Psy.:halagy in By
Nikolai Krogius
R-H-MPRESS 417 Northem Boulevard, Great Neck, N.Y. 11021
Pitman House Limited
Publisher's Foreword
The role of
s cholo
in chess has long been underrated in the Western
World. Most players spend all of their study time immersed in books abou t the openings and the endgame. without e ven trying to analyze their own strengths and weaknesses as a player. In the Soviet Union, on the other hand, it has long been known than an understanding of on eself and one's opponents and an analysis of one's own faults as a chess player can often be even more f ruitful than C a:-c.,- -e -----: =- s·tc-cuay-·ofl e a es operungs 00 .
N ikolai Krogh. is logist as well as
an
International Grandmaster and a professional psycho-
being an expert on the various methods used to train Soviet
chess players. He has written several articles and books on chess psychology and the present volume combines the very best of Krogius' writings on the subject. Amongst the important subjects discu ssed in this book are time trouble, its causes, effects and cures, tournament tactics, the study of one's opponent, and attentIOn -
ow 0
ve op one s concen ra otnurd1lowlocuretlre-variollS--
deficiencies of attention that are seen the play of every chess enthusiast. We at R.H.M. are proud to be the first publishers to be bringing most of this instructive material to th� attention of English speaking chess players. We feel sure that those who read this book will add a compfetely new dimension to their
play and thatthey willerradieate-defeets--tha-t-hav�¥-POintS-i.un-\Jtbe�-- past. Please be sure that you read the description of THE R.H.M. SURVEY OF CURRENT CHESS OPENINGS which follows the indexes at
the end of this
book. As well as announcing our forthcoming titles in the series, this description will acquaint you with ou r new loose-leaf upda ting service which will, we feel
certain, prove of immeasurable help to all chess players in attaining rapid
------f,fon1rMlwlr<arrrrld1'pmrogressill thequality-of-the-tNtta'f";---- We take this opportunity to thank you for your interest in R.H.M. Press pu blications. Sidney Fried Publisher
Symbol, A good move . II
?
An excellent, beautiful or hard-to-find move . A poor move.
?1 A very poor move or a blunder. I? An interesting move, possibl inv olvin
------<Jlr---J.:0u010US move.
Acknowledgements Most of the material in
this book is deri�m--Krog-i-e-majer lt?-tw --werk-s
Cbelovek v Sbakhmatakb (The Human Element in Chess or more literally, Man ,
in
Chess) which was
Published in Saratov in
1967; and 0 Pslkhologil
Shakbmatnogo Tvorchestva (The Psychology of Chess Creati vity) published in Moscow in 1969. The remainder of the source material comes from Krogius' articles in the Soviet chess press and from his
-----"-;c;m=a-;;;ny;;:e�lli
art of the book e.AlDY-aAlt'-'-.I
hmatlsta (The Memory and Attention of the Chess Player)
which was published in Moscow in 1968. R.H.M. wish to thank the following people for their help in the editing of this book.
The original publications from which this book was created were
translated from the Russian by Katya Young and Young's translation was edited by
Bernard Cafferty. Katya Dr. Nicholas Young and Bernard Cafferty's
was edited and type d by Jacqueline Lery who also assisted in checkin pescnpt.
a
e final
d Levy acted as overall editor with the responsibil ity of merging
Krogi us material into a cohesive volume. The proofs were checked by Kevin ,
O'Connell.
_ _
Contents Foreword by Boris Spassky
Preface
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Introduction . . ...
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Psychologists on chess
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Chess players on psychology - the question of style.
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LEKHINH RETI TORRE . ...
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2 Intuition in Chess 3 Attention
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Factors affecting attention: Unfamiliar conditions at a competition
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One's position in the tournament and the sig nificance of the result of the game ........................ . An "unpleasant" opponent The opponent's behaviour Controlling one's emotions
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60 61
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deliberate cha nge of direction and content
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4 Some Deficiencies of Attention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r of attention ....�t"'_'"_nsfl ....,
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AFFECTING ATIENTION
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
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The extent to which attention
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5 What is Time Trouble? Objective causes of time trouble: Inadequate
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Doubts li nked to an exaggerated importance of the opponent's individual style
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6 Effects and Cures of Time Trouble The dynamics of the mental processes
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Style during time tr ouble Practical advice
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7 Tournament Tactics I want a draw! J have to winl .
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q T he Study of One's Opponent 10 Know Thyself Under the X-ray
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elegieal--dueI---.-.-.-.� n ...
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...-.--.--.-��-.-n j.H-reac-t-iooThe-£ha... lmportant trifles
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Appendix: T he Link Between Age and Success . When to start
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-+T'hhelYpsyeh
12 Mistakes
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8 Looking at one's opponent
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228 234
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237
Foreword By Boris Spassky Nikolai K rogius is well-known to chess lovers. His debut in major events was the RSFSR Junior Championship in 1948. Since then Krogius has
made in
hccome a Grandmaster. has twice held the title of RSFSR Champion an d has
hccome a regular participant in the USSR Championship and various inter national events.
I should also like to observe that of the generation of Soviet chess players who l'ame onto the scene in the fifties. quite a number are active in tournaments. but it is comparatively rarely that any of them makes a n attempt in the literary field. Kro ius has set a
ood exam Ie to our Grandmasters and Masters. especially
\im:e his work has turned out to be full of good sense and interesHng thoughts. The author has not followed the traditional method of chess literature. which consists in the concrete analysis of pos itions from the opening, middle game and I'ndgame, but has tried to shed light on the problems of contemporary chess from the point of view of human psychology.
---------- � ��,
It is difficult to overestlma e the slgntficance of psychOlogy
mcllesS-;Ioriti
not only knowledge, but also character. attention, will and. on occasion. the player's mood which determines the outcome of a game and its artistic value. And such occurrences as time-trouble. mistak es and blunders! Don't they happen in almost every game? And yet very little has been said about their lIature and how to avoid them.
Krogius raises these important and topical questions and makes authoritative
,uggestions on ways of solvmg them. This IS not surprtsmg. SlDce thealnn-Ol..-,----
hesides being a chess expert. is also a scientist in the field of psychology.
Every innovation faces great difficulties, and one could argue wit h quite a number of the theses of the book. But we must not expect the impossible. The author has a serious (if as yet unfinished) discussion with the reader about how ------
--.�llecl1estsptayer 1rtnKs_at1h�nt�1IOwi1e reacts to his successes-anft1d£l--tcfaIHifl-llulHr'f'es-s----- and how he tries to avoid mistakes. And this is what is so attractive and so valuable about Krogius' book.
I think that numerous chess fans of every possible level of attainment and tClurnament experience will read this book with great interest and will more than nnee
stop and think about their chess ambitions, joys and disappointments.
Becoming a chess player, attaining mastery of the art of chess. is a difficult -----.-n-ct-thurny-p ath-:-l-think that
Kr�----wiH be of gr-e�
dlc�s players in developing their skill. This discussion of the human element
I:hess is long overdue.
1
in
Preface -+m·SSi-lis5--
In
_ _____
analyses of combinations and opening v ari ati on s w ho actuall y create
vam for the traditional
I want to speak about those
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the combinations and carry out the analysis, that is, about
those who play chess. It is said th at Bronstein, while preparing his challenge for the World m '' .!.t'' --.:Ot �a !!Jl.!.
_ _ _ _ _
...Jllp, hung a big photograph-of-BotviDftik, the World Champion, 011
the wall of his study. Such a training method, even
if somewh at pecuJiar s hows to the overall (and not ,
once ag ain what great importance expert players attach
just in relation to chess) study of the opponent. This is because the successes and failures of a chess player depend not only on his knowledge and tournament experience, but also on his self'control, persistence and other qualities. That is
why 1 invite the reader to acquaint hi mself with a nu mber of questions about the �;ru:.�llological
_ __ _
As yet this is a little-studied aspect of chess, but one cannot underestimate its significance for practical play. I have not set out to make a comprehensive analysis of psychological p rep ar ati on ;
1 have just tried to bring to the notice of of the main points of this problem. The chief purpose of the and raise the curtain on some new questions and show how a
chess lovers some book is to
chess player fights, worries, thinks, doubts and,
on
occasion, makes mistakes.
It is possible that some of my statements will appear disputable. This is na tural, since this
is a complicated subject-the psychology of man-and it
is
too early to put a fuD-stop after our discussions of a n umber of the q uestions that we broach.
If, however, the thoughts expressed in this book make the reader think about his own creativity and take a critical look at the reasons forhis..wlns-andlosses..-it-- will be the best possible appreciation of the author's work.
2
Introduction
PtychoJollsts on Chess The chess player expects that psychology wil1 help him by revealing the intellectual qualities needed for more succ essful play, and by demonstrating how to control the formation and development of these qualities, Psychological investigat ions
WI
I a so
e me ra
er more person
pro lerns, a-rm-so:-, -f--,.,...----
analyse the peculiarities of a competitor's play, we can determine the most suitable training methods for that player, we can help him to study effective methods of calculation and we can help him to overcome problems such as recurrent time trouble, In this way psychological research may and should be
--mitize-d-toimprove-the-ptayeA-per-f&m-a-nee by de'/-etepin-g--and-m.ainta-inin-g-hi,�-- '\Xlrting abilities,
That is not all. Not only is psychology of use to the chess player. but chess itself has a considerable interest for general psychology. Chess has recently come III the attention of students of cybernetics. mathematicians and scientists who
are in terested in the role that the game plays in forming a man's character-its
heneficial effect on his mind, his determination and his senses. They view chess
��
the
in¥e-st-i-gatiGn-om f- -an's-cr-eatilre processes+-'
Il"arning the secrets of chess they see a way
-'-'---___ _
10 the understanding of the riddles of
man's creative activity, However. at the moment. the success of scientists in ,-rcal ing computer programs that play chess is ralher limited. the reason being Iha I until recently the programmers have ignored the specifically human aspects
III ('hess (the ,'n" fining
role
motional factors and the im
rtance of intuition),
themselves solely to the logical analysis of chess theory.
The difference between the human player's thinking and the "thinking" of Ihl' machine are well illustrated in the works of the Soviet psychologists O. Iikhomirov and V.
Pushkin. who not iced that in many of the computer
Jlrn!:rams the search for a move proceeds by wa y of reducing the number of variations to be examined. Man thinks differently. Initially, he too rejects the I
sa isfac or
variations, but if his intended move does not satisfy him he
Immediately widens the scope of his search and analyzes new possibilities. The need for a different approach to the problem of perfecting machine play
3
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
was indicated by the Academician* V. Glushkov; "In order to master the -------iprogr-amm-ing-of-the-----most-compl-icat-erod-p- blems-in-t.h.e-spher-e--of-man's- intellectual labours there is. perhaps, no other way but to investigate the process of human reasoning." Work has already been undertaken in that direction. for example there was the match between a Soviet and an American computer program in 1967 and there are also the interesting proposals advanced by Botvinnik in his book "Com uters. Chess and Lon
Range Planning."
In connection with the intensive research being done in programming. the question arises "Will chess cease to exist once computers have learnt how 10 play well?" If one is speaking theoretically it must be admitted that an electronic super-grandmaster can be created since chess is a system of finite information. even if this finite information is very great. However. we should not work on the supposition that there will be electronic champions. we should turn to the actual livin
ones, this is all the more advisable since the material alread
collected in
the field of chess psychology interests both chess players and computer scientists. The first investigation in this field was made by the French psychologist A. Binet and dates from the year 1894. Binet was studying blindfold play and collected some very interesting data from which he drew the correct conclusion -----
-.'lrartn-e----visuatimagesmcl'iess players bear a mamly conceptual character. Thus, for instance, some master players were unable to answer off-hand a question about the colour of a particular square on the board. However, Binet himself was apparently not too well up on the finer points of chess and he believed the assertion of one of his subjects that he could calculate five hundred moves ahead. In 1925 the competitors in the Moscow International Tournament were
-----
�s."ubjected_to--p"Sychotogical illYestigation and N.
Byakov, E. Petrovsky and P.
Rudik wrote a book about their experiments. Lasker, Reti, Tarta kower and Torre were amongst those who submitted to these experiments. The chess players, who were being compared with non chess playing subjects, were found to have highly developed, dynamic qualities of concentration and reasoning, as 11 as
having
a
specific
chess memory The allthors proposed��ed_
"psychograph" of a chess player-sixteen qualities which, in their opinion, determined success in play. Many of their recommendations are indisputable, for instance self-control, the ability to integrate one's thoughts and disciplined determination. Some of their proposals, however, are debatable. They assume, for example, that the development of a chess player's reasoning is not directly related to the general level of his cultural development, but. practice has eLrw. n... he1mingly demonstrated ----"ouv...
_____
that this opinion is incorrect and that a hiW-
general culture helps to develop chess playing ability
•
i.e. a member of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences
4
in
a remarkable way .
INTRODUCTION
Similarly the authors' assertion that they did nol discover any real talent common to the greatest players could be attributed to the narrowness of the methods employed in the mvesbgatton, The well known chess master and psychologist Blumenfeld has also made a si�nificant contribution to the assessment of the psychological questions involved in chess thinking; he has demonstrated that the chess player's thinking is rich in vividness and that it has an exceptional emotional content and intense
--
oeremimrtioll.
Blumenfe1d-not-ed--th-e--JH"-ac--tk-a-l---cbaucter of chess thinking in
that the thought is directly linked to the action; the time limit in tournament play intensifies the thinking process and compels the mind to work in the most economical manner. Blumenfeld was the first to suggest a number of interesting methods for the psychological investigation of creativity in chess. For instance he introd uced the practice of noting the time taken for each move, which has now become very p(lpular as a method--6f-reeording th�r�hougbts during the game. Blumenfeld also tried to investigate the intuitive forms of chess thin kin g. In this respect special attention should be given to his assumptions about the emergence of intuitive conjecture, which depends upon the retention in the memory of images of similar positions. In all, Blumenfeld made many very p.t.acticaLre.coJIUD.e.lLdali�.ms for instance he advised that if a move is forced it �hould be played, and only then should the player make a deep study of t e resulting position, and not vice versa. He emphasized that in calculating, one
-_
should not rely solely upon visual concepts, as they are less tangible than the clireet impression of the position on the board; thus it is necessary to check every mllve. however obvious it may appear from prev ious study. In recent years various works devoted to chess psychology have been . American Grandmaster Reuben Fine in his book "The I',vcho\ogy of the Chess Player" examines the creativity of orp y, telmtz, Fmanuel Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Euwe, Botvinnik and other great players. by applying Freud's analytical concepts to their lives. Fine explains the (\evclopment of chess skills by the role played by "repressed" instincts and other a"umptions of Freudian psychoanalysis which are hard to believe. r rrt-pl-ay-i:n----- llnfortunately Fme dId not utilize filS own rich expernmce-uf-tournane writing this book. I\lso of interest are the investigations into the potential of young players using 1,',ls proposed by the Czech psychologist L. Cherny. The subject is asked. say. to move a knight from QRI to every other square of the board as quickJy as pllSsible. After the completion of this problem black pawns are placed on QB3, KH3. QB6 and KB6. then the knight is once again moved to every square except 'hose occuple y, or a iCKetl"'"by, the pawns. In these and-o-ther tests a stop watch is used to record the time taken for the solution of the problem; the IllImber of errors and the accuracy of the solution are considered as are the 5
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY persistence and determination of the subject. Although the Cherny tests may not provide sufficiently complete and objective material with which to assess the ·------". ....'rtru�-nl_e_l'raye1'0b-ey
do deserve attention along wtlh oHler methods. �
interesting to note that experiments conducted by Cherny several years ago correctly predicted a great chess future for Hort, yet the trainers did not regard him as the most prom ising player in the group of guinea pigsl -----
�C�he�88�8DpHla�y�enonplye�� Valuable material is provided for the psychologist in the views of leading players, as expressed in their comments on their own games, in their articles and in their books. In analyzing this material we must make allowances for the fact that chess masters generally are not professional psychologists and therefore their use of technical terms is not always justified from the scientific point of view. Furthermore, they are none too keen to relate their experiences and
-------
-moughts. Alekhine complained withjust4ee-abeutthis: ". thiflk it would be-ifI-
the interest of millions of chess followers and also the game itself if, when annotat.ing their games, the masters spoke a little more openly about the motives impelling them to choose certain moves."
On the other hand, when a player recalls the psychological aspects of a game we can almost certainly count on hearing the true and sincere evidence of an expert. Emanuel Lasker was the first to realize that behind the moves of the chess pieces there is concealed a human being with his own character. Lasker understood that it is impossible to learn the secrets of a chess contest without the human element, without the player's psychology. his experiences during the clash, his idiosyncracies and his preferences. To Lasker chess was, above all, a struggle between two personalities, two intellects. He maintained that" It is two human beings who fight on the chess board, not the wooden pieces", and he studied the style. the weak and strong points of his opponent's play. in detail in order to apply his conclusions to actual play. Often he tried to play moves that were not, objectively, the best, but which were the most unpleasant ones for a particular opponent. n an 10 ervlew
game
s er once sal:
0
c ess IS a con est 10 w IC
a
variety of factors apply. therefore it is extremely important to know the strengths and weaknesses of the opponent. For instance Maroczy's games show that he defends cautiously and only attacks when forced to do so; the games of Janowski show that he may have a won position in his grasp ten times. but as he is reluctant to finish the game he is bound to lose it in the end. We can see that much may be obtained from the attentive study of the adversary's games.
II
Lasker skIllfully explOIted the psychologIcal pecultarnesofntc; opponents. forcing upon them the kind of game that was alien to their tastes. Lasker was the first to suggest that chess style is the reflection of personal characteristics and he
6
INTRODUCTION (1t"l1Ionstrated the validity of this hypothesis in his games. Lasker's method was nol fully understood by his contemporaries many of whom commented on his
---mnphcable-!-'good-l�hes-s-.--a-ImGst-as-i-f-h.e-.possessed hypnotic...pow.er.s.--I_"'recent years the concrete psychological approach to the study of one's opponent
___
hilS received a wider application. It is true that. even before Lasker, the French master Arnous de Riviere asserted that the character and temperament of a player may be determined itself in the st Ie of
--fr- �la}'-and
la ". However,
this casual emark was not taken up and went unnoticed. Lasker proposed a detailed c1assificiation of styles of play and indicated the following categories: (I) The classical style. A plan is not chosen at random, but intelligently, in keeping with the principles of common sense. (2) The style of the automaton. Always making stereotyped moves which are slor (.1) The solid style of building up the position and awaiting the opponent's error.
(4) The style of inviting the opponent to err. (5) T he combinative style. One can dis ute these classification s. For instance. the concept of common 't'me is rather wide
if it means mere y the correct eva uatlOn of a posHlon b:u----
intuition then the designation of such appraisal to the representatives of only onc style is hardly correct. Lasker does not use consistent principles to govern his divisions. in some cases he uses different character traits (such as the tactic of enticing or waiting for the opponent's errors), while in other cases he uses the l{uality of logical reasoning (stereotype, combinative etc.).. In spite of all these I'Ilntroversial points Lasker's attempls to systematize styles of play has not lost ii' significance even today. A1ter all, It was only
m
[925 that he firWcl'ratleng"'e"'dt---
Ihe traditional divisions of style into com binative and positional. let us consider how far the methods of assessing style (the most important ,werlure to the individual preparation for the opponent) have prog ressed to the present day. Apart from s()me success in practical application, (for example lhe �passk.y11at-malch ill 1965 and the--Spas-s-fky-GeHer--m-a-t<;h--{} -l�9v68<>c)/T,--uthl<:e'---- investigations have not made much progress-it is still often lhe case that only IWO styles. combinative and positional, are described in chess literature. To the first of these categories are assigned those players who indulge in ,harp. tactical play containing sacrifices and combinations. It is held that players exhibiting a combinative style possess highly developed powers of creative imagination and the ability to make far reaching, concrete calculations;
�lTetrinragirration-is-particutarly-obvteus in the middl6-game-wl!�-e-the-larg.",-
__
number of pieces creates a great variety of possible moves. Anderssen, Morphy, Chigorin, Alekhine, Tal. Larsen and Bronstein are all reckoned to fall into this
7
-1
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY category. Players of the positional style reveal a more solid and quieter approach to the
----
-i1',�--is�-� -a-fa-itb___in_the_g _iples-ef-st-mtegy_ and their evaluation of a position is based on logical conclusions. Their creathity relies on a belief in the basic guide-lin es which is modified by any peculiar
conditions
of
the
position,
aDd concrete calculation s play a
oomparatively min or role in their mental processes. It is characteristic of
,__ _ _ _
--t'�sition.aLpla)'el"s that the)'Ieg.ar.d_chess.s..u.JL c.ienti{ilii.Kjpline�axin g ddiDJ
guidin g principles. Steinitz, Capablanca, Rubinstein, Botvinnik, Smyslov and Petrosian are regarded as the leaders of the positional style of chess. Recently a third style of chess creativity has been described, which has been dubbed "universal". It is really a fusion of the positional and combinative elements in play. Spassky and Keres are both regarded as displayin g this style. It would seem that at the moment the traditional classification of styles of play -''''-'',.ot based upon a serious study of the players' creativity. This classification
_____
has played a positive role in the development of chess culture and even now it has a certain positive significance; it has made it possible, if only in a general sense, to outline the way to study the il11iividual peculiarities of players, but today that is not enough. One of the basic flaws in the existing classification is that the division of styles is based on principles that are too general-strategy and tactics. t follows that the creativity of players is characterize
10 an in ext
e manner
and many essential factors that differentiate their play are not revealed. Within each
grouping
we
can
discern
significant
differences
in
the
players'
psychological f eatures, in their imagination in analysis and in their technique of calculation . The attempt to analyze these components of creativity in more detail is hindered by the traditional characterization of style by strategy and tactics. t
0 usn
us compare two com mahve p ayers,
and Nezhme
mov.
Nezhmetdinov usually calculates concrete variations conscientiously and with precision, but Tolush's i deas are more often based upon an intuitive vision for combinative threats. Starting with the existing definition. that combinative players
are
strong
in
concrete
calculation,
it
could
be
assumed
---Nezh-rnetdinv-and----'Folush-are-not-reaHy---so-di-ferent in their
that
approaclt-to
calcul�tion. but in reality it seems that Nezhmetdinov's calculations may be trusted in general while T olush's solutions must first be checked for accuracy of
calculation. The existing classification does not lead to a more clearly differentiated understanding of players' styles, nor does it provide the basis for a more detailed characterization of players' skills, and this may lead to miscalculations in -----
-tra-irti-ng-a-nti-to-wrong-decis-ion-s-eoneerning--the-eorreet-tileties-for-tottmament- play. It is accepted that the positional player is better at giving a general appraisal of a position, but that the combinative player can evaluate the concrete
8
INTRODUCTION clements of the position with greater accuracy. Yet Petrosian, a supposedly positional player, is almost faultless in his execution of tactical operations. It s Spassky who-eorreeHy drew attention to the---fa�'�----II Petrosian is weak in combinative imagination is a great error. Petrosian does not appear to be an exception-Capablanca, Schlechter and other positional players have excelled by relying on their strength for concrete analysis. It is clear that the concepts of "combinative" and "positional" style are not --entirelyprecisenor sufficiently dtla.ikdJ..tls.. t even clear what we mean b the term, "player's style". Generally, in the wide philosophical sense of the word, style describes the total of methods and means of discovery applied by the individual with relative consistency. I Let us try to consider this in a less abstract way as regards chess. Take a situation on the board where a forced winning combination is possible. Any experienced player will find this combination and we should not be able to discenuUlLdifference in its execution by the various players. II is only possible to demonstrate an individual style when the position contains not only one, but several apparently equal, efficient methods of play. Thus, individual style is revealed by problematic positions. At the same time the individual player possesses a certain consistency in his way of assessing many similar positions. It is quite easy to discover definite preferences in all stages of the game in almost .-1----any master, so style IS a re aUve y constan judgement. From this we may assume that a player's style is a consistent, individual manner of judging problematic positions. Individual style is determined by many factors; by the type of thinking, by qualities of determination and concentration, by the emotional state and by the player's character. Common characteristics can be found in the styles of individual players and so it is correct to speak of the eXistence of groups of players withteiatlvely-simUaTStyli.... . .-We should also consider the fact that a particular style is not a completely static phenomenon. Style is perfected, it develops. For instance basic changes have appeared in Spassky's style in recent years, as Korchnoy has noted: "Having started as a positional player he sparkled with tactical talent after his --e"'ntM-ry-into-intematitma-�e-last five year�S---pl.aY-�h. - become more universal. In regard to the n umber of defeats per year Spassky has begun to approach the 'unbeatable' Petrosian." In chess literature there are disagreements about the characteristics of the development of the styles of Keres. Boleslavsky and Larsen. It is more often the case that a player is saddled for a long time with a relentless. unchanging appraisal of his creativity. We have the exa mple of Simagin whose play reflected sigflifiean-t-hanges --£ , but-f���lled a "brilliant combinative" player despite the fact that he himself objected to this description on many •
i.e. since about 1963.
9
CHESS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
occasions. The reason for this static attitude to the development of style is panly explained by the difficulty of analyzing style in general. but this difficulty is Increased by the generaltzed afi
-----,cflteria ufJderlying-th�-e-lassi-f-ica-OOn-of--St¥l s.-H().\\�e problem of creating a new classification of styles will remain insoluble until the individual components of this question have been fully investigated. These include the classification of the volitional and emotional capabilities of the players and of the content of their logical thought processes. During recent years I. myself. have conducted some investigations into this problem, I attempted to single out characteristic types in the reasoning activity
�ye�n a comparatiy.� .e is of their pecJ..lliaritles�n logical
and intuitive forms of thinking and imagination. The reader is referred to the book "Problems of Creative Psycholog.v .... , where an article on this question has been published.
LASKER
Lasker's ideas on the necessity of psychological prepa ration for the individual opponent and, in connection with this. the problems of investigating the players' styles. are topical questions to this day. Moreover. as the general quality of play has risen considerably and a substantial levelling in the difference of the strength of players has taken place. psychological preparation has acquired a more important meaning. A player who disregards the psychological factors can no Ion er count on successful results. It is clear that the ideas advanced by Lasker concerning chess styles demand further serious investiga tion. Lasker also made some interesting observations about the qualities of chess
----
thinking and about the structure of the thought processes involved in selecting a move, and he named efficiency as an essential component of a player's thinking. In considering the relationship between art and logic in chess Lasker wrote: --.-..,... ly a perverse taste can prefer the unnecessartly compttc-afed to the simple:--From two moves which lead to the same goal the sensible person will choose the more direct, the more clear and the less paradoxical." He also criticized some so· called "brilliant" games, demonstrating that their authors, distracted by extraneous effects, had in essence eased the opponent's position: "Similar instances remind one of a battle, where the dead are resurrected only for the purpose of defeating them once again".
Lasker noted, however, that the chOice of a move rs-nor-solely a lo-gtcat- conclusi on based on the principles of strategy and calculation, but that it is also
•
Published in Saratov in 1968. No English translation is yet available.
10
I N TRODUCTION
iI
peculiar application of the theory of prob ability-knowledge of the opponent ' s
t asle� permits one t o anticipate h i s reply with a greater degree of accuracy . In \ul'h
a
w ay , Ifi
Lasker-'-rview:-in onecum-u -e�-e-corn:epr-oh:lmle""s""s-1bmottt-h-..-.:--,.---
psychological battle and as a game of com mon sense based upon conclusions drawn rrom t heory.
CA PA BLANCA ----·ker -IbaS �a-HI{}u-s-r_iv_a!,-Capahla-nca,-4id--l'\Ot-4ist.inguish_him-SclLb¥_s_uchc-
For this reason Capabl anca's
creativity
contains a rich store of
instructive material, which allows us to judge his methods of rational thinking over the board. In fact he indicated the following methods that guided him
���----( I ) The need to attend to the co�ordination of the chess forces in play; p ieces and pawns should complement each other in their operations. Capablanca wrote " M any players try to at t ack while their pieces are scattered all over the board and their actions cannot be co-ordi n a ted. Ult im ately s uch players search, in surprise, for the point in the
arne where the made their mistake.
One m ust co-ordinate the actions of on e's pieces as this is the fundamental principle of the whole game" .
(2) Choosing the most efficient solution s ; this relates to an efficient use of resources in defence as well as attack. The mobilisation of the greatest possible number of p ieces is feasible only in att acking the kin g . and C apablanca was especi ally careful to s ave time when activating his pieces: "Ev
move
which
ains
or
saves
a
tern
m us t
be
considered
i m mediately" . (3) The chosen move should not be delayed. but shoul d be carried out on the board; "You should also be confident about your decisions; if you think your move is good then make it, experience is the best teacher . H aving once thought of an idea and decided that it i s goo d , many players fear to m ake it . Wrongly! You m ust deCide and wltnoUflIesihatto n play what you thmk IS good . "
ALEKHINE I t was Alekhine who expanded on Lasker's opin ion that it is necessary to know the opponent's psychologic al cha racteristics. Alekhine's compilations of the characteristics of his contemporaries were b ased upon a thorough study of hIS Tlvals' persona"ties , these cnaractertzatlonra-�al'l,Teti1Ibte-and>erve-a!nl--- practical guide to action . Let us iHustrate this w ith an excerpt from Alekhine's remarks about Capablanca: " From that moment in the game where exact 11
CHESS A ND PSYCHOLOGY science gives way to pure art , it is then that those qualities. which have given rise to
Ca abl anca's
almost
Ie endary fame .
shine
at
t heir
brig htest ;
impressive is his exceptional speed in comprehending the position an
most
a ter t at
his intuitive feel for positions which is practically flawless. However , t hese two q ualities, which with correct application should have raised their possessor to previously un attained artistic heights , led Capablanca, surprisingly, to the
opposite concl usio n , to a blind alley , to the conviction that the art of chess was close to its end, that It was nearly e xhausted. How routd this happerr-?. -----"To answer this question correctly it is necessary to consider the psychological
dangers that lie hidden in the first of Capablanca's qualities mentioned above.
There are obvious advantages afforded by speedy comprehension (w hich in Capablanca's case was the ability to see almost sim ult aneously the whole group of t actical possibilit ies which are present in every complex position), but t hese advantages of economy in thin king and self-confidence also contain an element o dange r : one may erroneous y
level1larth�O{Yd!nuves-which are
seized--
upon im media tely, because of a good knowledge of the position, are necessa rily the bes t . As a consequence of this one's creativity loses as m uch in depth as it
gains in ease .
" As a resu l t of all of these observations and conjectures I came to the
apparently paladoxie-at-opinion tactician
in
Capablanca
that---at---#te--tJ\9IJleR.t.(--()f-ou.r---match- .1921) the
was
significantly
inferior
to
the
strategist.
Co nsequently, one must not take CapabJanca on trust in the m iddle-game , i . e .
each of h i s t actical p l a n s m us t b e checked c-arefully , a s the possibility of an oversight on his part cannot be ruled out .
to
TheSe ob servations helped Alekhine to exploit Capablanca's m ista kes in the
match for the World Champion ship . His psychological characterization of the
----
---+C",.udd .b-an-Grarr mas!er pro'/ed to be-amaz.ingl�ise
and
an
analysis of the
games of the match reveals that it allowed Alekhine to anticipate his opponent's
plans with a substa nt ial measure of accuracy .
Alekhine's comments are very in terest ing, especially so when he warns against
the danger that negative character traits can emerge when a player regards his own
intuitive �illIlen t a s li kely to be bot h correct and fina\ . Alekhine's
understanding of the psychological nature of chess went beyond that of Laske r ;
h e considered i t necessary not only to consider the in dividual style and character of his r:ivals, but also to ant i cipate their own psychological preparation directed
against h imsel f . Alekhine understood not only the beneficial effects of such
preparation, but also the way in which it could be used against him . For instance, in preparing for his World Championship match against Capablanca, r a ized that the Cuban would
rob ably try , as Black , to exploit t he rather
risky play that Alekhine adhered to at that t ime. Aft er the match Alek m e wrote:
"As
Black
I
employed
the
same
method o f simplification
t hat
Capablanca used in defence " . Alt hough this metho d was new for Alekhine its ]2
I NTRODUCfION p�ychological effect completely j ustified its use in the contest . Alekhine's a
roach found followers amongst his contemporaries. As an
e x ample I rec all an episode concerning Grandm aster Averbakh , which took pl ace when we were both being traine d . Whilst inspecting Averbakh's card index
I discovered
in it , along with notes on the creativity and excerpts from the
lCames of possible future opponents, a notebook headed Y .
L.
Averbakh .
Prep a ring a chess dossier on oneself is not a rarity, but rather a very efficient
of prep aratIon, logically derived from AlekhmeS---OpirfOlrlnn-" ·� · r----
mo
necessary to a nticip ate the direction
t h a t the oppone n t ' s preparation on
theoretic al, stylistic and psychological lines will take .
Alekhine emphasized the educational role of chess . He assumed that it is
i m possible to achieve great success at chess without training the positive
qualities in a player's character and elim inating the neg ative ones. Ale khine himself is a model in this respect . Reti wrote of him : "Even at the beginning of
hh chess career everyone was am azed by the richness ofhlstmagirra:tTo-trlI..e'· nr d-T ltk hr.-
-
t ense exertion of determination in his violent attacks. The fact that he denied his
own talent induced his adm irers to fantasize about his talen t s , but he always �ubordinated his talent to reason and this helped him to attain the highest
degree of mastery . " Alekhine frankly said "I developed my character by pl aying chess, firsHy-it-teaches one
t()-be-objeet-i-ie
a
playeJ'---be�-eme&---a---g-l'U-t--ches-s
m aster only by realizing his own faults and failings. "
U nfortunately, Alekhine wrote only briefly about the special features of the
t hought processes i nvolved in choosing a m ove . His conclusions are discussed in
detail in chapter 1 . HETl ---
-f!Rti'eof1tif-*akls()-made-re a-ftumbeJ"-el-inte st-i-R-g--o.bse�¥3tio.n_s_about
the nature of a
pl ayer's thought processes . As a m an with an abstract turn of mind Reti
emph asized the role played by general evaluatio n in chess thinki n g . He warned
against too m uch concentration on conc rete calculation , against the
naive
attempt to explain a m aster's art as merely the development of his ability to
calcul
. His remarks rna
be too do m a tic, but the
do not contradict the
concept of t he visual nat ure of thought in rel ation to chess, but show that these pictures m ay be quite distinct . "
Reti wrote : "The uninformed think that the superiority o f the chess masters
rests in their ability to calculate well a head. Suc h pl ayers ask me how many
moves ahead do I normally calcul ate in my combinations an d are very surprised
when
I reply (truthfully) that generally it is not even one . " Yet if we m ay not rely
u on calculation how are we to choose a move? Reti assumes t h at "all players from the weakest to the strongest possess principles, of which they may or may
no t be aware, which g uide them in the choice of moves. Perhaps a weak player •
see
chapter 1 (pag� 16·1 7)
13
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY has only rudimentary principles . . . such a player is simply satisified if he
uceeedsifts�n�ecktQbisopn po �� t_ "��__��______�____����
It is curious that the first programmers of chess playing computers overlooked these important observations made by Reti. They tried to solve chess problems by sifting through variations. by trying endless . concrete calculat ions. These attempts soon revealed their unsuitability .
"
----__
__
TORRE J nteresting data about the mental states of players are contained in the works of Spielmann and Torre. Torre deals in detail with the problems involved in developing a style. He indicates that there are four stages in the development of a player: ( 1 ) Manner ; (2) Individuality in play; (3 ) Style ; (4) World class style . Torre emphasizes thought in p articular. although the creativity of every master .... m ll..U lla] st u be LBLi Ul nw dw ivid_u I and ori inal. Yet this originality in pl ay must be b ased on aU that has been accumlated in the developmen t of chess culture oy t e expenences of many players. BOTVINNIK
SOv� ie �=.: ...t'---�,ers have studied and developed those methods of psychological preparation which were outlined by Lasker and AleKJrtne-;-B-otvilluik was an i m portant figure in this process-he developed his own system of p reparation and training . which involved elements of great interest from t he psychologist 's point of view: ( 1) He drew up a personal. psychological ch aracterization of the opponent ; (2) He created maximum work capacity during play; a nd (3) He developed a certain psychological mood for e ach contest . Botvinnik conducted a well-informed. all-ro und psychological a n alysis of his opponents' p l ay . He not only no e elf merlrr-and defects but---a-ls6-theseemingly unimportant details. such as the "long range" moves often overlooked by Euwe. Botvinnik possessed a rare ability in that he did not limit h imself to compiling an ex act charact erization. Rather he also converted his concl usions into concrete opening schemes and a general m a nner of conducting ----'oante_ ----...,:;-;e� r_wtr ch--was subjectively�st un.,)easa.nt-fo.r-h.i.s...o.p . m pnn.e s. The depth of his understanding of his opponent as a human being was felt by both Smyslov and Tal in their return ma tches with Botvinnik . By reason of his own character t raits Botvinnik was not inclined to t rust his intitial impressions, but preferred to amass a sufficient amount of psychological observations before drawing a conclusion. Possibly because of t his he conducted his return ma tches with considerably more confidence than the first ones. --------J--"'npgo-Botvinnik realized that it is--J>>ychologicaJ.l¥-dillic.uldo a m an to adjust at once to a new activity . for instance to a tournament game. Botvinnik t herefore always took a walk before the round in order to attune h i m self to the corning struggle. to mobilize his force of determination and t o cut himself off __ __ __ __ __ __
INTRODUCTION �:ompletely from everything that was not concerned with the gam e . In earlier l i mes he regul arly arrived at the tou rn a m ent h all ten to fifteen minutes before t e roun .
o... u.... s--ese act 1V1 les helped him to detach himself fro m e xtrane"'
distract ions and a llowed him to conce n t r ate solely upon the game from the moment the clock was started. Botvinnik correctly pointed ou t that it is only in a relaxed frame of mind that one can labour successfully over t he board. Through special t r aining methods he lealut how to struggle agaios·t-ineipient ad'/erse--em6tiofts.
Yet 8o-t-v-imti:kk.:.s'sr----
equanimity at the board does not indicate that he was different . He a l ways had a
certain amount of fighting spirit in the best sense of the term -he considered that he was obliged to fight until the end , to put all his ability and nervous energy into the game. At times he lost g ames in the region of the 1 1 th- 1 3t h rounds because of growing tiredness, but i n general the principle o f playing with
-
complete concentration was justified by his results.
-IB'Sfo*tvifl.n.m i.k- ade a ele5e-s�S-inv�menl+ t
-
regime-the need for a methodical approach to the analysis of adjou rned games and the conditions which 'lead to t ime trouble being amongst them . The methods of improvement that Botvinnik developed became the basis of training for Soviet players for m any years. -.JH '-'JQwever. as Averbakh PQinted out, Botvinnik's training progr am me did not
_ _
always have desirable results since it w as copied w ithout question by t rainers and masters ali ke, despite Botvinnik's warning that: " I t is possible that this system of preparation is u nsuitable for som e players. Every master should follow it with care and apply it wit h reference to his own in dividual peculiarities and habits". An example of this is seen in an im por tant question that arises during training-how long before a contest should the t r ainin g period end and how m any days should be given over to resting? Using his own experience Botvinnik has s aid that training should cease five days before the tournament , but it hecame apparent that in practice this does no t suit everyone . There are players who step into the rhythym of tournament play at once- for them the five days of rest is useful ; but there are others who usually st art a tournament slowly and lose valuable points whilst warming up-instead of rest they would be well served by p aymg senous tramlng games. Much also depends upon the awareness of the tr ainer. Bondarevsky managed to detect in Geller and Spassky an inclin ation to engage in battle rather lazily at first, so on his advice Geller gave a t iring simultaneous exhibition with clocks against Candidate Masters on the eve of his m atch with Smyslov ( Moscow 1955), while Spassky did not stop training right up to the start of his match with Tal (Tbilisi 1 965). As a result , both of Bondarevsky's proteges were
--�g-formfronltl\beginn e ilrg-of-t1{e� .
15
in excellent
CHAPTER 1
age What il the chell image? The study of the peculiarities of a player's thinking is perhaps the most important
problem
in chess psychology.
Part of
this
problem
involves
determining t he typical defects in a player's thinking activity and attem pting to nd a way to Increase t e e
clency
0
IS
oug
processes .
0 a consl
era
e
degree a chess p l ayer thinks in terms of im ages . What do we understand by the phr ase " chess image" and what are its characteristic features? There is no unanimity as to the definition of a chess image. The psychologist Malkin wrote: " In the course of a game one accumulates a large number of chess images,
01
in other-words-;-typicat-posh-H-ionsLabott+-whk a -tme-lt -s-rof-ffiteeed--
an assessment. These positions are an essential p art of the language with the help of which the master composes his ' poems'. In the course of a g ame the calculation of variations is necessary primarily for the transfer .from one typical position to another." I t is quite obvious from this statement that in the author's opinion the main characteristic of an image is the element of generality-the chess im age is not
only a visual pictureoftlte--pMit-ion-oe-tflen-the-bo� a-ssessment-ef--- the typical position in the sense that the image is a generalization which takes into account the peculiar relationships between the pieces and their p ossible moves. The concrete positions themselves which occur in
the course of
establishing relationships between particular elements of the situation (for example, during calcllla tion).gankclat ..are-.D.Ot..Le a im ges. Here the visual side of the image is disregarded. Some other investigators are of a simil ar opinion . Reti quotes Tarrasch 's and Rosenthal 's opinions to prove that visual elements in thinking are of a subordi nate character. Tarrasch wrote: "A real chess lover,
whose
thoughts are completely absorbed in the
combinations and plans which arise in the course of the game, differs from a -
frequen1ly--mtkes-use--of--tbe--.pse typicalJHHition.--B,.-th�ll5--&-t-pOSi ioA-.ttm-
� .-l Kr fton, Ogl ...• us--
embodies one or more easily rt;CogDized motifs. Each motif will suggest something to the player. for example if there is an open file on the board a player would consider, amongst other thin gs, moving a rook to that file.
16
THE CHESS IMAGE beginner in that he does not see a wooden piece with a horse's head , but rather a piece having the property of moving in a certain way, a piece which is equivalent to approximately three p awns and which stands ready to start an attack and so on. The chess lover does not see a wooden toy; he does not see what the piece is made of:- all he sees is the significance of that piece as a knight . The deeper one penetrates into a combination, the less one's eyes notice the m aterial of the
chessboard and the pieces. All of the chess player' s attention is concentrated --ins-rde-him�lfilrndevetr fiTe-ca�tsirts-eyes-cnro-msrne-o"bjec�does not re· register them . Here is an example. I cannot say whether the chessboards which were used in the Dresden Tournament ( 1 892) in which
I p articipated were made
of cardboard or wood, but I can reproduce (on a board) almost all the games I played in that tournament . " The French Master Rosenthal once said t o Binet "You ask me about visual imagination? My answer depends on the sense you attach to this exp ress ion . I
--se-e-th-e---ctres strolfJ'{hrrcme sees the-street on whicrr-on1:watks-without-p ltVi-:rro---
much attention to it; when one opens one's wardrobe one knows where all the things are in spite of the fact that one does not see the m . The same applies to the moves one makes on the chessboa rd." These opinions show the significance o f the qualities of generality and
abstraction in
a chess--player's-thinking�Are we tben-entitl.e ",d � t"" o-u dr ... ... w .----,-U¥---- a conclusion that the visual and the not iona l , the unique and the general are
opposing polarities in chess thought ? I would accept the opinion that a chess image must contain some degree of generality. The elements of generalization, however, should not be separated from their visual foundations. They arise as a reflection of the actual con tent of a situation . In the course of the formation of a chess im age a selection from the
--+p�erceiv:ed-elements-OLthe-position occms
Tbanks to-lJ tb u i,,s--,f u: a u.; ccL t_u tb u e,-' ·u.li:w'--
_ _ _
reproduces not all, but only the most essential elements. Neither Tarrasch nor Rosenthal reject the visual aspect of a chess player's thin king: they only describe the selection of the essential elemen t s and the discarding of the insignificant ones (for exampl e , t hey do not notice the size , the form or the m aterial that the board
and pieces are made of,
but their
consciousness isolates the functional properties of the pieces and squares and their possib le t r aj ectories of movement ) . The squ ares and pieces are thus reflected i n one's mind n o t o n their own , but as ca rriers of the ideas of the positio n . In chess im ages one can clearly observe the unity of the abstract and the concrete , the sensory and the logical , since ideas and assessments are directly expressed in terms of moves and v ariations. Ale khine also paid attention to this. He wrote: "The player is not trying to visualize the whole board with black and white squares and black and white pieces; what he is trying to do is to recall only some characteristic move or the configuration of some part of the board . "
17
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY The most striking point in this quot ation is t he mention of a "c haracterist ic"
move i.e. a concrete , visual element which a position and its assessment .
l a s the role of carrier of t he idea of
A lekhine's opinion on the reconst ruction of games and posit ions is confirmed
by the experiment of Blumenfeld and Pus hkin. The subjects as a rule,
reproduced quickly and precisely the ideas essential to the assessment of a
position or to t he ca rrying out of a combination (e.g. pawn structure, a strong
knight or a n attacking poslhon for the queen), whtle at the same I1me the other pieces,
which were placed as if by the way, were forgotten or were not
remembered precisely. The unity of the visual and the general in the chess image
should be rega rded not as a mechanical connection , but as a dialectical
rel ationship and as an interlocking of t hose two sides of cognit ive activity . The great psychologist, Academician Ananiev wrote : "The elem ents of an activity
which are reflected in t he imagination are not arbitrary; t heir subjective content
lS lmprlnted on the memory by reason of thelr relevance to the
t�filtl[tm""s-fiin"--
hand. For t his reason t here is no conflict between the tendency to generalization
a nd the
formation of concrete visual images; on the contrary, the former
enriches the l atter t hrough its close connection with the object ive significance of the m ateria l . "
------1'tris--cisofthe intereonnection between the sensM)'--and the log-ical- in
the structure of mental imagery,
is supported by t he results of our
observations and experiments.
I t has been established t h at a master conducting a simultaneous display on
twenty·five
to
thirty
boards
would
notice
the
disappe arance of
a
piece
deliberately removed from the board. From discussions with masters and from
experi ments, [ have ascertained that they do not remember the exact position of
----Ithe-pieees-in-aH---t-he-gS am-e but they go-��---plan--Or a
tactical-
operation. In thinking the position over with the piece m issing t he m aster finds a discrepancy between past and present evaluations, and so he looks for reasons.
As a result he reconstructs the visual picture of the whole position and the loss of t he piece is discovered. T
f
t h at
eneralization hel s to enrich visual abilit
was shown b
an
experiment with Candidate Masters: they were shown two positions . one after the other. One of the positions was a complex position from a practical game,
while the other was from a com position, with a l arge number of pieces on the board. The subjects quickly reproduced the position from the pract ical gam e, which
had a
definite relevance to ordinary play ( a characteristic pawn
config uration and the presence of a typical plan for the fo rthcoming battle). Th e re roduction of the
roblem
roved to be more difficul t . Most of the subjects
(nine out of ten) did not succeed in reproducing the position of the p ieces
precisely ; it lacked the logical inter·relations typical of practical play.
On the other h and , p recision of perception and a well·developed sensory side 18
THE CHESS IMAGE
of thinking enrich notional content and constitute an attribute essential to it . In this context we carried out the ex eriment of showin a t ical osition from the King's Indian defence which occurred in the game Taim anov-Najdorf, Zurich 1 95 3 . Similar positions were known to t he subjects and they fulfilled the task efficiently : they found the best play for Bl ac k and White and showed the typical combinational themes. In the next exercise a sim ilar group of subjects were shown the same posit ion but with the colours reversed and the pIeces arrange fr\iilir ror-Image as Ion . The notional content of t he resulting position was identical to that of the previous one, but the change in the colour of the pieces and the squares they occupied led to difficulties in- answering the same questions. The subjects took, on average, ten minutes longer to assess the possibilities correctly . Thus, the chess image is characterized by a unity of meaning and sensory structure. A chess image is always an assessment of a situation or its structural elements expressed In the concrete onn 0 the action 0 t e pIeces on t e oar _ The degree of genera1�ation in chess images varies, and can be looked at from two aspects: ( 1) The development of the player; and (2) In relation to the objective complexity of the position in question . Generality , in the chess player's thought proce sses, is built up in the course of his attainment of mastery-and-Ids acquisition-of-knowledge-;--Ac-quaint-anee-wiiit"hhr--- the principles of the strategy and t actics of chess stimulates the development of the logical component of thinking. Binet was justified in holding that t he growth of the chess player' s strength accompanied definite stages in the development of his faculty of abstracting from concrete material. The element of generality of a chess image also depends on the complexity of the position on the board . The player evaluates a multitude of positions using ---n-his-k-llfiwledge-a-nd-praet-ieal--ex-perienee-;-ev-en-ns-thmtgh--some-oH-heseposi-t-itt -- may be quite different to a ny he has previously encountered. In such cases he knows approximately what to do and how to proceed as these positions give rise to more generalized images. However, a considerable number of positions cannot be adequately assessed purely by com parison with earlier known ones. Some elements in the assessment can be taken frQ�reviQus e.xperience-the� characteristic position of an individual piece or the familiar threat of a fork -but as yet they are mere fragments of a future, general assessment which will be a more concrete image, differing substantially from the image of the typical position. The necessity for greater abstraction in more complex positions is due to the difficulty (in many cases the impossibilty) of basing one's move prim arily on the calculation of concrete variations. In sim ler sitions such as those containin an easily discovered forcing variation , the representation of the position also takes the fonn of an image, albeit of a significantly lower level of abstr action_ _ _ _
19
CH ESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
___
Let us now consider the act ive qualities of images in chess thinking. From this --¥'runLotriew we shaU�uish between three types of im a e-ret ained. inert and forward. The retained Image . This is the transference of an assessment of a past positio n . or of the action of separate pieces, in an unaltered form to a new situation that has arisen on the board. In this way the past contin ues its acttvlty into t e present to t he extent of edging ou t reality. When a retained image occurs the player's thought has become static, his ability to switch his attention has become reduced.
Let us examine the ending of the first game in the TaJ-Gligoric M atch (Belgrade ] 968).
The White position is not an enviable one, Tal has just taken the queen by 37 NXQch, but even this is in sufficient compensation for his loss of material . Koblentz wrote: " A s Tal him self said after the game , i t seemed vaguely t o him tbat tbis move simuJtaneous� a ks e b ack rook on K l -he reckoned on winnin g the rook and pawn ending after recovering the exchange. but the blow struck empty air. Two moves earlier Gligoric' s rook had m oved (from K l ) to K8 with t he deadly threat of mate. " The game concluded with the moves 3 7 . . . K- KJ 38 R-N6ch K.Q4 39 N BS R N2! 40 N- lOch RxN! 41 pxR R-B7! 42 K·N3 P-BS 43 K-B4 P-B6 44 P- K4ch K BS 4S R·QR6 On 45 K- KJ comes 4S . . . K-N4! 4S P-B7 46 R-Rl K-Q6 47 R I A similar cause-the men t al slip of assuming a piece is on its old s quare-was the reason behind Tal's miscalculation in his game with Rossetto. Amsterdam I nterzonal 1964. -
. . .
20
TH E CHESS IMAGE
Tal (
hite) has a clear a vantage
ecause 0 t 'e two
15
ops an
isolated K P . Rossetto played n . . . B-N2 and Tal replied 24 B-K4? He h a d not overldoked Rossetto's next move, 24 B-R3cb , but had intended to meet it with 25 P-B4 P· K4 26 BxNch KxB 27 RxP RxP 28 P>
retained image of Black's bishop on KR3 still in his mind , even though he knew that his-roox-was-eprise-ro-tbe-bishop l'l , Tal had plalllied-orrptay�9-R--K:N"",,----
which seemed to him to block the check from the bishop and force Black into
29 . . . BxRch 30 pxB when White is a piece ahead. When Rossetto actually played 24 . . . B-R3ch, Tal realized his previous mistake a n d played the only move possible: 2S B-Q2. The game continued 2S . . .N.QS 26 R-Kl BxBcb 27 KxB N-B6cb 28 BxN RxB and the rook ending was eventually
drawn. llyin-Zhenevsky recorded simil ar cases as long ago as 1928.
21
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
___
In this position (Ilyin -Zhenevsky- Nenarokov. Moscow 1 922 ) White has a I B-B7ch K-Bl 2 Q-R6ch? KxB 3 R B6ch K-NI
--'decisive a tack. There followed
-
and suddenly it is Black who has the advantage. In his preliminary analysis
3 K-KI 4 Q-B8ch K-Q2 5 Q - N7ch and 6 R-B8. I overlook such a simple move as 3 . . . K- N l . ? " wrote It yin
White had only considered " Why did
. . .
Zhenevsky. "Quite simple: Loo k at the starting posit ion ; there Black's K N I square i s attacked by two pieces-the bishop a t QN3 a n d the queen a t K N S . I n calculating m y com bin ation
I formed a false Impression of the poS"it101rb
thinking that the king could not move to KN l . " Some important characteristics of the former positio n , such a s t he control of the square KN1 , were mentally transferred to the new, cha nged situation in an unaltered form. For example, White could have maintained all the advantages in his position by playing even
QxB on his second move, but the retained image,
the conviction that he had firm control over the KN I square, restricted his ability to trans er
IS
attention a n
Iffic ulrror--nim -toTppraise the
position objectively _ The next posit ion (Ilyin-Zhenevsky-Nenarokov, Moscow 1923) is apparently a sim ilar case_
Ilyin-Zhenevsky commented: " I decided to open the KB-file by playing I R KBt P·KN3 2 Q-Kl N-K2_ Now it seemed that nothing stood in the way of my plans and I played 3 P-KB4 quite happily , but the sequal was 3 . . . PXP 4 Q>
QxB. Tt is certainly was not part of my plan PI had opened the file but lost a piece. "You mi ht sa
that this is just a crude oversight. Yes, it is an oversight, but
the psychology of this error is interesting. Having conceived my plan l looked at the board and saw that the black queen on KN4 and the unguarded bishop on QNS are separated by a firm obstacle-the pawn a t Black's K4 . This idea
22
THE CHESS I MAGE became fixed firmly in my mind, so firmly th at, even as the black queen took the white bishop it appeared to me that it had jumped over the pawn." Anot her example of the negative influence of a retained image in making a decision is White's play in the game Sozin- Kirillov, Moscow 193 1 .
There followed 26 BxP? Sozin wrote of this move: "To some extent the oversight is understandable from a psychological point of view, White did not consider the possibility of the reply 26 . . . R-Q2 in his calculations, because it was . previously impossible due to the mate (Q-N8)." 26 R-Kl wins easily, for example , 26 . . .QxQPch 27 K-Nl Q- KS 28 QxNPch, or 26 . . . P- K4 27 Q-N8ch. But after White's mistake the ga me ended in a draw: 26. . . R-Q2 27 BxQ Not 27 Q-N8ch KxB 28 R- Klch K-B3, nor 27 Q-R8ch KxB 28 R- K1 ch K-B2 29 Q-R7ch K-B3 30 Q-R4ch K- N2 , and in each case Black wins. 27 RxQ 28 BxP RxP 29 K-Nl 29 R- Klch K-Ql 30 R-K7 loses to 30 . . . R-R8ch 31 K-K2 R-QN8 32 B-BS P-N3. 29. _ .R-R2 30 P-B4 K-Ol 3 1 K-B2 N-B2 32 B-B3 N-Q4 33 B-KS R-K2 34 H-KRl R-K3 35 R-R7ch K-B3 36 P-R3 N-B3 37 R-QB7ch K-N3 38 R-N7 N N5Ch39K·B3NxBCh 40PXNR xpof� the draw was inevitable . In this example the image of the previous position was so persistent that Sozin had the firm belief that his former assumptions still held good . .•.
The retained image is sometimes caused not by a single piece and its functions or by an individual square on the board, but by a group of pieces or squares with more complex rel ationships. Having been the objects of deep cogitation during -the cOUise of a game it is 1I0t-onty-irrdiyidaal pieces, squares-and--moyes-thh�att--- remain in the mind in a relatively unchanged fonn , but also tactical and strategical ideas as well. 23
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY Let us examine a position from the game Chekhover-Model , Leningrad 1933
Chekhover wrote: " I n this position t here is nothing to be gained by 29 B-R7ch
30 Q-QR3ch because of 30 . . . Q-Q3 31 P- BS Q-K2 . Because of this I mostly Q-R4 P- KN3 31 Q-R6 with R�R4-to.1ollow, and to avoid a back row mate I played 29 P-KR3 , to K- B I
considered the continuation 29 R-R7 Q-QS 30
which Model replied very weakly 29 . . . Q-K7? Now 30 B-R7ch K - B I 3 1 Q-R3ch R- K2 32 B-Q3 wins t he game at once, but having rejected B·R7 on the previous move I did not examine it again in the current position and played something else . The game finally ended in a draw . " We can see that t h e conclusion that B·R7 and Q·QR3 were inadequate was so persistent that the pecul iarities of the relationships between White's three
---- -a.t.tacces. king--Pie .(.queen, rook and bismp) were not seriousl
considered on the
next move, although the situation had altered in White's favour.
Szabo- Bronstein
24
THE CHESS IMAGE There are occassions, although they are relatively rare , when the existence of a retained image is linked to the appearance of op tical ill usions of the images of pieces which are no longer on the board. Ihe actions of suc1lpte�--m-th-"e--- precedin g phase of the game have bee n so important and have demanded such intense concentration from the player, that when he tries to turn his attention to o t her elements of the position he finds it extrem ely difficult to do so, even once the pieces have been exchanged or captured. 111 the game--��-h-ament ---Candidates'-Toum 1953-.---«-th chief role in White's attack was taken by his black squared bishop . So Bronstein removes it : 36 . . .RxB 37 Q-R6 P-B3 38 PxR R·N2? 38 . . . K-B2 is better. 39 RQ8 QxR 40 Q.R8ch and White won quickly . And the motive for his error of 38 . . . R-N2? , closing the KRI -QR8 diagonal that had previously been so dangerous? Bronstein remarks: "Up to this point Black was st ruggling against the bishop at White's Q B3 ; now he continues the --hattle--with itsshadow. " _ _ _
Th6fie i;xamples' allow us to speak of the negative manifestations of retained images as an extensive defect in a player's thinking. The nega tive role of the retained image presents us with a paradoxical situation whereby , it appea rs , the \Irons pointsoftb;nk;ng=ilep1Q.and.d arity o f aim-turn into weaknesses. This mnfirms the adage that you can have t oo much of a good thing. Wh at we have seen in the above examples was a violation of the correct sense of p roportion he tween the depth of concentration and dyna mic thinking . The retained image does not , however, always h ;nder creative thin king. It has a
p o sitive effect in that it regulates attention and promotes active self-control.
Unde.r.-S.ucb condjtjons ick s
arlier in the
_ _
Novotelnov -Nezhmet dinov
25
ame do not
become
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY unalterable axioms, but are utilized in a changed form and are applied to the peculiarities of the new position .This manifestation of the retained im age is an s to t IS t e pl ayer quite beneficial as it assures continuity intllin king. can form ulate premises which help him to keep to t he guidelines of a general plan, m akin g his play more efficient and making each stage of development more likely of success. The above diagram shows a position taken from Novotelnov-Nezhmetdinov, Here, in reply to 16 N-N3, Black had prepared to sacrifice the exchange by 16 . . . R- K4 1 7 P-B4 RxB 18 P>
-
h Il... +l th� lis-exampfe;-the-idea-of--an-exeharrge-sacrifi-eiche--wh -arose-at-mo'l"'e�16
rem inds us of preparations made in good time by a considerate host . This idea had been considered by Nezhmetdinov, approved, but postponed for use in the appropriate situation . The presence of a beneficially retained im age allows one to struggle successfully for the execution of a concrete plan by adapting it to a fresh situation in the game This diagram shows a position from the second game of the Botvinnik Levenfish match, Moscow/Leningrad 1 937.
Levenfish had the idea of undennining White's centre with . . . P-B3, but it does not work im mediately . Levenfish wrote: "After 14 . . . P-B3 I feared 15 pXQP "" -:BTIOS-=-Q¥:r KP>< P18BxP R- KfT9""Q-=-R"SN 21 P - K4 P>
THE CHESS IMAGE
15 PXP KPxP 16 P K4 ! Again White prevents . . .P-83. 1 6 ·
.••
P. QS 17 N-NJ p.
Q B4 18 N.Q2 And again the intended break is impossible because of 1 9 P- K6
-ann--2()--PoBS-;-buHhe--IDea--does-nocteave--Btac�4-t9-P..N3 PxP iQl--
PXP K·Rl 21 N-B4 R-KNI 22 K-Rl P-B3 Fin a lly the original idea becomes a 23 N·Q6 PxP 24 NxB PXP,
reality and at the most appropriate moment . After
Black had two pawns for his knight plus da ngerous counter-cha nces.
-- -I�uently a preriously-conceived plan oontains a bidden sllbtle4---WhlclLwicn ll
_ _ _
be profitable at some future date, although its immediate execution would yield
nothing. In these cases the player makes a mental note as a reminder and occupies himself with waiting maneouvres,
in order to camouflage his trap,
having created a feeling of security in his opponent. Bronstein"s experience is characteristic in this respect in that he has applied this psychological stratagem successfully on several occasions. Particul arly memorable
games witlLReshel'S�Candidates'
are the endings of his
ToumamenL19.nd ..5JLa Mikena",s
_ _ _
(33rd USSR Championship , TaDinn 1 965).
Broosbrin-Reshevsky 38 R·QB8 In great time trOuble Wffile aVOids 38 P-QB4 beCause of 38. . .R K B4 , failing to notice that after 39 RxP NxP 40 R·B4! the knight is trapped. 38 . . . R-K4 would have been the correct response when White still has a minimal advantage but one that is difficult to realize. 38 ... NxP Unexpecte d and pretty. Trying to win at an costs , White n ow aYOids 39 IIXN R-Q7. He sets a masked trap and waits with baited breath to see if Reshevsky fans into it. 39 p.B4 R ·
QR4 40 B-N3 R·R6 Black is intent on attacking both bishops. After m aking this lnvana1 inv-a'-" )ve� s-- move Reshevsky offered a draw white-Bronsrel1nTh1ntR
B-BS Threatening m ate by 42 BK-Nl 43 B-R6dis ch. 41_ B-Kl 42 B>
Reshevsky's third draw offer in the game. 41 B8ch
•.
27
CHESS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
45 R-K8 P-B4 46 B-B4 B-Q3 47 P-B7 BxNPch 48 K-N2 BxP 49 R-K7ch K-B3 50 RxB P-BS 5 1 K -B3 Resigns.
Mikenas-Bronstein Already Bronstein has the germ of an idea of giving mate on the back rank , but at t h e moment White i s sufficiently well protected , viz 20 . . . RxP ? ? 2 1 RxR -----.Q =" -· B"'1ChL2 R-Bl. An so ron stem contmue norma y with 20. . .QxPtQ�3)\-2't11t-- R- KR4 P-R3 22 P-QR3 Mikenas must have been relieved to have t his pawn so we)) protected-after al)' with White's queen , QR and QNP guarding QR3, what can possibly go wrong on tha t square? 22 KR-Kl 23 B-B3 Q-K4 T hreatening 24 . . . Q-K&h 2S Q-B1 QxR(RS ) . 24 R-QN4?? Had Mikenas been more alert he would have found either 24 Q.Q4 Q-K8ch 2S RxQ RxRch 26 0N t , or 24 R-Q4 0·K8ch 25 O-B t , but he had lulled himself into a sense of false security over the queshon of the QRP;--Z�i"llfingalolfCe. Woite . • .
resigned .
So with a conscious switch of one's attention to the changed factors in a sItuation an wIth a logIcal comparison between-th-e-currennmd past position , the retained im age has a positive influence on the effectiveness of the thought process, and helps in making a quick and accurate decision . Two tendencies in thought appear in the paradoxical feat ures of reta ined im ages considered above . I n some cases the separate moves are viewed as mutually l in ked elements in the development of the game; such highly developed dyn amics of thin king and concentration are the beneficial effects of retained images. In others one notes a tenden cy to diVIde the g �nffeintu-rsotated·-ptrase'-c-n · ,-- which static , unchanging, retained images are mechanicaUy transferred from one stage to another. 28
THE CHESS I MAGE What measures then , can be suggested for removing the negative in fluence of ret a ined im ages? Amongst the purely chess-based recommendations blin dfol d rl'ffift-:--playdeser-ves-e�·i6ef'f e·
It is held that blindfol d play is injurious to the health an d does no good in developing a player' s ability. We shall not quarrel with the correct allegation that concentration on record-breaking displays for sensational purposes does not produce any benefi t , but we advise merel y a small number of training games. ·I'hitis�lUha.t...tiring...fuLa..tm�pl.ay ..s.. �fu£sibJ)' j1Js_iD�liru1LoJ.d-W_ay� more than in other forms of training , that dynamic qualities of thinking and atten tion are most easily improved. The nature of t he game presupposes the need for a constan t , accurate comparison of past images with the present position . This demands systematic t'Ontrol an d the applicat ion of will power to overcome distractions. It is particularly important not to let the exact position ing of the pieces slip from one' s mind, an d such sluggishness an d in difference are incompatible with blin dfold play. Also, such training helps the developmen t of combin ative vision . It is worth noting. that the most far-sighted t rainers use this kin d of prepara tion in their training programmes . At Bon da revsky's suggestion, Spassky, on the eve of his match with Tal (Tbilisi 1 965 ), spent a session playing blin dfold chess with eight of Sochi's strongest players. Possibly because of this S pa ssky played the match with inventiveness rom the very start, showing himself to be in no way inferior to his opponent in dyn a mic t hought . In any event he suffered from no optical illusions in this match. The readlng of chess books without the aid of a board is also to be recommended - Korchnoy has employed just this method for some time. Another beneficial exercise is foun d in t raining oneself to con si der the question: " What has changed on the board after my opponent's move? Wha t is he threateningT'---' IS met 0 as a practical app Icahon In t e con tests 0 players from Saratov and has had positive results. Some first category players, * using this advice, noticed that they no lon ger forgot that pieces had moved to new squares, although this failing had been ob served in their play before they adopted this training method .
_ _ _
• .
The
inert Image.
I nert images are characterized by the fact that the assessment of an existing position is held to be the final assessment of the ent ire game. Although the game continues, mentally it is already finished . The player imagines that only minor difficulties remain before he attains his goal an d that these do not require great men tal exertion. Thus t he resent (often incorrect) evaluated) is mechanical ly
•
Elo ratings approximately 1 ,900-2,000 .
29
_ _
CHESS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
transferred to the future , therefore the player's analytical objectivity and his precision in assessing the position currently on the board are weakened . I n
'pr-acliee;-ine ---the- rH�6�wit-h---a-n--i-n-t-a-Rd-has
----
inference, so that the material or positional preponderance achieved or the recognition of a well-known type of position that has occurred predeterm ine the result of t he game. When an inert image appears the player relaxes his attention . The excitement f stru lin for the desired result is now re laced b self-confidence and even apathy, as it seems that the goal has been reache d . The resulting compl acent attit ude to the position drives away the feeling of responsibility . The ability to switch attent ion an d the capacity to analyze ahead are sharply lowered and this reduction in mental activity is generally accompanied by errors. It is then quite common that " completely won" positions are not won and "absolutely drawn" pOSitions are lost. It should be noted th at inert ima es characterized b their tendenc towards a completed appraisal of the position , are marked by a high degree of generalization . This position arose in the game Petrosian-Korchnoy, Moscow 1963.
Petrosian described the rest of the game: " For a long time I h ad regarded my position as a winning one. Thus the who'le opening phase of the struggle , when Korchnoy was un able to get out of trouble, had psychologically at tuned me to the idea that the ending would be favourable to me . . . and here comes the incomprehensible oversight 35 RxP?? I did not even see the threat . . . P-B6,
-possibly-beit cause wasin ct>Jtt-ras-Ho-Blaek 'shopelesspos�aJ.l-y.--l-am convinced that if a s trong m a ster does not see such a threat at once he will not notice it , even if he analyzes the position for twenty to thirty minute s . "
30
THE CHESS I M AGE After 35 RxP the game continued 3S , P-B(i 36 K-NS K·Kl and Black won, In this example the inert image is seen in connection with Pet rosian 's final --..anc-pnr[!>a1of the position, thefefore-he-reta-xed-his-a-ttent-ion-;--havin-gr--e -reetiy a:is umed that the game was decided. It was not long before he was punished an d his won position became lost. This only reinforces the truth of the chess adage that a game is only won when the point is entered on the score sheet . Petrosian ' s assertion that once such a threat has been overlooked it will not be •.
--
---ln�o}lt��ic��g-de ibet:atio-n..-is-r-athez:..controversial Ofcourse the in im age is marked by a high degree of stability since it is boun d up with the presence of the persistent emotional state of over -self·confidence. Nevertheless, these psychological states are governed by human will an d can be overcome by a consciously critical examination of one's plan, Let us con sider other practical examples. Before us is a po sition from the game Gawlikowski · Sim agin , Sczawno·Zdroj 1 950.
