and Teacher Empowerment Initiatives

1.0

1.5

1.5

1.5

0.5

Using the official curriculum, develop multigrade classroom methods to make teaching more integrative. child-centred and gender-sensitive; to formulate a teacher-initiated teacher development programme, using participatory, 'joyful', learner-centred approaches, with a distance education element, and with emphasis on multigrade teaching and the teaching of marginalised children (especially girls).

Research Documentation Monitoring and Evaluation

1.0

1.5

14

1.5

0.8

Development, monitoring and use of child/school/community indicators that lead to increased demand for quality education and improved learner performance. Development of the CDI and the Girl-CDI.

Technical Assistance

0.3

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.2

For all of the above

3.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

0.2

20.0

Total Budget 689

APPENDIX 2 AN EXTRACT FROM THE PROGRAMME OF ACTION (POA) 1992 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1. The Situation As in 1986 Provision of free and compulsory education to all children until they complete the age of 14 years is a Directive Principle of the Constitution. Since 1950 determined efforts have been made towards the achievement of this goal. Over the years

there has been a very impressive increase in the number and spread of institutions as well as enrolment. Universal provision of institutions has been substantially achieved at the Primary stage (Classes I-V). According to the Fifth All India Education Survey, 1986,94.5% of the rural population had schools within a walking distance of 1 Km.; 83.98% of the rural population was served with middle schools/sections within a walking distance of 3 Km. The number of primary schools increased from 2.10 lakhs in 1950-51 to 5.29 lakhs in 1985-86. Similarly, the number of upper primary schools went upto 1.35 lakhs in 1985-86 as compared to 13,600 in 1950-51. The gross enrolment of 6-11 age group increased from 43.1% in 1950-51 to 62.4% in 1960.61 to 76.4% in 1970-71 to 80.5% in 1980-81 and to 85.0% in 1985-86. Likewise, the gross enrolment of 11-14 age group increased from 12.9% in 1950-51 to 22.5% in 1960-61 to 33.4% in 1970-71 to 41.9% in 1980-81 and 48.9% in 1985-86. However, Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) in its totality is still an elusive goal and much ground is yet to be covered. Drop-out rates continue to be significant, retention of children in schools is low and wastage considerable. In 1985-86, drop-out rates were 47.6% in classes I-V and 64.4% in Classes I-VIII. Despite increased participation of girls, disparity still exists. Though the participation of girls in primary 690 education (Classes IV) increased from 28.1% in 1950-51 to 40.2% in 1985-86, it was still below the normative percentage of about 50%. The participation of girls in upper primary classes (classes VI-VIII) was lower it increased from 16.1% in 1950-51 to 35.1% in 1985-86. The participation of SCs and STs is now more or less in proportion to their share in population at the primary level, but the sex disparity persists among SCs and STs. In Classes I-V, SC girls account for 37.5% of SC students and in Classes VI-VIII 29.9% (1985-86). The corresponding percentages of ST girls are 36.6% and 30.4% respectively.

2. NPE, 1986 and Its POA The NPE, 1986, and its POA gave unqualified priority to UEE and introduced many innovations. First, the emphasis was shifted from enrolment perse to enrolment as well as retention. As the POA, 1986 put it crisply "enrolment by itself is of little importance if children do not continue beyond one year, many of them not seeing the school for more than a few days." Secondly, the NPE, 1986 sought to adopt an array of meticulously formulated strategies based on micro-planning, and applied at the grass roots level all over the country, to ensure children's retention at school. POA, 1986 sought to replace enrolment drives by participative planning in which the teachers and the villagers would formulate family-wise and child-wise design of action to ensure that every child regularly attended school or non-formal education centre and completed at least five years of schooling or its non-formal equivalent. Thirdly, the NPE, 1986 recognised that unattractive school environment, unsatisfactory condition of buildings and insufficiency of instructional material function as demotivating factors for children and their parents. The Policy, therefore, called for a drive for a substantial improvement of primary schools and provision of support services. To this end, the scheme of Operation Blackboard was conceived. The launching of this scheme has greater significance in that it was a manifestation of the Union's intent to shoulder its share of responsibilities in this vital area of national life, a responsibility arising from Education being in the Concurrent List. Fourthly, the NPE, 1986 commended the adoption at the primary stage of a child-centred and activitybased process of learning. Fifthly, the NPE, 1986 and its POA postulated a large programme of restructuring of teacher education, pre-service as well as in-service, the details of which are spelt out in Chapter 22 of this document. Last but the most important, the NPE, 1986 sought to address the most difficult aspect of access, viz., access to education of millions 691 of girls and working children who, because of socio-economic compulsions, cannot participate in school system. As rightly pointed out by the NPERC, it was for the first time, the 1986, that an educational policy had admitted that the school would not reach all children and that a large and systematic programme of Non-Formal Education (NFE) has to be an integral component of the strategy to achieve UEE. NFE, as envisaged by the NPE, 1986 and its POA, would have enough flexibility to enable the learners to learn at their own pace and at the same time could have quality comparable with formal education.

3. Developments Since The NPE, 1986, and its POA Most of the directives of NPE-POA, have been operationalised by the Union and States/UTs. The number of primary schools has increased from 5.29 lakhs in 1985-86 to 5.588 lakhs in 1990-91; and the number of upper primary schools has increased from 1.35 lakhs to 1.46 lakhs during the same period. The details of the increase in gross enrolment ratios are given below: Gross Enrolment Ratio

1986-87 1990-91 Total Enrolment Classes I-V Classes VI-VIII

Girls 79.21

85.97

Total 95.96

101.03

Girls 38.95

46.13

Total 53.14

60.11

Girls 64.8

80.6

Total 84.8

102.2

Girls 26.5

33.3

Total 40.0

47.7

Girls 68.0

78.6

Total 90.1

103.3

Girls 21.9

27.5

Total 34.1

39.7

SC Enrolment Classes I-V Classes V-VIII ST Enrolment Classes 1-V Classes VI-VIII

The drop out rates declined from 47.61% in 1985-86 to 46.97% in 1987-88 in respect of Classes I-V and from 64.42% in 1985-86 to 62.29% in 1987-88 of Classes I-VIII. However, the data for subsequent years is not available, which is an indication of the weakness of the data collection system. 692 Non-formal education has become an accepted alternative channel for children who cannot attend full-time schools. The NFE scheme was revised in its content and emphasis in 1987-88. Although its focus is still on the ten educationally backwards States, namely, Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, it covers urban slums, hilly, tribal and desert areas and areas with concentration of working children in the other States as well. Financial responsibilities is shared by the Central and State Governments in the ratio of 50:50 for coeducational centres and 90:10 for girls' NFE centres. Assistance to the extent of 100 percent is provided to voluntary agencies for running NFE centres for experimental and innovative projects. The number of NFE centres increased from 1.26 lakhs in 1986 to 2.72 lakhs by March, 1992 and the enrolment form 36.45 lakhs to 68 lakhs. During this period the number of girls' centres has increased from 20,500 to 81,600. In this programme, over 390 voluntary agencies also have participated and have been sanctioned grant-in-aid under the scheme of NonFormal Education since NPE, 1986. Alongside, 50 Experimental and Innovative Projects and 19 District Resource Units have also been sanctioned for in-depth work in NFE. By March, 1992, Operation Blackboard covered 4.14 lakh (77%) schools in 5385 (84%) Community Development Blocks and 1142 (29%) Municipal areas. Owing to resource constraint all the primary schools of the country could not be covered as envisaged. About 70,000 (46%) teachers have been appointed as against 1.52 lakh single teacher schools identified for coverage. Over 1.00 lakh (43%) class rooms have been constructed as against the target of 2.39 lakh. Following the guidelines in the National Curricular Framework, the NCERT revised the entire school syllabi and brought out revised textbooks for Classes I to XII. Based on the National Curricular Framework and the NCERT syllabi/textbooks, the States and Union Territories have also undertaken measures of curriculum renewal and development of new textbooks for different stages of school education for their introduction into the school system in a phased manner. Guidelines for operationalising microplanning have been prepared and distributed to the State Governments. The concept of micro-planning and local level capacity building have been given currency and efforts launched to decentralise educational planning and management vide new schemes or experimental projects. The resulting impact of these measures is expected to be felt during the coming years. 693 A positive externality, rather unanticipated, of the Total Literacy Campaigns, has been that in many districts covered by the campaign there has been an upsurge in the demand for primary education. In quite a few districts "out of school" children in the age group 9-14 was covered by the campaigns. Further, in these districts the awareness generated among parents is leading to better participation of children in primary schools. This happy experience has reconfirmed the need to

pay more attention to the "demand side" in strategies for achieving UEE and highlighted the need for a disaggregated approach to the problem of UEE whereby districts, not States and specific disadvantaged groups—the girls of SCs and STs—should become the basis for future planning. Significant developments have taken place in the area of learner achievement. The NPE, 1986 spells out Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) and stated that "to promote equality it will be necessary to provide for equal opportunity to all not only in access but also in the condition for success. Besides, awareness of the inherent equality of all will be created through the core curriculum .... Minimum Levels Learning will be laid down for each stage of education. "In pursuance of this policy and based on the report of a Committee appointed by the Ministry in 1990 and the recommendations of the CABE, MLL has been laid down for the primary stage with the intention of reducing the curriculum load and making it more relevant and functional for those children who have no support for learning at home or outside the school, who are not likely to avail of the opportunity of education beyond this stage and who must learn here what is required to sustain them throughout their lives and enable them to function in their world as socially useful and contributing individuals. It is now acknowledged that UEE can not be accepted as having been achieved unless children passing out of school acquire MLL; achievement has come to be assigned equal importance along with access and retention. Another important development was the World Conference on Education for All (EFA) held in March 1990, in Jomtien, Thailand. The Conference was organised by UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP and the World Bank and attended by 155 member states of United Nations system and several donor agencies. The Conference adopted a declaration called upon all member-states and international agencies to take effective steps for achieving EFA by the year A.D. 2000. The Conference advocated a holistic concept of basic education in lieu of a sectoral approach segregating sections like primary schooling, Non-formal Education, Adult 694 and Continuing Education in separate compartments. In order to harness increased donor interest in the basis education, as a result of the Conference, it was decided to formulate comprehensive basic education projects in educationally backward States. The framework for availing external assistance for basic education was evolved at the 46th meeting of the CABE held on 8-9 March, 1991 and reiterated in the 47th meeting of the CABE held on 5-6 May, 1992. CABE considered the failure to universalise elementary education and literacy as not only of a question of lack of resources but also of systemic deficiencies. The additional resources that may be available under external assistance should, therefore, be used for educational reconstruction which should go beyond the conventional measures such as opening new schools, construction of school buildings and appointing teachers. It is necessary to adopt a holistic approach, and to address: (i) the educational needs of the working children, girls and disadvantaged groups, and (ii) issues of content, process and quality. Projects should be also used to develop sustainable and replicable models in different programmes related to basic education. Therefore, these projects should be developed and implemented in the true spirit of meaningful participation between the Centre and States as envisaged in NPE. It would also be necessary to implement these projects in a mission made with effective and participative management structures and with involvement of local community, teachers and NGOs. Two such externally assisted projects, viz., the Bihar Education Project with UNESCO assistance and the Lok Jumbish Project in Rajasthan with the assistance of Swediesh International Development Agency have been launched. The CABE further decided that project formulation should be a process of capacity building.

4. Revised Policy Formulations While reiterating the priority for UEE as well as the policy frame outlined by NPE, 1986, the Revised Policy Formulations (RPF) brought about following modifications: (i) Achieving essential levels of learning has been specifically incorporated as one of the thrust areas in para 5.5; this is a logical consequence of the increasing importance that came to be attached to MLL along with access and retention. 695 (ii) Scope of Operation Blackboard (OB) was enlarged to provide three reasonably large rooms and three teachers in every primary school; it was also decided to extend OB to the upper primary stage.

(iii) It was specifically laid down that at least 50 per cent of the teachers recruited in future should be women. (iv) Taking a realistic view of the enormous task of achieving UEE in its entirety (access, retention as well as achievement), the RPF envisage that free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality should be provided to all children upto 14 years of age before the commencement of the twenty-first century. (v) Taking note of the effectiveness of the Mission mode in social sectors, particularly literacy, the RPF envisage launching of a national mission to ensure the achievement of UEE by the year 2000. Disaggregated Target Setting and Decentralised Planning In the 8th Plan the strategy for UEE envisages adoption of disaggregated target setting and decentralised planning. An analysis of the educational indicators reveals that within each State, even in the educationally backwards ones, there are areas and districts which are almost within reach of universalisation, while even in the educationally advanced States there are districts which are still quite backward. The attempt would be to prepare district-specific, population-specific plans for UEE within the broad strategy frame of Microplanning through people's participation and introduction of Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) in schools to improve learner achievement. Microplanning will provide the framework for universal access and universal participation while MLL would be the strategy frame for universal achievement. In order to reduce disparities a disaggregated approach will be adopted through district planning by classifying districts into four categories: (i) High literacy districts in which access and enrolment are almost universal and community awareness for education is already high; (ii) total literacy campaign districts in which community mobilization for educational needs has been successfully generated by the National Literacy Mission; (iii) low literacy districts in which the provision of education facilities is unsatisfactory and the delivery system functions without any community involvement; and (iv) externally assisted project districts with a different management structure and sufficient financial support. 696 The strategies with regard to access, participation, achievement, environment building, community participation, etc. will be different for the four categories of districts. Under this broad strategy of district planning and based on the experience gained in implementation of NPE, and the RPF, the following strategies are proposed: (i) Adoption of alternative channels of schooling like voluntary schools and NFE centres for those who cannot avail of conventional fulltime schooling. (ii) Micro planning through involvement of teachers and the community in order to design and implement a family-wise, child-wise plan of action for universal access/enrolment and participation. (iii) Making parents aware about their responsibility for ensuring the completion of elementary education by their children and for providing at home the facilities and encouragement needed for this purpose. (iv) Establishment of linkages between programmes of pre-school and primary education, and between programmes of literacy and UEE, in total literacy campaign districts. (v) Improvement of school facilities through revamped Operation Blackboard and connecting it to MLL strategy. It will also be extended to upper primary stage. (vi) Decentralisation of educational management for making the schools function so as to ensure universal enrolment, retention and achievement. (vii) Introduction of MLLs at primary and upper primary stages including coverage of the non-formal education channel. (viii) Revision of process and content of elementary education to make teaching-learning child centred, activity-based and joyful.

