Quantum Entropies: Dynamics, Information and Complexity

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Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems

Theoretical and Mathematical Physics The series founded in 1975 and formerly (until 2005) entitled Texts and Monographs in Physics (TMP) publishes high-level monographs in theoretical and mathematical physics. The change of title to Theoretical and Mathematical Physics (TMP) signals that the series is a suitable publication platform for both the mathematical and the theoretical physicist. The wider scope of the series is reflected by the composition of the editorial board, comprising both physicists and mathematicians. The books, written in a didactic style and containing a certain amount of elementary background material, bridge the gap between advanced textbooks and research monographs. They can thus serve as basis for advanced studies, not only for lectures and seminars at graduate level, but also for scientists entering a field of research.

Editorial Board W. Beiglb¨ock, Institute of Applied Mathematics, University of Heidelberg, Germany J.-P. Eckmann, Department of Theoretical Physics, University of Geneva, Switzerland H. Grosse, Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Vienna, Austria M. Loss, School of Mathematics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA S. Smirnov, Mathematics Section, University of Geneva, Switzerland L. Takhtajan, Department of Mathematics, Stony Brook University, NY, USA J. Yngvason, Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Vienna, Austria

For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/720

Fabio Benatti

Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems

123

Dr. Fabio Benatti Universit`a Trieste Dipto. Fisica Teorica Strada Costiera, 11 34014 Trieste Miramare Italy [email protected]

ISBN 978-1-4020-9305-0

e-ISBN 978-1-4020-9306-7

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008937916 c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com

To Heide, for her scholarship, for her friendship

Preface

The aim of this book is to oﬀer a self-consistent overview of a series of issues relating entropy, information and dynamics in classical and quantum physics. My personal point of view regarding these matters is the result of what I had the good fortune to learn in the course of the years from various scientists: Heide Narnhofer in the ﬁrst place, who introduced me to quantum dynamical entropies and was a precious guide ever since, then Robert Alicki, Mark Fannes, Giancarlo Ghirardi, Andreas Knauf, John Lewis, Geoﬀrey Sewell, Franco Strocchi, Walter Thirring, Armin Uhlmann. To me, all of them have been a constant example of rigorous mathematics and physical intuition jointly at work. Last but not least, my deep gratitude goes to my family and to the many friends on whom I could always count for support and encouragement with a special thought for Traude and Wolfgang Georgiades. Trieste, 6 August 2008

Fabio Benatti

VII

Contents

1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1

Part I Classical Dynamical Systems 2

Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Classical Dynamical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Shift Dynamical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Symbolic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Algebraic Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Conditional Probabilities and Expectations . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Dynamical Shifts and Classical Spin Chains . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 K-Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Ergodicity and Convexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Information and Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Transmission Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Stationary Information Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.3 Shannon Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.4 Conditional Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.5 Mutual Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9 10 20 25 29 34 37 40 49 54 56 57 59 61 63 67

3

Dynamical Entropy and Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Dynamical Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Entropic K-systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Source Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Channel Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71 71 80 86 90 98

4

Algorithmic Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Classical Turing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Kolmogorov Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Algorithmic Complexity and Entropy Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Preﬁx Algorithmic Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

105 106 108 113 122 127

IX

X

Contents

Part II Quantum Dynamical Systems 5

Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . 5.1 Hilbert Space and Operator Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 C ∗ Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Positive Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Positive and Completely Positive Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 von Neumann Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 States and GNS Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 C ∗ and von Neumann Abelian algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Quantum Systems with Finite Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Quantum States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.1 States in the Algebraic Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.2 Density Matrices and von Neumann Entropy . . . . . . . . . 5.5.3 Composite Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5.4 Entangled States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.1 Quantum Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.2 Open Quantum Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.3 Quantum Dynamical Semigroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.4 Physical Operations and Positive Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

139 139 143 148 157 166 170 173 178 190 208 213 218 222 227 236 241 247 251

6

Quantum Information Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Quantum Information Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Bipartite Entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Relative Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Holevo’s Bound and the Entropy of a Subalgebra . . . . . 6.3.2 Entropy of a Subalgebra and Entanglement of Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

255 255 261 287 294

Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . 7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Bosons and Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.2 GNS Representation and Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.3 Quantum Ergodicity and Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.4 Algebraic Quantum K-Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.5 Quantum Spin Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 von Neumann Entropy Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Quantum Compression Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Quantum Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

317 323 325 335 341 356 362 376 381 383 399

7

302

Contents

XI

Part III Quantum Dynamical Entropies and Complexities 8

Quantum Dynamical Entropies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 CNT Entropy: Quasi-Local Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 CNT Entropy: Stationary Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 CNT entropy: Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.4 Entropic Quantum K-systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Quantum Symbolic Models and AFL Entropy . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 AFL Entropy: Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3 AFL-Entropy: Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4 AFL Entropy and Quantum Channel Capacities . . . . . .

411 413 429 433 436 443 451 452 455 457 475

9

Quantum Algorithmic Complexities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Eﬀective Quantum Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.1 Eﬀective Descriptions by qubit Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1.2 Quantum Turing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 qubit Quantum Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.1 Quantum Brudno’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 cbit Quantum Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

483 484 485 486 494 497 506

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

1 Introduction

This book focusses upon quantum dynamics from various points of view which are connected by the notion of dynamical entropy as a measure of information production during the course of time. For classical dynamical systems, the notion of dynamical entropy was introduced by Kolmogorov and developed by Sinai (KS entropy) and provided a link among diﬀerent ﬁelds of mathematics and physics. In fact, in the light of the ﬁrst theorem of Shannon, the KS entropy gives the maximal compression rate of the information emitted by ergodic information sources. A theorem of Pesin relates it to the positive Lyapounov exponents and thus to the exponential ampliﬁcation of initial small errors, in a word to classical chaos. Finally, a theorem of Brudno links the KS entropy to the compressibility of classical trajectories by means of computer programs, namely to their algorithmic complexity, a notion introduced, independently and almost simultaneously by Kolmogorov, Solomonoﬀ and Chaitin. In a previous book by the author, the notion of quantum dynamical entropy elaborated by A. Connes, H. Narnhofer and W. Thirring (CNT entropy) was presented within the context of quantum ergodicity and chaos. The CNT entropy is a particular proposal of how the KS entropy might be extended from classical to quantum dynamical systems. After the appearance of the CNT entropy, other proposals of quantum dynamical entropies appeared which in general assign diﬀerent entropy productions to the same quantum dynamics. The basic reason is that each proposal is built according to a diﬀerent view about what information in quantum systems should mean. Concretely, it is a general fact that, in order to gain information about a system and its time-evolution, one has to observe it and a quantum fact that observations may be invasive and perturbing. Should this fact be considered inescapable and thus incorporated in any good quantum dynamical entropy or, rather, should it be avoided as a source of spurious eﬀects that have nothing to do with the actual quantum dynamics? This is an unavoidable question and, based on the possible answers, one is led to diﬀerent notions of quantum dynamical entropies. These will be sensitive to diﬀerent aspects of the quantum dynamics and thus, not unexpectedly, not equivalent: the real issue is which these aspects are and what kind of informational meaning they do posses.

F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 1, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

1

1 Introduction

This book focusses upon quantum dynamics from various points of view which are connected by the notion of dynamical entropy as a measure of information production during the course of time. For classical dynamical systems, the notion of dynamical entropy was introduced by Kolmogorov and developed by Sinai (KS entropy) and provided a link among diﬀerent ﬁelds of mathematics and physics. In fact, in the light of the ﬁrst theorem of Shannon, the KS entropy gives the maximal compression rate of the information emitted by ergodic information sources. A theorem of Pesin relates it to the positive Lyapounov exponents and thus to the exponential ampliﬁcation of initial small errors, in a word to classical chaos. Finally, a theorem of Brudno links the KS entropy to the compressibility of classical trajectories by means of computer programs, namely to their algorithmic complexity, a notion introduced, independently and almost simultaneously by Kolmogorov, Solomonoﬀ and Chaitin. In a previous book by the author, the notion of quantum dynamical entropy elaborated by A. Connes, H. Narnhofer and W. Thirring (CNT entropy) was presented within the context of quantum ergodicity and chaos. The CNT entropy is a particular proposal of how the KS entropy might be extended from classical to quantum dynamical systems. After the appearance of the CNT entropy, other proposals of quantum dynamical entropies appeared which in general assign diﬀerent entropy productions to the same quantum dynamics. The basic reason is that each proposal is built according to a diﬀerent view about what information in quantum systems should mean. Concretely, it is a general fact that, in order to gain information about a system and its time-evolution, one has to observe it and a quantum fact that observations may be invasive and perturbing. Should this fact be considered inescapable and thus incorporated in any good quantum dynamical entropy or, rather, should it be avoided as a source of spurious eﬀects that have nothing to do with the actual quantum dynamics? This is an unavoidable question and, based on the possible answers, one is led to diﬀerent notions of quantum dynamical entropies. These will be sensitive to diﬀerent aspects of the quantum dynamics and thus, not unexpectedly, not equivalent: the real issue is which these aspects are and what kind of informational meaning they do posses.

F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 1, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

1

2

1 Introduction

In view of the role of the KS entropy in classical chaos, one of the principal applications of the quantum dynamical entropies has been to the phenomenology of quantum chaos. The scope has now become wider: quantum compression theorems and recent attempts at formulating a non-commutative algorithmic complexity theory motivate the study of whether and how the diﬀerent quantum dynamical entropies are related to these new concepts. In particular, a better understanding of the many facets of information in quantum systems may come from clarifying the relations of the various quantum dynamical entropies among themselves and their bearing on quantum compression schemes and the algorithmic reproducibility of quantum dynamics. The issue at stake can be conveniently conveyed by an example: the simplest classical ergodic information source emits bits independently of each other with probabilities 1/2 for both 0 and 1. The KS entropy is log 2 and represents 1. the information rate of a classical source emitting independent bits; 2. the Lyapounov exponent of the classical dynamical system consisting in throwing a fair coin; 3. the algorithmic complexity of almost every resulting sequence of tails and heads. The quantum counterpart of such an information source is a so-called quantum spin chain, that is a one-dimensional lattice carrying a 2 × 2 matrix algebra at each of its inﬁnitely many sites: each site carries a so-called qubit . The dynamics of such a system is just the shift from one site to the other and the inﬁnite dimensional algebra of operators is equipped with a translationinvariant state. These non-commutative structures have recently become of primary importance in the boosting ﬁeld of quantum information. What is relevant is that one can construct subalgebras of quantum spin chains characterized by varying degrees of non-commutativity between their operators. Depending on that degree, the CNT entropy, varies between zero and log 2, while another quantum dynamical entropy, the AFL entropy of Alicki, Fannes and Lindblad, is always log 2. The CNT entropy thus appears to be sensitive to the amount of non-commutativity between operators, whereas the AFL entropy is apparently independent of that structural algebraic property. Because of its unifying properties, the KS entropy can be taken as a good indicator of classical randomness and complexity; one would then like to assign a similar role to the quantum dynamical entropies. Does this mean that, in accordance with the CNT entropy behavior, quantum dynamical systems have varying degrees of complexity or randomness depending on the degree of non-commutativity ? Or, according to the AFL entropy, the algebraic structural properties have no bearing on dynamical randomness or complexity, which are rather related to the statistics of such systems, namely to their shift-invariant state? More concretely, one may ask which one of the two quantum dynamical entropies is closer to the actual quantum informational structure of these

1 Introduction

3

quantum sources. Regarding this issue, of particular interest are the yet unexplored relations of the quantum dynamical entropies to the quantum algorithmic complexities. Indeed, as there inequivalent generalizations of the KS entropy, so there are diﬀerent extensions of the classical algorithmic complexity. These extensions have been motivated by the possibility of a model of computation based on the laws of quantum mechanics and on the theoretical formulation of the notion of Quantum Turing Machines (QTMs ). Like Classical Turing Machines (TMs ), QTMs consist of a read/write head moving on tapes with, say, binary programs written on them. Only, the tapes of QTMs can occur in linear superpositions of the classical conﬁgurations of 0’s and 1’s. In a word, inputs and outputs of QTMs are qubits. Since the various quantum dynamical entropies were proposed, independently of quantum information, as tools to better study the long-time dynamical features of inﬁnite quantum systems, one may doubt that relations should exist between them and quantum information. One notices, however, that the CNT entropy was developed using the notion of entropy of a subalgebra which, years later, independently appeared in quantum information theory as a measure of entanglement known as entanglement of formation. Also, the AFL entropy is based on techniques that in quantum information theory are fundamental tools to describe quantum channels and, more in general, all quantum operations that may aﬀect quantum systems. The book is organized in three parts. In the ﬁrst part, the ﬁrst chapter presents basic notions of ergodic theory, the second gives an overview of entropy in information theory, the third addresses the notion of KS entropy and the classical compression theorems, while algorithmic complexity is the subject of the fourth chapter. The second part consists of three chapters; the ﬁrst oﬀers an overview of algebraic quantum mechanics with particular emphasis on the notions of positivity and complete positivity of quantum maps and quantum timeevolutions, both reversible and irreversible. The second chapter introduces the fundamentals of quantum information, the relations between positive and completely positive maps and quantum entanglement, the entropy of a subalgebra, the entanglement of formation and the accessible information of a quantum channel. The third concerns inﬁnite quantum dynamical systems and quantum ergodicity, quantum chains as quantum sources and the quantum counterparts to Shannon’s theorems. In the ﬁrst chapter of the third part, a detailed introduction is given to the CNT and AFL entropies and to their use in the study of dynamical information production in quantum systems. Finally, the second and last chapter of the book focusses on some recent extensions of algorithmic complexity to quantum systems, starting with a discussion of quantum Turing machines and quantum computers and concluding with an exploration of the possible role played in this context by the quantum dynamical entropies.

4

1 Introduction

The topics addressed come from rather diﬀerent ﬁelds that only recently, because of the birth and rapid development of quantum information, quantum communication and computation have started to overlap. This book has been written not as an introduction to any of these topics (of which exhaustive presentations do exist in plenty), rather as an attempt to provide readers with expertise in some, but not in all of the topics, with a self-consistent overview of these many subjects. Therefore, care has been taken to give proofs of almost all of the results that have been used, apart from basic and standard facts, and to illustrate them by means of selected examples.

Part I

Classical Dynamical Systems

7

In the ﬁrst part of the book classical dynamical systems are presented from the points of view of ergodic, information and algorithmic complexity theory. Ergodic theory studies the clustering properties of equilibrium states; in information theory the central notion of entropy is used to quantify the degree of predictability of phase-space trajectories, while algorithmic complexity theory quantiﬁes their randomness in terms of how easily they can be described by algorithms. The purpose of this presentation is to set up a suitable algebraic framework that makes easier the extension of these three points of view to quantum dynamical systems.

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

In this chapter the term classical dynamical system will broadly refer to oneparameter families of transformations, or dynamical maps, Tt acting on a phase space X whose points x describe the system degrees of freedom. In physical applications, x identiﬁes an initial state, or conﬁguration, Tt x the resulting state or conﬁguration after a span of time of length t. If t is discrete, t ∈ Z, one speaks of a reversible time-evolution through discrete time steps with trajectories {Tt x}t∈Z consisting of countably many conﬁgurations at negative and positive integer times. If t ∈ N, this means that the dynamics can only develop forward in time and is thus irreversible. In the case of a continuous-time dynamics, trajectories through x ∈ X at t = 0 are continuous sets {Tt x}t∈R of conﬁgurations if the dynamics is reversible, otherwise trajectories are only forward in time, {Tt x}t∈R+ . Once the description of a system by means of a phase-space X has been chosen, any phase-point x ∈ X contains all possible information about the system state. When all this information is not available, the state of a system amounts to a normalized positive measure on X , a probability distribution, such that the volume of a measurable subset gives the probability that x belong to it. Entropy quantiﬁes the amount of information corresponding to such probability distribution, that is how informative the measure is about the actual state of the system. Beside the knowledge of the state of classical systems, information can also concern how states change in time, in particular, as regards foreseeing their behavior; the degree of predictability of dynamical systems is measured by dynamical entropies. Intuitively, regular time-evolutions should allow for reliable predictions, which are instead hardly possible for irregular dynamics; roughly speaking, irregularity is expected to correspond to the fact that the past does not completely contain the future. Information about the state or the time-evolution of physical systems can be obtained by measuring suitable quantities accessible to experiments. These quantities, called observables for short, correspond to functions on X . Unlike for quantum dynamical systems, for classical ones any measuring protocol can in principle be assumed not to interfere with the system observed, the basic reason being that classical descriptions involve commuting objects, as functions on the phase-space X indeed are.

F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 2, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

9

10

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

Which observables are appropriate to describe a dynamical system depends on the structure of the chosen phase-space X ; for instance, statistical descriptions require that X be endowed with a measure-structure, whereby measurable functions constitute appropriate observables. On the other hand, X might be provided with a topology and typical observables would then correspond to continuous functions.

2.1 Classical Dynamical Systems In this section we review some basic facts relative to classical dynamical systems mainly adopting a measure-theoretic point of view; in this way a minimum of constraints is put on the mathematical properties of states, observables and dynamical maps and the emerging technical context is broad enough to describe a large variety of physical phenomena, from those typical of Hamiltonian mechanics to those better understood in terms of discrete dynamical systems. Deﬁnition 2.1.1. Classical dynamical systems are triplets (X , T, μ), where 1. X is a measure space with an assigned σ-algebra Σ of measurable sets; 2. T is measurable, that is A ∈ Σ ⇒ T −1 (A) ∈ Σ; 3. X is endowed with a T -invariant, positive normalized measure μ, such that μ(X ) = 1 and μ ◦ T −1 = μ.

Remarks 2.1.1. 1. A collection Σ of subsets S ⊆ X is called a measure-algebra if 1) X ∈ Σ, 2) S ∈ Σ implies X \ S ∈ Σ, where S1 \ S2 denotes the complement of the subset nS2 relative to the subset S1 , and 3) Si ∈ Σ for i = 1, 2, . . . , n, implies i=1 Si ∈ Σ. A measure-algebra Σ is a measure σ-algebra if it is closed not only with respect to ﬁnite unions ∞ of its elements, but also with respect to countable unions, that is if n=1 Sn ∈ Σ for all {Sn }∞ n=1 , Sn ∈ Σ. Since the complements of unions of sets are the intersections of the complements of the sets, namely X \ (A ∪ B) = (X \ A) ∪ (X \ B), σ-algebras contains inﬁnite intersections of their elements, too. 2. Let Σ0 be a measure-algebra, by adding to Σ0 inﬁnite unions and intersections of elements of Σ0 one obtains a σ-algebra Σ which is the smallest one containing Σ0 ; such Σ is called the σ-algebra generated by Σ0 . If the measure space X is endowed with a topology, then, the σ-algebra generated by the open subsets is known as Borel σ-algebra and its elements as Borel sets [258]. 3. A positive function μ : Σ → R+ , such that μ(X ) = 1 is a probability measure on X relative to a σ-algebra Σ if it is σ-additive, namely if

2.1 Classical Dynamical Systems

Σ⊃

{Sn }∞ n=1

, Si ∩ Sj = ∅ =⇒ μ

∞

Sn

=

n=1

∞

11

μ(Sn ) .

n=1

Notice that μ is automatically monotone under inclusion, namely A ⊆ B =⇒ A = (A \ B) ∪ B =⇒ μ(A) = μ(A \ B) + μ(B) ≥ μ(B) . 4. The following criterion is rather useful: an additive positive ﬁnite map μ : Σ → R+ is σ-additive if and only if limn μ(Bn ) = 0 forany collection {Bn }∞ n=1 of sets Bn ∈ Σ such that Bn+1 ⊆ Bn and n Bn = ∅. has decreasing properties Indeed, suppose μ is σ-additive and {Bn }∞ n=1 := B \ B are disjoint and and empty intersection; then, the sets C n n n+1 ∞ Bn = k≥n Ck . It thus follows that μ(B1 ) = k=1 μ(Ck ), whence lim μ(Bn ) = lim

n→∞

n→∞

∞

μ(Ck ) = 0 .

k=n

Vice versa, let μ be positive, ﬁnite and additive on Σ and take any collection {Cn }∞ n=1 of disjoint subsets of Σ; because of additivity ∞ n ∞

μ Ck = μ(Ck ) + μ Ck . k=1

k=1

k=n+1

∞ Since Bn := k=n+1 Ck ⊆ Bn−1 and n Bn = ∅, σ-additivity follows. If μ is σ-additive over a measure algebra Σ0 it can be extended in an unique way to the σ-algebra Σ generated by Σ0 . In other words, given a S ∈ Σ, for any ε > 0, there exists S ∈ Σ0 such that μ(S Δ S ) < ε, where S Δ S = (S \ S ) ∪ (S \ S) = (S ∪ S ) \ (S ∩ S ) .

(2.1)

5. A regular Borel measure on X is a measure on the Borel σ-algebra such that, for any measurable subset B and ε > 0, there exists an open, Uε , and a closed subset, Cε , with Cε ⊆ B ⊆ Uε such that μ(Uε \Cε ) < ε [258, 313]. Deﬁnition 2.1.1 provides an appropriate framework for irreversible dynamical systems in discrete time whereby the time-evolution of phase-points x ∈ X consists in successively applying the dynamical map T to x so that trajectories are given by countable sets {T n x}n∈N . For reversible, discretetime dynamics, also T −1 is assumed measurable, that is T (A) ∈ Σ if A ∈ Σ with μ ◦ T = μ; trajectories are then of the form {T n x}n∈Z . The measure μ deﬁnes a probability distribution over X : if f : X → R is a measurable function (an observable of the system), its mean value is μ(f ) := dμ(x)f (x) . (2.2) X

12

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

In particular, if A ⊆ X is a measurable subset and 1A (x) its characteristic function 1 , the volume μ(A) := dμ(x) χA (x) , (2.3) X

has a natural interpretation as the probability that x ∈ X belong to A. We shall as well refer to these probability distributions as to the states of a classical dynamical system. In fact, in the case of a continuous phasespace, access to phase-points is practically never achievable; thus, one has to content oneself with the knowledge of how phase-points are distributed over X . From a physical point of view, the fact that states μ are assumed to be T invariant means that the statistical description of dynamical systems refers to equilibrium states. Interestingly, a measure-theoretical dynamical triplet can be represented in terms of a unitary operator on a Hilbert space [17, 61].

Example 2.1.1 (Koopmann-von Neumann Formalism). [175] Let (X , T, μ) be a measure-theoretic dynamical triplet. Finite additions and multiplications of characteristic functions ofmeasurable subsets Ai ⊆ X give the algebra S(X ) of simple functions s = i ci 1Ai over X . Lebesgueintegration with respect to μ deﬁnes a scalar product s1 | s2 μ over S(X ), 1 ∗ 2 (ci ) cj dμ(x)1A1i (x)1A2j (x) = (c1i )∗ c2j μ(A2i ∩ A2j ) ,

s1 | s2 μ := i,j

X

i,j

for 1A (x)1B (x) = 1A∩B (x). Further, by linearly extending the map deﬁned by 1A → UT 1A := 1A ◦ T = 1T −1 (A) , one gets a linear operator UT on S(X ). Since μ ◦ T −1 = μ, UT preserves scalar products

UT s1 | UT s2 μ := (c1i )∗ c2j μ T −1 (A1i ∩ A2j ) = s1 | s2 μ . i,j

Therefore, the Koopman operator UT can be extended to an isometric implementation of the dynamics (invertible and thus unitary in the reversible case) on the Hilbert space L2μ (X ) of square-summable functions on X , (UT ψ)(x) = ψ(T x)

∀ψ ∈ L2μ (X ) , ∀x ∈ X .

(2.4)

The spectral properties of UT will turn out to be of particular relevance for ergodic theory (see Section 2.3). Using a bra-ket quantum like notation, we observe that: 1. the identity function 1l(x) = 1 almost everywhere with respect to μ, is always an eigenvector of UT with eigenvalue 1, UT | 1l = | 1l ◦ T = | T ; 1

1A (x) = 1 if x ∈ A, 1A (x) = 0 otherwise

2.1 Classical Dynamical Systems

13

2. if 1 is a degenerate eigenvalue, then there exist constants of the motion 1l = ψ ∈ L2μ (X ), UT | ψ = | ψ ◦ T = | ψ ; 3. mean values are scalar products, μ(ψ) = 1l | ψ , for all ψ ∈ L2μ (X ); 4. products of mean values amount to the matrix elements of the orthogonal projection | 1l 1l | μ(ψ) μ(φ) = ψ ∗ | 1l 1l | φ ,

∀ ψ, φ ∈ L2μ (X ) ,

(2.5)

where ψ ∗ is the complex conjugate of ψ.

Hamiltonian Mechanics Hamiltonian mechanics is an important source of classical dynamical systems [16, 17, 299]. Systems with f degrees of freedom are described by a phase-space which is a 2f -dimensional manifold Mf ⊆ Rf × Rf whose points r = (q, p) consist of positions q = (q1 , . . . , qf ) ∈ Rf and momenta p = (p1 , . . . , pf ) ∈ Rf . The phase-space inherits a symplectic geometry from Of 1lf where Of and 1lf are the the symplectic matrix J := [Jij ] = −1lf Of f × f zero and identity matrices, respectively. Via the symplectic matrix one deﬁnes the Poisson brackets of two (diﬀerentiable) functions F, G : Mf → R, {F , G}(r) :=

2f ∂F (r) ∂G(r) Jij . ∂ri ∂rj i,j=1

(2.6)

With respect to them, q and p are canonical coordinates: {qi , pj } = δij and the time-evolution is generated by the Hamilton equations dq = ∂p H(r) , dt

dp = −∂q H(r) , dt

where H = H(r) is a (time-independent) Hamiltonian or energy function of the system. They are solved by the Hamiltonian ﬂux r → r(t) = ΦH t (r), t ∈ R 2 . The time-evolution of functions F on Mf then amounts to a group of dynamical maps F → Ft := F ◦ΦH t that solves the time-evolution equation dFt (r) = {Ft , H}(r) . dt

(2.7)

Suppose Mf = R2f ; then, a natural σ-algebra for the phase-space Mf is the Borel σ-algebra (see Remark 2.1.1.2) containing all open subsets of One can always extract a discrete time-evolution {T n }n∈Z from it by ﬁxing t = 1 and setting T := ΦH 1 . 2

14

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

the topology of Mf given by the Euclidean distance. The Liouville meaf sure dr = i=1 dqi dpi is invariant under the Hamiltonian ﬂux ΦH t ; however, dr diverges and cannot be normalized to a probability distribution. A Mf way out typically occurs when there are constants of the motion, that is functions F on Mf , like the Hamiltonian itself, such that {F , H} = 0. By ﬁxing their values, the dynamics is restricted to time-invariant submanifolds that usually have ﬁnite volumes. Instances of equilibrium states leading to descriptions of Hamiltonian systems as measure-theoretical triplets (Mf , ΦH 1 , μH ) } , μ ) (continuous time), are in general pro(discrete time), or (Mf , {ΦH H t t∈R vided by probability distributions dμH (r) = f (r)dr , where f : Mf → R+ is a normalized, positive functions such that {f , H} = 0. Prominent instances of such probability measures are the micro-canonical, canonical and grandcanonical states of classical statistical mechanics [300]. The time-invariance of states as the previous ones deserves to be examined in some more detail as it follows from a duality argument which we shall frequently encounter in the following. Duality is essentially the observation that the mean value of a function F at time t, Ft , with respect to a state μ equals the mean value of F with respect to the state μt at time t, μ(Ft ) = μt (F ). This deﬁnes the time-evolution of states as the dual of the time-evolution of observables (functions); indeed, from time-invariance of the Liouville measure it follows that H dr μ(r) F (Φt (r)) = dr μ(ΦH (2.8) μ(Ft ) = −t r) F (r) =: μt (F ) , Mf

Mf

whence μt := μ ◦

ΦH −t

solves the time-evolution equation ∂μt (r) = {H , μt }(r) . ∂t

(2.9)

Example 2.1.2 (Regular Motion). Consider two uncoupled harmonic one-dimensional oscillators described by r = (q1 , q2 , p1 , p2 ) ∈ M2 = R4 and by the Hamiltonian H(r) =

m1 ω12 2 p22 m2 ω22 2 p21 q1 + q2 . + + 2m 2 2m 2 1 2 H1 (r)

H2 (r)

By ﬁxing the single oscillator energies Hi (r) = Ei , i = 1, 2, the motion develops on the 2-torus T2 := {θ = (θ1 , θ2 ) : θi ∈ [0, 2π)}, where it amounts to a two-dimensional rotation. Indeed, setting p2i mi ω i 2 pi qi , tan θi := + Ji (r) := Hi (r)/ωi = 2mi ωi 2 mi ω i q 2Ji qi = cos θi , pi = 2mi ωi Ji sin θi , mi ω i

whence

2.1 Classical Dynamical Systems

15

one gets angle-action variables (θ, I), θ = (θ1 , θ2 ), I := (I1 , I2 ). These are canonical coordinates, with Poisson brackets {θi , Jk } = δik ; moreover, H(r) = K(J ) = ω1 J1 + ω2 J2 . Thus, the corresponding Hamilton equations, dJ dθ =ω , =0, ω = (ω1 , ω2 ) , dt dt are solved by the Hamiltonian ﬂux Tt : θ → θ(t) := Tt (θ) = θ + ω t .

(2.10)

By varying E1 , E2 and thus I, the phase-space R4 is covered by nonintersecting 2-dimensional tori. On each ﬁxed torus, dθ/(2π)2 gives a probability measure which is invariant under the Hamiltonian ﬂux. The triplet (T2 , T := T1 , dθ/(2π)2 ) fulﬁls the requirements in Deﬁnition 2.1.1. In the Koopman-von Neumann formalism, the unitary operator UT implementing T on H := L2 (T2 , dθ/(2π)2 ) has the exponential functions en (θ) = exp(in · θ), n ∈ Z2 , as eigenfunctions , (UT en )(θ) = en (θ + ω) = ei

2

nj (θj +ωj )

2

= ei j=1 nj ωj en (θ) . (2.11) en is given by Therefore, the time-evolution of H | ψ = n∈Z2 ψ(n)| 2 | ψ → UTk | ψ = (2.12) ψ(n) eik j=1 nj ωj | en , k ∈ Z . j=1

n∈Z2

Remarks 2.1.2. ω2 p 1. If = , p, q ∈ N, trajectories close since θ(2qπ/ω1 ) = θ mod 2π. ω1 q 2. If there are no 0 = n1,2 ∈ Z such that n1 ω1 + n2 ω2 = 0, then, every trajectory {θ(t)}t∈R ﬁlls the 2-torus T2 densely. Namely, for any ε ≥ 0, φ, θ ∈ T2 , there is t ∈ R such that θ(t) − φ) ≤ ε, where the norm is the Euclidean norm computed mod 2π. Indeed, using (2.10), t∗ := (φ1 − θ1 )/ω1 =⇒ θ1 (t∗ + 2nπ/ω1 ) = φ1 mod 2π , for all n ∈ Z. Since T is compact, the sequence {θ2 (t∗ + 2nπ/ω1 )}n∈Z has accumulation points; thus, for any ≥ 0 there exist n, p ∈ N such that ω2 mod 2π ≤ , θ2 (t∗ + 2(n + p)π/ω1 ) − θ2 (t∗ + 2nπ/ω1 ) = 2pπ ω1 whence the sequence {θ2 (t∗ + 2npπ/ω1 )}n∈N subdivides the circle into disjoint intervals Δn of length θ2 (t∗ + 2(n + 1)pπ/ω1 ) − θ2 (t∗ + 2npπ/ω1 ) ≤ . Therefore,

φ2 ∈ Δm =⇒ θ(t∗ + 2mpπ/ω1 ) − φ = θ2 (t∗ + 2pmπ/ω1 ) − φ2 ≤ .

16

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

3. A similar argument as before shows that, in discrete time, trajectories {θ(n)}n∈Z ﬁll T2 densely if and only if there are no integers n1,2 = 0 such that n1 ω1 + n2 ω2 = 2πp with Z p = 0 [91]. 4. Example 2.1.2 is a particular instance of the Liouville-Arnold theorem [16, 17, 299] on integrable Hamiltonian systems. Suppose a canonical system with f degrees of freedom possesses f global constants of the motion Ki , K1 := H in involution, that is {Ki , Kj } = 0, i, j = 1, 2, . . . , f . If the subset Nk := {Ki (r) = ki : i = 1, 2, . . . , f } ⊆ Mf is compact and connected and the diﬀerential 1-forms dKi are linearly independent on it, then Nk is isomorphic to the f -torus Tf . Moreover, there exists a canonical transformation from r ∈ Nk to angle-action variables (θ , J ) such that the Hamiltonian ﬂux ΦH t is isomorphic to an f -dimensional rotation on Tf with J -dependent frequencies: θ(t) = θ + ω(J )t. Accordingly, the phase-space Mf foliates into disjoint f -tori which are ﬁlled densely by the f trajectories {θ(t)}t∈R when i=1 ni ωi (J ) = 0, ni ∈ Z, only if all ni = 0. f Tori such that i=1 ni ωi (J ) = 0 for 0 = ni ∈ Z are called resonant and on them trajectories close. The independence of the oscillation frequencies ω from the actions J in Example 2.1.2 is an exception due to the linearity of the Hamilton equations.

Integrable Hamiltonian systems cannot behave too irregularly as their motion amounts to a multi-dimensional rotation over invariant tori. In order to increase the degree of irregularity, some constants of the motion must disappear in order to let the trajectories wander around according to less predictable patterns. In the following example, a constant of the motion is eliminated by means of a folding condition. Example 2.1.3 (Hyperbolic Behavior). [17, 271] Let δp (t) denote the periodic delta function n∈Z δ(n−t) with unit period and consider a free one-dimensional motion with periodic quadratic kicks, occurring with strength β ∈ R, according to the pulsed Hamiltonian

1 2 p + δp (t)βq 2 . H= 2 A natural dynamical map T consists in updating the vector r = (q, p) on phase space from immediately after the n-th kick to immediately after the n − i-th one; namely T : r n → r n+1 , where r n := (qn , pn ) and qn := lim q(n + ε) , ε→0+

pn := lim q(n + ε) . ε→0+

Integrating the Hamilton equations dq =p, dt

dp = −δp (t) β q , dt

2.1 Classical Dynamical Systems

17

ﬁrst between T n + ε and T (n + 1) − ε and then between T (n + 1) − ε and T (n + 1) + ε, yields

n+1+ε

q(n + 1 + ε) − q(n + ε) = p(n + ε) +

ds p(s) n+1−ε

p(n + 1 + ε) − p(n + ε) = −β q(n + 1) . By letting ε → 0+ , the integral is of order ε and vanishes; thus, the dynamical map T reduces to a 2 × 2 matrix acting on R2 :

q 1 1 r= → Ar , A = . (2.13) p −β 1 − β Since det(A) = 1, the Liouville measure dr = dq dp is T -invariant. The eigenvalues of A, 2 − β ± (β − 2)2 − 4 2 − β ± β(β − 4) ±1 = , α = 2 2 are real with |α| > 1 when β < 0 or β > 4. The corresponding eigenvector | a+ identiﬁes a direction in R2 along which lengths increase exponentially for n ≥ 0, while they contract exponentially along the direction of the eigenvector | a− relative to the other eigenvalue |α|−1 < 1. This motion is called hyperbolic.

1 1 For β = −1, A = is symmetric thus a− | a+ = 0 and, writing 1 2 | r = γ| a+ + δ| a− , r n 2 = |γ|2 e2n log α + |δ|2 e−2n log α ,

(2.14)

where r n := An r. Therefore, the norms of all vectors r = 0 increase exponentially while remaining on the hyperbolae selected by ﬁxing a value of F (r) := q 2 − p2 + qp. Indeed, one can directly check that F (r n+1 ) = F (r n ), whence this function is a constant of the motion [118]. This is no longer true if one imposes a folding condition that forces the dynamics to develop on the two-dimensional torus T2 := {R2 r = (q, p) mod (1)}, namely if one deﬁnes the dynamical map TA : T2 r → r n := (An r mod 1) ∈ T2 .

(2.15)

Then, the resulting triplet (T2 , TA , dr) is as in Deﬁnition 2.1.1 and the map T is known as Arnold Cat Map [17]. More in general, one may consider the dynamics on the 2-dimensional torus T2 generated as in (2.15) by a matrix

a b A= , a, b, c, d ∈ Z : ad − bc = 1 , |a + d| > 2 , (2.16) c d

18

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

with eigenvalues α±1 ∈ R. Since A need not be Hermitian, its normalized a1± eigenvectors | a± = are in general only linearly independent; one a2± explicitly computes a1± = bΔ± , a2± = (α±1 − a)Δ± and expands R2 | r = C+ (r) :=

1

b2

, + (α±1 − a)2 (2.17)

x = C+ (r)| a+ + C− (r)| a− with y

xa2− − ya1− , Δ

where

Δ± :=

where

Δ := Det

a1+ a2+

a1− a2−

C− (r) :=

ya1+ − xa2+ Δ

(2.18)

= b(1 − α2 ) Δ+ Δ− .

(2.19)

Then, the hyperbolic behavior shows up since Ak | r = αk C+ (r) | a+ + α−k C− (r) | a−

(2.20)

a + d ± (a + d)2 − 4 and the absolute value of one of the eigenvalues α± = 2 is larger than 1. Consider now the Koopman operator UA on H := L2dr (T2 ); the orthogonal exponential functions (2.21) en (r) := exp(2πi n · r) are such that (AT denotes the transposed of A) (UA en )(r) = e2πi n·(Ar) = e2πi (A

T

n)·r

= eAT n (r) ,

(2.22)

whence, setting ψ(n) := en | ψ for all ψ ∈ H, it turns out that (UA ψ)(n) = en | UA |ψ = eA−T n | ψ = ψ(A−T n) . Therefore, UA has no other eigenvector but e0 = 1l: if UA | ψ = μ| ψ for ˆ ψ ∈ H with |μ| = 1; then, with | ψ = n∈Z2 ψ(n)| en ,

em | UAp ψ =

−p m) = μp ψ(m) ψ(n)

em | eAp n = ψ(A ,

n∈Z2

→ 0 with n → ∞, if ψ(m) = 0, then for any ﬁxed m ∈ Z2 . Since ψ(n) −p p limp ψ(A m) = 0 because of hyperbolicity, while μ ψ(m) oscillates. The exponential ampliﬁcation of small errors that results from (2.14) √ (or form (2.20)) cannot hold for arbitrarily large n: In fact, r n ≤ 2

2.1 Classical Dynamical Systems

19

so that the expansion is eventually counteracted by the√folding condition in (2.15). Suppose | r = ε| a+ , then r n = εen log α ≤ 2 increases until √ −1 2)/(log α). n ≤ log(ε This argument applies to any pair of initial conditions r 1,2 ; their distance r 1 − r 2 increases exponentially due to the expanding contribution from the component of r 1 − r 2 along | a+ until the folding condition aﬀects one of the two cartesian components of r 1 − r 2 . Notice however that the smaller is r 1 − r 2 , the longer the ampliﬁcation lasts. This observation allows the introduction of the notion of asymptotic divergence rate of initially close trajectories even when they develop on compact phase-spaces: these rates are known as Lyapounov exponents and are a measure of dynamical instability. Deﬁnition 2.1.2 (Maximal Lyapounov Exponent). [199, 106] The maximal positive Lyapounov exponent of a dynamical triplet (X , T, μ) equipped with a distance d(x, y) is deﬁned by 1 d(T n x , T n y) lim log . n→∞ n d(x,y)→0 d(x, y)

λM (x) = lim

Of course X may be a multi-dimensional space and thus there might be more directions along which distances expand exponentially fast with exponents λ(x) > 0; the intuitive picture behind the deﬁnition is that, for suﬃciently small d(x, y), the distance at time n is such that

, d(T n x, T n y) enλM (x) d(x, y) 1 + O e−n(λM (x)−λ(x)) where λ(x) < λM (x) [62]. Remarks 2.1.3. 1. A rigorous approach to Lyapounov exponents can be found in [199]; here, we sketch a few basic facts (see [106, 313]). Assume the phase-space X to be a compact manifold with a C∞ diﬀerentiable structure, a Borel σalgebra and a Riemannian metric such that the tangent spaces τx (X ) at x ∈ X are isomorphic to Rk equipped with an Euclidean structure. The dynamics T : X → X is assumed to be continuous with continuous ﬁrst derivatives, so that one can focus upon its linearization τx (T ) that maps the tangent space τx (X ) into the tangent space τT x (X ). In particular, one is interested in the asymptotic behavior of τx (T n ) where, by the chain rule, τx (T n ) = τT n−1 x (T ) ◦ τT n−2 x ◦ · · · τx (T ) . Let X be equipped with a T -invariant regular Borel measure μ (see Remark 2.1.1.5); then, there exists a measurable subset B ⊆ X with μ(B) = 1 and a positive measurable function s : B → R+ such that, given

20

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory s(x)

x ∈ B, there are real numbers {λ(j) (x)}j=1 , λ(j) (x) < λ(j+1) (x), and lins(x) (j) (x)}j=0 ,

ear subspaces of Rk , {V V (0) = {0}, V (j) (x) ⊂ V (j+1) (x), (s(x)) k V = R , for which 1 a) lim log τx (T n )r = λ(j) (x) for all r ∈ Wj (x) := V (j) (x) n→∞ n V (j−1) (x); b) λ(j) (x) is deﬁned, measurable and T -invariant on the subset of x ∈ B such that s(x) ≥ j, that is λ(j) (T x) = λ(j) (x); c) τx (T )V (j) (x) ⊂ V (j) (T x) for all j ≤ s(x). It thus follows that, if λ(j) (x) < 0, the norms of all r ∈ V (j) (x) go to 0 exponentially fast with n → +∞. On the other hand, if λ(j) (x) > 0, the norms of all vectors r ∈ V (j) (x) V (j−1) (x) diverge exponentially fast. 2. There can be more than one positive Lyapounov exponent thus more than one amplifying direction in space. In volume-preserving dynamical systems to any amplifying direction there corresponds a shrinking direction (amplifying in the past). 3. On compact manifolds, the two limits in Deﬁnition 2.1.2 do not commute: the numerator is limited by compactness, whence the 1/n limit vanishes if performed before letting d(x, y) → 0. 4. If there is an intrinsic smallest distance δ > 0 between points x, y ∈ X and the largest possible distance Δ is ﬁnite, then the Lyapounov exponent is zero. This means that exponential separation or ampliﬁcation cannot be extended beyond the logarithmic time-scale set by δ eλt ≤ Δ. This gives Δ 1 a so-called breaking-time [118] tB := log . λ δ 5. When the motion develops on a compact phase-space, the existence of positive Lyapounov exponents is known as extreme sensitivity to initial conditions and provides a widely accepted deﬁnition of classical chaotic motion [271, 228]. Notice that without the folding condition, also an inverted harmonic oscillator with Hamiltonian H(r) = p2 /(2m)−mωq 2 /2 would show an exponentially fast separation of initial conditions, though far less irregular and interesting than one on a compact manifold.

2.1.1 Shift Dynamical Systems Phase-spaces with a ﬁnite or a countable number of states are typical either of systems which arise from suitable discretizations of otherwise continuous phase-spaces or of intrinsically discrete systems as cellular automata [62]. The ﬁrst possibility arises in particular when the observations aimed at identifying the system state as a point of phase-space have a ﬁnite accuracy; then, one performs a coarse-graining of phase space into a certain number of regions whose volume is determined by the given accuracy and whose interior points are accessible only through observations of higher accuracy. As we shall see in later sections, in such a case, the system states are identiﬁable with the

2.1 Classical Dynamical Systems

21

labels of the regions where the system state is localized and the dynamics corresponds to jumping from label to label rather than from point to point of the phase-space. Instead, the phase-space of cellular automata [62, 18] is discrete from the start as they consist of copies of a same system (automaton) described by a d-valued function i, for instance, in the binary case i = 0 may be used to signal when an automaton is deactivated, i = 1 when it is activated. The phase-space X of a cellular automaton with N systems comprises dN conﬁgurations (states) corresponding to ﬁnite strings i(N ) = (i1 , i2 , . . . , iN ) ∈ (N ) Ωd := {1, 2, . . . , d}N . The dynamics is given in discrete time by a map (N ) (N ) T : Ωd → Ωd that updates the conﬁgurations from time n to time n + 1: i(N ) (n) → i(N ) (n+1). The state ik (n+1) of the k-th automaton at time n+1 in general depends on the states of some or all other automata at time n. In the following, we shall focus upon a most simple class of cellular automata, that is shift dynamical systems [17, 61, 164, 313]. Let the space X be the collection Ωd := {0, 1, . . . , d}N of all sequences i = {ij }j∈N of symbols from a ﬁnite alphabet ij = 1, 2, . . . , d. Each i can be interpreted as a conﬁguration of a countable network of cellular automata, each of them being indexed by an integer j ∈ N, with ij denoting its actual state among the d possible ones. Let Tσ : Ωd → Ωd be the left shift along sequences, (2.23) (Tσ i)j = ij+1 , and set i(n) := Tσn i: Tσ amounts to a rather trivial dynamics, namely to a deterministic updating whereby the state ij (n + 1) of the j-th automaton at time n + 1 depends only on (is equal to) that of its right nearest neighbor at time n: ij (n + 1) := (Tσn+1 i)j = (Tσ i)j (n) = ij+1 (n) . From the point of view of a ﬁxed automaton, say the 0-th one, this kind of dynamics is typically like tossing a coin. Indeed, suppose the initial conﬁguration i(0) of the network is to be chosen randomly, according to a probability distribution where all automaton states occur with the same probability 2−N . Because of the dynamics, this property is then inherited by the sequence {i0 (n)}n∈N of successive states of the 0-th automaton. In order to provide the shift along binary sequences with a measuretheoretic formulation as in Deﬁnition 2.1.1, the set Ωd of inﬁnite sequences has to be equipped with a σ-algebra of measurable sets. The standard way to do this is by means of the so-called cylinders [61, 164, 91, 17]; they consist of all sequences whose entries have ﬁxed values within chosen intervals: [j,k] := i ∈ Ω : i = i , = 0, 1, . . . , k − j . (2.24) Ci i 2 j+ j+ j j+1 · · · ik i(k−j+1)

They are labeled by the interval [j, k] and by the binary string i(k−j+1) of length k − j + 1 of assigned digits within that interval; each one of them can

22

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory { }

be obtained as a ﬁnite intersection of simple cylinders Ci , [j,k]

Ci(k−j+1) =

k−j

{j+ }

Cij+

,

{ } Ci := i ∈ Ω2 : i = i .

(2.25)

=0

We shall denote by C[j,k] the sets consisting of the 2(k−j+1) cylinders [j,k]

Ci(k−j+1) . The σ-algebra Σ is obtained from all possible unions and intersections of simple cylinders. Further, pre-images of cylinders under T −1 remain cylinders: in fact

{ } { } := i ∈ Ω2 : Tσ i ∈ Ci = i ∈ Ω2 : i (1) = i +1 = i Tσ−1 Ci { +1}

= Ci

,

(2.26)

whence Tσ is measurable with respect to Σ. Remark 2.1.4. The left shift on unilateral sequences is not invertible; it becomes so by choosing instead of Ωd the set ΩdZ of all doubly inﬁnite sequences i = {ij }j∈Z . Then, the same result as in (2.26) holds for the pre-images of { } { −1} cylinders under Tσ , Tσ (Ci ) = Ci , whence Tσ−1 is also measurable. We shall refer to any probability measure μ on Σ as to a global state on Ωd ; to any such μ there correspond local states μ[j,k] on the cylinder sets C[j,k] . As cylinders in C[j,k] are in one-to-one correspondence with strings (k−j+1)

i(k−j+1) ∈ Ωd of length k − j + 1, these local states are probability (k−j+1) : distributions on Ωd μ[j,k] = p[j,k] (i(k−j+1) ) (k−j+1) (k−j+1) i ∈Ωd (k−j+1) p[j,k] (i )≥0, p[j,k] (i(k−j+1) ) = 1 . (2.27) (k−j+1)

i(k−j+1) ∈Ωd

Consider the sequence of local states {μ(n) }n∈N , μ(n) := {p(n) (in )}i(n) ∈Ω (n) , d

p(n) (in ) = p[1,n] (in ) ,

[1,n]

on the cylinder sets C[1,n] ; since Ci1 i2 ···in =

d

(2.28)

[1,n+1]

Ci1 i2 ···in i , from the additivity

i=1

of the measure the following compatibility condition follows d

[1,n] p(n) (i1 i2 . . . in ) = μ Ci1 i2 ...in = p(n+1) (i1 i2 . . . in i) . i=1

(2.29)

2.1 Classical Dynamical Systems

23

Particularly important global states over Ωd correspond to shift-invariant probability measures μ, μ ◦ Tσ−1 = μ. From

[2,n+1] [1,n] [1,n] μ Ci1 i2 ...in = μ Tσ−1 (Ci1 i2 ...in ) = μ Ci1 i2 ...in it then follows that d i=1

p(n) (ii2 · · · in ) =

d

[1,n] [2,n] [1,n−1] μ Cii2 ...in = μ(Ci2 ...in ) = μ Tσ−1 (Ci2 ...in ) i=1

[1,n−1] = μ Ci2 ...in = p(n−1) (i2 · · · in ) .

(2.30)

As a consequence, if μ is shift-invariant the probabilities assigned to cylinders [j,k] Cij ij+1 ...ik depend only on the values ij ij+1 . . . ik deﬁning the cylinder, but not on the interval [j, k]. Remark 2.1.5. Interestingly, the conditions (2.29) and (2.30) deﬁnes a dynamical triplet (Ωd , Tσ , μ) in the sense of Deﬁnition 2.1.1. This is the content of Kolmogorov representation theorem [266]: if X = {1, 2, . . . , d}, the set Ωd , as the inﬁnite Cartesian product X ×∞ of countably many copies of X can be equipped with the product topology which is the coarsest one with respect to which the projection maps πj : i → ij are continuous, namely the one generated by union and intersections of preimages πj−1 (B) of sets B ∈ X that are open with respect to the discrete topology of X . Then, Ωd is a compact set by Tychonoﬀ theorem [251]. Namely, any open cover of Ω also contains a ﬁnite subcover, whence in any collection of closed sets in Ω with empty intersection there also exists a ﬁnite sub-collection with empty intersection [251]. Suppose one is given a collection of numbers p(n) (i(n) ) as in (2.28) sat

[1,n] isfying (2.27); they assign volumes μ Ci(n) := p(n) (i(n) ), and deﬁne local states on the measure algebras generated by these cylinders. If the quantities p(n) (i(n) ) fulﬁl (2.29), the local states extend to a positive, ﬁnite and additive function μ on the σ-algebra Σ generated by cylinders. In order to show that μ is also σ-additive and thus a measure, one uses Remark 2.1.1.4 and that each set in Σ the σ-algebra is closed in the product topology. Therefore, given any decreasing sequence Σ ⊃ {Cn }∞ n=1 with empty intersection, compactness ensures that there exists a ﬁnite sub-collection {Cnj }kj=1 such that k j=1 Cnj = ∅, whence limn→∞ (Cn ) = 0. Further, suppose that the quantities p(n) (i(n) ) also fulﬁl (2.30), then it turns out that

[j,k] μ Cij ...ik = p(k) (i1 i2 . . . ij−1 ij . . . ik ) i1 i2 ...ij−1

=

i ...ij−1

p(k− +1) (i . . . ij−1 ij . . . ik ) ,

24

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

[j,k] for all = 1, 2, . . . , j − 1. Therefore, μ Cij ...ik = p(k−j+1) (ij . . . ik ) whence

[j,k] [j,k] μ Tσ−1 (Cij ...ik ) = μ Cij ...ik and the measure μ is shift-invariant.

Example 2.1.4 (Bernoulli shifts). Consider a shift dynamical system (Ωd , Tσ , μ); the simplest choice of local states μ(n) corresponds to product (n) measures on Ωd : p(n) (i1 · · · in ) =

n

p(i) ≥ 0 ,

p(ij ) ,

j=1

d

p(i) = 1 .

(2.31)

i=1

These dynamical triplets are known as Bernoulli-shifts; if d = 2 and X = {0, 1}, (Ω2 , Tσ , μ) amounts to repeatedly tossing a coin, possibly biased if the probabilities of head (0) and tail (1) are diﬀerent.

Example 2.1.5 (Markov Chains). Shift dynamical systems slightly more correlated than Bernoulli shifts are the so-called Markov shifts. Given the local states μ(n) = {p(n) (i(n) }i(n) ∈Ω )n) , the ratios d

p(in |i1 i2 · · · in−1 ) :=

p(n) (i1 i2 (n−1) p (i1 i2

· · · in ) · · · in−1 )

(2.32)

deﬁne conditional probabilities for the n-th symbol to be in if the previous n − 1 ones are i1 · · · in−1 . The global state μ is said to possess the Markov property if and only if the following conditions occur: p(in |i1 i2 · · · in−1 ) = p(in |in−1 ) d

(2.33)

p(i|j) = 1

(2.34)

p(i|j) p(j) = p(i) .

(2.35)

i=1 d j=1

Condition (2.33) means that the conditional probabilities (2.32) depend only on in and on in−1 and not on the previous symbols, so that p(n) (i1 i2 · · · in ) =

n−1

p(i +1 |i ) p(i1 ) .

(2.36)

=1

Therefore, local states μ(n) are completely speciﬁed by the d × d matrix P = [p(in |in−1 )] and the probability vector | p = {p(j)}dj=1 .

2.2 Symbolic Dynamics

25

Because of (2.34), the matrix P is a stochastic matrix, namely its entries p(i|j) are positive and qualify as transition probabilities as they express the fact that the system cannot but remain in the same state or change into another one. It follows that condition (2.29) is satisﬁed, indeed from (2.36) d

p(n) (i1 · · · in−1 i) =

i=1

d

p(i|in−1 )

i=1

=

n−2

n−2

p(i +1 |i ) p(i1 )

=1

p(i +1 |i ) p(i1 ) = p(n−1) (i1 i2 · · · in−1 ) .

=1

Further, because of (2.35), the probability vector is an eigenvector with eigenvalue 1 of the matrix P and (2.30) is also satisﬁed, whence the local states μ(n) generate a global shift-invariant states on Ωd . In fact, d

p(n) (ii2 · · · in ) =

i=1

n−1

d

p(i +1 |i ) p(i2 |i)p(i) i=1

=2

=

n−1

p(i +1 |i ) p(i2 ) = p(n−1) (i2 i3 · · · in ) .

=2

Notice that Bernoulli shifts are particular instances of Markov chains with transition probabilities p(i|j) = p(i) for all j = 1, 2, . . . , d.

2.2 Symbolic Dynamics As already remarked, states corresponding to a continuous phase-space can only be identiﬁed with ﬁnite precision that is they can be located within subsets of small, but ﬁnite size, and cannot be further resolved. A typical case is when the ﬁnite accuracy available corresponds to the subdivision of the phase-space in a ﬁnite number of non-overlapping measurable subsets, namely to a coarse-graining of the phase-space X by means of a so-called ﬁnite partition [7, 167]. Deﬁnition 2.2.1 (Partitions). 1. A ﬁnite, measurable partition (partition for short) P of (X , T, μ) is any , IP an index set of ﬁnite collection of measurable subsets Pi ⊆ X , i ∈ IP cardinality, such that Pi ∩ Pj = ∅ for i = j and i∈IP Pi = X The subsets Pj are called atoms. 2. A partition P = {Pi }pi∈IP is ﬁner than a partition Q = {Qj }qj∈IQ (Q coarser than P), symbolically Q P, if the atoms of Q are unions of atoms of P: Qj = i∈Ij ⊆IP Pi , for all j ∈ IQ .

26

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

3. Given two partitions P = {Pi }i∈IP and Q = {Qj }j∈IQ , the partition P ∨ Q = {Pi ∩ Qj }i∈IP ,j∈IQ is the coarsest reﬁnement of P and Q. Example 2.2.1. [61] Quite often, X is endowed with a σ-algebra Σ which is generated by a measure-algebra Σ0 ; it is then possible to approximate within ε any ﬁnite Σ-measurable partition P = {Pi }di=1 by a ﬁnite Σ-measurable partition Q = {Qi }di=1 with atoms Qi ∈ Σ0 , in the sense that (see (2.1)) μ(Pi Δ Qi ) < ε, i = 1, 2, . . . , d. Indeed, because of Remark 2.1.1.4, given δ > 0, for any Pi ∈ P one can ﬁnd Qi ∈ Σ0 such that μ(Pi Δ Qi ) < δ; notice / Pi yield x ∈ Qi Δ Pi , whence that Pi ∩ Pj = ∅, thus x ∈ Qi ∩ Qj and x ∈ Qi ∩ Qj ⊆ Qi Δ Pi ∪ Qj Δ Pj =⇒ μ(Qi ∩ Qj ) ≤ 2δ . The sets Qi need not form a partition; however, let Q := which is such that μ(Q ) ≤ d(d − 1) δ and set Qi := Qi \ Q , i = 1, 2, . . . , d − 1 ,

Qd := X \

d−1

d−1

i,j=1

Qi ∩ Qj ,

Qj .

j=1

These are atoms of a partition Q ⊂ Σ0 . Consider ﬁrst the symmetric diﬀerences Qi Δ Pi , i = 1, 2, . . . , d − 1; one has that, if x ∈ Qi and x ∈ / Pi , then / Qi , then x ∈ Qi Δ Pi or x ∈ Pi ∩ Q , x ∈ Qi Δ Pi , while, if x ∈ Pi and x ∈ whence Qi Δ Pi ⊆ Q ∪ (Qi Δ Pi ) =⇒ μ(Qi Δ Pi ) ≤ (d(d − 1) + 1) δ . Since Pd = X \

d−1 j=1

Pj and (X \ A) Δ (X \ B) = A Δ B,

Qd Δ Pd =

d−1 j=1

d−1 d−1 Qj Δ Pj ⊆ (Qj Δ Pj ) j=1

j=1

yields μ(Qd Δ Pd ) ≤ (d − 1)(d(d − 1) + 1) δ, whence the result follows by choosing δ = (d − 1)−1 (d(d − 1) + 1)−1 ε. The volumes μ(Pi ) =: p(i) of the atoms of any partition P provide a discrete probability measure μP := {μ(Pi )}i∈IP on P. While atoms in general change under the dynamics T , Pi → T −j (Pi ) := {x ∈ X : T j x ∈ Pi }

∀j ≥ 0 ,

(2.37)

their volumes do not for T is assumed to preserve μ. Further, if Pi1 ∩ Pi2 = ∅, then T −j (Pi1 ) ∩ T −j (Pi2 ) = ∅. Therefore, for all j ∈ N (j ∈ Z if T has a measurable inverse)

2.2 Symbolic Dynamics

P j := T −j (P) = {T −j (Pi )}i∈IP

27

(2.38)

are partitions with the same probability distribution of P: μP j = μP . Further, partitions at successive times are all reﬁned by the partition P (n) :=

n−1

P j = P ∨ T −1 (P) ∨ · · · ∨ T 1−n (P) .

(2.39)

j=0

If p := card(IP ), the atoms Pi(n) := Pi0 ∩ T −1 (Pi1 ) ∩ · · · T −n+1 (Pin−1 ) (n)

(2.40)

(n)

of P (n) are labeled by strings i(n) := i0 i1 · · · in−1 ∈ Ωp . We shall denote by (n) (n) (2.41) μP = p(n) (i(n) ) := μ(Pi(n) ) (n) (n) , i

∈Ωp

the probability distribution associated with P (n) and consisting of the volumes of its atoms with respect to the given probability measure μ. Remark 2.2.1. Notice that a phase-point x ∈ X belongs to the atom Pi(n) of P (n) if and only if T j x ∈ Pij for all 0 ≤ j ≤ n − 1. As a consequence, the atoms of P (n) contain all phase-points x ∈ X whose trajectories {T j x}j∈Z successively intercept the atoms Pij of P identiﬁed by the string (n) i(n) = i0 i1 · · · in−1 ∈ Ωp . As an eﬀect of the coarse-graining, segments of dif j n−1 (n) ferent trajectories T x j=0 may correspond to a same i(n) ∈ Ωp ; thus, as normalized volumes, the probabilities p(n) (i(n) ) quantify how likely is it that diﬀerent initial conditions give rise to a same segment of trajectory between (discrete) time j = 0 and j = n − 1. Lemma 2.2.1. Given a reversible dynamical system (X , T, μ) and a partition P = {Pi }i∈IP , card(IP ) = p, the dynamics T : X → X corresponds to the left-shift (2.23) on sequences i ∈ ΩpZ (see Remark 2.1.4). Proof: Let i(x) ∈ ΩpZ be the sequence of atom labels corresponding to the trajectory {T j (x)}j∈Z with initial point x ∈ X . According to section 2.1.1 and to (2.37), ij (x) = ij if and only if T j x ∈ Pij . Then, from (2.23), ij (T x) = ij ⇔ T j+1 x ∈ Pij ⇔ ij+1 (x) = (Tσ i)j (x) = ij . Therefore, any coarse-graining of X by means of a partition P provides a description of the dynamical triplet (X , T, μ) in terms of the left shift

28

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

on the sequences in ΩpZ . The segments of trajectories up to time n − 1 are (n)

in one-to-one correspondence with the sets of strings i(n) ∈ Ωp and the (n) probability distribution μP provides states over the cylinder sets C [0,n−1] . By means of (2.40) and of the T -invariance of μ, one shows that conditions (2.29) (n) and (2.30) are fulﬁlled, whence the local states μP deﬁne a global shift invariant state μP over ΩpZ . By varying x ∈ X , the trajectories T j x j∈Z Z ⊂ ΩZ. gets in general encoded by a subset Ω p

p

Deﬁnition 2.2.2 (Symbolic Models). Given a partition P of X , the triplet pZ , Tσ , μP ) provides a symbolic model for the dynamical system (X , T, μ). (Ω Example 2.2.2 (Baker Map). The Baker map (see Figure 2.1) is the invertible map of the two-dimensional torus T2 = {x = (x1 , x2 ) , mod 1} into itself given by ⎧ x2

1 ⎪ 2x1 , 0 ≤ x1 < ⎨ 2 2

TB x = 1 1 + x2 ⎪ ⎩ 2x1 − 1, ≤ x1 < 1 2 2 ⎧ x

1 1 ⎪ 0 ≤ x2 < , 2x2 ⎨ 2 2 −1

TB x = . 1 1 + x1 ⎪ ⎩ , 2x2 − 1 ≤ x2 < 1 2 2

Fig. 2.1. Baker Map

2.2 Symbolic Dynamics

29

The map TB is measurable with respect to the Borel σ-algebra of T2 and preserves the Lebesgue measure dμ(x) = dx1 dx2 : altogether, one has a dynamical system described by the measure-theoretic triplet (T2 , TB , dx ). It is evident that, when n → +∞, a suﬃciently small distance between two points x and x + δ increases as 2n along the horizontal direction until it gets of order 1. Therefore, Deﬁnition 2.1.2 gives log 2 > 0 as maximal Lyapounov exponent of the Baker map; instead, small distances decrease exponentially along the vertical direction with the same speed so that volumes are conserved. Let ω+ (x1 ) = {ωi }i≥0 and ω− (x2 ) = {ω−j }j≥1 be the half-sequences consisting of the coeﬃcients of the binary expansions of x1 , respectively x2 : ωj ω−j , x2 = . x1 = j+1 2 2j j=0 j=1 Setting ω(x) := (ω− (x1 ), ω+ (x2 )) = {ωj (x)}j∈Z ∈ Ω2 and using the mod 1 folding condition deﬁning T2 , it turns out that TB is isomorphic to the left shift Tσ on Ω2 , namely ωj (TB x) = ωj+1 (x). Further, the Lebesgue measure on T2 corresponds to the uniform product measure (2.31) on the σ-algebra generated by cylinders. This can be seen as follows. According to Remark 2.25, cylinders are intersections of simple {0} {0} cylinders as C0 and C1 that correspond to the vertical rectangles P0 = {x : 0 ≤ x1 < 1/2} and P1 = {x : 1/2 ≤ x1 < 1} and their images {j} {0} Cij = TB−j (Cij ), j ∈ Z (see (2.26)). Under TB−1 they get rotated into horizontal rectangles; successive applications of the Baker’s map split them into horizontal rectangles of half height, each one of them having as neighbors halved rectangles coming from the other initial rectangle. [1,n−1] It turns out that Ci1 ,...,in−1 is a horizontal rectangle of width 1 and height {0}

2−n+1 ; a further intersection with Ci0 provides the cylinder Ci0 ,i1 ,...,in−1 corresponding to a horizontal rectangle of width 1/2 and height 2−n+1 whose area is 2−n . These areas may only come from a product measure, (n) ([0,n−1] μB (Ci(n) )

:=

n−1

(1)

{j}

μB (Cij ) ,

j=0

([0,n−1]

(1)

{j}

μB (Cij ) =

1 2

∀j .

Therefore, the coarse-graining of T2 given by P = {P0 , P1 } provides the symbolic model (Ω2 , Tσ , μB ) for (T2 , TB , dx ). 2.2.1 Algebraic Formulations In this section, instead of referring to phase-space trajectories, we shall consider classical dynamical systems from the point of view of their observables and of their time-evolution. By observables we mean suitable functions over the phase-space.

30

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

It is convenient to consider complex-valued functions f : X → C; their values f (x) can be inferred by measuring real, (f ), and imaginary parts, (f ). Further, it is reasonable to assume that functions f, g in a suitably chosen class of observables give observables in the same class under addition, (f, g) → (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x), and multiplication either by scalars α ∈ C, (α, f ) → (αf )(x)αf (x), or by another observable, (f, g) → f g(x) = f (x)g(x). In other words, it is a reasonable physical assumption to require that observables constitute algebras of functions on X : these algebras are commutative for f g = gf . Physically speaking, there are no fundamental obstructions to the fact that classical measuring processes can, in line of principle, be performed without eﬀects on the state of the measured system. As the measured values depend on the system state, it follows that measuring g and then f yields the same results as measuring f and then g. Also, it is practically convenient to approximate certain observables in the algebra by means of other observables that are in a certain sense close to them; we shall thus assume these commutative algebras of observables to be endowed with topologies and to be closed with respect to them; in particular, we shall consider algebras of observables where converging sequences of functions do converge to observables in the algebra. Like in Examples 2.1.2, 2.1.3, in the following we shall assume X to be compact in a metric topology and measurable with respect to the Borel σalgebra that contains all its open and closed sets. Then, a natural algebra of observables is provided by the continuous functions on X [258]. Deﬁnition 2.2.3. Let X be a compact metric space; C(X ) will denote the Banach ∗ -algebra (with identity) of continuous functions f : X → C endowed with the uniform topology given by the norm C(X ) f → f = sup{|f (x)| : x ∈ X } .

(2.42)

Remarks 2.2.2. 1. If f, g ∈ C(X ) and α ∈ C then f + αg ∈ C(X ) as well as f g ∈ C(X ). Sums, multiplications by complex scalars, by continuous functions and complex conjugation ∗ : f (x) → f ∗ (x) all map C(X ) into itself. These facts make C(X ) a ∗ -algebra with a norm f → f ; indeed, f = 0 ⇔ f = 0 ,

α f = |α| f ,

f + g ≤ f + g ,

for all f, g ∈ C(X ), α ∈ C. This norm deﬁnes the uniform neighborhoods Uε (f ) := {g ∈ C(X ) : f − g ≤ ε} ,

f ∈ C(X ) ,

(2.43)

and equips C(X ) with a metric and a corresponding topology called uniform topology, Tu .

2.2 Symbolic Dynamics

31

2. A sequence {fn }n∈N ⊂ C(X ) is a Cauchy sequence if, for any ε > 0 there exists N ∈ N such that n, m ≥ N =⇒ fn − fm ≤ ε; since all Cauchy sequences in C(X ) converge uniformly to f ∈ C(X ), that is limn f − fn = 0 or limn fn = f , C(X ) is termed a Banach algebra. Also, f ∗ f = f 2 , f ∗ = f and f g ≤ f g for all f, g ∈ C(X ); this makes C(X ) a C ∗ algebra (see Deﬁnition 5.2.1). 3. Because of assumed compactness of X , the identity function 1l(x) = 1 belongs to C(X ). When X is not compact, one considers the ∗ -algebra C0 (X ) consisting of the complex continuous functions on X vanishing at inﬁnity. When equipped with the norm (2.42), C0 (X ) is a Banach algebra, but the identity function does not belong to it. A description of dynamical systems by means of continuous functions is, however, too restrictive, in general. For instance, the corresponding C ∗ algebras cannot contain observables related to yes/no questions like is the state localized within a measurable subset (region) A ∈ X or not?

as these correspond to characteristic functions 1A of A which are only measurable and not continuous. The Koopman-von Neumann formulation of Example 2.1.1 oﬀers a natural way to enlarge the algebra of observables. In a quantum-like notation, we shall denote by | ψ any function in L2μ (X ) and by

x | ψ its value ψ(x) at x ∈ X . Functions f ∈ C(X ) can then be represented on L2μ (X ) as multiplication operators Mf :

x | Mf |ψ = f (x)ψ(x) ,

∀ψ ∈ L2μ (X ) .

(2.44)

In the following, we shall identify, C(X ) and its representation by multiplication operators, that is we shall identify Mf and f . Remarks 2.2.3. 1. The maps C(X ) f → Lψ (f ) := f | ψ are semi-norms. They deﬁne strong-neighborhoods on C(X ), that is neighborhoods in the so called strong topology, Ts , {ψj }n Uε j=1 (f ) := g ∈ C(X ) : (f − g)| ψj ≤ ε , 1 ≤ j ≤ n . (2.45) Since (f − g)| ψ ≤ f − g ψ2 , g ∈ Uε/ ψ (f ) =⇒ g ∈ Uεψ ; therefore, every strong-neighborhood contains a uniform neighborhood and is thus a uniform neighborhood itself; in general, however, there can be uniform neighborhoods which are not strong-neighborhoods, so that the uniform topology is ﬁner than the strong topology, Ts Tu ; namely, Tu has more neighborhoods. Practically speaking, a sequence fn ∈ C(X ) converges strongly to f ∈ C(X ), s − limn fn = f , if

32

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

limn→∞ (f − fn )| ψ = 0 ∀ψ ∈ L2μ (X ), and, while all uniformly convergent sequences converge strongly, there can be strongly converging sequences which do not converge uniformly. 2. If {fn }n∈N converges with respect to Tu , it converges also with respect to Ts , but not vice versa; it follows that the strong closure of C(X ), that is C(X ) together with all its possible strong limit points, is strictly larger than C(X ). Indeed, it contains C(X ), simple functions and discontinuous functions f that may jump arbitrarily but only on sets of zero measure [258]. Equip X with a σ-algebra and a measure μ; then,

f ∞ := inf a ≥ 0 : μ {x : |f (x)| ≥ a} = 0 , where f is a measurable function on X , deﬁnes a norm · ∞ called essential norm. If f ∞ < ∞, then |f (x)| > f ∞ only on a set of zero measure; further, the following collection of measurable functions, L∞ (X ) := f : f < ∞ , ∞ μ is a C ∗ algebra with respect to the essential norm known as the algebra of essentially bounded functions. 3. There is another topology on C(X ) which is inherited by its multiplicative action on L2μ (X ) and which is coarser than the strong topology, namely the weak topology, Tw Ts Tu . It is generated by the semi-norms Lφ,ψ (f ) := | φ | Mf |ψ | which deﬁnes the weak neighborhoods (f ) := g ∈ C(X ) : Lφj ,ψj (f − g) ≤ ε , 1 ≤ j ≤ n . (2.46) A sequence fn ∈ C(X ) converges weakly to f ∈ C(X ), w − lim fn = f , if and only if lim | φ | (f −fn |ψ | = 0 for all ψ, φ ∈ L2μ (X ). As we shall see n→∞ in the more general non-commutative context, the strong and the weak closures coincide. In the case of C(X ) they give rise to L∞ μ (X ) which has the structure of a so-called von Neumann algebra. 2 4. Actually, L∞ μ (X ) can be generated as the strong closure on Lμ (X ) of the algebra containing the characteristic functions of ﬁner and ﬁner partitions of X . More precisely, one may consider a reﬁning sequence {Pn }n≥0 , Pn Pn+1 , that generates the σ-algebra of X when n → +∞. Each Pn is a ﬁnite dimensional commutative algebra An whose elements are the step functions that are linear combinations of the characteristic functions of the ﬁnitely many atoms of Pn ; then, {(φj ,ψj )}n j=1

Uε

L∞ μ (X ) =

n

An

weak−closure

.

2.2 Symbolic Dynamics

33

In order to complete the formulation of measure-theoretic triplets (X , T, μ) into an algebraic framework, one has to endow C(X ) with a time-evolution corresponding to T and a map C(X ) → C that play the role of μ by assigning mean values to continuous functions. We shall consider invertible continuous dynamical maps T on X and discrete-time dynamics. As in Example 2.1.2, any f ∈ C(X ) changes in time according to f (x) → f (T t x) = f ◦ T t (x) =: ft (x) ,

t∈Z.

The map ΘT : C(X ) → C(X ), deﬁned by ΘT (f ) = f ◦ T is an automorphism of C(X ); namely, it is invertible and ΘT (α f + β g) = α ΘT (f ) + β ΘT (g) ,

ΘT (f g) = ΘT (f ) ΘT (g) .

(2.47)

Moreover, ΘT preserves the uniform norm. Example 2.2.3. In the Koopman-von Neumann formalism where functions f ∈ C(X ) are represented as multiplication operators, the Koopman operator UT implements unitarily the automorphism ΘT ; indeed, using (2.4), for all ψ ∈ L2μ (X ) and x ∈ X ,

x | UT f UT† ψ = f (T x) T x | UT† ψ = f (T x) T −1 ◦ T x | ψ = x | ΘT (f )ψ . Notice that UT cannot belong to C(X ), otherwise it would commute with all f ∈ C(X ) which would then be constant in time. Concerning the possible states over C(X ) (see (2.2)), we shall consider the space M (X ) of regular Borel measures over X (see Remark 2.1.1.5). The simplest instances of elements of M (X ) are the evaluation functionals δx : C(X ) → C, deﬁned by δx (f ) := f (x), for all x ∈ X and f ∈ C(X ). These functionals can be seen as integration with respect to Dirac delta distributions and embody the fact that phase-space points are the simplest physical dy f (y) δ(y − x). By making convex combinations of evalstates: δx (f ) = X

uation functionals one obtains more general positive, normalized expectation functionals over C(X ). Actually, a theorem of Riesz [258] asserts that the action of any such functional is representable by integration with respect to a regular Borel measure in M (X ). In view of the physical interpretation of states as positive functionals that assign mean values to observables, it makes sense to identify measures μ ∈ M (X ) and states ωμ : C(X ) → C such that 3 3

For sake of notational convenience, we shall sometime employ the notation μ(f ) for ωμ (f ).

34

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

A f → ωμ (f ) =

dμ(x) f (x) , X

∀ f ∈ C(X ) .

(2.48)

Remarks 2.2.4. 1. With two measures μ1,2 on a measure space X all convex combinations pμ1 +(1−p)μ2 with p ∈ [0, 1] provide other measures; therefore, the space of states of classical systems is a convex set. 2. Given two measures μ1,2 on X equipped with a σ-algebra Σ, μ1 is said to be absolutely continuous with respect to μ2 , μ1 μ2 , if for any B ∈ Σ 1 μ2 (B) = 0 =⇒ μ1 (B) = 0. Then, there exists a positive f ∈ Lμ (X ) such that μ1 (B) = B dμ2 (x) f (x) for all B ∈ Σ. The density f (x) is dμ1 . If also μ2 μ1 called Radon-Nikodym derivative and denoted by dμ2 then μ1 and μ2 are said to be equivalent. Diﬀerently, μ1 and μ2 are called mutually singular, μ1 ⊥ μ2 , if there exists B ∈ Σ such that μ1 (B) = 0 while μ2 (X \B) = 0. 3. According to Lebesgue decomposition theorem, given two measures μ and m on X , there exists a unique choice of measures μ1,2 and of p ∈ [0, 1] such that μ = pμ1 + (1 − p)μ2 with μ1 m and μ2 ⊥ m. 4. If X = T2 as in Example 2.1.3, then any L1dr (T2 ) ρ(r) ≥ 0 with dr ρ(r) = 1 is the Radon-Nikodym derivative of a measure which is T2 absolutely continuous with respect to dr . Vice versa, evaluation functionals δr (f ) = f (r) are singular measures with respect to dr . Finally, a measure μ ∈ M (X ) is T -invariant if the corresponding mean values are time-independent, ωμ (ΘT (f )) = ω(f ) or ωμ = ωμ ◦ΘT . Notice that (2.48) and (2.47) allows one to extend the state ωμ and the automorphism ΘT to the von Neumann algebra of essentially bounded functions L∞ μ (X ). Deﬁnition 2.2.4. To any measure-theoretic triplet (X , T, μ), where X is a compact metric space equipped with the Borel σ-algebra and μ ∈ M (X ) is a T -invariant regular Borel measure, one can associate a C ∗ algebraic triplet (C(X ), ΘT , ωμ ) and a von Neumann triplet (L∞ μ (X ), ΘT , ωμ ) where state ωμ and automorphism ΘT are deﬁned as in (2.48), respectively (2.47). 2.2.2 Conditional Probabilities and Expectations Given a measure space (X , μ) with σ-algebra Σ, a ﬁnite partition P = {Pi }pi=1 such that μ(Pi ) > 0 for all i, and X ∈ Σ, consider the following function μ(X ∩ Pi ) x ∈ X → μ(X|P)(x) := if x ∈ Pi , μ(Pi ) dμ (x) μ(X|P)(x) = μ(X ∩ Pi ) . such that Pi

(2.49) (2.50)

2.2 Symbolic Dynamics

35

It is the conditional probability of X ∈ Σ given the partition P and represents the probability of the subset X once it is known that x belongs to one of the atoms of P. This notion can be extended to the case of partitions with atoms P such that μ(P ) = 0 by assigning a same ﬁxed, arbitrary real value to μ(X|P)(x) when x ∈ P : in such a way one gets a family of versions of the conditional probability each of which satisﬁes (2.50) [61]. One can extend (2.49) and (2.50) and deﬁne probability distributions conditioned upon σ-subalgebras T ⊆ Σ. 1 Consider an integrable function f ∈ Lμ (X ), the functional on T deﬁned dμ (x) f (x), T ∈ T , is bounded, σ-additive and absolutely

by F (T ) := T

continuous with respect to μ (see Remarks 2.1.1.3 and 2.2.4.1); its RadonNikodym derivative dF (x) =: E(f |T )(x) such that dμ dμ (x) E(f |T )(x) = dμ (x) f (x) ∀T ∈ T , (2.51) T

T

is T -measurable and integrable and is called the conditional expectation of f with respect to the σ-algebra T . By choosing as f the characteristic function 1lX of a subset X ∈ Σ its conditional probability given T is thus deﬁned by μ(X|T )(x) := E(1lX |T )(x) and is such that dμ (x) μ(X|T )(x) = μ(X ∩ T ) ∀X ∈ Σ , T ∈ T . (2.52) T

Given a σ-subalgebra T ⊆ Σ consider the Abelian von Neumann algebra L∞ μ (X , T ) consisting of the essentially bounded T -measurable functions on X (see Remark 2.2.3.2). This is a subalgebra of the Abelian von Neumann algebra L∞ μ (X ) of the Σ-measurable essentially bounded functions on X . Then, (2.51) makes the conditional expectation a linear map ∞ E(·|T ) : L∞ μ (X ) → Lμ (X , T ) which is linear, positive and a measure preserving projection, that is μ ◦ E(·|T ) = μ and E(E(f |T )|T ) = E(f |T ). The ﬁrst three assertions are evident, while idempotency is a corollary of the following more general property. Suppose T1 T2 are two σ-subalgebras of Σ such that T1 ∈ T1 =⇒ T1 ∈ T2 but not vice versa, in general. Then, if f ∈ L∞ μ (X ), (2.51) yields dμ (x) E(E(f |T2 )|T1 ) = dμ (x) E(f |T2 ) = dμ (x) f (x) T1 T1 T1 dμ (x) E(f |T1 ) , = T1

for all T1 ∈ T1 , whence T1 T2 =⇒ E(E(f |T2 )|T1 ) = E(f |T1 ).

36

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

∞ Proposition 2.2.1. If f ∈ L∞ μ (X ) and g ∈ Lμ (X , T ), where T ⊆ Σ, then

E(g f |T ) = g E(f |T ) .

(2.53)

Proof: Suppose g = 1T , the characteristic function of a subset T ∈ T ; then, for all T0 ∈ T , T ∩ T0 ∈ T and (2.51) yields dμ (x) E(1T f |T )(x) = dμ (x) f (x) = 1T (x) E(f |T )(x) . T ∩T0

T0

T0

Then, one concludes the proof by approximating g ∈ L∞ μ (X , T ) with respect to the essential norm by means of simple functions. Given a reﬁning $sequence {Tn }n∈Z , that is n ≤ m =⇒ Tn ⊆ Tm ⊆ Σ, containing all the Tn ’s we shall set T+ := n∈Z the smallest σ-subalgebra % (Tn ↑ T+ ), respectively denote by T− := n∈Z Tn the largest σ-subalgebra contained in all the Tn (Tn ↓ T− ). The proof of the following continuity properties can be found in [61] and [101]. Theorem 2.2.1. Let X be a measure space equipped with a σ-algebra Σ and a measure μ; given a reﬁning sequence of σ-subalgebras Tn , then lim E(f |Tn ) = E(f |T+ ) ,

n→+∞

lim E(f |Tn ) = E(f |T− ) ,

n→−∞

for all f ∈ L∞ μ (X ). Examples 2.2.4. 1. If Σ ⊃ T := N , the trivial σ-algebra consisting of the empty set ∅ and the whole of X ; then, E(f |N ) = μ(f ) 1l. On the other hand, if T = Σ, then E(f |Σ) = f . 2. By inserting characteristic functions f = 1X , X ∈ Σ, in the above theorem, one gets the following continuity properties of the conditional probabilities: lim μ(X|Tn )(x) = μ(X|T± )(x) , μ − a.e. n→±∞

for allΣ-measurable subsets of X . 3. Consider the unit interval [0, 1) with the Borel σ-algebra Σ and the Lebesgue measure dμ (x) = dx ; construct the measure algebra Tn generated by the partition Pn of [0, 1) into 2n atoms Pk = [k2−n , (k + 1)2−n ). Then, Tn ↑ Σ and [61] E(f |Tn )(x) =

n 2 −1

k=0

(k+1)2−k

n

1Pk (x) 2

dt f (t) , k2−n

for all f ∈ L∞ [0,1) (dt ). For n → ∞ the summand containing x tends to the derivative of the integral at x and thus to f (x) μ-a.e..

2.2 Symbolic Dynamics

37

2.2.3 Dynamical Shifts and Classical Spin Chains Dynamical shifts and symbolic models can be given an algebraic formulation in terms of classical spin chains. Consider a triplet (ΩpZ , Tσ , μ), that is a shiftdynamical system over doubly inﬁnite sequences of symbols from an alphabet with p elements that leaves invariant a measure μ. Let us associate to each symbol j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , p} a p × p matrix of the form ⎛ ⎞ 0 0 0 ··· 0 0 ⎜0 0 0 ··· 0 0⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜· · · ··· · ·⎟ ⎜ ⎟ Pj = ⎜ · · · 1 · ·⎟ . ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ · · · (j,j)−thentry ··· · ·⎠ 0 0 0 ··· 0 0 Varying 1 ≤ j ≤ p, we obtain an orthonormal family of orthogonal projecp tions such that Pi Pj = δij Pj and j=1 Pj = 1lp , where 1lp denotes the p × p identity matrix; these projectors generate the diagonal p × p matrix algebra Dp (C) 4 with elements ⎛

d1 ⎜ 0 ⎜ ⎜ · D=⎜ ⎜ · ⎝ · 0

0 d2 · · · 0

0 0 · · · 0

··· 0 ··· 0 ··· · ··· · ··· · ··· 0

⎞ 0 0 ⎟ p ⎟ · ⎟ dj Pj . ⎟= · ⎟ ⎠ j=1 · dp

(2.54)

To each label j in a sequence i = {ij }j∈Z one thus associates the diagonal matrix algebra Dp (C): each of its minimal projectors thus corresponds to a ([0,n−1] simple cylinder. Extending the construction to generic cylinders Ci0 ,i1 ,...,in−1 as in (2.24), these correspond to tensor products of projectors ([0,n−1]

Pi(n)

:=

n−1 ,

i(n) := i0 , i1 , . . . , in−1 .

Pij ,

(2.55)

j=0

Then, the natural matricial description that one associates to strings of -n−1 length n is the diagonal matrix algebra D(n) = D⊗n := j=0 (Dp (C))j , namely the tensor product of n copies of Dp (C) whose elements are diagonal pn × pn matrices of the form [0,n−1] D(n) := d(i(n) ) Pi(n) . (2.56) (n)

i(n) ∈Ωp 4

These commutative matrix algebras are also called Abelian and projections as the Pj are known as minimal projectors.

38

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

A suggestive physical picture is as follows: each matrix algebra Dp (C) describes a classical spin, with p possible states, in an inﬁnite classical ferromagnet. Spins located at the lattice sites −n ≤ j ≤ n are described by n tensor products of the form D[−n,n] := j=−n (Dp (C))j . These matrix algebras can be interpreted as algebras of observables for ﬁnite portions of the inﬁnite ferromagnet by the embedding D[−n,n] → 1l−n−1] ⊗ D[−n,n] ⊗ 1l[n+1 into D∞ := n≥0 D[−n,n] , where 1l−n−1] and 1l[n+1 denote the tensor products of inﬁnitely many identity matrices 1l ∈ Dp (C) located along the two-sided chain at sites from −∞ up to −n − 1, respectively from n + 1 up to +∞. Each D[−n,n] can be equipped with the standard sup-norm of matrix algebras (see (5.3)) 5 . The sup-norm inductively extends to D∞ and allows uniform . This procedure to consider the uniform closure DZ := n∈N D[−n,n] ∗ is known as C -inductive limit [64] as it involves an increasing sequence of local algebras D[−n,n] ; DZ provides a C ∗ algebraic description of a classical spin chain. Using (2.26), the left-shift along sequences gives rise to an algebraic shift map Θσ : DZ → DZ such that Θσ (D[−n,n] ) = D[−n+1,n+1] .

(2.57)

Further, the local probability measures μ(n) := {p(i(n) )}i(n) ∈Ω (n) that p

yield the global Tσ -invariant state μ over ΩpZ can be associated with diagonal matrices [0,n−1] p(i(n) ) Pi(n) , (2.58) ρμ(n) := (n)

i(n) ∈Ωp

by means of the trace operation (see (5.19)) which acting on any matrix re(n) turns the sum of its diagonal entries. In fact, multiplying ρμ with matrices as in (2.56), gives another matrix in D(n) with diagonal elements p(i(n) ) d(i(n) ), and one gets

p(i(n) ) d(i(n) ) , Tr ρμ(n) D(n) = (n)

i(n) ∈Ωp

(n) [0,n−1] whence p(i(n) ) = Tr ρμ Pi(n) . Therefore, conditions (2.29)- (2.30) (n)

translate into the following algebraic relations to be satisﬁed by {ρμ }n∈N : Trn (ρμ(n) ) = Tr1 (ρμ(n) ) = ρμ(n−1) ,

(2.59)

where Trj denotes the trace with respect to j-th factor. These conditions allows to consistently deﬁne a global state ωμ on the spin chain DZ ; this state 5

The sup-norm of a diagonal matrix D is the square root of the largest diagonal element of D† D.

2.2 Symbolic Dynamics

39

is speciﬁed by its values as a positive expectation functional over local spin (n) arrays where it coincides with the local states ρμ (which we shall encounter in the quantum setting as density matrices). Deﬁnition 2.2.5 (Classical Spin Chains). The C ∗ algebraic triplet (DZ , Θσ , ωμ ) associated with a measure-theoretic triplet (Ωp , Tσ , μ) will be referred to as a classical spin chain. Remark 2.2.5. In Section 5.3.2, it will be proved that to all classical spin chains as deﬁned above, there correspond algebraic triplets as in Deﬁnition 2.2.4. In particular, the von Neumann algebraic triplets arise when the C ∗ triplets (DZ , Θσ , ωμ ) are represented on a Hilbert space and enlarged by adding to them their weak-limit points.