White has a great material advantage. He is the exchange up combined with t he unstoppable pawn at QR7. However, Gawlikowski's atten tion was concentrated solely on one thing , how to safeguard his king? It is true that Black's threats are very unpteas�nt-;-bu�evaluation of the presen1t-t-- position man ifested itself solely in the desire, which was so domin ant, to rescue the king, that having played 37 P-R8=Qda K-R2, White at once continued with 38 Q· QR6 Q-N7ch 39 K-Kl N-B7ch 40 K-Q2 NxQ and the game ended in a draw. White could have won by playing an unexpected counter-attack with 38 Q. R8ch! ( instead of the timid 38 Q- R6) 38 . . . K)(Q 39 Q-R6ch etc, Gawlikowski was unable to transfer his attention to the new possibilities ----;c=r=eh a"'t=eOlryt e appeanra-qoe n-c-e-o ell at R8. Theimage-ute-positi th -on shoW11H'in--- the diagram seemed SO strong and so stable that having evaluated it White decided to think purely about a means of defence. The move 37 P- R8=Qch was 31
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
considered an d made with the defensive possibility Q-QR6 in min d and it was not connected with any of the other peculiarities of the position . After the game '---iGHawli-kowslci-said-that--he-did-not-even-constder-the-possibility-of-sacrificing-tt queen at once, as his attention had been fixed only on the dangerou s position of the king at KBl. The next example is taken from Ivkov-Vasyukov. Yugoslavia-USSR M atch
The Yugoslav Grandmaster has a decisive attack. The chief agen t in this is the pawn at KB6 , as Black is unable to remove the pawn at once, because it is rotected by the bishop . Having assessed the position as a winning one (which is quite correct ) , Ivkov then paid no attention to possible changes in the situa tion (main ly the removal of his chief advantage-the pawn at KB6) an d he made an immediate attempt to win the game. There followed 19 R-R3 P-KR4 20 RxP?? A dreadful mistake. 20 Q-R4 and P- KN4 made a strong attack still possible . Ivkov' s miscalculation was seen in the next few moves 2O QxP 21 R-R8ch KxR ...
--
�2""'2-'Q�r����-�S--K�ln
BxBP.
Unexpectedly it becomes clear that White's strongpoint (the pawn at KB6) has been wiped out. Hence the foundations of White's position feU . precisely because its invulnerability had been assumed by White under the in fl uence of the inert image.
Confidence in the permanent n ature of the factors involved in evaluating a po-s-itron-an&-ttre-irrlide-qmrte-tnmsierence of allenlion. arepsychological reasons behind a player's failure to see so-called stalemate combin ations.
---
32
THE CHESS IMAGE The following diagram is a position from the game Evans- Reshevsky, USA Championship 1965.
White is in a bad way. Black has an extra piece and a threatening attack on the king. Apparently these factors seemed so obvious to Reshevsky that in ca1culating his next move he assumed that they would hold good in the future. Otherwise his attention wou ave been drawn to the mmor, but matenal alterations which will take place after his intended capture on KN3, n amely that the white pawns will be immobilized, and the king will be in a stalem ate corner. Because of this the unconnected pieces on QB8 and KB7 gain a new possibility-of offering themselves in sacrifice to force stalemate. Reshevsky's belief in the victorious outcome of his attack was so powerful that his attention was fixed on the obvious advantages of the position on the board -s-of - and e care ess y capturedthe pawn at KN3. Xfter �xNPltrea-e1i"ct-e�re-his play, caused by inertia, were soon obvious. There followed 49 Q·KN3c:h KxQ 50 RxPch and it became necessary to agree to a draw as there is no way out of the stalemate. Had Reshevsky exercised even a minimum of care and considered the new characteristics of the position arising after 48 . . . QXNP, he would
doubtless have seen his opponent's combinat-i()fl--llnd I'layeEi---e-ther-wise-,-I()f---- instance 48 . . . Q-N3 49 R-B8 Q. K3 SO PXN R- K8ch and SI . . .Q-R7ch with a quick win . It has been noted that inert images appear most frequently in the mind of the player who has obtained the better, or even a winning position . Having decided that everything is now clear, such a pl ayer does not take account of possible
-- ---"col.h·anges in the position,
even-the--mest-r1ade-xica tdiea}---(}r-parl chang&s-.---but-is
guided blindly by the persistent image of the favourable eval uation of the position in unchanged form. 33
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
At the first appearan ce of a persistent inert image, even a very strong player will automatically transfer the current factors to a future position and will --- -app-roaeh the assesnt-ofsme 6-idea-a --f-t:thtre-e�-e bout the position . Consequently. inert images make the search for new aspects of a position extremely difficult an d they reduce the elements of creative imagery to a minimum . In contrast to retained im ages which appear in a double role (both positive an d negative). inert images are of one kind only, (s ince they are --->cQn.ditiQ�QI1ltio-IlS�f th�canamics of thinking). and they always aR.o=: e",ar ,in the role of negative factors. Deficiencies in thin king and the tran sfer of attention a re connected to volitional character traits, and so such deficiencies in the player' s attention can be successfully eradicated by the development of proper self-con trol and sel f criticism . In the struggle against inert images one must train oneself to look for p aradoxical situations. to search for exceptions to the rules and to develop concrete thinkin . In trainin ames it is beneficial to select di fficult 0 enin variation s, not with the result as the main goal , but rather the search for hidden resources of defence. Despite him self the player is thus imbued with a spirit of scepticism in regard to the seemingly most obvious assessments. An attentive study of the games of Lasker and Korchnoy m ay also be of help . levenfish wrote about the highly developed critical nature of Lasker's thinkIng: ..It was very InterestIng to analyze WIth La sker. How many dlffermg and often unconvincing assessments of Lasker's style have I heard and read during my life . . . I shaIl mention only one undeniable trait- his scepticism an d faith in defence. If we were analyzing a position that I thought was bad for Black, Lasker would at once search inventively for slight counter-chances a nd it turned out that the variation was playable and attempts at refutation did not succeed. " e oug s rom one s p an s urmg may e p u 0 WI raw one s game and cross the front line in order to think on behalf of the opponent . I f you succeed in i mmersing yoursel f in the interests of your opponent you may discover ideas which frequently escape attention in one -sided deliberation . This guarantees a more objective approach to the assessment of a posit ion , thus avoiding a pre eonceiveti--asse !>Sfne4n
_ _
_ _ _
The forward Image. The forward image arises when considering possible future changes in the situation . The role of future events in the game is over-est imated to such an extent that they appear to the player almost as if they already exist in the present. Blumenfeld wrote: "As far as I can tell from my own experience . there
----a lr N t' e'"1ll1 1ttfi o'ments-whe-n--the-+m 1 age crea-ted-by-fflual-ne -eo eph-e-rowds0"trealit . "
The negative role of forward images m anifests itself in two ways. I n the first ,
34
THE CHESS I MAGE the opponent ' s possible threats (often non·existent anyway) are accepted as already present-they are exaggerated and t ran sformed in the mind into ---gigantic threats-;-e --llt -futttre-ptlSS-ib-i-litiesbeeomean obsession and. ar@treated,--aJ;--- rea l factors in the assessment of the current position . In other cases too much significance is attached to possible future active manoeuvres by one's own pieces. The fact that their realization is as yet inadequately p repared is not sufficiently appreci ated. On the con trary , mirages, ___
created in the imaginatinn ...- are mechanicall
used to assess the
sition on the
board. The failure to tran sfer one's attention adequately from the supposed to the real leads to cases where players are carried away by m adcap schemes. This
diagram
shows
a
position
from
Bon darevsky·Flohr ,
Stockholm
Interzonal 1948.
White has definite attacking chances. However, possibly the most unpleasant of them , the advance of the KBP, is no danger to Black at the moment . This is c e r · only from1tre-variation-28-:-:-:-R-;-f(--t!-29-P-·£5 Q)(KP 30 PxP-BPxP-3-l-eHf---- B7ch K·Rl . This is the true assessment of t he posit ion . Yet the possibility of White playing P·BS made such a sh 0ng im pression on Flohr that he disregarded the other aspects of t he position and m ade a move dictated by one thought alone, that he must prevent the advance of the pawn. There followed 28 . . . P· KB4
29 P>
30. . . P·KN4 3 1 N·RS NxN 32 QXN White gained a clear advantage.
3S
CHESS AND PSYCHOL<:X;Y
let us now consi der a position from the game Capabl anca- Alexander, ----Not-ti-amngh 6:-Bta --t9-3 ck--ptay��.-JH-?-n -l regard to this-Atekhine wrote� . "Not only does this lose val uable time, but it also permit s the white reply which is the first step to freeing the QB. Meanwhile. as there were no direct threats to the opponen t . Black himself could have begun a Q-side attack by means of 26 . . . B-RJ with the advance of the QNP to follow. The outcome of the game
-
would bave been entirely
nnclear " It is
quite lik.el¥ that Black's defensi�
measures can be explained by his overrating the ill usory threat of Q-KRS . Play continued 27 P-KN4 Q-N3 28 PXP RxP 29 RxR QxRch 30 K-RI R-B1 3 1 Q-RI , and White had the initiative. Similarly. in the game Spassky- Reshevsky, Amsterdam Interzonal 1 964, Reshevsky voluntarily denied himself the only active plan . . . P-QNS , fearing the underminin.gJIlO�QR4_whkh..actuall}'-Wo.ul(Lnot have been very promising for White.
_ _ _ _
36
THE CHESS I MAGE Here Reshevsky played
33
•.•
P-RS. After 34 Q.K3 Q.Q3 35 P- KN3 , White' s
advantage h a d increased since there is nothing for Black t o do; h e had deprived
--- --k-ifnself completely of any counterplay In hIS behef In the posslbihtY ofthe threat P - QR4 .
A similar case can be observed in the g ame Krogius-Zhukhovit sky, Sochi
1 967 , where after the moves I P-04 P-04 2 P-084 P-K3 3 N·OB3 N-KB3 4 pxp
__
---&'L'-'PB-. --5-B-N5- Kl-6-J»-IO-IWll--1-Bl-Q-N-�Q-B2 R Ki lO 0 -0 N-BI I I QR-NI P·QR4 1 2 p·QRJ N-N3 1 3 P-QN4 P>
seem ed so dangerous and real that White switched over to defence:
20 P·R3? B R4 21 R(NI )-Kl? N-1lS 22 P·N3 and Black had the advantage. White should
not have succumbed to the influence of the forward image, but should have
-"xanllne cLthe variatiOD-2O-JW'!I6-� 21 R(HI).-Nl--Q.-I'!4-ll--J!...NJ-wbeJ'&-W-mte>---
_ _
gets his attack in before
his opponent. For example 22 . . . N-B6ch 23 NxN BxN 24 RxP Q-R.4 25 N-NS Q-R6 26 Q-B4ch and 27 Q- K B I .
In the above examples we see cases where the opponent's future threats were over·estimated and the
ossibilities of one's own
osition were un der-estim t d.
Then we see a vol untary and largely unjust ified refusal to un dertake active operatiGn s and a transition to defence. Such self-in duced passivity leads to a con si derable reduction in productive thinking an d the player starts to t i lt at windmills. In such cases an inadequate tran sference of a ttention is discovered, basically the attention is fixed on the distant future and in fact it by-passes the position
on
summ arized
the board. These aspects b
Tarrasch's
of the forward image were neatly
a horism- "The
execution " .
37
threat
is
stron er
than
it s
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
The other side of the forward image is often in evidence. One's own chances are exaggerated and one's attention is directed solely to the examination of e opponent s POSSI e rep les are un er· possibilities for one's own pieces. estimated . The above diagram shows a position from the game Krogius·Bronstein , Tbilisi 1967 . In this position Bronstein pl anned a line of attack on the enemy king by eans of . P-RS-and, if possible, . . .P- B3 and . . P-KN4. Bronstein-'-s-attention- centred on these possibilities to such an extent that he regarded these threa ts as practically the only ones with any relevance for the positio n . Thus he played 13 P·85? This move is bad if only because it frees White in the centre and on the Q-side. Bronstein's attention was fixed on what he regarded as the very promising chances of a ttacking t he white king. However, a realistic assessment of the po sition demanded that Bronstein maintain the tension in the centre . . .
.
..•
Blacksho�'r.n�+Y The game continued 14 �B2 Q-B2 IS N·NI 0-0-0 16 N-B3 �R3 17 Q·KI QR·KI 18 P-QN4 �N2 19 P·QR4 P·B3! Once again Black is preoccupied with
---
unrealistic plans. The forward image of an attack on the white king was so per sistent that, even in the position where Black's attack had lost even the slightest --P-I'-ospects.-ofsuccess, Bronstein-di.sr.eg.arded-the1acUhat his position had deteri orated a nd he played the "pseudo-active" advance . . . P-B3. His attention was fixed on the mythical attack against the white king. 20 K·Nt Q.QI 21 R·R2 P·R5 22 B·NI Px" Again Black has made several moves whilst suffering from a forward im age of a non-existent activity, the last of these moves is a decisive error. Firstly, White has got the chance of a plan with P-KN3, R-KN2 and then P·KN4, but now he also has a fonnidable initiative on the Q-side. We emphasize
that tbe sequence of bad black moves is...no.ident ..acc Bronstein's attention ha been in the thrall of unrealistic assumptions for some time. There followed 23 QPxP.
___
After the game Bronstein explained that he was only expecting 23 BPxP. Here is the measure of the degree to which the appraisal of the position was ...s>!llb.Q. rdinaJe.d..to_tbe ill.Ou� . Il�oLCQ.ncentrn.ting on future desirable changes in the position ! In deference to the persistent forward image the opponent's moves were also anticipated to work in the required direction . The' game ended 23... N·Nl 24 �K3 N·m 25 Q.B2 P·R6 26 P·N3 P·N3 27
P·RS K·N2 28 BxN NPxB 29 PXP PXP 30 R(BI ).RI Q.B2 3 1 N.Q4 R·RI 32 N· NS RxR 33 QxR and Black resigned. The forward ima e often a ears in connection with a conviction that the opponent is forced to capture, in reply, a sacrificed or exchanged piece. Here is a position from t he game Liberzon-Taimanov. Tbilisi 1 967 .
38
THE CHESS I MAGE
-
--Hpyop·--the-rregative ad.allce-image is observeci-m-l'a-imanov·s-ea-leuiatftms-;. -tk:---
believed t ha t the varia tion 3S . . . RxN 36 pxR R·Q8ch with a win. was forced. and in fact that is how the game ended. Black had not seen the move 36 Q-B6 which would change t he assessment of his pla n . It should be mentioned t h a t seeing such intermediary and quiet moves is psychologically especially difficult. since r to a
they are�neLaJly linked with the...LaLQD .reiusaLto.....r.egain...lO£Lma1eria
violation of the (at first sigh t) obvious appraisal of the position . After all . for the most part . practice convinces the player of the opposite-of the necessity for a respectful att itude towards material and the principles of strategy. Hence positions which are full of unusual ideas lead even the most original players astray at times. Let us examine a
sition from the
1 926.
39
arne N imzowitsch-Alekhine. Dresden
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY Black played 35 . . . R-QBl . Alekhine wrote: " This unnecessary finesse puts the ---ww in --" lLJ.l in Ll.U do_ubi---B ck sh uld la 35 . . . BxNP 36 BXN xB 37 BxP P-Q6 38 BxB
_ _ _
PXR and he has an exchange for the pawn_ However. it seemed to me. mistaken ly. that the move made in the game is simpler and after four moves would give me a winning ending. " There followed 36 BxN QXB 37 R·QB2 BxNP 38 BxP p.Q6 39 R-B3 P·Q7 40 Q-Bl A defence that ' had not foreseen " A lekhine recalled. '" calc ulated only upon the capture of the pawn which gave a Win m every vanatton . e game continued 40 . . . BxB 41 RxB RxR 42 QXR R-QBl 43 Q.K2 Q-N3ch 44 Q-B2 QxQch 45 KxQ R·B7 46 K·K2 and it soon ended in a draw. ..
At times the persistence of attention that is centred upon future posiiions is so great that reality is a lmost completely ignored. A pawn . a piece, remain en prise and the player does not see the direct danger. He thinks in terms of t he future and makes the grossest one-move oversIghts. an incident.
� · ·D '-'-"' ee "l p L,jJl tho ht I suddenl saw a combin ation · 26 .N-B4 , 27 . . . QxRch and 28 . . . N-Q6ch regaining the q ueen . I grabbed the knight . made the move and then stopped the clock. without even waiting for Capablanca's reply . "
_ _ _ _ _
_ _
Ryumin h ad not noticed that Capablanca's preceding move attacked the queen-his attention had been fixed on forecasting future operations. Thus, an excessive obssession with thinking about the possibly benefic al actions of one's own pieces, also negatively influences the objective appraisal of the position because the strength of one's own position is exaggerated. The field of attention is n arrowed and the p layer' s sight . diverted from the rest of the board . dwells firmly on the only idea that is exciting for him . Enthusiasm for the plan is so
\
40
THE CHESS I MAGE great that the player calculates only for himself, as if his opponent did not exist. The negative forward image therefore appears on two levels in thinking. Deficiency in the dynamics ofthinKing leads in some cases to superfluous caution ("fear has big eyes" *) while in others it leads to excessive daring and self-confidence and sometimes to the fruitless planning of madcap schemes. However, we should also note the positive role of forward images in developing the player's imagination . In the creativity of Tal, Larsen, Korchnoy, --""'em�drnov-alfd---utptayerstrer ttlt:worlctngs-of-their-imaginations-generalty- correspond, a fter critical analysis, with reality. This mixture of imagination and perception , thanks to the conscious transfer of attention , aids the range an d precision of calculation and the formula tion of original ideas. This diagram shows a position from Nezhmetdinov- Kasparian, Riga 1955 .
In this position Nezhmetdinov conceived a beautiful mating plan. This was strengthened by accurate calculation and was then carried out . The analysis was very difficult in tha t the position is complicated and double-edged. There followed 38 B·K6 R·KRlch 39 B·R3 The significance of the move 38 B --
--I/'K�-wth�vaTiation 38 RxRch39QxR! R-Q740 B)(�9;-;-;--N)(jl-40-R-B'7etehIl-lK..---- R3 4 1 Q)(Nchl RIligDl. Mate in six is uMvoidll.ble. . . .
We have shown that forward images may be important elements in developing
the ability to foresee events on the board, b ut what measures should
be
recommended for the avoida nee of the nega tive effects of forward images? ---�WumeIlJeldmade-so. me-interesting--S.uggestions� matter how strong the visual imagination , it is quite clear that the mental picture is paler than the •
Russia n proverb
41
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
visual impression. Therefore , aher the opponent has made a move, even if it was anticipa ted, one should never make one's reply without thought (except of course , during extreme time pressure). After all, the move has been prepared whilst the given position existed in the imagination alone." When one is interested in a pretty idea or an effective manoeuvre, one should never forget the "prose" of chess life. Before execu ting a move it is worthwhile to run the eyes over the board once more-perhaps the opponent threatens somethmg SImple'! In general It IS correct to say that a m ove shoulO1:le m-aOe1fl- four stages: decide on a move, write it down, check it an d only then move the piece. In this way even the most obvious i dea is more reliably control led. To combat the negative man ifestations of forward images we recom mend a training method with "spaced finishes" . No, we are not talking about bicycle races; the idea behind the method is that the player is asked to solve a complicated combination of many moves, without moving the pieces on the board. WhefnR�says1le has th�otution;-t1rel' -b-(Ya crisl'em(YvedilITd-ne--js-askerr- to state the exact location of every �ce after, say, the second move in the combina.tion, or the fifth and so on . In principle this method of tr<\ining has merits in the sense that many forward images arise as recollections of an intuitive nature. In an intuitive recollection ---
:the��OO-r�-idea,buU>mits-the- in termedia te links. The significance of this t raining method is well illust rated by an example given by Bykhovsky .
Bykhovsky commented: "Studying this position , which was pretty unpleasant for me (Scherbakov was White) I suddenly saw a series of moves 1 . . . NxBP 2 NxB N-R6ch 3 K-Rl Q-B6ch 4 Q- N2 N-B7ch 5 K-N l N-R6ch 6 QXN R-R7 7 BxR RxB. The whole variation flashed by in a moment and I consciously
42
THE CHESS IMAGE retained only the fin al positio n . Having analyzed it I happily found that White had no escape from perpetual check. However, when I began to examine it closely from the very start, I discovered at once tfiitWhite h ad a strong reply in
3 K-N2 and after 3 . . . Q-B6ch 4 KxN Black has no compensation for the great loss in materia l. Anyway there was no real choi ce, I decided to play 1. .. NxBP. To my great relief Scherbakov continued 2 NxB N·R6ch 3 K·RI Now , whilst deliberating over my move, I saw two variations, one beginning with check by
--1tfhhe-queen-olJ K86,
but the othel with the-move R-R7_
I tlied to Jlra��e--'llTlly"'se=HlfF----
reconsider these variations, but I was unable to concentrate, as I could only think how good it was tha t I had forced the draw and quite a pretty one at tha t . As a result o f these thoughts I came to the conclusion that both variations led t o the same goal and played 3 Q·B6ch'" Then came 4 Q·N2 N·B7ch 5 K·NI N· R6ch 6 QX N R-R7 7 B·QS and Black resigned . If Black had not substituted the •..
vision for his calculation and had fixed the position in his mind after each move
-then-he-woutd-have-achieveddraw with3. . .R-R7 without-an� speciaIeffort. In examining the dynamic features of chess thin king we unwittingly touched upon the question of its com ponent pa rts. Let us now tum to perhaps the most complic ated form of the thinking process-to intuitio n .
43
CHAPTER 2
Intuition in Chess
Intuit ion is the direct way of reaching the truth -the quick solution suddenly comes to mind. Probably few concepts are to be found that give rise to such lively argumeHts as does---tftat-n-;6Hn-tuitffi --ami-serious attempts have beeH m-atIe-te eradicate its use altogether. This debate has also involved the worl d of chess. So-does intuition have a place in chess creativity? On the subject of chess crea tivity Bronstein , in his book on the 1953.-Candida tes' Tourna ment , wrote : " However, there is also a fourth ingredient and perhaps it is the most at tractive, although it is often forgotten . I have in mind in tuition , or. if you wiI l . chess imagination . . . intuit ion was and is one of the foundations of chess creativity. " =r-hus-lk-onS-IWJ�s�:w-s--ilie-t'--ef-m-t el€ ,ui#()R- but-si-m-H-lta-ooeu-sly_€qua_tes--# with the player' s imagina tion . I n his book "The Attack " , Panov writes: "Of course intuition is not the correct word. As we well know, intuition is the beloved concept of the foreign idealist philosophy , implying that beneath in tuition there is a direct comprehension of tru th, something like a revelation from above . . . players must be guided by their instinct for chess, which furnishes them with the necessary conviction of the correctness of say a sacrifice, in positions where it is impossible to analyse all variations . " So Panov downgrades intu ition , b u t emphasizes chess instinct. From what follows it will become clear that this is rather a misundersta nding of terminology , but not a denial that the player can make a combinative decision without making an exact calculation or a prelimina ry series o f linked conclusions.
----
44
INTUITION IN CHE S S In Linder' s opinion "Every game, from beginning t o en d, constitutes a chain of mental conclusions, each logically linked to the nex t" . He emphasizes the itiea-taHy-eo -tfiat--any-game-is--always----a---t nseiOt1S process-,---;\�here--a-nyfuin-g--- irrational or unconscious has no place. What ex actly do we mean by " Intuition"? Let us first acq uaint ourselves with what the M arxist theory of knowledge tells us about intuition . since a correct philosoph ical understanding of intu ition will -,h,-" c� l ,--1.!�JtIU!le more lQ..deleJ:m Jn.cit£pJareJn-.-Che.£s...cre.afuit�mrsaicLin.-J\.l'--lll of his celebrated lectures: " I find tha t all intuitions should be so understood tha t man remembers the conclusion but not the entire road over which he approached and prepared the concl usion . This is because he di d not an alyze his way to the conclusion . .. The "Philosophical Dictionary" (1 963 Edition) states " I ntuition plays an auxil1iary role in the process of lea rn i n g . Behind the capacity to ' suddenly' discover the truth there stands in realit - accumulated ex erience and knowledge tha t has already been acquired. The results of intuitive knowledge have no. need of any criteria of truthfulness (self-evidence etc. ) b ut they are logically proved and have been tested in practice . " It follows from these statements that in tuition in general, an d i n connection wi th chess in particular, is definitely a component of thinking. As opposed to oglca ana YSIS, an mtmtlve deCIsion revea s on y t e resu t o menta opera tions, which them selves remain unperceived at tha t moment . In chess creativity in tuition appears as a sudden discovery , at which moment the prepa ration for this decision is not conscious. In an intui tive decision there is an awareness of some k ind of result (the image of a series of moves or manoeuvres), but the details, the intervening links in the thought process, are subconsciously o m itted. Such a decision is conceived by the player as something whole and e musIcIan grasps In egra e . grasp I e POSI Ion on a chord-in its entirety , " wrote Binet. I especially wish to point out that the objects of intuition may be the combinative as well as the positional elements of the chess game. For examples we refer to the beautiful combination in the game Polugayevsky·Nezhmetdinov, �-I"--S-R-Gham�i() -+ea-m-nsfl-ip-Soehl-+9-S-�p--understa-nd-i-n-g-shown Tchigorin in sensing t he possibility of an equally balanced struggle of knights by against bishops in his famous game again st Lasker ( Hastings 1 895).
---
_ _
_ _ _
--
45
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
Poluga yevsky -Nezhmetdinov
Nezhmet dinov had played t he whole game with great energy and force . Now he stunned his opponent w i t h 24 . . . RxPU once by
25 RxQ After 2S P>< R , Black wins a t 25 . . . BxPch 2 6 NxB N x Bch. 25 . . . R·B6dbl ell 26 K-Q4 B-N2! 2 7 P-R4 1 f
27 N-N ! , no t 27 . . . RxKNP 28 N- K2 R- K B6 29 N-N! etc . , but 27 . . . N( K4)- Q6ch
K-R3 P-N4' 31 P- N4 (or Jl Q Q4--Bx
28 K-B4 NxB(N7)ch 29 KxN B-B6ch
32 NxR B- B6! 33 P· N4 N-BSch followed by 34 . . . BxR with a decisive m aterial adva ntage) 31 . "
P·QR4 32 PXP N · BSch 33 K-N3 NXPch 34 K - R3 N·BSdbl ch
3S K-N3 R-R6 mate . It was Nezhmetdinov ' s int uition t hat led h im to conclude that his attack would be decisive-these variations are too head spinning to
27 . . . P-B4ch 28 PXP e.p. pxp 29 B-Q3 N(K4)xBch 30 K B4 P-Q4ch 31 pxp pXPch 32 K-N5 R-Nlch 33 Resigns
allow firm calcula tio n .
We shaH assume
t hat
ascribing intuit ion
purely
to
combinations and
sacrifices is to im poverish the concept of in tu ition in chess a ltogether. On t he other hand it is not correct to equate intuition with i magination. The player's i m aginat ion or his ability to visualize future changes on t he board is not necessarily accompanied by a sudden insight into some idea. It rna c
u a IOn , or a
be a
recise
y com prehen ed logical a nalysis of t he devised pla n in all its
stages . We should also take a crit ical attitude towards Linder's opinion. If the whole ga m e is merely a definite and perceivable calcula tion to its end . then w here do i m aginatio n and exploration come in? To sum up.
we
consider chess cre a t iv it y
to b e a conscious intellectual effort , which contains , however. unconscious elements. g ----�v-t-"Cclhla t;a1 � 81ll'llalCcl1le:!lri!is;tiitic
0 c ess In ultlon .
Irst y, we must note t he
relative speed wit h which a player makes an intuit iv e decision
at chess.
Secon dly. a player displays intuition in an arbitary manner, each move is an act 46
INTUITION IN CHESS
with a definite aim -in some cases it is a ttack, in others it is defence . Thus the player can not call upon creative enlightenment at a favourable momen t , b u t is
sUiplisedi>yinspiI3Iiorr;-as-wereJ\--rchimedes and Newton. Atanygiven rnornent--- the player does not need general ideas, even though they may be quite origin a l . b u t t hose which give the solution t o the particular proble m . Hence t h e value of each of a player's ideas depends upon their a ppropria teness. Had the idea of a q ueen sacrifice su ddenly come to Kotov in his famous game with Averbakh
....cou �f.ter (Zurich L953.).---a..p1
the
lH th g-tJ e�-- J'R� ym possibility of pbl-¥
co mbi n a tio n , then very likely it would have brought only belated regrets.
Averba k h - K otov Kotov won by 30 . . . QXPch !! 3 1 KxQ R-R3ch 32 K-N4 N·B3ch 33 K-BS N -Q2 As
S tahlberg pointed out, 33 . . . N-NS ! would be even stronger, prevent i n g White's nex t move. 34 R-NS R-KBlch 35 K·N4 N-B3ch 36 K-B5 N-Nlch 37 K·N4 N-
--�8 K·BS NXQPc 39
· N 4 N-B3ch 40 K-B5 N- N l c h The tim e con t rol . 4 1 K-N4 N- B3ch 4 2 K-B5 N-Nlch 43 K-N4 BxR Threatening 44 . . . B - K 2 followed by 4S . . . N-B3ch 46 K - BS N-Q2ch 47 K - N4 R - K N l ch and mates_ If 4 4 B-K3 B K 2 4S
BxK BP px B 4 6 Nx P R - R5ch 4 7 K - N 3
R(RS)x N. 4 4 KxB R.m!
Threatening mate in two by . _ _ R-N2ch and . . . R-B). I f 4S NxP R-N2ch 46 N-
----{--N6ch-R N2-JxNch47K-BS-N-K2mate. 45�R4 R-N3ch46K-lt51tfBlFN�2-.o4""7"'Bo---- NS RxBch 48 K-R4 N-B3 49 N-N3 RxN 50 QXQP R(N6)-N3 SI Q-N8ch R·N) S2 Resigns I m agine m issing such a beautiful idea on m ove 30, and then realizing the m is take soon a fterwa rds . The effect wou l d be shattering. The player is incessantly obl iged to seek a s o l u t ion at t he board now , by applying certain voluntary effor ts. not to postpone it until l a ter. .
reates exce-pt-itmaHension-i-n the thinking processes-duJing Ihe game.
We consi der i t necessary to refute Blumenfe l d , who in the article "Of Character
47
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
i n Chess Th in king" expressed the o.pinio.n that in t uit ive t h inking at the board is no.t deliber ate , that chess players t hink as their fancies t a ke t hem . By hulding
----t-fot -..,s,...uctnrviewwnmjustifiabty-disorientare-tlre-ptayer=i -yu townfnrt thr u-nee ur- strive fo.r the desired go.a l , intuitio.n will come by itself. Th irdly, a successful intuitive solutio.n is accum panied by strong pusitive emo.tiu n . Bronstein -----
a
feel ing uf creative
was
quite currect
satisfactio n .
when he sai d :
-ecombi.nation-S---to-the-a-rt---d-chess,
but
self·cunfidence
and
"Intuit iun gave
triumph .
t he pret t iest
as-1().r-the-p).OU'ed-t ay-er-S-it-�U -hem-t-O
ex perience the real happiness uf creativity . " Fuurt hl y , the pract ical , active character uf chess t hin king man ifests itself in the appearance in the player uf an intuitive sense uf tim ing . The player feels , fur exam ple. that the m ument has com e when delay will mean deat h . t h at it i s exactly n u w a n d n u t later t hat h e must begin t h e cuun ter·attack, t he a dvance u r t h e pawn sacrifice. Thi s sense u f t iming i s m anifested fu r instance in t h e feel ing
oLdanger
_____
which is
familiar to
many players Kutuv wrote' "To hal
kno.wledge uf a future danger in t i m e to. avo.id it is a guaran t ee o.f great success in chess tuurnaments. Players have called this quality a sense o.f danger . " Le t u s no.w con sider the circumst ances determining the birth o. f intuitive solu t iuns during the process o.f co.nsidering a muve. We have a lready no.ted t hat intu ition
lays an auxiliar
role in t he leamin
rocess . The int u it ive mo.ve i s
no.rm ally preceded b y a Io.gical analysis o. f the positio.n o.n the bo. ard. In this sen se, in rel ation t o. the co.nscio.us search fo.r a mo.ve . intuit io.n co.mes seco.n d . Ho.wever , it i s no.t always a ratio.nal pro.cess o. f t hinking o. r a p recise calculatio.n o.f variat io.n s t h at perm its o.ne to. m a ke the cho. i ce . Ohen t he player feels do.ubtful, he feels dissati sfied when he has co.nsidered the varia t io.ns suggested by Io.gical analysis. The l i m it ed time available reinfo.rces the impossibility o.f u t iliSing o.nly a metho.d o.f strictly lo.gical o.peratio.n s . At such m o. m en t s the i ntuitio.nal mechanism is called o.n fo.r help . The psycho.lo.gist
Ya . Po.n o.marev
wrote : "The success o.f an intuit ive so.lutio.n depen ds upon t he extent to. which o.ne has m anaged to. free o.neself from t he stereotype, beco. me co.nvinced t h at the earlier fa miliar m etho.ds are inapplicabl e . and when o.ne has thereby retained an interest in the proble m . " A combinat io.n o.f what are really upposite emo.tio.ns is ----- 0.'" servecr--fJltl1elnmitmn-fl"Olnlo-ntuitio ginoi n.
On-orre-s-fct--1f el1re--ptayer'
dissati sfied with the path t a ken by his lo.gical analysis (a negative emo.tio.n) while o.n the o.t her he ret ains his ent husiasm and interest fo.r t h e search (a po.sitive emo.tio.n ) . Let us co.nsi der examples ill ustrating t he secon dary n a t ure o. f in t u i t io.n . I n t h e game
Krogius·Geller
fro.m
the
27t h
U SS R Cham pio.nship .
the
sudden
i n spiratio.n o.f the mo.ve NxP a rose regretfully after I had beco. m e co.nvinced
------t th h-a
sound positio.n .
48
they left Black "ith a
INTUITION IN CHESS
There followed 23 NXP R(RI }-QBI 24 QXP RxP 2S P-QR) K-Hl 26 R-QN3 K-R) 27 B-N7ch and Black resigned. Now compare this with Bronstein's description o f Smysiov's choice o f 1 9th move as Black in his game against Kere s , Zurich 1953 .
"I thought for a long t i me" , said Sm yslov afterwards, "I badly wanted to capture the rook, all the m ore so since I di d not see how White cou l d t hen win . Just im agine to be a whole rook u p for nothi n g . " However, after analyzing
1 9 . . . PxR for a long time S m yslov preferred another idea a nd played 19 . . . PXP.
Th is was an intuit i ve decision, as t here could be no question of a n alyzing a l l the possible variati!' n s -first of all
ana lysis
an d then the int uit ive
decisio n .
---.:-»wy-'slo'/ s intllit-ive-react-io-n---was-+ater yerifiedf'Ofls-t --by--logieat-aJtMysis�-B etHI--- wrote: "His intuition di d not m islead S m yslov, he played the best m ove as later
a nalysis was to prove. It turned ou t that after 19 . . . pxR 20 QxP R- K1 White cuts
49
CHESS AND PSYCHO LOGY
off the retreat of the enemy king with the problem -like m ove 2 1 P-QR4 . " Logical forms of thinking are obviously a n essent i al prerequ isite for the Inception
0
In
U1
n:y-of
-
intuit ion al pl an . The player's intuit ive i deas are executed in t he fo rm of moves or plans on the board, after the fullest possible verification by logical analysis. The philosopher M. Bunger wrote about the n ecessity of exam ining an int uiti ve decision: " It [intu ition - N . K .] m ay dispose us to favour one theory or m ethod,
----trtortt+hrf'e'1dii
-rnw1ysteriaus-foree,-e--or-ig-i --wJws n - is
inex-pli€able and •....hose-suggested-SOlutionS-.-.---
always prove correct . Intuition is dependent upon the conscious mental effort of the player; it arises upon the basis o f conscious logical analysis and is verified by it. Of course , counter-exam ples could be cited where an intuitive i dea arises _ _
..lillmumue.datel¥i a1teL111Lopp.On.e.O t 's move has been
la ed . One would ima ine.
h owever , that in these cases the resulting position had already been visualized clearly over the preceding moves by means of both logical analysis of t he future position and an intuitive searching activity . Certain m en t a l operat ions have to be distinguished from intuition -those which are execu ted automatically (to a certain extent) and almost unperceived in the course of pl ay. A m ongst these are, for instance , the exact knowledge of endgame pOSitio n s , or of a n opening ____
IWliition or of the sim lest tact ical and technical m et ho d s . I t is o ft en observed in endgames that the rook is automatically posted beh i n d a passed pawn . or pawns are placed upon squ ares of colour opposite to the colour of their own bisho p , even i n time trouble . I n deed, such automatic reactions in themselves represent characteristic habits of chess thinking. Their chief feature lies in the fact that they a re carried out almost unchanged,
according to a single
a6llslled m odel. as .fby stereotype. Here the creatlve faaorfnin-rss ng. ----est� The co ntent of the intuitive process is ent irely different . Int uition is a creative process, whereby the new and original are discovered. Although the mechanics of chess intuition app arently spring from a comparsion with sim ilar positions al ready familiar to the player, this similarity by no means leads to thoughtless repet ition according to a known pattern . It should be em phasized that it i s i m possible to separate the intui tive from the logical part of t h i n king as they a re m utu aUy combmeoma smgteper<:e-p'ive-p-rocess-:.------
so
INTUITION IN CHESS We have convinced ourselves that intui tion is not a mysteriou s revelation from above . but a defin ite. essential part of a player's thinking. Since this is so ,
--fr'eleefrJt1-mendat-idons--o-f--waysl-o- evektp-int-u-itive-a-bH-ities-are-q-uit-e-at-t-Factiv�e--lEe-erF---- t hose
trying to develop their m astery of the game.
Are there
any such
reco mmen dations? Here we must dwell on the key problem of explaining the mechanics of intuition which so in terests modem science. Let us consider the appearance of _-,i=nluiti ve decision s in <;;hess creativi
. Firstl
we should famili arize ourselves
with Blum�nfeld's very interesting remarks: "The situation in the following diagram arose after Black ' s 2 1 st move in the g ame Bogolyubov-Mieses, Baden Baden 1925.
"In t his position Bogulyubov found the following combination: 22 BxP P><S
23 RxNPch KxR 24 Q-KB6cb K-NI 25 R-KNlcb Q-NS 26 RXQcb P>
Bogolyubov himself) was the well-known combination pl ayed by Morphy against Bird (London
1858)."
51
CHESS A ND PSYCHOLOGY
Bird-Morphy
Het:e-t.here-fO-UQwed 17
-----
RxBP18BxlLQ.R6!with a winni-ng-�-atta.
In this way the origin of an intuitive com binative solution is explained by comparing the current position with an ide�. retained in the memory fro m past experien ce. The elements of difference and similarity in these positions appear in the su bco nscious process of comparison . Probably the mechanics of comparing the present with past experience remain unchan ged in principle even in the case of intuitive i deas of a more general strategic order. In the game Ujtelky- Krogius, Sochi 1 96 7 , Black executed an intuitive positional sacrifice of the exchange relying on various past i m pressions of the value of the King's In dian bishop.
----,-Here it seemed to me, the--in£reased power of B-laek's KB would mort': thaH
19 P)(P 20 BxR QR·BI N·B5 25 QXP
compen sate for the loss of the exchange. The game continue d :
Q)(B 21 P·R3 B-K3 22 N-KB3 P-Q6 23 Q-Q2 N-N3 S2
24
..•
I NTUITION IN CHESS
NxNP 26 Q-Kl QXP and White's Q-side was com pletely destroyed. Black's KB was now able to assist in the advance of the Q R P an d in a few more moves White
However, regardless of the supposedly general n ature of the appearance of i ntuitive decisions, they appear in chess in various forms and with great individuality. Th us , for instance, Petrosi an ' s intuition differs substantially from that'of Tal or
BFOftstein.
What
is tlre---point---here? It is-highly likely tlta-t--thlt1el!---
difference in the types of intuitive thin kin g depends upon
what type of
assodations the player is using. We m ay assu m e that there are players who at first subcensciously consider the elements which are com mon to m a n y positions and which therefore confirm the principles of the game, but there are other players who find e xceptions and factors which are in con t rast to the rules. In some cases we therefore have associations of sim ilar features while in others we
-
rut
a
4io.ns-of--CO-itl-g-fea O-tf.aSt -HWc:lh----------------
�t :t�tl:st rate this with some ex amples. In the game Geller- Kere s , Zurich .
I P-Q4 N-KB3 2 P- QB4 P-K3 3 N-QB3 P-Q4 4 N-KB3 p.QB4 5 PXQ P PxQP 6 QxP PXP 7 P· K4 N-QB3 8 B Q N 5 NxP 9 0-0 N-KB3 10 R- Klch B-K2, there followed 1 1 Q-KS . This idea 1953 Can didates' Tournament, after the open ing moves
-
p robably did not attract Geller's attention b
accident . A similar idea had been
seen in his game against Kholmov in the 1 7t h U S S R Championshi p , a l t hough in that game Black was able to defend h i m self successf ully by playing several pawn advances and then t he m anoeuvre . . . R - Q R 2 .
Geller- Kholmov
ttere--tle1terti c()lT nue�ens__s__�pxP-crNxPfollowedby P- . 8 PxP 9 QxPch B-Kl a n d a fter 10 R-KI P-QN4 I I B-N3 P-QR4 1 2 P-QR4 R R2! , Black had freed his position . The ga me con tin ued 13 PXP 0-0 14 P-N6 1 4 . . .
53
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
pxp B-Q3 gives Black a dangerou s attack . 14 . . . QXP 15 P·Q3 B.QN5 , and Kho l mov was able to convert his init i ative into a win . Note t h at in t he Geller· Keles-pusition 11 BxNctrPxltwas--str o-ng, aM only now
12 Q-KS, threatemng
N·Q4. After the move in the g am e Keres succeeded in freeing h im self of the pin
1 1 . . . 0-0! and a fter 1 2 BxN came 12 . . . B-Q3. Possibly Geller did not play 1 1 BxN b�c a use intuitively there was a n association a t wor k , due to the sim ila rity to his ga�e against Kho l mov. Geller decided not to help Kere s ' Q-side pawns to
by
�ecausein t1'\e-previousgamethathad workedin Bla-ek-'s-faveucJ" T� . -----
----Im
Now let us consider a position from the game Ta l · Kel ler. Zurich 1 959 .
It may be sai d with certainty that any player relying u pon his previous experience of similar i deas and posit ions wou l d have played something li ke 1 4 N-QR4 N-Q2.15 PXP PXP 1 6 N · Q4 0-0·0 1 7 BXP. Not Tal however. He m a kes a decision (it is true that it was by intuition since it was impossible to prove anything or calcul ate through to the en d ) . which was in contrast to his past experience. thereby posing a direct ch a l lenge to that
P>< P! PxN 15 N.Q4 R·N1 16 Q.R4eh K.Ql 17 P·KN3 B·Q4 1 8 KR·QI . Such play is no exception with Tal. His games a n d . let us note
experience. He pl.ayed 14
In passmg those ofLasker. Korchnoy and others, are full of mtUltlve dl scovenes, which directly contradict the evidence of past experie nce . Therefore intuition can be different in different players, even if they are of an equal class of play an d are equally t a lente d . Consequently, each type of intuitive thinking has its own ments and its own drawbac ks. How is the player to struggle with the shortco m ings of h is own feel for the g am-e-amttodeve1or p-ms-stron-ge potnls?111-a -so-far s-we-nave-awelt atlength on t he dependence of intuition on past experience , the answer wou l d seem to be sim ple. Study more games. read more theoretical articles an d a penetrating feel 54
INTUITION IN C HESS for the g a me is guaranteed. I n fact it i s not all that easy. Capabl a nca studied
chess compa ratively little but he possessed the ric hest of intuitions. while other Gra n dm asters possess encyclopaedic know ledge but are hesitant a n d do not t rust t heir intuition. Of cou rse knowledge is a great thing, but the m ain point is not the amount of knowledge but its sensible organization. We have stated that intuition is based upon comparisons and a ssociation s . Th i s means that one m ust search consciously for the links between individual
----·o-si -np tio-rrs;i-deas-arrct-varhltton-s-;-tb---rom-t>areanrt strtve to findtheIr fu ndam enta I si m i l arities a n q differences. Past experience must be actively utilized, given
stgnificance and generalize d . It is better to have a s mall amount of knowledge t hat is flexible , easily recalled and well organized, than to have a mass of separate fact s , representing a uni que but lifeless chess knowledge. After all, readi n g a1\ tile a rticles in an encyclopaedia is not the best way to develop the intellect. ----i-an -f'C"-!larnpa-b ca-possesserr-a-remartabte-s-klt1forfm-dmg11re SIm ple In me most com plicated and con tradictory positio n . Let us recaU the story of how he lea rned to play thess.
i
"00 the third day of watching the game", he wrote, "my father,
still a com p etely inex perienced novice , m oved his knight from one white square to another . . . . My father won and then I called him a cheat and began to l augh at him After--a..m.i.nM quarrel
what did I
.--.-.-l-she-wed-hlm-what he had dane. Heasked ...�
�now about chess? I replied that I cou l d beat him . He said that it was
not possible , very likely I did not even know h o w to set out the pieces correctly . We tried and I won . This was m y deb ut . "
Ii i s impressive t h at after three days observation the four year o l d b o y showed such capabilities in noting the sim ilarity in the movements of the (until that time unknown) chess pieces, in drawing the correct conclusions about the rules and even
in grasping that aite'r each
move
the knj.g.ht-cltaH�-9\lfel -{»·f--'·It5-----f
squ are. Obviously the early appearance o f such abilities are to be explained by economy in thinking and outstanding intuitio n , for which Capabla nca was later famous. It could be said that this is not a typical example, inas m uch as the Cuban player possessed a n outstandin significance of gen ius.
Here
we
talent , but let us not ar ue about the
quoted
an
episode from
Capablanca's
autobiography. merely to show what a colossal significance an active synthesizing process has in the acquisition of chess knowledge. The successful
development of abilities relies most of all upon effort ,
determ ination and good orga nization . Therefore , irrespective of the level of innate talent, intuition can be and should be developed. Intuition is best developed
by
conscious,
unremitting
effort .
whereby
both
theoretical
information an d the player's own g ames are com p ared and analyzed and generalizations m a de . Norm all y , the more one com pares' past knowle dge , the more fruitful is the soil for the development of intuition .
55
CHAPTER 3
Attention Among the psychological problem s of contemporary chess the problem of
---=--- -iftltttreention-is-eentrah-'e-m-theFhe-sigftifle-ane the study of chess theory and for the successful participation in to urn aments is
appreciated
by
trainers
and
practising
chess
players
from
beginner
to
Grandm aster.
N. Grekov wrote : "Chess dem an ds . . . a prolonged, a co nstant co ncentration
-'oLane_ntiQ��te�kaLthaLQ�a���"-e_Llrinnin&-PillitiQn._b_�
_ _ _
then . . . as a result of relaxing the tension or failing to pay attention even for a second, turn the won game in to a lost one. "How many such cases there are, not only in off·hand games but also in serious matches, a nd not onl y a mong ordin ary am ateurs bu t even with the most distinguished m asters! An essential pre-condition to perfe cting one's chess is to fight this faili n g . "
Tkp-robkDLoiJJndersand�S¥-chQlog�ajt�ILtiOJLiIL�bess is n��vgy:
_ _ _ _ _
_ _
topical and im portant. Serious research in this fie ld will doubtless u ncover m uch that is both new and useful for the general psychological preparation of the chess player a n d for chess education as a whole. The belief that a chess player has highly developed powers of concentration is widespread. When a chess player m akes a careless slip in his day to day activities the response is often one of quite sincere am azem ent-how cou l d a man who can successfully ca lcul ate long variations have overlooked such a sim ple matter? Besides, players themselves are, as a rule, convinced of their own capabilities in the ma tter of attention. This conviction is m anifested in the attitudes of m any of our colleagues, who regard gross blunders an d obvious oversights as being incidentals and uncharacteristic of the chess playing fraternity . Ofte n , after the loss of a gam e , the loser tries to prove that he played superbly, not just by ----e -d; monstrating the possibiITfies open to him du ring the course of t he ga me, but a lso by his whole m anner. Why, if it had not been for that piece of bad luck, then . . . 56
ATTENTION
Are the mistakes really so accidental that tht}y can not be explained by the m aster's inadequate experience or his meagre theoretical knowledge ? Of course, we
0 not Intend to deny that playmg chess has a poslllVe role in (t�irnu���
attention. The sequence of changing events on the board. the necessity of balancing various differing possibil ities, even the most trivial , undoubtedly he l p t h e development of attention, which i s a crucial requirement for success i n chess.
----u-i s--therefore Hot sttt'pfi5ffig-tJlat N.
Grek�-.--P-.-�-Rudik-attd-other---au Mhvorl-li.yti,,"es:>---
assert tha t chess is an e ffective means of com bating serious failings in attention such an absent-mindedness. Grekov wrote : " For the man who is prone to absent -mindedness or lapses in attentio n , the capacity for protracted and unabating concentration developed at the chess board is a precious acquisition. " On the basis of many years of observation I make bold to claim that several
cases of a sharp fall in absent-mindedness in chil dren and adole scents have -- �oincided--W�h--the-beginning--Of a serious attraction to chess,
and I
h�,,-___
doubt that this happened in consequence of the influence of chess on the psyche . ': This opinion is also strengthened by the experience of teaching chess courses at schools in Leningrad and other places. Des ite the co m aratively hi h level of attention in chess players, blunders
and errors occur again and again in tournaments and presu mably seem to be incompatible with the level of play of the participants. Here we can explain nothing by reference to ignorance or inattentio n , and it is simply ridiculous to speak of lack of knowledge in a master when he fails to see, for instance, a one move threat to the queen. Attempts to explain such extraordinary lapses by time pressure or fatigue are not always convincing. No doubt these two factors do play a n import ant part in the · deterioration 0
attention, but a I t e same, although they proVIde
fertile
grou nd for errors they teU us very little abou t the nature of these errors. It would be wrong, after all, to regard the causes of a crime as being a dark n ight, bad weather, a lonely spot, or other conditions which only favour the creation of an unpleasant situation for the victi m . --
-''fhe�p1mratiun behiIld-m-any blunders-and-ovelsights which at first-seem-t'ft---- be inexplicable, apparently depends upon a study of the individual pecu lia rities of the player's attention. As we shall see, these personal, and at t i m es quite typical defects in attention appear most often and with greater force in especially unfavourable conditions-such as during t ime trouble or fatigue. But before we begin to discuss t he various aspects of a ttention in chess, we must first cons ider how the word attention is understood by the science of psychology.
57
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY
What is attention? A t t ent ion is t he concent rat ion of cerebral activity on a certain object . This is
----�&m·� ���· �mu�--Since
a t t en t ion
is
always
focused
in
a
particular
direction ,
it
a u t o m a tically excl u des other subjects, phenomena and thoughts about them. How often we witness a chess player completely absorbed in his game. taking no not ice of the worl d arou nd him ! At such moments it is o n ly t he chess board with
guing-P-al1eI:n-oLpieces and pawnsthatexists-io.f-b-l-l·1Jh----------ri'5' inut.LJ ---'iLL ts>-u
_ _ _ _
A ttent ion
is not .
h owever. uniformly distributed over all sect ions of the board
and over all pieces. The highest concentration of thought is focuse d , as a rule, on the m a i n , decisive area of the chess battle . While ca rrying out a n operation on the K-side a chess player is sometimes completely distracted from the position on t he other side of t he board , and for some time t h e Q-side is a forgot ten "Cinderell a " . And t his is not some mysterious peculiarity of t he hu m a n min d : it l>C_l;tu.e_Jo_tb .e3clecti"�aillI'e-Of attention, which..cllooses-fr.om-a--1al'�- -'" i s� ' s'_!.J imp
_ _ _ _
n u mber of objects only those few which are the most i m portant and exciting a t t h e moment in quest ion . An import an t practical concl usion follows: one should not aim at a un ifo rmly high concent ration of a ttention over the whole of the board and over all of the pieces at t he same t ime. One has to learn to re
late one's attention . to direct it
towards the most important point and then in one's own ti me to switch t o other object s . An overall view of t he board and t he assessmen t of a posi t io n are built up gradually by sw itching one's concentration from one section of the battle to another. It is important to note t h a t while a t tent iveness i s a key psychological con dition of an ind ivid u a l . it is also instrumental in the acquisition of knowledge. W hen we see ou r opponent ' s move and start trying t o remember the variation we have j ust worked ou t , devise a combination
or
assess the posi tio n , we a re dealing with
facts either new or known, in short, wit h a flow of chess inform a t io n , an access o f chess knowledge. This in form a tion comes in the guise of percep t io n , an im age in t he memory. or as imagination or t hough t . One might t h ink t h a t a t tention w as irrelevant here since on its own it does not provide any inform a tion ;
---- ""TIf'V1'<-rttrete-ss-iTis"""al'!R-eS"salJ'lfre-reqU isl e
or a
e a ove-mentlOne
cogm we
processes . Attention organizes and regul a tes the course of t hese processes : it is t heir valuable ally. After all . i t is only by concen t ra t ing deeply that i t i s possible t o think over one's oppone n t ' s pla n with reason aWe consistency , recall sim il a r positions from previous games and weigh u p t he pros a n d cons when planning one's own move. A t tention is also closely linked w i t h emot ions an d t he wil l . It is through his ---- -efIrtfl1ftft1�_uman t_ttat--a-hbeing reacts-to
sUliounding
leality. Emotiomr
experiences have a st rong influence on the ebb and flow of a chess player's
S8
ATTE NTION a t tention . especially du ring compe t i t ions. For exa mple. s uc h nega tive e m otional , t a t e s as confusion . anger. fea r . lack of confidence and complacency can in duce a
consIderable lalh ng olnn a c e�s p aver s VI a
actlVllles , mcludm g I1t
a t tention. Let us examine a few typical cases in which a negative emotional condition weakens a chess player's a ttention .
---- +(IH')�b�� �I��Off ��·»h---Under
the
influence
of
unfam iliar
con dit ion s ,
especially
when
an
inexperienced chess player comes to play in a major compet ition , a feeling o f confu sion o ft en appears . Extraneous factors c a n become such strong irritants that t hey hinder concentration on the game. As a rule it takes a few rounds for a newcomer to adjust himself to the conditions of a competition . I i m a gi n e t ha t any experienced chess player will b e able t o think o f several such in stances. I
myselfeanc-ite--my-ga-me againstQ·cd-let'-in-t.J:J.e�--Q+ampiG-nsSJhHi-9p-
___
ex1ran.�Qu s m a tters and about my su rrou ndings persistently interfered with my reflections on t he game and the calculation of variations. At a decisive moment I "bravely" sacrificed a pawn without m uch thought, perhaps more i n order to relieve the emotional tension than out of posi tional considerat ion s . Not surprisingly I lost the game pretty q uickly. I t is probable that a similar explana tion can be given for tile disappointing debuts in foreign tourna ments of a num ber of our players. It is not onl
the scale of a com etition but other at first si ht u n i m ortant
extraneous factors tha t can provoke a n adverse emotiona l reaction , particul a rly in an impressionable player. At one of t he RSFSR Championships, master L. com plained to me tha t he had a lost ga me because he was seated in the centre of the stage. The unusual placing disturbed th at master so much t hat. as he put i t , his "thoughts were quite feverish" . An unfavourable emotional react ion can sometimes be evoked by the u n u su a l form of the pieces o r t h e clock. M aster S h . to l d m e that during a m a tch i n Peking in 1965 h i s attention w a s constantly distracted by t h e unfa m i li arity o f the clock .
(2) One 's position in the tournament an d the s ignificance of the result of the game. Each part icipant in a tournament usually has a part icular aim : one is t rying to reach a certain sporting category. another to get into the next round of a
59
CHESS A ND PSYCHOLOGY qual ifying tournament a nd so on. Within this context ga mes sometimes occur (usually towards the end of the tournament) which one has to win an d when , a s
theysay , there is 1I0thirrgloiose=forexampie . when one needs tw()pnints-o-uroi-
two to get the m aster title. The great significance of a particular game, the necessity to draw or win " to order"
sometimes evokes a negative e m otional
conditio n . Playing to " w in or bust" has the effect of over-exciting m any chess players. This fact disorganizes the act ivity of the nervous system , disturbs ----CACODlIl -UliI!eads-t il1.C;eeullutr:aation-ancU -O-i.nromistency-a.n�g-me� On the chessboard this "winning fever" often manifests itself i n play of the style of "va banque " : the attack is conducted with no thought for cautio n . This sort of procedure is of little value and in most cases it soon turns into "playing for a loss" . In the se m i -finals of the 1 7th USSR Championship in Leningrad in 1949, a win against Lisitsin in the last round would have given me a m a ster norm . I went to play the round in an over-excited mood AIl-through-the-da)'--befot-eh -t e-ga.mU cou ld not get rid of the thou ght: " I have to win " . This thought prevented m e from preparing for t he g a m e seriously: I could not p u l l myself together and s tudy the openings Lisitsjn usually played. For a time I became a slave of the thou ght-"only to win " . Let u s see how the a rne develo ed.
Lisitsln- Krogius
Dutch Defence
N· KB3 P·KB4 2 P·Q3 N-KB3 2 . . . P- K3 is better. 3 P- K4 PxP 4 PxP NxP S B-Q3 N-B3 A nother m istake; 5 . . . P-Q4 is safer. 6 N-NS P·KN3 7 P-KR4 P-Q3 8 P-RS PXP 9 BxP NxB 10 QxRPcb K-Q2 1 1 N-B7 N.N4 and Black resigns. 1
I remember how, during the game, I could not concent rate at all. The thought of victory and a point in the tournament table distracted m e from working ou t the lines and interfered with my thinking . I wit nessed sim ilar occurences in the international Tchigorin Memorial Tournament a t Sochi in 1966, in the games Bobotsov-Lein and Zakharov Polugayevsky. For Lein and Zakharov the importance of t he g ames was so great ----tlial both of t em p aye
III
nervous manner WIt out paymg muc
a t tent Ion , an
lost positions which were far from hopeless without putting u p much fight .
(3) An "unpleasa nt " opponent. It happens t hat i n games between opponents of approximately equal strength one systematically beats the other. Tal , for example, used to lose consistently against Korchnoy, Kotov used t o lose against Boleslavsky, Gligoric agai nst ----�tll,ll_n_d""soon-:-Iln-s�ou rse, ooes not reflect the real relative strengths of these players, but it is ex plain able psychologically.
60
ATTENTION After losing once or twice t he loser feels uncert ain or even doomed; this laral zes his will and his concentration during the game falls sharply. The more impressionable t he player the more habitual his losing to his "bogey" opponent hecomes. A peculiar psychological barrier arises and prevents his achieving a fighting spirit before the ga me. I have anal yzed almost eighty g ames between ten pairs of opponents who were related by psychological dominance . a nd I have discovered some interesting act s: ttie num er of obVIOUS posItIon al m istakes and tactlcal m iscalculations of t he "subject " chess player was significantly greater than their usual average of mistakes. For exam ple , the "subject" blun dered away four times as rna ny pawns as in t he same nu mber of ga mes against other op ponents. I t seems that once the negative emo t ional state has formed. i t sharply decreases the resistance an d the intensity of atlention of these players. It sometimes happens that this emotional subjection occurs not in all ga mes between two players, but only In those In which flje colours at{nrparlicurarwllrr---- rou nd. For some years, games between Korchnoy and Suetin have been ending with the same res ult: White has always won, and t he score stands at 6 : 6 ! Perhaps the white colou r o f t he chess pieces is analogous t o the notion o f "home grou nd" to which so m uch significance is attached i n football ? !
(4)
The opponent ·s beha viour.
Chess is not just a harm less pushing of pieces on black and white squares. A chess game is a tense fight . a contest of wil l s . cha racters and intellects; it is the struggle of two personalities. Alekhine wrote : "A knowledge of h u m a n nature and an understanding of
-
one's opponen t's psychology are essential to chess a nd the chess struggle.
--Before . people fought-mHy--tfle-p-ieees-,whereas we fight (OF at least-tFy'--1too oHf H1 ig �h 'Ht+ )
-
the oppone nt , his in dividual traits and. not least, his vanity " . I t tran spires t hat i t i s not only a knowledge o f chess which i s importan t for the chess player, but also an understanding of the psychological and purely h u m a n qualities of h i s opponent. Such inform ation can not be acquired in t he isolation
oLo�wn room by reading tournament book s . As is often said , it is more
_ _ _
useful to see once than to hear a hun dred times. Live contact and observa tion of a chess player' s behaviour ca n someti mes tell more about him tha n dozens of printed games. That is why Petrosi an . for example. travelled down to Tbilisi when he was preparing for t he 1966 World Cha m pionship-to a t tend t he m a tch between Tal and Spassky so that he cou ld personally watch the games, tastes and inclinations of hi s future opponen t . � Th�at:dJ Qrm£J)J--
_ _ _ _
give us information about him and a t the same time induce a certain emotional relation to these aspects of his ch aracter. We can recall when the A merican
61
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY G randm aster Ben ko a rrived in dark glasses t o play aga inst T a l . and said in explanation that Tal " hypnot ized" h i m . Of course. hypnosis is quite i rrelevant here, bu t it oes seem t at t e Iga n s piercing eyes a nd his manner of looking a t his opponent had m ade a certain im pression on Benko . The psycho logical d uel d uring the game is also m an ifested in the outward form of a chess player's beha viou r: his facia l expressio n , pose a nd walk, One m ust not under-estim ate the significance of such factors. Tou rna ment experience
-
-.-.-on.-fTc.t--;quite---.e .--t w-irrst�es_iTrv;tlietl a
players-cnra nfutem-app-e1r rrC"e-v:rrct
cheerful mood adversely influen ced the emot ion al p i t ch of his opponent. provoking a hesita ncy and doubt in the correctness of his plans which ultimately disturbed the logical flow of his thought and upset his a t tention. [This subject is d iscussed more fully in chaptpr 8 . ] Some authori t ies on chess advise one to t ry to avoid th is failing and refer t o Rubinstein . Apparently, when he w a s asked against whom he was playing h e ----�amwer1ng-to ed-:-'-'-lplay aga-imT1he-wtrite-pTet'Cs-:-'.Lf-betteve-:-tmweveI , tlinI ignoring the opponen t 's person ality to such an exten t is in correct . It is importan t to take the character of on e's opponent into accou nt and t o assess i t correctly. T h e a b i l i t y t o withstand the influence of another player and to use the psychological traits of one' s opponen t t o one's own a dvantage. i s an
----'� -llllV e strengih-OLa-pla-y.e.r.h .'..s-C ar..acler----and---Lt.he -<+ development of h i s will . In the above examples we came across man ifestat ions of neg at ive emotional states wh ich depressed a man's psychological a ctivity , including his atte ntion , However, not all emotions are harm fu l . A successfu l start to a tourna ment, the joy of the first win and confidence in on e's strength act as an inspriation and increase the sharp ness of one's thought and a ttentiveness. W e must thllS
disting1lish h��e-it:iet:ld�.---hiG -W -h-he-1-p-to-
m obilize strength and attentio n , while others a re liabilities .
ControUing one's emotions.
J . P, Pavlov once rema rked that a h uman bein needs very litt le : "on I a coup l e of spoonfuls of ha ppiness . " Thi s was a profound observation . I t means t h at a h u m an bein g needs to be charged wjt h a good mood and freed from nega tive emot ion s - fear, doubt and so on. The proble m is to educate oneself t o reg u l a t e one's a dv(;rse emotion al feelings and ch ang e t h em i n t o favourable moods. The work of O. Chern i kova towards t he sol ut ion of t his problem is of great i n tf 5t. She wro t e : " M any sportsmen who have a t t ained a high level of skill as a res u l t of great competitive experience can consciously regulate an unfavourable emot ion al state . . , they can suppress unnecessary e x citement b efore a
62
ATTE NT I ON
compet it ion , they can tune their emotions. increase their confidence i n their own strength and evoke 'sporting anger' and o t her positive emotions. " erm ova sugges s a n urn er 0 -ways---re1yl"e" -or---deti1,-ern il gunrt lg one . emotio n a l state which she bases on research i n t o the experience of a n u m ber o f l eadi n g sportsmen . For a wide r a ng e o f che ss players the fol lowing methods o f regu l a ting emotions are o f great significance: ---+(,f..}--+/re-deli.lJe-r-ale-ekQ�e of di1'«-Ji�d-<-.mllenl "f one s ' imoJlinalim! and thoughts.
For exam p l e , in order to get rid of invol untarily occurring t hough t s of possi h le defe a t , one consciously has to evoke t houghts which have a posit ive emot ion a l tone-a bout on e's good preparat ion . o n e ' s successes i n past com pet it ion s , t h e wea knesses o f one's opponent a n d so on .
(1)An a-rbitFa-ry--e-ha-nge-in-lhe-6iFe#iel1-fm�m{'('-Il#Q-..i(mfI/OII("�ul((lIl-I-ifl/-h--In effect this method is closely connected with the previous one . since a rc · direction of the imagin a tion and thoughts is o n ly possible through t he swi tching of one's atten t ion . We have t o st ress. however. the importance of hein g ahlc to divert onesel f from extra burdens ( e . g . thoughts a bout one's deficiencies and so anlb��Q�� t� i o� n� .
__ _ __
__
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ ___ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
Let us look at how these met hods can be reali7.ed in pract ice. A s a rule o n e benefits from placing a reasonable li m i t at io n Qn specia l �'hess pre paration before a game. and refraining from consta ntly thi n k ing ahol\t t h c im portance of t h e match: in t h i s way o n e avo ids tiredness an d im provcs onc's capacity for attent ion during t he game. We h a ve collected t he opinions o f :Ih(lu t --
recommend preparation for between th irty and forty m in utes . Accordi n !! til them , longer preparation induces tiredness and over·excite m e n t hefnrc t h�' rou n d . a n d depresses the a t tent ion . D iversion from chess before t h e g a m e is ano t h e r m a t t e r and t h is d epen ds on a person's t emperamen t . Some l i ke to go or a wa or t a e ot er In S 0 qUIe t res t . M ore active people are attracted by s portin]! games and spect acular sigh t 'i . For e x a mple . t h e tourn ament timetable o f M a ster Luti kov includes goin g t n t h,' cinema on the day of the roun d . The arduous m e n t al work of chess i n duces ot he r players to seek distraction i n the rea ding of thr i l lers. Thus, met hods d i ffer, but the aim is con s t a n t : "to forget chess" . a� Chek hover used t o say . Exhausting meet ings and an alYSIS urin g t e am events lower a chess pla)'er's atten tion con siderably and cause tiredness . The honoured master of sport
63
CH ESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
----
I vanitsky pointed out the harm of " meeting fever" when he tal ked about the Olympic Ga mes in Tokyo, where the Soviet team h a d twenty- two separate lTfCe!111gs and dIScussIons: the twenty-thIrd meehng dId not take place oecause the team championship had a lready been lost. I n con ducting a team meeting it is particularly necessary for a t rainer to have tact and organizing ability, It must be confessed that for a long time the preparation of our RSFSR chess team was not in a happy state. At the meet in gs
---- -Ili!ttt-b-etm-e-a-rountl-e -;-t n--to-tweive chess playels had
to wait-JYa-nen-t1yUnl1 everybody ha d been thorou ghly prepa red . Furthermore, there were m any general instruction s given , so that one came away from a train i ng session with a head t h at was crammed full and particul arly d isposed to b l u n ders. In recen t years the position has changed considerably: the style of prepa ration has become more business li ke , and to examine particular open ings the team breaks up i nto groups. Russia's* growing success can probably be pa rtially attributed to the
changeinthe naruFeofthesee�tF�a�iR� fln�in�gr �'��---Among the thoughts which induce a negative emotion al state, the most com mon is the exaggeration of one's opponent ' s strength and the correspond i n g diminiShing o f one's own chances. Consciously focusin g atten t ion o n the opponen t's weaknesses can be beneficial in such situa tion s. For instance, once. while prepari�t.o...a¥ .pl -ag.airuLMaster N I was n feeli n g at all confi dent . I kept on thin king of N ' s reputation : "a marvellous tactici a n , he attacks excellently and is a connoisseur of complicated positions." This lack of confidence subconsciously led me to conclude tha t there was h a rdly a more terrible opponent one could have. But then I m a de an effort to calm myself dow n , a nd reasoned as follows: "So far N . has not become the World Champion , and moreover he l oses quite often . " I decided to look only at N ' s losses from recent com titions. This roved t o b e 00 Ldea. M.>'--li.mklit disappeared, I played cal m ly and won an important g ame. Several t i mes during my t raining activities I have tried this method of studying only the losses of an opponent one fears, and the results have been favou rable . Such a method. of course , is not very good for making an objective assessment of a chess player. but sometimes it is useful to deviate from the truth a little and deprecate one's opponent s st rengt . aster . , or example. reca l led how he felt encouraged when , on the eve of his first game against a Grand master, a friend of his started tal king about the mistakes and unsuccessful play of that great chess player. Of course, in fixing the attention on one's opponent's wea knesses and shortcomings one m ust keep a sense of proportion : otherwise one can easily fall ·Russia here means RSFSR. i .e. Ihe Russian Republic-one or tht eighteen Republics fonn ing t he U SS R .