(ix) Introduction of continuous and comprehensive evaluation with focus on remedial measures. (x) Modification of teacher training programmes in view of changed strategies and programmes. (xi) Improvement of the monitoring system for UEE. (xii) Launching a National Mission to achieve the goals envisaged in the revised policy. Further efforts would be made to develop district specific projects, with specific activities, clearly defined responsibilities, definite time-schedule and specific targets. Each district project will be prepared 697 within the major strategy framework and will be tailored to the specific needs and possibilities in the district. Apart from effective UEE, the goals of each project will include the reduction of existing disparities in educational access, the provision of alternative systems of comparable standards to the disadvantaged groups, a substantial improvement in the quality of schooling facilities, obtaining a genuine community involvement in the running of schools, and building up local level capacity to ensure effective decentralisation of educational planning. That is to say, the overall goal of the project would be reconstruction of primary education as a whole in selected districts instead of a piecemeal implementation of schemes. An integrated approach is more likely to achieve synergies among different programme components.

5. Provision of Universal Access Existing schemes will be suitably modified and measures will be taken to incorporate the new policy formulations. (a) Formal Schooling New primary schools according to the norms, will be opened in unserved habitations. NEE centres will be opened in smaller habitations and for children who cannot benefit from the school system. In addition, a new scheme of Voluntary Schools will be launched to achieve universal access for children in different areas. Primary Schools: In 1986, it was estimated that there were approximately 32,000 habitations with a population of 300 or more that required primary schools. Though many new schools have been opened, new habitations have also come into existence, and it is estimated that 35,000 new schools will be required. These schools will be opened by the State Governments following the norms specified under Operation Blackboard. Upper Primary Schools: In order to increase enrolments at the upper primary stage, the infrastructure at this stage will be expanded. The existing norm of providing an upper primary school within 3 km. walking distance is generally inconvenient for girls. This norm will be relaxed and the new ratio between primary and upper primary schools will be 2:1. Action will be taken in the next 5 years to upgrade every second primary school to the upper primary level. It will be primarily the responsibility of the State Governments to observe this norm for school-mapping. In order to achieve UEE the school system will have to cater to about 18 crore children. This calls for increasing the number of teachers 698 from the present 27 lakhs to 45 lakhs based on the teacher-pupil ratio of 1:40. The increase in student population would also require an additional 11 lakh class rooms to be built in the next 7 years. (b) Scheme of Voluntary Schools A new scheme of Voluntary Schools will be launched to cater to the needs of neglected, hilly, tribal and difficult areas where there is no provision of schooling. This scheme will enable voluntary agencies to conduct schools for UPE/UEE and stimulate community participation in planning and conducting schools in a locally appropriate manner. The Voluntary Schools would be organized to serve all school children in a given village/habitation. Areas would be well defined with a population of not less than 150 so that the Voluntary School has at least a minimum of 30 children. Voluntary Schools would be expected to complete primary/elementary education of the required level in a specific period adequate for the pupils to master the curriculum.. Learners enrolled in the Voluntary Schools may appear as external students for entry into at class of full-time formal school. Local teachers will be appointed to run the schools and adequate training will be provided to them. Supervision of the Voluntary Schools would be the responsibility of the Village

Education Committee (VEC). A system of monitoring and evaluation will be designed by the grant-giving agency to periodically evaluate the work of the school on the basis of five main criteria—enrolment, attendance, retention, achievement of minimum levels of learning, and community involvement. Central assistance will be given to the eligible Voluntary Agencies to run the schools (c) Programme of Non-Formal Education In order to strengthen the NFE Scheme the following strategies will be adopted: (i) Provision of NFE centres will be based on the Micro planning exercise carried out for UEE. NFE centres will invariably cater to the needs of children, especially girls, who are not able to or who cannot attend the formal school. (ii) The community will be involved in the setting-up, and supervision of all NFE centres. (iii) The NFE instructors will be identified with the help of the community. Special efforts will be made to appoint moment instructors wherever possible, 699 (iv) Training of NFE personnel, especially instructors, will be given top priority. Adequate training and re-orientation will be provided. (v) Training responsibility will be shared by the project, District level institutions like DIETs, DRUs, State level institutions like SCERT, and National Institutes like NCERT and NIEPA. (vi) Project administration will be strengthened for effective decentralisation of management. Necessary administrative and management it puts will be provided at the State of District levels. (vii) Arrangements will be made for testing the children in the NFE stream with reference to an equivalent stage in the formal system as specific instructions issued to facilitate later entry into the formal system for students of the NFE stream. (viii) Efforts will be made to link non-formal course with the Open Schools. (ix) The NFE programme will be linked with the scheme of public libraries, Jana Shiks Nilayams, etc. (x) In total literacy campaign districts follow programmes will be taken up for children in age-group 9-14 to go beyond NLM literacy norms. This will form a part of the post literacy and continuing education programme of district. (xi) Voluntary agencies will be encouraged to undertake projects of NFE, especially in areas where the formal school system is not able to meet the demands of UEE. It is proposed that in the revised scheme, the following financial pattern will be followed: (a) Assistance to State Governments for setting up and running non-formal centres (boys and girls) on 75:25 basis; (b) assistance to State Governments for setting up and running non-formal education centres exclusively for girls on 90:10 basis; (c) assistance to voluntary agencies for setting up and running non-formal education centres on 100% basis; and (d) assistance to academic institutions and voluntary agencies for taking up innovative projects and research and evaluation activities in the field of non-formal education on 100% basis. Pupil evaluation in NFE will be centre-based and related to the MLL. For project evaluation techniques and methodologies will be evolved by the various institutions concerned in the implementation of NFE, i.e. NCERT, SCERT, DIET, DRU, etc. Monitoring of NFE will be centre-based. Models already developed will be used for monitoring. 700 (d) Micro-planning

Micro planning is a process of designing "a family-wise and child-wise plan of action" by which "every child regularly attends school or NFE centre, continues his/her education at the place suitable to him/her, and completes at least 8 years of schooling or its equivalent at the non-formal centre." A revenue village would be ideal for specific planning; however, micro planning for UEE may be carried out at the Block, Taluk, District levels. Within this area the steps by which this micro-level planning will be operationalised are: (i) The Village Education Committee and similar participatory structures at Block, Taluk and District levels would play an important role in operationalising micro-planning. (ii) Mobilising community participation through environment building activities such as jathas, street plays, folk songs, etc. (iii) Ascertaining educational requirements of the areas through a family-wise survey to be conducted with the help of the community. (iv) Bringing to school all children who can be enrolled, and providing NFE centres or other innovative and supportive channels for those who cannot go to school. (v) Ensuring that all children, specially girls and SC/ST children, regularly and actually participate in elementary education. (vi) Planning for the improvement of schools or NFE centres so that effective learning takes place. (vii) Reorienting and strengthening local level administrative and resource support systems. (viii) Decentralising educational administration. (ix) Integrating all the schemes being implemented in the area which would contribute to the improvement of school system (e.g. Operation Blackboard, JRY, ICDS, Social Forestry, Health Checkup, etc.). In most of the total literacy campaign (TLC) districts, a positive environment has already been created for taking up Micro-planning Projects. Many District Literacy Societies who have launched the TLCs have shown keen interest in elementary education and some of them have submitted project proposals under Micro-planning to the MHRD. The initiative shown by these societies needs to be encouraged. DIETS/ SCERTS and voluntary agencies will also be involved in the implementation of this programme. 701 Micro-planning can be effective only when there is total integration of efforts and resources—human and financial—from all quarters. While centrally sponsored schemes—OB, JRY, NFE, etc.—will provide the major share of funds for improving school facilities and access, the State Governments will provide resources for opening new schools. Additional resources required for survey, environment building, training of VEC members, etc. will be provided by the Centre under this scheme. Micro-planning will be made operational in about 20 project areas on an experimental basis during 1992-93. Based on the experience gained during the course of implementation it will be expanded to cover about 100 districts during the 8th Plan. In due course the entire country will be covered, thus ensuring universal access and environment, and universal retention. (e) Operation Blackboard The scheme of Operation Blackboard was launched in 1987 in pursuance of NPE-POA, to provide minimum essential facilities to all primary schools in the country. External evaluation of the scheme has indicated that lack of training of teachers in using the teaching material, specification of a large number of uniform facilities to be provided without modification according to local needs and lack of provision for breakage of equipment have been some of the drawbacks of implementation of the scheme. In order to operationalise the Revised Policy Formulations, the modified OB will contain the following three sub-schemes: (i) Continuation of ongoing OB to cover all the remaining primary schools especially those in SC/ST areas; 702 (ii) Expanding the scope of OB to provide three teachers and three rooms to primary schools wherever enrolment warrants

them; and (iii) Expanding OB to upper primary schools to provide: (a) at least one room for each class/section, (b) a Headmastercum-office room, (c) separate toilet facilities for girls and boys, (d) essential teaching-learning equipment including a library, (e) at least one teacher for each class/section, and (f) a contingency grant for replenishment of items, consumable and minor repairs, etc. The following measures will be taken to improve the quality of implementation of OB: (i) Teachers will be trained in using the OB teaching materials under a specially designed teacher training programme. (ii) State Governments will make provision for breakage and replacement of equipment. (iii) Enough flexibility will be provided for purchase to teaching-learning materials relevant to the curriculum and the local needs. (iv) At least 50% of the teachers appointed will be women. This will have a positive impact on girls' enrolment and retention. (v) Wherever Micro-planning projects are taken up OB will form an integral part of Micro-planning. (vi) As far as possible low cost and locally available designs relevant to the local conditions will be adopted for school buildings. Nirmithi Kendras (Building Centres) and local technical institutes will be associated in this endeavour. As in the past, Central Government will provide funds for equipment and teachers' salary for the plan period. The State Governments will mobilise resources under JRY and other schemes for construction of school buildings, including Headmaster-cum-office room and toilet facilities. The State Governments will also provide contingency and replacement funds for equipment. Ongoing OB will cover all schools by 1993-94. Other two sub-schemes will be started in the second half of the 8th Plan. About 30% of the eligible schools will be provided three rooms and three teachers under the expanded OB by the end of 8th Plan and the remaining schools will be covered by the year A.D. 2000. Under the expanded OB a limited number of upper primary schools will be covered during the 8th Plan. Depending on the availability of funds, all upper primary schools will be covered by the year A.D. 2000.

6. Content and Process (a) National Curricular Framework The National Policy on Education, 1986 envisaged a National System of Education based on a National Curricular Framework containing a common core along with the academic components. The NPE/POA envisaged a child-centred approach to education to promote universal enrolment and universal retention of children upto 14 years of age and substantial improvement in the quality of education in the school. In pursuance of NPE/POA, the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) brought out in 1988 a National Curricular Framework for all stages of school education. The revised curriculum took into account the need for reduction of curriculum load, keeping in view the requirements for modernisation and relevance. 703 Following the guidelines in the National Curricular Framework, the NCERT revised the entire school syllabi and brought out revised textbooks for Classes I to XII. Based on the National Curricular Framework and the NCERT syllabi/textbooks, the State and Union Territories have also undertaken measures of curriculum renewal and development of new textbooks for different stages of school education for their introduction into the school system in a phased manner. (b) Load of the School Bag The tendency on the part of some schools, particularly in urban areas, to recommend a large number of books, has contributed to overburdening of students. The Ministry of Human Resource Development requested the State Governments/UTs to instruct the schools not to prescribe more books than necessary.

Of late, concern has been expressed in various forms, including both Houses of Parliament, about the increasing academic burden, particularly at the junior classes in schools. The whole question of curriculum load is a complex one and there are no simple solutions. It has to be tackled in a comprehensive way and would include curricular reform, examination reform, better pedagogical practices and teacher training. NCERT has given the guidelines but a more concerted effort to adopt them needs to be made by the State Education Departments, the SCERTs, the Boards and other educational bodies. Keeping in view this concern, the Government have appointed a Committee under the chairmanship of Professor Yash Pal, Ex-Chairman of the University Grants Commission, to devise ways to reduce the academic burden on school in a time bound manner. The report of this Committee is awaited. (c) Minimum Levels of Learning The meet of lay down Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) emerges from the basic concern that irrespective of caste, creed, location or sex, all children must be given access to education of a comparable standard. The MLL strategy for improving the quality of elementary education is an attempt to combine quality with equity. It lays down learning outcomes in the form of competencies or levels of learning for each stage of elementary education. The strategy also prescribes the adoption of measures that will ensure achievement of these levels by children both in the formal schools as well as NFE centres. The focus of MLL strategy will be the development of competency-based teaching and learning. The main steps by which MLLs will be introduced in school will be: 704 (i) Preliminary assessment of the existing levels of learning achievements, (ii) Modification of the MLLs to suit local situations, if needed. (iii) Initial and recurrent orientation of teachers to competency-based teaching. (iv) Preparation of teacher training handbooks for MLL-based-teaching. (v) Introduction of continuous and comprehensive evaluation of students and using evaluation results for remedical action. (vi) Preparation of unit tests and other evaluation materials and putting them in an item pool for using as and when required. (vii) Using MLL norms as and when curriculum and textbooks are revised. (viii) Provision of competency based teaching-learning materials to make the educational process activity-based and joyful. Periodical and systematic programme of performance analysis will be carried out to ensure improvement in the quality of education. Efforts will be made to involve the community in this process. Based on the experience gained in implementation of MLL projects sanctioned during 1991-92, the programme will be expanded to other areas in a phased manner, SCERTs/DIETs will be encouraged to take up MLL projects so that this strategy becomes an integral part of pre-service teacher training. Project area teachers will be trained in utilising the teaching-aids supplied under Operation Black-board. MLL concept will also be introduced in teacher training institutes/colleges for pre-service training. The immediate task is to lay down MLLs for upper primary stage. A committee will be set-up at the national level for this purpose. At the national level, the MHRD will continue to play a major role. A network of Resource Centres will be identified to assist the Ministry in training, development of instructional and evaluation material, documentation, etc. At the state level Department of Education and SCERT will take the responsibility for implementation. A national pool of resource persons drawn from various educational institutions will be created. A similar pool at the State level will also be set up. Arrangements will be made for reorientation of these resource persons for effective implementation of MLL strategy. While Central Government will provide the funds in the initial stages when the strategy is implemented in a project mode, the State Governments, at least by the end of 8th Plan, will adopt this strategy as 705 an integral part of their responsibility towards quality improvement of elementary education.