Example 2.2.5. [113] Consider a Markov chain as in Example 2.1.5. Let ⎛ p(1) ρ=

d

⎜ 0 p(i) Pi = ⎜ ⎝ .. . i=1 0

0 p(2) .. .

··· ··· .. .

0 0 .. .

0

···

p(d)

⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠

correspond to the probability measure μ = {p(i)}di=1 . Deﬁne on the tensor product Dd (C) ⊗ Dd (C) a linear map E : Dd (C) ⊗ Dd (C) → Dd (C) by linear extension of the following action on tensor products of minimal projectors Pi ∈ Dd (C), Pi ⊗ Pj → E[Pi ⊗ Pj ] := p(j|i) Pi , where P (j|i) are the transition probabilities of the Markov chain. From (2.34) d and (2.35) and using that k=1 Pk = 1l, E[1l ⊗ 1l] =

d

E[Pi ⊗ Pj ] =

i,j=1

d

p(j|i) Pi =

i,j=1

d

Pi = 1l

i=1

d d

Tr ρ E[1l ⊗ Pk ] = Tr ρ E[Pi ⊗ Pk ] = p(k|i) Tr(ρ Pi ) i=1

=

d

i=1

p(k|i) p(i) = p(k) = Tr(ρ Pk ) ,

i=1

for all k = 1, 2, . . . , d. Furthermore, higher order probabilities as in (2.36) are iteratively obtained as:

p(i0 i1 · · · in−1 ) = Tr ρ E[Pi0 ⊗ E[Pi1 ⊗ · · · E[Pin−1 ⊗ 1l ] ] ] .

40

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

d For instance, to evaluate Tr ρ E[Pi0 ⊗ E[Pi1 ⊗ 1l]] use k=1 Pk = 1l, then d

d

Tr ρ E[Pi0 ⊗ E[Pi1 ⊗ Pk ]] = P (k|i1 )Tr ρ E[Pi0 ⊗ Pi1 ]

k=1

k=1

= Tr ρ E[Pi0 ⊗ Pi1 ] = p(i1 |i0 ) Tr(ρ Pi0 ) = p(i1 |i0 ) p(i0 ) = p(i0 i1 ) . (n)

Therefore, the local density matrices ρμ are the local restrictions ωμ |`D(n) of a global state ωμ on the classical spin chain DZ such that, for all Di ∈ Dd (C),

ωμ D1 ⊗ D2 ⊗ · · · Dn = Tr ρ E[D1 ⊗ E[D2 ⊗ · · · E[Dn ⊗ 1l] ] ] .

2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing The two uncoupled harmonic oscillators of Example 2.1.2 whose orbits ﬁll the phase-space densely (see Remarks 2.1.2.2 and 2.1.2.3) are typical ergodic systems. Ergodic theory developed [167] from the attempt to explain why in thermodynamic systems time-averages of typical observables coincide with their mean values μ(f ) with respect to equilibrium distributions. Intuitively, if an orbit ﬁlls the energy shell densely, evaluating the time-average of a function along such an orbit should indeed amount to integrating with respect to the Liouville measure restricted to the energy shell. Deﬁnition 2.3.1. Let f : X → C be a complex function associated to a dynamical system (X , T, μ); time-averages are deﬁned by 1 f (T s x) , t→+∞ t s=0 t−1

f (x) := lim

1 t→+∞ t

t

f (x) := lim

ds f (Ts x) 0

in discrete, respectively continuous time.

Example 2.3.1. Consider the uncoupled oscillators of Example 2.1.2 and a continuous function f : T2 → R. By means of (2.12), the discrete and continuous time averages yield

2

eit i=1 ωi ni − 1 en (θ) = f (θ) = lim f(n) i 2 ω n t→+∞ t(e i=1 i i − 1) n∈Z2 respectively

n∈Z2 2 ω n ∈2πZ i=1 i i

f(n) en (θ) ,

2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing

f (θ) = lim

t→+∞

n∈Z2

e f(n)

it

2

it

i=1

2

ωi ni

i=1

−1

ωi ni

en (θ) =

41

f(n) en (θ) .

n∈Z2 2 ω n =0 i=1 i i

Then, besides ensuring that orbits ﬁll T2 densely, the conditions in Remark 2.1.2.2 and 2.1.2.3 also imply that time-averages coincide with their mean values: f (θ) = f(0) = T2 dθ f (θ) = μ(f ). A considerable break-through in ergodic theory was Birkhoﬀ ’s theorem 6 .

Theorem 2.3.1. Given X , T, μ , let f ∈ L1μ (X ) be a complex μ-summable function on X . Then, 1. the time-average f (x) exists μ-a.e. on X ; 2. the time-average f is T -invariant: f ◦ T = f μ-a.e.; 3. the time-average f ∈ L1μ (X ) and μ(f ) = μ(f ). The proof [91, 61] of these important results hinges on the following lemma known as maximal ergodic theorem.

Lemma 2.3.1. Given the dynamical triplet X , T, μ , for any f ∈ L1μ (X ), k−1 1 f f (T j x) and Af := x ∈ X : supk≥0 Skf (x) > 0 ; then, set Sk (x) := k j=0 dμ (x) f (x) ≥ 0. Af

f f Set Φ(1) n (x) := max 0, S1 (x), . . . , Sn (x) and split X into the sub (1) set Afn := x : Φ(1) n (x) > 0 and its complement where Φn (x) = 0. Further, f f (1) f Φ(2) n (x) := max S1 (x), . . . , Sn (x) = Φn (x) on An ; also, Proof:

(2) Φn+1 (x) = max f (x), f (x) + f (T x), . . . , f (x) + f (T x) + · · · f (T n x) = f (x) + max 0, f (T x), . . . , f (T x) + · · · f (T n x) = f (x) + Φ(1) n (T x) . (1)

(2)

(2)

Thus, since Φn (x) is non-negative, μ is T -invariant and Φn+1 (x) ≥ Φn (x), 6

Though the results presented below can be extended to dynamical systems in continuous time, we shall concentrate on discrete time dynamical systems.

42

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

(2) dμ (x) Φn+1 (x) − Φ(1) (T x) n Af n (2) ≥ dμ (x) Φn (x) − dμ (x)Φ(1) n (T x) Afn X = dμ (x) Φ(1) dμ (x) Φ(1) n (x) − n (x) = 0 .

dμ (x) f (x) = Afn

Afn

X

Then, the result follows for, when n → +∞, the points in Af that are not in Afn form a set of vanishingly small measure μ. Proof of Theorem 2.3.1 Let a < b ∈ R and, using the notations of the previous lemma, set 1 1 Eab := x ∈ X : lim inf Snf (x) < a < b < lim sup Snf (x) . n→+∞ n n→+∞ n (1)

(1)

Let gab (x) := f (x) − b when x ∈ Eab , otherwise gab (x) = 0; consider the set 1 g(1) 1 x ∈ X : sup Snab (x) > 0 = x ∈ X : sup Snf (x) > b . n n n n (1)

This set not only coincides with the set Agab as deﬁned in Lemma 2.3.1, but it also equals Eab ; while the ﬁrst property is contained in the deﬁnition of the set, the second one follows from the fact that, on one hand, lim sup n→+∞

1 f S (x) > b =⇒ n n

(1) 1 f Sn (x) > b =⇒ Eab ⊆ Agab . n→+∞ n

sup

/ Eab also T n x ∈ / Eab for all n, On the other hand, by deﬁnition of Eab , if x ∈ g

(1)

(1)

(1)

/ Agab . Thus, Lemma 2.3.1 yields whence gab (T n x) = 0, Snab (x) = 0 and x ∈ (1) dμ (x) g (x) = dμ (x) (f (x) − b) ≥ 0 . (1) ab Agab

Eab

(2)

The same argument appliedto the function gab (x) := a − f (x) if x ∈ Eab , (2) dμ (x) (a − f (x)) ≥ 0, whence otherwise gab (x) = 0, gives Eab

b μ(Eab ) ≤

dμ (x) f (x) ≤ a μ(Eab ) . Eab

Since a < b this can only be possible if μ(Eab ) = 0; therefore, the limit 1 f Sn (x) exists μ-a.e. on X . Namely, outside the union of all fˆ(x) := lim n→+∞ n Eab with rational a, b, which is still a set of zero measure, the sequence Snf (x) converges pointwise to fˆ(x) which can however be ±∞.

2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing

43

The limit function is T -invariant by construction; moreover, fˆ ∈ L1μ (X ). Indeed, 1 f dμ (x) Sn (x)≤ dμ (x) |f (x)| ; n X X therefore, Fatou’s lemma 7 yields dμ (x) |fˆ(x)| ≤ lim inf dμ (x)

1 f Sn (x) ≤ dμ (x) |f (x)| < +∞ . n n→+∞ X X X 1 Finally, choose λ ≥ 0, let gλ (x) := Snf (x) − λ, and consider the set Agλ as n in Lemma 2.3.1 ; then, 1 f 1 f ˆ ˆ dμ (x) Sn (x) − f (x) ≤ dμ (x) Sn (x) − f (x) n n X X \Agλ 1 f + dμ (x) Sn (x) + dμ (x) |fˆ(x)| . n Agλ Agλ

1 Consider the third integral, Lemma 2.3.1 yields μ(Agλ ) ≤ fˆ1 ; as to the λ second one, it can be estimated as follows n−1 1 f 1 dμ (x) Sn (x) ≤ dμ (x) |f (T k x)| + α μ(Agλ ) n n k x)|>α Agλ |f (T k=0 = dμ (x) |f (x)| + α μ(Agλ ) , |f (x)|>α

for some ﬁxed α ≥ 0. Now, μ(Agλ ) and thus the third integral can be made arbitrarily small by choosing an appropriate λ, as well as the second one by 8 setting α large enough. Further, Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem , 1 f can be applied to dμ (x) Sn (x) − fˆ(x) which becomes negligibly n X \Agλ small when n → +∞, whence n−1 1 1 dμ (x) fˆ(x) = lim dμ (x) Snf (x) = lim dμ (x) f (T k x) n→+∞ X n→+∞ n n X X k=0 = dμ (x) f (x) . X 7

Fatou’s lemma [258] asserts that if fn is a sequence of measurable functions on a measure space X , then dμ lim inf fn ≤ lim inf dμ fn . X

n→+∞

n→+∞

X

Lebesgue Dominated Convergence Theorem [258] asserts that if {fn }n∈N is a sequence of measurable functions on X such that the limit f (x) = lim fn (x) 8

n→+∞

1 exists for all x ∈ X and |fn (x)| ≤ g(x) for all x ∈ X with g ∈ Lμ (X ), then f ∈ L1μ (X ) and dμ (x) f (x) = lim dμ (x) fn (x) . X

n→+∞

X

44

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

In the light of Birkhoﬀ’s ergodic theorem, we ﬁrst give a general measuretheoretic deﬁnition of ergodicity and then consider its physical consequences.

Deﬁnition 2.3.2. A dynamical system (X , T, μ) is ergodic if for all measurable subsets T −1 (B) = B implies μ(B) = 0 or μ(B) = 1.

Remarks 2.3.1. 1. The ﬁrst conclusion to be drawn from this deﬁnition is that ergodic systems cannot possess non-trivial T -invariant measurable functions (constants of the motion). Indeed, if f : X → R is such that f ◦ T = f then Na := {x ∈ X : f (x) = a} ⊆ X is measurable; moreover, as x ∈ T −1 (Na ) implies T x ∈ Na , then f (x) = f (T x) = a. Thus, T −1 (Na ) ⊆ Na and ergodicity forces Na to equal either X or ∅ μ-a.e. for all a ∈ R, whence f (x) = cf μ-a.e. on X . 2. If f ∈ L1μ (X ), its time-average f is T -invariant by point 2 in Birkhoﬀ’s theorem. If (X , T, μ) is ergodic, from the previous remark and point 3 in Birkhoﬀ’s theorem, f (x) = cf μ − a.e; thus, μ(f ) = cf = f (x) μ − a.e. on X . Namely, ergodicity implies that time-averages and phase-averages (mean-values) of (summable) observables coincide. Vice versa, dynamical systems where time-averages and phase-averages coincide are ergodic because of Proposition 2.3.1 below. 3. If the only T -invariant measurable functions are constant almost everywhere on X , then (X , T, μ) is ergodic: in fact, the characteristic functions of T -invariant measurable subsets are T -invariant and must then be constant almost everywhere, namely equal either to 0 or to 1 μ-a.e. 4. The average time spent within B by almost all phase-points of an ergodic t−1 1 t 1B (TTs x); system equals the volume of B. Indeed, let 1B (x) := t s=0 count the mean number of times B is crossed by the trajectory {T n x}n∈N during a span of time of length t. Then, ergodicity yields t

1B (x) = lim 1B (x) = μ(B) t→+∞

μ − a.e. .

(2.60)

Proposition 2.3.1. A dynamical system (X , T, μ) is ergodic if and only if for all measurable A, B it holds that 1 μ(A ∩ T −s (B)) = μ(A)μ(B) . t→∞ t s=0 t−1

lim

(2.61)

2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing

45

1 −s 1 (x), by Birkhoﬀ’s theorem t s=0 A∩T (B) and Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem (see footnote 8) it follows that t−1

Proof:

t

Consider 1A (x)1B (x) =

1 μ(A ∩ T −s (B)) . t→∞ t s=0 t−1

μ(1A 1B ) = lim

If the system is ergodic, then (2.61) follows from (2.60). If (2.61) holds, then A = B = T −1 (B) =⇒ μ(B)2 = μ(B), whence μ(B) equals either 0 or 1. Deﬁnition 2.3.3 (Mixing). A dynamical system (X , T, μ) is mixing if and only if for all measurable subsets A, B ⊆ X it holds that lim μ(A ∩ T −t (B)) = μ(A)μ(B) .

t→+∞

(2.62)

The subsets A ∩ T −t (B) consist of those points of A that visit B at time t; thus, (2.62) asserts that relative to the volume of any measurable subset A, the volume of points of A that will eventually be in another measurable subset B equals the volume of B. In other words, mixing dynamical systems are in the long run characterized by the uniform spreading of their measurable subsets; on the other hand (2.61) states that ergodicity amounts to a uniform spreading on average. From a physical point of view, quantities like μ(A ∩ T −t (B)) are two-point correlation functions; thus, mixing characterizes dynamical systems whose two-point correlation functions factorize asymptotically, whereas ergodicity corresponds to two-point correlation functions factorizing in the mean. Remarks 2.3.2. 1 ak = a, whence (2.62) imn→+∞ n→+∞ n k=0 plies (2.61) and mixing implies ergodicity. The opposite is not in general true as the time-average can get rid of those s for which μ(A∩T −s (B)) = μ(A)μ(B). There is a third asymptotic behavior, intermediate between ergodicity and mixing, known as weak mixing [313] and related to the fact that n−1

1. If

lim an = a, an ∈ R, then,

lim

n−1 1 |an − a| = 0 n→∞ n j=0 n−1 1 =0. =⇒ lim (a − a) n n→∞ n j=0

lim |an − a| = 0 =⇒ lim

n→∞

46

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

Weak mixing amounts to the request that t−1 1 μ(A ∩ T −s (B) − μ(A)μ(B)) = 0 ; t→∞ t s=0

lim

(2.63)

it is implied by mixing and implies ergodicity. 2. Given an invertible map T , a stronger notion of mixing is formulated as follows [91]. Given any ﬁnite collection Sr := {Si }ri=1 , Si ∈ Σ, of measurable subsets of X , denote by Σn∞ (Sr ) :=

∞

T −k (Sr )

k≥n

the σ-algebra generated by all possible atoms of the form T −k (Sj ) for k ≥ n and Sj ∈ Sr . Then, (X , T, μ) is said to be K-mixing if (2.64) lim sup μ(S0 ∩ B) − μ(S0 ) μ(B) = 0 , n→∞ B∈Σ ∞ (S ) r n

for all S0 , Sr ∈ Σ. Observe that x ∈ Σn∞ (Sr ) implies T −k x ∈ Si at some time k ≥ n for some atom Si ∈ Sr ; therefore, K-mixing amounts to the uniform statistical independence of any given measurable subset from the trajectories of any ﬁnite family of subsets if these are considered suﬃciently far away in the past. By using the density of the algebra of simple functions S(X ) in the Hilbert space L2μ (X ) as in Example 2.1.1, it is convenient to reformulate (2.61) and (2.62) in terms of square-summable functions. It is thus possible to study how those properties constrain the spectrum of the Koopman operator UT . Proposition 2.3.2. A dynamical system (X , T, μ) is 1. ergodic if and only if for all ψ, φ ∈ L2μ (X ) 1 μ(ψ φ ◦ T s ) = μ(ψ)μ(φ) ; t→∞ t s=0 t−1

lim

(2.65)

2. mixing if and only if for all ψ, φ ∈ L2μ (X ) lim μ(ψ φ ◦ T t ) = μ(ψ)μ(φ) .

t→+∞

(2.66)

According to the Koopman-von Neumann formalism of Example 2.1.1, using (2.5), it turns out that μ(ψφ ◦ T t ) = ψ ∗ | UTt |φ . Therefore, ergodicity and mixing can conveniently be expressed as weak-limits, that is as limits with

2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing

47

respect to the weak topology (see Remark 2.2.3.3). Then (2.65) and (2.66) are equivalent to 1 s UT = | 1l 1l | t→∞ t s=0 t−1

w − lim

w − lim UTt = | 1l 1l | . t→∞

(2.67) (2.68)

The constant function | 1l is such that UT | 1l = | 1l ; if there exists | ψ = | 1l such that UT | ψ = | ψ , then one can orthogonally decompose | ψ = α| 1l + β| φ with φ | 1l = 0, φ = 1 and UT | φ = | φ . Thus, 1 = lim φ | UTt |φ = | φ | 1l |2 = 0 , t→+∞

whence (2.68) cannot hold. If (2.68) holds, a similar argument excludes the presence of eigenvectors | ψλ such that UT | ψλ = eiλ | ψλ . Therefore, Proposition 2.3.3. A dynamical system (X , T, μ) is mixing only if 1 is the only eigenvalue of its Koopman operator and it is not degenerate. In order to see the impact of ergodicity as expressed by (2.67) on the spectrum of UT , we use [313] Proposition 2.3.4 (von Neumann Ergodic Theorem). Let UT be the unitary Koopman operator acting on the Hilbert space H := L2μ (X ) of a dynamical triplet (X , T, μ), with T invertible. Let At : H → H be deﬁned t−1 1 s by At | ψ := U | ψ , ψ ∈ H, and let P project onto the subspace K t s=0 T of vectors such that UT | ψ = | ψ . Then, lim (At − P )ψ = 0; in other t→+∞

words, P is the strong limit (see Remark 2.2.3.1) of the sequence of operators At , P = s − limt→+∞ At . Proof:

The subspace orthogonal to K is (UT − 1l)H; thus, for any ψ ∈ H, | ψ = P | ψ + (1l − P )| ψ = P | ψ + (UT − 1l)| φ ,

for some φ ∈ H. Since At (UT − 1l) = (At − P )| ψ ≤

UTt − 1l , the result follows from t

2φ (UTt − 1l)| φ ≤ . t t

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2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

Corollary 2.3.1. A dynamical system (X , T, μ) is ergodic if and only if 1 is a non-degenerate eigenvalue of the Koopman operator UT . Proof: Since strong convergence implies weak convergence, condition (2.67) means that ergodicity is equivalent to P = | 1l 1l |. Remarks 2.3.3. 1. By substituting ψ, φ ∈ L2μ (X ) with ψ − μ(ψ) and φ − μ(φ) (they also belong to L2μ (X )), ergodicity, respectively mixing amount to 1 μ(ψ φ ◦ T s ) = 0 , t→∞ t s=0 t−1

lim

lim μ(ψ φ ◦ T t ) = 0 ,

t→+∞

(2.69)

for all ψ, φ ∈ L2μ (X ) with μ(ψ) = μ(φ) = 0. 2. In case T is not invertible, the Koopman operator is not unitary, but just an isometry, that is U † U = 1l, while U U † = 1l. If T is invertible, time averages can be extended from −∞ to +∞ and, because of T -invariance of μ, it does not matter which one of ψ and φ is the time-evolving function in (2.65) and (2.66). Examples 2.3.2. 1. Ergodic rotations as in Example 2.1.2 are never mixing for the Koopman operator has the exponential functions en (θ) as eigenfunctions. 2. The system in Example 2.1.3 is mixing. Given ψ, φ ∈ L2dr (T2 ) with μ(ψ) = μ(φ) = 0, let ε > 0 and choose L > 0 such that ψ − ψε ≤ ε and φ − φε ≤ ε, where ψε = m ≤L ψ(m)e m and φε =

n ≤L φ(n)en . Then, using (2.22), |μ(ψ φ ◦ TAp )| ≤ ε (φ + φε ) + |μ(ψε φε ◦ T p )| −p n)| . ≤ ε (φ + φε ) + |ψ(n)| |φ(A n≤L A−p n≤L

When p → ∞, hyperbolicity permits n ≤ L and A−p n ≤ L only if = 0, the Arnold Cat Map satisﬁes (2.66). n = 0; since μ(φ) = φ(0) 3. Conditions for the Markov chain in Example 2.1.5 to be mixing can be derived by considering two-point correlation functions involving cylinders, of the form

[t,t+q−1]

[0,p−1] [0,q−1] [0,p−1] Tσ−t (Cj0 ···jq−1 ) = μ Ci0 ···ip−1 Cj0 j1 ···jq−1 . μ Ci0 ···ip−1 By means of the matrix P = [p(i|j)] of transition probabilities and of (2.36), one writes

2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing

[t,t+q−1]

[0,p−1] μ Ci0 ···ip−1 Cj0 ···jq−1 =

p(i0 · · · ip−1 kp · · · kt−1 j0 · · · jq−1 )

kp ,···kt−1

=

q−2

d

⎛

Pja+1 ja Pj0 kt−1 ⎝

a=0

kp ,,kt−1 =1

49

t−2

⎞ Pkb+1 kb ⎠ ×

kp+1 ,...,kt−2 b=p

× Pkp ip−1

p−2

Pic+1 ic p(i0 )

c=0

=

d kp ,kt−1 =1

q−2

Pja+1 ja Pj0 kt−1 (P t+p−1 )kt−1 kp Pkp ip−1 p(i0 · · · ip−1 ) . a=0 μ(Ci0 ···ip−1 )

Using (2.34) and (2.35), it follows that (see [61, 313])

[t,t+q−1]

[0,p−1] [0,p−1] [0,q−1] Cj0 ···jq−1 = μ Ci0 ···ip−1 μ Cj0 ···jq−1 , lim μ Ci0 ···ip−1 t→+∞

is achieved if and only if lim (P t )ij = p(i) for all j = 1, 2, . . . , d; while t→+∞

factorization in the mean (and thus ergodicity) holds if and only if, for all j = 1, 2, . . . , d, 1 s (P )ij = p(i) . t→+∞ t s=0 t−1

Qij := lim

4. The condition for mixing in the previous example is certainly satisﬁed by Bernoulli dynamical systems whose matrix of transition probabilities is P = [p(i)]di,j=1 (see Example 2.1.5).

2.3.1 K-Systems Consider an invertible Bernoulli system (ΩpZ , Tσ , μ), where the space of p-adic doubly inﬁnite sequences i ∈ ΩpZ is equipped with the σ-algebra generated by cylinder sets and μ is a translation invariant product measure on Σ. Let {0} C{0} = {Cj }dj=1 be the ﬁnite partition consisting of simple cylinders as in (2.25) and consider the σ-algebras Tσ−j (C{0} ) = C{j} (2.70) C0] := j≥0

Cn] :=

Tσn (C0] )

=

j≥0

C{j}

(2.71)

j≥−n

generated by union and intersections of cylinders of the form (see (2.26))

50

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory [p,q]

Ci(q−p+1) =

q

{j}

Tσ−j (Cij ) ,

i(q−p+1) = ip ip+1 · · · iq ∈ Ωp(q−p+1) ,

j=p

for any q ≥ p ≥ −n. From Section 2.1.1 and Examples 2.3.2.3-4, one deduces that: . i) Cn] ⊂ Cn+1] , ii) Cn] = Σ , iii) C−n] = N , (2.72) n≥0

n≥0

where N is the trivial σ-algebra consisting only of the empty set ∅ and of ΩdZ , all equalities being understood up to sets of zero measure. Condition ii) expresses the fact that cylinder sets C[p,q] with p, q ∈ Z generate Σ, while in condition iii), . . C−n] = Tσ−j (C{0} ) n≥0

n≥0 j≥n

0 / denotes the largest σ-algebra, called tail of C{0} (Tail C{0} ) contained in all C−n] with n ≥ 0. [p,p+q] Cylinders in C−n] are of the form Ci(q+1) with p ≥ n , q ≥ 0; they become 0 / subsets of Tail C{0} when t → +∞. Then, from the mixing relation in Remark 2.3.2.3, one deduces that the characteristic functions of these atoms [0,q] go into the constant functions μ(Ci(q+1) ) 1l, asymptotically, whence condition iii). Bernoulli shifts are particular instances of Kolmogorov (K-)systems [91] and C0] a particular example of K-partition. Deﬁnition 2.3.4 (Classical K-systems). A discrete-time dynamical system (X , T, μ) with σ-algebra Σ is a K-system if there exists a σ-subalgebra (a so-called K-partition) Σ0 ⊂ Σ that gives rise to a nested K-sequence of σ-subalgebras Σt := T t (Σ0 ) such that 1. $ Σt := T t (Σ0 ) ⊂ Σt+1 for all t ∈ Z; 2. %t∈Z Σt = Σ; 3. t∈Z Σt = N . $ n For Bernoulli 0 shifts, the partition C{0} is such that n∈Z Tσ (C{0} ) = Σ / and Tail C{0} = N : C{0} is a generating partition with a trivial tail. Deﬁnition 2.3.5. Let (X , T, μ) a measure theoretic dynamical triplet with Σ as σ-algebra. 1. A ﬁnite, measurable partition P of X is called generating if (apart from sets of zero measure μ) +∞ j=−∞

T j (P) = Σ

(T invertible) or

+∞ j=0

T j (P) = Σ

(otherwise) .

2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing

2. The tail of a ﬁnite measurable partition P is deﬁned by . Tail (P) := Tσ−k (P)

51

(2.73)

n≥0 k≥n

and will be said to be trivial if Tail (P) = N , that is if all its subsets equal ∅ or X up to sets of zero measure μ. Remark 2.3.4. A generating partition P = {Pi }i∈I consists of Σ-measurable atoms Pi such that unions and intersections of their images T n (Pi ), in the past, n <$0, and in the future, n > 0, generate Σ. Instead, the reﬁnements +∞ P−n] := k=n T −k (P) are the σ-subalgebras generated by the atoms in the past of P up to a discrete time t = −n. Since P−n−1] ⊆ P−n] , one can also loosely write Tail (P) = lim P−n] to indicate that the tail of P contains n→+∞

all measurable subsets generated by the remote past of P. As such, tails are T -invariant. From the preceding discussion concerning Bernoulli shifts, there clearly appears a relation between the triviality of the tails of partitions and the dynamical system mixing properties. Proposition 2.3.5. A dynamical system (X , T, μ) is K-mixing (see Remark 2.3.2.2) if and only if all its ﬁnite partitions have trivial tails. Proof: Consider a ﬁnite partition P and its tail. By deﬁnition, Tail (P) is mapped $ into itself by T ; thus, if in (2.64) S0 ∈ Tail (P), then S0 belongs to P−n] := j≥n T −j (P) for all n and thus to the σ-algebra Σn∞ (P), generated by P−n] . Therefore, one can choose B = S0 in (2.64) which then yields μ(S0 ∩ S0 ) = μ(S0 )2 and, in turn, Tail (P) = N . Vice versa, let us choose as Sr in (2.64) a ﬁnite partition P 9 and consider the σ-subalgebras P−n] ⊆ Σ generated by the inﬁnite reﬁnements $ −k (P). The corresponding conditional probabilities μ(S|P−n] )(x), k≥n T S ∈ Σ (see (2.49) and (2.50)) are such that, for any A0 ∈ Σ and B ∈ P−n] , dμ (x) μ(A0 |P−n] )(x) − μ(A0 ) . μ(A0 ∩ B)(x) − μ(A0 )μ(B) ≤ B

Because of Theorem 2.2.1 and Examples 2.2.4.1,3, from P−n] ↓ N it follows that μ(A0 |P−n] )(x) → μ(A0 ) μ-a.e. when n → ∞, whence K-mixing follows from Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem. In the next chapter, by using entropic tools, we shall show that all ﬁnite partitions of K-systems have trivial tails and are thus K-mixing; at this point it suﬃces to observe that Starting from the ﬁnite set Sr ofmeasurable subsets {Si }ri=1 , one constructs := X \ ri=0 Si . the partition of X consisting of S0 := ri=1 Si , Si := Si \S0 and Sr+2 9

52

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

Proposition 2.3.6. If a dynamical triplet (X , T, μ) has a generating partition P with trivial tail, Tail (P) = N , then it is a K-system. Proof:

The σ-algebra P0] :=

$ n≥0

T −n (P) is a K-partition.

Examples 2.3.3. 1. As for Bernoulli shifts, also for the Markov shifts in Example 2.1.5, the partition P = {P0,1 } consisting of simple cylinders as in (2.25) satisﬁes condition i) and ii) in (2.72). However, the argument used when discussing the triviality of the tail for Bernoulli shifts shows that Tail (P) = N if and only if the Markov shifts are mixing in which case by Proposition 2.3.6 they are K-systems. 2. Consider Example 2.1.2 with the frequencies ω1,2 such that the system is ergodic (see Remarks 2.1.2.2 and 2.1.2.3). As a partition of T2 , choose the Cartesian product C of the partitions of the 1-dimensional torus T into atoms C1 = {0 ≤ θ < π}, C2 = {π ≤ θ < 2π}. Because of ergodicity, the trajectories of the end points of the atoms Ci × Cj ﬁll T2 densely and the intersections of their images T k (Ci × Cj ) under the dynamics become ﬁner and ﬁner and approximate better and better the Borel σ-algebras −j of T2 . Actually, $+∞ this already occurs if one restricts to T (C) with j ≥ 0, namely j=0 T −j (C) = Σ. This also means that Tail (C) = Σ. 3. The partition in Example 2.2.2 of the two-torus into the vertical halfrectangles gives thinner and thinner vertical rectangles while moving into the past, and thinner and thinner horizontal rectangles into the future. Their intersections are squares of increasingly small side, by means of which one can approximate better and better every Borel subset of T2 . The tail of such a partition is trivial due to the fact that the Baker map acts as a Bernoulli shift with respect to it. In order to set the ground for a quantum extension of the notion of K-system (see Section 7.1.4), we operate a reformulation of the conditions in Deﬁnition (2.3.4) in terms of algebras of functions. Given a K-sequence {Σt := T t (Σ0 )}t∈Z of σ-subalgebras, consider the Abelian von Neumann subt algebras Mt := L∞ μ (X , Σt ) = ΘT [M0 ] consisting of the essentially bounded Σt -measurable functions on X (see Section 2.2.2). Then, one has . Mt ⊂ Mt+1 , Mt = M , Mn = {λ1l} , t∈Z

$ where the generation%of M by is by strong-operator closure on the Hilbert 2 space Lμ (X ), while denotes set-theoretic intersection. We shall see in Section 5.3.2 that unital Abelian von Neumann algebras M can always be identiﬁed with suitable L∞ μ (X ) and represented as multiplication operators on the Hilbert space L2μ (X ). It thus makes sense to provide an algebraic reformulation of Deﬁnition 2.3.4 (see Deﬁnition 2.2.4).

2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing

53

Deﬁnition 2.3.6 (Classical Algebraic K-Systems). A classical von Neumann algebraic triplet (M, ΘT , ω) is an algebraic Ksystem, if there exists a von Neumann subalgebra N0 ⊆ M such that, setting Nt := ΘTt (N0 ), t ∈ Z, 1. $ Nt ⊂ Nt+1 for all t ∈ Z; 2. %t∈Z Nt = M; 3. n∈Z Nt = {λ1l}. Any such sequence {Nt }t∈Z of von Neumann subalgebras of M will be called a classical K-sequence.

Remark 2.3.5. The above deﬁnition can also be formulated in an Abelian ∗ C ∗ algebraic context; there, $ M will be a C algebra as well as the subalgebras of the K-sequence and t∈Z Nt will denote the algebra generated by norm closure. The classical spin chains discussed in Section 2.2.3 are instances of classical C ∗ K-systems: with M = DZ , N0 will be the left half-spin chain D0] generated by the diagonal matrix algebras D[p,q] with p ≤ q ≤ 0. Then, the algebraic K-sequence will consist of the subalgebras Dt] = Θσ (D0] ) generated by the diagonal matrix algebras D[p,q] with p ≤ q ≤ t. Given a measure-theoretic K-system with a K-sequence of σ-algebras {Σn }n∈Z , instead of considering the von Neumann algebras Mn , one may focus upon the Hilbert spaces Hn := L2μ (X , Σn ) of square-summable Σn measurable functions on X . From the conditions i), ii) and iii) in Deﬁnition 2.3.4, it follows that 1. Ht ⊂ Ht+1 for all t ∈ Z; 2. t∈Z Ht = H; 3. t∈Z Ht = C 1l, where H := L2μ (X ) and C 1l stands for the Hilbert space consisting of constant functions on X (μ-a.e.). Since, according to the construction of the unitary Koopman operator in (2.4), 1T (S0 ) (x) = 1S0 (T −1 x) = (UT−1 1S0 )(x), it follows that Ht = UT−t H0 ; whence, setting Kt := Ht+1 Hn , 1 Kt . (2.74) t = s =⇒ Kt ⊥ Hs , H = t∈Z

By choosing an orthonormal basis {| fj }j∈J in K0 , one gets an orthonormal basis for Ht of the form {| ej,t := UT−t | fj }j∈J and thus one for H of the form {| ej,t }j∈J,t∈Z . Any unitary operator U on a separable Hilbert space H which generates an orthonormal basis of the previous form is said to have a Lebesgue spectrum of multiplicity J. Proposition 2.3.7. [91] For a K-system (X , T, μ), J is countably inﬁnite.

54

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

Proof: Since H0 ⊂ H1 there surely exists f ∈ H1 with g := f − E(f |Σ0 ), where E(f |Σ0 ) is the conditional expectation of f with respect to Σ0 , such that E(|g|2 |Σ0 ) = 0 on a Σ0 -measurable subset S0 with μ(S0 ) > 0. Consider g(x) the function G ∈ H1 deﬁned by G(x) := 1S0 (x); from the E(|g|2 |Σ0 )(x) properties of the conditional expectation it follows that E(G|Σ0 )(x) = E(|G|2 |Σ0 )(x) =

E(g|Σ0 )(x) E(|g|2 |Σ0 )(x)

1S0 (x) = 0 (∗)

E(|g|2 |Σ0 )(x) 1S (x) = 1S0 (x) (∗∗) . E(|g|2 |Σ0 )(x) 0

Let {| e0k }k∈N be an orthonormal basis in the Hilbert space L2μ (S0 ) of square summable functions supported within S0 and set | fk0 := MG | e0k where MG denotes the multiplication by G, namely fk0 (x) = G(x) e0k (x). Notice that | fk0 ∈ H1 ; further, by using (2.51) and (2.53), it follows that | fk0 ⊥ H0 , whence | fk0 ∈ K0 = H1 H0 as deﬁned in (2.74). Indeed, let | h0 ∈ H0 , then (∗) yields

h0 | fk0 = dμ (x) h∗0 (x) G(x) e0k (x) = dμ (x) E(h∗0 G e0k |Σ0 )(x) S0 S0 dμ (x) h∗0 (x) E(G|Σ0 )(x) e0k (x) = 0 . = S0

Also, the set {| fk0 }n∈N is an orthonormal basis for dμ (x) (e0j )∗ (x) |G(x)|2 e0k (x)

fj0 | fk0 = S0

dμ (x) E (e0j )∗ |G|2 e0k |Σ0 (x) = S0 = dμ (x) (e0j )∗ (x) E(|G|2 |Σ0 )(x) e0k (x) = e0j | e0k = δjk . S0

Therefore, K1 must be an inﬁnite dimensional separable Hilbert space.

2.3.2 Ergodicity and Convexity We conclude this section by considering some aspects of ergodicity and mixing in relation to continuous dynamics on compact, metric spaces and to the convex space M (X , T ) of their regular, T -invariant Borel measures. The ﬁrst result [313] states that ergodic measures are extremal in M (X , T ), namely they cannot be decomposed into convex combinations of other measures in M (X , T ). We shall make use of the algebraic setting of Deﬁnition 2.2.4.

2.3 Ergodicity and Mixing

55

Proposition 2.3.8. An algebraic triplet (C(X ), ΘT , ωμ ) is ergodic if and only if M (X , T ) ωμ = λω1 + (1 − λ)ω2 , 0 < λ < 1, ω1,2 ∈ M (X , T ) implies ωμ = ω1,2 . Proof: Suppose a T -invariant Borel measurable subset E exists such that 0 < μ(E) < 1 and let E c := X \E. With 1lE and 1lE c their characteristic functions and ωμ (1lE ) = μ(E), the two states C(X ) f → ω1 (f ) =

ωμ (1lE f ) , μ(E)

C(X ) f → ω2 (f ) =

ωμ (1lE c f ) 1 − μ(E)

are diﬀerent and both in M (X , T ); furthermore, they decompose ωμ . for ωμ = μ(E) ω1 + (1 − μ(E)) ω2 . Suppose ωμ can be decomposed as stated in the proposition, then the measure μ1 ∈ M (X , T ) corresponding to ω1 is absolutely continuous with respect to μ (see Remark 2.2.4.2). Let f1 (x) ≥ 0 be its Radon-Nikodym derivative. Consider the measurable subset E = {x ∈ X : f (x) < 1}. Observe that one can decompose E = (E ∩ T −1 (E)) ∪ (E\ T −1 (E)) by means of disjoint subsets and, analogously, T −1 (E) = (T −1 (E) ∩ E) ∪ (T −1 (E)\ E). As μ ◦ T −1 = μ, ω1 (1lE ) = dμ(x) f1 (x) + dμ(x) f1 (x) = ω1 (1lT −1 (E) ) E∩ T −1 (E) E\ T −1 (E) = dμ(x) f1 (x) + dμ(x) f1 (x) . T −1 (E)∩ E

T −1 (E)\ E

Therefore, as f1 < 1 on E while f1 ≥ 1 outside it, it follows that −1 μ(E\ T (E)) > dμ(x) f1 (x) = dμ(x) f1 (x) E\ T −1 (E) −1

≥ μ(T

T −1 (E)\ E

(E)\ E) .

Then, μ(E\ T −1 (E)) = μ(T −1 (E)\ E) = 0 since μ(E) = μ(E ∩ T −1 (E)) + μ(E\ T −1 (E)) = μ(T −1 (E)) = μ(T −1 (E) ∩ E) + μ(T −1 (E)\ E) . Thus, E is T -invariant apart from sets of 0 measure μ; if the system is ergodic, this implies either μ(E) = 0 or μ(E) = 1. The latter equality cannot hold, otherwise 1 = ω1 (1l) = ω1 (1lE ) < μ(E) = 1; thus, μ(E) = 0. The same argument applied to F := {x ∈ X : f1 (x) > 1}, leads to μ(F ) = 0 whence to f1 (x) = 1 μ-a.e. on X which implies ωμ = ω1 and thus extremality. The second result is a reﬁnement [313] of Proposition 2.3.2.

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2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

Proposition 2.3.9. The triplet (C(X ), ΘT , ωμ ) is ergodic, respectively mixing if and only if, for all f ∈ C(X ) and g ∈ L1μ (X ), 1 ωμ (f ◦ ΘTs g) = ωμ (f )ωμ (g) t→∞ t s=0

(2.75)

lim ωμ (f ◦ ΘTt g) = ωμ (f )ωμ (g) .

(2.76)

t−1

lim

t→∞

Proof: If (2.75) holds, it implies (2.65) by the fact that any ψ ∈ L2μ (X ) is also summable and can be approximated in L2μ (X ) by continuous functions. Vice versa (2.65) implies (2.75) as any f ∈ C(X ) also belongs to L2μ (X ) and any f ∈ L1μ (X ) can be approximated in L1μ (X ) by square-summable functions. The same considerations can be used to prove that (2.76) is equivalent to (2.66). Example 2.3.4. Given the algebraic triplet (C(X ), ΘT , ωμ ), let ν be another state on C(X ) absolutely continuous with respect to ωμ , but not ΘT invariant, that is, for all f ∈ C(X ), ν(f ) = dμ (x) gν (x) f (x) , ν(1l) = dμ (x) gν (x) = ωμ (gν ) = 1 , X

X

with Radon-Nikodym derivative gν = gν ◦ ΘT ∈ L1μ (X ). From a physical point of view, ων can be considered as a perturbation of the equilibrium state ωμ . By duality (see (2.8)), for all f ∈ C(X ), νt (f ) = ν(f ◦ ΘTt ) where νt := ν ◦ ΘT−t . If (C(X ), ΘT , ωμ ) is mixing, then (2.76) implies lim νt (f ) = ωμ (f ) ωμ (gν ) = ωμ (f ) ,

t→∞

∀ f ∈ C(X ) .

Physical instances of measures that are absolutely continuous with respect to an invariant one are local perturbations of equilibrium states; then, being mixing guarantees that these perturbations fade away in time and provides a mathematical explanation of relaxation to equilibrium.

2.4 Information and Entropy At its simplest, information theory is concerned with the description of two parties transmitting information to each other. Information is physical as it is encoded into physical carriers, e.g. electromagnetic waves, that undergo physical processes, e.g. interactions with an optical ﬁber. As long as the laws that describe these processes are those of classical physics, one talks of classical information theory.

2.4 Information and Entropy

A

B Receiver

i ( )

x (n) encoder

i ( )

y (n)

Classical Channel

Classical Source

57

decoder

Fig. 2.2. Classical Transmission Channel

2.4.1 Transmission Channels In the following, we shall consider two parties A and B exchanging signals according to the following typical scheme (see Figure 2.2): 1. At each use, a classical source emits symbols i from an alphabet consisting, say, of integers IA = {1, 2, . . . , a}: symbols are emitted with probabilities πA = {pA (i)}ai=1 . 2. After successive uses of the source, the source outputs are strings of ( ) length , i( ) := i1 i2 · · · i ∈ Ωa , emitted with probabilities pA() (i( ) ). These strings can be interpreted as outcomes of a random variable $ A( ) := i=1 Ai which is the join of successive random variables from the stochastic process {Ai }i∈N (A1 := A) associated with countably successive uses of the source. The random variable A( ) is distributed accord( ) ing to the probabilities πA() = pA() (i ) () () that subsequent i

∈Ωa

uses have actually emitted a given string of symbols. 3. The sender encodes the emitted strings i( ) into strings of ﬁxed length (n) n, x(n) = x1 x2 · · · xn ∈ Ωd , consisting of symbols xi from another alphabet IX := {1, 2, . . . d}. The encoding procedure amounts to a map ( ) (n) E (n) : Ωa → Ωd , (n)

E (n) : Ωa( ) i( ) → E (n) (i( ) ) = x(n) ∈ Ωd

.

(2.77)

4. The code-words x(n) are then sent to a receiver via a transmission channel, C (n) = C × C × · · · C, which transforms an input string x(n) into an (n) output string y (n) = C (n) (x(n) ) = y1 y2 · · · yn ∈ Ωκ , consisting of symbols yi from, possibly, another alphabet IY := {1, 2, . . . , κ}, according to a set of transition probabilities (compare Example 2.1.5) p(y (n) |x(n) ) = 1 . (2.78) p(y (n) |x(n) ) ≥ 0 , (n)

y (n) ∈Ωκ

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2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

These latter quantities take into account the possibility that the transmission channel be noisy and thus might randomly associate diﬀerent outputs y (n) to a same input x(n) . 5. The channel inputs and outputs are thus random variables X (n) and Y (n) with outcomes x(n) and y (n) . If the code-words x(n) occur with input probabilities πX (n) = {pX (n) (x(n) )}x(n) ∈Ω (n) , the transition probabild ities provide joint probability distributions for the joint random variables X (n) ∨ Y (n) given by (n) πX (n) ∨Y (n) = pX (n) ∨Y (n) (x(n) , y (n) ) : (x(n) , y (n) ) ∈ Ωd × Ωκ(n) pX (n) ∨Y (n) (x(n) , y (n) ) = pX (n) (x(n) ) p(y (n) |x(n) ) .

(2.79)

Consequently the output random variables Y (n) are distributed according to the marginal probability distributions πY (n) = {pY (n) (y (n) }y(n) ∈Ω (n) κ where pX (n) ∨Y (n) (x(n) , y (n) ) . (2.80) pY (n) (y (n) ) := (n)

x(n) ∈Ωd

6. At the receiving end of the transmission channel, the output string y (n) goes through a decoding procedure whose aim is to retrieve the actual source output i( ) that has been encoded into x(n) = E (n) (i( ) ) from the received string y (n) = C (n) (x(n) ). Decoding amounts to a map ( )

Ωκ(n) y (n) → D(y (n) ) =: ˜i

∈ Ωa( ) .

(2.81)

The whole procedure comprises the following steps i( ) ( ) ∈ Ωa

E (n)

−→

x(n) (n) ∈ Ωd

C (n)

−→

y (n) (n) ∈ Ωκ

D (n)

−→

˜i( ) ( ) ∈ Ωa

The eﬃciency of the transmission is related to how much the decoded word ˜i( ) diﬀers from the word i( ) that, after being encoded into x(n) , has been sent through the noisy channel and received as y (n) . The task is thus to minimize decoding errors while keeping a non-vanishing number of bits transmitted per use of the channel. In Section 3.2.2, we shall consider the class of memoryless channels without feedback ; they act on input symbols in a way which is statistically independent from previous inputs and outputs. As such, they are completely speciﬁed by factorized transition probabilities: p(y (n) |x(n) ) =

n i=1

p(yi |xi ) .

(2.82)

2.4 Information and Entropy

59

Examples 2.4.1 (Channels). 1. Noiseless Binary Channel: two classical bits (bits ) 0, 1 are emitted with probabilities pA (0), pA (1) and sent through a noiseless channel: p(0|0) = p(1|1) = 1 ,

p(0|1) = p(1|0) = 0 .

2. Binary Symmetric Channel: two bits are emitted with probabilities pA (0), pA (1) and sent through a channel which ﬂips them according to p(0|0) = p(1|1) = 1 − p > 0 ,

p(1|0) = p(1|1) = p > 0 .

3. Binary Erasure Channel: two bits are emitted with probabilities pA (0), pA (1) and sent through a channel which does not ﬂip them, but may erase anyone of them with a same probability 0 < α < 1. This action is described by a map C from the two-letter alphabet {0, 1} onto the three-symbol alphabet {0, 1, 2}, where 2 stays for a junk symbol, and by transition probabilities p(0|0) = p(1|1) = 1 − α ,

p(2|0) = p(2|1) = α .

A noiseless channel is characterized by transition probabilities that equal 1 in correspondence to speciﬁc pairs of input and output strings otherwise they vanish. There are then no distortions in transmitting or storing information by means of these channels. In such cases, the question is whether the source information can be compressed and retrieved with negligible probability of error, the possibility of compression depending upon the presence of redundancies and regularities in the source. More precisely, if the source emits binary strings of length n, one asks 1) whether for each bit from the source one can store h < 1 bits , still being able to reliably reconstruct the information emitted by the source from the 2h×n bit strings eﬀectively retained and 2) which is the optimal compression rate h achievable. This problem is addressed by Shannon’s ﬁrst theorem which asserts that, for stationary sources, the optimal rate is the their entropy-rate. In the presence of noise in the transmission channel, the strategy is somehow the reverse with respect to noiseless transmission; in order to reduce the possibility of noise-induced errors, one introduces redundancies by multiple uses of the channel. The aim is to optimize the number of signals that can faithfully be transmitted by n uses of the channel. Shannon’s second theorem proves that this number can be made increase exponentially with n at an optimal rate R, the channel capacity. 2.4.2 Stationary Information Sources In most informational contexts, stationary sources are a reasonable description of the actual physical processes taking place. Stationarity means that the

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2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

probability of a string i( ) does not depend on when the source had emitted it, but only on the letters emitted. This is equivalent to (compare (2.30)) pA() (i1 i2 · · · i ) = pA(−1) (i2 i3 · · · i ) . i1

This condition goes together with the fact that the probability of a string of length − 1 must be the sum of the probabilities of all words of length with the same ﬁrst − 1 symbols (compare (2.29)), pA() (i1 i2 · · · i ) = pA(−1) (i1 i2 · · · i −1 ) . i

The similarities with shift dynamical systems now are apparent. Lemma 2.4.1. A classical, stationary information source corresponds to a stationary stochastic process {Ai }in∈N , where the random variables Ai take on values $nin an alphabet IA = {1, 2, . . . , a} and the joint random variables A(n) := i=1 Ai are distributed with probability distributions πA(n) satisfying appropriate compatibility and stationarity conditions. Equivalently, a stationary classical source can be described by the measuretheoretic triplet (Ωa , Tσ , μA ), where μA = μA ◦ Tσ−1 is a state on the set Ωa of semi-inﬁnite strings i = {ij }j∈N , ij ∈ IA , equipped with the left shift Tσ . (n) (n) The restrictions μA of μA to the sets of ﬁnite strings Ωa are given by the probability distributions πA(n) . Finally, a stationary source can be described as a C ∗ triplet (DA , Θσ , ΨA ) as in Deﬁnition 2.2.5, namely by a semi-inﬁnite classical spin-chain consisting of a lattice of a-valued spins described, locally, by tensor products n−1 , D(n) = Da (C) of diagonal a × a matrix algebras Da (C), equipped with an j=0

automorphism Θσ which amounts to the left shift along the chain and with a Θσ -invariant state ΨA such that (compare (2.56)) [0,n−1] pA(n) (i(n) ) Pi(n) . ΨA |`D(n) = (n)

i(n) ∈Ωa

Examples 2.4.2. 1. Bernoulli Sources (see Example 2.1.4): the probabilities of strings are n products of the probabilities of their symbols, pA(n) (i(n) ) = pA (ij ), j=1

that are statistically independent from each other.

2.4 Information and Entropy

61

2. Markov Sources (see Example 2.1.5): the probability of emission of the n-th symbol depends only on the n − 1-th one, namely pA(n) (i(n) ) = p(in |i1 , i2 , · · · in−1 ) pA(n−1) (i1 i2 · · · in−1 ) = p(in |in−1 ) pA(n−1) (i1 i2 · · · in−1 ) = p(in |in−1 ) p(in−1 |in−2 ) · · · pA (i2 |i1 )pA (i1 ) , where p(in |i1 , i2 , · · · in−1 ) are the conditional probabilities for the occurrence of the in -th symbol if the symbols i1 , i2 , . . . , in−1 have already occurred. Using (2.30), it follows that stationarity is equivalent to the probability vector | πA = {pA (i)}i∈IA being eigenvector, relative to the eigenvalue 1, of the matrix of transition probabilities. 2.4.3 Shannon Entropy Like an information source A that emits symbols j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , a} with probabilities pA (j), also a partition P = {Pi }pi=1 of the phase-space of a dynamical system (X , T, μ) into atoms with volumes μ(Pi ), can be interpreted as a classical random variable. In the latter case, randomness is related to the fact that the phase-point or state of the system is localized within the atom Pi with probability μ(Pi ). The notion of entropy measures the amount of uncertainty about the outcomes of a random variable like P before the phase-point has been localized within a deﬁnite atom, for instance as a consequence of an observation or a measurement process of sort. Equivalently, entropy measures the amount of information, relative to the partition P, that has been gained after the phase-point of the system has indeed been localized in one of its atoms. Deﬁnition 2.4.1 (Shannon Entropy ). The Shannon entropy of a discrete random variable A with probability distribution πA = {pA (j)}aj=1 is given by H(A) := −

a

pA (j) log pA (j) =

j=1

η(x) =

η(pA (j)) ,

(2.83)

j=1

2

where

a

0 −x log x

x=0 0<x≤1

(2.84)

Remark 2.4.1. The Shannon entropy plays for discrete dynamical systems the role played by Gibbs entropy for continuous systems which is deﬁned as [167, 300] HG (ρ) := −

dx ρ(x) log ρ(x) , X

for a state on the phase-space X with probability density ρ(x).

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2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

The Shannon entropy is such that H(A) = 0 if and only if one outcome, say j ∗ , occurs with probability pA (j ∗ ) = 1, while pA (j) = 0 for j = j ∗ ; it reaches its maximum H(A) = log a, when all outcomes are equiprobable, pA (j) = 1/a. Indeed, the function η(x) is concave, whence x(log x − log y) ≥ x − y ,

∀ x, y ∈ [0, 1] ,

(2.85)

with equality holding if and only if x = y. Let then E be a random variable with πE = {pE (j) = 1/a}aj=1 , then H(E) = log a and H(A) − H(E) = −

a

a

pA (j) log pA (j) + log a ) ≤ (pA (j) − 1/a) = 0 .

j=1

j=1

Given two random variables A and B, we shall keep the notation used for the join of two partitions and denote by A ∨ B the random variable with joint probability distribution πA∨B := {pA∨B (i, j)}i∈IA ,j∈IB , IA = {1, 2, . . . , a} , IB = {1, 2, . . . , b} . (2.86) By summing over the outcomes of A, respectively B, one obtains the marginal probability distributions πA := {pA (i)}i∈IA and πB := {pB (j)}j∈IB , where pA (i) :=

b

pA∨B (i, j) , pB (j) :=

j=1

a

pA∨B (i, j) .

(2.87)

i=1

Lemma 2.4.2 (Subadditivity). Given two random variables A and B, H(A ∨ B) ≤ H(A) + H(B) .

(2.88)

Proof: Given πA∨B as in (2.86) and πA and πB as in (2.87), use (2.85) with x = pA∨B (i, j) and y = pA (i)pB (j), H(A) + H(B) − H(A ∨ B) =

i∈IA ,j∈IB

≥

pA∨B (i, j) log

pA∨B (i, j) pA (i)pB (j)

(pA∨B (i, j) − pA (i)pB (j)) = 0 .

i∈IA ,j∈IB

2.4 Information and Entropy

63

Remarks 2.4.2. 1. As already observed, any ﬁnite (measurable) partition P = {Pi }IP of (X , T, μ) is a random variable P whose outcomes correspond to the labels of the atoms to which the system phase-point happens to belong. The volumes of the atoms give the probabilities of such occurrences, so that a ﬁnite partition P also attributes to the random variable P the natural probability distribution πP = μP = {μ(Pi }i∈IP . 2. In analogy with Deﬁnition 2.2.1.2, a random variable A is ﬁner than a random variable B (B A) if each outcome j ∈ IB of B is deterj ⊆ IA of outcomes of A. It follows that, if A has mined by a subset IA probability distribution πA = {pA (i)}i∈IA and B probability distribution πB = {pB (j)}j∈IB , B A implies pB (j) = i∈I j pA (i). A 3. According to Deﬁnition 2.2.1.3, the reﬁnement P ∨ Q of two partitions P = {Pi }i∈IP and Q = {Qj }j∈IQ , is a random variable P ∨ Q with joint probability distribution μP∨Q = {μ(Pi ∩ Qj )}i∈IP ,j∈IQ . P ∨ Q is ﬁner than both random variables P and Q; also, Q P =⇒ P ∨ Q = P. 2.4.4 Conditional Entropy Because of possible statistical correlations, the knowledge of a random variable A may decrease the uncertainty about another random variable B; the less so, the more A and B are statistically independent. These intuitive arguments are formalized by introducing the notions of conditional probability, conditional entropy and mutual information. Consider two random variables A and B with probability distributions πA = {pA (i)}i∈IA , respectively πB = {pB (j)}j∈IB , and joint probability πA∨B = {pA∨B (i, j)}i∈IA ,j∈IB . The quantity pA|j (i|j) :=

pA∨B (i, j) pB (j)

(2.89)

represents the probability of the outcome A = i conditioned upon the outcome B = j. Altogether, πA|B=j = {pA|j (i|j)}ai=1 is the conditional probability distribution of A conditioned upon the outcome B = j. The conditional probabilities are such that pA|B=j (i|j) ≥ 0 ,

a

pA|B=j (i|j) = 1

∀ j = 1, 2, . . . b .

i=1

The notion of conditional probability is naturally associated to that of conditional entropy which measures the amount of uncertainty about a random variable A which is left once that relative to another one, B, has been removed.

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2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

Deﬁnition 2.4.2 (Conditional Entropy ). Given two random variables A and B with probabilities πA , πB as in (2.87) and joint probability πA∨B as in (2.86), the conditional entropy of A with respect to B is H(A|B) =

b

pB (j) H(A|B = j)

(2.90)

j=1

=−

b

pB (j)

j=1

a pA∨B (i, j) i=1

pB (j)

log

pA∨B (i, j) pB (j)

= H(A ∨ B) − H(B) ,

(2.91)

where H(A|B = j) is the Shannon entropy corresponding to the conditional probability πA|B=j . Lemma 2.4.3. The conditional entropy fulﬁls 0 ≤ H(A|B) ≤ H(A) H(A ∨ B|C) = H(A|C) + H(B|A ∨ C) ≤ H(A|C) + H(B|C) . Proof: The lower bound follows since the left hand side of (2.90) is positive, while the ﬁrst upper bound is a consequence of (2.88) applied to (2.91). Further, using the latter relation one gets H(A ∨ B|C) = H(A ∨ B ∨ C) − H(C) = H(A ∨ C) − H(C) + H(A ∨ B ∨ C) − H(A ∨ C) = H(A|C) + H(B|A ∨ C) , while (2.88) applied to H(A ∨ B|C = k) gives the second upper bound.

Corollary 2.4.1. B A =⇒ H(B) ≤ H(A). Proof:

From Remark 2.4.2.3 it follows that B A =⇒ A ∨ B = A; thus, H(A) = H(A ∨ B) = H(A|B) + H(B) ≥ H(B) .

Example 2.4.3. If N denotes the (trivial) random variable with only one certain outcome, then H(A|N ) = H(A) for any other random variable A. By the deﬁnition of conditional entropy, H(A|B) = 0 implies that in (2.90) a pA∨B (i, j) i=1

pB (j)

log

pA∨B (i, j) =0 pB (j)

∀j .

2.4 Information and Entropy

65

Therefore, for ﬁxed j, pA∨B (i, j) = pB (j) for only one i ∈ IA ; thus, for each i such ﬁxed i ∈ IA , the index set IB can be subdivided into disjoint subsets IB that pA∨B (i, j) = pB (j) . pA (i) = i j∈IB

i j∈IB

That is (see Remark 2.4.2.2) A B; indeed, the outcomes of A are determined by those of B. In other words, when knowing B means knowing A, then A B. Viceversa, if B is ﬁner than A, then H(A|B) = 0; in fact, A ∨ B = B =⇒ H(A|B) = H(A ∨ B) − H(B) = 0 . Remarks 2.4.3. 1. Conditioning can be extended to random variables Ai , i = 1, 2, . . . , n. The probability of the events Ai = ai , i = p + 1, . . . , n conditioned on the events Ai = ai , i = 1, . . . , p is given by p(ap+1 · · · an |a1 · · · ap ) :=

p(a1 · · · ap ap+1 · · · an ) , p(ap+1 · · · an )

where explicit reference to the random variables in p(· · ·) has been omitted, for sake of simplicity. It follows that also the notion of conditional entropy can be extended to H(Ap+1 ∨ Ap+2 · · · ∨ An |A1 ∨ A2 · · · ∨ Ap ) := − p(a1 , a2 , . . . , ap ) ×

a1 ,...ap

p(ap+1 · · · an |a1 · · · ap ) log p(ap+1 · · · an |a1 · · · ap ) .

ap+1 ,...,an

2. A sequence of random variables {Aj }j∈N form a Markov process as in Example 2.4.2.2 if p(an |a1 · · · an−1 ) = p(an |an−1 ) for all n ∈ N. In such a case H(An |A1 ∨ · · · An−1 ) = H(An |An−1 ). 3. Since the conditional entropy is positive, it follows that H(A ∨ B) ≥ max{H(A), H(B)} ; Both this observation and subadditivity (2.88) agree with the interpretation of the entropy as a measure of uncertainty. The latter is in fact greater about A ∨ B than about either A or B, while, due to possible statistical correlations between A and B, the uncertainty of A ∨ B is smaller than the sum of the uncertainties of A and B independently. Further, due to (2.85), H(A ∨ B) = H(A) + H(B) if and only if πA∨B factorizes into the product of the probabilities, namely if and only if A and B are statistically independent.

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2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

4. The second upper bound in Lemma 2.4.3 yields H(B|A ∨ C) ≤ H(B|C); as C A ∨ C, this inequality is a particular instance of the more general monotonicity property of the conditional entropy established in Corollary 2.4.2.

Example 2.4.4. Suppose a random variable is given by a ﬁnite partition P = {Pi }di=1 with atoms that are measurable with respect to a σ-algebra Σ generated by a measure-algebra Σ0 as in Example 2.2.1. Then, for any ε > 0, there exists a partition Q = {Qi }di=1 with atoms Qi ∈ Σ0 such that H(P|Q) < ε. In fact, as showed in the example, one can always construct Q such that, for all i = 1, 2, . . . , d, one has μ(Pi Δ Qi ) ≤ δ min

1≤i≤d

μ(Pi ) , 2

0<δ<1.

Now, Pi ⊆ Qi ∪ (Pi Δ Qi ) and Pi Δ Qi = (Pi ∪ Qi ) \ (Pi ∩ Qi ) yield μ(Pi ) ≤ μ(Qi ) + δ Thus, μ(Qi ) ≥

μ(Pi ) 2

and μ(Pi Δ Qi ) ≥ μ(Qi ) − μ(Pi ∩ Qi ) .

μ(Pi ) and δ μ(Qi ) ≥ μ(Qi ) − μ(Pi ∩ Qi ), whence 2 pP|Q=i (i|i) :=

μ(Pi ∩ Qi ) ≥1−δ . μ(Qi )

Since πP|Q=i is a conditional probability, it follows that pP|Q=i (j|i) ≤ δ for j = i. Finally, choosing δ so that the continuous function η(x) in (2.84) be such that η(x) < ε/d when 0 ≤ x ≤ δ and 1 − δ ≤ x ≤ 1, (2.91) yields H(P|Q) =

d i=1

μ(Qi )

d

η(pP|Q=i (j|i)) ≤ ε .

j=1

Proposition 2.4.1 (Strong Subadditivity ). Given three discrete random variables A, B and C, the following inequality holds, H(A ∨ B ∨ C) + H(B) ≤ H(A ∨ B) + H(B ∨ C) , (2.92) together with those obtained by cyclic permutations of A, B and C. Proof: Similarly to the proof of Lemma 2.88, the result follows by applying (2.85) as follows:

2.4 Information and Entropy

67

H(A ∨ B ∨ C) + H(B) − H(A ∨ B) − H(B ∨ C) = pA∨B∨C (i, j, k)pB (j) pA∨B∨C (i, j, k) log =− pA∨B (i, j)pB∨C (j, k) i∈IA ,j∈IB ,k∈IC pA∨B (i, j)pB∨C (j, k)

pA∨B∨C (i, j, k) − ≤− =0. pB (j) i∈IA ,j∈IB ,k∈IC

As a consequence of strong subadditivity, the conditional entropy monotonically decreases upon reﬁnement of its second argument. Corollary 2.4.2. B C =⇒ H(A|C) ≤ H(A|B). Proof:

From (2.92) and (2.91),

H(A ∨ B ∨ C) − H(B ∨ C) = H(A|B ∨ C) ≤ H(A ∨ B) − H(B) = H(A|B) . The result follows since B C =⇒ B ∨ C = C.

2.4.5 Mutual Information A notion related to the conditional entropy is that of mutual information: it measures the amount of information about a random observable A that can be achieved by knowing another random variable B. Deﬁnition 2.4.3 (Mutual Information). Given two random variables A and B, their mutual information is given by I(A; B) := H(A) + H(B) − H(A ∨ B) = H(A) − H(A|B) = H(B) − H(B|A) .

(2.93)

The mutual information amounts to the relative entropy (also known as Kullback-Leibler distance or information divergence) of the joint probability distribution πA∨B with respect to the product probability distribution π ˜A∨B = {pA (i)pB (j)}i∈IA ,j∈IB obtained from the marginal ones (see (2.87)):

pA∨B (i, j) S π ˜A∨B , πA∨B := . pA∨B (i, j) log p A (i)pB (j) ij

(2.94)

Since H(A) measures the unconditioned uncertainty about A and H(A|B) the uncertainty about A if one knows B, their diﬀerence amounts to the knowledge of A given by B. If A and B are statistically independent, knowing B does not give any information about A, whence H(A|B) = H(A),

68

2 Classical Dynamics and Ergodic Theory

and I(A; B) = 0. On the other hand, if A is ﬁner than B, then knowing A means knowing B, thus B A =⇒ H(B|A) = 0 and I(A; B) = H(B). Vice versa, I(A; B) < H(B) means that H(B|A) > 0 or, in other words, that the knowledge of B is unable to remove all the uncertainty about A. An interesting inequality involves the mutual information in connection with three random variables A, B and C that form a so-called Markov chain A → B → C [92]; namely (see Remark 2.4.3.2) pC|A∨B=(i,j) (k|i, j) :=

pA∨B∨C (i, j, k) pB∨C (j, k) = pC|B=j (k|j) = . pA∨B (i, j) pB (j)

Notice that C, B and A form a Markovian chain C → B → A, too; indeed, as pC∨B (k, j) = pB∨C (j, k) it turns pout that pA∨B∨C (i, j, k) pA∨B (i, j) = pC|B=j (k|j) pC∨B (k, j) pC∨B (k, j) pA∨B (i, j) = pA|B=j (i|j) . = pB (j)

pA|C∨B=(k,j) (i|k, j) :=

Using the latter property one can prove the so-called data processing inequality [92]. Proposition 2.4.2. A → B → C =⇒ I(A; C) ≤ I(A; B). Proof: From Deﬁnition 2.4.3, I(A; B) − I(A; C) = H(A|C) − H(A|B) while the Markovianity assumption yields H(A|B) = H(A|B ∨ C) (see Remark 2.4.3.2), whence, from (2.4.1), I(A; B) − I(A; C) = H(A|C) − H(A|B ∨ C) = H(A ∨ C) + H(B ∨ C) − H(A ∨ B ∨ C) − H(C) ≥ 0 . The meaning of the data processing inequality is that the mutual information of two random variables A and B cannot be increased by any further processing of B by a function C = g(B), for this yields a Markov chain A → B → C. Example 2.4.5. When dealing with noisy transmission channels, signals a from a source described by a random variable A are encoded into code-words b(a) that give rise to another random variable B = B(A). Then, the codewords are sent through the channel which outputs signals c = c(b), providing a third random variable C(B). Altogether, A, B(A) and C(B) form a Markovian chain A → B(A) → C(B), as well as C(B) → B(A) → A; thus, we get the data-processing inequalities I(A; C(B)) ≤ I(A; B(A)) ,

I(A; C(B)) ≤ I(B(A); C(B)) .

(2.95)

2.4 Information and Entropy

69

Bibliographical Notes For a mathematical approach to classical dynamical systems and ergodic theory see [17, 61, 91, 199, 313]. For a more physical point of view on ergodic theory and related questions, one may consult [7, 106, 167, 300]. [16, 299] have been used as references for Hamiltonian mechanics and integrable systems, as well as [106, 129, 228, 271] for classical chaos. The review [62] discusses in detail the signatures of chaos in discrete classical systems. For a modern overview of probability theory see [176]. For the notions of entropy and conditional entropy in a dynamical system context see [17, 61, 91, 164]; consult [92] for the same notions and that of mutual information from the point of view of information theory. As regards the relations and epistemological links between the entropy of Shannon and those of Gibbs and Boltzmann in a thermodynamical setting, see [167, 300, 314].

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

Repeated uses of an information source or successive localizations of a trajectory with respect to a partition of phase-space, give rise to stochastic processes. Since equilibrium states μ give rise to shift-invariant probability distributions, the Shannon entropy is a constant of the motion: for instance, given the time-evolved partition T −j (P) in (2.38), one has Hμ (T −j (P)) = Hμ (P). Therefore, it is not the Shannon entropy, rather the entropy rate that is useful to quantify the degree of irregularity of the dynamics. Since its introduction as a mathematical tool, the notion of entropy rate or, more generally, of dynamical entropy, has been playing a major role in the theory of classical dynamical systems for it provides links among as diﬀerent properties as dynamical instability, informational compressibility and algorithmic complexity.

3.1 Dynamical Entropy As in Section 2.4.3, given a dynamical system corresponding to a measuretheoretic triplet (X , T, μ), we will consider a coarse-graining of X by means of a ﬁnite, measurable partition P = {Pi }pi=1 and identify P with the random variable (denoted by the same symbol) corresponding to the process of localization of the system phase-point (state) within one of the disjoint atoms Pi that cover X . The outcomes of P are the labels of the atoms and occur according to the discrete probability distribution μP = {pμ (i) := μ(Pi )}pi=1 . Further, the time-evolved partition P j := T −j (P) at time j in (2.38) is identiﬁed with the j-th random variable of a stochastic process {P j }j∈Z . Thus, (n) the reﬁned partitions P (n) with atoms Pi(n) as in (2.40) correspond to joint random variables with discrete probability distributions as in (2.41), (n) (n) μP = pμ(n) (i(n) ) := μ(Pi(n) ) (n) (n) , i

∈Ωp

and Shannon entropies (comparing with (2.83), we explicitly indicate the dependence of the entropy from the measure and the partition) pμ(n) (i(n) ) log pμ(n) (i(n) ) . (3.1) Hμ (P (n) ) := − (n)

i(n) ∈Ωp

F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 3, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

71

72

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

Deﬁnition 3.1.1 (Entropy Rate). The entropy rate of (X , T, μ) with respect to a ﬁnite, measurable partition P is given by hKS μ (T, P) := lim

n→∞

1 1 Hμ (P (n) ) = inf Hμ (P (n) ) . n n n

(3.2)

The above limit exists because of the stationarity of μ, ∀k≥0,

Hμ (P k ) = Hμ (P)

(3.3)

and because of the subadditivity of the Shannon entropy [313]. Together, they yield, for all 0 ≤ p ≤ n − 1, Hμ (P (n) ) ≤ Hμ (P (p) ) + Hμ

n−1

Pk

k=p

= Hμ (P (p) ) + Hμ T −p

n−p−1

Pk

= Hp + Hn−p ,

k=0

where Hn := Hμ (P (n) ). Fix m ∈ N and set n = km + r, 0 ≤ r < m; then, from (2.88) Hm Hr Hn ≤ + . n m km + r Since m is ﬁxed, when n goes to inﬁnity, k goes to inﬁnity as well, whence lim sup n→∞

Hm Hn ≤ . n m

Since m is arbitrary, it follows that lim sup n→∞

Hn Hm Hn ≤ inf ≤ lim inf . m n→∞ n m n

The entropy rate can be expressed by means of the conditional entropy (2.91) of two partitions Hμ (P|Q) in such a way that h(μP , Tσ ) measures to which extent the knowledge of the past of P may help to predict its future outcomes. Recursively using (2.91) and (3.3), one gets n−1 n−1

n−i

j j P + Hμ (P (n−1) ) = Hμ P P + Hμ (P) Hμ (P (n) ) = Hμ P j=1

Hμ (P (n) ) = Hμ

i=1

n−2

j P n−1 P + Hμ (P (n−1) ) j=0

=

n−1 i=1

i−1

j Hμ P i P + Hμ (P) .

j=0

j=1

3.1 Dynamical Entropy

73

Because of Corollary 2.4.2, the positive terms in the sums are monotonically decreasing with increasing n, thus, arguing as in Remark 2.3.2.1, n−1 n n−i

1 j Hμ P P = lim Hμ P Pj n→∞ n n→∞ i=1 j=1 j=1

hKS μ (T, P) = lim

(3.4)

n−1 i−1

n−1

1 j j Hμ P i P = lim Hμ P n P . (3.5) n→∞ n n→∞ i=1 j=0 j=0

hKS μ (T, P) = lim

Consider the ﬁrst equality in (3.5): P i is the random variable whose outcomes $i−1 depend on which atom of P the system state is in at time i, while j=0 P j is the joint random variable relative to the atoms visited at previous times 0, 1, . . . , i − 1. Thus, the entropy rate corresponding to P is the average information about the next localization provided by the knowledge of all the previous ones. Remarks 3.1.1. 1. Let (Ωa , Tσ , πA ) describe a stationary information source. Then, the prob$n−1 abilities πA(n) , A(n) = j=0 Aj , together with the corresponding entropies H(A(n) ) refer to the statistical ensembles of strings of length n emitted by the source A. As discussed in Section 2.4.3, repeated uses of the source A can be described as a stochastic process {Aj }j∈Z where Aj is the random variable associated to the j-th use of the source. The entropy rate of the source A is thus given by h(A) := lim

n→∞

1 H(A(n) ) . n

(3.6)

The entropy rate h(A) of a stationary source is the entropy per symbol of the stationary stochastic process {Aj }j∈Z generated by A. 2. Because of subadditivity (2.88), the entropy rate of a partition is always bounded by its Shannon entropy hKS μ (T, P) ≤ Hμ (P) . Furthermore, since bound Hμ (P (n) ) := −

(3.7)

(n)

(n)

i(n) ∈Ωp

μ(Pi(n) ) = 1, from (3.1), one gets the lower

pμ(n) (i(n) ) log pμ(n) (i(n) ) ≥ − log sup μ(P ) , P ∈P (n)

(n)

i(n) ∈Ωp

whence [164] hKS μ (T, P) ≥ − lim sup n→+∞

1 log sup μ(P ) . n P ∈P (n)

(3.8)

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3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

KS 3. If Q P, Corollary 2.4.1 implies hKS μ (T, Q) ≤ hμ (T, P). 4. Since μ is T -invariant, the conditional entropy is stationary, namely

Hμ (T −1 (P)|T −1 (Q)) = Hμ (P|Q) . Thus, if T is invertible (3.5) can be rewritten as hKS μ

n−1

−j . (T, P) = lim Hμ P P n→∞

j=1

5. Let P and Q be two partitions; then, using Corollary 2.4.1, the relation (2.91), Lemma 2.4.3, Corollary 2.4.2 and the previous remark, one derives Hμ (P (n) ) ≤ Hμ (P (n) ∨ Q(n) ) = Hμ (Q(n) ) + Hμ (P (n) |Q(n) ) ≤ Hμ (Q(n) ) +

n−1

Hμ (P i |Q(n) ) ≤ Hμ (Q(n) ) +

i=0

n−1

Hμ (P i |Qi ) ,

i=0

whence Hμ (P (n) ) ≤ Hμ (Q(n) ) + n Hμ (P|Q) implies KS hKS μ (T, P) ≤ hμ (T, Q) + Hμ (P|Q) .

6. Given a partition P, set Pr,s := not invertible. Notice that n−1 =0

Pr,s =

n−1 s

P j+ =

$s j=r

P j , where r ≤ s and r ≥ 0 if T is

s+n−1

=0 j=r

(3.9)

P = T −r

s+n−r−1

=r

P

;

=0

then, since μ is T -invariant, from

n+s−r 1 1 = Hμ Hμ Pr,s n n n+s−r n−1

=0

n+s−r−1

P

=0

KS it follows that hKS μ (T, Pr,s ) = hμ (T, P). For instance, s = −r = n gives

⎛ ⎝T, hKS μ

⎞

n

P j ⎠ = hKS μ (T, P) ,

∀n ≥ 0 .

(3.10)

j=−n

7. As before, set Q = and (3.9) yield

$k−1 j=0

P j , k ≥ 1; then, P

$n−1 =0

Qk =

1 KS / k 0 1 KS / k 0 h T , P ≤ hμ T , Q = hKS μ (T, P) . k μ k

$nk−1 =0

P

(3.11)

3.1 Dynamical Entropy

75

$kn−1 $n−1 $n−1 8. After regrouping j=0 T −j (P) = i=0 j=0 T −kj−i (P), from subadditivity and T -invariance of μ it follows that n−1 n−1 n−1 kn−1

1 1 1 Hμ Pj ≤ Hμ T −i ◦ P jk (P kj , = Hμ ( kn kn i=0 n j=0 j=0 j=0

/ k 0 KS T ,P . whence letting n → +∞ obtains hKS μ (T, P) ≤ hμ The entropy rate relative to a given partition P of (X , T, μ) strongly depends on the latter; for instance, if N is the trivial partition consisting only of X itself and the empty set, then T −j (N ) = N for all j ≥ 0, whence hKS μ (T, N ) = 0. The obvious way of achieving an absolute entropy rate is to look for the greatest possible one; this leads to the notion of dynamical entropy also known as Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy (KS -entropy) or metric entropy [171, 172]. Deﬁnition 3.1.2 (KS Entropy). The dynamical entropy of a classical dynamical system (X , T, μ) is deﬁned as KS hKS μ (T ) := sup hμ (T, P) , P

where P is any ﬁnite, measurable partition. Remark 3.1.2. The dynamical entropy provides a quantity that remains invariant under isomorphisms between dynamical systems [61]. Two dynamical systems (X1,2 , T1,2 , μ1,2 ) with σ-algebra Σ1,2 are isomorphic if there ex(0) (0) ist subsets X1,2 ⊆ X1,2 of measure μ1,2 (X1,2 ) = 1 and a one-to-one map (0)

Φ : X1

(0)

→ X2

such that (0)

1. if S2 = Φ(S1 ) with S1 ∈ X1 , then S1 ∈ Σ1 if and only if S2 ∈ Σ2 and (0) μ1 (S1 ) = μ2 (S2 ), that is μ2 ◦ Φ = μ1 and μ2 = μ1 ◦ Φ−1 relative to X1,2 ; −1 (X1,2 ); namely, the specially selected subsets X1,2 must be 2. X1,2 ⊆ T1,2 mapped into themselves by the dynamics; 3. Φ(T1 x1 ) = T2 Φ(x1 ), that is T2 ◦ Φ = Φ ◦ T1 and Φ−1 ◦ T2 = T1 ◦ Φ−1 (0) relative to X1,2 . (0)

(0)

(0)

Because of these properties, it turns out that, if (X1,2 , T1,2 , μ1,2 ) are isomor(0) KS phic, then hKS μ1 (T1 ) = hμ2 (T2 ). The proof is as follows: if X1,2 = X1,2 , to any partition P1 of X1 there corresponds a partition P2 := Φ(P1 ) and vice (n) versa, the same being true of the reﬁned partitions P1 that are mapped n−1 n−1 −j (n) into partitions Φ ◦ T1−j (P1 ) = T2 (Φ(P1 )) = P2 . The result thus j=0 (n)

follows since μ1 |`P1

j=0 (n)

= μ2 |`P2

(n)

(n)

=⇒ Hμ1 (P1 ) = Hμ2 (P2 ).

76

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information (0)

(1)

If X1,2 ⊂ X1,2 , consider a ﬁnite, measurable partition P1 = {Pi }pi=1 of (2) Pi

(1) Φ(Pi

(0)

:= ∩ X1 ), X1 and construct the partition P2 of X2 with atoms (2) (0) i = 1, 2, . . . , p and Pp+1 := X2 \ X2 . Since the latter atom has measure (2)

(0)

μ2 (Pp+1 ) = 0, from the properties of X1,2 and the isomorphism Φ, it turns (n)

(n)

KS out that Hμ2 (P2 ) = Hμ1 (P1 ). This gives hKS μ2 (T2 ) ≥ hμ1 (T1 ); indeed, P1 is a generic partition of X1 , but P2 is not so for X2 ; the result thus follows by exchanging the roles of the two dynamical systems. Concluding, two isomorphic dynamical systems must have the same dynamical entropy; since dynamical systems with the same dynamical entropy need not be isomorphic, the latter is not a complete invariant [61, 91].

Example 3.1.1. [61] Suppose the discrete-time dynamics of (X , T, μ) is sampled by observing the time-evolving system not at each tick of the clock, rather every k ticks; then / k0 T = k hKS (3.12) hKS μ μ (T ) . Indeed, consider Remark 3.1.1.7: since Q depends on P in a speciﬁc way, by varying P, one does not in general exhaust the whole class of ﬁnite measurable partitions of X . Then, / k0 / k 0 T ≥ sup hKS T , Q = k hKS hKS μ μ μ (T ) . P

On the other hand, Remark 3.1.1.3 and P Q yield / k 0 / k 0 / k0 KS KS k hKS T , Q ≥ hKS T , P =⇒ k hKS T . μ (T, P) = hμ μ μ (T ) ≥ hμ The technical diﬃculty of computing the sup in Deﬁnition 3.1.2 is overcome when there does exist a generating partition P (see Deﬁnition 2.3.5) such that, together with its images at diﬀerent times P j = T −j (P), it provides reﬁned partitions P (n) that generate the σ-algebra Σ of X when n → ∞.

Theorem 3.1.1 (Kolmogorov-Sinai Theorem). If the partition P is genKS erating for (X , T, μ), then hKS μ (T ) = hμ (T, P). Proof: Consider T invertible (for T not invertible the argument is the same) and a generic ﬁnite, measurable partition Q; because of the assumption, using Example 2.4.4,$for any ε > 0 one can ﬁnd an n ≥ 0 and a ﬁnite j P−n,n := n partition P j=−n P , that is a partition generated by ﬁnite ≤ ε. unions of atoms of P−n,n , such that the conditional entropy Hμ (Q|P) Therefore, from (3.9) and (3.10) together with Corollary 2.4.2, one derives

3.1 Dynamical Entropy

77

KS KS hKS μ (T, Q) ≤ hμ (T, P−n,n ) + Hμ Q|P−n,n ≤ hμ (T, P) + Hμ (Q|P)

≤ hKS μ (T, P) + ε , whence, choosing Q such that hKS μ (T ) ≤ hμ (T, Q) + ε, it follows that KS KS hKS μ (T ) − ε ≤ hμ (T, Q) ≤ hμ (T, P) + ε

with ε > 0 arbitrary.

The following corollaries are often useful for concretely computing the dynamical entropy. Corollary 3.1.1. Suppose {Pn }n∈N is a sequence of $ ﬁnite partitions for (X , T, μ) of increasing ﬁnesse, Pn Pn+1 , such that n Pn = Σ. Then, KS hKS μ (T ) = lim hμ (T, Pn ) . n→∞

Proof: Given ε > 0, let Q be a ﬁnite, measurable partition such that KS hKS μ (T ) ≤ hμ (T, Q) + ε; from the assumption and Corollary 2.4.2 it follows Pn such that that there exist n ∈ N and Q KS KS hKS μ (T ) − ε ≤ hμ (T, Q) = hμ (T, Pn ) + Hμ (Q|Pn )

≤ hKS μ (T, Pn ) + Hμ (Q|Q) KS ≤ hKS μ (T, Pn ) + ε ≤ hμ (T ) + ε .

A similar argument as in the previous proof can be used to show Corollary 3.1.2. Given (X , T, μ), suppose Σ0 is a measure algebra that generates the σ-algebra Σ of X . Then, KS hKS μ (T ) = sup hμ (T, P) . P⊆Σ0

Examples 3.1.2. 1. Given two dynamical systems (Xi , Ti , μi ), i = 1, 2, their direct product (X1 × X2 , T1 × T2 , μ1 × μ2 ) provides a new dynamical system (X , T, μ) consisting of two statistically and dynamically independent components. Concretely, X := X1 × X2 is the phase-space consisting of points x = (x1 , x2 ), x1,2 ∈ X1,2 and the dynamics T is such that T x = (T1 x1 , T2 x2 ). Furthermore, if Σ1,2 are the σ-algebras of X1,2 , then X remains equipped with the σ-algebra Σ = Σ1 × Σ2 of measurable sets of the form S1 × S2 ,

78

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

S1,2 ∈ Σ1,2 and with the T -invariant measure on X , μ = μ1 × μ2 , deﬁned by μ(S1 × S2 ) = μ1 (S1 )μ2 (S2 ). Then, [61] KS KS hKS μ1 ×μ2 (T1 × T2 ) = hμ1 (T1 ) + hμ2 (T2 ) . Indeed, Σ is generated by the measure algebra P1,2 P1 × P2 where P1,2 are generic ﬁnite, measurable partitions in X1,2 ; thus, from Corollary 3.1.2 and statistical independence, KS hKS μ (T ) = sup hμ (T, P1 × P2 ) P1 ×P2

KS = sup hKS μ1 (T1 , P1 ) + sup hμ2 (T2 , P2 ) P1

=

hKS μ1

P2

(T1 ) +

hKS μ2

(T2 ) .

2. Bernoulli Systems: (see Example 2.1.4) let μ be a product measure such n−1 that p(n) (i(n) ) = p(ij ). As seen in Example 2.3.3.1, the partition C of j=0 := i ∈ Ωp : ij ∈ {1, 2, . . . , p is generating for the σ-algebra Ωp into of cylinders. Therefore, Cj0

KS hKS μ (Tσ ) = hμ (Tσ , C) = lim

1 Hμ (C (n) ) n ⎛ ⎞ p n−1 ⎝ p(ij )⎠ log p(ij )

n→∞

1 n→∞ n

= − lim

=−

p

(n)

i(n) ∈Ωp

j=0

j=1

p(i) log p(i) = Hμ (C) .

i=1

Let the measure in Ωp , Tσ , μ be given, as in n (n) p(ij |ij−1 ) on Ωp . Again, Example 2.4.2.2, by p(n) (i(n) ) = p(i0 )

3. Markov Processes:

j=1

the p partition C of the previous example is generating. Therefore, since i=1 p(i|j) = 1, 1 Hπ (C (n) ) n n−1 n−1

p(i0 ) p(ij |ij−1 ) p(i0 ) log2 p(ik |ik−1 )

KS hKS π (Tσ ) = hπ (Tσ , C) = lim

n→∞

= − lim

n→∞

=−

p i,j=1

1 n

(n)

i(n) ∈Ωp

j=1

p(i)p(j|i) log2 p(j|i) .

k=1

3.1 Dynamical Entropy

79

4. Ergodic Rotations: Consider the irrational rotations on the T2 described by the triplets T2 , T, dθ . As seen in Example 2.3.3.2, there is a generating partition C such that ∞

T −j (C) = Σ = T (Σ) =

j=0

T −j (C) ,

j=1

where the last two equalities follow from the invertibility of the dynamics T . Then, as in Example 2.4.4, for any ε > 0, one can ﬁnd an n ∈ N and $n ≤ ε. It thus follows from a partition C j=1 T −j (C) such that Hμ (C|C) Corollary 2.4.2 that n

≤ε, Hμ C T −j (C) ≤ Hμ (C|C) j=1

0. This very same argument holds for all whence, from (3.4), hKS μ (T ) =

reversible dynamical systems X , T, μ that possess a partition P which $∞ generates the σ-algebra of X as Σ = j=0 P j . 5. Non-ergodic Rotations: Unlike in the previous example, there exists k ∈ N such that T k = 1l, the trivial dynamics with hKS μ (1l) = 0. Then, / k0 KS KS T = k h (1 l) = h (T ). from Example 3.1.1, 0 = hKS μ μ μ KS entropy and Lyapounov Exponents In Section 2.2, Lyapounov exponents (see Deﬁnition 2.1.2) have been introduced as indicators of hyperbolic behavior, that is of exponential separation of initially close trajectories. In Example 2.2.2 this has been calculated to be log 2 for the Baker map, which is isomorphic to a Bernoulli shift (Ω2 , Tσ , μB ) with a balanced probability measure μB ; therefore, according to Example 3.1.2.2, the Lyapounov exponent equals the KS entropy for this system. From an informational point of view this fact can be understood as being due to the loss of information along the direction where distances and thus errors increase exponentially fast [62, 271]. It is therefore plausible to expect that all possible expanding directions contribute with their Lyapounov exponents to the loss of information and thus to the KS entropy (see Remark 2.1.3.1). This is indeed the content of the following theorem [199]: Theorem 3.1.2 (Pesin Theorem). Let (X , T, μ) be a smooth dynamical λ(j) (x) dimWj (x); then, systems as in Remark 2.1.3.1; set Λ(x) := j:λ(j) (x)≥0

hKS μ (T ) =

dμ (x) Λ(x) . X

80

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

When the dynamical triplet (X , T, μ) is ergodic, the Lyapounov exponents, which are constants of the motion, are constant almost everywhere on X , whence Pesin’s equality assumes the simpler expression λ(j) . hKS μ (T ) = j:λ(j) ≥0

A particular instance of Pesin’s result applied to hyperbolic dynamical systems [313, 164] is provided by Example 8.2.4. Proposition 3.1.1. The KS entropy of the hyperbolic automorphisms of the torus with positive eigenvalues α±1 of the matrix A is hKS μ (TA ) = log α . Standard proofs of this result can be found in [164, 279]; here, we prefer to defer it to Chapter 8, where it will be obtained by means of a quantum dynamical entropy (see Proposition 8.2.7 and Remark 8.2.4). 3.1.1 Entropic K-systems In Section 2.3.1, K-systems have been deﬁned in terms of the existence of a K-sequence {Σ}n∈Z of nested σ-subalgebras (see Deﬁnition 2.3.4) or of an algebraic K-sequence of nested Abelian von Neumann subalgebras (see Deﬁnition 2.3.6). We will now show that the algebraic characterization is equivalent to the following entropic properties, the link being the triviality of the tails of all ﬁnite partitions (see (2.73)). Theorem 3.1.3. [91, 216] Let (X , T, μ) be a dynamical triplet, the following ones are equivalent properties: 1. there exists a K-sequence {Pn }n∈Z based upon a ﬁnite generating partition P (see Deﬁnition 2.3.5); 2. Tail (Q) = N for any ﬁnite measurable partition, where N is the trivial partition of X ; 3. for all ﬁnite measurable partitions Q of X , hKS μ (T, Q) > 0 ;

(3.13)

4. for all ﬁnite measurable partitions Q of X n lim hKS μ (T , Q) = Hμ (Q) ;

n→+∞

5. for any two ﬁnite measurable partitions Q1,2 ,

lim Hμ Q1 | T −k (Q2 ) = Hμ (Q1 ) ; n→+∞

k≥n

(3.14)

(3.15)

3.1 Dynamical Entropy

6. for any two ﬁnite measurable partitions Q1,2 ,

T −k (Q2 ) = 0 =⇒ Q1 = N . lim Hμ Q1 | n→+∞

81

(3.16)

k≥n

From the characterization of K-mixing by the triviality of the tails of all their ﬁnite partitions (condition (2) above), Proposition 2.3.5 gives Corollary 3.1.3. A dynamical triplet (X , T mu) with a ﬁnite generating partition is a K-system if and only if it is K-mixing. The key observation in the proof of Theorem 3.1.3 is the continuity of the conditional probabilities as stated in Theorem 2.2.1 and the continuity of entropies and conditional entropies with respect to their arguments. This fact allows us to recast (3.4) in the more suggestive form n

+∞

j P j = Hμ P P , hKS μ (T, P) = lim Hμ P n→∞

j=1

(3.17)

j=1

where P j = T −j (P). Also, by means of (2.73), in (3.15) and (3.16) one rewrites

lim Hμ Q1 | T −k (Q2 ) = Hμ Q1 | lim T −k (Q2 ) n→+∞

k≥n

n→+∞

k≥n

= Hμ Q1 |Tail (Q2 ) .