64
ATTENTION 11110 a nother common nega tive sta te : over-confidence . . A cause of the slackening of atten tion d uring a game is often fear for one's p,,�ition , worry a bout the result or an exaggeration of one's opponent ' s threats. I " such situations it is useful to cheer oneself u p wit h a word of encouragemen t . We c a n do this b y addressin g ourselves silently : " I have to" , " I must " , "calmer", "I can " , " don't pan ic " a n d s o on. I n a n swering a q uestion a ire m any firsl category players admit ted the usefu lness of such " self-orders". .
ga game;-attentron call slacken 1I0t orrty-outlIiiellramhmc-ernrr
a lso because of over-confidence. especi al ly in better positions. The expression " t he hardest thing of all is to win a won game" h a s a deep significance. H avin g achieved an advantage i n a ga me w e often relax o u r vigila nce, we lul.1 ourselves with pleasan t thoughts of victory and then . . . we m ake a bad mistake . H ere again a change of mood is necessary towards a proper dispositio n . I t is important to direct the attention towards the thought that the game i s won o n ly ----hen-the-w poinl is wdtten down ill Lhe-muTmmrenr-taDntr(l1 bt� by means (If ()ral orders such as " check it once ag ai n " , "do not hurry" an d so on , in crease the attention and the responsibility of the chess player. It is very i mportant to boost an d re-inforce positive emotions when trying to overcome an unfavourable emotional conditio n . D uring some of ou r junior team hamp.ionships.Lnotic ed-m.anrinstances-cl-a�f�ching tecllniq.u�'R---- the part of Rokhlin , who was the leader of the RSFSR team. A t a suitable moment he recalled a very good combination T. h ad played, then he turned to S.
-c
and sai d : " I a m pretty confident of N ' s play-he played so marvellously in the U . S . S . R . Championship. " -in such a way that N. cou l d hear it. I cannot describe all the exa mples of this trainer's tact, but i t created an atmosphere of elation and confi dence in the team . All this influenced most favourably the play,
.i:L 3w tte tl1 :.l'1-1.titm-and-sense-oLresibl spon l ity-Of-tber he-m.em -s--of the team-du-r-i.ng-..t.lle.il'---
_ _
matches. F rom the experience of the RSFSR j unior team we can also draw conclusions on the significance of a trainer's objective a n a lysis of failures. Than ks to analysis and to the clarifying of the causes of m istakes, most of the youn g chess l ayers overcame their distress . The com m o n 0 inion that one is afraid and loses confidence when faced with the u n k n own is not groundless. The analysis of games by Rokhl i n , Nezhmedtinov and other trainers quickly led to a precise diagnosis, and the youn g players h a d the chance to convince themselves t hat there was nothing supernatural in their fail ure . .. After the game Nezhmedtinov very convincingly demonstrated my mistakes in the Siimisch variation of the King's I ndian defence. I somehow calm ed dow n . The next time that the variation was played a a i n s t m e I played with confidence and interest; I paid particular attention to the queen's side , which I had neglected on the previous occasion. The game was easy and enjoyab l e : I
65
CHESS AND PSYCH O LOGY won " -recalled one of the members of the team.
------ ��mmaro�.-----We have exami ned in de tail a n umber of typical instan ces of the in fluence of emotions on the in tensity and dyna m ics of atten tio n . We have fou n d that it is only possible to overcome the slacken i ng of attention by means of conscious. pu rposeful aci tivity. I t follows tha t the direction and concentration of attention
.u d"" ep.c;. eu n'ds-¥e��
on two faelors�hich detelillille its effectiveness: tn-e action of the will and emot ions. The psychologist I. Strakhov w rote: "The combination o f the will t o work and a con sisten t , emotion ally felt in terest. is the most favou rable psychological premise for constan t attention . " The significance of will power as a regulator of
_ _ _ _ _
the level of a ttention is especially apparent when comparing the productivity of thin king over the board with t h at of home an alysis . H ere t he difference in elli-O. mo LL t'-'io .u n u a � 1� .. sta.tes-p-1a¥&-a-g+e�e. With an eqtta-l-tim-e-consion. -ump1 thiIlkiIlg over the board p roves to be more effective . i nasmuch as t here the concrete goals are more clearly defined and a considerably greater force of emotional
_ _ _ _ _
experience is observed . A player's emotions also have a great in fluence o n h is level o f atten tio n : i t i s no secret tha t disappoi ntment. disillusionmenL.and fear hindeLConcentfatio.n- and impair the depth of analysis. On the other hand self-confidence and calmness allow the pl ayer to main tain his vigi l a nce . " Keep ing calm is no light matter; personally my brain funct ions well only when I a m relaxed. During t he tournament I partic ul a rly encouraged this quality in myself. " Botvinnik wrote in his book on the I I th U S S R Cha mpionshi p . Attention reveals itself not o n l y in the choice of a m ove, bu t also in rel a tion to other eo Ie in the abilit erye their emotionalsliU�_----
66
CHAPTER 4
Some Deficiencies of Attention
Attention is a complicated psychological process which man ifests itself in diverse ways. It is i nteresting to examine the significance of particular properties of attention in chess, to describe some typical deficiencies of atten tion and to dIscuss ways of remedymg these deficIencIes so thatthe player IS better eqUIpped for over the board combat . I have investigated the characteristics of attention through the analysis of games, observations during the course of tournaments and also by means of a series of experiments , and I succeeded in establishing some typical shortcomings in the player's development of a ttention . In
-----r;--+---p-artiet examined-in---detaiHnstaftees-ol-+apses-of-attenti6-�tnee-i--the rr-
prevention has a prime practical significance. A n attempt was also made to connect the typical deficiencies of attention which I noticed , with the individual pecu liarities of the player ' s mental activity.
The transfer of attention. We turn first to the dynamic features of attentio n . I s there anything we can y�itity_t>f--a-Hention when it is elear-th-a-t-und-a--pr-efe --cle-gree--6t---- concentration is essential to all serious menta l work? Such doubts are pointless. In chess, as in other kinds of creative activity, a ttention is not f ocused on an unchanging object, but is linked to a consta ntly changi n g situation on the board. Each concentration of thought, each attempt t(l--A�se!i!La..ltQ!iitio�or work ou t a variation. inva riab�uires us to envisage the possible rearrangement of the pieces and the appearance of new position s in the game. That is why the fact that one's attention is deep and constant does n ot mean that i t is absolutely static . It is a lively and m obile process . This statement is in fu l l accordan ce with J . P . Pavlov's ideas on the physiological n ature 6f attention . Pavlov wrote: "The sector engaged in opt i m al activity (i . e . the physiological mecha is ite the reverse it consta nt! 0 attention -N. K . is not fixe ' moves over the whole of the l arge hemispheres in a m anner which depends on
-------sa
_ _
67
CHESS A ND PSYCHOLOGY the connections exis t i n g between the cent res an d u n de r the in n uence of ex ternal stimul i . Correspondingl y , of cou rse, the a rea of l ow excitation also c h a nges . ". e
u m ty
0
t e sta 111ty and mobil ity of the attention of a human being is
pa rticul arly evident f rom his ability to switch his attention . By t he switching of atten tion we mean the fully conscious, deliberate tran sfer of the attention from one object to another. For e x ample , passing from working out one varia tion to anoth er, tran sferri n g a piece in one's m ind from one square to another, working 'ou1-captoles, estimatillg the p-o-ssm-ithl1
-----
0
a POSI Ion a n
so on .
wllc 109 t e
attent ion is very i mportant for the chess player as there are constant ch anges in the position on the board. A sufficien tly mobile a ttention help s t he chess player not only to tran sfer h is atte n t ion from one position to another when a p p ropriate, but also to devote to each position just as much atte n t ion as is necessary for choosing the next move, We shall try t o say something about some aspects of the switching of a player's
----
-acHe,ntion in theCOtlTseofplayingchessalld abouqrnrctnt-at,-dn ''''- eorefIc al ways of improving the flexibil ity of the a ttention .
The position in the foll owing diagram is from the ga me Tal- Krogius. 32nd USSR Championship . Kiev
1 964/65.
Black to move White's ch ances are preferable. He h as the two bishops and prospects of ope n i n g up the position stil\ further by means of pawn thrusts on both flanks. Black , howeve r , has n o reason t o panic just yet. He shou l d h ave thought of t ransferring his king t o K2 , After this the position of his pieces is stabi l i ze d , his k n ight on 02 is secured . and he can begin to think of preparing c ou n t e rplay 'Pavlov, "Twenty years of experience " .
68
SOME DEFICIENCIES OF ATTENTION hased on the manoeuvres . . . B-N2 and . . . p·O B4. In other words. a tense and difficult struggle for both sides lies ahead. t. -----------. . . � 27 8xN PxB-2� e game con Inue : The a dvance of the rook to the si xth was a complete surprise for me. While thinking abou t t he move 26 . . . N - N3 I n a tu rally took into accou nt t he excha nge 27 BxN , but after 27 . . . pxB I only saw the maneouvre 28 B-05 , not even considerin g 28 R-06 . How did thi s blunder happe n ?
---HIt�s<eee1ems-that-"\\'hen think-ffig-+hr--v eugMfle
.
.
W'JI-----
in its ol d place, i .e . on OB2. and consequently I thought that an invasion by the rook on 06 was impossible, since the square was covered. The fact that the accursed pawn leaves its place in consequence of the exchange and cannot guard the key square 03 , I did not take into account at a l l . I remember how I looked at the board in astoni shment and asked myself what ine xplicable thi ng was happenin g : where was the guard of 03 -the pawn on O B2 ? I could not believe yeyes: the �awtl-fr-em--GB2 was on anothersquare, in full acc�aDCe--W-ith-the
rules of chess. This example shows that one's mind continues to work on imagin ary, non existent positions i n spite of a. change in the circumstances on the board. In one's imagination an impression remains which l ags behind the actual development 0 �ts. but which is so stron that it makes a disastrous contribution to the calculation of variations an d the assessment of the position . My transference of attention in the above exam ple was obviously poor. Disregard of a change in the position led to an unrealistic, distorted apprehension of the game. This shortcoming i s a m ajor evil for the chess player. In particular it interferes with the accurate analysis of vari ations in positions which are full of tactical pos�iliiliti�_u£h_Liiil ures of transference are quite common i n practice . One such e xample, the the Tal- Rossetto game, was given in chapter 1 to illustrate the phenomenon of the retained im age (see pages 2 1 -22).
69
CHESS A N D PS YCHOLOGY I n the �ame Interzon a l (Amste rdam 1 964) another tragedy happened i n the game
Darga-Lengyel .
Black played
a
com bination involving
---- ��c:tae-cnrce_an r·fi d Dalga-iTnlTre-diITresig�rtek fi-ea-;-rmn tn g
an exchange
that he could n ot avOl
losi n g a whole rook . The players were greatly surprised when they were shown after the g ame t h at D arga cou l d have held on to his material advantage by means of a �im ple king move. The
game
continued :
40. . . R-lOch 4 1 K-82 and here Lengyel played
-----'4 .... 1�.RtK3fxNdl thinking tha-t-a-fter--41-RxR--BxR-Pch-White's-only-retreati'� s-il h rr ,-
N 2 . Darga resigned , his chain of thou ght being similar. How i s i t that neither of the opponents noticed the move 43 K - K3. ? Th e reason for this double blind spo t w a s th at both players still s a w the malign i n fl uence of the depa rted rook on K6. They thought that K3 was still covered by the rook. This is the sort of misadven t u re that happens with poor atten tion switching!
----_f.a� --Hlnff-4jt�-a-se--tll·e n_wa �attentio �f_a_somewnh�atJ-- d i fferent n a ture from t he ones quoted above. In the Tal- Krogius and Tal Rossetto games , a feature of an earlier position was i magined, but at least the piece i n q ues tion still existed on the board. In Darga-Lengyel, on the other hand,
the
m i scalculation
involved
a non-existent rook , which h a d been
sacrificed a m ove ea rlier! I n spi te of this djffer.enC.!: both kinds of mistake (due to r�ined i mages) can be expiained by a certain inertia of attention . I n order to
investiga te properties of the transfer of a ttention I have conducted a n u mber of experiments with a group of first category p l ayers. The exam inees wer� gi ven a position with abun d a nt combin ative possibi lities, but containing a forced variation . The task was as follows: to thin k the position over for fifteen to twen ty minutes without moving the pieces o n the boa r d and to z write down the v a riations a We h a d in all 200 an swers on twenty different tactical posit ion s . It is
interesting to note t h at out of a tot a l of variations
connected
with
the
dynamics
137 of
mistakes in the calculation of atten tion .
in
1 15
case s
the
m i scalculations were similar to those in the Ta l - K rogius a n d Tal- Rossetto games ( i . e. the new. changed position of a particular piece was not taken into ----o ----ca"'c""c unO-:-Only 22 cases were m Istakes SIm Ila r to that in the game D a rga Lengyel
(i.e.
a piece removed from the board co ntinued a sort of second l ife in
the m in d ) . These preli m in a ry data suggest that the change of position of
a piece
on the bo ar d is o ften not clearly registered by the chess player's attention a nd th inkin g ; as a result it is relatively h a rd to develop the ability to foresee the n umerous changes which can occur in a complex position . When a piece comes to the en d of its life this l ast moment of its ex istence ----s -..e""Y(n1')re a
particular co��ntnm
d
a
switching the attention to other objects .
70
there
IS
a consequent dlfftc u ty
ill
SOME DEF ICI ENCI ES OF ATTENTION Of course these con siderations a re far from being the l ast word . I m portant factors in expl aining a chess player's m is t a kes in the tran sfer of attention .11e
llis IIaiIs
ot--character-and-temperaIllerIt. the-eonditions-of--the--gacffl1� ' Ft----
question , tiredness, time trou b l e , his pos ition in the tourna ment and m a ny other things. In particular. I have noticed th a t in most complicated positions requiring a wide range of dynamic a tt ention , a comparatively l a rge proportion of errors a re made by those who consider chess to be a rigid scientific d iscipline.
----OOse--l who have greater faith in the texL=bnoJc(�g that if the book givesi
.
variation it m ust be correct and has to be fol lowed ) make a greater n u m ber of mistakes in connection with the switching of attent io n . For practic a l chess players and trainers i t i s very important t o k now how to fight this i n a dequacy in the switching of the atten t ion and inc ulcate a s u it a bly dyna m i c attent io n . While I was analyzing some of my own games tl"!e q uestion occurred to m e of how to remedy these fa ilings. A na'ive approach wo u l d be to analyzt-exery particlliar case and try to store it in one's-1llemory' do nQLhr-&e'-the insid ious pawn on Q 87; or remember t h e bishop on KN2-it is prepari n g to chec k o lJ R3. Such measures. howeve r . wi ll h ardl y h e l p : on another occasion the reason for the m irage m ay be another pawn or piece and anyway , it is i m possible to guard against every even t ua li t y . Nor is it necessary. It is better to find a method of more gener al applicat ion . such as that \uggested some time ago by Kotov . I t consists of t he follow in g : ta ke a compl icated. sharp posit io n and devote h a l f an hour to its ana lysis w ithout
_ _ _
movi ng the pieces on t he board. Then write dow n what you h ave t ho u ght and worked out, and compare the notes with ex isting commentaries on the position . I h ave used this metho d , working with a n umber of games by Alekhine . Tal and Larse n . f t is difficult to guarantee the result s b u t the work seems to h ave been u sefu l . In a ny case. the nu mber of omnipresent p ieces a ppeari n g . l i ke Figaro . here one m in ute and there the nex t . was reduced in m y ga mes. Koto v ' s met hod con tains a very import a n t con ditio n : the calculation is l im ited in time and the pieces are not a llowed to be moved during the cou r se of the analysis . Th is ach ieves an opt im a l sim u l ation of the tournament situat ion an d the calc ulation is h arder and more disciplined. By repeating these exercises several rimes one carnrchleve s\lrpri!>i�g-reru1rs�:--n-fsl1l 1!-ce�lrry o-n-01e--eozn-u---- m ista ke , even the most insigni ficant ones in one ' s a n a lysis . This method has been used in my work as a t rainer. The techn iq ue of c alculation a nd the t actic a l vision of a n u m ber of my trainees have i m proved considerably as a result of such exercises , Another idea w ith the same p urpose is t he rea d i n g of chess l it erature from the page, i .e. a sort of b l indfol d analy sis. I am not going to advocate here blin dfold . laysOil all astrolloillical Jlumber-of-bnards�-it-h�a�sas-been-pmved-tha-t-thtl-h -- l itt le to do with serious chess. However, the ment a l analysis of a posit ion or of
71
CHESS A N D PSYCHU LOGY an openin g without a board w ill do no h arm-quite the reverse . In the course of such an analysis one continually compares one new position with the ne xt; and
----
--HI�-pla€tngofthepieeeffi-eonst-anHy--checlce.d-and--correcred For this-pu-�
chess player cannot do without a sufficiently intense and mobile a ttention . I would like to say a few words about the role of chess composition an d . in particular. about the composition of problems in the develop ment of a mobile attention . One often hears criticism of problem composition from practical chess players on the grounds of its irrelevance to the practicalgame, to the lISJ!al positions of the endgame and middle game. This criticism is usuaUy q uite restrained in reference to studies. but as a rule it is absolutely ruthless when it comes to problems.
____
------
-----
It seem s to me that such reproaches are unconvincing . Many studies and problems are far removed. it is true. from the typical positions of the m iddle g ame and classical endings; nevertheless. they can still be of some benefit to the -t'l1:.a.ctkaLcl� le �e possible gain is the-dev-e1opmen-t..-Gf--tlt€� the attention . Whereas in the analysis of a position from a tourn ament game the course of our thoughts is influenced significantly by a general assessment an d by known strategic principles. in solving "pointless" (from the point of view of the practical player) compositions we generally cannot work with ready-made recipes. but must search for completely new and sometimes aradoxical solutions . Such a situation for a practical pl ayer is u nusual and for this reason he does not feel the dyn amics of the inter-rel ation between the pieces ; he h as to establish them for himself. A quick and precise transfer of the attention is essential here. In saying this I do not want to belittle the significance of the analysis of tournament games. but I do not thi n k that the study of compositions m a kes a useful con tribution to the development of a practical player's mastery, and in particular to the development of the dynamics of his attention . mprovem en t In the mobil ity of attention can also be assisted by five-minute g ames, as long as t hey are played within reason . Since the position in these games changes fast . the necessity to orientate quickly and. consequently to transfer the attention . is quite obvious. Five-minute games are particularly useful for chess players who have not competed for a long time and have, as it ����ss�t1thh hee'lth�y�tlmlimli,of1he-c e����r�ucrr-argument about the advantages an d disadvantages of the five-minute game. There is no doubt that an excessive addiction to lightning chess leads to an off-hand attitude to serious games and h in ders the concentrat ion and absorption needed for tourn ament conditions. One can scarely disagree with that, but I reiterate: within reason five-minute games become a sort of rehearsal for a chess player, during which he sharpens his arm aments-t hin king . perception . memory and attent ion . The
-ex-press.j�t_ITifl_reason..
IIIill
appear-obs
can we fix a reason able limit ? It does not seem possible to give an all-em bracing
72
SOM E DEFICI ENCIES OF A TTENTION form u l a . To find the right measure in this question is a matter for each individual. I wish only to adduce examples from the ex rience of re arin members of R SF S R teams . Before the match ag ainst H ungary an d the USSR Spartakiad in 1963 . the members of the team each played ten to fifteen five min ute g ames a day at training an d study sessio n s . This continued for about a week. up to five or seven days before the contest. The team members were in good form during the competitions and it is possible that the five-min ute games :tpe-ctfhem-roa better m oodfor chess. During preparation for im portant competitio n s . especially after a lon g brea k , I al ways include from thirty t o forty five-minute games in m y programme of t rainin g. I do not want to generalize . but I person ally find it helpful. After a l ike number of five-minute games I feel confident. I "see the board" better and I get in to the rhythm of the tournament bat t le more quickly. I believe I am not alone in this attitude towards five-min ute games.
ImtablDty of attention. Let us consider the fol lowing positio(l from the game Kasparian -Mazel . 7th USS R Championship, Moscow 1 93 1 .
Black's best plan may involve the advance of the pawns: . _ . P- K B4, . . . P- K4 or P-QB4_ At first Mazel ' s attention was attr acted by the natural plan with . . . P K4 and for that reason he played 1 2 KR-Kl. A fter 13 P-QN3 B-N2 14 B-N2 Black suddenly changed h is min d and , giving up the original pla n , played 14 . . . N-K5 15 Q.B2 P-KB4. Now , after the unexpected transfer of a ttention to the execution of the new plan with . . . P- K B4. it became clear that 12 . . . R- K l was mogical. There followed 16 N·Kl N(Q2)-B3 17 P-B3 N·N4 18 N-Q3 P-B4l? Still another surprise. Black again changes plans without completing the earlier one. . . .
...
73
C HESS AND PSYCHOLOGY Black has changed his plan t hree times in the last six moves without any reasonable j ustific ation , switching his attention from one section of the board to -
wi-tttotlt-en-t-3ttf-fici motivatmn .
o 01 t H' h te e f_' r -a afl �
As a Ies011 'tV..iIe achteve-ct-al"a"'g"'e llrdvlm -
after 19 N·B2 and l a ter on played the break P- K4 .
I1yin -Zhenevsky describes a sim ilar episode from h is own experience : "It sometimes happens that there is a choice between two different pl ans of p l ay. In
SlIch casesthere is notb.ing--wo�han trying tocarry out both plans at once, the
i deas become m i xed up and neither plan is carried out successfully.
"This position is from the ga me lIyin -Zhenevsky-Grigoryev, Moscow 1 9 1 9 . ' Here I had two pl a ns. One - to exploit the poor pvsition of the black rook and play 1 B- B I R- RS and now 2 Q- K2 with the threat of Q-NS or 2 B-Q3 threaten ing B-B2 or Q- K2 . In thi s case Black's Q·side awns are in an unenviable pOSition . The other plan was to exploit the weakness of the pawn at Black's Q4 by means of 1 P- B4 P- KN3 2 P· N4 and then P- BS . For me both of these plans mingled i � to one a nd I played 1 P-R3? Thi s . m ove is no good a t all since the bishop can never go to KN5 because of BxQP. 1 . . . P-QN4 2 p. B4 Having lost an important tempo I chose the other pla n , but it is too late. 2 P-N5 3 PX P PXP 4 ---- -lBIt.."BI1)-AA-1n-a-l'rerecoffleTIlJeil rst plan . o r rather a feeble Imlialto n . 4. . .pxU5 BxR QXB 6 PXP Bx P and after a few m oves I had to resig n . " To these words w e add-in adequate atte n t ion upon each o f t h e two plans and an unncessarily rapid transfer from one back to t he other. a l l led to dispersal and fragmen tation in the course of the thin king process . Th us, inst abil ity of atten tion manifests itself in the hasty transference or attention from one aspect of the po sition to another. The length of deliberation that is necessary to achieve --a-produetive-decision is lacking. alld this lesutts-in--e-vr -fu otatirrtJ"""or-tngrcm sequence in p l ay ; p l ans and ideas are mixed and non e are b'rough t to their logical conclusion . .••
----
74
SOM E DEFICIE NCI ES OF A lTENTION I nsta bility of attention is also characterized by the refusal to search for hidde n , original possi bilities in t he position . The pl ayer often relies upon t he
- �inimrr;-arrimes-superfici-at;-appraisal or-catettJ-atiorning-ap r--aml--e pears to -
him to be clear and simple . Thus, instability of a ttention often com bines wi th such character traits as excessive self-confiden ce . It is also connected with defin ite features of thinking . The player pl aces more trU'it in an intuit ive general eval uation or an instan t revel ation of vari ation s . to the detriment of a th orough . logical ana-l¥s�uch a manner-oLp-Lay. it is true IlsuaJl¥-avoids time lI:ou.hL"'-'but it also substantially reduces t he player's crea live capacities. How can .one rid oneself of this defec t ? Quite possib l y . its ultimate cause is concealed in the individual quali ties of the player's character. Hard work is required in order to develop determination an d decisiveness in choosi ng a move . In this context Bronstein 's words sprin g to mind: " A l most always the determined execution of a pl an , even one that is not entirely correct , will more often lead to sllclIL ce5£.1h an.Jnade.qu.a..tcl).' mot ivated sha switch at the h a lf way stage." One can also attempt to .outline special chess recommen datiDns for developing a lon g attentiQn span . In our view. useful ex ercises include reading chess literature and solving studies without the use .of a board , as well as playing blin dfold training games. (These recQmmenda tiDns can also help cure defects in the switching .of attentiQn-pages 67-73 . ) . Blindfold play rncreases tile nee tQ concentrate attention not only on t he positions of the pieces on the board . but also on each possible plan . The men tal im age is weaker t han the visual perception , hence cQntrol over the selection of a move will be increased and a special care a nd accuracy in thinking is required. On the basis of my own experience I can advise you to discipline yourself during the game by mentally posing the questiQn -" H ave I appraised t he position /pla n/Idea too hastily? Did I stQP examlDlDg thiS vanahQn too soon ?'-''''�-- Kotov's recQmmendation that a pl ayer should analyze a complex position without moving the pieces an d with a limited t ime span (twenty to thirty minutes), is alsQ .of value (see page 7 1 ).
_ _ _
The distribution of attentlOil. The expression "breadth of attent i o n " encompa sses the two properties .of volume and distributio n . The volume of attentiQn is measured by the n umber .of objects which are taken in sim ulta neously. For example, one can register a certain n umber of letters at a single glance. Distribution is a more complex property t h an vol ume . It is through the
sl� y'---- - _tbat a human being is-ab-Ie to cope simul-t-aDsou� tentitm_ -o f-the-at s�tririihb -- ----r1dn.iutionwith two or mQre activit ies (for example . listen in g t o something a n d writing it
7S
CHESS A ND PS YCHOLOGY down ). The distribution o f attention also manifests it self in the ability to perceive different facets of a single object. ------
HH���� �·�·�w·��� �����
consi derable significance. This is because of the exceptio nal variety of the possible variations as well as the need for a constant watch on one's opponen t's thinking processes. The distribution of attention is closely connected with the tran sfer of attention , since the dynamics of the chess situation are e x ce pt ion a lly hi h . In their book 'The Ps chology of Playing Chess' Diakov. Petrovsky an d Rudik wrote : "At every move the general const ruction changes. The section s of the paths along which the pieces move make up the content of the thoughts and th e elements of the world in which the chess player lives. This description is a schematization of the action of the game which animates our view of chess positions by regarding them as collection s of points. each of which is the in itial point of a certa in trajectory of motion. The chess player's brain is thus presented with a com letely s cia l world of dyn a m ic relations . . Alekhine, Botvinnik and other chess authorities have pointed out that a pl ayer is incapable of comprehending all the complex inter-relationships of the pieces on the board s imultaneo us ly Mentally the player isolates a secto r of the board, a g roup of pieces, a particular variation or plan , as bein g the m ain object of deliberation . Botvinnik wrote: "The player pays no a t tention to some pieces. From a total n u mber of 25-30 pIeces between three and SI X figure 10 hI S calculation s . " Thus the need for a special fonn of narrowing one's atten t ion , the men tal division of the board into principal an d subsidiary , is both psychologically comprehensible a nd explicaBle. The distribution of a chess player's attention depends he avily on a high level of flexibility, for in m any cases the direction of attention towards two objects sim ultaneously is, it seems, nothing other than a swift tran sfer of concentration frofflOrreobje cl 10 ano er a n an equa y SWI t return to the first object and so on. With a sufficiently high transferability o f attention which i s un der conscious cont rol , this feature of atten tion no longer operates as a defect. in that there is noth ing incongruous between the effort of im mer sing oneself in though t about ---- �{};me-variation in th€--£GR"tl£+wa-y-amI--t-fle-f-eam.atIDfI-&f-tfle;te€��y of a timely tran sference of attention to another object. However , q uite often the player is carried away by a certain idea and is literally unable to break away from it . I nsufficien t self control gives rise to a persistently narrow direction of attentio n , which l i m i ts the scope o f o n e ' s thought a n d leads to a subjective evaluation of the position and hence to errors. We shall look a t some concrete examples of the characteristics of the . "
.
-----
distribution ofa chessplayer'sattentioD-in-tnhnR:-.�e�cuouul':rsii1:e�o;nfc-
Perhaps the most clear-cut proof of the importance of th e distribution of the
76
SOM E DEFICIENCIES OF ATfENTION a t tent ion is the necessity for an appraisal of the whole breadth of the boa rd. I n this context it should b e noted that cond uct i ng the battle on both flanks sim u l taneously is considered to be one of the most complicated tasks in chess. Alekhine's skill in cond uct ing the battle over the whole board is known to everybody but there are quite a few players, even among very experienced m asters, who do not handle such operations satisfactoril y. Contem po rary chess is characterized by great dyn a mism and by a wide range o actIon on t eooard, and thIs IS In separable fro m the conduct ofthe battle on several front s. Unexpected sacrifices an d unforeseen counter-attacks l ie in wait for anyone whose attention is not well distributed over all the pieces participa tin g in the battle. Let us look at a position which arose in the g ame Spassky-Taim anov in the 22nd U SSR Championship, Moscow 1954.
On a first gl ance at the Q-side it appears t h at "everyt h in g on t h e pea k is wa s ubt less somewhat the other side of the boa��aima disquieted by the active position of the kn ight on K R4, which stan ds ready to j ump in at K B5 if necessary . In an attempt to get rid of the white knight Taima nov decided on the a dvance 14 P-N4 . M aking this move he naturally took the possibility of the q ueen check on R5 into account: he intended to reply . Q-B2 . Nor did he consider 15 N-BS dangerous either, because of 15 . . . NxN 1 6 QxN QxQ. we coul d halve the board at this point and just leave the K-side then we could not condemn Blac k's choice. A n d Taim anov , having fixed his attention on this fl ank of the battle, did not stop to think whether the changes on the K - side might not upset the equilibrium of the Q-side. He thought roughly as follows:
calm" On
___
.
.
77
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY .. All is quiet on the Q-side - l shall start to work on the K-side," an d for t his he had to ay heavil a few moves later_ The game continued as follows: IS NxNP! The enemy appears where he is not expected! IS RPxN 16 Q-RSch Q-B2 Or 16 . . . N-N3 1 7 RxRch BxR 18 NxN Q-B2 19 Q-R3. 17 RxRch BxR 18 R-Q8ch KxR 19 QxQ pxN 20 QxBP and Spassky has reached a won position , since Black's disorga nized pieces cannot e a sa IS ac ory e ence gOIng . Black suffered in this game because his attention was only directed towards a certain part of the battle. Here is a similar example from the game Romanovsky- Kasparian, Leningrad 1938. .•.
White is in a bad way, a pawn down and his opponent has a strong attack. Black has several ways in which he can win the game, however Kasparian, apparently trying to end the game as soon as possible, decided to force mate . His attention was attracted to t he idea of constructing a m ating net wit h t he queen and kni h t . This ide.iLgtip-p�Jihim so stmngl¥--thaLhe--1oJ-got-ab.().l.lt-t-h� pieces, particularly the aspects of the positions of his king and White's queen. A narrow st rip of the board, bounded by White's K R 4 , KN4 KB3 and Kl , became the centre of his concentration. Kasparian played S2 Q-K&h and he announced mate in three with 53 K-R2 RxPch 54 BxR N- KB6?1 This last move was actually played an d Romanovsky with great e mb arrassment began to explain that the knight was pinned : "At first he failed to un derstand me and it was only after J had gesticulated along the ORl!KR8 dlitgonal that he saw.hi5mistake and himself returned the knight to K4, " wrote Romanovsky . We can see that Kasparian's attention had been so firmly attached to a narrow portion of the boa rd that all the other pieces and squares had ceased to •..
SOME D EFIC IENCI ES OF
A TfENTION
e x i st for h i m . This eve n l c<1 to a st r a n ge e X
'
,I ! i\'eh' ' a l e
'Il\'
ri
I
t he whole ho a r<1 . I t is q u i t e correct I \' st at ed t h a t t he g re a t est d i ffil'lllt \' in chess i s p re se n t e d by s i m ul t a neous play on bo t h f l a n ks o n t h e bo a r <1 . T h e fo l low i n g <1 ia gram shows a posit ion frolll t h e g a m e Zails('\· -Sh,l h allo\, .
K r n sn oy a r sk 1 959 .
Wh i t e p l a y e<1 24 P·N4 pxp 25 P·R5 . H o w s h o u l <1 Black Cllilt i n lle ? A CL'or <1 i n g 10
F rie ds te i n ' s
version ( h e was presen t
at
t he
post ·mort e m ) .
Zaitsev h a <1
26 pxPeh KxP 27 R-N l e h K-B2 28 QXN with a for m i <1 a ble a t t a ck : o r 25 . . . P- K5 26 PxPch KxP 27 RxP RxR 28 QxR pxN 29 Q - N4eh with n very activc po s i t i on . But S h ll ha nov pla-,'e<1 25 . . . Q x NPch . A n
e x a m ined t hese v a ri a tion s: 2S . . . pxN
un e x pect ed a n d st ro n g reply o n t he ot h er fl an k .
Wh ite. i m m e rse<1 i n 1 h o l l g h t s
of a t t acking the k.i.n.g..-mmplctcl;y' ignorcd the cxistcOI'c of the (lthc.r�lll.I--'t.rn:'-__ hon r <1 : 26 QXQ RxQ 27
N · N 5ch pxN 28
px Pch K x P 29 KxR P·N6 30 P·BS P·K S
3 1 P·Q6 P · K6 32 p · 07 ? R·QNlch 33 K · B2 p x R 34 R · K8 P·N7 3S R esi�ns .
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY
A similar case is described by I 1yin -Zhenevsky . This position comes from the game Alekhine-Blackbume. s t . Petersb urg f9T2l."Alekhme played 1 N-Q2 after whIch there follow ed I . . .Q-:Rn-v:QR4p
QR3 and t he white bishop is lost . 'How do you expl a i n t he fact t h a t
YOIi m ade
such a g ross blunder?' J later asked Alekhine. 'Well yes . . . ' Alekhine replied. '
. . . I quite simply forgot about the bisho p . J completely forgot about it s
existence . ' Such forgetfulness occurs quite frequently . " +n-th-is-ex-a-mple too. White restricted his-plan 10 Ihe-pref)ftf'-� operat ions in t he cent re . The idea of moving the knight there engrossed
-----
A lekhine so m uch that the entire Q-side was ignored . A similar m istake is the failure to ant icipat e "long" moves. The overlooking of a queen move. say. from Q R8 to Q R2 can be explained oy t he fixing of t he player's att en t ion on t he cent ral squares. where the m ai n hat t I e-fiel d h as hitherto been . Such a limit in g of the a ttention to the m a in area of t he hat t I e is ------1com-mon to many-play€Fs.
AftSF-ffis-v'
IDi-p-l'Ila�
tournament of 1 948. Botvinn ik gave a t a l k at t he Len ingrad Palace of Pioneers in wh ich he said th at during his preparation he had oh served t h at one of h i s opponents. Euwe. n o t in frequently overlooked "long " moves . This ohservat ion was quite correct an d was o f practical value. In one of t he Botvinnik-Euwe games from t hat tourn a ment Black lost because he did not see t he "long" m anoeuvre of the white queen along t he route Q3-KN3- KN7 i n t i m e . An excessive l i m i t at ion of one's thought s t o some n arrow sector of t he hoard can produce some other b l unders hesides those of t he "Iqng move" type . Somet imes even a very limited section of t h e board-only a few squares - i s divided into a principal and secondary region o f act ivity. I n the game Petrosian -Bronstein Amsterdam
from
the Can didate's t ourn amen t in
1 956. White built up an overwhelm ing position . His knights
occupied the cen t re . his rooks were doubled on t he half-open Q N-file and his queen had penetrated in to his opponent 's camp at Q6 . At t his poin t Bronstein . whose position was hopeless. played . . . N(Q5)- K B4 . Petrosian advanced a knigh t , leaving his queen en prise. With this surprising h l un der the game came to an end . Ow can suc
an accI ent
exp ame .
t
IS
proflaEile Ihal after hI S
successful conquest of t he centre. White's atten t ion was m a i n ly d i rected towards squares lying even deeper inside his opponent 's defences . In p art i cular the establishment of t he queen on Q6 led him to t h i n k of his k night's penetratio .l to that square. which would effect ively have meant the en d of t he h a t t I e . The clrive to hring this about was so strong t hat all the powers of his a t te n t ion were directed towards t hat unfortunate square. Everything el se , even the safety of t he quee n , was orgo e n . Such except ional inst ances of t he d isrupt ion o f t h e dist rih ut ion o f atten tion can for the most part be explained hy t i redness and over-excitement .
80
SOME DEFICIENCIES OF A TIENTION One does not blunder one's queen away all t h at often , but even at other times the tendency to over-concentrate on a small n u m ber of pieces and squ ares in accordance with a kind of ran king by i m portance is a facet of our nat ure which needs constant watchin g . Along with t he examples quoted above, where a part icular plan has become the o bj ec t of deep concen t ra t io n , we often encoun ter instances where the player dwells excessively on a single move . This is noted in particular in connection
wilh a dire-ct attack orin cleferrre;su\:n-ca ;uhetf:-��e-s-a-staleo imrartse pr s"ii�-- which the defence of a piece. or an obvious ret reat seems to be forced and other possibilities a re ignored . The actual bou ndaries to the area of attention are very s mall , often t hey are lim ited to a few squares. Let us consider the following position from the game Hodos- Sergievsky, Voronezh 1959 .
Instead o f continuing 1 9 . . . pxP with t h e better game, Black played 19 . . . P-N5? It is clear that Sergievsky reckoned only on 20 N -ON1 which, after 20 . . . R(B1 )I wouldgiverum a favourable poslhon. IS t oug ts had been fixed precisely on this variation in view of the (at first sight) compulsory nature of this line . The squares QR4 and
OS , as well as the other squares of t he boa rd. see m ingly fell
outside the limits of attention because t hey did not appear to solve the problem of how to save the knig ht on B3 . T he refore Hodos' brilliant reply
20 N·R4! was
totally unexpected by Sergievs ky . White sacrifices the knight but gets a strong attack: 2O. _ .NxN 2 1 Q-Q7cb N·Ja 22 Q-K6 P-KR4 23 P-N4 N-Q4 24 Q- Q7cb N-Kl2s-PxP-<J-80t 26"""Q-K6and"WlU e won qUlc y . A
co m plicated position
arose in the g a m e
Leningrad 1 937 . 81
Soko i sk y - l ly in ·Zhenevsky .
CH ESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
Sokolsky recalled: "Here I played 25 P-R5? Engrossed in the variation 2S . . . QxRP 26 R-R1 Q-NS 27 Rx P ! (and now not 27 . . . KxR because of 28 N NSch); or 2S . . . N-BSch 26 BxN PxB 27 R-KRI PXP 28 R-R4. With incredible blin dness neither I nor Zhenevsky noticed the simple 2S . . . N-RSch, after which White would have to resign . .. Once again we see a case of limited attention in which only two of the possibilities (the capture of the attacking pawn and the natural retreat of the knight) are considered in the mental analysis. The third possibility is treated as if it does not ex ist , yet this would have been Black's strongest reply, deciding the game at once. Th us, at the beginning of the static condition of limited att en tio n , so-calIed intermediate moves a n d other unusual a n d una nticipated replies in the subsidiary areas of the board are often overlooked. Besides cases of t he disruption of the spatial distribution of attention . we also fin d examples of temporal distortion -of a "conservative" attitude towards the values and roles of partic ular pieces. S uppose at a certain stage of the game Black 's knight on Q R 4 is out of play , restricted by WhiteYpawn\:TIain . QR2. QN3.
QB4-and�. In thecuurs-e-ot
game White's attention is directed towards t he knight on R4 but each time he concludes that the pawns a re adequately guarding the imprisoned knight . The repetition of this concl usion gradually erodes t he distribution of attent ion on the function of the knight , and it escapes from the s urveillance of t he concentration . But the situation on the board changes and t he captive knight, l i ke t he Phoenix risen from the ashes. enters the game or i s advantageously sacrificed for a few ----pna3"\w-mte \i.\·"ns-;---IW n---weh "resurret-it e ns t -'-'---wme--as a great--surprise---tltl't -to, chess player: he has completely forgotten about the piece-and all of a sudden . . .!
82
--
SOME DEFICIENCIES OF A TIENTION
Th e follow i n g position is from the game Bastri kov- Krogius, R SF S R Team
Championship, Leningradi252.�
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
I t is Black to move. As Bastrikov told me after the game he was quite content with h is position : the pawn on KR6 is a ttacked and his plan (conceived qu ite a
-ff'ew-nTOves ago) ofadvancing in tlie-centlehasbOlne fruit:-Btack's minor pieces:--- have long been deprived of activi t y . White now expects 27 . . . Q- RS or 27 . . . K - R 2 . However, in h i s preliminary calculations it h a s slipped White's atten tion that with the opening up of the Q- side his opponen t ' s k n ight has new prospects.
The ga me con tin ued as follows: 27 . . . N·B4! A beautiful attack . The idea
pxN QxPcb 29 K-Rl Q·K5 30 BxQRP R·Q6 31 Q·Kl QxBP 32 N ·B I P·K5dis ch 33 K· N I P·N6 34 Q. behind it is to bring the black-squared bishop in t o play . 28
---KPxPch K2 35QXPQ·N5eh-3'�fesilm!r----
White's inadequate distribution of attent ion can perhaps be explained by his generally favourable estim ate of t he position ( t he opposing kn ight on K7 is restricted by the pawns, the bishop i s safely locked on N2) which b l u nted his concrete calcu la tions . These examples, which show t he difficulty of anticipating t he con s t antly arisi n g possibilities of pieces which have been static for some time, de monstrate the dynam ic n ature of the dist rib ut io n of attention in chess. Accordi n g to my observations it is possible to detect in players who frequently experience a l i mited range of attention , a relative backwardness in their un dersta n d i n g of the dynamics of play over the entire board, which is revealed in their ten dency to m a ke a
ainsta kin
and
rod uctive a n al sis of onl
one
articul a r i dea or
variatio n . Probably such players are affected by an effort to be excessively con scientious; they are strivi n g for the best way in which to penetrate an appealing idea as deeply as is possible.
83
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY What measures can we s uggest for develop ing one's feel for t hi s distribution ? I believe that train i n g in crit ical thin king is import a n t for this develo men t . n
during t h e g a m e it c a n b e useful t o take a
rest
from
" everyday
calculatio n " and try a n d see the position , as it were, as an outsider. This sort of diversion of the thought p rocesses can assume various cha racters. The diagram below shows a position from the game Sanzh in - Sergeiev, Ul a n U d e 1 94 7 .
Black to m ove The game finished as follows: 43 . . . RxP! 44 QXR Q.R4ch 45 R·KR3 QxPcb 46 K-Rl Q-K8ch 47 K-R2 Q-N8 mate
S �e Clr>-K geiev's account-Of-h-i.s-rea�---i-Ateresting: "After
_ _ _ _ _
White's forty-third move I thought for about five m i n utes a nd I was j ust about t o resign but something held m e back a t t h e last momen t . W h a t w a s it ? Perhaps I j ust l iked the look of my strong attacking peices. I was somewhat disappointed by the fact t h at my queen was p in ned. I gradually came to the conclusion that I was losin
onl
because of that
in . I wanted to
et rid of it
at least i n m
thoughts. I started working out a variation as if White's queen on Q B2 did not exist . I could see mate in four moves. After that I easily fou n d the rook sacrifice. " In t his particular case thin king about the position in general (the strong attacking position of the pieces a n d so o n ) helped in
fin ding the right
combin atio n . In the end t hese generaJ considerations led the distribution of attention towards the possibility of sacrificing on R7. I n positions where a plan has to be chosen or when one's mind is set on general stra tegic principles it is useful to com bine the diversion of one' s thoughts wit h the analysis of tactical threats.
84
SOME DEFICIENCIES OF A lTENTION I do not wish to give the impression that concrete calculation and maliin g general assessments of the position a re two independent things. I t is not s o , of course.
I am Just trymg to po rnt out the relahve predomlffance-oroll-e---tcin-&-Of'--
thinking over a nother at a given momen t -either concrete or abstrac t . However, let us return t o o u r thesis. In t h e g am e Krogius- Sergievsky from t he R SF S R Championship of 1959. White was carrying out his pla n n e d m inority attack on the Q-side. J remember that J wanted to make one more consolidating move
with the rook,
but first--clecided
to glan�e-bGa-I'd-t--.() Se�--
whether any surprises were lurking. I n a few moments my attention was attracted by the possibility of a cunning combination which was not directly con nected with my Q-side st rategy. The " illogical" combination which my attention had missed a t first was actua lly played i n the game. It is also useful to switch off from one's own i n tentions and put oneself i n the opponent's place-to thi n k a little for him . Such a transfer of our thoughts ---Jt(acro�-t&-ke�s-ulHiU-a-bet-tff-SCl'-Utiny and prevent mist akes a nd m iscalcula tions due to in attentive ness . Th us. the conscious diversion of one's t houghts at certain moments of t he stuggle. or in other words , the exercise of self-control, is an effective way of developing the breadth of one's attent ion . I t is possible that what we thin k of as
---t-'-" h --' �ni1Y_QLt�e�rate ic and tactical elements of the art of chess consists
_ _
precisely of a recognition of the n eed for shift s of this type-from the general to the special and from the concrete to t he general . The problem of the rel ation between the distribution and the flex ibility of the attention has not yet been adequa tely classified in experimental psychology. O n t h e basis o f n u merous ob servat io n s o f h ighly rated players w e have c o m e to t h e provisional conclusion that a l o w facility in switching o n e ' s attention is highly correlated with
oor distributio n of attention . The advice given for im proving
the ability to shift t �le attention may there fore help t he distribution of attention as wel l . Thus t raining games of speed chess m ight be productive in combatting the defects of lim ited attentio n . In blitz play positions change too quickly to al low the con ditions for an excessively deep an alysis of in dividual plan s . On the contrary, it generally requires a constant adju stment and transfer of a ttention to the so utlon 0 new y ansen proolem s tha t cover the entire boa rd. Sim ila rly , on the basis of my experience as a trainer. I consider it permissible for me to reco m men d simultaneous play as having a bene ficial in fluence in b roaden ing the range of a player's attention, especially if clocks and a shortened time control are used ( a session of 8-10 boards with a time limit of 45-60 minu tes for
40 moves is recom mended). I should also mention that in t he search for a cure for these defect s [ ach ieved successful results from my hrst experiments In shOWIng comphcafe-op1YS1tt mrs-t-....--- first
cat egory
players
and
Candidate
85
M asters.
After
a
twenty
second
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY exa m i n a t io n of the board. the pieces were removed and the players were asked to reco nstruct t he positions and give general descript ions of the b attle o n each an .
Dispersion of attention. By this we mean a n excessive breadth of attention . the striv i n g to confine the i n fi n ite on the chess board. The distribution of the capacities of attent ion .over a
--- -V1 't'e eF ry-iarge num-beF----6l-elements---in-a-eom-pi-iea-ted-fms#ion-le-ads--te-a-weakened atten tion on the main decisive a rea of the board. which in turn m a kes a correct assessment of the position very difficul t . Often we encounter thought di spersal aimed at ana lyzing n u merous concrete variat io n s , while consi dera t ions of general strategic pla nning are pushed into the background. Such cases of being carried away by concrete factors to the detriment of general considerations leads to a situa tion i n which the salient factors in the
--- -{)G&I-H(lffi-catt -J -lRHn--I-ruH-l·eld--of attention. Thisis Iike�ad--to-+imtl--trouhle--and t he general assessment of the position itself is not completely objective. in that it suffers from excessive detail . Notice
should
be
taken
of
the
substantial
difference
between
the
characteristics of instability of atten tion-its unnecessary tran sference which we ex a m ined above-and the dis ersion of attention . With insta bilit
of attention
the mind wavers between one idea-the principal one a t a ny given mom ent , and a n other, but in t he case of dispersed attention we observe t he effort to embrace a1l the variety of detail in the current position in a single act of perception . Tal gives a good description of the condition of dispersed attention in his
comments on the 9th game of his first match with Botvinnik (Moscow 19 60 ) .
86
SOME DEFICIENCIES O F A TIE NTION .. As soon as t he black K R was able to neutralize W hite's pressure in the K -file. it could be con sidered that Black 's basic difficult ies were in t he past . This is
what Botvin n ik felt . and I have to agree w i t h him . Here I would like to digress slightly. I n t he course of a chess game. oppo n e n t s develop t heir ideas completely di fferently . Many chess p layers (especia ll y in the younger generatio n ) in the course
of a
five
hour
game
will
occup y
t he m selves
mainly
with
basic
calculations, and t heir work will approximately co nsist of ' if I go there he goes
-- -ttnhere-'--a-s-the-positioll wallalts. l The 1II0re-experienced-chess-phryers-whorr-csntuTfdhy,--- the secret s of t he art more profoun dly, frequentl y do not bother them selves with
such faLguing matters and. conform ing to basic u nsha kable ( in man y b ut n ot in all cases) principles. plan their furt h er play . To ill us t rate. I wou l d like to
quote from t he conversatio n which occu rred after the end of t he n i n t h g a me hetween Botv i n n i k and myself . W h e n I , in rapid- fire successio n , bega n to show Botv i n n ik the different varia tions in which Black gets a good ga me he sai d : . At first. I thGUght that thi5-fles#IDn was betteF-Ile-fe-�� -- correct pla n : I ha d to exchange rook s a n d keep the queens on the board . ' A t firs t , such an eval uat ion of t he posit ion seemed to me to be rather abs tract . but when I bega n to go over the same numerous variations, then I came to the conclusion t hat Botvinnik was absolutely correct : i n an e nding without queen s , Wh i t e ' s wel l shaRed Rawn ch a i n with t he support of the a ctive bishop gu a ra ntees him a defin ite edge . W ith the queens on the boar d . Black can coun t on a strong a t tack in view of the weakness on K N 4 . W h i te's next move is absolutely correc t -he has lin ked it with the idea of fight i n g for t he K - file. but a t the decisive moment . I lost confidence in m ysel f . " I t i s n o t surprising t h a t in t he follo w i n g p art o f t h e g ame Tal made a decisive error. H aving been eng rosse d in a welter of concrete variations he allo wed t h e
m a i n st rategic idea of his difficult positio n -t he u n favourabil ity of t h e exch ange of rook s for Wh it e- to slip from h i s min d . Tal could play 21 P- KH4 a n d 22 R
KS establish ing a n out post on t he crit ical K - fi I e , b u t he m issed this o pport u n it y
possi bly because h e regarded it a n unnecessary lux ury to conte m pl ate operat ions on t he K-file alone.
Th e o pen ing of the g ame Lei n -Stein 34th U S S R C h am p ionship Tiflis 1 966 /67. is also instruc t ive: 1 P·Q4 N KB3 2 N · K B3 P · Q3 3 Q N ·Q2 B·NS 4 P · B3 P·B3 S ·
Q.B2 QN.Q2 6 P · K3 P·K4 7 pxp pxp 8 B B4 B·K2 9 0·0 0·0 IO R· K l Q.B2 ·
I l P-QR3 P·QN4 1 2 B·K2 P-QR4 I3 P-QN3 N · B4 14 P-QN4 N · RS I S P-K4 QR Nl 1 6 P · B4 RPxP 1 7 B · K B I KR·BI 1 8 B Px P BPxP 19 QxQ RxQ 20 NxP B.K3 21 N·Q3 P·N6
87
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
White's position is a sad sight! If we examine Lein's p receding moves it
----e-th-at---'�i£� cea h-indi¥kiual--tOO¥e-iS-OOt-W-se -bad-iD-# l-f--and-5e� ems have been directed towards t he solution of some concret e problem, but there was no general plan behind White's play. Lack of planning is accompanied by the dis persion an d frag men t at ion of the processes of t hought and attention . In this case the chief disrupting agent of White's attention was o bviously Lein ' s emotional state of depression . The result of t hi s game was very important to him -if he won he almost certainly would have qualified for the Interzonal Tournamen t . Normally very attentive. he was unrecognizable in this game. The sc attered course of his thoug ht, dispersed amongst "a little of everyt hing" was quickly punished. These cases of dispersed attention rem in d us somewhat of a computer working on the principle of examining all possible variations . The computer con siders a lot of inform ation very quickly. but
is unable to distinguish the
primary variations from the subsidiary ones. There can be no doubt that dispersed attention dislocat es the player's plan-forming creative process. A consistent game con taining a single strategic plan from beginning to end cannot be created with dispersed attention . Overcoming this defect is linked in the first place with the development of the player's ability to evaluate. Therefore, when an alyzmg posItIons durmg trammg exercIses . one sho uld fIrst of all try to get an unequivocal a nswer to the question " what should I do?", rather than "how should I do i t ? " . A useful exercise for solving posit ions i s t o try t o find a plan for Wh ite or Black . Unfort u n a tely. perhaps with the exception of Lisitsi n 's boo k , " such exercises a re missing in chess han dboo ks. In my work with first category pl ayers I organized contests in the rapid assessment of a position ; in three to ten •
Slralegya i Taklika Shakhmal nO!!(l tskuSSI\·a ( I QS2)
88
SOME DEFICIENCIES OF A lTENTION m in utes t he competitors had to po int out t he princ ipal strategic and tactical ideas in the po sit io n . The first of these experiments had positive resul ts. Even those most Inclined to coglfate over every sorfOflfiViastrow-e
the struggle against wandering at ten l i on a study of the efforts of
---\R�l1hiilSteill .
Capab\-anca-;--Botvffintk-;-S��trosian will�--grea+----
benefit . Their games reveal the pro m i n ence of efficiently directed concentration in order to real ize what t hey consider to be their main aim on the board . perhaps a
distant strat egic plan or even a brief operation which i mproves the posi tion o f
a
single piece.
The power of concentration . ---�Inderstan I'-Gf-rollcent+a-tion-we-u d the intensity of attention to an
act i v i ty and t he degree of absorbtion in it . People's powers of concentration di Her giea tly. The fol lowing degrees of intensity can be disti ngu ished in chess : Total absorption in the game; a m ore restrained concentration . altern ating with distractions such as looking at neighbouring ga mes , spectators and so on ; a � lIperficial concentration . as for instance . when one looks through games quick l y withou t a proper understa ndin g : and lastly, weak concentration with a n unst able direction o f attention . Such a n unst able , wan dering concentration often borders on absent-mindedness . The
power
of
a
pl ayer 's
attention
depends
on
several
factors :
his
temperament . t he complex i ty of the position , the significance of the outcome of the game. t iredn ess and so on. Apparently, at one tourn amen t it happened t ha t a water'u
felI
to
t he
floor with
a
resounding crash.
A l most all
t hose present looked up. wit h t he except ion of t he English master Burn, who carried on gazing at the board as if not h i ng h ad h appened. Later he said that he had not heard anythi ng . A nd this is not exception a l . Although we have just distinguished fo ur degrees of the power of attention we h ave to note t h at the character of the chess struggle de mands the development to a high level of the faculty of attention , so that III normal to urn ament conmfions (infneaosence"o"'fF---- excessive tiredness) an experienced chess player has a very high power of attent i o n . The ability to m ai nt ain a prolonged and constant i n ten sity of a t tention are also very important accompl ishments in chess. A game lasts a long t i me and t he slackc::n ing of attention for eve n a short period can le ad to irreparable consequences : how often an adva ntage gained by m a ny hours' ardous toi l is thrown away by a si ngle careless move ! An
I mportant.
necessary
conmhon
for
m almrunlng--ure----s1-rengt1T-o�f--
concentration is a su fficient va ri ety in one's thoughts and impression s . A nythin�
89
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY monot onous quickly weaken s t he a t t e n t ion . K . S . S t a n i sl avs k y said t h a t in orde r to keep lip one 's a t t e n t iveness it is not eno ugh j u sl 10 s t a r e at an
-
-
ob j e c t ;
one has
*I-eI'� , e 'ef' f'r i'<e e-t il1-'fl-f f()' Om-di#eren-t-pointsand-sCTVal'TorT re'"s-pe cepti'on-oht.
Before m a k i n g a move t he chess pl ayer usually asks h i msel f : " w h a t will I g a i n
by mov i ng t h i s pi ec e ? " The answer mi ght be : w i nn i ng a pa w n . a st ron g square for t he knight . defen di ng ag ai n s t a fork a nd
so
on ; he com p ares t h e a n s we rs and
a f t c r a na ly z i ng them he chooses h i s next m o ve . I bcl i cve t h a t
mentally asking
another
sIlecif��wl+a1
will
this
i n tc lJ(1 e c1 m ov e give the opponen t and what new po ssi bi l i t ies w i l l it ope n up for h i m ? . - w i l l con siderably widen and e n r i ch one 's perception o f t h e posi t ion , I n th i � w ay o n e sees t he pos i t ion from di ffe re n t angles , a nd t h i s helps t o re t a i n a t t e m i on at
a
hi gh level .
The ndvice : "first of a l l t ry t o see w h a t yo u r o p ponent is t h rea t ening " is very co mmon a mong t ra i ners a nd i n spite o f a supe r f i c i a l si m i lari ty to t he above
m e n t i oned met hod it is n.e.LeLthel�te different
If we hase-o.ur--1-h�)v-'--
on o u r oppon e n t ' s t hreat s t h en we i n vol u n t a rily i n t ro d u ce a p as s i v e direction t o our t ho u gh t s and we es t i m a t e t h e posit ion somewh at one·si dedly . i . e , from t h e point o f view of t h e opp\me n t " s cha nces . D i v ersi ty is a l so a necessary condi t i on for i n c reasi n g t he attention duri n g chess st u dies. Whi Ie s t u dy i ng ope n i ngs some lI s u a l l y
0 I e swot u
v a ri a t i on s
which
come to an end between t h e t welfth a n d fifteenth moves , I h a v e seen
qu i te experi enccd
fi rs t
ca tegory
pl ayers
prepa r i ng
for a
ga me
u s i ng
this
mo not o no us mct hoo . I n a l l p rob abi l i t y t he power o f con c e n t r a t ion fal l s quickly c1u r i ng sti ch prepa ra t i on . si nce the k n ow l e d ge ob t a i ne d i n such a way has p r ov e d t o he short l ived .
Rom anovsky wrote t h at it was useful to combine the study of the open ings
w i th t he analysis of combin ations typical of the variation , and with t he anal sis o games
eg tnn m g WIt
t e open mg in questio n . Romanovsky's advice stresses
t he t hesis that deep knowledge can be acquired through va ried approaches . Along wit h t he diversity in on e's thoughts an d impression s , involvement in an activity assists the development of the power of atten tion. Blumen feld said t ha t h e remembered the games h e played h i m self considerably longer t h a n games by ----y --!isftonm'tfe�bod else which he had annotaterh r;-m--spHe-01-r e fact thathe hadto spend
two or three days analyzing t hem . and con sequently spent much longer over them . However, there is nothing mysterious in this. The process of playing a game is more active t h an t h at of annotating another player's games. and demands a more intensive attention . I n volvement in a n activity ensures better reten tion . From my own experience I can say that I h ave very often refuted over t h e ----
-hoard;-in
a
few minutes,
a vari ation I had prepared at ho me. Ihe act Ive
ch aracter of p l ay during the game and the strength of a t tention w h i ch goes with
90
SOME DEFICIENCIES OF A TIENTION it are evidently more productive than one's concentration during ho me analysis. One can say that , as a rule , in a given u nit of time one can see more over the
--lYoMct-tJTan-m-the-quier-ot-one's-study-that -soexercises have to be combined with
practical
the opinion-Htat-theoreHteeftlal�- play is quite j ustifie d .
In
tournament games knowledge i s thoroughly tested and reinforced . I thin k that it is incorrect to plan the progra m m e for chess st u dy groups (especially children's study groups) in the same way as one plans a school lesson. One has to pl ay over
andover again-.-I--am-not-n de ¥ing,-of-colJrse, the significanceof theory, hut I am
convinced that one cannot become a strong player just by studying books. However, let us ret urn to the st u dy of theory and home analysis . It seems that. the effectiveness of analysis is not always the same . I t is much hi gher
in cases
w here t he work is of a more active and i n depen dent character.
In such
conditions the attention rises sharply and the material is understood and remem bered better . At num ero us trai ning gatherings information which was -�c*h@��m�������--From the very first steps in chess a trainer has to try to teach his p upil independence and the ambition to do something with hi s own bare hand s . I n my youth I used to be trained by m aster Aratovsky . I remem ber what a great help it was to me, then a second category pl ayer, to annotate one of my own games. I t was a difficult t ask and it required a lot of attention to reach an opinion on the opening , to compare it with the reference book recommenda tions and to try to find t he crucial moments of the game . In my work as a trainer I t a ke care to encou rage plenty of independence from players and I con sider it to be an important element in forming the chara cter of a chess player as well as his atte ntiveness. I n the l ight of this statement I think it is important tha t , i n a ddition to hi s usual homewor k , a first category player should deliver a short lecture on such themes as : the attack on the long di agon al, knight against bishop , isolated pawns and so on . For a Candidate M aster one has to m ake the theme a bit more difficult and stress the im portanc6 of inde pendence. A n example of a suitable topic is : "Met hods o f struggling against an isolated pawn on
Q4 in Petrosian ' s games . "
O n e pre-condition o f a high l evel o f concentration is a clear understanding o f what one is doing . Conseque ntly, a correct a n d objectjve assessment of the e vents on t he board increases the attention ; when one has a definite aim an d knows what to do one can think with more concentration and purposefulness. I n the above example from the Tal - Krogius g a m e the reason for Bl ack 's m istake was an insufficient undertstanding of the sense of the position . A t the tp.oment when ] moved the fatal knight to N3, as ] recall , I did not clearly understand the shortcomings of my position nor , above all, the insecure position of the knight on Q .
his caused fluctuations in my a t tention , which was distracted for a fe w
moments, and induced the miscalcu l ation .
91
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY It often happens that when one is in a difficult position one begins to play more inventively, the tension of one's thought and attention increases, one
,continuously-and-feverishly
----
searches
for---a-htH61l;--w ehafte a-rotlnter� e or an
unexpected trap. Why does that happen? Could one not have played with a similar intensity of attention earlier in the game, when everything was all rig ht ? It seems that the earlier, not yet fully formed position was assessed superficially, the game was not planned properly and the attention was dispersed on de tails.
-----Jlwn�cvonnection_with
the
heightening oLattentiveness attendant IIpon
an
understanding of the events on the board we must mention the ability of Petrosian , Kholmov and some other players to take timely prophylactic measures against their opponents' threats even before they have become apparent . This sharpened "sense of danger" is nothing other than high attentiveness based on a profound assessment of the position and versatility of thought in taking the opponent's view point . ----e -'vlle-Gft n-llear-S-Of�-Playergetti-tlg-intO-a-p�ition-'-'notofhistype" and losing quickly. There is evidently a connection between a person's style of play and his ability to increase the activity of his attention . A chess player' s style is not just a question of moves on the board; it is rather a matter of hi s character and the i diosyncracies of his cerebral activity . Since work is usually more productive whe n performed in fa miliar condi tions, perhaps I can suggest that pl ayin chess in more familiar and better understood positions is also characterized by greater attentiveness. This hypothesis does not conflict with my opinion on !.he connection between one's attention and one's general estimate and understanding of a position. The position in the following diagram is from the game Krogius - Barcza, Chigorin Memorial Tournamen t , Sochi 1964.
92
SOM E DEFICIENC I ES OF A TIENTION I had the fol lowing problem : with which piece shall I capture the black knight ? Bot h ways are quite attractive. After 10 QXN B·B4 1 1 B·QNSch K· K2
12
-B3 W hi te has dan erous threats. For exa mple. 1 2 . BxPch 13 R x B QXB is . .
no good because of 14 Q-R3ch. On the other hand. after 10 NxN QXQ 11 RxQ . Black has a difficult ending . But one has to choose one or the other! J decided to play
JO NxN because it was more in my style and
J liked it a little
better. But what does the phrase " more in my style" mea n ? I t m eans that the chosen contin uation evoked in m e a feeling o f confidence and satJstactJon WIth the poslhon . The desifabtttryof--su-ch-.rfeeling . which encourages ,
as we
know , a heightening of the attention, is obvio us . I conducted
the rest of the game in good spirits and ultimately managed to win . White would probably have won even after 10 QXN appears to be
no
as
this con t i nuation
weaker than 10 NxN . But why di d I decide not to play 10 QXN . ?
I n comparing the two possibilities during the game, I remember th at I was afraid that if I kept the queens on I might let my advantage slip, and pe rhaps blunder. So, the deCISIOn was emofiotratlycot"Otl.ed. In the case of 10 QXN all adverse emotion al colo uring appeared which infl uenced my attention and m y thin k ing process . and could t h u s have ultimately influenced the strength of m y play . Does one, then, by choosing a line which suits one's own t aste and style, really
---iiIruncrease-the-attenHtm-and the streng--th-eHme's playge�Thi.sisindeed the conclusion J would draw . An analysis of a l arge n um ber of my losses confirms thi s belief! In games in which I did not follow my chess convictions , in which I bowed to other authorities . I m ade more mistakes . I wali less attentive and I p layed a weaker game. A lot of chess fans are attracted by Tal 's brilliant style o f play . I am myself a great admirer of his outstanding imagina tive gift . bu t one cannot expect every
---ehesm-as s -ter-t6-pJay in Tal's style. Evet'Y-PI�h-ar..acterforms diffel"ent1y, as do his way of thin king and the particular capacities of his attention , memory and other psychological processes . And so even if everybody wanted to follow a sing le example no good would come of it for chess.