7. Launching of National Mission The Revised Policy Formulations provide for launching of a National Mission for the achievement of the goal of UEE. This being an important and immediate task, suitable mechanisms will be worked out to identify the objectives, strategies, functions, structure, etc. of the proposed National Mission. In this process wide consultations will be held with the State Governments, voluntary agencies, educational and social institutions, educationists, women activists, etc. The proposed Mission will have the central objective of mobilising all the resources, human, financial and institutional, necessary for achieving the goal of UEE. The Mission will be made operational during the year 1993-94, when all centrally sponsored schemes such as Microplanning OB, NFE, MLL for quality improvement, etc. will be transferred to the Million, so that implementation of UEE at the State, District, Block and village levels can be operated through the Mission mode.

8. Making the System Work (a) The Policy NPE, 1986 suggested that education needed to be managed in an atmosphere of utmost intellectual rigour, seriousness of purpose and, at the same time, of freedom essential for innovation and creativity. The Policy also envisaged that discipline be introduced into the system with immediate effect. The policy put it in simple words that for the system to work all teachers should teach and all students should study. NPE, 1986 also suggested the following strategies for making the system work: (i) a better deal to teachers with greater responsibility; (ii) provision of improved student services and insistence on observance of acceptable norms of behaviour; and (iii) provision of better facilities to institutions and creation of a system of performance appraisals of institutions according to standards and norms set at the national or State level. (b) Proposed Action While any insistence on imposition of rigid uniformity or martinet discipline will not be in consonance with the general tenor of NPE, and 706 the process to be followed in creating the new educational order has to be participatory, it is incumbent upon us to develop a clear approach to this crucial task. The essential aspects of this task are the following: (i) The functioning of the school administrative set up will be studied to find out the difficulties inherent in the system. The school administrative set up will be made alert and responsive so that they can correct the defects in the system. The people involved in educational administration will be trained and motivated to make the system under them work by inspiring the teachers and students. NCERT, NIEPA, SCERT and DIETs will intensify their training programmes for educational administrators for this purpose. (ii) People will be involved in the process of education in their surroundings. This could be done through micro-planning. This will ensure teacher's accountability to the society and community's accountabilities to the school system. (iii) Steps will be taken to improve the working environment of the teachers. Teachers and teacher's representatives will be involved in planning and implementing the educational schemes at various levels. They may be made members of Committees at different levels set up by the Government for the review of the progress made in the education department schemes. (iv) Greater autonomy will have to be given to the teachers to manage the affairs of the school. (v) Students will be provided basic amenities such as drinking water, toilets, sports equipment, etc. (vi) Students eligible for scholarships and other incentives should receive them in time. (vii) Minimum basic facilities should be provided to all primary and upper primary schools under the scheme of OB.

(viii) Central and state organisations such as NCERT, NIEPA, SCERT, etc. will determine criteria for assessment of performance of elementary education schools. An incentive scheme may also be worked out for the schools and community in order to motivate them to achieve the goal of UEE. This may be done at the block and district level.

9. Monitoring and Evaluation With targets of UEE given separately for access, participation and enrolment, it will be necessary to develop a monitoring system that 707 yields timely and reliable information with which to monitor enrolment, retention, completion and achievement. At present the system of data collection depends upon a manual collation of data at the block and district levels. Apart from timelags in the compilation of data, this process restricts monitoring to the main indicators, due to which data essential for the monitoring of internal efficiency such as net enrolment figures age wise break-up of students, dropout ratios, transition rates, etc., are not obtained. In the 8th Plan, efforts would be made to computerise the data collection system at the district level, introducing user friendly software developed under the COPE project of NIEPA and giving computer training to district and block education staff. Data will be entered and stored in computers in each district office, and the NICNET used to transmit it to the state and national levels. A scheme for computerisation of educational statistics has been introduced but this needs further streamlining. A Cell for Monitoring of UEE can be set up at the State level. The computerisation at district level will begin in phases, taking 4-5 districts in the first year and gradually replacing the manual system with the computerised system till by the end of the 8th Plan, the entire system is computerised. The data base will be gradually expanded, so that information relevant not only to monitor the internal efficiency of the educational system but also for micro-planning and to improve and inform the district management functioning, can be obtained. In addition to qualitative data, the qualitative monitoring of achievement will also be introduced. The National Evaluation Organisation (NEO) set up to assess the learning acquired by children at the end of the primary and upper primary stages will yield data for this purpose. Reputed agencies NEO, NCERT, NIEPA, SCERT, etc. will be engaged in the external evaluation of the programme. 708

APPENDIX 3 "LEARNING THE TREASURE WITHIN"—REPORT TO UNESCO OF THE INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON EDUCATION FOR TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY; UNESCO PUBLISHING, PARIS, 1996 THE FOUR PILLARS OF EDUCATION Because the next century with provide unprecedented means for communication and for the circulation of storage of information, it will impose on education two demands which at first sight may appear contradictory. Education must transmit, efficiency and on a massive scale, an increasing amount of constantly evolving knowledge and know-how adapted to a knowledge-driven civilization, because this forms the basis of the skills of the future. At the same time, it must find and mark and reference points that will make it possible, on the one hand, for people not to be overwhelmed by the flows of information, much of it ephemeral, that are invading the public and private domains and, on the other, to keep the development of individuals and communities as its end in view. Education must, as it were, simultaneously provide maps of a complex world in constant turmoil and the compass that will enable people to find their way in it. In this view of the future, traditional responses to the demand for education that are essentially quantitative and knowledge-based are no longer appropriate. It is not enough to supply each child early in life with a store of knowledge to be drawn on from then on. Each individual must be equipped to seize learning opportunities throughout life, both to broaden her or his knowledge, skills and attitudes, and to adapt to a changing, complex and interdependent world. If it is to succeed in its tasks, education must be organized around four fundamental types of learning, which, throughout a

person's life, 709 will in a way be the pillars of knowledge: learning to know, that is acquiring the instruments of understanding; learning to do, so as to be able to act creatively on one's environment; learning to live together, so as to participate and co-operate with other people in all human activities; and learning to be an essential progression which proceeds from the previous three. Of course, these four paths of knowledge all form a whole, because there are many points of contact, intersection and exchange among them. Yet formal education has traditionally focused mainly, if not exclusively, on learning to know and to a lesser extend on learning to do. The two others are to a large extent left to chance, or assumed to be the natural product of the two former. The Commission believes that equal attention should be paid in all organized learning to each of these four pillars, so that education is regarded as a total experience throughout life, dealing with both understanding and application, and focusing on both the individual and the individual's place in society. Right from the beginning, the Commission felt that meeting the challenges of the coming century would necessarily entail changing the aims of education and the expectations people have of what education can provide. A broad, encompassing view of learning should aim to enable each individual to discover, unearth and enrich his or her creative potential, to reveal the treasure within each of us. This means going beyond an instrumental view of education, as a process one submits to in order to achieve specific aims (in terms of skills, capacities or economic potential), to one that emphasizes the development of the complete person, in short, learning to be.

Learning to Know This type of learning is less a matter of acquiring itemized, codified information than of mastering the instruments of knowledge themselves, and it can be regarded as both a means and an end in life. As a means it serves to enable each individual to understand at the very least enough about his or her environment to be able to live in dignity, to develop occupational skills and to communicate. As an end, its basis is the pleasure of understanding, knowing and discovering. Although studying to no immediately useful purpose is becoming less common, since applicable knowledge is so important in life today, the trend towards a longer period of education and more free time should lead to an increasing number of adults being able to appreciate the pleasures of personal research. The widening of the field of knowledge which enables people 710 to understand the various aspects of their environment better arouses intellectual curiosity, stimulates the critical faculty and enables people to make sense of reality by acquiring independence of judgment. From this point of view, it is vital that all children, wherever they may be, should be able to acquire a knowledge of the scientific method in some appropriate form and become 'friends of science'1 for life. In secondary and higher education, the initial training must provide all pupils and students with the instruments, concepts and references that scientific progress and contemporary paradigms make available. As knowledge is manifold and constantly changing, however, it is increasingly futile to try to know everything—after basic education, omni-disciplinarity is an illusion—but specialisation, even for future researchers, must not exclude general knowledge. 'Today, a really well-trained mind needs a broad background and the opportunity to study a small number of subjects in depth Both need to be encouraged during the whole of a person's education.2 A general education brings a person into contact with other languages and areas of knowledge, and in the first instance makes communication possible. Specialists shut away in their own fields are in danger of losing interest in what other people are doing. Whatever the circumstances, they will find it difficult to co-operate. In addition, general education bonds societies together in time and space, and fosters receptiveness to other areas of knowledge, enabling fruitful synergies to develop between disciplines. Some significant advances in knowledge, particularly in research, are made on the boundaries between disciplines. Learning to know presupposes learning to learn, calling upon the power of concentration, memory and thought. From childhood, especially in societies dominated by television, young people must learn to concentrate their attention on things and people. The very rapid succession of items of information broadcast through the media and the widespread habit of 'channel surfing' are harmful to the process of discovery, which takes time and involves going more deeply into the message received. Learning to concentrate can take many forms and make use of many different situations (games, periods of training in industry, travel, practical scientific work, etc.). Using the memory is a necessary antidote to being swamped by the instant information put out by the media. It would be

dangerous to 1. Third meeting of the Commission, Paris, 12-15 January, 1994. 2. See Laurent Schwartz. 'L'enselignement scientifique' in: Institute de France, Reflexions sur I'enseignement, Paris, Flammarion, 1993. 711 imagine that memory has become unnecessary because of the incredible capacity to store and circulate information now at our disposal. We must certainly be selective about what we learn 'by heart', but the specifically human faculty of memory by association, which cannot be reduced to a form of automatic functioning, must be carefully cultivated. All specialists agree that the memory must be trained from childhood and that it is inappropriate to eliminate from schools certain traditional supposedly boring, exercises. Exercise of the faculty of thought, to which children are first introduced by their parents and then by their teachers, must entail a two-way traffic between the concrete and the abstract. In teaching and in research it is therefore important to combine two methods often regarded as conflicting: the deductive and the inductive. One may be more relevant than the other in particular disciplines, but in most cases, coherent thinking requires a combination of the two. Acquiring knowledge is a never-ending process and can be enriched by all forms of experience. In this sense, it is increasingly interwoven with the experience of work, as work becomes less routine in nature. Initial education can be regarded as successful it has provided the impetus and foundation that will make it possible to continue to learn throughout life, while working but also outside work.

LEARNING TO DO Learning to know and learning to do are to a great extent in dissociable, but learning to do is more closely linked to the question of vocational training: how can children be taught to put what they have learned into practice and how can education be adapted to future work when it is impossible to foresee exactly how that work will evolve? The Commission addressed itself in particular to this latter question. In this connection, it is necessary to distinguish between the industrial economies, dominated by wage-earning occupations, and other economies still broadly dominated by independent and informal work. In the wage-earning societies, in which development followed the industrial pattern throughout this century, the substitution of machines for human labour is having the effect of making human labour increasingly immaterial. It is accentuating the knowledgerelated nature of work, even in industry, and the importance of the service sector. The future of industrial economies depends on their ability to transform advances in knowledge into innovations that generate new businesses and new jobs. Learning to 712 do can therefore no longer have the simple meaning it had when it was a matter of preparing someone for a clearly defined practical task in order to contribute to the manufacture of something. Learning must change accordingly and can no longer be regarded as the simple transmission of a more or less routine practice.

From Skill to Competence In industry, especially for machine operators and technicians, the ascendancy of knowledge and information as factors in productions systems is making the idea of occupational skills obsolete and is bringing personal competence to the fore. Teaching progress is ineluctably changing the skills required by new production processes. Purely physical tasks are being replaced by more intellectual, more mental work, such a controlling, maintaining and monitoring machines, and by the work of design, study and organization, as machines themselves become more 'intelligent' and the physical labour required for work diminishes. The demand for higher skills at all levels has a number of causes. As for as workers are concerned, the juxtaposition of prescribed tasks and individual operations is frequently being replaced by organization into 'work teams' or 'project groups', as in Japanese companies, while employee interchangeability is being superseded by the personalization of assignments. Instead of requiring a skill, which they see as still to narrowly linked to the idea of practical know-how, employers are seeking competence, a mix, specific to each individual, of skill in the strict sense of the term, acquired through technical and vocational training, of social behaviour, of an aptitude for teamwork, and of initiative and a readiness to take risks.