(3.18)

We shall also need the following two results [91]. Lemma 3.1.1. Given two ﬁnite partitions Q1,2 , +∞

Hμ Q1 | T −n (Q1 ) ∨ Tail (Q2 ) = hKS μ (T, Q1 ) .

(3.19)

n=1

Proof: As a ﬁrst step, observe that, given a ﬁnite partition Q, repeatedly using (2.91) and (3.3) yield Hμ

n k=1

+∞ +∞

n−1

−j T k (Q) T (Q) = Hμ T k (Q) T −j (Q) j=1

k=0

j=−k+1

+∞

−j T (Q) = n hKS = n Hμ Q μ (T, Q) . j=1

82

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

Then, for ﬁxed ε > 0 and suﬃciently large n, using Corollary 2.4.2 and Deﬁnition 3.1.1 one gets hKS μ (T, Q1 ∨ Q2 ) =

+∞ n−1

1 j Hμ T k (Q1 ∨ Q2 ) T (Q1 ∨ Q2 ) n j=1 k=0 L1 (n)

≤

1 Hμ n

n−1

+∞

j T k (Q1 ∨ Q2 ) T (Q1 )

k=0

j=1

L2 (n)

≤

n−1

1 Hμ T k (Q1 ∨ Q2 ) ≤ hKS μ (T, Q1 ∨ Q2 ) + ε . n k=0

Thus, lim

n→+∞

L1 (n) = Hμ

L1 (n) L2 (n) = lim . Further, Lemma 2.91 yields n→+∞ n n n−1

+∞

j T (Q1 ) T (Q1 ∨ Q2 ) k

j=1

k=0

L11 (n)

+ Hμ

n−1

+∞ j T k (Q1 ) T (Q2 ) ∨ j=1

k=0

T −j (Q1 )

+∞ j=−n+1

L12 (n)

L2 (n) = Hμ

n−1

+∞ n−1

j T k (Q1 ) T (Q1 ) + Hμ T k (Q2 )

k=0

j=1

+∞

T j (Q1 ) .

j=−n+1

k=0

L21 (n)

L22 (n)

Corollary 2.4.1 implies L11 (n) ≤ L21 (n) and L11 (n) ≤ L21 (n), then hKS μ (T, Q1 ) = lim

n→+∞

L21(n) L11(n) = lim . n→+∞ n n

By applying (2.91) and then the argument that led to (3.4) one gets L11(n) n n−1 +∞ 1 −j Hμ T k (Q1 ) T (Q2 ) ∨ = lim n→+∞ n j=1

hKS μ (T, Q1 ) = lim

n→+∞

k=0

= lim

n→+∞

1 n

n−1 k=0

Hμ

+∞

T −r (Q1 )

r=−k+1

+∞ +∞

Q1 T −j (Q2 ) ∨ T −r (Q1 ) j=k+1

r=1

3.1 Dynamical Entropy

83

+∞ +∞

.

−j = lim Hμ Q1 T (Q2 ) ∨ T −r (Q1 ) = Hμ Q1 Cn n→+∞

j=n

≤ Hμ

r=1

Cn

n≥0

+∞

Q1 Tail (Q2 ) ∨ T −r (Q1 ) ≤ hKS μ (T, Q1 ) . r=1

The last equality follows from the fact that the partitions Cn (not ﬁnite in general) are such that Cn Cn−1 , whereas for the last but one inequality Corollary 2.4.2 has been used and the fact that ⎛ ⎞ +∞ +∞ . . T −r (Q1 ) = ⎝ T −k (Q2 )⎠ ∨ T −r (Q1 ) Cn . Tail (Q2 ) ∨ r=1

r=1

n≥0 k≥n

n≥0

Lemma 3.1.2. Given two ﬁnite partitions Q1,2 , Q2 T n (Q1 ) =⇒ Tail (Q2 ) Tail (Q1 ) .

(3.20)

n∈Z

Proof: We shall show that all partitions Q Tail (Q2 ) are such that $ Q Tail (Q1 ), too. Notice that Q n∈Z T n (Q1 ), by hypothesis. If

Hμ P Tail (Q1 ) ∨ Q = Hμ P Tail (Q1 ) (∗) $n for all ﬁnite partitions P k=−n T k (Q1 ), then by approximating Q arbi$n trarily well by k=−n T k (Q1 ), continuity allows one to substitute Q for P in (∗). Then, (2.91) implies

Hμ QTail (Q1 ) ∨ Q = Hμ QTail (Q1 ) =⇒ Q Tail (Q1 ) . Equality (∗) is proved as follows: a repeated use of (2.91), together with the T -invariance of Q (see Remark 2.3.4) and Remark 3.1.1.4, yield Hμ

n k=−n

+∞

T k (Q1 ) T −j (Q1 ) ∨ Q = j=n+1

L1 (n)

=

n

+∞ +∞

−j Hμ T k (Q1 ) T −j (Q1 ) ∨ Q = 2n Hμ Q1 T (Q1 ) ∨ Q

k=−n

as well as

j=−k+1

k=1

84

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

Hμ

+∞ +∞

−j T k (Q1 ) T −j (Q1 ) = 2n Hμ Q1 T (Q1 )

n

j=n+1

k=−n

k=1

L2 (n)

= 2n hKS μ (T, Q1 ) . Since Q is T -invariant, it coincides with Tail (Q), whence Lemma 3.1.2 ensures that L1 (n) = L2 (n). Furthermore, since P

n

n

T k (Q1 ) =⇒ P ∨

k=−n

n

T k (Q1 ) =

k=−n

T k (Q1 ) ,

k=−n

by using (2.91) one gets +∞

L1 (n) = Hμ P T −j (Q1 ) ∨ Q

j=n+1

L11 (n)

+ Hμ

+∞

T (Q1 )P ∨ T −j (Q1 ) ∨ Q

n

k

j=n+1

k=−n

L12 (n) n +∞ +∞

L2 (n) = Hμ P T −j (Q1 ) + Hμ T k (Q1 )P ∨ T −j (Q1 ) .

j=n+1

k=−n

L21 (n)

j=n+1

L22 (n)

Since L11 (n) ≤ L21 (n) and L12 (n) ≤ L22 (n), L1 (n) = L2 (n) gives +∞ +∞

Hμ P T −j (Q1 ) ∨ Q = Hμ P T −j (Q1 ) j=n+1

j=n+1

for all n ≥ 0. Therefore (see the proof of the previous lemma), . +∞

T −j (Q1 ) ∨ Q = Hμ P Tail (Q1 ) . Hμ P n≥0 j=n

The equality (∗) thus follows from Corollary 2.4.2 and Tail (Q1 ) ∨ Q

. +∞

T −j (Q1 ) ∨ Q

so that

n≥0 j=n

Hμ P Tail (Q1 ) ≥ Hμ P Tail (Q1 ) ∨ Q

. +∞

T −j (Q1 ) ∨ Q = Hμ P Tail (Q1 ) . ≥ Hμ P n≥0 j=n

3.1 Dynamical Entropy

85

Proof of Theorem 3.1.3 The equivalences will be proved according to the following scheme: (5) =⇒ (4) ⇑ ⇓ (1) ⇐⇒ (2) ⇐⇒ (3) & (6) (1) =⇒ (2): take Q1 has the K-partition P, then Lemma 3.1.2 implies Tail (Q) Tail (P) = N for all ﬁnite partitions Q. (2) =⇒ (1): this is the content of Proposition 2.3.6. (2) =⇒ (3): if hKS μ (T, Q) = 0 for a ﬁnite partition Q, by means of (3.17) and the argument $ of Example 2.4.3 extended by continuity $+∞ to non-ﬁnite contexts, +∞ one gets Q n=1 T −n (Q). Then, T −k (Q) n=k+1 T −n (Q), for all k ≥ 0, whence Tail (Q) =

.

T −n (Q) =

+∞

T −n (Q) ' Q =⇒ Q = N .

n=0

k≥0 n≥k

(3) =⇒ (2): let Q2 be a ﬁnite partition with Tail (Q2 ) = N ; Lemma 3.1.2 applied to Q1 Tail (Q2 ) yields hKS μ (T, Q1 ) = 0, whence Q1 = N . (2) =⇒ (5): using (3.18) one gets

Hμ Q1 |Tail (Q2 ) = Hμ (Q1 |N ) = Hμ (Q1 ) , for all ﬁnite partitions Q1,2 (see Example 2.4.3). (2) =⇒ (6): follows from (2) =⇒ (5). (6) =⇒ (2): suppose Q2 is a ﬁnite partition; if Q1 Tail (Q2 ), (3.18) yields 0 = Hμ Q1 |Tail (Q2 ) . Thus, Q1 = N from (6), whence Tail (Q1 ) = N . (5) =⇒ (4): consider a ﬁnite partition Q and notice that +∞

T −k (Q) '

+∞

T −jn (Q) .

j=1

k=n

Then, Corollary 2.4.2, (3.17) and (3.7) imply +∞

−k T (Q) Hμ (Q) = lim Hμ Q n→+∞

k=n

+∞

−jn n T (Q) = hKS ≤ lim Hμ Q μ (T , Q) ≤ Hμ (Q) . n→+∞

j=1

(4) =⇒ (3): given a ﬁnite partition Q = N , choose ε > 0 in such a way that n Hμ (Q) − ε > 0 and n large enough to have hKS μ (T , Q) ≥ Hμ (Q) − ε. Then, from (3.11) one derives

86

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

hKS μ (T, Q) ≥

1 KS n Hμ (Q) − ε h (T , Q) ≥ >0. n μ n

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems As seen in Section 2.4 communication channels usually comprise a preliminary encoding of the source signals. In the following, we shall review some basic facts concerning the role of entropy in this context, with particular reference to compression of information and its transmission through noisy channels. Deﬁnitions 3.2.1 (Codes). 1. A code E : IA → Ωd∗ for a source A with alphabet IA = {1, 2, . . . , a} is any map which associates source symbols i ∈ iA with strings of any lengths consisting of symbols x ∈ IX = {1, 2, . . . , d}: IA i → E(i) = x(n) = x1 x2 · · · xn ∈ Ωd∗ , xj ∈ {1, 2, . . . , d} , (n) where Ωd∗ denotes the set n≥1 Ωd . 2. A code is non-singular if any two diﬀerent source symbols i, j ∈ IA are mapped into diﬀerent code-words E(i) = E(j) ∈ Ωd∗ . In this way, any code-word corresponds to a unique source-symbol. ( ) 3. The extension of a code E : IA → Ωd∗ to strings i( ) = i1 i2 · · · i ∈ Ωa of length is deﬁned by concatenation: Ωa( ) i( ) → E ( ) (i( ) ) = E(i1 )E(i2 ) · · · E(i ) ∈ Ωd∗ . 4. A code E is uniquely decodable if its extensions E ( ) are non-singular. 5. A code E is a preﬁx or an instantaneous code if no code-word preﬁxes another code-word, that is if no code-word consists in code-symbols added to a code-word. Examples 3.2.1. [92] 1. Preﬁx-codes are uniquely decodable and uniquely decodable codes are non-singular. 2. Let IA = {1, 2, 3}, IX = {0, 1}; E(1) = 0, E(2) = 00, E(3) = 01 is a nonsingular code, but not an uniquely decodable one for E(11) = E(2) = 00. 3. The code E(1) = 0, E(2) = 01, E(3) = 11, is not a preﬁx-code as E(1) preﬁxes E(2). However, it is uniquely decodable for the following reason. Suppose E(i( ) ) = E(j ( ) ) = x(n) : if x1 = 1 then x2 = 1 and i1 = j1 = 3; if x1 = x2 = 0, then i1 = j1 = 1. Finally, if x1 = 0 and x2 = 1 then i1 = j1 = 1 when x3 = 1, otherwise i1 = j1 = 2. In this way every string of code-words encodes a unique source-word.

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems

87

4. The code E(1) = 0, E(2) = 10, E(3) = 11 is such that no string can be preﬁx to another. Unlike in the previous one, in this case one need not check the next symbol in order to identify the corresponding sourcesymbol. Preﬁx-codes are particularly important because the lengths of their codewords satisfy the following inequality. Proposition 3.2.1 (Kraft’s Inequality). [92] If E : IA → Ωd∗ is a preﬁxcode over the alphabet IX = {1, . . . , d} for a source alphabet IA = {1, 2, . . . , a} and i denotes the length of the code-word E(i), then a

d− i ≤ 1 .

(3.21)

i=1

This inequality is known as Kraft inequality; vice versa, if a set of lengths i , i = 1, 2, . . . , a satisﬁes (3.21), then there exists a preﬁx-code E : IA → Ωd∗ . Proof: The lengths i need not be all diﬀerent; let them be ordered such that 1 < 2 < · · · < m , m ≤ a and let Nj be the number of source-symbols with code-words of length j . Necessarily, N1 ≤ d 1 , otherwise there would be more source-symbols than words of length 1 that encode them and the code would be singular. The preﬁx condition means that none of the N1 codewords can preﬁx code-words of length 2 , whence N1 d 2 − 1 code-words are no more available and non-singularity implies N2 ≤ d 2 − N1 d 2 − 1 . Continuing, N2 d 3 − 2 and N1 d 3 − 1 cannot be used as code-words of length 3 , whence N3 ≤ d 3 − N1 d 3 − 1 − N2 d 3 − 2 . Iterating the argument one gets a set of inequalities Nj ≤ d − j

j−1

Nk d j − k ,

1≤j≤m,

k=1

the last one (j = m) resulting in (3.21). Vice versa, if a set of m diﬀerent lengths i satisfy the Kraft inequality, then they also satisfy the inequalities j k=1

Nk d− k ≤

a i=1

d− i ≤ 1 =⇒ Nj ≤ d j −

j−1

Nk d j − k ,

k=1

for 1 ≤ j ≤ m. Therefore, the source-symbols i ∈ IA can always be regrouped into subsets IA (j), each with Nj elements, such that there are suﬃciently many code-words to construct a preﬁx-code IA (j) i → E(i) ∈ Ωd∗ .

88

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

Example 3.2.2. [92] Inequality (3.21) extends to countable preﬁx codes. (n) Indeed, any x(n) = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Ωd can be associated with the interval Δx := [0.x1 x2 · · · xn , 0.x1 x2 · · · xn + d−n ) ⊂ [0, 1] by means of the n xj =: 0.x1 x2 · · · xn . Therefore, if a countable set d-nary expansion x = dj j=1 {xi }i∈N of code-words xi i ∈ Ωd∗ with lengths i have the preﬁx property, the corresponding intervals Δi of lengths d− i are all disjoint and the sum of their lengths cannot exceed 1. Viceversa, given a countable set of lengths satisfying the extended Kraft inequality d− i ≤ 1 , ( )

i∈N

these can be assigned to disjoint dyadic intervals whose left ends can be used as code-words of a preﬁx-code. Given a source A some codes will prove more adapted to its statistical properties than others; for instance, it is convenient to assign shorter codewords to the symbols emitted with higher probability. In this context, a useful parameter is the following one. Deﬁnition 3.2.1 (Average Code Length). [92] Let A be a source emitting symbols from the alphabet IA with probabilities π = {p(i)}i∈I aA , the average length of a code E : IA → Ωd∗ is deﬁned by Lπ (E) := i=1 p(i)i , where i := (E(i)) is the length of the code-word E(i) assigned to the i-th source-symbol. A way to optimize a code relative to a ﬁxed source probability distribution is to try to achieve the shortest average length. If E is a preﬁx-code for which (3.21) becomes an equality, the optimal

lengths are found by imposing a − i that the quantity Lπ (E) + λ − 1 be stationary upon variation of i=1 d a the lengths and of the Lagrange multiplier λ. Since i=1 p(i) = 1, one gets λ∗ = − log d and ∗i = − logd p(i), whence the corresponding average length equals the Shannon entropy in base d, L∗ = Hd (A). a This is the smallest one achievable by a preﬁx code; indeed, with D := i=1 d− i ≤ 1, by means of the relative entropy (2.94) and of (2.85), one estimates

a a D Lπ (E) − L∗ = p(i) (i + logd p(i)) = p(i) logd p(i) − i − logd D d i=1 i=1 = S ( π , π) − logd D ≥ 0 ,

(3.22)

where π = {d− i /D}ai=1 . Since ∗i is not generally an integer, it cannot be directly used to construct an optimal code; however, set i := (− logd p(i)) 1 , so that ∗i ≤ i < ∗i + 1 and 1

x denotes the smallest integer larger than x ∈ R+

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems a

d− i ≤

i=1

a

∗

d− i =

i=1

a

89

p(i) = 1 .

i=1

According to Proposition 3.2.1, one can thus construct a preﬁx-code E with average length Lπ (E) such that Hd (A) = L∗ ≤ Lπ (E) =

a

p(i)i < L∗ + 1 = Hd (A) + 1 .

i=1

These upper and lower bounds also characterize the average code length Lπ (Eopt ) of any optimal code for Lπ (E) ≥ Lπ (Eopt ) ≥ L∗ . Example 3.2.3 (Shannon-Fano-Elias Code). Let A be a source that emits symbols i ∈ IA = {1, 2, . . . , a} with probabilities π = {p(i)}ai=1 and i assume, without loss of generality that p(i) > 0. Let P (i) := j=1 p(j); then, to each symbol i there corresponds a jump from P (i − 1) to P (i) and the value Q(i) := P (i − 1) + p(i)/2 belonging to the corresponding step can be used to identify the i-th symbol. Since a code-word must contain a ﬁnite number of symbols, a suitable truncation of Q(i) is necessary; for this the binary expansion of Q(i) is used. Concretely, one assigns to the i-th symbol the code-word E(i) = x1 (i)x2 (i) · · · x i (i), where − log2 p(i) + 1 ≤ i := ( − log2 p(i)) + 1 < − log2 p(i) + 2 ,

(3.23)

and xj (i) ∈ {0, 1} are the binary coeﬃcients of the expansion of Q(i) truncated at the i -th digit: Q(i) :=

i xj (i) j=1

2j

+

xj (i) 1 p(i) < P (i) . ≤ Q(i) + i < Q(i) + 2j 2 2

j= i +1

Q(i)

Since P (i − 1) < Q(i) < P (i), Q(i) provides a code-word E(i) for the symbol i of length i < − log2 p(i) + 2. Also, with the notation of Example 3.2.2, the binary intervals 4 3 0.x1 (i)x2 (i) · · · x i (i) , 0.x1 (i)x2 (i) · · · x i (i) + 2− i lie within the steps corresponding to diﬀerent i’s and are thus disjoint. Then, E is a preﬁx-code with average length satisfying H2 (A) ≤ Lπ (E) =

a i=1

p(i) i =

a i=1

p(i) ( − log2 p(i)) + 1 < H2 (A) + 2 .

90

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

Remark 3.2.1. The diﬀerence between the average code-length and the entropy Hd (A) in the case of the assignment i = ( − logd p(i)), can be eliminated asymptotically by coding not single source-symbols but whole blocks of them. In this case, given a stationary source A and a preﬁx-code E, one (n) encodes strings of length n, i(n) ∈ Ωa , with code-words E (n) (i(n) ) ∈ Ωd∗ of (n) lengths i(n) and average code-length per symbol LπA(n) (E (n) ) :=

1 n

(n)

pA(n) (i(n) ) i(n) . (n)

i(n) ∈Ωa

Then, the same argument developed for codings of single source-symbols yields the bounds 1 Hd (A(n) ) Hd (A(n) ) ≤ LπA(n) ,n (E (n) ) < + . n n n Taking the limit n → ∞, one sees that the average code-length per symbol tends to the entropy rate (in base d) hd (A) of the source (see Remark 3.1.1.1). This simple result motivates the following interpretation: The entropy rate of a stationary source represents the expected number of code-symbols needed to optimally describe the whole stochastic process corresponding to the source. 3.2.1 Source Compression Storing or transmitting information consumes a certain amount of resources, like the number of uses of a channel or the allocation of memory. In order to minimize the costs, the strategy is to compress information as much as possible in such a way that it could be eﬃciently retrieved, that is with small probability of errors. We shall start with the case of binary Bernoulli sources A emitting statistically independent signals (see (2.31)). In such a case, the source amounts to a stochastic process {Aj }j∈Z consisting of independent and identically distributed random variables, each with discrete probability distribution πA = {p(i)}ai=1 . Then, the mean value of the random variable n−1 1 Ln (A) := − log p(Aj ) (3.24) n j=0 is the Shannon entropy H(A) = p(i(n) ) Ln (i(n) ), while the variance (n)

i(n) ∈Ωa

equals Vn (A) := (Ln (A) − H(A))2 =

1

log2 p(A) − H 2 (A). n

Lemma 3.2.1 (Tschebitcheﬀ Inequality). Let X be a random variable with outcomes i = 1, 2, . . . , d, probability π = {p(i)}di=1 , mean value M := V2

X and variance V := X 2 − M 2 , then Prob {|X − M | ≥ } ≤ 2 .

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems

Proof:

91

The upper bound follows from

Prob {|X − M | ≥ } :=

p(i) ≤

i:|i −M |≥

1 2

p(i)(i − M )2 .

i:|i − M |≥

With X := Ln (A) as in (3.24), the previous Lemma yields Prob {|Ln (A) − H(A)| ≥ } ≤

1

log2 p(A) − H 2 (A) . 2 n

Therefore, chosen > 0 and δ > 0, for n suﬃciently large, one can select high probability subsets 1 (n) (3.25) A,δ := i(n) ∈ Ωa(n) : − log p(n) (i(n) ) − H(A) < , n such that (n)

(n) Prob A,δ ≥ 1 − δ , (n)

where (A,δ )c := Ω2

(n) Prob (A,δ )c ≤ δ ,

(3.26)

(n)

\ A,δ is the corresponding low probability subset.

Proposition 3.2.2 (Asymptotic Equipartition Property (AEP)). For any > 0 and δ > 0, there exists N,δ such that, for all n > N,δ , the (n) (n) (n) high probability subsets A,δ ⊂ Ω2 are such that, for all i(n) ∈ A,δ , e−n(H(A)+) ≤ p(i(n) ) ≤ e−n(H(A)−) ,

(3.27)

(n)

while, their cardinalities #(A,δ ) satisfy (n)

(1 − δ)en(H(A)−) < #(A,δ ) ≤ en(H(A)+) .

(3.28)

Proof: The ﬁrst statement follows from (3.25), while the second one is a consequence of (3.26) and of p(i(n) ) ≥ p(i(n) ) ≥ #(A(n) ) e−n(H(A)+) 1= i(n) ∈Ω2

1−δ <

(n)

i(n) ∈A

p(i(n) ) ≤ #(A(n) ) e−n(H(A)−) . (n)

i(n) ∈A

Roughly speaking, the AEP states that, for large n, the binary strings of (n) length n can be subdivided into a high probability subspace A,δ containing ≈ enH(A) strings each one of them occurring with probability ≈ e−nH(A) . (n) (n) Also, the closer the source entropy to 1, the closer A,δ gets to Ω2 .

92

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

1 For Bernoulli sources, the AEP amounts to log p(i(n) ) → H(A) in n probability. In fact, the AEP extends to ergodic sources and, more in general, to symbolic modeling of ergodic dynamical systems, with the Shannon entropy replaced by the entropy rate. Let P = {Pi }pi=1 denote a ﬁnite, $ measurable partition of a reversible s ergodic triplet (X , T, μ) and set Prs := j=r P j , P j := T −j (P). Further, for s any x ∈ X let Pr (x) denote the atom of the partition Prs that contains x: for μ-almost all x there is one and only one such atom. Notice that each Prs is a random variable on X such that Prs (x) =

s

T −j (Pij ) ⇐⇒ T j x ∈ Pij

∀ j = r, r + 1, . . . , s .

j=r

Consider now the random variable hn (x) := −

1 log μ(P0n−1 (x)) ; n

(3.29)

with the notation of Section 3.1, its expectation is 1 μ(hn ) = dμ (x) hn (x) = − dμ (x) log μ(P0n−1 (x)) (n) n X P (n) (n) =−

1 n

i(n) ∈Ωp

(n)

(n)

μ(Pi(n) ) log μ(Pi(n) ) =

(n) i(n) ∈Ωp

Rewrite hn (x) = −

i

1 Hμ (P (n) ) . n

(3.30)

n−1 1 μ(P0k (x)) 1 log − log μ(P(x)), P00 = P, and obk−1 n n μ(P0 (x)) k=1

−1 0 (T k x) and P0k−1 (x) = P−k (T k x), then serve that P0k (x) = P−k

hn (x) =

n−1 1 gk (T k x) where n

(3.31)

k=0

g0 (x) := − log μ(P(x)) , gk (x) := log

0 (x)) μ(P−k

−1 μ(P−k (x))

.

(3.32)

All these functions are positive; furthermore, 0 ≤ g := limk gk exists almost everywhere and is integrable. In fact, let fki := gk |`Pi , that is fki (x) := − log

−1 μ(P−k (x) ∩ Pi ) −1 μ(P−k (x))

;

then, the conditional probability (2.52) of the random variable P conditioned −1 on the measure algebra generated by P−k reads

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems

93

5

i 5 −1 (x) = e−fk (x) . μ P = i5P−k Since, from Theorem 2.2.1, limk fki exists μ-almost everywhere, the same is true of g = limk gk . Now, ﬁx a ∈ R and deﬁne the following disjoint subsets of X : Ek := x max gj (x) ≤ a < gk (x) 1≤j≤k−1 Fki := x max fji (x) ≤ a < fki (x) . 1≤j≤k−1

Using the deﬁning property (2.52) of conditional probabilities, one estimates p p 5

5 −1 i (x) μ(Ek ) = μ(Pi ∩ Fk ) = dμ (x) μ P = 15P−k i=1 −a

i=1

Fki

≤e

μ(Fki ) and ∞ p ∞ −a i μ(Ek ) ≤ e μ Fk ≤ p e−a . i=1

k=1

k=1

Setting g := supk gk and Gk := {x : k < g(x) ≤ k + 1}, ∞ ∞ μ(g) = dμ (x) g(x) ≤ (k + 1) e−k < +∞ , k=0

Gk

k=0

whence g and g are both integrable. Example 3.2.4. Consider the case of a bilateral Bernoulli shift as in Example 3.1.2.2. Then, x = i ∈ Ωa , and, choosing as P the generating partition C, one gets gk (i) = g0 (i) = − log μ(C(i)). Therefore, the sum in (3.31) yields the time-average of g0 , whence one can apply Birkhoﬀ’s Theorem 2.3.1 and ergodicity to deduce that μ − a.e.

lim hn (i) = Hμ (C) = hKS μ (Tσ )

n→∞

and that the asymptotic behavior p(i(n) ) e−nhμ where and not only in probability.

KS

(Tσ )

holds almost every-

Despite the fact that, in general, the functions in (3.31) are diﬀerent for diﬀerent k’s and thus (3.31) is not a time-average as in Birkhoﬀ’s theorem, none the less the following result holds. Theorem 3.2.1 (Shannon-Mc Millan-Breiman Theorem). Let (X , T, μ) be a reversible, ergodic dynamical system, then, for all ﬁnite, measurable partitions P = {Pi }pi=1 , lim hn (x) = hKS μ (T, P)

n→∞

μ − a.e.

94

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

Proof: [61, 199] With the notation introduced in the preceding discussion, dominated convergence, T -invariance of μ and (3.30) together with (3.31) yield n−1 n−1 1 1 μ(gk ) = lim μ(gk ◦ T k ) n→∞ n n→∞ n

μ(g) = lim μ(gn ) = lim n→∞

k=0

= lim μ(hn ) = n→∞

hKS μ

k=0

(T, P) . n−1 1 g(T k x) n→∞ n

On the other hand, from ergodicity, hKS μ (T, P) = μ(g) = lim

k=0

μ − a.e., whence the theorem is proved by showing that n−1 1 (gk − g)(T k x) = 0 n→∞ n

lim

μ − a.e. (∗)

.

k=0

Consider GN (x) := supk≥N |gk (x) − g(x)|; these functions are integrable and limN GN = 0 μ-a.e., thus, from ergodicity, n−1 1 n−1 1 k (gk − g)(T k x) (gk − g)(T x) ≤ lim sup lim sup n→∞ n n→∞ n k=0

≤ lim sup n→∞

1 n

n−1

k=0

GN (T k x) = μ(GN )

k=0

μ-a.e. and for all N ∈ N whence (∗).

Remark 3.2.2. The Shannon-Mc Millan-Breiman theorem applied to an ergodic source allows a reformulation of the AEP in terms of the KS entropy. Indeed, choosing as P the standard generating partition as in Example 3.2.4, (n) almost everywhere convergence of pA (i(n) ) to e−n h(A) , ensures that, given > 0, and δ > 0, for n suﬃciently large, the ensemble of strings of length n (n) can be subdivided into a high probability subspace A of probability ≈ 1 n h(A) strings. containing ≈ e The AEP allows the implementation of the following compression scheme of an ergodic binary source: one considers strings of length n, makes a list (n) of those contained in a high probability subset A and assign them as (n) a code their position in the list. Since A contains less than 2n(h(A)+) strings (entropies being conveniently computed with logarithms in base 2), the number of bits needed for the encoding is at the most ( log2 2n(h(A)+) ) + 1 = ( h(A) + ) + 1 ,

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems

95

(n)

while the strings belonging to the complementary set (A )c may be encoded (n) by a same integer, say #(A ) + 1. Upon retrieval, the strings belonging to (n) (n) A are exactly identiﬁed by their code, but not those in (A )c ; however, (n) since Prob((A )c ) ≤ δ and δ → 0 with n → ∞, the larger n gets, the lower is their probability of occurring. Therefore, the probability of error can be made vanishingly small by increasing n. Theorem 3.2.2 (Noiseless Coding Theorem). Let A be an ergodic binary source with entropy rate h(A): binary strings of length n can be encoded by using n R < n bits and vanishing probability of error if R > h(A). If R < h(A), then the probability of error goes to 1 with n → ∞. Proof: The ﬁrst part of the theorem follows from the previous discussion by applying the equipartition theorem with R = h(A) + . For the second part, let R = h(A) − and consider the high probability (n) (n) subset A/2 together with its complement (A/2 )c . The probability of any (n)

containing +2nR , 2 strings can be estimated as follows,

(n) (n) Prob(B) ≤ Prob B ∩ (A/2 )c + Prob B ∩ A/2

subset B of Ω2

≤ δ + 2nR 2−n(h(A)−/2) = δ + 2−n/2 , where δ is a vanishingly small quantity given by the AEP . Thus, listing the strings belonging to a subset as B, one uses less than h(A) bit per bit , but, when n gets larger, the probability that an emitted string belong to B gets vanishingly small and the probability of error close to 1. Universal Source Codings The compression protocols discussed in the previous section depends on the knowledge of the source statistics. Interestingly, encoding and decoding schemes exist which work equally well, namely with a same compression rate R, for all ergodic sources A with an entropy rate h(A) < R, whatever their overall stationary probability distribution: these protocols provide universal source codings. In the following, we shall consider Bernoulli sources [92], while the general case can be found discussed in [325, 168]. The method used is based on the concept of type. Let A be a stationary Bernoulli source emitting strings i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in ∈ (n) Ωa , ij ∈ IA = {1, 2, . . . , a} accordingto compatible probability distribun (n) tions πA(n) = pA (i(n) ) = j=1 pA (ij ) . We shall denote 2

x denotes the largest integer smaller than x ∈ R.

96

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

1. by N (j|i(n) ) the number of times j ∈ IA occurs in the string i(n) ; N (j|i(n) ) the so-called empirical probability generated by 2. by p(j|i(n) ) := n (n) the string i and by Πi(n) := {p(j|i(n) )}aj=1 the corresponding empirical distribution. The latter is known as the type of i(n) : strings i(n) whose symbols occur with same frequencies belong to a same type Π (n) ; 3. by Pn the set of all types Π (n) ; (n) 4. by T (Π (n) ) the subset of all strings i(n) ∈ Ωa with a same type Π (n) . The construction of universal codings is based on the following two bounds; of particular importance is the second one which states that the number of diﬀerent types increases at most polynomially with n. (n)

Lemma 3.2.2. Let Π (n) ∈ Pn be a type of Ωa and let H(Π (n) ) be its Shannon entropy. The number of strings in T (Π (n) ) and the number of all possible types fulﬁl #(T (Π (n) )) ≤ 2nH(Π

(n)

)

,

#(Pn ) ≤ (n + 1)a .

Furthermore, the a-priori probability of T (Π (n) ) is such that πA (T (Π (n) ) ≤ 2−n S(Π (n)

(n)

, πA )

,

where S(Π (n) , πA ) is the classical relative entropy (see (2.94)). Proof:

(n)

Let P (n) be the following empirical probability distribution on Ωa ,

P (n) (i(n) ) :=

a j=1

p(j|i(n) )N (j|i

(n)

)

=

a

2np(j|i

(n)

) log2 p(j|i(n) )

= 2−nH(Πi(n) ) .

j=1

The probability of the type class T (Π (n) ) is certainly smaller than 1; thus,

(n) 1 ≥ P (n) T (Π (n) ) = P (n) (i(n) ) = #(T (Π (n) )) 2−nH(Π ) i(n) ∈T (Π (n) )

yields the ﬁrst estimate. The second is a very loose upper bound: each type Πi(n) is entirely characterized by how many times each symbol i ∈ IA occurs in i(n) . Without constraints (that can only decrease the number of types) there are n + 1 choices for each i = 1, 2, . . . , a, namely 0, 1,. . ., n, whence the result. Finally, the last bound is derived as follows: ﬁrst, notice that

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems (n)

pA (i(n) ) =

n

pA (ij ) =

j=1 n

= 2

=1

pA ()N ( |i

(n)

=1

a

a

)

=

a

2np( |i

(n)

) log2 pA (j)

=1 p(|i(n) ) pA (j)

p( |i(n) ) log2 p( |i(n) ) − p( |i(n) ) log2

97

= 2−n(H(Πi(n) ) + S(Πi(n) , πA )) . Then, using the ﬁrst upper bound, (n) (n) πA (T (Π (n) )) = pA (i(n) ) i(n) ∈T (Π (n) )

= #(T (Π (n) )) 2−n(H(Π

(n)

) + S(Π (n) , πA ))

≤ 2−n S(Π

(n)

, πA )

.

Because of the ﬁrst bound in Lemma 3.2.2, at most nR+1 bits are needed to encode the label of a string i(n) of type Π (n) with H(Π (n) ) < R, while at most a log2 (n + 1) + 1 bits ensures the encoding of the label specifying the type P to which the string belongs (the +1 accounts for R and log2 (n+1) not being integers). Therefore, in the limit n → ∞, one expects a compression rate R for all Bernoulli sources with H(A) < R. Deﬁnition 3.2.2 (Universal Codings). Let R > 0 and consider an encoding of a Bernoulli source A into binary strings of length +nR,, given by (n) nR nR (n) , followed by a decoding procedure D : Ω2 → Ωa . E n : Ωa → Ω2 nR This gives a universal (n, 2 )-code if the probability of error

(n) (n) i(n) : Dn ◦ E n (i(n) ) = i(n) := πA Perr goes to 0 when n → ∞ and E n , Dn do not depend on the Bernoulli source probability πA . Proposition 3.2.3. There exist universal source codings (n, 2nR ) for every Bernoulli source with H(A) < R. log (n + 1) ; using the ﬁrst two bounds Given R > 0, let Rn := R−a 2 n (n) (n) (n) in Lemma 3.2.2, the subsets A := i ∈ Ωa : H(Πi(n) ) ≤ Rn have cardinalities such that

(n) # A(n) = #(T (Π (n) )) ≤ 2nH(Π ) Proof:

Π (n) ∈Pn H(Π (n) )≤Rn

≤

Π (n) ∈Pn H(Π (n) )≤Rn

Π (n) ∈Pn H(Π (n) )≤Rn

2n Rn ≤ (n + 1)a 2nRn = 2nR .

98

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

Let E n associate to strings in A(n) their label in the list of such strings expressed in bits and let Dn be its inverse map. If H(A) < R, then, using the third bound in the previous lemma,

(n) (n) = 1 − πA A(n) = π (n) T (Π (n) ) Perr Π (n) ∈Pn H(Π (n) )>Rn

(n) ≤ (n + 1)a max πA T (Π (n) ) : H(Π (n) ) > Rn −n min S(Π (n) , πA ) : H(Π (n) )>Rn

≤ (n + 1)a 2

.

Since limn Rn = R and H(A) < R, and the relative entropy S(π1 , π2 ) = 0 n gets exponentially small for n suﬃciently large. iﬀ π1 = π2 , Perr 3.2.2 Channel Capacity Noiseless channels are an exception; usually, during transmission signals get distorted. It can thus happen that a channel outputs a same string y (n) (n) (n) when presented with diﬀerent input strings x1 and x2 which cannot then be decoded without errors. Like in compression, to counteract distortion one resorts to suitable encoding and decoding procedures of longer and longer strings; however, unlike in compression where redundancies are eliminated, in the presence of noise, the strategy is to introduce redundancies in order to lower the possibility that diﬀerent input strings give rise to a same channel output. Example 3.2.5. In Example 2.4.1, bits 0 and 1 can be converted into one another with probability 0 < p < 1/2 by a binary symmetric channel C. The probability of a wrong decoding can be lowered by encoding E(0) =

· · · 0 , 00 2n+1 times

E(1) =

· · · 1 . 11 2n+1 times

Then, 2n + 1 uses of the channel output strings i(2n+1) := C (2n+1) ◦ E(i) that can be decoded by a majority rule: let Ni(2n+1) (0) denote the number of 0s in i(2n+1) , then 2 0 if Ni(2n+1) (0) > n (2n+1) D(i )= . 1 if Ni(2n+1) (0) ≤ n By such an encoding-decoding procedure one transmits one bit at the cost of 2n + 1 bits; an error occurs, that is D ◦ C (2n+1) ◦ E(i) = i, if ≥ n + 1 bits of E(i)

are ﬂipped by the channel C. The probability of such an event, 2n + 1 n+1 (1−p)n , vanishes with n → ∞; unfortunately, the transmission p n+1

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems

rate, that is the number of bits transmitted per use of the channel, vanishes, too.

99

1 , 2n + 1

In the following we shall consider channels C without memory and without feedback such that each of their uses is independent of the previous inputs and outputs. Further, n uses of the channel C amount to a single use of a n channel C (n) which maps input strings x(n) ∈ IX consisting of n symbols from an alphabet IX = {1, 2, . . . , nX } into output strings y (n) ∈ IYn consisting of symbols from an alphabet IY = {1, 2, . . . , nY }. Input and output strings are conveniently described as realizations of stochastic processes {Xi }$ i∈N and $n n {Yi }i∈N with join random variables X (n) := i=1 Xi and Y (n) := j=1 Yj . The transitions x(n) → y (n) occur with probabilities p(y (n) |x(n) ) that factorize (see (2.82)) and are thus completely characterized by the single-use transition probabilities p(yj |xi ). One of the great achievements of early information theory was obtained by Shannon who proved that codes exist such that the number M (n) of distinguishable strings x(n) increases with n at a non-zero exponential rate R: M (n) ≈ 2Rn . Deﬁnition 3.2.3 (Channel Codes and Capacity). [92] A code (M, n), for a channel C consists of 1. a set IC := {1, 2, . . . M }; n associating a code-word x(n) (w) = E(w) to any 2. an encoding E : IC → IX of the indices w ∈ IC ; ˆ ∈ IC , that returns 3. a decoding procedure D : IYn → IC , D(y (n) (w)) =: w w ˆ ∈ IC given a channel output y (n) (w) = C n (x(n) (w)). The rate of the code is deﬁned by R := w ˆ = D(y (n) (w)) = w, is en (w) :=

log2 M 3 . The probability of an error, 2

p y (n) |x(n) (w) .

(n)

y (n) ∈ΩnY :D(y (n) )=w

The rate is said achievable if there exists a sequence of codes (2nR , n) with vanishing maximal probability of error en := maxw∈IC en (w). The capacity C of the channel C is the largest of its achievable rates. Remark 3.2.3. For a memoryless channel, (2.82) holds; thus, if the probabilities of the input stochastic process {Xi }i∈N factorize, so do the probabilities of the output stochastic process {Yi }i∈N : For sake of simplicity, in the following M = 2nR will be identiﬁed with 2nR , the smallest integer larger than M . 3

100

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

pY (n) (y (n) ) =

p(y (n) |x(n) ) pX (n) (x(n) )

n x(n) ∈IX

=

n

p(yj |xj ) pX (xj ) =

j=1 xj

n

pY (yj ) .

(3.33)

j=1

Shannon’s result is that the mutual information (2.93) I(X; Y ) is an achievable rate and that the channel capacity is given by C = max I(X; Y ) .

(3.34)

πX

Examples 3.2.6. 1. Example 2.4.1.1: pB (i) = pA (i), i = 0, 1, implies I(A; B) = H(A), whence capacity, C = 1, is attained at πA = {1/2, 1/2}. 2. Example 2.4.1.2: with H(p) := −p log2 p − (1 − p) log2 (1 − p), I(A; B) = H(B) +

1

pA (i)

i=0

1

p(j|i) log2 p(j|i) = H(B) − H(p) ,

j=0

whence capacity C = 1 − H(p) is attained at πA = {1/2, 1/2}, since pB (0) = pA (0)(1−p)+pA (1)p =

1 , 2

pB (1) = pA (0)p+pA (1)(1−p) =

1 . 2

3. Example 2.4.1.3: pB (1) = pA (0)(1−α), pB (2) = pA (1)(1−α) and pB (3) = α(pA (0) + pA (1)) = α yield I(A; B) = H(B) − (pA (0) + pA (1))H(α) = H(B) − H(α) = (1 − α)H(A) , whence capacity C = (1 − α) is attained at πA = {1/2, 1/2}. 4. The capacity in (3.2.3) refers to only one use of the channel C; consider n with outputs y (n) ∈ IYn . The now the channel C (n) acting on x(n) ∈ IX mutual information I(X (n) ; Y (n) ) of the corresponding random variables X (n) and Y (n) can be controlled by repeatedly using (2.93). From (2.82), H(Y (n) |X (n) ) = H(X (n) ∨ Y (n) ) − H(X (n) ) = H(Yn |X (n) ∨ Y (n−1) ) + H(X (n) ∨ Y (n−1) ) − H(X (n) ) n n = H(Yj |X (n) ∨ Y (j−1) ) = H(Yj |Xj ) . j=1

Further, from (2.88),

j=1

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems

I(X (n) ; Y (n) ) = H(Y (n) ) − H(Y (n) |X (n) ) n

H(Yj ) − H(Yj |Xj ) ≤ nC . ≤

101

(3.35)

j=1

Therefore, if C (n) denotes the capacity of the channel C (n) , the supremum over all input probability distributions gets C (n) ≤ nC. Actually, from Remark 3.2.3, equality is achieved by choosing a factorizing πX (n) such n that pX (n) (x(n) ) = pX (xj ), with πX the one achieving capacity C. j=1

Then, the output probabilities factorize too and thus H(Y (n) ) = nH(Y ). The above relation between capacity and mutual information can be understood as follows. As showed in the last example, if X (n) consists of n independent, identically distributed repetitions of X, then the same is true of Y (n) and X (n) ∨ Y (n) with respect to Y and X ∨ Y . With H(X), H(Y ) and H(X, Y ) the corresponding entropies, based on the AEP , for large n there are roughly 2nH(X) πX -typical inputs, 2nH(Y ) πY -typical outputs and 2nH(X,Y ) jointly typical pairs (x(n) , y (n) ), that is typical with respect to πX∨Y . Of course, not all input-output pairs (x(n) , y (n) ) with x(n) πX -typical and y (n) πY -typical are jointly typical: this happens with probability roughly equal to 2nH(X,Y ) = 2−nI(X;Y ) . 2nH(X) 2nH(Y ) Therefore, in order to encounter a jointly typical pair with ﬁxed output y (n) one needs at least 2nI(X;Y ) inputs; in other words, one expects that encoding a number of input strings smaller than 2nI(X;Y ) , none of them should be jointly typical with respect to a same y (n) . Vice versa, more than 2nI(X;Y ) inputs would start having a same jointly typical output and thus being not exactly identiﬁable. Memoryless channels with independent, identically distributed inputs are thus expected to have achievable rates R I(X; Y ). In order to give a mathematical proof of the above intuitive argument, we start by extending the notion of typical strings. Deﬁnition 3.2.4 (Jointly-typical Strings). n and y (n) ∈ IYn are jointly typical if they belong to Two strings x(n) ∈ IX (n) n the subset A ⊆ IX × IYn such that 1 − log2 pX n (x(n) ) − H(X) < n 1 − log2 pY n (y (n) ) − H(Y ) < n 1 − log2 pX n Y n (x(n) , y (n) ) − H(X ∨ Y ) < , n where 0 < - 1.

102

3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

Since (2.82) holds, the argument of the proof of Proposition 3.2.2 gives rise to a jointly typical AEP. Namely, let > 0, for suﬃciently large n’s the probability carried by subsets of strings violating any of the inequalities in the (n) previous deﬁnition can be made smaller than /3 so that Prob(A ) ≥ 1 − . Moreover, its cardinality fulﬁls (1 − ) 2n(H(X,Y )−) ≤ #(A(n) ) ≤ 2n(H(X∨Y )+) ,

(3.36)

while the probabilities of strings x(n) , y (n) and (x(n) , y (n) ) satisfying the inequalities in Deﬁnition 3.2.4 fulﬁl 2−n(H(X)+) ≤ pX n (x(n) ) ≤ 2−n(H(X)−)

(3.37)

2−n(H(Y )+) ≤ pY n (y (n) ) ≤ 2−n(H(Y )−)

(3.38)

2−n(H(X∨Y )+) ≤ pX n Y n (x(n) , y (n) ) ≤ 2−n(H(X∨Y )−) , (3.39)

= Then, Prob (x(n) , y (n) ) ∈ A(n) pX n (x(n) ) pY n (y (n) ) (n)

(n)

(x(n) ,y (n) )∈A

can be bounded from below and above as follows:

(1 − ) 2−n(I(X;Y )+3) ≤ Prob (x(n) , y (n) ) ∈ A(n) ≤ 2−n(I(X;Y )−3) . (3.40) Theorem 3.2.3 (Shannon Noisy-Channel Theorem). All rates R < C, C as in (3.34), are achievable and any sequence of codes (nR, n) with the maximal error probability en → 0 must have R ≤ C. Proof that en → 0 ⇒ R ≤ C : Suppose the signals w ∈ {1, 2, . . . , M }, n , are equidistributed; M = (2nR ), encoded by (nR, n) into E(w) = x(n) ∈ IX let W denote the random variable with outcomes w. Using (2.93), (2.95) with C(B) = E(W ) = X (n) and (3.35), it follows that

nR ≤ log2 M = H(W ) = H W |Y (n) + I W ; Y (n)

≤ H W |Y (n) + I X (n) ; Y (n) ≤ H W |Y (n) + n C .

We need now connect H W |Y (n) to the error probability: this is done by means of the so-called Fano’s inequality. By assumption the maximal error probability in Deﬁnition 3.2.3 goes to zero with2n, so does the average error 1 0 w ˆ=w probability eav en (w). Let E := ; E is a random n := 1 w ˆ = w M w∈IC

variable determined by W and Y (n) . Thus, using 2.91,

3.2 Codes and Shannon Theorems

103

H W |Y (n) = H E|W, Y (n) + H W |Y (n)

= H W |E, Y (n) + H E|Y (n) .

Now, from Remark 2.4.3.4, H E|Y (n) ≤ H(E) ≤ 1. Further, E = 0 implies

that W is determined by Y (n) so that H W |E = 0, Y (n) = 0, whereas if E = 1 then the cardinality of possible values of W is M − 1. Therefore,

H W |E, Y (n) = Prob(E = i)H W |E = i, Y (n) i=0,1

av (n) ≤ eav ≤ 1 + eav n log2 (M − 1) ≤ en nR =⇒ H W |Y n nR . (n)

(n) 1 The result follows since nR ≤ 1 + eav nR + nC implies eav ≥ 1 − nR −C R (n) which in turn implies that eav cannot vanish with n → ∞ if R > C.

The proof of the ﬁrst part of Theorem 3.2.3 relies on the following steps: 1. for w ∈ {1, 2, . . . , M = 2nR }, choose the code-word x(n) (w) at random n (n) with probability pX (x(n) ) = i=1 pin (xi ). This gives a random code of M n type (nR, n) with overall probability Prob(E) = pin (xi (w)); w=1 i=1

2. choose the symbols w at random with the same probability p(w) = M −1 ; ˆ such that E(w) ˆ = x(n) (w) ˆ is 3. if C (n) (x(n) ) = y (n) and there is only one w (n) (n) ˆ otherwise jointly typical with y , then associate with y the symbol w, declare an error. This gives a decoding map y (n) → D(y (n) ) = w; = w and C n (E(w)) = y (n) . 4. an error is also declared if D(y (n) ) = w (n)

Proof that (nR, n) is achievable when R < C : Let eE (w) be the (n) probability of an error relative to a random code E and eav (E) the corresponding average error probability. Further, let P (e) :=

(n) Prob(E) eav (E) =

E

M 1 (n) Prob(E)eE (w) : M w=1 E

this is the average error probability over all randomly generated codes. Then, (n) every w gives the same contribution to the error, so P(e) = E Prob(E)eE (1) (n)

with ﬁxed w = 1. Let Fw := (x(n) (w), y (n) ) ∈ A

typical subspace. According to the rules of the game, if y a decoding error occurs when (n)

(n)

, where A (n)

is a jointly-

= C n (x(n) (1)),

1. (x(n) (1), y (n) ) ∈ / A , that is when the input corresponding to w = 1 and the relative output are not jointly typical;

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3 Dynamical Entropy and Information

2. (x(n) (i), y (n) ) ∈ Fi for i = 1, that is when the output corresponding to w = 1 is jointly-typical with code-words associated to w = 1. The overall average error probability can thus be estimated as follows: M M

P (e) = Prob (F1 )c ∪ Fi ≤ Prob((F1 )c ) + Prob(Fi ) . i=2

i=1 (n)

By the jointly-typical AEP , F1 ⊆ A =⇒ Prob((F1 )c ) ≤ for n large enough. Further, because of randomness of the code, the input x(n) (i), i = 1, are statistically independent from x(n) (1) and y (n) = C n (x(n) (1)). Then, the jointly-typical AEP also yields M

Prob(Fi ) ≤ (M − 1) 2−n(I(X;Y )−3) ≤ 2−n(I(X;Y )−R−3) .

i=2

If R < I(X; Y ) − 3, the latter quantity gets ≤ for n suﬃciently large and thus P (e) ≤ 2. This implies that there exists at least one code E ∗ with (n) eav ≤ 2. By choosing for X the distribution π ∗ attaining capacity in (3.34), the condition for achieving the rate R becomes R < C. Finally, at least half (n) of the code-words x(n) (w) of E ∗ must have e(n) (w) ≤ 4 otherwise eav > 2. Keeping only these ones, changes the rate from R to R(n) := R − 1/n. The procedure thus yields a sequence of codes (nR(n), n) such that e(n) → 0 and R(n) → R for all R < C. Bibliographyical Notes Most of the results about the KS entropy have been drawn from [61]; other excellent books on the subject and its applications are [17, 91, 164]. In particular, the completeness of the KS entropy for Bernoulli systems is discussed in [91]. The book by [199] is a reference for Pesin’s theory and the relations between the KS entropy and Lyapounov exponents (see also [106]). In [62] one ﬁnds an extensive review of the role of KS entropy and Lyapounov exponents as regards the issue of predictability in continuous and discrete dynamical systems. In [18], the notion is discussed in relation to the broader notion of complexity. The material on coding and compression has largely been drawn from [92, 254, 266].

4 Algorithmic Complexity

One of the intuitive notions which is most elusive from a mathematical point of view is that of randomness. Consider a string i(n) ∈ Ω2∗ emitted by a Bernoulli source with probabilities p0,1 ; suppose that n >> 1 and that the number of 0s, n(0), is nearly half the number of 1s, n(1) 2n(0). One expects that, generically, the relative frequencies n(i)/n tend to the probabilities pi with increasing n; indeed, only special, that is intuitively non-random, strings should fail such a statistical test. Therefore, one would call i(n) random only if p0 = 1/3 [305]. Of course, passing the frequency test is not enough; indeed, if p0 = 1/2, both i(n) consisting of n/2 subsequent pairs 0, 1 and a string j (n) of 0s and 1s distributed without any evident pattern occur with probability 2−n . However, because of its regularity, i(n) would be called non-random and, vice versa, because of the absence of regular structures, j (n) would be called random [92, 310]. Presence and absence of patterns seems to be a useful clue to deﬁning which strings or sequences are random and which are not so; this property should somehow be related to the degree of compressibility so that one might wonder whether the entropy rate introduced in Section 3 could provide a natural measure of randomness. Also, by replacing the entropy rate with the dynamical KS entropy, one could deﬁne a classical dynamical system to be random or not on the basis of the compressibility of the best ones amongst its symbolic models. However, entropy rate and the KS entropy describe the average behavior of sources or of dynamical systems and say nothing about individual strings or individual trajectories. Various attempts have been undertaken to tackle the problem of formalizing the intuitive notion of randomness of individual sequences i ∈ Ω2 . In [305], three relevant approaches are discussed: in the ﬁrst one, randomness is identiﬁed with stochasticness, that is with the impossibility of devising a winning strategy when bets on the value of the next symbol in of i ∈ Ω2∗ are based on the knowledge of ii i2 · · · in−1 . In the second approach, randomness is identiﬁed with chaoticness that is with the absence of regular patterns in i ∈ Ω2 . In the third approach, randomness in a sequence i ∈ Ω2 is identi-

F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 4, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

105

106

4 Algorithmic Complexity

ﬁed with its typicalness, that is with the fact that it does not belong to any eﬀectively null subset of Ω2∗ 1 In the following we shall focus on the second approach which is also known as algorithmic complexity theory, and was developed independently and almost at the same time by Kolmogorov [173, 174], Chaitin [77] and Solomonoﬀ [283, 284] in the early sixties. Algorithmic complexity theory involves as many subjects as mathematics, logics, computer science and physics [310, 73, 254]: we shall give a short overview of some of its aspects that are relevant for an extension of this notion to quantum dynamical systems.

4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions The main step towards a theory of randomness of individual strings was the observation that regular strings admit short eﬀective descriptions, whereas irregular strings do not. By eﬀective description of a (binary) target string it is meant any algorithm (binary program) that is computed by a suitable computer and makes it halt with the target string as output. Example 4.1.1. Any string i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in consisting of n bits can always be reproduced by processing the program PRINT i1 i2 · · · in , which speciﬁes the bits to print, one after the other. This program amounts to the literal transcription of the target string. Clearly, one has to seek more clever ways to describe i(n) , that is shorter programs. In doing so, one is much helped by the presence of patterns; if ij = 0 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ n, the following simple program could be used: Let Ω2∗ , the set of all binary sequences, be equipped with the σ-algebra generated by cylinder sets and with the uniform product probability distribution so that any cylinder Ci indexed by a string i ∈ Ω2∗ of length length (i) has probability ∗ if for any ε > 0 there are cylinders π(Ci ) = 2−(i) . A subset A ⊂ Ω 2 is a null subset Ci j , ij ∈ Ω2∗ such that A ⊂ j Ci j and j 2−(i j ) ≤ ε. A subset A ⊂ Ω2∗ is an eﬀectively null subset if the previous inequality is satisﬁed with the strings ij that index the cylinders and ε > 0 (any rational number) both eﬀectively computable by a suitable algorithm (for instance by a program processed by a computer) [305]. Intuitively, random sequences cannot be eﬀectively reproducible and thus cannot belong to eﬀectively null sets. Concretely, these latter sets consist of non-typical strings and correspond to eﬀective statistical tests or Martin-L¨ of tests that, when failed, identify these non-random strings (an example is the frequency test mentioned in the discussion prior to this remark) [310]. In other words, a sequence is random according to the typicalness criterion if it passes all Martin-L¨ of tests. On the other hand, if typicalness were deﬁned with reference to all possible null subsets, then there would be no typical sequences; indeed, any i ∈ Ω2 belongs to the null subset of Ω2 consisting of the sequence itself. 1

4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions

PRINT

0 n

107

TIMES .

For large n, the length of such a program goes as log2 n, that is as the number of bits necessary to specify the length of the string (i(n) ) = n. This is also the case if, less trivially, the string i(n) consists of a same pattern, i(q) that repeats itself n/q times. Indeed, what is to be speciﬁed is the length of the pattern at the cost of a ﬁxed number, log2 q, of bits and the number of repetitions at the cost of log2 n/q log2 n bits for n . q. On the other hand, if i(n) shows no pattern, there is no shorter eﬀective description than literal transcription. In this case, the length of the eﬀective description grows as n and not as log2 n. In the previous example, it is clear that one is interested in the shortest possible eﬀective descriptions s(i(n) ) of a given string i(n) : let C(i(n) ) denote the length of any of these shortest description, that is (s(i(n) )) = C(i(n) ). The map i(n) → s(i(n) ) is code for the ensemble of strings of length n. In Section 4.3, it will be showed that, by processing the eﬀective descriptions by means of particular computing devices called preﬁx machines (in which case C(i(n) ) is denoted by K(i(n) )), the code becomes a preﬁx code (see Deﬁnition 3.2.1), so that the extended Kraft inequality (see Example 3.2.2) applies 2−K(i) ≤ 1 . (4.1) i∈Ω2∗

Example 4.1.2 (Payoﬀ Functions). [120, 310] Suppose the government of a country claims that in the j-th one of n successive elections it won with 0.99ij percent of the votes, ij being any decimal digit for j odd and the j/2 digit in the decimal expansion of π for j even. To defend itself from the accuse of fabricating the electoral results, the government replies that the probability Q(i(n) ) = 10−n of such a string of decimal digits i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in is equal to that of any other string randomly obtained according to the uniform probability distribution over 10 symbols. This defense can be defeated by using the regularity of i(n) to construct a suitable payoﬀ function t(i(n) |Q) ≥ 0, namely a non-negative function whose mean value is such that 10−n t(i(n) |Q) ≤ 1 . (n)

i(n) ∈Ω10

Its meaning is as follows: the accuser proposes the government to be payed t(i(n) |Q) upon betting 1 on the outcome i(n) . This is a fair proposal for, if the outcomes i(n) are distributed according to the uniform probability Q, the accuser average gain cannot be higher than 1. However, if there is a pattern in i(n) , the accuser can construct a payoﬀ function t(i(n) |Q) that assumes high values on the strings with such a pattern. Concretely, for the half of the decimal digits of i(n) that are randomly

108

4 Algorithmic Complexity

distributed according to Q, one needs n/2 log2 10 bits for its description; instead, for the remaining half that comes from an algorithm that computes successive approximations to π, a ﬁnite number, C, of bits 2 suﬃce. Then, one gets the following upper bound to the length of the shortest eﬀective description computed by a preﬁx machine (see previous remark), K(i(n) ) ≤

n log2 10 + C . 2

Setting t(i(n) |Q) := 2− log2 Q(i ) − K(i ) = 10n 2−K(i ) , one deﬁnes a payoﬀ function; indeed, because of (4.1), (n) (n) (n) Q(i(n) ) 2− log2 Q(i ) − K(i ) = 2− K(i ) ≤ 1 . (n)

(n)

i(n) ∈Ω10

(n)

(n)

(n)

i(n) ∈Ω10

While any fair Casino’s owner should accept bets based on such a payoﬀ function, the government cannot; indeed, by betting 1 on the digit of each one of n successive elections, the accuser will pay n to the government but receive 10n/2 2−C from it, quite an amount of money for large n. As the payoﬀ function does depend only on the presence of a pattern, but not on its particular form, the accuser strategy does not require any a priori knowledge. The aim of algorithmic complexity theory is an objective characterization of the randomness of individual strings in terms of the lengths of their shortest eﬀective descriptions. It is thus necessary to eliminate the dependence of such lengths on the computers that process the corresponding programs. Indeed, given a same target string i(n) two diﬀerent computers V1,2 will in general provide shortest descriptions s1,2 (i(n) ) with diﬀerent lengths C1,2 (i(n) ). As explained in Proposition 4.1.1, this problem is overcome by resorting to effective descriptions processed by universal computers, namely by computers that are able to simulate the action of any other computing machine. The universal computers on which classical algorithmic complexity theory is based are the so-called Universal Turing Machines (UTMs ). 4.1.1 Classical Turing Machines A Turing Machine (TM ) is a very basic (and abstract) model of computing device (see [310]) consisting of 1. a bi-inﬁnite tape T subdivided into cells labeled by integers i ∈ Z, each cell containing either a blank symbol # or a symbol σ from a given We shall set Σ = Σ ∪ #; alphabet Σ.

2

This number becomes negligible when n increases.

4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions

109

2. a reading/write head H moving along the tape that, when positioned on the i-th cell, reads the symbol σi ∈ Σ, leaves it unchanged or changes it into σi ∈ Σ and then proceeds to either the cell i + 1 to the right (R) or to the cell i − 1 to the left (L); 3. a central processing unit C (CPU) capable of a ﬁnite number of control states qi ∈ Q := {q0 , q2 . . . , q|Q|−1 }: at each computational step, the CPU state q ∈ Q may remain the same or change into q ∈ Q. The list of possible moves deﬁnes a program for the TM ; formally, it amounts to a transition function δ : Q × Σ → Q × Σ × {L, R} ,

δ(q, σ) = (q , σ , d) , d ∈ {L, R} .

(4.2)

As a consequence, any TM can be identiﬁed by the set of rules deﬁning δ. Each set of rules, that is any TM , corresponds to a certain task, a computation, to be performed on an input data string. Any computation can be assumed to start with the CPU control state in a chosen ready state qr , the head positioned on a chosen 0-th cell and the input written on a ﬁnite number of cells extending from the 0-th one to its left, while all other cells to the left and to the right contain blank symbols. The computation then proceeds through a sequence of steps dictated by the transition function δ, each one of them corresponding to a certain conﬁguration of the TM that performs it. Deﬁnition 4.1.1 (TM conﬁgurations). At each step of a computation a classical conﬁguration c of a TM U is a triplet

C c := q, {σi }i∈Z , k ∈ Q × Σ Z × Z , where in the inﬁnite sequence {σi }i∈Z of cell symbols only ﬁnitely many of them are such that σi = #, while q, k denote the state of the control unit and of the head position and C the set of all conﬁgurations. In order to determine when a computation terminates, we assume that among the control states there is a special state, qf , such that when the control unit is in the state qf , then the output is read oﬀ from the position of the head to its right until the last σi = #. Because they consist of a ﬁnite set of rules involving ﬁnite sets of symbols, transition functions (and thus TMs ) can be encoded and numbered. Given a program p (or the TM which computes it), its number γ(p) in the enumeration of all programs (or TMs ) is known as G¨ odel number of p [93]. A universal Turing machine is any TM U which, upon receiving the code of a TM V, is able to simulate V on any input string. Example 4.1.3. There are many possible ways to encode a transition function δ; a simple one is as follows [128]: the control states qi and the symbols

110

4 Algorithmic Complexity

σj are identiﬁed by giving their positions i, j in the respective lists Q and Σ. These are then encoded as strings of as many 0’s: qi → 0i := 00 · · · 0 , i times

· · · 0 . σj → 0j := 00 j times

Thus, the rule δ(qi , σj ) = (qk , σ , d) can be encoded as 0i 1 0j 1 0k 1 0 1 0n(d) , where the 1s are used to separate the various entries (only sequences of 0s are entries corresponding to labels). These appear one after the other as they do in the given rule, while n(d) = 1 if d = L, n(d) = 2 if d = R. Then, the transition function (or, equivalently, the TM U that performs the task speciﬁed by it) can be encoded as 1 1 0 1 1 0n(d1) 11 1 0|Q| 11 0|Σ| 11 0i1 1 0j1 1 0k 1st rule i2 j2 2 1 0 1 0k 1 0 2 1 0n(d2) 11 0

2nd

rule .. . im jm km m n(dm ) 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 111 , last rule where the ﬁrst two strings of 0s encode the total number of control states and of symbols, the pairs of 1s separate the rules, while the ﬁrst and last 1 mark the beginning and the end of the list. Suppose f : N → N is a function from the integers to the integers; by passing to the binary representation of n ∈ N, f becomes a function from Ω2∗ → Ω2∗ . It is called total if its domain of deﬁnition is the whole of Ω2∗ (symbolically, f (i(n) ) ↓ for all i(n) ∈ Ω2∗ ), partial otherwise, namely if there exist strings i(n) on which f is not deﬁned (symbolically, f (i(n) ) ↑ on these strings). The existence of an algorithm or an eﬀective procedure which allows one to compute f provides an intuitive and informal deﬁnition of computable functions; among others, a possible formalization of computability is as follows [93]. Deﬁnition 4.1.2. A partial function f : Ω2∗ → Ω2∗ is said to be computable if there is a Turing machine that on input i ∈ Ω2∗ outputs f (i). The so-called Church-Turing thesis asserts that the intuitively and informally deﬁned set of computable functions coincides with those that are computable according to the previous deﬁnition [93, 128]. It is not a theorem, yet it could not be disproved as a conjecture; therefore, it is commonly accepted that the TMs provide a computational model which computes all what can be thought of being intuitively computable.

4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions

111

Remark 4.1.1. Given a computable partial function f , if pf is one of the (inﬁnitely many) programs which compute it, one can assign f the G¨ odel odel numbers of number γ(pf ) of pf which is one of the (inﬁnitely) many G¨ f [93]. It follows that the computable functions form a countable set; this fact allows the use of Cantor’s diagonal argument to construct a total function f : Ω2∗ → Ω2∗ which is not computable. In order to show this, consider the enumeration as φj : N → N of all computable partial functions f : N → N that can be constructed by choosing a deﬁnite G¨ odel number for each one of them. Then, the function deﬁned by 2 φn (n) + 1 if φn (n) ↓ φ(n) = 0 if φn (n) ↑ is total as φ ↓ on all inputs. Furthermore, it cannot coincide with any φj for, if φj is deﬁned on j, then φ(j) = φj (j) + 1 = φj (j).

Example 4.1.4. An important class of TMs are the Probabilistic TMs (PTMs ) which provide a more powerful classical model of computation than TMs [128]. They are deﬁned by transition functions of the form δ : Q × Σ × Q × Σ × {L, R} → [0, 1] (q, σ; q , σ , d) → δ(q, σ; q , σ , d) ∈ [0, 1] ,

(4.3)

δ(q, σ; q , σ , d) = 1 . (4.4)

q ,σ ,d

Namely, PTMs are deﬁned by assigning the probabilities δ(q, σ; q , σ , d) with which the machine goes from a CPU control state q ∈ Q and symbol read σ ∈ Σ to a new control state q , new symbol σ together with a subsequent head move d ∈ {L, R}. Therefore, given a starting conﬁguration ci ∈ C the machine will move to a new conﬁguration cj ∈ C with a certain transition of ci being all those cj with probability pij := p(ci → cj ), the successors pij = 0. The transition probabilities satisfy j pij = 1; indeed, given a starting conﬁguration ci , the PTM will surely move to a subsequent one among those available to it. Each step performed by a PTM will then be described by a transition matrix π = [pij ]. Any computation performed by a PTM on an initial conﬁguration c0 can be seen as a tree whose nodes are the successor conﬁgurations and the branches connecting the leaves carry the relative non-zero transition probabilities. Each run of the machine deﬁnes a tree-level with its corresponding nodes; if a successor conﬁguration at level j appears more than once then the probability of its occurrence at that level is the sum of the probabilities leading to it through the various branches. As a simple instance of such a mechanism [128], consider an initial conﬁguration c0 branching into two diﬀerent conﬁgurations c11 and c12 at level 1 with probabilities p01 := p(c0 → c11 )

112

4 Algorithmic Complexity

and p02 := p(c0 → c12 ): p01 + p02 = 1. During the second step of the computation, the two conﬁgurations at level 1 branch into two conﬁgurations each: c11 into c21 and c22 with probabilities p11 := p(c11 → c21 ), respectively p12 := p(c11 → c22 ), such that p11 + p12 = 1, while c12 branches into c23 and c24 with probabilities p23 := p(c12 → c23 ), respectively p24 := p(c12 → c24 ), such that p23 + p24 = 1 (see Figure 4.1). Thus the probabilities of the four conﬁgurations are p(c21 ) = p01 p11 , p(c22 ) = p01 p12 , p(c23 ) = p02 p23 , p(c24 ) = p02 p24 . If c22 = c23 = c∗ then the probability of c∗ is p(c∗ ) = p(c22 ) + p(c23 ).

Fig. 4.1. Probabilistic Turing Machines: Level Tree

Remark 4.1.2. Within the class of PTMs , TMs are deterministic in the sense that the corresponding probabilities δ(q, σ; q , σ , d) equal 1 when the couples (q, σ) and triplets (q , σ , d) are connected by the rules (4.2), otherwise δ(q, σ; q , σ , d) = 0. The computations performed by TMs correspond to deterministic classical processes, while those of PTMs correspond to stochastic classical processes (compare the ballistic and Brownian computers discussed in [51]); in other words, it is the laws of classical physics upon which the models of computations embodied by TMs and PTMs are based. PTMs are important from the point of view of the so-called computational complexity 3 [128, 165]. All computational tasks need a certain amount of time to be performed and use a certain amount of memory (space); roughly speaking, computational complexity theory estimates how the amount of time and/or space required to perform a computation involving n bits scales with n: if the time required to process n bits goes as nα , α > 0, one says that the computation has polynomial computational complexity, otherwise superpolynomial or exponential. When a computer U simulates another computer V that performs a certain task, there is an unavoidable overhead in space/time 3

To be distinguished from the descriptional complexity.

4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions

113

resources due to the simulation. The latter is then called eﬃcient if the overhead scales polynomially with respect to the space/time resources used by V. The Classical Strong Church-Turing Thesis [165] states that: Any realistic computational model can be eﬃciently simulated by a PTM . Namely, any computational model which is consistent with the laws of classical physics and which accounts for all necessary computational resources 4 only requires a polynomial space/time overhead to be simulated by a PTM . As the Church-Turing thesis (see Remark 4.1.1), also the strong Church-Turing thesis has survived all attempts to disprove it; however, as observed by Feynamn [116], this paradigm does not seem to be extendible to computational models based on quantum mechanics, for then classical physics appears unable to simulate their performances as eﬃciently.

4.1.2 Kolmogorov Complexity In the following we shall restrict to the eﬀective description of binary strings; using the notation of the previous section, we shall therefore consider TMs with the alphabet Σ = {0, 1} ∪ #. Further, (p) will denote the length, that is the number of bits, of a program p written as a binary string and U(p) the result of p being processed by a TM U. Deﬁnition 4.1.3 (Kolmogorov Complexity). The Kolmogorov complex(n) ity [92, 310] or plain algorithmic complexity of i(n) ∈ Ω2 is the length of the (n) 5 shortest binary program p such that U(p) = i : CU (i(n) ) := min (p) : U(p) = i(n) . Plain algorithmic complexity is thus seemingly related to the most eﬃcient way individual strings can be compressed; indeed, by the previous deﬁnition, no eﬀective description of a given string i(n) can be shorter than programs with length equal to its algorithmic complexity C(i(n) ). Remark 4.1.3. Unlike computational complexity (see Remark 4.1.2), algorithmic complexity is not concerned with the space/time resources needed to process certain programs, but only with their lengths, without restrictions on time and memory. ¿From the algorithmic point of view, only random strings are interesting, while those with simple eﬀective descriptions are somewhat 4

The adjective realistic refers to the fact that the time and space resources eﬀectively needed should be explicitly declared [165]. 5 We shall conform to the notation of [310] which uses the letter C for the Kolmogorov complexity and K for the preﬁx complexity (see Section 4.3).

114

4 Algorithmic Complexity

dull, despite the large amount of resources that may be needed to compute them. Indeed, there might be short eﬀective descriptions that require a very long time to yield their targets, as for instance the DNA-encoding of human beings [310]. The attempts to ﬁll this gap by considering algorithmic and computational complexity together has led to the notion of logical depth [310].

Proposition 4.1.1. The following properties hold: 1. The plain algorithmic complexities of a same string i(n) with respect to two diﬀerent UTMs U1,2 diﬀer by a constant which does not depend on the string, but only on the UTMs . 2. The plain algorithmic complexity is upper bounded as follows CU (i(n) ) ≤ A + (i(n) ) = A + n ,

(4.5)

where A is a constant which does not depend on i(n) . 3. The number of strings i(n) ∈ Ω (n) with plain algorithmic complexity strictly smaller than c > 0 6 is bounded by # i(n) ∈ Ω (n) : CU (i(n) ) < c ≤ 2c − 1 . (4.6) Proof: The proof of the ﬁrst statement follows from the fact that U1 can simulate U2 and vice versa, for both are assumed to be universal. Given i(n) , let p∗1 be such that CU1 (i(n) ) = (p∗1 ) and let P12 be the program, of length (P12 ) = L12 , which allows U2 to simulate U1 . In order to make U2 simulate U1 on the input p∗1 , the programs P12 and p∗1 must be put together in way that U1 knows when the simulation instructions end and the string to be processed starts. This is achieved by concatenating P12 and p∗1 as q = p∗1 β(P12 ), where i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in → β(i(n) ) = i1 i1 i2 i2 · · · in in 01 is the encoding of a string obtained by repeating each of its bits twice and marking the end with a the pair of diﬀerent bits 01: for this encoding one needs (β(P12 )) = 2 (L12 + 1) bits. In this way U2 will ﬁrst read β(P12 ) being thus able to simulate U1 on the subsequent portion p∗1 of the program q. Therefore, from the deﬁnition of plain complexity, it follows that CU2 (i(n) ) ≤ (q) + A ≤ (p∗ ) + 2 (L12 + 1) + A ≤ CU1 (i(n) ) + A12 . the roles of U1,2 one gets CU1 (i(n) ) ≤ CU2 (i(n) ) + A21 ; thus, Reversing CU1 (i(n) ) − CU2 (i(n) ) ≤ A, where A is a suitable constant which does not depend on the input i(n) . If c is not integer, c is to be understood as c, the largest integer not larger than c: c ≤ c < c + 1. 6

4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions

115

The ﬁrst upper bound follows as in Example 4.1.1, from the eﬀective description which tells U to print the bits of i(n) one after the other. The second upper bound follows because the number of binary programs with length smaller than c equals the number of binary strings with +c, − 1 digits at the most, whence c−1

#{p : (p) < c} =

2j = 2c − 1 ≤ 2c − 1 .

j=1

Example 4.1.5. In order to improve the loose upper bound (4.5), given / 0 (n) i(n) ∈ Ω2 , let k be the number of 1s among its bits; there are nk strings in (n) Ω2 sharing this feature. They can be listed and each of them identiﬁed by / 0 its number Nk (i(n) ) in the list; notice that no more than (log2 nk ) bits are required to specify Nk (i(n) ). One can thus construct an eﬀective description of i(n) , by specifying k and Nk (i(n) ) in such a way that the UTM must be able to detach the speciﬁcation of k, pk , from that of Nk (i(n) ). For this, one may do as in the proof of Proposition 4.1.1, by encoding pk as β(pk ), the binary string obtained from pk by repeating each of its bits twice and marking the end by 01. Since, (β(pk )) ≤ 2 (log2 k + 1), from Deﬁnition 4.1.3 it follows that n (n) C(i ) ≤ log2 + 2 (log2 k + 1) . k The following upper bound holds [92], k n ≤ 2n H2 ( n ) , k k k k k k where H2 ( ) := − log2 log2 −(1 − log2 ) log2 (1 − log2 ), which can be n n n n n derived by setting p = k/n in

n−j n j n k n j j 1= ≥ p (1 − p)n−k , 0 ≤ k ≤ 1 . 1− k j n n j=0 log2 k + 1 1 k . Consider now the strings i(n) to be Thus, C(i(n) ) ≤ H2 ( ) + 2 n n n preﬁxes, that is the initial n bits, of inﬁnite binary sequences i ∈ Ω2 . Let 0 ≤ p ≤ 1 be the probability of the bit 1; if k/n → p, then lim sup n→∞

C(i(n) ) ≤ H2 (π) . n

(4.7)

where H2 (π) is the (log2 ) entropy rate of a Bernoulli binary source with probability π = (p, 1 − p). The upper bound in (4.5) is thus not a loose one for p close to 1/2.

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4 Algorithmic Complexity

Example 4.1.6. One would expect the algorithmic complexity of a pair (i, j) of strings i, j ∈ Ω2∗ to be smaller (apart from the usual additive constant independent of them) than the sum of the algorithmic complexities of i and j, namely: C((i, j)) ≤ C(i) + C(j) + C . Intuitively, this should be so because one can always put together the shortest programs p, respectively q for i, respectively j, in a program pq which is an eﬀective description of (i, j). Unfortunately, the plain algorithmic complexity cannot enjoy the form of subadditivity expressed by the previous inequality. Indeed, if p, q are two programs such that C(i) = (p) and C(j) = (q), then any program using p and q to output the pair (i, j) must separate p from p, for instance by preﬁxing p with its length (p) encoded by β((p)) (see the proof of Proposition 4.1.1) at the cost of 2(log (p) + 1) extra bits. In this way, the reference UTM U ﬁrst computes p generating i, then computes q, generating j and ﬁnally outputs (i, j). Thus, one estimates: C((i, j)) ≤ (β((p))p) + (q) + C0 ≤ C(i) + C(j) + 2 log2 (p) + C1 , where C0,1 are additive constants independent of the strings considered. The log2 (p) extra bits cannot in general be avoided by reducing it to an additive constant independent of the input string. Indeed [120, 310], let (i) = n, (j) = m and set k := n + m; there are (k + 1)2k pairs (i, j) such (k) that the concatenated string ij ∈ Ω2 . By setting c = (k + 1)2k in (4.6), one gets that at least one pair (i, j) of such strings satisﬁes C((i, j)) ≥ k + log2 (k + 1) . Then, using (4.5), from k = n + m = (i) + (j) it follows that C((i, j)) ≥ C(i) + C(j) + log2 (k + 1) − C .

Remarks 4.1.4. 1. Since the algorithmic complexities of i(n) with respect to two UTMs is a constant independent of the string, one can ﬁx a UTM U once and for all and drop the reference to it in CU (i(n) ). 2. The additive constant A in (4.5) can in line of principle be very large; however, since it is the same for all target strings i(n) , it becomes less and less important with increasing n. The additive constant can even be got rid of if, as in Example 4.1.5, one considers inﬁnite strings i ∈ Ω2 , (n) their preﬁxes i(n) ∈ Ω2 and let n → ∞ in the algorithmic complexity C(i(n) ) . per symbol n

4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions

117

3. The bound (4.6) shows that the one in (4.5) is not too loose for large n. In fact, the fraction of strings i(n) with complexity smaller than n − c, 0 ≤ c ≤ n, can be estimated by # i(n) ∈ Ω (n) : C(i(n) ) ≤ n − c < 21−c . 2n Therefore, when n gets large, the number of strings with complexity signiﬁcantly smaller than n gets small. 4. In view of the previous remark, it is suggestive to deﬁne random those sequences i ∈ Ω2 such their initial preﬁxes i(n) fulﬁl C(i(n) ) > n − c for all n ∈ N, where c is a constant independent of n. Unfortunately, the vary same reason why the plain complexity is not subadditive (see Example 4.1.6 makes this deﬁnition not very useful [310]. Fortunately, as we shall see in Section 4.3, by using preﬁx TMs to compute programs one replaces the algorithmic complexity C(i(n) ) with the so-called preﬁx complexity K(i(n) ) and, in so doing, restores subadditivity and makes K(i(n) ) > n − c for all n ∈ N a good deﬁnition of random sequences i ∈ Ω2 [310]. Non-Computability of C(i(n) ) Algorithmic complexity is not computable; namely, there cannot exist an algorithm 7 able to compute the C(i(n) ) for all strings. Indeed [254], if such a program q of length (q) < ∞ existed, then, one could construct the following program p : • Step 1: • Step 2: • Step 3:

let i0 equal the empty string; generate the k-string ik in the lexicographically ordered set of all binary strings, call for q and compute C(ik ); if C(ik ) > (p) write ik and halt else set k = k + 1 and go to Step 2.

Since q, the program which computes the plain complexity of any input string, is assumed to exists, p also exists. Moreover, it has ﬁnite length (p) and halts with the ﬁrst binary string, say ik∗ in lexicographical order, as output. Since the its plain complexity exceeds (p), p is an eﬀective description of ik∗ that is strictly shorter than its shortest possible eﬀective description, which is a contradiction. Remark 4.1.5. [268] The non-computability of C(i(n) ) implies the undecidability of the halting problem, namely that there cannot exist an algorithm able to decide whether a UTM U halts when processing a generic program 7

A TM according to the Church-Turing thesis.

118

4 Algorithmic Complexity

p. Indeed, if such an algorithm existed, then one could compute C(i(n) ) for all i(n) . Eﬀectively, one would proceed by generating the binary strings in lexicographical order (each one of them is a program) and subsequently processing them in dovetailed fashion [310, 92]. That is, at stage 1, step 1 of program 1 is eﬀected, at stage 2, step 2 of program 1 and step 1 of program 2, at stage k, step k of program 1, step k − j + 1 of program j, 1 ≤ j ≤ k, and so on. At the N -th step, there will be three groups of programs, those that have halted with U(p) = i(n) ; those that have halted with U(p) = i(n) ; those that are still being processed. Notice that in the third group there might be shorter programs than those which have already halted. Let p∗ be one of the shortest in the ﬁrst group. One cannot set C(i(n) ) = (p∗ ) because it cannot be excluded that a program p in the third group, shorter than p, will halt later with U(p) = i(n) . However, if the halting problem could be decided, then one would exactly have this vital piece of information and, waiting long enough, would have a means to ﬁnd the shortest one among those programs such that U(p) = i(n) . In spite of the fact that the plain complexity is not computable, the previous remark provides a means to eﬀectively approximate it from above; namely, one can construct a sequence of functions Ct that can be computed by a UTM U on any binary input string i(n) and get closer to C(i(n) ) with increasing n [120]. Let Ut (p) denote the output of the computation by U of a program p that halts in t steps. By processing in dovetailed fashion the programs of length (p) ≤ t, one can check whether during the ﬁrst t computational steps some of them has halted with output i(n) , in which case one sets t (in) ) := min{(p) ≤ t : Ut (p) = i(n) } , C

t (i(n) ) = +∞ C

otherwise .

Finally, with reference to the loose upperbound (4.5), let t (i(n) ) , n + A} . Ct (i(n) ) := min{C t (i(n) ) can only decrease with increasing t; moreover, from The function C Deﬁnition 4.1.3, Ct (i(n) ) ≥ C(i(n) ) so that it tends to the plain complexity of i(n) monotonically from above. One says that the plain complexity is semi-computable from above. Notice that, although we know that the approximating values Ct (i(n) ) tend to C(i(n) ) from above, yet we do not know how far from the actual value C(i(n) ) any given Ct (i(n) ) might be. Deﬁnition 4.1.4. A real function f on Ω2∗ is called semi-computable from above if there exists a non-increasing sequence of functions {fk }k∈N on Ω2∗

4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions

119

with rational values 8 such that they are computable in the sense of Definition 4.1.2 and limk→∞ fk (i(n) ) = f (i(n) ). A real function f on Ω2∗ is called semi-computable from below if −f is semi-computable from above. A real function f on Ω2∗ is computable if it is semi-computable both from above and below. Remarks 4.1.6. 1. The diﬀerence from semi-computable and computable functions can be understood as follows. If f is computable then there exist two monotone sequences of rational-valued computable functions {fka,b }k∈N , fka non-increasing and fkb non-decreasing, such that f (i(n) ) = lim f a,b (i(n) ) . k→+∞

It follows that one can always estimate, for any i ∈ Ω2∗ , the distance between the computed values fka,b (i) and the actual value f (i) by means of the computable diﬀerence fka (i) − fkb (i). 2. The approximations fk (i) of a function f (i) semi-computable from below can be seen as the result of a same program (binary string) pf . When a reference UTM U is presented with pf , together with the binary representation i(k) of k and an input string i ∈ Ω2∗ , it computes fk (i), that is U( pf , i(k), i) = fk (i), where pf , i(k), i is the binary string which encodes and separates the various inputs. Consequently, as well as computable functions also semi-computable functions can be enumerated. An interesting class of lower semi-computable functions consists of the so-called constructive semi-measures [120, 310]. Deﬁnition 4.1.5. A positive function μ : Ω2∗ → R is called a semi-measure if i∈Ω ∗ w(i) ≤ 1 and a constructive semi-measure if it is semi-computable 2 from below. A constructive semi-measure m : Ω2∗ → R is called a universal semi-measure if for any constructive semi-measure μ there exists a constant Cμ such that ∀i ∈ Ω2∗ . Cμ μ(i) ≤ m(i) Working with semi-measures μ instead of measures allows for more freedom; for instance constructive measures turn out to be automatically computable. Namely, if fk is a non-decreasing sequence of rational-valued com putable functions that approximate μ from below and i∈Ω ∗ μ(i(n) ) = 1, 2 one canconstruct a computable approximation 0 ≤ μk ≤ μ such that, given ε > 0, i∈Ω ∗ μk (i(n) ) ≥ 1 − ε. Then, for all i ∈ Ω2∗ it holds that 2

8

Any p/q, p, q ∈ N, can be written as a binary string p, q ∈ Ω2∗ .