A chess player's capacity for work and his attention during the game are not
the same thing. Tiredness blunts the attention at the end of a round , whe reas at
the beginning one often lacks concentration . Like other kinds of mental effort , a game of chess can be divided into the following stages: (1 ) Enteri n g i n to the spirit of the ga me; (2) Reachi ng an optimal working capacity; (3) A falling off of attention due to tiredness. J . P. Pavlov's research showed that changing over from one activity to another
is difficult for a human being . One's thoughts and feelings accustom themselves
to the rhythm of even familiar work only gradually, not all at once . Establishing
a sufficient degree of attention at the begi nni ng of a game does not happen
93
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
s uddenly either. A certain period of time elapses before one 's attention is dis tracted from thoughts connected with previous activities and one actively
-><..U-"'<.LL.1n1Q lhe
_ _ _ _
game
One sometimes reads in twm.am-e.n��l+l-a, -
Bo tvinnik. in accordance with h i s habi t , appeared in the tou rnament hall fi fteen m i n utes before the ro un d w as d ue to st art . It is worth thi n king about this striking consistency on the part of the Ex-World Champio n . I t i s not fortuitous; on the contr ary . he prolongs his tournament d ay for a few m inutes quite delibera tely. By coming earlier he is able to delete irrelevant impressions and tune hi msel f for the comi ng struggle. It seems that Botvinnik u nderstood the beneficial effect of t hi s practice long ago. Unfortunately not many follow his example. In fact it is far more com m on for a master to arrive out of breath, just as his clock is being started , or even later. It takes hi m a few minutes to recover and the n , with difficul ty, get into the game while he reckl essly uses up a lot of time and energy. Estab lishing a s ufficient de ree of concentration at t he be ' nnin of a am e also requires time and a certain period of acclimatization . For this reason the hab it of a n umber of chess players of making the opening moves very q uickly see m s to me to be qui te wrong. Sometimes they hurry to such an extent that they can hardly even press the cloc k . A lot of people will argue "but if one knows the v ariation very well, then why not save some time?" Of course, one can save a few m in utes , but they are no wor m uc . a e , or exam ple , Boleslavsky's play. He must have pl ayed the Chi gorin vari ation of the Ruy Lopez hundreds of times, but I have never seen him m aking his first moves of that opening at blitz speed and it is not through inabibility: the Grandmaster from M insk pl ays five- minute chess m uch m ore confidently t han some of the opening "spri nters " . There is a differe nt expl anation for this deliberateness: quick openi ng moves , made out of inert ia. evoke a very weak degree of concentrat ion . This break-neck rush and feeble concentration often mfluence the rest of the game . Attention IS late arriving and bl unders are not far away. Many blunders are made at exactly the m om ent when the opening moves have been hurriedly fi nished and the first "independent" move is made . We h ave already s aid that chess demands a pro longed maintenance of i ntense ----alHHention . How�er, it woutd be wlong tcrctaim tire necessity of all equally deep absorption in the game throughout the whole five hours. Let us compare two key moments in a game : suppose you are thinking about your move, weighing up the numerous pros and cons before deciding what to play . In thi s you try to keep yo ur attention and thinking processes at their very highest level . The will and em oti ons are strained to the limit . The content of the t hi n ki ng proces s , however, is quite different while you are waiting for your opponent to move, especi ally if -'ar not iii tilile Iwuble and ----�ylou-e
the--pustr- tton�omams-a-tar"ge-numb-ero
continuati ons of roughly eq ual value . In such cases the mind is relatively passive
94
SOME DEFICIENCIES OF A TIENTION and t he strength of i ts attention decreas es , because t he i m pulse to m obilize the w i ll - t hat is, the opponent's move-is abse nt . We try to guess our oppo nent ' s
---/m'&e-v--5-U e-aM �GRditwn,-like-any uncertainty in life, depress�aJld_-.di-"-,->u,,-,--,-,,-,,, --
_ _ _
And tiredness i ncreases. Perhaps one should sometimes use one ' s opponenfs m ove time for rest an d for relaxing the intensity of the attention somew h a t . Whether or not one shou l d s it at t he board the whole ti me i s a question o f long standi ng . I t i s well known that Botv inn i k in man
tourn a me nt s he
la e d in, remained gl ued to his chair
fo r the w hole five hours , t h i n k i ng about his o ppo nent's possible varia tio n s . This l e d t rainers a n d mentors t o s a y t o t he ir charges: " Look a t Botvin n i k ' s ex ampl e : do not wal k arou n d w h i l e your oppo nent is t h i n kin g , b ut t h i n k yoursel f . " Late i n h i s career Botvinn i k . to t he a m azement o f chess trainers , st arted walking up and dow n the tourna ment hall . However, the watchword " sit and play" has not lo st its followers. What comment c a n be m a de here? Ever
chess pia er has hi s idiosync racies
of tempe ra ment , attent ion and other psycho-physiological qual ities , so it woul d be wrong to g i ve one general prescri p t i on . N evertheless I would l i ke to p o i n t o u t s o m e con s i derat ions . Someti mes , of course. it is essential to t hi n k w hi l e it is one's op ponent 's m ove , and not divert one's attention . This is natural d u r i n g time trouble, during forced contin uations ,
iran-i
ea
su
en y
stn es
one
a ou
an
u ex pect>"'e- --
continu ation , and so on , but more often , di straction from the game an d some rel a xation are q uite j ustified , and w alking is an active form of rel axat i o n . Chess players h a v e differin g w ays of divert ing t heir t houghts f r o m the g a m e . For ex a mp l e . Li sitsin goes to the corner of the s tage and looks i nto the a U dience, Smy slov energetica l ly paces along between the t ab l es and Tal and Ta i m a nov m an a ge to "run " several m i l es d uri ng a ro u n d . Despite these differences in behaviour, chess player's ways of res t m g have plenty In com mon . Ftrstly , rei axation is relative: there is only a sl i ght decrease in the stre n g t h of the attention and one's thoughts conti nually return to one's own position . A t such m om e nts a player c an start a conversation with a fellow-com petitor, but he does not
p ar ticularly
like
listeni n g
to
hi m ,
especi ally if i t
involves
maki ng
a
---- c�o�r.rtm� � ��--Here we enco unter the diffic u l ty of the d i s tribution of attention between cog itating about one question and listening to a discourse on anothe r . Generally it is only the m ai n i deas of the s p eaker ' s t ho u ghts w hich are regis t ere d , and even these only i n a fragmentary way . D uring these periods of diversion strong o utsi de irri tants can pl ay an adverse role. A ques tion from a journ a l i st , en q u i ries from a persistent fan or just loud talki n g c a n provoke-s-ocn-comptettioli e-di-stnrc that the--process-otre=esta-bti-shlng�--
9S
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY one's concentration after the ,o pponent 's move is very difficult and demands great will power.
-------;;)lffl · �e's--atkntioo_has__aised__er____lew ___to__b �red_w_i_th___ve _e ry_____mo'le iR alternation , it is important to think about the moment at which one swi tches b ack on. I believe that at the point of transition from rel ative rel axation to great effort (that is, when the opponent makes his move) t he practice of writing down the full chess notation (instead of the abbreviated form) i s quite justified. * The extra two or three seconds one uses for this notation ensure a gra dation in the course of the inc rease of the intensity of attention and also help to get rid of any i rrelevant t houghts which have appeared during the wait for the opponent ' s move.
INDIVIDUAL CHARACfERlSTICS AFFECI1NG AtTENTION In t he i nvestigation into the special characteristics of attenti on in chess activit , an allowance should be made for the selective na ture of attent ion , which is
dependent
upon
a
player's
knowledge ,
his
experien ce ,
his
aesthetic
preferences and so on . Indivdual features of a player's character, his tastes and interests, influence the direction of attent ion considerably.
The edent to which attention i. dependent upon the player'. theoretic" w e exper ence. Under the infl uence of knowledge and experience, attention is often drawn to certain elements in a position or transferred to other element'S. Perhaps this is because the player has discovered the position on t he board to be sitpilar to already known
positions
which he
has encountered before and because
experience plays the part of a special sort of traffic light for a pl ayer 's attention. The green light is associated with agreeable memories , w hereas red signifies
lfflcU ties.
nger 10 assocI a
•
Krogius is recommending the use of.
for example.
NgI ·f3,
96
rather than simply NO- Editor
SOME DEFICIENCIES OF ATTENTION
As an exam ple l et us consider the opening in the game game Wi nter Capablanca Hastings 1 9 19 . ___
--
C... --'ap pablanca's-attentjon was attracted by the idea of forcing_�whi�.� h� is� h,", o¥ p____
from the theatre of war by means of
8
.
.
. P- K R3 and
.
.
.
P-KN4.
There fol lowed
P-KR3 9 B-R4? P-B4 10. N-Q5? P-KN4 II NxNch QxN 12 B-N3 B-N5 13 P-KR3 BxN 14 QXB QxQ 15 PxQ P·K B3 "A single glance is enough to be . . .
convinced that White is practically a bishop down " wrote Capabl anc a . Possibly the Cuban's attention was also attracted to the action on the K-side because of associations with i deas seen in earlier games in w hich he had chased away his opponent's bishop in a similar way. It is quite sufficient to look at t he openin g moves i n his game with Morri son (White), played i n New York a year earlier: 1
P-K4 P-K4 2 N -K B3 N-QB3 3 B-NS P-Q3 ·4 N - B3 B-Q2 5 P-Q4 pxp 6 NxP P KN3 7 N B3 B-N2 8 B-NS N-B3 9 Q-Q2 P- KR3 10 B- KR4? 0-0 1 1 0-0-0 R- Kl 1 2 KR- KI P-N4 1 13 B-N3 N- KR4 1 4 N-QS P-R3, and the bishop on KN3 i s not -
involved in the arne. Knowledge defi nitely regulates the direction of a player's attention t o a certai n extent , however, it is necessary to qualify this wi th the observation that k nowledge is aU the more effective in reg u l ating attention t he better assim ilated it is . Needless to say this indicates that great be nefit is derived from analyzing one 's own games, that is to say a detailed, critical analysis in w hich both the key factors anathe mistakes III the game are revealed. Korchnoy once rna e an instructi� remark about the requirements for the effective analysis of one 's own games. He pointed ou t that the attitude towards this work shou l d be the same as that adopted when each game is destined for publication. Unfortunately, m any players fail to take the view that their games are their own vital concern ; at best t heir game scores gather dust on a shelf and are never t urned to for critical examination . e expenence a other players shOUld, of course , be understood In depth. In this respect the picture is apparently more favou rabIe, the theoretical articles and the games of famo us pl ayers are studied . However, here too one need not go far for examples of tournament books being rea d with the speed of bl itz games . with a l ack of serious analysis . One would im agi ne that the exponents of suc�
speed methods-woutd-t-n
-+Ihh'e clUde "Igo-there-he-goes1here�then-t-g"o-there etc. This i>atready--a--big step forward in the development of a player ' s positional judgement.
97
CHESS AND PSYCH OLOGY Of co urse, I am not trying to deny the si gnificance of visual im ages i n assimilating pas t experience. I t i s merely m y wish t o say that a player's visu a l
-'"m "'"' em Ll oJ:¥--.Sbollld lU be develope�'!Oison with his concrete memory
_ _ _ _
In
regard to
the role of visual ima ges in effectively holding attent ion , I can speak from my experiences with a group of ten players of can didate m aster or first category st rength. The subjects were asked to eva l ua te a position in a well- known variation of the King 's Indian Defence and to outline a plan of action . The n , what m i ght seem t o b e a trivi al new det ai l w as i nt roduced i n to the famil i ar position on the board ; the pieces and pawns kept the ir pl aces bu t the col(JUrs were reversed . Although the sense of the position rem ained unchanged the results of the experiment were unexpected-the majority of the subjects failed to arrive at a clear un derst anding of the i dentity of the two positions d uring the whole period of the experiment ( 1 5 m i nu tes) and they proposed rather u nusual and ra ther bad plans. On the whole they convincingly demonst rated o nce again that in chess creativity the act of i nstilling meaning i nto a position is an organ ic p art of the act of visual underst andi ng of the position . The extent to which attention is dependent upon fashions In chess.
Every pl ayer possesses his own individ ual characteristics . It is possible to sing e ou groups W I simi ar c arac eriShcs of creauvl1y and flle se groups we call styles , and yet m any players of various styles fall un der the spell of the current creative trends in chess . Thus , in their time , the teachings of Steinitz, the views of Tarrasch , the i deas of Capablanca and a n u m ber of other great masters, have exerted an infl uence upon the ope ni ng repertoi re and the methods of technique applied by m any of their contemporaries of varyi ng styles . Today a s im i lar pi cture ca n be observed when the King 's I ndian and the Sicilian dommate 1ft the openI ngs . but In the mIddle-game the m ost popular pusihti7io" are those with dynamic tension in the centre and a pawn storm against an enemy ki ng fortress which contains a fianchettoed bishop . Therefore, in o ur observations of the present phase of chess development . various posi tions rem ain outside the notice of m any pl ayers of various types and char acters . For
---- -i-n-<�... , .,...,�those-posilions-wittHymrnet-riea+-pawrr-ro-rm-at-ifm-s-i-n---e -the-e ntFe, sueh
as arise from the Orthodox and Slav defences in the Queen's Gambi t . Somehow such positions are regarded as dull . even as drawish. They are not given a thought a nd a ttention is tran sferred to a more " m odern" arra ngement of the p ieces. Is t his n ot a tr ib ute to fashio n ! Taimanov's story about t h e seminar h e held in 1 967 for young m aster s is quite instructive: the Grandmaster noticed that the six young players, although of ----r-.fh'ffe ent-creative teftdefte�ten-s ti -sueh as those�f\tieRed-- above . but in t he more modem g ames t hey sought w ith interest and found the tactical and strategic ideas t hat have often been encountered in recent years. 98
SOME DEFICIENCIES OF ATTENTION
The dependeaee of attalion on aesthetic view•• A pretty sacrifice or an unusual idea generally attract the attention of players of various
styles In this attracti�dn efi ilLdiffkJlltkLilLe ob erved in trans
ferrin g the attention from some im pressive looking variation to a more prosaic one, but one which is possibly more efficient, so great is the aesthetic factor in conditioning the player' s attention. At t imes (most often it is observed in players with great imagin a tion), a serious effort of will is required to deviate from the i mpressive, but less potent manoeuvre, in favour of the dry prose which leads to the goal mQre quic kly . Many masters are seemingly convinced t hat the more efficient a m ove is the more beautiful it is, yet hidden i n the mind of nearly everyone lies t he feeling that to s acrifice the queen and win in five moves is preferable to an easily gained victory in four moves. Very possibly these views are explained by the powerful propaganda over the years in favour of sacrifices an d risk 0 n the I:hess board . Doubtless t hese views are controversia l , but what is to be done-ro m anticism tn chess lterature IS Stl successfully contrasted with realism. The next diagram shows a position from t he gam e Krogius - K uznetsov, Essentuki 1962 .
White has a big advantage . 14 K·Rl foll owed by P-K BS leads t o a win, but who can resist the opportunity of a lueen sacrifice ? White's at tention had been constantly aimed at the square Q4 . The other possibility K · R l bobbed to the surface of my m i nd but was rejected . My heart stopped beati ng and I pl ayed 14 QXH. A lthough I m i ght not be considered as a representative of the romantic school , the aesthetic factors nevertheless won the day , although it is quite l i kely that I did not understand them at all correctly in this game
Eventually White won , t hough not in the shortest way
( 14 K- R l
would have
been swifter). The game went 14 . NxQ IS N-Q6ch K·Hl 16 NxH Q-RS 17 p. .
99
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY QN3 NxP(N6) 18 pxN A new sacri fice which also influenced the choice of my QxR 19 B-KJ Q-N7 20 BxPch P·Q3 21 BxQPcb K·Nl 22 N ' �-O_ ! P·KR4 24 N·N6dbl cb K·Nl 25 R-K8ch 1kRl 26 R·Kl 23 K·Bl K7cb Q5cb 27 K·Bl P·R3 27 . . . N·Q2 offered m ore resistance. 28 NxP PXP 29 N ·NScb 14th move. 18
. . .
_
K·N3 30 B-KB7cb K·B4 31 R·K5cb KxP 32 P·N3cb Resigns
Tbe dependence of attention upon tbe Individual feature. of the opponent'. play. Chess achvlty presupposes not on y t e contemplation of a position from one' s ow n side, b u t also t h e simul taneous prediction of the p a t h of the opponent's thin ki ng . The question s "What is m y opponent thinking?" and "What is his aim?" generally accom pany the choice of every move . Thus the player's atten tion is corrected and disciplined by knowledge of the strong and weak points of his opponent 's play, especially by penetrating the special features of his creative style. r-s-mstru-ctive worns-to refer-ence fOthe follow i ng poSItIOn tar -J.h>re-we-quoterer
-----
from his match with Ivkov (Bled 1965).
Larsen- Ivkov
--.!..!�"----! ..!...!!� --IL!-.G1.!'� ""'15.LJN�.:..Q.e_.5"'-"wuhi.u.·cl.Jh'-'-'w.as met by 15. Q�ve said already , attention is a process of selecti on . It is continually isolating some
_ _ _ _ _
objects for concentra t ion and rejecting others . I n this case, when he was contemplating the move 15
N -QS, Larsen w as absorbed by the ex am ination of
the position after the exchange of queens , but , the re ader m i ght ask, why not the
l� . . . QxP . ? I S . . . QxP Larsen wrote: " I was firmly convinced that Iv kov does not t ke such lliYill�.lJre.idRot .ld consider the consequence5� the perfectly reasonable move IS . . . QxP a t all serious lY . One must s ave time for position after the move
About the possibi lity o f
deliberation . ..
100
SOME DEFICIENCIES O F A TfENTION
Thus Larsen did not begin to con sider t he lines a fter 15 . . . QxP, because of his knowledge of t he i ndividual characteristics of I vkov's play. I vkov does not l ike to �e-ot-a-pawn-oll theedge of theimardif itwi1lgiveiyts-opponent-- the initiative. If the same situation had arisen in a game again!.t Korchnoy we can be sure that Larsen would have considered the move I S . . QxP i m mediately , since it is well known t h at Korchnoy will accept almost any kind of sacrifice, even at t imes when it is risky a nd dubious to do so. We can see from this example bow tbe�ial featllres of a player's attention---and-thUl-ki�-t'€;: adapted to the indiv idual style of t he oppo nent . Botvi nnik s uccessfully program med t he direction of his attention in his return match w it h Tal (Moscow 1 96 1 ) . Above all , his attent ion was d irected t owards the calculation of his rival's a gg ressive tactical possibilities. Q uite a lot of cases may be found in chess practice where attention has been successfully di rected to the opponent 's most l i kely replies , which are determi ned by the peculiari t ies of .
--
��ay
_ _ _
Exce\lent illustrations ofthis are Spassk-y'-s-play--itt--hls-mattnheess---
with Geller (Sukhu m i 1968) and Tal (Tbilisi 1 965). The dependence of attention on style.
We have examined the special features of a player's at tention in a fairly detailed m aImer . An important practical ques tion is-how are these features i nterrel ated with t he different styles of play ? A pparently it is i m po ssible to answer this w i th a single sentenc e . In a master's creativity we can observe certain weaknesses an d certain st rengths of attention , simil arly there are app arently definite tendencies that link the various styles of pl ay with defi nite qual itative facets of attent ion , How chess i mproves attentiveness.
We have analyzed some of the properties of the process of attention as m anifested in chess . In conclusion I would like to say a few words about the use of chess in the develop ment of a man 's a ttent ion generally. A serious study of chess req u i res a high level of attentiveness. The sl ightest slac kening of att ention is heavily penal ized , so that it is essential to be able t o ----j m n -. -
--
character and thi nk i ng p rocesses . Psychol ogical studies show that p erform i ng independent work requiring initiative and creativity is i m portant for the development of the attention , �---tatfyin-'e�c earty childhmntallcr-yomh-:ltl this respecrcness IS a rich held for activi ty . I n the course of a game a chess player has to invent and carry out plans and search for ever more ori gin al notions in order to wi thstand h is opponent's
101
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
plots. Laziness of thought , the lack of inventiveness and passivity are punished in c hess quickly and remorselessly. ----h --In-c e�veIj'JJfece-h-anu_be thought of dYl and sig nificance in possible movement s on the board . The opinion that a chess player is in a world of constantly changing relations is t hus evidently correct . This fact demands from him a develop ment of the dyna mic properties of attention and its distribution , and this in turn is very im portant for overcom ing -------
�f�a�u��har� Chess hel ps to fight distraction and teaches us to work in unfavourable con ditions . Often the presence of other people i rritates and prevents concentration , The conditions of chess tournaments, where , as a rule, there are m any people (the audience , the p articipants and the controllers), help to train the ability to concentrate in the most difficult condi tion s . It is no secret that the reason for the poor productivity of some very able peop le is an inadequate
withstand d}s<lI
Control of one's attention is attai ned through struggling with changing mood s and adverse emotions . Chess shows us how important it is not to lose control of oneself after a reverse, when in difficulties or in the face of the unexpecte d . It helps to preserve the ability to work and to be attentive amidst difficulties. It is s aid that chess is for t hose whose will is strong. It is also true to say that chess generates will power. The dynamics of a chess player's attention cannot be isol ated from the idiosyncracies of his character, t hi n ki ng a nd other psychological qualities. Consequent ly, the causes of many chess phenomena (and in part icular the weak nesses discussed above) m ust not be sought only in the area betwee n the two rook 's files, but rather in the general development of the personality. ...y '-'i-" n.., g�ersonality " T -"-"-' h= e----" sa comes through in chess is quite true. The character of a player determines his style ; the weak and strong sides of his character a re inevitably visible in his m istakes and successes . For this reason, however much it may seem to us that blunders and other peccadilloes on the s i xty-four squares are speci fically chess failings , in fact they are d ue to disorgani zation , indecision , uncritica l behaviour and many other human deficiencies . When psychol ogists speak of an insufficient development of an i ndependent wiII they mean a tendency to be easily influenced by others . This ca n make itself felt in chess: A. Ebralidze appears to have lost hi s game against Ragozin in the 1 0th U SSR Championship (Tbi lisi , 1 937) p urely through succum bing to alien infl uence. The strong infl uence of his opponent , being uncritically accepted, paralyzed his will power and m ade him accept his adversary's evaluation of t he
______
position, with a resu ltant loss in the flexibi lity of his attent ion . At a crucial mom ent of the game Ragozin put a rook en pris e , counting on winning it back with a bishop which , however , w as pinned . Eye-witnesses relate that Ebralidze 102
SOME DEF I CIENCIES OF A TIENT I ON was pl unged into thought . He probably s a w hi s oppo n e n t ' s intent ion at once -to chec k wi t h t he bishop and so w i n b ack the rook . Si nce the e xch a n ge o f rooks w a s d i s a dv a n t ageous for h I m an
. m oreove r ,
e t ru s t e
I S opponen t ,
e
lo-n -o -t---
even check the v a ri a t ion begi n n i n g w i t h t a k i n g the rook ( " S u rely R a gozi n h i m self cannot be m istaken ' ' ' ) . M e an w hile the atmosphere i n t he h al l h ad become excee dingly t ense . O ne o f the fans c ould not bea r i t any more a n d shou ted : " A rchi l l . take t h e roo k . " " I --can-see,
dOli't iuteIIupt, '- '--repH-ed ct-f E�bl1rrl atf lii-C dbz� e-:-,
A fe w more m i n u tes p assed . A nd all of
a
-----------------
s u dden White did not l a ke Ihe bl ac k
rook b u t ret reated . It i� difficult 1 0 describe t he react io n in t h e h a l l . A t f i rs t E b r a l i dze l oo ked ro und w i t ho u t underst andi n g what it w as all abo u t . t he n he rea lized every thi ng a nd c l utched hi s hea d i n de s p a i r . W h a t sort of m agic i s t h at , o n e m i g h t a s k . H o w i t i s that a m as t er w i t h p l enty of lime to spare m i ssed a one - m ove w i n ? But i t is no m a gi c . It i s jus t chess and a ' fp·natioll of the chalaclel of achessp\ayer:.-------..,."cni-i The reason that the "hypnosis " worked w as probably that Ebra l i dze , then a y o u n g chess playe r . bel ieved b lindly in the a u t ho rity of his f a m o us o p ponent a n d d i d n o t d a r e even to t h i n k t h a I he m i ght h ave blu n dered . E brali d ze ' s belie f i n t h e correctness of hi s oppone nt ' s m o v e w a s s o strong tha t h e c oul d not r i d ---fAl+li)l)-S{l1f of that
imprt)ssi00-,-4�lt__a_nd_�_check--the-pec.ulial:i ies of the
pos ition once more .
103
CHAPTER S
What is time trouble?
Time trouble means a lack of time fo r thinking. This phenomenon plays a big
----�r=olelnlrtltay._Whe lCtta1JJ n in time-rroubte
a
player's thought,---wiU-pew
e motions and other personal qualities do not show themselves in their normal for m. but under unusual circumsta nces, which demand a swift choice. A t t i mes such a choice has to be made in a very com plica ted position. A chess player' s emotions become vividly manifest in time trouble. How m a ny beautiilll positi<mS-aDd-deep-thoug-bts-haY£ D£.etLSquande.r.e.d_..by that scourge of chess players! The fall of the flag often puts a n inexorable full stop to positions
in which an interesting struggle lay ahead. Many chess pl ayers have, in their time. experienced the torment of time trouble, and some have gone down in chess history as martyrs to time trouble . In the past the German Grandmaster Samisch was particularly given to i t . I n one nine -round tou rnament he ma naged t o lose five games on time. I t is ----
-.,€€l� lfaaMim:rued-.---nlGr-e is was not his record!· There-'1.re . _-'lls!L c.mue m IillIID
_ _
mas ters who can rival Samisch. There is some truth in the saying that after the fifteenth move Benko's play resembles a cowboy fil m . Benko has been playing chess for twenty-five years and his memoirs could perhaps be justifiably entitled " Twenty five years in time trouble " . Durin
t he
minutes o f time
trouble
what
happens
o n the
board
is
indescribable . There is no time for deep -laid plans - only for m a king t moves: it does not matter what moves . as long as there are enough of them . What time trou b le ma kes of quite ordinary positions . and how it distorts a game is well illustrated in the g a me Nezhmedtinov - Kotkov pl ayed in Sochi in •
Samisch once played in a tournament in which he lost every game on time!
104
1965 .
WHAT IS TIME TROUBLE?
White has sacrificed a piece for t hree pawns. In this case, however, it is -- --1·illsufficient
com�sation-� ---because has excellent-er. ---cou-nt -&t . tacking,-------
chances and White's KRP is destined for death in the endgame. There were less than two minutes left on Kotkov 's clock and he had to make sixteen more
24 R·KBI 24 R-NS or 24 . . N·Bl is better. 25 N·B3 R(Bl ) . 26 Q-R5 N B l 26 NxP was worth considering, with a menacing counterB2 attack. 27 P·KN4 pxp? 27 . . . - B3! was better. 28 RxP RxR 29 xR NXP 30 QXP B-KBl? 30 Q-B3 31 QXQ BxQ 32 N-QS B-Ql was essential . 31 Q.K8 K · Nl 32 B-BS N-N4 33 P>
...
-
. . .
.
. . .
. . .
tlme_ The audience watching Kotkov's play in time trouble literally groa ned. Really , every move a mistake! Of course, time trouble is not a1ways accompanied by mistakes, but usually the quality of the chess drops sharply. The above example was no exception. I always watch the games of the Minsk master Veresov with interest . At the beginning of a game he is impertu rbable and leisurely . With philosophical calmn ::ss he looks at the board althoug h the clock moves inexorably on. But suddenly Veresov anxiously glances at the clock. He has good grounds for -- -�nty-rtf-minutes1e1ti(lntlheJlUl'l\�l'Oew- moves-�madl. .--ho--- terrib Ie - twenty or even more. And so the chase begins. During the 1 954 USSR Team Championship Veresov lost on time against me on the twenty-fifth movel However, Veresov has to be paid his tribute. He is completely transfigured in time trouble: he pulls himself together, is more decisive and as a rule plays well. Nevertheless, time trouble plays its underhand tricks even on his good positions. Some incorrigible addicts of time trouble cannot bear the acute lack of time. --
-IE""r"m "e irr;-the-€andidate Mastel flOIll Kazarr;inme-sucirexample-;-when-he-seesc---- t he flag hanging horizontally he sometimes forgets about the board,
lOS
the pieces
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY
and the game. At such mo ments he appears to gaze. as if enchan ted . at the trem bling hand of the cloc k and with a sigh of relief watch the flag fall . A knowledge of the special features ottrm-emmbte-rs-impoTtallt COl pIaclicat- play , and it also has considerable psychological significance since it pl ays a big part in supplementing our description of the specific way a pl ayer thinks - of t he volitional and emot ional co m po nents of his character . As we shall see , time trou b le has some similarity with crisis situations in o rdi n a ry life, when the time
----te-for----,a,-,vTOariiilf-<>a-hb cle -ma-kinio eis fI is strictly limitOO.-..--Henc--e--we--shal-leal with tbe question of w hy t i m e trouble arises. and examine also the basic features of t he thought processes when under time pressure. First of all we m ust formally define this phenomenon - what period of time before t he flag fall s can be considered to be time trouble? I t is difficult to give a sim ple answer . The concept is a relative one . and subjective to a considerable degree. There are cases where a player has less than a minute for 18 to 20 moves,
-----u -h t-on-t-he--o-ther-hand 8 to 10 minutes-w-�l1--t.o-rnake-might be
called time trouble in a com plica ted position . The approach o f time trouble is often definable only o n the basis o f a player's subjective im pressions. which assess the amount of time left on his clock in com parison with t he nature of the position , his individual experience, t he nature of his opponent'S PIa��� .-:-_----:--:----:_----:-___---:- -::---:--:-_ d so n,,o� ""-,,, - --:-___ For ex ample, Korchnoy usually considers it quite normal for him to have t o m ake 5 o r 6 moves in 3 minutes w hereas this i s serious t i m e trouble for Kholmov or A . Zaitsev . We shall stick to the co mmon opinion amo ng players that one reckons to be in time trouble when there is less than a min ute per move for the remaining moves and o ne does not have more than ten m in utes left on the clock. (Let us remember t hat the normal control in competitive play is 2i hours for 40 . 3 mins 45 seconds er move on avera e . ) The clocks are an inevitable feature of competitive play - to play without them would create unequal playing conditions a nd lead to an irratio nal use of ti m e . I n the New York tournament o f 1 857 eight games between M orphy and Paulsen lasted 62 hours, yet only 3 1 1 m oves were m ade during this time. The M o rphy-Lowenthal game (London 1858). lasted 20 hours and 67 m oves were made. Eye witnesses report t at orp y s opponen s spenfllfref eor ollr times as long as he did o ver their moves (an d , by the way . it did not do them much good). The reader may suggest t hat perhaps the laws of chess are too strict; perhaps the thinking time should be increase d . That has been tried. but the addicts m anaged to think even longer, a nd again regularly found themselves in time trouble. I t is no solu tion to the problem . In the 1906 NUremDerg tournament a ruteuf--t5--moves-per-hour-was--- established , and every extra m i nute of deliberation was punished , not by a loss,
_
106
WHAT IS TIME TROUBLE? but by a monetary fine. This attempt to control the players' thinking ended in failure - after a few days many players were bankrupt . Under the threat of an
voidabte;,reak-upthe-mum-amenTWa"s-extemted,nRic:n o tinue-ctwtrlln-o -nm""e---
"' " u m ll a "'
-
limit at all . The contest dragged on for a long time, but interestingly enough the creative level of the tournament was no higher than earlier in the tournament where the same players had played with clocks . Hence, as Spielm ann rightly pointed out, the N uremburg tournament dispelled the last misgivings about the
---Iu.r.:.ln s�efl-Uu ess---play-e -of--docks.-I-t--showed-tha-t-wi-th� t's thought fet'-a--- longer time , but that their thoughts were by no means any more productive . However , another question arises: how objectively has the current standard of time consumption been fixed? Could it not be too severe? In any round of any contest there are always several games proceeding under conditions of ext reme time pressure . There are players who frequently get into time trouble , such as Samisch, Benko, Reshevsky , Alatortsev , Veresov , and Savon (among others). ----x>:.e-e .accept--t.bat--t-h -histO-r-icalI�O-nst-ituted-stan.dar-4-t-ime---co-nt-rol-Gl-ea-r-l-yv--- corresponds in great measure to the players' objective needs. This is verified by the facts, which show that an increased time l im it will not eradicate time trouble . For instance , at the international tournament in Bled 193 1 , a very generous time control was set at 35 moves in 2i hours, yet the number of time scrambles was not reduced because of this. Korchnoy once said: "No matter how much time is added for thought . the time trouble specialist will at some moment play against the flag . " This evidence allows us to assume that i t i s quite likely that the causes o f time trouble have a psychological nature. Why is it that such strong and experienced players as Reshevsky , Benko and others cannot discipline themselves to think less and play more quickly t hroughout the game? When t hey are hard pressed in time trouble t hey make moves very uickly indeed . Are the their own enemies? Here is my view of the reasons for time trouble and the methods of over coming t his curse of chess players. I do not want to discuss here those atypical cases when an extremely difficult position or an unexpected opening i nnovation by one's opponent leads one into time trouble. Nor will I discuss the situations which Botvinnik has described as follows : "There are moments in a game when e up an one has to-thtnlrthe position Over very thoroughly; and consequentl extra twenty to thirty minutes and make the rest of the moves before the time control more quickly. This is 'normal' time trouble and I have no intention of giving it up ." Let us consider those players for whom time trouble is not an exception b ut the rule. Such players often waste valuable time to no purpose. Sometimes an obviously useless continuation , a tempting but unacceptable possibility """P1'rT'hantrthe-piayel's imagina-nollso-n -mnch"1h-aTtre-does- m-h"ave--tlreTes-otution'--- to refrain from the calculation of these variations and m ake a sober choice . --
107
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY Here is 8otvinnik's a dvice on how to fight such occurrences: "I schooled myself to use time economically and so solved t he problem satisfactorily, someImes even conscIous y owermg
e qua Ity of my play . There was no other way
- how else could one teach oneself to save time? For a long time I have been recom mending to t hose of our masters who systematically suffer from terrible time t rouble one method of fighting against that failing . One should p l ay training games with one's attention primarily on the clock and not t he quality of play or the rem . . . .
thin-k-that-9G%-of--sufierers-from--'Hme-tr-ttuble fever'-
were com pletely cured using this method, though of course t here are ' hopeless cases'. " This advice of t he ex-World Champion undoubted1y has a cert ain methodo logical value , but it does not say much about the causes of time-trouble fever . For a proper treatment one has to have a correct diagnosis . I t is interest ing to read another opi n ion , this time t h at of Grandm aster
Allelbakh. "My personal experience shows-�t--time-trouble-is-rmt--jmt---the inability to apportion one's time , but is either a flaw in one's character linked with indecision , or it
is due to a lack of pr actice w it h its concomitant
uncertainty .
"A chess player gets into t ime t rouble not, as a rule, because he cannot
�r u: e� g� lI"' la ll t.s:; eJri!Ltime, but be£ill.s.l e be is not yerY�QlhimselL_dW;�S_llo_U rust
_ _ _ _
hi_ s __
own calculations and checks over the same variation several times . " "80tvinnik 's method i s ext remely simple : one plays training games watching mainly the clock, but I do not think it is very effective. and it is rather superfi cial . Botvinni k himself adm its that it is only 90 0/0 of sufferers that are cured com pletely . . . . If this is so, then it seems that I beLong to t he other 10% , and I think that the aut hor of the method is himself also among the 1 0 % . " ______
"-'In�m'_',yl-e -Iy�ie"'-'w'---"A"-v. [bakh·s 0 inion wh ich links t he onset of time trouble to the
individual features of t he player's character, gives a more comprehensive under standing of the essence of the phenomenon of time troubl e . One has to search for the causes of t ime trouble in the psychology of man and more precisely in t he emotional and volitional spheres of his character. What is it, then. that causes the chronic over-expenditure of time in thinking over a move .
t IS a systemahc refusal to take deClslo ns, a constant lack of
confidence even in t he most obvious . it is doubt and it is hesitation. 1f time t rouble a ddicts had t heir way, t he move would never be m ade.
I hope chess lovers will forgive me, but ] cannot restrain mysel f from drawing compa risons with the old fable of Buridan and his mule. When he went away the master left two exactly equa l heaps of hay in the stable at exactly the same distance from the stall . The mule hesitated over which heap to choose ( and in -hts-mimrann whIch dIrection to set off), out the poorsollico-ur-drmrMl-up lTe died of hun ger .
108
WHAT IS TI M E TROUBLE ? Indecisiveness a n d w a n t of fait h in one's own strengt h accompanied by fear and doubt hang over the pl ayer infected by time-trouble fever like the sword of
-- -l:DlialfmR
G ame 1 : A ( the time-trouble addict) m akes the first move in fifty seconds; his opponent in fift ee n ; the second move thirty and six respect ivel y . t he third forty and ten, and so on . Game 2: B ( the tim e-trouble lover) : first move - one minute, his opponent twenty seconds: second move thirty-five seconds a nd thirty seconds; third move forty seconds a nd five seconds. and so o n .
-
The real time-trouble addicts probably subconsciously resist even the most obvious, one hundred-percent-dear moves. This was exactly the case in the above examples . where the play w as forced for both sides. When I asked master A what he w as th inking about he said : "When the game entered the forced stage I was suddenly overwhelm ed by doubts as to w hether m y position would b e sufficient for a win and s o my thoughts were involuntarily going back to the position about six m oves previously . I nstead of replying faster I was tormented by the quest ion of whether I could have play.ed more strongly earlier. " As we can see, A 's thinking efficiency was far from high . He was l acking the purpose of wiJI which turns o ne's thoughts in the direction which is necessary at the given moment . without being distracted and worried about things which o ne can no onger 0 anyt 109 about . As t he reader has no doubt noticed , the problem of time trouble is not so simple and its solution cannot be found solely w it hin the realm of chess. Time trouble is not just a chess occurrence; cases of " t ime trouble in life" are pretty frequent. Think of the student postponing his revision before an exam ination or the-factory--wheIe some o-t-the-wmkeIS "iiver-u-p-ttrth-e-rn>t-tew-d-ayrbefm',..--- contracted work is due to be submitted. The inability and unwilling ness to t a ke a decision in t ime becomes a habit and a patt ern of behaviour. This is in harmony with the old aphorism : " Why do today what can be left until to morrow?" It is easy to visualize the harm which widespread t i m e-trouble disease in various fields brings to our lives. I t is understandable that chess players try to get rid of their terible enemy the time-trouble-e -dis . Since time-trouble is a manifeslalioll of the-ch-arme-,.----
one has to search for met hods of curin g it in that direction . "That's easily said . "
109
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY ma!1Y people will respon d . Of course , it is much more difficult to do anything about it .
-�---ei-ln-a�v. �he C311Ses of time trouble lhaye investigated
the
1936, Moscow 1936, The Hague/Moscow 1948, Zurich Candidates' Tournament 1953 , Candidates' Tournament in Yugosl avia 1959, USSR v Yugoslavia m atches 1956·66, 34th USSR Champion ship 1967 and others, making up over 500 games altogether. Added to this are follo wing tournaments: Nottingham
my own observations m a de in the course of Soviet and international tournamen t s from
1 956-68 and di scussions with the p articip ants. From all these
investigations J have learnt that certain objecti ve and s ubjective causes may be isol ated as being favou rable to the appearance of time troubl e . T o the objective causes w e assign the following: Inadequate theoretical preparation. An inadequate knowl��f typical middle game and e n dgame pos itions
an d in particular of pl ans of development and opening variat ion s , leads to an increase in the time consumed for deliberation. For instance, Polugayevsky i n dicated that he often got into time trouble mainly because of poor opening preparation . After hard work in this area he began to suffer less and less from the clock . In the Chigorin Memorial Tournamen t , Sochi
1 965, I experienced
severe time shortage several times for the very same reason , althou g h I am not generally given to an addiction to time trouble. A theoretical knowledge of insu fficient quantity or of poor quality will make a p l ayer feel uncertain , which in turn will necessitate the ex tremely tho rough and constant checking and rechecking of the possibilities which arise during the p rocess o f searching for a move. In relation to this it might be useful to acquaint ourselves with the opinion of the physiologist P. Simonov, who attributes the on set of negative human emotions to ma equate In o rma IOn .
or ms ance, a
m an who knows nothi n g about the local traffic laws will be frightened when he crosses a busy street . Apparently a simi! ar feeling of uncertainty frequently arises in a player who, without an adequate store of knowledg e , attempts to cross the tho rou ghfares of ches s, that is to decide upon the choice of move in postUons alrea-OY-e-xpt(frectb'Vlfreurtv.�---We can therefore co nclude that a good theoretical background is beneficial . In p art icular, g uessing the opening before the g ame allows one to save a lot of ti me, boosts the confidence and increases one's incl ina tion to work at the board. Along with theoretical education , the development o f a general ability to assess positions is valu able for the chess player. This phrase requires el ucida tion . Let us ponder how a high-ranking chess pl ayer (say, a Candidate M aster or .
----�Mastemhillks dUliug a game. His opponent-
board lies between , let us suppose, twenty more or less sensible continuations .
1 10
WHAT IS TIM E TROUBLE ? The master does not g o over all twenty: h e discards about ten immediately a s manifestly no good a n d gradually selects one from the remainder. The div ision -geJl r-alizat-ioeJlAl-fHr=eO>flmfl---- ----f -.O variations..Jnt�ean and unclea�s intuitive;--it--is--a-e past experience , going on a number
of
minute , sometimes barely discern able
and intangible, factors.
If the intuit ion were more highly developed o n e woul d immediately discard not ten , but , say, seventeen continuations out of twenty. When on l y three possible co ntin uations are left the conflict involved in takin
a decision is less
arithmetic ally speaking . Grounds for uncertainty and other adverse emotions will therefore diminish . The develop ment o f chess intuition is
determined by a chess player's
experience an d, perhaps more importantly, by his skill in generalizing from that experience. Generalization of the flow of chess inform ation is precisely wh at we mean by the ability to assess positions. Consequently, the development of abstract and logical thinking is a real hel
in overcomin
time trouble .
I would like t o s ay a good word for such excellent books a s " M y System" by Nimzowitsch , " The Problems o f Contemporary Chess Theory " by Lipnitsky and the works of Botvinnik, Capablanca and Alekhine , which provide valuable help in developing the ability to understand positions.
We must conclude our discussion o f opening preparation an d intuition in
--
cUrtrrg-time trouble
wrrn-asobe�u
e c ess wor
as
nown m any
brilliant theoreticians and seen the rich intuition of many great players, but it has also very often seen them in acute time trouble. There are plenty of examples. Who does not know of the encyclopaedic knowledge of Grandmaster Bronstein , his m arve1ious intuition- and his almost invariable time trouble? Going back to what I said earlier I must reiterat e : time trouble is not merely a matter of chess; it concerns the human being him self, about whom psychology -- hh�as-toht-urtarte-ss-ttr:rn-n-an1reo ry a bOut the COpIOUS vanatton s ofthe Queen's Gambit. Inadequate practical preparation, the absence of training.
A lengthy lay-off usually lowers the efficiency of a player's mental activity , therefore-t-he--eonclusions-drawll flOlII the expeliem:-e-of trainers, whictnrsserr----
--
that after a long gap severa! trainin g games are ne cessary before a tourn ament begins, are co rrect. These g ames create beneficial con ditions for a player's successful adjustment to the conditions o f tournament play and help to engender a dynamic pattern of play. In cases of lack of t raining Botvinnik ' s advice quoted above may help in avoiding time troubl e . Blitz game training m ay also h ave a positive effect. In
-t-lmse---ea-ses where there has-been-n-o
preparatory-training
the
playet finds
himself given to time trouble to a considerably greater degree than is normal , especially at the beginning of the tourn amen t . It should be noted th at when a
111
CHESS A ND PSYCHOLOGY player is out of training his capacity for a general intuitive assessment of a position is not reduced . However. those automatic components of thought and ----e ---the-spe ial inteUeetual-b -ha its-which--substantially reduce the time taken f� calculation and for the solution of concrete tactical problems are reduced. Ob,leetlYe eomplexlty of a situation. Complicated situations which are dynamic and as yet unresolved. need to be considered more thoroughly andin greater detatl; a deeper search IS nece�l-o find a plan. Positions which have undergone sudden and substantial change also require similar consideration. Botvinnik's sentiment quoted on page 107 contains the important belief that there is a direct proportional relationship between the objective complexity of a position and the time taken for seeking the best moves in that posit ion. Thus, the attempts made by some players to expend, let us say, a maximum of thirty min utes on the openmg. or to diVide tile remammg time exactly-by-tlfe-number of moves to arrive at an average time for the consideration of each move, seem to be naive. We should therefore approach Spielmann's advice critically. He suggests leaving a compulsory five minutes as a reserve for the final move. A mental --- --1'I''f'>e1duetion-of-tbe--ftme available--&Y-fi.ve minutes-has-a-certain significance in developing self-control. but the attempt to carry out Spielmann's advice literally may lead to time being expended on moves other than those that actually need it. in direct contravention of our plan. It is more often the case that if one side is in a difficult position then the complexity of choice leads to time trouble. The player who has the advantage will examine his plans with particular accuracy and the defender will look for a
o·f-his-6iffic--ult-iJositionwith m()re.caret" ha &;n l1-<J lI� sl... la ", I ,---
o.u u t_ t � w � ·a a lV y_f'l
-
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Consdous entry Into dme trouble.
-----
Casesof time trouble are also observed when a player , who is dissatisfied with the course of the game, enters time trouble with the idea of exploiting it as a form of psychological wanare.11tn t ttem-pno-drawthe-e-is-oft 0Ppollent's-f1r en successful: the opponent . hoping to gain a quick victory during the other side's time trouble. becomes excited and loses the necessary critical approach . The objective nature of his thinking is replaced by impetuous actions. The result is a loss of detachment in controlling one's emotions which leads to serious errors, and thus the intentional use of time trouble is often justified. The reader should note the increased likelihood of making mistakes during ...,.h�ls oppollenrnirI'wtrouble. since his-critical-attit�s- plans is reduced and his capacity for a deep understanding of the position is weakened . 112
WHAT IS TIME TROUBLE?
It has been said that Reshevsky often invites time trouble quite deliberately. In this respect the Korchnoy · Suetin game, which decided first place in the 27th
USSR
Championship (Lenitlgrad----l%er,-rueti -is----i-n ve;--Suet1n-ob-tai-ned---an--
advantage in the opening and steadily increased the pressure in the middle game. Korchnoy only succeeded in diverting Suetin from his measured t em po of play by provoking his own t ime trouble . Suetin incorrectly believed that he had the chance of an early win , he began to hurry, comm itted some serious errors
and lost thegame Thus, thanks in partto a well·timed lapseJnt��tr.Qubl.., e,�
_ _ _
Korchnoy gained an important victory. Deliberately getting into time trouble should be employed only after a detailed assessment of a number of considerations. The objective one - the complexity of the posit ion, and the subjective ones - a
co nsi deration
of the opponent 's
character, the likelihood of errors on his part and so on. We have classified the condit ions for the appearance of deliberate time t rouble in the group of objective
canses of time trouble, since we reg.ard the determining feature aLbe.�... an �
_ _ _
entirely objective criterion - namely an unsatisfactory position. Time trouble also arises from SUbjective causes, as the m anifestation of definite individual qualities of thinking , and the volition and emotional frame of mind of the player. The psychologist B. Teplov has emphasized the particular
-------importance of the unit-y-of-inreUect and will---PO-�r---an--effectiv.e-activi",tYruin�-- practical
thinking.
This
situation
may be completely attributed to the
competitive side of chess creativity. The viol ation of the unity of t he content of thought and its strict aims within the framework of a tense chess battle is one of the main causes of t ime trouble. In p ractice this violation manifests it self in a systematic refusal to ntake decisions, a distrust of one's own judgements and in attempts to postpone the unavoidable choice of a move.
----� ---I.IIn-so clin.ation--andJn�bilit}'-to-make a
decision in good
time becomes a habit . Bronstein often thinks for a long time, even over the opening moves. In the 28th USSR Championship he thought for twenty minutes about the first move in his game against Stein, and
a lt h ough
he reached a
promising position in the middle game all his efforts were l ater neg ated by t ime trouble . After he committed some errors he lost the game . Averbakh says that Bronstein once thought for forty minutes over his first move! Panov has also recalled similar inst ances of prolonged deliberation over the opening moves which occurred in Grigoriev's games.
p
In these exam les we o bserve an uneconomical ex pen d iture of time on deliberation, which is not evoked by any serious objective reaSOns .
Ope ning
systems, especially in the initial moves, are sufficiently wen known to any com
tent
layer. Moreover, in these
articular games neither Bronstein nor
Grigoriev invented anything out of the ordin ary in the opening ph ase, but restricted themselves to the choice of long familiar systems. Presum ably their
113
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY
deliber atio n s can be explained by subjective factors : on the one h an d they were solvi ng the problem of which opening system would be more agreeable or more
---., u "' II "' a cttt-r 1i"" a""' cH ti" v'e-to--the-opponent;-thereb --outlini� �th"'e�
-
psychological battle , while on the other hand they were conquering their own
sta te o f over-excitement and i n decision . preparing themselves for the most efficient working frame of min d . I t could be said that the majo rity o f pl ayers
deliberately
achieve
a
reorientation of theirthQu.g�and feelin gubouLilie5j)JD�iltl.k --Quite early. even before the start of the g ame . The long pause at the beginning of Bro nstei n ' s and Grigoriev ' s g a m es m ust obviously be explained b y individual peculia rities of the psyche . They could only concentrate upon the game
an d overcome
distractions once the battle had already begu n , because of an in adequate self co ntrol befo re the round . A clear case of the l ack of the un ity of intellect an d will power of which we spoke earlier . A s an ana logy we recall Napoleon ' s remark
about his marsh.aLMa.£seIlil>--.Wh�Qyld.e.Jl.ev r work out
a pl an for the coming
battle before it started , but only demonstrated his abilities as a commander after, as N apoleon put it " the cannons had started to fire" . We have now satisfied ourselves as to the existence of definite subjective factors whi ch evoke an in creased expenditure of t im e on deliberatio n . thereby furthering the appearance of time trouble. As we have already note d . these factors manifest themselves in the form of a refu s al to t a e decisions and are acco mpanied by u ncert ainty and indecision . These negative character t raits are created by doubts of d iffering sorts and by vacillation s : therefore . in defini n g the various subjective cau ses facilitating the appearance of time trouble we shall analyze various types of doubt in order to discover the nature of these cause s .
Doubts concerning-.analy"" s� isLL '
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
These appear in persistent searches in almost every position for the single . unique , best move . He nce a perfectly reaso nable variation will seem not qu ite strong enough , the player wants to find someth ing even more e ffective . As a result , time passes, the se arch continues, but the player' s raging doubts do not allow him to make a choice. An illusory chase after the absolute truth takes place. Spielmann wrote : "From the very start such a player is devoted to a d i sastrous method of exaggerated con scientiousness. In every position he will search for. the objectively best move, bu t soon he will lose all chance of orie nta tion amongst the chaos of all the possible advant ages and di s advantages. Valuable time i s lost forever and ultimately, in the m ajority of cases, he will have to decide upon a move s uggested by intuition rather th a n by mathematical calc ulation , but by this stage hi s im agin ation has been poisoned by thousands of doubts and a poor move will suggest itself to him . " Although picturesque . Spielmann ' s description o f those p l ayers who are always
1 14
W H AT I S TIME TROU BLE? inclined to search for the absolute best method or solution m ay also be too catego rical . It should be noted that this tendency is theoretically i m possible.
-- -+ Th ll<e e'(afiety--6--\'j f--pos si-bHities--ma-lres-efiess-r--p- aetieaHy--inexfiausH-ble,-henee-the----
attempt to encompass the infinite is, as a m att er of principle, unrealistic in the majority of positions . Of course m aster players are not so extreme in their aspirations, but in practice they often try to resolve the special features of a complicated position . When it becomes clear that this is impossible then doubts
ar..rn:..Jh�eLYilc..il�_clul lall:s....!n'_er..1b ilc_e....oLh s......m!l..... e....and..Jime..Jro..\lble...._..dD es....Dot._
_ _ _
_ _
t ake long to appear. From our own observations , the games of Borisenko , Kotkov an d Udovcic will serve as examples o f similar doubts about one's own analysi s . As Botvinnik h a s emphasized o n e m u s t try to f i n d a sensible ratio be tween t h e breadth o f search a n d the existing t i m e l i m it - at times deliberately choosing lower quality moves. Thus the well known chess adage "it is better to h ave a bad plan than no plan at aU" is of signLf-kJrnc_eJILaYOidingiim..e..1mu..ble. Of course, we are not contradicting Alekhine's opinion that it is d angerous to t rust first impressipns
and
intuitive judgements
without verification
and
that it is
necessary to find the best move, but this attempt to fin d the best an d strongest contin uation should not be regarded as somethi n g that is absolute, but should be measured against what is feasible. Spielmann gives some suitable practical a dvice on this subject : " Do not play too quickly . Examine every move, however natural it may look. Do not day· dream. After brief t hought if you are sati sfied t h at your intended move is not bad then p l ay it . If you have to choose from several moves that look equally good , do not become involved in endless comp arison s. Do not fo rget that in most positions there are several good moves, but that you have to choose only one of them or else it will soon be too l ate. Do not always search for the --� o oJechve Y st move ecause requently there is no such move. n most cases it is a m atter of taste - simply look for a good move ! " It should be kept i n min d that i n chasing after the unattainable the pl ayer tries to analyze a comparatively large number of v ari ations, which he tries to calculate as far as possible. Such a player sho w s an unwillingness to abandon
calculation 01 to--ma-lce-a-critcal judgement about th�itioils atisillg ill h' c alcul ation . Doubts Hnked
to an exallerated importance of'the opponent's individual
style. These doubts are evoked by a subjective characterization of the opponent. which recognizes only the strong aspects of his play. Such doubts lead to an underestlmation of one's own poss iblITHe s , to passive thinking an d to the appe arance of a network of negative emotional states - fear, apathy or i m pul'
1 15
CHess AND PSYCHOLOGY siveness, u ncertainty and constraint . In this case disting ui sh e d -----
_ _
by
lengthy calculations nor
by
plans are
gen erally not
a wide range of variations. The
flHHUftm1-ls b')fe�r�o�ft__cpes ib-il-itfe.s---wmclt--a-re-cempafed-in analysis is relalively few and concrete analysis is not carried as far as usual. At the selection of a fi n al deci sion the po ssibilitie s that arise are examined and re-examined m any times and only after an over thorough check , which necessitates an increased expenditure o f time, is the move made. s man of TaJ's 0 et into time trouble because of the unnecessary accuracy and increased responsi bili ty with which they examined the rea] , and at times not so real , tactical opportunities of their opponent . The impression is created that Tal's opponents looked for and found danger where it had no objective existence , their uncertainty, doubts and manifold repeated calculations were all evoked by a subjective fear of Tal's combinative abilities. In the game Lein·A . Zaitsev , Sochi 1967, Zaitsev, who normally played --'"IukklY-.-toYnd himself in time trouble. The cause la in doubts about his own calculations, brought about by the fact that all their previous encounters had ended in Zaitsev's defeat . This was also the reason for Bilek's time trouble in his game against Taimanov , Budapest 1 965 ; during the game the Hungarian Grandmaster calculated many of the sharpest variations open to his opponent . After the game was over it became apparent that Bilek's fears were groundless; according to Taim anov he had not even t oug t 0 mVltmg comp Ic a Ions u had intended to limit himself to a small posit ional advantage. An excessive faith in the strength of the opponent an d perhaps an exaggeration of his opportunities a re characteristic of Bronstein 's play. He has said that he often rejects the most in tere st ing continuations because in t h em he has seen hidden resOU rces of defence for his op pon ent . In the end Bronstein avoids t he o bjectivel y strongest possibil ities and m akes an o bviously weaker move , after which his oppo n en t can search for a defence With greater ea: . Bronstein's searches for concealed opportu nit ies and his doubts - will the opponent discover a defence? - lead him to use up time, and the only person to see these deep schemes fin ds himself in time trouble .
------
DoabbUnk���pofta���nm�---Some games have a special compe titive significance . One must win in order to win the tournament, or draw to complete the master's norm , or to get into the next round of an elimination
contest. Often
these competitive considerations
c reate excessive nervousness and a feeling of unnecessary responsibility that lead to constraint.
The
importance of each move is increased since a single m istake
can affect a player s overall tourn ament result. Not m an y people retain their '
sel -possession a
suc
mes;
he resotr-o-rttre-game,uay exert-a-primary--
i nfluence on the course of one's thoughts and may determ ine the choice of this or
1 16
W HAT I S TIME TROUBLE? that move. The doubts which cause time t rouble in these situations are most often cOl1liected-with a somewhat lowered opillion-otrt ttre-mets-o-rmre->S-ow r qms.hon
and an ex aggeration of the opponent's possibilities. For instance in the game Danov- Sakha rov , Irkutsk 1 9 66 , victory would have given Sakharov the right to a place in the finals of the USSR Ch ampionship . In the m i d dle game
he
succeeded in obtaining an advant age by winning a pawn. It is most likely that IInder normal copdiU-OnS-Sakhat--tW-WO\l-ld�'Ic
chos&l-l-he-s�t-f
reinfo rcing his position and winning the point gradually, but under the pressure of the importance of the resul t he doubted that he could win by steady manoeuvrin g , so he hastened to force events and mi ssed a win in time trouble .
Doubts linked to events in the game
in progress.
- These-ap-pear--When--ihe-pla-yet'--l'ea�-made-a--mis-take or mwilSsSfse�dl-----
_ _
an opportunity. Panov wrote: "A great failing in many players is the tend ency -to
regret, during the game. opportunities missed a few moves earlier and noticed only after the even t . This fruitless contemplation of variations that m igh t have been, not only consumes precious time but also disperses one's atte nt ion and reduces the will to fi ht . " W e would like to add someth ing to Panov ' s accurate description - that doubts created by recollections of earlier mistakes i n the game i n progress, often lead to time trouble. [n the game Ivashin- Krogius, Yaroslavl 1 949, Black had the advantage. A t one time he could force a p retty win, but having overlooked this possibility , Black lost the advantage a nd the game entered an even and fairly simple ending. Black's thoughts in this simple e n di ng were, however, disturbed by recollections of his missed 0
ortuni
; these doubts were constantl
mixed
with the process of thinking about the next move a nd m ade it difficult to m ake a choice. The resul t , n aturally enough , w a s time trouble, an d Black di d not even see the flag drop in a completely drawn positio n . There was only one move left before the time control .
A more recent example which I witnessed was the g ame Shamkovich-Ujtelky, --
So-ctr"�Ot;-Black could have obtamed an overwhelmmg advantage In the mid dle game with a pretty tactical blow. Noticing this possibility a move too
j
l ate, U telky was put out. In his own words, his thoughts constantly returned to this disappointing mistake, time trouble intervened and the game , which had been well-played until the u nfortun ate mistake, e n de d i n Ujtelky ' s loss. I t is not hard to quote many similar examples. I n the above cases doubts linked to an earlier error in the g ame not only led to ---"a"romr "ur-a-ddit tloss of hme , but also created negative emohonal states, which
sharply reduced the efficiency of mental activity . Thus it became necessary to spe n d more time solving the simplest of problems than before the error h a d been
117
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY notice d . This 50rt of doubt has much in common with situations in d aily life when people grumble " why did it happen to me ? " Advice about what one should
---- --..-.,.,�ct
Doubt. nnked to the player'. bU'Vlclual experience. A knowledge of openings and of the typical middle an d endgame techniques which is employed without a critical attitude towards one's own experience and knowledge, may be the root of doubts which lead to time trouble. In the game Krogius- Spassky, Leningrad 1 960, after the moves 1 P-K4 P-K4 2 N-KB3 N-QB3 3 B-NS B-B4 4 0·0 N-m S NxP NxP 6 Q.K2 NxN 7 QXN Q. ---- -Acl--8-Q4 -PN fill I l'Ioticed-the-ehaIJCe--OLwinning a pawn with 9 Bxpch in an opening that has been min utely investigated. I thought about whether or not to take the pawn for some twenty minutes, yet the content of my thinking was not a thorough ana lysis of the forced varia tion
9 BxPch BxB 10 QXP 0-0 1 1 pxB
QxP, but vacillations conditioned by the thought that no one had pl ayed this move in such a well documented vari ati on . On the o ther h an d I very much
I 9 QxQch which , as later analysis showe d , was weaker than 9 B XPch_ The
wanted to win the pawn . Finally faith in the validity of theory took control and played
twenty minutes spent in doubt over the cho ice of the ninth move told during the course of the game. I should mention that during these twenty minutes I was by no means occupied in the p rocess of a logical comparison of the two variations, Bxpch and QXQch, but was indulging in the abstract thought - " Is my confidence in theor ' ustified or not? " Similar misgivings o ften arise in pl ayers who needlessly trust the generally accepted and the
already explored.
When
they are
confronted
with
an
unexpected, original possibility they regard it with suspicion and fear. They hesitate, should they cross the limits of the known and reli abl e , or should they be tempted by the not so clear but attractive prospect? In p ractice i t is most quently the case thatthe doubts are resolveOtnravou-ro1Lh'e--a1ternative suggested by past experience. Let us remark, however, that serio us doubts about any solution to the question of whether to trust authority or not will necessitate an increased expenditure of time and facilitate the appearance of time trouble. For
example,
in
the
game
Ri umin-Levenfish ,
Moscow
1936 ,
White
remembers that hi s opponent thought for thirty minutes about a sharp, strong, but rather unusual rook move which would involve the sacrifice of the exchange.
p.Q4�
c-P-B4-5--0-0 0-0 9 Nx N? ! QXN 10 P- K4 Q-R4 1 1 pxp R.QI 12 Q.K2 P·K4!? 13 B·IO B·NS 14 B-QB4 Ihe game began I
BPxP NxP 6 P·IO N-QB3 7 B-Q3 B-K2 8
1 18
WHAT IS TIME TROUBLE?
After thinking
for thirl}'-Dlin.utes, Levenfish dec lded---.O.n�Qu1in�mo � e ,,---_ -- __
14 . . . N·Q5? 1 5 BxN RxB 16 B-Q5 BxP 17 Q R- BI B- Q3 18 KR-Ql , and White h ad the advantage and won on mOVE;;
35. I n stead o f 14
. . .
N ·QS ? , Levenfish
should have p l ayed 14 . . R-QS! when the only good defence is 15 B- QS R x B 1 6 .
px R P- KS 1 7 Q · B4 ! BxN 1 8 pxB QxBP ( 1 8
. . .
N - K4 i s inadequate because o f 19
QxP N X Pch 20 K-N2 N - RSch 2 1 K· R l , when Black h as nothing to show for the e xchange . ) 1 9 P>
uarantee Black a more o r less sound position?
In the ex amples we h ave quot e d , the pl ayers' doubts an d lack of resolution were l inked to a lack o f independent thought . Hence a lack of critical analysis and the habit of relying on rout ine m ake it difficult to use one ' s experience in a dyn amic and creative way. The contradiction arising between t he objective lack of cl arity in a position and the subject ive attempt to ignore this lack of clarity in ld t;; e"" n"' ce ". - favo u r of the approved and routm e , tends to cause doubt and lack of conf:-;' This in turn leads to time trouble . Doubts evoked by individual peculiarities of style
.
If one were to ana lyze those games of a master in whkh he got into time trouble, it would be seen that. in addition to t he influence of the causes of time trouble enumerated above, time trouble can also be explained by some definite -- nl ch "' ara cte i'ofrtie-en -suin - -g-oante-wlrklrts-rypt C'atutthis-nmste..--Ptayerroit - "" t:I' 1 fi filT llrt d-- themselves in t ime t rouble because they must play positions which a re foreign to
119
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
their creetive method
or
style and which, therefore, subjectively represent great
difficulties . -----
----,Comm-entitrg-o-rrtlieBOtv1OmR-Bronstem Match, Moscow 1951, anov reo marked that Botvinnik's time trouble generally arose in complicated , dynamic positions where the unusual nature and the originality of the problems facing him permitted a lesser degree of reliance upon the logic of strategic considera tions. These situa tions were subjectively distasteful to Botvinnik , as they did not
----
�,OI"I'eSpOn4-c-empof-his-s letely_to--the-m-ajar_eharaeteris-ticstyle-- logical plans,
sound play and faith in the s�-ientific logic and causality of changes of events on the board . In connection with this we mention the remarks made in self·criticism by Botvinnik, who often emphasized the defect in his play - "A weakness in combinative vision . " So these dynamic positions, which were as yet unformed in their strategic structure, were relatively difficult, as regards choice of move, even
--'-_ --"OLBotvinnik These difficult-ies.,--Whi�y-iRdtviduaMeatlH'es-(}f-hls-
_ _
style of play, led to lengthy deliberation and to time trouble, in which Botvinnik committed serious errors in certain games. Panov also pointed out that, "as opposed to Botvinnik's time trouble, that of Bronstein was caused by the large number of technical positions where his opponent had an insignificant positional advantage . " Here we�oID�e....ilie ----' direct relationship between the time taken for deliberation and the character-
_ _
istics of a player's style . The rich imagination of Bronstein's artistic style was unaccustomed to these t iresome, unpleasant situations, which required accuracy of execution but gave less possibility of discovering original combinative ideas. It can be said that positions containing a small number of pieces, which were obstacles for B ronstein , would have given Botvinnik only minimal chances of getting into time trouble. We can cite further examples: Nezhmetdinov, who adjusts comparatively quickly to tactical complications but gets into time trouble in slower manoeuvring battles, or Korchnoy, who uses more time for analyzing his attacking possibilities than he does for the defence of a difficult position . All these examples testify to the existence of a causal connection between time ----tro-ub-l n ea:nit1 e1Odlvldual
charactenshcs, 10 thiS case the wea
pomts. 0 t e
player's mental activity. A knowledge of the individual features of an opponent's style which predispose him to lengthier deliberations in certain positions. is often exploited. in practice as a means of psychological warfare. We quote the game Gligoric Tal, Belgrade Candidates' Tournament 1959. By move 26 Tal had achieved a small advantage that was. however, hard to exploit with a regular. slow ----
-c:ontinu-;at�ga-me. CounTIng on Ghgonc's mcl1Oahon towards a clear, logical type of battle. Tal chose a sharp, hazardous continuation, which was not
120
WHAT IS TIME TR OUBLE? objectively the strongest. Tal's calculation wa s justified. Gligoric was confused by such unorthodox play, he thought fo r a very long time, got into time trouble, committed a number of senou s mistakes and lostthe game.
There followed
26
•••
PXN I ? GJigoric wrote : "Olaracteristic of
a much safer and objectively better continuation in 26 . .
.
Tal; Black had QxN 27 �Q PxO L-= 28 =--
_ _ _
RxR NxQP after which White would have to fight for the draw . . . Black, relying on his opponent ' s time t rouble, however, chose a sharp position where White is deprived of a clear plan of play." The game con tinued 27 RxQ RxR 28 P·N3 N·K7ch 29 K·B2 K·Nl 30 N·IO' 30 P- KB41 R- K1 31 QXP 3O, N·Q5 31 P·KB4 R·K5 32 P·I(N4!? RxBPeb 33 K· N2 pxp and Black won. ••
Apart from the subjective causes which we have mentioned and which
we
consider to be the basic ones in producing time trouble, some others can be pointt.d out. These are doubts linked to aesthetic views of chess, to the contemporary fashion in definite positions an d to methods of play. Thus, example, AverOalCh recalls one of his games when . in a winning position ,
for li-e--
went into a deep stu dy upon seeing two possibilities of striking a decisive blow, Instead of examining each of these ways, Averbakh was preoccupied with the abstract theme of " which is better from the aesthetic point of view-elemental beauty or a clear simple continuatio n ? " In Averbakh's own words: " I n the end I came to a logical conclusion, that sacrifice is an un necessary beauty, and I chose the other way , which seemed to me to be simple. In the course of even ts, however. It became clear that I had overIoo�ed the loss of a piece In the m iddle of the variatio n , play became extremely corrlplicated an d I achieved victory only after a colossal effort . "
121
CHESS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
----,So,-seape-tb -Iww-eaTJ-6l'te-e e-disea�time tfoable,-rightly1!aYed-tfte-seot¥.uf of chess creativity? From this brief account of the causes of time trouble one notices that the sources of "infection" encompass a vast area of the player's emotional and volitional reserve and character. An analysis of the concrete causes of time trouble will help in establishing a more serious and all round attitude towards the battle with this complicated psychic phenomenon. Aher aD, time trouble is not an unavoidable consequence of thinking over the secrets of -- --(Cfles5 artistry, but is lar�y-the--result--of-the-at mistakeRtitude of the player towards those secrets.
122
CHAPTER 6
E _ ff,ects-and Cures-oLTime-Troublc.------
_ _ _ _ _
In this chapter we shall examine the dynamics of m ental processes , a player's ca acities for
eneralization and also the attributes of critical th
ht
nd�
_ _ _
independence of thought during time trouble. Firstly it should be noted that the high-speed t hinking de m a nded by time trouble produces a n exceptionally tense state in the volitional and emotional components of the character. Having though t o f a move it has to be p l ayed without delay. Rapid changes i n the position evoke a he avy sense of responsibility for every projected possibility an d also produce a state of fright and uncertainty concerning t h e methods of play which have already been proposed and adopte d . During time trouble . with its volitional con centration a n d emotional boost. a contradiction is often observed between
the subjective effort to raise the
efficiency of mental activity to its m aximum and the objective impossibility of understanding the position deeply enough to outline the way to a solution . As a result the negative resolution of the conflict (in a loss, a blunder or an error) leads hrTsharp redu-rtion-ftrT� ayer s emo IOn a an
vo ltJona
orm over a
co mparatively long period. Time trouble is a h ard test of character and repeated playing in time trouble increases the tendency towards a general reduction of volitional qualities a nd raises the player's emotional excitabil ity .
The dynamics of the meatal procesla. During time trouble the capacity for an objective and critical judgement of the --
-te-hhcftanges-in-ihe positio�s-a-nrIe-;-iuwere-d-;-1mtinlne seal'Cl'r or a move
e
emphasis on the static, relatively constant elements in the position is increase d . These characteristics o f thought are manifested in t h e following tendencies in play during time trouble:
( 1 ) The tendency towards the s uperficia/�v obvious. straiRht/orward or natural moves.
This tendency in thinking is cha racterized by a considerable curtailing of the number of alternatives for ex amin ation . The object of thought in a position full
1 23
CHESS A ND PSYCHOLOGY
------,of---taet1eal-poss-ibilffies--is-ef-telHl-flessibility which conta.ins-a-di�ec.Umea.
helps one to repel a threat. Thus, a direct attack on a piece produces the reaction that it is necessary to protect that piece . The deciding factor in the choice of a move is often the attempt to make a direct attack (the th reat of captu ring a piece, mating, etc . ) . Frequently, play p rogresses on the principles of " defend- attack" . Let us quote a position from the g ame Botvinnik-Reshevsky, World
C t� h�a��u���·��----------____________________
----
Keres w rote about this position: " In time t rouble , Black failed to find a a .t1 I1Ht .... h� e . ---- satisfactory reply, and made the ftrst move he thoughror;-fiOt-o-myto-s1ng"' advantages of his position , but also getting into trouble . " Reshevsky played
28 . . . B-B4?? It is curious that in a serious time shortage the first move at hand was an attack on the opponent's strongest piece-the queen . In my view this choice was no accident, in th at the othe r possible move. which also repelled the threat to his K BP , could not satisfy Black (28 . . . px P 29 RXN). F rom the possible moves in the position which were lin ked to the slog an "attack is the best method of defence" Reshevsky chose 28. . . B-Bzr.--The subtle vartatiO""11ctem-ormrntecrld-+b""y�-- Kere s with 28 . . . N -N4. leading to a clear advantage for Black, did not enter Reshevsky's thoughts ; under the conditions of time trouble it did not satisfy either of the two requirements of a sol ution , that of direct defence or that o f direct attack. The game ended in a win for White . n---- ------ -Ifl---a-sfl-ap---ta-e -r t-ie-al-b-�-fl'-y out a dir«t-attack or defence-i... time trouble leads to piece exchanges which are not based on an objective assessment of the position . In the following diagram is a position from the game Bolesla vsky-Pirc, Helsinki Olympiad 1 952.