If we add to those new demands the requirement for personal commitment on the part of the worker, regarded as an agent of change, it becomes clear that highly subjective qualities, innate or acquired, that company heads often call 'life skills', combine with knowledge and know-how to make up to competence required—which provides a good illustration of the link that education must maintain with the various aspects of learning, as the Commission has emphasized. Among those qualities, the ability to communicate, work with others, and manage and resolve conflicts is becoming increasingly important. This trend is being accentuated by the development of service activities. 713

The 'Dematerialization' of Work and the Rise of the Service Sector The consequences for education of the 'dematerialization' of the advanced economies are particularly striking if one looks at the qualitative and quantitative changes in services. Services, which form a very varied category, can best be defined by what they are not: they are neither industrial nor agricultural and, despite their variety, have in common the fact that they do not produce material goods. Many services are defined principally in terms of the interpersonal relationships they involve. Examples can be found both in the market sector, which is proliferating as a result of the increasing complexity of economies (experts of all types technological monitoring and consultancy services, financial, accounting and management services) and in the more traditional non-market sector (social service, education health, etc.). In both cases information and communication are of the utmost importance, in that emphasis is placed on the personalized capture and processing of specific information for a specific purpose. In these types of services, the quality of the relationship between provider and user is also very dependent on the user. It is therefore understandable that it is no longer possible to train for this work in the same way as when it was a question of ploughing the land or sheet-metal working. The relationship with the material and the technology is secondary to the interpersonal relationship. The development of services therefore makes it essential to cultivate human qualities that are not necessarily inculcated by transitional training and which amount to the ability to establish stable, effective relationships between individuals. It can be imagined that, in the high-tech organizations of the future relational difficulties might create serious dysfunctions calling for new types of skill, more behavioural than intellectual. This may provide opportunities for people with few or no formal qualifications. Intuition, flair, judgment and the ability to hold a team together are not necessarily abilities peculiar to those with the highest paper qualifications. How and where are these qualities, innate in varying degrees, to be taught? It is not easy to imagine the content of training programmes that will produce the required abilities and aptitudes. The same problem arises in connection with vocational training in the developing countries.

Work in the Informal Economy In developing economies where wage-earning occupations are not the rule, the nature of work is very different. In many countries of sub714 Saharan African and some Latin American and Asian countries, only a small proportion of the population is formally employed, the great majority being involved in the traditional subsistence economy. There is no formal definition of work skills; known-how is often traditional. In addition, the function of learning is not limited to work but must respond to the broader objective of formal or informal participation in development. It is often as much a matter of social as of occupational skills. In other developing countries, side-by-side with agriculture and a small formal sector, there is also a sector based on trade and finance, which is both modern and informal and is sometimes quite dynamic, and which indicates there is an entrepreneurial potential well adapted to local conditions. In both cases, the Commission's consultations in developing countries indicated that these countries see the acquisition of a scientific culture which will give them access to modern technology as the way to the future, without, however, ignoring the specific capacities for innovation and creativity to be found within the local context. This brings us back to a question that faces both developed and developing countries: how can people learn to cope effectively with uncertainty and to play a part in creating the future?

LEARNING TO LIVE TOGETHER, LEARNING TO LIVE WITH OTHERS

This type of learning is probably one of the major issues in education today. The contemporary world is too often a world of violence that belies the hope some people placed in human progress. There has always been conflict throughout history, but new factors are accentuating the risk, in particular, the extraordinary capacity for self-destruction humanity has created in the course of the twentieth century. Through the media, the general public is becoming the impotent observer, even the hostage, of those who create or maintain conflicts. Education has up to now not been able to do much to alleviate that state of affairs. Is it possible to devise a form of education which might make it possible to avoid conflicts or resolve them peacefully by developing respect for other people, their cultures and their spiritual values? The idea of teaching non-violence in schools is laudable even if it is only one means among many for combating the prejudices that lead to conflict. It is a difficult task, since people very naturally tend to over715 value their own qualities and those of their group and to harbour prejudices against others. Furthermore, the general climate of competition that is at present characteristic of economic activity, within and above all between nations, tends to give priority to the competitive spirit and individual success. Such competition now amounts to ruthless economic warfare and to a tension between rich and poor that is dividing nations and the world, and exacerbating historic rivalries. It is regrettable that education sometimes helps maintain this climate by its misinterpretation of the idea of emulation. How can we do better? Experience shows that, to reduce this risk, it is not enough to organize contact and communication between members of different groups (in schools shared by several ethnic groups or religions, for example). If the different groups are in competition or have unequal status in the environment they share, such contact can, on the contrary, inflame latent tensions and degenerate into conflict. On the other hand, if contact takes place in an egalitarian context, and there are common objectives and shared purpose, prejudices and latent hostility can dwindle and give way to more relaxed cooperation or even friendship. It would seen, therefore, that education must take two complementary paths: on one level, gradual discovery of others and, on another, experience of shared purposes throughout life, which seems to be an effective way of avoiding or resolving latent conflicts.

Discovering Others The task of education is to teach, at one and the same time, the diversity of the human race and an awareness of the similarities between, and the interdependence of, all humans. From early childhood, schools must therefore take every opportunity to teach these two things. Some subjects are particularly well suited for this task: hum an geography beginning with basic education, and foreign languages and literature slightly later on, for example. If one is to understand others, one must first know oneself. To give children and young people an accurate view of the world, education, whether in the family, the community or at school, must first help them discover who they are. Only then will they genuinely be able to put themselves in other people's shoes and understand their reactions. Developing such empathy at school bears fruit in terms of social behaviour throughout life. For example, by teaching young people to 716 adopt the point of view of other ethnic or religious groups, the lack of understanding that leads to hatred and violence among adults can be avoided. The teaching of the history of religions and customs can thus serve as a useful benchmark for future behaviour.3 Finally, the actual form that teaching takes must not run counter to this acknowledgement of others. Teachers whose dogmatic approach stifles pupils' curiosity or critical spirit instead of inculcating those qualities in them can do more harm than good. If teachers forget they are role models, their attitude may forever weaken their pupils' ability to be receptive to others and face the inevitable tensions between people, groups and nations. Encountering others through dialogue and debate is one of the tools needed by twenty-first century education.

Working Towards Common Objectives When people work together on rewarding projects which take them out of their usual routine, differences and even conflicts between individuals tend to fade into the background and sometimes disappear. People derive a new identity from such projects, so that it is possible to go beyond individual routines and highlight what people have in common rather than the differences between them. In many cases, tensions between social classes and nationalities have in the end been transformed into unity by the common effort involved, in sport for example. Similarly, where work is concerned, many ventures would never have been successfully completed had the conflicts commonly found in hierarchical

organizations not been transcended by a shared purpose. Formal education must therefore provide enough time and opportunity in its programmes to introduce the young, from childhood, to co-operative undertakings through participation in sport or in cultural activities, and also through participation in social activities such as neighbourhood renovation, helping the underprivileged, humanitarian work, intergenerational assistance, etc. Other educational organizations and voluntary bodies must take over where schools leave off. In addition, in everyday school life, the involvement of teachers and pupils in joint undertakings could provide an initiation into a way of resolving conflicts and a benchmark for pupils to refer to in the future, while at the same time enhancing the teacher-pupil relationship. 3. David A. Hamburg, Education for Conflict Resolution (reprinted from the Annual Report 1994 of the Carnegie Corporation of New York). 717

LEARNING TO BE At its very first meeting, the Commission firmly restated the fundamental principle that education must contribute to the all-round development of each individual—mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic sense, personal responsibility and spiritual values. All human beings must be enabled to develop independent, critical thinking and form their own judgement, in order to determine for themselves what they believe they should do in the different circumstances of life. The Preamble of the report Learning to Be expressed the fear that the world would be dehumanized as a result of technical change, one of its essential messages being that education must enable every person 'to solve his own problems, make his own decisions and shoulder his own responsibilities'. All the changes in society since then, and particularly the fantastic development of the power of he media, have accentuated this fear and given even greater legitimacy to the impactive that stems from it. In the twenty-first century, these phenomena may loom even large. The problem will then no longer be so much to prepare children for a given society as to continuously provide everyone with the powers and intellectual reference points they need for understanding the world around them and behaving responsibly and fairly. More than ever, educations essential role seems to be to give people the freedom of thought, judgments, feeling and imagination they need in order to develop their talents and remain as much as possible in control of their lives. This is not simply an individualist imperative: recent experience shows that what might appear to be only an individual's way of defending himself or herself against an alienating system, or one that is perceived as hostile, sometimes offers societies too the best chance of progress. The diversity of people's personalities, their independence and initiative, and even the desire to provoke—these are all safeguards of creativity and innovation. To reduce violence and combat the various ills afflicting society, new methods born of experience have shown themselves to be effective. In an ever-changing world in which social and economic innovation seems to be one of the main driving forces, a special place should doubtless be given to the qualities of imagination and creativity, the clearest manifestations of human freedom, which may be at risk from a certain standardization of individual behaviour. The twenty-first century needs this variety of talents and personalities; it also needs the exceptional individuals who are also essential in any civilization. It is therefore 718 important to provide children and young people with every possible opportunity for discovery and experiment—aesthetic, artistic, sporting, scientific, cultural and social—as well as appealing introductions to the creation of their contemporaries or earlier generations. Art and poetry, too often taught in a way that has become more utilitarian than cultural, should again be given more importance in schools than is commonly the case in many countries. The desire to develop the imagination and creativity should also result in higher regard being paid to oral cultural and knowledge derived from the child's or adult's experience. The Commission fully endorses the principle set out in the report Learning to Be: 'the aim of development is the complete fulfillment of man, in all the richness of his personality, the complexity of his forms of expression and his various commitments—as individual, member of a family and of a community, citizen and producer, inventor of techniques and creative dreamer. Individual development, which begins at birth and continues throughout life, is a dialectical process which starts with knowing oneself and then opens out to relationships with others. In that sense, education is above all an inner journey whose stages correspond to those of the continuous maturing of the personality. Education as a means to the end of a successful working life is thus a very individualized process and at the same time a process of constructing social interaction.

It goes without saying that the four pillars of education described in this chapter cannot relate exclusively to one phase of life or to a single place. As will be seen in the next chapter, the phases and areas of education must be rethought and must complement and interpenetrate one another, so that all can derive the greatest benefit, throughout their lives, from an everbroadening educational environment.

Pointers and Recommendations • Education throughout life is based on four pillars: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. • Learning to know, by combining a sufficiently broad general knowledge with the opportunity to work in depth on a small number of subjects. This also means learning to learn, so as to benefit from the opportunities education provides throughout life. • Learning to do, in order to acquire not only an occupational skill but also, more broadly, the competence to deal with many situations and work in teams. It also means learning to do in the context of young peoples' various social and work experiences which may be informal, as a result of the local or national context, or formal, involving courses, alternating study and work. 719 • Learning to live together, by developing an understanding of other people and an appreciation of interdependence— carrying out joint projects and learning to manage conflicts—in a spirit of respect for the values of pluralism, mutual understanding and peace. • Learning to be, so as better to develop one's personality and be able to act with ever greater autonomy, judgment and personal responsibility. In that connection, education must not disregard any aspect of a person's potential: memory, reasoning, aesthetic sense, physical capacities and communication skills. • Formal education systems tend to emphasize the acquisition of knowledge to the detriment of other types of learning; but it is vital now to conceive education in a more encompassing fashion. Such a vision should inform and guide future educational reforms and policy, in relation both to contents and to methods. 720

APPENDIX 4 NORMS AND STANDARDS FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS (PRESCRIBED BY NCTE, NEW DELHI 1995) PREFACE The National Council for Teacher Education has been vested with statutory authority to take all such steps as it may think fit for ensuring planned and coordinated development of teacher education and for the determining and maintenance of standards of teacher education including preparation for pre-primary, primary, secondary and senior secondary stages of school education. The formulation of norms and standards for teacher education institutions preparing teachers and teacher educators for different levels of school education is essential for a variety of reasons. Norms will help existing institutions offering teacher education programmes, to compare the provisions in their institutions with norms of the NCTE and take necessary action to correct deficiencies, if any. Norms will also help in proper planning of new institutions, programmes and courses of teacher education. Here, the norms and standards specify the details of 'Conditions' required for recognition, permission, and additional intake of seats for any course or training in teacher education. This document specifies norms and standards approved by the NCTE for elementary teacher education institutions offering two year full-time face to face instruction. The norms have been stated under two categories:

(i) Essential norms are those which should be fulfilled by all institutions to become eligible for recognition/permission by NCTE; and (ii) Desirable norms are those which go beyond the essential criteria, and contribute to the quality of teacher education. It is expected 721 that institutions will gradually fulfil the desirable norms and become eligible for recognition/permission of their courses and training. It is expected that this document will be used by planners and administrators of teacher education, and by government, autonomous and private managements of teacher education in planning, organizing and recognizing programmes of elementary teacher education. The NCTE will be using these norms for professional recognition of institutions organizing elementary teacher education programmes. These norms will also be used for advising government, autonomous and private managements for taking suitable action for improving existing programmes and institutions.