120

4 Algorithmic Complexity

|μ(i) − μk (i)| ≤

(μ(i) − μk (i)) ≤ ε .

i∈Ω2∗

Example 4.1.7. [120, 310] Constructive semi-measures can be enumerated (see Remark 4.1.6.2); let {μn } denote their list and let {α(n)}n∈N be lower semi-computable positive numbers such that n α(n) ≤ 1. Then α(n) μn ≥ α(k) μk ∀ μk . m := n

m is thus a dominating semi-measure, it is also constructive and thus universal in the sense of Deﬁnition 4.1.5; indeed, there exists a two-argument lower semi-computable function μ(i(n) , n) that reproduces all constructive semi-measure by varying n ∈ N. The idea of the proof is as follows. Given a lower semi-computable function f and a non-decreasing sequence of rationalvalued approximations fk , let pf the binary program that allows a reference UTM U to compute them as outlined in Remark 4.1.6.2 and let {ij }j∈N be the lexicographically ordered list of all binary strings. By computing them in dovetailed fashion, let then Upt be the computable function deﬁned by 2 U( pf , i(k), ij ) if (ij ) ≤ k k Upf (ij ) = . 0 otherwise Notice that Upkf → f when k → +∞; then, consider the recursive eﬀective procedure consisting of the following steps: 1. set μ0pf (ij ) = 0; 2. set k = k + 1; 3. compute i1 , i2 , . . . , ik in dovetailed fashion; if some Upkf (ij ) has not halted k go to Step 5, else compute j=1 Upkf (ij ); k 4. if j=1 Upkf (ij ) ≤ 1, set μkpf := Upkf , and go to Step 2, else 5. set μkpf := μk−1 and stop. pf By construction, the function μ(i(n) , pf ) := limk→+∞ μkpf (i(n) ) is lower semicomputable and a semi-measure; further, it coincides with f if the latter is itself a constructive semi-measure. Algorithmic Complexity and Thermodynamics Beside its many mathematical applications, algorithmic complexity has also been used to explore the relations between computation and thermodynamics [54, 51, 52, 268, 310]. As already remarked in this section, computing is a physical process and questions about its thermodynamic cost is surely of practical importance, but also of general interest as they amount to asking which

4.1 Eﬀective Descriptions

121

computational steps are intrinsically irreversible and which ones can instead be performed reversibly [51]. As nicely illustrated in [268], trying to answer these questions brings together thermodynamics, computability theory and G¨ odel incompleteness theorem. The starting step is the observation [187, 51, 116] that the only irreversible computer operations are intrinsically logically irreversible, namely those with outputs that do not uniquely identify the input. The most obvious instance of such operations is erasure and, as an oversimpliﬁed case, consider one molecule of gas contained in a cubic box of volume V in which a freely moving piston can be used to conﬁne the molecule on the left side of the box, a case which is read as a bit 1. The ﬂip operation which turns 1 into 0 can be eﬀected reversibly by slowly rotating the box around its vertical axis and thus exchanging its right and left sides. In order to erase these two bits of information, the piston can be let loose so that free expansion (of one molecule) allows the molecule, which was conﬁned in a volume V /2 before, to wander later within the whole volume V . If the process occurs isothermally at temperature T , the loss of information corresponding to the increase of the space at disposal corresponds to an increase in thermodynamical entropy and decrease of free energy (the internal energy does not change in isothermal processes): ΔS = κ log 2 ,

ΔF = ΔU − T ΔS = −κ T log 2 .

By extrapolating this simple observation, one is naturally led to the identiﬁcation of free energy and free memory: one can consume free memory to store data instead of erasing them and in this wave saves free energy, or, vice versa, by consuming free energy in erasure processes one saves free memory [268]. Diﬀerently from erasure which can in no way be turned into a reversible operation, all other operations are only superﬁcially irreversible and can be made reversible by adding enough supplementary information [51]. For instance binary addition maps the pairs (0, 0) and (1, 1) into 0 and pairs (0, 1) and (1, 0) into 1. Therefore, by reading oﬀ 0 (1) one cannot decide which couple of bits was the input; however, conserving the inputs and writing them together with their outputs turns the binary addition (⊕) into a reversible operation: (0, 0) → (0, 0, 0) 0⊕0=0 (0, 1) → (0, 1, 1) 0⊕1=1 , . (1, 0) → (1, 0, 1) 1⊕0=1 (1, 1) → (1, 1, 0) 1⊕1=0 irreversible reversible Unfortunately, the redundant information that is used in order to make operations reversible has to be stored and this occupies free memory so that massive erasure operations are eventually needed, free energy consumed and heat waste generated. In order to minimize free energy consumption, one can

122

4 Algorithmic Complexity

ﬁrst proceed to reversibly compress as much as possible the stored information to be erased. For instance, in the case of the binary addition, one can use only the ﬁrst input bit since the second one can be recovered by binary subtraction () from the output bit: (0, 0) → (0, 0) , 0 0 = 0 (0, 1) → (0, 1) , 1 0 = 1 . (1, 0) → (1, 1) , 1 1 = 0 (1, 1) → (1, 0) , 0 1 = 1 still reversible Suppose the occupied memory consists of a binary string i(n) , then the best compression achievable is given by the shortest binary program p∗ such that U(p∗ ) = i(n) whose length is the Kolmogorov complexity C(i(n) ). Reversibly encoding i(n) into p∗ and erasing the latter entails the optimal loss of free energy Δopt F = −κ T C((i(n) ) log 2 to be compared with ΔF = −nκ T log 2. These considerations suggest [326] that, when dealing with the thermodynamics of computation, the notion of entropy should be improved by the addition to the standard thermal contribution, Sth , of the one coming from the optimal erasure of the memory Scomp = Sth + κ C(M ) log 2 , where C(M ) is the algorithmic complexity of the computer memory. For instance, by using Scomp , the Maxwell’s demon paradox [190] can be solved by observing [326] that Stherm can indeed be diminished by the demon collecting together all fastest particles and transferring heath from lower to higher temperatures. However, storing all the information necessary to comparing particle velocities rapidly consumes free memory and asks for erasure thus restoring the second law of thermodynamics. Unfortunately, the main problem with optimal compression is that it is based on the knowledge of the algorithmic complexity of the occupied memory which cannot always be computed. In few words, performing an optimal compression of the memory content before erasure is not always possible and there will always be an excess of free energy consumption. As this is ultimately due to the undecidability of the halting problem, this eﬀect can be suggestively and not unduly called G¨ odel friction [268].

4.2 Algorithmic Complexity and Entropy Rate Despite Remark 4.1.4.4, there is a sense in which the Kolmogorov complexity can be used to look at the individual trajectories of a classical dynamical system (X , T, μ) and at their randomness, namely through their asymptotic complexity rate. As explained in Section 2.2, a partition P of X provides a

4.2 Algorithmic Complexity and Entropy Rate

123

p , Tσ , μP ) whereby trajectories are reduced to sequences symbolic model (Ω i ∈ Ωp ⊆ Ωp of symbols from an alphabet with p letters of which one can (n) study the complexity of the preﬁxes i(n) ∈ Ωp 9 . As for the Shannon entropy, when dealing with sequences, one may decide to focus not on the Kolmogorov complexity which generically diverges, rather upon its rate or complexity per symbol [7, 69]. p is given by Deﬁnition 4.2.1. The complexity rate of a sequence i ∈ Ω c(i) := lim sup n→∞

1 C(i(n) ) , n

where i(n) is the initial preﬁx of i of length n. Given a dynamical system (X , T, μ) and a ﬁnite, measurable partition P of X , let i(x) ∈ Ωp denote the symbolic trajectory that P associates to the trajectory {T n x}n≥0 issuing from x ∈ X . Then, the complexity rate of {T n x}n≥0 with respect to P is c(x, P) := c(i(x)). To start with, we shall consider the case of a dynamical system which is itself already a symbolic model, namely a binary information source. An important result is that, typically, for sequences emitted by ergodic sources, the bound (4.7) becomes an equality in the limit. Theorem 4.2.1 (Brudno’s Theorem). Let (Ω2 , Tσ , π) be a binary ergodic source with entropy rate h(π). Then, c(i) = lim

n→∞

1 C(i(n) ) = h(π) , n

(4.8)

for almost all i ∈ Ω2 with respect to π. The proof [69, 318, 166] consists 1) in using the counting argument (4.6) and the AEP (Proposition 3.2.2) to show that lim inf n→∞

1 C(i) ≥ h(π) n

π − a.e ;

(4.9)

and 2) in providing, for the initial preﬁxes i(n) of π-almost all i ∈ Ω2∗ , an (pi (n)) appropriate binary program pi (n) ∈ Ω2∗ such that lim ≤ h(π) and n→∞ n (n) U(pi (n)) = i whence 9 In order to do this, one has to extend Deﬁnition 4.1.3 to the case of strings of symbols from generic ﬁnite alphabets. This is straightforward and will always be understood in the following.

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4 Algorithmic Complexity

lim sup n→∞

1 C(i(n) ) ≤ h(π) n

π − a.e .

(4.10)

Proof of the lower bound : Because of the assumption of ergodicity, Theorem 3.2.1 allows us to use the AEP with the entropy rate h(π) in place of (n) (n) the Shannon entropy H(A). Let A ⊆ Ω2 be the set in (3.27) consisting (n) of binary strings i such that 2−n(h(π)+) ≤ π(i(n) ) ≤ 2−n(h(π)−) , (n)

and Aˆ ⊂ Ω2 the set of sequences whose initial preﬁxes of length n, i(n) (n) belong to A and have complexity C(i(n) ) ≤ n(h(π) − 2). From (4.6), it follows that

π Aˆ(n) = π i(n) ∈ A(n) : C(i(n) ) ≤ n(h(π) − 2)

≤ # Aˆ(n) · max π(i(n) ) (n)

i(n) ∈A

≤ 2n(h(π)−2)+1 · 2−n(h(π)−) = 2−nε+1 . (n)

Since strings i(n) ∈ / A may also have complexity C(i(n) ) ≤ n(h(π) − 2), it (k) (k) is necessary to control their overall probability. Set (Aˆ )c := Ω2 \Aˆ and (k) c (k) (k) A A := i ∈ (Aˆ(k) ) ≤ k(h(π) − 2) , B(n) := . ) : C(i k≥n

(k) c (k) = 1−π , Aˆ(k) ⊂ (Aˆ )c implies π B(n) ≤ π (Aˆ(k) Since A ) k≥n

k≥n

it follows that the probability of the set of sequences whose initial preﬁxes have complexity C(i(n) ) ≥ n(h(π) − 2ε) is estimated from above by

(k) Aˆ(k) ∪ A Aˆ(k) + π B (n) π ≤π

k≥n

≤

k≥n

k≥n

2−n ε+1

ˆ(k) . A 2−k ε+1 + π B(n) ≤ + 1 − π 1 − 2−ε k≥n

(k) Aˆ consists of sequences i ∈ Ω2 whose initial preﬁxes are

= 1. It thus follows Aˆ(k) typical for all lengths k ≥ n; therefore lim π

The set

k≥n

n→∞

(n)

k≥n

C(i ) that inf > h(π) − 2 π-almost everywhere. Since ε is arbitrary the n≥n n lower bound follows.

4.2 Algorithmic Complexity and Entropy Rate

125

(n)

Proof of the upper bound : Given Ω2 i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in , ﬁx 0 < L < n and consider all strings of length L made of consecutive bits of i(n) ; there are n − L + 1 of them: sk := ik i2 · · · iL+k−1 ,

1≤k ≤n−L+1 .

(∗)

(L)

Let Ωi(n) denote their set and let N (s) be the number of occurrences of the (L)

string s ∈ Ωi(n) ; N (s) can be expressed as follows. Let i ∈ Ω2 be any sequence

with initial preﬁx of length n equal to i(n) , then N (s) =

n−L+1

χs (Tσj (i)) ,

(∗∗)

j=0

where Tσ is the left shift and χs (Tσj (i)) is 1 if the initial preﬁx of length L in Tσj (i) equals s, 0 otherwise. (L) Given the N (s), s ∈ Ωi(n) , one can thus construct a so-called empirical (L)

(L)

probability distribution πi(n) on Ωi(n) : (L)

πi(n) := {p(L) n (s)} ,

p(L) n (s) :=

N (s) n−L+1

with corresponding Shannon entropy (L) (L) p(L) H(πi(n) ) := − n (s) log2 pn (s) . s∈Ω

(L) i(n)

(L)

Notice that the set of lengths (s) := (− log2 pn (s)) is such that (L) − log2 p(L) n (s) ≤ (s) < − log2 pn (s) + 1 ;

(∗ ∗ ∗)

therefore, they satisfy the Kraft inequality 2− (s) ≤ p(L) n (s) = 1 . s∈Ω

(L) i(n)

s∈Ω

(L) i(n)

Because of Proposition 3.2.1, there thus exists a binary preﬁx code over the (L) strings s ∈ Ωi(n) consisting of codewords w(s) of lengths (s) := (w(s)). With sk as deﬁned in (∗) above, for a given 1 ≤ j ≤ L − 1, consider the . Since the ﬁrst adjacent strings of length L of the form sj+pj L , 0 ≤ pj ≤ pmax j max is i , then the bit not bit of sj is ij and the last bit of sj+pmax L j+(pj +1)L−1 j max i belonging to any sj+pj L are i1 i2 · · · ij and ij+(pmax +1)L j+(pj +1)L+1 · · · in , j whence j + (pmax + 1)L − 1 ≤ n =⇒ pmax ≤ j j

n−j−L+1 , L

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4 Algorithmic Complexity

for a total of no more than 2(L − 1) bits. Also, since 6 7 any 1 ≤ k ≤ n can be k written as k = j + pL with 1 ≤ L − 1 and 0 ≤ uniquely determined, L pmax

then, for diﬀerent 1 ≤ j ≤ L − 1, the sets Sj := {sj+pj L }pj1 =0 do not overlap L−1 (L) and j=1 Sj = Ωi(n) .

Consider a program Qj that reconstructs i(n) by specifying the codewords w(sj+pj L ) plus the bits uncovered by them; its length can be bounded from above as follows: pmax j

(Qj ) ≤ C + 2(L − 1) +

(sj+pj L ) ,

pj =0

where C is a constant independent of j and of L. Further, (∗ ∗ ∗) entails the following bound for the plain algorithmic complexity of i(n) : C(i(n) ) ≤

min

1≤j≤L−1

(Qj ) ≤

L−1 1 (Qj ) L − 1 j=1 pmax

L−1 j 1 ≤ C + 2(L − 1) + (sj+pL ) L − 1 j=1 p=0

= C + 2(L − 1) + ≤ C + 2(L − 1) +

1 L−1

N (s)(s)

(L) s∈Ω (n) i

n−L+1 L−1

s∈Ω

(L) p(L) . n (s) − log2 pn (s) + 1

(L) i(n)

H(π

(L) )+1 i(n)

From ergodicity and (∗∗), it follows that, when n → ∞,

N (s) −→ p(s) = π Cs[0,L−1] n−L+1 [0,L−1]

is the cylinder set containing for π-almost all sequences i ∈ Ω2 , where Cs (L) (L) all i ∈ Ω2 with s ∈ Ωi(n) as initial preﬁx. Thus, when n → ∞ πi(n) tends to [0,L−1] of Ω2 the probability distribution π (L) over the partition C (L) = C (L) s∈Ω2

(L)

indexed by the strings s ∈ Ω2 ; then, by continuity, lim sup n→∞

1 H(C (L) ) + 1 C(i(n) ) ≤ , n L−1

π − a.e .

By taking L → ∞, the upper bound follows (see Remark 3.1.1.1).

4.3 Preﬁx Algorithmic Complexity

127

The previous result that holds for ergodic binary information sources can easily be extended to generic ergodic sources and then to ergodic dynamical systems via Deﬁnition 4.2.1. Proposition 4.2.1. Let (X , T, μ) be an ergodic dynamical system and P a ﬁnite, measurable partition of X ; then c(x, P) = hKS μ (T, P)

μ − a.e .

p , Tσ , μP ) which is an Proof: The partition P deﬁnes a symbolic model (Ω ergodic shift-dynamical system. The result follows since Brudno’s theorem p , hence for μ-almost all x ∈ X , it holds ensures that for μP -almost all i ∈ Ω (T, P). that c(i) = h(μP ) = hKS μ Corollary 4.2.1. Let (X , T, μ) be an ergodic dynamical system and P a ﬁnite, measurable generating partition of X ; then c(x, P) = hKS μ (T )

μ − a.e .

4.3 Preﬁx Algorithmic Complexity A way to eliminate the logarithmic correction that spoils the subadditivity of the plain algorithmic complexity (see Example 4.1.6) is to ask that the only acceptable programs for the UTM U are the so-called self-delimiting ones, namely those containing the speciﬁcation of their lengths, so that the UTM always knows when its input programs end. These programs have the preﬁx property that if U halts on one of them, say p, then p cannot be the preﬁx of any other halting program for U. Any TM that accepts only programs with the preﬁx property is called a preﬁx TM ; it can be showed [78] that there exist preﬁx UTMs capable of simulating the behavior of any other preﬁx TM . The consequences of the preﬁx constraint are far reaching. One ﬁrst proceeds to deﬁne an adapted version of algorithmic complexity of binary strings (the extension to strings from diﬀerent alphabets is straightforward). Deﬁnition 4.3.1 (Preﬁx Algorithmic Complexity). The preﬁx algorith(n) mic complexity of i(n) ∈ Ω2 is the length of the shortest program p such that (n) U(p) = i , where U is any chosen reference preﬁx UTM : K(i(n) ) = min (p) : U(p) = i(n) , U a preﬁx UTM .

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4 Algorithmic Complexity

Remarks 4.3.1. 1. A preﬁx TM can be ﬁgured out [78] as a TM with a control unit, two tapes and two reading-write heads. The ﬁrst tape, the program tape, is entirely occupied by the program which is written as a binary string between two blank symbols marking its beginning and its end; the program is read by a head that can only read, halt and move right. The second tape, the work tape, is, as in the case of an ordinary TM , two-way inﬁnite and the head on it can read, write 0,1, leave a blank #, halt or move both right and left. The computation starts with the head on the program tape scanning the ﬁrst blank symbol, the other head on the 0-th cell of the work tape, only ﬁnitely many of its cells possibly carrying non-blank symbols, and with the control unit in its initial ready state qr . Then, in agreement with the symbols read by the two heads and the control unit internal state, the head on the working tape erases and writes or does nothing and then moves left, right or stays, the head on the program tape either moves right or stays, while the control unit updates its internal state. The computation terminates if the reading head on the program tape reaches the end of the program, in which case, the output is what is written on the work tape to the right of the cell being scanned by the head until only cells with blank symbols are found. The program halts if and only if the head on the program tape reaches the end of the tape. 2. Since the set of programs with the preﬁx property is smaller than the set of all programs, then C(i(n) ) ≤ K(i(n) ) . On the other hand, if p is such that C(i(n) ) = (p), then, considering its self-delimiting encoding p∗ := β((p))p, it follows that K(i(n) ) ≤ (p∗ ) ≤ C(i(n) ) + 2 log (p) + C . 3. The preﬁx complexity is subadditive; in fact, if p and q are programs such that K(i) = (p) and K(j) = (q), with i, j ∈ Ω ∗ , then, since p and q are now, by deﬁnition, self-delimiting, one has K(i, j) ≤ K(i) + K(j) + C . 4. Unlike for the plain complexity (see Remark 4.1.4.4), one can rightly deﬁne random those sequences i ∈ Ω2 for which K(i(n) ) > n − c , for all their preﬁxes i(n) , that is all those sequences whose preﬁxes i(n) have preﬁx complexity that increases at least as n. Indeed [310], it turns out that these sequences are those and only those passing all constructive statistical Martin-L¨of tests checking whether they belong to eﬀectively null sets (see footnote 1). In this sense, relative to the preﬁx deﬁnition

4.3 Preﬁx Algorithmic Complexity

129

of algorithmic complexity, Levin’s chaoticness and typicalness mentioned in the introduction to this section are equivalent characterization of randomness. One of the most important consequences of working with preﬁx UTMs U is that their halting programs p form a set of preﬁx codes for the output strings U(p) = i ∈ Ω2∗ and their lengths satisfy the extended Kraft inequality (3.2.2).

Example 4.3.1. Consider a preﬁx UTM U and the so-called Chaitin magic number [80, 92, 50] deﬁned by Ω = 2− (p) , where the sum runs over p : U(p)↓

all halting programs p; because of the preﬁx property, Ω ≤ 1. Let us consider the binary expansion of Ω which has inﬁnitely many 0s if it is rational and suppose an algorithm exists that calculates the digits of Ω. n ωj is such that Ωn > Ω − 2−n . Then, the n-digit approximation Ωn := j 2 j=1

Then, one knows whether U halts on programs of length ≤ n. Indeed, by listing them in lexicographical order and by processing them in dovetailed fashion, one can collect all programs p1 , p2 , . . . that halt until, after T (n) computational steps,

m(n)

Sn :=

2− (pi ) ≥ Ωn .

i=1

If p is any program halting in more than T (n) computational steps, one gets Ω ≥ Sn + 2− (p) ≥ Ωn + 2− (p) > Ω + 2− (p) − 2−n . Therefore, (p) > n so that if a program of length shorter than n has not halted in T (n) computational steps it will never halt. Let G(n) be the set of strings ij := U(pj ), j = 1, 2, . . . , m(n), corresponding to the outputs of the programs that have halted in T (n) computational steps and let i denote the ﬁrst string (in a suitable order) not in G(n). Such string must have preﬁx complexity K(i) > n: indeed, if K(i) ≤ n, there would exist a program p of length ≤ n such that U(p) = i. However, from the previous discussion one deduces that also p must have halted in T (n) computational steps so that i ∈ G(n), too. Further, let p∗ be any shortest eﬀective description of the string Ω (n) := ω1 ω2 · · · ωn consisting of the ﬁrst n bits of Ω, namely K(Ω (n) ) = (p∗ ). Then, by means of a ﬁxed number c of extra bits, one can use the knowledge of the Ω (n) to recover i, whence n < K(i) ≤ (p∗ ) + c = K(Ω (n) ) + c =⇒ K(Ω (n) ) > n − c ∀ n . Then Ω is a random sequence in the sense of Remark 4.3.1.4.

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4 Algorithmic Complexity

Deﬁnition 4.3.2. Given a preﬁx UTM U, the map Ω2∗ i → PU (i), where PU (i) := 2− (p) (4.11) p : U(p)=i

deﬁnes a so-called the universal probability on Ω2∗ . This deﬁnition makes sense, for, as a consequence of the preﬁx property, not only (4.1) holds, but it also turns out that PU (i) = 2− (p) ≤ 1 . i∈Ω2∗

i∈Ω2∗ p : U(p)=i

Remarks 4.3.2. 1. If a preﬁx TM A halts on p = 0 and q = 1 with the strings i and j as outputs, then PA (i) = PA (j) = 1/2 since no other program can halt. Without the preﬁx restriction the sum in (4.11) would diverge simply because all programs preﬁxed by p and q would also output i and j. 2. After division by i∈Ω ∗ PU (i), PU (i) represents the probability that i be the output of U running a binary program p of length (p) randomly chosen according to the Bernoulli uniform probability distribution that assigns probability 2− (p) to anyone of them. Since short programs have higher probabilities, random strings have smaller algorithmic probabilities than regular ones. 3. The probability PU is called universal (see Example 4.1.7) for the following reason. Let A be any preﬁx TM and q a program such that A(q) = i ∈ Ω2∗ ; further, let q be a self-delimiting program of ﬁxed length L that makes U simulate A so that U(q q) = A(q) = i. Then, PU (i) = 2− (p) ≥ 2− (q)− (q ) = 2−L PA (i) . (4.12) p : U(p)=i

q : U(q q)=i

Suppose now π = {p(i)}i∈Ω2∗ to be a computable probability distribution over Ω2∗ (see Deﬁnition 4.1.2). Consider a preﬁx TM A that does the following: – it computes the probability distribution π; – it encodes the strings i ∈ Ω2∗ by means of the Shannon-Fano-Elias code corresponding to the computed π (see Example 3.2.3); – given a program q ∈ Ω2∗ , it checks whether q is the Shannon-FanoElias code for any i ∈ Ω2∗ ; if so, it outputs i. Since the lengths of the code-words are as in (3.23), then, for all i ∈ Ω2∗ , PA (i) = 2− (q) ≥ 4 p(i) . A(q)=i

4.3 Preﬁx Algorithmic Complexity

131

For the preﬁx UTM U to work as A, it is necessary to compute the probability distribution π, whence the program q in (4.12) is such that L = K(π) + L , where K(π) is the preﬁx complexity of π, where it is understood that the computable probability distribution π is written as a binary string (denoted by the same symbol). Then, for all computable probability distributions π on Ω2∗ , PU (i) ≥ C 2−K(π) p(i) ,

(4.13)

with C > 0 a constant independent of i and π. Universal probability, preﬁx complexity and Shannon entropy of computable probability distributions are intimately related. Given a preﬁx UTM U, the programs p∗ such that U(p∗ ) = i ∈ Ω2∗ with (p∗ ) = K(i) provide a preﬁx code such that PU (i) = 2− (p) ≥ 2−K(i) . (4.14) U(p)=i

Further, if the strings i are chosen at random with respect to a computable probability distribution π, then (3.22) implies that the corresponding average length, namely the average preﬁx complexity, satisﬁes p(i) K(i) ≥ H2 (π) = − p(i) log2 p(i) . (4.15) i∈Ω2∗

i∈Ω2∗

There might be inﬁnitely many programs such that U(p) = i, yet the lower bound in (4.14) is surprisingly good as the sum is actually dominated by the shortest programs for i. Proposition 4.3.1. For all i ∈ Ω2∗ , PU (i) ≤ C 2−K(i) , where C > 0 is a constant independent of i. Together with (4.14), this result permits the identiﬁcation (up to an additive constant) of the preﬁx complexity of a string with minus the logarithm of its universal probability. Corollary 4.3.1. K(i) = − log2 PU (i) + O(1). There thus appears a similarity between the fact that the optimal codeword lengths with respect to a probability distribution π = {p(i)}i∈I are of the form ∗i = − log2 p(i) and the fact that the lengths of the shortest descriptions of binary strings practically amount to the logarithm of their universal probabilities. This similarity can be carried even further by examining the average complexity.

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4 Algorithmic Complexity

Corollary 4.3.2. Given a computable probability distribution π on Ω2∗ , the corresponding average preﬁx complexity satisﬁes H2 (π) ≤ p(i) K(i) ≤ H2 (π) + K(π) + C . i∈Ω2∗

Proof:

From Proposition 4.3.1 and (4.13) K(i) ≤ − log2 PU (i) + C ≤ − log2 p(i) + K(π) + C .

Multiplying by p(i) and summing over i ∈ Ω2∗ yields the upper bound, while (4.15) gives the lower bound. Proof of Proposition 4.3.1 : The idea is to construct, for each i ∈ Ω2∗ , a set of programs p of length (p) ≤ − log2 PU (i) + C with the preﬁx property such that U(p) = i, so that K(i) ≤ (p) would end the proof. Unfortunately, the argument of Remark 4.3.2.3 is not viable as the universal probability is not computable. However, as much as for the plain algorithmic complexity, the preﬁx complexity is semi-computable from above whence the universal probability results lower semi-computable because of Corollary 4.3.1; this turns out to be suﬃcient for constructing a preﬁx code with the desired property. Let all the programs (listed in lexicographical order) be run by U in dovetail fashion and collect them in pairs (pk , xk ) where pk is the program which halts at the k step of the dovetailed computation with xk ∈ Ω2∗ as output. The quantity 2− (pi ) ≤ PU (x) PU (k, xk = x) := (pi ,xi =x) i≤k

is computable and tends to PU (x) along the subsequence {(pk , xk = x)}k ; set nk := (− log2 PU (k, xk = x)). Since 2− ∗ (k) ≤ PU (k, xk = x) ≤ 2− ∗ (k)+1 , where ∗ (k) is the smallest length in the sum, it follows that nk = ∗ (k). Given (pk , xk , nk ), this triplet is assigned to the ﬁrst non-occupied node at the (nk + 1)-th level of a binary tree; further, in order to enforce the preﬁx condition, all nodes stemming from it are made unavailable to further assignments. Since nk is not strictly monotonic, it may happen that diﬀerent pairs (pi , xi = xk ), i ≤ k, have the same nk ; by eliminating all but the ﬁrst pair with that value of nk , no more than one node will be occupied by a triplet with the same xk at level nk . Therefore, nk ≥ − log2 PU (k, xk = x) ≥ − log2 PU (x) =⇒ nk = (− log2 PU (x)) + rk with rk ≥ 0 and rk = rj for j = k. To each x ∈ Ω2∗ there correspond many assignments of triplets (pk , xk = x, nk ) each one of them to one and only

4.3 Preﬁx Algorithmic Complexity

133

one node at level nk + 1. The nodes thus provide binary code-words of length nk + 1 for the triplets. In order to see that there are suﬃciently many nodes to accommodate all triplets, we check that the lengths nk +1 satisfy the Kraft inequality (3.21). That this is indeed so follows from the fact that 2−nk = 2−− log2 PU (x) 2−rk ≤ 2 PU (x) , xk =x

xk =x

for all x ∈ Ω2∗ , whence x∈Ω2∗ xk =x

2−nk −1 ≤

PU (x) ≤ 1 .

x∈Ω2∗

The above algorithm allows the construction of a binary tree whereby any x ∈ Ω2∗ can be identiﬁed with the binary string i(x) ∈ Ω2∗ corresponding to the lowest depth node assigned to its triplets (pk , xk = x, nk ). The length of the code-word i(x) ∈ Ω2∗ is the smallest nk + 1: (i(x)) ≤ (− log2 PU (x)) + 1 ≤ − log2 PU (x) + 2 . Finally, let q be a program of ﬁxed length L that makes the preﬁx UTM U generate the binary tree by dovetailed computation as speciﬁed above and let q be another program of ﬁxed length L with the necessary instructions to U such that, when presented with the code-word q q i(x), U computes the program in the triplet assigned to the node marked by i(x), writes the result and halts. By construction, the program p in the triplet at the node i(x) is such that U(p) = x; then K(x) ≤ (q q i(x)) = − log2 PU (x) + L + L + 2 . Remark 4.3.3. Because of its construction the universal probability is a lower semi-computable semi-measure (see Deﬁnition 4.1.5), thus there exists a constant CP such that CP PU ≤ m, where m is the universal semi-measure constructed in Example 4.3.2. Furthermore, an argument similar to the one in the previous proof, extends the result in Corollary 4.3.1 to K(i) = − log2 PU (i) + O(1) = − log2 m(i) + O(1) . Bibliographical Notes The books [79]– [81] provide inspiring and motivating introductions to algorithmic complexity theory, as well as the reviews [327] and [305], the latter one being especially devoted to comparing several characterizations of randomness. A reference book is [310] which also provides a historical overview

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4 Algorithmic Complexity

of the development of the theory, several applications to a variety of mathematical, logical and physical problems, as well as more recent advances. A more abstract presentation is oﬀered by [73] whereas a handier introduction can be found in [120] and in [92]. In [7] algorithmic complexity is discussed in relation to stochastic processes, in [127] in relation to entropic tools in classical information theory and in [254] in relation with coding and statistical modeling. Finally, [93] presents an introduction to computable functions, recursion, the halting problem, G¨ odel’s theorem and computational complexity. Possible uses of algorithmic complexity theory in relation to the predictability of discrete classical dynamical systems are discussed in [62]. Approaches to complexity issues in a broad sense can be found in [18, 294]

Part II

Quantum Dynamical Systems

137

In the second part of the book quantum dynamical systems with ﬁnite and inﬁnite degrees of freedom are presented by using the algebraic approach to quantum statistical mechanics. The corresponding technical framework proves convenient for the extension of ergodic and information theory to non-commutative contexts.

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Quantum dynamical systems are described by means of non-commutative algebras of observables, by means of their time-evolution and by means of the expectation functionals that assign mean values to them. Classical dynamical systems can always be described in terms of phase-points and phasetrajectories; however, an algebraic formulation is always possible and has two advantages: on one hand, similarities and diﬀerences with respect to quantum dynamical systems become more evident and, on the other hand, one can infer from the algebraic reformulation of classical notions how to possibly extend them to the quantum setting. With reference to information, the most important diﬀerence that one encounters passing from the commutative to the non-commutative setting is that the disturbances exerted on quantum systems by measurement processes cannot in general be made negligible, not even in line of principle.

5.1 Hilbert Space and Operator Algebras In standard quantum mechanics, physical states are usually described by normalized vectors in separable Hilbert spaces, and the observables by selfadjoint linear operators acting on them. Here follows some notations and basic facts. 1. | ψ , | φ , or ψ, φ, and | i , with i running on a suitable index set I, will denote (normalized) vectors in Hilbert spaces H and Pψ = | ψ ψ | the associated orthogonal projectors. 2. The scalar product on H, denoted by ψ | φ , linear in the second argument and anti-linear in the ﬁrst one, satisﬁes the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality | ψ | φ | ≤ ψ φ . (5.1) Any ﬁnite or countable set {Ψi }i∈I ⊂ H such that Ψi | Ψj = δij and | ψ = i∈I Ψi | ψ | Ψi for all ψ ∈ H, is an orthonormal basis (ONB) in H. The corresponding projectors Pi := | Ψi Ψi | fulﬁl Pi = | Ψi Ψi | = 1l , (5.2) i∈I

i∈I

F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 5, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

139

140

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

where 1l denotes the identity operator on H, 1l| ψ = | ψ for all ψ ∈ H. 3. Given any linear operator X on H, its matrix elements with respect to ψ, φ ∈ H will be denoted either as ψ | Xφ or as ψ | X |φ , depending on notational convenience. 4. X T and X ∗ will denote transposition and complex conjugation with respect to a given ONB {Ψj }j :

Ψi | X ∗ Ψj = Ψi | XΨj ∗ .

Ψi | X T Ψj = Ψj | XΨi ,

Instead, X † = (X T )∗ = (X ∗ )T will represent the basis-independent adjoint of X:

ψ | X † φ = Xψ | φ = φ | Xψ ∗

∀ψ, φ ∈ H .

Physical observables correspond to self-adjoint operators X = X † . 5. The uniform norm, X, of a linear operator X on H is deﬁned by X := sup X| ψ .

(5.3)

ψ =1

6. X is bounded if X < ∞, in which case X| ψ ≤ X ψ ,

| φ | Xψ | ≤ X φ ψ .

(5.4)

Linear combinations of bounded operators are again bounded; their linear span will be denoted by B(H). The product of bounded operators is bounded, for XY | ψ ≤ X Y ψ. Therefore, B(H) is a so-called ∗-algebra. 7. An operator U ∈ B(H) such that U † U = 1l is called an isometry; in † general, U U † = (U U † )(U U † ) is a projection, if also U U = 1l, then U is a unitary operator. Isometries have U = U † U = 1l = 1. 8. The uniform norm deﬁnes on B(H) uniform neighborhoods of the form Uε (X) = {Y ∈ B(H) ; X − Y ≤ ε} ,

ε≥0,

(5.5)

whence a sequence Xn ∈ B(H) converges uniformly to X ∈ B(H), limn→∞ Xn = X, if limn→∞ X − Xn = 0. The corresponding topology on B(H), τu , is called uniform topology. 9. B(H) is complete with respect to the uniform topology, namely all sequences of operators which are of Cauchy type with respect to the uniform norm converge to an element of B(H). Therefore, B(H) is a so-called Banach ∗-algebra. Moreover, since the uniform norm fulﬁls X † = X ,

X † X = X2 ,

B(H) is a C ∗ -algebra (see Section 5.2).

(5.6)

5.1 Hilbert Space and Operator Algebras

141

10. In the case of n < ∞ degrees of freedom, each one of them is described by a Hilbert space Hj , 1 ≤ -jn ≤ n. Altogether, their Hilbert space is the tensor product H(n) = j=1 Hj , denoted by H⊗n when the Hilbert spaces Hj are copies of a same H. Depending on notational convenience, · · · | ψn or by its vectors will be denoted either by | ψ = | ψ1 ⊗ | ψ2 ⊗ n | ψ = | ψ1 ⊗ ψ2 ⊗ · · · ψn , with scalar products φ | ψ = j=1 φj | ψj . Bounded operators on H(n) are linear combinations of tensor products of the form X1 ⊗ X2 ⊗ · · · Xn , Xj ∈ B(Hj );-the associated C ∗ algebra of n bounded operators on H(n) is B(H(n) ) := j=1 B(Hj ). 11. The strong topology on B(H), τs , is the smallest topology with respect to which all semi-norms of the form Lψ (X) := X| ψ , ψ ∈ H, are continuous; its strong neighborhoods are of the form Uεs (X) := {Y ∈ B(H) : Lψj (Y − X) ≤ ε , 1 ≤ j ≤ n} ,

(5.7)

for ψj ∈ H, n ∈ N and ε ≥ 0. A sequence Xn ∈ B(H) converges strongly to X ∈ B(H), s − limn→∞ Xn = X, if limn→∞ (Xn − X)| ψ = 0 for all ψ ∈ H. 12. The weak topology on B(H), τw , is the smallest topology with respect to which all semi-norms of the form Lφ,ψ (X) := | φ | Xψ |, φ , ψ ∈ H are continuous; its weak-neighborhoods are of the form Uεw (X) := {Y ∈ B(H) : Lφj ,ψj (Y − X) ≤ ε , 1 ≤ j ≤ n} ,

(5.8)

for ψj , φj ∈ H, n ∈ N and ε ≥ 0. A sequence Xn ∈ B(H) converges weakly to X ∈ B(H), w − limn→∞ Xn = X, if limn→∞ | φ | (Xn − X)ψ | = 0 for all φ, ψ ∈ H. 13. Since strong neighborhoods are uniform neighborhoods, but the reverse is not true when H is inﬁnite dimensional, the uniform topology is in general ﬁner than the strong one, that is τu has more neighborhoods than τs : τs τu . The weak topology is in general coarser than the strong one; every weak neighborhood is also a strong neighborhood, but the reverse fails to be true in inﬁnite dimensional H. The norm, strong and weak topologies are equivalent in ﬁnite dimension. 14. Among other topologies on B(H) [64], one of some use in the following is the σ-weak topology, τuw ; it is ﬁner than the weak topology for it is the smallest one that makes continuous the following semi-norms, | φn | X |ψn | , (5.9) Luw {φn },{ψn } (X) = n

where {ψn }, {φn } ⊂ H are such that

n

ψn 2 < ∞ and

n

φn 2 < ∞.

Most of the previous assertions are standard facts [64, 251, 300]; however, the various topologies on B(H) deserve a closer look.

142

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Remarks 5.1.1. 1. That the uniform topology is ﬁner than the strong topology can be seen as follows. Given any strong neighborhood Uεs (X), let α := max1≤i≤n ψi , u then Uε/α (X) ⊆ Uεs (X); indeed, u Y ∈ Uε/α (X) =⇒ (X − Y )| ψi ≤

ε ψi ≤ ε =⇒ Y ∈ Uεs (X) , α

whence Uεs (X) is a uniform neighborhood, too. In order to show that τu is in general strictly ﬁner than τs , it is suﬃcient to exhibit a sequence of operators in B(H) which converges strongly, but not uniformly. To this end, suppose H to be inﬁnite dimensional, choose a ONB {Ψk }k∈N with N associated orthonormal projectors Pk and construct QN := k=1 Pk . Then, (5.2) reads s−limN QN = 1l; namely, if ψ ∈ H and cψ (i) = Ψi | ψ , then ∞ lim (QN − 1l)| ψ 2 = lim |cψ (n)|2 = 0 . N →∞

N →∞

n≥N +1

On the other hand, QN → 1l cannot hold in the uniform sense, otherwise for any ε ≥ 0 there would exist N0 (ε) such that, if N ≥ N0 (ε), then (QN − 1l)| ψ ≤ ε uniformly in ψ ∈ H, while (QN − 1l)| ψ = ψ for all ψ in the subspace orthogonal to that projected out by QN . 2. In like manner, the weak topology cannot have more neighborhoods than the strong topology. Given Uεw (X) as in (5.8), set β := max1≤i≤n φi ; s (X) ⊆ Uεw (X); indeed, using (5.1), then Uε/β s Y ∈ Uε/α (X) =⇒ | φi | (X − Y ) |ψi | ≤

ε φi ≤ ε =⇒ Y ∈ Uεw (X) . β

In general, τs is strictly ﬁner than τw . Let H be inﬁnite dimensional and, given an ONB {Ψk }k∈N , consider the operator X : H → H deﬁned as the right shift along the ONB : 2 0 k=1 † X | Ψk = . X| Ψk = | Ψk+1 , | Ψk−1 k ≥ 2 Note that X † X| Ψk = | Ψk for all k ∈ N so that X † X = 1l; X is an the subspace orthogonal to Ψ1 . Furisometry with XX † projecting onto ∞ thermore, by expanding H | ψ = k=1 cψ (k)| Ψk , cψ (k) := Ψk | ψ , it turns out that X n | ψ 2 = ψ | (X † )n X n |ψ = ψ2 , whereas w − lim X n = 0 . n→∞

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

Indeed, given φ, ψ ∈ H, ε > 0 and | ψK = | ψ − | ψK ≤ ε, (5.1) yields

K

i=1 cψ (i)| Ψi

143

such that

K n n c∗φ (i) cψ (i + n) + ε ψ φ | X |ψ ≤ φ | X |ψK + ε |ψ = i=1

8 8 9K 9 K+n 9 9 : ≤ |cφ (i)|2 : |cψ (i)|2 + ε ψ , i=1

i=n+1

where the second square-root becomes negligibly small for suﬃciently large n. 3. By adding to a subalgebra A ⊆ B(H) its limit points with respect to a τ given topology τ , one obtains its closure A . If of two topologies τ1,2 on A ⊆ B(H), τ1 is coarser than τ2 (τ1 τ2 ), τ1 has less neighborhoods τ1 τ2 than τ2 and thus more convergent sequences; therefore, A ⊇ A . In τu ∗ is a C -subalgebra of B(H); further, since τu ' τs ' τw particular, A τu τs τw it follows that A ⊆ A ⊆ A . 4. Given a ∗-subalgebra A ⊂ B(H), consider the linear functionals F : A τ1 → C, respectively F : A τ1 → C, that are continuous with respect to two topologies τ1 τ2 ; more precisely, the preimages F −1 (V ) of open sets V ⊂ C are open sets in A τ1 , respectively A τ2 . Then, since not all open sets in A τ2 are open sets in A τ1 , a τ2 -continuous F , that is continuous with respect to the ﬁner topology, may fail to be τ1 -continuous, that is continuous with respect to the coarser topology. For instance, all weakly continuous linear functionals on A ⊆ B(H) are strongly continuous but strong continuity does not in general ensure that a functional is also weakly continuous. 5. If A is a generic Banach algebra, its topological dual, A∗ is the linear space A∗ consisting of all linear functionals F : A → C that are continuous on A. Then, A∗ can be equipped with the so-called w∗ -topology, namely with the coarsest topology that makes continuous all semi-norms of the form ∗

Lw X (F ) = |F (X)|

∀X ∈ A .

(5.10)

Its neighborhoods are of the form ∗

∗

Uεw (F ) := {G ∈ A∗ : Lw Xj (G − F ) ≤ ε , 1 ≤ j ≤ n} , ∗

(5.11)

∗

for any Xj ∈ A, n ∈ N and ε ≥ 0. A sequence Fn ∈ A w -converges to F ∈ A∗ , w∗ − limn→∞ Fn = F , if limn→∞ |Fn (X) − F (X)| = 0 for all X ∈ A.

5.2 C ∗ Algebras The bounded operators on a Hilbert space H form a Banach ∗-algebra with respect to the uniform norm (5.3); this norm fulﬁls the two equalities (5.6).

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

While the ﬁrst one follows at once from (5.3) and the deﬁnition of adjoint, the second one is proved by using (5.1): X2 = sup ψ | X † Xψ ≤ X † X =⇒ X ≤ X † ;

ψ =1

thus, exchanging X and X † , yields X2 = X † |2 = X † X. From the fact that XY ≤ X Y (an inequality that follows at once from (5.3)), one gets X † | = X; in fact, X2 = X † X ≤ X X † =⇒ X ≤ X|† , while X † 2 = XX † ≤ X X † | =⇒ X † ≤ X. More in general, let A be an algebra with an involution † : A → A such that (α A + β B)† = α∗ A† + β ∗ B † , (AB)† = B † A† for all α, β ∈ C and A, B ∈ A. Let A be complete with respect to a norm · : A → R+ such that α A = |α| A ,

A + B ≤ ||A + B ,

A B ≤ A B

and A = 0 ⇐⇒ A = 0 for all α ∈ C and A, B ∈ A. If the norm further satisfes (5.6) it is called a C ∗ norm. Deﬁnition 5.2.1. Any Banach ∗-algebra A with respect to a C ∗ norm is called a C ∗ algebra. A is called unital if it possesses an identity 1l such that A 1l = 1l A = A for all A ∈ A.

Examples 5.2.1. 1. The commutative algebras C(X ), respectively L∞ μ (X ) of continuous, respectively essentially bounded functions over a compact phase-space X discussed in Section 2.2.1 are C ∗ algebras with respect to the uniform, respectively essentially bounded norms. 2. Many instances of quantum systems are N -level systems; their Hilbert space is ﬁnite dimensional and thus can be taken as H = CN , while their observables are Hermitian N × N matrices with complex entries. In such cases, the C ∗ algebra of bounded operators B(H) is the full matrix N algebra MN (C). Given an ONB {Ψj }N j=1 in C , set Eij := | Ψi Ψj |, i, j = 1, . . . , N ; then, Eij | ψ = Ψj | ψ | Ψi ,

Eij Ek = δjk Ei ,

N i=1

Eii = 1l .

(5.12)

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

145

Any set of matrices with these properties constitutes a set of matrix units, Eii being a complete set of orthogonal projections. Any X ∈ MN (C) can be thus expressed as a linear combination of the matrix units: N

X=

N

Eii X Ejj =

i,j=1

Xij Eij .

i,j=1

In the standard representation where the basis vectors have the form | Ψj = ( 0 0 · · ·

1 ···

0 0)

T

,

with 1 in the j-th entry, the matrix units Eij are N × N matrices whose entries are all 0, but for the ij-th one which is equal to 1. 3. A typical scenario often encountered in quantum physics is as follows: a quantum system described by a generic (not necessarily ﬁnitedimensional) Hilbert space H is coupled to an N -level system, the corresponding algebra being the tensor product MN (B(H)) := MN (C) ⊗ B(H) consisting of operators of the form ⎛

X11 N ⎜ · ⎜ = X Eij ⊗ Xij = ⎜ · ⎝ i,j=1 · XN 1

··· ··· ··· ··· ···

⎞ X1N · ⎟ ⎟ · ⎟ = [Xij ] , ⎠ · XN N

(5.13)

where Xij are operators in B(H) and Eij are matrix units in standard form. The tensor product MN (B(H)) is a ∗-algebra of operators acting := CN ⊗ H consisting of vectors on the Hilbert space H ⎛ ⎞ | ψ1 N ⎜ ⎟ | ψ = | i ⊗ | ψi = ⎝ ... ⎠ . H (5.14) i=1 | ψN A uniform norm on MN (B(H)) is deﬁned by |ψ 2 = sup ψ | X †X X

ψ =1

=

⎧ N ⎨ ⎩

i,j,k=1

†

ψk | Xik Xij |ψj :

N i=1

⎫ ⎬ ψi 2 = 1 . ⎭

(5.15)

Indeed, it turns out that it satisﬁes (5.6); beside, MN (B(H)) is a complete ∗-algebra with respect to it, thence a C ∗ algebra. 4. Given X, Y ∈ B(H), B(H) [X, , Y ] := XY − Y X denotes their commutator. Let V ⊆ B(H) be a linear self-adjoint subset, that is it contains the

146

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

adjoint of any of its elements. The commutant of V, denoted by V , consists of all bounded operators that commute with all X ∈ V. If X ∈ V also (X )† ∈ V ; further, if X , Y ∈ V , then [X Y , X] = X [Y , X] + [X , X] Y = 0 ∀ X ∈ V . Therefore, X Y ∈ V and V is a ∗-algebra; also, if a sequence of Xn ∈ V uniformly converges to X ∈ B(H), then, [X , X] = [X − Xn , X] ≤ 2X − Xn X , implies that V is uniformly closed and thus a C ∗ subalgebra of B(H). 5. If A ⊆ B(H) is a C ∗ subalgebra with commutant A , the center of A, ZA := A ∩ A , contains all those A ∈ A that commute among themselves and is thus an Abelian C ∗ subalgebra of B(H). Given a bounded operator A in a unital C ∗ algebra A, a − A is invertible in A (a stands for a1l) if there exists B := (a−B)−1 ∈ A for which (a−A)B = B(a − A) = 1l. The set of such a ∈ C is called the resolvent set of A (Res(A)). Its complement is the spectrum of A (Sp(A)). Examples 5.2.2. [64] 1. Let A ∈ A and a ∈ C such that A < |a|, then by Taylor expansion ∞ n 1 1 A = a−A a n=0 a

the series converges in norm and gives rise to a well-deﬁned operator in A. Therefore, Sp(A) is contained in the subset of a ∈ C such that |a| ≤ A. Furthermore, if a0 ∈ Res(A) so that (a − A)−1 exists in A, choose a ∈ C such that |a − a0 | < (a0 − A)−1 ; then,

n ∞ a0 − a 1 1 1 = = a−A (a − a0 ) + a0 − A a0 − A n=0 a0 − A exists as well, whence Res(A) is an open subset of C and Sp(A) a closed subset of C. 2. For a, b ∈ C and A ∈ A, a − (b − A) is invertible if and only if (b − a) − A is invertible. Thus Sp(b − A) = b − Sp(A). 3. For a ∈ C and A ∈ A; a−A is invertible if and only if a∗ −A† is invertible, ∗ whence Sp(A† ) = Sp(A) , the conjugate set of Sp(A). 4. If A is invertible, using A−1 one writes a − A = aA(A−1 − a−1 ) ,

a−1 − A−1 = a−1 A−1 (A − a) .

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

147

Therefore, if a − A is invertible, then a−1 − A−1 turns out to be invertible too and vice versa; therefore, Sp(A−1 ) = (Sp(A))−1 , the set consisting / Sp(A) and of the inverse of each element of Sp(A−1 ) (notice that 0 ∈ a ∈ Sp(A) =⇒ |a|−1 ≤ A−1 < +∞). 5. The spectral radius R(A) of A ∈ A is [64] R(A) := sup{|λ| : λ ∈ Sp(A)} = lim An 1/n . n→+∞

An operator A ∈ A is normal if A† A = A A† ; then, R(A) = A. Indeed, the C ∗ properties of the norm yield A2 2 = (A† )2 A2 = (A† A)2 = (A† A)2 n

n

†

n

n

†

2n−1 2

= (A A)

2n

= A A

2n 2−n

R(A) = lim A n→+∞

2n+1

= A

n−1

(A† A)2

,

whence

n−1

= A .

6. Self-adjoint A A = A† are normal and hence R(A) = A. 7. If U is unitary (U † U = U U † = 1l) or isometric (U † U = 1l), then U n 2 = (U † )n U n = (U † )n−1 U † U U n−1 = (U † )n−1 U n−1 = U † U = 1l = 1 . Therefore, Sp(U ) is contained within the unit circle {x ∈ C : |z ≤ 1}. On the other hand, if U is invertible, U −1 = U † and the preceding point 3 implies that Sp(U ) = {z ∈ C : |z| = 1}. 8. If A A = A† and |a|−1 > A, then from point 1 above one deduces that −i|a|−1 − A = −i|a|(1 − i|a|A) is invertible so that A U := (1 + i|a|A)(1 − i|a|A)−1 is a well deﬁned unitary operator; moreover, the last point ensures that 1 − i|a|z 2i|a| (A − z)(1 + i|a|A)−1 −U = 1 + i|a|z 1 + i|a|z w

is invertible whenever |w| = 1, namely whenever (z) = 0. Therefore, A − z is invertible and Sp(A) ⊆ [−A, A] because of points 3 and 6. 9. Let P (z) be a polynomial of degree n on C, A ∈ A and for a ∈ C write P (z) − a = α P (A) − a = α

n i=1 n i=1

(z − αi ) , (A − αi ) .

α , αi ∈ C

148

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

The operators A − αi commute, thus P (A) − a is not invertible if and only if at least one of them is not invertible, that is a ∈ Sp(P (A)) if and only if at least one αi ∈ Sp(A). Since P (αi ) = a, it follows that Sp(P (A)) = P (Sp(A)), the set of values attained by P (z) on Sp(A). 10. Suppose A A = A† , from the previous result and point 8 it turns out that Sp(A2 ) = (Sp(A)2 ) ⊆ [0, A2 ]. Remark 5.2.1. If A ∈ A is self-adjoint, then by the density of the polynomials in the commutative C ∗ algebra of continuous functions f over R, one can extend Example 5.2.2.8 to f (Sp(A)) = Sp(f (A)). This is the spectral mapping theorem [64, 324]. 5.2.1 Positive Operators Particularly important bounded self-adjoint operators are the positive ones, that is those whose spectrum consists of non-negative values; from a physical point of view, they represent observables that, when measured, always returns a positive outcome. Deﬁnition 5.2.2. An operator A of a unital C ∗ algebra A is positive (A ≥ 0) if A = A† and Sp(A) ⊆ R+ . Given A, B ∈ A, one sets A ≥ B whenever A − B ≥ 0. Remark 5.2.2. Positive operators A A ≥ 0 are characterized by being of the form √ A = B † B, for some √ B √ ∈ A and by having a unique positive square-root A such that A = A A [64] (see also Example 5.3.4.2). When A = B(H), the positivity of a self-adjoint operator X ∈ B(H) amounts to ψ | Xψ ≥ 0 for all ψ ∈ H, which corresponds to the positivity of all its eigenvalues√xi ∈ R such that (X − xi )| ψ = 0 for some | ψ ∈ H. Denote by |X| := X † X the unique square-root of the positive operator X † X. The map V : Ran(|X|) → Ran(X) deﬁned by V |X|| ψ = X| ψ , where Ran(X) denotes the range of X ∈ B(H), 1 is a partial isometry, V |X|| ψ 2 = ψ | X † X |ψ = |X|| ψ 2 . Let U denote the partial isometry which equals the extension of V on the closure of Ran(X) and 0 on Ker(|X|) = (Ran(|X|))⊥ , then X = U |X| is the so-called polar decomposition of X [64]. It is unique; namely, if X = V B with B ≥ 0 and V is a partial isometry with V = 0 on Ker(B), then 1 The range of X ∈ B(H) is the linear subset of vectors of the form | ψ = X| φ

for some φ ∈ H. Ran(X † ) ⊥ Ker(X), where Ker(X) is the kernel of X that is the closed subspace of vectors ψ ∈ H such that X| ψ = 0.

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

149

X † X = BV † V B = B 2 =⇒ B = |X| by the uniqueness of the square-root; further, U = V for both annihilate Ran(|X|)⊥ . The projection p := U † U is called the initial projection of U , while q = U U † its ﬁnal projection. √ (C), then |X| = X † X can be spectralIn the simplest cases B(H) = M N ized, |X| = i=1 xi | Ψi Ψi |. The eigenvalues xj ≥ 0 of |X| are the so-called singular values of X, while its eigenvectors Ψj form an ONB in CN . Using the polar decomposition, it turns out that any matrix can always be represented in terms of its singular values and of two, generally diﬀerent, ONBs , X = U |X| =

N

xj | Φj Ψj | ,

| Φj := U | Ψj .

(5.16)

j=1

Also, if V is the unitary matrix that diagonalizes the Hermitian matrix |X|, |X| = V D V † , then X = W D V † with W := U V unitary. Examples 5.2.3. [10, 296] 1. From Example 5.2.2.10 it turns out that the spectrum of the positive elements A ≥ 0 of a C ∗ algebra A is such that Sp(A) ⊆ [0, A]. 2. Suppose A ≥ B ≥ 0 for A, B ∈ A; then, from the previous remark, A − B = C † C, whence D† (A − B)D = (CD)† (CD) ≥ 0 =⇒ D† A D ≥ D† B D , for all D ∈ A. A typical situation is when A = P , an orthogonal projection which is always ≤ 1l, then D† P D ≤ D† D. φ ∈ H. One can 3. Let B(H) X := Pψ − Pφ = | ψ ψ | − | φ φ |, ψ = always write | φ = α| ψ + β| ψ ⊥ , ψ | ψ ⊥ = 0 , α := ψ | φ , β = 1 − |α|2 . Then, on the subspace K spanned by ψ and ψ ⊥ , X is represented by the 2 × 2 matrix

β2 −βα MX = . −βα∗ −β 2 Thus X has eigenvalues ±β and eigenprojectors 1±β 1∓β ⊥ −iϕ | ± := |ψ ∓ e | ψ , 2 2 where eiϕ is the phase of α. Therefore, X = β(| + + | − | − − |) ,

|X| = β QK ,

where QK = | + + | + | − − | projects onto K. Further, U = β −1 X is an isometry on K that vanishes on K⊥ .

150

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

4. If X = U |X| then X † = |X| U † whence X X † = U |X|2 U † = U X † X U † . Therefore, X † X and X X † have the same eigenvalues with the same degeneracies apart, possibly, from the eigenvalue 0. 5. Suppose 0 < X ≤ Y , X, Y ∈ B(H), then Y −1 ≤ X −1 . Indeed, X −1 and Y −1 exist; thus one can set Z := Y −1/2 XY −1/2 . Then, Z ≤ 1l. In fact, (see Deﬁnition 5.2.2) for all ψ ∈ H

ψ | Y −1/2 XY −1/2 |ψ = Y −1/2 ψ | X |Y −1/2 ψ ≤ Y −1/2 ψ | Y |Y −1/2 ψ = ψ | ψ . By the same argument, multiplication of both sides of the inequality Z ≤ 1l ﬁrst by Z −1 = Y 1/2 X −1 Y 1/2 yields 1l ≤ Y 1/2 X −1 Y 1/2 ; one then multiplies both sides of this inequality by Y −1/2 . 6. Let X ≤ Y ∈ B(H) be such that log X exists (see Remark 5.2.1 and Remark 5.3.4), then log X ≤ log Y . This follows from the spectral calculus and the previous point, for t + X ≤ t + Y for all t ≥ 0 and the fact that +∞ +∞ 1 1 x − , ∀ x, y > 0 . dt dt log = y t+x t+y 0 0 +∞ +∞ 1 1 − ≤ 0. Then, log X − log Y = dt dt t + X t + Y 0 0 7. Consider the setting of Example 5.2.1.3, that is the C ∗ algebra MN (B(H)); ≥ 0 if and only if ψ | X |ψ = N ψi | Xij |ψj ≥ 0 for all ψ ∈ H. X i,j=1 By arbitrarily choosing Yi ∈ B(H), φ ∈ H and setting | ψi := Yi | φ , it ≥ 0 if and only if follows that X ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ X11 · · · X1N Y1 N 0 / . .. .. ⎠ ⎝ .. ⎠ ≥0 Yi† Xij Yj = Y1† · · · YN† ⎝ .. . . . i,j=1 XN 1 · · · XN N YN for all Yi ∈ B(H). ≥ 0 if and only if X = Y † Y , Y ∈ MN (B(H)). Then, 8. Also, X ⎛ ⎞ N n N † = ⎝ X Eji Ek ⊗ Yij† Yk = Ej ⊗ Ykj Yk ⎠ . i,j=1 k,=1

k=1

j, =1

≥ 0 if and only if it is a sum of matrices of the form [Y † Yj ], Therefore, X i Yi ∈ B(H). := [Eij ] ∈ MN (MN (C)) whose entries are 9. Consider the N × N matrix E ≥ 0 ; matrix units Eij ∈ MN (C). According to the previous point, E indeed,

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

= E

N

Eij ⊗ Eij =

i,j=1

N

† Eij ⊗ Eki Ekj

151

∀ k = 1, 2, . . . , N .

i,j=1

Let {| i }N i=1 be the ONB such that Eij = | i j |; then, E turns out to N be proportional to the orthogonal projector P+ , N 1 1 N N P+N = |Ψ+ E Ψ+ | = | i j | ⊗ | i j | = N i,j=1 N

(5.17)

onto the totally symmetric state N 1 N CN ⊗ CN |Ψ+ := √ | ii . N i=1

(5.18)

Finite Dimensional algebras A C ∗ algebra A is ﬁnite dimensional if its dimension as a linear space is ﬁnite; as such it has an identity 1l. In particular, its center ZA (see Example 5.2.1.5) is a ﬁnite dimensional algebra whose elements all commute: such an algebra is called Abelian. It is generated by minimal>projections {Pi }ni=1 (see Examn ple 5.3.4). Due to their orthogonality, A = i=1 Ai , where Ai := A Pi , with Pi its identity operator, whence their centers are trivial and the Ai simple algebras. In fact, Ai cannot contain any non trivial ideal i ⊆ A, for, like A, also i has an identity E [296]; then, XE ∈ i =⇒ EXE = XE so that E commutes with all self-adjoint X ∈ Ai and thus belongs to its center: E X = (X E)† = E X E = X E. We shall set A = Ai and show that it is isomorphic to a matrix algebra by constructing an appropriate system of matrix units {Ei,j }di,j=1 . Let B ⊆ A be a maximally Abelian subalgebra with minimal projectors d {Qj }dj=1 such that Qj Qk = δjk Qj and j=1 Qj = 1l. For each Qj , one can always choose Xj ∈ A such that Yj := Qj Xj Q1 = 0; indeed, for all X ∈ A, n iX := { i=1 Xi X Yi : Xi , Y ; i ∈ A} is an ideal of A which, as A is simple, must coincide with it. Observe that Yj† Yj = Q1 Xj† Qj Xj Q1 and Yj Yj† = Qj Xj Q1 Xj† Qj commute with B; since B is maximally Abelian, they belong to it. Thus, Yj† Yj = λj Q1 and Yj Yj† = μj Qj . Further, λj = μj > 0, for Yj† Yj = Yj Yj† . By setting Zj := Yj / λj and Eij := Zi Zj† it follows that Zj† Zj = Q1 , while Ejj = Zj Zj† = Qj for all j. Moreover, Eij Epq =

Qi Xi Q1 Xj† Qj Qp Xp Q1 Xq† Qq λi λj λp λq

152

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom Yj† Yj

Yq†

Qi Xi Q1 Q1 Xj† Qj Xj Q1 Q1 Xq† Qq = δjp = δjp Eiq . λi λq λj Yi

Thus, the Eij are the required set of matrix units as they linearly span A: for all X ∈ A, Zi† X Zj = (Q1 Xi† Qi X Qj Xj Q1 )/ λi λj = μij (X) Q1 , whence X=

d

Qi X Qj =

i,j=1

=

d

d

Zi Zi† X Zj Zj† =

i,j=1

d

μij (X) Zi Q1 Zj†

i,j=1

μij (X) Eij .

i,j=1

Therefore, any ﬁnite dimensional > C ∗ algebra is isomorphic to the orthogonal n sum of full matrix algebras: A i=1 Mdi (C). Compact Operators If H is inﬁnite dimensional, the matricial structure of MN (C) carries over to the so-called compact operators, B∞ (H). These are all X ∈ B(H) such that |X| has a discrete spectrum of ﬁnitely degenerate eigenvalues that accumulate to 0, the only eigenvalue with possibly inﬁnite degeneracy 2 . It turns out that these spectral properties are preserved by linear combinations and operator multiplication [251, 270]. Practically speaking, compact operators are obtained by closing with respect to the uniform norm the ∗-algebra of ﬁnite rank operators, that is of the linear span of all possible X on H that are non-zero on ﬁnite dimensional subspaces, only, where they can be represented as usual matrices. As such the algebra of compact operators is a Banach ∗-algebra without identity operator for the only eigenvalue of 1l is inﬁnitely degenerate. Trace-Class Operators Consider a matrix algebra MN (C), the functional Tr : MN (C) → C, MN (C) X → Tr(X) :=

N

Ψi | X |Ψi ,

(5.19)

i=1 N where {Ψj }N j=1 is any ONB in C , deﬁnes a so-called trace on MN (C). 2 The simplest example of compact operator is any projector P = | ψ ψ | which vanishes on the orthogonal complement of ψ, whence its zero eigenvalues is inﬁnitely degenerate when H is inﬁnite dimensional.

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

153

The trace is basis-independent; indeed, because of (5.2); given any two N ONBs {Φj }N j=1 and {Ψk }k=1 , N

N

Φj | X |Φj =

j=1

Φj | Ψk Ψk | X |Ψ Ψ | Φj

j,k, =1 N N

N

Ψ | Φj Φj | Ψk Ψk | X |Ψ =

Ψk | X |Ψk .

k, =1 j=1

k=1

δk

The trace of a matrix amounts to the sum of its diagonal entries, so Tr(X) ≥ 0 if X ≥ 0. Further, it is cyclic; namely, for all X, Y ∈ MN (C), (5.2) yields Tr(XY ) =

N

Ψi | XY |Ψi =

i=1

=

N

N

Ψi | X |Ψj Ψj | Y |Ψi

i,j=1

Ψj | Y |Ψi Ψi | X |Ψj = Tr(Y X) .

(5.20)

i,j=1

Using the trace, one constructs the following map from MN (C) onto R+ , · 1 : X → X1 := Tr|X| =

N

xi ,

(5.21)

i=1

where xj are the singular values of X (see (5.16)). This map vanishes only if X = 0; also, from (5.4) and (5.16) it follows that |Tr(Y X)| ≤

N

xi | Ψi | Y U |Ψi | ≤ Y X1

(5.22)

i=1

|TrX| = |Tr(U |X|)| ≤ X1 X + Z1 = Tr(U † (X + Z)) ≤ X1 + Z1 .

(5.23) (5.24)

Therefore, · 1 is a norm on MN (C) called trace-norm. If extended to B(H) with H inﬁnite dimensional, the trace selects the linear subspace B1 (H) ⊂ B(H) of trace-class operators: B1 (H) := X ∈ B(H) : X1 < ∞ . If X ∈ B1 (H) then, by the polar decomposition X = n xn | φn ψn |,√where † {φn } and {ψn } are two ONB in H, xn are the eigenvalues ∞ of |X| = X X and the sum converges in trace-norm; also, X1 = i=1 xi .

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Then, inequality (5.22) holds with Y ∈ B(H), X ∈ B1 (H), (5.23) and (5.24) with X, Z ∈ B1 (H). The trace-class operators thus form a ∗-algebra 3 ; B1 (H) is also closed with respect to the trace-norm and thus a Banach ∗algebra, without identity in inﬁnite dimension for Tr(1l) diverges [251, 270] .

Example 5.2.4. [64] Any X ∈ B(H) deﬁnes a linear functional FX : B1 (H) → C ,

ρ → FX (ρ) := Tr(X ρ)

∀ ρ ∈ B1 (H) ,

on B1 (H) which is bounded for |FX (ρ)| ≤ X ρ1 . Therefore, B(H) can be identiﬁed with a subspace of B1 (H)∗ , the topological dual of B1 (H), that is the (Banach) space consisting of all continuous linear functionals on B1 (H). Actually, B(H) = B1 (H)∗ . Indeed, let F ∈ B1 (H)∗ and consider the bounded operator | φ ψ | with φ , ψ ∈ H not necessarily normalized. It is also traceclass; indeed, set Pψ := | ψ ψ |/ψ2 ; then,

? φ2 ψ2 Pψ = φ ψ . | φ ψ |1 = Tr It thus follows that |F (| φ ψ |)| ≤ F φ ψ for all φ, ψ ∈ H. Therefore, each F ∈ B1 (H)∗ deﬁnes a so-called sesquilinear form on H × H, linear in the ﬁrst argument, antilinear in the second one and continuous with respect to both. Consequently, there exists an unique operator XF ∈ B(H) such that F (| φ ψ |) = ψ | XF |φ for all φ, ψ ∈ H. Before proving this fact, we draw the conclusion; as already noticed, any ρ ∈ B1 (H) can be written as ρ = n rn | φn ψn | with the possibly inﬁnite sum converging in trace-norm; thus, B1 (H)∗ ⊆ B(H) for F (ρ) = rn F (| φn ψn |) = rn ψn | XF |φn = Tr(XF ρ) . n

n

The property of sesquilinear forms used above comes as follows: if f : H → C is a continuous linear functional on H, that is |f (ψ)| ≤ f ψ, then Ker(f ) is closed. Assume Ker(f ) = H; if φ ∈ Ker(f )⊥ , φ = 1, then f (φ) = 0 and Ker(f ) | χ := f (φ)| ψ − f (ψ)| φ =⇒ f (ψ) = φ | ψ , where | φ := f (φ)| φ . It is easily seen that this vector is unique and that f = |f (φ)|. Given a continuous sesquilinear form f : H × H → C, for each ﬁxed ψ ∈ H it deﬁnes a continuous linear functional fψ : H → H; therefore, there exists a unique | χψ ∈ H such that f (φ, ψ) = fψ (φ) = χψ | φ . This allows to deﬁne a linear operator Xf† ∈ B(H) such that Xf† | ψ = | χψ and, whence f (φ, ψ) = ψ | Xf |φ . B1 (H) is a two-sided ideal, namely Y X, Y X ∈ B1 (H) whenever X ∈ B1 (H) and Y ∈ B(H). 3

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

155

Remark 5.2.3. As B(H) is the dual of B1 (H) it can be equipped with the corresponding w∗ -topology (see Remark 5.1.1.5); namely, any ρ ∈ B1 (H) deﬁnes a linear functional B(H) X → Eρ (X) := Tr(Xρ). The w∗-topology on B(H) is the coarsest one with respect to which all semi-norms Lρ (X) := |Tr(ρ X)| are continuous. By comparing these semi-norms with those in (5.9), it turns out that the w∗ topology coincides with the σ-weak topology. Hilbert-Schmidt Operators A second norm on MN (C), also based on the trace, is given by 8 9N 9 2 x2i . · 2 : X → X2 := Tr|X| = :

(5.25)

i=1

It is called Hilbert-Schmidt norm; unlike the trace-norm, it originates from a (Hilbert-Schmidt) scalar product MN (C) × MN (C) (Y, X) → Tr(Y † X) .

(5.26)

that satisﬁes |Tr(Y † X)| ≤ Y 2 X2 . In fact, using (5.16) and (5.1), 8 8 9N N N 9 9 9 : † † 2 xi Ψi | Y U |Ψi ≤ xi : | Ψj | Y † U |Ψj |2 |Tr(Y X)| ≤ i=1

i=1

j=1

8 9N 9 ≤ X2 : Ψj | Y † U | Ψj Ψj |U † Y |Ψj ≤ X2 Y 2 ,

(5.27)

j=1

for U | Ψj Ψj |U † ≤ 1l. When deﬁned on B(H) with H inﬁnite-dimensional, the Hilbert-Schmidt norm singles out the linear subspace B2 (H) of HilbertSchmidt operators B2 (H) := X ∈ B(H) : X2 < ∞ . ∞ 2 If X ∈ B2 (H), X2 = i=1 xi , with xi the singular values of X. Then, inequality (5.27) holds with X, Y ∈ B2 (H), respectively Y ∈ B(H), X ∈ B2 (H). B2 (H) is also close with respect to ·2 and thus a Banach ∗-subalgebra of B(H) (actually also a two-sided ideal as B1 (H)) without identity in the inﬁnite dimensional case for 1l2 diverges [251, 270]. Example 5.2.5. Let Fj , j = 1, 2, . . . , N 2 , be a set of N ×N matrices, orthogonal with respect to (5.26), Tr(Fj† Fk ) = δjk : they form an ONB in MN (C). Indeed, as a Hilbert space equipped with (5.26), MN (C) has dimension N 2 , therefore, for all X ∈ MN (C),

156

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom 2

MN (C) X =

N

Tr(X Fj† ) Fj .

(5.28)

j=1

Consider the linear map TrN : MN (C) → MN (C) deﬁned by MN (C) X → TrN [X] := Tr(X) 1lN .

(5.29)

N We shall refer to it as trace map. Choose an ONB {| α }N α=1 in C ; the 2 N matrix units Eαβ := | α β | also form an ONB in MN (C). Thus, there N 2 must exist a unitary matrix U ∈ MN 2 (C) such that Eαβ = i=1 Uαβ,i Fi . Therefore, the trace-map can be recast as

TrN [X] =

N

2

Eβα X Eαβ =

N N i,j=1

α,β=1

∗ Uαβ,i Uαβ,j Fi† X Fj

α,β=1 γ,δ=1

2

=

N

Fi† X Fi .

(5.30)

i=1

Remark 5.2.4. The uniform, trace and Hilbert-Schmidt norms are all equivalent on ﬁnite-dimensional H and thus deﬁne equivalent topologies with the same converging sequences. Indeed, given X ∈ MN (C) its norm coincides with its largest singular values, X = max1≤i≤N xi , then √ X ≤ X1 , X1 ≤ N X , X ≤ X2 , X2 ≤ N X . Also, X2 ≤ X1 for the sum of squares of positive numbers is smaller that the square of their sum; while from (5.1), 8 8 9N 9N N 9 9 √ : 2 xi ≤ 1 : x2j = N X2 . X1 = i=1

i=1

j=1

However, the trace and Hilbert-Schmidt norms are not C ∗ norms; indeed, for any N ∈ N, 8 8 9N 9N N N 9 9 † † : 2 xi = xi , X X2 = : x4i = x2i . X X1 = i=1

i=1

i=1

i=1

Therefore, the trace-class and Hilbert-Schmidt operators form Banach ∗algebras but not C ∗ algebras.

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

157

5.2.2 Positive and Completely Positive Maps Physical transformations of quantum systems are described by linear maps acting either on their observables or on their states. As already seen in the classical case, these two possibilities are dual to each other; in the ﬁrst case states are not aﬀected, in the second one, states change while the observables do not. The physically relevant request is that mean values do not depend on which of the two ways they are calculated. In the classical setting, states must change while preserving their ultimate characteristic of being probability distributions; the maps which describe classical state transformations must thus be positivity preserving. In quantum mechanics things are more complicated and intriguing; it is indeed necessary to sharpen the notion of positive linear transformation. This latter is as follows. Deﬁnition 5.2.1 (Positive Maps). A linear map Λ : B(H) → B(H) is positive if and only if B(H) X ≥ 0 =⇒ B(H) Λ[X] ≥ 0. Given a positive linear map Λ, one can always lift it to act on the operatorvalued algebras MN (B(H)) as ⎛ ⎞ Λ[X11 ]· · · · Λ[X1N ] · ··· · ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (5.31) idN ⊗ Λ : [Xij ] → [Λ[Xij ]] = ⎜ · ··· · ⎟ . ⎝ ⎠ · ··· · Λ[XN 1 ] · · · Λ[XN N ] One may then ask whether idN ⊗ Λ is positive, too. Deﬁnition 5.2.2 (Completely Positive Maps). A linear map Λ : B(H) → B(H) is N -positive if and only if idN ⊗ Λ : MN (B(H)) → MN (B(H)) is positive; Λ is completely positive (CP) if and only if it is N -positive for all N . A linear map Λ : B(H) → B(H) is called a CPU map when it is CP and also unital, that is Λ[1l] = 1l. Examples 5.2.6. 1. Positive maps are hermiticity-preserving, for Λ[X † ] = Λ[X]† . Indeed, any X ∈ B(H) can be decomposed into Hermitian components, X = X + X† X − X† +i . In turn, X1,2 can be decomposed into positive com2 2i X1

X2

+ − ± ponents X1,2 = X1,2 − X1,2 , X1,2 :=

|X1,2 | ± X1,2 . Thus, 2

Λ[X]† = Λ[X1+ ] − Λ[X1− ] − i Λ[X2+ ] + i Λ[X2− ] = Λ[X1 − i X2 ] = Λ[X † ] .

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

2. Positivity corresponds to 1-positivity; complete positivity is stronger for there are positive maps which are not 2-positive, a renown example being transposition T2 : M2 (C) → M2 (C), T2 [X] = X T , with respect to a ﬁxed ONB. We shall consider the N -dimensional case: TN is positive for transposition does not aﬀect the spectrum of a matrix, but the partial transposition idN ⊗ TN is not positive, whence TN is not N -positive and thus not CP . This can be seen by considering the positive matrix = [Eij ] of Example 5.2.3.9. Then, E = N idN ⊗ TN [P+N ] = V := idN ⊗ TN [E]

N

| i j | ⊗ | j i |

(5.32)

i,j=1

acts as a ﬂip operator on CN ⊗ CN , that is V | ψ ⊗ | φ = | φ ⊗ | ψ . Since V has eigenvalue 1 on the N (N + 1)/2 dimensional subspace of symmetric states and −1 on the N (N − 1)/2 dimensional subspace of anti-symmetric states, it is not positive and TN not N -positive, hence not completely positive. 3. CPU maps satisfy the inequality Λ[X † X] ≥ Λ[X † ]Λ[X] ≥ 0 . In fact, from Example 5.2.3.8 it turns out that

1l X 1l 0 1l X = ≥0, X † X †X X† 0 0 0

(5.33)

∀ X ∈ B(H) .

Since Λ is CPU , it follows that

1l X 1l Λ[X] = ≥0, id2 ⊗ Λ X † X †X Λ[X † ] Λ[X † X] whence, because of the previous point, and using Example 5.2.3.7,

1l Λ[X] Λ[X] † = Λ[X † X] − Λ[X † ]Λ[X] ( Λ[X] −1l ) Λ[X † ] Λ[X † X] −1l ≥0. 4. CPU maps are contractions: since B(H) X † X ≤ X2 , positivity, unitality and (5.33) yield Λ[X]† Λ[X] ≤ Λ[X † X] ≤ X2 , whence Λ[X] ≤ X. 5. Let B ⊆ A a C ∗ subalgebra of a C ∗ algebra A, both assumed with identity, the map ıBA : B → A denotes the natural embedding of B into A; according to Examples 5.2.3.7 and 8, embeddings are CPU maps. Indeed, for all Ai ∈ A, Bj ∈ B and N ∈ N, N i,j=1

A†i ıBA [Bi† Bj ] Aj = Z † Z ≥ 0 .

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

159

6. If A and B are C ∗ algebras (with identity) and A is Abelian, then any map Λ : A → B is CP . In order to check whether n positive † † i,j=1 Yi Λ[Xi Xj ]Yj ≥ 0 for all Xi,j ∈ A, Yi,j ∈ B and n ∈ N we use that Yi,j and Λ[Xi† Xj ] can be identiﬁed with functions f (x) ∈ C(X ) over a compact topological space X . Then n

Yi† Λ[Xi† Xj ]Yj (x) = Yi∗ (x)Λ[Xi† Xj ](x)Yj (x)

n i,j=1

i,j=1

= Λ[Zx† Zx ](x) ≥ 0 , n where Zx := i=1 Yi (x) Xi ∈ A for all x ∈ X . 7. If A and B are C ∗ algebras with identity and B is Abelian, then any positive map Λ : A → B is CP . We take B = B(H) and check whether n † i,j=1 ψi | Λ[Xi Xj ] |ψj ≥ 0 for all ψi ∈ H, n ∈ N and Xi ∈ A identiﬁed with functions in C(X ). By duality, ΛT [| ψj ψi |] gives a complex measure on X such that n n †

ψi | Λ[Xi Xj ] |ψj = dμij (x) Xi∗ (x)Xj (x) ≥ 0 . i,j=1

i,j=1

Indeed, for all ci ∈ C and | Ψ := n i,j=1

c∗i cj

X

dμi,j (x) =

n

n

X

i=1 ci | ψi

,

ψi | Λ[1l] |ψj = Ψ | Λ[1l] |Ψ ≥ 0 .

i,j=1

In order to ascertain whether a linear map is completely positive, it seems necessary to check N -positivity for all N ∈ N. Luckily, the following result [82, 83] shows that N -positive maps Λ : MN (C) → B(H) are automatically CP . Theorem 5.2.1 (Choi). A linear map Λ : MN (C) → B(H) is CP if and ≥ 0, where E is the matrix introduced in Example 5.2.3.9. only if idN ⊗ Λ[E] ≥ 0; thus the “only” if part follows Proof: As seen in Example 5.2.3.9, E from the fact that if Λ is CP it is N -positive (see Deﬁnition 5.2.2). As regards the “if” part, in order to check that Λ N -positive implies Λ ≥ 0 for all CP , we choose M ∈ N arbitrary and show that idM ⊗ Λ[X] ≥ 0. Using Example 5.2.3.8, it is suﬃcient to show that M (C) ⊗ B(H) X M M † † i,j=1 Yi Λ[Xi Xj ]Yj ≥ 0 for all choices of Yi ∈ B(H) and Xi ∈ MN (C). N Then, by writing Xi = k, =1 x ik Ek ∈ MN (C), from the assumed positivity of [Λ[Eij ]]N i,j=1 and Example 5.2.3.7 it turns out that

160

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom M

Yi†

Λ[Xi† Xj ] Yj

=

i,j=1

M

N k, ,s=1

† xik Yi

Λ[E s ]

i=1

M

xjks Yj

j=1

Zks

=

N N

† Zk Λ[E s ] Zks ≥ 0 ,

k=1 ,s=1

whence Λ is M -positive for all M ∈ N and thus CP .

∈ MN (MM (C)) associated Remark 5.2.5. The matrix XΛ := idN ⊗ Λ[E] with any linear map Λ : MN (C) → MM (C) is known as Choi matrix. Theorem 5.2.1 can then be rephrased as: Λ : MN (C) → MM (C) is CP if and only if its Choi matrix is positive. (N ) (M ) Vice versa, let X = i,j;s,r Xis,jr Eij ⊗ Ers be an N M × N M ma(N )

(M )

trix, where Eij and Ers denote the matrix units in MN (C), respectively MM (C). The map ΛX : MN (C) → MM (C) deﬁned by linear extension of (N )

Eij

(N )

→ ΛX [Eij ] :=

M

(M ) Esr Xis,jr ,

(5.34)

r,s=1

is such that its Choi matrix is X. Denoting by L(N, M ) the linear space of linear maps Λ : MN (C) → MM (C), the one-to-one relation L(N, M ) Λ ←→ X ∈ MN M (C) is known as Jamiolkowski isomorphism [158]. If a map Λ : MN (C) → B(H) is only positive, its Choi matrix cannot be positive, but only block positive, namely only its mean values relative to product states in CN ⊗ H are surely non-negative. Proposition 5.2.1. A linear map Λ : MN (C) → B(H) is positive if and only |ψ ⊗ φ ≥ 0 for all ψ ∈ CN and φ ∈ H. if ψ ⊗ φ | idN ⊗ Λ[E] Proof: Positive matrices can be written as sums of projectors with positive coeﬃcients, thus, according to Deﬁnition 5.2.1, Λ : MN (C) → B(H) is positive if and only if φ | Λ[| ψ ψ |] |φ ≥ 0 for all φ ∈ H and ψ ∈ CN . But,

φ | Λ[| ψ ψ |] |φ =

N1

ψ ∗ (i)ψ(j) φ | Λ[Eij ] |φ2

i,j=1

= ψ∗ ⊗ φ |

N

Eij ⊗ Λ[Eij ] |ψ ∗ ⊗ φ

i,j=1

|ψ ∗ ⊗ φ , = ψ ⊗ φ | idN ⊗ Λ[E] ∗

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

where | ψ ∗ = Eij = | i j |.

N i=1

161

ψ ∗ (i)| i with respect to the ﬁxed ONB in CN such that

In ﬁnite dimension the structure of CP maps can be made explicit by means of the Hilbert-structure inherited by MN (C) from the Hilbert-Schmidt scalar product (5.26). Examples 5.2.7. 1. Consider the linear space L(N, N ) of linear maps Λ : MN (C) → MN (C); it can be given a Hilbert space structure by means of the Hilbert-Schmidt scalar product of their Choi matrices,

† idN ⊗ Λ2 [E] . << Λ1 |Λ2 >>:= Tr idN ⊗ Λ1 [E] 2

Consider an ONB {Fi }N i=1 in MN (C) and the maps Φij ∈ L(N, N ), deﬁned by Φij [X] := Fi† X Fj . They satisfy << Φij | Φk >>= δik δj and therefore form an ONB in L(N, N ), whence 2

Λ=

N

Lij Fi† X Fj ,

Lij :=<< Φij | Λ >>= Tr(Fi† Λ[Fj ]) , (5.35)

i,j=1

for all Λ ∈ L(N, N ). If Λ preserves hermiticity, the N 2 × N 2 matrix of coN 2 ∗ eﬃcients Λij is Hermitian and can be diagonalized, Lij = k=1 k Vki Vkj . Suppose the eigenvalues k are positive, then 2

Λ[X] =

N

G†k X Gk ,

Gk :=

2

k

N

Vkj Fj .

(5.36)

j=1

k=1

Using Example 5.2.3.8, maps Γ ∈ L(N, N ) of the form Γ [X] = G† X G are easily proved to be CP . Therefore, linear maps Λ : MN (C) → MN (C) N of the form (5.36) are CP and CPU if k=1 G†k Gk = 1lN . Notice that the decomposition (5.36) is highly non-unique; another possible decomposition is indeed provided by (5.35) if the matrix [Lij ] is positive. 2. Let TrN : MN (C) → MN (C) be the trace map of Example 5.2.5 and consider the reduction map [151] Λ : MN (C) → MN (C), Λ[X] = TrN [X] − X .

(5.37)

Λ is positive, but not CP ; positivity follows since, if X ≥ 0, TrN [X] is not smaller than any of the eigenvalues of X. On the other hand, using (5.17), = 1lN 2 − N PN ; it has the Choi matrix of Λ turns out to be idN ⊗ Λ[E] + a negative eigenvalue 1 − N , whence Λ cannot be CP .

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

3. The transposition TN : MN (C) → MN (C) is the paradigm of a map which is positive but not CP (as it is not N -positive); by combining TN with Λ in (5.37), Λ := Λ ◦ TN : MN (C) → MN (C) is CP . Indeed, E] = idN ⊗ Λ[V ] = 1lN 2 − V ≥ 0, for the eigenvalues using (5.32), idN ⊗ Λ[ of the ﬂip operator are ±1. The next two results [287, 180] show that the CP maps are completely characterized by a structure as in (5.36). Theorem 5.2.2 (Stinespring Dilation). A unital map Λ : B(H) → B(K) is CPU if and only if there exists a triplet (KΛ , πΛ (B(K)), VΛ ), where KΛ is a Hilbert space, VΛ : K → KΛ an isometry and πΛ : B(H) → B(KΛ ) a representation of B(H) on KΛ such that Λ[X] = VΛ† πΛ (X) VΛ .

(5.38)

The triplet (KΛ , πΛ (B(K)), VΛ ) is unique up to unitary equivalences. Proof: If Λ has the form (5.38) with VΛ† VΛ = 1lK , Example 5.2.3.8 shows that Λ is CPU . To prove the converse, consider the linear span of all elements of the form X ⊗ ψ, X ∈ B(H) and ψ ∈ H, A @ Xi ⊗ ψi : Xi ∈ B(H) , ψi ∈ H B := i

and the bilinear form · | · Λ : B × B → C deﬁned by (X ⊗ ψ, Y ⊗ φ) → X ⊗ ψ | Y ⊗ φ Λ := ψ | Λ[X † Y ] |φ .

(5.39)

If Λ is CP , this bilinear form is positive on B × B (see Example 5.2.3.7),

N i=1

Xi ⊗ ψi |

N j=1

N

Xj ⊗ ψj Λ =

ψi | Λ[Xi† Xj ] |ψj

i,j=1

= ψ |

N

Eij ⊗ Λ[Eij ] |ψ ≥ 0

∀N ∈ N .

i,j=1

By considering the quotient of B by the kernel of the bilinear form, (5.39) gives a scalar product on the linear span BΛ := B/Kern( · | · Λ ) of the equivalence classes [X ⊗ ψ] (see the discussion after Deﬁnition 5.3.5). Set KΛ equal to the closure of BΛ with respect to the scalar product · | · Λ and let πΛ represent B(H) on KΛ by πΛ (X)[Y ⊗ φ] = [XY ⊗ φ]. Then, the linear maps VΛ : K → KΛ and VΛ† : KΛ → K, VΛ | φ = [1l ⊗ φ] ,

VΛ† [X ⊗ φ] = Λ[X]| φ ,

deﬁne an isometry (Λ is CPU) and VΛ† π(X)VΛ | φ = VΛ† [X ⊗ φ] = Λ[X]| φ for all φ ∈ H.