1 24
EFFECTS AND CURES OF TIME TROU BLE
In t ime t rouble Boles lavs ky " a utomat ically" selected the n atural move a n d exchanged pawns
40 PXP?
As su b sequ ent a n alysis showe d . the direct excha nge
was an error and the winning move was 40 P-N5 . The game ended in a draw. Simila rly . d uri n g t ime trou ble . concrete calcul ation is n ot ch aracte rized by a broad examination of the fo rgotten
as
are
ossible con sequen ces. Intermediate moves are o ften
subsidiary
variat ion s .
This
t est ifie s
to
an
i n adequate
distribution of atten tio n during time trouble . A reduction in the dyn a m ic qual it ies of thin king is revealed in calculatio n . I n many cases I have observed that players calculated variations as if they were followin g the rules of draught s . th at is
they
b a sed their analysis upon assumed compulsory captures
1 25
of
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY In t ime trouble, Reshevsky went into the variation 29 B-B6ch? N xB 30 pxN N BS . Apparently he overlooked this strong intermediate move, as he considered -the-eapture 30 QxBP tobe eompttlsory-ater-whi f ch 31 R(3)-K3 . . .
leads to an advantage for White. A similar example is the game Kan ·Flohr, Moscow 1936, where in time trouble Flohe relied upon the compulsory capture of an excha nged piece by the opponen t .
Here Flohr should have layed 40 . . . Q-K2 ! , and after 4 1 N -N4 R - K8 42 Q4ch P-B3 43 P-R3 RXRch 44 KxR P-R4 4S N - K3. the cha nces would be roughly equal . But on the last move of the time control Flohr saw the opportunity to win a pawn , a nd played 4O . BxP'!? expecting the reply 41 QxB. Kan replied 41 N-N4f, threatening 42 QxB, 42 NxR and 42 Q-R6ch, whereupon Flohr made one more move out of inertia , 4 1 . R-B4 and then resigned. . .
..
Another example is the game Suetin- Krogius, 34th U SSR Cham ionshi Tbilisi 1%7. The following po-sition was reached after Bl ack's 34th move (34 . . . Q-N4) .
1 26
EFFECTS AND CU RES OF TI M E TROU BLE
-
Suetin played 35 Q.N3, defending his own rook and threatening QXRch. and he assumed that Black ha d to move the attacked rook or defend it. But after -"3 n! 5� . ---C . .Q "'fXH36QXRch K.R2, Suehn suddenly dIscovered tha t h e coula---:n:-::oTt---:a=vo=clc:Jd--- mate. and after 37 Q.N3 R·K7 he resigned .
-
The attempt to find d irect solutions by means of a relatively peaceful m anoeuvre manifests itself in a choice of moves based upon automatic methods 'of technique. Examples are the automatic placing-of-pawns-on-squares-o f'--!a :t1 I'l r--- opposite colour to t hose controlled by one's own bisho p . or of the creation of flight squares in a castled position . Alekhine said that: "One should never rely on the apparent safety of natural move s . " This remark could also be applied to play in time trouble .
---
(2)
The tendency to rely on the rela tively constant. static elements of the
---poStliO/�l.�----
This tendency manifests itself particularly in the a t tempt to gain material advantages. The p layer in time trouble is often g uided by t he following con siderations- uThe initia tive may expire, but the extra piece will endure. The material advant age is the more dependable . " As Bronstein put it : " In time
-.U tr"'-" ouh1�J!yer}'bo _ d¥_�pawns.��amiciactors that depend on th�elaJ.iy,,e-
_ _
_ _ _ _
value of the pieces recede into the background ; a p layer in time trouble is in no condition to ma ke an objective evaluation of the relative value of the pieces which is changing at every move , therefore he is guided by the forma l . absolute value of the pieces.
In the above diagram is a position fI"Om the game Simagin ·Udovci�U5SR· Yugoslavia Match Belgrade 1 96 1 . W hite has obtained a fierce a ttack by sacrificing t he exchange twice . Here 33 P-B6 wins at once, but havin g fallen into
127
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
---\ime-tt"ouhlerSimagin-lacked-timC-to-assess-lhe hidden, dynaDliq>ossihilitiesof the positio n , and hoping for the speediest restoration of the material status quo he played 33 N·B6. Here are his comments on that move : "Today I shudder to recall this disastrously weak move . . . usually I do not play for the immediate restoration of m aterial after a combina tion . " The game was drawn . The next pos ition , from Benko·Gligoric. Candidates' Tournament 1959, is
Benko was in t ime trouble . Seeing that Black threatened to win a pawn with 34 . . . R· R 1 , Benko made a quick and (thus far) correct decision to m aintain m a terial equality . There followed 34 P·R3ttx -p 35 BxQRP�4 36B-Q6'! But this is a m istake, although it is easily understood when we consider W h ite's decision not to allow any loss of materia l . It would be better to go for the Iemporary pawn sacrifice 36 B - B 1 R- QN4 37 B · Q2 RxP 38 BxB PxB 39 R- B 1 , when White regains the pawn by bringing up his king. In the actual game Gligoric obtained good winning c hances.
--
us as e p ayer In ffirunroUD1etTies-to--grabJTIllterial asa fOimof insulalice, so he also tries to occupy strongholds with his pieces and secure a safe spot for the kin g . These tendencies o f a player's mental act ivity when i n t ime t rouble, reveal an exaggeration of t he importa nce of the static elements of t he position and an -aa�s�men-ft--& ln " --the -dy&ami£-pGSSihllities which is not completely Qbjectllte:----1 practice this results in a decreased ability to see unexpected replies and various tactical tricks by the opponen t . Such tactical tricks and traps have a comparatively higher chance of success in t ime trouble, not because of their Objective merits, but because of the element of surprise. As a rule, a time trouble
_ _
1 28
EFFECTS A ND CU RES OF TIME TROUBLE
�is.basedon the opponenC.s.nalural reply alJd the opponent. not re alizing the hidden threa ts lurking behind the innocent first move, often reacts to it directly and falls into the trap .
This is a p osition from the game Reshevsky- Keres. World Champion ship Match Tournament 1 948. Commenting on Reshevsky's move 3S P-RS , Keres wrote " Black now falls into a typical time trou e trap. :s-N-QS atonce IS obJec tively better. " A fter the obvious, but incorrect reply by Keres, 3S . . . P. KN4, on which Reshevsky had based his plans , White ob tained a decisive advantage a nd '>oon won the game, but t he "unnatu ral" 35 . . . P>
The player'. ability for generalization and abstraction . Bronstein once wrote: "The closer a player is to time trouble. the less he thinks about st rategy and the more about tact ics" . It should be noted that in ---n �--m)Uble we obselve the tel1dency-to-t-htrtk---�3i'a-at -a-boo+-H-i,�/e*I}v-'-!sH1imm-J;pll1lel}----- problems with defin ite concrete aims. Considerations for the unity of a single strategic plan with a general assessment of the position retreat into the background. The quality of strategic ideas is also sign ificantly reduced in time trouble , as calcul ation has a more limited character in that it is directed towards ---simpJef..--g-Qals--tbat can be accl!rateL}C.....ttaciled by an an alysis of va riations. Therefore , during time trouble . the strategic and tactical elemen ts are less in evidence tha n they are during normal playing conditions. Yet Bronstein's remark still holds goo d . as it characterizes a typical t ime trouble trait - a reduced capacity for a general a ssessment of the situation a nd a tendency to 1 29
C HESS A ND PSYCHOLOGY
e"" ly---upon-t�t_striking e1emen-ts---of---t-h-i-tion .
... -. r
-
It is theremre-t-aet-ies
rather than strategy which appear as the comparatively dom inating element in play. These features of mental act ivity during time trouble are characterized by the following tendencies:
(1) The tendency to simplify.
----m ---'-Tt1hl1le�atttte pt-for maximum elarity ancl-simpl-icity-in-�eke by objective necessity and by the realization of the practical im possibility of satisfactorily solving the problems of complex, dynamic situations. S implicity in the position is achieved via excha nges or by limiting the mobility of the opponent's pieces and pawns. and simplification is usually forced by the player ->L�appLOldman JeJy�enJJ�itio.n.J ex re el difficult positions methods of simplification are generally not applied, since this would normally ease the possibility for the opponent to cash in on his advantage. Often the attempt to simplify is incorrect objectively, but is dictated by the negative emotional feeling of doubt which arises in players during time trouble. _ _ _ _
Benko- Keres Concerning Benko's offer to exchange q ueens in his game with Keres. Candidates' Tournament 1 959 , Ragozin wrote: " White has obtained a great positional advantage by placing his pieces well. Black is squeezed in the centre an d l ac ks any kind of cou nterplay. The pressure could have been reinforced by
23 N-B4, but Benko-unexpectedfy-made-a-paradoricat-decision-=-toexchange queens (23 Q-Q2) . Probably this decision was induced by the approach of time trouble . " Bronstein wrote i n a similar manner about the reason s for simplification : "There was no time left to calculate variations, so it is understandable that 1 30
EFFECTS AND CURES OF T I M E TROUBLE
int�-&m-t-h ta-ti6n-;-'-'---l -Reshevs-ky--ehose---a-im-pler--eont e--game---- --s Simagin-Udovcic, examined on page 1 27 . Simagin also rem arked that in time trouble he decided to force simplification and thereby missed a win. However, there are ins tances when the objective requirements of the position and the peculiarities of the conditions of time trouble do not contradict each other in the p layer's attempt to simplify the battle. Usually these cases are positions with a m aterial preponderance or which contain definite strategic adva��.------
This position is taken from the game Ragozin-Taim anov . Leningrad 1965. White is in severe time trouble and gladly agrees to some simplification, even returning part of his material advantage: 34 R·B8 N·B5ch 35 RxN RxR and White soon won . The tendency to simplify is closely linked with the effort to avoid making complex , committal decisions. I n practice it appears as a tendency to confine oneself to delaying tactics during time trouble , which is observed in players who consider their position to be favourable. In positions which they con sider to be hopeless however, they are ready to indulge in all manner of complexities in the search for an escape rou te . Concerning one of his games from the 1 948 World Championship Match Tournament , Keres wrote: 'The last moves were m ade in severe time trouble. Both opponents chose the most neutral moves possible, in order not to spoil the position by some chance, weak move" . Here Keres emphasizes that in time
�FOuble, unless it is absolttHy--neeessar-y-;-i-t-is-psyeh6lt>gieaHy diffieult-to-matJI\(oee-ilal---- committal move, because it cannot be given adequate consideration and its assessment will depend upon accidental factors to a greater degree than usual . Bronstein also wrote i n the same vein when he analyzed a complicated and daring variation from the game Stahlberg-Boleslavsky. Zurich Candidates'
131
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY
------�T � OUf���ne�stnot ch oo� �����on�r �� � I � e� ..---
Smyslov's games from the 1 95 3 Zurich Candidates' Tournament against Euwe , Geller and Petrosian are instructive for an underst anding of the peculiarities of thinking in time trouble. Smyslov played a whole series of repetitive moves in these g a mes without a ltering the strategic elements of the posit ion s , in order t o postpone making a decision until he had escaped t ime trouble. Here is an excerpt from one of these games.
Geller·Smyslov
-9TA.he-game--continued-31...Q-N4H-P;N3--tr-RB3-K-.-B�-Q--Ql 34 Q.R5-R.KN� 35 Q·K2 R·Q2 36 Q·RS Q·N4 37 Q · K8 Q-K2 38 QXQch RxQ 39 B·R2 R·Q2 40 K-K2 B-N2 The time scramble was now over and Smyslov proceeded to realize his a dva ntage: 41 B·Nl K·N1 42 P·N4 pxp 43 RxPch R-N2 44 R· R4 R-N8 4S K· Q2 K-N2 46 B. Q3 B-B6 47 R-B4 B-R4 48 N· K2 R·N7 49 K-K3 R- N4 50 P- KR4 RxPch 51 K-Q2 N-N6ch S2 K-Ql R·K6 S3 K-B2 P-K4 S4 R-B2 P- KS 55 White lost on time.
----
In the examples we have reviewed we observed a reduction of m ental activity and even indecision. One must bear in mind that the attempt to introduce a waiting character into the game also depends upon the opponen t w ho tries to prevent this from happening. In pract ice we frequently encounter so called
Jme..t-r-ouble..checks" SIICh checks are..mosLoiten..explainW....noLb}'..so.me..w.e
._l . �
--
thought out plan , but by an effort to delay the appearance of the opponen f s cou nter plans , if only for another move, t hereby postponing t h e necessity of mak ing a decision. Frequent ly such checks turn out t o be errors and mat eri a l ly harm one's position . 1 32
EFFECTS A NO CURES OF TIME TROUBLE
This is a position from the ga me Winter-Capabl anca, Nottingham 1 93 6 . After 37 Q.B4 the position would be lost for Black, but in order to ga in time Winte r decided t o give check and only then, after t he time co ntrol, t o contemplate the situatio n . There followed
37 Q-R7ch
a nd White had to resign as the black king
unexpectedly found a safe haven on NS wh ile his white counterpart wa s helpless in the face of m ating threats. (After 3 7 . . . K-NS , if 38 P- R3ch KxP 39 R- KNlch then J9...Qx�d...Jm�at«:e:-ln�e:-llx>-l-t.IJm�o�v�e�),---In his desire to defer making a decision , if on ly for a move, U dovcic let victory slip away from him because of a time trouble check. in h i s game against Gel ler from the 1 961 Yugoslavia-USSR Match in Belgrade.
Black ' s advantage is obvious - not only is he a pawn up but his pieces are very actively placed. In fact he can force the win of material by 40 . . . RxBch 4 1 KxR NXBch 42 RxN B-Q4ch and 43 . . . Rx R , but wishing to defer the decision about 1 33
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
___
�bklLpiece to capture first. U dovcic played 4O . . . B B4ch' This m ove completes the first time control , but after 41 K·Rl BxR 42 B·Q5ch K·N2 43 B-KSch K·N3 44 BxR B- R3 45 B·Q5 , Black was unable to convert his extra pawn into a win . ·
The mental tendencies towards sim p lification , delaying tactics and the avoidance of complex, responsible decisions. which we have examined, lead to fragmen tation in thin king and a lack of consistency in p lay . The logical bond between separate moves is violated. future plans conflict with past pl ans and there is a resulting confusion of ideas. Frequently. play during t ime trouble consists of unconnected one-move plans. In the game Kan-Ragozin . Moscow 1936. Black won a paw n . but thereafter. instead of logically repulsing his opponent's weak threats, he busied himself with rook manoeuvres along the route Q B I - K B I -Q B I and K B2-KB4- K B2- KB6. --- --r� a� cflO: ese manoeuvres was assocla WI a one move aun 0 e ence or attack. but was not a link in the chain of a consolidated plan . As a result Black soon lost what had been the better position .
A similar situation may be observed in the finish of the game Benko-Keres. Candidates' Tournament 1959 .
39 p B6cfri{xp Now one would expect 40 B·R3. sillce-this is the point- behind the pawn sacrifice. Before completing this idea, however, Benko aban doned it a nd his thoughts transferred to a new idea. He played 40 Q·101 and after 40 . . . P·N7 he lost . A total dissonance of ideas. The g ames Olafsson-Tal and Gl igoric·Smyslov from the same tournament nsistenqumdk grnentation of thin kin� --e--ma�mpJ s of tbeJaclLouna in time trouble. I feel that the inconsistent play in all these examples d i d not arise accidentally; the emphasis on solving particular problems drives strategic plann ing out of the game an d b inds the separate particular tactics into on e. As a ·
134
EFFECTS AND CU RES OF TIM E TROUBLE result with increasin time trouble the 10 ical se uence of events is violated and a logical basis for strategic decisions becomes impossible .
Other reatures 01. critical thought In dme trouble.
We have already discussed the tendency of players in time trouble to avoid far reaching decisions, t heir urge to simplify and their emphasis on t he permanent, static factors in the position. A comparative reduction in the critical thinking of t he player in t ime trouble is d irectly linked to these t raits and t his feature appears on the one hand in an excessive passivity in regard to one's own plans, a lack of belief in one's act ive possibilities and an avoidance of attempts to draw up and defend one ' s own treatment of the positio n . On t he other hand, the strength of t he opponent's act ive plans is exaggerated. Thus, an uncritical attitude arises towards the opponent's possibilities as well as one's own . In time -rrouble-a----pt1yel'�s-u_n-critrc_a;tthinXtngi�ofteln lCOlTrrectelt"t
would lead...to a draw, hut h�oing...into a passive....defence Keres lost the game
Similarly, in the game Botvinnik- Smyslov from t he same tournament, W hite, in time trouble , decided against an active raid by his king which involved a pawn sacrifice , and lost his winning chances.
1 35
CHESS AND PSYC HOLOGY
____
--Lu..reis-a.position from the game Floh1"-'-Capablanca.�w..-.WJ6.----
Flohr is the exchange up . 30 R - B7 would h ave been decis ive-this move fits in successfully with the attacking positions of White's pieces. However, in time trouble. Flohr decided to group his pieces together, not for attack b ut for defence, positioning them nearer to his king. He played 30 B-N4'? NxB 31 FxN K·N3 32 R·Ql? Again 32 R-B7 was strong . 32 B-R3 33 Q·B5ch and the game soon ended in a draw . •..
A similar state of affairs occurred in the game Krogius- Korchnoy , 34th U SSR Championship, Tbilisi 1 967, where White thought for a long t ime about t he consequences of a tempting rook sacrifice , got into time trouble and chose a sounder. but weaker contin u a tion .
After 24 RxKPI I , the position becomes extremely complicated: 24 . . . pxR 2S QXPch K - B I (or 2S . . . R-B2 26 B - B4 Q - B2 27 R-Q l ! R- K B I 28 R-Q6 and Black has no defence) 26 Q-Q6ch K-N l (26 . . . R· K2 is met by 27 R· K l ) 27 R·BS! QxP 28 Q· K6ch R-B2 29 R-KNSch K-B1 30 Q-Q6ch R-K2. Now 31 Q-R6ch is met by 3 1 . . . Q-N2 ! , but by means of 3 1 P- KR3 ! White sets his opponent insoluble prob----tl"'em-s , e .g--:-3l-;-:-:-R(l}-KT32 B-B4 Q-RT3TQ-:]f6Cfi! . or 31...P-B4 1 32 B-B4 BxPch ! ) . On coming into time trouble I chose the less active path : 24 B·K4 p.B4 2S R f Bl ).QI BxB 26 RxB R·N3 27 Q.B3 R.QI and the game was eventually drawn. ----Ih-i-s-t -I'O cm tawards Oncy p-assi-v-it-yaften manifestsitselfin-an-el-fe-r+ta-seettre-the mutual defence of a group of one's pieces_ The anxiety not to forget about any of the pieces scattered on the board compels the player to keep them in as compact a· group as possible. in order to avoid dividing his attention between different parts of the board. 136
EFFECTS AND CURES OF TI M E TROUBLE
-1�ueJo11owing positioll-isJr:olU-Oll.I!-oLthe---Euwe-Keres games played in the 1 948 World Champ ionship .
--
Hoping to create a compact group of p ieces in the centre. Euwe played 34 Q Q4? forgetting the danger to his k in g . After 34 R-B8ch he soon resigned. 34 Q-R3 would have provided a defence but, app arently, White had not considered this because of the resulting dispersion of his forces. •..
Thus. the t en dency to make an obvious "over-insurance" during time trouble manifests itself in t he distribution of the pieces according to the p rinciple "no need for anything ambitious; just let them protect each other". We do not completely condemn expedient methods of play, which after all have often t;een JustIfied m prachce. The examples Cited here and m other section s , showing instances of mistakes made during time trouble, serve only for the purpose of illustrating my opinion that the efficiency of mental activity definitely decreases during time trouble in by far the m ajority of cases.
(3) The tendency to over-estimate the merits of the opponent s active po.uibilities. This tendency is, in general, characteristic of many pl ayers . but during time trou Ie it shows Itse Wit conslderab y greater orce . under normal conditions, a careful p layer, seeing a threat . assesses the danger more or less objectively, then d uring time trouble, when there is no time to analyze , the threat gives rise to an increased feelin g of apprehension and therefore in his search for a rep ly the player is more often invol¥ed in the attempt to find a direct •
l+'I'-c-s,.,prhla:Nj..-j.--pone efence-rathej thallill h,illgtoTefute-the-opnl
137
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
15 poSl l0n IS taken fro m the game Cmc-Polugayevsky, VrnJacka BanJ a
40 R( J t-QI , about which he wrote: " In time QRl - KR8 diagon a l seemed frightening to me and I made a 'solid' move instea d of 40 RxQNP, after which t he outcome of the 1965 . Here Ciric mista kenly pla yed
trouble Black's threats along t he game would have been clear . . .
The appearance of impul sive decisions and d angerous play during time trouble IS hnked with a lack of confidence In the strength of one's own pos Ition and an exaggerat ion of the strength of the opponen t 's active possibilitie s . This is not confidence or bol dness, but rather the desire to p lay something on the off chance that it will dispel emotional and volit ional tension . By way of an an alogy there springs to mind serious dif ficulties , not in chess, but in life, when a man gives up the-struggIe,-throws-i-n--his-han-d-or-edesperat ven-perferms-the--mostactions in order to come to some kind of result more quickly and thus be freed from nervous ten sion . A con dition of severe mental disturbance can be observed at times in such cases and
is found in
all players during time trouble.
Discussions held after the game reveal that experienced masters are unable to explain the reasons for one move or another which were contrary to elementary coIT.mo n sense. They maintain that they made these moves in opposition to their
--- 'understntions a�F-al--and--te--F-iH-te in the� particular. As an example I shall refer to the game Krogius-Osnos, .34 th
USSR Cbampionship, Tbilisi 1 967, where, having assessed the critical po sition
several moves before it actually arose, I decided to force a draw. I became more and more convinced of the accur acy of my judgement with each move and ___
"' ied_ffi9Le and more sign ificance to my opRQnen t ' s threats. Suddenl I -attribu made a U-turn, began a dangerous attack and lost . The reason for t his was the exceedingly strong impression m ade by Osnos' threats (the possible advance of passed pawns in t he centre) and this produced a negative emotional reactio n , leading t o a sharp reduction i n my critical thin king . 138
EFFECTS AND CURES OF TIME TROU BLE ---' A � co .u.JJ m Llj p fL'a fJhL cl1 �nt(:teLi s tics of man 's men tal s tat e s d u ring attack an d
_ _ _
defence reveals that the player has greater difficulty in controlling his behaviour
d ur in g conditions of defence. "I always find that attack acts upon the opponent's p sychology and that by this alone the stronger will is revealed", wrote M. B . Fr un z e4• This may also be app lied to chess. A tendency towards passivity an d defence evoked by t ime trouble therefore creates relatively greater difficulties for the p layer in his attempts at self-control and also facil i tate s the '-U
_ _ _
The negadve Innuenee 01 dme trouble. In examining the features of players' thought processes du ring time trouble I discovered the presence of a general tendency towards a reduced efficiency in mental activity. In this connection the follow in g questions are of interest- Is it pos sib e to trace a (Jelinite correlation etween t e reduced effiCiency of mental activity and the onset of time trouble? What is the sig ni ficance of each of the separate components of thinking (logic , intuition , creative imagination) under conditions of time trouble? To answer these q uestions it is fi rs t necessary to consider the features of the
---nl-i l"lUrtlnamal inks-betweell tire playel 'sgenerat-experience and his-experience-ocf-f-+thnee---- course taken in the particul ar game in which he is in t ime trouble. Let us consider some pract ical e xam ples .
•
A Red Anny General during the 1 9 1 8· 1 920 Civil War.
139
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY "-b_�_diagram shows a position from Reshevsky-Boleslavsky, Zurich 1 953. Reshev sky was in time trouble . In order to understand the ensuing battle it is important t o take account of Bronstein's rem ark : "Fearing that he might put something en prise in time trouble, Reshevsky decided to make the moves R K B7- KB3-Q3-Q7-KB7 which was possible with the black pawn on QN6, but gave Black a chance of salvation with the pawn on QN7 ." The game went 34 R B3 P·N7 35 R.Q3 B-Bl 36 R(3)-Q7 Better is 36 R-Q8 as now Black could escape by 3�a'&R2+-buLRe3hey�k)LpJa)'�,"-dingJ9 his pla n . 36 . . . 8-B4?? 37 R-Q8eh 8-B 1 38 R(8)-N8 and Black resigned .
_ _ _ _
From an analysis of this case it may be said that White's play in time trouble was ba sed very much upon what had been prepared in a preliminary calculation (the manoeuvre R - K B7 - KB3-Q3-Q7) and a general assessment of positions arising in the fut ure . In this way White's play during time trouble was directly linked to the experience of the "history" of this game (although tlie preliminary mental conclusions of the advan tage of the rook manoeuvre to Q7 turned out to be faulty) and the ensuing events during time trouble had been almost completely planned beforehand. Cases are often observed , however . in which the strategic or tactical ideas planned in the openin g or the beginning of the middle game are not realized at once . but only considerably later under conditions of time trouble. Thus, for example, in the game Flohr-Ragozin, Moscow 1936, between the 17th and 25 th moves Bl ack was energetically preparing a plan which included the advance of his QP from Q4 to Q5 . He succeeded in executing this advance on move 33 when he was already in time trouble and after various changes in situation and plan hll-n-1ll1rerr-p1.rce-;--yerBUrck's-deciston was surelyinfluencedby his past delibera tions about t he faults and a dva ntages of this m ove which had taken place nearly twenty moves earlier. The player's emotional experience from the earlier course of the game, and even from past contests with the same opponen t , is preserved in time trouble . I n h i s game against Keres a t Tallin 1 965, Korchnoy did not see t h e outline of Keres' impending attack in t im e . Firstly he was still under t he influence of his
---
own initiative
___
that had existecHn-tbe first half ofthe game and-secondly he was
obviously influenced by Keres' plus score from their previous encounters. Time trouble is thus seen t o be a phase in t he game, which is inseparably linked to the game's preceding development . Earlier plans , tactical ideas and judgements of positions are pre served in time trouble to a certain exten t . The -;Prul""ayJl1"'s-past experience is proJededjn1o_1ruUim�ouble phase in a creatively reworked form, adapted to the concrete con ditions of the particular game . Therefore, past experience, viewed in a concrete form in the particular game, exerts a substantial influence upon the player's thin king during time trouble .
140
EFFECTS AND CU RES OF TIME T ROU B LE
--LThJ.U,;e.L to-- ---. e.iul�c difference between blitz games and t ime trouble, contrary'--the widespread opinion that these two phenomena are practically identical .
___
Blitz is fast play, w h ich in pract ice l acks any ex perience from an earlier. slower phase of the ga me . Play i n time trouble has con siderably greater scope for a creative approach to the selec t ion of moves than pl ay in b l itz games . owi n g to the previous stages in the development of the posi tio n : by the onset of time trouble the st ructure of t he position h as already been created an d one or another
oLthe --.Ya �l a ns a nd t actical 0 erations has been reali zed .
_ _ _
A
l ayer ' s past
experience of the g a me in b l itz play emerges in a fragmented form and is l a rgely l i m i ted to establ i s h i n g a nalogies accor ding to t he obvious superficial features of the posit ion . The psycholog ical character of these two phenome n a is
also
different .
Bronstein has said t h a t it is easier to pl ay a blitz game in one m inute than to find the right move In a serious game In
-10 m m utes . [ Ime trouble IS accompanieilf----
by an exception a l concen tration of volitional and emo tional processes which demands an in tense mental act ivity . Bronstein 's words are completely true: "It is no secret that every one of us, having safely escaped from time trou ble, t hinks about t he sealed move l ast of all durin g the next t en m i n utes. Only after cal m in g the nerves c a n o n e settle down to real thoughts . " I f you will permit me the compariso n . a chess pl ayer i n t ime trouble is l i ke a mi ser who. towards the end ofliis d ays. has to part W i t
IS wea
. w ereas
playing five-minutes chess is like spending an unexpected inheritance which one has acquired without effort . In other words, i n t ime trouble one parts with the fruits of one ' s arduous l a bou r . w hereas i n blitz games one easily gains riches and equally lig htheartedly loses them . ----�Nh>evss erttrete IIIallY ctress-pi-ayerstie k playing-five--mimt-s te-e -:-k-B-di#ie'tl H+t It H t :e o--- explain this addiction if we look only at the adverse side of blitz. Why, then , is
five-minute chess so attract ive? I think that above a l l i t is the rapid altern a tion of emotiona l s t a tes. While a serious game of chess raises the tension of one's nervous sta te , the b l i tz game is more of a rel axa tion . Of a ll the kin d s of chess activity-tourn amen t s . studies a n d so o n . five m inute chess is most l i ke a pure game. the elements of science a nd a rt rece ding intothebackgro The com b in ation of blitz games an d serious chess. as a rule, is h armful. Blitz games, however. have their use in training a nd chess s tudy . With the help of these games one can sharpen one ' s speed of reaction to changes in posi tion , and this improves one's capacity to transfer one's a ttentio n . pa rticularly in time trouble
Eurther.IIlOLe....J
c
r ai
e tent one can check u
one's
0
en i n s , a n d
a chess pl ayer who has n o t played i n serious tourn amen t s for a long time can refresh the working condition of his chess thin kin g, re-establish his chess habits and strengthen his technique.
141
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY We have noted both the connection between time trou ble and the experience of the course of the given game, and the grea t significance of this experience for play
----dmurin-g-tinn�lrolrbin le.BdoTe_enm in-g_ttre_roIe-oTtmpon hlOSep1lTate--oo lmts-orthinking u nder conditions of time trouble a general remark should be made, that all of them reveal a greater efficiency the closer the connection between the time trouble con di tions and the earlier stages of the game. Many examples of excellen t play by players in time trouble could be mentioned, however a n
----ana.I¥s. si ....ofsuch-g.a.mes..re¥ea.I..a..co-lllmon...tr-au-=-the-highest..quaJit¥-oLplay. when the time t rouble position arises in reasonable consistency with the rest of the game and there are no sudden cha nges in the natural course of the game.
The logical components of IhInklaa. During time trouble it is diffic ult to assess a position by way of conclusions based on intellectual though t . I n the cases w here assessments from the phases
� foxe time trouhle --'-he
_ _ _
are no..longet"-Appticahle,....the.Jo.gical assessment
of tbe
position often manifests itself in a mixture of individual judgements ( there is an ex tra pawn on the Q-side; on the other hand there is a strong knight on Q4; but also a threat of P- K B4, etc . ) such j u dgements are not un ited in an overall assessmen t . Generall , the ability for makin
a
eneral, 10 ical assess ment of a position is
considerably reduced during t i me trouble. Korchnoy emphasized this poin t: "The importan t , but most difficult t hin g to decide is where the pieces will stand best and to which regrouping should t he opponent be provoked? I n other words to make a s trategic assessmen t of the positions which arise in the variations under calcula tion . " In
general
the
calculation
of
variations
shows
signs
o f considerable
curtailment. Long continuations a re not calculated, only the short ones are examined -the two or three mov� variations (the oppon en t's direct t hreats and the obvious possibilities of one's own position). The n umber of variations which fall within the scope of one's attention is also red uced , sometimes to only two or three alternatives. Therefore it is frequently the case that a mechanical reaction is made in an swer to an unanticipate9 move by t he opponent an d one makes a '---
m .-r o "" v ... e.... t... hat...ha "S""been-prepaTeltior a differenttin ton uatiorr:-A1hhe same, despiIe
the limi tations and brevity of an alysis during time trouble, i t remains one of the player's basic tools of thought. since it is here that the general ideas retreat into second place and t he solving of p a rtic ula r problems becomes the main concern.
intuition. I n tuition e merges quite distinctly in positions t hat are similar to t hose ---
-.:si1it"rruatlOlls which-itave--ben e -the-subject-c>f analysis ill the earlier phases of th
game .
However,
any attempt
d u ring time trouble
142
at
checkin g int uitive
EFFECTS AND CURES OF TI M E TROUBLE
suggestions by the use of logical analysis will prove inadequate. In those positions where the logical sequence of events has been violated. intuitive ----e-cc;;,o"n"J"'e"'ctur s lto norn-
_ _ _ _
143
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY Style during dme trouble,
As we have a lready stated, time trouble is a clearly expressed mental state of a ----ramt ---.p"')"ay"'"e ll trartsertec Use-of-cettaill ofhischalaeteristics. Therefeimp ortan t to attempt to indicate the link between a player's style, his tendency towards t ime trouble an d his success in time trouble. Obviously we may speak of such a link, in tha t a player's style reflects his character and temperament to a considerable degree. During the..fo-urt.h.Eeo.ples .RS� ' Spartakiad (I.eningrad 1967) I co.nd.uc.te.d a survey of the players' op inions concerning this question . The 1 24 questionnaires filled in by the particip ants in the Spartakiad contain in teresting data, which allow us to speak . with a certain amount of confidence, about the existence of a m utual rel ationship between style of play and tendency to time trouble . I n deed. if we remember the creativity of the most prominent representatives of the art of chess , Grandmasters of various creative ---a: dispositions..-we-wi.U-�OIIle-l"eglllacity in their a11itU.LtmuJ:ds_tilJl� trouble. Consider Capablanca and Petrosian for example . There is much that is common to their styles-rich intuition, a high degree of tactical mastery and a tendency towards simplicity and clarity in their assessments. They are also linked by the fact that time trouble is a very rare occurrence in their games. Their in frequent cases of time trouble arose mainly when a solution to new and complex problems was demande d ; for example Capablanca's games from the 1938 AVRO Tournament an d Petrosian's matches against Botvinnik ( 1963) a n d Spassky ( 1966). A s a rule they both played superbly in time trouble : obviou sly their excellent control over their playing habits and methods of technique came into their own . The creativity o f Botvinnik and Portisch represents a different pattern; they fall into time trouble more often. Time trouble arises for them mainly in situations that are complex and dyn amic, full of combinative themes . A su en digression during the course of events in the game also acts as a catalyst in producing time trouble. During time trouble they play less practically and make mistakes with comparatively greater frequency . The origin of Ko�hnoy's time trouble is generally different. He is n ot so dIsturbed by storms o-rcombtfiatiOrrs;hethtnit"S\le�Iy-wtrerritis-rrecessaIY 10 at tack or in situations which do not lend themselves to concrete analysis but which require a very abstract assessmen t . You will not find Spassky in time trouble very often , and if it does occur then it is not the position that is to blame b ut rather the psychological surprises offered by his opponen t : because of his universal style Spassky plays excellently in the most varied of positions. His universal style gives him great advantages. It ---:-,.rt1fntiu .-rmpoinrto" rh "understalld the correct keys to-his opponen�tyle-and-
__
--
1 44
EFFECTS AND CURES OF TIME TROU B LE to compel his opponen t to play positions which are unpleasant for him . After all , for Spassky there are no " u npleasant" position s . If things do not go according to ---
ptal'l , however.andiurs-
signifieanc-e-a-ef--met'e detailed study ofthis su�ut for the--R'lGm�nt-!t-CIf.-it-i· --- matter for future investigation .
Practical advice. The psychological featu res of correct play during one's opponent's time trouble and the p roblem of a successful escape from one's own time trouble both have grea t practical importa nce. During the opponen t's time trouble one shou ld ---Bp1'1riS€ ff1mflj�.e-as �sm�f-.tlte--pos.ition , without over estj.matin*-�-- its merits because of the opponen t ' s shortage of time. A com mon psychological mista�e is the attempt to speed up one's own play as much as possible, in order to prevent the opponent thinking at "my expen se " . In this case an actual equalization of time takes place, but no accoun t is m ade for the fact that the opponen t is emotionally attuned to ra id
la
and understands the im ortance
of each move. The player who has enough time and beg in s to hurry fin ds hi mself in an u n favourable position since, unlike his opponent, he has not had to summon his will power and his understan ding of the complexi ties of his situation. Ultim ately the logical sequence of his plans is often viol a te d and he plays with barely a one or two move plan , he fails to check his analysis. his critical thinking is increasingly reduced and he subject s himself unnecessarily to the hazards of the b a ttle. Even after so m any years ( st ill cannot forget my game against Kholmov from the USSR Championship sem i-fin a ls in Leningrad 1955 . My position was plea sant, Kholmov was immersed in deep thought and this resu lted in bad time trouble . His time trouble exci ted me so much that I practically lost control over my thoughts. Although I had plenty of time to thin k I suddenly decided to compe e
WI
rtel----- -al1n-the-pIe-ress my opponent to see who coulapray-Iaster;-tlr
flashing on the board. Such haste led to no goo d . In the turmoil I made so many mist akes tha t the a dj ourned position was u n tenable. Tal also employed this injudicious tactic in the 8th game of his match again st Botvinnik . Moscow 1960. Tal had the better position and in his a ttempt to win q uickly he under-estimated Botvinnik's ability to find the correct move in t i me . As a result T a l m ade a n error and lost .
145
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
34 . . . QR-Bl?! " I made the last move instantaneously - as if seized by the time pressure rhythm of my opponen t . I had formerly seen that I woul d win the exchange, but I had to thin k a little; then I woul d have come up with the absolutely correct idea: the ot her rook m ust go to QB1 . Black. as in the g ame. would win the exchange, but m ain tain his ONP, after which White's position would im mediately become hopeless. Here it is: the hypnotic power of "natural" _m ll o� llJ es' Itis inter.e£ting to note that the winning move . . . KR-OBI was only later found at home that evening . 35 N-R5 8x8 36 Rx8 NXP Black had examined this position . Now, if the attacked rook retreats . ' " N- K7ch is decisive. It could be noticed from my opponent 's expression that he had been rather s urprised by the unex pected turn of events. but in spite of intense time pressure he successfully responded . to the reversal of the conditions and immedia tely found the best continuation . 37 R xN! White imme lately gIves up the exchange and wms an important tempo. 37 . . . RxR 38 NXP Now the OP is defenceless. Black felt that he had not played the best somewhere. bu t since there was not enough time, he did not evaluate the ensuing position correctly (it would be more accurate to say tha t he erroneously examined i t ) deciding that he still had chances to win . 38 . . . R(Kl )xP? I t was necessary t o continue 3 8 . . . R-ONI 39 NxP R-Q6 40 NxP RxOP 4 1 P- K4 RxN 42 pxR RxP. with a drawn endgame. 40 P-N7 RXQP 4 1 R-QB2 RxN 4 [:1J8CJllr-Ql does not work torWhite. 39 RxR K)(K 40 NXP R- Q6 Significantly stronger was 40 . . . K -N l . but Black was under the imp ression that all was in order. Here t he game was adjourned , and Botvi nnik thought about his sealed move for abou t a half hour. At first I was ex tremely opti mistic : during the game I w as convinced that the variation 4 1 P-N7 R-QN6
_ _ _
----� --,4�2--1'N-=B7m_� 4_44_P ()(, P R�07-P-R6-46-N..K6-_I!
R7 guaranteed a win for Black. Then it occurred to me that White cou l d obtain
a decisive t ransposition of moves continuing 41 N-B7ch! Now R2 is closed to the black king. since White simply plays 42 P-Q6, and the OP and QNP can not
146
EFFECTS AND CU RES OF TIME TROUBLE �herefor-e-Bl.�acck-should- ontjnl1e 41�er 42 P-N7 R QN6 43 N-Q8 P-R4 44 P-Q6 P-R5 45 P-Q7 P-R6, Botvinnik wins a decisive tempo with 46 N-K6ch. On this, if the black king retreats to NI , White wins another temp o by p romoting the pawns with check. There is one m ore possibili ty-to rush the king towards the QP, but in t his case, the K RP has its say and in the course of the struggle I had not paid it any atten tion , For example: 43 ' " K - B I 44 P-R5 K - K l 45 P· R6 KxN 46 P- R7 , and the game is --40"'\!'e'e-l'-,�ning--home,-i -my--tra ner--and-Lonly had to inv:estiga1e,� th �e subtleties of this rather simple analysis. We began to play through the game and in the process of analysis we simultaneously discovered that Black could have forced a win on his 34th move , There was nothing to say and we didn't sleep a wink t he whole nigh t . It seemed as if my spirit had been hopelessly broken . Arriving for the resumption of t he game I onl had to be convinced of the fact that Botvinnik had sealed the correct move . . . 41 N-B7cb and I im media tely
_ _ _ _ _
resigned. " Panov wrote about a similar instance from the game F1ohr-Novotelnov , Moscow 1 950: "By the 20th move Novotelnov was already in time trouble and he had just five minu tes left for the remaining twenty moves. Flohr had the be tter position and a large reserve of time, but in attempting to exploit his opponen t's tillle liouble, he-began to play with frantic-speed himself. Inlendt�rH8tfpl---- for his opponen t, Flohr m istakenly sacrificed a bishop and could not win it back. As a result Flohr was beaten . " In the above examples the opponent's time trouble appeared a s such an effective irritant that it led to over-excitement and the on set of an emotional cunv�rron--of--ellTly-victo�e-togical sequence of--merHat-operations--ww''a8�S----- interrupted , emotions were no longer consciously controlled and the player ' found himself in the throes of a temporary mental ' disturbance. I mention this point with good reason . Although t his mistake is rare among Grandmasters, in the toumamen t practice of first category players it is fairly common . How many times one sees some ill -fated "sprinter" suddenly clu tching his head in despair havin g just made a terrible blunder. Remember: when your opponent is short of
--
--1tmil1'nIl'e=dto-no huny. Bepartiett!a-rly--earef-emember-that-youropponent has nothing to lose and to your hurried, ill-considered move he will be quicker to see the right reply. The opponen t's time trouble can be exploited in a more sensible manner. Taking into account the tendency of the mental processes to solve apparently obvious , limited problems. and also the fact that attention is drawn o the staticelementsin the_PQsitiQ.D+-Qlle..sho_ ho u hi anal ze and check a complex five or six move variation , which, if possible , leads to changes in the position . and then one should play the intended series of moves very quickl y . I f the plan catches the opponent unawares one can expect him t o make a mistake .
147
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY ----.O Alf7T course-itisnecessaly to allow-for-the-opponett's-indt ;ivIDttal-style -thtts,-4or-
instance, Bronstein , in his World Championship match again st Botvinnik . (Moscow 1 95 1 ). found the technique of embroiling his opponent in tactical complications to be successful . I n one game in this match Bronstein was a rook d ow n , but in time trouble he managed to complicate the position and achieved a draw. I n turn , Botvinnik, in his matches wit h Bronstein and with Tal (Moscow 1961) su,:cessfully exploited t he relatively in decisive play in time trouble of both players when insimplepositions . In situations where the opponent is in time trouble but has a big advantage, it does not pay to change the tempo of p lay and m ake moves with great speed. I n this respect I fervently disagree w i t h Panov's opinion expressed in hi s book " A ttack " . His assertion that this is the momen t when one should try to t i. co rect b t com licatin the j!osition ___ --'-".LUJf1Jicate matters for the�J1 should be the product of an objective, critical analysis of the position and not the result of an impulsive desire, and therefore the attempt to sharpen the position should be based upon the objec tive element s in the position as revealed by analysis. We assume that here too the most purposeful g uide will be the method of battle which I have already proposed -thoroughly analyze a plan several moves deep and then make the moves rapidly . I the Botvinnik-Reshevsky games from the World Championship Match Tourn ament 1948, Black played as Panov has advised . Having the inferior position when his oppone n t was in t ime trouble, Reshevsky played almost without thought . This brought him no good . Botvinnik confidently refuted Reshevsky 's im pulsive play a nd won the game. The ind ividual characteristics of a player's person ality in reaction to objective I ICU ties appear qUite c ear y urmg IS own Ime trouore:---1 n or er 0 overcome t ime trouble successfully much depends on the player's self possession . It is necessary to force oneself to break away from ex traneous thoughts and to concentrate fully on the game during time trouble. My observatio ns permit me to assume that auto-suggestion . in the form of a verbal command to one's sel f, seems to be a useful method here. In t hinking, it is necessary to be particularly aware of the fluctuations in a ttention which are to be o serve 10 e ca cu a Ion 01 varJ1ITiofJs.\)nesegutate lro-m-
---,wai-tffig--+�spOO-th@ strategic-Siructl'u e-of-the-position. and to decline making bin ding decisions which are too committa l . A n y t ime trouble situation requires conscious, systematic self-control. This is achieved by the attempt to determine at each move at least the basic, direct
148
EFFECTS AND CURES OF TIM E TROUBLE meaning of the opponent's reply by o sin the mental uest ion s "What is the threat? What" do I dis like abou t my opponent's move?" If possible one should continually exercise con trol over one's own choice of moves. Time trouble is a severe test of the player's psyche. Its origin is explained primarily by s ubjective causes-reduction in volition al qualities and in adequate critical thin king. The player can and should struggle against the onset of time trouble . Yet it is necessary to take account of the fact that time trouble is a psychological phenomenon and therefore a successful attempt to free oneself from time trouble is associated not only with t rain ing in chess techn ique alone , but chiefly with m ethods o f t raining the character . the will and the thought processes. Time trouble is a completely surmoun table difficulty in the p ath of a player's development . Chess pr actice shows that with a conscious effort combined with a cntlca approac . time trou e may be overcome an Its appearance ores a e . As Alekhine wrote in reference to time trouble as an excuse for poor play . . . . . may be consi dered just as slight a justification as for instance the offen der's claim that he was drun k when he committed the crime. An in abil ity to handle the clock must be regarded in the case of an experienced master as a serious fault on a par with an oversight . " The study of time trouble, as we have already noted , i s o f great psychological sigmhcance for the mvestJgahon of stales of mental frustrahon . tlia'"� Is,to >< -., s"'ay ". --- endurance as regards difficulties in life and one's reactions to those difficu lties. As 1. P. Pavlov has pointed out, life's difficulties often produce either over-exci tement or depression . The objective problems of time trouble belong to the realm of life's surmountable difficulties . These problems may be overco me -- -tw , ---f� f r-aeter---+r-ai-ts-resfl-ie.Hc-e.��l-of-4v�---- excitement or depression . A lack of these traits facilitates the appearance of time trouble , with or withou t the presence of the objective a nd subiective causes. There is a connection between the psychological state that leads to time trouble and other situ ations in life where there is a systematic refu sal to make decisions . such as "stor ming " � in production . or the student's refusal to revise for an examination u n til the final n ight , etc. -AA�kng nG'o'\\"·,lW e_oUhe_peculi�mies-of----time-tr-OUble in chess may have some significance for the formula tion of concrete tasks in character training. Not i n vain is it said that t h e correct diagnosis o f a chara cter defect is h alf the battle i n overcoming i t .
---
'storming-the pouring i n o f more a n d more
workers to overcome
149
difficulties i n productio n .
CHAPTER 7 ToumamentTac cs
Arguments abou t the na ture of chess are going on even today. What is it? Is it a sport, a science or an art? We are not going to enter polemics jus t now , bu t i t i s i mportan t to note th a t the creative content o f chess is closely bound u p with the result: a point, half a point or a zero in the tournament table. One cannot escape from this factI For this reason , in any contest, each "interested" party usually has a goal . The challenger dreams of getting twelve and a half points and becoming champion whereas the first category player is aiming at getting a Candidate Master norm. -- -
-
Every chess player, whatever his strength, has his sporting plans and hopes .
hese plans have quite a concrete and defin i te relation to each game. Games,
usually towards the finish of a tournament in which one has to get, say , two points out of two in order to become a master, are of particular significance. Such an attitude has created the notions of "playing for a draw" and "playing for a win . " I must admit that I nearly wrote down "etc . " , bu t remembering in
----u_ -1tmiJmIlrPe-tltar-"etc'�ul onlyJnelln-a----tus-r1pura-futJsto_p_;_trrou�witlrounoo much confidence . The reader will understand my anxiety when he reads the next few pages . Quite often the brave campaign to "play for a win at all costs" turns in reality into playing for a loss. I shall explain these notions in detail.
I w... • draw! Before the last rou nd of the ---
1 2th U SSR Championship (Moscow 1940) the
--.sttitrtumatiou-wa3iense-;-Bondarevskywasiea-ding;ua ne-poinTaire -cr-oftitienttr.rt-amt Smyslov. Lilienthal was to play Bond arevsky in the last round . Let us see how this exciting duel developed. Lilienthal's com mentary on the g ame is interesting. He wrote: "As is well know n , this game, played in the nineteenth and last round , was to decide the
w. firs � t+' place Bondarevs)qr-was a point aheadof me and iO-01'4er--to-Qtch-Up-l--had-
_
_ _ _
to win at aU costs. Knowing that pl aying desperately to win more often than not leads to defeat, I decided on a complicated, closed, m anoeuvring position , avoiding the tactical positions which favou r Bondarevsky's sharply combinative style . "
150
TOU RNAMENT TACTICS --- We-will add to I ilienthal's words
that his op.punenL.ha�<J-'""...,. ", r_ .
_ _ _ _
task-to achieve a draw. Bondarevsky planned to achieve the desired result bloodlessly. an d so his choice of the passive Burn Variation of the French Defence is quite understandable . This type of struggle did not accord with Bondarevsky's style of play in those years and Lilien thal's fears of tactical compl ications proved to be groundless. Bondarevsky chose to play this game in exactly the spirit for which his opponent was so eager. How successful the
prepsration was on the twosides is shown b�--&am'-'
French Defence
LDlenthal- Bondarevaky
1 P · K4 P-IO 2 P-Q4 P-Q4 3 N-QB3 P>
conSidered to be a most dangerous aHacKmg player. From the very fitsrmo"'v"'e"s---- Bondarevsky volunta rily gave up a number of psychological advantages . 4 NxP N-Q2 5 N· K B3 B·K2 6 B-Q3 N(Nl ) . B3 7 NxNch BxN 8 0·0 p. B4 9 p.QB3 P>
10 . . . N-N3! would have been a more precise move . The move made by --lt800d-at'-ev�-as-a slight, but psyehGlogi�a-lJy--Ejuite undcrstandatm:-m-istake� . +1----- was simply not his kin d of posi tion .
-
11 Q·B2 P·KN3 1 2 B · KB4 N·N3 13 B-B7 Q.K2 14 B· K4!
Perhaps Bondarevsky expected his opponent to start a desperate attack and so did not care too much about small mistakes in this position. His opponen t , however . proved to b e an excellent psychologist. Lilienthal wrote: " I went in for simplifications quite readily, being fairly happy with a somewhat better --t €: ;w ndgamc..�A-sobM-a-nd-ju-sti.fied-ooU - -ook-!-White-did-not-ha-ve-any-g-rounds-fol' l'-lIa ----
sharp attack, because Black's position is strong and devoid of real weaknesses. 14 . . .N·Q4 15 BxN P>
A deep though t ! White is plannin g an ending in which his knight is going to be better than hi s opponent's bishop . Besides, Black's Q-side pawns are weak. 16 ... B-B4 1 7 BxB QxB 18 Q·N3 B-KS 1 9 N·KS Q·N3 20 QXQ P><
Now White's a dvantage is becoming rather obvious. and Black's worries grow with every move . Bon darevsky was probably beginn ing to regret the dull method of play he had chosen .
151
CHESS AND PSY CHOLOGY
----l+-R(Bl)-Bl R(Bl-)-BH2 P-QR3
8-84 23 P KN4 B.IG-14 P R3 P B3-1:
N-Q3 P-KN4 26 P-B3 K-B2 27 K-B2 K-D 28 K-K3 K-Q3?
A
decisive mistake. He should have played 28
. . .
P- R4 . Nevertheless, to find
the reason for Black 's defeat just in this move would be incorrect. There were far too many psychological and positional concessions made earlier.
29 RxR RxR 30 P-KR4 P-R3 31 pxp RPXP 32 R-Rl R-K1 33 K-Ol B-Q2 34 RR6 R-KBI 35 N-Kl K·B2 36 N-B2 R-B2 37 N-K3 B-K3 38 K·B3 K-Q3 39 K-N4
B-Q240N B5eh-K-m��U B4 44 N B61'X1L45 NX QPch K-N1 46 pxP BxNP 47 NxP R-B7 48 P-N3 B-Q8 49 P-QS K·B2 SO p. RS R-Q7 51 R-R7ch K-Nl 52 P-Q6 R-QSch 53 K-BS R-KRS 54 P-Q7 K-B2 55 P-Q8=Qch KxQ 56 R-Q7ch Resigns_ A wonderful game! It seems tha t a draw does not come by itself . One has to b r� it� ��_L �ulfu� .
__ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ ___
An d so Bondarevsky was defeated . What are the main reasons for his failure? We will glance over the game again . The opening : Bondarevsky consciously chose a passive variation giving his opponent a free hand in getting t he initiative . Black's game was based on the motto : " the fewer enemies the better. " And so , in spite of his gradually worsening position , he exchanged one piece after another. This allowed Lil ienthal to or a nize a sie
with few but activel
laced
forces . Black's attempt to hi de behind his stronghold did not hel p . It was not the quantity of defensive forces w hich determined the ou tcome of the battle , but the chain of thought consisting of the refrain : " 00 not touch me and I will not touch you . " Tarrasch once remarked:
"The threat i s stronger than its execution . "
This was a deep observation .
n tnmking on y
0
sa ety t e c ess p ayer
invo l un tarily exaggerates his opponen t's chances and deliberately curbs his own aggressive tendencies, thereby paralyzing and impoverishing his own play. Fear an d uncertainty accompany moo ds of t his kin d . In the meant ime the opponen t , greatly encouraged, makes cheeky attacks which can scarcely by beaten off without
making
a
sortie
from
the
stronghold .
The
encircling
tighten s
relentlessly; the besieged army regrets its timidity, but it is too late . Although i t ------:: S tT� 1 I resIsts, the enemy's heavy a rhlJery IS hrmg at the last hnes ofOefence . A.n before long the loser is sadly signing the score sheet, resigning the game. The desired draw did not come! It is difficu lt to come ashore when one is left at the mercy of t he waves , or more precisely , a t the mercy of one's opponen t . One has to fight for a draw, one
-has--to-nqueJ'-oo And-it.t-i -iS--easiet'-in-a-fuU=scale-battl4hecause-passjvity an fear will not drag you down at the moment when the position dema nds the taking of da ngerou s , simetimes risky. but necessary decisions.
I
would not like to be blamed for initiating the ways of pre-revolutionary
152
TOU RNAMENT TACTICS
bJlsiness-me.Q-'H��o�e.LJL�rlahp_dc e heiQU �i�dhMa�Lby1----Kas k,,-,i""'n -6 g ...
_ _ _ _ _
double that price in order to be able to bargain . Still, a psychological requirement for fighting for a draw is to plan for more than the mere half poin t. Do not think of a d raw when you need . . . only a draw! If you resign yourself a n d search only for shelter to hide from the storm then , truly , your situation i s n o differen t from that o f an ostrich, which thinks i t can avert danger by burying i ts head and shutting i ts eyes . Do not delude yourself: the danger will not pass you by, and you will have to face it with decision and resolution for the fight. Instructive exa mples of correct psychological preconditioning are furnished by Botvinnik's games . During his matches against Bronstein (195 1 ) an d Smyslov ( 1954) the score before the last round was 1 1�: 1 1�. A draw would secure the World Champion ship title for Botvinnik . The decisive game began. Bronstein with a smile of cunning on his face advanced his QP: 1 p-Q4. The hall was silent . People made guesses as to what opening Botvinnik would play? Somebody's voice predicted " I t will be the Orthodox Defence. True , Black has to defend for a long time. but the position is stable . Botvinnik needs a stable position today . " But n o ! The first moves already refute the prognosis. W e see the sharp and tense varia tion known to theory as the " Botvinnik Variation" . The champion bravely challenges his opponen t . as if saying: " Although I woul d like a draw I am not going to beg for It myseJf!"
I woul d like to make clear to the reader that I do not wish to deprecate the Orthodox Defence. w hic h was used by Lasker and Capabl anca. The point is that Botvinni k hardly ever used to play this system of developmen t . The champion chose the safes t, most thoroughly analyzed and, perhaps , the most aggressive continuation in his lepeTtoire�----can-ollly guess-wrrat-the---feiingse tYoff-hhmis:----- opponent were , but the movemen ts of the white pieces suggest that he was assailed by doub t . One can see a sort of resignation in the action of the White army. Perhaps he was recalling the succesful course of the battle in the preceeding twen ty-t hird game of the match, or perhaps his balance was upset b y Black's coolly executed, precise and relentless a ttack. The denouement was not long in coming: after gaining a won position The Champion offered a draw "just �e�ed�.------- The game against Smyslov developed on similar lines. This time the Champion had White so it was easier for him to make his opponen t go in for a defensive game . During my own career there have been several occasions when I needed a draw �ithel"Jo fulfil some qlJalif)'in�norm or to get through a q!Jalif¥in&-cillnpetion LL� In 1949, being still a young and inexperienced lad. I played in the semi-fina Is of the USSR Championship in Leningrad . To everybody's great surprise (and above all my own ) I had a real chance of fulfilling the master norm. It was
_ _ _ _
153
CHESS AND PSYCH OLOGY impM-tallt--fM-me.-Jl��_aso_V_._I_pr�red--fM-t-M-�y
-
· ·awH
--
way " - I conscient iously looked through the text-books for " cast-iron " opening syste m s a n d with the resolve o nl y to defend I wen t off to play. Tarasov qu ickly saw throu g h my simple - m in d ed plan . took some risks in the q u ite justified supposition that I was afraid of com plications and deservedly won the g a me . This taught me a lesson . I n my g ame against which
I
shall
mention
again
l ater ,
I
did
Gheorghiu
not
thin k
at Sochi in only
of
1964 ,
defence .
Althollgh a draw-would-seClJTe me first pJace-and-the-Gr-andmaster-l"lmlU,-.---l-u- view of my bi tte r experience in t he past I prepared a good range of open ings . "Do n ot t h i n k about a draw " , I kept on saying to myself throughout the heat of t he battle . Gheorghiu did not expect such an aggress ive , even if positiona Uy ju st ified , style of play . Whe n the g a m e finished in victory for me he rem arked :
" I did not t h in k one could play l i ke that whe n go ing for t h e first pl ace . " " N o t o n l y 'can' b u t must" . - I m e n t ally answered t h e Rou m a ni a n . I have t o win !
Stories of tourn a ment a n d m atch b a ttles a re varied .
A
situation often occurs
in which no retreat is possible -victory is essen t i a l . I t is not en oug h , though, to w an t victory: one has to k now how to win . The reader may think that perhaps theoretical and technical preparation w ill solve the problem . I do not d i spute the role of k nowledge: I merely point ou t tha t opponents of about e q u a l s t re n g t h a n d experience conduct their decisive games with s t reng ths which are far from e q u al . Chess lovers will reme m be r how Kere s , by defeating Ta im anov on the finish ing l i ne i n t h e 1 9t h U S S R Champ ionship , and Barcza i n the I nternation al Tour n a m e n t at Bud apest i n 1 9 5 2 . c a me first i n those tou rna men t s . Spa'ssky ' s
mishaps I n g a mes agamst I al and St em m the fm l shmg rounasortf\e25th a nd-
28th Cha mpion ships will be long re mem bered . Let u s n o t go into detail c o u n t ing how m any m i c rons stronger Keres was t h a n Spassky a t t h e time o r vice ve r s a ; someth i n g else is more importa n t : one Grandm aster showed the a b ility t o fight and w i n at the critical m o ment a n d the other did n ot . B u t w h a t i s t h i s capacity t o win ? I n t ry i ng t o isolate i t w e can not con fi n e ourse v e s
0
eru
I
Ion a n
e percep I O n
0
e m y s erles
0
s ra egy .
0
ess
i mporta n t is the psychological tu n in g o f the characte r , which mobilize s the w il l a n d feeli n g s of t h e chess player for h i s m om en tous trial . Th e e m o t ions characteri s t i c of a pl ayer who is desperate for a w i n d i f fe r somew hat from those o f a player for w h o m a d r aw i s suffic ient , for i n o n e case
---
--H'I{�--ts-only an abyss�;-earffi-t-fte-etfler-tflereis all emergeney-exf·I-c.--
For m an y pl aye rs. t u n in g up to " p l ay for a w i n " is accompanied by exces s i v e excitemen t . T h i s d isorga nizes the activit y t o the nervous system a nd disturbs t h e cla rity of t h ough t a n d con cent r at ion . Though t i s t h rown i n t o chaos , t h e h a n d s
1 54
TOU RNAMENT TACfICS -Shake-and-the-heart beats with anxiety
o,,f The feelings escape from th�mnill> "I-,, consciousness and add their tithe to the muddle . Excessive excitement is manifested on the chess board in hazardous play of the "va banque" style , when the attack is carried out with complete recklessness . Act ivity of such a nature is usually of no great value. The attac k , which usually does n o t have sufficient positional foundation , quickly suffoca tes , and the "insidious" opponent destroys the over-extended enemy army without
_ _ _ _ _
I have already given t he example of my disaster against Lisitsin in the chapter on attention (page 60) . The lesson of this game was so valuable that I shoul d like to rem ind the reader of it, and to explain, in more detail, my thoughts at the time, Lisitsln·
• utch Defence 1 N-KB3 P-KB4 2 P-Q3 N- KB3 2 . . . P-Q3 would have been better. 3 P-K4 PXP 4 PXP NxP 5 B-Q3 N-KB3 S .. ,p, Q4 would have been more stubborn . 6 N-NS P KN3 7 P·KR4 P-Q3 8 P-RS PXP 9 BxP NxB 10 QXRPch K-Q2 1 1 N-B7 N-N4
and Black Reslgns_
I recall how , during the game , I could not concentrate . Thoughts of victory ---rnst racted me from calculatin g the va nations anapreventectm e--tr�!1lenRros-s-;-, ' n:r---- myself in the game, "I wish it was over"-a strange inner voice was sound ing, inducing me to let fly with impulsive moves. A fter 5 B-Q3 I could have chosen the varia tion: 5 . . . P- Q4 6 BxN pxB 7 QxQch KxQ 8 N - NS K - K l 9 NxKP, but I rejected t his possibility quickly because it led to an endgame with some a dvan-
-- -tt�age_t�itsin . Exchanges will make-m)' positioll--llnprom-ismg. I thOUgUh'---- perhaps it is better to keep on as many pieces as possible so that I 'll have a chance of confusing my opponent . Instead of putting up resistance in a worse , but tolerable position . I bravely stepped into the lion's mouth. This lighthearted "perhaps I 'll m anage to mix him up" influenced my reaction to the little-known move 2 P- Q3 and to the further course of the game. A lamentable . but predictable outcome! I witnessed a similar occurrence fifteen years later in the game
1964 Intewa.tional.-
--f"''lhk-:T;z�a' .
_ _ _
Tou rnament in Sochi . Nezhmedtinov had a chance of getting the Grandmaster norm. so it was very important for him to win the game . From the first m oves Nezhmedtinov pl ayed Sharply in an attempt to win . After Black 's tenth move the diagrammed position arose.
ISS
CHESS
PSYCHOLOGY
AND
11 BNezhmedtinov is preparing to castle lon g . But why not 1 1 B- K3 . ? This has the same i dea but in a nu mber of variations it creates a threat to the paw n on 03_ After this move Black ' s position in the ce n t re would remain passive and he could '
not even h ave dreamed of counterplay by means of . . . P-Q4 . The m aster from Kazan , however. thinking tha t every exchange w ould reduce ( ! ?) his winning chances , puts h is
bishop o n
an
awkw ard
square .
It
is int eresti ng
Immedia tely a ter t e ga me Nezhmedtinov pointed out that
that
1 1 B - K3 was
s t ro ng e r . That i s how exciteme n t infl uences the game even of such experienced players .
1 1 . . . B-Q2 1 2 P-KN4 Ever onward !
12_ . .P·KR413 P>t-
White is con tinuing the g a m e with t he same bravado , thereby creali n g new w eak nesses in his own cam p . It w as worth considering
15
P - B S in o rder to
org a nize play against the s quare KJ and at the same ti me control an important central poi n t more effectively . For e x a mple , IS . . . B- B3 1 6 pxp pxp 1 7 8 - N4 or 1 5 . . . N- B3 1 6 B-N5 B- BJ 1 7 px p px p 1 8 P- KR4.
I S B- N3 16 B-K3 ----�� ----�R�e�mHe�m�be . . .
1 6 _ _ _ B-B3 1 7 P-QR4? P-Q4 1 8 BxB QxB 19 Bx N PXP! 20 Q-B4 If 20 Q - K2 , then 20 . . . 0xP a nd i n conseque nce of the pseudo- a ttack i n g advance o f White's p awns on t h e
OR
and Q N files o n t h e previous moves i t is
Black who gets a decisive at1ack going.
3 --_____----�,, -N l-.I Q ..Ll.i 23 � B4 --'l � Q 20 . . . RxB 2 1 poNS RxBch.2.lJQRJ, After 23 QXQ RxQ 24 Px B RxN 25 px Pch KxP the ending is won for Black.
23 . 8-04 24 Q-N2 RxP 25 P-RS . .
Onw ard a gain , b ut for what?
2S
...
PXP 26 NxNP P·K6 27 N-B3 P- K7 28 Resigns. 156
TOURNAMENT TACfICS An instructive example of what happens when one plays to win without the backing of the objective pre-requisites-positional factors. The attack was conducted for the sake of a ttack only . I t is instructive to see how White's " attacking" moves helped Black: 1 1 B -Q2, 12 P- K N4, 15 P-QN4, 1 7 P-QR4, 21 poNS. Over-excitement evoked ill -founded, impulsive play in a game which was important for Nezhmedtinov . It would be easy to give ple nty more examples. Each t ime a sufferer realizes with surprise that playing for a win generally results in a loss, one remembers Pavlov's words : "Our lives point to the act t at at certain moments we must indulge in some activity and at others we m ust refrain from it . " One has to find one's ow n w ay o f regulating one's feelings and controlling one 's excitement . This is the golden mean, which Pavlov called the balance of preparedness for battle ." I would hke to remmocness piayers;-e-spedaHy iuex=------ perienced ones, that from time to time in chess one must hasten slowly . One often hears: " I have to win, so I shall play the King's Gambit a fa Spassky . " Adherents of these tactics sometimes copy the surface of the substantive and deeply thought out style of Tal, Spassky, Stein , Tolush and other connoisseurs of sharp play . They do not u nderstand that the King's Gambit in Spassky's hands is not just half childish amusement , but a thoroughly sfuoieo()-p-e-m:rrg-�em. for tliat Ieason, Ieje�-tJ,1H---- systems and playing something which one does not understand , but which is "sharp , " does not bring anything but disappointment. The adventurer who thinks only of courage forget s that it is commendable o nly when it is in place . Cervantes said : " Courage which is not based on caution is called foolh ardiness, and thedeedsof afoolhardy ma-lWlreattributed to IlIck ratber tban t� �-be,,-,-. '_ ' I do not wish to be misunderstood. I approve of courage, b ut courage along with objectivity. One must not allow one's ambition to win to turn chess into a game of chance: one must put into the game all one's strength and heart . but first of all one 's head. I would like to say a few words about courage, fear and the sense of danger in chess. Cautiou sness is an essential quality in the correct assessment of a position and in an objec-t-we-approachlo chess DisLegru:d�iJhis-princiWe i s manifested in two ways. The first way confidence waxes into over-confidence . The chess p layer thinks his ow n variations infallib le and his ow n assessment of the position im peccable , and does not attach much importance to his opponent's intentions . He calculates the variations mainly from bis side and for this reason overlooks his opponent's answers a nd under-estimates the hidden resources 01111S opponent s position . This failing is quite common among chess players and even the chess Olympus has not escaped i t . _ _ _ _ _
1 57
CHESS A N D PSYCHOWGY The famous Soviet G randm aster Yefim Gelle r blunders
uite ofte n . Du rin
the 27th U S SR Championshi p , i n a ga me aga inst the author of this book. he was so carried away w ith his own plans th at he completely forgot abou t the i nsecure p aw n defences of his king. This was t h e m a i n factor in his lack of preparedness for my counter-at tac k , and led to a quick success for me. My opponent did not even spare a g l a nce for his ow n king : his thoughts were too firmly occupied w i t h the develop men t o f the at t ack o n t he other side of t h e board. Playi n g against Garcia i n Havana
1 964
Geller missed a cu n n i n g but com arativel
sim Ie
resource , i n spite of the fact t h at i n this g ame too he had the i n itiat ive . This list wou l d be easy to con tinue. I s it perhaps t his "little" failing which p revents Geller from becoming first among t he best ? Over-est imating one's
chances
is
especially
common
in
g a mes
against
outsi ders who a re known to be rela tively weak . and also in favourable or won
positions. Ilow-many beautiful po-sitiuns-trave-b�n1usr-irrsucIraway !ll1e
0
saying in chess is often forgotte n : the game is not won till the opponen t has resigned. Other offenders against the canon of caution do not sin through over confidence - q ui t e the reverse. They " try to be more Catholic than the Pope h imself" .