1. INTRODUCTION The National Policy on Education, 1986 states that the new thrust in elementary education will emphasize two aspects: (i) universal enrolment/ universal retention of children upto 14 years of age, and (ii) a substantial improvement in the quality of education. The improvement of quality of elementary education will to a large extent depend on the quality of teacher education; for this purpose the policy document envisages establishment of District Institutes of Education of Training (DIETs) to organize pre-service and in-service courses for elementary school teachers. As DIET's get established, substandard teacher education institutions will either be upgraded or phased out. In December 1993, through Act No. 73 of 1993 of the Parliament, the National Council for Teacher Education was established and vested with statutory authority for "achieving planned and coordinated development of the teacher education system throughout the country, the regulation and proper maintenance of norms and standards in the teacher education system and for matters connected therewith." Some of the functions of the NCTE relating to maintenance of standards as listed in the Act are: — to lay down norms for any specified category of courses or training in teacher education, including minimum eligibility criteria for admission thereof, and the method of selection of candidates, duration of the course, course contents, and mode of curriculum, — to lay down guidelines for compliance by recognized institutions for starting new courses or training, and for providing physical 722 and instructional facilities, staffing pattern and staff qualifications,. — to lay down guidelines regarding tuition fees and other fees chargeable by recognized institutions, — to examine and review periodically the implementation of the norms, guidelines and standards laid down by the Council, and to suitably advise the recognized institutions, — to evolve suitable performance appraisal systems, norms and mechanisms for enforcing accountability on recognized institutions, and — to take all necessary steps to prevent commercialization of teacher education. In order to meet these obligations, the NCTE has laid down specified conditions called norms and standards for different stages and programmes of teacher education. In this document, norms and standards for regular institutional programmes of two year duration preparing teachers for elementary schools are presented. A two year course for elementary teacher education was recommended by the erstwhile NCTE in the Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education. In some States, there are regular institutional programmes of one year duration for preparation of elementary school teachers. The NCTE will take decision, separately, about such institutional programmes. The norms are presented under two levels: (i) essential norms which are the minimum that all institutions should fulfil in order to be eligible for statutory recognition of their institutions/permission of courses by NCTE, and (ii) desirable standards which institutions should strive to achieve in a reasonably short period of time. The recognition of the

programmes of institutions by the NCTE will depend on the extent of their fulfillment of essential norms, and the fulfillment of other performance criteria. The minimum viable intake of an institution for elementary teacher education may be 100. Since this is a course of two years duration, there will be a minimum of 50 students in first year and 50 students in second year, making a total of 100 students. Minimum teaching staff, other staff and instructional facilities as laid down in the norms should be provided for this intake. If the number of students in the institution increases, staff and instructional facilities should be proportionately increased. 723

2. REQUIREMENTS FOR ELEMENTARY TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION (Financial estimate of all items has to be worked out with the price level of 1994) General Item

Minimum strength

Desirable strength

Minimum intake in First & Second Year

50+50= 100*

100+100 = 200

Teaching Staff

1 Principal + 8 Teachers 1 Principal + 19 Teachers

Staff-Student Ratio

1:12

1:10

Total Land Area

5000 sq. mts

15000 sq. mts

Floor Area of Institution (Excluding hostel & staff quarters) 1000 sq. mts

1500 sq. mts

Floor Area per Student

10 sq. mts

10 sq. mts

Number of Administrative and other staff

3

6

In areas where there is need of training institutions but the area in having adequate number of schools for practice teaching). Non-recurring Costs Item

Minimum (for 100 students)

Desirable (for 200 students)

Institution Building (excluding hostel & staff quarters)

30 lakhs (1000 sq. mts multiplied by 45 lakhs (1500 sq. mts multiplied by Rs 3000) Rs. 3000)

Equipment and Books

1 lakh

1.5 lakhs

Furniture (for institution only)

0.50 lakh

0.75 lakh

Any other

—

—

In addition, institutions under private management should have an endowment fund of at least Rs. 5 lakhs and a reserve fund to cover three months' salary of all staff (1.5 lakhs) Recurring Costs (Cost will be worked out as per 1994 price levels) Item

(for 50 + 50 students)

(for 100 + 100 students)

Salaries

As per UGC/State/Central

Government norms

Other Recurring Costs

0.3 lakhs for 100 students

0.8 lakhs for 200 students

Other recurring costs per student Rs. 300 per student per year Rs. 400 per student per year 724

NORMS FOR SPACE AND BUILDINGS Land, Area and Location

The minimum essential space required for an Elementary Teacher Education Institution represents administrative wing, academic wing, and play grounds. A quarter for Principal should also be provided. It would also be desirable to provide hostel for students separately for men and women, to cover about 50% of the students and quarters for staff. Hostels are particularly necessary for outstation students. Land Area Essential Desirable 5,000 sq. mts 10,000 sq. mts The institution should be located in a relatively noise-free and pollution free zone, having adequate supply of drinking water and electricity. It should have good conveyance and communication facilities with the nearest town.

Norms for Instructional Area The institutional building should have provision for classrooms, assembly hall, library, psychology laboratory, psychology and educational technology, science lab, workshop for work-experience, art and music room, play & games room. The following norms are desirable for each category: Classrooms and Assembly Hall There should be a minimum of three classrooms each of 60 sq. mts. It is desirable to have four classrooms. The first and second year classes will need two rooms each, so that simultaneously two methodology classes are held. The assembly hall should have a minimum floor area of 100 sq. mts but preferably 150 sq. mts. The hall can be used for multiple purposes such as holding of meetings, for demonstration teaching, for cultural programmes, etc. Library-cum-Reading Room The floor area for library-cum-reading room should be atleast 100 sq. mts while desirable area should be 150 sq. mts. Of this at least 25 sq. mts should be for storage of books and rest for reading space for students. Open shelf system along with provision to take materials out should be practised. 725 Laboratories The curriculum upto elementary stage is compulsory for all the students. All the trainees are supposed to have adequate training in all the labs. There should be t least one combined laboratory having a floor area of 75 sq. mts for science (environmental studies), psychology and educational technology, of which 25 sq. mts should be for storage of equipment and apparatus and the rest of the space for practical work by students in batches of 16 to 20. It is desirable to have two laboratories, each of 75 sq. mts, one for science and psychology and the other for educational technology. Workshop A workshop of floor area of 75 sq. mts would be required essentially for work-experience. Art and Music Room A room with a floor area of 60 sq. mts is essential for Art Education. It can also be used for Music Education. Games Room A room with a floor area of 50 sq. mts would be essential for strong equipments and materials required for physical education and games.

Building Space for Administrative Block Each administrative block should have the following rooms: Rooms

Floor Area (sq.mts)

Essential Desirable Principal's Room

30

50

Teachers' Common Room 60

75

Office Room

50

75

Store Room

50

75

Building Space of Other Amenities A Common Room for women-students, having a floor area of at least 50 sq. mts is essential. It would be desirable to have a Men's Common Room with a floor area of 50 sq. mts. It is essential to have two separate toilets each for women and men. In addition, it is desirable to have a separate toilet for Principal and teachers. Each toilet should have a floor area of atleast 25 sq. mts and be usable by five persons at a time. There should be facilities for drinking water (preferably water-cooler) at two places. 726

Building Space for Residential Area Students' Hostel It is essential to have a hostel for all women-students. A hostel for men-students is also necessary if students come from outside the municipal area of the institution. Hostels should be single-seated or two seated rooms. Rooms should have a floor area of 8 sq. mts, kitchen and dining area 1.5 sq. mts per student and toilet and other spaces of 0.5 sq. mts per student. Thus, the hostels will have a floor area of 10 sq.mts per student. For 100 students the floor area of the hostel(s) will be 1000 sq. mts. Staff Quarters Essential: Principal's quarter should be provided within the campus or very near the campus of the institution. Desirable: Quarters may be provided for at least 50% of the teaching staff. Non-teaching staff whose services are required at odd hours should also be provided with quarters near the campus. It those areas where there is scarcity of private rented houses, quarters should be provided for all the staff members. Floor Area norms for Staff quarters: Rooms for Academic Staff Area for staff quarters (sq. mts) Principal

120

Junior Lecturer

85

Administrative Staff

70

Helpers

45

Play Fields Essential: Institution should have play fields to engage at a time at least 50% of the students in active outdoor games. There should be provision for outdoor games like hockey, football, volley ball, basket ball, badminton, kho kho, kabbadi, and other Indian games. A minimum of 1000 sq. mts should be provided for play fields and physical education. Desirable: It is desirable to have playgrounds for cricket and athletics track. A minimum of 1000 sq. mts space will be needed for this purpose.

NORMS FOR EQUIPMENT, BOOKS AND FURNITURE Equipment for Science Laboratory

Essential: The Institution should have at least one set of Science apparatus required to demonstrate all the experiments indicated in the syllabus of Primary and Middle School Classes. All required chemicals 727 for performing these experiments should also be available. They should be replenished on a regular basis. Desirable: Multiple sets of apparatus would be desirable so that more than one student can simultaneously perform the same experiment. All apparatus and material required to perform experiments related to the syllabi of elementary school classes should also be provided.

Equipment for Psychology Laboratory Essential: Sensory-motor Tests, Intelligence Tests (performance, verbal and non-verbal), Aptitude Tests and Interest Inventories should be available. Desirable: Multiple sets of the above-mentioned tests may be purchased for testing, administration, and scoring by the students. Equipment and materials for concept formation, learning may also be procured.

Equipment for Educational Technology Essential: One TV, One Audio Cassette Recorder, one Slide-cum-Film strip projector, adequate number of blank audio cassettes, Art materials for preparation of charts, One Radio/Transistor set. Desirable: One Amplifier, one Computer, two Speakers, two Microphones, two Audio Cassette Recorders, one VCR, one OHP.

Equipment for Workshop and Work-Experience Essential: One set of wood-working hand tools, one set of gardener's tools, other essential equipment required for workexperience activities may be provided in the institution. The institution may also provide work-experience in tailoring, type-writing, electricity and electronics for which necessary equipment should be provided.

Equipment for Art and Music Essential: Art paper, board, brushes, colours, etc. for practice of art should be available. Simple musical instruments such as harmonium, tabla, flutes, drums, and other local instruments, etc. should also be provided.

Equipment for Games and Sports Essential: Adequate games and play equipment and materials for all the outdoor games should be available. Materials and equipment required for training in athletics and body building should also be provided. 728

Books and Journals Essential: A minimum of 1500 books should be available during the first year of the institution and at least 100 books be added every year.. The collection of books should include encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books, books on professional education, teacher's handbooks, textbooks on all school subjects, and supplementary books on all subjects. The institution should subscribe to at least three journals of which at least one should be on professional education. Desirable: The institution should have 3000 books initially and 100 books be added each year. It should subscribe to atleast five journals of which at least two should be professional.

Norms for Furniture All rooms in the institutional building should have adequate and appropriate furniture for students, say 100. The norms for furniture in different rooms of the institution are as follows:

Room

Essential

Desirable

1. Classroom

In each classroom-Student desks (100 seats) Teacher's chair (One) Teacher's table (One) Black board of 2.5 mt multiplied by 1 mt (One)

2. Assembly Hall

Dais of size 6 mt multiplied by 3mt multiplied by 0.5 mt ht. (One) Student's Seats Same as essential (100) Teacher's chair (20) Guest chairs (5)

3. Laboratory

Tables of size 1.25 mt multiplied by 2 mt multiplied by 0.9 mt of ht. in each lab. (5) High stools (20) (0.6 mt ht.) Teacher's table (One) Teacher's chair (One) Almirah (One) (preferably steel)

Same as essential for 100 students of better quality

Same as essential Almirah (Steel) (One)

4. Workshop

Work benches of size 1.25 mt multiplied by 2 mt multiplied by 0.75 mt (5) Stools (of ht. 0.6 mt) (20) Same as essential Almirahs Steel (Two) Teacher's table (One) Teacher's chair (One) Almirah (preferably Steel) (One) Book Shelves for 3000 books Catalogue Cabinets to hold 3000 cards Same as essential (1) Bulletin Board (1)

5. Library

Book shelves for 2000 books Periodical rack (One) Catalogue cabinets each with 4 card trays adequate to hold 2000 cards. Librarian's table (One) Chairs (Two) Long Table with 50 Student' Chairs Notice Board (one)

6. Principal's Room

Table size 2 mt multiplied by 1.25 mt Same as essential + one multiplied by 0.45 mt (One) Cane Chairs sofa set (Five) Steel Almirah (One) Book Rack (One)

7. Teachers' Room

One long table and chairs for 12 persons Chair (One) for each teacher

8. Office

Table (One) Chair (One) for each Same as essential + administrative staff Steel almirah (One) Filing Chairs (Two) rack (One) Notice boards (Two) Stools (Two)

9. Store Room

Almirah (One) Racks (Two)

Almirah Steel (Two) Racks (Three)

Long Table (One) Student's Chairs (20)

Same as essential

10. Students' Common Room 729

Teachers' Cabins/Rooms

NORMS FOR STAFF Teaching Staff Suggested teacher-student ratio is 1:12. The Principal is counted as an additional teacher. For an intake of 100 students (50 in first year class and 50 in second year) the teaching staff required would be 1 Principal and 8 teachers. If students' intake in more, the number of teachers should be increased on the basis of the teacher-student ratio 1:12. Part-time teachers will not be counted for this purpose. Teachers should be so selected that there should be at least one teacher with knowledge of the subject-content and its methodology in 730 each of the following: English, Mother Tongue (or State language), Mathematics, Science, Social Studies. There should be one or more teachers to teach Foundations of Education. In addition, there should be one teacher for each of the following areas: Health and Physical Education, Art, Work-experience. The number of teachers required will depend on subject-wise theory work-load, and work-load of supervision of practice teaching and other practical work. The rank and qualifications of the Principal and teachers will be as follows:

Designation

Essential

Desirable

Rank: Lecturer Qualification: Headmaster/ Principal M.Ed./M.A. Education with 5 years teaching experience as lecturer teacher One educator

Rank Reader Master's Degree in school foundation subject plus Master's Degree in Education with five years teaching experience in the rank of lecturer or as teacher educator

Teacher Educator in Pedagogy*

Rank: PG Teacher M.Ed./M.A in Education

Rank: Lecturer in Education, M.Ed./M.A. in Education and Master's Degree in other subject

Teacher Educator in Methodology

Rank: PG Teacher M.Ed./M.A. in Education

Rank: Lecturer M.Ed./M.A. in Education and Master's Degree in relevant subject

Teacher Educator in Physical Education Teacher Educator in Art/Music

Rank: PG Teacher Qualification: Rank: PG Teacher M.Ph.Ed. Rank: Secondary School M.Ph.Ed. Rank: Secondary School Teacher—Higher Secondary plus Degree/ Teacher—Degree/Diploma in Art/Music Diploma in Art/Music

Teacher Educator in Work-experience

Rank: Secondary School Teacher— Higher Secondary plus Diploma/Certificate in Craft

Rank: Secondary School Teacher plus Diploma/ Certificate in Craft

*NB All teachers should have at least three years teaching experience in elementary school and some specialization in inservice school education. All teaching staff in academic and pedagogic subjects should be appointed on a regular and full-time basis, after selection by a duly constituted Selection Committee. Salary scales should be the same as for teachers of equivalent rank in Government institutions. Part-time teachers may be appointed in art, music, and work-experience, depending on the teaching work load. These part time teachers will not considered while calculating student-teacher ratio. 731

Technical Support Staff Designation Librarian

Essential One (with Diploma in Library Science)

Asstt. Librarian

Desirable One (with Degree in Library Science), experience in library automation One (with Diploma in Library Science)

Administrative Staff Designation Essential Desirable Office Assistant

One

One

Accounts Assistant

One

One

Typist: word processor One

One

Helpers

Five

Three

NORMS FOR RECURRING COSTS Adequate provision should be made in the annual budget of the institution for all essential recurring costs. The norms for recurring costs are as follows: A. Total expenditure on salaries of all staff members will include expenditure on regular pay scales and all other benefits as per State/Central Govt. B. Purchase of Instructional Materials. C. Other cost per student (Rs.) per year. Item

Cost per Student (Rs.) per year

Essential Science

Desirable

50

75

Education, Psychology and Educational Technology 50

75

Art/Music and Work-experience

50

75

Games and Sports

50

75

Books and Journals

50

100

Contingencies

50

100

Depending on the number of students enrolled, recurring expenditure can be estimated for the institution. 732

NORMS REGARDING ADMISSION CRITERIA AND FEES Admission Criteria Essential: Minimum essential qualification for admission to the course of elementary teachers, education would be pass in Higher Secondary (+2) School Certificate Examination with a minimum of 50% marks in the aggregate. Reservation of seats will be in accordance with the States UTs.