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

163

Example 5.2.8. That CPU maps are contractions (see Example 5.2.6.4) comes easily from Stinespring dilation. In fact, VΛ is an isometry, thus VΛ VΛ† ≤ 1l, whence Λ[X † X] = VΛ† πΛ [X † ]πΛ [X]VΛ ≥ VΛ† πΛ [X † ]VΛ VΛ† πΛ [X]VΛ = Λ[X]† Λ[X] . Proposition 5.2.1 (Kraus Representation). Λ : B(H) → B(K)) is CPU if and only if it admits a Kraus representation of the form † Λ[X] = Gj X Gj , (5.40) j

where the Kraus operators Gj : K → H are such that, if inﬁnite, the sum converges in the strong-operator topology. Proof: The Stinespring representation is of the form B(H) ⊗ 1lK on H ⊗ K, Given an ONB for a ﬁnite dimensional or countably inﬁnite Hilbert space K. and its adjoint V † : H ⊗ K → K the isometry VΛ : K → H ⊗ K {| j } in K, Λ read VΛ | φ = Gj | φ ⊗ | j , VΛ† | ψ ⊗ φ

j | φ Gj | ψ , j

with Gj : K → H and

j

j

G†j Gj = 1lK .

Remarks 5.2.6. 1. Using (5.36), the composition of CPU maps results in a CPU map. Indeed, let Λ12 : B(H1 ) → B(H2 ), Λ12 [X] = j G†12 (j) X G12 (j), X ∈ B(H1 ), and Λ23 : B(H2 ) → B(H3 ), Λ23 [Y ] = k G†23 (k) Y G23 (k), Y ∈ B(H2 ), then, † Λ23 ◦ Λ12 [X] = G13 (jk) X G13 (jk) , j,k

with new Kraus operators G13 (jk) := G12 (j)G23 (k). 2. Let Λ : B(H) → B(H) be CPU and T the transposition with respect to a ﬁxed ONB in H; while BΛ ◦ T need not CPU , T ◦ Λ ◦ T surely is; indeed, C be † T T ◦ Λ ◦ T[X] = j T Gj [X ] Gj = j GTj X G∗j , with T[X] =: X T , X ∈ B(H), the transposed of X and X ∗ := (X † )T its conjugate. 3. In full generality, a CPU map Λ : B(H) → B(K) has the form Λ[X] = Cij L†i X Lj , i,j

with i,j Cij L†i Lj = 1lK and C = [Cij ] a positive matrix, from which the diagonal Kraus representation is achieved by diagonalization as in Example 5.2.7.

164

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

4. While the structure of completely positive maps is fully under control, it is not so for positive maps which are still somewhat elusive. For instance, if the coeﬃcients matrix C = [Cij ] is Hermitian but not positive, by grouping together its positive and negative eigenvalues, ck , Λ can always be written as the diﬀerence of two CP maps, Λ[X] = ck G†k X Gk − |ck | G†k X Gk . (5.41) ck ≥0

ck <0

2

For instance, let {Fi }N i=1 be a Hilbert-Schmidt ONB in MN (C) with F1 = 1lN /N ; using (5.30), the reduction map in Example 5.2.7.2, which N2 1

is positive, but not CP , reads Λ[X] = −1 X + Fi† X Fi . N2 i=2 If there are no negative ck , then Λ is completely positive; if not, no general rule exists to deduce from the ck whether Λ is a positive map. Conditional Expectations Particularly important CPU maps are the so-called conditional expectations which are the non-commutative counterparts of the Radon-Nikodym derivative in (2.51). Deﬁnition 5.2.3. [117] A positive, unital linear map E : A → B ⊆ A where A and B are C ∗ algebras with identity is a conditional expectation of A onto B if E[AB] = E[A]B for all A ∈ A and B ∈ B. Proposition 5.2.2. Conditional expectations enjoy the following properties: E[A]† = E[A† ]

∀A∈A

E[BA] = BE[A] E◦E = E E[A† A] ≥ E[A]† E[A] E = 1 .

(5.42)

∀ A ∈ A, B ∈ B

(5.43) (5.44)

∀A∈A

(5.45) (5.46)

Further, E is a CPU map. Proof: Property (5.42) comes from positivity as in Example 5.2.6.1; property (5.43) is a consequence of (5.42): E[BA] = E[(BA)† ]† = E[A† B † ]† = (E[A† ]B † )† = BE[A] . Property (5.44) follows from E[1lE[A]] = E[A] for all A ∈ A; in order to prove property (5.45) consider A − E[A] and use positivity and (5.43), then

5.2 C ∗ Algebras

165

0 ≤ E[(A − E[A])† (A − E[A])] = E[A† A] − E[A]† E[A] . Property (5.46) results from the previous property and positivity: A† A ≤ 1lA2 =⇒ E[A]† E[A] ≤ E[A† A] ≤ A2 . Complete positivity is a consequence of (5.43) which yields E[B1 AB2 ] = B1 E[A]B2

∀ B1,2 ∈ B , A ∈ A .

Therefore, from Examples 5.2.3.7 and 8, N

Bi† E[A†i Aj ] Bj =

i,j=1

N

E[Bi† A†i Aj Bj ] = E[Z † Z] ≥ 0 ,

i,j=1

for all Bi ∈ B, Aj ∈ A and N ∈ N, where Z :=

N j=1

Aj Bj .

Because of the properties 3 and 5, conditional expectations are also called projections of norm one. Remark 5.2.7. In case A is a von Neumann algebra and A0 ⊆ A a von Neumann subalgebra, one call conditional expectations all projections of norm one which are also normal. This latter property of linear maps Λ : A1 → A2 between von Neumann algebras amounts to the following [64]. Let {Aμ }μ be an increasing net of operators in A, that is a set of operators indexed by a set of indexes μ ∈ M equipped with a partial ordering such that μ1 μ2 =⇒ Aμ1 ≤ Aμ2 . If the net {Aμ }μ has an upper bound, then it has a least upper bound A ∈ A to which the net converges strongly: s − limμ Aμ = A. Then, Λ is normal if for all nets {Aμ }μ with an upper bound limμ Λ[Aμ ] = Λ[limμ Aμ ]. Examples 5.2.9. 1. Let {Pi }i∈I ∈ B(H) be orthogonal projections Pi Pj = δij Pi such that P = 1 l, then E[X] := P i∈I i i∈I i X Pi is a conditional expectation from B(H) onto the Abelian subalgebra Pgenerated by the Pi . Indeed, it is positive, linear and writing P P = j∈I pj Pj , it turns out that E[XP ] =

i,j∈I

pj Pi XPj Pi =

pi Pi XPi = E[X]P .

i∈I

2. Consider two ﬁnite-level systems A and B described by matrix algebras DA denote the normalized trace map Mna (C), respectively Mnb (C); let Tr performed with respect to party A, namely DA (XA ) := 1 TrA (XA ) 1lA . Tr na

(5.47)

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

A linear map from the matrix algebra Mna (C)⊗Mnb (C) of the compound system A + B onto the subalgebra 1lA ⊗ Mnb (C) is obtained by deﬁning DA (XA ) ⊗ XB E[XA ⊗ XB ] := Tr

∀ A ∈ Mna (C) B ∈ Mnb (C)

on tensor products and then by extending it by linearity and continuity to the whole ofMna (C) ⊗ Mnb (C). Any 0 ≤ X ∈ Mna (C) ⊗ Mnb (C) can j i † B ) XA ⊗ Eij by means of a system of matrix units be written as i (XA B nb {Eij }i,j=1 in Mnb (C) (see Examples 5.2.3.7 and 8). Thus, one veriﬁes that E is a positive linear map; indeed,

ΨB | E[X] |ΨB =

nb

DA Tr

/ 0†

j i B XA

ΨB | Eij XA |ΨB

i,j=1

=

1 † TrA (YA ) YA ≥ 0 , na

nb j ΨBj XA with ΨBj the j-th component of | ΨB ∈ Cnb where YA := j=1 along the ONB associated chosen matrix units. By writing the the nwith nb a A B A nA identity matrix 1lA+B = i=1 j=1 Eii ⊗ Ejj where {Eij }i,j=1 is a system of matrix units in Mna (C), one shows that E[1lA+B ] = 1lA+B , whence E is unital. Furthermore, X ∈ Mna (C) ⊗ Mnb (C) can be written as any in the form X = XA ⊗ XB , it turns out that DA (XA Tr ) ⊗ XB XB = E[X]XB , E[X XB ] =

whence E is a conditional expectation from Mna (C) ⊗ Mnb (C) onto 1lA ⊗ Mnb (C).

5.3 von Neumann Algebras In this section, we consider in detail some techniques proper to von Neumann algebras which are C ∗ subalgebras of B(H) that are also closed with respect to the strong and weak topologies [64, 293, 300]. ∗ ∗ Deﬁnition 5.3.1. The commutant of a C algebra A ⊆B(H) is the C algebra B(H) ⊇ A := X ∈ B(H) : [X , X] = 0 ∀ X ∈ A , the bicommutant the C ∗ algebra B(H) A := X ∈ B(H) : [X , X ] = 0 ∀ X ∈ A .

Remark 5.3.1. Beside being C ∗ algebras, commutants and bicommutants are also closed with respect to both the strong and weak topology. Indeed, if

5.3 von Neumann Algebras

167

X = (s, w) − limn→∞ Xn with [Xn , X] = 0 for all X ∈ A, then, because of the continuity of the scalar product,

ψ | [X , X] |φ = lim ψ | [X , Xn ] |φ = 0 n→∞

for all ψ, φ ∈ H, whence X ∈ A . Therefore, A and A contain all those operators that can be constructed from operators in A via strong-limits and weak-limits. In particular, A and A contain the spectral projectors of any of their self-adjoint and unitary elements. Examples 5.3.1. 1. If A ⊆ A , all its elements commute with each other and A is an Abelian C ∗ algebra, maximally Abelian if A = A . 2. The center of A is the Abelian C ∗ algebra Z := A ∩ A . 3. Of the commutative algebras of section 2.2.1, the C ∗ algebra of continuous functions, C(X ), is not maximally Abelian since it is properly contained within the C ∗ algebra of essentially bounded functions, L∞ μ (X ); the latter is instead maximally Abelian [293]. 4. If A = B(H), only multiples of the identity operator can commute with all bounded operators on H, that is B(H) = {1l}, the trivial algebra. On the contrary, {1l} = B(H) = B(H). The same is true for the C ∗ algebra of compact operators A = B∞ (H), A = {1l} for the identity is the only operator on H which commute with all ﬁnite-rank ones; however, unlike for B(H), B∞ (H) ⊂ B(H) = B∞ (H) in inﬁnite dimension. 5. Consider the operator-valued matrix algebra MN (A) consisting of N × N matrices with entries from a C ∗ algebra A ⊆ B(H). Let 1lN ⊗A ⊂ MN (A) be the subalgebra whose elements have the 1lN ⊗ X, X ∈ A. The C form B N N request that 1lN ⊗ X , ij=1 Eij ⊗ Xij = ij=1 Eij ⊗ [X , Xij ] = 0 for all X ∈ A with Xij ∈ B(H), implies (1lN ⊗ A) = MN (A ). The bicommutant (1lN ⊗A) can be identiﬁed by imposing that, for all X ∈ A and 1 ≤ k ≤ N , N

B C Ekj ⊗ X Xkj − Ejk ⊗ Xjk X = 0 , Ekk ⊗ X , Y = j=1

N where Y = ij=1 Eij ⊗ Xij ∈ MN (B(H)). This forces Y to be of the B C N form Y = = k=1 Ekk ⊗ Xkk with Xkk ∈ A . Finally, Eij ⊗ 1l , Y Eij ⊗ (Xjj − Xii ) = 0 for all i, j = 1, 2, . . . , N , yields Xii = X for all i, whence (1l ⊗ A) = 1lN ⊗ A . 6. Given ψ ∈ H, let HA ψ ⊆ H be the closure of the linear span of vectors of the form X| ψ , X ∈ A, with A ⊆ B(H) a C ∗ algebra, and by PψA : H → HA ψ A the corresponding orthogonal projector. Since AHA ⊆ H , it follows ψ ψ

168

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

that PψA X PψA = X PψA for all X ∈ A, whence, by taking the adjoint X PψA = PψA X PψA = (PψA X † PψA )† = (X † PψA )† = PψA X for all X ∈ A. Therefore, PψA ∈ A and PψA ∈ A for all ψ ∈ H. Deﬁnition 5.3.2. A vector ψ ∈ H is cyclic for a C ∗ algebra A ⊆ B(H) if HA ψ = H, separating if X| ψ = 0 ⇐⇒ X = 0 for all X ∈ A. Being cyclic and separating are related properties; indeed, suppose ψ ∈ H to be cyclic for a C ∗ algebra with identity A ⊆ B(H) and X | ψ = 0 for X ∈ A . Then, 0 = A X | ψ = X A| ψ , whence X = 0 for cyclicity of ψ ∈ H amounts to A| ψ being dense in H. Vice versa, suppose ψ to be separating for A , but not cyclic for A; then, A 1l − PψA = 0, but PψA | ψ = | ψ since we assumed 1l ∈ A, which is a contradiction. Lemma 5.3.1. Let A ⊆ B(H) be a C ∗ algebra with identity; then ψ ∈ H is cyclic for A if and only if it is separating for A . Cyclicity refers to the possibility that, by acting on some vectors with all the operators of a given algebra, one gets a dense subspace whose closure is the whole Hilbert space. This is the case with the vector | 1l ∈ L2μ (X ) in the Koopman-von Neumann formulation of classical mechanics (see Example 2.1.1). By acting on | 1l with the simple functions, one gets a dense linear span, whose closure is the whole of L2μ (X ). The same is true using continuous functions f ∈ C(X ) or essentially bounded functions g ∈ L∞ μ (X ). Diﬀerently, if a vector ψ ∈ H is not cyclic for A ⊆ B(H), then PψA projects onto a proper A-invariant subspace HA Ψ ⊂ H. The absence of proper invariant subspaces with respect to A is related to the triviality of the commutant A .

Deﬁnition 5.3.3 (Irreducible Algebras). A C ∗ algebra A ⊆ B(H) is irreducible if only H if all ψ ∈ H are cyclic for it. Lemma 5.3.2. A C ∗ algebra A ⊆ B(H) is irreducible if and only if A = {1l}. Proof: If A = {1l} then PψA = 1l for all ψ ∈ H. If all ψ ∈ H are cyclic for A and A = {1l}, then, according to Remark 5.3.1, there exists a projection A Q = 1l. Therefore, if Q| ψ = | ψ , then QA| ψ = A| ψ ; thus, the closure of A| ψ cannot equal H. Given the commutant and bicommutant of a C ∗ algebra A ⊆ B(H), we can continue and consider the commutant of the bicommutant and so on.

5.3 von Neumann Algebras

169

Notice that, if A ⊆ B are two C ∗ algebras acting on H, then B ⊆ A . Thus, from A ⊆ A it follows that A ⊆ A ; however, A ⊆ (A ) = A , whence A ⊆ A = Aiv = Avi = · · · ,

A = A = Av = Avii = · · · .

(5.48)

The closure properties of commutants and bicommutants discussed in Remark 5.3.1 are typical of Deﬁnition 5.3.4 (von Neumann Algebras). A C ∗ algebra A ⊆ B(H) is called a von Neumann algebra if A = A . In the following, we shall employ the symbol M to denote von Neumann algebras, while keeping A for C ∗ algebras which are not von Neumann algebras. von Neumann algebras M with center (see Example 5.3.1.2) Z = M ∩ M = {λ1l} consisting of multiples of the identity are called factors. Theorem 5.3.1 (von Neumann Bicommutant Theorem). A C ∗ algebra A ⊆ B(H) with identity 1l, is a von Neumann algebra if and only if it is strongly and weakly closed. Proof: As the bicommutant A is the commutant of the commutant it is strongly and weakly closed. Let Aw , As denote the weak and strong closures of A; the strong topology is ﬁner than the weak one, thus As ⊆ Aw ⊆ A (see Remark 5.1.1.3). Therefore, we need only show that if A = As then A = A ; in other words, we have to prove that A is strongly dense in A , namely that in any strong neighborhood Uεs (X ), X ∈ A , of the form (5.7), there is an X ∈ A. In order to do so, as a ﬁrst step, note that, according to Example 5.3.1.6, given ψ ∈ H, PψA ∈ A and PψA | ψ = | ψ for 1l ∈ A; thus, PψA A | ψ = A PψA | ψ = A | ψ ⊆ HA ψ ; this implies that for any ε ≥ 0 and X ∈ A there exists X ∈ A such that (X − X )| ψ ≤ ε. The second step is to extend this result to generic strong neighborhoods; for this we use (5.15), Example 5.3.1.5 and the previous arguments with 1ln ⊗ A, Mn (A ), (1ln ⊗ A) = 1ln ⊗ A and ψ replacing A, A , A , respectively ψ. n Then, for any n ε ≥ 0,X ∈ A and ψ = i=1 | i ⊗ | ψi , there exists X ∈ A such that i=1 (X − X)| ψi ≤ ε. Examples 5.3.2. 1. The previous proof shows that by considering the strong closure of a C ∗ algebra A ⊆ B(H) one obtains the bicommutant A ⊆ B(H). 2. Since M ⊆ M =⇒ Z = M, Abelian von Neumann algebras can be factors only if trivial. 3. In the Koopman-von Neumann formalism, C(X ) is a C ∗ but not a von Neumann algebra; actually C(X ) = L∞ μ (X ) for the algebra of essentially bounded functions on L2μ (X ) is strongly closed by construction.

170

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

4. If M is an irreducible von Neumann Algebra (see Deﬁnition 5.3.3), then it is a factor, whereas the opposite is not true in general. However, if M contains a maximally Abelian von Neumann algebra N = N ⊆ M, then M ⊆ N and Z = M , whence, if M is a factor it is also irreducible (see Lemma 5.3.2). 5. B(H) is a von Neumann algebra since any bounded operator can be constructed by closing the ∗ algebra of ﬁnite-rank operators on H in either the weak or strong topology. Their uniform closure instead yields the C ∗ algebra B∞ (H) of compact operators which is not a von Neumann algebra for B∞ (H) = B(H) ⊃ B∞ (H), in inﬁnite dimension. 6. Let M ⊆ B(H) be a von Neumann algebra, E ∈ M an orthogonal projector and consider E M E; this is a von Neumann algebra acting on EH with commutant (E M E) = E M E(= EM = M E). Indeed, for all X ∈ M and X ∈ M , (EXE)(EX E) = EXEX = X EXE = (EX E)(EXE) , thus E M E ⊆ (E M E) . On the other hand, if X = XE ∈ (E M E) it commutes with E and, for any X ∈ M , XX = XEX = XEX E = EX EX = X X , whence (E M E) ⊆ E M E. 7. Suppose M ⊆ B(H) is a factor von Neumann algebra and consider the algebra M ∪ M consisting of operators of the form j Xj Xj with Xj ∈ M and Xj ∈ M . Then, (M ∪ M ) = M ∩ M = M ∩ M = {λ1l}, whence (M ∪ M ) = B(H).

5.3.1 States and GNS Representation The C ∗ algebras so far considered had concrete representations by means of bounded operators on given Hilbert spaces H; more in general, the notion of C ∗ algebra in Deﬁnition 5.2.1 can be formulated in purely algebraic terms. What one needs is the abstract setting at the beginning of Section 5.2 and an abstract deﬁnition of states, along the lines developed for classical systems in Section 2.2.1. Deﬁnition 5.3.5. A state on a C ∗ algebra A is any positive, normalized linear map ω : A → C; namely, ω(Y † Y ) ≥ 0 for all Y ∈ A and ω(1l) = 1. States are also known as expectation functionals. A state ω is pure on A if the only positive, not necessarily normalized, functionals μ : A → C such that μ ≤ ω have the form μ = λω for some 0 ≤ λ ≤ 1. States ω such that ω(X † X) = 0 ⇐⇒ X = 0, X ∈ A, are called faithful.

5.3 von Neumann Algebras

171

From positivity it follows that states are automatically continuous functionals; indeed, if ω is a state on A, then (ω(X † Y ))∗ = ω(Y † X) ,

|ω(X † Y )|2 ≤ ω(X † X) ω(Y † Y ) .

(5.49)

In order to prove this, one chooses λ ∈ C and consider 0 ≤ ω((X +λY )† (X +λY )) = ω(X † X)+λω(X † Y )+λ∗ ω(Y † X)+|λ|2 ω(Y † Y ) . Then, the equality comes from setting λ = 1, i, while the inequality from choosing λ equal to the conjugate of the phase of ω(X † Y ). The bilinear map A × A (X, Y ) → ω(X † Y ) would be a scalar product on A as a linear space, were it not for the fact that, in general, ω(X † X) = 0 even if X = 0. In order to circumvent this diﬃculty, one considers the set I := X ∈ A : ω(X † X) = 0 . Because of (5.49), I is a linear set and also close; therefore, one can consider the quotient A/I consisting of the equivalence classes [X]ρ :=

X + I : I ∈ I , X ∈ A. Since (5.49)

†

gives ω((X + I1 ) (Y + I2 )) = ω(X † Y ) for all I1,2 ∈ I, each class can be ω , I corresponding to the null vector. It thus identiﬁed with a vector | ΨX follows that (5.49) deﬁnes a true scalar product over the linear span of these ω | ΨYω := ω(X † Y ). Consequently, by closing the linear span with vectors, ΨX respect to the corresponding norm, one gets a Hilbert space Hω . Further, it is immediate to represent operators X ∈ A as linear operators πω (X) acting multiplicatively on Hω , X → πω (X) ,

ω πω (X)| ΨYω = | ΨXY .

(5.50)

Since I is a two-sided ideal in A, the null vector is mapped into the null vector and πω (X) is a well-deﬁned linear operator on Hω ; it is also bounded, for (5.49) and X † X ≤ X2 1l imply πω (X)| ΨYω 2 = ω(Y † X † XY ) ≤ X2 ω(Y † Y ) = X2 | ΨYω 2 . Further, πω is a so-called ∗ morphism, that is πω (X † ) = πω (X)† ,

πω (XY ) = πω (X)πω (Y )

∀X, Y ∈ A .

Therefore, πω represents A as a subalgebra of the bounded operators on Hω : A → πω (A) ⊆ B(Hω )). Deﬁnition 5.3.6 (Representations). A ∗homomorphism (homomorphism for short) between two C ∗ algebras A1,2 is a linear map π : A1 → A2 that preserves the algebraic relations and the adjoint operation: π(A†1 ) = π(A1 )† , π(A1 B2 ) = π(A1 )π(B1 )

∀ A1 , B1 ∈ A1 .

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

When a homomorphism is invertible, it is called an isomorphism, automorphism if it maps A invertibly onto itself. If A1 = A and A2 = B(H), then π gives a representation (π(A), H) as a C ∗ (sub)algebra of bounded operators on a Hilbert space H. Two representations of (π1,2 (A), H1,2 ) of A on two Hilbert spaces H1,2 are equivalent if there exists an isometry U : H1 → H2 such that π1 (A) = U † π2 (A)U . According to Deﬁnition 5.3.2, the state | Ψ1ωl is cyclic for πω (A) on Hω ; in ω ω fact, πω (X)| Ψ1ωl = | ΨX and the linear span of the vectors of the form | ΨX , X ∈ A, is dense in Hω , by construction. Also, the expectation associated with ω takes the form ω(X) = Ψ1ωl | πω (X) |Ψ1ωl ,

X∈A.

(5.51)

We shall set | Ωω := ; from Deﬁnition 5.3.2 it also follows that | Ωω is separating for the commutant πω (A) ⊆ B(Hω ) The previous approach is due to Gelfand, Naimark and Segal and is known as GNS construction. [64]. | Ψ1ωl

Deﬁnition 5.3.7. Given the GNS triplet (Hω , πω , Ωω ), Hω , πω and Ω will be called GNS Hilbert space, GNS representation and GNS vector, respectively. Remarks 5.3.2. 1. Any triplet (Hν , πν , Ων ) with the GNS properties of (Hω , πω , Ωω ) is unitarily equivalent to it. Namely, there exists an isometry U : Hν → Hω such that U | Ων = | Ωω and πν (X) = U † πω (X) U for all X ∈ A. Indeed, because of (5.51) that holds for both representations, the map U : Hν → Hω deﬁned by U πν (X)| Ω = πω (X)| Ωω is such that ω(X † Y ) = Ωω | πω (X)† πω (Y ) |Ωω = Ων | πν (X)† U † U πν (Y ) |Ων = Ων | πν (X)† πν (Y ) |Ων on the dense subsets πω (A)| Ω ⊆ Hω and πν (A)| Ων ⊆ Hν . Then, U extends to an isometry U : Hω → Hν ; furthermore, on the dense subset of πν (Y )| Ων , Y ∈ A, U † πω (X)U πν (Y )| Ων = U † πω (X)πω (Y )| Ωω = U † πω (XY )| Ωω = U † U πν (XY )| Ων = πν (X)πν (Y )| Ω , that is U † πω (X)U = πν (X) for all X ∈ A. 2. As a ∗-homomorphism, the GNS representation πω preserves the C ∗ properties of A. Therefore πω (A) is a C ∗ algebra, as well as its commutant πω (A) . The latter is also a von Neumann algebra, this need not be true of πω (A), but it is certainly so of the bicommutant πω (A) , that is of the strong closure of πω (A) on Hω . If the center Zω := πω (A) ∩ πω (A) is trivial, that is it consists of the multiples of the identity only, then ω is called a factor or primary state.

5.3 von Neumann Algebras

173

3. If ω is a state on A and ν is a linear positive functional on it, majorized by ω, ν ≤ ω, then also ν satisﬁes a Cauchy-Schwartz inequality as ω in (5.49) 4 , |ν(X † Y )|2 ≤ ν(X † X)ν(Y † Y ) ≤ ω(X † X)ω(Y † Y ). Consequently, ν deﬁnes a continuous sesquilinear form on Hω ×Hω so that, from Example 5.2.4, ν(X † Y ) = Ω | πω (X)† T πω (Y ) |Ω , with T ∈ B(Hω ). Further, from 0 ≤ ν(X † X) ≤ ω(X † X), for all X ∈ A, one deduces that 0 ≤ T ≤ 1l. Moreover, T ∈ πω (A) ; indeed, ν(X † Y Z) = Ω | πω (X)† T πω (Y )πω (Z) |Ω = ν((Y † X)† Z) = Ω | πω (X)† πω (Y )T πω (Z) |Ω , whence [T , πω (Y )] = 0 for all Y ∈ A since πω (A)| Ω is dense in Hω . 4. From the previous result, it turns out that πω (A) is an irreducible C ∗ algebra (see Deﬁnition 5.3.3) if and only if ω is a pure state (see Definition 5.3.5). In fact, according to Lemma 5.3.2, πω (A) is irreducible if and only if πω (A) = {λ1}. If πω (A) is trivial then ν ≤ ω implies T = λ1l, hence ω is pure. On the other hand, if πω (A) is not trivial, then there exists some 1l = X ∈ πω (A) , so that also X + (X )† and its spectral projectors belong to the von Neumann algebra πω (A) . Therefore, there must be at least one non-trivial projector P ∈ πω (A) ; also, 1l − P = Q ∈ πω (A) , so that one can decompose ω into a convex combination ω = λωP + (1 − λ)ωQ , where λ := Ω | P |Ω while ω P := λωP (X) := Ω | P πω (X) |Ω

ω Q := (1 − λ)ωQ (X) := Ω | Q πω (X) |Ω

(5.52) (5.53)

are positive, normalized linear functionals over A which are both majorized by ω but are not of the form λω (compare the analogous argument in the proof of Proposition 2.3.8). 5. The previous point is an example of the convex structure [20] of the space of states S(A) on a C ∗ algebra A. In more formal terms [64]: given a C ∗ algebra A with identity, the set S(A) of its states is compact in the w∗ topology generated by the semi-norms S(A) ω → LX (ω) = |ω(X)|. Moreover, its extremal points are the pure states and S(A) is the w∗ closure of their convex hull. 5.3.2 C ∗ and von Neumann Abelian algebras Let A be an Abelian unital C ∗ or von Neumann algebra. As discussed in Remarks 2.2.2.2,3, the algebra C(X ) of the continuous functions over a compact topological space X is a typical example of the ﬁrst case, while the algebra L∞ μ (X ) of the essentially bounded functions is an instance of the second case. In this section we shall show that these two cases do in fact exhaust 4

What matters in the derivation of (5.49) is positivity and not normalization.

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

all the possibilities: the main technique we shall use is the so-called Gelfand transform. All multiplicative functionals χ : A → C such that χ(AB) = χ(A)χ(B) ,

χ(A† ) = χ(A)∗

∀ A, B ∈ A

are known as characters and their set will be denoted by XA . It turns out that characters are states on A; indeed, χ(A) = χ(1l A) = χ(1l)χ(A) =⇒ χ(1l) = 1 , while, if A A ≥ 0 then A = B † B (see Remark 5.2.2), whence χ(A) = χ(B † B) = |χ(B)|2 ≥ 0 . Further, A − a, with a ∈ C and A ∈ A, is invertible if there exists B ∈ A such that B(A − a) = 1l; since, for any χ ∈ XA , χ(B)(χ(A) − a) = 1, it follows that if A − a is invertible then χ(A) = a for all χ ∈ XA . Therefore, the spectrum of A ∈ A contains the values assumed on A by the characters on A: Sp(A) ⊇ {χ(A) : χ ∈ XA } .

(5.54)

Examples 5.3.3. 1. Let A = C(X ), then XA consists of the evaluation functionals (Dirac deltas) δx (f ) = f (x) for all x ∈ X , f ∈ C(X ). 2. Let A = DN (C) the algebra of all diagonal matrices on CN with respect N to a given ONB {| i }N i=1 , namely A A = i=1 Ai Eii , where {Eij } is the associated family of matrix units. Then, XA consists of the maps χj (A) := Tr(AEjj ) = j | A |j = Aj . N N Indeed, AB = i,j=1 Ai Bj Eii Ejj = i=1 Ai Bi Eii implies χj (AB) = Aj Bj = χj (A) χj (B) for all A, B ∈ A. Notice that the multiplicative property cannot be true of any pure state | ψ ψ | ∈ MN (C); in fact, for | ψ = α| i + β| j

ψ | AB |ψ = |α|2 Ai Bi + |β|2 Aj Bj while 4 4

ψ | A |ψ ψ | B |ψ = |α| Ai Bi + |β| Aj Bj + |α|2 |β|2 (Ai Bj + Aj Bi ) . 3. Characters behave as tracial states over A, namely χ(AB) = χ(BA). However, the only tracial state on MN (C) is given by τ (X) = Tr(

1l X) , N

so that

τ (XY ) = τ (Y X) ,

(5.55)

5.3 von Neumann Algebras

175

for all X, Y ∈ MN (C). It thus follows that there cannot be characters on MN (C). Indeed, 2 τ (Eii ) = τ (Eii ) =

1 , N

τ (Eii )τ (Eii ) =

1 ; N2

therefore the tracial state can be multiplicative only if N = 1. In order to show that the only tracial state on MN (C) is τ , let us assume that there exists another state ω such that ω(XY ) = ω(Y X) for all X, Y ∈ MN (C). Let X = Eij and Y = Ek ; because of (5.12), it turns out that ω(Eij Ek ) = δjk ω(Ei ) = ω(Ek Eij ) = δi ω(Ekj ) . Thus, ω(Eij ) = 0 if i = j and ω(Eii ) = α for all i = 1, 2, . . . , N so that ω(1l) = 1 =⇒ α = 1/N . In conclusion, ω acts as τ on a system of matrix units and must thus coincide with it. The set of characters is a subset of the unit ball of the topological dual of A (XA ⊂ (A∗ )1 ); moreover, XA coincides with the set of pure states over A. In fact, if ω is a pure state on A, then in the GNS representation πω (A) is irreducible (πω (A) = {λ1l}), but then πω (A) = λA 1l for all A ∈ A for Abelianness implies πω (A) ⊆ πω (A) . Then, ω(A) = Ωω | πω (A) |Ωω = λA and ω(AB) = Ωω | πω (A)πω (B) |Ωω = λA λB = ω(A)ω(B) , whence ω ∈ XA . Let A∗ be endowed with the w∗ -topology (see Remark 5.1.1.5), then XA is a w∗ -closed subset of (A∗ )1 . In fact, if χn ∈ XA w∗ -converges to χ, that is if χn (A) → χ(A) for all A ∈ A, χ is linear and also multiplicative; indeed, |χ(AB) − χ(A)χ(B)| ≤ |χ(AB) − χn (AB)| + A |χn (B) − χ(B)| + B |χn (A) − χ(A)| . Therefore, by choosing n large enough the left hand side of the inequality can be made arbitrarily small. Remark 5.3.3. Once the topological dual A∗ is equipped with the w∗ topology, its unit ball (A∗ )1 is compact by the Banach-Alaoglu theorem [324]. As XA is a closed subset, it is also compact [324]; further, since the space of states is Hausdorﬀ, so is XA . One can thus consider the C ∗ algebra C(XA ) of continuous functions over the set of characters and the corresponding properties. For instance, in the proof of Theorem 5.3.2, we shall proﬁt from a theorem of Stone and Weierstrass [259] which states that the norm-closure of any algebra of complex functions on a compact Haussdorf space X that separates points and contains the identity coincides with C(X ).

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Deﬁnition 5.3.8 (Gelfand transform). The Gelfand transform is the map Γ : A → C(XA ) from an Abelian C ∗ algebra to the continuous functions over its characters, deﬁned by A A → Γ [A](χ) = χ(A)

∀ χ ∈ XA .

Notice that Γ [A](χ) is automatically continuous on XA equipped with the w∗ topology inherited from A∗ . In full generality, the following property holds [64, 300, 324] Theorem 5.3.2. Any Abelian unital C ∗ algebra A is isomorphic to C(XA ). Proof: The Gelfand transform is a ∗-homomorphism: linearity is evident, also Γ [A† ](χ) = χ(A† ) = χ(A)∗ = (Γ [A](χ))∗ . Moreover, Γ [AB](χ) = χ(AB) = χ(A)χ(B) = (Γ [A]Γ [B])(χ) . It also preserves the norm; in fact, Γ [A]2 = sup |Γ [A](χ)|2 = sup |χ(A)|2 = A2 , χ∈XA

χ∈XA

for all A ∈ A. The latter equality is a consequence of the fact that XA coincides with the set of pure states over A and that [64, 300], for any A ∈ A one can always construct a pure state ω such that ω(A) = A. It thus follows that Γ [A] = 0 only if A = 0. Furthermore, Γ [1l] = 1 and, if χ1 = χ2 , then χ1 (A) = Γ [A](χ1 ) = χ2 (A) = Γ [A](χ2 ) for some A ∈ A. One says that Γ [A] separates points of XA ; thus, the theorem of Stone and Weierstrass (see Remark 5.3.3) applies to Γ [A] so that Γ [A] = C(XA ). Remark 5.3.4. [324] If A is a generic C ∗ algebra and X one of its normal elements (X X † = X † X), then one can consider the Abelian C ∗ algebra A[X] generated by the norm closure of the ∗-algebra of polynomials in the commuting operators 1l, X and X † . Let us consider the Gelfand transform Γ : A[X] → C(XA[X] ); to any function f ∈ C(XA[X] ) one associates a unique element f (X) := Γ −1 [f ] ∈ A[X]. This is known as continuous functional calculus. Consider, for instance, the function f (z) := (χ(X) − z)−1 ; then, by using a power series expansion and the isomorphic properties of Γ and its inverse, one obtains E F 1 1 , Γ = f (z) , f (X) = Γ −1 [f ] = X −z X −z whenever z > X = supχ∈XA[X] |χ(X)|. Thus, from Example 5.2.2.5 it follows that the spectrum of a normal X ∈ A coincides with the values assumed on X by the characters of XA[X] : Sp(X) = {χ(X) : χ ∈ XA[X] }.

5.3 von Neumann Algebras

177

Examples 5.3.4. 1. If A is a ﬁnite-dimensional Abelian algebra, then XA contains ﬁnitely many points (characters) XA = {χi }ai=1 . The maps δj : XA → C deﬁned by δj (χi ) = δij , are continuous with respect to the discrete topology on XA . By inverting the Gelfand isomorphism, the corresponding elements pi := Γ −1 [δi ] ∈ A are orthogonal projections: pi pk = Γ −1 [δi δk ] = δik Γ −1 [δk ] = δik pk . These are minimal projections of A; namely, the only projections in A majorized by pi are the trivial one p = 0 and pi itself. Indeed, consider two projections q, p in a generic unital C ∗ algebra and suppose q ≤ p; then, writing p = q + (p − q), Example 5.2.3.2 yields q ≥ q p q = q + q(p − q)q ≥ q

for p − q ≥ 0 . √ Therefore, q(p − q)q = X † X = 0 with X = p − qq whence X = 0 and n pq = q = qp. If p = pi ∈ A and A q ≤ pi , write Γ [q] = i=1 πi (q) δi with πi (q) ∈ R+ ; it follows that Γ [q] = Γ [qpi ] = Γ [q]Γ [pi ] = πi (q)δi . Since Γ [q] = Γ [q]2 , one concludes that Γ [q] =√δi whence q = pi . 2. Consider X ≥ 0, and the function f (t) = t, t ≥ 0. Since the spectrum of X is contained in [0, X] and thus also XA[X] ⊆ [0, X]; √ from Remark 5.3.4 it thus follows that Y := f [X] = Γ −1 [ t] ≥ 0 and Y 2 = Γ −1 [t] = X. We now show that the square-root of X is unique; let A Z ≥ 0 be such that Z 2 = X and let Pn (t) √ be a sequence of polynomials on [0, X] converging uniformly to t. Set Qn (t) := Pn (t2 ): limn→+∞ Qn (t) = t uniformly on [0, X]. Furthermore, from Remark 5.3.4 and Remark 5.2.1, XA[X] = Sp(X) = Sp(Z 2 ) = (Sp(Z))2 = {t2 : t ∈ Sp(Z)} , whence Z = lim Qn (Z) = lim Pn (Z 2 ) = lim f (X) = n→+∞

n→+∞

n→+∞

√ X .

3. The Gelfand isomorphism maps the von Neumann algebra L∞ μ (X ) into C(Y) where Y is a so-called extremely disconnected Hausdorﬀ space whose open sets have open closures [324].

The preceding considerations can be extended to Abelian von Neumann algebras M ⊂ B(H) on a separable Hilbert space H [324]. Since M is also a C ∗

178

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

algebra, one considers the Gelfand isomorphism Γ : M → C(XM ); suppose ψ ∈ H to be cyclic for M and deﬁne the linear functional F : C(XM ) → C, F (f ) := ψ | Γ −1 [f ] |ψ . This functional is positive since Γ −1 is an isomorphism and preserves positivity; then, Riesz representation theorem [258] (see (2.48)) ensures that there exists a positive Borel measure μ on XM such that dμ (x) f (x) = μ(f ) .

ψ | Γ −1 [f ] |ψ = XM

The support of μ is the whole of XM , otherwise there would exist Y ⊂ XM and a positive continuous f , non-zero on Y, such that μ(f ) = 0 = Γ −1 [f ]ψ | Γ −1 [f ]ψ . Since ψ is cyclic for M, it is separating for M and for M ⊆ M ; then −1 Γ [f ]| ψ = 0 implies Γ −1 [f ] = 0 whence f = 0. For all X ∈ M, dμ (x) |Γ [X](x)|2 = ψ | Γ −1 [Γ [X † ]Γ [X] |ψ = X| ψ 2 . XM

Then, one can construct a unitary operator U : H → K := L2μ (XM ) by extending to the L2 -closures of M| ψ and C(XM ) the linear operator deﬁned on the latter spaces by U : X| ψ → Γ [X]. It turns out that U X U † (Γ [Y ]) = U X Y = Γ [X Y ] = Γ [X] (Γ [Y ]) , for all X ∈ M, whence U X U † is represented by a multiplication operator on C(XM ). This relation can be used to prove that U M U † is a von Neumann subalgebra of B(K) and since the algebra of multiplication by continuous functions is weakly dense in the von Neumann algebra of multiplication operators by functions in L∞ μ (XM ) it follows that this latter is isomorphic to U M U †. Even when a cyclic vector for the von Neumann algebra M does not exist, one can prove a similar result [324]. Theorem 5.3.3. Every Abelian von Neumann algebra M acting on a separable Hilbert space H is isomorphic to some L∞ μ (X ), where X is a compact Hausdorﬀ space and μ is a ﬁnite, positive Borel measure on X supported by the whole of X .

5.4 Quantum Systems with Finite Degrees of Freedom The simplest quantum systems are 2-level systems (the qubits of quantum information): their states and observables are 2 × 2 matrices from M2 (C)

5.4 Quantum Systems with Finite Degrees of Freedom

179

acting on the Hilbert space C2 . Though simple, the 2 dimensional framework is suﬃcient to accommodate a variety of rather successful phenomenological descriptions as for spin 1/2 particles in magnetic contexts [248, 273, 280], for atoms whose ground and ﬁrst excited states can be treated as isolated from the rest of the energy eigenvalues [87], for the polarization degree of freedom of photons [272, 312] and for the strangeness degree of freedom of neutral K mesons [30, 31]. Recently, even macroscopic systems in particular ultracold atoms [191] have been started to be studied as spin 1/2 particles; this is the case for the low-lying energy states of Bose-Einstein condensates in double well potentials and superconducting boxes near resonance [197, 316]. The latest advances in the experimental manipulation of atomic systems have indeed provided concrete realizations of 2-level quantum systems and made them available for the actual veriﬁcation of central issues of quantum information theory [6, 63]. The observables of 2-level systems are self-adjoint 2×2 matrices acting on the 2-dimensional Hilbert space C2 ; particularly important are the unitary and self-adjoint Pauli matrices σ1,2,3 that satisfy the algebraic relations σj σk = δjk 1l2 + iεjk σ ,

(5.56)

where εjk is the antisymmetric 3-tensor, and 1l2 denotes the 2 × 2 identity matrix. √ When normalized, σ μ := σμ / 2, they become an ONB with respect to ν ) = δμν . Thus, it the Hilbert-Schmidt scalar product (5.26), that is Tr( σμ σ turns out that any X ∈ M2 (C) can be written as (see Example 5.2.5) X=

3

(Tr( σμ X)) σ μ .

(5.57)

μ=0

It is customary to work within

the representation of the eigenvectors of σ3 , 1 0 |0 = and | 1 = (the states of a particle with spin 1/2 pointing 0 1 down, respectively up along the z direction in space). Then, the Pauli matrices have the standard form

0 1 0 −i 1 0 σ1 = , σ2 = , σ3 = 1 0 i 0 0 −1 so that σ1 | 0 = | 1 , σ1 | 1 = | 0 and σ2 | 0 = −i| 1 , σ2 | 1 = i| 0 . The action of σ1 on the standard ONB amounts to a spin ﬂip; if 0 and 1 were classical spin states encoding bits, then σ1 would implement the NOT logical operation: 0 → 1, 1 → 0 or i → i ⊕ 1, where ⊕ denotes the binary addition (addition mod 2). The ONB associated with σ1 consists of

1 |0 ± |1 1 √ =√ | ± := , σ1 | ± = ±| ± . 2 2 ±1

180

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Their ONB is unitarily related to the standard one by the Hadamard rotation 1 UH := √ 2

1 1

1 −1

1 † −1 = UH , UH | i = √ (−1)ij | j . (5.58) = UH 2 j=0 1

A system consisting of n spins 1/2 is described by the matrix algebra M2n (C) = (M2 (C))⊗n ; denoting by σμi , μ = 0, 1, 2, 3, the Pauli matrices of n the i-th spin, -nthe elements of M2 (C) are linear combinations of operators of the form i=1 σμi i acting on (C2 )⊗n . The so-called computational basis of quantum information consists of tensor products of eigenvectors of σ3 , | i(n) = | i1 i2 · · · in = | i1 ⊗ | i2 ⊗ · · · | in ,

ij ∈ {0, 1} , (n)

that are in one-to-one correspondence with bit-strings i(n) ∈ Ω2 . One may interpret them as orthogonal conﬁgurations of quantum spins located at the integer sites 0 ≤ ≤ n of an inﬁnite 1-dimensional lattice. Of course, unlike for classical spins, in this case linear combinations of these conﬁgurations are also possible physical states. Thus, a one dimensional array of n spins 1/2 provide a non-commutative counterpart to classical spin-chains of ﬁnite length n. Interestingly, their algebra M2n (C) also describes n degrees of freedom satisfying Canonical Anticommutation Relations (CAR). Example 5.4.1 (Finite Spin Systems: CAR). From (5.56) it follows that diﬀerent Pauli matrices anticommute, σj , σk := σj σk + σk σj = 2δjk 1l .

σ1 + iσ2 σ1 − iσ2 0 1 0 0 = and σ− := = . These Set σ+ := 0 0 1 0 2 2 matrices fulﬁl the following algebraic relations B C σ+ , σ− = 1 , (5.59) σ+ , σ− = σ3 C C B B 2 σ± =0, σ3 , σ+ = 2σ+ , σ3 , σ− = −2σ− . (5.60) With | 0 , | 1 the eigenvectors of σ3 , σ− | 1 = 0, while σ+ | 1 = | 0 . i i = σ3i , σ± , 1li denote the spin In the case of n-spin 1/2 systems, let σ# operators relative to the i-th spin. They are identiﬁed as elements of M2n (C) by embedding them as i i M2 (C) σ# → 1l[1,i−1] ⊗ σ# ⊗ 1l[i+1,n] ,

(5.61)

where 1l[j,k] := 1lj ⊗ 1lj+1 ⊗ · · · 1lk is the tensor product of as many identity matrices 1l ∈ M2 (C) as the sites in the subset [j, k]. Then, setting

5.4 Quantum Systems with Finite Degrees of Freedom

ai :=

i−1 ,

181

i−1 ,

i i σ3j ⊗ σ− ⊗ 1l[i+1,N ] , a†i := σ3j ⊗ σ+ ⊗ 1l[i+1,N ] ,

j=1

j=1

one obtains operators that obey the CAR of n Fermionic degrees of freedom: ai , a†j := ai a†j + a†j ai = δij , (5.62) ai , aj = a†i , a†j = 0 . Further, the vector state | 1 ⊗n := | 1 ⊗ | 1 ⊗ · · · | 1 consisting of n spins n times

all pointing down, behaves as the vacuum state for it is annihilated by all ai , while a†i , acting on it, creates the vector state with the i-th spin pointing up, ai | 1 ⊗n = 0 ,

a†i | 1 ⊗n = | 1 · · · 1 0 1···1 . ithsite

There cannot be more than one Fermion for each i as from (5.62) (a†i )2 = 0. n Thus, products of the form j=1 (a†j )ij , where ij = 0, 1 and (a†j )0 = 1l, create the computational basis, n

(a†j )ij ⊕1 | 1 ⊗n = | i1 i2 · · · in ,

j=1

where ⊕ denotes summation mod 2. Since [AB, C] = ABC − CAB = A(BC + CB) − (AC + CA)B = A {C , B} + {A , C} B ,

(5.63)

the number operator := N

n

a†i ai =

i=1

=

n

n

i i 1l[1,i−1] ⊗ σ+ σ− ⊗ 1l[i+1,N ]

i=1

1l[1,i−1] ⊗

i=1

1li + σ3i ⊗ 1l[i+1,n] 2

(5.64)

| 1 ⊗n = 0 and satisﬁes N , ai ] = −ai , [N

, a† ] = a† , [N i i

(5.65)

| i(n) = (n ij ) | i(n) . Therefore, the basis vectors | i(n) are whence N j=1 ; they span the so-called occupation number states that is eigenstates of N n 1 (n) Fock space HF = | vac ⊕ Hk , where | vac = | 1 ⊗n is the vacuum state k=1

and Hk is the Hilbert space corresponding to k Fermi degrees of freedom.

182

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

As much as one can construct n Fermi creation and annihilation operators satisfying the CAR out of n spin 1/2 operators, so one can obtain the n spin algebra M2n (C) out of the creation and annihilation operators of n Fermi degrees of freedom. Indeed, from (5.64) one derives σ3i = 2a†i ai − 1l and i σ− =

i−1

(2a†i ai − 1l) ai ,

j=1

i σ+ =

i−1

(2a†i ai − 1l) a†i .

j=1

These relations are known as Jordan-Wigner transformations [295]. They show that the algebra of n Fermi degrees of freedom is isomorphic to that of n spins 1/2, M2n (C). It is important to notice that one Fermi degree of freedom correspond to a totally delocalized spin operator.

Remark 5.4.1. [290, 291] The kinematical description of n Fermionic degrees of freedom is abstractly provided by a set of n operators aj , a†j satisfying the CAR (5.62) together with the algebra AF comprising all polynomials P (aj , a†j ) constructed with them. The Fock one is a concrete representation of the aj , a†j as annihilation and creation operators on a Hilbert space with a distinguished vector | vac , the vacuum state, such that aj | vac = 0 for all j = 1, 2, . . . , n. Because of the CAR relations, in any representation π on a Hilbert space H, π(aj ) and π(a†j ) are bounded operators with respect to uniform norm: π(a†j aj ) + π(aj a†j ) = 1l ≥ π(a†j aj ) =⇒ π(aj ) ≤ 1 .

(5.66)

Also, any two irreducible representations (π1,2 (AF ), H1,2 ) of the CAR of ﬁnitely many Fermions are unitarily equivalent to the Fock one (see Deﬁnition 5.3.6). Indeed, from the previous example, we know that both representations are isomorphic to M2n (C) for n Fermions; so, the positive operators ) := n πi (aj )† π(aj ) have discrete integer spectrum with an eigenπi (N j=1 )| ψi = λ| ψ λ , then (5.65) implies value 0. In fact, if πi (N i

, an−1 ] + [N , ai ] an−1 , ani ] = ai [N [N i i , an−1 ] − an = −nan , = ai [N i i i so that

C B )π(ai )n | ψ λ = λπ(ai )n | ψ λ + πi (N ) , π(ai )n | ψ λ πi (N i i i = (λ − n)π(ai )n | ψiλ .

Thus the spectrum is discrete with 0 as its smallest eigenvalue; the corresponding eigenvector | ψi0 is annihilated by all πi (aj ) and is unique as implied by the assumed irreducibility of the representation πi . In fact, the

5.4 Quantum Systems with Finite Degrees of Freedom

183

linear span πi (AF )| ψi0 is dense in Hi (see Deﬁnition 5.3.3); therefore, if πi (aj )| φi = 0 for all j = 1, 2, . . . , n, then the same should hold for its com† 0 ⊥ 0 ponent | φ⊥ i orthogonal to | ψi ; therefore, φi | πi (P (aj , aj ) |ψi = 0 for all polynomials in annihilation and creator operators, whence | φ⊥ i = 0 as it would be orthogonal to a dense subset in Hi . The eigenvector | ψi0 is the vacuum for the Fock representation πi ; let U : H1 → H2 be such that U | ψ10 = | ψ20 ,

U π1 (P (aj , a†j ))| ψ10 = π2 (P (aj , a†j ))| ψ20 .

Since the scalar products ψi0 | πi (P )† πi (P ) |ψi0 , with P and P arbitrary polynomials, are completely determined by the CAR relations, their values do not depend on the representation chosen; that is

ψ10 | π1 (P )† π1 (P ) |ψ10 = ψ20 | π2 (P )† π2 (P ) |ψ20 = ψ10 | π1 (P )† U † U π1 (P ) |ψ10 . on a dense set, whence U extends to an isometry from H1 to H2 . Of course, not all quantum systems with ﬁnite degrees of freedom are ﬁnite level systems. A free quantum particle in one dimension or a one-dimensional quantum harmonic oscillator are systems with one degree of freedom, but they are described by means of the inﬁnite dimensional Hilbert space of square-summable complex functions over R. In quantum information, these systems are sometimes referred to as continuous variable systems in contrast to spin-like systems whose variables (observables) are instead discrete (N ×N matrices). For continuous variable systems the standard kinematics is more appropriately given in terms of unitary groups of translations in position and momentum. The algebraic relations between them are known as Canonical Commutation Relations (CCR). Consider a Hamiltonian classical system with f degrees of freedom and canonical coordinates R2f (q, p), q = (q1 , q2 , . . . , qf ), p = (p1 , p2 , . . . , pf ). In standard quantization, one introduces unbounded, densely deﬁned, selfadjoint position and momentum operators ( qi , pi ) on H = L2dq (Rf ) deﬁned, in the so-called position representation, by ( qi ψ)(q) = qi ψ(q) ,

( pi ψ)(q) = −i ∂qi ψ(q) ,

ψ∈H.

(5.67)

On a common dense domain, they satisfy the standard commutation relations (with = 1) C C B C B B (5.68) qi , pj = iδij , qi , qj = pi , pj = 0 . Unlike, Fermionic annihilation and creation operators, the operators qi and pi have continuous spectrum and cannot be bounded. Indeed, from (5.68),

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

B

C qi , pni = i n pn−1 =⇒ 2 qi pi ≥ n , i

(5.69)

for all integer n. Because of unboudedness, one introduces the one-parameter groups of unitary operators {Ui (q)}q∈R and {Vi (p)}p∈R ,

Ui (q)ψ (q) = ψ(q + q i ) , Vi (p)ψ (q) = eipqi ψ(q) , (5.70) where (q i )j = δij q, in position representation, while

Ui (q)ψ (p) = eiqpi ψ(p) , Vi (p)ψ (p) = ψ(p − pi ) ,

(5.71)

in momentum representation, with (pi )j = δij p. These semi-groups are continuous with respect to the strong-operator topology, whence, by Stone theorem [300], they are generated by self-adjoint operators qi and pi Ui (q) := exp (i q pi ) ,

Vi (p) := exp (i p qi ) .

(5.72)

By writing them as formal series, it can be checked that they implement translations in position, respectively momentum: Ui (q) qi Ui† (q) = qi + q ,

Vi (p) pi Ui† (p) = pi − p .

The CCR can thus be recast as ⎧ ⎨ Ui (q) Vj (p) = Vj (p) Ui (q) ⎩

(5.73)

i = j (5.74)

Ui (q) Vi (p)

= ei qp Vi (p) Ui (q)

.

:= ( := ( := ( ), and Set q q1 , q2 , . . . , qf ), p p1 , p2 , . . . , pf ), r q, p (5.75) W (r) := ei (q·p+p·q) = ei r·(Σ1 r) ,

0 1lf where · denotes the usual scalar product and Σ1 := with 1lf is 1lf 0 the f × f identity matrix. These operators are known as Weyl operators; by the Campbell-Hausdorﬀ formula, 1 exp (A + B) = exp (− [A, B]) exp (A) exp (B) , 2

(5.76)

that holds when [A , B] is a multiple of the identity, they can be recast in the form i W (r) = e− 2 q·p ei q·p ei p·q . (5.77) The Weyl operators satisfy W (r)† = W (−r) and the composition law

5.4 Quantum Systems with Finite Degrees of Freedom i

W (r 1 ) W (r 2 ) = e 2 σ(r1 ,r2 ) W (r 1 + r 2 ) , where

σ(r 1 , r 2 ) := q 1 · p2 − p1 · q 2 = r · (Jf r) ,

Jf =

0 −1lf

185

(5.78)

1lf 0

,

(5.79)

is the symplectic form characteristic of the Weyl relations. It thus follows that the ∗ algebra W generated by linear combinations and products of Weyl operators coincides with their linear span. Remark 5.4.2. Given the ∗ algebra W, one looks for its closure with respect to a suitable topology; it turns out that the C ∗ algebra that arises from the uniform norm is too small for physical purposes [300]. For instance, one would like that two Weyl operators W (r 1,2 ) be close to each other when r 1 − r 2 → 0; however, whenever r 1 = r 2 , W (r 1 ) − W (r 2 ) = 1l − W † (r 1 )W (r 2 ) = 2 , since unitary operators have norm 1. The fact that the translation groups {Ui (q)}q∈R , {Vi (p)}p∈R are strongly continuous, makes it a natural choice to consider the closure W of W with respect to the strong-operator topology. Similarly to the CAR , also for the CCR of ﬁnitely many degrees of freedom all irreducible (strongly continuous) representations are unitarily equivalent. In order to show this, one uses the so-called Weyl-transform of a function f ∈ L1dr (R2f ) [300, 142], f → W W (f ) := dr f (r) W (−r) . (5.80) The Weyl transform is such that W † (f ) = W (f + ), where f + (r) := f ∗ (−r) and, by using (5.78), W (f1 )W (f2 ) = W (f1 × f2 ) where i (f1 × f2 )(r) := dw f1 (w)f2 (r − w) e 2 σ(w,r) . √ Let P := W (g) where g(r) := ( 2π)−f exp(− 14 r2 ), then, P = P† ,

P W (r) P = e− 4 r P , 1

2

whence P is a projection for P = 0. Indeed, if W (f ) = 0, choose ψ, φ ∈ H such that Iψ,φ := ψ | P |φ = 0; then, for all r ∈ R2f , † 0 = ψ | P W (r)W (f )W (r)P |φ = dw f (w) eiσ(r,w) ψ | P W (w)P |φ 2 1 = Iψ,φ dw f (w) e− 4 w eiσ(r,w) .

186

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Since the integral is the Fourier transform of f (w) exp(− 14 w2 ), it follows that f (r) = 0 almost everywhere, which is not true of g(r). Let K ⊆ H denote the subspace projected out by P and consider an ONB {φa } in K; since

W (r 1 )φa | W (r 2 )φb = P φa | W † (r 1 )W (r 2 ) |P φb = φa | φb e 2 σ(r2 ,r1 ) e− 4 r1 −r2 , i

1

2

(5.81)

the closures Ka of the linear spans of vectors of the form W (r)| φa , r ∈ R2f , are mutually orthogonal. Each vector in Ka is cyclic for W which is then irreducibly represented on it. Further, K = H; in fact, the orthogonal complement K⊥ is also invariant under W. Restricting W onto K⊥ yields another representation, W ⊥ , such that the maps f → W⊥ (f ) := W (f ) |`K⊥ are injective. But this contradicts the fact that W⊥ (g) = P |`K⊥ = 0. Therefore, every strongly continuous representation of the CCR decomposes into an orthogonal sum of irreducible representations. Further, the relation 2 1 P W (r)| φa = P W (r)P | φa = e− 4 r | φa extends linearly to the whole of Ka , whence P acts as a multiple of the identity on each of the invariant subspaces Ka . Consider any two irreducible representations W a,b with their orthogonal projections Pa,b = Wa,b (g) onto the cyclic vectors Pa,b | φa,b = | φa,b and their representation Hilbert spaces Ka,b . By linear extension, deﬁne the operator Uab : Ka → Kb such that Uab Wa (r)| φa := Wb (r)| φb , for all r ∈ R2f ; from (5.81)

Wa (r 1 )φa | Wa (r 2 )φa = Wb (r 1 )φb | Wb (r 2 )φb † = W (r 1 )φa | Uab Uab |W (r 2 )φa .

This relation extends to Ka,b , whence Uab is an isometry such that † Wa (r) Uab = Wb (r) , Uab

∀r ∈ R2f ,

so that the two irreducible representations W a,b are unitarily equivalent. As we shall see in Chapter 7, for inﬁnitely many degrees of freedom there are inequivalent irreducible representations of the CCR ; this is true also for ﬁnitely many degrees of freedom when the symplectic manifold is not R2f , rather a torus [300, 291] or when strong continuity is relaxed. This is the case for a discrete formulation of the Weyl relations that holds for discrete variable quantum systems and turns out to be extremely useful for quantizing hyperbolic dynamics of the kind studied in Example 2.1.3. Example 5.4.2 (Weyl Relations: Finite Dimension). Actions similar to translations in position and momentum can also be deﬁned for ﬁnite level systems, that is on Hilbert space H = CN . Let

5.4 Quantum Systems with Finite Degrees of Freedom

187

−1 {| k }N k=0 be an ONB , ﬁx αu,v ∈ [0, 1] and consider the following matrices UN , VN ∈ MN (C) 2π

UN := e N

i αu

N −1

2π

eN

ik

| k k | ,

2π

VN := e N

i αv

k=0

N −1

| k k − 1 | ,

k=0

together with the identiﬁcation | j = | j mod N . These operators are unitary and 2π

UN | = e N

i (αu + )

2π

| ,

VN | = e N

i αv

| + 1 .

(5.82)

Thus, setting n := (n1 , n2 ) ∈ Z2 , UN and VN satisfy the discrete Weyl relations 2π n1 n2 VNn2 = e N i n1 n2 VNn1 UN . (5.83) UN Further, like in the continuous case, it is convenient to introduce the discrete Weyl operators π n1 VNn2 . (5.84) WN (n) := e−i N n1 n2 UN They satisfy WN† (n) = W (−n) and the composition law π

WN (n)WN (m) = ei N

σ(n,m)

WN (n + m) ,

(5.85)

π |, letting N → ∞ with σ(n, m) := n1 m2 −n2 m1 . Since [UN , VN ] = 2| sin N one expects to recover the commutative structure of Example 2.1.3. In order to be compatible with a ﬁnite dimensional Hilbert space CN , N and VNN must be proportional to the N × N identity matrix powers as UN 1lN ; in particular, N = e2π i αu 1lN , UN

VNN = e2π i αv 1lN .

(5.86) α

Diﬀerent choices of αu,v label diﬀerent irreducible representations WNu,v ; they play a role in the quantization of classical discrete maps as in Example 2.1.3 [98] (see Example 5.6.1). These representations cannot be equivalent, otherwise, for αu = αu , there would exist an isometry T such that N N 2π i αu T = e2π i αu = UN,α , T † UN,α = e u u

where UN,α denotes the operator UN fulﬁlling a speciﬁc rule (5.86). When normalized, the discrete Weyl operators form an ONB in MN (C). Indeed, using (5.84) and (5.82), it turns out that

−1

N π Tr WN (n) = e−i N

n1 n2

n1 n2

| UN VN |

=0

=

N −1

e−i N (n1 n2 +2n1 (αu + )−2n2 αv ) | + n2 π

=0

= δn2 0

N −1 =0

e−

2π i N (αu + )

= N δn,0 .

(5.87)

188

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

This in turn yields

Tr WN† (n)WN (m) = N δn,m ,

(5.88)

whence (see Example 5.2.5) X=

1 † Tr WN (n) X WN (n) N 2

∀ X ∈ MN (C) ,

(5.89)

n∈ZN

where Z2N := {n = (n1 , n2 ) : 0 ≤ ni ≤ N − 1}. Returning to continuous variable systems, a particular vector state in H = L2 (Rf ) is given by the Gaussian function g(q) = (π)−f /4 exp(−

q2 ), 2

( qi + i pi )| g = 0 ,

(5.90)

for all i = 1, 2, . . . , f . Notice that in momentum representation gˆ(p), obtained from g(q) by Fourier transform, has the same Gaussian form as the latter. For reasons which will become immediately clear we shall refer to the Gaussian state as to the vacuum and set | vac := | g . Example 5.4.3 (CCR : Annihilation and Creation Operators). Given f canonical pairs ( qi , pi ), using (5.68) one shows that the operators ai =

p qi + i √ i , 2

a†i =

p qi − i √ i , 2

satisfy the CCR that describe Bosonic degrees of freedom, B C C B C B ai , a†j = δij , ai , aj = a†i , a†j = 0 .

(5.91)

(5.92)

The Gaussian function | vac plays thus the role of the vacuum for the CCR as it is annihilated by all ai , ai | vac = 0. Since a†i ai (a†i )ni | vac = a†i [ai , (a†i )ni ]| vac = ni (a†i )ni | vac , the vectors | k := | k1 , k2 , . . . , kf = ai | k =

ki | k − 1i ,

f (a†i )ki √ | vac are such that ki ! i=1

a†i | k =

ki + 1i | k + 1i ,

(5.93)

where k ± 1i := (k1 , . . . , ki−1 , ki ± 1, ki+1 , . . . , kf ). They are the orthonormal eigenvectors of the number operator,

5.4 Quantum Systems with Finite Degrees of Freedom

:= N

f

f | k = ( N ki )| k .

a†i ai ,

i=1

189

(5.94)

i=1

The occupation number states | k span the Fock space for the f Bosonic f 1 (f ) modes (degrees of freedom), HF = | vac ⊕ Hn , where Hn is the Hilbert n=1

space of n modes. Unlike for Fermions, the number operator is unbounded and the Bosonic Fock space is inﬁnite dimensional for such is the Hilbert space of each mode. By introducing the 2f -dimensional operator valued vectors A := (a1 , . . . , af ; a†1 , . . . , a†f ) ,

A† := (a†1 , . . . , a†f ; a1 , . . . , af ) ,

(5.95)

the Weyl operators (5.75) can be rewritten as W (r) = eZ

∗

·A

=

f

e

aj

qj +ipj √ 2

−a†j

qj −ipj √ 2

where

(5.96)

j=1

Z = (z ∗ , −z) ,

z=

q + ip √ ∈ Cf , 2

(5.97)

while the CCR relations (5.78) become ∗

∗

∗

∗

∗

eZ 1 ·A eZ 2 ·A = e− 2 Z i ·(Σ3 Z j ) e(Z 1 +Z 2 )·A ,

1lf 0 and (5.97) yields where Σ3 = 0 −1lf 1

Z ∗1 · (Σ3 Z 2 ) = −2i(z ∗1 · z 2 ) = −2i σ(r 1 , r 2 ) .

(5.98)

Of particular interest are the so-called displacement operators †

D(z) = ez·a

− z ∗ ·a

= e−

|z|2 2

†

ez·a e−z

∗

·a

,

(5.99)

where z := {zi }fi=1 ∈ Cf and (5.76) has been used. Their action is as follows, ∞ 1 kj d [aj ] = aj + zj , D(z) aj D(z) = kj ! zj †

j = 1, 2, . . . , n ,

(5.100)

kj =0

k

where dzjj denotes the map dzj [·] = [−zj a† + zj∗ aj , · ] applied kj times. Given z ∈ Cf and the corresponding displacement operator D(z), using (5.96) and (5.97),√one ﬁnds that it corresponds to the Weyl operator W (r(z)) with r(z) = 2(−(z), (z)), whence, via (5.78), one computes ∗

D(z 1 ) D(z 2 ) = e− 2 (Z 1 ·(Σ3 Z 2 )) D(z 1 + z 2 ) . i

(5.101)

190

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

5.5 Quantum States Hilbert space vectors as those encountered in the previous sections are the simplest possible instances of quantum states: once it is known that a quantum system is in a physical state described by ψ ∈ H, then the system observables X = X † ∈ B(H) have mean-values, or expectations,

X ψ := ψ | X |ψ . With B(H) Pψ := | ψ ψ | the orthogonal projector onto | ψ , using the trace (5.19), one writes X ψ = Tr(Pψ X). One-dimensional projections Pψ are known as pure states and are the most informative about the system they describe; they are quantum counterparts to the classical evaluation functionals δx (f ) = f (x) of section 2.2.1. Also in quantum mechanics, however, what is often practically achievable is not the speciﬁcation of a precise vector state, but only that the system physical state corresponds to a projector Pj occurring with a certainweight 0 ≤ λj ≤ 1 within a statistical ensemble J of projectors such that j∈J λj = 1. In such a case, the state of the system is a mixed state, namely a mixture of pure states; relatively to them, observables have mean-values that are linear convex combinations of pure state mean-values: λj ψj | X |ψj = Tr(ρ X) , ρ := λj | ψj ψj | . (5.102)

X ρ := j∈J

j∈J

As a linear convex combination (weighted sum) of projectors, ρ is a positive operator of trace 1, known as density matrix. Deﬁnition 5.5.1 (Density Matrices). Any positive trace-class operator let ρ = r | ρ ∈ B1 (H) with Trρ = 1 describes a mixed state; j=1 j rj rj | be its spectral representation with 1 ≥ rj ≥ 0, j rj = 1. Then, ρ deﬁnes a positive, linear and normalized functional on B(H): rj φj | X |φj . (5.103) B(H) X → ωρ (X) := Tr(ρ X) = j

The set of all density matrices over the Hilbert space H of a quantum system S will be denoted by S(S) or by B+ 1 (H) and called state-space. Its extremal points, those which cannot be decomposed into convex combinations of other states, are called pure states.

Remark 5.5.1. The eigenvalue rj of ρ in (5.103) represents the probability to ﬁnd the system in the state | rj once it is known that it is described by the density matrix ρ. However, a mixture as in (5.102) can correspond to a convex combination of non-orthogonal projectors Pj = | ψj ψj |; this fact points to two crucial aspects that mark a substantial diﬀerence with respect to classical phase-space probability distributions: 1) a same ρ corresponds to

5.5 Quantum States

191

diﬀerent mixtures and 2) the weights λj of the mixture are interpretable as probabilities if and only if λj | ψj | ψk |2 ⇐⇒ ψj | ψk = δjk , λk = ψk | ρ |ψk = j∈J

that is if and only if the vector states corresponding to a given physical mixture are the eigenvectors of the associated density matrix.

Examples 5.5.1. 1. The geometry of the state-space of two level systems can be simply visualized. Using (5.57), the density matrices ρ ∈ M2 (C) read

1 1 r s 1 + ρ3 ρ1 − iρ2 (1 l + ρ · σ) = , (5.104) ρ= = s∗ 1 − r 2 2 ρ1 + iρ2 1 − ρ3 with 0 ≤ r ≤ 1 and r(1 − r) ≥ |s|2 for ρ ≥ 0. Thus, ρ ∈ R3 has length 0 ≤ ρ2 = 1 − 4Det(ρ) ≤ 1 . Thus, the density matrices of two-level systems are identiﬁed by the vector ρ, the so-called Bloch vector, inside the 3-dimensional sphere. The pure states are uniquely associated with points on its surface, while orthogonal states are connected by a diameter. 2. By expanding the exponential operators in (5.99) as power series and acting on the vacuum state, the resulting pure state, | z := D(z)| vac = e−

|z|2 2

†

ez·a | vac = e−

|z|2 2

k n ∞ z j j | k , kj ! j=1 k =0 j

(5.105) is a so-called coherent state [312], that is an eigenstate of the annihilation operators ∀ i = 1, 2, . . . , n . (5.106) ai | z = zi | z It thus follows that the squared-moduli of the components of z are mean |z = f |zj |2 . Coherent states cannot be occupation numbers: z | N j=1 orthogonal to each other for there are uncountably many of them, indeed, from (5.101), one derives

z 1 | z 2 = 0 | D† (−z 1 )D(z 2 ) |0 = ei((z

1 ∗

) ·z 2 ) − 12 |z 1 − z 2 |2

Nevertheless, with zj = rj exp (iϑj ) and dz =

e

n j=1

. (5.107)

rj drj dϑj ,

192

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

1 πf

Rf

dz | z z | =

×

1 π

2π

f ∞ 2 p +q | pj qj | ∞ rj drj e−rj rj j j × pj !qj ! 0 j=1 pj ,qj =0

dϑj eiϑj (qj −pj ) =

0

f ∞

| pj pj | = 1l .

(5.108)

j=1 pj =0 (f )

Namely, coherent states form an overcomplete set in the Fock space HF . Let a† represent the creation operator of a photon in a single mode; ∞ 2 zn √ | n corresponds to a Poisson a coherent state | z = e−|z| /2 n! n=0 |z|2n −|z|2 e distribution over the mode number states, | n | z |2 = . n! 3. Passing from annihilation and creation operators to position and momentum ones, by inverting (5.97) the complex parameters z ∈ Cf√correspond 2f to points √ r = (q, p) ∈ R in phase-space, where q := 2(z) and p := 2(z). Coherent states are then √ characterized by gaussian localization both in q and p; indeed, if 2z 0 = q 0 + ip0 , then from the discussion preceding equation (5.101), using (5.77), (5.70) and (5.90) one gets, in position representation,

q | z 0 = q | W ((−q 0 , p0 )) |vac = eip0 ·(q−q0 /2)

e− q−q0

π f /4

2

/2

, (5.109)

while, in momentum representation (see (5.71)),

p | z0 = e

−iq 0 ·(p−p0 /2)

e− p−p0

π f /4

2

/2

.

(5.110)

The phase-space localization properties of coherent states make them useful tools for studying the quasi-classical behavior of quantum states [138]. In particular, given a density matrix ρ for a continuous variable system with f degrees of freedom, one can compare its statistical properties with those of the function Rρ (q, p) := z | ρ |z [300] which is positive, since ρ ≥ 0, and normalized because of (5.108), thence a well-deﬁned phasespace probability density. Viceversa, given a phase-space density R(q, p) one can naturally associate to it a density matrix, ρR , which is diagonal with respect to the overcomplete set of coherent states: dx dy ρR = dz R(z) | z z | = R(x, y) | x + iy x + iy | . (2π)f 2f R (5.111) Most density matrices ρ admit a so-called P -representation [121] as above in terms of a function R(x, y) that is summable and normalized, but, in general, not positive and thus not a phase-space density.

5.5 Quantum States

193

The classical character of coherent states stands in sharp contrast with that of number eigenstates: this behavior shows up most evidently when photons interact with beam-splitters [123]. Beamsplitters A beam splitter is an optical device that is used to divide an incoming classical light beam of intensity I along a spatial direction 1 into a reﬂected beam of intensity R × I, with reﬂection coeﬃcient R along an orthogonal direction 2, and a transmitted beam of intensity T × I, with transmission coeﬃcient T along the incoming direction 1. In absence of absorption and dissipation, R + T = 1. Quantum mechanically, one associates photon modes to the two spatial directions; in an eﬀective two-dimensional description, a generic single photon state | ψ incident upon the beam splitter is a superposition of single-photon basis states | 1 , | 2 describing photons impinging on the beam-splitter along the directions 1 and 2.

Fig. 5.1. Beam Splitter

In absence of dissipation, the interaction with the beam splitter produces outgoing photon states according to the rules | 1 := U | 1 = t1 | 1 + r2 | 2 ,

| 2 := U | 2 = r1 | 1 + t2 | 2 ,

where r1,2 , t1,2 ∈ C are the reﬂection and transmission amplitudes along the

t1 r2 appears which is directions 1, 2. Therefore, a natural matrix U = r1 t2 † unitary. In fact, by using creation operators ai for the two modes, one writes | i = a†i | vac , where the vacuum | vac is the state with no photons. Setting | 1 := b†1 | vac and | 2 = b†2 | vac , yields b†1 = t1 a†1 + r2 a†2 , b†2 = r1 a†1 + t2 a†2 and the Hermitian conjugate linear relations. As the b# i create and annihilate new photon states, they must comply with the CCR (5.92), whence

194

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

[b1 , b†1 ] = |t1 |2 +|r2 |2 = 1 = [b1 , b†1 ] = |t1 |2 +|r2 |2 , [b1 , b†2 ] = t∗1 r1 +r2∗ t2 = 0 . The whole physical process can thus be characterized by the matrix

iψ

t1 r2 te 1 reiφ2 U := = , r1 t2 reiφ1 teiψ2 where r2 + t2 = 1 and √ (φ1 + φ2 ) − (ψ1 + ψ2 ) = π. For sake of simplicity, we shall set t = r = 1/ 2, ψ1 = ψ2 = 0 and φ1 = φ, so that φ2 = π − φ; in this case, the matrix U reads

1 t1 r2 1 eiφ =√ U= . (5.112) −iφ r1 t2 1 2 −e It describes a so-called 50 : 50 beam-splitter that rotates by φ and π − φ the reﬂected and transmitted beams. The transformation a1,2 → b1,2 can be unitarily implemented, namely we can explicitly construct the operator U that sends | 1 , | 2 into | 1 , | 2 . Since the beam-splitter does nothing to | vac = U † | vac = | vac , the action of U must be the vacuum, namely U † . Let us consider the operator a1,2 U such that b1,2 = U (z) := ez a1 a†2 −z∗ a†1 a2 , U

z = |z|eiα ;

it is unitary and its action can be computed as for the displacement operators in (5.100). Namely (z) a† U (z)† = U i

∞ 1 k † d [a ] , k! z j

dz [·] = [z a1 a†2 − z ∗ a†1 a2 , · ] .

k=0

Since dz [a†1 ] = z a†2 and dz [a†2 ] = −z ∗ a†1 , the inﬁnite sums can be explicitly computed, the result being † † iα † (z) a† U U 1 (z) = (cos |z|) a1 − e (sin |z|) a2 −iα (z) a† U † U (sin |z|) a†1 + (cos |z|) a†2 . 2 (z) = e

Therefore, the matrix (5.112) corresponds to |z| = π/4 and α = π + φ; set := U (−π/4 exp (iφ)). In terms of U it is now easy to check that an incoming U photon along direction 1 emerges in a superposition of states, † iφ † iφ | vac = a1 +√e a2 | vac = | 1 +√e | 2 , † a† U | 1 = b†1 | vac = U 1 2 2

Instead, for a coherent state | α = D(α)| vac , α ∈ C, one has | α = U D(α) U † | vac = eα U a†1 U † −α∗ U a1 U † | vac U α α∗ α iφ † α∗ −iφ α α √ √ a† − √ a e a2 − √ e a2 2 | vac = | √ 1 ⊗ | eiφ √ 2 . =e 2 1 2 1e 2 2 2

5.5 Quantum States

195

This means that an incoming coherent state gets split into a transmitted coherent state | √α2 1 of intensity |α|2 /2 and a reﬂected/phase-shifted coherent state | eiφ √α2 2 of intensity |α|2 /2, exactly as with classical light. On the other hand, a purely quantum eﬀect results from a beam splitter acting on a state | 11 12 consisting of two photons coming from the orthogonal directions 1, 2. It is transformed into | 11 12 = b†1 b†2 | vac ; explicitly, 1 † iφ † −iφ † † † † a† U | 11 12 = U a1 + a†2 )| vac 1 U a2 U | vac = (a1 + e a2 )(−e 2 1 | 21 + | 22 √ . = (−eiφ (a†1 )2 + a†1 a†2 − a†2 a†1 + eiφ (a†2 )2 )| vac = 2 2 The outgoing state thus consists in a superposition of states with both photons moving along a same direction; then, photons will always be found together either along direction 1, | 21 , or along direction 2, | 22 , with the same probability. On the contrary, no experiment can reveal one photon along direction 1 and the other photon along direction 2. This is because the amplitude for | 11 12 is the sum of the amplitudes of all processes leading to this state; in the present case these are reﬂections along either directions 1 and 2 with amplitudes r1 r2 = −1/2 and transmissions along either directions 1 and 2 with amplitudes t1 t2 = 1/2. These processes interfere destructively. The same kind of eﬀect appears in single photon experiments with MachZender interferometers.

Fig. 5.2. Mach-Zender Interferometer

In a conﬁguration as in Figure 5.2, an incoming photon is either reﬂected or transmitted at a beam-splitter BS1 with amplitudes r1 and t1 , reﬂected by perfectly reﬂecting mirrors M and then either reﬂected or transmitted with amplitudes r2 and t2 at a second beam-splitter BS2 . The outgoing photons are then counted by detectors D1,2 . The probability P1 of a photon being

196

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

detected at D1 is determined by the amplitude at D1 which is the sum of those of the processes “reﬂection at BS1 + transmission at BS2 ” and “transmission at BS1 + reﬂection at BS2 ”, that is P1 = |r1 t2 + t1 r2 |2 . Analogously, the processes “transmission at BS1 + transmission at BS2 ” and “reﬂection at BS1 + reﬂection at BS2 ” contribute to the detection probability at D2 , P2 = |t1 t2 + r1 r2 |2 . One can visualize the entire process by means of a binary tree with one level for each beam-splitter.

Fig. 5.3. Mach-Zender Interferometer: Binary Tree

If both beam-splitters act through a same operator U as before, then, taking into account the impinging directions,

2

2 1 1 P1 = −e−iφ + eiφ = sin2 φ , P2 = 1 + e2iφ = cos2 φ . 2 2 An interference pattern thus emerges which depends on the phase-shift φ and can then be experimentally controlled.

Uncertainty Relations Beside being necessary for the consistency of the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics, the positivity of quantum states is, together with non-commutativity, at the origin of the Heisenberg uncertainty relations. Consider the CCR for f degrees of freedom; with the notation of (5.75), i ) let ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) be a density matrix such that all ﬁrst moments ri := Tr(ρ r and all second moments Tr(ρ ri rj ) are ﬁnite. Then, the 2f × 2f real matrices B

C2f ρ := Tr ρ ( C ri −ri )( rj −rj )

i,j=1

,

B

C2f ρ )T := Tr ρ ( (C rj −rj )( ri −ri )

are both positive. In fact, ρ |u =

u|C

2f i,j=1

u∗i uj Tr ρ ( ri − ri )( rj − rj ) = Tr(ρ X † X) ≥ 0 ,

i,j=1

5.5 Quantum States

197

2f for all u ∈ C2f , where X := i=1 ui ( ri − ri ). Using commutators ([· , ·]) and anti-commutators ({· , ·}), one ﬁnds C 1 1B ( ri − ri ) , ( ri , rj ( ri − ri )( rj − rj ) = rj − rj ) + 2 2 C 1 1B ( rj − rj )( ( ri − ri ) , ( ri , rj . ri − ri ) = rj − rj ) − 2 2 C B With Jf as in (5.79), the CCR (5.68) read ri , rj = i (Jf )ij ; it thus turns out that the correlation matrix ρ 2f C ρ := [Cij ]i,j=1 =

ρ + (C ρ )T C , 2

ρ Cij :=

1 Tr ρ ( ri − ri ) , ( rj − rj ) , 2

beside being positive, must also satisfy C C 1B B Jf = Cρ ± i Tr ρ ri , rj ≥0. Cρ ± 2 2

(5.113)

Let f = 1 and choose ρ = | ψ ψ |; then,

i 0 1 Cρ ± = 2 −1 0 ⎞ ⎛

ψ | { q , p} |ψ /2 ± i/2

ψ | (Δ q )2 |ψ ⎠ , =⎝ 2

ψ | { q , p} |ψ /2 ∓ i/2

ψ | (Δ p) |ψ where Δ q := q− ψ | q |ψ and Δ p := p− ψ | p |ψ . Therefore, (5.113) implies

ψ | Δ2 q |ψ ψ | Δ2 p |ψ ≥

1 1

ψ | { q , p} |ψ 2 + ≥ . 4 4 4

These are the uncertainty relations for conjugate position and momentum. In terms of Bosonic annihilation and creation operators, using (5.91) and (5.95), the correlation matrix reads C2f 1B , (5.114) Tr ρ Ai − Ai ρ , A†j − A†j ρ 2 i,j=1

1 1 1 # where U1 = √ := Tr ρ A ⊗ 1lf and A# ρ i i . Notice that the 2 −i i ρ matrices V ,

C2f 1B V ρ = Tr ρ Ai − Ai ρ A†j − A†j ρ 2 i,j=1 V ρ := U1† C ρ U1 =

and the transposed (V ρ )T =

C2f 1B † Tr ρ Aj − A†j ρ Ai − Ai ρ 2 i,j=1

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

C C B B are also positive. Since Ai , A†j = δij if 1 ≤ i ≤ f , while Ai , A†j = −δij if 1 + f ≤ i ≤ 2f , and C C 1 1B 1B Ai , A†j = Ai A†j − Ai , A†j = A†j Ai + Ai , A†j , 2 2 2 it follows that 1 V ρ ± Σ3 ≥ 0 , 2

Vρ ≥0 ,

Σ3 :=

1lf 0

0 −1lf

.

(5.115)

The correlation matrix of a coherent state ρ = | z z | as in (5.105) is particularly simple; indeed, by virtue of ai | z = zi | z , it turns out that

z | a†i aj |z = zi∗ zj , z | ai aj |z = zi zj , z | ai a†j |z = δij + zi zj∗ , whence V ρ =

1 2

1lf 0

0 1lf

.

Gaussian States In classical probability theory, continuous probability distributions μ on Rn can be described in terms of their Fourier transforms or characteristic functions [157] Fμ (ξ) :=

dμ(x) eiξ·x .

In this way, the moments of the probability distribution can be obtained by diﬀerentiating Fμ (ξ) at ξ = 0. Similarly, let ρ be a state of a continuous variable system with f degrees of freedom equipped with a strongly continuous representation of the CCR in the form (5.96), then the characteristic function of ρ is given by

∗ (5.116) FρC (r) := Tr ρ W (r) = Tr ρ eZ ·A =: FρV (z) , where (5.96) and (5.97) have been used. Remark 5.5.2. The characteristic function FρC (r) is the inverse of the Weyltransform (5.80); indeed, dr ρ= F C (r) W (−r) , (2π)f ρ where the convergence of the integral is understood with respect to the weakoperator topology on the representation Hilbert space. The easiest way to see this is to call X the right hand side of the previous equality and calculate its matrix elements in the position representation (5.67) using (5.70):

5.5 Quantum States

199

dr F C (r) q 1 | W (−r) |q 2 (2π)f ρ 1 dq dp C = F (r) δ(q − q 1 + q 2 )e−ip·( 2 q+q2 ) (2π)f ρ i dp = FρC (q 1 − q 2 , p) e− 2 p·(q1 +q2 ) . f (2π)

q 1 | X |q 2 =

By computing the trace in position representation, one gets

FρC (q 1 − q 2 , p) = Tr ρ W (q 1 − q 2 , p) q 1 −q 2 = dx x | ρ |x − q 1 + q 2 e−ip·( 2 −x) , whence, from the representation

q 1 | X |q 2 =

dx

dp ip·q e = δ(q) of the Dirac delta, (2π)f

dp ip·(q−x) e

x | ρ |x − q 1 + q 2 = q 1 | ρ |q 2 . (2π)f

Taking derivatives of FρC (r) at r = 0 with respect to the real variables qi , pi , respectively of FρV (z) at z = 0 with respect to the complex variables zi , zi∗ , one gets the expectation values of all products of position and momentum coordinates, respectively of annihilation and creation operators. For instance, the ﬁrst moments arise as follows, ∂zi FρV (z) = Tr(ρ ai ) , ∂zi∗ FρV (z) = −Tr(ρ a†i ) , (5.117) z=0

z=0

while second moments can be extracted from

1

∂z2i zj FρV (z) = Tr ρ aj ai = Tr ρ Ai , A†j 2 z=0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ f , 1 + f ≤ j ≤ 2f ,

1

∂z2i∗ zj∗ FρV (z) = Tr ρ a†j a†i = Tr ρ Ai , A†j 2 z=0 for 1 + f ≤ i ≤ 2f , 1 ≤ j ≤ f ,

1 δij ∂z2i∗ zj FρV (z) − Tr ρ aj a†i = − Tr ρ Ai , A†j = 2 2 z=0 for 1 + f ≤ i ≤ 2f , 1 + f ≤ j ≤ 2f ,

1 δij − Tr ρ ai a†j = − Tr ρ Ai , A†j ∂z2i zj∗ FρV (z) = 2 2 z=0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ f , 1 ≤ j ≤ f .

(5.118)

(5.119)

(5.120)

(5.121)

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

The link with the correlation matrix (5.114) is apparent; indeed, the previous moments arise from a gaussian characteristic function of the form FρV (z) = eZ

∗

·Aρ −

∗ ρ 1 2 Z ·(V Z)

,

(5.122)

where Aρ := {Tr(ρ Ai )}2f i=1 and the vectors Z, A are as in (5.97) and (5.95). Notice that (5.114) implies that the sesquilinear form (Z 1 , Z 2 ) → Z ∗1 · (V ρ Z 2 ) is symmetric and positive. Taking into account (5.91) and (5.97), one passes from the complex vector Z = (z ∗ , −z) ∈ C2f to the vector r = (q, p) of canonical position and momentum coordinates by means of

1 1 −i Z = U2 r , U2 := √ ⊗ 1lf . 2 −1 −i

0 1lf † Since U2 U1 = −iΣ1 = −i , where U1 is the matrix in (5.114), 1lf 0 FρV (z) becomes the following Gaussian function of r ∈ R2f , FρC (r) = eir·(Σ1 rρ ) − 2 r·(Σ1 C 1

ρ

Σ1 r)

,

(5.123)

where r ρ := {Tr(ρ ri )}2f i=1 . As in classical probability, the Gaussian form of the characteristic function is such that higher moments are determined by ﬁrst and second moments. Obviously, not all quantum states have this property, if they do have it, they are called Gaussian states. Example 5.5.2. Coherent states ρ = | u u | = D(u)| 0 0 |D† (u), u ∈ Cf are Gaussian; indeed, using (5.100), FρV (z) = 0 | D† (u)eZ = eZ

∗

·U

0 | eZ

∗

∗

·A

D(u) |0 = 0 | eZ

·A

∗

|0 = eZ

∗

·U − 12 z 2

·(A+U )

,

|0

U = (u, u∗ ) ∈ C2f .