Behind each enemy pawn they see some IT'vstical s trengt h . the
oppone n t ' s pieces become fabulous gia nts and their own l l a ns harmless. This state of uncertainty often increases when the situation on the board changes.
----when-a-ea-Iposition ente1's-a-s-pel-l-of-eomptications 01 when-;-in-carrying out a plan. they run into unexpected difficulties. A sharp turn of events on the board gives rise to a whole range of adve rse emotions. Fears are everywhere even where there is nothing, exactly as in Pushkin :
------
;rIlllY'a-is:piITalysed he ca no move Oh God ! - The poor fellow thinks . It
is the red-jawed j abberwock
Who feeds on bone s !
Woe is me! I a m n o t o f the strongest! This beast will ea t me up .
I n reality the jabberwock turns out to be a dog peacefully chewing some bone s . Truly. fear has big eye s . It is precisely a t such moments that a chess player needs self-con t rol most acutely. After all . it is possible to subdue overwhelm ing feeling and to persuade oneself that the most important thing at a given moment is calmness . It is ene ICla in
the
0
c eer onese
chambe r
and
lip . to rem m
try
to
divert
onesel
that t here is still some powder
oneself from the g ame
for
a
brief
interlude -perhaps looking at t he demonstration board or at the neighbouring
158
TOU RNAMENT TACnCS table. The first wave of feelin will ass and one will find it easier to appeal to reason. Because of all this I advocate the development of vigil ance t owards the opponent's intentions and of a sense of danger as cond ucive to object ivity of thought . In this respect studying the play of Capablanca. Rubinste i n . Botvinnik and Petrosian is a great help . An impending danger is. of course . always a trial and somet imes a tes ting ordeal of a m an's resolution . I n chess. as in life. one cannot just travel smoothly-thorns are inevitable. t IS throug t em t at a p ayer s c arac er IS tempered. One cannot win without ris k. so a good word m ust be said for i t . B u t w e have sidetracked somewhat . Le t us see how chess players who can control themselves very well at critical moments plav for a win . The game Averbakh· Keres was p layed in the last round of the 1 8t h USS R ----.PJ.r.piunsh anr ip-:-The previous day Keres-ha-d--lost to Petrosia-H-after--lt-a-v-ffi�g---;aa---- great advantage and now Tolush and A ronin had caught up wit h him . As we ca n see, Keres had more than enough grounds to feel disappointed. At such a juncture he sa t down to play Averbakh .
Averbakh·Keres
Four Knights G a me
IP·K4P·K���--The first blow . White broaches the Four Knights Game renow ned for its peacefulness. Here one i s . obl iged t o win. wh ile t he simpUcity of t he g ame makes the task seem unrea I . 3 . . . N-B3 ---- �S���m��d������=n��L--4 B · N S B·NS S 0·0 0·0 6 P-Q3 P·Q3 7 N·K2 N · K2 Black obviously considers this the strongest and calmly main tains the symmetry. It t a kes real courage to show such res t raint rather than j ump into a full scale attac k . Black has no grounds for a tt ack so far. 8 p.B3 B- R4 9 N·N3 P-B3 10 B-R4 N-N3 I I P-Q4 B·K3 12 B·82 R·K] 13 R· Kl B-KNS ]4 N·BS ? ---�f\m \-- �stake.whi.chbands the initiafueover to Black; �slmuld..ha.y_",-,,- a...,c..· ""..., i .... e..." d'--"'-p awn by mea ms of 1 4 P· KR3 BxN IS QxB pxp 1 6 P· QN4 B · N ) 1 7 B·NS , and White has good attacking chances . Averbakh, however, could not jump the psychological hurdle of resolving on a sharper turn of events. The opening which he chose and the passive . " neutral" moves 1 2 B·B2 ( 1 2 B-N3 was better). 1 3 R · K I (whereas 1 3 B · K3 was better) bear witness t o the fact that Averbakh wanted to wait, to stan d st ill in the hope that his opponent would be provoked into some hazardous expe dition . These positional concessions, based on the mistaken assumpt ion that Black would lose his balance and rush i nto an adventurous _ _ _ __
l S9
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY attack, allowed Keres to gain the desired initiative by very sim Ie methods.
14 . . . P-Q4! IS P-KR3 B>
-
19 B- Q2 P>
A typical position with a "bad" bishop for White giving Keres definite winning chances. After a series of inaccuracies in time trouble Black realized his advantage:
---
27 . . . P-B3 28 K-BI K-B2 29 B-R5 P-N3 30 B-B3 R-Ql 31 B-N2 R·Q3 32 P KN4 PXP 33 PXP R-K3 34 P-B3 N�K2 3S B-BI N-Q4 36 B-Q2 R- Q3 37 K-K2 R-QI 38 K-B2 N-B2 39 P- R4 N-K3 40 B-KJ R-Q4 41 K-N3 K-K2 42 P-N5? P KB4-4J--R�K5-K--.Q3-44-Rx.R.eh-KxR 45 P N6 P R446K R4 N·xP-4f-B..-RfIN-K3 48 B-KJ P-B4 49 K-R5 K-K4 50 B-BI N.Q5 5 1 B-R6 K·B3 52 B·N5ch K·K3 53 B- R6? pxB 54 KxP N·B3 and Bl ack win s . We are n o t interested in a detailed analysis of this endg ame a t the moment . Somethin else is more im orta nt : what were the main reasons for Kere ' success? The answer is: the realism and Objectivity of his play . The Estonian Grandmaster showed that one should not be afraid of an equal posi tion, because it is e asier to win an equal position than an inferior one . The m ain th1 ng is to fight
1 60
TOURNAMENT TACfIes to the end a nd set one's opponent ever more problem s . Of course, had Averbakh
not made a few mistakes he would not have lost . but "is mlsta es were no
fortuitous. Averbakh seems to have counted on his opponent ' s not bearing the
strain an d makin g an imp atient move . so that he did not bother to m anoeuvre his pieces accura tely . Common sense and sanR
i n�redie n ts in playing for a win.
froid
are evidently the best
The goal. however, is not always attained so smoothly as i n the above
exa mple . Among t he games of Tal and Stein there are examples of games played
for a win in which nothing vaguely resem6I1ngthe normal notlornJfcommTlTr---- sense is to be fou n d .
Does t h i s circumstance not lead us to think that there i s a n irreconcilable
contradiction in our attempt to give a s ingle psychological characte � ization of
playing fo r a w i n which is applic able to players of different styles? I do not think
re-s ch £01 " c:0tnm6H sense" in the ga�I-----_ so. Before we emtHrrr-on-1iear and Stein , let us discuss the notion of "the style of a chess player . .. We are confident that t he general principles of chess strategy are compulsory
for evet;y master. However, the method of applying t hese principles in reality
depends on the individual chess player . The choice o f one method or another.
lively or austere, determines the- style of a player. The variety of chess styles depends on the diversity of human characters, all the more so because chess
gives wide SC'ope-1o-individual creativi-ty:---ln-mest positions there is--l1r1O �.lliI.Ll-
_ _ _ _
one best move and a n umber of roughly equal continuation s , one of which will satisfy any taste. This is why the art of chess embraces such stylistically different
players as Petrosian,
Smyslov , Tal , Stein, Larsen and Portisch; but the
basis- the strategic laws of chess-is the same for everybody . Even the
---aa(Jd�l'el'lts-OLthe combinative tenden.c.�o
not wish to r
eal the strate ic
principles; believe me, alt hough they play in a completely different way from t he
classicists , playing to win for them is not a question of blind faith in a lucky lottery ticket, but a struggle involving just the same common sense in assessing
the position , even if in a somewhat different form .
I n this connection i t i s interesting t o read Tal's thoughts o n the controversial
opening he played on the occasion of his m atch against Botvinnik i n
K4p.QB3 2 N.QB3
p. Q4 3
·B3 B-NS
1 960: 1 p.
4 P·KR3 BxN 5 pxB!?
. . All the annot ators unani mously deplored this move. There is no doubt that if
this move were played by a player who was inexperienced in open ing subtleties
and did not have m uch know ledge of theory, then he should be referred to a text·
book in which he would find that doubl ing pawns is not advantageous. one
should not weaken one 's K ·side in the opening, and so on . I n this particular -----se c a ,-nrunk that the move 5 pxp mfs�in-a[OTr-
centre; secon dly , it opens up t he KN -file along w hich pressure can be created i n
161
gical
CHESS AND PS YCHOLOGY the future . " ____!L�um
u . H ow should one
la
for a win? Do not look for a universal
answ er- I simply advise you to play according to your usual m anner, just as usual or even a bit better than usual! Do not blindly copy the experience of other players. Try to mobilize you r will and clear-headedness, but remain yourself .
On defeats .
I
have m entioned victories and draws, bu t now it
1S
ttme to remember the
third result i n chess - defeat . There is no chess player who has not experienced that sad feeling of writing dow n on the scoresheet the word "resigned" and seeing a zero appear in the t ournament table. Such a fate has not by·passed even the most celebrated players . Even the " invinci ble " Capablanca. who had a spell of some years when he did not lose a g ame, w as one day ruthlessly brought down to earth and had to stop deluding hi mself about a lossless existence. "The life
0
a c ess master
IS
the hfe of a fighter. a
hfe
full of ups and
downs" - w rote Emmanuel Lasker. If this is so , if defeats are inevitab l e , one m ust try to determ ine a correct a t t i t u de to them and t ry t o limit their number. Let u s look at the pl a ce of l osses in chess practice. Needless to say, nobody likes losing. Some p layers t ry to forget their unpleasa nt experience and excuse their
[ailUie by
[01tuitous-circumstance�th+�-was--gc:»; ' rtg--Wfle;,.-t:lti+-t-tlteR-+--
blun dered" -the pl ayer consoles himself. forgettin g that the occu rence which appears to him as accidental is a consequence of his chess and psychological failing s . One mus t blame not only one 's opponent for a defeat , but oneself as well . One of the chief requirements for perfecting one's chess is a critical analysis of on e ' s ow n defea Is . " Most players . . . , " C apablanca rem arke d , "do not like losing, and consider ---.drt.eoe ff at--as-so-met-h-�--a---wf.flflg-attitude
Thow-w-hG-w.i-sI+-t:-e--
perfect them selves must regard their losses as lessons and learn from them what sort of things to avoid in fu ture . " I n order for a defeat t o become a useful lesson for the future , one must s tu dy i t very thoroughly . I n my career as a t rainer I have often come across u n w i ll i n gness .ll.L1go....b.ac.kJ.9...1h e analysis of lost games. The s a me player w i ll gladl show off his
_ _ _
successes to rid himsel f of unwelcome memories . It is esse n tial to correct such an attitude in a radical m a rmer. In my own chess career a detailed written a n notation of my losses has played a significant role . I n t hese anno ta tions I tried to give a concrete ana lysis of the critical po sitions. making a note of the psychological reason s which i n fluenced some of my decisions . a nd I a lso com p a red my notes with m aterial on ope ni ngs and other t ex t -books i f there w as any resemblance. Sys tematic work in this d irection b rought me success more th a n once . Having seen my ga me against
162
TOU RNAMENT TA crIes Lisitsin ( 1949), the Kuibyshev master Shaposhnikov decided to play the same
gambit vari ation of the Dutch Defence ag ainst me in 1 95 1 . I did not , however . re
at m
mistake· I ha d thorou hI
anal zed m
loss to Lisitsin and I was well
equipped against Shaposhnikov : I played a new system and gained an advant age from the open ing. These efforts were not only of benefit for the open ing. I recall
my game against Tal from the semi ·finals of the 24th U SS R Championship
(Tbilisi 1 956). when I lost after failing to make up my m in d at one stage of the
game to go in for the follow ing ending with White to move.
I thought that this position was hopeless. Subsequent analysis convinced me
that t here was a simple drawing line which consis l ed i n keeping t he black king a
knight's move away from the enemy king : R8ch K·B2 4 K - B6 K·Q2 , a nd
so
1 R- R7ch K - K l 2 K - K 6 K · Q I 3 R
on _ Eight years later at a tourn ament in Sochi
a similar position occurred in my game ag ainst Spassky. My previous experience
-- -1IatHlllft'owed metos-teerfer.n-we ..the-d� ll in aci'latl£e,.---A good example of a self-critical atti tude towards his own play (and
particularly his losses) is furnished by Tal . His notes on his games are fran k and deep . One can see how a great chess player thinks . believes . doubt s and
sometimes errs_ Here is a fragment of the game Tal-Larsen from the fourth
game oLthe makh
-
comment b Tal:
1 P· K4 N·KB3 2 p. J(S N.Q4 3 p.Q4 P·Q3 4 N·KB3 P>
N·B3 " A very commi tal move_ White accepts the spo iling of his pawn form ation ,
counting on exploiting h is advantage in develop men t . To be quite frank I over-estimated my chances considerably after the excha nge on B3 , thinking that
the onl acce table variation for Black was 12 . . . 0-0·0 13 N·K4 P-B3 14 BQN3! in which White has a ta ngible advantage _ "
163
CHESS A N D PS YCHOLOG Y
1 2 . . .NxN 1 3 pXN P· KN3 1 4 P-QR4 P- R 3 1 5 R - N l ? " Q u i t e a ridiculous ' a ttackin g' con t i n ua tion . hlr the s a ke of t hl.' rh(.' a p t r a p 1 � . . B - N 2 I t. Bx R P rx B 1 7 QX P. W h i t t· slows do\\ n t hc spct'lI o r h i " a t t ac k .
considerahly. B l a c k ' s t a s k wou l d hil\'e hecn morl.' di fficu l t ;dt er t he posi t il l n a l move 1 5 R - Q4 . " F rom T a l one (.'a n learn fearlessness n o t o n l v in t he face o f one's oppon e n t , b u t t ow a rds onese l f as well . H e n i t icize s h i s o w n m is t a kes most s e...·erel\· , I t h i n k t h at t his p a rt icular t rait i n h is character h a s oeen o f great service to T a l i n t h e a t t a inment o f h i s t ri u m phs . Let us re t u rn t o t he t ourn amen t h all . Tod a�' ,I S usual t here a re soml' l osers . We a re i n t erested t o k now how t hev w ill survive t heir fa i l u re and in what mood thev will start their ga me tomorrow . We h a ve already said t h a t nohodv is indi ffere n t to losses . 1\ pla \'er's rea c t IO n t o defeat is a good indicator o f his s t ahili ty of c h a racter. The b l ow s of chess fat e a re cr uel ' I reme m her t h a t during the I q57 R S F S R Cha mpion shi p . B a s t rikov had o n l \' to g e t o n e poin t o u t of r o u r t o ge t t he M a ster t i t le . The fans from t he Ural s . who were s ur e o f t heir fellow -(.'oun t n· m a n ·s s uccess . sen t ahunda nt congratula t i o n s . B a s t r ikm h i m se l f re lt t h a t t he t i t le was i n h i s ocke l . A l a s . how m any d i sappoi n t m ent s aw aited him' The fir' " g ,l nJe he lost t errihly . In the second, a ga in s t Shu m kovic h . he was so excited tha t he m i xed up t he o rder of moves in a forced m a noeuvre a n d . . . 7ero ag a i n ! The l a s t two rounds did not orin g the de sired poi n t e i t he r . The usua ll� confident a nd li vely p l a yer w a s q u ie t and d ownca s t . He wa, mort ified. To an out sider he l oo ked l i ke someood)" aWil iting dea t h . La ter he told m e : " T he first '.ero upset m e , h u t a fter the seco n d I w a s 'fimshe a chess ·boa rd again . " I\ ft er t he el eve nt h round o f t he 2 7 t h U SS R Ch ampionship I was among t he leaders . I n the twel veth rou nd m y opponent was S myslov , Concern ahout my posit ion among t h e leading group re sulted in t i m i d pla�· . During the game I was more occupied with t he t hou ght fha t t he re were only fou r poi n t s more to go to the G randm aster norm . than about my oppone n t ' s moves. This mood did n o t go u n p u n i shed. i t h ou r c ombI ned efforts Smyslov and I proved the hopelessness of my posi t i o n . This defeat co m plet ely upset me. Soo n [ lost to Gufeld and Korchnoy . I n my last rou nd ga me I kept on t h i n king: " In the ga me against Gufeld I should not h ave ret reated my knight to K l and again st Smysl ov I shou l d have c a rried ou t t he pl a n P· QB3 and P-Q4, " or something of t he sort. Tneme'l"Hyry-orrny IIIistakes-ioitowed-me-reten-tteS'lty afld pre-ven-ted-me-frI"fOHmR-- conce n t ra t ing on la ter game s . For tha t reason the othe r games ( for example . I had a n ex cellen t posit ion again s t Korchnoy) det erio rated q u ickl y . I then u nderstood very well how diffic ult it was to fight one's own excite men t . I just
1 64
TOU RNAMENT TAerICS ether durin the tourn ament . The p roblem of fight ing one's own shadow-the complex 0 a verse emotions-is central for many players. even some of t he most experienced ones . Critics often refer to Alekhine's example of self-co n t ro l . It is said that the World Cha mpion used to play with double the energy after a defeat. A very i ns t ructive ex a mple . of course, but how can one make oneself follow i t ? This is no simple task: it depends on a person ' s character a nd wil l . As i n si milar situ ations i n life i t is essen tial t o g e t rid of the heavy burden of the past, to try and forget failure and divert oneself from misera e t oug s . Self-tortu re will obviously n o t h elp, This is easier said t han done . however. Remember how Khodja Nasreddin made cunning use of this kind of d ifficulty when he said he would try to cure a money-le nde r in return for a large fee. He told the relatives of t he rich man that -- the cure woufd only work If none of them t1foUght abom-a-wtrit tE e � 11110 l1'J1ntl lk N e.... y·+. -Naturally. as soon as Khodja s tarted the cure they all felt embarrassed. Khodia Nasredd i n ' s request had the opposite effect-nobody could s top thinking of a w h ite mon key . Trying to forget about defeats is rat her similar. Once a wellknown chess player when orderi ng his lu nch said to the waiter in a restaurant: "For the first course . please, b ishop to QNS . " The astonished w aiter moved away ou t of the d a nger lon e , but the other pa rticipants in t he tournament understood him perfectly; the bIshop mallmm vre-tradcaused the master's defeat in the game tha t had just ended . The an swer to the depression which fol lows a defeat lies in sel f·cont ro l a n d . i f you like . in auto-suggestion . Y e s , precisely . auto·suggestion . Do not t r y t o rec a n t h e an cien t wise m e n a n d t h e mysterious magic o f the I ndian fa kirs. It is all
much simpler. These
days hypRosis has become-one-of the
main
metOO....",... .". .
_ _ _ _ _
psychotherapy a n d education. I t is a good thing when a trainer can cheer up t he "su fferer" wit hou t too much moralizing, bring a li ght-hearted touch to the subject of his misfo rtune and then direct his thoughts elsewhere. Often . t hou g h , there i s n o trainer, a nd whether you wa nt to o r no t you have t o face your e motions on your ow n . It is here that auto-suggestion can hel p . I mportan t research on the role of auto-suggestion has been done by Bekhterev. He pointed Ottt the Reee��-aga.mst adverse emotions by means of sel f-orders to forget t he m and at the same time to try to cou n te r·b ala nce t hem by thinking about someth in g happy and pleasant; in other word s . t ry to convince yourself that there is somethin g to look forward to. The orders of auto-suggestion shou ld be made in " the firs t person , affirmative form and i n the present , not the fu t ure . tense " Bekh terev wrote. One should n either over nor under·estimat e the m ethod of auto·suggestion . Its success depends on the individual. The process of changing one's mood and reg ulating one's feeling is different for every chess playe r . The rate at which he
165
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY can effect slIch achange also
Some players. like Alekhine . are ready to take revenge the next day . whereas others take a long time to recover . Tal's renections on the fourth game of his m atch against Portisch ( 1 965) are interesting: " Koblentz h ad had the opportunity to get to know my character very well . so he knew that the fourth g ame would not be a dra w . As a rule I have more fight ing spirit after a defeat . H e advised m e quite correctly . not t o lose my head. as there were after all still --"seYeILg.am es to go. but it did not help and from the opening moves White showed his ambition in this game very clearly . " A n analysis o f the g ame will tell us how to understand the expression : " I have more fighting spirit after a defeat " . There were no traces of adventurism in this part icular g ame by Tal . He played agressively and strongly. but not riskily . He put a lot of strength and unrestrained energy into the game . just like " t he real T aU " Not everybody c an regain his fighting spirit so quickly. Let me say a few words about myself. Even now 1 take a defeat quite badly . After 1 have los t a game I try t o look for the greatest relaxation and diversion from the game: usually I do not an alyze it in detail . but seek am usement in an adventure story. the cinema or in a long w al k . Next day . however. I am still not completely fit for the forthcoming bat tle . The practical experience of a number of tournaments has convinced me t at a er a loss I ave to p ay with part icular cautIon and under no circumstances try to "t ake revenge " . During the game I often warn myself: Am 1 not overdoing things? I f I am playing ag ains t a weaker opponent 1 try to be even stricter with myself: there is a two-fold da nger of losing objectivity . Such a psychological precondit ion ing has usually justified itself. In the Chigorin -Memoria-t--'foUiliamerrt-in-t-965 I l�o Nezh",edtinov-:-+-Con-dudedfollow ing g ame against Jansa in the spirit of the advice I have just given. even when it became clear to me that 1 had a won game.
_ _
Tal is no doubt right in saying that " Every chess player creates his own luck" and it would hardly be justified to expect a single firm recipe which would offer a guarantee against defeat in all cases. That is not my present intention : all I wish to do is to advise chess lovers how they might influence their chess fortune .
1 66
CHAPTER 8
nt e.. ..-- ----------Looking at one's oppon_
-
�T"'heiollQwing qJ.lesJionJ.LQLgr.eatJ.m.pQrtal1ce for the practical chess la er: Can information of any value be gained from one's opponent 's appearance? Can one draw inferences about one 's opponent's emotional state from his feat ures , gestures or clothing? It is my opinion th at a combin ation of direct observation with other methods of preparation is important for a flexible and objective underst and i ng of one's opponent . I n order to check this contention I t ried to determine whether personal cont.act with one's opponent influenced results. To do so I compa"" re -'.-'=d"----the results of Gran dm asters in their first and subsequent games again st a particular opponent . I t transpired that for those chess players who consider psychological preparation important , direct observation of the opponent did help i n studyin g him. E manuel Lasker. Botvinnik a nd Tal should be men t ioned in this connection . Zak seems to have been justified i n remarki n g : " I n o rder to solve the problem posed by each of his opponents it was not sufficient for Lasker iust to k n ow his opponent ' s previous games . It w as very important for him to get to know t heir nat u re and temperament . their i nclinat ions and habits. their t i me tables and behaviour at t he chess·board and in life ; in other words, things which could only be found out from personal contact with the m . It is not surprising that t he first ga mes against strong opponents were t he most difficult for Lasker . . . I have asked roug ly one hundred M asters and Grandm asters what they think abou t the pe rception of their opponent s . A number of them categorically denied that it h ad any importance at all , in terms such as : "I do not p ay any attention to my oppone nt's behaviour: 1 only consider the pos ition on the board ." However, almost eighty per· cent of those questioned favoured observ ation o f ----irop-pun -,Ili.he ents. "I always-tty 10 lake-mto-account att-tne-emotional nu�e..--n · ,----- my opponent's behaviour", said Gufeld. Some chess players have carried out sp ecial and p rolonged observation of future opponents. Petrosian, for example, whe n preparing for hi s first match ___
_ _ _ _
167
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY ---w-ith-si-in-l--Sp.asS-�-,-Went-t{}-+bili a %�-t�-wateh-the--Sp- ssky Tal---m-atch,
and
Spassky in his t um used their common parti cipation in the tournament in
M ajorca ( 1 968) for the same p ur po se . This all goes to show that the saying that it is better to see once than he ar a hundred ti m es , also applies in chess. If one confi nes oneself exclusively to theoretical prep ar ation and tries to disregard one's opponent then one turns the game into a sort of correspon dence game. If one does not take into account one's opponent's personality and the co ncrete
w lo gicalconditionsof the s�ider8b1y lessens one'schances! i> p� s'f4 Yc .i-l h ,* o
-
A t the same time, one m ust not see the perception of one 's opponent as a kind
of m agical help which will always suffice for a full and correct understanding of
one's opponent . Observation can bring about s uccess if it is combined with other methods of studying one's opponent and his games. The verdict of the replies to
the qllestioonaire was that observation-was-use-pla sefu1-fof--tho -yM5-W-ho--were interes ted in it when used in conj unction with other methods of preparation . Consider the
oeuvre
of Chigorin , Tarrasch , Rubi nstein and Cap·abl anca. They
did not p ay m uch attention to psychological prep aration , It is qUite possible that they di d , on occasion, attempt to make sense 6f their opponent's behaviour, bu t
th at these efforts were i neffective bec ause of the l ack of other forms inform ation .
�f
00 the other hand leLusJ.o.olLaLsome concr-ete examples-of--pla�
conclusions
from
their
oppone nt's
appearance.
We
are
using
the word
" appearance" to i nclude the str ucture and movements of a person 's face and
bod y and observable changes in his breathi ng . circul ation , the funct ioning of externally secreting glands, his voice and even hi s clothi ng ,
Great attention is usually paid to the expression of the eyes . A curious
incident happened at the Candidate's Tou rnament in Curacao ( 1962). For one
of his games against Fischer , Petrosi an h ad prepared the old M acC utcheon
variation , which nowadays does not have a very good reputation . Vasil iev wrote:
"When Fischer s aw th at Tigran h ad chosen an unexpected and difficult open ing
he looked at his opponent as if he were offe nde d . Petrosian noticed the glance and
congratul ated
himself
on
a
s uccessful
Fischer's look betra ed his ambition to
psychological
u ni sh his
achievement" ,
onent immediatel
for
" disrespect" and he showed over-confidence in the opening. We should add that
the look was not misleading: Fischer cond ucted the opening on impulse, became upset and eve ntually lost the ga me .
1 68
LOOKING AT ONE'S OPPONENT
Grigor ian-Lutikov
Grigorian said that in this position he co uld not at first see anything decisive but he was alerted by
the worried expression of Lutikov's eyes. Grigorian started
looking for the cause of the worry and soon fou nd a forced win :
30 BxP! P>
of m i nd is often reflected in his facial expression . In the
second game of his match against Geller in 1971, Korchnoy , who had the worse position . used thi s fact to his advantage. Korchnoy w rote : "All of a sudde n Geller looked if he had decided to give this world up . He had to make four more
mft�e--fIag-w -of--hiock-was-sto ly Iisirlg;-bm-his-tace---expre""S"sed�oia+1
-
--
resi gnation . I offered him a draw which he accepted without hesitation ; he j ust waved his hand and agreed." Fischer is al so among those who c arefuJly watch the facial expression of their opponents. P hotographs of him taken durit!g the match in Revkj avik speak
_---es -''-''mm . Fischer sitLwitb his hands c1utcbing-hls head but-wi.tb-l-ittle-holles----- between his fingers through which to carefully study not so much the position as Spassky. absorbed in his thoughts. In his book "My 60 Memorable G ames" Fischer often tells of observation s he made in the course of a game .
169
CHESS A N D PS YCHOLOGY
This position is from the game Fischer ·Trifunovic, Bled 1 96 1 . Fischer wrote :
" At this point I nearly fell into a subtle trap . While analyzing the variation 17 B·
N5 ? R· N3 18 P· K R4 P·R3 19 Q-R5 , I noticed that Trifunovic was far too calm, and I began to suspect that he was reading my thoughts. The n I noticed that Black woul d win after 19 . . . Q·Kl ! " The move 17 B-K3! was pl ayed i n the game.
Inform ation about one 's oppone nt 's st ate of mind can also be gained by
observing changes in his breathi ng . In particularly tense moment s of the struggle a lot of pl ayers l i terally bre ath more he avil y . Suetin , at such moments ,
ofte n coughs ; this is not caused by a col d, bu t by over exci tement .
Changes in circul ation are al so often o bserved. Dorosh kevich related how ,
while he w as pl ayi ng against ZiJberstein ( Perm 1 9 7 1 ) , he noticed that his opponent's e ars had suddenly becom e ted.
DOl'oshyevi-ctru�uced---that
his
oppone n t was not satisfied with his position , and his observations subseque ntly proved t o be correct.
In some cases . changes in the act ivity of externally secret ing glands (tears.
saliva and pe rspiration) also give infor m a t ion abou t a player's state. In the game TaI ·Panno , Portoroz 1 958, Bl ack conducted a sharply played game very wen for a long time, but at the last moment he m ade a mistake. Koblentz attributed
panno's m I stake to tiredness: "Drops ofpel'Sptra-no-n-we're-visib1e011 Irisfaa;.'-'-T here are other expressive motions, besides those of the features, which
p rovide a lot of inform ation . W alking , for example . One can evidently tell a lot
about the emotional s t ate of one's opponent by the way he walks. "I cou ld he ar
Geller w al ki ng behi nd my back and I co uld feel that he t hought he was going to
----n -,wi -the-game soon ,
"
Korehnoy-ooe-saJ·f-B e o.----
Chessplayer's gestures are even m ore expressive . In this game against Gligoric
in the Helsinki Olympiad 1952 , Najdorf left a pawn en prise in time trouble, and
then desperately clutched his head and re ached out as if w a nt ing to t a ke the
move back. Not having much ti me to thi n k it over and not suspecting duplicity.
1 70
LOOK I NG AT ONE'S OPPONENT --Gligoric took the pawn, and soon thereafter loliUb�me. It trans ired that N ajdorf had staged the whole pantomime to blunt his opponent's watchfulness. This can hardly be called ethical . Gestures, ho wever
,
are
not only good for tric ks of that nature. When
uncertainties arise Borisenko usually raises both his hand s , while Lein. when undecided
which move to choose. slowly reaches his h an d out tow ards a piece
and then pulls it back and a�ain plunges into prolon�ed thou �ht .
It is interesting to observe how the way a chess la er moves the ieces on the
board depends on his emotional condition. When Gufeld is in a good mood he places the piece exactly in the centre of the sq�are, but as soon as he is in doubt the beauty of the geometrical proportions is disturbed and the pieces are practically thrown onto the board. Tal recou nted how he once felt Smyslov's fury demonstrated in the way he diligently screwed the pieces into the board (The third round of the Candidate's Tourn ament, 1 95"9). I should also mention changes in pose and posture. It is noticeable, for example, that Nezhmedtinov , who is usually hunched over the board , l ifts himself from the chair when the crisis of the struggle appro aches . Petrosian likes walking up and down with hi s anns fol ded . Observ ation shows that this posture is only adopted when all is quiet at the front. One impartial witness to a chess player's passions is the score-sheet . The w riting on the score- sneefis a true rndlcator of emotions du rmg the course
e
game. One often sees a player changing from full to abbreviated not ation in the course of the game; and when he gets into difficulties hi s writing becomes illegible and messy. Speech is also an indicator of mood . Great excitement transforms the inner
--musrn-gs of
many
players
into
audible speech. Several-titnes---while-Vl p ·1'Hl----
Dubinin I have heard him whispering his thoughts about the position whe n he was particul arly excited . Confidence is usually accom panied by l aconic and decisive speech . When I offered Korchnoy a
draw at Sochi 1965 and received a curt mettalic
" 00 " ,
I
understood that my opponent had plenty of confidence. While speaking of the outw ar d expression of emotions I should mention
-
---o:tl*d'ppe-aTal ynessof-a ree-;-and"irrparticutar;-clotlliRg One--of-the-participa-n-ts---.ot---- the Moscow Grandmaster Tournament in 1 967 told m e : "I h ad an import ant game ahead of me. My opponent was late. At last he appeared panting he avily .
and went to the board . I noticed that he had not shaved properly and that his tie was tied on
messily. I thought he was not prepared for the forthcoming battle ,
- -aaoB
the initiative." Thus the most diverse aspects of appearance give infonnation about
the
chess player 's state of mind. Are all the factors of the same importance. and if not, which provide the most infonnation ?
171
The psychologist Bodalev wrote: " I n
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
----�m -'tllil ation munie most people cone
partner's face and above all, on the eye s , which are evidently the central feature of a person when it comes to pe rception . " Thus the expression of the eyes and facial features are the main sources of information about one's opponen t. Watching these is the most informative .
The most important practical task is how to understand and interpret the information one derives in thi s way. It is difficult to draw correct conclusions on ---1rn tJ hee-e emo-ti-oo-a-kta-te-ef-tme!.s-oppooe-nt-frmo pu-rely-ou-twa-rd Outward appearances are often deliberately regulated: "he looks confiden t, so he must know the opening well." Later, however, it transpires that it was just a show of confidence: it was good acting bu t bad pI ay .
-
Wh at can one suggest for the an alysis of data from observation? I h ave to that data has to be compared with information obtaine
reiterate
methods . The effectiveness of perception (and of the un derstanding based on it) of another human being depends on three main conditions : the ability of the observer, the personality of the person observed and the properties of the
____
situation at the moment of observation . While m aking observations it is essenti al to consider how psychology interprets outward manifestations of a human being's behaviour. Paleness is -uIl"'-sua14' interpreted as a sign of fear; perspiration and sw.eating--3S-ang.u. embarrassment and nervousness; ha nds tightened and elbows pressed to the hips as a sign of cautiousness; restlessness, frequent changes of pose, rubbing the face and hair and changing the posit ion of the legs as a sign of worry: and so on . The above information cannot, of course, be applied automatically in all chess situations; they are onl y for general orientation . It is im ortant that the information be purposeful and systematic. For a beginner it is advisable to try to concentrate on a single sign , rather than trying to read them aU at once. Let us, say. try to watch the gestures of our opponents in the course of a tournament. It can j ustifiably be asserted that for a correct understanding of one's opponent it is essential to know hi m well. In each observation one must consider the idiosyncracies of the particular i n dividual, otherwise mistakes are inevitable.
For example, �thatpaleness iS�llally a sigtLof fear, and this is �
in most cases . For Tal , however, the reverse is true: paleness is an indication of decisiveness and purposefulness. For many people frequent changes of pose arc a sign of disquiet, but for Taim anov they are a normal pattern of behaviour, not connected with excitement at all . For this reason , for a successful understanding of one 's opponent one needs not just episodic but consistent observation of his behaviou r . Only in this way has the observer sufficient grounds for judging what paleness , impUlsiveness of movements and other outer factors mean in a particular case. The results of observation h ave to be thoroughly analyzed , compared and , if
172
LOOKING AT ONE'S OPPON ENT possible , assessed qu antitatively. All this is essential for ascertainin
eJD.a-LI in "--
_ _ _ _ _
elements in one's opponent's behaviour. Much of the success of observation depends on the situation of the game. As a rule, the tensest moments of the game are the m ost informative , for at such times a chess player cannot always hide his real feelin�s even if he wants to. Experience shows tha t valu able information can be � ained by watchin� a player at the finish. in time trouble a n d i n other complicated situations. A . Zaitsev said that h e watched h i s opponent particularly closely a fter he ha d m ade a strong m ove. since chessplayersexpress their feelings more openly when in difficulties. The e ffectiveness of observation also depends on the personality of one's opponent and on his ability to control the manifestation of his emoti ons . One's succe ss
in
hiding one's emotions depends to a certain
----e --t mperament. FOI exarnpte, a person who-i�ttyexctfabte
degree na
re
on one's as muc
more difficulty in hiding his feeli ngs than a balanced and phlegmatic i ndividu al . I t is, of course , not only temperament that determines one's ability to mask one 's emotions : an important role is pl ayed by conscious con trol over behaviou r . Educating
oneself
in
restraint i s a complicated
process ,
involving
the
development of will power in one 's character. Chessplayers pay little attention to this side of the game . Here are some opinions: "I hide my feelings more or le ss -subconsciously, ifI have-ro-nmke-an-efforr,theflioo not tty to restram myself; " "I do not consciously hide my feelings;" "I do not hide my feelings during the game ; it would make me insincere in life" ( ! ? ) . I t i s curious that Alekhi ne , who gave such an example o f successful self education , di d not pay any attention to hiding hi s feelings. Botvinn ik recalled : ••At tbe.bo.ru:d-Alekhine--was-su�t-p-e-w-hen-he---i· -combina tion he cou l d not restrain his feelings . " Whereas Alekhine ignored the masking o f his feelings , there are m any chesspl ayers who understand its desirability but are not capable of effecting it . These failures
are probably due to insufficient self-control and excessive
excitability . Master G. observed: "I try to camouflage my feelings but I cannot man age it.
__
-",A""s,-,su.n oo as I am absor-bed-i.Jl-t�Fget-about self eontrol-f!--Benkn---- understood very well that his
expressiveness provided his opponent
with
important inform ation , but still he could not camouflage his feelings . It was for this reason that
he appeared in dark glasses one famous occasion
when he had to
pl ay Tal (Candidate's Tournament, 1959), and not because he was really afraid of hypnosis on Tal's
art; it was
rha
an artifi i
s of self-cammlflage 0
adopted when na tural methods failed . On the other hand there are some enviable examples of restrai nt . Keres could not be seen through! Not a single gesture or faci al expression betrayed his real emotional state . Spa ssky is also imperturbable . Fischer said that by looking at
173
CHESS AND
PSY CHOLOGY
....�ssky . one could not tell whether he was winning an important game or about to be mated . Keres' and Spassky's restraint is the result of deliberate seIf discipline . It is true , though , that camouflaging is easier for them because of their natural, balanced tempera ments. Tal's successful camoufl aging deserves particular mention . Being very impression able by nature he has only succeeded in m asking his feel ings with difficulty. Camouflage has rendered good service to Keres , Spassky, Tal and other ----c;chllle�s;sspplalayers-lt has helped th.e�ny times . Camouflage is an acceptable method of struggle in chess . By "camouflage" we mean trying to hide one's own feelings, not putting on deceptive scenes to upset one's opponent . The former is perfectly in accordance with the rules of chess behaviour and established ethical traditions , but one must take a different attitude towards "camoufl age" used deliberatel to deceive an opponent . Thi s is not really camoufl age , but rather downright psychological provocation , which has nothing to 0 wrtnethical human communication . To thL end , for example, a player feigns despair as if he has m ade a terrible mistake. Gunsberg succeeded with this in one of his games against Steini tz. The latter took a seemingly undefended pawn , thereby falling into a trap and losing a piece . While Steinitz was thinking over his move Gunsberg kept on sighing, pu tting his hand to his heart and so on. There is uite a wide ran e of such methods of deception : m a ki ng a noise with the pieces in moving or pressing the clock , making constant offers of dfaws, i ntentionally writing down a weak move while thinking of a stronge r continu ation , and so on . I shall not continue . I have said enough to indicate the proper attitude towards these-ungentlemanly tricks . We h ave now made the acquaintance of some aspects of the perception of one s opponen unng e cou rse 0 a game. ere can -fR)
_ _ _
1 74
CHAPTER 9
The Study of One's Opponent
Most positions in chess are problematic , and experience shows that in such positions a chess player considers several possible continuations of roughly equal merit . The choice of one or other of these depends to a considerable degree on the player's personal idiosync racies: his experience , knowledge , character and
������·��·����rmMrum-��----- enables one to foresee better his likely course of action and accordi ngl y to choose one's own strategy with greater accuracy. To be successful a chesspl ayer must have the ability to understand his opponent's intention s. Dr V. M al kin (who is a Doctor of Medical Science) has j ustly observed : ' 'The chessp�i��g st to a grea t extent builds hi s ga me on a prognosis of his opponen t's decisions . . . . It is noteworthy that the pl ayer who is better at predicting hi s oppone nt's play and strategy has a considerable advantage . " N evertheless , im portant though this question is , the study o f one's opponent's style of play and character is only one side of the prob l em . I n the chess struggle it is important not only to understand the inner world of one 's opponent , b u t also t o know how t o choose a strategy which is the most agreeable and familiar �neself whiluelngJb�a st acceptable to him . The study of another must
be
erson
accom panied by a study of oneself. In other words , it is impossible to
exploit the inform ation derived from a penetrat ion of one's opponent's psyche withou t an objective appreciation of onc's own mcrits and fail ing s . Emanuel lasker w a s the first of the great chess players t o understand t h e sign ificance o f the stu dy of one 's opponent's persona lity. H e poi nted out many times that it was hum an beings who fought over the chess board, not merely wooden piece s . He did not prepare to play just against the abstract bl ack or white pieces , but tried to turn to account the merits and weaknesses of each one of his oppone nts.
J 75
CHESS
AND
PSYCHOLOGY
-----T�hi-S--appl"-Oach_tO__cles l s brought 1asker great practical contemporaries
could
not
understand .
In
his
book
SllCCeSS, which his
on
the
Nuremberg
Tournament of 1 896 Tarrasch included an interesti ng "luck table" showing how many points each of the participa nts gained or los t through " luck " . Top of the list was Lasker. He won five games from w.orse or level positions through obviou s blunders on the part of his oppone nts. Tarrasch and other com ment ators thought this to be some sort of m agic . It w as not till thirty years later that Ret i
---
---i!a¥e-�r�-Lask -the-c e�onstant_good_fol-tRetLw+.o une.te:-·'Be- does not make the move which is objectively best. but t ries to make the move whic h is the most unpleasant for each opP.onent individually; he tries to turn the game into paths which are foreign to his opponents , and to this end he often deliberately makes weak m.oves . . . . Thanks to this Lasker's .opponents cannot e � n '6· neer �sitions which suit their styles . . . they h ave to overcome difficulties --" specially created for the m . In consequence they spend a lot of time thinking and
_ _ _ _
then h ave t.o m.ove quickly while they are confused by the difficulty of the ·· position . Then Lasker comes down .on them with the whole of hi s c.ol ossal strength .
By this time his opponent. though still perh aps h aving the better of it,
breaks d.own, and this psychological catastrophe leads directly to a catastrophe on
the chess board . "
How did Lasker
manage
to--achieve
such
a
deep-d -un erstanding--of--his-
opponent's characters, a nd what were his me thods of research? Lasker himself, unf.ortun ately , spoke little about his preparation . We quote .olle .of his frankest p ron.ouncements. A journalist asked him the fol lowing question : "We have been told that you go to great trouble to study the games of your opponents and td �weak--and-strong poilltS.-Is-this-true? " Laskel"s reply. which-is- quoted in Lasker
full on pa ge 6 , was in the affirmative. thus
poi nts
to the
an alysis
of games
as
the
m ain
understanding of one ' s opponen t . Which of his games should
be
so urce
of
analyzed? A ll ,
o r j ust some of them ? How should one study the games them selves ? By stages .of play, according to the opening or depending
on
his position in the tournament
or are there other criteria? All these questions Lasker left unanswered . Lasker also omits to tell us how to use the data obtained from an observation of
one's
op ponent
in
practice .
One
can
furthermore
suppose
that
his
un derstanding of his opponent w as based not only on the analysis of game s , but also on direct contact with hi m . I n order to verify this suggestion I h ave conducted a comparative an alysis of lasker's results against chessplayers of Grandmaster standard . The concrete aim of this research was to clarify the innuence of the result of the first game (i .e. the fi rst direct contact over the board ) .on the ou tcome of su bsequent games �ainst the same .opponent during the pe ak period .of his mastery ( 1896- 1925).
1 76
THE STUDY OF ONE'S OPPONENT
_ _ _
Lasker's opponect
Raaits of tbe flnt lame
Maroczy
j 0
Marshall
1
Bernstein
2
Rubi nstein
0
A 1ekhi ne
j t
Capablanca
Nuremberg, Pan s , \
1896
1900
J
St. Pe tersbu rg ,
1909
}
S t . Petersburg,
19 14
�;�:��:OW � Reti
(her" raults of subsequeut lames apinst same opponents
Tournament
1
42 0ut of 63 66.70/0
M ahrisch-Ostrau,
1923
Average result of the firs t game: 4j out of 9: 500/0 .
--
Comparsion of the results of the first games (50%) wi th those of subse q uen t =ga"'m=es"(O():fOJo) .1 ustifles the assertIon that 11 was very Important for Lasker to study his opponent through direct contact . The mere analysis of published game s unsup por ted by concrete observation of the psychological circumstances in which the games were played, did not yiel d the same understanding of the ,
opponent's psychol ogy. The small number of points Lasker scored in his fi rst
game
against the Grandma�enumerated-above-cleally
contention.
In
particular
sappO!Ls
oUI
he lost his fi rst games against Marshall a nd
Rubinstein al t hou gh he subsequently h ad excellent results against them (20 points ou t of
27 ) .
A com bination of di rect observation and the an alysis o f games during prepara tion is, in my opinion , a n essential pre-condition for the obj ective understanding of one 's opponent in chess . Lasker's example is no exceptio n ; it ����ft'�----I shall prove this by means of a comparative an alysis of the results of other strong pl ayers. I have chosen Chi gorin , Tarrasch , Rubinste in, Capab\ anca and Botvinnik .
Of these Botvi nnik is the only one who stands out as as an e xpert on
psychological prepa ration; the rest are known to have paid much less attention to the i
i
'duaLttaits of their oppon�Capahlanca expressee.dJ-LItueh:ue:Lirr..aatutuit.un ----
perhaps the most expl icitly of anyone : "When you sit down to play chess , think
only about the position and not about your opponent . Whether chess is to be regarded as an art , a science or a sport, in any case psychology has and only stands in the way of real chess . "
1 77
no
place in it
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY I have anal zed the results of these Grandmasters during the peak years of their c areers and have tabulated the results of the Grandmasters against oppo nents of t he highest rank.
Name
Percentage scored the first game
in
Percentage scored against the same opponents in pmel
Chigorin Tarrasch Lasker Rubinstein Capablanca Botvinnik
6S
SO
79 . 1
62 . 6 66.7 59 .3
SO
62.5 63 . 7 55.8
59.8 61 .5
The table shows that Chigor in, Tarrasch , Rubinstein and Capabl anca did better the first time they pl ayed other Grandm asters than in subsequent games ---
-.a..,g"'a-ihe 1it"'lsott--tt tll. This-circums-tanee--s-ha no--ex-pl-a-natitm-etfler-thafl--�
less use of personal contact over the board tha n did their oppone nts. Extant material supports this conclusion . Capablanca's attitude towards the role of psychology has been noted above. Rubinstein stated that he pl ayed against the black or white pieces , and the opponent's personality had no ----g -:s>li nificance Tarrasch considered chess t��anintellectual problem. the solution of which did not depend on the player's personal ity, but was entirely subject to theoretical rules. Chi gorin did not pay sufficient attention to foreseeing his opponent's behaviour. The clearest example of t his are his losses to Steinitz (23rd match game , 1 892) and to lanowsky ( Hastings, 1895) . At the same time there was nobody to equal Chigorin in the realm of pure analysis , where an understanding of the opponent's individuality was unimportant . We h match 1 890--.l'emind the reader of his brilliant victOl:ie.Hn'el"5tci nitz jt e 9 1 ) and Emanuel Lasker (thematic matc h , 1 903 ) . The psychologists . Lasker a n d Botvinnik, improved their performance significantly after their first meeting with a particular Grandmaster. No doubt the study of their opponents through their games was enriched by additional data furnished by observation of their opponent's behaviour. Botvinnik's s uccesses in his return matches against Smyslov ( 1 958) and Tal ( 1 961 ) are more understandable when seen in this light-Botvinnik needed a certain duration of personal acquaintance with his opponents in the course of a tense match in order to understand them better.
---
\
178
THE STUDY OF ONE'S OPPONENT Lasker's theor
one's 0
of the necessi
onent had a
eat
influence on Alekhine : the latter referred to Lasker as his teache r . The material relating to Alekhine 's preparation for the World Championship match against Capablanca (1927) is of great interest. A lekhine aimed to discover the permanent traits of character and chess style of his opponent; this was the m ain methodological principle of his research. He was critical of conclusions based only on a single observation . On the occasion of the first game between Alekhine -,and CliWll>Jan.kiLfJ�m the New York Tournament of 1927 Alekhine wrote :
_ _
"Because of my poor play the value of this game as chess is nil. It did , however, have a tremendous psychological significance , though for the general public rather tha n for the loser. There is no doubt that it was because of this game that 950/0 of so-called expert commentators tried to convince the whole chess · world (an d p artially succeeded therein ) that there woul d be no fight in Buenos Aires [i.e . in the forthcoming World Championship match-N. K. j , merely a walk-over. H ad these gentlemen taken the trouble to compare this game with any number of average tournament games of mine from recent years they would have had a somewhat different opinion . " Believing that a chess player's style of play depended on his character, Alekhine was very sceptical abou t the possibility of a sudden cha nge in the creative dis osition of a mature master. About Nimzowitsch he said: " . . . it is hard to credit the fact that after a 25-year-Iong career he could succeed in radically cha nging the character of his play . " The m ain concrete method Alekhine used t o study his opponents w a s the analysis of games. For example, before his match against Euwe in 1937 he included in his preparatory tasks " to carry out a thorough analysis of all games played by Euwe in the period between our two matches . " Before his match agains t Capablanca he said that among the obj ects of his study were practically all games played by his opponent starting from the Capablanca-Marshall m a tch of 1909 . He paid particular attention to recent games . Alekhine indicated some of the stages of his analytical work. First he m ade a general characterization of each of Capablanca's ga mes, du ring which he aimed at discovering the turning points of the struggle and the critical position of the game. In this way he determined the causes of the result. Here is his description of the third Capablanca -Spielmann game from New York, 1 927: " In the course of home analysis Capablanca found a strengthening of a variatiort which had been played between the same opponents in the first round , and in consequence of his opponent's indifferent play he reached a won position as early as the opening. Tne-
nn
qwte
sImp e ,
was
precise y
calcula ted ." It is essential to poi nt out that in determining the reasons for the outcome of a game, Alekhine did not as a rule just stop at analyzing the game itself, but tried
179
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY to connect it with individual traits of the la er's characters . Here is how Alekhine summed up the games between Spielmann and Capablanca from New York , 1927 : "Spielmann was the only one who played against Capablanca at his usual level of strength. His mistakes were of a psychological nature : he j ust could not believe that it was possible to defeat the 'un beatable' Capablanca, even after he had gained the better position ." At this stage of the analysis Alekhine drew some preliminary conclusions. He noted Capabl anca's highly developed intuition and observed a failing, consisting of a comparatively low level of cri tical thinking , which was particularly eviden t in favou rable positions . In the second stage , analysis was carried out according to the ph ases of the game: opening , middle game and ending. In this the earlier conclusions received a firmer foundation or were changed . This an alysis allowed Alekhine to crystallize his hypot eses an pay attention to some a dltlonal, lmportant sides of Capablanca's style of play. For example , he claimed that, contrary to widespread opinion , Capablanca 's opening repertoire was notable for thorough home preparation . In other words , during the second stage of analysis Alekhine drew his m ain conclusions about Capablanca's pl ay . These considerations determined his concrete plans for preparing for the match . Here are the main conclusions of his analysis. (1)
The opening. I found that Capablanca had a highly developed intuition for
the choice of sound and practically effective continuations. This induced him to aim at simplification. He showed grea t ingenuity in dealing with opening
------- ss�u�rp�
(2)
The middle game. He relies m ainly on a quick intuitive assessm ent of the
position. This leads to speed and ease in conducting the game, together with an obvious inadequacy in critical thinking.
Be�ause of his excessive faith in
Alekhine . he cannot be trusted in the middle game: each of his tactical ideas
in tuitive assess ment mistakes in calculation are not uncom m on .
concludes : .
.
needs ca reful checking, for he is liable to error. -
fJl--I-h�g ame�'7'-hich--lechni�41--mastery--4t-h -t is-stage-g.f-the-game..-bul.JtY, iR I-
positions of a dynamic character requ iring a deep concrete calculation of the possibilities for both players over a nu m ber of moves he plays relatively weakly.
Alekhine further compared the games his opponent had pl ayed in the periods 19 1 1 - 14 , 1918·21 and 1922-27 . This work helped him to spot tendencies in the
development of Capablanca's style as well as providing more soh groun s or his psychological conclusions. Alekh ine said: " . . . over the years one observes in Capablanca's games ever less depth in working out deta Us: the reason for this is his unshaken confidence in 1 80
THE STUDY OF ONE'S OPPONENT , aUjbjllt)'...oihisj�.lu itio.n. II wasunfortunate forCapahlancathathi�m- e,-,i"nf -,t",h,-" of operating with " good " moves almost invaribly proved sufficient , since in most cases he was opposed by weapons which were , in a positional respect, hopeless. Because the playing of second best moves has gone unpunished he has lost the h abit of that concentration of thought during the game which alone can guarantee against rudimentary oversights, while at the same time his selfconfidence has grown beyond measure , almost to the point of self-deificat io n . "
_ _ _ _
_ _
--- -i\.:IeMlf-d fie ee-s-nekay--m-ueh-a-be-u-H»her-metheds-oht-utlyi-ng-one's opponent-.---
However, hi s scattered remarks on the subject provide interesting material . We are told. for e xample, that he m ade a special investigation of those positions in which CapabJ anca came up against particul ar difficulties (an innovation in the opening , a preponderance of the combinative element in the position). This research was ap-WlIe- mly the firsLin chess histo.r¥--1o be accompanied hy a recording of the time spe nt on thinking over each move . This study proved most useful . For example, Alekhine came to the conclusion that it was poi ntless to try to embarass Capabla nca with a surprise in the opening. U nlike Lasker, Alekhine told us about the use he made of his observations of his opponent's behaviour. In the course of observing hi s opponent over the board Alekhi ne noted Capablanca's growing uncertainty in the face of stubborn --- r-esistance. "This-w-as-a-mest importil-Jl-kli.see ev ry--fur-t�t.>. ------Alekhi ne also studied literary sources . He looked at Capablanca 's books, his comments on games and hi s interviews . It was not without justification that Alekhine complained that masters did not willingly speak of the reasons for particular moves in their games . Nevertheless, Alekhine valued highly the information he der:i-1led--from-c�.re Before the retum-m�t----- Euwe in 1937 he considered it essential to look through "his articles and annotations to his own and other games . " From studying Capablanca's publications A lekhine discovered hi s opponent 's views on opening prepara tion , his attitude to his own success and his beliefs on other questions . Particul ar mention shoul d be made of Capablanca's article in an A rgentinian newspaper in which he said that in order to become World Champion one needed a miracle to happen, and his inteMew-on--th�l'awing-ath ee " of ehes�-e-tl,r----- less suggested tha t he was invincible. Alekhine was the first to turn to a statistical analysis of chess information . Of Capablanca's mistakes in conducting tactical operations he wrote: . . . . . one m ust not consider these sporadic manifestations of that weakness as rare ocurrences, for the overall number of tournament games p-layed hJ'-C.a.p-ablanca in recent years is fairly small in comparsion with that of other masters, and so the number of hi s blunders is proportionately the more significant , " Alekhine continued and developed Lasker's ideas o n the study of one's opponent . His research is notable for the use of a wide range of methods in 181
CHESS AND PSYCH OLOGY
---4Combin-aMhn-Wit -logical--ami-o -psycll logical--assesmen s ts-of-his-opponent-s. We should also note Alekhine 's attempt at obj ectivity in his research and at an unprej udiced check of his results by means of comparative analysis. Speaking of certain of Capablanca 's failings , for exam pie, he pointed out tha t they were of a relative nature. He st ated that Capablanca w as an excellent player , and that research into his play must in no way lead to an underestim ation of him as an oppone nt.
--- �S--l-:said��o time A�--tOO--g-e.f-t-imin gam es.---s -Thl practice gained further j ustification in the work of the Soviet master and psychologist Blumenfeld. He pointed out that the time used for thinking was an obj ective , quantitative parameter of the creative process . A comparsion of the time spent On a move with the obj ective complexity of a position allows us to ___
-"'dr"-a"'-w, inLerences about the subJ-ective diffic ulty for a )Lart�lllBLpl ayer ilLl� choice of hi s move, and bears a certa in witness to the nature of the thinking and will of tha t player. "As far as possible such an an alysis should be supplemented by questioning the players or by self·observation. U nfortunately, nowadays it is not realized what extraordin ary interest the timing of moves can h ave, both for general readers and , still more , for research," Blum enfeld wrote
as
long ago as 1937.
----lRc-l'ent-yeaJ eC n 'S--t� 4atiOOS_ha¥e__been__PUt_intO__pr-actice, mainly thanks to the effor ts of Bronstein, bu t no results of the use of timing for research purposes have been published so far. At the present time the successful exploitation of the study of opponents is
of B otvinn ik. I n a number of articles he has given a epar-atio -f�He had rnade-extensive ----<det-ai1ed-desc ription-of--his-pr-n mainly linked with the name
use of Alekhine's expe rience : he once wrote : "From Alekhi ne one can learn the psychological approach to chess . . When I h ad to prepare for the 1948 World . Champ ionship Tournament the first thing I did was to go through Alekhi ne 's introduction to the collection of games from the New York Tournament of 1927 . In this article A lekhine gave a deep analysis of Capablanca's pl ay and shared his thou ghts and plans with the reader."
-----I�Ore-his-mateh agai-n-st--Reht'in 1933BotvinniksethimseU-the-t-ask-ofgoing through as many of Flohr's games as possible. From an analysis of these games inferences could be drawn about his opponent's style, technique, favourite schemes of development and most frequent ope nings . It was essential to find ou t how strong he was on the psychological side, whether he was easily influened by ce was and so on . ·--"·m..,�r.ongJ .
____
Botvinnik conducted his analysis very purposefully. H e made a short
description of each of Flohr's games (remember Alekhine's first stage), then he compared Flohr's games over a period of s everal years and lastly he dealt with crisis situations, the analysis of which revealed an insufficient psychological
182
THE STUDY OF ONE'S OPPONENT ----�st�a�bi�li��' s part. The ����nRHn��«rbct6ft��nill�----- proved correct du ring its course . In more recent lectures Botvinnik h as described what is basically the same method of prepara tion , but with one important difference. He has spoken of the analytical and l ogical sides of preparation and scarcely touched on the question of the connection between the logical components of chess and the individual and psychological ch aracteristics of the opponent . A typical pronouncement for
80tvinnik is: "In wha-Hlees--the-art-Qf a ehess-maste�iea+ly-it--is--the------- faculty of analysis of chess positions" Compare also his belief in training games as a universal remedy for shortcomings. This mig ht give the impression that Botvinnik h as abandoned psychological analysis in practice . This has had some effect on a number of strong players.
They
have
conscientiously de\Loted-themselves to
pure
chesS-anal¥Si� $-� ' 'a l-' -J, 14 u-----
Botvinnik" and at best m ade a few general observations about their opponent's psychologies. I believe tha t this attitude has im poverishe d their chess.
I can justifiably claim that Botvinnik's stand has been misunderstood. It is true he has not spoken much about the psychological side of preparation, but there can be no doubt that he has continued to devote himself to this aspect seriously and successfully. To prove thi s statement here is his description of one p awn---and-Euw'f'!e--lll1-:ta:l(dt---- ·f-his games-agai-nst-�-Euwe accepted the sacrifice (as he likl's to do) , though it would perhaps have been better to decl ine it . I gradually became calmer: it seemed that the conclusion I
-----6o
had come to about Euwe before the m atch were correct. Euwe was deep in thought; Black's position was not easy: White had attac king chances. If Black went into a!l�l�ediatel}'it�ear that his position would be bad; however, I thought that if he developed his bishop to K3 then I h ad no tangib le advantage . At last Euwe moved: he offered the immediate exchange of queens! My excitement left me-my assessment of Euwe was correct ! He usually feared an attack on his king, and thi s time was no exception : once again he could not face the prospect . He could not wait even a single move for the exchange of queens. " Botvinnik has spoken abonLdetailed characterizations of Keres, Reshevsky and other players which he made in the course of a wide ranging study of their play. He made use of direct observation of his opponent's behaviour. His recollections of his games against Tal (1961) and Alekhi ne (1937) bear witness to this fact. Information obtained in diverse ways was systematized and generali zed . Botvinnik said in one interview that whenever possible he made use of the methods of rna thematical statistics in elaborating his data.
There has been considerable progress in recent years in the art of understanding the style and character of one 's opponent . However, there remains a great deal more to be done on this fascinating aspect of chess.
1 83
CHAPTER 10
Know Thyself Nowadays in chess literature one is quite often referred to psychology . The
is fashionable in the every day language fn-e-
expression "a psychological app roach"
----.o "' f..experterrced1rail1�flrr_ ev_en
of juniors wtw1tave newly stepped onto
slippery field of chess. Everyone seems to pay tribute to this science nowadays, but in connection with chess the word " psychology" is used in a rather special sen se . O n e sometimes gets the impression that branches o f t h e tree o f psychological knowledge are constantly being lopped merc iless ly off in order to give a better view of the trunk; and in consequence we are left with a bare remnant which
---kbearrjusnrlitt teresemblance to
the science of psychology as doe s a
whlftled
pole to a live tree .
I would like to discuss in detail one example of this surgical approach. As we all koow, chess has no "close season " . On every d ay of the year thousands of chesspl ayers are competing in tournaments which are held in
--�almest-ry -eve earner of-�ery-partieipant-in--tflese--bat
most diverse standards and signi ficance is dreaming of winning the next game ,
of surprising and baffling his opponent . Who, in thinking over his plans for the forthcoming battle, has not been advised by a well-wisher along the fol lowing line s : "You are playing A, aren't you ? Don't forget that he attacks well, but he is not nearly as good in the endgame:
excha nge
pieces,
com e
down
to
an
ending
and
success
is
--�g�ulllaril� l'aR-tee Sueh--a-reiee pe. either ceming-frem-a-friend-or-reaehed-a�nl1 own conclusion , sweetly lulls the consciousness. One see m s to have the key in one 's hand , and the rest looks easy : some simple manoeuvri ng , a couple of exchanges sometime after the opening and that's it-a point in the tournament table. ___
--"Ill.n.....,e.ality�h>-Ug�eJmwihe hjLis�(LSimple. gical � "Open Sesam
..
doesn't work and ins tead o f the planned pressure o n the opponent one is unexpectedly o n the rack oneself, and moreover one's opponent (who is meant to be "weak in the endgame " ) confidently wins the ending.
So here is a psychological approach leading to catastrophe !
184
K NOW THYSELF
---
�Ti-\o}---Ube�f�.ia 1"-,-however, this-has--nothing----O� O--O-wi h___J>Sycil�-lt-iS---�e-th, --
chessplayer who is to blame for paying attention only to one side of the prepara tion-the study of the opponent's style-and completely ignoring his own preferences, knowledge and habits in the art of che ss . To try and build one's plans exclusively on the opponent's peculi arities ends in fiasco more often than not . Alekhine once said that for a chessplayer to be successful he m ust first of all understand his own strengths and weaknesses and --�only----se£oodly---*1l9W about those---ef---hls opponent.-Regrettably tms ,
majO lf F
-
-
principle of preparation is often forgotten . The training of even quite strong players very often consists only of a critical analysis of the opponent's play. I remember gatherings of the Russian Federation team, for which I have been play ing for more tha n ten years . How often our trainers have urged us : " Y our ----e --I.o'IJP�pvonent----is--w ak-in-OOfence. so
do not hesitate to attaek�s-s--'ff€0tf'r"'Wraa:l'r6d----
vigorously and you are sure to win . " That some of
us
are even weaker in attack
and not very zealous in taking the offensive was forgotten in the flood of encouraging phrases . And following the advice of our trainers we bravely pushed our pieces onward , ever onward . . . and then realized with horror how far we had exceeded the frontiers of good sense . One day our m en tor said triumphantly to one of our masters: "I h ave found
----e---1tmh -wa -best y--of--handling your opponent. He absolutely call1lot-stalld the S,C'(T·i-n---- attack in the Sicili an defence . " "Yes , but I don 't play P- K4," timidly answered the master. "That does n't matter, we will prepare it" was the authoritative reply. After an hour's cramming the poor m aestro set off to play P-K4 for the first
------in---1tffimmee e--hi&--too nt--c-at'OOl.'----l'O--f}Dili O shmen-t-eame--swiftly. His--ep>llf)O>9RnelenR1tE--- "surprisingly " played 1 . . .P-K3 and with little knowledge of French positions our ill·fated " hunter" suffered defeat and the team lost an important point . It is said th at experience is the best' teacher and in recent years in RSFSR team has changed the style of its training. Nevertheless , the conception of psychological preparation as consisting of the study of the characteristics of one's opponent's play is still quite com mon. -However,-t-sh-atlrrordispmesuch vtews merely on tne---oasis of genera consideration s . Let us see some examples from tou rnament experience. My first intern ational tournament was in
1957.
It was in a Rumanian
tow n- Ploesti . A participant who particularly attracted me was Ion Balanel from Bucharest . He gave the impression of a widely educated, sociable and at ----1fe-same fl -time-aeeptioBally-taetful--and-mOOt-nl1lfr.--We spent quite a few hours together, analyzing the most varied position s , and
the Rumanian master never m ade an attempt to bludgeon me into his way of thinking but always tried to prove his point of view convincingly , asking "Wh at do you think should be done in this position ?"
185
CHESS A ND PSYCHOWGY Balanel pl ayed
outstandingly in
the
tournament-logi cally. firmly and
soundly. (I was sad to discover l ater th at a serious illness had made h i m give up chess altogether soon afterwa rds . ) W e met in the fourth round . A t this point Balanel h ad three points and I h ad two and a half. I wanted to pu t up a real fight against the tou rnament leader and in preparing for the game I took i nto account the fact that he was drawn to a positional style of game. Witho u t much hesitation I chose a gambit line in the Ru
Lo ez the Schliemann variation . In
t.bJU!lteni !l�LaclLs.a.crifkes...oo.e..J
two pawns for a quick attac k . I thought th at a struggle of that type would be unwelcome to my oppone nt. A t the ti m e the Schliemann variation was popular, and I was st ill under the influence of the successful use of this variat ion by Tolush in the recent 24th U SSR Championshi p . And s o , before the gam e , I w a s content w i t h my choice : the forthcoming risky b u s iness did not look dangerous in the least and the pawn sacrifices gl ittered in front of me like cheering fireworks. However, taking a more serious and detached view of my preparation , it is easy to see that the all-or-nothing system favoured by Tolush did not suit my style of play at all . I did not thi nk o f this at the time, for I believed in the motto: "What is unpleasant for your opponent is good for you . " I n the ga me, though, the venom of the variation acted on me rather than my opponent. I could not orientate properly
as
the battle was quite fore ign to me in character, and I was
deservedly defeate d . L e t u s have a look a t the game .
BalaneI-KroghUi
Ru Lo ez
1 P-K4 P-K4 2 N-KB3 N-QB3 3 B-N5 P-B4 4 N-B3 N-Q5 Ignoring the threats to his pawns on K4 a n d KB4 Black aims to castle
as
soon
as possible and launch an attack in the centre and on the K - side .
5 B-R4! Preventing the QP from a dvancing for t he ti me being. If 5 B-B4 then 5 . . P-Q3 .
6 P-Q3 N - KB3 7 0 · 0 NXNch 8 QXN P-B4 is possible, with good chances for B1a 5 " .N-KB3 6 0-0 This is much stronger than 6 pxp B-B4 7 P-Q 3 0-0 8 0·0 P-Q 4 , with good prospects
for
Blac k ,
as
in
the
game
Boleslavsky-Tol ush ,
24th
U S SR
Championship, M oscow 195 7 . 6
. .
. B-B4 7 NxP P- N4
Here I began regretting my opening experim ent . since 7 . . . PXP is b a d beca use of 8 N x K P , and castling is no b etter because of 8 N-B3 and P- KS , I could not think of anything but . . . P- QN4. And this was not surprising: I did not know anything about the position except for three or four games by Tolush . I had a
186
KNOW THYSELF
----'s..., ,,'I-" perliciaLkno.wledg.e-oicertain mO¥e�--did-noi-r-eally--Understand-the-i,u-.\ril-:>---- behind the defence. So, not surprisingly, o n seeing the unfamiliar cont in uation 6 0-0 I began to cou nt the pawns and think of abstract positional principles, which are generally useful but were com pletely inappropriate to this position where everythin g is determine d by speed and the t i me factor. Black 's seventh move was j us t an admission of failure ; his position is slowly but surely crumbling. I t w as still not
----utoJUoolate,...h �o.r...x.e treme...meawres...-ex.am ...An p.le-iS-to-be-found--in--t�a:me---- Lehmann-Spassky, Vienna 1957 which went as fol lows: 7 . . . O- O ! ?