Selection Procedure Students should be selected for admission on the basis of merit as determined by a written selection test to be conducted by agencies/ organizations approved by NCTE.

Fee Structure and Scholarship Essential: The fee structure should be as decided by the State Government from time to time. In any case the total fees and other charge collected from a student should not exceed the per pupil recurring expenditure of the institution. Desirable: Some scholarships and free studentship may be provided for meritorious but poor students. Some scholarships may be provided purely on the basis of merit. Loan arrangements for purchase of books are desirable.

NORMS REGARDING CURRICULUM TRANSACTION Working Days and Hours of Instruction Total number of Working days = 220 per year to be distributed as follows: For completing all admissions 10 Working days (after reopening of Institution) Teaching Days per year 160 Working days (after reopening of Institution) Supervised Practice 40 Working days (after reopening of Institution) Teaching in Schools Examination Days 10 Working days (after reopening of Institution)

Norms of Practical Work (Other than Practice Teaching) to be Performed by Each Student. Each Student should perform under Supervision the following practical work in each year of the course.

733 Item

Number

Science Experiments

10

Preparation of teaching aids

5

Administering and scoring of tests

3

Operation of audio-visual equipments

all available equipments

Observation of demonstration lessons

10 in each subject

Observation of lessons of other teachers and trainees

15 in each subject

Participation in games and sports

hour each day.

Participation in Work experience

1/2 hour each day.

Case Study/Action research/other project observation of participation in school activities/features

One

Supervised Practice Teaching Not more than two students should teach the same section of a class in a school. A student teacher should teach two periods per day and observe two lessons of other peer student teacher/teachers. All lessons should be fully supervised by teachers of the institution and feedback given to the student. A student should teach a minimum 15 lessons in each of three subjects. If micro-teaching is followed, each cycle of micro-teaching (plan-teach-replan-reteach) may be counted as one practice teaching lesson The institution should have working arrangement with adequate number of elementary schools for practice teaching. It may preferably have one practising school attached to it. 734

APPENDIX 5 SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN A PROGRAMME FOR UNIVERSAL ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN INDIA-2000* In accordance with the Constitutional commitment to ensure free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 years, provision of universal elementary education has been a salient feature of national policy since independence. This resolve has been spelt out emphatically in the National Policy of Education (NPE), 1986 and the Programme of Action (POA), 1992. A number of schemes and programmes were launched in pursuance of the emphasis embodied in the NPE and the POA. These included the scheme of Operation Blackboard (OB); Non-Formal Education (NFE); Teacher Education (TE); Mahila Samakhya (MS); State Specific Basic Education Projects like the Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project (APPEP), Bihar Education Project (BEP, Lok Jumbish (LJP) in Rajasthan, Education For All Project in Uttar Pradesh; Shiksha Karmi Project (SKP) Rajasthan; National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (MDM); District Primary Education Programme (DPEP).

Why Elementary Education? Social justice and equity are by themselves a strong agreement for providing basic education for all. It is an established fact that basic education improves the level of human well-being especially with regard to life expectancy, infant mortality, nutritional status of children, etc. Studies have shown that universal basic education significantly contributes to economic growth. 'Ministry of Human Resource Development, Dept. of Elementary Education and Literacy. 735

Constitutional, Legal and National Statements for UEE

The Constitutional, legal and national policies and statements have time and again upheld the cause of Universal elementary education. Constitutional mandate 1950—"The state shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education to all children until they complete the age of 14 years. " National Policy of Education, 1986—"It shall be ensured that free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality is provided to all children up to 14 years of age before we enter the twenty-first century". Unnikrishnan judgement, 1993—"Every child/citizen of this country has a right to free education until he completes the age of fourteen years." Education Ministers' Resolve, 1998—"Universal elementary education should be pursued in the mission mode. It emphasised the need to pursue a holistic and convergent approach towards UEE." National Committee's Report on UEE in the mission mode, 1999— UEE should be pursued in a mission mode with a holistic and convergent approach with emphasis on preparation of District Elementary Education Plans for UEE. It supported the fundamental right to education and desired quick action towards operationalization of the mission mode towards UEE.

The Scenario so Far Consequent to several efforts, India has made enormous progress in terms of increase in institutions, teachers, and students in elementary education. The number of schools in the country increased four-fold from 2,31000 in 1950-51 to 9,30,000 in 1998-99, while enrolment in the primary cycle jumped by about six times from 19.2 million to 110 million. At the upper Primary stage, the increase of enrolment during the period was 13 times, while enrolment of girls recorded a huge rise of 32 times. The Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) at the Primary stage has exceeded 100 percent. Access to schools is no longer a major problem. At the primary stage, 94 percent of the Country's rural population has schooling facilities within one kilometre and at the upper primary stage it is 84 percent. The country has made impressive achievement in the elementary education sector. But the flip side is that out of the 200 million children in the age group of 6-14 years, 59 million children are not attending school. Of this, 35 million are girls and 24 million are boys. There are 736 problems relating to drop-out rate, low levels of learning achievement and low participation of girls, tribals and other disadvantaged groups. There are still at least one lakh habitations in the country without schooling facility within a kilometre. Coupled with it are various systemic issues like inadequate school infrastructure, poorly functioning schools, high teacher absenteeism, large number of teacher vacancies, poor quality of education and inadequate funds. In short, the country is yet to achieve the elusive goal of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE), which means 100 percent enrolment and retention of children with schooling facilities in all habitations. It is to fill this gap that the government has launched the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is a historic stride towards achieving the long cherished goal of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) through a time-bound integrated approach in partnership with States. SSA, which promises to change the face of the elementary education sector of the country, aims to provide useful and quality elementary education to all children in the 6-14 age group by 2010. The SSA is an effort to recognize the need for improving the performance of the school system and to provide community owned quality elementary education in the mission mode. It also envisages bridging of gender and social gaps.

OBJECTIVES OF SARVA SHIKSHA ABHIYAN • All children in school, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate School, 'Back to School' camp by 2003; • All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007;

• All children complete eight years of schooling by 2010; • Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life; • Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010; and • Universal retention by 2010.

Structure for Implementation The Central and State governments will together implement the SA in partnership with the local governments and the community. To signify 737 the national priority for elementary education, a National Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan Mission is being established with the Prime Minister as the Chairperson and the Union Minister of Human Resource Development as the Vice-Chairperson. States have been requested to establish State Level and Implementation Society for UEE under the Chairmanship of Chief Minister Education Minister. This has already been done in many States. The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan will not disturb existing structures in States and districts but would only try to bring convergence in all these efforts. Efforts will be made to ensure that there is functional decentralization down to the school level in order to improve community participation. Besides recognizing PRIs/Tribal Councils in Scheduled Areas, including the Gram Sabha, the States would be encouraged to enlarge the accountability framework by involving NGOs, teachers, activists, women's organizations, etc.

Coverage and Period The SSA will cover the entire expanse of the country before March 2002 and the duration of the programme in every district will depend upon the District Elementary Education Plan (DEEP) prepared by it as per its specific needs. However, the upper limit for the programme period has been fixed as ten years, i.e., upto 2010.

Strategies Central to SSA Programme — Institutional Reforms—As part of the SSA, institutional reforms in the States will be carried out. The states will have to make an objective assessment of their prevalent education system including educational administration, achievement levels in schools, financial issues, decentralisation and community ownership, review of State Education Act, rationalization of teacher deployment and recruitment of teachers, monitoring and evaluation, education of girls, SC/ST and disadvantaged groups, policy regarding private schools and ECCE. Many States have already effected institutional reforms to improve the delivery system for elementary education. — Sustainable Financing—The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is based on the premise that financing of elementary education interventions has to be sustainable. This calls for a long-term perspective on financial partnership between the Central and the State governments. 738 — Community Ownership—The programme calls for community ownership of school-based interventions through effective decentralisation. This will be augmented by involvement of women's groups, VEC members and members of Panchayati Raj institutions. — Institutional Capacity Building—The SSA conceives a major capacity building role for national and state level institutions like NIEPA/NCERT/NCTE/SCERT/SIEMAT. Improvement in quality requires a sustainable support system of resource persons. — Improving mainstream educational administration—It calls for improvement of mainstream educational administration by institutional development, infusion of new approaches and by adoption of cost effective and efficient methods. — Community-based monitoring full with full transparency—The Programme will have a community-based monitoring system. The Educational Management Information System (EMIS) will correlate school level data with community-based information from micro-planning and surveys. Besides this, every school will have a notice board showing all the grants received by the school and other details.

— Habitation as a unit of planning—The SSA works on a community-based approach to planning with habitation as a unit of planning. Habitation plans will be the basis for formulating district plans. — Accountability to Community—SSA envisages cooperation between teachers, parents and PRIs, as well as accountability and transparency. — Education of girls—Education of girls, especially those belonging to the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, will be one of the principal concerns in Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. — Focus on special groups—There will be a focus on the educational participation of children from SC/ST, religious and linguistic minorities, disadvantaged groups and the disabled children. — Pre-Project phase—SSA will commence throughout the country with a well planned per project phase that provides for a large number of interventions for capacity development to improve the delivery and monitoring system. — Thrust on quality—SSA lays a special thrust on making education at elementary level useful and relevant for children by improving 739 the curriculum, child control activities and effective teaching methods. — Role of teachers—SSA recognizes the critical role of teachers and advocates a focus on their development needs. Setting up of BRC/CRC, recruitment of qualified teachers, opportunities for teacher development through participation in curriculum-related material development, focus on classroom process and exposure visits for teachers are all designed to develop the human resource among teachers. — District Elementary Education Plans—As per the SSA framework, each district will prepare a District Elementary Education Plan reflecting all the investments being made in the elementary education sector, with a holistic and convergent approach.

Components of SSA The components of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyam includes appointment of teachers, teacher training, qualitative improvement of elementary education, provision of teaching-learning materials, establishment of Block and Cluster Resource Centres for academic support, construction of classrooms and school buildings, establishment of education guarantee centres, integrated education of the disabled and distance education.

REQUIREMENT OF FINANCIAL RESOURCES FOR UEE According to broad assessments made by the Department of Elementary Education & Literacy, nearly Rs 60,000 crores additional resources are required from the budget of the Central and the State level Departments over the next ten years. Since SSA is a programme for universalisation of elementary education, the actual requirement of funds can only be worked out after the District Elementary Education Plans are finalised. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has two aspects —(i) It provides a wide convergent framework for implementation of Elementary Education schemes; (ii) It is also a programme with budget provision for strengthening vital areas to achieve universalisation of elementary education. While all investments in the elementary education sector from the State and the Central Plans will reflect as part of the SSA framework, they will all merge into the SSA programme within the next few years. As a programme, it reflects the additional resource provision for UEE. 740

Financial Norms • The assistance under the programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan could be on a 85:15 sharing arrangement during the IXth Plan, 75:25 sharing arrangement during the Xth Plan, and 50:50 thereafter between the Central government and State governments. Commitments regarding sharing of costs would be taken from State governments in writing. • States will be required to maintain their level of allocation for elementary education in real terms on the base year 19992000. The share of states under SSA programme will be over and above the base year allocation.

• The Government of India would release funds to the State Governments/Union Territories only and installments (except first) would only be released after the previous installments of Central government and State share has been transferred to the State Implementation Society. • The support for teacher salary appointed under the SSA programme could be shared between the Central government and the State government in a ratio of 85:15 during the IXth Plan, 75:25 during the Xth Plan and 50:50 thereafter. • All legal agreements regarding externally assisted projects will continue to apply unless specific modifications have been agreed to, in consultation with foreign funding agencies. • Existing schemes of elementary education of the Department (except National Bal Bhawan and NCTE) will converge after the IXth Plan. The National Programme for Nutritional Support to Primary Education (Mid-Day Meal, would remain a distinct intervention with food grains and specified transportation costs being met by the Centre and the cost of cooked meals being met by the State government. • District Education Plans would inter-alia, clearly show the funds/ resource available for various components under schemes like JRY, PMRY, Sunishchit Rozgar Yojana, Area fund of MPs/MLAs, State Plan, foreign funding and resources generated in the NGO sector. • All funds to be used for upgradation, maintenance, repair of schools and Teaching-Learning Equipment and local management to be transferred to VECs/School Management Committees. • Other incentive schemes like distribution of scholarships and uniforms will continue to be funded under the State Plan. They will not be funded under the SSA programme. 741 Norms Intervention

Norm

Teacher

• One teacher for every 40 children in Primary and upper primary schools. • At least two teachers in a Primary school.

School/Alternative schooling facility

• Within one kilometre of every habitation.

Upper Primary schools/Sector

• As per requirement based on the number of children completing primary education, up to a ceiling of one upper primary school/section for every two primary schools.

Class Rooms

• A room for every teacher in Primary & upper Primary. • A room for Head Master in upper Primary school/ sector.

Free textbooks

• To all girls/SC/ST children at primary & upper primary level within an upper ceiling or Rs. 150 per child.

Civil works

• Ceiling of 33% of SSA programme funds. • For improvement of school facilities, BRC/CRC construction. • No expenditure to be incurred on construction of office buildings.

Maintenance and repair of school buildings

• Only through school management committees. • Upto Rs. 5000 per year as per a specific proposal by the school committee. • Must involve elements of community contribution.

Upgradation of EGS to regular school

• Provision for TLE @ Rs. 10,000 per school. • Provision for teacher & classrooms.