The ﬁrst moments are u = u | a |u , u∗ = u | a† |u , the correlation matrix 1lf 0 V ρ = 12 . 0 1lf From its characteristic function, one can easily determine whether a given Gaussian state ρ is pure; indeed, by using Remark 5.5.2, one computes

dr 1 dr 2 C Fρ (r 1 ) FρC (r 2 ) Tr W (−r 1 )W (−r 2 ) Tr(ρ2 ) = 2f (2π) dr −r·(C ρ r) 1 dr C C F (r) F (−r) = e = . = ρ ρ f f f (2π) (2π) 4 Det(C ρ ) Therefore, ρ is pure if and only if Det(C ρ ) = 4−f .

5.5 Quantum States

201

A part from their ﬁrst moments which can always be set equal to 0 by a suitable shift operated by a displacement operator D(z) in (5.99), Gaussian states are completely determined by their correlation matrix. An interesting question is the following one: given a Gaussian function F (z) = eZ

∗

·M

e− 2 Z 1

∗

·(V Z)

,

(5.124)

with M ∈ C2f an assigned complex vector and V an assigned (2f ) × (2f ) positive matrix such that the associated sesquilinear form is symmetric, Z ∗1 · (V Z 2 ) = Z ∗2 · (V Z 1 ) ,

(5.125)

is F (z) the characteristic function of Gaussian state ρ with correlation matrix V and ﬁrst moments given by the components of M ? The answer is that it is so if and only if V satisﬁes the conditions (5.115). While necessity descends from the uncertainty relations, suﬃciency comes instead from the following general result [143]. Proposition 5.5.1. A function R2f r → F C (r) (C2f z → F V (z)) is the characteristic function of a quantum state ρ of f degrees of freedom satisfying the CCR if and only if 1) F C (0) = 1 (F V (0) = 1), 2) F C (r) (F V (z)) is continuous at r = 0 (z = 0) and 3) for any n-tuple {r i }ni=1 , r i ∈ R2f , ({z i }ni=1 ) the n × n matrix F C (F V ) with entries (see (5.98))

∗ i 1 C V = e− 2 σ(ri ,rj ) F C (r j − r i ) Fij = e 2 Z i ·(Σ3 Z j ) F C (z j − z i ) Fij is positive deﬁnite. We postpone the proof of the proposition and instead show that if the positive (2f ) × (2f ) matrix V in (5.124) satisﬁes V ± 12 Σ3 ≥ 0, then there is a (Gaussian) state ρ with F (z) as characteristic function. We just need to consider condition 3) and prove that n

∗

∗

∗

∗

∗

u∗i uj e(Z j −Z i )·M e− 2 (Z j −Z i )·(V (Z j −Z i )) e 2 Z i ·(Σ3 Z j ) ≥ 0 , 1

1

i,j=1

for all choices of n complex vectors z i ∈ Cf in Z i = (z ∗i , −z i ). Because of (5.125), we shall thus show that n

∗

wi∗ wj eZ i ·((V + 2 Σ3 )Z j ) ≥ 0 , 1

where

∗

∗

wi := eZ i ·M − 2 Z i ·(V Z i ) . 1

i,j=1

Since V + 12 Σ3 is positive, the same is true of the n × n Hermitian, positive deﬁnite matrix A := [Aij ], with entries Aij := Z ∗i ·((V + 12 Σ3 )Z j ). Then, consider the spectral decomposition of A with eigenvalues a ≥ 0, = 1, 2, . . . , n,

202

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

n ∗ so that Aij = =1 a ψ i ψ j , where ψ i is the i-th component of the -th eigenvector of A; then, 2 n ∞ n n k k 1 wi∗ wj eAij = a j wi ψ ∗r i ≥ 0 . k! i,j=1

1 , 2 ,... k =1 j=1

k=0

i=1

r=1

Proof of Proposition 5.5.1 If F V (z) = FρV (z) in (5.116), then condition 1) in the statement of the proposition is satisﬁed because Tr(ρ) = 1, while condition 2) is fulﬁlled since we assumed a strongly-continuous representation of the CCR and ρ is a trace-class operator, so that V ∗ F (z) − 1 ≤ rj rj | eZ ·A − 1l |rj , j

where rj and | rj are eigenvalues and eigenvectors of ρ. As regards condition 3), observe that using (5.116) and (5.78), it turns out that n

V u∗i uj Fij = Tr ρ X † X ≥ 0 ,

i,j=1

n

where X := i=1 ui exp(Z ∗i · A). The suﬃciency of conditions 1), 2) and 3) is shown by using them to construct a strongly continuous representation of the CCR by Weyl operators W (r) on a Hilbert space H and a density matrix ρ on H such that F C (r) is of the form (5.116) [143]. One starts by deﬁning the operators

i W0 (r)ψ (w) = e− 2 σ(r,w) ψ(w + r) , r ∈ R2f , (5.126) on the functions on R2f ; these operators satisfy the CCR (5.78):

i W0 (r 1 ) W0 (r 2 )ψ (w) = e− 2 σ(r1 ,r2 ) W0 (r 1 + r 2 )ψ (w) . Then, one considers the linear span K0 of all functions on R2f of the form ΨC (w) =

n k=1

i ck exp(− σ(r k , w)) ; 2

for all ﬁnite n ∈ N, and deﬁnes on it the sesquilinear form

ΨC1 | ΨC2 F :=

n1 n2

(c1i )∗ c2j F C (r j − r i ) e− 2 σ(ri ,rj ) , i

i=1 j=1

where z i,j are related to r i,j via (5.97). Because of the positive semideﬁniteness of F C , ΨC | ΨC F ≥ 0; thus, in analogy to the GNS construction,

5.5 Quantum States

203

one takes the quotient of K0 by the kernel consisting of those ΨC such that

ΨC | ΨC F = 0 and then its completion with respect to the scalar product deﬁned on the quotient by · | · F . This gives a Hilbert space K containing the constant function 1l(r) = 1 on R2f for 1l | 1l F = 1; similarly to the GNS vector, | 1l is cyclic for the family of operators W0 (r) since ΨC (w) =

n k=1

and

i ck exp(− σ(r k , w)) = ck W0 (r k ) 1l (w) , 2 n

k=1

1l | W0 (r) |1l F = 1l | e− 2 σ(r,·) F = F (z) . i

(5.127)

Further, (5.126) yields

n

i i W0 (r)ΨC1 (w) = ck e− 2 σ(rk ,r) e− 2 σ(rk +r,w) , k=1

whence

W0 (r)ΨC1 | W0 (r)ΨC2 F =

(c1i )∗ c2j e 2 σ(ri ,r) e− 2 σ(rj ,r) i

1

2

i

i,j

× F C (r 2j − r 1i ) e− 2 σ(ri +r,rj +r) 1 2 i = (c1i )∗ c2j F C (r 2j − r 1i ) e− 2 σ(ri ,rj ) i

1

2

i,j

= ΨC1 | ΨC2 F . The operators W0 (r) can thus be extended to unitary operators on K where they provide a representation of the CCR . If the latter is strongly continuous, then, from Remark 5.4.2, it reduces to an orthogonal sum of unitarily equivalent irreducible representations. Namely, there exists an irreducible representation of the CCR on a Hilbert space H by Weyl operators W (r) and := > H such that an isometry U : K → H n 1 G (r) U , W G (r) := W (r) . W0 (r) = U † W n

> namely ψn 2 = 1, Also, U | 1l = n | ψn is a normalized vector in H, n so that ρ := n λn Pn is a density matrix on H, where λn := ψn 2 and Pn := | ψn ψn | with ψn := ψn /ψn . Now, from (5.127) it follows that

G (r) |U 1l

ψn | W (r) |ψn = U 1l | W Tr ρ W (r) = n

= 1l | W0 (r) |1l = F (z) , which concludes the proof. In order to show that the representation of the CCR by the Weyl operators W0 (r) on K is strongly continuous, we shall ﬁrst

204

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

show that the condition 1), 2) and 3) ensure uniform continuity of F C (r) at any r. Indeed, choosing vectors r 1 = 0, r 2 = u and r 3 = w, it turns out that ⎛ ⎞ F C (w) 1 F C (u) i F C = ⎝ F C (−u) 1 F C (w − u)e− 2 σ(u,w) ⎠ ; i C C σ(u,w) F (−w) F (u − w)e 2 1 its positivity implies F C (−u) = F C (u)∗ , |F C (u)| ≤ 1 and 2 C F (u) − F C (w) ≤ 1 − F C (u − w) C B i − 2 (F C )∗ (u)F C (w) 1 − F C (u − w) e 2 σ(u,w) i ≤ 4 1 − F C (u − w) e 2 σ(u,w) . Then, the strong continuity of the representation is a consequence of the fact that, for all ΨC ∈ K0 , the contribution i

ΨC | W0 (r) |ΨC F = c∗i cj e− 2 (σ(rj ,r)+σ(ri ,rj +r)) F C (r j + r − r i ) i,j

goes to ΨC | ΨC F when r → 0 in the equality

(W0 (r) − 1l)| ΨC 2F = 2 ΨC | ΨC F − ΨC | W0 (r) |ΨC F and that this result can be extended to the whole of K.

Examples 5.5.3 (Two-Mode Gaussian States). 1. Consider two bosonic modes ( r = ( q1 , q2 , p1 , p2 )) in a state ρ with Gaussian characteristic function, FρC (r) = e− 2 r·(Σ1 C 1

ρ

Σ1 r)

, R4 r = (q 1 , q 2 , p1 , p2 ) .

(5.128)

With respect to (5.123) r ρ = 0, a case which can always be attained by suitably translating ρ. This is more easily ascertained in terms of creation and annihilation operators as in (5.122); indeed, if ρ is such that

Aρ := {Tr(ρ Ai )}4i=1 =: U = (u, u∗ ) = 0 , consider ρ := D† (u) ρ D(u), with D(u) as in (5.99) (see also Example 5.5.2). Using (5.100) and (5.116),

∗ ∗ FρV (z) = Tr ρ D(u) eZ ·A D† (u) = e−Z ·U FρV (z) = e−Z

∗

·U

eZ

∗

·U −

∗ ρ 1 2 Z ·(V Z)

= e− 2 Z 1

∗

·(V ρ Z)

.

5.5 Quantum States

= Mr as R , M = M −1 = M T , It is convenient to rearrange r ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ q1 1 0 0 0 q1 ⎜ p1 ⎟ ⎜ 0 0 1 0 ⎟ ⎜ q2 ⎟ R=⎝ ⎠=⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ . q2 p1 0 1 0 0 p2 p2 0 0 0 1

205

(5.129)

M

As a consequence, the CCR (5.68) now read ⎛ 0 −1 ⎜ i , R j ] = iΩij , Ω := M J2 M = ⎝ [R 0 0

⎞ 1 0 0 0 0 0⎟ ⎠ , 0 1 0 0 −1 0

(5.130)

and the characteristic function (5.128) becomes

FρC (r) =: G(R) = e− 2 R·(Σ1 V Σ1 R) , 1

(5.131)

⎛

⎞ 0 0 0 1 F4 E 1

⎜0 0 1 0⎟ where Σ1 := ⎝ Tr ρ Ri , Rj . More ⎠ and V = 0 1 0 0 2 i,1=1 1 0 0 0 explicitly, a same argument as the one that led to (5.113) shows that C is a positive real 4 × 4 of the form

A C V = (5.132) CT B

1 q1 , p1 }) Tr(ρ q12 ) 2 Tr(ρ { (5.133) 0 ≤ A := 1 2 Tr(ρ { q , p }) Tr(ρ q12 ) 1 1

2 1 q2 , p2 }) Tr(ρ q22 ) 2 Tr(ρ { (5.134) 0 ≤ B := 1 Tr(ρ { q , p }) Tr(ρ q22 ) 2 2

2 Tr(ρ q1 q2 ) Tr(ρ q1 p2 ) . (5.135) C := Tr(ρ p1 q2 ) Tr(ρ p1 p2 ) By multiplying (5.113) on both sides by M , the necessary and suﬃcient conditions for V to be the correlation matrix of a gaussian state are i V± Ω≥0. 2

(5.136)

T 2. Every 2 × 2 real matrix

S of determinant 1 such that S J2 S = J2 , 0 1 where J2 = is the symplectic matrix (2.6) for one degree −1 0 of freedom, can new one-mode canonical operators, be

used to deﬁne

q q ] = i(J2 )ij . This fact allows for = := = S r, r ,r , [ ri , R r j p p

206

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

a greatly simpliﬁcation of the basic structure of the correlation matrix V [278, 115]. As a ﬁrst real symmetric 2 × 2 step, consider a positive, matrix X with α := det(X) and deﬁne S := X/α; it turns out that √ α 0 X = ST S. Furthermore, since X is symmetric and J2 anti0 α √ √ antisymmetric and thus proportional to J2 . Its symmetric, X J2 X is√ √ determinant is α whence X J2 X = α J2 and S J2 S T = J2 5 . As a second step, use this result and let SA,B eﬀect the symplectic diagonalization of the positive, real matrices A, B in V, then

T

SA 0 SA 0 C α 1l2 V= . T T β 1l2 0 SB 0 SB C As a third and last

step, notice that the real matrix C can be written as c 0 1 =U C V T , where c1,2 are its singular values (see (5.16)) and 0 c2 U, V are two orthogonal matrices. If their determinant is 1 then they also := U σ3 , V := V σ3 and preserves J2 , otherwise set U

c1 0 γ1 0 := σ3 σ3 , 0 γ2 0 c2 where now γ1,2 need not be both positive. Therefore, any two-mode correlation matrix can be written as [278, 103] V=

UA 0

0 UB

⎛

α ⎜0 ⎝ γ1 0

0 α 0 γ2

V0

γ1 0 β 0

⎞ 0 γ2 ⎟ UAT ⎠ 0 0 β

0 UBT

,

(5.137)

T = J2 . In conclusion, by means of matrices UA,B such that UA,B J2 UA,B by suitably changing canonical coordinates, one can always reduce V to

A0 C0 the standard form V0 = , where A0 =: α 1l2 , B0 := β 1l2 C0T B0

γ1 0 and C0 := . Then, for V0 , by imposing the positivity of the 0 γ2 principal minors of V0 ± 2i Ω, the condition (5.136) amounts to

1 + I4 ≥ I1 + I2 + 2 I3 , 4

(5.138)

where I1 = α2 = Det(A0 ), I2 = β 2 = Det(B0 ), I3 = γ1 γ2 = Det(C0 ) and 5

The above argument is the simplest formulation of a more general theorem of Williamson on the symplectic diagonalization of positive, real 2f ×2f matrices [115]

5.5 Quantum States

207

I4 = (αβ − γ12 ) (αβ − γ22 ) = det(V0 ) . As the determinants Ij are invariant under transformations as those leading from V to V0 , that is I1 = Det(A), I2 = Det(B), I3 = Det(C) and I4 = Det(V), inequality (5.138) is necessary and suﬃcient to ensure that a positive, real 4 × 4 matrix V as in (5.132)– (5.135) be the correlation matrix of a two-mode Gaussian state. 3. Consider a two-mode Gaussian state ρ as in (5.111); a necessary and suﬃcient condition such that Rρ (q1 , q2 ; p1 , p2 ) ≥ 0 is that the correlation matrix V satisfy 1l4 ≥0. V ± 2 Indeed, using the argument at the end of Example 5.4.3, from the CCR relations (5.78) and (5.107) the characteristic function of ρR results dx dy R(x, y) × EρR (r) = 2 R4 (2π) √ √ × vac | W ( 2(x, −y)) W (q, p) W ( 2(−x, y)) |vac √ dx dy i 2 (q·y+p·x) = R(x, y) e

vac | W (q, p) |vac 2 R4 (2π) √ 2 2 1 dx dy i 2 (q·y+p·x) = e− 4 ( q + p ) R(x, y) e . (5.139) 2 R4 (2π) Because of the argument developed in the ﬁrst one of the above exr ρR = 0; amples, we can assume ρR to be a Gaussian function with ˆ thus, by Fourier transform and using (5.131) the result follows from R2 = r2 = q2 + p2 and R2 dR −i√2 u·(Σ1 M R) e G(R) e 4 R(u) = 2 4 π R dR −i√2 u·(Σ1 M R) − 12 R·(Σ 1 (V− 12 1l4 )Σ 1 R) , = e e 2 R4 π

0 1l2 4 where R := (q 1 , p1 , q 2 , p2 ) ∈ R , M4 (C) Σ1 = and 1l2 0 M4 (C) M is the matrix in (5.129).

Remark 5.5.3. Matrices as those in the second example above form the socalled symplectic group for f = 1 degrees of freedom [265]; the symplectic group for f > 1 degrees of freedom consists of real matrices S ∈ Mf (R) of determinant 1 such that preserve the symplectic matrix Jf , that is S Jf S T = Jf . := S r , the CCR are respected, namely [ ri , rj ] = i(Jf )ij . Setting as before r Therefore, because of the unitary equivalence of the CCR representations

208

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

(see Remark 5.4.2), there exists a unitary operator U (S) on the representa = U † (S) r U (S). From (5.75), tion Hilbert space H = L2dq (Rf ) such that r the Weyl operators transform as T U † (S) W (r) U (S) = ei r·(Σ1 Sr) = ei (S r)·(Σ1 r) = W (ST r) , (5.140)

D C A C while where, if S = with A, B, C ∈ Mf (R), then S = B A CT B

T T D C the transposed ST equals . C AT Let ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) be a density matrix for the f Bosonic degrees of freedom and consider the state ρS := U (S) ρ U † (S) obtained by operating the symplectic transformation of the canonical operators; because of (5.140), their characteristic functions (5.116) of ρ and ρS are related by EρS (r) = Eρ (ST r). With r = (q, p), u = (x, y) ∈ R2f , (5.139) generalizes to √ du − r 2 /4 2u·(Σ1 r) R (u) e , Eρ (r) = e ρ f R2f (2π)

Of 1lf where Σ1 := , whence the corresponding functions RρS (u) and 1lf Of Rρ (u) in the P -representation (5.111) are related by √ du − r 2 /4 i 2u·(Σ1 r) e R (u) e = ρ S f R2f (2π) √ du T 2 = e− S r /4 Rρ (S −1 u) ei 2u·(Σ1 r) . (5.141) f R2f (2π)

5.5.1 States in the Algebraic Approach As we have seen in Example 5.2.4 and Remark 5.2.3, expectations as in Deﬁnition 5.5.1 provide semi-norms that equip B(H) with a w∗ topology which is equivalent to the σ-weak topology. On the other hand, in Section 5.3.1, states have been deﬁned as positive, normalized linear functionals on C ∗ algebras which are continuous with respect to the uniform topology of B(H). Since this topology is ﬁner and thus has more open subsets than the σ-weak one, in general expectations need not be also σ-weak continuous. The following result [64] characterizes the space of density matrices within the more general space of states on B(H). Proposition 5.5.2. If M ⊆ B(H) is a von Neumann algebra with identity, all σ-weakly continuous expectations on M have the form M X → Tr(ρ X), with ρ ∈ B1 (H) a density matrix.

5.5 Quantum States

209

Proof: From Example 5.2.4, any σ-weak functional F : M → C takes the form F (X) = n ψn | X |φn where {ψn } and {φn } are sequences of vectors in H such that n ψ2 ≤ ∞ and n φ2 ≤ ∞. > > Set | ψ = n | ψn , | φ = n | φn and consider the following represen π(X)| ψ = > (X| ψn ), X ∈ B(H). tation of B(H) on their Hilbert space H, n Then, F (X) = ψ | π(X) |φ . If F is positive and M X ≥ 0, then

1

ψ + φ | π(X) |ψ + φ − ψ − φ | π(X) |ψ − φ F (X) = 4 1 ≤ ψ + φ | π(X) |ψ + φ . 4 By considering the GNS construction based on the vector state | ψ + φ (once normalized), Remark 5.3.2.3 implies the existence of 0 ≤ T = (S )† S ≤ 1l/4 into itself, in the commutant of π(M). Since S maps H | π(X) |S (ψ + φ) F (X) = ψ + φ | T π(X) |ψ + φ = S (ψ + φ)

χn | X |χn , ∀X ∈ M . =

n

Set ρ := n | χn χn |; this operator is positive. If F (1l) = 1, then Tr(ρ) = 1, whence ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) and F (X) = Tr(ρ X) for all X ∈ M. Remark 5.5.4. [64] As functionals, density matrices are normal as their σweak continuity is equivalent to the property of normal linear maps outlined in Remark 5.2.7. Because of the convexity of the space of states (see Remark 5.3.2.5), one has that Proposition 5.5.1. The space of states S(S) of a quantum system S is convex and a same density matrix can in general be decomposed into inﬁnitely many diﬀerent convex combinations of other density matrices, unless it is a pure state which is thus extremal in S(S). such that j∈J Xj = 1l; as Proof: Take any set of 0 ≤ Xj ∈ B(H), j ∈ J, ρ ≥ 0, in terms of its spectral decomposition √ρ = k rk | ψk ψk |, its unique √ (positive) square-root is given by ρ = k rk | φk φk |. Then, √ √ ρ Xj ρ λj ρj , ρj := , λj = Tr(ρ Xj ) . (5.142) ρ= λj j∈J

Thus the same density matrix ρ describes mixtures whose components are described by density matrices ρj ; in turn, these can also be decomposed unless they are projectors, as, in this case, ρ = | ψ ψ | implies

210

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

√

√ ρXj ρ = ψ | Xj |ψ | ψ ψ |

so that ρj = ρ for all choices of Xj ≥ 0.

Example 5.5.4. [156] Consider two generic decompositions of a same density matrix ρ ∈ S(S) into non-orthogonal one-dimensional projectors, ρ=

P √

√ ρ | ψp ψp | ρ , p=1 | wp wp |

P

ρ=

Q √ √ ρ | φq φq | ρ , q=1 | zq zq |

Q

| ψp ψp | = 1 and q=1 | φq φq | = 1. By means of the spectral N √ representation ρ = j=1 rj | rj rj |, setting | vj := rj | rj , one gets

with

p=1

| wp =

N

rj | ψp | vj , j=1

| zq =

N j=1

(W † )jp

rj | φq | vj . (Z † )jq

The P ×N matrix W : CN → CP with entries Wpj := ψp | rj and the Q×N matrix Z : CN → CQ with entries Zqj := φq | rj are such that W † W = 1N P P and Z † Z = 1N . Then | v = p=1 Wp | wp and | zq = p=1 Vpq | wp , † Q P where V = W Z : C → C . Thus, any two decompositions of ρ into projections are related by a P × Q matrix V such that V V † = W W † and V † V = ZZ † ; therefore, if P = Q = rank(ρ), then W , Z and hence V are unitary matrices on the support of ρ. Also, if P = rank(ρ), but Q is arbitrary, then V is an isometry such that V † V = 1N . In Section 5.3.1, states on C ∗ algebras have been used to construct Hilbert space representations; in the present setting, a representation on a concrete Hilbert space H is a priori given, it is nevertheless instructive to consider pure and mixed states of a ﬁnite dimensional quantum system S. In such cases, the GNS representation amounts to what in quantum information is known as mixed state puriﬁcation. Let ρ ∈ MN (C) be a density matrix and consider its spectral representaN tion ρ = j=1 rj | rj rj |, some eigenvalues possibly being equal to zero. To √ ρ one associates the state vector | ρ ∈ CN ⊗ CN given by |

√

ρ :=

N √ rj | rj ⊗ | rj .

(5.143)

j=1

Given X ∈ MN (C), let it be represented by π(X) = X ⊗ 1lN on CN ⊗ CN , X ⊗ 1lN |

√

ρ =

N N √ √ rj (X| rj ) ⊗ | rj = rj rk | X |rj | rk ⊗ | rj j=1

√

whence

√

j,k=1

= |X ρ , √ √ √ ρ | X ⊗ 1lN | ρ = ρ | X ρ = Tr(ρ X).

(5.144)

5.5 Quantum States

211

Pure States √ If ρ = | ψ ψ |, ψ ∈ CN , then | ρ := | ψ ⊗ | ψ ∈ CN ⊗ CN and √ π(X)| ρ = X| ψ ⊗ | ψ , for all X ∈ MN (C), whence the GNS Hilbert space is (isomorphic to) CN . Indeed, by taking the quotient of MN (C) with respect to the set I := X ∈ MN (C) : ψ | X † X |ψ = 0 , ρ the equivalence classes | ΨX are identiﬁed with operators of the form X| ψ ψ |. By varying X, the GNS Hilbert space Hρ is generated by vectors | φ ψ | for all φ ∈ CN and is thus isomorphic to CN . It follows that the GNS representation πρ (MN (C)) is unitarily equivalent to MN (C) and thus irreducible in agreement with Remark 5.3.2.

Faithful Density Matrices At the opposite end with respect to pure states, let us consider a density matrix ρ ∈ MN (C) with eigenvalues rj all diﬀerent from zero, so that Tr(ρ X † X) = 0 ⇐⇒ X = 0. According to Deﬁnition 5.3.5, ρ is faithful. Matrices X ∈ MN (C) becomes N 2 -dimensional vectors whose components are their matrix elements N with respect to the ONB consisting of the by varying eigenvectors of ρ, | X = i,j=1 ri | X |rj | ri ⊗ | rj . Also, √ X ∈ MN (C), the linear span of vectors of the form | X ρ is dense in N CN ⊗ CN . Let ψ = i,j=1 ψij | ri ⊗ | rj ∈ CN ⊗ CN and X = | rp rq |, √ ∗ √ rq . Therefore, if ψ is orthogonal to the linear then ψ | X ⊗ 1lN | ρ = ψpq √ ∗ = 0 for all p, q as ρ is faithful. span of | X ρ then, ψpq √ Because of Remark 5.3.2.1, the triplet (CN ⊗ CN , π, | ρ ) is unitarily equivalent to the GNS triplet (Hρ , πρ , Ωρ ) corresponding to the expectation functional ωρ : MN (C) X → ωρ (X) := Tr(ρ X). The matrix algebra MN (C) is represented by MN (C) ⊗ 1lN on Hρ ; so, its commutant is πρ (MN (C)) = 1lN ⊗MN (C), πρ (MN (C)) has trivial center and is thus a factor. The action of the commutant is given by √ √ √ rj | rj ⊗ (X| rj ) = | ρX T , 1lN ⊗ X| ρ = N

(5.145)

j=1

where X T denotes the transposition of X with respect to the eigenbasis of ρ. We can now look at the decomposers in (5.142) from the point of view of Remark 5.3.2.3. Given a convex decomposition ρ = j∈J λj σj , every σj corresponds to a unique 0 ≤ Xj in the commutant π(MN (C)) , thence to a unique 0 ≤ Xj ∈ MN (C), such that Xj = 1lN ⊗ Xj∗ and √ √ √ √ λj σj (X) = ρ | π(X)Xj | ρ = ρ | X ⊗ Xj∗ | ρ √ √ √ √ = ρ | X ρ Xj = Tr( ρ Xj ρ X) , (5.146)

212

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

√ √ whence λj = Tr(ρ Xj ) and σj = ( ρ Xj ρ)/λj . Example 5.5.5. Consider a two-level system equipped with the density ma 1 1−s 0 trix ρ = , 0 ≤ s ≤ 1; as GNS vector we can take its 0 1+s 2 puriﬁcation (5.143) 1−s 1+s √ |0 ⊗ |0 + |1 ⊗ |1 , | ρ = 2 2 where | 0 , | 1 are the eigenstates of ρ. The corresponding GNS representation is πρ (M2 (C)) = M2 (C) ⊗ 1l2 with GNS Hilbert space C4 , 1+s 1−s √ √

0 | X |0 +

1 | X |1 = Tr(ρ X) ,

ρ | X ⊗ 1l | ρ = 2 2 for all X ∈ M2 (C). The commutant is πρ (M2 (C)) = 1l2 ⊗ M2 (C) so that πρ is reducible and a factor since πρ (M2 (C)) = πρ (M2 (C)) whence its center (see Deﬁnition 5.3.4) is trivial, Zρ = πρ (M2 (C)) ∩ πρ (M2 (C)) = {λ1l}. Modular Theory The GNS state of any faithful density matrix is separating for πρ (MN (C)), √ namely πρ (X)| ρ = 0 ⇐⇒ X = 0, and thus cyclic for the commutant πρ (MN (C)) (see Lemma 5.3.1). We shall now give the fundamentals of the so-called modular theory that looks particularly simple for ﬁnite-level systems. Let ρ be a faithful states and identify its GNS triplet (Hρ , πρ , Ωρ ) with √ (CN ⊗ CN , MN (C) ⊗ 1lN , | ρ ). The so-called modular conjugation is the antilinear map Jρ : CN ⊗ CN → CN ⊗ CN such that | ψ :=

N

ψij | ri ⊗ | rj → Jρ | ψ =

i,j=1

It satisﬁes Jρ2 = 1l and Jρ | √

N

∗ ψij | rj ⊗ | ri .

(5.147)

i,j=1

√

√ ρ = | ρ ; furthermore,

Jρ | X ρ = Jρ (X ⊗ 1lN ) Jρ |

√

ρ =

N √

ri ( rk | X |ri )∗ | rk ⊗ | ri

i,k=1

√ √ = 1lN ⊗ X ∗ | ρ = | ρX † ,

(5.148)

where X ∗ is the conjugate of X with respect to the ONB {| rj }N j=1 , that is rk | X ∗ |rj = ( rk | X |rj )∗ . Given X, Y, Z ∈ MN (C), one explicitly computes

5.5 Quantum States

213

B C √ Jρ (X ⊗ 1lN )Jρ , Y ⊗ 1lN | Z ρ = √ √ = Jρ (X ⊗ 1lN )Jρ | Y Z ρ − (Y ⊗ 1lN )Jρ (X ⊗ 1lN )| ρZ † √ √ = Jρ | X ρ(Y Z)† − (Y ⊗ 1lN )| Z ρX † √ √ = | Y Z ρX † − | Y Z ρX † = 0 . Thus, Jρ (X ⊗ 1lN )Jρ belongs to the commutant 1lN ⊗ MN (C) = πρ (MN (C)) √ of MN (C) ⊗ 1lN = πρ (MN (C)); since the GNS vector | ρ is cyclic for πρ (MN (C)) it is separating for πρ (MN (C)) . Therefore, from (5.148), Jρ X ⊗ 1lN Jρ = 1lN ⊗ X ∗ ,

(5.149)

whence Jρ antilinearly embeds πρ (MN (C)) into its commutant πρ (MN (C)) . Actually, the embedding is an anti-isomorphism, Jρ πρ (MN (C))Jρ = πρ (MN (C)) .

(5.150)

Indeed, using (5.145), for any S ∈ πρ (MN (C)) and Z ∈ MN (C), it holds 1 1 √ √

√ √ √ √ S | ρ = | YS ρ = | ρ( ρ YS† √ )† = Jρ √ YST ρ ⊗ 1lN Jρ | ρ , ρ ρ √ where the ﬁrst inequality is due to the fact that S | ρ is a vector in Hρ which can be obtained by acting on the GNS vector with some πρ (YS ). Then, 1 √

S = Jρ √ YST ρ ⊗ 1lN Jρ . ρ A related notion is that of modular operator Δρ := ρ ⊗ ρ−1 ,

(5.151)

which, according to (5.148), is such that, 1 √ √ √ √ √ Jρ Δρ1/2 | X ρ = Jρ ρ ⊗ √ | X ρ = Jρ | ρX = | X † ρ . ρ

(5.152)

5.5.2 Density Matrices and von Neumann Entropy From the point of view of the GNS construction, pure states can be distinguished from mixed states because their GNS representations are nonirreducible factors for the latter, while they are irreducible factors for the former. There are however handier ways to sort these states out; perhaps the easiest is to consider ρ2 : if more than one eigenvalue of ρ is non zero, then ρ is mixed since then ρ2 = ρ. Indeed, the spectrum of a mixed state ρ has a richer structure than that of any one-dimensional projection.

214

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

The possibility of comparing, in some cases, the eigenvalues of two density matrices ρ1,2 ∈ B+ 1 (H) comes form the so-called minmax principle of which we give a short sketch (for a general formulation and proof see [252]). We shall consider the eigenvalues listed in decreasing order; namely, in the spectral decompositions B+ 1 (H) ρ = i ri | ri ri |, with eigenvalues repeated according to their multiplicities, we shall take ri ≥ ri+1 , for all i. Because of the ordering, it turns out that ri = sup ψ | ρ |ψ : ψ = 1 , | ψ ⊥ {| r1 , | r2 , . . . , | ri−1 } . (5.153) Indeed, for a ψ speciﬁed as above, ψ | ρ |ψ = k≥i rk | ψ | rk |2 ≤ ri and ri is achieved by choosing | ψ = | ri . The minmax principle asserts that ri = infi−1 sup ψ | ρ |ψ : ψ = 1 , | ψ ⊥ {| φ1 , | φ2 , . . . , | φi−1 } , {φj }j=1

(5.154) where {φj }i−1 is any set of vectors in H. j=1 In order to prove this relation, we denote by Uρ ({φj }i−1 j=1 ) the argument i−1 of the inf and show that Uρ ({φj }j=1 ) ≥ ri , whence the result follows for ri is achieved by choosing | φj = | rj , j = 1, 2, . . . , i − 1. Now, there surely exists i a normalized vector | Ψ = k=1 ck | rk ⊥ {φj }i−1 j=1 ; indeed, if P projects i onto the linear span of {| rj }j=1 , the vectors {P | φ }i−1 =1 span at most an (i − 1)-dimensional subspace. But then, Uρ ({φj }i−1 j=1 ) ≥ Ψ | ρ |Ψ =

i k=1

rk |ck |2 ≥ ri

i

|ck |2 = ri .

k=1

From the minmax principle, it follows that ρ1 ≥ ρ2 =⇒ ei (ρ1 ) ≥ ei (ρ2 ), where ei (ρ) is the i-th one in the ordered list of eigenvalues of ρ. Further, for generic ρ1,2 ∈ B+ 1 (H), the minmax principle provides an upper bound to the diﬀerences |ei (ρ1 ) − ei (ρ2 )| in terms of the trace-norm (5.21). Example 5.5.6. Given ρ1,2 ∈ B+ 1 (H), decompose ρ1 −ρ2 = R+ − R− , where R± are positive orthogonal operators, so that ρ1 − ρ2 1 = Tr(R+ + R− ) = Tr(2R − ρ1 − ρ2 ) , where R := ρ1 + R− = ρ2 + R+ ≥ ρ1,2 . Let ri , respectively ri1,2 be the eigenvalues of R, respectively ρ1,2 listed in decreasing order; then, by the minmax ri ≥ ri1,2 for all i. Thus, 2ri − ri1 − ri2 ≥ |ri1 − ri2 | =⇒ 1 principle, 2 i |ri − ri | ≤ ρ1 − ρ2 1 . The spectrum of a density matrix is a classical probability distribution: this hints at the possibility of quantifying its information content of by means of the Shannon entropy of such a distribution. This leads to the notion of von Neumann entropy of a state ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) [226].

5.5 Quantum States

215

Deﬁnition 5.5.2 (von Neumann Entropy). Given ρ ∈ S(S) with spectral decomposition (degenerate eigenvalues are repeated according with their multiplicity and with chosen orthogonal one dimensional eigenprojectors) ρ = j rj | rj rj |, the von Neumann entropy of ρ is the Shannon entropy of the probability distribution corresponding to its spectrum: S(ρ) = − Tr(ρ log ρ) = − j rj log rj . The following are some of the properties of the von Neumann entropy: they show that it plays a role similar to that of the Shannon entropy in a classical context. Other properties more related to composite systems will be discussed in Section 5.5.3. N Proposition 5.5.3. Let ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) be a density matrix. If H = C , then the von Neumann entropy is bounded by the entropy of the state 1lN /N :

0 ≤ S(ρ) ≤ log N .

(5.155)

The von Neumann entropy is concave; that is, given weights λi ≥ 0, i ∈ I, + i∈I λi = 1 and density matrices ρi ∈ B1 (H), λi S (ρi ) ≤ S λi ρi ≤ λi S (ρi ) + η(λi ) , (5.156) i∈I

i∈I

i∈I

i∈I

where η is the concave function (2.84). If H = CN , the von Neumann entropy is continuous on B+ 1 (H) with respect to the trace-norm; namely, if ρ1,2 ∈ (H) are such that ρ1 − ρ2 1 ≤ 1/e; then they satisfy the so-called Fannes B+ 1 inequality |S(ρ1 ) − S(ρ2 )| ≤ ρ1 − ρ1 log N + η(ρ1 − ρ2 1 ) .

(5.157)

N Proof: Since S (ρ) − log N = − i=1 ri (log ri − log 1/N ), boundedness follows from (2.85). The lower bound in (5.156) comes from the concavity i i of η(x); indeed, let r j and | rj , respectively rj and | rj be eigenvalues and eigenvectors of ρ := i∈I λi ρi , respectively ρi . Then, rj =

λi rj | ρi |rj =

i∈I

with

S (ρ) =

i∈I,k

j

λi

i∈I

rki | rki | rj |2 ,

k

λi | rki | rj |2 = 1. Therefore,

η(rj ) ≥

λi | rki | rj |2 η(rki ) =

i∈I,k

On the other hand, from Example (5.2.3).9,

i∈I

λi

k

η(rki ) =

i∈i

λi S (ρi ) .

216

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

λi ρi ≤ ρ =⇒ λi ρi log(λi ρi ) = λi ρi log ρi − η(λi ) ≤ λi ρi log ρ . Fannes inequality follows from the fact that |η(u) − η(v)| ≤ η(|u − v|) if |u − v| ≤ 1/e and from Example 5.5.6 which implies that sk := |rk1 − rk2 | ≤

N

sk =: S ≤ ρ1 − ρ2 1 ≤ 1/e ,

k=1

where rk1,2 are the ordered eigenvalues of ρ1,2 . Then, |S (ρ1 ) − S (ρ2 )| ≤

N N N 1 sk η(rk ) − η(rk2 ) ≤ η(sk ) = S η( ) + η(S) S

k=1

k=1

k=1

≤ ρ1 − ρ2 1 log N + η(ρ1 − ρ2 1 ) , for η(x) increases when x ∈ [0, 1/e]. We complete the proof by showing that |η(u) − η(v)| ≤ η(|u − v|) indeed holds when |u − v| ≤ 1/e (see [222]). The function f (x) := η(x + (u − v)) − η(x) decreases for u − v ≥ 0, thus f (0) = η(u − v) ≥ f (v) = η(u) − η(v). If u − v ≤ 1/e, η(u − v) ≥ u − v, while the increasing function g(t) := t + η(t) gives g(u) = u + η(u) ≥ v + η(v) and thus η(u) − η(v) ≥ v − u which implies η(u − v) ≥ η(v) − η(u). Remarks 5.5.5. 1. The second inequality in (5.156) becomes an equality if and only if the ranges of the matrices ρi are orthogonal to each other; indeed, in such a case the eigenvectors of diﬀerent ρi ’s are orthogonal so that their spectral decompositions give the spectral decomposition of ρ, λi rik | rik rik | =⇒ S (ρ) = λi rik log(λi rik ) . ρ= ik

ik

2. In the case of an inﬁnite dimensional Hilbert space, the von Neumann entropy is only lower semicontinuous: if a sequence of density matrices σn tends to a density matrix σ in trace norm, then S (σ) ≤ limn S (σn ), 1 1 in general. As an example [300], take σn := (1 − )ρ + ρn , where n n S (ρ) = 0 and S (ρn ) increases like n. Then, σn − ρ1 ≤ 2/n → 0 when n → +∞; also, by (5.156), S (σn ) ≥ (1 −

1 1 1 ) S (ρ) + S (ρn ) = S (ρn ) → c > 0 = S (ρ) . n n n

The least mixed states, the pure states, are 1-dimensional projectors for which r1 = 1 while all other states have r1 < 1. This suggests the following Deﬁnition 5.5.1. [300] A density matrix ρ1 ∈ S(S) is said to be more mixed than another density matrix ρ2 ∈ S(S), ρ1 ' ρ2 , if their decreasingly ordered eigenvalues ei (ρ1,2 ), j = 1, 2, . . . , d, satisfy

5.5 Quantum States k

ei (ρ1 ) ≤

i=1

k

ei (ρ2 ) ,

217

k = 1, 2, . . . , d .

i=1

The relation ' is a total ordering among density matrices of two level systems; this is because e1 (ρ1,2 )+e2 (ρ1,2 ) = 1 for any pair of density matrices ρ1,2 ∈ M2 (C). Therefore, ρ1 ' ρ2 ⇐⇒ e1 (ρ1 ) ≤ e1 (ρ2 ). Unfortunately, for higher dimensional systems ' is only a partial ordering; for instance, consider the following density matrices ρ1,2 ∈ M3 (C), ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1/2 0 0 2/3 0 0 ρ1 = ⎝ 0 1/2 0 ⎠ , ρ2 = ⎝ 0 1/6 0 ⎠ . 0 0 0 0 0 1/6 Then, e1 (ρ1 ) = 1/2 < e1 (ρ2 ) = 2/3, but e1 (ρ1 ) + e2 (ρ1 ) > e1 (ρ2 ) + e2 (ρ2 ). The following proposition provides a helpful tool that allows, in some cases, to establish whether two density matrices are in the ' order. Proposition 5.5.4 (Ky Fan Inequality). Given ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H), it holds that k

ej (ρ) = max Tr(P ρ) : P 2 = P = P † , dim(P H) = k .

(5.158)

j=1

Proof: Let {| φj }kj=1 be an orthonormal set in H, K the subspace they k generate and P := j=1 | φj φj | the corresponding orthogonal projector. If k k

φj | ρ |φj =

ψj | ρ |ψj . Let {| ψi }ki=1 is any other ONB in K, then j=1

j=1

| ri be the eigenprojectors of ρ corresponding to the eigenvalues ei (ρ) =: ri listed in decreasing order and consider the subspace spanned by {| ri }k−1 i=1 . A same argument as in the proof of the minmax principle (5.154), ensures the existence of some | ψk ∈ K orthogonal to it; analogously, there must exist | ψk−1 ∈ K ⊥ {| ri }k−2 i=1 ∪ | ψk } and so on. Thus, one collects {| ψj }kj=1 ∈ K such that | ψj ⊥ {| r1 , . . . , | rj−1 , | ψj+1 . . . , | ψk } and (5.154) yields Tr(P ρ) =

k

i=1 ψi

| ρ |ψi ≤

k

i=1 ei (ρ).

218

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Examples 5.5.7. 1. Given any ρ ∈ S(S) and unitary matrices Uj ∈ MN (C), j ∈ J, together † := with weights 0 < λj < 1, j∈J λj = 1, set ρ j∈J λj Uj ρ Uj . If N † ρ = i=1 ri | ri ri |, the unitarily rotated matrices Uj ρ Uj have the N ri | r˜i r˜i | and | r˜i := U | ri form an same spectrum for Uj ρ Uj† = i=1

ONB . Further, their convex combination ρ ' ρ; indeed, let P be the k projector achieving the maximum in (5.158), i=1 ei ( ρ) = Tr(P ρ); then k

ei ( ρ) =

i=1

k k λj Tr(Uj† P Uj ρ) ≤ ( λj ) ei (ρ) = ei (ρ) ,

j∈J

i=1

j∈J

i=1

for the projectors Uj† P Uj need not achieve the maximum in (5.158). 2. Consider the convex set B+ 1 (H) of all density matrices of a system S described by a Hilbert space H, not necessarily ﬁnite dimensional, and let Sord (S) be totally ordered: the most mixed ρ ∈ Sord (S) have the largest entropy [300, 314]. Indeed, ρ1 ' ρ2 =⇒ S(ρ1 ) ≥ S(ρ2 ). In order to show this, set αi := ei (ρ1 ); then, for all N ≥ 1 and αN > 0, N −1 k k=1

N

αi (log αk − log αk+1 ) + log αN = αk log αk .

i=1

k=1

Set βi := ei (ρ2 ); since ρ1 ' ρ2 =⇒ using (2.85), one ﬁnds N

−αk log αk ≥ −

k=1

N −1 k k=1

=−

N k=1

k i=1

αi ≤

k i=1

βi for all k ≥ 1,

βi (log αk − log αk+1 ) + log αN

i=1

βk log αk ≥ −

N

βk log βk +

k=1

for all N ≥ 1, whence S (ρ1 ) ≥ S (ρ2 ), for

N

(βk − αk ) ,

k=1

k

βk =

k

αk = 1.

5.5.3 Composite Systems In quantum information, physical systems S consisting of several subsystems, S = Si + S2 + · · · Sn , are called multi-partite. If each of the constituent subsystems is described by a Hilbert space Hi , -n Hi and its observables are Hermitian the Hilbert space of S is H(n) = i=1n elements of the C ∗ algebra B(H(n) ) = i=1 B(Hi ).

5.5 Quantum States

219

Given a multi-partite state ρ ∈ S(S), marginal states ρi1 i2 ···ik for all possible choices of subsystems Si1 + Si2 + . . . + Sik are obtained by partial tracing over the Hilbert spaces H whose indices are diﬀerent from the selected ones i1 , i2 , . . . , ik , namely ρi1 i2 ···ik = Trj1 Trj2 · · · Trjn−k (ρ) ,

j = i1 , i2 , . . . , ik , = 1, 2, . . . , n − k ,

(j) (j) where Trj (ρ) = k ψk | ρ |ψk denotes the trace computed with respect (j) to any ONB -n{| ψk } ∈ Hj and yields a density matrix acting on the Hilbert (n−1) = 1=i=j Hi . H In particular, the states of bipartite systems S = S1 + S2 , are described (2) ) with marginal states by density matrices ρ12 ∈ B+ 1 (H (2) (1) (2) (1) ρ1 = Tr2 ρ12 :=

ψj | ρ12 |ψj , ρ2 = Tr1 ρ12 :=

ψj | ρ12 |ψj . j

j

Proposition 5.5.5. The marginal states of any pure state ρ12 ∈ S(S1 + S2 ) have the same eigenvalues with the same multiplicity, apart from the zero eigenvalue, and thus the same von Neumann entropy. Proof: Let | ψ12 ∈ H be the vector onto which the pure state ρ12 projects (1) (1) and rj , | rj , the non-zero eigenvalues (repeated according to their multiplicities) and eigenvectors of the marginal density matrix ρ1 = Tr2 ρ. Using (1) (2) the corresponding ONB {| rj } in H1 and any other ONB {| φk } in H2 , one can expand (1) (1) (2) (2) Cjk | rk ⊗ | φk = | rj ⊗ | φj , | ψ12 = j

j,k

(2) (2) where | φj := k Cjk | φk need not be either orthogonal or normalized. Then, (1) (1) (2) (2) (1) (1) (1) rj | rj rj | =

φj | φk | rk rj | , ρ1 = j

j,k

? (2) (2) (1) (2) (2) (1) whence φj | φk = δjk rj . Setting | rj := | φj / rj yields | ψ12 =

?

(1)

(1)

(2)

rj | rj ⊗ | rj .

(5.159)

j

It thus follows that ρ2 =

(1)

j

(2)

(2)

rj | rj rj |, whence S (ρ1 ) = S (ρ2 ).

220

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Remark 5.5.6. The expression (5.159) yields the so-called Schmidt decomposition of bipartite pure states | Ψ12 ∈ H1 ⊗ H2 into a linear combination with positive coeﬃcients of tensor products of equally indexed states from two ONBs of the two subsystems. The degeneracy of the 0 eigenvalue accounts for the possibly diﬀerent dimensions of the Hilbert spaces H1,2 . Example 5.5.8. Let a bipartite system S = S1 + S2 consist of a 2-level system S1 and an N -levl system S2 . Let {Xi }ni=1 ∈ M2 (C) be a set of matrices n l2 , consider a ﬁxed vector ψ ∈ C2 and the vector such that i=1 Xi† Xi = 1 n 2 N state C ⊗ C | Ψ := i=1 Xi | ψ ⊗ | i , where {| i }N i=1 is an ONB for S2 . The normalized vector | Ψ yields marginal states M2 (C) ρ1 = Tr2 (| Ψ Ψ |) =

N

Xi | ψ ψ |Xi†

i=1

MN (C) ρ2 = Tr1 (| Ψ Ψ |) =

N

ψ | Xj† Xi |ψ | i j | .

i,j=1

Let ra , | a , a = 1, 2, be the eigenvalues, respectively eigenvectors of ρ1 ; by 2 2 expanding Xi | ψ = a=1 cia | a , it turns out that | Ψ = a=1 | a ⊗ | φa , N where | φa := i=1 cia | i . The vectors | φa := | φa /φa are orthonormal and the 0 eigenvalue of ρ2 = r1 | φ1 φ1 | + r2 | φ2 φ2 | is (N − 2)-degenerate. We end this section with a list of properties of the von Neumann entropy which pertain to composite systems. Proposition 5.5.6. Let S = S1 +S2 be a composite system with Hilbert space H = H1 ⊗ H2 , H1,2 of dimension d1,2 . The von Neumann entropy is additive on product states B+ 1 (H) ρ12 = ρ1 ⊗ ρ2 , S (ρ12 ) = S (ρ1 ) + S (ρ2 ) .

(5.160)

+ + Given ρ12 ∈ B+ 1 (H), let B1 (H1 ) ρ1 := Tr2 ρ12 and B1 (H2 ) ρ2 := Tr1 ρ12 be the marginal states. Then

|S(ρ1 ) − S(ρ2 )| ≤ S(ρ12 ) ≤ S(ρ1 ) + S(ρ2 ) ;

(5.161)

The second inequality expresses that von Neumann entropy is subadditive; more in general, the von Neumann entropy is strongly subadditive. Namely, let S = S1 + S2 + S3 be a tripartite system described by a state ρ123 ∈ B+ 1 (H) with H = H1 ⊗ H2 ⊗ H3 . For any cyclic permutation (i, j, k) + of (1, 2, 3) let B+ 1 (Hi ⊗ Hj ) ρij := Trk ρ123 , B1 (Hi ) ρi := Trjk ρ123 be marginal states. Then [192, 314] S(ρ123 ) + S(ρj ) ≤ S(ρij ) + S(ρjk ) .

(5.162)

5.5 Quantum States

221

Furthermore, the diﬀerences between the von Neumann entropies of ρ12 and of the marginal states ρ1,2 , S (ρ12 ) − S (ρ1,2 ), are concave: ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞

(j)

(j) (j) (j) S⎝ λj ρ12 ⎠ − S ⎝ λj ρ1,2 ⎠ ≥ λj S ρ12 − S ρ1,2 , (5.163) j

where λj > 0 and

j

j

j

λj = 1.

Proof: Additivity comes from the fact that the spectrum of ρ12 = ρ1 ⊗ ρ2 consists of the products of the eigenvalues of ρ1 and ρ 2. Assume strong subadditivity holds and let ρAB = i riAB | riAB riAB | be a density matrix on HA ⊗ HB and ? √ riAB | riAB ⊗ | riAB ∈ (HA ⊗ HB ) ⊗ (HA ⊗ HB ) | ρAB = i

the corresponding GNS state. Set H1 := HA , H2 := HB , in the ﬁrst factor, H3 := HA ⊗ HB in the second one and ? √ √ riAB rjAB | riAB rjAB | ⊗ | riAB rjAB | . ρ123 := | ρAB ρAB | = i,j

Then, ρ3 = Tr12 ρ123 = ρAB = Tr3 ρ123 = ρ12 , therefore, ρ1 = Tr23 ρ123 = ρA , ρ2 = Tr13 ρ123 = ρB . Also, because of purity, S(ρ123 ) = 0, thus (5.162) and Proposition 5.5.5 yield S(ρAB ) = S(ρ3 ) ≤ S(ρ13 ) + S(ρ23 ) = S(ρ2 ) + S(ρ1 ) = S(ρA ) + S(ρB ) which implies subadditivity. The lower bound in (5.161) follows instead from S(ρA ) = S(ρ1 ) ≤ S(ρ13 ) + S(ρ12 ) = S(ρ2 ) + S(ρ3 ) = S(ρB ) + S(ρAB ) S(ρB ) = S(ρ2 ) ≤ S(ρ12 ) + S(ρ23 ) = S(ρ3 ) + S(ρ1 ) = S(ρAB ) + S(ρA ) . In order to prove strong subadditivity, we introduce the quantum relative entropy of two density matrices ρ and σ (see Deﬁnition 6.3.1)

S (ρ , σ) := Tr ρ log ρ − ρ log σ which is well deﬁned when σ| ψ = 0 =⇒ ρ| ψ = 0. We shall prove in Section 6.3 that S (ρ , σ) does not increase under maps like the partial traces, thence

1l

1l1 1l1 1 ⊗ ρ2 = S Tr3 ρ123 , Tr3 ⊗ ρ23 ⊗ ρ23 . S ρ12 , ≤ S ρ123 , d1 d1 d1 On the other hand,

222

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

1l1 S ρ12 , ⊗ ρ2 = −S (ρ12 ) + S (ρ2 ) + log d1 and d1

1l1 ⊗ ρ23 = −S (ρ123 ) + S (ρ23 ) + log d1 , S ρ123 , d1

whence S (ρ123 ) − S (ρ23 ) − S (ρ12 ) − S (ρ2 ) ≤ 0. The concavity (5.163) follows from another property of the relative entropy which shall be discussed in Section 6.3, namely its joint convexity: ⎞ ⎛

λj ρ(j) , λj σ (j) ⎠ ≤ λj S ρ(j) , σ (j) , S⎝ j

where λj > 0 and (j)

j

j

j (j)

(j)

λj = 1. Let ρ(j) := ρ12 and σ (j) := ρ1 ⊗

(j)

1l2 , with d2

ρ1 := Tr2 ρ12 ; then, ⎞ ⎛ 1l2 (j) (j) λj ρ12 , λj ρ1 ⊗ ⎠ = S⎝ d2 j j ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ (j) (j) −S ⎝ λj ρ12 ⎠ + S ⎝ λj ρ1 ⎠ + log d2 ≤

j (j)

λj S ρj12 , ρ1 ⊗

j

1l2 d2

j

=

(j) (j) λj S ρ1 − S ρ12 + log d2 .

j

5.5.4 Entangled States One of the most puzzling and fascinating aspects of quantum mechanics is its non-locality embodied by the concept of quantum entanglement [152]. This is a property of certain quantum states of composite systems, called entangled, which are such that their constituting subsystems cannot be attributed properties of their own, not even with a certain probability. As a paradigm of such states, consider the following vector state of two spin 1/2 particles (the simplest instance of the vector states (5.18) in Example 5.2.3.9), | Ψ00 :=

| 00 + | 11 √ , 2

(5.164)

where | 0 and | 1 are eigenstates of the Pauli matrix σ3 . By looking at the corresponding projector,

5.5 Quantum States

223

1 | 0 0 | ⊗ | 0 0 | + | 1 1 | ⊗ | 1 1 | 2

1 + | 0 1 | ⊗ | 0 1 | + | 1 0 | ⊗ | 1 0 | , 2

| Ψ00 Ψ00 | =

one sees that, while the ﬁrst line is the density matrix of an equally distributed mixture of both spins pointing up and down along the z direction, the interference term in the second line forbids to attribute these two properties with probability 1/2 to the component spins. By rotating the orthonormal projectors (1 ± σ3 )/2 into any two other orthonormal pairs (1l ± n1 · σ)/2 and (1l ± n2 · σ)/2, the same obstruction occurs along any two directions n1,2 . Example 5.5.9 (Bell States). [224] The symmetric vector (5.164) is the ﬁrst one in the so-called Bell basis of C2 ⊗ C2 of which the others read | 01 + | 10 | 00 − | 11 | 00 − | 11 √ √ √ , | Ψˆ10 = , | Ψˆ11 = . | Ψˆ01 = 2 2 2 In quantum information 2-level systems are called qubits, unitary actions on them quantum gates and nets of unitary gates quantum circuits. The Bell states can be created out of a separable pure state of two qubits by means of local and non-local operations, according to the quantum circuit in Figure 5.4.

Fig. 5.4. Bell States

The input vectors | x and | y , x, y = 0, 1, are members of the so-called computational basis; | x , called control qubit , is subjected to a Hadamard unitary rotation (see (5.58)), UH , and then, together with | y , called target qubit, to a so-called Control-Not unitary gate, UCN OT . The ﬁrst transformation aﬀects one of the two qubits only via the matrix M4 (C) UH ⊗ 1l2 and is thus local; the second one involves both qubits in a non-local way. Indeed, the unitary matrix UCN OT ∈ M4 (C) implements the classical CNOT gate, CN OT (x, y) = (x, y ⊕ x), that acting on pairs (x, y) of bits leaves the control bit unchanged and adds it to the target bit:

224

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

CN OT (00) = (00)

CN OT (01) = (01)

CN OT (10) = (11)

CN OT (11) = (10)

. If we substitute pairs of bits with tensor products of computational basis vectors, the Pauli matrix σ1 ﬂips the | x so that the same relations are implemented on C2 ⊗ C2 by

1l 0 . (5.165) UCN OT := | 0 0 | ⊗ 1l + | 1 1 | ⊗ σ1 = 0 σ1

Fig. 5.5. CNOT Gate

Let | Ψˆxy := UCN OT H ⊗ 1l| xy ; by a Hadamard rotation (5.58), one gets 1 | 0, y + (−1)x | 1, y ⊕ 1 √ , | Ψˆxy = √ (−1)ix | i, y ⊕ i = 2 2 i=0 1

and, by varying x, y ∈ {0, 1}, one obtains the Bell basis. Entanglement is a purely quantum phenomenon, with no classical counterpart; it has from the start attracted a lot of scientiﬁc and, unfortunately, also pseudo-scientiﬁc interest; one of the great merits of quantum information is to have promoted entanglement to the status of a physical resource for performing informational and computational tasks otherwise impossible in a purely commutative context. In the following, we shall mainly focus upon bipartite discrete quantum systems consisting of two parties described by means of ﬁnite dimensional Hilbert spaces Cd1 and Cd2 , respectively. Within the state-space S(S1 + S2 ), one distinguishes separable from entangled states. Deﬁnition 5.5.3 (Separable and Entangled States). A density matrix ρ ∈ S(S1 + S2 ) is separable if and only if it can be approximated in trace norm by a linear convex combination of tensor products of density matrices:

5.5 Quantum States

ρ=

λi1 i2 ρ1i1 ⊗ ρ2i2 ,

λi1 i2 ≥ 0 ,

(i1 ,i2 )∈I1 ×I2

225

λi1 i2 = 1 . (5.166)

(i1 ,i2 )∈I1 ×I2

Those ρ ∈ S(S1 + S2 ) which cannot be written in a factorized form as in (5.166) are called entangled or non-separable states. Remark 5.5.7. Pure separable states are of the form | ψ = | ψ1 ⊗ | ψ2 for some ψ1,2 ∈ Cd1,2 , otherwise they are entangled. The set Ssep (S) of separable states of the bipartite system S is the closure of the convex hull of its separable pure states (see Remark 5.3.2.5). In order to judge whether a pure bipartite state is entangled or separable is suﬃcient to look at its marginal density matrices. Proposition 5.5.7. A vector state | Ψ12 ∈ Cd1 ⊗ Cd2 of a bipartite system S1 + S2 is separable if and only if its the marginal states ρ1,2 are pure. Proof: If | Ψ12 is separable, its projector is the tensor product of two projectors and partial tracing yields one of them. Vice versa, if the marginal density matrices are not projectors, then the Hilbert-Schmidt decomposi tion (5.159) contains more than one pair and | Ψ12 is entangled. The structure of separable states is apparent from (5.166): they can be obtained by mixing with weights λi1 i2 otherwise independent states of S1 and S2 , the only possible correlations between them being those relative to the probability distribution {λi1 i2 } associated with the weights and thus of purely classical nature. Instead, pure entangled states carry correlations that are purely quantum mechanical. Examples 5.5.10. 1. Consider a bipartite system consisting of two d-level systems in the state (5.18) which generalizes the two qubit symmetric state (5.164). d d Ψ+ |, one gets From partial tracing the projector P+d = |Ψ+ ρ1 = ρ2 =

d 1 1l | i i | = , d i=1 d

namely the totally mixed state for both parties. Thus, the von Neud mann entropy of the bipartite state P+ is smaller than that of either d ≤ S (ρ1,2 ) = log d, which is maximal, inits components, 0 = S P +

stead. In other terms, the information content of the entangled pure state P+d is smaller than that of its constituent parties. This holds for

226

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

all entangled pure states. In order to see this, one uses the Schmidtdecomposition (5.159) and Proposition 5.5.5: if ρ12 = | Ψ12 Ψ12 |, then N1 1 ri log2 ri > 0 unless ρ1,2 are S(ρ12 ) = 0, and S(ρ1 ) = S(ρ2 ) = − i=1 pure states and thus ρ12 separable. 2. The previous observation makes the statistical properties of pure entangled states incompatible with classical ones; indeed, by (2.88) one knows that the Shannon entropy of a bipartite classical system (described by two random variables) cannot be less than that of any of its marginal distributions. This classical behavior is characteristic of all separable states; namely, the von Neumann entropy of all separable bipartite states cannot be smaller than the von Neumann entropy of their marginal states. This fact follows from (5.163); in fact, consider a separable state (1) (2) λij ρi ⊗ ρj ∈ B+ ρ12 = 1 (H1 ⊗ H2 ) ij

(1) (1) (1) so that ρ1 = i λi ρi , λi := j λij ; then, by applying (5.163), (5.160) and the positivity of the von Neumann entropy (see (5.155)), one gets

(1) (2) (1) − S ρi S (ρ12 ) − S (ρ1 ) ≥ λij S ρi ⊗ ρj ij

=

(2) ≥0. λij S ρj

ij

3. The so-called GHZ states are entangled pure states of tripartite systems | 000 ± | 111 √ consisting of 3 qubits : | Φ± := in the computational 2 basis. Though entangled as tripartite states, all their two qubit marginal states are separable, for instance ρ± 13 :=

1 1

1 1 Tr2 (−1)i+j | iii jjj | = | i i | ⊗ | i i | . 2 2 i=0 i,j=0

From | Φ+ one obtains an ONB in H(3) = (C2 )⊗3 by acting locally with the Pauli matrices, | Ψabc := σ1a ⊗ σ1b ⊗ σ3c | Φ+ ,

a, b, c = 0, 1

1 1

i | σ1d+a |j i | σ1e+b |j i | σ3f +c |j

Ψdef | Ψabc = 2 i,j=0 ∝δij

=

1 2

1 i=0

(−1)f +c i | σ1d+a |i i | σ1e+b |i = δad δbe δcf .

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

227

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations The standard time-evolution of quantum systems is typically described by a strongly continuous one-parameter family of unitary operators {Ut }t∈R on a Hilbert space H, fulﬁlling the group composition law Ut Us = Ut+s , for all t, s ∈ R. By Stone’s theorem [300], the group is generated by a self-adjoint operator H on H, the Hamiltonian, such that, for all ψ ∈ H, ( = 1) ∂t | ψt = −i H| ψt ,

| ψt = Ut | ψ ,

Ut = e−itH .

(5.167)

This type of time-evolution equation is proper to the so-called closed quantum systems. As any other physical system, also closed systems S are in contact with the environment E which contains them; however their mutual interactions are negligible and the dynamics of S is independent of E and is reversible. When the interactions between S and E cannot be neglected, it may nevertheless be possible to derive a closed dynamics for the system S alone which nevertheless accounts for the presence of the environment. In such cases, S is known as an open quantum system and its so-called reduced dynamics is irreversible and incorporates noisy and dissipative eﬀects due to the presence of E. The Schr¨ odinger time-evolution easily extends from vector states to mixtures. Since pure states | ψ ψ | evolve into pure states Ut | ψ ψ |Ut† , extension to convex combinations of pure states yields the Liouville equation C B (5.168) ∂t ρt = −i H , ρt , with formal solution ρt = Ut ρ Ut∗ for any initial state ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H). By duality (compare (2.9) and (2.7)), if X ∈ B(H) then Tr(ρt X) = Tr(ρ Xt ) and one gets the Heisenberg time-evolution equation for the operators C B (5.169) ∂t X t = i H , X t . This gives rise to a one parameter family {Ut }t∈R of automorphisms of B(H), X → Ut [X] := Xt = Ut† X Ut ,

(5.170)

that preserve hermiticity and products of operators, Ut [X † ] = Ut [X]† ,

Ut [XY ] = Ut [X]Ut [Y ]

∀ X, Y ∈ B(H) .

As automorphisms, these linear maps are positive, and also completely positive as their action is of the Kraus-type discussed in Proposition 5.2.1. By duality the action of Ut is transferred to the action of the dual Ut+ on † + B+ 1 (H): Ut [ρ] = Ut ρUt ; Ut preserves the trace, Tr(Ut [ρ]) = 1, and sends projectors into projectors,

228

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

P 2 = P = P † =⇒ (Ut+ [P ])2 = Ut+ [P ] = Ut+ [P ]† . A state ρ is an equilibrium state if and only if it commutes with the Hamiltonian that generates the dynamics, Ut+ (ρ) = ρ ⇔ [H , ρ] = 0. However, if a state ρ changes in the course of time under a time-evolution implemented by unitary operators, its spectrum does not. As a consequence, as much as the Gibbs entropy of classical probability distributions evolving under a Hamiltonian ﬂux on phase-space is a constant of the motion, the von Neumann entropy is always preserved by the Schr¨ odinger-Liouville timeevolution, S(Ut+ [ρ]) = S(ρ). Examples 5.6.1. 1. We have seen that density matrices ρ of 2-level systems are identiﬁed by their Bloch vectors ρ ∈ R3 . By denoting them as kets | ρ , the linear action of the commutator on the right hand side of (5.168) corresponds to a 3 × 3 matrix acting on | ρ , whence the Liouville equation can be recast in the form ∂t | ρ = −2H | ρ . Since [1l , ρ] = 0, it is no restriction to take the Hamiltonian of the form H = ω · σ with ω = (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) ∈ R3 , σ = (σ1 , σ2 , σ3 ). Then, the algebraic relations (5.56) yield ⎞ ⎛ 3 0 ω3 −ω2 dρ i = 2 εijk ωj ρk =⇒ H = ⎝ −ω3 0 ω1 ⎠ . dt 0 ω2 −ω1 j,k=1 Thus, Bloch vectors rotate with angular velocity ω = ω around the direction of ω; their lengths are then constant, pure states remain pure and the surface of the Bloch sphere is mapped into itself. Suppose ω = (0, 0, ω), then, by series expansion, Ut = e−itωσ3 = cos ωt + i σ3 sin ωt ; thus, σ3 (t) := Ut† σ3 Ut = σ3 , while σ+ (t) := Ut† σ+ Ut = σ+ (cos 2ωt + i sin 2ωt) = σ+ e2itω . The same result more directly follows from the fact that σ3k σ+ = σ3k−1 σ+ σ3 + 2σ+ = σ+ (σ3 + 2)k and that this relation extends to functions f (σ3 ) that can be expanded as power series, namely f (σ3 )σ+ = σ+ f (σ3 + 2). 2. Consider an array of N spins 1/2 equipped with the Hamiltonian [300] HN =

N j=1

Bμj σ j +

N N −1 j=1 i=1

ε(i) σ j σ j+i =

N j=1

(Hj + Hjint ) ,

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

229

where, as in Example 5.4.1, σ j denotes the Pauli matrix σ3 at site j and products of Pauli matrices at diﬀerent sites denote tensor products of commuting operators. The single sum corresponds to the spins being coupled to a vertical constant magnetic ﬁeld B, while the double sum describes spin-spin interactions whose range is regulated by the coupling constants ε(i) which only depend on the distance between spins. i+N i = σ# Let the array be provided with periodic boundary conditions σ# (σ# = σ3,± ); then, the j-th spin interacts with the same strength with those symmetrically placed on its left and right hand side. Suppose N odd, it follows that Hjint can be recast as (N −1)/2

Hjint =

ε(i) σ j−i σj + σ j σ j+i .

i=1 k Using the previous example and the fact that σ# commutes with all spin operators from sites diﬀerent from k, one obtains

σ j (t) := eitHN σ j e−itHN = σ j j σ+ (t)

(5.171)

int j −itHN j −it(Hj +Hjint ) σ± e = eit(Hj +Hj ) σ+ e (N −1)/2 j−i j+i 2it(Bμj + i=1 ε(i)(σ +σ ))

itHN

:= e

j = σ+ e

=

j 2itBμj σ+ e

(N −1)/2

cos 2tε(i) + σ j−i sin 2ε(i) ×

i=1

× cos 2tε(i) + σ j+i sin 2ε(i)

(5.172)

j j (t) is obtained by taking the adjoint of σ+ (t). Let the spin system while σ− be endowed with a state which is the tensor product of equal pure states as in (5.104) each of them for each one of the sites √

N , 1 √ 1+s 1 − s2 eiφ ⊗N = ρ , ρ := ρ . 1 − s2 e−iφ 1−s 2 n=1

This state is not invariant under the time-automorphism in (5.171) and (5.172): indeed, ρ⊗N (σ j (t)) = s for all j, but j ) ρ⊗N (σ+ (t)) = e2itBμj ρ(σ+

(N −1)/2

i=1

cos 2tε(i) + ρ(σ j−i ) sin 2ε(i) ×

× cos 2tε(i) + ρ(σ j+i ) sin 2ε(i) √ 1 − s2 2 2itBμj fN (s, t) , = e 2 (N −1)/2

cos 2ε(i)t + i s sin 2ε(i)t . fN (s, t) := i=1

230

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

If the coupling constants decrease exponentially with the spin distance, ε(i) = 2−(i+1) , and s = 0, then (N −1)/2

fN (0, t) =

cos

i=1

and the observables

j σ±

t 2i

show a recurrence time that increases as 2(N −1)/2 ,

j ρ⊗N (σ+ (t)) = e2itBμj

1 2 f (0, t) . 2 N

(5.173)

3. Consider f uncoupled harmonic oscillators of masses m = 1 and frequencies ωi described by the algebra of Weyl operators (5.75) W (r), r = (q, p) ∈ R2f and by the Hamiltonian operator Hf =

f 2 p i

2

j=1

+

ωi2 2

q . 2 i

Using (5.68), the Heisenberg equations of motion (5.169) for position and = ( ) read momentum operators r q, p d q , =p dt

d p , = −Ω 2 q dt

where Ω 2 is the diagonal f × f matrix Ω 2 = diag(ω12 , ω22 , . . . , ωf2 ). They are solved by

cos Ωt Ω −1 sin Ωt t := Ut [ e−itH = At r , At = r ] = eitH r r . −Ω sin Ωt cos Ωt Because of linearity, it turns out that the time-evolution maps Weyl operators into Weyl operators, W (r) = eir·(Σ1 r) → Ut [W (r)] =: Wt (r) = eir·(Σ1 rt ) = ei(At r)·(Σ1 r) = W (r t ),

(5.174)

where r t solves the Hamilton equations for f classical harmonic oscillators. Using the notation (5.95), one passes to annihilation and creation operators via the relations

1/2 1 i Ω −1/2 Ω . A= √ r 1/2 −i Ω −1/2 2 Ω 1 ωi a†i ai , so that 2 i=1 f

The Hamiltonian then reads H =

ai (t) = Ut [ai ] = ai e−iωi t ,

a†i (t) = Ut [a†i ] = a†i eiωi t .

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

231

4. Example 5.4.2 provides the right algebraic setting for quantizing classical dynamical systems as those studied in Example 2.1.3. As much as in that case, the quantum time-evolution will be described by a one-parameter t }t∈Z consisting of integer powers of an automorphism ΘN : group {ΘN M MN (C) → N (C).

a b Let A = of Example 2.1.3 be an evolution matrix with integer c d components and determinant equal to one. According to (2.22), the timeevolution of the exponential functions reads

T a c (UA en )(r) = e2π i n·(Ar) = e2π i (A n)·r = eAT n (r) , AT = . b d If one identiﬁes em with W0 (m), then the discrete Weyl relations (5.85) can be read as a non-commutative deformation of the fact that the exponential functions commute: W0 (n) W0 (m) = W0 (n + m) = W0 (m) W0 (n) .

(5.175)

It is thus natural to deﬁne the automorphism as ΘN [WN (n)] = WN (AT n) ,

(5.176)

and extend it linearly to the whole of MN (C). In order to be an automorphism, Θ has to fulﬁl ΘN [1lN ]; then, from (5.84) and (5.86), N ΘN [UN ] = e2π i αu = WN (N A(1, 0)) = WN (N (a, b))

= e2π i(aαu +bαv − 2 ab) ΘN [VNN ] = e2π i αv = WN (N A(0, 1)) = WN (N (c, d)) N

= e2π i(cαu +dαv − 2 cd) . N

α

It thus follows that a discrete representation WNu,v of the CCR has to be chosen such that

N ab αu a b αu = + mod 1 . αv αv c d 2 cd

1 1 For instance, when in Example 2.1.3 α = −1, then A = = AT 1 2 and the choice αu,v = N/2 mod 1 yields a ﬁnite-dimensional quantization of the Arnold Cat Map [98, 135, 135]. Furthermore, the automorphism ΘN is implemented by a unitary operator SN : CN → CN which can be determined by means of the equation −1 (5.89) once it is represented with respect to the chosen basis {| j }N j=0 :

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

k | SN | =

N −1

Sk ,pq q | SN |p

p,q=0

Sk ,pq :=

1

p | WN (−n) |q k | WN ((−n) | . N 2 n∈ZN

Thermal States In the following, we shall focus upon states of quantum systems that are left invariant by the dynamics, namely we shall be interested in equilibrium states. A well-known class of such states is represented by the thermal or Gibbs states:

e−β H (5.177) , Zβ := Tr e−β H , ρβ := Zβ at inverse temperature T −1 = β relative to a Hamiltonian H. Let us consider a ﬁnite level system and the two-point time-correlation functions

FXY (t) := Tr ρβ Ut [X] Y , GXY (t) := Tr ρβ Y Ut [X] (5.178) for all X, Y ∈ MN (C), where the dynamical maps Ut , t ∈ R, are generated by (5.169). Simple manipulations based on the cyclicity of the trace show that

FXY (t) = Tr Y ρβ Ut [X] = Tr ρβ Y ρβ Ut [X] ρ−1 β

i H (t+iβ) −i H (t+iβ) = GXY (t + iβ) . (5.179) Xe = Tr ρβ e The above equality expresses the Kubo-Marting-Schwinger (KMS ) conditions in their simplest form [183, 203] and Gibbs states as in (5.177) are the simplest instances of KMS states. Remarks 5.6.1. 1. Only the Gibbs state ρβ ∈ MN (C) can have two-point correlation functions satisfying (5.179); in fact,

Tr ρ X Y = Tr ρ Y Uiβ [X] = Tr Uiβ [X] ρ Y for all Y ∈ MN (C) yields 3 4 ρ X = e−β H X eβ H ρ =⇒ eβ H ρ , X = 0 for all X ∈ MN (C) whence ρ ∝ e−β H . If the KMS condition are taken as a signature of thermal equilibrium, the conclusion to be drawn from

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

233

this example is that for ﬁnite degrees of freedom there can be only one equilibrium state at a given temperature. Therefore, in order to mathematically describe phase-transitions one needs inﬁnitely many degrees of freedom [300]. 2. At inﬁnite temperature β = 0 and the Gibbs states reduce to a tracial state (see Example 5.3.3.3): τ (X) = Tr( N1l X). 3. We have seen that faithful density matrices ρ > 0 are naturally associated with the modular operator (5.151). The modular operator deﬁnes the modular automorphisms σtρ : πρ (MN (C)) → πρ (MN (C)), t ∈ R, given by σtρ [πρ (X)] = Δiρt πρ (X) Δ−i t = ρi t ⊗ ρ−i t πρ (X) ρi t ⊗ ρ−i t .

(5.180)

They from a group, the modular group, and preserve the GNS state, √ √ σtρ | ρ = | ρ , so that (5.152) reads ρ (πρ (X))| σ−i/2

√

√ √ ρ = Jρ πρ (X)† | ρ = | ρX .

Further, it turns out that ρ is a KMS state at inverse temperature β = 1 ρ , with respect to σ−t

√ √ ρ

ρ | σ−t [πρ (X)]πρ (Y ) | ρ = Tr ρ1−it X ρit Y

√ √ ρ [πρ (X)] | ρ . = Tr ρ Y ρ−i(t+i) X ρi(t+i) = ρ | πρ (Y )σ−(t+i) By means of the modular group, when a faithful ρ is decomposed into a linear convex combination of other density matrices σj , ρ = j λj σj , its decomposers in (5.146) can be recast as follows, √ √ √ √ ρ [πρ (Xj )] | ρ λj σj (X) = ρ | πρ (X) | ρXj = ρ | πρ (X) σ−i/2 √ √ ρ = ρ | σi/2 [πρ (Xj )] πρ (X) | ρ . (5.181) The two-point correlation functions FXY (t), respectively GXY (t) can be analytically extended to the strip {t + iy : −β < y < 0}, respectively to the strip {t + iy : 0 < y < β} where they are continuous and bounded, including the boundaries where they satisfy the KMS conditions (5.179). When the Gibbs state (5.177) is a density matrix, ρβ ∈ B+ 1 (H), these properties which are almost obvious in the case of ﬁnite-level systems, can be extended to systems with an inﬁnite dimensional Hilbert space H [107, 300]. Examples 5.6.2. 1. Spin 1/2: The density matrix in Example 5.5.5 corresponds to Gibbs states with Hamiltonian H = ω σ3 and temperature β −1 such that

1 1−s 1 0 e−βωσ3 , ρ= = 0 1+s 2 2 cosh βω

234

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

with s = tanh βω. Therefore, the modular group consists of Δtρ = ρit ⊗ ρ−it = e−itβωσ3 ⊗ eitβωσ3 = e−itβω(σ3 ⊗1l2 −1l2 ⊗σ3 ) . 2. Fermions: Let N Fermionic modes, described by creation and annihi† lation operators a# i , i = 1, 2, . . . , N , satisfying the CAR {ai , aj } = δij , be equipped with a Hamiltonian operator H=

N

εi a†i ai .

i=1

This can be regarded as the second quantization of an N -level, oneN particle Hamiltonian h = i=1 εi | i i | ∈ MN (C) and a†i as the creation operator of a Fermion in the eigenstate | i with energy εi . The partition function Zβ is easily calculated since for each mode the occupation number states are | 0 and | 1 (see Example 5.4.1): N N 1

1 + e−βεi , e−βεi ni = Zβ = Tr e−β H = i=1 ni =0

i=1

whence the Gibbs state of N non-interacting Fermions read ρβ =

N

1 + e−βεi

−1

e−β H .

i=1

In thermodynamics, Gibbs states are canonical equilibrium states, ρC β, while gran-canonical states have the form = ρGC β

N

1 + e−β(εi −μ)

−1

e−β (H−μ N ) ,

i=1 † = where μ is the chemical potential and N i=1 ai ai is the number operator. Two-point expectations read † Tr(ρGC β ai aj ) = δij

z , +z

(5.182)

eβεi

where z = eμβ is the so called fugacity. As regards higher order correlation functions, by means of the CCR anyone of them can be reduced to sums of expectations with equal numbers of annihilation and creation operators matching in pairs: B CN

. (5.183) Tr(ρβ a†ip · · · a†i1 aj1 · · · ajq ) = δpq Det Tr(ρ a†ik aj ) k, =1

By suitably shifting the one-particle Hamiltonian, one may always assume the lowest eigenvalue (ground state energy) to be 0, whence

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

† = 0 ≤ Tr ρGC a a 1 β 1

235

z ≤1, 1+z

for the CAR imply a† a ≤ 1, so that z ≥ 0. † 3. Bosons: Let a# i , i = 1, 2, . . . , N , satisfy the CCR [ai , aj ] = δij of a system of N Bosonic modes with a second-quantized Hamiltonian H=

N

εi a†i ai ,

εi ≥ 0 .

i=1

The partition function reads N N ∞

−1 Zβ = Tr e−β H = 1 − e−βεi e−βεi ni = , i=1 ni =0

i=1

and the canonical and gran-canonical equilibrium states have the form ρC β =

N

1 − e−βεi e−β H ,

ρGC = β

i=1

N

1 − e−β(εi −μ) e−β (H−μN ) .

i=1

The Bose two-point correlation functions read † Tr(ρGC β ai aj ) = δij

z , −z

(5.184)

eβεi

while 2N -point ones are of the form Tr(ρβ a†ip · · · a†i1 aj1 · · · ajq ) = δpq Per

B

CN Tr(ρ a†ik aj )

k, =1

,

(5.185)

where, unlike for Fermions, 2N -point correlation functions do not assign diﬀerent signs to diﬀerent permutations whence a permanent appears instead of a determinant. Furthermore, with the ground state energy set equal to 0,

z † =⇒ 0 ≤ z < 1 . Tr ρGC β a1 a1 = 1−z The fact that when z → 1, the ground level can be inﬁnitely populated is the source of the phenomenon of Bose-Einstein condensation. Canonical and gran-canonical N Bose states as ρGC are Gaussian (see Example 5.5.2); indeed, the characteristic functions (5.116) of ρC β equals N

† ∗ † 1 − e−βεi Tr e−βεi ai ai ezi ai −zi ai . Tr ρβ W (z) =

i=1

In order to compute the trace, it is convenient to split W (z) as in (5.77), and to use the overcomplete basis of coherent states (5.108) expressed as in (5.105); this yields

236

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

† † ∗ † 2 ∗ † Tr e−βεi ai ai ezi ai −zi ai = e−|zi | /2 Tr ezi ai e−βεi ai ai e−zi ai † 2 ∗ † dwi

wi | ezi ai e−βεi ai ai e−zi ai |wi = e−|zi | /2 π † † 2 ∗ ∗ dw i −|wi |2 = e−|zi | /2 e

vac | e(zi +wi )ai e−βεi ai ai e−(zi −wi )ai |vac . π Taking into account that (see (5.100)), for any α ∈ C, †

eα ε a

a

†

a e−α ε a

a

=

∞ αk k=0

†

eα ε a

a

†

a† e−α ε a

a

[H , [H , · · · [ H , a ]] · · ·] = e−αε a k! k times

= eαε a†

and that (5.76) yields †

†

†

eα a eγ a = eαγ/2 eα a+γ a = eαγ eγ a eα a ,

α∈C,

one obtains, by Gaussian integration, † † ∗ ∗ dwi −|wi |2 e

vac | e(zi +wi )ai e−βεi ai ai e−(zi −wi )ai |vac = π 2 −βεi (1−e−βεi )−1 dwi −|wi |2 −(zi +wi∗ )(zi∗ −wi )e−βεi e−|zi | e e = = . π 1 − e−βεi Therefore, one derives the form of the correlation matrix (5.122) from N

1 βεi

|zi |2 coth Tr ρβ W (z) = exp − 2 i=1 2

∗

βh coth 2 0 1 z ∗ = exp − (z, −z ) , (5.186) βh −z 4 0 coth 2 N where h = i=2 εi | i i | (ε1 = 0) has been used. 4. The relation (5.87) in Example 5.4.2, allows to equip the quantized hyperbolic automorphisms of the torus T2 with the ΘN -invariant state ωN deﬁned by 1 ωN (WN (n)) := Tr(WN (n)) = δn0 (5.187) N on the Weyl operators and extended by linearity to their linear span, where it amounts to the normalized trace.

5.6.1 Quantum Operations A major departure from classical mechanics is represented by the role played in quantum mechanics by the measurement processes where a microscopic

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

237

system, S, on which the measurement is performed, interacts with a (usually) macroscopic system, E, the measuring apparatus. In a classical, commutative context it is always possible, at least in line of principle, to make negligible the eﬀects on S due to its interaction with E; instead, in quantum mechanics states are generically unavoidably perturbed when undergoing a measurement process. The standard way the quantum mechanical perturbations are taken into account is via the so-called wavepacket reduction postulate; in its simplest formulation it goes as follows. Let X = X † bean observable with discrete, ﬁnite and non-degenerate spectrum, d say X = j=1 xj Pj , Pj := | ψj ψj |. Upon measuring X on a system S, the outcomes are the eigenvalues xj ; the measurement process can be schematized as follows: a beam of copies of a same system S, all prepared so as to be described by a same state ρ, are sent through an apparatus that measures the eigenvalues xj leaving the system state in the corresponding eigenprojections Pj and direct them towards a screen with d slits. By opening the jth slit, the others being kept closed, only those systems on which the eigenvalue xj has been measured are collected. Suppose Nj of the N systems that interacted with the apparatus reach the screen through the j-th slit; then, the ratio Nj /N approximates the quantity pρj := Tr(ρ Pj ) = ψj | ρ |ψj when N becomes suﬃciently large. If no selection is operated, that is if all the d slits are left open, after suﬃciently many repetitions of the experiment with the same state preparation, the collected mixture of systems is described by the projections Pj weighted with the corresponding mean values pρj . Thus, a typical non-selective measurement process changes the state as follows: ρ →

d j=1

pρj Pj =

d j=1

| ψj ψj | ρ | ψj ψj | =

d j=1

Pj ρ Pj .

FP [ρ]

(5.188)

The map FP is linear on the state-space S(S) and transforms states into states: indeed, FP [ρ] ≥ 0 and Tr(FP [ρ] = Tr(ρ) = 1, as one can check by using the cyclicity of the trace and the fact that the Pj ’s constitute a resolution of the identity, j Pj = 1l. In general, the instantaneous change from ρ into FP [ρ] transforms pure states into mixtures and may intuitively be associated with the loss of information due to the interaction with the many degrees of freedom of the macroscopic measuring apparatus. As a consequence, contrary to classical mechanics, quantum mechanics distinguishes between two state-changes, a reversible one due to the Liouville time-evolution and an irreversible one, the wave-packet reduction, describing the action of measurement processes.

238

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Remark 5.6.2. Eﬀectively, while being subjected to a measurement, any quantum micro-system is to be considered as an open quantum system dynamically and statistically correlated with the (inﬁnitely) many, degrees of freedom of the measure instrument. This many-body interaction is usually not controllable and the phenomenological description of its overall eﬀects is via maps as in (5.188). In particular, a measurement process of an observable on a system whose state | ψ is a coherent superposition of the d observable eigenstates, | ψ = j=1 cj | ψj , transforms it into a mixture d 2 ρ = j=1 |cj | | ψj ψj |, with consequent loss of coherence. The existence of two basic quantum time-evolutions, one reversible typical of closed quantum systems, the other one irreversible and related to measurement processes, is unsatisfactory from an epistemological point of view. All the more so, since the irreversible macroscopic behavior of system plus apparatus should be deducible from the reversible dynamics of their constituent microsystems. Alongside with the problem of reconciling thermodynamical irreversibility with microscopic reversibility, quantum mechanics raises the question of how to reconcile a reversible microscopic dynamics which preserves the purity of states with an irreversible macroscopic one which transforms pure states into mixtures. A number of approaches have been developed to attack this problem, for a thorough review of one of them which is based on a modiﬁcation of microscopic dynamics by the insertion of a decoherent mechanism with negligible eﬀects on microsystems, but substantial ones on macrosystems see [21]. It is convenient to extend the notion of wave-packet reduction to that of positive operator-valued measures (POVM). The key property of a map as in (5.188) is its structure and the use on 2 the right and left of ρ of operators such that j Pj = j Pj = 1. The generalization is quite natural. Deﬁnition 5.6.1 (Partitions of Unity). Let Ej ∈ B(H), j ∈ J, be a † selection of operators such that j∈J Ej Ej = 1l: it is usually referred to as a POVM or a partition of unity. One associates to it the linear map FE : S(S) → S(S), FE [ρ] = Ej ρ Ej† . (5.189) j∈J

In Example 5.6.4, we shall discuss the interpretation of generic POVMs in relation to measurement processes; for the moment, it suﬃces to stress that the operators forming POVMs need neither be self-adjoint nor orthogonal projections. While the von Neumann entropy is constant under the Liouville time-evolution; on the contrary, under a generic POVM , it can increase or decrease.