8 N -Q3
PXP 9
N xB P-Q4. Black sacrificed a piece . but he had an advantage in development and some chances on the K-side . I n spite of its questionable nature Spassky's idea is logically connected with the preceding play , and breathed new life i nto a pos ition which in my ga me aga i nst Balanel was killed by the comprom ising move 7 . . . P- Q N4 . There followe d :
8 NxNP pxp 9 P-QW NxN 1 0 OXN 0-0 1 1 P-Q4 PXPe.p. 1 2 QxP Q-K2 13 B K3 B-Q3 1 4 P-KB4 B-N2 IS QR-Kl BxN 16 PxB QxP White returns his extra pawn and in exchange gets a decisive positional advantage in the strength of the two bishops.
17 B-Q4 Q-N4 18 B-B4ch! P-Q4 19 B-N3 N-Q2 20 B-B2 P-N3 21 Q-R3 RxRch n�XR--w.u-ll3--u:Br(f.R''-l4Q-=-K3--u:�rS�--O-=-R6(f-Q2 26 P-KR3 B-R3 27 B-QR4! Q-B2 28 B-B6 R-Q l 29 R-B2 R.Q3 30 B-KS RxB 31 RxQ KxR 32 OXP Resigns Towards the end of 1962 the 30th U SSR Championship w as held in Erev an .
---'fT'heh""e-npa>Sions-ot1h -southeTrrtm�ere1Ttg�lbly"a-s11i-gIT-anhose-of�fO-c5rbal-t---- fans . Their favourite was M ikhail T al . His style of play-exciting, hazardous an d rich in the unexpecte d-was very much in accordance with the temperament of the Erevan a udience . The main struggle for the lead was between Tal and Korchnoy . Towards the m i ddle of the tournament I had to pl ay against Tal with black. N aturally. I was very worried before this game. To pl ay Tal, and moreover. to
--
-l.-:ave-btacx-:rgm-Trsrhinrt-Eve-rylmayKt'IOWstlraCwitlrw1ritehe-ply a s with -a ouo"'e.---- the energy and strength . I was well aw are that I faced a life-and-death struggl e . I i m agined the packed h all with everybody watching and admiring my opponent's every m ove as if enchanted; I also imagined the Ex-World Champion hi mself, boosted by the attention of his fans and confi dent of his will and combinative
--- �f�-��---I gradually came to the conclusion that it was essential to snatch the in i tiative from T al at all costs and to m ake him defend . placing him in an unaccusto me d situation . where it was not he who dictated the te rms of the ba ttle. As the reader well understands there is a great difference between a general
187
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
conclusion and concrete mQ¥eS-Qll-sa-i-f ---the--boa-r-d-,ared--a-Hew,
but now-we
defined question : What opening should I choose? I recalled a recent discussion with Tal's trainer A. Koblentz, who had happened to mention that before his game against the Hungarian Grandmaster Szabo, Tal hesitated for a long time because he was afraid of the Marshall Attack in the Ruy Lopez. I therefore resolved to try this system . Theory at the ti me asserted that the Marshall Attack was not quite correct (since Black sacri fices a pawn), but it was a complicated ---�and-relatively little studied variatio�ad-to--faee--a--pr attack in return for his extra paw n . I had pl ayed the Marshall Attack a few times and after refreshing my memory of some points of the line I calmly went to bed . The decision was taken ! And he re is how events transpired the following day.
Tal-Krogius
Ruy Lopez
I P· K4 P·K4 2 N·KB3 N.QB3 3 B-N5 P·QR3 4 B-R4 N-B3 5 0-0 B-K2 6 R·KI P.QN4 7 B·N3 0·0 8 P·B3 P.Q4 Here my opponent plunged into thought and I felt I could read displeasure in his f ace . Tal m ade the following ten moves comparatively slowly, closely
--'s .... tl .... Lld¥ing---the-posiiion-tReo-o -beard and he--steped--u � -le£
-
during my moves.
9 PXP NXP 10 NxP NxN 11 RxN P.QB3 12 P·Q4 B·Q3 13 R·KI Q.R5 14 P·N3 Q·R6 IS B·K3 B·KN5 16 Q.Q3 QR.KI 17 N .Q2 R·K3 18 B>
ot attributeally significance-to-the n-at time.
19 . . . P·N5? A serious mistake. I was trying to escape the positional disadvantages of the intrusion of the rooks on the Q R· fiJe after the threatened PXP. As further analysis s howed , Bl ack h ad other moves in reserve which were more in the spirit of the position, as weJl as being more energetic: 19 . . . PxP and 19 . . . P·B4 .
20 Q·Bl Q-R4 2 1 p·QB4� Px � P--", 2'-* 2.-'. O ,-" x"" P,-" P ,,-,·u N... 4� .23 J-L P,,·,oP-'--------- D uring the last few moves (after 1 9 . . . P-N5) the position has completely changed (now it is White who is attacking), as had my opponent's appearance . It w as as i f some miraculous elixir w as working o n him . He looked calmer and firmer and perhaps , if I am not mistake n , even a little triumphant .
23
•..
R·R3 24 P·R4
Now White's advantage is quite obvious . F or example, if 24 . . . PXP then 25 BxR pxp 26 PXP BXP 27 N· B 1 . White soon won prettily. In spite of my .defeat I was pleased with this game . I thought that to some 188
KNOW
TH YSELF
--------
----g -.deiP ree-t-had-sol\'ed the pioorem-ut-psychutogIcarpreJJlrratimrcnrrecttyr.
--
-
On
the other hand, the Erevan game also suggested that even a correct
characterization of one's opponent is far from ass uring a h alf point. During my preparation
I did not fully un derstand the extent of the stormy cruise I was
undertaking witho u t knowing much about the reefs and shallows ( that is, the theoretical variations of the M arshall Gambit) awaiting me on my dangerous jou rney , and that is why I took the rush decision and leapt before I looke d . As the re ader can see It IS sometimes Important to look at oneself and not J u st observe others . I would like to say a few words now about the forming of a chessplayer . The role of chess litera ture, lectures, t raining gatherings and simul taneous di splays is generally accepted , and I am not trying to question their significance. There --ti:s,---hewevesr,--ail6#ter- ik--ef-t:fJfriflng---efles-s---ex -a -perienee-wfiieft---eartnfrt--bec---- measured in ordinary units , and that is contact with stronger chessplayers , their living words, opinions and assessments. During discussions the door does not always open hospitably into the inner world of the feelings and tho ughts of your interlocutor, of course . But how interesting and revealing i t is to hear a discourse on the psychol ogy of the real motivation of some decision , and to observe the mood of the player! This cannot . ------------------------befound in any text-book-:-
I have been l uc ky in this respect . Averbakh taught me a lot . His descriptions , his observations on the struggle and sometimes just an occasional remark influenced my ou tlook on chess no less than the study of text-books. However, let us return to our discussion . It seems that the basis of planning
ie��s'_ it"" biILt au.u l-'£L f�l'-an-impend-ing_competit�oo-must-be_a_gLobaI analysisof one's�p _
_ _ _ _
and one 's own s trong and weak points . In co-ordinating these one can try to exploit the weaker sides of the oppone nt's pl ay . This thesis has underlain my work as a traine r and my own prepara tion for tournaments in recent yearS.
189
CHESS A ND PSY CHOLOGY Hel'etnqrostrrironl tm the ga1I1l:--fJetrostaTF6-otomb�tnrtnterzo"' lla
-
1952 .
have had to play the unattractive move 1S . . . P·N3,
17
15 QxN since 15 . . . P·B4
We let Petrosian speak for hi mself. "Now, after
B·B4 QR·K1
18
,
B lack would 16
Q-K2
PXP
NXP woul d have been even worse , giving White a clear
advantage . " Nevertheless, he played
IS BxN.
The future Worl d Champion com m ente d : ' 'This move also gives White a small, but ta ngible advantage. Black is forced to weaken h is Q-sid e . " ------T.ln other words, fro m two roughly e q uatco-minua1ionr,1hefirstoTwhtch-�asr- -w'
ambitious but also risked losing the advantage (the position was not yet fully establishe d and contained a certain element of the "irration al " ) , Petrosian chose
the
secon d ,
which
was
more
in
accord
with
his
psychol ogical
temperament: it is better to have a small . but c ertain and long-lived advantage.
It is interesting to see how--the--ga-me---antimle�seU-iR-hl�N-I'lnf -c sort of position Petrosian felt thoroughly at home and accurately real ize d his minimal adva ntage :
IS Q·K2 1 6 PXP Pxp 1 7 R·Q2 R(BI )-QI 1 8 R(BI)·QI RxR 19 RxR R·QI 20 RxRch QXR 21 P-KN3 White 's play is based on exploiting the weakness of the pawn on BS . 2 1 . .. P·N3 22 Q-K3 Q.Q8ch 23 K-N2 Q.Q3 24 N·Q2 N·R4 25 BxB NxB 26 N-K4 Q-K2 TI P·KR4 K·N2 28 P-QB4 P·QR4 29 Q·QB3ch p.B3 30 p. N3 P K4 �»-Q-QJ-Q-Bl-ll-Q-Q��N-Ql p.B4 36 N·B4 K·B3 37 P·B3 P·KS 38 PXP PXP 39 P·KN4 P-R4 40 K·N3 pxp and Black resigns •••
In the above example. preference in the choice of plans was given to cla rity and
de finition. I would not like the re ader to think, though, that 1 am
l'-1hi ap-P�ClCQ.�_Lis -"acimcating exclllsivelL
_ _ _
sirnph that the---l2layer in this
particula r case opted for the pa th where he felt stronger. accordance with his own style.
He acted in
An illustration of the fact that players make
other decisions, sometimes deviating from classical principles, is provide d by the game Kash d an-Tartakover from the tourn ament at Bled in
190
193 1 .
KNOW THYSELF This
aIiiUsing
' posit-ion--6cc ttrretl---a-ft-er-K-ashtl-a�ll s fifteellth
mAve.
HeFe the
calm continuation IS . . . N - B 2 16 N - R3 P-KR3 1 7 P-N6 N-K4 1 8 N - B4 K-B3 sugge s te d itself and Black would have kept sufficient pressure for the paw n . Tartakover , however, chose another way . H e played I S . . . P-B5?!
surprisingly
sacrificing a piece . There is nothing inexplicable or supernatural about this move . And , in our opinion, i t is a normal and even prosaic choice on the part of Tartak over. He
---quite
he wa<; better at it g-le,--b consciousty-chme-a-conerete-t-aet-ieakff-u.g-atlsc
and usually preferred it to positional manoeuvring . Of cours e , the move 1 5 . . . P BS shows Tartakover's characteristic courage and confi dence , for nothing definite cou l d have been calculated in that position .
The game went like thi s : 16 PXN P>
KNI RxRch 25 NxR B-R4 26 N(Nl)-K2 R-Q6 27 R-B2 poNS 28 B-N2 P>
position . H i s courage and his skill in playing thi s kind of position brought Tartakover a well· merited rew ard . It looks as though we are coming to a concl usi on . H owever. we haven't finished yet . O ne cannot give the un ualified advice : " PIa
os itions in which
you feel m ore at home . " After al l , one's estimate of one's own st rengths and weaknesses i s subj e ctive and is not always corre c t . M oreover, a c he ssplayer should not be thought o f as fi xe d and unchangi ng . Every new tSlUrnamen t , and somet imes a particular ga m e , e nriches his experi ence and wi dens his chess horizons . He grad ually polishes and perfects his style of play and changes h i s understanding o f hi s o w n creativity. We shall now di scuss same aspects
0 a
chess plaver's indepen dent work aimed at the s t ud v and el im inat ion of h i s mistakes and short -comings .
Under the X-ray. H ow can one best organize a critical study of one ' s own play ? What method of analysis shou l d one chose ? Experience shows tha t th i s is one of the most di fficult prob le m s for a chessplayer on the road to mastery . We all know one sees other people ' s in adequacies and blunders m ore re a d ily than one' s ow n . To understand one ' s own mistakes ar.d to eliminate them appears to be even harde r . There i s very little written s o far about a chess player' s "self· programming " .
---a'mtw{;Sb-rel1 attttrerero 1ake no a1rempt1n�Ura-ce\he ellli,c subject. I>lIl shall
just look at a few p a rt icular points which a re important for teaching metho d . Here i s one o f the m . I n many respect s chess i s a bookish kind o f occtlpat ion . A significant part of a chessplayer's training is occupi ed by an independent study
Nl
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY
---(tf-te-xt--boo�mament bulletim-;-,ittttrnats-ted-and---ot-her--pri-nm-ater-i-a-l-;therefore very important to be able to read chess literature efficiently. In reality , however, it often h appens that on receiving the latest issue of a chess pUblic ation a master briefly sk i m s through the contents or at best plays through the games at lightning tem po . Agai n st this practice one m ight quote the weIl-known saying: " it is better to do little, bu t well." I believe tha t reading through chess literature c an be a starting point for training but under no . tlmstances the finishing on . Psychology recognizes two kinds of attenti on-emotional and vol untary : in the first case con centration occurs because of the in terest invol ved in the subject, its outward appearance and novelty ; while i n the second , one 's thought is concentrated and works at a h i gh level because of a goal one sets oneself
beforehand
The best
resul.Lis-ohtained when both kinds of attention inlerac
and reinforce each other. This m e an s that a general s urvey of games in a new book is not the concluding part of one's serious work , but the beginning . After the process of acquainting oneself with the book it is essential to p ut aside for detailed analysis the games that are m ost important for <;Ine's ow n opening repertoire nor must one forget to study the e xamples of the play of one's fu ture opponents. One m ust classify
---
�t,llbe�se�examples and then start tbe second and main part of one's prepAratiOD.=
det ailed study of the materi al . I do not believe that a brief survey of chess litera ture i s even half the job . Another well-known principle is the necessity of studyi ng one's own work . Indee d , one's own ga mes are the valuable witnesses who recount truthfully and precisely what and how one has playe d . T o a certain extent the above rule is observed b y everybndy. But t o w h at extent? A fter the game t he oppone nts, in accordance with tradi tion . often analyze the details o f the battl e . Sometimes one h as the noble intention of sitting down after a tou rnament and looking at one's games; however, very rarely are these intentions really put into effect. I sho ul d not l i ke to c ast any doubt on the usefulness of going over the game immed iately after one has finishe d . But one must not forget that in such situations the chess player is still under the impression of the recent struggle. and his opinions are often too subjective, and simply wrong . I believe that j ust a s a writer i s weIl advised t o leave his m an uscript t o w ai t a
while in order to detach hi mself from the em otions and feelings of the moment and look at his creation more soberly l ater , so the chess player needs time to forget the JOYS and mlsenes
0
e ou mamen , an
can morepl'O
to the analysis of his games som etime later. perhaps after a month or so . By then the wounds will h ave healed and h e will not need to try to calm himself down all the time.
In
KNOW THYSELF -An--unhul"lied-� -an ysis in the quiet-of one's stlldy----wi\J perhaps help one to understand better where the chess genera l tarried and where he overpressed. It is obviously insufficient just to go through one or two of one's games in one's stUdy. Such an analysis should be done systematically , after a proper schedule: the tou rna ment comes to an end , one waits and recuperates , and in due course the time comes to pick up the pawns and set at work. And no e xcuse of "weather conditions" should be accepted.
--
--
" to t-lJ n ., LL a� rt.. -Can-Sa�-that-during-analysis itis mostimpo'LJ ll--my-own-expen ---E'-I'Olence-l
-_____
get to the tru th and try to form a precise opinion of why this or the other plan or manoeuvre was good or bad . I remember how , h aving spent two weeks on the analysis o f my game against Korchnoy from the 27th USSR Championship, Moscow 1957 , I kept on going back to i t . At times I thought that at l ast everything was clear, but then I had some new idea and often even in my dreams I saw some other more attractive distribution of the pieces- and the search went on. lt is hellish work : to check, compare and convince oneself that one was wrong and start thinking and searching once again. Believe me , there is no othe r way. Like everything else in life , chess victories are achieved by hard work an d patience. And that is how, after havin wei hed the m a thousand times, the chess layer gradually becomes convinced that some positions, which were unpleasant before , are a joy to pl ay , and how he knows his w ay no worse than others in an opening he once knew nothing of. To continue with our discussion, it is interesting to notice Kotov's article "On the perfecting of a chessplayer" , which was published in 1 939 in the journal Shakhrilaty v SSSR ("Chess 10 the USSR . er a etal e an YSIS 0 a number of his g ames Kotov came to the conclusion that the main failin�s of his play were: (a) Excessively abstract thinking and a worship of general principles. which revealed itself in the ignoring of tactical points: (b) A weak technique of calculating variations whi ch usually used up too much thinking time and as a result led to time-trouble. ese NaturaI y suc se -cnticlsm suggeste concre e wor on correc 109 mistakes as the next step. I t is instructive to see how Kotov set abou t solving thi s prob lem. He started by analyzing positions full of tactical complications. While doing so he tried not to move the pieces on the board, simulating for himseW
s� fo *r'--lh lt iJI mHi seJ eI� f.. --toomam���-enc-re4€--taskcS-
Firstly , he tried to develop the faculty of calc ulating v ariations as f ar as possible, and to this end he tried to carry out the analysis until the position was quite cle ar. The examples Kotov quotes show what amazing results c an be
193
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
--------,����h� For perfecting one 's technique of c al c ul ating it is useful , as Kotov wrote, to solve s tudies in diagram form without setting up the board and pieces , and also to perform "blindfold" analysis, i . e . fol lowing che ss li terature from the page . Kotov's advice is very interesting since it w as the first time that the doors of a master's work room were opened and the public was told in detail what concrete th ings a chessplayer does in his independent work. ----
Ir-:sho.uld---al .so-li-ke-tO--Stre£S--aR-im-pGt't ant psychological poi-nt--te--w-Rie-h-Ketev
drew pcrrticular attention . This is the attempt to come to a definite conclusion in assessing the position as a result of ca rrying out calculation s . Thanks to s uch train ing one disciplines oneself not to make merely superficial assessments in tournament play. Secon dl , Kotov tried t o develo
h is tactical intuit io n -that is. his feelin
for
which variations out of n umerous possible ones should be considered an d which ones sho u l d be ignored . With this p urpose he performed the following exerc ise: for a definite period of time he analyzed a position , and then he wrote down the v ariation s he h ad tho ught of. He then compared his notes with the available commentaries or with the continuation of the game. After repeating this experiment a few times he found that some of the v ari ations he had looked at were useless. He took s
cial note of the faul
variations
drew com arsions
and gradually came to percieve in what way he was wasting his mental efforts. T h e repetition of these e xercises with varied m aterial developed the future Gran dmaster's feel for the useful an d the useless, wh ich is a chess player's compass in the ocean of possible variations. Such training assists the development of economical and logical thinking and of the faculty ofdeCiding on the main ideas
0 t e moment.
Kotov's third "plan k " w as to perform exercises to develop his speed of calc ulation. H e set hi mself a complicated tactical position and in twenty to thi rty m in utes he h a d to untangle the complex variations. The th inking t ime h e aUowed
h imse l f f o r
posit ions
of
about e q u a l com ple xity
was
gradually
shortene d . Of course he checked thoroughly the quality of his ana ly sis . This training in intensive thinking in chess gave good re sults. n sum mary
wou
oIT e to say t at t e me 0 0 preparation descnbed by
Kotov is relevant even today. It seems to me that the exercises he suggests are so difficult th at actual play will seem m uc h e asier after them . In any case Koto v . v e ry aptly noted the expedi ency of thos e for m s o f self preparation which combine the study of chess with the training of the willpower, t hin ki ng and character of a
I got to know Kotov fifteen years after the appearance of that article . While watching his play one never saw a m istake i n tactical calculation or an excessively abstract approach to assessing the position : he seems to have
194
KNOW THYSELF s ld+----- succeeded 10 ehm m ating those patllc ularshorttomhr�--way;-t-ho'T1u-h like to observe that a comparison of the different periods in a chess player's c areer c an teIl one a great deal about him as a hum an being , a bo ut the devlopment of his character and about hi s perseverance or his weak wil l . Kotov 's chess career can serve as an example of a successful union of knowledge an d will , tempe re d by long and arduous work . While w� are on the subject of a chess player's independent work the question
--�a..Triseras to whethel it is bettel to-prepare--atone;-1th�H1' ---- --w --an6ther� g roups. I think that the most important element in attaining m astery in chess is work done by the chess player a lone over the board. I a m not going to deny the usefulness of collective anal ysis , theoretic al discussions and other kind s o f "shop" com municat ion between chess players. B u t everything in its place . One -- ____ cannot limit oneself toexchanging opinions�one�sjlirsjiorm those op� in � i� on-,-,- s,,-,,. _ The opinions a chess player holds are formed mainly in his workshop , when he is working on his own over the board . I t is true tha t in such circumstances the critical eye of the opponent is absent but nor is there any risk of being influenced by somebody else's i de as , and the distraction of a ttention unavoidable at other times does not arise ei ther. To stop at this point would be premature, needless to say, for one's conclusions would then be far too subj ective. For thi s reason it is
--usefulto comparenotes with other che�a�ers. I
co ld be at a team meetin ,
at a meeting with one's tra iner or just during a friendly chat over analysis with another pl ayer: it all depen ds whether it is d uring a competition or d uring one ' s preparations. The m ain thing is that one 's personal work should get some criticism from somebody else. This
0
inion is strengthened by the experience of training for tournaments
and matches. During the European Team Championship in
1965
in Hamburg,
for example, before each game we used to come to the team trainer Boleslavsky w ith some prepa red sugges tions : he approved or vetoed the m . When Lein once tried to engage him in a detailed analysis of an opening variation which w as new to hi m, he was tol d that he should have done it in Leningra d . The proper proportion o f the indivi d u al and the col lective i n analysis depend�; of course on the person concerned . It is necessary to discuss the matte r , however, because there is hardly a sphere in a che ssplayer's prepara tory work where the question does not ari se . O n e very important instance i s the effective organ izat ion o f adjournment analysis: after all, the adj ou rne d ga me may have to be played off in a day or two or even the next day! I have often witn essed a
few
participants an alysmg an
...'n...---- io itl-i scTi ""' po ..--" adjoumed
together . A rguments , with h an ds flashing over the bo ard , go on for hours , and the mistakes are stilI there. The interested party-the chess player who has a djo urned the game-is tossed from one suggestion to the next like a fragile
195
CHESS AND PSYC HOLOGY boat m a stormy sea . I'here
IS
no shortage
01 advice or suggestions ; the pos ition
seems to be getting a thorough polishing on all si des , but at the play-off it often transpires that the most ob vious ideas have not been taken into accou nt. Perhaps I paint too pessimistic a picture. There have been cases of collective ana lysis carried ou t excellently, bu t in the maj ority of cases the thorns outnumber the roses . This
h appens because
c ess p ayers
0
I
a
discussion of
e ren s y es an
as es,
such
av m g
a nature I
brings
together
erent speeds of calculatin g
and different ways of assessing the positi on . Furthermore , the concern of the parties is differen t; for the person who has adj ou rned the game the position is a q ue stion of "life and death " , whereas for the others it is chance to argue. As a result everybody pulls the cart to his own side and the system and logic of the
---
-8an-alysis--is---dkt-u:r-bet-a th-f ppears-th-a-t-n-eh --iesr,-j-us-t-as-i-n-art;-i-�_ffieult to find the likes of I1f and Petrov or the K ukryni ks , who can work harmoniously together. * Experience shows that one does better to an alyze the position on one ' s own, and then subsequently check one's conclusions with somebody . Korchnoy's statement on the s ubject is interesting. He s aid that it was most important to
---
learn to analyze in sol itude , even though it took up more time. Joint analysis is ---n;m--rofntly-de-ep-alJd ficie ofteu-te-ads-to--ro-perficial assests snren . It is 11m fortuitous that even in World Championship matches mistakes in the play-off are qu ite common. This is due to joint analysis with "seconds" . On several occasions du ring the finals of the USSR Championship my tra iner has been Grandmaster Lilienth al . He im mediately s uggested dealing w ith adjourned
---
--Jlg;a-ames-li-nowing -tbe-fuU way' each-Of-uS--Shou-I-a d----an lyze the game.separately and
the next d ay compare conclusi ons . We observed this system strictly and I must adJllit we did not make all that many mistakes . While we are talking about self-appraisal on the part of a chess player I would
like to mention some further m etho d s . Firstly , a few words o n stop-watches . Yes , d o not b e surprised I T h a t i s the nex t item on the agenda.
I"-ift-e e�go-chess-p-layus-w-Ue---J¥-ve-i-ntrig-Ue-d-b-�
�
tw o of these devices. People were making all kind s of wild surmise about it, but it tran spired that the Moscovite Grandm aster had bought them, not in order to attend a thletic competitions , but for use in tournament halls_ He s tarted m e asuring the time used by chesspl ayers to think over each move. At the beginn i ng this exercise evoked smil es, b u t l ater Bronstein even had some followers . It is true there w as no great run on the shops selling precision instru ments, b u t Grand master Ant�hin and several other mas ters began to *Tran slator's
note:
llf
and
Petrov were
Soviet
writers
who
wrote
a
number o f successful
book s together: Kukrymksy is the name under which three Sovie t caricaturists publish their joint wor k .
196
KNOW THYSELF
note the tiDle-Used lipforeach move-'lILth.e.i.Lcore s. �mJhen:j£n!LdQub_Uruu,,----
_ _ _ _
the practice has som e value. Such timing allows one to see which moments in the game deman ded more thought, and when and under what circumstances mistakes were made . It is a valuable aux iliary device for studying one's own work and seeing one's own shortcom ings and strong points. It was not w ithout reason that the newspaper "Izvestia" , w hose chess editor is Grandmaster Bronstein, was the first to give , along with the publ ished ga me,
e.... -tJ tb we <'-U ti.me-userl-upin thinkingoyerthe !IlOY-.es..hy--eachcl1h� e-'J op 't't' p"" o,,-, n... . ,-...,
_ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Following Bronstein and Antoshin I decided to time my thinking as well . I soon noticed a curious feature which I had not percieved before : I used significantly less time in thinking between the tenth and twentieth moves than between the twentieth and twenty-fifth. And it was not as if there was no need to think at the e arlier stage: as a rule it is somewhere be'.ween the fifteenth and twentieth moves that the general plan of the forthcoming battle is laid. In fact I used to "rush through" this important phase "f the game, carried o n by opening momentu m , often making a mistake or com mitting some inaccuracy and getting nowhere. Then , suddenly coming to, I would im merse myself too late in an analysis of the position . Precise measurement also helped me to un derstand what was better and what worse for me as White in the Kin 's I ndian. I used to la three s stems a ainst the King's In dian Defence and I could not make up my mind which one to c hoose, althou gh I understood that I had to opt for one of them for practical reasons: one cannot be a master of all systems. I came to the conclusion that in one of the systems, say, system A, my allocation of time to the moves of the opening and middle-game was more even than in the systems B and C. The natural conclUSIOn to draw was that the cllaracter of the strategIc 1(J'-'ea "--� sm C- --- sy-s-'te "--CC mA was closer to my nature than that of the others. I began to use system A against the King's I ndian Defence more often and suddenly I became convinced of its attractiveness for my style of play. I am not claiming to h ave proved a great deal with these examples . I simply want to point out that chess clocks are not only for determining when the flag falls or for playing lightning games . Watching the clock can help one to un erstan etter w at IS gomg on 10 when ha ste is undesirable. In order to sort o ut the strong and weak points of one's game it is useful to listen to othe r people's opinions. "I know that I am liable to error and I often m ake mistakes . I will not be angry with the person who in such cases warns me
--.G, amlpoints..out ..tny-mistakes-tO-m�ith--these-wol'ds--'l'zal'-l!e.t u-l.st�bowed.... a l-. ---
commendable attitude on this point. If a chessplayer wants to perfect himself and make progress, then the opinion of others is a valuable help for him. I would like to quote two instances which m ade me reconsider my chess
197
CHES S A ND PSYCHOLOGY conceptions to some extent . In
1952
I got my master title and for a few years after
that I played at a fairly constant level : I took the middle places in master ------t t-n O -, "' U"' I 'naments.nnt-t--wanal £10111 quatifyirrg-e-finais -for-th o£ - the nationat- cha mpionship . D uring one an alysis with Korchnoy I w as s urprised to hear him say that I conducted the game wen when I and my opponent were attacking on opposite fl anks . I thought deeply over his words and then I started st udy in g instances o f such games and , i n conseq uence o f Korchnoy 's observations, I
----� ----ig9'r'il'ad ---intrOOucM-il'loire-som to--my--repet"t ne-'-' at-oui"-variations in the Sicilian ,
Ruy Lopez
and
other
openings
for White.
The
results prov ed
favo urable . By an irony of fate I m an aged to win a game of precisely that n at ure against Korchnoy hi mself in the semi-finals of the U SSR Cha mpionshi p in It
seems t h at the
advice of the
1956 .
Leningrad Grandm aster influenced the
develop ment of my "chess self-consciousness" in a definite way. In the second instance I am again indebted to Korchnoy . He once made the seemingly trifling
----Telml._'_'_At lF£--'-'-'H)l0H3'la'1L-9Jiffiv-wIten--tMre-are-RO-Open-li� _once I intuitive1y realized the correctness o f his�udgement: I truly co uld not bear rather cram pe d , unclear positions i n which the battle w a s going o n over the whole o f the board. That is why I often got mixe d up i n the complicated labrynths of the pawn b arriers of the Chigorin Variation of the Ruy Lopez, in the King's Indian
'"' D'-'e"-' fe ... n ... c""' e-" alLlo ndlrultheT-P_OJiltiOJl�'h'Jili:h requ ired fighting on the whole of the front .
_ _ _ _
I started working on correcting this failing in my chess. How s uccessfully I managed it is , of course, difficul t to te l l , but I often remember Korchnoy's remark when I am planning my next move in a game , I am more vigil ant in positions where the battle em b races the whole of the board and I open up lines for my major pieces with more confidence. It often happen s , regrettably enough, that .iournalists come to characterize }'..S.ome.Jiio.ck...ph.Las.e � caukk.s_t!"Lhim_J.Qr years. This can delude the -" a '-l p f.LJ1"' a -!ylOJ er LJ �
_ _ _ _
pl ayer concerned . Criticism of chess activity can be useful if it takes cognisance of a chess player ' s development and points out the novelties (good or bad) which appear in his ga me. I was once labelled as a connoisseur o f opening theory . Some time ago, during the period of my first steps in the world of seri ous competion, that label was more or less j ustified . Later. however , it did me some dis-service. Havin g got used to the reputation of being an expert I abandoned the study of opening the ory and I soon l agged behind many of my colleagues. For a better understanding of one 's own game and the games of other players it is important to be observant in seeing chess and psycholog ical details which a t a first glance look uni mpor tant or peripheral. I n this respect Botvinnik has a very keen insight. On the b asis of observed facts of behavio ur, chess habits, ----�I� n� c 'linations and anhpafhies , the Ex-World ChampIOn
IS
so good at formmg
pictures of the cha racter of his opponents that he can often guess their plans
198
KNOW THYSELF accurately in advance! Korchnoy h as also proved himself to be a subtle psychologist . He noticed th at Tal had faith in variations with whiclLhe_hadwon and..re�h�cked.1h! _ "-LU"-Korchnoy found an improvement in the variation of the Sicilian Defence w ith which Tal had beaten Larsen in the 1958 I nterzonal Tournament. The use to which he put it is explained in the following anecdote . told by Vasiliev . "During the 26th U S SR Championship, Bronstein said to Korchnoy: ' You know most of an�one about Tal . What would you pl ay against him as Black?' Korchnoy replied: 'Look at this improvement I h ave found in the Sicilian.' Bronstein smiled in a distrustful manner and asked : ' What if he plays something else ? ' Korchnoy just shrugged his shoulders. Bronstein chose a different variation and Korchnoy had a chance to test the correctness of his judgement hi mself. To Brons tein's surprise everything went e xactly as Korchnoy h ad foreseen . Tal realized too late that he had been taken for a ride, and he had to admit defeat." I nferences c an be correct, then, if they are supported by a sufficiently w ide range of facts. One cannot, however, generalize on the grounds of a random choice from one 's opponenent's games or of particular m anifestations of h is emotional state . Averbakh rec alled once that d uring his preparations to pl ay the Hungarian Grandmaster Barcza he had arou nd twenty 01 his opponent's games at his disposal . They were from different competitions and almost all were won by Barcza. His opinion of his opponent's strength was therefore exaggerated and the impression he was able to form of his ope ning s tyle was clearly inadequate . Now just a few words to conclude this part of ou r discussion. Once a chesspl ayer begins to understand how far from perfection his gam e is, an d perceives the necessity of learning from others , he has made the first Important step on e roa 0 mas ery 10 c ess . 0 on y VIC ones, u a ures and disappointments lie before him. But his chess fortunes are now in his own hands . M uch will depen d on his capacity for h ard work , his modesty and ambition to search independantly. But if a chessplayer perseveres until he reaches the goals at which he is aiming, he will be richly rewarded: there is an
_ _ _ _ _
---ijn. ncompa-rable-feeting-of-sa-tisfaclion-in--ereating----stmteting ft -new-anti-set-ti-ng'-it+t-l
before the worl d . The
Psychological Duel. Two people sit over the chess board: the measured ticking of the clock a nd
the harmless movement of pieces is all one sees. On the surface this idyllic scene has little in common with uncompromising battle, with battle to the bitter end .
---� such-animpress iorr is-nristakerr:-6f-coUise,
there-is-no-mooting-on the battle
field of ches s , b u t it is always a tense, not a peaceful , collision of two
199
CHESS AND PSYC HOLOGY
personalities. of two characters and intellects. Smyslov wrote: " I saw in chess an interesting sphere of creative i deas built on ----osmg-vot --the--oppo iti us-of-the two ptayerr.'Lllsirer--w1[rmllf'edtrect:-4n--c1fess-- there are elements of science and of art, but both of these are subordinate to one main thing-the struggle . " Th us . the m ain thing i s the struggle! Moreover , i t is a struggle i n the highest sp here of the human being-that of intellect and thou ght. If we accept this
---_�,l_iell _f__it_wi inevitahly-bl'ingtomind PaTailels from othe1'-reilctv.-ity lms-ef-a
say
those of a general . an intelligence officer or a diplom at. Was not K utuzov 's· every act a bitter duel with the will, w ay of thin king and character of his enemies? We shall not demand too much from chess . Just as one c annot equate the richness and diversity of life with the moves of wooden pieces on a board , so can one only conditionally compare military strategy with the planning of chess o �tion�.------_-�
_ _ _ _
Nevertheless , chess is a touch·stone and a sort of firing ground for the training of a man's creative thinking. Lenin recognized this when he called chess the "gy mnastics of the brain." As we have said earlier, the struggle in a game is a collision of two characters. The psychological task of each opponent is to im ose his will on the other and make him reckon with alien ideas and plans . For success in this goal it is important to know the strong and the weak points of one's oppone nt. Some like a sharp combinative game and prefer the attack above all else, regarding positional plans as secondary. Playing such opponents it is a good idea to reduce the pace of their attack, to extinguish their initiative and lead the game into a cal m , controllable flow . Flohr , for example, s uccessfully "blockaded" the temperamental Mi kenas in their match in
1938 . The score was an unusual one for the peaceful Flohr : 8-21
Others are quite the reverse and prefer a defensive battle with great respect for material values. In such cases it is a good thing to drag one's opponent ou t of his "fortified position " on to an open field, perhaps even tempting him with a sacrifice which is not quite correct . Something rather like this happened in
----ng ----cduri the camn
Larsen ano--tvio v.
e cunmng
1965 ane
m anaged to lure Ivkov out from his ra mparts. It would be easy to continue with more exam ples . 1 think any chessplayer will be able to recall more than one such case from his O'vn experience . These examples do not contradict what I said earlier about the necessity of paying due regard to one's own weak and strong points during preparation . Ali I want to stress here is that one has to try to use one's own
•
K utuzov was the Field-Marshal who drove Napoleon out of Russia.
200
trumps in
KNOW THYSELF c irc umstances which are the most u npleasant for the opponent. It happens that in games between opponents of approxim ately equal strength,
--�o�ystema1r-catt�a1rth�hses-peop er.ln----mch--ca le rellraTklhat:--"He'---- cannot stand the opponent" . Tal, for example, used to lose consistently to Korchnoy and Fischer to GeIler. Some years ago the oppone nt I feared most was the Kiev master Ratner, who always be at me . Unfortun atel y I c annot t a ke revenge any more because R atner
----a ---h s--l'eGentm-t ly--retired-fr-O oumament-plaY-r-The-pi�re_i�,____quite_ di fferent with my oI d friend from the days of junior competition s , Luti kov . The score of our games is approxi mately as fol Iows: I have won five games and the rem aining silt have been draw n . This , of course. does not reflect the real relative strength of these pl ayers , but it is explainable psychologicaI l y . A fter l osing once or twice, the loser feels uncert ain or even doomed ; this paralyzes his will and his concentration faIls
-1' -p1-a¥er--the-m.ol'e--hahitual-hi-s-losing-to-hi� s--- --� shat'plY----he-more-i�ressionab!e-the "bogey" opponent becomes. It is interesting that the above-mentioned relationship occurs between people of very different c haracters and styles of play. One can list such pairs as: Korchnoy-Tai-, Bolesl avsky- Kotov and Nei-Stein (where the first named of the pair is on the winning si de). I t is probable that once one finds oneself in such a state of psychological subjection it is particul arly difficult to put up a fight against pl ay which is alien to one's style and for that reason especially unpleasant. In my opinion such psyehological subjection arises owing to the fact that one of the opponents intui tively or cons ciously perceives the weaknesses and strengths of the other especially well. Sometimes one-sided psychological pressure applies only� ames played with certain coloured pieces. The signi ficance of the right to move first in modern chess is great. The point of this advantage lies not in the admission of the thesis " Wh i te to play and win", but in that having the privilege of the first move it is easier to create a position in accordance with one 's own taste, and consequently to impose, at least to a cetain degree, on one's opponent a game
---w--'ruch is pleasant fOr oneself. For several years the games between Korchnoy and Suetin have ended in the same result: White has won , and the score stands at 6-6! Perhaps the white pieces in chess correspond to the notion of the "home ground " , to which so much signifi cance is attached in footbal l . Successful exploitation of psychological points i n a chess player's preparation is not a simple matter. It requ ires not only a good understanding of the -- --. c "' l1 � la lT lacter-ot-oneT-play, but skit1m-deco-din-g---rtre-m-d'{vtdua ti:�or-one � '.s.- ---- opponent's style .
20 1
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY
A n arrow-minded person (for exam ple_ one who regards opening theory as me rely a collection of variations) can hardly cope with such a task.
The
---�a�pkatiUIro pt f a psychological approach Iequires-a-ig -ft h-levelboth general and chess culture , as well as of logical thinking.
I will now try to an alyze some of the methods of waging the psychological struggle in chess. When competing against an aggressive pl ayer with an att acki ng style i t is ---�irnpo.-tanU�i.ng.-his..ack .aU to a halt and
,-,><-" " ,,-__ take tbe initiative frQIIlJllJDJ_H wcu then start pl aying less confidently , being obliged to pay proper attention to his
oppone nt's threa ts. At the Chigorin Memorial To urnament , Sochi
1 964,
things went well for me.
I n the eleventh rou nd I beat the Slovak master U j telky. after which I had points. I needed to get ano ther
1 � out
8!
of 4 for the Grandm aster nor m . I was not.
however, very confident of getting it, because on the l ast day I had to p l ay
---Spas:y sk -witb...blac.k..-and my other opponents, GAemghiuJRlLm_llnla.
M a ulovic
(Yugoslavia) and Forintos ( H u ngary), were obviously "blood thirs ty" towards the finish. I w as p articularly excited over my game against the Rum an i an player. We first met i n
1957
modest bo
of t hirteen was
a t the time of an international tournament in Ploesti . A thin inted out to me, for whom a great future was
predicted. I n Ploesti we played a proper game as well as a few lightning games. In the i n tervening seven years the boy h ad grown up in appear ance an d as a chessplayer. He had become t he Worl d J unior Champion and had won several Rum anian Championships . Now his play w as very opti mistic an d erudite. He w as very s ure of himself and enjoyed expressing his opinion on the most controversial positi ons . I th us had to face the chess an d
s c holo i c al
ressure of a young , ambitious
and talented opponent . My difficu l t mental state was furthe rmore com plcated b y tbe fact that I wo uld be h appy with a draw . The fear of risk i n a momen t when I cou l d lose everything through a si ngle move made me t h i n k 1 shou l d enclose myself i n a fort an d not see k an active game. This m oo d stayed with m e u ntil t h e l ast few hours before the rou n d , when t h e recol lection of similar instances in my past experience !Dduced me to change my decwo-n-: ire-aJize-
202
KNOW THYSELF I tried to appear confident, to show that I was not afraid of the difficult battle and that I w as ready to plunge boldly in . I intentionally made my last move
qutC y, so tharGheorghlu would not doub my WI mgness sa n e a p w after 9 . . . Q-N3. I had the impression that my opponent did not expect to meet a battle of such a nature. He frowned and looked at the board with a suggestion of disappoi ntment in his expression . I should incidentally point out that a pl ayer's outward behaviour during a game is of great importance for the psychologi cal A chess player's appearance is somet imes a precise barometer of his oondition of confidence Or depression. One shou ld not , however, forget that conclusions based only on impressions are often wrong. After all , behaviour is secondary; the decisive role is pl ayed by the class and strength of the chessplayer. Let us return to the game: 9 . . . N·B3 10 B-K3 B.Q2 11 Q.N3 P·KN3 I was expecting something like this. By playing
1 1 . . . P·KN3. Black rejects the
stable , but fairly passive, position w ith K·side castling which looks the most natural , and instead he launches a dubious pawn attack on the K-side, trying to snatch the initi ative at all oosts . Now I was faced with a new. this time more concrete. psychological task: to take some measures against the cavalry charge o e ac pieces , an simultaneously to quietly prepare my forces or t e culminating combat in the centre. 12 K·R1 P·KR4 13 Q·Kl P·R5 14 B-B3 N·KR4 1 5 N ( Q4).K2 N·R4 1 6 B-Q4
This manoeuvre is based on precise calculation, for at first sight it looks illogical in th at it helps Black to do uble his rooks . Although here I am intentionally stressing psychological and general considerations in my
--
-eem� ment-ary-,--onejttmp-t0-ne -the-e6 l-usi6n-th-at-thter -is--alone--de mines:--- the outcome of the battle. The tactical side of chess and the concrete calculation of variations are the real ground on which psychological and general considerations stand . We cannot really say that up to the fifteenth move it was all psychology . and after that strategy and finally, according to schedule. tactLCS--,_.�&.1he time. aLeyery moment of the game there is an indissoluble unity between the general assessment of the position , concrete calculation an d the
_ _ _
feelings and character of the person who is making these assessments and calculations . 16 . . . R·KR2 17 P·QN3 N·QB3 18 B- B2 N·N6cb
Not satisfied with the course of events on the board Gheorghiu hurries to force the game. He should have given preference to 18 . . . P-KN4, so that after 19 PXP ---t:hesquareK4 Is secured or m . 1 9 NxN P>< N 20 BxP P·KN4
203
CHESS
A N D PSYCHOLOGY
Too late! The decisive break-throu gh.
21 . . . pxBP 22 PXP! BxP If 22 . . . PXB, then 23 Q xN P and because of the threat of check Black loses. That is how the u nfortunate placing of Blac k ' s KR influences events.
--
23 N-QS 0-0-0 24 NxQ PxB 25 P-KR3 BxN 26 R-QI R(QI)-RI 27 RxB -..r..xc-.R�2 BxNdlKXB--z9Q-K4ch K.NnU-Q-Q4ch K·B33T1l:B3-v.N432Q.R7 RxPch 33 pxR RxPch 34 K-N2 R-R7ch 35 K-BI R-RSch 36 K·K2 R-R7ch 37 K Q3 P·N7 38 RxP B-N3 39 Q-N7ch K-84 40 P-N4ch Resigns The main reason for Black ' s defeat seems to have been his confusion caused by the unexpected character of the game, which led to impUlsive pl ay on his part. The ambition to take the in itiative from an active, attacking pl ayer turned ou t to
e Justifiea on t
IS
occasIOn .
A cl assic example of subtle psychological prep aration for a battle ag ainst a player of a sharply combinative, aggressive nature is the Botvinni k·Tal re turn m atch. In this contest Botvinnik w as successful in repressing the fighting thrusts of the Latvian. One gets the impression that Botvi nnik's chief concern at every
---,muve-wnt aslo-preve Tal (10m getting the-initi-ative. He sometimes rejeeted--a tem pting and perhaps objectively even rather stronger continuation in favou r of positions in which the brilliant combina tive talent of his opponent had no scope . Let me quote the opening of the first game of this m at ch with notes by Bronstein .
Botvinnik-TaI
N inno-Indian Defence
I P-QB4 N-KB3 2 N-QB3 P-K3 3 P-Q4 B-N5 4 P-K3 0-0 5 B-Q3 P-Q4 6 p. QR3!!
204
KNOW THYSELF "With this move Botvi nnik revealed his plan of battle against Tal . . . I n the struggle between Botvinni k and Tal one tried to
entice his
opponent into
compl ications , while the other aimed at hard logical stra tegy . "Botvi nnik's sixth move conveys the message: 'come o ut my friend , come out. I h ave no intention of chasing the ghos ts of opening advantage and playing in darkness . . . '
"
6 . P>
x
10 NxB QxN 1 1 PxP
c
Thi s led to a roughly equal endgame in which Tal's imagina tion was limited by the simpl icity of the position . After a number of mistakes he lost the ga me. A deep psychological appreciation of his opponent together with a wise choice of opening repertoire and other factors brou g ht Botvinnik a well-deserved victory in the m atch . Botvi nnik's experience w as used and develo an
db
S assk
i s trainer Bondarevsky i n preparation for a match against the same
oppone nt in Tbilisi . 1965 Q uite rightly they al-so decided tha t the ba Hie shou l d be fought under the slogan : " A t all costs Tal must not take the ini tia tive . " Taking into account the fact that the Rigan is particul arly dangerous with white. Spassky and Bondarevsky worke-ctourin---aeta lhhe gambJl van ahon of
---
e
uy
opez Known as t e
M arshall A t t ac k . In this variation Black sacrifices a pawn and m a kes his oppone n t defend . Whi te has to worry abou t the safety of his ow n king and only after he has gone thro ugh m any trials can he start thin king of utilizing his e xtra pawn in the endg ame . Such a game is not to Tal's l i king . As I said earlier. I used the Marshall
Attac k
against Tal in
1 962,
and
my choice was probably
psychol ogically correct I was not very well acqua inted with all the su btleties of theopentng-amtio-n-;s-Sp-a sky, on the other hand. prepared the Marshall Attack excellently. I t is interesting that this choice w as a great su rprise to Tal . When he w as told that he c ou l d expect this ope ni ng from Spassky he sai d : "He will not pl ay it against me ! " ---
Let----L. -u S--b-a-ve
a
look---hew the stTuggle de'feWped-in-the-ge am s iii which-ttl1�----
Marshall A ttack was played: FI RST GA M E On the eighteenth move Black ( Spassky) fou nd a strong contin uation . White had to give the pawn back and after a lively en dgame a draw was agree d . FIFTH GAME. Bei ng afraid o f surprises Tal exchanged h i s m ai n att ac king piece-the white-squared bishop . In the endgame W hi te had an extra paw n . bu t
i-t--was-di-f-fiwl-t--(if-at-a�le) fOF him-te-tmn-iHo--advantage because ot-hi,...-s----
---
opponent's strong bishops . In the technical st age of the game White cou ld not find any winning chances. Draw!
20S
C H ES S A N D PSYCHOLOGY SEVENTH GAM E . This went the same w ay
as
the fifth game up to the
eighteenth move. Again a boring endga me for the R igan and again a draw. We can see how Tal 's whirlwind attac ks were deflated by a successfully chosen psychological weapon . The three M arshall A ttacks seem to have pl ayed a significant role in the outcome of the match by shaking Tal 's confi dence. In the ninth and eleventh games he was the first to tum off the "high road" of the Ruy Lopez to other lines which he u se d to pl ay only rarely . This brought h im no joy elt er. The psychological duel can develop in other w ays, not necessarily in the struggle for the initiative. Some chess players p refer to be fired at and try to entice the ir oppone nt's attacking forces onward . In the history of the USSR one heroic page is devoted to the battle on the frozen Ch u ds ky lake . The reader will remem ber how wisely Alexander Nevsky planned the battle. The heavily armoured enemy l au nched the att ack formed
into a wedge of iron; In the centre the Russians retreated, otreni The triumphant enemies , thinking that victory was at hand, advanced towards the N ovgorod forces ' camp , forgetting all else but their prey . But what happened? The charge ground to a halt , while the fresh divisions of the Russian army on the fl anks closed in an iron ring around the enemy . The b attle was ---
wecl�d""betOm-olfg-tlre n-gtrufffpeU�nnm:nmrnct \) -demn f the invader. When I watch our eminent Grandmaster Korchnoy I am often reminded of the skill of Al exan der Nevsky . When he comm ands the chess battle he likes allow ing his opponent to come at hi m , then tiring him ou t in a defensive struggle and eventually fini shing hi m off with a well - prepared, energetic counter-attack. This method has been well summed up by the famous journal ist . Vasiliev, w ho often writes about chess : "The rea diness with which Korchnoy m a kes
es.... s1oH no his -= co.. n c"" "'
oppollefiT1sth�T11re spl'lng"1o""bn-queze1t"Whi e
allowing his opponent to take vi t al sp ace and handing him the i nitiative Korc hnoy quietly, little by little. prepares the bl ow . Korchnoy's real element . the element in which he has
no
equal. is the counter-attack ."
Korchnoy 's game against Nezhmet dinov from the 26th U SSR Championship ,---
-ti-Bn-T-l-1bili� s -espeEia\1y notewo�y in this respeet-.--P--la-ying the French Defence as Blac k . Korchnoy accepted the sacrifice of a seemingly " poisoned" pawn . By the way, respect for the value of mate ri al is very typical for chess players of this style. They willingly accept gifts. but for their p art prefer to sacri fice . . . other people's pi eces . A nd what pawns Korchnoy takes ! O ne is sometimes horrified at his pawn-gobbl ing ! One looks again a little later and sees that he is
---"';li1>�the-gam -lh.H·I1-aH e-han�be-tht'ead.--but-i l1-m.ost cases the thread proves to be quite strong . Let us . however . return to the tou rn ament in Tbil isi . Nemmedtinov's pieces
206
KNOW THYSELF were ready for the siege : his rooks were occupying the central files and his lon g range bishops had begun firing over the whole board . N everthel ess, hidden CIelensive resou rces were ou n
move a ter move.
ime a ter time t
hand of Korchnoy erected new obstacles on the path of White's attac k . Nezhmedtinov slowed down somewhere and
10
and behol d ! his opponent's
strength was gathered and ready for the counter-attac k . Nezhmedtinov, however, w as still un der the im pression that h e h a d the
advantage;-The-photugy-o syc t-such a lIloodis-obvious. it is very difficult to Ie
j us t in the m i ddle of the battle and catch that moment when the ti de has turned against you . He was still trying to find active pl ay in a pos ition where he should have been think ing about defe nce . The deno uement came qu ickly. A s i f by magic the black pieces sprang into life and rou ted the enemy : Korchnoy won . If the chess content of such a met hod of pI ay is reliance on the counter-at tac k , the psychological idea behind this enticement i s as follows: the opponent gradually loses Irisc.itical estimate"""ohhe-p-ositiuIramt-gmrrdednes"sis-swamp\ffi---- by euphoria, so that the process of obj ective thinking is disrupted. Of course enticement does not al ways lead to a fatal breach of the opponent's objectivity. Whe ther this happens
or
not depends on the individual traits of the
personal ity and the strength of character of the pl ayer concerne d . ----bel'-h --'On-the-ot -and-the-spring-cantlOt�n-definit(lly; it caR bFe--aK,,---- This method of enticement has a l imited field of appl ication , since in each position there is a cert ain boun dary beyond which it is impossible to retre at withou t inevitable defea t . For the player who uses this method it i s important t o see clearly how far he can afford to give w ay without riski ng loss . The sense of d anger which allows one to foresee the hidden possibilities of a position serves thi s pUl:pose . A sense of --
---\Jd�ang.e.. is based on-t-he-abUit¥---tO--assess-a-POS-i-t-i�t+eC-tI_Y__&nd-t-O-r-eoogn-i-Z(lr----- small, almost imperceptible intui tive psychol ogical factors. A chessplayer who favours the method of enticement m ust search in every position for exceptions to the ge neral rules rather than re lying on the principles of strategy . A successful counter -attack or a surprising coup often m aterializ.e thanks to the ori i nali
and unusualness of a
207
sition on the board.
CHESS A ND PSYCHOLOGY
This position is from the game Lisitsin-Tol ush , semi-final of the l i th U SSR Championship, Leningrad 1938. Here I S what Rom anovsky wrote about thi s g ame: " Lisitsin shared his ro sy hopes with me : ' I cannot unders tand the play of my opponent: he has given me the cen t re and now he is goi ng to lose a pawn , b eca use i f h e t ries t o defend h i s l i ttle pawn o n QB2 I shall surprise him with Q K NS'_
oo1t(fct-aT4°otuep1y-abr m�who-was-de �ai-flor .-compassion
B u t when I looked at the position a few moves later, alas! It was Tol ush who was s miling , having won the exchange . " Here is what happene d :
lS
. . .
P-KR3! 1 9 QxBP N-B4 20 P· KRJ I f 20 R - K2 . then 20 . . .N-NS . 2O
...
N-N6
and White lost his rook in exchange for the kni ght , because if 21 R - B2 then 2 1 . . . N -N5. Lisitsin 's optimism before Black's eighteenth move was based on a routine �em-ohh�rr:-the ceutre, pressureon theQ sitle-;--tfle-t-Fieky--positioo of the black knights which stood ready to storm the white king 's palace . The method of enticement can give rise to fireworks in games where both players need a win. Two days before the end of the 22nd USSR Championshi p , Moscow 1955 , I Iivitsky and I were di scussing t he chances of the partici pants.
The situatien-w-as-as-f()U()Ws:
IlivitS-krneeded to heat SmyslruLaruLEwJruuLW
_ _
order to get into the I nterzonal . His opponents were also desperate for victory : Smyslov in order to win the ch am pionship and Furm an to get into the Interzonal instead of IIivitsky . Ilivitsky was in quite
an
opti mistic m oo d : he very m uch hoped for the bes t . I
expressed doubts, saying that it was dangerous to play for win against opponents like Smyslov and Furm an , it being a di fficult task at the best of times . I got a
---
-<>-tH'pf-isi-ng-a-nswer: "My-c-Aa�e-pfec-i-sly e -in the fact that the¥-w.anLt�Lbe.� me more tha n
I
want to beat the m . "
Paradox ical, isn't it?
208
KNOW THYSELF
I did not t a ke Ilivitsky's words serio usly, of co urse , so you can imagine my su rprise w he n everything went accordi ng to his scenario. Both Smyslov and Furman over- estim ate
t elT poslhons,
p aye
agg ressive y
WI
ou
muc
j us tification and both los t . And the cunni ng master from Sverdlovsk set off for Sweden to play in the I nterzon al Tournament with the st rongest pl ayers of the world. What inference can we draw f rom this episode? Should one want to w in less in
--oTc:tert{YWln!lh�swerJs-;-ot,-coulse no. One can and must wallt-to--ac"hhffie�.ee---- victory . The success of the master from the Urals is explicable not by the fact th at his drive for victory was less , but that he m an aged to preserve objectivity and calmness all the w ay through, unlike his opponents . He h ad also noticed that some participants of the tournament underestimated his real strength and as a res ult played recklessly ag ainst him. That is how Keres suffered , for example: he
�rleo-to---wi1r1rUrawn-position. I1ivitsky made good use of-these-circumstan-re<.---- in the decisive games at the finish. D uring the RSFSR Ch ampionship in 1 960 my third game , against Terentiev, was adjourned in a position which was described as a dead draw . Whoever tried to win it would inevitably h ave los t . Both of us w anted to win very m uch : if I won ----JII-Wwoo-Itl---get-imo the USSR-fi-nals-and-i-f--my-OppO-nent-did-he....wo . lIJd
fllJfiJ the
m aster norm . As it transpired l ater both of us hoped that the other would play for a win : " I t is more important for hi m , so he will try to win and will lose, " each reasoned of the other. In the end, to our mutal regret , the game fini shed in a draw . We were disappoi nted, but there was nothi ng we could do about it. Along with the types of psychological duel described above there is also the method of camou fl age . What does this mean? It means that behind apparently -m-aIl o-vel'illg-a-deci-s-i¥e-siege-iS-bei.ng...pr..epar..ed..ol;.i.. n--the-oppo'SJ si � te � ca iC s >J; e :.,,----__ --�h n;ar-mless-o sharp and aggressive play is used to create a psychological state in which the opponent thin ks he h as no time for such trifles as weak points or s q u ares , after which the game is cunningly s teered into calm and sober channels, where microscopic advantages can be exploited. Another variation on this theme is to make a demonstration on one flank to distract one 's opponent's attent ion while the main strength of one's forces actually enters the battle at another part of the board . Cl assic examples of the successful use of camoufl age are to be found in many of Emanuel Lasker's games . A mong the mos t notable is hi s victory over Capablanca in the I ntern ational Tournament in St . Petersburg in
1 9 1 4.
Lasker,
who was 1� points behind the leader and who might have been expected to try a sha
line in an attem t to win
chose the h armless Exchan e Variation of the
Ruy Lopez. Lulled by his opp onent's apparently peaceable disposition and assuming that he h ad reconciled himself to abandoning the struggle for first
209
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY place. Capablanca pl ayed passively and through carelessness found hi mself in a difficult position. Lasker turned his advantage to victory w ith relentless accuracy: it was not only a chess victory , bu t a psychological one as well. I n the game Ivkov-Smyslov from the Capablanca Memorial Tournament . Havana 1965 . the opening di d not suggest a tense struggle. Here are the first few moves: 1 P- Q4 p. Q4 41 p.QB4 p.QB3 3 pxp PXP 4 N·QB3 N·QB3 5 N·B3 N·m 6 B·B"P·K3 7 P-K3 B·Q31r8>'cs-Qx&-1r�014tO�O B-Q2 lIR=Bt-QR·Bl 12 P-QR3 P· QR3 13 B·NI The Exchange Variation played by White is not very promising and is often a sign of the desire to negotiate a peace treaty. That is how Smyslov seems to have un derstood it. Feel ing that perhaps he ou ght to make a few more moves before agreeing the draw , he carried ou t the firs t manoeuvre that came into hi s head. 1 3 . . .N·QR4? 14 N ·K5 N ·B5 15 NxN RxN 16 P·K4! t transpIres that 16. .px�Rl81\ilXmnpxrt-19 Q-N4c1rtea.-drtoall advantage for White. 16 . . . Q.B5 17 P·KN3 Q.N5 18 p.B3 Q.R4 19 p.K5 N·KI 20 B-Q3 R·BI 21 p. B4 QXQ 22 R(KBI)xQ N·B2 23 K· B2 White has obvious positiona l advantage . Just look how the position has ----ech-anv-kev.!. ged-i-n-the--l-ast-five-er-si-lt-fn6VeS-!-I-se s eming Iistles-sru:-ss-h-as-aU,-co:ufc.;ail- s u dden disappeared . By taking advantage of his opponent's good will he has managed to obtain good winning chances . On the 59th move the game finished in a win for the Yugoslav Grandmaster. It is not difficult to see that there is a good deal in common between enticement and camouflage. One cannot , however, pu t an equality sign between the two. In the first method one draws fire on oneself, provoking one 's opponent ---"'i:rtit·o---tfle-aHaelt- n-t�...ecess of hi-s---ac--ti4)n will make-hlm-le:oss-ce;-- balance, whereas in the secon d method drawish play is used to lull one's opponent's aggressive intentions . The straight forward nat u re of the g ame makes him forget his vigilance in a sweet dream of well-being. In consequence the correctness and accuracy of his thinking are blunted for a certain period , he h s are immediatel ex loited makes a few indifferent second best mQXj by his underhand. wide-awake opponent . .
2 10
CHAPTER 1 1
Emotions in Chess
"Chess is a quiet occupation; it is not like working in a factory ," -an engineer once said to me . As w as soon evident , my interlocutor was not very familiar w ith chess; still , it is wor th while discussing his opinion. It is difficult sometimes for an outsider to imagine the stonn of emotions which goes on in a chessplayer while he is at the board. True, there are some things which are visible to the naked eye: M ark Taimanov, for instance, moves
--
quickly about the stage, making short paces, while his face shows a whole scale of emotions: expectation , distrust, resolution and sometimes fear. At the same time we hear Suetin coughi ng ; medicine , however , will not help in his case-everybody knows : there is a particul arly tense moment in the -'G""-r-:a'-n-d' m aster s game. ometimes one can judge a pl ayer's position better from his facial expression and gesticulations than by looking at the demonstration board. All records of excitability were beaten by one Moscow pl ayer. In normal conditions he is a lively person , full of control over his behaviour. Among his colleagues at the Institute where he works he has a reputation for precision an d self-control . A t the chess board , however, he is unrecognizable! Once during a time scramble he became so excited when his opponent made an unexpected move that he started shouting : "Control ler, come here, quickly-tell me which colour am I playing ? " I c a n hear tile reader objecting. I t i s true what you say , but you have not mentioned Keres, Spassky or Portisch. However hard one looks one cannot
-- "'j""u.+dge-havioul -from-tlreirbe whether they like therr-positions ornutlhts-opinionc---- is also justified. There is no contradiction in these cases. Differences in the extern al expression of emotions can be expl ained by individual idiosyncracies of character and temperament . For chessplayers are of all sorts , and they transfer their everyday manner of behaviour and habits to chess. Even the most imperturbable looking , however, also express their excitement . At one of the Candidates' Tournam ents, ill Switzerh{m:tinJ9S�m;plroTogt'apher--med In vam for worth-while snaps of the more sedate players and he would probably h ave gone empty-handed had he not accidentally looked under the tables. The outcome of his glance was a series
21 1
C H ESS A N D PSYC HOLOGY of snaps p ublished under the title: "What do the legs do when the head is at work? " It trans ired that chess players' legs were doing surprising things: some slowly swayed from side to side, while some s u ddenly tensed up in expect at ion , as if preparing for a decisive j u mp-anything but calm . So, e xcitement is a constant companion of chess battles. Is it good or bad? I t is impossible t o give a simple answer. Just thi nk
of
the effect of a successful start
to a tou rn am ent , the joy of the first victory or even a good positio n-such . - s uccesses are very encouragmg and make one feel confident and deterrtllne ="Good and cheerful moods inspire that h i ghest concentration of strength whic h evokes "battle ecst asy" and a strong manifestation of crea tive energy . On the other h and, one c an h ardly forget the number of games lost because of the fear of one's opponent , c onfusion and J ack of confidence. Tou rnament annals record many a tragic history where a chessplayer h as completely changed after a loss and his pl ay has become unrecognizable. ----
iliere are t us
fTerent orms
0
exci ement .
e range
0
uman emo IOns IS
wide. Som e are friends and helpers and assist us to overcome diffi cul ties and increase our energy and ability to w or k ; others , whom psychologists h ave christene d , with good reason "adverse emotions" , are fierce enemies of activity. This black list contains fea r, l ac k of confidence. sorrow , apathy and so on .
When there is a lack of information. I t has been known for a long time that learning is l ight and i gnorance is' darkness [ R ussian proverb -Translator) . This is applied to chess when people adv ocate the ne cessity of regular planned study before compe titions . Nevertheless , knowledge obtained in the period of general prepar ation does not provide a sufficient amount of "light" on its own . WhJle p arhclp afing
m
tournaments II IS I m porlan' ( .. to � k"' ee "p '"' a'c . lo nc t "' se oc""' w at " c � h on-
one's opponents and make a note of the new ope nings they play, the quality of their preparation and their for m . I t is useful to make a note of the fash ionable openings of the tou rnament , because it of ten happens that a pa rticular variation recurs in the games of pl ayers one wo uld not h ave suspected of being partial to -
-that-opening-;---T-he--presence---nere-of-eo te--inJOfma-ti6n--ab6�6nent d uring the period of the com petition m a kes the struggle against him easier, helps one to attack a fighting spi rit and gives one more of that bpti mism and confi dence which is so necessary for the tense battle ahead. Such intelligence ac tivity can enable one to play an ope ni ng novelty
or
a surprising variation in the
ope ning stages of the game to great effect . The absence of information about one's opponent in a competition makes
---
-..p""rellID'llthm1rardenrndieads to the appearance of dotlbtsand hesitatiot H-:. --- At a number of tourn ament s. especially team tournamen t s . at the very
begining when the game has just started , one can often see a trainer walking up
212
EMOTIONS IN CHESS and down between the tables with a notepad. He is taking notes of the development of other players' g ames, fulfilling in this case the quite justified role of the scout In the enemy's camp. The point of this activity is in gathering information which will help to answer the question : "What can one expect from one's opponent ?" Knowledge of what is to come even if it is only approximate, helps a chess player to become more businesslike and collect his thoughts. Rokhlin h as some very interesting recollections of the Lasker-Capablanca � g4 a.... me ..,. p ! iayedinthe-3ui-in-ternaeewtionai-Mas -tottmament in 193-6:'------
_ _ _
"I accompanied Capa back to his hotel and we h ad the following c onversation : 'You're playing Lasker tomorrow , aren ' t you ? ' -'Yes, I am Black . It will be a draw of course. ' ' I think it's a pi ty you ' re declining to make a
fight of it .' " Rokhlin then proceeds to relate how Capabl anca discussed the choice of the opening with hi m . He qUickly rejected the moves I . . . P-K4 and 1 . . . P-K3, which
d--u bl"ou.g.ht--oothi.ng-but trouble in his previelts-g-a-mes--agalmt-poelr-.-l::;ask --- � bL
_ _ _
Gradually his choice fixed on the Sicilian Defence. They looked at innovations in that opening together, but then Capablanca decided to go on with the preparation on his own. It is difficult to guess what the Cuban's thoughts were after Rokhlin's de arture. He robabl did no f.9J:g.e.UQJook through Lasker's games kom-thle---- precedi ng fou rteen rounds of the tou rnament .
Let us now m ake an analysis l i ke that which thirty years ago determined Capablanca's choice of opening and tactics of pl ay against his old enemy. We have before us the seven games in which Lasker had the right of the first move. All of them began with the advance of the KP two squares forward - l p. K4, so we c an count on that with near certainty . The French Defence was played in fou r ames and A lekhi ne 's D�kncrJQ.�Capablanca comparativeiy-+a-fe.l¥---- played these openings and besi des , inspection showed that Lasker usually chose little-known , questionable continuations for which it would not have been simple to prepare in a few hours . Moreover the character of the battle which resulted from these openi ngs probably did not appeal to Capablanca . The remaining two games were against Riumin and Ragozin , both Sicilians. Lasker won the irst, but lost the secon d. However, it was not so much the outcome that w as im port ant as the fact that in both of these games White played the op ening unassumingly and almost vol untarily handed the initiative to his opponent. These examples dou btless suggested to Capablanca the expediency of his choice of the Sicil ian. It is possible that he also remembered Lasker 's none-too-confident play throu ghou t that tou rnament, particularly in positions in which delay was fatal. and decided that the Sicilian was very well suited for such a ba ttle. The time has come. The hall is packed and everybody is impatiently waiti ng
213
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY for the game be tween the two famous Grandmasters to start. Lasker is already sitting at the table. Rokhhn wrote: "HIs hvely , pIercIng eyes look attentively and alertly . . . Two or three minutes pass and Capa still hasn't appeared. Is it possible that he is still preparing for the game? But here he comes, charming and benign as usual. He quickly m a kes the first move. A Sicil i an ! I can h ardly surpress my curiosity and e xcitement . What is in store in this game? ---
. . The moves fol low quickly. Cap a
�uddenly--s-t-an-ds--up-and--greets me, but--does-t�press" -fm io-n-is-- imperturbable. A fter Black's ninth move, though, the Cuban persistently looks at m e , catches my eye and gives the shadow of a wink . Three or four more moves are made. Capablanca is at hi s best; he is pl aying with great strength and inspiration . Even Lasker , the s ubtle chess psychologist , does not seem to have expected such aggression from his oppone nt . The struggle continues. Lasker complic ates the g am e ; he is defen ding stubbornly and desp erately , b ut the
---
to-be-apparent.'' --
-rc'no·nsequences-of-Bfaek-!s-exeeH
Capablanca won . It appears to me that special preparation before the game
played
a
significant
role
in
this
victory .