TLE for upper primary Schools grant

• @ Rs. 50,000 per school for uncovered schools. • Rs. 2000 per year per primary/upper primary school for replacement of school equipments.

Teacher grant

• Rs. 500 per teacher per year in primary and upper primary.

Teacher training

• Provision of 20 days in service for all teachers, 60 days refresher courses for untrained teachers and 30 day orientation for freshly trained recruits @ Rs. 70 per day.

State Institute of Educational Management Administration and Training (SIEMAT)

• One time assistance up to Rs. 3 crore.

Training of community leaders

• For a maximum of 8 persons in a village for 2 days. • @ Rs. 30 per day. • Upto Rs. 1200 per child for integration of disabled children, as per specific

Provision for disabled children

proposal.

Research, Evaluation, supervision and monitoring

• Upto Rs. 1500 per school per year. • By creating pool of resource persons, providing travel grant and honorarium for monitoring, generation of community-based data, research studies, cost of assessment and appraisal terms & their field activities.

Management Cost Innovative activity for girls' education, early childhood care & education, interventions for children belonging to SC/ST community, computer education specially for upper primary level

• Not to exceed 6% of the budget of a district plan. • Upto to Rs. 15 lakhs for each innovative project and Rs. 50 lakhs for a district will apply for SSA

Block Resource Centres/ Cluster Resource Centres

• Rs. 6 lakh ceiling for BRC construction wherever required. • Rs. 2 lakh for CRC construction wherever required. • Deployment of up to 20 teachers in a block with more than 100 schools. • Provision of furniture etc. @ Rs. 1 lakh for a BRC and Rs. 10,000 for a CRC. • Contingency grant of Rs. 12,500 for a BRC and Rs. 2500 per CRC, per year.

• As per norms already approved under Education Guarantee Scheme & Alternative and Innovative Education, providing for the following kind of interventions. • Setting up Education Guarantee Centres in unserved habitations. Interventions for out of school children • Setting other alternative schooling models. • Bridge Courses, remedial course, back to school camps with a focus on mainstreaming out of school children into regular schools. Preparatory activities for microplanning household surveys, studies, community • As per specific proposal. mobilization, school-based activities, office equipment, etc. 743

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Index Academic Load of the School Bag, 305 Acharya Rammurti Committee, 1990, 14, 510 Action Plan for Action Research, 51 Action Research, 49 Meaning and Need, 49 Activity-Centred Curriculum, 232 Adams, John, 316

Addison, Joseph, 410 Administrative and Organisational Matters, 603 Admission Criteria, 732 Adult Education, 22, 463, 471 Adopting Suitable Methods, Media and Materials, 178 Advantages of Experience-centred Curriculum, 237 Affiliation to Various Boards, 306 Affluence of Resources, 71 Aids, 423 Uses and Abuses, 423 All Men are not Created Equal, 562 Alternative Innovative Elementary Education, 295 Ambedkar, B.R., 121, 483 Arao Skool, 279 Anganwadies, 625 Area for the School Plant, 363 Area Intensive Education Project, 79 Areas of Creativity, 560 Art Education for Fullness of Life, 397 Art Education in the NPE, 396 Arts and Craft Room, 369 Assembly Hall Auditorium, 369 Asia Pacific Programme of Education for All, 34 Audio Aids, 443 Audio-Visual Aids, 441, 444 Meaning, 441 Classification, 442 Audio-Visual Education, 438 Audio-Visual Media and Materials, 375 Ausubel, 495 Backwardness; 494 Nature and Kind, 494 Balwadies, 625

Barriers in Universalisation, 193 Barron, Frank, 553 Basic Assumptions Underlying the Programme, 518 Black Board, 374 Block Resource Unit, 205 Bloom, Benjamin S., 328 Books for Children : Nature and Characteristics, 405 Books for Library, 216 751 Boys vs. Girls, 195 British Elementary Education and their Relevance in the Indian Context, 67 Salient Features, 67 Broad Objectives of the Programme, 515 Community, 515 Teachers, 515 Students, 516 Inspecting Personnel, 516 School, 516 Local Bodies, 516 Brown, James W., 440 Buch, M.B., 31 Capacity Building for Community Action, 283 CAPE and PECRP, 34 Challenges of Education, 454, 488 Challenge to the Teacher, 332 Chalk Board, 374 Chandra, Arvinda, 242 Chaturvedi Committee, 304, 308 Chaturvedi, Y.N., 299 Children, 307, 572, 580 Promotion of Speech Activities, 580 Language Development, 572 Reducing the Load of School Bags, 307

Children's Creativity : Meaning, Nature and Identification, 551 Children's Learning, 419 Media and Materials, 419 Children's Literature : Nature, Needs and Characteristics, 401 Children's Rights; 85 Special Needs and Importance, 85 Chukovsky, 406 Class Control, 347 Class Discipline, 348 Class Management and Planning of Lessons, 319 Classroom Interaction, 350 Classroom Organisation and Management, 344 Classroom Teaching Material, 216 Classrooms and Assembly Hall, 724 Co-Curricular Activities, 322 Cognitive and Non-cognitive Learning, 95 Committees, Commissions and Revised Policy on Education, 1992, 14 Common Education Structure, 26 Common Emotions of Childhood, 545 Fear, 545 Worry, 546 Anxiety, 546 Anger, 546 Communication as a Teaching- Learning Process, 440 Communication Barriers, 441 Communication, 439 Nature and Purpose, 439 Community and Supervision, 617 Community-Based Organisations, 661 Community-Based Primary Education, 660 Govt. of India and UN System Support, 660 Community Participation, 383 Categories, 383

Community Resources for Schools, 381 Comprehensive Evaluation, 416 Meaning, 416 Comprehensive of Inspection, 599 752 Compulsory Education, 70 Efficiency, 70 Compulsory Primary Education, 107 Conditioned Reinforcement, 437 Cone of Experience, 446 Constitutional Provisions and Amendments for Education, 101 Constitution of India, Subsequent Acts and UNO Charter, 82 Construction of Buildings, 213 Contingency Money with Teacher, 217 Continuous Evaluation, 417 Meaning, 417 Core Curriculum, 238 Correspondence Courses and Part-time Education, 22 Creating a Problem, 426 Cultivating Creativity, 560 Curriculum Development : Principles, 220, 228, 242 Meaning, 220 Process, 228 Curriculum, 234-35, 241 Meaning, 241 Nature, 241 Scope, 241 Nature and Characteristics, 235 Developing Experience, 236 Advantages, 234 Limitations, 234 Curriculum Reconstruction, 244 History, 244 Dale, Edgar, 439, 446, 448

Dearth of Teachers, 504 Decentralisation of Academic Programmes, 305 Decentralisation of Administration, 69 Deleon, Asher, 45 Democracy and Primary Education, 590 Demonstration Lessons, 614 Denisen, 264 Desks and Benches, 373 Developing Alternative Channels, 179 Development of : Self-instructional Materials for Multi-grade Classrooms,286 Elementary/Primary Education Since Eighties, 143 Languages, 19 Teachers' Resource Books, 287 An in-Service Teacher Development Programme, 280 Improved Teachers' Handbooks, 286 Syllabi and Textbooks, 306 Participation of Teachers, 306 Dewey, John, 232 Dhebar, U.N., 485 Difference between Society and Community, 380 Different Types of Books, 647 Individual Choices, 647 Disaggregated Target Setting and Decentralised Planning, 695 Disparities in Elementary Education, 193 Disparities in Quantity and Quality, 169 Disparities of Different Types, 147 Distance/Technology of Education, 36 District Institute of Education and Training Establishment, 200 District Primary Education Programme, 272 District Resource Unit, 205 Division of Responsibilities, 101, 136 753 Union Subjects, 102

State Subjects, 103 Concurrent Subjects, 103 Dove, Ankrach, 342 DPEP : Much Ado About Something, 272 Duration and Management, 297 Dyke, Henry Van, 316, 332 East India Company, 587 Early Childhood Care and Education, 35 Early Childhood Education, 624 Educational Administration, 135 Strengthening, 135 Educational Implications, 567 Educational Opportunities, 183 Equalisation, 183 Educational Scenario, 326 Change, 326 Educational Solutions, 496 Educational Structures, 22 Education and Concurrent List, 106 Education Commission, 1964-66, 5, 338, 396, 485, 594 Education, 53, 438 Communication Process, 438 New Challenges, 53 Education for : Weaker Sections, 455 Empowerment of Women, 474 All, 29 Agriculture and Industry, 21 Economic Development, 260 Education Guarantee Scheme, 295 Education of : Scheduled Tribes, 458 Girls, 467 Children from the Scheduled Castes, Tribes and the Backward Communities, 481 Scheduled Castes, 458, 489 Scheduled Tribes, 490

Minorities, 22 Disabled, 36 Education System, 134 Transformation, 134 EFA, 32 Meaning, Nature and Scope, 32 Effective Teaching and Successful Teachers, 325 Efforts made at the National Level, 95 Elementary Education, 91, 461, 689 Access and Enrolment, 461 Participation, 462 Achievement 462 Incentives, 463 Reservations, 463 Minimum Levels of Learning, 91 as Human Resource Development, 259 of the Underprivileged, 453 Situation as in 1986, 689 NPE, 1986 and its POA, 690 Developments since the NPE, 1986, 691 Revised Policy Formulations, 694 for the Backward Learners, 493 Eliot, T.S., 327 Elmonds, E.L., 62 Emotional and Social Development, 545 Emotional Development, 545 Emphasis on Open and Distance Learning, 27 Encouraging Children's Creativity, 558 Equalisation of Educational Opportunity, 20, 177 Equal Opportunities to All, 25 Equipment and Furniture's, 371 Equipment for : Psychology Laboratory, 727 754

Educational Technology, 727 Workshop and Work-Experience, 727 Art and Music, 727 Games and Sports, 727 Science Laboratory, 726 Eusen, Torsen, 329 Evaluation and Monitoring, 181 Evaluation and Research, 465 Examinations, 21 Examination and Evaluation, 592 Excessive Work Load of Staff Members, 394 Existing Curricula, 224 Defects, 224 Experience-Centred Curriculum, 235 Extension Activities, 322 Extent of Individual Differences, 563 External Environment, 403 Extra Load due to Competitions,305 Facilitating Inter-Regional Mobility, 27 Farmers' Functional Literacy Programme, 33 Feedback and Implementation of Evaluation Results, 231 Fee Structure and Scholarship, 732 Fifth All-India Education Survey,1989, 30 Fifth Five Year Plan, 134 Finance and School Improvement, 592 Financial Accounting, 676 Financial Norms, 740 Financing Education, 73 Role of UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP, World Bank and UNFPA, 73 Forms of Children's Literature, 644 Fourth Five Year Plan, 130 Four Pillars of Education, 708 Franklin, Benjamin, 263 Free India, 119

Growth of Primary Education, 119 Constitution, 119 Frequencies of Inspection, 608 Galbraith, 269 Galton, Francis, 565 Games and Sports, 22 Games Equipment, 216 Gandhi, Indira, 315 Gandhi, Mahatma, 3, 17, 223, 233, 396, 483 Gandhi, Rajiv, 48 Garrett, Henry E., 567 Gender Disparities, 145 Getzeh, J.W., 553 Gibran, Khalil, 407 Girls' Education, 457 Girls/Women Education, 35 Giving no Homework to Pupils, 307 Goldberg, 497 Good Practices Followed by Supervisors, 608 Government of India Programmes, 486 Guilford, J.P., 551 Gurrey, P., 409 Gurukul Ashrama, 386 Handicapped, 467 Havinghurst, 157 Headmaster, 353 His Duties and Responsibilities, 353 Teacher's Role, 353 Organising and Administering, 356 755 Teaching, 357 Supervising and Guiding, 357 Head/Teachers, 67

Freedom, 67 Heilbrener, Robert, 267 Hilgard, 436 Hindustani Talimi Sangh, 162 Home Science/Domestic Science Room, 369 Horrow, 415 Hostel and its Superintendents, 370 Howell, Ruchard, 576 Human Resources, 267 Development, 267 Human Resources through Education, 261 Development, 261 Human Right to Education, 259 Hussain, Zakir, 315, 379, 413 Identification of : Talent, 20 Creativity, 553 Disadvantaged/Backward, 495 Identifying Creativity, 559 Implementation Plan and Schedule, 680 Implementation Strategies, 256 Implications of CPC, 86 Importance of Education, 29 Importance of Girls/Women Education, 468 Improvement of Standards, 134 Improving Classroom Activities,386 Improving School-Community Relations, 384 Methods, 384 Improving Curriculum Relevance and Interest, 178 Improving Teachers' Training and Supervision, 179 Inadequacy of Institutions, 504 India, 587 Impact of Democracy on Primary Education, 587 National Education, 17 Indian Education Commission, 1964-66, 18, 266

Indian Scenario in the Context of Children's' Rights, 88 Individual Differences of Pupils, 562 Inequalities, 186 Diagnosis, 186 Infancy and Childhood, 547 Emotional Development, 547 Influence of Environment, 577 Innovations in Elementary Teacher and Adult Education, 199 In Quest of Equality, 186 In-Service Education and Training for Teachers, 335 In-Service Education in India, 337 Background, 337 In-Service Education Through Distance Mode, 110 Inset in New Education Policy, 340 Inspection and Supervision, 591 Inspection Reports of Primary Schools, 594 Inspectors, 69 Independence, 69 Integrated Education of Disabled Children, 36 Intellectual Development, 542 Inter-Human Relations, 351, 393 International and National Strategies and Efforts, 33 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 80 International Commission on Education for Twenty-first Century, 705 756 Inter-Relationship between Language and Behaviour, 578 Investment in Education, 268 Involvement of Voluntary Agencies, 306 Ishwar Bhai Patel Committee, 1977, 165, 178 Jackson, 552 Janardan Reddy Committee, 1991, 14 Jana Shikshan Nilayam, 33 Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana, 147