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

239

Example 5.6.3. If ρ = Q is a pure state (one-dimensional projection), then S(Q) = 0, while under the action of a wave-packet reduction, FE [Q] gets mixed and S(FE [Q]) ≥ 0. However, if one starts with a mixed ρ, S(FE [ρ]) can be smaller than S(ρ): take for instance E1 = | 1 0 |, E2 = | 1 1 |, where | 0 , | 1 are a basis in C2 , then, E1† E1 + E2† E2 = 1l and, for all ρ ∈ S(S), FE [ρ] = | 1 0 |ρ| 0 1 | + | 1 1 |ρ| 1 1 | = | 1 1 | Tr(ρ) = | 1 1 | . Thus, for any given mixed ρ, S(ρ) > S(FE [ρ]) = 0. As we shall see in Section 6.1, the use of generic POVMs , that is not made of orthogonal projections, is practically useful when one wants to distinguish between non-orthogonal quantum states. However, consider the statement on the system measuring the (orthonormal) POVM P := {Pj }j∈J ∈ B(H) S in the state ρ corresponds to the irreversible map ρ → FP [ρ] = j∈J Pj ρPj . This has an acceptable interpretation in physical terms for the orthogonality of the Pj ’s reduces the experimental measure of P to an experiment with #(J) slits. The same argument does not directly work when projec tive POVMs P are substituted with generic E := {Ej }j∈J , j∈J Ej† Ej = 1l. Consider the statement measuring a generic POVM E := {Ej }j∈J ∈ B(H) on the system S in the state ρ corresponds to the irreversible map ρ → FE [ρ] = j∈J Ej ρEj† . In order to give it a meaning, one has to specify what is measured and on which system; indeed, the non-orthogonality of the Ej ’s makes untenable the straightforward interpretation accorded to projective measurements. An answer to the above question is given in terms of couplings to ancillas and partial tracing. Example 5.6.4. [224] Let E := {Ej }j∈J ⊆ B(H) be a POVM for a system S. Let R be an auxiliary system described by a Hilbert space K which provides an abstract quantum description of an instrument to which S is coupled during a measurement. A schematic description of a measurement process associated with E is as follows: 1. there exist orthonormal bases, {| ψj } ∈ H and {| k }k≥0 ∈ K, with | 0 corresponding to the ready-state of the measurement apparatus; 2. there is a unitary time-evolution operator Ut on H ⊗ K such that, at the end of the process, at time t = T say, for any initial ψ ∈ H, one has Ej | ψ ⊗ | j =: | Ψ . UT | ψ ⊗ | 0 = j∈J

The unitary operator UT is well-deﬁned: indeed, the right hand side of the above equality can be taken as a deﬁnition of UT as a linear operator

240

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

from H ⊗ | 0 into H ⊗ K. Since j∈J Ej† Ej = 1lS , where 1lS denotes the identity operator on H, scalar products of vectors in the subspace H ⊗ | 0 are preserved and the isometry UT can be extended to a unitary operator on H ⊗ K. Let the compound system S + R be in the state Ψ , according to the postulate of wave-packet reduction, by measuring the eigenprojectors 1lS ⊗ Pk , Pk := | k k |, k ∈ J, the outcoming (not-normalized) states

1lS ⊗ Pk | Ψ Ψ |1lS ⊗ Pk = Ek | ψ ψ |Ek† ⊗ Pk , are obtained with probabilities πk (ψ) := Ψ | 1lS ⊗ Pk |Ψ = ψ | Ek† Ek |ψ . By disregarding the ”instrument” R, the overall eﬀect of the entire process on the system S alone is as follows: –

by measuring the projections 1lS ⊗ Pk on S + R after the action of UT on | ψ ⊗ | 0 , the state | ψ changes into the normalized states Ek | ψ ψ |Ek† | ψk := ? ,

ψ | Ek† Ek† |ψ

–

with probabilities πk (ψ); without selection, the overall eﬀect is πj (ψ) | ψj ψj | = Ej | ψ ψ | Ej† = FE [| ψ ψ |] . | ψ ψ | → j∈J

–

j∈J

The process described by (5.189) is obtained by linear extension of the action of FE from projectors to mixtures of projectors.

Remark 5.6.3. The previous one is an example of dilation of a CP map to a unitary evolution on a larger system from which the former is obtained by partial tracing [109]. In general, any POVM E := {Ej }j∈J ⊆ B(H) can be dilated to a projective POVM P = {Pj }j∈J consisting of orthogonal projectors Pj on a larger Hilbert space K [143]. For POVMs such that card(J) = d, the proof goes as follows: consider the Hilbert space KE = H ⊗ Cd linearly spanned by vectors of the form | Ψ E :=

d

Ej | ψ j ⊗ | j ,

j=1

where | ψj ∈ H and {| j }dj=1 is an ONB in the auxiliary Hilbert space Cd . d Let | φ ∈ H and set | Ψφ E := j=1 Ej | φ ⊗ | j . The operators Pj on KE deﬁned by

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

241

Pj | Ψ = Ej | ψj ⊗ | j d are orthogonal projections such that j=1 Pj = 1l on KE and the projective POVM P = {Pj }dj=1 ⊆ B(KE ) is such that d

Pj | Ψφ E E Ψφ | Pj =

j=1

d

Ej | φ φ | Ej† ⊗ | j j |

j=1

whence (5.189) results by tracing over the auxiliary Hilbert pace Cd .

5.6.2 Open Quantum Dynamics Despite the practical impossibility of describing the interaction between a micro-system and a macro-system during a measurement process, it is not without hope to try a dynamical derivation of the wave-packet reduction (5.189). The idea is that the latter is a time asymptotic eﬀect of a many-body interaction whose time-scale is much shorter than the duration of the process. The phenomenological description of the process cannot be given in terms of an automorphism Ut : on one hand, Ut is reversible, while the wave-packet reduction is not, on the other hand Ut cannot transform pure into mixed states. A straightforward way to extend the quantum time-evolution beyond the reversible one generated by the unitary Liouville equation is to add some extra structure to (5.168). One observes that the commutator corresponds to a linear action on the state-space S(S), and that the generated dynamical maps Ut satisfy the composition law Ut ◦ Us = Ut+s for all s, t ∈ R. A sensible step is to modify (5.168) by adding to the commutator a linear term that breaks time-reversibility and generates a semi-group Γt , t ≥ 0, of linear maps obeying a forward-in-time composition law Γt ◦ Γs = Γt+s , where now s, t ≥ 0. Namely, one tries to substitute (5.168) with a time-evolution equation of the form ∂t ρ(t) = LH [ρ(t)] + D[ρ(t)] .

(5.190)

Formally, the semi-group of linear maps {Γt }t≥0 , solutions of (5.190), is obtained by exponentiating the generator: ρ → ρ(t) = Γt [ρ] ,

Γt := et L ,

L = LH + D .

(5.191)

Not all linear maps D lead to physically consistent irreversible time-evolutions Γt ; the following conditions result necessary: 1. Tr(D[ρ]) = 0: since Tr([H , ρt ]) = 0, this implies trace-conservation ∂t Tr(ρt ) = 0; 2. D[ρ]† = D[ρ]: this guarantees preservation of hermiticity;

242

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

3. the positivity Γt [ρ] must be preserved at all times t ≥ 0. While the ﬁrst condition can be relaxed, for instance in the case of decaying systems [11], which we shall not consider, the other two conditions are instead necessary to ensure that Γt map density matrices into density matrices. However, positivity-preservation alone does not suﬃce for the full physical consistency of Γt , the stronger property of complete positivity discussed in Section 5.2.2 turns out to be necessary. Despite its mathematical origin, this notion is deeply rooted in quantum physics. Its importance was ﬁrstly appreciated in the theory of open quantum systems [11, 96, 181]. Equations of the form (5.190) that lead to semi-groups of dynamical maps that break time-reversibility are usually derived when one thinks of S as a subsystem immersed in a large (inﬁnite) reservoir, or heat bath, R. Practically, one deals with a situation similar to the one in Example 5.6.4 and uses a partial tracing technique: the system S is not closed, but coupled to a large system R. The system S + R is described by the tensor product Hilbert space H ⊗ K, its states ρS+R are density matrices on such a space and evolve in time according to the unitary time-evolution † (t), ρS+R → ρS+R (t) := UtS+R [ρS+R ] = US+R (t) ρS+R US+R

generated through (5.168) by a Hamiltonian of the form H = HS + HR + λ HI ,

(5.192)

where HS,R are the Hamiltonian operators describing the reversible timeevolutions of system and reservoir alone, while HI takes into account their interactions with λ an adimensional coupling constant. The interaction Hamiltonian is such that there are practically no hopes to arrive at an explicit unitary time-evolution US+R (t). On the other hand, one is interested in the dynamics of the open system S alone. Furthermore, in many situations of physical interest, one may reasonably assume that there are no statistical correlations between system and reservoir at t = 0; namely, the initial state of the compound system can be taken of the factorized form ρS+R = ρS ⊗ρR of the initial condition. Then, by tracing over the environment degrees of freedom, one obtains a one-parameter family of dynamical maps ρS → ρS (t) := TrK (ρS+R (t))

(5.193)

on the state-space of S which is called reduced dynamics. Together with the ﬁxed form of the initial condition, the elimination of the environment degrees of freedom by means of the partial trace TrK makes the evolution irreversible. The factorized initial condition does get entangled in the course of time, so that, in general, the family {ρS (t)}t≥0 of states satisﬁes a highly complicated integro-diﬀerential evolution equation of the form t ds Lλs [ρS (t − s)] , (5.194) ∂t ρS (t) = 0

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

243

in which the linear operator Lλs on the state space S(S) of the system exhibits memory eﬀects that account for the entanglement of the system with the reservoir from time t = 0 to time t > 0. Before dealing with how one can eliminate the memory eﬀects and get an evolution equation that generate a semi-group of maps on S(S), it is convenient to examine (5.193) in some more detail. Let for sake of simplicity assume that the initial state of the reservoir is described by a density matrix be ρR = j pj | ψjR ψjR |, where pj ≥ 0, R j pj = 1, and the ψj form an orthonormal basis in K. We use them to calculate the partial trace TrK : † ρS (t) = pj ψiR | US+R (t) |ψjR ρS ψjR | US+R (t) |ψiR . ij

Notice that the matrix elements provide operators √ Vij (t) := pj ψiR | US+R (t) |ψjR : H → H , so that the reduced dynamics corresponds to maps ρS → Λt [ρS ] := Vij (t) ρS Vij† (t) .

(5.195)

ij

According to Proposition 5.2.1, the resulting dynamical maps are CPU with the Vij (t) as Kraus operators. However, they do not form a semi-group because of the memory eﬀects built in the integro-diﬀerential equation they satisfy. Under the hypothesis of a very weak coupling between S and R (λ << 1), a semi-group reduced dynamics is obtained by performing suitable Markov approximations, the most straightforward being the substitution +∞

t ds Lλs [ρS (t − s)] → L[ρS (t)] := ds Lλs [ρS (t)] . 0

0

Since the memory eﬀects have been eliminated, L is a generator corresponding to a Liouville equation or master equation as in (5.191). In the so-called weak-coupling limit [105], the Markov approximation sketched above can be understood as follows: an expansion to second order in the small coupling constant λ shows that (5.194) becomes t ds D(s)[ρS (t − s)] , ∂t ρS (t) = −i[HS + λ2 H1 , ρS (t)] + λ2 0

where D[·] acts linearly on the state space S(S). The eﬀects due to the presence of the reservoir are thus visible on a time-scale τ = tλ2 which is slow as λ - 1; by rescaling the evolution equation reads ∂τ ρS (τ λ−2 ) = −i[λ−2 HS + H1 , ρS (τ λ−2 )] +

0

τ λ−2

ds D(s)[ρS (τ λ−2 − s)] .

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Then, by letting λ → 0 one replaces the upper integration limit by +∞ and neglects s in comparison with τ λ−2 in the argument of the state appearing in the integral. The problem with too naive Markovian approximations as this one is that very rarely they lead to irreversible evolutions that are positivity preserving [105]: most derivations provide time-evolutions that are not positive and generate physically inconsistent negative probabilities. For instance, the wild oscillations due to the system Hamiltonian term λ−2 HS when λ → 0 makes intuitively plausible using an ergodic average to smooth away too fast eﬀects [95]. Irreversible Dynamics within the Bloch Sphere With respect to Example 5.6.1.1, it proves convenient to represent density matrices ρ ∈ M2 (C) by Bloch vectors with one more component corresponding to the coeﬃcient of σ0 in the expansion (5.104). We shall identify ρ as a 4-dimensional ket R4 | ρ := (1, ρ1 , ρ2 , ρ3 ). As a consequence, the linear action of the generator L : ρ → L[ρ] in (5.191) corresponds to a 4 × 4 matrix L = [Lμν ] acting on | ρ . The Liouville equation (5.168) thus becomes ∂t | ρ = −2(H + D) , with −2H and −2D 4 × 4 matrices corresponding to the commutator LH and the added term D in (5.190) (−2 has been inserted for convenience). Concerning the matrix D, the request of trace and hermiticity preservation imposes D0j = 0, j = 1, 2, 3, and Dμν ∈ R. By splitting D into the sum of a symmetric and antisymmetric matrix, the latter corresponds to a Hamiltonian contribution that can be incorporated into H. Thus, one remains with a purely dissipative matrix ⎛ ⎞ 0 0 0 0 ⎜u a b c⎟ D=⎝ (5.196) ⎠ , v b α β w c β γ with 9 real parameters which depends on the phenomenology of the systemenvironment interaction and can, in line of principle, be tested in dedicated experiments [32]. By exponentiating L, one gets a one-parameter semi-group of 4 × 4 matrices, {Gt }t≥0 , such that Gt = e−2t(H+D) which corresponds to the semi-group {Γt }t≥0 on the state-space S(S) given by ρ → ρ(t) = Γt [ρ] =

3

ρμ (t) σμ ,

ρμ (t) = (Gt ρ)μ .

μ=0

Since the trace is preserved at all times, checking positivity preservation amounts to checking whether Det[ρ(t)] ≥ 0 for all t ≥ 0 and for all initial ρ.

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

245

Since the contributions of the anti-symmetric H cancel out, the timederivative of the determinant reads 3 3

dDet[ρ(t)] ˙ D[ρ] := Dij ρi ρj + Dj0 ρj . =2 dt t=0 i,j=1 j=1

1l2 + n · σ Let ρ be a pure state P (n) := , then Det[P (n)] = 0. Therefore, 2 ˙ (n)] ≥ 0 and the same must also be true for the Γt [P (n)] ≥ 0 asks for D[P ˙ (n)] ≥ 0 and D[P ˙ (−n)] ≥ 0 orthogonal projector P (−n). By summing D[P and varying n in the unit sphere, positivity is preserved only if ⎛ ⎞ a b c (5.197) D(3) = ⎝ b α β ⎠ ≥ 0 . c β γ The positivity of D(3) is necessary for positivity preservation, but not suf˙ (n)] < 0 can follow because of the extra ﬁcient, the reason being that D[P 3 term j=1 Dj0 ρj . However, it becomes also suﬃcient when we ask that Γt increase the von Neumann entropy of any initial state, as this is equivalent to u = v = w = 0 in D. Indeed, given any initial ρ, let it be spectralized as 1l + n · σ 1l − n · σ + r2 , 2 2 3 ≤ 1, n ∈ R3 and j=1 n2j = 1. Then, one explicitly computes ρ = r1

with 0 ≤ r1,2

dρ(t)

dS (ρ(t)) ˙ S(ρ) := = − Tr ln ρ dt dt t=0 t=0 r 1 Dj0 nj ln . = 2 (r1 − r2 ) n | D(3) |n + r 2 j=1 If Dj0 = 0 for j = 1, 2, 3, then the time-derivative is positive because of the positivity of D and due to the fact that (r1 − r2 ) ln r1 /r2 ≥ 0; if not, one can ˙ always ﬁnd a ρ for which S(ρ) < 0: it suﬃces to choose r1 −r2 suﬃciently small and adjust n to make negative the second term in the previous expression. Example 5.6.5. Let us consider the following simple master equation for a 2-level system S, ∂ρ(t) 1 = (σ1 ρ σ1 − σ2 ρ σ2 + σ3 ρ σ3 − ρ) . ∂t 2 Using (5.56), L[1l] = L[σ1 ] = L[σ3 ] = 0, while L[σ2 ] = −2 σ2 ; therefore, the generated semi-group γt = exp(t L) is such that

1 1l + ρ1 σ1 + e−2t ρ2 σ2 + ρ3 σ3 . γt [ρ] = 2

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

⎛

⎞ 0 0 0 Since the matrix in (5.197) is now D(3) = ⎝ 0 1 0 ⎠, the necessary con0 0 0 dition for positivity preservation is satisﬁed. Further, the Bloch vector at time t, ρ(t), is such that ρ(t) ≤ ρ; therefore, any initial density matrix remains a density matrix. Suppose the 2-level S system evolving under γt is statistically coupled to another 2-level system S that has no evolution of its own. Then, one has to consider states of the composite system S + S that evolve in time under the semi-group of maps of the form Γt = id2 ⊗ γt , that is Γt lifts the action of γt from M2 (C) to M2 (M2 (C)) = M2 (C) ⊗ M2 (C) as in Section 5.2.2. Among the possible initial conditions for Γt there is the Bell state |Ψˆ00 in (5.164); we know from (5.17) that the corresponding projector P+2 is pro = [Eij ] ∈ M2 (M2 (C)) whose entries are matrix portional to the matrix E units in M2 (C). By writing E11 = (1l + σ3 )/2, E12 = (σ1 + iσ2 )/2 and E22 = (1l − σ3 )/2 in terms of the Pauli matrices, it turns out that

1 P+2 = 1l ⊗ 1l + σ1 ⊗ σ1 − σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 . 4 Then, setting λt := exp(−2t), under the time-evolution Γt , P+2 evolves into

1 1l ⊗ 1l + σ1 ⊗ σ1 − λt σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 4 ⎛ 2 0

1 1⎜ 0 σ1 + iλt σ2 0 1l + σ3 = = ⎝ 1l − σ3 0 1 − λt 4 σ1 − iλt σ2 4 0 1 + λt Γt [P+2 ] =

0 1 − λt 0 0

⎞ 1 + λt 0 ⎟ ⎠ , 0 2

which is not positive deﬁnite for any t > 0, for it always shows a negative eigenvalue (λt − 1)/4. The physical meaning of the previous example is that, though γt is a meaningful time-evolution for one 2-level system, Γt is not so for two 2-level system as there exists a state of the two together which does not remain positive deﬁnite. Notice that the state which exposes the problem is entangled; indeed, any separable state, as in Deﬁnition 5.5.3 would remain positive under Γt : as γt [ρ] ≥ 0 for all ρ ∈ S(S), ⎡ ⎤ λij ρi ⊗ ρj ⎦ = λij ρi ⊗ γt [ρj ] ≥ 0 . Γt ⎣ ij

ij

The importance of Theorem 5.2.1 is now apparent: physical transformations of an N -level system S cannot be described by linear maps Λ that are only positivity preserving, they must also be completely positive. Otherwise, by

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

247

coupling S with another N -level system S , one would obtain a map idN ⊗ Λ which would map the initial entangled state P+N into a non-positive deﬁnite matrix. The standard quantum time-evolution Ut is automatically in Kraus form, thus completely positive and free from inconsistencies with respect to statistical couplings to ancillas. It is only when performing a Markovian approximation that one must check that complete positivity be guaranteed by the procedure [95, 96, 105, 285]. 5.6.3 Quantum Dynamical Semigroups Positivity and complete positivity depend on the dissipative term D[ρ] added to the commutator in (5.190): it turns out that when one asks that the generated semi-group consist of completely positive maps, then the form of the generator is completely ﬁxed. Theorem 5.6.1. [126] Let {γt }t≥0 be a one-parameter semi-group of hermiticity preserving, unital linear maps γt : Md (C) → Md (C) such that limt→0 γt = idd with respect to the norm-topology. Then, 1. the semi-group has the form γt = exp(tL) with generator 2 d −1 B C

1 † Fa Fb , X L[X] = i H , X + Cab Fa† X Fb − , 2

a,b=1

where the matrices Fa form an ONB in M √d (C) with respect to the HilbertSchmidt scalar product with Fd2 = 1ld / d (Tr(Fa ) = 0 if a = d2 − 1)) and the (d2 − 1) × (d2 − 1) matrix C := [Cab ], called Kossakowski matrix, is Hermitian. 2. The maps γt are completely positive if and only if [Cab ] is a positive matrix. Proof: From Example 5.2.7.1, the linear maps Fab : Md (C) → Md (C) deﬁned by Fab [X] := Fa† X Fb , a, b = 1, 2, . . . , d2 , form an orthonormal basis in the d2 dimensional linear space of all linear operators on Md (C) equipped with the Hilbert-Schmidt scalar product of the associated Choi matrices. It d2 follows that the generator L can be expanded as L = a,b=1 Lab Fab . Then, the request that the generated semi-group preserve hermiticity implies that L[X]† = L[X † ] for all X ∈ Md (C) which in turn yields L∗ab = Lba . Now, after rewriting †

L[X] = F X + X F +

2 d −1

a,b=1

d2

d

Lab F aga X Fb ,

1 F := √ Lad2 Fa† , d a=1

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

and separating F into its Hermitian components, F = K + iH, where d2

d2

1 1 K := (Lad2 Fa† + Ld2 a Fa ) , H := (Lad2 Fa† − Ld2 a Fa ) , 2 a=1 2i a=1 one concludes that L[X] = i[H , X] + (K X + X K) +

2 d −1

Lab Fa† X Fb .

a,b=1

The ﬁrst statement of the theorem follows by further imposing unitality, that is that γt [1l] = 1l for all t ≥ 0. One thus gets that L[1l] = 0, which further d2 −1 1 imposes K = − Lab Fa† Fb . 2 a,b=1

According to Theorem 5.2.1, γt is a CPU map on Md (C) if and only if Γt := idd ⊗ γt is a positive, unital map on Md (C) ⊗ Md (C). Notice that the maps Γt form a norm-continuous semi-group with generator L12 := idd ⊗ L; then, according to [177, 178] (see also [64]), the maps idd ⊗ γt are positive if and only if I(ψ, φ) := ψ | L12 [| φ φ |] |ψ ≥ 0 for all orthogonal ψ, φ ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd . Since ψ | φ = 0, it follows that I(ψ, φ) =

2 d −1

Cab ψ | 1ld ⊗ Fa† |φ φ | 1ld ⊗ Fb |ψ .

a,b=1

Then, it proves convenient to deﬁne the d2 × d2 matrices Ψ = [ψij ] and Φ = [φij ] where ψij and φij are the components of the vectors ψ and φ with respect to a ﬁxed ONB {| i, j }di,j=1 in Cd ⊗ C2 . Notice that ψ | φ = Tr(Ψ † Φ). By 2 introducing the vectors | v ∈ Cd −1 with components given by va := φ | 1ld ⊗ Fa |ψ = Tr(Fa (Φ† Ψ )T ) , one then rewrites I(ψ, φ) =

2 d −1

Cab va∗ vb = v | C |v . If C = [Cab ] ≥ 0, then

a,b=1

I(ψ, φ) ≥ 0 for all orthogonal ψ, φ ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd , whence Γt is positive. 2 Vice versa, given a generic vector | v ∈ Cd −1 , the traceless matrix d2 −1 Md (C) Ψ := a=1 va Fa corresponds to a vector ψ ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd that is ord2 −1 d thogonal to the non-normalized totally symmetric vector |Ψ+ = i=1 | ii . 2 d ) = v | C |v ≥ 0 for all | v ∈ Cd −1 whence If Γt is positive, then I(ψ, Ψ+ C ≥ 0.

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

249

Remarks 5.6.4. 1. If {γt }t≥0 is a norm-continuous one-parameter semi-group of positive maps γt : Md (C) → Md (C) with generator L and ψ, φ ∈ Cd are orthogonal vectors, then 0 ≤ ψ | γt [| φ φ |] |ψ = t ψ | L[| φ φ |] |ψ to ﬁrst order in t. This yields the only if part of the theorem used in the previous proof; it turns out that this condition is also suﬃcient for the maps γt to be positive [177, 178, 64]. 2. The extension of Theorem 5.6.1 from Md (C) to B(H) with H an inﬁnite dimensional Hilbert space, has been provided by [193] under the assumption that L[X] ≤ L X for all X ∈ B(H), namely that the generator L be bounded on B(H). 3. By duality, one gets the following time-evolution equation for the states of the open quantum system S: 2 d −1 B C

1 † Fa Fb , ρ Cab Fb ρ Fa† − . L [ρ] = −i H , ρ + 2

+

a,b=1

Since the γt are unital, their dual maps γt+ preserve the trace of ρ. 2 d −1 Cab Fb ρ Fa† can be put in Kraus form 4. If γt is CP , the expression a,b+1

as in (5.36). Such a term corresponds to what in the classical Brownian motion is the diﬀusive eﬀect due to the presence of a white-noise. It is indeed sometimes called quantum noise which is also in agreement with the eﬀects of generic POVMs on quantum states [121]. 5. Beside the noise contribution, the remaining part of the generator has the form d −1 1 K= Lab Fa† Fb . 2 2

i i −i(H − K) ρ + i ρ (H + K) , 2 2

a,b=1

This expression corresponds to the typical phenomenological description of the time-evolution of decaying systems; in particular, K is a damping term due to probability that goes irreversibly from the system S to its decay products. 6. Regarding the generated maps γt = exp(tL), there are no general results on the form of the Kossakowski matrix C = [Cij ] able to ensure that the γt be positive; the only available general expression is for d = 2 [178]. Semigroups consisting of completely positive maps are called quantum dynamical semi-groups. Their derivation as Markovian approximations of an

250

5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

underlying reversible many-body dynamics mainly follows three schemes, the already mentioned weak-coupling limit, the singular-coupling limit [126, 125, 230] and the low density limit [104]. All of them work when the time scales of the system S and of the reservoir R are clearly distinguishable. The weakcoupling limit is the one most frequently encountered in the literature since the beginning of the theory of open quantum systems and also the one which, if not performed with due accuracy [96], leads to semi-groups of maps which are not completely positive and thus to physical inconsistencies in relation to entanglement. Example 5.6.6. [27] Let d = 2;√in such a case, by choosing the orthonormal basis of Pauli matrices Fj = σj / 2’s, j = 1, 2, 3, the dissipative contribution to the semi-group generator reads LD [ρ] =

B C 1 σj σi , ρ . Cij σi ρσj − 2 i,j=0 3

For sake of simplicity, we shall restrict to entropy-increasing semi-groups. Then, we can consider the matrix D in (5.196) whose entries read a = C22 + C33 , α = C11 + C33 , γ = C11 + C22 b = −C12 , c = −C13 , β = −C23 . Thus, the positivity of [Cij ], which, according to the previous theorem, is necessary and suﬃcient for the complete positivity of Γt , results in the necessary and suﬃcient inequalities for a, b, c, α, β, γ: 2R ≡ α + γ − a ≥ 0 ,

RS ≥ b2

2S ≡ a + γ − α ≥ 0 , RT ≥ c2 2T ≡ a + α − γ ≥ 0 , ST ≥ β 2 RST ≥ 2 bcβ + Rβ 2 + Sc2 + T b2 . These constraints are much stronger than those coming from positivity alone, that is from D(3) ≥ 0 in (5.197) which yields a ≥ 0 , α ≥ 0 , γ ≥ 0 , aα ≥ b2 , aγ ≥ c2 , αγ ≥ β 2 and DetD(3) ≥ 0. As a concrete example, take a = α and β = b = c = 0; so that the Kossakowski-Lindblad generator reads L[ρ] =

γ 2α − γ γ (σ1 ρσ1 − ρ) + (σ2 ρσ2 − ρ) + (σ3 ρσ3 − ρ) , 2 2 2

whence L[σ1,2 ] = −α σ1,2 and L[σ3 ] = −γ σ3 . It follows that, when α, γ > 0, the generated semi-group γt describes a decay process towards ρ∞ = 1l/2 with diﬀerent rates for the diagonal and oﬀ-diagonal elements of γt [ρ].

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

251

Indeed, setting μt := exp(−γt) and λt := exp(−αt), it turns out that

1 1 λt (ρ1 − iρ2 ) 1 + μt ρ3 1l + λt (ρ1 σ1 + ρ2 σ2 ) + μt σ3 = γt [ρ] = . 1 − μt ρ3 2 2 λt (ρ1 + iρ2 ) On the other hand, consider Γt = id2 ⊗ γt and P+2 as in Example 5.6.5, it turns out that

1 1l ⊗ 1l + λt (σ1 ⊗ σ1 − σ2 ⊗ σ2 ) + μt σ3 ⊗ σ3 Γt [P+2 ] = 4 ⎞ ⎛ 1 + μt 0 0 2λt 1⎜ 0 1 − μt 0 0 ⎟ = ⎝ ⎠ . 0 0 0 1 − μt 4 0 0 1 + λt 2λt This matrix is positive deﬁnite if and only if 1 + μt ≥ 2λt . This is implied by the complete positivity condition γ ≤ 2α, whereas if γ > 2α, when t → 0 one gets 1 + μt − 2λt t(2α − γ) < 0 . In conclusion, only complete positivity guarantees full physical consistency with respect to statistical couplings with other systems. However, this imposes a hierarchy, γ ≤ 2α, upon the decay rates of the entries of the dissipatively evolving state γt [ρ], which should otherwise only be positive. 5.6.4 Physical Operations and Positive Maps The argument behind the request of complete positivity on state transformations is that one can never exclude that the system S undergoing the transformation is indeed entangled with an ancilla system S , even without any eﬀective sign of statistical correlations. Though plausible, this point of view is not always accepted [235]; after all, the mere possibility of entanglement with an uncontrollable ancilla would then, via complete positivity, constrain the decay properties. Consider, for instance, an actual experiments where optically active molecules interact weakly with a heat bath; they can eﬀectively be described as 2-level systems. The relaxation to equilibrium of their optical activity can accordingly be predicted by an appropriate master equation. Clearly, the fact that the optical activity may depend on whether the molecules are entangled with some other system out of any experimental control sounds admittedly weird [72, 185, 186, 292]. However, most of the objections to complete positivity do not consider the entanglement issue for they all focus upon single open quantum systems in heat baths. If, however, two optically active molecules in a same environment are considered, the entanglement issue comes to the fore. If the two molecules do not interact between themselves, but are weakly coupled to their environment, it is sensible to describe their open dynamics by a semigroup of dynamical maps of the form Γt = γt ⊗ γt , where γt is the reduced

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

dynamics of a single molecule. These dynamical maps diﬀer from id2 ⊗ γt in Examples 5.6.5 and 5.6.6. Notice that in going from idd ⊗ γt to Γt = γt ⊗ γt one eﬀectively goes from the possible existence of statistical correlations between the system Sd and another system of the same type which is somewhat uncontrollable, to a concrete scenario when one has two statistically coupled systems in a same environment. The following result on one hand extends Theorem 5.6.1 and on the other stresses once more the fact that complete positivity is not just a mathematical option without physical meaning, rather an unavoidable constraint on all sensible Markovian approximations. Proposition 5.6.1. [37] Let {γt }t≥ be a norm-continuous semi-group of dynamical maps γt : Md (C) → Md (C) with generator as in Theorem 5.6.1. Then, the linear maps Γt = γt ⊗ γt form a norm-continuous semi-group on Md (C) ⊗ Md (C) and preserve positivity if and only if γt is a CPU map for all t ≥ 0. Proof: One implication is straightforward: if γt is a CPU map, then γt ⊗id2 and id1 ⊗ γt are positive and such is Γt . For the other implication, notice that, in view of the assumptions, the oneparameter family {Γt }t≥0 is a norm-continuous semi-group with generator L12 = L ⊗ idd + idd ⊗ L. Then we argue as in the proof of the second part of Theorem 5.6.1 and show that I(ψ, φ) := ψ | L12 [| φ φ |] |ψ ≥ 0 for all orthogonal ψ, φ ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd . Since ψ | φ = 0, it follows that 2 d −1

I(ψ, φ) =

a,b=1

Cab ψ | Fa† ⊗ 1ld |φ φ | Fb ⊗ 1ld |ψ

+ ψ | 1ld ⊗ Fa† |φ φ | 1l1 ⊗ Fb |ψ .

By means of the matrices Ψ = [ψij ] and Φ = [φij ] associated to the vectors ψ, φ ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd as explained in the proof of Theorem 5.6.1, one introduces 2 the vectors | w , | v ∈ Cd −1 with components given by wb := φ | Fb ⊗1ld |ψ = Tr(Fb (Ψ Φ† )) , vb := φ | 1ld ⊗Fb |ψ = Tr(Fb (Φ† Ψ )T ) , and rewrites I(ψ, φ) =

2 d −1

a,b=1

Cab (wa∗ wb + va∗ vb ) = w | C |w + v | C |v

(∗) .

5.6 Dynamics and State-Transformations

253

d2 −1 2 Given | w ∈ Cd −1 , construct Md (C) W := a=1 wa Fa . Since a matrix and its transposed are always similar [134], let Y ∈ Md (C) be such that W T = Y W Y −1 and deﬁne Φ := Y −1 , Ψ † := Y W so that ΦΨ † = W ,

(Ψ † Φ)T = (Y W Y −1 )T = W

and

|w = |v ,

whence (∗) becomes I(ψ, φ) = 2 w | C |w ≥ 0. Observe that | w ∈ Cd −1 is generic and that to any such vector one can associate orthogonal vectors ψ, φ ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd through the matrices Ψ, Φ as described above 6 . Thus, I(ψ, φ) ≥ 0 for any such pair implies C := [Cab ] ≥ 0. 2

Remarks 5.6.5. 1. If positive, Γt = γt ⊗ γt is also CP; indeed, using (5.36), it turns out that γt [X] = j Vj† (t) X, Vj (t), X ∈ Md (C). As a consequence, Γt [X] =

Vj† (t) ⊗ Vk† (t) X Vj (t) ⊗ Vk (T ) .

j,k

2. The equivalence between the complete positivity of γt and the positivity (1,2) of Γt = γt ⊗ γt does not extend to the tensor products of generic γt ; (1) (2) indeed, in Proposition 6.2.2 it will be shown that Γt = γt ⊗ γt can be (1,2) being both CPU maps. positive without γt Once a semi-group reduced dynamics is accepted as a phenomenological time-evolution under certain physical conditions as those compatible with, for instance, the weak-coupling limit scenario, there is only one possible way to get rid of the complete positivity constraint. One has to rely upon the existence of physical mechanisms that eliminate those initial entangled states that, like the symmetric projector P+d , would otherwise be cast out of the state of space by Γt when γt is not completely positive [122, 124, 292, 319]. In quantum information the situation is physically clearer and complete positivity compulsory. In fact, the state transformations that are commonly considered do not from dynamical semi-groups arising from suitable Markovian approximations, rather they are maps as in Deﬁnition 5.6.1. Indeed, the simplest operations are local state transformations that two parties operate on shared entangled states as P+d . In order to be physically consistent, these local operations must correspond to completely positive maps. What then of positive maps? If, on one hand, the existence of entanglement in nature forbids their use as dynamical maps that describe actually occurring physical processes, on the other hand, as we shall see in the following chapter, they are extremely useful as entanglement witnesses. 6

Notice that, as ψ | φ = 0, the matrices ΦΨ † and Ψ † Φ are traceless.

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5 Quantum Mechanics of Finite Degrees of Freedom

Bibliographical Notes The books [253, 270, 251] provide introductions to most of the aspects of Hilbert space techniques, bounded, compact, Hilbert-Schmidt and trace-class operators, while [20] is an excellent introduction to convexity. The book [117] is a handy overview of many salient facts concerning C ∗ and von Neumann algebras, while [64] presents the theory of C ∗ and von Neumann algebras in detail with an eye to their applications to quantum statistical mechanics in [65]. The book [300] does the same, though in a somewhat more condensed way: here one can ﬁnd a handy presentation of the modular theory which has been reference for this chapter, whereas a more thorough one can be found in [293]. The books [90, 97] provide mathematical introductions of C ∗ and von Neumann algebras, of which [161, 162] oﬀer an exhaustive overview. For physically oriented reviews of entropy related concepts with their mathematical properties see [10, 314] and [300]. An exhaustive mathematical presentation of both von Neumann and relative entropy and of their applications to physics can be found in [226]. The books [11, 132, 96, 285] are historical references for the theory of open quantum systems; more recent developments and applications can be found in [27, 29, 14, 68, 315].

6 Quantum Information Theory

In the last years, a considerable amount of theoretical and experimental studies have been focussing on the impact that quantum mechanics may have on computer science, information theory and cryptography. We shall loosely refer to this vast and variegated ﬁeld as quantum information [71, 48, 100, 128, 224, 242, 152, 239, 307]. In the following, we shall brieﬂy touch upon a small fraction of its many achievements.

6.1 Quantum Information Theory Why quantum information? Is it not classical information suﬃciently powerful a theory to satisfy our needs? The answer is that it will indeed be so until computational models and information transmission protocols are based on classical physics. Indeed, information is physical [187, 55] for it is carried by physical entities, transmitted and manipulated by physical means; as a consequence, any actual information processing protocol will rely upon a model describing the physical processes involved. Since Nature is considered to be ultimately quantal, one is inevitably led to consider a scenario in which quantum mechanics will set the rules of the game also in dealing with information and its manifold aspects. Roughly speaking, the issue at stake is the use of qubits instead of bits as fundamental informational resources so that one has the whole Bloch sphere of two-level system states at disposal instead of just the two states (up and down along the z-direction) that are available to classical spins. When the information that is manipulated regards computational processes, the question is whether Quantum Turing Machines (QTMs), that is computing devices based on the laws of quantum mechanics, might perform better than classical Turing machines. A breakthrough was indeed the discovery that relevant speedups can be gained by quantum algorithms because of the huge parallel computation made available by the possibility of linearly superposing qubits states. Truly, from an abstract perspective, as much as classical mechanics is contained in quantum mechanics, also classical information, computation and cryptography may be thought of as commutative versions of more general theories, still in their infancy, that are to be soundly formulated within a F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 6, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

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256

6 Quantum Information Theory

quantum, non-commutative, framework. However, the need to elaborate these more general theories is not only justiﬁed in line of principle, but comes from concrete facts. The pace at which every two years electronic devices double their eﬃciency (the so-called Moore’s law) and decrease in size is such that non-classical eﬀects will soon appear and quantum mechanics will become necessary to cope with them. If information is carried by qubits , then the possible reversible operations to which they can be subjected are all those corresponding to unitary matrices in M2 (C): these are called quantum gates. In the classical case, the only nontrivial gate on bits 0, 1 is that which ﬂips them, 0 → 1, 1 → 0. Consider, for instance, the Hadamard transformation in (5.58); its n-fold tensor product ⊗n acting on | 0 ⊗n produces a uniform linear combination of kets labeled UH (n) by the 2n binary strings i(n) ∈ Ω2 , in one stroke: ⊗n ⊗n UH |0 =

1 2n/2

| i(n) .

(6.1)

(n) i(n) ∈Ω2

Linearity is at the basis of quantum parallelism: suppose that the computation (n) (n) of a binary function f : Ω2 → Ω2 on n bits with n-bit strings as images, (n) (n) (n) i → (f (i )) , can be operated by means of a unitary transformation | i(n) → Uf | i(n) = | (f (i(n) ))(n) on n qubits. By Uf f is computed on all strings at once, as follows: ⊗n | 0 ⊗n = Uf UH

1 2n/2

| (f (i(n) ))(n) . (n)

i(n) ∈Ω2

The linear structure of quantum mechanics seems to provide a more powerful setting than the classical scenario; however, the extraction of information out of quantum states is a much more delicate problem than with binary strings. Any computation performed by a QTM on n qubits must correspond to a unitary operator on (C2 )⊗n ; then, a quantum algorithm acting on an initial state of the n qubits would halt in a linear combination of all possible computational basis vectors in (C2 )⊗n , each one of them corresponding to a classical n-bit string i(n) occurring with a certain amplitude C(i(n) ). If the solution of a problem is a speciﬁc binary string i(n) , an eﬃcient quantum computation must associate to that string a very high probability, |C(i(n) )|2 ≈ 1. Only in this case the solution would show up with almost certainty from a measurement in the computational basis. (n)

Example 6.1.1 (Deutsch-Josza Algorithm). Let f : Ω2 → {0, 1} be a binary function that is known to be either constant or balanced, that is f (i(n) ) = 0 on half of the n-digit strings and f (i(n) ) = 1 on the other half.

6.1 Quantum Information Theory

257

The task is to decide between the two possibilities. Classically, the only way to ascertain whether f is constant or not is to compute it on 2n−1 + 1 strings, that is on half plus one of them; this is because one can compute always 0 or always 1 on 2n /2 strings in a row without the function being constant, so that only one more computation can settle the question. On the other hand, if the bit strings i(n) could indeed be treated as computational basis vectors | i(n) in the Hilbert space H(n) = (C2 )⊗n of n qubits , then the following quantum algorithm would answer the question in just one trial. It is based on a generalization of the CNOT gate of Example 5.5.9; instead of one control qubit, there are n of them all prepared in the same state | 0 together with one target qubit in the state | 1 . As seen in (6.1),

n 1 |0 − |1 ⊗(n+1) ⊗n √ . |0 ⊗ |1 = √ | i(n) ⊗ | Ψ := UH 2 2 (n) (n) i

The matrix M2n (C) ⊗ M2 (C) Uf =

∈Ω2

f (j (n) )

(n)

j (n) ∈Ω2 (n)

| j (n) j (n) | ⊗ σ1

is

unitary and ﬂips the last qubit only if f (j ) = 1. This yields 1

n 1 | 0 ⊕ f (i(n) ) − | 1 ⊕ f (i(n) ) √ | Ψf := Uf | Ψ = √ | i(n) ⊗ 2 2 (n) (n) i ∈Ω2 ⎛ ⎞

n (n) |0 − |1 ⎜ 1 ⎟ √ = ⎝ √ . (−1)f (i ) | i(n) ⎠ ⊗ 2 2 (n) (n) ∈Ω2

i

Applying the Hadamard rotation on the ﬁrst n qubits (see (5.58)), one gets

n

(n) (n) (n) 1 ⊗n | Ψ := UH ⊗ 1l| Ψf = √ (−1)f (i )+i ·j | j (n) ⊗ 2 j (n) (n) i(n) ∈Ω2

⊗

|0 − |1 √ , 2

n where i(n) · j (n) := k=1 ik jk . Since projecting onto | 0 ⊗n yields ⎛ ⎞

n (n) ⎟ |0 − |1 ⎜ 1 √ , (−1)f (i ) ⎠ | 0 ⊗n ⊗ ⎝ √ 2 2 (n) (n) i

∈Ω2

the amplitude of | 0 ⊗n in | Ψ is 0 if f is balanced, ±1 if f is constant. Therefore, after operating the circuit one has just to perform a measurement in the computational basis {| i(n) }i(n) ∈Ω (n) of the ﬁrst n qubits : if | 0 ⊗n 2 occurs the binary function is constant, otherwise it is balanced. 1

The CNOT gate (5.165) corresponds to choosing f (i) = i, i = 0, 1.

258

6 Quantum Information Theory

The preceding discussion regards instances of classical information being encoded into quantum states and manipulated by quantum gates. Similarly, classical information might be stored or transmitted by quantum means and the question is then how to retrieve it with high reliability or ﬁdelity. Sending classical information encoded into non-orthogonal quantum states has indeed the advantage of being protected against undetected eavesdropping. Example 6.1.2 (No-Cloning). Suppose a sender A encodes the bits 0 and 1 into the qubits | ψ0 , | ψ1 ∈ C2 with | ψ0 = | ψ1 and sends them to a receiver B. If a spy E wants to access this amount of information without being spotted, he/she has to read the transmitted state without changing it, otherwise sender and receiver might get alerted. A way to do this is for the spy to intercept the message during transmission and to copy it by means of a unitary operator UE acting as follows UE (| ψ ⊗ | e ) = | ψ ⊗ | ψ . But unitarity implies

2

ψ0 | ψ1 = ψ0 ⊗ e | ψ1 ⊗ e = ψ0 ⊗ e | UE† UE |ψ1 ⊗ e = ψ0 | ψ1 , whence ψ0,1 , not being equal, must be orthogonal. Therefore, if the code states ψ0,1 are chosen not to be orthogonal, the spy cannot copy them without alterations. This argument goes under the name of no-cloning theorem and asserts that there cannot exist a unitary operator U that implements the operation of copying two generic quantum states, unless they are orthogonal. Indeed, if such an unitary operator U existed, then, on the linear combinations of two orthogonal states | ψ , | φ ,

U (α | ψ + β | φ ) ⊗ | e = α | ψ ⊗ | ψ + β | φ ⊗ | φ

= α | ψ + β | φ ⊗ α | ψ + β, | φ = |α|2 | ψ ⊗ | ψ + |β|2 | φ ⊗ | φ

+ αβ | ψ ⊗ | φ + | φ ⊗ | ψ . This can only be true if either α = 0 or β = 0 as one can see by scalar multiplication by | ψ ⊗ | φ . In Section 5.5.4, it has already been emphasized the central role of entanglement as a resource for quantum informational tasks. Among the applications of entangled states to information transmission are the protocols for the so-called dense coding and teleportation. In the ﬁrst case, 2 bits can be sent with one use of an entangled quantum channel, which points to the possibility of achieving higher channel capacities if channel behave quantum mechanically. In the second case, quantum states can be transferred between distant parties sharing an entangled state by means of local quantum operations and classical communication (known as LOCC operations).

6.1 Quantum Information Theory

259

Example 6.1.3 (Dense Coding). If sender A and receiver B share the entangled state (5.164), A can encode the pairs of bits (xy) into the Bell states of Example 5.5.9 by local operations performed on his qubit , only. Indeed, the states | Ψˆxy result from acting with the Pauli matrices on the ﬁrst qubit of |Ψˆ00 ; explicitly | Ψˆxy = (σ3x σ1y ) ⊗ 1l|Ψˆ00 ,

x, y = 0, 1 .

Then, if A and B share |Ψˆ00 , in order to send B two bits (x, y) of classical information, A acts on his qubit with σ3x σ1y and sends it to B. When both qubits are with him, B has them in the state | Ψˆxy ; by performing a measurement in the Bell basis, he can thus recover the pair (xy). Roughly speaking, one can transmit two bits at the price of 1 qubit, that is by just one use of the entangled quantum channel represented by |Ψˆ00 and its local modiﬁcations. Example 6.1.4 (Teleportation). Suppose A has two qubits , denoted by 1, 2, the ﬁrst one in the state | ψ 1 = α| 0 1 + β| 1 1 and the second one 1 being one party in the symmetric Bell state | Ψˆ00 23 = √12 i=0 | i 2 ⊗ | i 3 together with a third qubit (3) of B. Let B perform a Hadamard rotation on his qubit in |Ψˆ00 , changing the entangled state into (see Figure 6.1) 1 | Φ 23 := (1l ⊗ UH )|Ψˆ00 23 = | i 2 ⊗ UH | i 3 . 2 i=0 1

Fig. 6.1. Teleportation

The state | ψ 1 can now be teleported from A to B becoming | ψ 3 . The protocol is as follows; A performs on his two qubits 1, 2 a measurement in the ONB {| Ψ μ 12 }3μ=0 of C2 ⊗ C2 , where | Ψμ 12 := σμ ⊗ UH |Ψˆ00 12 with

Ψμ | Ψν = 12 Tr(σμ σν ) = δμν . Notice that the amplitude of | Ψμ 12 in the state | ψ 1 ⊗ | Φ 23 is 12 Ψμ

|(| ψ 1 ⊗ | Φ 23 ) =

1 1

i | σμ |ψ i | UH |j UH | j 3 2 i,j=0

260

6 Quantum Information Theory

1 2

i | σμ |ψ UH | i 3 = σμ | ψ 3 , 2 i=0 1

=

† 2 where it has been used that UH = UH and UH = 1l. Thus, after A has classically (that is by means of a classical channel) communicated to B the result of his local measurement, B knows his qubit to be in the state σμ | ψ 3 , whence by a local rotation by σμ he gets his third qubit in the state | ψ 3 . The procedure does not violate no-cloning for the state that appears at B’s end, disappears from A’s end. Neither does it violate Einstein’s locality; indeed, before classical communication of the actually measured index μ, B’s state is the equidistributed mixture of the four possibilities corresponding to the four diﬀerent measurement outcomes√of A; explicitly, using Example 5.2.5 with the normalized Pauli matrices σμ / 2 as ONB,

ρ=

3 1 1l σμ | ψ ψ |σμ = . 4 μ=0 2

On the other hand, before A’s measurement, the marginal state of B is ρ3 = Tr1,2 (| ψ 11 ψ | ⊗ | Φ 2323 Φ |) 1

1

1l = Tr | ψ 11 ψ | Tr | i 22 j | UH | i 33 j |UH = . 2 i,j=0 2 Notice that the net eﬀect of quantum teleportation is to get the third qubit in the rotated state σμ | ψ by means of a measurement in the ONB {| Ψμ 12 }3μ=0 peformed on qubits 1 and 2, when the state of 1, 2, 3 is | ψ 1 ⊗ | Φ 23 . Example 6.1.5. In order to implement a two-qubit gate like the unitary UCN OT on two target qubit states ψ1,2 , one adds to them three pairs of qubits each of which in the same entangled state | Φ introduced in the previous example. Thus, one deals with a multipartite entangled state [249, 323, 71] | Ψ := | ψ1 1 ⊗ | ψ2 2 ⊗ | Φ 34 ⊗ | Φ 57 ⊗ | Φ 68 corresponding to the scheme in Figure 6.2. Then, measurements are performed on qubits (1, 3, 5) and (2, 4, 6) in the ONBs obtained from the GHZ vectors as in Example 5.5.10.3. By projecting | Ψ onto the 6 qubit state | Ψabc 135 ⊗ | Ψdef 468 , one computes

5 1

1 √

r | σ1a |ψ1 r | σ1b |i r | σ3c |j 135 Ψabc | ⊗ 246 Ψdef | | Ψ = 2 r,s=0 i,j,k=0

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

261

Fig. 6.2. One way Quantum Computation

× s | σ1d |ψ2 s | σ1e UH |i s | σ3f |k UH | j 7 ⊗ UH | k 8

5 1 1 = √

r | σ1a |ψ1 s | σ1d |ψ2 s | σ1e UH σ1b |r UH σ3c | r 7 ⊗ UH σ3f | s 8 2 r,s=0

5

1 UH σ3c ⊗ UH σ3f UZeb σ1a ⊗ σ1d | ψ1 7 ⊗ | ψ2 8 , = √ 2 where in summing over i, j, k it has been used that, under transposition, T = σ1,3 . Thus, a part from local unitary rotations, by measuring in the σ1,3 chosen ONB one implements the unitary transformation UZeb :=

1

s | σ1e UH σ1b |r | r r | ⊗ | s s |

r,s=0

=

1

s ⊕ e | UH |r ⊕ b | r r | ⊗ | s s |

r,s=0

on the state | ψ1 7 ⊗ | ψ2 8 of the pair of qubits that remain unaﬀected by the measurement. √ 00 In particular, choosing a = b = c = d = e = f = 0, it turns 2 UZ = | 0 0 |⊗1l+| 1 1 |⊗σ3 = 1l⊗UH UCN OT 1l⊗UH , namely out that √ 00 2 UZ amounts to the CNOT gate unitary matrix apart from unitary, local rotations.

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement We have seen in Section 5.5.4 that, by looking at its marginal states, one knows whether a pure bipartite state is entangled or not. For density matrices entanglement detection is by far more diﬃcult; only in low dimension the problem has been completely solved by the so-called Peres-Horodecki criterion [236, 148, 152].

262

6 Quantum Information Theory

Proposition 6.2.1. Let a bipartite system S1 +S2 be described by the algebra Md1 (C) ⊗ Md2 (C), a state ρ12 ∈ S(S1 + S2 ) is entangled if and only there exists a positive map Λ : Md2 (C) → Md1 (C) such that idd1 ⊗ Λ+ [ρ12 ] is not + d2 d1 positive deﬁnite, where Λ+ : B+ 1 (C ) → B1 (C ) is the dual map of Λ from + d2 d1 the space of states S(S2 ) = B1 (C ) to the space of states S(S1 ) = B+ 1 (C ). Proof: The set Ssep (S1 + S2 ) of separable states over Md1 (C) ⊗ Md2 (C) is the closure in trace-norm of the convex hull of pure separable states (see Remark 5.5.7). By the Hahn-Banach theorem [258], Ssep (S1 + S2 ) can be strictly separated from any entangled state ρent by a hyperplane, that is by a continuous linear functional R : S(S1 + S2 ) → R and a real constant a such that R(ρent ) < a ≤ R(ρsep ). As the trace-norm and the HilbertSchmidt topology are equivalent in ﬁnite dimension, using the argument of Example 5.2.4, the action of R can be represented by means of R = R† ∈ Md1 (C) ⊗ Md2 (C) such that R(ρ) = Tr(R ρ). Setting S := R − a1l, it thus follows that ρ ∈ Md1 (C) ⊗ Md2 (C) is entangled if and only if there exists S ∈ Md1 (C) ⊗ Md2 (C) such that Tr(S ρ) < 0 while Tr(S ρsep ) ≥ 0 for all ρsep ∈ Ssep (S1 + S2 ). Furthermore, to any such matrix, the Jamiolkowski isomorphism (see Remark 5.2.5) associates a positive map ΛS : Md1 (C) → Md2 (C) with S as Choi + + d2 d1 matrix. Let Λ+ S : B1 (C ) → B1 (C ) be its dual such that

Tr(S ρ) = Tr idd1 ⊗ ΛS [P+d1 ] ρ = Tr P+d1 idd1 ⊗ Λ+ , S [ρ] for all ρ ∈ S(S1 + S2 ). If ρ is an entangled state such that Tr(S ρ) < 0, then + idd1 ⊗ Λ+ S [ρ] cannot be positive deﬁnite. Vice versa, if idd1 ⊗ Λ [ρ] ≥ 0 for all positive Λ : Md2 (C) → Md2 (C), then ρ ∈ Ssep (S1 + S2 ). As a consequence of the previous argument, a map Λ : Md2 (C) → Md1 (C) is a witness of the entanglement of the state ρ ∈ S(S1 + S2 ) if idd1 ⊗ Λ+ turns ρ into a non-positive matrix. Therefore, Λ cannot be a CP map; however it preserves positivity. Indeed, the Choi matrix L ∈ Md1 (C)⊗Md2 (C) associated to the dual map Λ+ is block positive for Tr(L ρ) ≥ 0 whenever ρ is separable, that is ψ ⊗ φ | L |ψ ⊗ φ for all ψ ∈ Cd1 and φ ∈ Cd2 , whence Λ+ is a positive map. Unfortunately, as already noticed (see Remark 5.2.6.3), unlike CP maps for which Proposition 5.2.1 holds, positive linear maps still lack a complete characterization. Consequently, given an entangled state ρ ∈ S(S1 + S2 ) it is usually rather diﬃcult to ﬁnd a corresponding entanglement witness Λ. A relatively understood sub-class of positive maps is the following one. Deﬁnition 6.2.1 (Decomposable Maps). A map Λ : B(H) → B(K) is decomposable if it is positive and Λ = Λ1 + Λ2 ◦ TH , with Λ1,2 CP maps and TH the transposition on B(H) with respect to a ﬁxed orthonormal basis in H.

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

263

Let (d1 , d2 ) = (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), then a theorem of Woronowicz [321] asserts that all positive maps Λ : Md1 (C) → Md2 (C) are decomposable. This fact makes transposition an exhaustive entanglement witness in low dimension; in other words, for the stated dimensions, those states that remain positive under partial transposition, are separable and viceversa. Corollary 6.2.1. If in the previous proposition (d1 , d2 ) = (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 2), then, ρ12 ∈ S(S1 + S2 ) is entangled if and only if T(2) [ρ12 ] is not positivedeﬁnite, where T(2) := idd1 ⊗ Td2 denotes partial transposition on the second factor. Proof: If ρ ∈ S(S1 + S2 ) is separable then T(2) [ρ] ≥ 0 for transposition is a positive map. Vice versa, because of the assumption, Woronowicz theorem ensures that any positive map is decomposable. Therefore, if T(2) [ρ] ≥ 0, it turns out that, for all positive Λ : Md2 (C) → Md2 (C), idd1 ⊗ Λ[ρ] = idd1 ⊗ Λ1 [ρ] + idd1 ⊗ Λ2 [T(2) [ρ]] ≥ 0 ,

as Λ1,2 are CP maps. Remarks 6.2.1.

1. Though partial transposition as transposition are to be deﬁned with respect to a chosen ONB, the spectrum of an operator is basis-independent; therefore, the non-positivity of T(2) [ρ12 ], thence the entanglement of ρ12 , does not depend on the ONB with respect to which the partial transposition is performed. 2. Those states which remain positive under partial transposition are called PPT states, otherwise NPT states, namely negative under partial transposition. Woronowicz theorem does not extend to higher dimension; there are instances of non-decomposable positive maps already for d1 = d2 = 3 [83, 130, 288, 321]; as a consequence partial transposition is not an exhaustive entanglement witness in higher dimension. In other words, all NPT states are entangled, but there can exist PPT entangled states [149, 297]. 3. No pure bipartite state can be PPT entangled; indeed, by Proposition 5.5.7, entangled vector states | Ψ12 ∈ Cd1 ⊗ Cd2 have a Schmidt d (1) (2) λj | ψj ⊗ | ψj , decomposition (5.159) of the form | Ψ12 = j=1 (1,2)

}dj=1 are orthonormal sets in the Hilbert where d := max{d1 , d2 }, {| ψj spaces Cd1,2 and the Schmidt coeﬃcients λj > 0 for at least two indices. Set P12 := | Ψ12 Ψ12 |; the partial transposition with respect to the ONB (2) having {| ψj }dj=1 among its elements yields

264

6 Quantum Information Theory

R12 := T(2) [P12 ] =

d

(1)

(1)

(2)

(2)

λj λj | ψi ψj | ⊗ | ψj ψi | .

i,j=1

Let λ12 > 0, then R12

(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) | ψ1 ψ2 − | ψ2 ψ1 | ψ ψ − | ψ2 ψ1 √ = − λ1 λ2 1 2 √ . 2 2

Thus T(2) [P12 ] cannot be positive if P12 is entangled. 4. The entanglement of PPT entangled density matrices cannot be detected by decomposable positive maps as one can see from an argument similar to the one used in the proof of Corollary 6.2.1. An instance of such states will be discussed in Example 6.2.4. The following ones are families of bipartite states over Cd ⊗ Cd , d ≥ 2, where PPT states are always separable. Examples 6.2.1. 1. Werner States [317] This is a class of d2 × d2 density matrices on Cd ⊗ Cd of the form ρW = α1ld2 + β V where V is the ﬂip operator (see (5.32)) and W := Tr(ρW V ) (*). and must be positive. As the eigenvalues of V are ±1, those of ρW are α±β N N 2

ij | V |ij = Also, V 2 = 1ld2 and TrV = i,j=1 i,j=1 | i | j | = d; thus, normalization and (*) yield α d2 + β d = 1 and W = α d + β d2 , whence α= ρW

dW − 1 1+W 1−W d−W , β= ; α+β = , α−β = d(d2 − 1) d(d2 − 1) d(d + 1) d(d − 1 d(d − W ) 1ld2 dW − 1 V , −1 ≤ W ≤ 1 . (6.2) = + d2 − 1 d2 d(d2 − 1)

If ρW is separable as in (5.166), by spectralizing the contributing density matrices, it can always be recast as ρW = ij μij | ψi1 ψi1 | ⊗ | ψj2 ψj2 |, μij ≥ 0, ij μij = 1. Then, W = Tr(ρW V ) =

ij

μij ψi1 ⊗ ψj2 | V |ψi1 ⊗ ψj2 =

μij | ψi1 | ψj2 | ≥ 0 .

ij

This is a necessary condition for the separability of Werner states in dimension d; it is also suﬃcient; the clue is that Werner states are exactly 2 those states on Cd that commute with all unitaries of the form U ⊗ U with U a unitary matrix in Md (C). Practically, since V (A⊗B)V = B ⊗A for all A, B ∈ Md (C), all Werner states have the form

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

ρW =

U

265

dU (U ⊗ U ) ρ (U † ⊗ U † ) ,

where dU is the normalized, invariant Haar measure over the unitary group U on Cd 2 ; furthermore, W = √ Tr(ρ V ). √ If 1 ≥ W ≥ 0, let ψ ∈ Cd , | φ = W | ψ + 1 − W | ψ ⊥ ∈ Cd , with

ψ | ψ ⊥ = 0 and set ρ := | φ φ | ⊗ | ψ ψ |. Thus, ρW arises by twirling a separable state with tensor products of local unitaries, therefore it is itself separable, as local actions cannot create entanglement. The necessary and suﬃcient condition for separability, W ≥ 0, turns out to be equivalent to ρW being positive under partial transposition. Indeed, by applying T(2) = idd ⊗ Td to ρW one gets T(2) [ρW ] =

d−W dW − 1 d 1ld2 + 2 P . d(d2 − 1) d −1 +

Its eigenvalues (d − W )/(d3 − d) ≥ 0 and W/d are positive if and only if W ≥ 0. 2. Isotropic States [151] This is a class of d2 × d2 density matrices on Cd ⊗ Cd which are related to Werner states by partial transposition. They have the form ρF = α1ld2 + β P+d and are uniquely identiﬁed by the parameter 0 ≤ F := Tr(ρF P+d ) (*). Like for Werner states, positivity, normalization and (*) yield α ≥ 0, α d2 + β = 1 and 1 ≥ F = α+β ≥ 0, whence isotropic states are mixtures 2 of the totally depolarized state on Cd and of the totally symmetric state, ρF =

d2 (1 − F ) 1ld2 d2 F − 1 d P . + d2 − 1 d2 d2 − 1 +

(6.3)

Since ψ ⊗ φ | P+d |ψ ⊗ φ = | ψ | φ∗ |2 , where ψ ∗ is the vector in Cd with complex conjugate components with respect to ψ, if ρF is separable, then (see the previous example) 1 1 F = Tr(ρF P+d ) = μij | ψi1 | (φ2j )∗ |2 ≤ . d ij d As for Werner states, 0 ≤ F ≤ 1/d is necessary and also suﬃcient for separability. The reason is that isotropic states are all and only those The particular convex combination of states (U ⊗ U ) ρ (U † ⊗ U † ) appearing in the integral is known as twirling. Twirled ρ are such that, for all unitary V ,

dU U ⊗ U ρ U † ⊗ U † V † ⊗ V † = dU V U ⊗V U ρ (U V )† ⊗ (U V )† V ⊗V 2

U

†

= U

†

†

d(V W ) W ⊗ W ρ W ⊗ W =

U

U

W

dU U ⊗ U ρ U † ⊗ U † ,

for the Haar measure satisﬁes d(V U ) = dU for all unitary V .

266

6 Quantum Information Theory

d2 × d2 density matrices which commute with local unitaries of the form U ⊗ U ∗ , where U is any unitary matrix in Md (C) and U ∗ denotes its complex conjugate (not its adjoint). Moreover, one can show that, since (U ⊗ U ∗ )P+d (U † ⊗ U T ) = P+d , any isotropic ρF arises from a twirling of the form dU (U ⊗ U ∗ ) ρ (U † ⊗ U T ) , ρF = U

where U denotes the transposition of U and ρ is such that Tr(ρP+d ) = F . √ √ If F d ≤ 1, set | φ = dF | ψ + 1 − dF | ψ ⊥ and choose ρ = | ψ ψ |⊗ | φ φ |; then, ρF can be obtained by twirling a separable state and is thus itself separable. The above necessary and suﬃcient conditions for separability coincides with the isotropic states being positive under partial transposition. Indeed, 1−F d2 F − 1 1ld2 + V T(2) [ρF ] = 2 d −1 d(d2 − 1) T

has positive eigenvalues (dF + 1)/(d2 + d) ≥ 0 and (1 − dF )/(d2 − d) if and only if 0 ≤ F ≤ 1/d. Distillability and Bound Entanglement Entangled states of two qubits as the Bell states (see Example 5.5.9) are called maximally entangled. Consider a pure state | Ψ12 ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd of a bipartite system consisting of two copies of a same system; as we shall see, there are good reasons to measure the amount of entanglement of ρ12 by means of the von Neumann entropy of any of its two marginal density matrices

(1,2) ρΨ12 := Tr2,1 | Ψ12 Ψ12 | (see Proposition 5.5.5). Deﬁnition 6.2.1 (Pure State Entanglement). Let | Ψ12 ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd be a pure state of the bipartite system S1 + S2 ; the entanglement of | Ψ12 is

(1,2) EF [| Ψ12 Ψ12 |] := S ρΨ12 . (6.4) According to Example 5.5.10.1, all Bell states have marginal states that are the tracial state with maximal von Neumann entropy: E[Ψˆxy ] = log 2. The presence of uncontrollable interactions with the environment in which a bipartite system may be immersed usually spoils its maximally entangled | 01 − | 10 √ might states. For instance, the so-called singlet state | Ψ − := 2 be rotated into | Ψ = α| 01 + β| 10 , with |α|2 + |β|2 = 1 and 0 < |α| < 1, so that

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

(1)

ρΨ =

|α|2 0

0 |β|2

267

E[Ψ ] = −|α|2 log |α|2 − |β|2 log |β|2 < log 2 .

,

It may even be turned into a mixed state because the environment usually acts as a source of noise and dissipation. A measure of the entanglement of ρ12 ∈ S(S1 + S2 ) is as follows 3 . Deﬁnition 6.2.2 (Entanglement of Formation). [53] The entanglement of formation of a state ρ12 of a bipartite system S1 + S2 is the least average pure state entanglement over all convex decompositions of ρ12 , ⎧ ⎫ ⎨ ⎬

(1,2) j j , ρ12 = EF [ρ12 ] := min λj S ρψj λj | ψ12 ψ12 | , (6.5) ⎩ ⎭ 12 j

where λj > 0 and

j

j

λj = 1.

Maximal entanglement is an important resource in quantum information, but also a highly degradable one; of particular importance are then those quantum protocols that enable to distil maximally entangled states out of non-maximally entangled ones by means of LOCC 4 . The basic scheme of d d a distillation protocol is as follows: given m copies of ρ12 ∈ B+ 1 (C ⊗ C ), one tries to maximize the number n of copies of the singlet state projection P− := | Ψ− Ψ− | that can be obtained by means of local operations and classical communication: ρ12 ⊗ ρ12 ⊗ · · · ρ12

LOCC P− ⊗ P− ⊗ · · · P− . −→

m times

n times

The LOCC deﬁning the distillation protocols amount to maps of the form ρ⊗m 12 → ρ12 = (n)

1 † † A1i ⊗ A2i ρ⊗m 12 A1i ⊗ A2i , NI

(6.6)

i∈I

where NI :=

Tr A†1i A1i ⊗ A†2i A2i ρ⊗m , 12

i∈I d ⊗m

while Aji : (C ) 3

2 ⊗n

→ (C )

, j = 1, 2.

Various entanglement measures have appeared while quantum entanglement theory has been developing, for a review and the related literature see the contribution by M.B. Plenio and S.S. Virmani in [71]. 4 For a review of entanglement distillation and the other topics of this Section see [70] and the contributions by A. Sen, U. Sen, M.Lewenstein et al., W. D¨ ur and H.-J. Briegel, and P. Horodecki in [71]

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6 Quantum Information Theory

Practically, one seeks distillation protocols that output states ρ(n) whose distance from P−⊗n (for instance, with respect to the trace-norm (5.21)) vanishes when m → +∞, while the ratio n/m is the highest possible. The optimal ratio, denoted by ED [ρ12 ], is called entanglement of distillation and represents the maximal asymptotic fraction of singlets per ρ12 that one can achieve by LOCC. In other words, one can hope to distil at most n m ED [ρ12 ]] singlets P− out of m ρ12 when m gets suﬃciently large. It turns out that PPT states ρ12 cannot be distilled [150]; when ρ12 is separable this is obvious since one cannot create non-local quantum correlations by means of local operations and classical communication. The interesting point is that one has to distinguish between free entanglement, the entanglement which can be distilled, and bound entanglement, that which cannot be distilled. The result just quoted can be rephrased by saying that the entanglement of PPT entangled states is bound. This can be seen as follows: if (n) the entanglement in ρ12 is distillable, then for some m, the state ρ12 in (6.6) must be an entangled state of 2 qubits. whence an NPT state according to Corollary 6.2.1. This implies that, for at least one index i0 ∈ I, the (nonnormalized) state † † ρ12 := A1i0 ⊗ A2i0 ρ⊗m 12 A1i0 ⊗ A2i0

(6.7)

is NPT . Observe that, for such m and i0 , Aji0 : (Cd )⊗m → C2 ; therefore, 1 one can always write Aji0 = k=0 | k ψjk |, where | ψjk ∈ (Cd )⊗m and | k , k = 0, 1, is any chosen basis in C2 . Let Qj be the projections onto the subspaces of (Cd )⊗m spanned by | ψj0 and | ψj1 ; then, † † ρ12 := A1i0 ⊗ A2i0 Q1 ⊗ Q2 ρ⊗m 12 Q1 ⊗ Q2 A1i0 ⊗ A2i0

implies that ρ12 := Q1 ⊗ Q2 ρ⊗m 12 Q1 ⊗ Q2 must be entangled, otherwise its separability would be preserved when passing to ρ12 . m Consider now the orthonormal bases {| bjn }dn=1 in (Cd )⊗m , j = 1, 2, such that Qj = | bj1 bj1 | + | bj2 bj2 |; in the corresponding representation ρ12 is a 4 × 4 matrix acting on the subspace K spanned by the product states | b1i b2j , i, j = 1, 2. Since it corresponds to an entangled state, by partial transposition with respect to the ONB {| b2j }2j=1 , T2 [ρ12 ] cannot be positive semi-deﬁnite. Therefore, there must exist | Φ ∈ K such that

Φ | T2 [ρ12 ] |Φ =

2

Φ∗ij Φk b1i b2j | T2 [ρ12 ] |b1k b2

i,j;k, =1

=

2

Φ∗ij Φk b1i b2 | ρ12 |b1k b2j =

i,j;k, =1

=

Φ | T[ρ⊗m 12 ] |Φ

2

Φ∗ij Φk b1i b2 | ρ⊗m 12 |b1k b2j

i,j;k, =1

<0,

where T[ρ⊗m 12 ] is now the partial transposition with respect to the whole ONB m {| b2j }dj=1 . Also, the last equality follows because | Φ is supported by the

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

269

subspace K corresponding to the orthogonal projection Q1 ⊗ Q2 and thus has vanishing projections onto all | b1i b2j unless i, j = 1, 2. Since NPT is a property which does not depend on the basis chosen to compute the partial transposition (see Remark 6.2.1.1), ﬁx the bases {| ejk }dk=1 in Cd and choose in (Cd ⊗ Cd )⊗m the product basis consisting of ⊗m ; vectors | e1k1 e1k2 . . . e1km ⊗| e2 1 e2 2 . . . e2 m . Then, T[ρ⊗m 12 ] = (T2 [ρ12 ]) one thus concludes that ρ12 is distillable only if ρ12 is NPT . Remark 6.2.2. From Remark 6.2.1.3 we know that no pure PPT entangled state can exist; it turns out that their entanglement is always distillable and thus free. Whether the entanglement of generic NPT states is also free, that is whether all NPT states are distillable, is one of the open problems in quantum information theory [71, 152].

Entanglement Cost One of the ﬁrst questions in quantum information has been whether, by means of LOCC one can turn a pure state | Ψ12 of a bipartite system into another pure state | Φ12 . The answer is that this is possible if and only if (1,2) the marginal states ρΨ12 are more mixed than those of | Φ12 in the sense of Deﬁnition 5.5.1 [224]. If one considers asymptotic LOCC protocols where m copies of a state | Ψ12 are turned into n copies of a state | Φ12 with vanishing error when m → +∞, then the transformation of | Ψ12 into | Φ12 is possible if and only if [71] n EF [Ψ12 ] ≤ . m EF [Φ12 ] Since EF [Ψ− ] = 1 (we shall use log2 in the following), one can always asymptotically distil n ≤ m EF [Ψ12 ] copies of P− out of m copies of any pure bipartite entangled state Ψ12 . Furthermore, the reverse operation is also possible; namely, protocols have been devised which invert distillation and, by using m copies of the singlet state P− , form, by means of LOCC , n copies of a bipartite pure state Ψ12 . Actually, like in the case of entanglement distillation, one considers the asymptotic minimal ratio m/n when n → +∞ and ρ⊗n 12 is better and better approximated (within a suitable distance) by a suitable LOCC operation acting on P−⊗m [137]. The optimal asymptotic ratio, denoted by EC [ρ12 ] is called the entanglement cost of ρ12 ; it represents the minimal fraction of singlet that is needed to create one bipartite system in the state ρ12 . In other words, for large n, one can create n copies of ρ12 only acting with LOCC on no less than n EC [ρ12 ] singlets. In [224] a distillation

protocol ΛD is constructed which asymptotically (1)

yields EF [Ψ12 ] = S ρΨ12 singlets per bipartite entangled state ρ12 (see (6.4))

270

6 Quantum Information Theory

and a formation protocol ΛF that asymptotically yields one copy of ρ12 at the cost of EF [Ψ12 ] singlets. It turns out that the entanglement cost and the entanglement of distillation equal the pure state entanglement of formation. By deﬁnition, EC [Ψ12 ] ≤ EF [Ψ12 ] ≤ ED [Ψ12 ]; if EF [Ψ12 ] < ED [Ψ12 ]; then, m by means of the protocol ΛF one could asymptotically obtain copies EF [Ψ12 ] of Ψ12 out of m copies of P− and then, using an optimal distillation protocol, ED [Ψ12 ] > m copies of P− . This is impossible as one extract from them m EF [Ψ12 ] cannot increase the amount of entanglement by deterministic LOCC 5 . Analogously, if EC [Ψ12 ] < EF [Ψ12 ], then one could use an optimal creation protocol m to obtain copies of ρ12 out of m copies of P− (for m large) and then EC [Ψ12 ] EF [Ψ12 ] > m copies use the distillation protocol ΛD to extract from them m EC [Ψ12 ] of P− . For pure states, forming entangled states from singlets and distilling singlets from entangled states are reversible operations; it is not so for mixed states and the reason for this peculiar kind of irreversibility is bound entanglement [152, 150, 71]. Consider the entanglement of formation as deﬁned by (6.5); it can be interpreted as the minimal averaged entanglement cost of ρ12 . In fact, given

(1) j j ψ12 |, the entropies S ρψj a convex decomposition of ρ12 = j λj | ψ12 12 are the entanglement cost of the pure states that decompose it. However, in line of principle, it could be more advantageous to create the tensor product ρ⊗n 12 instead of the n copies of ρ12 one by one. One is thus led to deﬁne the so-called regularized entanglement of formation E∞ F [ρ12 ] := lim

n→+∞

1 EF [ρ⊗n 12 ] . n

(6.8)

Such a limit exists because the entanglement of formation is subadditive. (1) (2) Indeed, consider the state ρ12 ⊗ ρ12 of two copies of the bipartite system (i) S1 + S2 and suppose EF [ρ12 ] is achieved at the (optimal) decompositions (i) (i) (i) (i) ρ12 = j νj | φj φj |. Since the decomposition (1)

(2)

ρ12 ⊗ ρ12 =

(1)

(2)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(2)

(2)

(2)

νj νk | φj φj | ⊗ | φk φk |

j,k

need not in general be optimal for EF [ρ12 ⊗ ρ12 ], it follows that (1)

(2)

(1)

(2)

EF [ρ12 ⊗ ρ12 ] ≤ EF [ρ12 ] + EF [ρ12 ] . 5 One can achieve entanglement increase by LOCC only probabilistically for certain states of a mixture, for instance in some of the states in (6.6), but not on the average for the whole mixture.

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

271

In [137] it is proved that the regularized entanglement of formation equals the entanglement cost: EC [ρ12 ] = E∞ F [ρ12 ]. Moreover (see P. Horodecki’s contribution in [71]), it has been proved that EC [ρ12 ] > 0 for all entangled ρ12 . As a consequence of the fact that, if ρ12 is PPT entangled, no entanglement can be distilled from it, it thus turns out that a non-zero non-retrievable amount of entanglement (of singlets) is always necessary to create PPT entangled states. Concurrence We shall now elaborate a little bit more in detail on the entanglement of formation of two qubit states. 1 0 , |1 = the standard basis in Let SA,B be two qubits , |0 = 0 1 C2 and consider a generic two qubit vector state of SA + SB of the form ∗ | ΨAB = C00 | 00 + C01 | 01 + C10 | 10 + C11 | 11 .

C00 C01 Then, the marginal state ρA = CC † , C = has eigenvalues C10 C11 1 ± 1 − C(ΨAB )2 , C(ΨAB ) := 2 |C00 C11 − C01 C10 | . (6.9) 2 ∗ denote the complex conThis expression can be recast as follows. Let |ΨAB jugate of | ΨAB with respect to the standard product basis {|ij}i,j=0,1 and denote ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ | Ψ˜AB := σ2 ⊗σ2 | ΨAB = −C00 | 11 +C01 | 10 +C10 | 01 −C11 | 00 , (6.10)

0 −i is such that σ2 | 0 = i| 1 , σ2 | 1 = −i| 0 . Then, for σ2 = i 0 (6.11) ΨAB | ΨAB = C(ΨAB ) .

α∗ α Since σ2 ⊥ , it turns out that C(ΨAB ) = 0 when ΨAB is separable, β β∗ while C(ΨAB ) reaches its maximum C(ΨAB ) = 1 when ΨAB is maximally entangled and (only) two coeﬃcients Cij are proportional to 2−1/2 . Therefore, for two qubit vector states, the entanglement of formation reads 1 + 1 − C(ΨAB )2 , (6.12) EF [| ΨAB ΨAB |] = E(ΨAB ) := H2 2 where H2 (x) := −x log x − (1 − x) log(1 − x).

272

6 Quantum Information Theory

The variational problem embodied in Deﬁnition 6.2.2 is in general extremely diﬃcult to solve and a general closed expression of E(ρ) as a function of ρ has been found only in the case of two qubits ; it is based upon the notion of concurrence [320]. Given a two qubit density matrix ρ ∈ M4 (C), one ﬁrst constructs the density matrix (6.13) ρ˜ = σ2 ⊗ σ2 ρ∗ σ2 ⊗ σ2 , obtained via the operation (6.10), where ρ∗ denotes complex conjugation with respect to the the standard basis {|ij}i,j=0,1 . Then, the quantity C(ΨAB ) in (6.9) generalizes to density matrices as follows. Deﬁnition 6.2.3 Let λi , i = 1, 2, 3, 4, be the positive √(Concurrence). √ ρ˜ ρ ρ in decreasing order. The concurrence of ρ is eigenvalues of C(ρ) := max{λ1 − λ2 − λ3 − λ4 , 0} .

(6.14)

Examples 6.2.2. Let ρ = |ψ ψ|, |ψ ∈ C4 . Then, 2 √ √ ˜ |ψ ψ| , ρ˜ ρ ρ = ψ|ψ ˜ . whence C(ρ) = ψ|ψ 2. Werner states Setting d = 2 in (6.2) 1. Pure states

1 + σ3 , 2 1 − σ3 , | 1 1 | = 2

| 0 0 | =

σ1 + iσ2 2 σ1 − iσ2 | 1 0 | = , 2 | 0 1 | =

it follows that

1 P+2 = 1 ⊗ 1 + σ1 ⊗ σ1 − σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 4

1 V = id ⊗ T [P+2 ] = 1 ⊗ 1 + σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 2

2W − 1 1 1⊗1+ (σ1 ⊗ σ1 + σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 ) . ρW = 4 3 Since W ∈ R, the algebraic relationsamong the Pauli matrices yield √ √ ρW ρ˜W ρW are those of ρW , ρW = ρW , whence the eigenvalues of namely 1+W (thrice degenerate) and 1−W 6 2 . It then follows that ⎧ max{−W, 0} −1 ≤ W ≤ 1/2 ⎨ , C(ρW ) = ⎩ max{(W − 2)/3, 0} 1/2 ≤ W ≤ 1 whence C(ρW ) > 0 and ρW is entangled if and only if W < 0, in agreement with Example 6.2.1.1

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

273

3. Isotropic States Setting d = 2 in (6.3) and arguing as in the previous example, the isotropic states read

1 4F − 1 (σ1 ⊗ σ1 − σ2 ⊗ σ2 + σ3 ⊗ σ3 ) . 1⊗1+ 4 3 √ √ Again, it turns out that ρ˜F = ρF so that the eigenvalues of ρF ρ˜F ρF are those of ρF itself, namely 1−F thrice degenerate and F . Thus, 3 ⎧ 1/4 ≤ F ≤ 1 ⎨ max{2F − 1, 0} , C(ρF ) = ⎩ max{−(1 + 2F )/3, 0} 0 ≤ F ≤ 1/4 ρF =

whence ρF is entangled if and only if F > 1/2, in agreement with Example 6.2.1.2. By direct inspection, the function (see (6.12)) 1 + 1 − C(ψ)2 , E(C(ψ)) = H2 2

(6.15)

is monotonically increasing (E (x) ≥ 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1) and convex (E (x) ≥ 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1) in the concurrence. As 0 ≤ C(ψ) ≤ 1, the entanglement increases from E(C(ψ)) = 0 for separable vector states to E(C(ψ)) = 1 for maximally entangled states and E(λx1 + (1 − λ)x2 ) ≤ λE(x1 ) + (1 − λ)E(x2 ) , 0 ≤ λ ≤ 1 , 0 ≤ x1,2 ≤ 1 . Further, given a decomposition ρ = j pj | ψj ψj |, let

Cρ= j pj |ψj ψj | :=

pj C(ψj )

(6.16)

j

Eρ= j pj |ψj ψj | :=

pj E(C(ψj ))

(6.17)

j

denote the corresponding average concurrence, respectively the average entanglement. Because of convexity, it turns out that

E Cρ= j pj | ψj ψj | ≤ Eρ= j pj | ψj ψj | . (6.18)

Theorem 6.2.1. [320] The entanglement of formation (6.2.2) of any state ρ of a two qubit system is given by EF [ρ] = E(C(ρ)) and is thus a monotonically increasing function of the concurrence (6.14).

274

6 Quantum Information Theory

Proof: The right hand side of (6.18) is the argument of the minimum in (6.5) (see (6.12)), whereas the left hand side is an increasing function of its argument. It thus follows that EF [ρ] cannot be smaller than E(Cmin ) where Cmin is the smallest average concurrence. Therefore, if Cmin is attained at a suitable decomposition, then the same decomposition yields EF [ρ] = E(Cmin ). We will construct a density matrix ρ = j pj | ψj ψj | such that

Cρ= j pj | ψj ψj | = C(ρ) and show that no smaller average concurrence can be achieved, namely Cmin = C(ρ). In to arrive at such decomposition, we ﬁrst consider the expansion order n ρ = i=1 | vi vi |, n ≤ 4 being the rank of ρ, and |vj its (non-normalized) eigenvectors such that vi |vj = rj δij , with rj the eigenvalues of ρ. vj , where |˜ vi := σ2 ⊗ σ2 |vi∗ , The n × n matrix τ with entries τij := vi |˜ vj = vj |˜ vi , but not hermitian and is symmetric, vi |˜ (τ τ † )ij = (τ τ ∗ )ij =

n

√ √

vi |˜ vk ˜ vk |vj = ri | ρ˜ ρ ρ |rj .

k=1

√ √ ρ ρ Thus the eigenvalues of τ τ ∗ are the squares of the eigenvalues λj of ρ in decreasing order (see (6.14)). Let Z be the n × n unitary matrix that diagonalizes τ τ ∗ , Zτ τ ∗ Z † = (Zτ Z T )(Zτ Z T )∗ = diag(λ21 , λ22 , λ23 , λ24 ) , then Z can be chosen such that Zτ Z T = diag(λ1 , λ2 , λ3 , λ4 ) is diagonal with n n ∗ the λj ’s as eigenvalues. Setting |wi := j=1 Zij |vj gives ρ = i=1 |wi wi |, with decomposers such that

wi |w ˜j =

n

Zik Zj vk |˜ v = (Zτ Z T )ij = λi δij .

k, =1

Case 1: λ1 < λ2 + λ3 + λ4 . Because of the ordering of the λj ’s, this case is possible if n ≥ 3. Con4 sider the quantity f (θ) := i=1 λi e2iθi : since f (0, π/2, π/2, π/2) < 0 while f (0, 0, 0, 0) > 0, by continuity f (ϕ) = 0 at some ϕ. Using the vectors | wi introduced above, let ⎛

| zi =

4 j=1

Cij eiϕj | wj ,

1 1 1 ⎜1 1 C := [Cij ] = ⎝ 2 1 −1 1 −1

⎞ 1 1 −1 −1 ⎟ ⎠ , 1 −1 −1 1

where e2iϕ4 and | z4 do not appear if λ4 = 0. Introducing the normalized vectors | ψj := | zj /zj , from C † C = 1 it turns out that

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

ρ=

4

zj 2 | ψj ψj | ,

i=1

275

|f (ϕ)| and | ψi | ψi | = =0, 4zi 2

for all i = 1, 2, 3, 4. Then, the vectors | ψj and thus ρ are separable. Case 2: λ1 > λ2 + λ3 + λ4 .

n Set | y1 = | w1 , | yj = i| wj , if j ≥ 2. Then ρ = j=1 | yj yj |; further, consider the diagonal matrix Y = diag(λ1 , −λ2 , −λ3 , −λ4 ) with entries Yij := yi | y˜j . n Because of Example 5.5.4, any other decomposition ρ = j=1 | zj zj | n is such that | zj = i=1 Vji∗ | yi , with V a unitary matrix on Cn . Therefore, for orthogonal V , the quantity cρ= nj=1 | zj zj | :=

n

zj | z˜j =

j=1

n

Vji Vjk Yij

j,i,k=1

= Tr(V Y V T ) = Tr(Y ) = λ1 − λ2 − λ3 − λ4 = C(ρ) is independent V . By using this invariance property, one can ﬁnd a decomof n position ρ = j=1 | zj zj | such that

zj 2

zj | z˜j = C(ρ) = | zj | z˜j | = zj C , zj for all 1 ≤ j ≤ n. Thus, its average concurrence (6.16) equals C(ρ),

n n zj 2 zj C

zj | z˜j = C(ρ) . =

C = zj | j=1 j=1 The | zj are constructed as follows: unless all the Yii are already equal to C(ρ), there must be one decomposer, y1 say, with Y11 > C(ρ), and another one, y2 , with Y22 < C(ρ). Choosing V that exchanges y1 with y2 and leaves the other decomposers ﬁxed, we obtain a decomposition with the same average concurrence and Y11 , Y22 exchanged. By continuity there z1 = z2 |˜ z2 = C(ρ), with must exist n an orthogonal matrix V such that z1 |˜ |zj = i=1 Vji∗ |yi . Iteration of this argument for the remaining decomposers yields the result. The proof of the theorem is then concluded by showing that no decomposition can achieve a smaller average concurrence than C(ρ). Indeed, using again Example 5.5.4, a generic decomposition has average concurrence Q Q n 2 | zq | z˜q | =

Cρ= Q | zq zq | = (Zqj ) Yii , j=1 q=1

q=1 i=1

Q where Z : Cn → CQ is an isometry: q=1 (Zqi )2 = 1 for all 1 ≤ i ≤ n. Since one can always adjust the phases of the Zqi in such a way that (Zq1 )2 = |(Zq1 )2 | ≥ 0, for all 1 ≤ q ≤ Q, then

276

6 Quantum Information Theory

Cρ=

Q q=1

| zq zq |

Q n Q n 2 2 ≥ (Zqi ) Yii = λ1 − (Zqi ) λj q=1 i=1 q=1 i=2 Q n ≥ λ 1 − (Zqi )2 λi ≥ C(ρ) . q=1 i=2

Indeed, by assumption, Q n Q n 2 (Zqi )2 λi = λ2 + λ3 + λ4 < λ1 . (Zqi ) λi ≤ q=1 i=2

i=2 q=1

Two-Mode Gaussian States Let S be a bipartite continuous variable system consisting of two subsystems A and B described by annihilation and creation operators a# i , i = 1, 2, . . . , p, and b# , i = 1, 2, . . . , q, p + q = f , satisfying the CCR (5.92), and arranged, i as in (5.95), into a vector D = (a, b, a† , b† ) , a = (a1 , . . . , ap ) , b := (b1 , . . . , bq ) . X We know that a state of S described by a density matrix ρ is speciﬁed by the characteristic function (5.117) which now reads

∗ ∗ ∗ (6.19) FρV (z) = Tr ρ eZ ·X = Tr ρ eZ a ·A ⊗ eZ b ·B , where A := (a, a† ), B := (b, b† ), Z a,b := (z a,b , −z ∗a,b ) with z a := (za1 , za2 , . . . , zap ) and z b := (zb1 , zb2 , . . . , zbq ). Let Ta denote the transposition with respect to the orthonormal basis of the occupation number states | ka = | ka1 ka2 . . . kap , kai ∈ N, of the subsystem A (see (5.93)); then, using the number state basis {| ka kb }ka ,kb , one calculates

∗ ∗ ∗

ka kb | ρTa |j a j b j a j b | eZ a ·A ⊗ eZ b ·B |ka kb Tr ρTa eZ ·X = ka ,kb j a ,j b

=

∗

∗

∗

∗

j a kb | ρ |ka j b j a | eZ a ·A |ka j b | eZ b ·B |kb

ka ,kb j a ,j b

=

ka kb | ρ |j a j b ka | eZ a ·A |j a j b | eZ b ·B |kb

ka ,kb j a ,j b

∗ ∗ = Tr ρ eZ a ·A ⊗ eZ b ·B , := (a† , a). The last equality easily follows from where A

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement ∗

ka | eZ a ·A |j a =

p

∗

277

†

kai | ezai ai −zai ai |jai

i=1

and

k | eza−z

∗ †

a

|j = ( j | e−za+z

∗ †

a

|k )∗ = j | e−z

∗

a+za†

|k .