Doubts
which
were
troubl ing
C ap ablanca on the eve of the game disappeared as soon as play started . Concrete inform ation about his opponent helped him to solve the problem of w wll h... at <-
_ _ _ _
play in the
forthcoming
game
And
the
fact of having
thoro ughly thought out his decision raised his faith in himself and cheered and ins pired him, dispelling the "dark powers" of the adverse emotions-fear, anxiety and hesitation. Botvi nnik 's recollections of his decisive game against Kotov in the last round of the 1 1 th USSR Championshi p , Leningrad 1939 , are instructive. Before the last round the two players ha d an equal number of points and so victory on the
___
--'I.... as "'t. da): would haxe..m.eJlJ1Uhe.be .tiJk_J!fJ Champion for either of them.
N aturally both of them prep ared seriously for the game . After a long hesitation BotvilUlik chose to play the Nimzo-Indian Defence . He had correctly g uessed the direction of his opponent's preparations: " Kotov w atched my play in the tournament attentively. He saw how I played the Nimzo- Ind i an Defenc e agai nst M ak agonov and noticed th at with the p articular order of moves I played he could turn it into a Ragozin Defence. which the theory of the time held to be to White's advantage . Kotov probably finished his analysis at this point. I , on the other hand , continued and looked through a few games in which the Ragozin Defence w as played and came to the conclusion that it gave Black equal c hances." And so it happened. The Nimzo- Indian Defence soon transposed into the Ra ozin Defence . Kotov
adu all
lost hi s confidence, made a mistake and then
through inertia another one and , tot ally confused , lost the game. Let us h alt a moment at the question of the quality of the information used
214
EMOTIONS IN CHESS during preparation .
Both Botvinnik and Kotov realized the possibility of
transposition i nto the R agozin Defence, but treated the in formation differently. --Betvinnik eheeked the
up--to--dat e information available
on
the thenry--uf-tha-<-----
opening , whereas his opponent accepted the opinion of the reference books. Kotov had only a superficial acquaintance with the subtleties of the system which theory regarded so poo rly . and in consequence he go t into difficulties during the game. Evidently he came gradually to realize that the standard
ass�LY�led-to--wrig�le out, buctt-l' ill ll--ttl he e----
_ _
meantime the clock was counting the valuable minutes. He became restless, lost confidence and mistakes were not long in com i ng . I t i s un ques tionable that wide knowledge and erudition are essenti al , but to make these the only goals of one's preparation is too one -sided . The International M aster Lisit sin said that while preparing for the 1 6th USSR Cha m pionshi p he looked through a round three tho usand games. He was quite sllccesshI\, scorjng�oUL-CbeSS-joumalists-jGk�-t£at had Lisitsin ..
looked through a couple of thousand m ore games he would certainly h ave won the first prize . " Here again we to uch upon the question o f the quality o f one's information. Evidently effective p rep aration depends on observing a sensible measure and a correct proportion be tween qu antity and qu ality in chess knowledge_ . _AJ,L..
_ _ _ _ _
appropriate motto is: " w in not with quantity, bu t with sk ill . "
Botvinnik wrote : "For one com petition it i s s ufficient to prep are three o r four openings as White a nd the same number as Black , but systems have to be prepared very well indeed. If a master does not have such systems in his arsenal then he can hardly expect to achi eve a good result" . These are considerations one should have in mind while prep aring for a illJ n e�k"" eU d-J re a red should be t orou hl)'_ch
tou rnamen t . The variations to be
_ _ _ _ _
training g ames or analyzed with somebody . This laborious and difficult work w ill bear fru it . Suvorov 's" motto: " the harder the training , the easier the ba ttle" finds appl ication in chess . How difficult it is and how uncertain one is when one h as not done s ufficient theoretical prepara tion! I would like to quote two exam ples from my ow n expenence In ffieChigorin Mem orial Tournaments at Sochi in 1964 and 1965 . For the first of these I w as prep ared satisfactori ly. I studied a few openings deeply . I also analyzed my recent games and studied my future opponents. I travelled to the competi tion optimistic ally disposed and with faith in m y abilities. The amount of prepara tory work I h a d done enabled m e to do rel atively l ittle preparation before each round. I n m any games confidence in m y knowledge allowed me to overcome excitement . I rem e mber that even the Impertu rbable Spassky was dl scourageowhen a ter 1 P·K4 P·K4 2 P·KB4 I quickly answered 2 . . N ·KB31? He thought for about .
·One of the mosl outslanrline Russian soldiers of the
1 8th Century.
l'Il
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY forty minutes and, if my observ ations are correct, he looked at the bo ard with a feeling of surpri se . The vari ation 2 . . . N-KB3 is rarely pl ayed in, compe titive -------c;1-;\ie o...-.c ss ..-.---;F C� ·"Jftyyea-rsa�oirwlrs__ptayectin the game-etri-gorilsteil l-Belll l and mor recently it occ urred in the game Bronstein- Bernstein. In my preparations for the tournament I considered the possibility that Spassky or somebody else might play the K i ng's Gambit, and I carefully analyzed this half·forgotten variation and found lines which, in my opinion were quite satisfactory for Black .
---
-I-11'ogetherwithagroup af SMala... £hess--pl�-c�c-k�alysis andc-am to the conclus ion that it was a playable defence , With a light heart ( launched on the prepared vari ation against my dangerous opponent . The game went li ke this: 3 N·KD3 P-Q4 4 pxKP NXP 5 P-Q3 N-B4 6 B-K3 D NS 7 P-Q4 N-K3 8 P-B4 D-NSch 9 N·D3 P-QB4 10 PXQP QXP 1 1 pxp B>
----ink-jIf-tthh s-th� -feStH_t__w_as__my_sueees�ar-�--()nthe openi ng , which brought with it confidence and calmness. At the same tournament a detailed an alysis of the variation 1 P-Q4 P·Q4 2 p. QB4 PXP 3 N·KB3 N ·KB3 4 P·K3 B-N5 was of good service to me ( as White). This system w as becoming fashionable in those days and one did not h ave to u,llY£ too much foresight to gue£s_tbat it was going �pla ed at the tournament. I thoroughly an alyzed some of the positions of the variation and
_ _ _ _
eventually chose the line with N·QB3 followed by P-K4. This way accorded best with my style of p l ay . The Yugoslav Damj anovic . playing Black against me, chose precisely this
___
variation. In the end White managed to gain an advantage from the opening and , perhaps more importantly. to create a position after his own heart. After a --lfl-""ewJIlOYes in the opening Iwas in a very goo�lihe... position on the board was just as I wanted . I managed to win the game, and again my success was due to the "boring" homework. Unfortunately , before the 1 965 tournament I did not manage to repeat my good preparation and I arrived at the shores of the Black Sea with my oId theoretical luggage. It was not , of course, a radical change of the opening repertoire that was desirable: one should handle such things with the utmost c are . But some "repair" work on the systems I played was essential, for chess theory does not stand still and a lot changes in the course of a year. Naturally the reason w as not that I h ad not read current chess literature. I quite regul arly followed the news. I did not , however, work on the information and check it. I h ad not formed my own opinion on the theoretical innovations which had appeared over the year, not having worked on the m seriously enough. Before the tournament I was possessed with contradictory feelings. On the one hand my inner voi ce calmed me down : wha t was good a year ago would do the
216
EMOTIONS IN CHESS trick now; b ut on the other h and I understood that there were many points that were clear to me before , but of which I could not now be sure. Mv pessimistic prognosis fulfilled itself from the very first rounds. Right at the start I was Black against Kotkov, a master from Perm . He is known as an expert on the Ruy Lopez and Sicilian as White. Before. I would have chosen my "secret weapon " -a sharp variation in the Sicilian: 1 P·K4 P-QB4 2 N-KB3 P Q3 3 P·Q4 pxp 4 NXP N-KB3 5 N-QB3 P-QR3 6 B-KNS P-K3 7 P-B4 QN3 agaInst hIm withOut much heSitation . I had studIed thiS system m detail a year previously. Shortly before , however, there had been some innovations in the line and I was not prepared for it . I did not dare play such a complicated position with forced vari ations without being confident of my material. What could I do? I considered the Ruy Lopez. but again I was not sure of the merit of a number of systems. because I had not got round to checking them before the tournament. The outcome of my doubts and hesitations was that I went "out of the frying
--pan--tntoth"e;iTe'-'�--act��t<>ptaylhe French Defence-;-whic�a!l1l"'dHly""e"'v"e'I"---- played in serious tournaments. It did not take Kotkov long to prove the superficiality of my understanding of the opening and he soon gained a considerable advantage. And it was only through luck that I was let off the hook in my opponent's time trouble and managed to draw .
--
-bLacac�kHof-c-e� nfid�ue-t �-ati�n---accompanied�m�e----�
throughout the tournament . It was only thanks to the stubborness which I showed in defending desperately a number of, to say the least, suspicious positions that I managed not to disgrace myself and come fourth in the tournament. Talking about the chessic and psychological significance of theoretical preparation I would like to touch on a special , but important question : that of
�����w���ound�.----A single general recommendation is hardly possible here . Once again so much depends on the quality of one's preliminary preparation and of the chess pl ayer's individual habi ts . Nevertheless I feel I should mention some extremes still practised in competitions. ,I rem�mber tea!Jl...ga.theri�.-d.uring.Journaments which began early in the morning and often did not finish until just before noon . The team trainers si ncerely believed that the more detailed the analysis before the round the better
___
prepared the chess player would be for the struggle. If it were robots who were playing then one could not dispute this belief. But since it is live people who sit at the board . such a load on their nervous system and psyche before a five-hour game is of 1ittle profit. As a rule prolonged
analysis induces tiredness and
apathy and blul1tS-ODe's sharpness-oLth.u o' Uc lg �h ... t ,--
-
during the game. Unfortunately such a regime is often adopted even by experienced masters in individual tournaments . Labour protection has not yet
217
C HE S S A N D PSYCHOLOGY reached chess enthusiasts! Botvinnik recom mends twenty-five to thirty minutes' an alysis before the round . And wi th good general prelimin ary preparation one oes no seem 0 nee
any more ram I n g .
W e h ave looked in detail at t h e role o f quality a n d quantity o f chess knowledge in getting ready for the compe tition and its influence on the chess player's emotional s tate. We shall now turn to another aspect of preparation . For a proper u nde rs tanding of the state of one ' s opponent's ---�o � tions and will power,
it is tm-ptlTt1trtt--ttJ--Itlt6w--ab�i-s--amffitions
in the ga me in question , what he thi nks of hi s present tourn a ment placing and so on . At the 1 955 Interzon al in Goteborg , I livitsky 's game against Guim ard w as adjou rned in a sha rp position w i th White having two extra pawns . We analyzed the position for a long time a nd concluded that it was not worth I1ivitsky's risking playing for a w i n , because if he di d the Argenti ni an 's cou nter-attack could me
t very dangerolls At first Ilivitsky---.agreed with_lhiLa���smeJJLb--ll_
_ _
su bsequ ently he changed hi s mind . He said that he had decided to try to wi n, in view of all the m i sfortunes which h ad p u rs ued G uimard in the previous rounds and his apparent indifference . as if he had already given up the tournam ent which was turning ou t so unhappily for hi m . em e-=-: m b.er the lay-off of th at ill-fated game. The players were deep i n ...:. :.:. .:.:: c:.:: ---':. I r:=: thought . I l iv it sky was p en et rat ing t h e Q-side . and the Argent in ian drearily,
_ _ _ _
seemingly w ithout a sp ark of i nterest , stared at the position . My i m pression w a s that G u i m ard . with hi s ha lf·closed eye s , was doz ing . Ilivi tsky chose a n active and very com mittal pl an . G ui m ard roused him self . He changed beyond recog n i tion , his eyes beca m e decisive . he thought for a few mi nutes and confidently made a move w hich e xcl u ded all compromise : ignoring h is o pponent's passed pawn the Argent in i a n began an at tack on t h e wh ite king. I t w a s obvious t h a t he was thirsting for battle and dreamed . a t least i n t h i s game, of taking revenge for the woes other pl ayers had inflicted on hi m . A t that m oment I liv itsky could h ave stopped, looked a t the position sensibly , an d forced a draw . but he was probably in the grip of his preconception s about Guimard. White's advance carried bravely on . but in a few moves i t tra ns pi red that G u i m ar�ae a t t ack w as u n stoppable , and Ill Vltsky had to resig n . � went back discouraged to ou r hotel . " S o much for y ou r good- natured Guim ard " was the t hought th at rotated in our h e a d s . However, it w a s we who were to bla m e . I livitsky and I had a n a lyzed Guim a rd's games a n d the openi ngs he had played. a s well as t he a djou rned po s it i o n , b u t we had fa iled to note in time t he stubborne s s wit h which he fought in each game and w hich grew every t i m e he was in difficult ies . We did notice al l t h i s . b ut unfortun at ely too l at e : after the game. Because of that fat al half -point the t a l ented llivitsky fou n d himself o u t of the World Cha mpionship Candida tes' Tou rna ment . 2 18
CHAPTER 1 2
Mistakes
In this chapter I shall re-iterate some of the more im portant points made earlier in the book . Is it possible to play chess without mistakes? In order to answer this question it is not without interest to turn to the child 's g ame noughts and crosses. In that game it is com paratively easy to take into account all the variations and choose the best move. At a first glance it might appear that such an operation could be carried out in chess. Here we are also dealing with finite numbers-sixty-four squares, thi rty- two pieces and strict rules. The first calculations make us think: in the initial position White can start the game w ith twenty possible moves: sixteen pawn moves and four knight e same num er 0 possible answers . Th us , w e h ave four moves . Black h as hundred possibilities straight away . The further we go, the bigger the numbers get . After two moves there are 160.000 variations and after three-around 64 million. Any experienced chess player , however, will look at these calculations with scepticism: why on earth speak of milliolls when anybody with the least clue about chess will discard most of the variations in advance_
--�--------.�
t IS true: a great n umber of poSSIbiliTies on tfieChess- oara are merely
formal, since they contradict the elementary com mon sense of the player. There i.s . however, a great number of acceptable moves; it would take a chess player years even to look briefly at those. -The chess philosopher can therefore forget about this possibility with a clear conscience. The attempt to create a unique, ------absolutely best�t within the capacity of a-ncrm-l[n-reir.n.g'. And anyway, can there ever be a chef d 'oeu vre which can never be superseded? We are not going to enter lengthy and abstract arguments. It is obvious that
----
Cicero's words "Man is liable to error" refer to us chess players as well . It is true th at the Rom an thinker continued his thoughts by adding "and it is a fool who continues in error" . It is useless to persist in the delusion of perfection on the b attlefield of chess .
Here, as---in-lifi-te-.-- is--more-useful to look at mistakes-criticaity;-tl"a-crtirel'..---- peculiarities. systematize them and try to limit their number as far as we can . 219
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY When one looks at this proble m one notice s that there are m istakes of widely differing types. Some m i stakes one cannot com plain about . Let us im agine the
---Jf� feo>ttllo mHkile--ef-� -the--stF-uggle l'-decides--W-f4l'ce-the iss'le and p u rpos ely g oe s into a pawnless ending with two kni ghts against hi s opponent's
lone kn ight .
"I
h ave h i m now . " thinks the cavalry genera l .
" Yesterday 1 won with two pawns ; now i t is even be tter: k ni ghts are stronger than p awn s " . But in a few m oves his optim ism goes . i nstead he becomes ---4unoyed
It transpires that the knights are not sJl...Sl..mng.-'sJ . alemakJs-lXlssibk.__
b u t mate is no t . "One has to know such things" . people say in cases of this sort . It is qu ite a ju stified remark . A n u mber of m istakes are expl ainable precisely by the absence of a "technical m i ni m um " . M istakes due to ignorance , like th is one, are reflections of inexperienc e . One's attit ude towards them changes. J u s t a s o n e c an not expect a prim ary p upil to k n o w about algebr a . nor can one expect a beginner to understand such sub tlet ies as the strength or weakness of an ---
--1i�solat��a_.gLadllaLpr�ess�i le one's int u i t ion develops simul taneously. One grad u a l ly ceases to see positions in terms of "Thi s is defended. that is attacked " . and with the help of con sistent work one learns to m ake general assessment s of position s . Some ti m e s even the most e x perienced players l ack esse n t i al knowledge. A s t riking case of t his occured in the g ame Novotelnov-Terpugov from the 1 9th U SS R Cha mpionshi p . Moscow 1 95 1 .
Black 's m aterial adv antage i s s ufficie nt to w in . I t was im portant to know the w inning lin e and in particular to know that the pawn should not advance fu rther than R4 beca use it is via RS th at the bl ack king sho uld advance after the rook check on NS has forced the whi te king on to the K B- file. Terpugov . howeve r . cheerfully advanced h i s pawn t o RS . m aking a draw inev itable . A gooalesson on the ignorance of theory . H ow often one hears young pl ayers boa sting tha t
220
M I STAKES they do not k now any thoery. They seem to think that theory is for "swots " . I t is a regrettable fact that some chess players d o not keep up with the latest � fO\JJr� theoretical achievem ni.:;�E_YJ�It.1h.�experienced Resbevsky bad to pa�ly
_ _ _ _
h is ignorance in one U S A Championship . Here is th e game Fischer-Reshevsky, New Yor k 1958-9 . 1 P-K4 p.QB4 2 N·KB3 N·QB3 3 P-Q4 PXP 4 N)(P P-KN3 S N-QB3 B-N2 6 B-K3 N-B3 7 B-Q B4 0-0 8 B·N3 N-QR4? Not long before this game the same line had been played in the game Bastrikov·Shamkovich from the RSFSR Championshi p. White made good use of his 0 onent 's mistake: 9 P-K5 N)(B 10 P>
_ _ _ _
h is m uch more difficult to account for blunders which are not directly connected with the player's store of knowledge . How can one , for example, explain Chi gorin 's tragic blunder in his m atch against Steinitz , when the RUSSian ChampIOn retreated t e Ishop which was protecting him against a m ate in two ? Or Petrosi an 's e xceedingly generous gesture in the Candid ates ' Tournament of 1956 when he gave Bronstein a whole queen? Journal ists usually have a stereotype explanation s uch as "nerves were to blame" , "he could not stand the tension" and so on . These explan ations are j ust too general . We think that we can single out some conc rete psychological factors which act as catalysts in generating mistakes in chess. Time trouble is often blamed for blun ders . But even when there i s plenty of time to spare mistakes often happen . It is difficult to com e to any firm conclusion about the role of time trouble in this dark b usiness , but one cannot make a scapegoat of it. Time trouble is a fertile ground for mis<:alculations and ----q ---fin-ade- uaeies--a f thinking, attention , will, m--em-ory-a-nd other psychiC condlhons to flourish. A few words about terminology. Alatortsev, referring to Emanuel Lasker and Tartakover, distingu ishes the notions of "mistake" and "blunder" . He thinks that "mist akes" are m ainly m ade in defence and "blunders" in better positions . I think tha t such a division is groundless ; it is difficult to see any ex pediency in -
this classific ation . M oreover, the reader will see later that the ch aracteristics of -t-a-kes---ff ft- -a-voura-ble--and difficultpositiollS
-i lH-S '
221
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY When psychologists speak of i n a de q uacy in the development of an independent will , they often ill ustrat e this condition with the quality they call slIgge
Here is a concrete example of a strong influence and its effect in com pletely paralyzing the transfer of attention . I t led to a most extraordinary con figuration on the chess -board . I h ave m e ntioned th i s am using episode earlier. It ha ppened in the arne Ebralidze-Ra ozi n . 10th U SS R Championship. Tbilisi 1937.
Ragozin quickly played 4O . . . R-B2 . thi nk i ng if the rook we re laken to win it b ack by m e an s of checking o n Q 3 with the pinned ( ! ) bis hop . Ebralidze was sunk in tho ught . He probably saw only the fatal dark squared diagonal K R2-
QN8 and the exch ange of rooks , which did not look very promising. Ebral i dz e did not stop to think of other tnfllng detaiTs-:lif1acnne-black-bi-s-nop4s-ptmre-
and he co uld h ave won a whole rook! But in his t houghts there w as no shadow of distrust in hi s opponent's mov e : cou ld " Ragozi n himself" be mistaken ? I n the meantime the mood in the h all became very ten s e . One fan co uld n ot restrain himself and started shouting : "Archi l , t ake the roo k ! " " I can see . do not
----j·!ft1rlere te '·
s-a�(TIlS-s��
retreated hi s rook : 41 R-QS?? There was an u nbel ievable com motion in the hall . At first Ebralidze did not un derstand what it was abouj and l oo ked round in surprise. bu t then the penny drop ped and he clutched hi s head in despera tion . The suggestion probably worked because Ebrali dze. then a yo ung pl ayer, blindly believed in the authority of his famous opponent and did nol da re to think that he might have blundered away a whole rook . ----''P; Too-muc-rrTeverence before expelien�e--and title sometimes has-a
-
gleat effect
on p laye rs , e specially on impressionable one s, who start playing below their
2 22
M I STAKES usual strength. The wonders of the game had not yet fini shed. After the moves : 41 . . . B-83 42
--
-fN�N5-R-82ch--43-J-P -K-N -QRl 44 R Q-1eh---a-K-K-l--- l-i-&e---w-a� plunged deep in thou ght : then he put hi s rook on the fatal square B 7 : 45 R-B7?? B-K5ch and White resigned . The last blun der of the Georgian m aster was no coincidence . After Ebralidze had missed the gift of a rook from Ragozin. he became firmly convinced tha t check on the K R2 /QN8 diagonal was imJX!ssible. however. th�ihL;ukHL.h,,-,d ,,---
_ _ _ _
changed an d the bishop w as unpi nned , the check was no longer taboo an d Archil lost his rook in consequence of his firm convictions. Such are the adventures one can suffer with the transfer of attention .
On both fronts. It is said th at N apoleon could do seven things at once . We cannot spec ulate d layers can be very envious of th w eth r this i tru r not but c ability of the general. The little chess-board is so rich in content tha t it is quite difficult to keep all sectors of the boa rd under observation . Can the chess player really spread his attention over the whole of the board? While he is absorbed in the calcula tion of varia tions on the K-side is it possible for him to pay close attention to the pieces which are on the other flank? These questions lead us to a disc ussion of one of the most i m port ant pro perties of a ttention : its distribu tion over the variou s aspects of an action . This is, of cou rs e , closely related to its transferability , but the two things a re not identical. The di stribu tion of a ttention embraces mainly the width of the cerebral process in question . while transference concerns its dynamics. Chess . like life , requires a distribution of the attention . Almost any chess player will remember c ases when the long and tiring labour of encircling a weak p awn went for nothing because of some " delibera te swindle" on the other side of the board . It would therefore be quite useful to an alyze the i diosyncracies of the distribution of the a ttention in the chess struggle. For that re ason we shall t urn (do not be surprised!) to blindfold chess . Some of the specific traits of the thinking of the chess pl ayer are most clearly revealed ---tn--rtleb" · 0 game. Alekhine wrote: "The player is not trying to visualize the whole board with black and white squares and black and whi te pieces (as the uninitiated generally thin k); what he is trying to do is to recall some characteristic move or the configu ration of some part of the board. in the same way as in life we recall some familiar person , book or thing . . . A most i m portant observation ! In the process of thinking we isolate the most . of imagerlftfdcofice ntrate our attenr.1=0=n--co""n----- ---...."'":porra-m--ouror-aiugelmber l1r the se . The board an d pieces are divided into prim a ry and second ary reg ions of "
223
CH ESS A ND PS YCHOLOGY action . When we speak of i ntense concentration in chess we shou l d the refore visualize the m a in forces of thought directed towards the principal section
--
--e·flose-n-by--tAe--Il-�-s -ee s. while the J"eSt--{)f-the-board has mere.ly..JLS¥mbolic garrison , scarcely capabl e of action . This type of thi nking occurs in over- the -boa rd play .i ust as in bl indfold che s s . We have noticed how unevenly the chess p l ayer's concentration is distrib uted over the various pa rts of the board . H e watches one section with great tension
and sees every detail of it where a s
h e does n o t notice anyt hi ng on t h e other side
of the boa rd .
Nobody
wants
to
challenge
the
use
of
i ntent
observation
and
deep
concen tration of the a ttent ion on a single obj ect . but we shou l d like to speak of the necessity of trying to distrib ute one ' s attention in accordance with the requirements of the activity in question . The distrib ution of the at tention in chess is p articul arly im port ant when one is
----'c.ond_u..c1ing_play_Q!1.J>�lhJlanks . This is �rha s the most diffic u l t thin
_ _
in chess.
Alekhine's ab i lit y to conduct the g am e over the whole of the bo a rd i s we l l know n , but there are plenty of exampl es of such operations proving to
be beyond
the streng t h of even the most experienced pl ayers .
Contemporary chess , which de pen d s so heavily on the dyn a mic element a n d o n a w i de range of actions , i s unt hi n kabl e without t h e development o f the distribution of attention and without the ability to conduct t e
attle on sever a
fronts. U nexpe cted moves, t r aps and diversionary sacrifices fa l l on fe rtile ground when attention falls shor t . even on a single piece . The position in the following diagram is from the gam e Vidm ar· M i t chel l . H astings
1 9 25/26.
MItchell's
po sItion
IS bette r . He
only has
f�1e"n-n-agatnn-Wtrtte·s
trans pa rent threat on the s q u a re K R 2 . b u t he chose a poor way of doing so. He
224
MISTA KES
16 . . . p·B4! n RxB! RxR 27 . . . QxR 28 QxR mate 18 BxRP and V idmar 28 . . . NxKBP fails to 29 Q-B3 N-Q4 30 P-QB4! I nstead of 26 p-B4-the-mOl'e-Dlodest--meve-2.6...,.p R3 would-h-ave--given-8f1lac-k-a-goo --- game. Mitchell's mistake is quite understandable. In pl anning his next move he pl ayed
won a pawn, since
only took into account the "threatening mech anism " of the queen and bishop and completely forgot about the position of the white rook , which seems to have no infl uence on the co urse of the battle. Thinking along those lines and
26 . . . P - K R3
look quite possible. so
26 . . .P·B4 he...c.hO£e..1he-.fu:sLcontinnation as thlee----
saier one (so th at he would not h ave to reckon with 27 P-BS etc . ) After the move
in
the game the KRS-Kl diagonal was opened and the sacrifice was on .
Misfortune struck from an u nexpected side! "Long " moves are oiten overlooked when one's attention is distributed inadequately . The surprise of "long" moves (for example, queen from
R8 to B3)
is easily expl ained if one considers that one's attention is concentr-ated-on-the----- mentally delineated main section of the board . I believe th at an important condition for the development oi attention is education in critical thinking . To this end it is a good idea to divert oneself from one's intentions during a game, an d try and thin k on one 's opponent's behalf. Such a tra nsfer of attention helps to regu late one's own mlsta es an
lans and eliminate
miscalcul ations due to inattentiveness.
We can mention another occ asion when detached self-observation worked wonders. The psychologist Platonov has related how , at a lengthy meeting , the p articipants could not come to any agreement. Passions ran high , b ut the question was still not clear. There was a short interva l , after which, when everybody was keen to get on to the second round of debates, a tape recording o f a l l the previous discussion was switched o n . I t was amusin e mem
to
see
the faces
0
rs Istenmg to their own speeches , which e arlier they h ad thought so
logical and consistent . Further discussion became more businesslike. Everyone made an attempt to express their t houghts clearly and formulate their reasoning more precisely.
---�imtsphl tha-neous-di yrats-omake
a contribution to the development of the
breadth of attention . Going from one board to th e other, the player h as to make quick dec isions taking into account the most diverse features of changing pos itions. The audience often asks : "Would the m aster notice if one of the p articip ants moved a piece to a di fferent square or simply removed it from the board?" I think th at an experienced pl ayer would notice the change because the logic of his
--
plans-wonld bedistulbed�Thepa: ns an
pieces are no JUs a ran om cor� ect � lon ----
of wooden objects: they are bearers of the idea of a strategic plan or tactical
225
CHESS A N D PSYCHOLOGY o peration . Their interconnections are reflected in our thin king , t h a nks t o the breadth and distrib ution of a ttenti o n , and the more s ub t le and deep these connec tions a re the better those qualities are develope d . Some sceptics do try an d ch ec k whether t h i s is true , wh et her t h e m aster does notice th e cheating . It happens . One comes to a board and thi n k s : What on e arth? The combin ation w as all right , but now it h as disappe ared ! One starts un tangling the variations and it beco m e s clear tha t the logic of the game has b e en upset because of a pawn , s ay on Q3. One im mediat ely questions it: how did it get there? One analyses again . G radua lly one is convinced tha t the pawn could not have got to Q3 by honoura b le means an d . to the laughter o f the audience , one puts it back w here it belongs, say
04 . From t he a udience a t s uch
mom e nts one hears excl a m a tion s : " He really does remember every t hi ng ! " No, m y de ar chess lovers, th e give r o f a sim ultan eo u s displ ay remembers b y n o means every thing . I will reitera te the thought I expressed earlier: t he memory stores m ai n ly the sense of a posi tion an d its i nterconnec tion s , and the fuller they are the greater is one ' s ability to distri b u te one's a ttention . We have shown how im porta nt this ability is for the chess player. I should like to stress once aga i n tha t the develop m ent of thi s property depends not on l y on chess training , but also on the person ality as a w hole. Versa tility of characte r, dI versity of mtereStsari
rtaw)l:rrabhle�-
influence on one ' s progress in any fie l d a n d in chess in pa rticular. The richer and the more diverse the traini n g o f on e ' s thinking, the easier it will be to solve logical tasks ove r the board , a nd the greater the vol ume of problems of chess em braced . The chain reaction.
- . -H--rr-I S no 0 ;r---oe-ca use of a single lIIillormTsta-kes a ru e a g a me 0 c e two or t h ree such e rrors that lead to a sad en d . Everybody knows the prove r b : " I t never rains b u t it pours . " T h i s p roverb often a pplies t o chess . I t h as been
observed t h a t one mistake in a g a me often provokes s uch depression t h a t other " sins" come soon a fter. There is a sort of c h a in reaction , one m isfortune stim u
latingthe appear��.��---Let
us look
at
a posit ion
from
t he g ame
Cha mpionshi p , Tbilisi 1 93 7 .
226
K an - Y u dovich ,
1 0th
USSR
M I STAKES
White's advantage is unquestionable. It remains only to finish off Black's pa ralyzed defence of the he avy pieces. The pros aic move I p. KR3 was the sim plest way, but, carried away by a wrong idea , K an played I P·QBS? After the obvious defensive move 1 . . .R(Nl ).Kl White made a second minor error : 2 p. 86? pxp 3 PXP Q-Bl! The position has changed and Black has hopes of a dangerous counter-attack . Such a sharp turn of events probably influenced Kan adversely and he made a third mistake, thi s time the decisive own goal: 4 Q. ��Q4! 5NxN"RX1rOR>
227
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY Cha mpion . After : 1 P-K4 P-K4 2 N-KB3 N -QB3 3 B-NS P-QR3 4 B-R4 N-B3 0-0
B-K2
6
R-KI P-QN4 7 B-N3 P- Q3 8 P-B3
0-0 9
P- Q3 N-QR4
10
5
B-B2 P-
B4 11 QN-Q2R-K1 12N-B] Black made the inacrurate move J2.��_____
Flohr has described with great insi ght the psychological motif of the battle. Botvinn i k, fee ling that he ha d not made the best move, i mmediately took emergency measu res: " 13 B-NS P-R3 14 B-KR4 N-B3 1 5 N-K3 B-K2. Thi s mov e , which is typical of Botvinnik, speaks vol umes about hi m ! Being as usual critical of himself , he understood that he had m ade a m istake on the twelfth move and decided to remedy i t . It also bears w itness to his decisivene ss. Not m any masters wo ul d have done this . Euwe, for example , pl aying agains t Alekhine , once made the mistaken mov e R( B I )-K 1 . Two moves later he had to defend his pawn on B2 . and had he returned his rook to B I , in spite of the loss of two tem pi . hi s game would ha ve .been quite satisfactory. Howeve r . he did not have the courage to admit h is m istake and he defended the pawn wit h a knight [which p rove d t o b e weaker- N . K . ]" . A s we know. will -power i s tempered by making constant efforts i n st ruggling against difficulties. In chess in pa rtic ular it is useful to make oneself fight until all reason able possibilities are exha usted. and to be on the w atch for chances even in the most difficult position s . What is good defence? First o f all it means not giving in t o the demoralizing ere are p ayers w ose s reng oes no ecrease, u inTlu ence 0 a mista e. on the contrary i ncreases when they h ave to defend . The skill of Korchnoy, Kholmov , Pol ugayevsky, I livitsky and ot he rs in defence is explainable by the fact that they m an age to preserve their presence of mind at the most difficult moments of the ga me. Important trirles.
e have a reaOY-discussed some typlciil mlstak.e s and theIr psychOlogIcal background in the chess player' s thinking process. S ince these failings are created not by some supern atural po we r , but with one's own hand or more p recisely with one's own head, it is useful to look at chess players' behaviour in the co urse of a to urn ament . It might be objected: is it so important ? Would not y conclusions be based on purely-sttperiieial-and--pos�y--even-He6 --t rr-eet im pressions ? In reply we have to admit that observat ion of the exterior does not tell us everythin g-but it does tell us a good dea l . A ches� player's behaviou r and habits can sometimes tell us more abo ut the c auses of his fail ures than can a detailed anaylsi s of posit ions and vari ation s . Often these seeming trifles can be the mysterious levers which hel p one's mind to work , or on the other hand , induce �c.------- --- -hti�le�d�ntie�s� sdn
Whether or not one should sit at the board the whole time is a question of long
228
MI STA KES standing. I t is well known tha t Botvinni k, in many tournaments he played in , rem ained glued to his chair for the whole five ho urs , thinking about his - uppune-nt'rpnssibte-vat-rhr io-rrr.4'htsiemtlYamers and men ors 0 say 0 elr charges: " Look at Botvinnik's example: do not walk around while the other player is thinking , bu t think yourself. " In later years Botvinni k. to the amazement of m any chess trainers , started walking up and down the tourna ment ha ll. However, the watchword "sit and play" has not lost its What com ment can be made here? Every chess player has his idiosyncracies of tempera ment, attention and other psycho-physiological qualities . so it would be wrong to give one general prescription . Nevertheless I would like to point out certain considerations. We aU k now that a hum an being's capacity for a prolonged an d st able concentration of the attention is limited . One cannot expect one's bra in to work
effectively-ev��a-Fd-fef--wh -the- e-le-fi-ve--fle-u-r-s-c. ------------
-
Let
us compare t wo key moments in a game: suppose you are thin king about your move , weighing up the n umerous pros and cons before you decide what to play . In this yo u try to keep yo ur attention an d thin king processes at the ir very highest level. The will and emotions are strained to the limit. The content of the thin ki ng process. however, is quite difkre.nL.wJtil�you are waitin �yj)CllL opponent to move, especially if you are not in time trouble and the position contains a l arge n um ber of contin uations of ro ughly equal v al ue . In such cases the m ind is relatively passive and the strength of its attention decreases , because the imp ulse to mobiliz.e the will-that is , the opponent's move-is absent. We try to guess our opponent's move and such a condition , like any uncertainty in life, depresses and disturbs. An d tiredness increases. ,-I ... Wl ll ·)>-1 lll no �w-4uottUheJ'eaction£-of mypup�-f-i�st-ca.t.e.goq-p1-aye.��n---- I s uggested playing a few games with the purpose of using their opponent's time for thinking . A-a lively , impetuous you ng man of an excitable and even choleric tem perament objected hotly: " I cannot play like tha t. I find every ga me a trial: I get very tired and close to the time control I m ake mistakes in c alculation . During the game A looked unhappy. He looked rou nd at his opponent and the clock . His results in the games were poor. B on the other hand was calm, sensible, taciturn and imperturbable; one could hardly tell whether he ITked his position or not; he could be classified as phlegm atic . He said: " I got v ery tired . The things I thought abo ut d uring my opponent's move were not much use. In many cases I did not guess his move and spent my tim e on other ssibilities . A few ti mes it ha ened that I calculated a plausible variation and my opponent did make the move I was considering, but when it came to the point it transpired that my preli minary c alc ulations were _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
Of
229
C H E S S AND PSYC HOLOGY
wrong". I m a de fewer errors when my opponent made a move I was not expectingl" In games played acco r di n g to the system "play an d do not stand up
s resu ts were average
or
1m .
Person ally I thin k that it is beneficial to rest during one's opponent's move. One should try to di vert on e's atten"t ion an d release one's nervous ten sion . One should not , however, t ake this too literally . There are circum stances when one has to think while it is one 's opponent's move. It is natural in time trouble, when
---t'e th-h re-are-forced-vari-ations-orif-orre-su-ddenly-thin-ks-of-a-repty-one-ha Ha-ken- into accou nt. More often , thou gh , distraction from the moves during a game is quite j ustified , for I am firmly convinced that to be glued for five hours to the board is not the best way of improving one's attention . It is difficult to draw a final conclusio n , but I think that the ban on free movement can be lifted without much worry. One sees contestants strolli n g around during their opponent's moves , lookin g at other pusitiom-or-exciIangingjocular lemarks.
Incidentally , they hardly ever-
talk about their own games . Occasion ally one hears an excited question like " Well , what do y ou make of my position ? " But this is really a theoretical questi on .
Even
such
famous
G ran dm asters
as
N aj dorf
and
Tai m anov
cont ravene the rules in thi s way, and the strictest of con trollers lets these
----s-lrreleJll.a.l'k. --p-ass-,un.der-� s-t-andi-ng-t-ha.t-t-h-e-im-p. na.ble-chess-p.\.an .y� g- to comfort h i m self. In spite o f differences in behaviour i n these minutes of sui !?eneris rest on the battle fiel d , I h ave nevertheless noticed something common to most pl ayers . It is a somewhat one-sided way of transferring the attention . At such moments a chess player can emerge in conversati o n , but he does not like listening to others. He m ight becom e int erested in a position , bu t he would not take so much ---l'inR-ltHltl:Amst-i-f-tlw-pe-sition
....�-.---� -A 4
,
RSFSR
Championship in Kazan, Nezhm edtinov compl ained to me that an enthusiast had started an i rrelevant conversation with him and his chain of thought had been disrupted. After the conversation N ezhmedtinov made a bad mi stake in his g ame, which was an i m portant one (against Dorosh kevich in the l ast roun d ) . What Nezhmedtinov forgot was that. not very long before, he himself had been tet1lng funny stories to othe r contestan t s . In a l l probability the transfer of attention i n s uch cases h appens gradu ally and its relation to the domina ting point of excitement-the game-is carefu l ly m aintained . An energetic, alien in strusion (as in the case of the enth usiast in Kazan) acts on the ex tremely tense and sensitive nervous system of the player like a bom b underneath hi m . A chess nla er's abili
to work d u r in
the course of a
arne de
nds not onl
on his using his opponent' s m ove time sensibly for resting, but on other factors as well. After all , however m uch you rest during the game you will be tired at the
230
MISTAKES
end of it ! Like other kinds of cerebral work a game of che ss can be divided o owmg stage s : ( 1 ) be com ing absorbed in the work ; (2) the phase of effectivene s s ; (3) a phase of decline du e to tiredness.
into the greatest
For comp arsion l et us visit an airport an d watch a traffic controller at work . If we
patiently observe
the runway superintendent over
a long
perio d and measure
the rhythm of his work with instruments we sh all find that he
does not
attain his
e ptimat-woTkirrg-effectivel1e-ssat once, Dura1rerten -fifteen mmu es rom u..,. ---.... start of his shift. Why is that? There can hardly be any q uestion of tiredness at the
beginning
of a shi ft .
Pavlov's research showe d that tr ansferrin g from one activity to another i s psychologically
difficult for
a human being . I t is not at once, not aU of a sudden ,
but only gradually that his thoughts and emotion s
get used to
the rhythm of even
familiar work .
'fh-e-cuntro-rr�r,.fusn-n r
mood
e c ess p ayer,
and get rid of those imp ressions which
a es Ime 0 a JUs 0 a wor mg accompa nie d hi m on hi s jou rney to
or to urnament hall . In aviation and in other spheres of activity this For ex a mpl e for the first ten minutes the air traffic works along with his colle ague from the previous shift . In chess on e
the airport
fac t is allowed· for . controller
,
---heat'S--l.it-tk--abeut--s -tfl.is tage of
aedi-matira-lioJe-r.--SemeHmes-joomalists-m -..+;·'""'"---
th at Bot v inni k traditionally appea red in the tournament hall fifteen minutes before the round . A nd that is all they have to say on the ma Uer. One should give some thought to why the ex-World Champion is so faithful to his habit . I t is not accidental ; he de li be rat ely prolon gs hi s tournament day by a few min u tes . By coming early he gets rid of unnecessary t ho u ght s an d tunes himself for the forthc oming battle so that at the sound of the gong he is in full fig .
Botvinnik seems
to have understood the signific ance of this factor. example is quite exception a l . The sight of a ma ste r ru shi ng when the game is j ust about to start is more com mon. It takes
Unfor t unately, this in , s ti ll p anting.
latecomer a few minu tes to recover before he starts getting absorbed in the ame and he..rashly uses up val!labletime w.hich-mi.ght-b�so-usekHl---
the
later.
a taxi . a trans port to wa l ki ng and in my opinion unwisely. I us ually try to go for a walk before a game for abo ut twenty to thirty m in utes. looking out for q uiet streets. On s uch a route I c a n concentrate easily or. if I wish. divert myself from tho ughts of cress . And what of the journey to the to urnament h al l ? Many pl ayers prefer
bus or some othe r kind of
.
An inten s' ve �hologicaIIQad is very bad befo.re..a.g.a.me,...Ch��t----
this
instinct ively and
fight strong distractions as hard as they can . For instance or television cameras before a g am e .
they show little welcome to photographers
23 1
CH ESS
AND
P SYCHOLOGY
"I always lose when somebody takes my picture" -complained Tartakover. This is no capricious rem ark . Bein g a very excit able and impulsive m an he felt all extra" eou s i nfluences-very---s-t ro y. There are some other extern al factors which can interfere , especially at the beginning of a game: a new tou rnament ha ll, an unusual form of the pieces, clocks etc . One has to try to ad apt to such surprises . These are not hannless trifles: they ca n seriously influenc e one's psychological tuning . ----'lTlowerl'Nleo-np ofinertia-is-vely shong in chess. 1I0w-often chess players, giving in to an ever i nc reasin g rhyth m of battie , ruin the most promising positions! Particularly notorious is inertia at adjo urnment Who has not experienced the de sire to get the poi nt as soon as pos sible, and in consequence over-pressed? The g am e is adjo urned once more an d during home analysis on e has only to regret the ruin of a position. The period of greatest effectiveness usually. lasts until about the third ho ur of the game . After that one feels more and more tired. This ---ffiig,ure is, of COUlse, conditional. Diffelences in age-and-p-hysical-plepalation .
cannot be ignored . Every experienced chess player knows his " difficult" hour
and tries to take evasive measu res. S trict self-control and correct assessment of one's own cap abilities are very important qualities in this regard: it is these which make up the common sense without which it is not possible to be successful One well ·known Grandm aster once surprised everyone by o ffering a draw when he had an ex tra pawn . Whe n hi s opponent asked hi m the reason for his ch arity he s ai d that he was tired , and that in his mental calculations he had even blundered a queen . "It is only one step from such an imaginary blunder to a real one " added the Grandm aster. It is diffic ult to criticize him; he knew best how much strength he had in reserve. --l-IIt w-as-Bot¥innik-w-ho-fim-i-nt��onal---foo
---
,
.
232
MISTAKES Now I have some experience in the m atter of writing and
I would like to say that
it does make good sense : first of all , an additional check -it takes longer to wrtte
wn and so you c an c ec
Its correctness or onger; seeon
y,
y usmg up
two or three seconds for writing a move down instead of one you involuntarily divert yourself from excitement and calm down . All in all
I
I liked thi s innovation .
recom m en d it to you too, dear reader. without waiting for the decision of the
I nternationa l Chess Federa tion . ---t-Ihhope-you winI10llegleli .
233
----------� --
��I.�----_______________
The Link Between Age and Success
Chess hteratu re contams frequent pronouncements aboutt1reage aTWlilch the chess player plays best. In 1 945 Kotov advanced the opinion, now com monly held, that the chess player's pea k comes between the ages of thirty and forth five This clai m, however, and som e other similar one s, are not based on a wide stat istical an a1ysis and therefore cannot be considered as scientific ally well founded. It is im portant to clarify this point both for the teaching and playing of chess andfor the study of the psychology ot cerebral work In gene ral. For--UUsreas� have carried out research into the age and performance in the major chess competitions of the nineteenth and twentieth centu ries. Here is a short account of the history of the problem in question. In his dissertat ion . P. Buttenwisser (St an ford University U SA 1935) advanced the ----
---
....pill . iOIl that-a-citess-piayer-pn:reI'ves-his-t6-p im-al-strength until the-age 0f fifty.
He came to this conclusion by ana lyzing the games of chess amateurs who did not p articipate in com petitions regularly . For this reason Buttenwisser's findin gs cannot be regarded as convincingly demonstrated . More serious research on the connection between the age of a chess player and his achi evements was carried ou t by the Soviet Acade mician Strumilin. I II his book "Problems in the Economics of Labour" (Moscow 1 925) he m ade a
-tat-ist+eat---an-aty1s s ---of--the-f"e5ii-lts�-ee---m-ateftes 6-fl-8 3 1911)
aml---Bf-----
thirty fo ur intern ational to urn aments ( 1 890· 1 9 1 4) . The participants in these competitions were divided into several age grou ps . Stru milin counted the total 234
THE LIN K BETWEEN AGE AND SUCCESS number of games played, then wins, losses an d draws, and then compared the results for di fferent age groups. He concluded that a chess player reached the
peak of success between tne ages of thirty two and thirty three , after which there was a sharp fall in results, while after the age of sixty there was a catastrophic fall in the player's mental ene rgy .
Strumilin's work i s o f undeniable interest . However, without going into the
results obtained in his work , let us scrutinize the methodology of S t rumilin's
eseaTcb. The bawothts--comp-aratrvealUlystswasthe quantitative mdlcator of
the ou tcome of the game: a point, half a poi nt or zero.
No doubt the n umber of points scored does , to a certain extent, reflect the
strength o f a che�s player. However, in my opinion a better measure of a player's
success is provided by the rel ation of his score to those of his opponents. More objective jUdgements and comparisons of player's performa nces are obtained
from a relative indicator (placing in a tournament) than an absolute one
(numbel ofpointsscored).
I will expl ain this i dea by an example. In the 1 959 Candidates To urn ament i n
Yugoslavia, Keres scored 1 8 ! points out o f
28, that i s 6 6 per- cent, bu t h e came second an d so he did not qualify to play the World Champion . In the corresponding tou rnament in 1956, in A msterda m , S myslov got
out of 1 8
1 11
_6J--B�r-ceDt) and ca��se-n--cl-es-nfu-g -tflese-r eives-prefer m"';e�----
to Keres according to Strum ilin's met hod , whereas Smyslov was in fact more successful . F or thi s reason the pl acing of a chess pl ayer i n a tou rnament was taken as the
m ain criterion in comparing pe rform ances .
.of
facts.
I
have
anal yzed
chess pl ayers of the past
the
and
My analysis is based on a wide
tournament
records
present: Chigorin ,
of
thirty
tarrasch,
two
Em,
range great
Lasker,
Teicbmann-.-Maroz}'r-Pil c ,lsbury Schlechter, Mat'S�in n ", s:t. le >i irr n,
Spielm a nn , Tartakover, Capablanc a , Nirnzowitsch, Bogolyubov ,
Alekhine,
Euwe,
Makagonov ,
Ragozin,
Flohr,
Alatortsev,
Levenfish,
Kan ,
Lisitsin,
Konstantinopolsky, Tolush , Botvinnik, Lilienthal , Reshevsky , Bondarevsky . Kotov and Bolesl avs ky .
pl ayers in
I
h ave registered 524 cases of participation of these
1 25 tournaments
durinUhLpeJ:ioo_-.l8B1-1967
The cboice-of_____
--tourn aments was quite difficul t . I h ad to select competitions of comparable strength for statistical purposes .
As additional data for ch ar acterizing the long sporting life of a n umber of chess pl ayers
I
have taken i nto account participation in in dividual and team
m atches , although this work is prim arily devoted to the effect of age in tournament ches s, which is the main form of chess competition . The struggle
has
a
com letel
different psychological
content
in-1DJlime�aruLie ,,-,a ll m ll-
com pe tition s , and for thi s reason requires di ffe rent critena tor
analysis.
235
_ _ _ _ _
11
com pa rative
CHESS The period ----
A ND PSYCHOLOGY
t ask chosen w as t o e s t ablish for e ach player the peak o f his cre at iv i ty the du ring which his results were at the i r hi ghe s t and most consistent lev el ,
.
,;,-alnoldrt-ttlhle-periud-uttD-s-decline By a piay�a;/rwel1TeIDrmnrighe-srptacing in .
the gi v en tourn aments . If the best result was attained several times , then all of them were counted. The notion of op tima l period " is defined as th e ti m e d uri n g which the m as t er enjoye d consistently good result s . Fl uctuat ions of resu lts d u ri n g this period were "
----
I�re than three piactls fro�� . ----------
The falling -off in resul t s was analysed on two level s : (a) some decline in strength of play i n which deviation from the average of the op timal period was fou r to five placings ; (b) decline in which the deviation from the optimal pe riod was more significant . For each of the thirty two players I determined values of the parameters descri bed above by a statistical analysis . Here are brief characterizations of the ----
ilp�eHrf(}I"J'rul�S or twoGrandmasttlrs;
R U B INSTEIN ( 1 882- 1 961 ) . I anal yzed twenty one tourn aments in which he result was attained at the ages of twenty five, thirty and forty . His optimal period was twenty five to thi rty . Some decrease in strength occured between thirt two and fort tw o . His decline was at fort three. TA RTA KOV ER ( 1 887- 1 956 ) . I an alyzed seventeen tourn aments . His peak was at the age of thi rty five. H i s op t i m al pe riod was thi rty th ree - fo rty one . Some decrease of s t re n gt h took place between forty four an d fifty . His decline was at fifty nine. played. H i s best
I m ade simil ar ch aracteriz ations of the c aree rs of each of the players u n der disc ussion , and obtained the following average results: a chess pl aye r a ttains h is best results at about the age o f thirty fiv e ; his period of op tim al an d con sistent results l a s t s somewhat longer tha n ten years ; it ranges between the ages thirty and for ty ; some decrease in streng1 h is observed usually aro un d the age of fo rt y three and a pa r ti cul arly noticeable decline starts at the age of fo r ty seven . Along w i th these averages . the in dividu al developments of the c areers of the gre a t p ayers are a so 0 m t ere s t . s a v lsua al p otte e to u rn a ment resu� of aU the t h i r ty two players on graph s . On the v ertical axis placings in to ur n ame n t s were plotte d , while the horizontal axis represented age . The graphs allowed me to grasp at a gl a n c e the c areers of the players and compare the ir tou rnam en t l on g e v i ty The g ra phs showe d . for exa mpl e that for most of the pl aye rs I exa m i ne d . s i gni fi c a nt fluctuations du ring a tou rna ment caree r were the ru le. These v a ri a tions are most obvious in the c a ses of Sp i elmann . Kola\, . Lilienthal. Ragoz:ih and Tolush. I t w as also noticeable th at the growth of a chess pl ayer s s tr en gth h i , .
,
'
236
.
THE
LI N K BETWEEN AGE A N D SUCCESS
approach to his optimal period and the beginning of his decline do not , as a rule ,
take
place
considerable
in
a
strictly
fluctuations
in
consistent
re su lts.
w ay ,
but
are
accomp anied
Eailu�er the
by
fil'St-signi-fil-(; cantt----
achievement h appened to Chi gorin , M aroczy , M arshal l , Duras, Nimzowitsch, Makagonov , Konstantinopol sky and Kotov ; singular " uplifts" occured during the peri o d of decline in the c areers of pl ayers such as Chi gorin , T arrasch, Lisitsin and Tolush. There are no sharp fl uctuations in Lasker's or Botvinnik's c areers those of Ia rrasch,
Ale
nor in
hine , Capablanc a , Pillsbury, M aroczy and Reshevsky .
The m ost striking feature is the consistency of high results in Lasker's and Botvinnik's careers . These are exceptional examples of sporting longe vity . It is too early to come to final conclusions . We can , nevertheless , infer that a chess p l ayer's
longevity
not
only
depends on
his
health
and
individual
i diosyn cracies , but i s in direct relation to the general content of the creative life of the master , to the breadth of his intellect and to the force of hi s e enVla
e constancy
m
rsonalit .
the c areers of Lasker . Botvinni k , Euwe , M aroczy ,
Vidmar. Levenfish and Tarrasch is probably explainable by their hi gh level of training in other kinds of cerebral activity outside chess. Th us , o ur data to some extent corroborate those of Strumilin , while in certain respects they correct them . It is hard to agree with S trumilin that after the age of �Tee-th-e-g-ener
en
ency
IS
towar s a decline in mental
activity. A ccording to my data, decrease in the strength of play (and moreover still not a very significant one) occurs later, around the age of forty three. It is also to be hoped th at in the near future scientific recom m en dations on t raining
methods
and
on
the
frequency
of
a
player's
participation
in
tourn aments will help to lengthen his active chess life·span . The state of contemporary psychology allows us to look forward to this possibility with
optim' When to ltart. The length of a chess p layer' s period of active play depends on several factors, among them certainly being his general i ntellectual development, his character and his conditions of life and health. But it a
ears tha t One..lllu.stjnclude.aJlt e � sss--- --
o VIOUS influence in the list -namely, the time at which he starts playing che ss . The Soviet psychologist B . G . Ananiev w a s certainly of this opinion, h e wrote: "There is an indubitable connection between commencement and culmina tion . . . " Before we can substa ntiate this claim we need to agree wha t exactly constitutes the beginning of chess activity.
A ccording to lIyin- Zhenevsky .
" . . . the life of a chess player begins , not when he learns the moves, but when he beco mes interested in chess". n
many other chess players have differentiated in their autobiographies
237
CHE S S A N D PSYCHOLOGY between the moments of learni ng the rules and of becom i ng seriously intereste d . An other e x ample i s Alekhine, w ho wrote "I have been playing chess since I
�"""''''''-'L! .. '' ....J ool
_ _
WU \
became seriously interested when I was twelve" . Nevert heles s .
s uch a distinction i s entirely subjective a n d is often not re ally j ustified . T a ke t h e case o f A lekhine : a li ttle further on , speaking of blindfol d play, h e sai d : " A t the age of twelve or there a bo uts I tried to play without sight of the bo ard" Now , til pl ay b lindfol d takes a very sol id grounding
in
chess, and A lekhine had evidently
attained this by the time he w as twelve. Further indications are his presence at
a
display given by Pillsbury when he was ten and between the ages of ten and twelve. The biographies of other le adi ng m asters poi nt to a similar p attern . Th e majority of them showed
a
m a rked inclina tion towards chess a s soon a s they
learnt the rules . By a pl ayer's start we shall the refore understand the ti me he first learnt the ru l es of chess . What ,
then , can
pe r formance?
I
be s aid o f the connection between starting a ge
have ana lyzed the ca reers o f
ran m as ters
0
t e pas
p resent (Philidor, L . Paulse n , Morphy, Zukertort , Chigo rin, Em . M a roczy,
Pillsbu ry ,
Rubins tei n ,
S piel mann ,
V i dm a r,
an d an
Lasker.
N imzow i tsch.
Capabl anc a , Levenfish , Alekhine , Euw e , Flohr, N ajdorf, Lilientha1 , Botvinn i k . Reshevsky, O ' Kelly, Bondarevsky, Kotov , Keres , Szabo, Fine , Bol es l avsky.
etrer,-Ben1m-;-PetrosiaIl, Alltoshin ,
Furm an , Smyslov. Ghgoric , Krogiu s ,
Korchnoi,
Lein . I vkov , V a syukov, G u rgenidze,
Matano
.
.
Lutikov, Lengyel,
Polugayevsky. Uhl m ann, Ol a fsso n , A . Zaitsev , Larsen, Ciric , Tal, G ufeld. Spassky, Gipsli s , Portisch. Parma. Fischer, Hort, Balashov and Karpov) and discovered some interesting features. Group 2
G roup 1 .' . . ...
(;:, IU'ting age
D...I_ ,.6
Zukertort
7
9
Spielmann .
5
17
• " ..£vw ".... ..
0 u
Sf.rtlno age
N....."
optimal result.
£. �
rellults Chigorin Em . Lasker
I .....
-J
Capablanca
4
2S
Pillsbury
Levenfish
6 7 5
18
Rubinstein
Alekhine Euwe
20
V i dmar
14
Flohr
4 9
2S
Bonda revsky ... v.... .... ,�:..y
9
,-
Reshevsky
A verages
6.4
9
'"
P...mod oLf-
optimal
Botvinni k Lilienthal
Iv ...�'� I
15.5
238
16
12
12
30
Ie;,
a
14 14 15 14 12 15
6 6
18 8 17 4
1A
"
14 .3
1 1 .8
THE LINK BETWEEN AGE A N D SUCCESS The first observation is that the average starting age is ten and a half. The second is that many players' results do not decline uniformly after thei r optimal st expetience-a-surt-oct----- � (that is, period of eonsistently--goodtesultr,-bu "upturn" or second pe ak , during which they attain a level on a par with that of their opti m al period, an d in certain cases even surpass the best results of earlier times; furthermore , the occurrence of such a second peak is connected with starting age, as will appear shortly.
TorelatestaTtirrglrge-amtlt1ledUfat on ofthe opftmaI penod, I OiVi3ed certain chess players into two groups according to whether they started before or after the age of ten and a half (see the table). N ote that the two gro ups are about equal in accomplishment , so that we cannot speak of the greater talent of either group. The analysis shows that the players who started earlier had longer active --Piaytfig-nves . Those In the hrs group were mtro uce to the game ne arly 8 years e arlier than t hose in the second . and the average duration of their optim al creative periods was 3 .7 years longer. It seems that we are entitled to deduce that a relatively early start (up to the age of ten) promotes a long active period and postpones the point of decline to a later date . This in ference was confirmed ---by-r-researeh ied-om--oll the caleets of fof't'rP1ayers. Players w 0 s ar e before the age of ten appear to have had op timal periods lasting four years longer than the others . The most interesting phenomenon of the second peak raises a number of questions. How long does i t last? How long after the optimal period does i t come? What are the conditions for its occurrence? Clear cases of the secon d peak occur in the lives of Chigorin , Tarrasch, Maroczy . R ubin stein , R agozi h , Alato rtsev , Lisitsin an d others . Let us exam ine the case of Chigo ri n . His optimal peflad--la.s-te d-fro-m-t8-83 to t895--tte...,., e,----- 2-yeaIT)�durtflgw11icJnt..."' had consistently good results: he came Ist·2nd in New' York in 1 889, 2nd at Hastings in 1895, 4th at London in 1883. He played m atches against Steinitz in 1 889, 1 89 1 . 1 892. against Tarrasch in 1 893 and so on . After the tourn a ment at Hastings in 1 895 a period of gradual decline began . (St. Petersburg 1 895 ·96. N u remburg 1 896, Cologne 1 898....i.e.n. ...Y ruL1..89&.-etc ) In spit.e-of....s.o.m·�---- placings ( Budapest 1896, Cologne 1 898, Moscow 1899) his performance curve was fal1ing. ...
...
·
And so it co ntin ued until 1 903, when Cijigorin performed superbly. In M ay he was first in the G ambit Tournament in Vienn a ahe ad of M arsh all , Pillsbury , Maroczy, Teichm ann Schlechter and othe rs . In A ugust Chigorin won a thematic match against Em . Lasker and finally, in September, he won the Third AU -o- ernsteiT� T"'Satwe,rmHwbtnstffil�9ft 0""-;-; 3 w= a= s· th hO;e cUssian TournameJtt-a-headf-B great Russian chess player's secon d peak . And after this " swan song" his
-
239
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY successes diminished sharply (at C a mbridge-Springs 1 904. he came 6-7th. at Ostend 1904 , 13th. at Barmen 1 905 , 7- 10th, and so on ) . The second peak c a n come a t a wide range of ages . Chi gorin and M aroczy had theirs at 53 , Rubinstein at 47-48 , A latortsev at 41 ; on average the " upturn" is usual at the age of 44-45. St atistics show that the second peak is a rel atively short phase : its average duration is a littleie"S".s-tira""Il"a-year The duratIon of-t1re optlmaipel 'ioais thus 1 0(1) times that of the secon d pe ak . The interval bet ween the secon d peak and the optimal period is abou t six years . A s a rule, after the secon d peak a sharp decline occurs. The relatively slow and gradual recession in results which takes place in the interval between the opt i m al period an d the second peak now gives way to an almost catastrophic fall in the chess player's strength. "'"'Gmp-aui.���-an-be-e-bseF-ved�la-ye-FSWRO were introduced to the game relatively late-after the age of eleven. In this context we can point to Chigorin , who started at 1 6, Maroczy at I S , R ubinstein at 14 and so on . Players who were introduced to the game before the age of nine do not usual ly experience a second peak . Examples are Capablanca (w�o started 'at 4 Euwe 5 , Paulsen (5), N imzowitsch (8)' Levenfish (6)' ZukertQrt m and othe rs , who al l went through their chess careers without a second peak .
----
An early acquaintance with chess , then , not only influentes the duration of the optimal period, but also promotes a more even spread of results during one's chess career . It is true that the player who starts l at er has a secon d peak , but as a rule . this brief Indian sum mer does not make up for the relative shortness of his 0 t im al eriod. In addition the shar fall in chess playing ability after the second peak means a very abrupt finish to the career of such a player. Another feature of interest in the temporal profile of a chess player's c areer is the point of hi s first significant achievement . Once again we divided selected m asters into two groups according to starting age, an d this time we t abul ated
----f-eaclt--the-age-o pl-ayeH-first--Gfitnd-m-astre -�is_e_f-e6ttl'�ired_ subjective judgements: examples of our decisions are as follows. Chigorin's first Grandmaster success was in 1 883 (London, 4th), Em. Lasker's in 1 892 (win in a match against Blackburne) and Maroczy 'sjn 1 896 (Nuremburg, 2nd). • J
s
took as my cr i terion a player's first Grandma ter result rather t h a n the beginning of hi\ op t i m a l
o of ---- -th1.-offictaffinrrtinnr"Ster titleaGM-resutrwa,nrlrenTo-me-arn�om1-ng-i-lltnellr-srfimrl>ial"e-nn:nTto� period . a s t h e latter could n o t b e applied t o present -day players. F o r the per i d befnre t h e ,' rea tion
r
intern ation al tournament or defeating in a m atch somebody who h a d al eady a t t ained a Grandmaster res u lt .
240
THE LI N K BETWEEN AGE A N D SUCCESS
Group
I Name
StartllUl age
Morphy Zukertort Soielmann
10 7 5 8
1
Group
Fint I..enal GM rault 29
11 22
2S
20
21
18 17 15 21
Alekhine
7
Euwe
Smyslov
5 4 9 5 9 6
Geller
7
Benko
,8
I vkov
8
ursen
-7
11
7
13 9 14 16 1 6.3
Capab lanca
Reshevsky Bondarevsky Keres Bolesl avsky
4
20
18 16 17 14 20
22 14 14
Hort
7
Bal�ov
5 5
21 18 15 21 21 19
6.5
22 .8
Tal Spassky Fischer
Karpov A verages
5 6
Flnt GM reault
Intenal
Blackbume
29
Chigorin
33 24 26 23 24 26 23 22 2S 26 22 28 23 2S 18 26 24
12 17 12 11 7 10 11 9 10 10 12 10 16 11 12 15 14 12
25.3
1 1 .7
Startimr age
Name
17 16 Em. Lasker 1 2 Maroczy 15 Pill sbury 16 14 Rubins tein 15 Vidmar Flohr 14 12 Botvinnik Lilienthal 15 14 Kotov 12 Fine Gligoric 12 Petrosian 12 13 Korchnoy 13 Vasy UkOV Pol ugayevsky 12 Portisch 12
26 21 22 26 24 27 21 26 2() 27 30 22
N irnzow itsch
14
2
14
13.6
This table does show a significant difference: it took players of the second 7 years l ater on avera ge ) 4 .6 years fewer to attain a
group (who started
G r andm aster result
than
those of the first
gro up ,
so
6.andJl(asterswhentheywererough1ytwoanda11atf»el -
th at
they became
How should we interpret these findings ? [t is conceivable that the duration o f the optimal period does not depend in a necessary way on starting age , but that improved methods of training in adolescence would restore the l ater starters to parity with their more precoc ious col1eagues. To decide this important point and to try to cl arify how profitable an early ac quaintance with chess is,
we
need to
investigate the characteristics of a chess player' s thinking in childhood. . ent autitOisexpressdiametricalo ly pposectview�...t r1my""' s.... ta no rt ·M7
24 1
CHESS AND PSYCHOLOGY
"I was ei ght years old when 1 first became ac quainted with chess. Nevertheless . . . I now boldly assert tha t the development of my chess would have .
----9'be€
� all ,
less--puffifu-l-,--nt)'H· --h-ad+tteg-un-t6--p-lay m---
childhood but in youth . . . My development up to 1 906 (I was born in 1 886) was extre m ely one-side d : it centred on com binative play to the neglect of position a l . This co u l d h ave been avoided without any drawb ac ks merely b y waiting a while and teaching me the game at a more ma ture age" S · mzowitsch s�-.-rlisarlyanta.&-�oL1earning the..-game-.earLy in the concrete ness of a child's thinking. H ere is a second authoritative opinion -that of Reti : "The most striking feature of Capabl anca's style is his tremen dous co nfidence -the almost total absenc e of ove rsights or mistakes in the evaluation of positions . Th at is undo ubtedly connected with the fact that he learnt chess in early childhood . Chess became his "mother tongue" . He understood without -,e_lliu:Ltluuorts of simple position in which the player who had le.a.rnUhe-&.lluuo,-_ later in life had to work out his laborious way . It is i nterestin g to compare him in this respect with Rubinstein , . . ' . who learnt to play at the age of eighteen [at fou rteen according to new data-N . K . ] . From time to time he used t o (an d still does) make blunders, recalli ng an orator
_ _
who speak s , not in his mother tongu e , bu t in a Ian ua e learnt in maturi ty , so that , for all the profundity of his tho ughts , he cannot always fin d the appropriate telling expression . " R eti points out the significance of an early start i n forming and developing in tu itive patterns of thinking . I have a similar opinion . based on experience of t raining and of pa rticipating in com pe titions. Nobody do ubts the great significance of int uition in chess . We ail know of cases of the sudden appearance of a correct sol ution , and of an immediate u n derstanding of a position . Intuition is usually associated with the moment when a sol ution is found (that is, with the choice of a move), but intuitive forms of thinking also play a role in the phase o f getting to un derst and a position . They are involved, for instance, in the evalua tion of the position immediately after the oppone nt's move . ----tntultiiveo-r entafiofl IS ofgre at pracuc alimpor ance In e game. some ow signals to the chess player those peculiarities of the situatio n , those immediate threats on the b asis of which he can c arry out a deeper analysis. Inadequ ate or slow orien tation leads to mistakes-sometimes q uite o bvious one o r two-move blunders which one would h ave thought i nexplicable for a hi gh class player . One m ight expect , the refore , a correlation be tween a pl ayer's level of intuiti ve pe rception of positions and the n u mber of blunders he makes . ----'With"t"ihts-j-r&mimti-m-ad'e-a-s mtyoh�lunaersinthe games or our forty c hosen pl ayers . I took around 1 ,500 ga mes, 4 per cent of which
242
TH E LI N K BETWEEN AGE A N D SUCCESS contained such blun ders . And indeed, the dist ribution of them was very uneven : the representatives o f the second group (later starting age ) made twice a s many mistakes as thost..ln.Jru:_lirsp Lgmu From the second group, o�'---- and Fine can be said to have blundered only exceptionally, whereas from grcmp one Geller, Benko and Ivkov are about average, Zukertort . Spiel m ann. Reshevsky and K eres made a few blunders and for the rest blunders are of great rarity. So players whose starting age was below ten made significantly fewer obvious tactica l mistakes tha n those who started later. I t seems that the combina tive ten dency of childhood , about which Nim l.Owitsch complained, in fact helps towards the accu mulation of concrete experience which turns into intuitive perception of positions . We can therefore infer that an e arly start to chess activity has a defini te effect on the development of intuition . I t further appears that the combin ative character of chil dren 's play (which is due to the psychological chracteristics of childhood ) aids the ac uisition of tha t tactical m astery which is so essential to any player. Nor does experience suggest that it hinders the formation of positional undertstanding : Capablanc a , A lekhine . Keres and Smyslov all became versatile players , and Niml.Owitsch himself entered chess history as an original strategist . The study of the relation between creative activity an d starting age shows the eve opment m t e persona Ity of a ---n1"e�f c r am po en la s or chess player. A pressing task is to investigate these potentials t horoughly and learn to m ake rational use of them.
243