Jawahar Rojgar Yojana, 147 Jones, D.C., 59 Juvenile Literature, 410 Need, 410 Kabir, 314 Kahn, Harry, 339 Kelly, 241 Kerr, 241 Kothari Commission, 20, 106, 119, 159, 187, 228, 245, 267, 270 Kothari, D.S., 124, 315 Kounin, 348 Kumar, Krishna, 573, 572, 580 Laboratories, 725 Lack of: Awareness, 504 accommodation and Equipment, 393 Variety, 393 Adequate Staff, 394 Students' Participation, 394 Proper Planning, 393 Language and Educational Safeguards, 104 Language, Development, 574 Process, 574 During Pre-School Years, 574 Language, 412, 572 Nature and Importance, 572 Launching of National Mission, 705 Learning Experiences, 231 Evaluation, 231 Learning, 26 Minimum Levels, 26 Continuity, 94 Without Burden, 299 and Reading, 404 Interesting, 420

Motivating, 420 to Live Together, 714 to Do, 711 Library-cum-Reading Room, 724 Library Room, 370 Life-Long Education, 44 Load of the School Bag, 703 Lok Jumbish, 152 Long, Tim, 59 Lower Primary Stage, 253 Luria, A.R., 578 Machinnon, Donald, 553 Magazines Read by Children, 648 Maintaining Discipline and Inter-human Relations, 359 Staff, 359 Students, 359 Parents, 359 Community, 360 Making the Class-room Effective, 344, 386 Presage Effectiveness, 345 Process Effectiveness, 345 Product Effectiveness, 346 Management Structure at Centre and State Level, 478 Management Structure, 281 Block Level, 282 757 District Level, 282 State Level, 282 National Level, 282 Man Does not Live by Bread Alone, 264 Marx, Karl, 260 Mastery in the Subject Area, 349 Materials and Media as Aids to Learning, 421

Maze, T., 435 Media and Materials, 422 Types, 422 Meeting with the Teachers, 613 Mehta, J.S., 65 Merton, 243 Methods of : Teaching Adjustment, 570 Reporting, 618 Mill, John Stuart, 159 Minimum Essential Learning Materials, 214 Minimum Level of Learning, 31, 703 Mitra, S.K., 422 MLL, 92 Need and Importance, 92 Mursell, I.L., 329 Musical Instrument, 217 Mussen, Paul, 579 Myrdal, Gunnar, 53 NAC, 299 Recommendations, 299 Naik, J.P., 184, 511 Narayan, R.K.., 299 National Adult Education Programme, 33, 323 National Aspirations of India, 265 National Curricular Framework, 26, 702 National Education, 17 Need. 17 National Literacy Mission, 15, 33 National Programme Management Unit, 674 National Rural Employment Programme, 213 National Scholarship Policy, 135 Implementation, 135 National Service Scheme, 323 National System of Education, 391

Background, 3 National Policy on Education. 1988, 3-5, 9, 18, 169, 488, 735 Genesis, 4 Nature and Characteristics of Activity Curriculum, 233 Nauroji, Dadabhai, 482 Navodaya Vidyalayas, 301 Need for Curriculum Development, 226 Societal Needs, 226 Economic Needs, 226 Ecological and Technological Needs, 227 Political Changes, 227 Research Findings, 227 Reports of Commission, 227 Needs of the Learners, 227 Nehru Yuwak Kendras, 206 New Curriculum, 398 Place of Art Education, 398 NFE for UEE, 180 Norms for : Recurring Costs, 731 Space and Buildings, 724 Staff. 729 Equipment, Books and Furniture, 726 Recurring Costs, 731 Norms Regarding Curriculum Transaction, 732 Ninth Five Year Plan, 143 NPE, 1968 and After, 23 758 Review, 23 NPE, 1968 and Efforts of Government, 189 NPE and POA, 1986, 508 NPE, 1986 and the National Commitment, 190 NPE : Implications and Interventions, 254 NPE, 1986 : New Curriculum, 252

Objective-Based Evaluation, 415 Meaning, 415 Office Room, 370 Operation Blackboard, 147, 177, 208-9, 701 Need, 209 Meaning, 210 Implications, 210 Scheme, 215 Organization of Curricular Activities, 386 Organisation of Learning Experiences, 230 Orissa, 610 Methods of Inspection of Primary Schools, 610 Ottaway, 380 Otto, Henry, 163 Over-emphasis on Academic Work, 394 Owen, Robert, 261 Pant, K.C., 53 Participating in Dramatic Activities, 583 Patel Committee, 1978, 233 Patel, Vithalbhai, 168 Paucity of Funds, 504 Pearson, Karl, 566 Period of Creative Experiences, 558 Physical and Developmental Differences, 563 Achievement, 564 Nature and Nature, 564 Physical Load of the School Bag, 304 Planning and Monitoring. 465 Planning before the Opening of the School, 354 Planning during the First Week of the Session, 355 Planning During the Session, 355 Play Materials and Toys, 216 Polyvalent Adult Education Programme, 33 Pooling Resources, 27

Popular Children's Journal, 648 Post-Independence Period, 84 Constitutional Provisions, 484 Non-Government and Government Provisions, 484 rahar Pathashalas, 151 Pre-primary Education, 253 Presage Effectiveness, 387 Pre-School Education, 135 Development, 135 Primary Education, 122 Enrolment, 122 Expansion, 124 National Programme for Nutritional Support, 149 Its Role, Objectives and Functions, 157 Objectives and Functions, 160 Primary School Supervisor, 61 Reminiscences, 61 Primary Science Kit, 216 Principles of : Organisation of Co-curricular Activities, 391 Community Service, 223 Correlation, 223 Integration. 224 Values, 224 759 Totality, 224 Work Experience, 222 Flexibility, 222 Curriculum Construction, 221 Child-Centredness, 222 Variety, 223 Problem of : Backwardness as Guidelines for Suitable Programmes, 496 Financing School Education, 511 Problems and Prospects of School Community Cooperation, 651

Problems in Tribal Education in Orissa, 520 Process Effectiveness, 387 Product Effectiveness, 388 Production of Books, 21 Professional Growth of Primary School Teachers, 109 Research on Educational Broadcasting and Audio-Video Programmes, 109 Programme for Non-Formal Education, 698 Programme Management Board, 672 Programme of Action, 1986 and 1992, 472, 491 Programme Preparatory Assistance, 684 Programmes for the Present and Future, 507 Programme Support Execution, 671 Programme Support Execution Procedures, 675 Structure, 671 Projects at the National and State Levels, 50 Provision of a Second Teacher in Single Teacher Schools, 214 Provision of Universal Access, 697 Provisions for Education, 505 Provisions under the NPE, 1986, 457 Provision of Universal Primary Education, 135 Pulaski, 158 Pupils' Progress, 616 Qualitative Analysis of Inspecting Reports, 601 Quality Inspection, 619 Suggestions to Improve, 619 Quality vs. Quantity, 145 Question-Answer Technique, 426 Questioning, 431 Radhakrishnan Commission, 106 Radhakrishnan, S., 122 Rajkishore, Sarvasiri, 64 Rajasthan Shiksha Karmi Board, 150 Rao, V.K.R.V., 260 Ray, Hrydanand, 64

Reading Interests of Children, 642 Reasoning for Children's Likings for Individual Journals, 649 Regulation of the Pre-school Education, 307 Reinforcement, 435 Factors Affecting, 435 Schedules, 437 Relationship between the School and Community, 380 Reorganisation of the : Primary School Curriculum, 285 Examination, 308 Requirement of Financial Resources for UEE, 739 Re-Schooling not De-Schooling, 39 Advocates and their Arguments, 39 Research and Women Studies, 475 Research Initiatives during Site and Insat, 111 760 Review of the : NPE, 1968 and Afterwards, 7 Syllabi and Textbooks, 308 Revised NPE, 1992, 15, 468 Revised NPE and Its Aftermath. 509 Rodwell. S., 59 Rogers, 558 Role of Juvenile Literature in Elementary Education, 409 Ryburn. 380 Saiyidain, K.G., 325 Sarabhai Mrinalini, 558 Sarabhai Vikram. 561 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, 734, 736, 739 SC & ST Disparities, 145 Scheme of Voluntary Schools, 698 School Adjustment to Individual Differences, 568 Grouping, 568 Curriculum Adjustment, 569 School Administration, 591

School-Community Relationship, 378 School Education of Specially Handicapped Children 502 School Improvement Programme for the Elementary Schools Through Voluntary Efforts, 514 School Organisation, 591 School Plant : Various Physical Resources, 361 Meaning, 361 Planning, 361 Site and Location, 362 Design and Dimensions, 363 Maintenance and Upkeep, 366 Optimum Utilisation. 366 School Resources for the Community, 382 Schools, 609 General Weakness, 609 School through Ages, 378 Role and Functions, 378 Science Room, 367 Science Education and Research, 20 S.C., S.T. vs. General, 196 Secondary Education, 21 Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53, 4, 18, 244, 337 Selection of and Content for Learning Experiences, 230 Shiksha Darshan, 307 Shiksha Karmi Project, 150 Shinde, V.R., 482 Singhvi, L.M., 106 Skinner, Charles E., 436, 562 Smith, Adam, 260 Social Development, 548-49 Stages, 549 Social Sciences/Studies Room, 368 Special Assistance to States, 146 Scheme, 146 Special Rooms, 367

Srimali, K.L., 514 SSA, 739 Components, 739 Staff Quarters, 726 Stages of Language Development, 576 Prelinguistic Stage, 576 One-word Sentences, 576 Two-word Sentences, 576 Morphosynthatic Stage, 576 State Disparities, 144 State Institute of Education, 519 Role, 519 State Level Co-ordination Committee, 674 State Programme Management Unit, 674 State Sub-programmes. 687 Indicative Outline, 687, 761 Status and Service Conditions of Teachers, 19 Status of Children, 401 Steps in Good Teaching, 331 Story Telling Techniques, 426 Strategies Central SSA Programme, 737 Institutional Reforms, 737 Sustainable Financing, 737 Community Ownership, 738 Institutional Capacity Building, 738 Improving Mainstream Education Administration, 738 Community-based Monitoring, 738 Habitation, 738 Accountability to Community, 738 Education of Girls, 738 Focus on Special Groups, 738 Pre-Project Phase, 738

Thrust on Quality, 738 Role of Teachers, 739 District Elementary Education Plans, 739 Strategies for Improving the Classroom, 346 Knowledge about himself, 346 Knowledge about the Students, 347 Strengthening the National Institutions, 28 Students' Hostel, 726 Students' Learning, 414 Evaluation, 414 Importance of Evaluation, 414 Students' Performance, 319 Evaluation, 319 Studies and Efforts, 413 Studying Qualities of a Teacher, 325 Sub-Programmes, 686 Supervised Practice Teaching, 733 Supervision of the : Teaching Work, 358 Practical and Out-door Work, 358 Welfare Service, 358 Office Work, 358 Supervisors, 611 General Information Regarding the Qualification and Experience, 611 Surdas, 314 Swedish International Development Authority, 152 Tagore, Rabindranath, 63, 335 Talking about : Oneself, 581 School, 582 Pictures, 582 Stories, 583 Tanner, 348 Teacher Attention, 350 Teacher Education, 153 Teacher Education/Training, 464

Teacher Preparation, 307 Teachers and DEP, 110 Professional Development, 110 Teacher's Centres, 341 Teacher's Centres in England, 339 Teacher's Chair and Table, 375 Teachers, 313 Role and Responsibilities, 313 Ancient Past, 313 Modern Age, 315 Teaching, 317 Research Activities, 321 Status and Service Conditions, 592 Teaching and Learning, 327 Changing Concepts, 327 762 Teaching of Social Studies, 637 Teaching Staff, 729 Teaching, 329, 349 Suitable Methods, 349 Success and Efficiency, 329 Teaching Techniques and Skills, 425 Third Annual Plan, 127 Torrance, 552 Training of Trainers, 292 System, 292 Tripp, Susan Ervin, 572 Tulsidas, 314 UEE. 739 Requirement of Financial Resources, 739 Understanding Cultural Diversities, 27 Uniform Pattern of Education, 135 Adoption, 135 United Nations Development Programme, 79

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, 73 United Nations International Children's' Emergency Fund, 76 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 183 Universal Enrolment and Retention, 175 Universalisation of Elementary Education and Adult Education, 476 Universalisation of Elementary- Education, 29, 31, 82, 199 Rights of the Child, 82 Historical Background, 167 Universal Primary Education, 143 Universal Provision of Facilities, 174 University Education Commission, 1952-53, 4, 18 UN System Support for Community-Based Primary Education, 278 UPE, 148 Non-formal Education, 148 Upper Primary Stage, 253 Urban vs. Rural Areas, 195 Use of : Audio-Visual Aids, 446 Black Boards, 427 Using Black Board, 428 Other General Skills, 428 Utilization of : Community Resources for the School, 655 School Resources for the Community, 653 Values and Importance of Co- curricular Activities, 387 Physiological Values, 387 Psychological Values 387 Ethical Values, 388 Academic Values, 380 Social Values, 389 Civic Values, 389 Aesthetic Values, 389 Cultural Values, 390 Recreational Values, 390 Disciplinary Values, 390 Variations : Within the States, 194

among SC, ST and General, 171 between Boys and Girls, 171 between Urban and Rural Areas, 171 within the States, 170 in Enrolment among States, 170,194 Varnashram, 481 763 Vedanayagam, 392 Ventilation and Lighting, 365 Vetter, Harold, 576 Village Education Committee, 150, 280, 281, 661 Visit to Schools, 612 Visual Aids, 442 Vivekananda, Swami, 315 Vyas, I.P., 365 Wales in the U.K., 59 Educational Trip, 59 Wandrekar, D.N., 483 Wardha Congress Conference, 1937, 168 Weaker Sections of the Community, 105 Safeguards for the Advancement, 105 Wells, H.G., 316 What we mean by Creativity, 558 What Teachers should Do'?, 441 Whitehead, Alfred, 328 Whitman, Watt, 39 Why Elementary Education?, 734 Woods, G., 81 Work-Experience and National Service, 20 Work in the Informal Economy, 713 World Bank, 80 Wren, P.C., 375 Yash Pal Committee, 304