Partial transposition thus amounts to changing annihilation operators of a chosen subsystem into creation operators within the Weyl operator appearing into the characteristic function of a bipartite state. In terms of √ position and momentum operators this means keeping ﬁxed √ √ † † a = (a + a† )/ 2, q = (b + b )/ 2 and p = (b − b )/(i 2 while changing q b b √ a = (a − a† )/(i 2) into − p pa . This observation identiﬁes partial transposition as a local mirror reﬂection [278]. Also in the continuous variable case, separable bipartite states must remain positive, hence well-deﬁned states, under partial transposition. Then, if the correlation matrix associated with ρTa fails to satisfy (5.113) the state ρ is surely entangled. In view of the fact that positivity under partial transposition fails to be equivalent to separability already for two 3-level systems, one may suspect this to be the case for all continuous variable systems as well. Surprisingly it turns out that partial transposition is an exhaustive entanglement witness also for two-mode Gaussian states [278] (see also [103, 102, 198]). We shall use the notation of Examples 5.5.3 and start by noting that one can always consider Gaussian states ρ with characteristic function

G(R) = e− 2 R·(Σ1 V Σ1 R) 1

as in (5.131). Indeed, as local operations that do not alter the entanglement properties, the displacement operators D(u) = D(u1 ) ⊗ D(u2 ) can be used )) = 0. Partial transposition on the ﬁrst to set the mean values Tr(ρ ( q, p p1 in V thus I3 with −I3 in (5.138) mode amounts to replacing p1 with − (see (5.131)– (5.135)). Thus ρ and ρTa are well-deﬁned states if and only if both the following inequalities hold 1 + I4 ≥ I1 + I2 + 2 I3 4 1 + I4 ≥ I1 + I2 − 2 I3 . 4

(6.20) (6.21)

Also, the operations leading from a generic V to the standard form V0 in (5.137) are local ones, acting independently on the two subsystems A and B; this means that if a two-mode Gaussian state ρ with correlation matrix V is separable the same is true of the two-mode Gaussian state ρ0 with correlation matrix V0 . In [278] it is showed that Lemma 6.2.1. All two-mode Gaussian states with I3 ≥ 0 are separable.

278

6 Quantum Information Theory

Notice that, when I3 ≥ 0, (6.20) implies (6.21) whence ρTa ≥ 0 in agreement with its being separable. Suppose instead that a two-mode Gaussian state ρ with I3 < 0 be PPT , then its mirror reﬂected ρTa has I3 > 0 and is thus separable by the Lemma, whence by a second mirror reﬂection also ρ is separable. Proof of Lemma 6.2.1 The strategy of the proof is to show that if a twomode Gaussian state ρ has a correlation matrix V with I3 ≥ 0, then V ≥ 1l4 /2 whence, because of Example 5.5.3.3, ρ is separable. Because of the possibility of reducing V to the standard form ⎞ ⎛ α 0 γ1 0 ⎜ 0 α 0 γ2 ⎟ V0 = ⎝ ⎠ , γ1 0 β 0 0 γ2 0 β by local operations, one can equivalently show that I3 = γ1 γ2 ≥ 0 implies V0 ≥ 1l/2. Analogously, since matrices of the form O(x) = diag(x, x−1 ), 0 = x ∈ R, implement local scalings of

positions and momenta which preserve 0 1 the symplectic matrix J = , one can focus upon −1 0

O(y)O(x) 0 O(x)O(y) 0 V = 0 0 O(y)O(x−1 ) 0 O(x−1 )O(y) ⎞ ⎛ 0 γ1 y 2 0 α(xy)2 0 γ2 y −2 ⎟ α(xy)−2 ⎜ 0 =⎝ ⎠ =: V0 . γ1 y 2 0 βx−2 y 2 0 0 βx2 y −2 0 γ2 y −2 Consider the 2 × 2 matrices 2

αx γ1 X := , γ1 βx−2

Y :=

αx−2 γ2

γ2 βx2

and notice that, according to (5.132)– (5.135), their entries are correlations inp1,2 ). Their eigenvolving position ( q1,2 ), respectively momentum operators ( values are

1 2 a x + b x−2 ± 4 γ1 + (a x2 − b x−2 )2 x± := 2

1 −2 x± := a x + b x2 ± 4 γ2 + (a x−2 − b x2 )2 2 1 1 x± y± = with eigenvectors | x± = , respectively | y such that ± 2 x2± y± ?

−1 x2± c1 2 −2 −1 = = 2 −(ax − bx )c1 ± 4 + (ax2 − bx−2 )2 c−2 1 1 2 x± x± − ax ?

−1 2 y± c2 −2 2 −1 −2 − bx2 )2 c−2 = = 2 −(ax − bx )c ± 4 + (ax . 2 2 1 y± y± − ax−2

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

279

Since | x± , respectively | y± are the rows of the orthogonal rotation matrices OX and OY which diagonalize X, respectively Y , one can make OX = OY = 0 by choosing the scaling parameter x such that γ2 γ1 = −2 , 2 −2 ax − bx ax − bx2 L aγ1 + bγ2 2 namely x = . Since the diagonalization of the two sub-matrices aγ2 + bγ1 X and Y of V0 is obtained by means of a same orthogonal rotation, the J2 O2 overall transformation is symplectic (that is it preserves Ω = ). O2 J2 Therefore, one can study the diagonal matrix ⎞ ⎛ 2 0 0 0 y x+ 0 0 ⎟ y −2 y+ ⎜ 0 V0 := ⎝ ⎠ , 0 0 0 y 2 x− 0 0 0 y −2 y− which must satisfy V0 ± 2i Ω ≥ 0 whence x+ y+ ≥ 1/4 and x− y− ≥ 1/4. By choosing the remaining scaling parameter y such that y 2 x− = y −2 y− one gets that all four eigenvalues are ≥ 1/2 and thus that V0 ≥ 1l4 /2. This means that the two-mode Gaussian state ρ0 corresponding to such a correlation matrix has a P -representation (5.111) with a positive phase-space function R0 (r 0 ) and is thus separable according to Example 5.5.3.3. Observe that this fact does not allows one to directly infer that also the state ρ0 with correlation matrix V0 is separable; indeed, the diagonalization of V0 has been obtained by non-local rotations involving both sub-systems. However, using (5.141) in Remark 5.5.3, the positive phase-space distribution R0 (r 0 ) is obtained from the function R0 (r 0 ) relative to the P -representation of ρ by means of a symplectic matrix S composed of a same rotation O in the q1,2 and p1,2 planes, so that r 0 = ST r 0 . It thus follows that R0 (r 0 ) = R0 (S −1 r 0 ) ≥ 0, whence ρ0 and thus ρ are separable. √ If I3 = 0, let γ1 > γ2 = 0 and choose x2 = α/β, y 2 = 2 αβ so that √ ⎞ ⎛ 0 0 2γ1 αβ 2α2 0 1/2 0 0 ⎟ ⎜ √ V0 = ⎝ ⎠ . 0 2β 2 0 2γ1 αβ 0 0 0 1/2 i 1l4 Similarly as before, one checks that V0 ≥ ± Ω =⇒ V0 ≥ ± . 2 2

Positive Maps and Semigroups We have seen in Section 6.2 that positive but not completely positive maps cannot be directly used as mathematical descriptions of fully consistent statetransformations; however, they play a major role as entanglement witnesses

280

6 Quantum Information Theory

(see Proposition 6.2.1). Unfortunately, since there are no general rules that allows one to identify positive maps, only particular instances of them can be provided [179, 84, 85, 86, 114, 67]. The one which follows assumes the existence of just one negative eigenvalue in decompositions as in (5.41) that is smaller in absolute value than all the other ones [35]. 2

Proposition 6.2.1. Let {Lk }dk=1 be a Hilbert-Schmidt ONB in Md (C) and Λ : Md (C) → Md (C) a positive map with a decomposition 2

Λ[X] =

d

k L†k X Lk ,

X ∈ Md (C) ,

k=1

where 0 ≤ i ≤ i+1 for i ≥ 2 while 1 = −|1 | < 0, with |1 | ≤ 2 . If 1 − L1 2 , then Λ is positive. |1 | ≤ 2 L1 2 Proof: The matrices Lk form a Hilbert-Schmidt ONB, thus, using (5.30), it turns out that, for all normalized ψ, φ ∈ Cd , d2 d 2 †

ψ |L†k | φ φ | Lk | ψ = ψ |Tr(| φ φ |)| ψ = 1 . ψ|Lk |φ = k=1

k=1

Then, since Lj 2 = L†j 2 ≤ Tr(L†j Lj ) = 1 (see Remark 5.2.4), it follows that d2 d2 2 2 † † † k Lk |φ φ|Lk |ψ ≥ 2

ψ| ψ|Lk |φ − |1 | ψ|L1 |φ∗ k=1

k=2

2 = 2 − (2 + |1 |) ψ|L†1 |φ ≥ 2 (1 − L1 2 ) − |1 |L1 2 .

1 − L1 2 , then it follows that ψ | Λ[| φ φ |] ψ ≥ 0 for all norL1 2 malized ψ, φ ∈ Cd , whence Λ is positive.

If |1 | ≤ 2

In Remark 5.6.4.6 it has been stressed that, apart from the fact that the Kossakowski matrix C = [Cij ] cannot be positive, there are no general prescriptions on C such that the corresponding semigroup surely consist of positive, but not CP maps; as well as for positive maps, one can however seek suﬃcient conditions. In the following, we shall consider a system consisting of two d-level systems Sd and construct [35] a semigroup of positive, but not CP maps (1) Γt = γt1 ⊗ γt2 on Md (C) ⊗ Md (C), where γt = exp(tL1 ) is a semigroup of CP

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

281

(2)

maps, while γt is a semigroup of positive, but not CP maps 6 . The construction will also provide non-decomposable positive maps able to witness bound entangled states within a particular class of bipartite states with d = 4 [36]. We shall consider generators as in Proposition 5.6.1 without asking for the positivity of the Kossakowski matrix. (1,2)

Proposition 6.2.2. Suppose γt generators Li [X] = i[H

(i)

, X] +

2 d −1

(i)

c

: Md (C) → Md (C) to be semigroups with

(i)

(i)

G X G

=1

−

1 (i) 2 , (G ) , X 2

c i ∈ R ,

√ (i) (i) for i = 1, 2, where = (G )† ∈ Md (C), together with Gd2 = 1/ d, form two Hilbert-Schmidt ONBs in Md (C). (1) (2) (2) Assume c > 0, = 1, 2, . . . , d2 − 1, and ck = −|ck | < 0, for one index (2) (1) (2) k, while c > 0 for = k. Then, the semigroups of maps Γt = γt ⊗ γt on (1) (2) Md (C) ⊗ Md (C) preserves positivity if c ≥ |ck |, = 1, 2, . . . , d2 − 1 and (2) (2) c ≥ |ck |, = 1, 2, . . . , d2 − 1, = k. (i) G

Proof: According to [177, 178] (see also [64]), in order to show that the semigroup {Γt }t≥0 , with generator L = L(1) ⊗ idd + idd ⊗ L(2) , consists of positive maps, it is suﬃcient to prove that I(ψ, φ) := ψ | L[| φ φ |] |ψ ≥ 0 for all orthogonal ψ, φ ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd . Since ψ | φ = 0, it follows that I(ψ, φ) =

2 d −1

(1) c

2 d −1 2 2 (1) (2) (2) c ψ | 1l1 ⊗ G |φ . ψ | G ⊗ 1l2 |φ +

=1

=1

It proves convenient to deﬁne the following d2 × d2 matrices Ψ = [ψij ] and Φ = [φij ] where ψij and φij are the components of the vectors ψ and φ with respect to a ﬁxed ONB {| i, j }di,j=1 in Cd ⊗ C2 . Then, one rewrites I(ψ, φ) =

2 d −1

(1) c

2 d −1 2 2 (1) (2) (2) † c Tr(G (Ψ † Φ)T ) Tr(G ΦΨ ) +

=1

=

2 d −1

=1

=1 2 d −1 2 2 (1) (2) (1) (2) (2) † (c − |ck |) Tr(G ΦΨ ) + c Tr(G (Ψ † Φ)T )

k= =1

⎛

2 d −1

(2) + |ck | ⎝

⎞ 2 2 (1) (2) Tr(G ΦΨ † ) − Tr(G (Ψ † Φ)T ) ⎠ .

=1 6

(1,2)

If the two semigroups γt were the same, then, according to Proposition 5.6.1 and the successive remark, Γt positive would mean Γt CP.

282

6 Quantum Information Theory

As ψ | φ = 0, the matrices ΦΨ † and Ψ † Φ are traceless; using the ONBs (i) (i) consisting of the matrices G = (G )† , = 1, 2, . . . , d2 − 1, one thus gets 2 d −1

2 −1

d (1) (1) (1) (Tr(G ΦΨ † ))2 = Tr Tr(G ΦΨ † ) G ΦΨ †

=1

=1 † 2

= Tr(ΦΨ ) = Tr(Ψ † Φ)2 = Tr((Ψ † Φ)T )2 =

2 d −1

(Tr(G (Ψ † Φ)T )2 . (2)

=1

This yields 2 2 −1 d −1 2 2 d (2) (1) (2) † T 2 † Tr(Gk (Ψ Φ) ) ≤ Tr(G (ΦΨ ) + Tr(G (Ψ † Φ)T ) ,

=1

k= =1

whence one concludes I(ψ, φ) ≥

2 d −1

(1)

2 (2) (1) − |ck |) Tr(G ΦΨ † )

(2)

2 (2) (2) − |ck |) Tr(G (Ψ † Φ)T ) ≥ 0 .

(c

=1

+

2 d −1

(c

=1

Example 6.2.3. [35] Let d = 2 and σα , α = 0, 1, 2, 3, be the Pauli matrices plus the 2×2 identity matrix σ0 . Let Sa : M2 (C) → M2 (C) be the completely positive map X → Sα [X] = σα X σα , and set X →

3 1 Sα [X] , 2 α=0

X →

3 1 εα Sα [X] , 2 α=0

where εα = 1 when α = 2, whereas ε2 = −1. The ﬁrst map amounts to the trace map Tr2 (see (5.30)), while the second one corresponds to the transposition T2 with respect to the basis of eigenvectors of σ3 : indeed, it changes σ2 into −σ2 and leaves all other Pauli matrices unchanged. According to Proposition 6.2.1, it is positive but not CP , for Λαβ = diag(1, 1, −1, 1) and σα 2 = 1. √ Consider generators L1,2 as in Proposition 6.2.2 with d = 2, Fi = σi / 2 and choose as Kossakowski matrices ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 0 0 1 0 0 C (2) = ⎝ 0 −1 0 ⎠ . C (1) = ⎝ 0 1 0 ⎠ , 0 0 1 0 0 1

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

283

Then, the corresponding master equations read (1)

3

1 Si [ρ] − 3 ρ 2 i=1

(2)

3

1 εi Si [ρ] − ρ . 2 i=1

∂t γt [ρ] = L1 [ρ] := ∂t γt [ρ] = L2 [ρ] :=

The second one has been considered in Example 5.6.5 and generates a positive semigroup such that (2)

γt [ρ] =

e−2t − 1 1 1l + ρ1 σ1 + e−2t ρ2 σ2 + ρ3 σ3 = ρ + ρ2 σ2 . 2 2

Since L1 [σi ] = −2σi while L1 [σ0 ] = 0, the solutions of the ﬁrst master equation are the following CPU maps, (1)

γt [ρ] =

1 − e−2t 1l + e−2t ρ · σ = + e−2t ρ . 2 2

Let idn , Trn and Tn denote identity, trace and transposition operations on (C2 )⊗n ; since 1 = Tr(ρ) and ρ − T[ρ] = ρ2 σ2 , one rewrites (1)

γt

= e−2t id2 +

1 − e−2t Tr2 , 2

(2)

γt

=

1 + e−2t 1 − e−2t id2 + T2 . 2 2

As T4 = T2 ⊗ T2 and Tr2 ◦ T2 = Tr2 , the tensor product maps Γt = γt1 ⊗ γt2 can be recast in the form Γt = e−2t +

1 + e−2t 1 − e−4t id4 + Tr2 ⊗ id2 2 4

1−e 2

−2t

Γt1

e−2t T2 ⊗ id2 +

1 − e−2t Tr2 ⊗ id2 ◦T4 . 2

(6.22)

Γt2

The semigroup {Γt }t≥0 consists of positive maps because the chosen Kossakowski matrices satisfy the suﬃcient condition of Proposition 6.2.2; moreover, the maps Γt are of the form Γt = Γt1 + Γt2 ◦ T4 . It turns out that Γt1 is completely positive for all t ≥ 0 for it is the sum of tensor products of completely positive maps. If Γt2 were also CP , each map Γt would then be decomposable; in order to check whether this is true or not, consider the Choi matrix id4 ⊗ Λt [P+4 ], where Λt := e−2t T2 ⊗ id2 +

1 − e−2t Tr2 ⊗ id2 . 2

284

6 Quantum Information Theory

4 Fixing a basis {| 0 , | 1 } ∈ C2 and writing |Ψ+ = explicitly computes

1 2

1 a,b=0

| ab ⊗ | ab , one

id4 ⊗ Λt [P+4 ] =

⎛

(1 + e−2t )P+2 ⎜ 0 ⎜ ⎜ ⎝ 0 0

0

0

2e−2t P+2 (1 − e−2t )P+2 0

(1 − e−2t )P+2 2e−2t P+2 0

0 0 0

⎞

(1 + e−2t )P+2

⎟ ⎟ ⎟ . ⎠

This 16 × 16 matrix has eigenvalue 0 with eigenvectors (| Ψˆj , 0, 0, 0) , (0, | Ψˆj , 0, 0) , (0, 0, | Ψˆj , 0) , (0, 0, 0, | Ψˆj ) , j = 2, 3, 4 , where | Ψˆj are the Bell states orthogonal to |Ψˆ00 , while (|Ψˆ00 , 0, 0, 0) , (0, 0, 0, |Ψˆ00 ) , (0, |Ψˆ00 , |Ψˆ00 , 0) √ are eigenvectors relative to the positive eigenvalue (1 + e−2t )/ 2. More inter1 − 3e−2t √ with eigenvector (0, |Ψˆ00 , −|Ψˆ00 , 0): it esting is the last eigenvalue 2 is positive only if t ≥ t∗ = (log 3)/2. It follows that Γt is surely decomposable for t = 0 (Γ0 = id16 ) and for t ≥ t∗ . In order to ascertain whether the positive maps Γt constructed in the previous example are not decomposable for 0 < t < t∗ , we need some further insight. Indeed, the decomposition (6.22) need not be unique and there might be other decompositions revealing that Γt is decomposable for all t ≥ 0. In order to proceed, we use the following result. Lemma 6.2.2. [35] Let Λ : Md1 (C) → Md2 (C) be a positive map

and ρ a d1 PPT state of a bipartite system S1 + S2 . If Tr idd1 ⊗ Λ[P+ ] ρ < 0, the state ρ is bound-entangled and Λ not decomposable. Proof:

If Λ is decomposable, so is its dual ΛT : Md2 (C) → Md1 (C); indeed,

Λ = Λ1 + Λ2 ◦ Td1 =⇒ ΛT = ΛT1 + Td1 ◦ ΛT2 = ΛT1 + Λ˜2 ◦ Td2 , where ΛT1 is CP for it is the dual of a CP map, while Λ˜2 := Td1 ◦ ΛT2 ◦ Td2 is also CP as the corresponding Choi matrix is positive. In fact, ˜E ˜ d2 ] = idd2 ⊗ Λ[

d2

d2 d2 Eij ⊗ (Td1 ◦ ΛT2 )[Eji ] = Td1 d2 ◦

i,j=1

= Td1 d2 ◦ (idd2

d2 i,j=1

˜ d2 ] ≥ 0 , ⊗ Λ )[E T

d2 d2 Eji ⊗ ΛT2 [Eji ]

6.2 Bipartite Entanglement

285

where Td1 d2 = Td2 ◦Td1 is the transposition on Md1 d2 (C) = Md1 (C)⊗Md2 (C). ˜ d2 ] associated with It preserves the positivity of the Choi matrix idd2 ⊗ ΛT [E T the CP map Λ2 . Since ρ is assumed to be PPT, if Λ is decomposable or ρ separable, then idd2 ⊗ ΛT [ρ] ≥ 0. To make good use of the above result, it is convenient to introduce a particular class [34, 33] of 16-dimensional density matrices as states of a bipartite system consisting of two pairs of qubits; their structure is simple, yet ﬂexible enough to represent an interesting setting where to test the decomposability of a wider range of positive maps Λ : M4 (C) → M4 (C). Example 6.2.4. Let S = S1 + S2 be a bipartite system where S1,2 are each a two qubit system; consider the sub-class of 16 × 16 density matrices constructed by associating to the pairs of the set L16 := {(α, β)}3α,β=0 the vectors 0 4 / 4 , where |Ψ+ is the Bell state | Ψ00 in (5.164) and |Ψαβ := 1l4 ⊗ σαβ |Ψ+ σαβ := σα ⊗ σβ are tensor products of Pauli matrices with σ0 = 1l2 . The vectors | Ψαβ form an ONB in C16 , 1 4 4 |1l4 ⊗ σαβ σγδ |Ψ+ = Tr(σα σγ )Tr(σβ σδ ) = δαγ δβδ .

Ψαβ | Ψγδ = Ψ+ 4 Given the corresponding orthogonal projections 0 / 0 / Pαβ := |Ψαβ Ψαβ | = id4 ⊗ σαβ P+4 id4 ⊗ σαβ , Pαβ Pγε = δαγ δβε Pαβ , consider the states consisting of all equidistributed convex combinations 1 ρI := Pαβ , NI (α,β)∈I

where I is a subset of L16 and NI its cardinality. The behavior of such states under partial transposition can be deduced by means of the fact that the ﬂip operator V = d idd ⊗ Td [P+d ] (5.32) is such d d = |Ψ+ and V (A ⊗ B)V = B ⊗ A for all A, B ∈ Md (C); while that V |Ψ+ d d 1 1 d = √ A| i ⊗ B| i = √

j | A |i | j ⊗ B| i A ⊗ B|Ψ+ d i=1 d i,j=1 d d 1 d = √ |j ⊗ B| i i | AT |j = 1ld ⊗ BAT |Ψ+ . d j=1 i=1

Then, setting Pαβ := id4 ⊗ T4 [Pαβ ] = 14 1l4 ⊗ σαβ V 1l4 ⊗ σαβ , it turns out that 1 1 4 4 Pαβ | Ψγδ = 1l4 ⊗ σαβ V 1l4 ⊗ σαβ σγδ V |Ψ+ = σαβ σγδ ⊗ σαβ |Ψ+ 4 4 1 4 4 = εα εγ εβ εδ 1l4 ⊗ σαβ σγδ σαβ |Ψ+ = 1l4 ⊗ σαβ (σαβ σγδ )T |Ψ+ 4 1 = ηαγ ηβδ | Ψγδ , 4

286

6 Quantum Information Theory

where it has been used that σαT = εα σα with εα = 1 if α = 2, = −1 otherwise, that the algebra of the Pauli matrices implies ⎛ ⎞ 1 1 1 1 ⎜ 1 1 −1 −1 ⎟ ⎟ σα σγ σα = η˜αγ σγ , η := [˜ ηαγ ] = ⎜ ⎝ 1 −1 1 −1 ⎠ 1 −1 −1 1 and it has been set

⎛

⎞ 1 1 −1 1 ⎜ 1 1 1 −1 ⎟ ⎟ η := [ηαβ ] = ⎜ ⎝ −1 1 1 1 ⎠ . 1 −1 1 1

ηαγ := εα εγ η˜αγ ,

The vectors | Ψγδ are thus eigenvectors of P˜αβ with eigenvalues ηαγ ηβδ and

ρ˜I := id4 ⊗ T4 [ρI ] =

(γ,δ)∈L16

1 4 NI

ηαγ ηβδ Pγδ .

(α,β)∈I

Since the matrix ηαγ is symmetric, the eigenvalues of ρ˜I can be recast as 1 4 NI

ηαγ ηβδ = (η X I η)γδ

(α,β)∈I

where X I is a sort of characteristic matrix of the sublattice I with entries 1 I Xμν = if (μ, ν) ∈ I, = 0 otherwise. Concretely, consider 4 NI

1 ρ= P02 + P11 + P23 + P31 + P32 + P33 ; 6 1 (P01 + P02 + P20 + P22 + P32 + P33 ) for 6 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜0 I XI = ⎝ ⎠ , ηX η = ⎝ 0 0 0 1 6 6 1 0 1 1 1 0

then, ρ =

1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

⎞ 0 0⎟ ⎠ . 0 1

Thus, ρ˜ is positive, hence ρ is PPT. We now show that Tr(id4 ⊗ Γt [P00 ]ρ) < 0 for 0 < t < (log 3)/2, where Γt is the positive semigroup of Example 6.2.3; by Lemma 6.2.2 it thus follows that ρ is PPT entangled and Γt indecomposable in that time-interval. 3 3 1 1 Since Tr2 ( · ) = Sμ [ · ] and T2 [ · ] = εμ Sμ [ · ], the two semi2 μ=0 2 μ=0 groups in Example 6.2.3 can be recast in the form

6.3 Relative Entropy (1)

γt

=

3 1 + 3λt 1 − λt S0 + Si , 4 4 i=1

(2)

γt

=

287

3 3 + λt 1 − λt S0 + εi S i , 4 4 i=1

where λt := e−2t , so that, with Sαβ [ · ] := σαβ · σαβ , (1 + 3λt )(3 + λt ) (1 − 2λt )(3 + λt ) S00 + Si0 16 16 i=1 3

Γt =

3 3 (1 + 3λt )(1 − 2λt ) (1 − 2λt )2 + εi S0i + εj Sij 16 16 i=1 i,j=1

(1 + 3λt )(3 + λt ) (1 − 2λt )(3 + λt ) P00 + id4 ⊗ Γt [P00 ] = Pi0 16 16 i=1 3

+

3 3 (1 + 3λt )(1 − 2λt ) (1 − 2λt )2 εi P0i + εj Pij . 16 16 i=1 i,j=1

It then turns out that

(1 − λ )(1 − 3λ ) t t <0. 0 < t < (log 3)/2 =⇒ Tr id4 ⊗ Γt [P00 ] ρ = 48

6.3 Relative Entropy A notion directly related to the von Neumann entropy with several useful applications in quantum information and of great importance for the topics discussed later in the book, is the quantum relative entropy. It is the quantum counterpart of the Kullbach-Leibler distance (see (2.94)) and has already been introduced in the proof of some properties of the von Neumann entropy (see Proposition (5.5.6)). Deﬁnition 6.3.1 (Relative Entropy). Let S be a quantum system described by a d-dimensional Hilbert space H and ρ, σ ∈ B+ 1 (H) two density matrices acting on H. The relative entropy of ρ with respect to σ is @

Tr ρ log ρ − log σ if Ker(σ) ⊂ Ker(ρ) S(ρ ; σ) := (6.23) +∞ otherwise , Ker(σ) and Ker(ρ) being the subspaces where σ and ρ vanish. Example 6.3.1 (Relative modular operator). [225, 237, 261, 262] Given the Hilbert space H = Cd , equip the algebra Md (C) with the Hilbert-Schmidt scalar product (5.26) and denote it as << · , · >>. Then, consider the following linear operators on Md (C):

288

6 Quantum Information Theory

LX [Y ] = X Y ,

RX [Y ] = Y X .

They commute with each other, LX RZ [Y ] = X Y Z = RZ LX [Y ]; moreover, if X = X † they are self-adjoint. Indeed, the ciclycity of the trace operation yields

<< Y , LX [Z] >> = Tr Y † X Z = Tr (XY † )† Z =<< LX [Y ], Z >>

<< Y , RX [Z] >> = Tr Y † Z X = Tr (Y † X)† Z =<< RX [Y ], Z >> . Further, if X ≥ 0 the operators LX and RX turn out to be positive; in fact,

<< Z , LX [Z] >> = Tr Z † X Z ≥ 0

<< Z , RX [Z] >> = Tr Z † Z X = Tr Z X Z † ≥ 0 . Let Pi and Pj be orthogonal projections; then, LPi LPj = δij LPi and RPi RPj = δij RPi . As a consequence, from the spectral representation X = d X † = i=1 xi | xi xi |, one derives the spectral representations LX =

d

xi L| xi xi | ,

RX =

i=1

d

xi R| xi xi | ,

i=1

with orthogonal projections {L| xi xi | }di=1 , respectively {R| xi xi | }di=1 . Sup−1 pose ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) is strictly positive, then Rρ−1 = Rρ is well deﬁned as well + as the relative modular operator of ρ and σ ∈ B1 (H), d

Δρ,σ := Lσ Rρ−1 = Rρ−1 Lσ =

si rj−1 L| si si | R| rj rj | ,

(6.24)

i,j=1

d d where the spectralizations ρ = j=1 rj | rj rj | and σ = i=1 si | si si | have been used. If both ρ and σ are strictly positive, the same is true of their relative modular operator: for all X ∈ |mdd, d

si rj−1 X † | si si |X| rj rj | << X , Δρ,σ X >> = Tr i,j=1

=

d

2 si rj−1 rj | X † |si ≥ 0

i,j=1

Also, log Δρ,σ = log Lσ + log Rρ−1 =

d

log si L| si si | − log ri R| ri ri | .

i=1

This yields the following expression for the relative entropy √ √ << ρ , −(log Δρ,σ )[ ρ] >>= S (ρ , σ) .

6.3 Relative Entropy

289

Of the following properties of the relative entropy, joint convexity and monotonicity under CPU maps have already been used in the proof of the properties (5.162) and (5.163) of the von Neumann entropy in Proposition 5.5.6. Proposition 6.3.1. The relative entropy of ρ, σ ∈ B1 (H) is 1. positive: S(ρ ; σ) ≥ 0, S(ρ ; σ) = 0 iﬀ ρ = σ; 2. jointly convex: given weights λi ≥ 0, i ∈ I, i∈I λi = 1, and density matrices ρi , σi ∈ B1 (H), i ∈ I, λi ρi , λi σ i ≤ λi S (ρi , σi ) ; (6.25) S i∈I

i∈I

i∈I

3. invariant under unitary maps: let ρ, σ ∈ B+ 1 (H) and U : H → H a unitary map, then 0 / (6.26) S U ρU † , U σU † = S (ρ , σ) . 4. monotonically decreasing under trace-preserving CP maps: let ρ, σ ∈ B+ 1 (H) + (H) → B (H) be a CP map such that Tr(F[ρ]) = Tr(ρ), then and F : B+ 1 1 S (F[ρ] , F[σ]) ≤ S (ρ , σ) .

(6.27)

Writing F[ρ] = ρ ◦ E, where E : B(H) → B(H) is the dual CPU map of F, monotonicity reads S (ρ ◦ E , σ ◦ E) ≤ S (ρ , σ) . Also, joint convexity is equivalently expressed by the inequality ρi , σ i ≤ λi S ( ρi , σ i ) , S i∈I

i∈I

(6.28)

(6.29)

i∈I

where ρi := λi ρi and σ i := λi σi . Proof: • Positivity: by means of the eigenvalues rj , sk (repeated according to their multiplicities) and of the eigenbases | rj , | sk of ρ, respectively σ, one computes S (ρ , σ) = ri (log ri − rj | log σ |rj ) i

ri log ri − | rj | sk )|2 log sk = i

k

≥ ri log ri − log( sk | ri | sk |2 ) i

k

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6 Quantum Information Theory

=

ri (log ri − log( ri | σ |ri )

i

≥

(ri − ri | σ |ri ) = 0 .

i

2 The ﬁrst inequality follows from k | ri | sk | = 1 and the concavity of the logarithm, while the second one is a consequence of the concavity of η(x) = −x log x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 (see (2.85) in Section 2.4.3), which also implies that equality only holds when the eigenvalues and thus the density matrices coincide. • Joint convexity: we shall establish (6.29). Notice that, for all w > 0, ∞ 1

1 − dt − log w = w+t 1+t 0 ∞

1 1 1 − = (1 − w) dt + (w + t)(1 + t) (1 + t)2 (1 + t)2 0 ∞ dt (w − 1)2 . = (1 − w) + 2 (1 + t) w+t 0 Then, use the spectral representation of the relative modular operator (6.24) to insert Δρ,σ in the place of w, act with − log Δρ,σ on ρ and take the trace of the resulting matrix. Since Tr (1l − Δρ,σ )[ρ] = Tr(ρ − σ) = 0, it follows

S (ρ , σ) = −Tr log Δρ,σ [ρ] = 0

∞

dt 1 [ρ−σ] . Tr (1 l−Δ ) ρ,σ (1 + t)2 Δρ,σ + t1l

Further, setting Y = 1l and X = (Δρ,σ + t1l)−1 [ρ − σ] in << Y , (1l − Δρ,σ )[X] >> = << Y , (Rρ − Lσ )Rρ−1 [X] >> = << (Rρ − Lσ )[Y ] , Rρ−1 [X] >> , yields

S (ρ , σ) = 0

∞

dt 1 Tr (ρ − σ) [ρ − σ] . 2 (1 + t) Rρ + tLσ

(6.30)

Let now ρ˜j and σ ˜j be as in (6.29) and Xj := (Lσ˜j + tRρ˜j )−1/2 [˜ ρj − σ ˜j ] − (Lσ˜j + tRρ˜j )1/2 [B] , with B = B † ∈ Md (C) to be deﬁned later. Then, since the various operators are self-adjoint with respect to the Hilbert-Schmidt scalar product, by observing that j (Lσ˜j + tRρ˜j ) = Lσ + tRρ , one obtains 0≤ << Xj , Xj >>= << ρ˜j − σ ˜j , (Lσ˜j + tRρ˜j )−1 [˜ ρj ] >> j

j

− << ρ − σ , B >> − << B , ρ − σ >> + << B , (Lσ + tRρ )[B] >> .

6.3 Relative Entropy

291

By choosing B = (Lσ + tRρ )−1 [ρ], one gets the inequality << ρ˜j − σ ˜j , (Lσ˜j + tRρ˜j )−1 [˜ ρj − σ ˜j ] >>= j

=

Tr (˜ ρj − σ ˜j )(Lσ˜j + tRρ˜j )−1 [˜ ρj − σ ˜j ]

j

ρj ] , ≥ Tr (ρ − σ)(Lσ˜j + tRρ˜j )−1 [˜ which, once inserted in (6.30), yields the result. • Invariance: it follows from the fact that log(U ρU † ) = U (log ρ)U † and that the same holds for σ. • Monotonicity: it is implied by joint convexity. We shall ﬁrst show that S (ρ1 , σ1 ) ≤ S (ρ12 , σ12 ) , where ρ12 , σ12 ∈ B+ 1 (H12 ) with marginal states ρ1,2 = Tr2,1 ρ12 , respectively 2 σ1,2 = Tr2,1 σ12 . Let di = dim(Hi ), ﬁx an ONB {| j }dj=1 in H2 and deﬁne the unitary matrices U ∈ Md2 (C), = 1, 2, . . . , d2 , with entries (U )jk = 2πi δjk exp ( j). Then, for all X ∈ Md2 (C), d2 Φ[X] :=

d2 d2 1 1 U X U † = e2πi (j−k) j | X |k | j k | d2 d2 =1

,j,k=1

=

d2

| j j | j | X |j ;

j=1

whence ρ1 = id1 ⊗ Φ[ρ12 ] and similarly for σ1 . Furthermore, using the basis d2 (1) 2 {| j }dj=1 to write ρ12 = j,k=1 ρjk ⊗ | j k |, then ⎞ ⎛ d2 d2 d2

(1) (1) (1) (1) S (ρ1 , σ1 ) = S ⎝ ρjj , σjj ⎠ ≤ S ρjj , σjj ⎛ = S⎝

j=1 d2

j=1 (1)

ρjj ⊗ | j j | ,

j=1

j=1 d2

⎞

(1) σjj ⊗ | j j |⎠

j=1

= S (id1 ⊗ Φ[ρ12 ] , id1 ⊗ Φ[σ12 ]) ≤

d2 0 / 1 S (1l1 ⊗ Z )ρ12 (1l1 ⊗ Z )† , (1l1 ⊗ Z )σ12 (1l1 ⊗ Z )† d2 =1

= S (ρ12 , σ12 ) , where the second equality follows from the orthogonality of the matrices contributing to the sums, the last equality follows since the matrices 1l1 ⊗ Z

292

6 Quantum Information Theory

are unitary and because of the invariance of the relative entropy, while the two inequalities are a consequence of its joint convexity. Monotonicity under trace preserving CP maps

thus results from Remark 5.6.3, by writing E[ρ] = TrE U (ρ ⊗ ρE ) U † : / 0 S (E[ρ] , E[σ]) ≤ S U (ρ ⊗ ρE )U † , U (σ ⊗ ρE )U † = S (ρ ⊗ ρE , σ ⊗ ρE ) = S (ρ , σ) . Example 6.3.2. As an application of joint convexity, let ρ ∈ B 1 (H) be a density matrix describing a statistical mixture {λij , ρij }: ρ = ij λij ρij , 1 2 λ = 1. Setting ρ := λ ρ , ρ := ρ and ρ := ρ , one derives ij ij ij i j ij ij j ij i ij

λij S (ρij , ρ) =

j

j

=

Tr ρij log ρij − Tr ρ1i log ρ −

λij log λij

j

0 / / 0 S ρij , ρ1i + S ρ1i , ρ − λij log λij ,

j

j

whence (6.29) applied with reference to the sum over the index i and the fact that i ρ1i = ρ yield

λij S (ρij , ρ) ≥

ij

/ / 0 0 S ρ2j , ρ + S ρ1i , ρ − λij log λij

j

=

S

/

i

ρ2j

j

+

i

λ1i

log λ1i

i

where

λ1i :=

+

λ2j log λ2j −

j

ij

/ 0 0 ,ρ + S ρ1i , ρ

λij , λ2j :=

λij log λij ,

ij

j

i

λij , ρ1i :=

ρ2j ρ1i 2 , ρ := . j λ1i λ2j

The physical interpretation of the relative entropy comes from thermodynamics: there, it amounts to free energy. As such, it can only decrease under dissipative time-evolutions [286, 189]. Let σ in (6.23) be the Gibbs state at inverse temperature β = T −1 with respect to a Hamiltonian operator H ∈ B(H) (see (5.177)): σ = ρβ := Zβ exp(−βH) ,

Zβ−1 = Tr(exp(−βH)) .

The free energy of a state ρ ∈ B1 (H) is F (ρ) := T S(ρ) − Hρ ,

Hρ := Tr(ρ H) .

6.3 Relative Entropy

293

From F (ρβ ) = −T log Zβ it follows that

S(ρ ; ρβ ) = −S(ρ) − log Zβ + β Hρ = β F (ρβ ) − F (ρ) . Let S undergo an irreversible evolution described by a quantum dynamical semigroup γt : S(S) → S(S), t ≥ 0, with ρβ an equilibrium state, namely γt [ρβ ] = ρβ . Then, as seen in Chapter 3, the dynamical maps γt are completely positive and fulﬁll γt = γt−s ◦ γs , t ≥ s. Thus, monotonicity (6.27) yields

S γt [ρ] ; γt [ρβ ] = S γt [ρ] ; ρβ = β F (ρβ ) − F (γt [ρ])

= S γt−s ◦ γs [ρ] ; γt−s [ρβ ]

≤ S γs [ρ] ; ρβ = β F (ρβ ) − F (γs [ρ]) . (6.31) While the relative entropy behaves monotonically, this is not true of the von Neumann entropy (see Example 5.6.3). For instance, if the quantum dynamical semigroup mentioned before represents the reduced dynamics of a quantum open system S interacting with a reservoir, the free energy of an initial state may decrease in time, showing tendency to equilibrium, while but its von Neumann entropy may in some cases decrease (for more details see [41]). The following example provide a class of dynamical operations on the states of S which always increase the entropy of its states (or keep it constant). Examples 6.3.3. 1. Bistochastic maps [302, 303] Completely positive unital maps E : B(H) → B(H) are called bistochastic if their dual maps F : S(S) → S(S) E F 1l 1l preserve the tracial state: F = . d d The most natural bistochastic maps are those associated with projec tive POVMs , FP [ρ] = i Pi ρPi , Pi Pj = δij Pj , i Pi = 1l (see Section 5.6.1). These maps always increase the von Neumann entropy; indeed, from (6.27) E F

1l 1l S F[ρ] , F = log d − S (F[ρ]) ≤ S ρ , = log d − S (ρ) . d d 2. Let P be a projective POVM as in the previous point. The linear span of the orthogonal projectors Pi , i ∈ I (not necessarily one-dimensional, so that card(I) ≤ d) is an Abelian subalgebra AP ⊂ B(H) with identity, whose typical elements have the form a = i∈I ai Pi . The space of states μ over AP consists of normalized, positive linear expectations

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6 Quantum Information Theory

AP a → μ(a) =

ai μ(Pi ) .

i∈I

They thus correspond to all possible discrete probability distributions with card(I) elements. Given a state ρ ∈ S(S) its restriction to AP , distribution denoted by ρ |`AP , corresponds to the discrete probability μρ := {Tr(ρ Pi )}i∈I . It thus follows that ρ |`AP = FP [ρ] = i∈I Pi ρ Pi , indeed

aj Tr(Pi ρPi Pj ) = ai Tr(ρ Pi ) . Tr FP [ρ] a = i,j∈I

i∈I

From the previous point, it then follows that S(ρ) = min S(ρ |`A) : A ⊂ B(H) Abelian with identity , the minimum being achieved at any Abelian subalgebra A generated by the eigenprojectors Pi = | ri ri | of ρ, for in this case μρ (Pi ) = Tr(ρ | ri ri |) = ri . The following result emphasizes the connections between von Neumann entropy and relative entropy [213]; the idea is to exploit the (inﬁnitely many) convex decompositions of mixed states. Proposition 6.3.2. Let S be a quantum system described by a Hilbert space H and let ρ = i∈I λi ρi , λi ≥ 0, i∈I λi = 1, be any convex decomposition of a mixed state ρ ∈ S(S) in terms of other density matrices ρi ∈ S(S). Then, λi S(ρi ; ρ) : ρ = λi ρi . S(ρ) = min i∈I

Proof:

From (6.23),

i∈I

λi S(ρi ; ρ) = S(ρ) −

i∈I

λi S(ρi ) ≤ S(ρ), while

i∈I

the spectral eigenprojectors of ρ give the upper bound.

6.3.1 Holevo’s Bound and the Entropy of a Subalgebra As seen in Example 6.1.2, by encoding classical information into nonorthogonal quantum states one may always detect the presence of eavesdroppers during transmission. However, the non-orthogonality of the quantum code-words does not allow for perfect retrieval of the encoded classical information, for no measurement can perfectly distinguish between nonorthogonal states. In fact, let | ψ1 and | ψ2 = α| ψ1 + β| ψ1⊥ , α = 0 be two vector states in some Hilbert space H. Suppose there exists a set of orthogonal projections

6.3 Relative Entropy

295

Pj on H, j ∈ J = J1 ∪ J2 , such that if j ∈ J1 , respectively j ∈ J2 , is measured ψ2 , with probability 1. Then, the orthogonal then the state is ψ1 , respectively projections Q1,2 := j∈J1,2 Pj , would be such that ψ1,2 | Q1,2 |ψ1,2 = 1, whereas ψ1,2 | Q2,1 |ψ1,2 = 0. Therefore, 1 = ψ2 | Q2 |ψ2 = |β|2 ψ1⊥ | Q2 |ψ1⊥ ≤ |β|2 ≤ 1 =⇒ |β| = 1 namely ψ1 ⊥ ψ2 . More in general, the symbols i ∈ IA = {1, 2, . . . , a} of a classical alphabet, emitted with probabilities p1 , p2 , . . . , pa , might be encoded by means of mixed states ρi ∈ B1 (H). Or, from a more realistic viewpoint, given an encoding of the classical symbols into pure states ψi ∈ H, a noisy transmission channel might transform them into mixed states ρi := F[| ψi ψi |], where F is the dual of a CPU map E : B(H) → B(H). The receiver must then reconstruct the encoded classical message with the least possible error; practically speaking, IB = {1, 2, . . . , b}, such that, he must seek a POVM B = {Bi }i∈IB ⊂ B(H), when measured on the statistical mixture ρ = a∈IA pa ρa , it maximizes the accessible information. In such a context, three random variables appear: A, B, and A ∨ B, with probability distributions πA , πB and πA∨B : 1. the outcomes of A correspond to the indices i ∈ IA of the incoming states and πA = {pa }a∈IA ; 2. the outcomes of B correspond to the indices i ∈ IB of the POVM and πB = {Tr(ρ Bi }i∈IB ; 3. the outcomes of A ∨ B correspond to the joint events consisting of an in. coming state ρa and a measured index i: πA∨B = pa Tr(ρa Bi ) a∈IA ,i∈IB

According to Section 2.4.5, the mutual information I(A, B) measures how much knowledge one gains about A, that is about which state ρi has reached Bob, from measuring on B the POVM B = {Bi }i∈IB : I(A, B) = H(A) + H(B) − H(A ∨ B) a pa log pa − (Tr(ρ Bi ) log(Tr(ρ Bi ) =− a∈IA

i∈IB

+ =−

pa (Tr(ρa Bi )) log(pa (Tr(ρa Bi )))

a∈IA i∈IB

(Tr(ρ Bi )) log(Tr(ρ Bi ))

i∈IB

+

a∈IA

pa

(Tr(ρa Bi )) log(Tr(ρa Bi )) .

(6.32)

i∈IB

In the classical case, perfect knowledge of A from knowing B can be achieved by choosing B such that H(A|B) = 0; in the quantum case, there

296

6 Quantum Information Theory

is a more stringent upper bound on I(A, B) that depends on the given decomposition ρ = a∈IA pa ρa and is denoted by χ (ρ, {pa ρa }a∈IA ). Proposition 6.3.3 (Holevo’s Bound). Given ρ = a∈IA pa ρa ∈ B+ 1 (H) and the POVM B = {Bi }i∈IB ⊆ B(H), pa S(ρa ) . (6.33) I(A, B) ≤ χ (ρ, {ρ, pa ρa }a∈IA ) := S(ρ) − a∈IA

Proof: [23] Given the POVM B = {Bi }i∈IB ⊆ B(H), let B = {bj }j∈IB be an Abelian algebra with minimal projections bj , bibj = δijbi , j∈IB bj = 1lB . It can be embedded into B(H) (as a linear space) by means of the linear maps γB : B → B(H) such that γB [bi ] = Bi . Positive operators in B are of the form b = i∈IB βi bi , βi ≥ 0, therefore γB (b) = i∈IB βi Bj ≥ 0 so that γB is a positive map and, because of Example 5.2.6.7, completely positive. Also, γB (1lB ) = i∈IB γ(bi ) = i∈IB Bi = 1lA , whence γB is a CPU map. Furthermore, the states ρ ◦ γB and ρi ◦ γB on B are diagonal density matrices with eigenvalues {Tr(ρ Bi }i∈IB , respectively {Tr(ρa Bi }i∈IB . Thus, (6.32) and the monotonicity of the relative entropy (6.27) yield pa S(ρ ◦ γB ρa ◦ γB ) ≤ pa S(ρ, ρa ) . I(A, B) = a∈IA

a∈IA

Remarks 6.3.1. 1. Using (5.156) one derives that χ (ρ, {pa ρa }a∈IA ) = S(ρ) − pa S(ρi ) ≤ − pa log pa = H(A) . a∈IA

a∈IA

Thus, if (6.33) is a strict inequality, perfect reconstruction of A upon knowledge of B is not possible; on the other hand, the inequality is strict unless the states ρa are orthogonal to each other and thus perfectly distinguishable. 2. A consequence of the Holevo’s bound is that any quantum encoding of n n bits into n non-orthogonal qubits states | ψi ∈ C2 achieves secure transmission, but cannot transfer more than H(A) ≤ n bits of information (when the entropy is expressed in base 2). 3. Whether the upper bound is achieved or not depends on the ability on the part of the receiver to ﬁnd one or more optimal detection strategies, namely those POVM ’s B that maximize I(A, B). As we shall see this is a remarkably diﬃcult analytical problem even in low dimension.

6.3 Relative Entropy

297

4. By taking the supremum over all possible POVM ’s B that the receiver may devise as detection strategies, one deﬁnes the maximal accessible information as I(A) := sup I(A, B) ≤ χ (ρ, {pa ρa }a∈IA ) . B

(6.34)

Example 6.3.4. Suppose A transmits the bits 0 and 1 to B by encoding them into the non-orthogonal states √ | ± = p | ψ1 ± 1 − p | ψ2 ∈ CN , 0 ≤ p ≤ 1 , ψ1 | ψ2 = 0 , chosen with equal probability. The statistics of the encoded quantum signals is thus described by Md (C) ρ =

1 1 | + + | + | − − | = p | ψ1 ψ1 | + (1 − p) | ψ2 ψ2 | , 2 2

and χ({ρ, λρj }) = H2 (p) = −p log2 p + −(1 − p) log2 (1 − p) reaches its maximum of 1 bit of transmissible information only when p = 1/2 so that

+ | − = 1 − 2p = 0. The problem of achieving the maximal accessible information I(A) appeared earlier than in quantum information, in relation to ﬁnding optimal decompositions achieving the so-called entropy of a subalgebra [213, 88], the building block for constructing a particular quantum extension of the KS entropy to be discussed later in Chapter 8. Let M ⊆ B(H) be a ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebra with identity, ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) a state on B(H) and ρ |`M the state on M which results from restricting ρ to act (as an expectation) on the observables in M , only. Example 6.3.5. Let A ⊂ B(H) be an Abelian subalgebra with k ≤ dim(H) minimal projectors ai and ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) a density matrix; then, ρ |`A amounts ai )}ki=1 . to the classical probability distribution πA = {Tr(ρ Deﬁnition 6.3.2 (Entropy of a Subalgebra). Let M ⊆ B(H) be a subalgebra and ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) a state; the entropy of M relative to ρ is λi S (ρ |`M , ρi |`M ) (6.35) Hρ (M ) := sup ρ=

i∈I

λi ρi i∈I

= S (ρ |`M ) −

ρ=

inf i∈I

λi ρi

λi S (ρi |`M ) ,

(6.36)

i∈I

where the sup in (6.35) and the inf in (6.36) are taken with respect to all possible linear convex decompositions ρ = i∈I λi ρi .

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6 Quantum Information Theory

It must be stressed that, unlike in Proposition 6.3.2, the decomposition comes ﬁrst and the restriction to the subalgebra only afterwards; this is what makes the explicit computation of the entropy of a subalgebra a complicated variational problem, in general. Luckily, there are particular instances of states and subalgebras where things are easier. Example 6.3.6. Consider the Abelian subalgebra A of Example 6.3.5 and let ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) be a state which commutes with all elements of A. The following decomposition of ρ is optimal, ρ=

k

Tr(ρ ai ) ρi ,

i=1

√ √ ρ ai ρ ρ ai = . ρi := Tr(ρ ai ) Tr(ρ ai )

Indeed, the restrictions ρ |`A and ρi |`A are probability distributions πA

k = Tr(ρ aj )

j=1

2 ,

i πA

=

Tr(ρ ai aj ) = δij Tr(ρ ai )

Mk , j=1

such that S (ρi |`A) = 0 and Hρ (A) = S (ρ |`A) = −

k

Tr(ρ ai ) log Tr(ρ ai ) .

i=1

The simplest context in which the above argument applies is when, instead of B(H), one deals with an Abelian von Neumann algebra. Then, as seen in Section 5.3.2, via the Gelfand transform, any ﬁnite subalgebra A ⊂ A has minimal projections which correspond to the characteristic functions of suitable measurable subsets of a measure space and thus identify a ﬁnite partition of the latter or, equivalently a random variable A. Moreover, the state ω becomes a probability measure μ and gives a probability distribution over A such that the entropy of A yields the Shannon entropy of A: Hω (A) = H(A). Instead, the simplest non-commutative application of the previous argument is when B(H) = Md (C) and ρ = 1ld /d is the tracial state; then, Hρ (A) = S (ρ |`A) = H(A) = −

k Tr( ai ) i=1

d

log

Tr( ai ) . d

We now relate the variational problem in (6.35) to the one in (6.34). The clue is that POVMs as B = {Bi }i∈IB give rise to decompositions and vice versa, while the main technical tools are provided by the GNS construction πρ (B(H)) based on the state ρ. Of particular importance is the possibility of dealing with decompositions by means of positive elements in the commutant πρ (B(H)) or even in πρ (B(H)) itself (see Remark 5.3.2.3 and the relation

6.3 Relative Entropy

299

in (5.146)), an instance of which already appears in the previous example. It follows that the probabilities in (6.32) can be recast as

Ωρ | πρ (Bi ) Xa |Ωρ Tr(ρ Bi ) = ρi (Xa ) pa pa

Ωρ | πρ (Bi ) Xa |Ωρ ρi (Xa ) := , pa := Ωρ | Xa |Ωρ , Tr(ρ Bi )

Tr(ρa Bi ) =

(6.37) (6.38)

, a ∈ IA , are where | Ωρ is the GNS cyclic vector and the X a ∈ πρ (B(H)) positive operators in the commutant such that a∈IA Xa = 1l. It turns out that the linear functionals πρ (B(H)) X → ρi (X ) are positive and normalized, hence states on the commutant, as well as ρ (X ) := (Tr(ρ Bi )) ρi (X ) = Ωρ | X |Ωρ . (6.39) i∈IB

In analogy with the proof of the Holevo’s bound, let A = { aj }j∈IA be an Abelian algebra (with identity) generated by minimal projections aj and : A → πρ (B(H)) , γA [ aj ] = Xj that sends A introduce the CPU map γA into the commutant πρ (B(H)) . Then, using (6.37) and (6.38), one sees that and ρi ◦ γA , i ∈ IB , on A correspond to the probability the states ρ ◦ γA i ) = {Tr(ρi (Xa )}a∈IA , whence (6.32) distributions πA = {pa }a∈IA and (πA can be rewritten as (Tr(ρ Bi )) log(Tr(ρ Bi )) I(A, B) = − i∈IB

+ =−

(Tr(ρ Bi )) ρi (Xa ) log pa +

=−

= S (ρ ◦

(Tr(ρ Bi ))

a∈IA

pa log pa +

i∈IB

γA )

pa (Tr(ρa Bi )) log(Tr(ρa Bi ))

a∈IA i∈IB

i∈IB a∈IA

−

ρi (Xj ) log ρi (Xj )

i∈IB

(Tr(ρ Bi ))

ρi (Xa ) log ρi (Xa )

i∈IB

a∈IA

(Tr(ρ Bi )) S(ρi

◦ γA ).

(6.40)

i∈IB

Therefore, the maximal accessible information relative to the encoding : A → πρ (B(H)) relative {ρ , pa ρa } equals the entropy of the CPU map γA ). If ρ is a faithful state, one to the state ρ on the commutant: I(A) = Hρ (γA can use (5.146) to substitute the Xj with elements of a POVM in B(H) and with a CPU map γA : A → B(H), so that I(A) = Hρ (γA ). γA The natural embedding ıM of a subalgebra M ⊆ B(H) into B(H) is a CPU map (see Examples 5.2.3.7 and 8) such that ρ |`M = ρ ◦ ıM . This observation suggests the following extension of Deﬁnition 6.3.2.

300

6 Quantum Information Theory

Deﬁnition 6.3.3 (Entropy of CPU maps). Given a completely positive unital map γ : M → B(H), where M is a ﬁnite-dimensional algebra, its entropy relative to a state ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) is Hρ (γ) := sup λi S (ρ ◦ γ , ρi ◦ γ) (6.41) ρ=

i∈I

λi ρi i∈I

= S (ρ ◦ γ) −

ρ=

inf i∈I

λi ρi

λi S (ρi ◦ γ) .

(6.42)

i∈I

Lemma 6.3.1. 1. Given a CPU map γ : M → B(H) from a ﬁnite dimensional algebra M into B(H), one has 0 ≤ Hρ (γ) ≤ S (ρ ◦ γ) ≤ log dim(M ) ,

(6.43)

where dim(M ) is the dimension of any maximally Abelian subalgebra contained in M . 2. If ρ is a faithful state, then Hρ (M ) > 0 unless M is the trivial algebra, consisting only of multiples of the identity. 3. Consider two ﬁnite dimensional algebras M 1,2 and two CPU maps γ1 : M 1 → M 2 , γ2 : M 2 → B(H), Hρ (γ2 ◦ γ1 ) ≤ Hρ (γ2 ) .

(6.44)

In particular, if N ⊆ M ⊆ B(H) are two ﬁnite dimensional subalgebras, Hρ (N ) ≤ Hρ (M ) .

(6.45)

Proof: Positivity and boundedness are evident, monotonicity under CPU maps follows from (6.28) applied to Deﬁnition 6.3.3, while monotonicity under algebraic embeddings follows from considering the CPU maps consisting of the natural inclusions ıM of M into B(H) and ıN M of N into M : Hρ (N ) = Hρ (ıM ◦ ıN M ) ≤ Hρ (ıM ) = Hρ (M ) . As regards the second property, suppose that Hρ (M ) = 0, then, the ﬁrst property of the relative entropy in Proposition 6.3.1 yields ρ |`M = ρi |`M for λ all decompositions ρ = i∈I i ρi . Then, consider the GNS representation of B(H) based on ρ and set ρ(M ) := Tr(ρ M ) = Ωρ | πρ (M ) |Ωρ , for all M ∈ M . It follows that

Ωρ | Xi πρ (M ) |Ωρ = ρ(M ) Ωρ | X |Ωρ

Ωρ | Xi πρ (M ) − ρ(M ) 1l |Ωρ = 0 ,

equivalently

6.3 Relative Entropy

301

for all 0 ≤ Xi ≤ 1l in the commutant πρ (B(H)) . Notice that any such X can ∈ πρ (B(H)) ; then, since ρ faithful be written as a sum of positive 1l ≥ X1,2 on B(H) implies | Ωρ separating for πρ (B(H)) and thus cyclic for πρ (B(H)) (see Lemma 5.3.1), it follows that (πρ (M ) − ρ(M ))| Ωρ is orthogonal to a dense subset of the GNS Hilbert space Hρ whence, again from the faithfulness of ρ, M = ρ(M ) 1l for all M ∈ M . Example 6.3.7. The last result in Example 6.3.6 extends to subalgebras M ⊆ B(H) which are not Abelian but commute with the state ρ 7 ; then Hρ (M ) = S (ρ |`A) ,

(6.46)

where A is any maximally Abelian subalgebra contained in M . Indeed, from Example 6.3.3.2 and the ﬁrst case discussed in Example 6.3.6 it follows that S (ρ |`M ) = S (ρ |`A) = Hρ (A), where A ⊆ M is maximally Abelian; on the other hand, from Lemma 6.3.1, one deduces that S (ρ |`M ) = S (ρ |`A) = Hρ (A) ≤ Hρ (M ) ≤ S (ρ |`M ) . Apart for the simple cases discussed in Examples 6.3.6 and 6.3.7, the minimization of the linear convex combination of von Neumann entropies in (6.42) is in general an extremely diﬃcult task. At ﬁrst sight, one might even suspect to be forced to consider more than discrete convex decompositions of the state ρ; luckily, the following result ensures that Hρ (M ) can be reached within ε > 0, by

means of discrete decompositions [88, 222]. We shall denote

by Hργ {λi , ρi } the argument of the supremum in (6.41) evaluated at a given decomposition ρ = i∈I λi ρi , namely

Hργ {λi , ρi }i∈I := λi∈I S (ρ ◦ γ , ρi ◦ γ) . (6.47) i∈I

Proposition 6.3.4. Let γ : M → B(H) be a CPU map from a ﬁnite dimensional algebra M into B(H) and ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) a density matrix. Given λ ρ and ε > 0, there exists a decomposition a decomposition ρ = i∈I i i ρ = j∈J λj ρj where card(J) depends on dim(M ) and ε, such that

γ Hρ {λi , ρi }i∈I − Hργ λj , ρj j∈J ≤ ε .

(6.48)

Proof: Consider a ﬁnite partition Z = {Zj }j∈J of the state-space S(M ) of M into subsets Zj such that 7

In such a case, one says that such M are contained in the centralizer of ρ.

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6 Quantum Information Theory

σ1,2 ∈ Zj =⇒ σ1 − σ2 ≤ δ

∀Zj ∈ Z .

For instance, card(J) can be chosen not larger than the least number of balls of radius δ that are necessary to cover S(M ). Deﬁne

ρj :=

i∈I ρi ◦γ∈Zj

By construction, ρ =

j∈J

λi ρi , λj

λj :=

λi .

i∈I ρi ◦γ∈Zj

λj ρj and

0 / γ γ λi S (ρi ◦ γ) − λj S ρj Hρ {λi , ρi }i∈I − Hρ λj , ρj j∈J ≤ i∈I j∈J / 0 ≤ λi S (ρi ◦ γ) − S ρj . j∈J

i∈I ρi ◦γ∈Zj

By choosing δ appropriately, the result follows from the Fannes inequality (see (5.157)). From this result, it follows that, for any ε > 0, there exists a decomposition ρ = i∈I λi ρi with card(I) depending on dim(M ) and ε, such that

(6.49) Hργ {λi , ρi }i∈I ≥ Hρ (γ) − ε . We shall call ε-optimal for γ the decompositions which achieve Hρ (γ) within ε > 0 and optimal for γ those decompositions ρ = i λj ρi such that λj S (ρi ◦ γ) . Hρ (γ) = S (ρ ◦ γ) − i

6.3.2 Entropy of a Subalgebra and Entanglement of Formation In this section, we shall consider some techniques developed in [45, 46, 47] that are of help in calculating the entropy of a subalgebra Hρ (A) where A is a maximally Abelian (n-dimensional) subalgebra of a full matrix algebra Mn (C). The ﬁrst step is to extract from (6.36) the expression Eρ [M, M ] := inf λi S (ρi |`M ) , (6.50) ρ=

i∈I

λi ρi

i∈I

where we have speciﬁed the state of the system, the total algebra of its observables M and the selected subalgebra M ⊆ M. Then, one notices that the variational problem can be solved by restricting to decompositions of ρ in terms of pure states; this is so forthe von Neumann entropy is concave (see (5.156)). In fact, assume ρ = j λj ρj optimal for M (so

6.3 Relative Entropy

303

λi S (ρi |`M )), with non-pure decomposers ρj . Then, by further decomposing ρj = , one gets another decomposition k λjk ρjk ρ = j,k λj λjk ρjk ; thence, S (ρj |`M ) ≥ λjk S (ρjk |`M ) yields

that Eρ [M, M ] =

i∈I

k

Eρ [M, M ] ≤

λj λjk S (ρjk |`M ) ≤

λj S (ρj |`M ) = Eρ [M, M ] .

j

j,k

Notice that, since pure states Pj cannot be decomposed, for them it holds that (6.51) EPj [M, M ] = S (Pj |`M ) . In a similar way, one shows that the functional Eρ [Mn (C), M ] is convex n given a convex combination ρ = j νj ρj , the over the state space B+ 1 (C ): optimal decompositions ρj = k λjk ρjk that achieve λk S (ρjk |`M ) Eρj [Mn (C), M ] = k

for each j, provide a decomposition ρ = j,k νj λjk ρjk which need not be optimal, whence νj λjk S (ρjk |`M ) ≤ νj S (ρj |`M ) . (6.52) E j νj ρj [Mn (C), M ] ≤ j

j,k

We shall ﬁx M = Mn (C) for some n; the following results turn out to be useful [47]. Proposition 6.3.5. For a ﬁxed density matrix ρ ∈ Mn (C) and M ⊆ Mn (C), 1. there is an optimal decomposition consisting of no more than n2 decomposers; 2. the functional Eρ [Mn (C), M ] is linear on the convex hull of the optimal decomposers of ρ; namely, if ρ = i λi Pi is an optimal decomposition for Eρ [Mn (C), M ],where the Pi are projections, then any other convex combination ρ = ν P , with weights ν > 0, j j j j j νj = 1, is also optimal in the sense that, νj S (Pj |`M ) . Eρ[Mn (C), M ] = j

Proof: The ﬁrst statement results from a theorem of Caratheodory [20] since Mn (C) is n2 dimensional as a linear space and the set of pure states is compact [304] (see Remark 5.3.2.5). The second statement is a consequence of (6.51) and (6.52); indeed, as a convex functional, Eρ [Mn (C), M ] can be expressed as

304

6 Quantum Information Theory

n Eρ [Mn (C), M ] = sup Λ[ρ] : Λ aﬃne functional on B+ . 1 (C ) Let Eρ [Mn (C), M ] = Λ[ρ], then Λ[σ] ≤ Eσ [M n (C), M ] for a diﬀerent state σ; thus, given an optimal decomposition ρ = i λi Pi , where λi > 0 and the Pi are projections, Eρ [Mn (C), M ] = λi S (Pi |`M ) = λi EPi [Mn (C), M ] i

≥

i

λi Λ[Pi ] = Λ[ λi Pi ] = Eρ [Mn (C), M ] .

i

i

Therefore, Λ[Pi ] = EPi [Mn (C), M ] for all i; consequently, if ρ = j νj Pj is any convex combination of these optimal projections, then Eρ[Mn (C), M ] ≤ νj S (Pj |`M ) = νj EPj [Mn (C), M ] = νj Λ[Pj ] j

j

j

= Λ[ ρ] ≤ Eρ[Mn (C), M ] . Calculating Eρ [Mn (C), M ] can be simpliﬁed if the state ρ enjoys symmetries that leave the subalgebra M invariant as a set; namely, suppose there exists a unitary matrix U : Cn → Cn such that Γu [ρ] = U ρ U † = ρ and ΓuT [M ] = M , where ΓuT : Mn (C) → Mn (C) is the dual map of Γu . Then, Proposition 6.3.6. Let Eρ [Mn (C), M ] be achieved at the optimal decomposition ρ = i λi Pi ; then, the symmetry map Γu gives other optimal decompositions. T Proof: From ρ = Γu [ρ] = i λi Γu [Pi ] and Γu [Pi ] |`M = Pi |`Γu [M ] = Pi |`M it follows that Eρ [Mn (C), M ] ≤ λi S (Γu [Pi ] |`M ) = λi S (Pi |`M ) = Eρ [Mn (C), M ] . i

i

d Particularly suggestive instances of states ρ ∈ B+ 1 (C ) with symmetries are those that are permutation invariant with respect to a given ONB {| i }di=1 ; they are of the form

ρ(d) x =

d 1 x 1−x 1ld + 1ln + x| ψ+ ψ+ | , | i j | = d d d i= j=1

1 1 ≤ x ≤ 1. | i so that − d i=1 d−1 d

where | ψ+ :=

(6.53)

6.3 Relative Entropy

305

By deﬁning F := ψ+ | ρx |ψ+ , 0 ≤ F ≤ 1, one can rewrite ρx in a way which is directly comparable with the isotropic states (6.3): (d)

ρF =

1−F dF − 1 1ld + | ψ+ ψ+ | , d−1 d−1 (d2 )

which we shall denote in the following by ρF by changing d into d2 ; notice that

as they are obtained from (6.3)

d d |ρF |Ψ+ = ψ+ | ρF |ψ+ = F .

Ψ+ (d2 )

(6.54)

(d)

(6.55)

Let π denote the d! permutations i → π(i), 1 ≤ i ≤ d; it turns out that (d)

ρF =

1 Uπ | φ φ | Uπ−1 , d! π

(6.56)

Pφπ

where | φ ∈ Cd is any vector such that | ψ+ | φ |2 = F and Uπ unitarily implements the permutation of the chosen ONB corresponding to π. Let A denote the maximally Abelian subalgebra generated by the projections {| i i |}di=1 ; the decomposition (6.56) is such that Eρ(d) [Md (C), A] ≤ F

/ 0 1 / π 0 S Pφ |`A = S Pφπ |`A d! π

=−

d

| φ | j |2 log | φ | j |2 =: r(F ) .

(6.57)

j=1

(d)

Proposition 6.3.7. If ρF is a permutation invariant state on Md (C) and r(F ) is a convex function of F ∈ [0, 1], the decomposition (6.56) achieves Eρ(d) [Md2 (C), A]. F

(d) Proof: Let ρF = i λi Pi , Pi = | φi φi |, achieve Eρ(d) [Md (C), A] and F consider 1 1 (d) (d) ρF = Uπ† ρF Uπ = λi Uπ† Pi Uπ . d! π d! π i Piu

The states Piu are permutation invariant; according to (6.56) they are completely characterized by parameters Fi that satisfy (d) F = ψ+ | ρF |ψ+ = λi ψ+ | Piu |ψ+ = λ i Fi . i

i

Thus, Proposition 6.3.6, the assumed convexity of r(F ) and (6.57) yield

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6 Quantum Information Theory

Eρ(d) [Md (C), A] = F

λi S (Piu |`A) =

i

λi r(Fi ) ≥ r(F )

i

≥ Eρ(d) [Md (C), A] . F

Examples 6.3.8. 1. For d = 2,

1 1 2F − 1 = can be written as 1 2 2F − 1 √ √ 1−a2 1−a2 1+a 1−a 1 1 2 2 2 2 √ √ = + , 1−a2 1−a2 1−a 1+a 2 2

(2) ρF

(2)

ρF

2

2

2

2

where a := 2 F (1 − F ); then, with η(x) = −x log x and the notation of (6.12),

1 + 2 F (1 − F ) 1+a 1−a . (6.58) r(F ) = η +η = H2 2 2 2 In order to use the previous proposition, we need show that r(F ) is convex on [0, 1]; for this we calculate

d2 r(F ) 2 1+a − 2a . = log dF 2 a3 1−a The function within the parenthesis is monotonically increasing from 0 to +∞; the second derivative is thus non-negative and the function r(F ) is convex. Then, 1 + 2 F (1 − F ) Eρ(2) [M2 (C), A] = H2 F 2 1 + 2 F (1 − F ) Hρ(2) (A) = log 2 − H2 , 2 where A is the Abelian subalgebra of diagonal 2× 2 matrices. Notice that this is the only Abelian subalgebra in the d = 2 case: in [45] Hρ (A) has been computed for all states ρ ∈ M2 (C). 2. Given a ﬁxed ONB {| i }di=1 in Cd , consider the doubling map Md (C) X =

d i,j=1

xij | i j | → D[X] =

d

xij | ii jj | .

(6.59)

i,j=1

It is a homomorphism from Md (C) onto a subalgebra M0 ⊂ Md2 (C),

6.3 Relative Entropy d

D[X] D[Y ] =

xij yk | ii jj | kk |

i,j ; k, =1

=

d

i,j=1

307

d

xik yk

| ii | = D[XY ] .

(6.60)

k=1

It is thus a positive linear map from Md (C) onto M0 ⊂ Md2 (C) where it is invertible: M0 X0 =

d

xi,j | ii jj | → D−1 [X0 ] =

i,j=1

d

xij | i j | ∈ Md (C) .

i,j=1

(6.61) Let d = 2 and | 0 , | 1 be the ﬁxed ONB in C2 ; when applied to the permutation invariant state in the previous example, the doubling map gives the state

| 00 00 + | 11 11 | 2F − 1 (2) (2) + | 00 11 | + | 11 00 | RF := D[ρF ] = 2 2

1 = 1l4 + (2F − 1)(σ1 ⊗ σ1 − σ2 ⊗ σ2 ) + σ3 ⊗ σ3 4 ⎛ ⎞ 1 0 0 2F − 1 1⎜ 0 0 0 0 ⎟ = ⎝ ⎠ . 0 0 0 0 2 2F − 1 0 0 1 (2) as deﬁned in (6.13) equals R(2) so that, for F = If thus turns out that R F F (2) (2) 1/2, RF is entangled with concurrence E(RF ) = |1 − 2F | (see (6.14)) and entanglement of formation (see (6.15) and Theorem 6.2.1) given by 1 + 2 F (1 − F ) (2) EF [RF ] = H2 = Eρ(2) [Md (C), A] . F 2 3. In [46], Proposition 6.3.7 has been used to compute Eρ(3) [M3 (C), A] where ⎛

(3)

ρF =

1 1 ⎝ 3F −1 3 3F2−1 2

3F −1 2

1 3F −1 2

3F −1 2 3F −1 2

⎞

F

⎠ ,

1

and A consists of diagonal matrices in this representation. While for d = 2 there is only one optimal decomposition achieving Eρ(2) [M2 (C), A], when F d = 3 more optimal decompositions appear. Indeed, one can decompose (3) ρF by means of the unitary operator U : C2 → C3 that implements the permutation (1, 2, 3) → (3, 1, 2): (3)

ρF =

1 1 1 | φ φ | + U | φ φ | U −1 + U 2 | φ φ | U −2 , 3 3 3

(6.62)

308

6 Quantum Information Theory

where

⎛

⎞ a + 2b cos θ √ 3 (1 − F ) . | φ = ⎝ a − 2b cos(θ − π/3) ⎠ , a := 3F , b := 2 a − 2b cos(θ + π/3)

It turns out that, for 0 ≤ F ≤ 8/9, the function r(F ) = S (| φ φ | |`A) is convex, whence 2 − F + 2 2F (1 − F ) Eρ(3) [M3 (C), A] = η F 3 1 + F − 2 2F (1 − F ) +2η . (6.63) 6 There exists a value 0 < F ∗ ≤ 8/9 such that Eρ(3) [M3 (C), A] is achieved F at a unique decompositions of the form (6.62) given by ⎛ √ ⎞ F + 2F (1 − F ) √ 1 ⎝ |φ = √ F − F (1 − F )/2 ⎠ , 3 √ F − F (1 − F )/2 for F ∗ ≤ F ≤ 8/9; while, for 0 < F < F ∗ , two optimal decompositions of the form (6.62) appear with ⎞ ⎛ a + 2b cos θf 1 ⎝ a − 2b cos(π/3 ∓ θF ) ⎠ , | φ± F = √ 3 a − 2b cos(π/3 ± θ ) F

where the angle θF varies with F . According to Proposition 6.3.5, all linear convex combinations of the projections onto these vectors also provide optimal decompositions. When 8/9 ≤ F ≤ 1, the function r(F ) = S (| φ φ | |`A) is no longer convex and one cannot use Proposition 6.3.7; in this case it is the close relation of Hρ (M ) with the entanglement of formation which is of help. Indeed, (6.63) coincides with the entanglement of formation of the d = 3 isotropic states (6.3) for 1/3 ≤ F ≤ 8/9 as calculated in [298]. In order to expose the relation between the entanglement of formation (6.5) and Eρ [M, M ] in (6.50), set M = Md2 (C) := Md (C) ⊗ Md (C), M = Md (C) embedded as Md (C) ⊗ 1ld into Md2 (C) and ρj = | ψj ψj |. (1) Since the marginal density matrices ρψj = ρj |`M , it turns out that EF [ρ] = Eρ [Md2 (C), Md (C)] .

(6.64)

Further insights into the connections between these two notions, with particular reference to Examples (6.3).2,3, come from [47]

6.3 Relative Entropy

309

Proposition 6.3.8. Let A ⊂ Md (C) be the maximally Abelian subalgebra corresponding to a ﬁxed ONB {| i }di=1 and D[·] is the doubling map (6.59); then, (6.65) Eρ [Md (C), A] = ED[ρ] [Md2 (C), Md (C)] . Proof: d

Suppose ρ = r | i,j=1 ij i j |,

i

λi Pi achieves Eρ [Md (C), A]; then, with ρ =

D[ρ] |`Md (C) = Tr2 (D[ρ]) =

d

rii | i i | = ρ |`A

implies

i=1

ED[ρ] [Md2 (C), Md (C)] ≤

λi S (D[Pi ] |`Md (C)) =

i

λi S (Pi |`A)

i

= Eρ [Md (C), A] .

Vice versa, let D[ρ] = j νj Qj achieve ED[ρ] [Md2 (C), Md (C)]; if the optimal j decomposers Qj were of the form Qj = k, qk | kk |, by the inverse doubling map (6.61) one would get a decomposition of ρ that could be used to reverse the previous inequality and thus prove the result. The decomposers Qj are indeed of the claimed form as they are one-dimensional projections that can always be recast as follows D[ρ] | Ψj Ψj | D[ρ] . Qj =

Ψ | D[ρ] |Ψ Because of (6.60), it turns out that D[ρ]n = D[ρn ] whence, by power series √ expansion, D[ρ] = D[ ρ]. Example 6.3.9. In [298], the entanglement of formation of an isotropic state (d2 ) ρF was computed by 1) considering the twirling (2) of suitable vectors of d √ diagonal form, | Φ = i=1 μi | ii , with respect to the chosen ONB, and d

(1) by 2) minimizing the von Neumann entropy S ρΦ = − μi log μi of the i=1

marginal density matrix. (d2 ) Choose one such | Φ from an optimal decomposition for EF [ρF ] and construct the density matrix 1 (d2 ) Uπ ⊗ Uπ | Φ Φ | Uπ−1 ⊗ Uπ−1 RF := d! π by using the permutation operators Uπ . Since, by deﬁnition, Uπ ⊗ Uπ are (d2 ) symmetries for the isotropic state ρF , using Proposition 6.3.6 one deduces (1)

that ER(d2 ) [Md2 (C), Md (C)] = S ρΦ F

doubling map (6.59) and using (6.55),

. On the other hand, in terms of the

310

6 Quantum Information Theory (d2 )

RF

where

(d) ρF

(d)

= D[ρF ] =

1 Uπ | φ φ | Uπ−1 , d! π

is as in (6.56) and | φ =

d √

μi | i . Finally, from Proposi-

i=1

tion 6.3.8, it results

(1) . Eρ(d) [Md (C), A] = ER(d2 ) [Md2 (C), Md (C)] = S ρΦ F

F

In this way one can use the results of [298] to extend the computation of Eρ(3) [M3 (C), A] to those values of F ∈ [8/9, 1], where the methods employed in Example 6.3.8.3 are useless. Trace-distance and Fidelities In this section we review some mathematical techniques that are used to compare two quantum states of a system S; the importance of such an issue will become apparent in the next chapter when we shall deal with the compression and retrieval of strings of qubits . We shall assume S to be an N -level system. Deﬁnition 6.3.4. Given ρ1,2 ∈ S(S), their trace-distance is given by D(ρ1 , ρ2 ) :=

1 Tr|ρ1 − ρ2 | . 2

(6.66)

Namely, the trace distance of two density matrices is deﬁned as half the trace-norm ρ1 − ρ2 tr of their diﬀerence: D(ρ1 , ρ2 ) is a proper distance on the state-space S(S). Proposition 6.3.9. The trace distance enjoys the following properties: 1. Let P ∈ MN (C) be any orthogonal projector, then D(ρ1 , ρ2 ) = max Tr(P (ρ1 − ρ2 )) . P

(6.67)

2. The trace-distance monotonically decreases under completely positive trace-preserving maps F : S(S) → S(S): D(F[ρ1 ], F[ρ2 ]) ≤ D(ρ1 , ρ2 ) . 3. The trace-distance is jointly convex: D( λj ρj , λj σ j ) ≤ λj D(ρj , σj ) , j

where λj ≥ 0 and

j

j

λj = 1.

j

(6.68)

(6.69)

6.3 Relative Entropy

311

Proof: As seen in Example 5.5.6, ρ1 − ρ2 = A − B and |ρ1 − ρ2 | = A + B, with A, B positive orthogonal matrices A, B ≥ 0, AB = 0, so that TrA = TrB since Trρ1,2 = 1. Thus D(ρ1 , ρ2 ) = TrA = TrB. Let P be any projector, then Tr(P (A − B)) ≤ Tr(P A) ≤ TrA = D(ρ1 , ρ2 ) , for Tr(P B) is a positive quantity and P projects onto a subspace. Further, if this subspace supports A, it annihilates B and the maximum is achieved. The second property is proved as follows: let P be the projector which achieves the trace distance D(F[ρ1 ], F[ρ2 ]), then, because of the assumed trace-preserving character of F, D(ρ, σ) = TrA = TrF[A] ≥ Tr(P F[A]) ≥ Tr(P F[A]) − Tr(P F[B]) = Tr(P F[A − B]) = Tr(P (F[ρ1 ] − F[ρ2 ])) = D(F[ρ], F[ρ2 ]) . In order to introduce some useful notions of ﬁdelity, let us begin with a simple observation: the closer two vector states ψ1,2 ∈ H = CN to each other, the closer to 1 is | ψ1 | ψ2 |. Indeed, the latter quantity is 1 iﬀ ψ = φ (a part for an overall multiplicative phase) and vanishes when ψ ⊥ φ. This idea extends to density matrices of an N level system as follows. Deﬁnition 6.3.5 (Fidelity). The ﬁdelity of two density matrices ρ1,2 ∈ S(S) is ? ? √ √ √ √ √ √ F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) := Tr ρ1 ρ2 ρ1 = Tr ( ρ2 ρ1 )† ( ρ2 ρ1 ) √ √ (6.70) = Tr | ρ2 ρ1 | . √ If ρ1 = | ψ1 ψ1 | =: P1 then P1 = P1 so that F (P1 , ρ2 ) = ψ1 | ρ2 |ψ1 . (6.71) Thus if ρ2 = | ψ2 ψ2 | =: P2 , then F (P1 , P2 ) = | ψ1 | ψ2 |. Proposition 6.3.10. The ﬁdelity enjoys the following properties: 1. Let | ΨρU V be a puriﬁcation of ρ ∈ S(S) of the form | ΨρU V =

N √

ρ U| i ⊗ V | i ,

(6.72)

i=1 N where {| i }N and U any pari=1 is an orthonormal basis in H = C † tial isometry such that U U projects onto the orthogonal complement of Ker(ρ) and V is any unitary matrix. Then, (6.73) F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) = max ΨρU22 V2 | ΨρU11 V1 , U2 , V2

that is the ﬁdelity is the largest such scalar product achievable by ﬁxing one puriﬁcation and varying the other.

312

6 Quantum Information Theory

2. The ﬁdelity does not depend on the order of its arguments. Further, F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) = 1 if and only if ρ1 = ρ2 , otherwise 0 ≤ F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) < 1. 3. Let E = {Ei }i∈I denote any POVM with elements in MN (C), then Tr(ρ1 Ei ) (Tr(ρ2 Ei ) : Ei ∈ E . (6.74) F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) = max i∈I

i 4. The ﬁdelity is jointly concave, namely if ρ1,2 = i λi σ1,2 with 0 < λi < 1, 1,2 ∈ S(S), i λi = 1 and σi F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) ≥ λi F (σi1 , σi2 ) . (6.75) i

5. The ﬁdelity monotonically increases under the action of trace-preserving completely positive maps F : S(S) → S(S):

F F[ρ1 ], F[ρ2 ] ≥ F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) . (6.76) Proof: It is easy to check that Tr1 | ΨρU V ΨρU V | = ρ, so that (6.72) is a puriﬁcation of the mixed state ρ. One computes, N UV √ √ Ψρ 2 2 | ΨρU1 V2 =

i | U2† ρ2 ρ1 U1 |j i | V2† V1 |j 2 1 i,j=1

√ √ √ √ = Tr U2† ρ2 ρ1 U1 (V1 V2† )T ≤ ρ2 ρ1 tr = F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) , where T means transposition. Further, the upper bound is achieved by choos√ √ √ √ ing V2 = V1 and U2 = W † U1 with W such that ρ2 ρ1 = W | ρ2 ρ1 |. From the previous point, the second point follows at once. One expects a relation between trace-distance and ﬁdelity of the kind: the smaller the trace-distance, the closer to 1 the ﬁdelity. That this is indeed so is the content of the following Proposition 6.3.11. Given ρ1,2 ∈ S(S), the following bounds hold 1 − F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) ≤ D(ρ1 , ρ2 ) ≤ 1 − F 2 (ρ1 , ρ2 ) .

(6.77)

The following proposition establishes that if ρ1 ∈ S(S) is close to ρ2 in the sense that F (ρ1 , ρ2 ) 1 while while F (ρ2 , ρ3 ) 0, then also F (ρ1 , ρ3 ) 0. Proposition 6.3.12. [19] Let ρ1,2,3 ∈ S(S), then Fij := F 2 (ρi , ρj ) satisfy F13 ≤ F23 + 2 (1 − F12 ) + 2 (1 − F12 )F23 , (6.78) where Trρ3 = 1, but Trρ1,2 < 1 (subnormalization).

6.3 Relative Entropy

313

Proof: Notice that subnormalization does not alter either the deﬁnition of ﬁdelity or the ﬁrst property in Proposition (6.3.10). Let then | Ψ1 be a ﬁxed puriﬁcation of ρ1 , choose | Ψ2,3 in order to achieve F12 and F13 . Further, adjust the phases of the three vectors so that F12 = Ψ1 | Ψ2 2 , F13 = Ψ1 | Ψ3 2 , F23 ≥ Ψ2 | Ψ3 2 . Setting | Ψ := | Ψ2 − | Ψ1 , one estimates

Ψ | Ψ = Ψ1 | Ψ1 + Ψ2 | Ψ2 − 2 Ψ1 | Ψ2 ≤ 2 1 − F12 , for subnormalization gives Ψ1,2 | Ψ1,2 < 1. Then, from Ψ3 | Ψ3 = Trρ3 = 1 and the bound F13 = Ψ1 | Ψ3 = Ψ2 | Ψ3 + Ψ | Ψ3 ≤ F23 + | Ψ | Ψ3 | ? ≤ F23 + Ψ | Ψ ≤ F23 + 2(1 − F12 ) , the result follows.

Let ρ ∈ S(S) correspond to a mixture {λj , ρj }, ρ = j λj ρj , subjected to the action of a trace-preserving completely positive map F : S(S) → S(S). Then would like to keep track of how much F[ρ] diﬀers form ρ in the mean: this is well described by Deﬁnition 6.3.6 (Ensemble Fidelity). The ensemble ﬁdelity relative to a mixture {λj , ρj } and a completely positive action F is deﬁned as the ensemble average of square ﬁdelities,

Fav {λj , ρj }, F := λj F 2 (ρj , F[ρj ]) . (6.79) j

We shall also denote by Fs (ρ, F) := sup Fav ({λj , Pj }, F) : Pj2 = Pj = Pj† ,

(6.80)

the supremum of the ensemble ﬁdelities over all possible decompositions of ρ as a mixture of pure states.

Example 6.3.10. [19] Let | i ∈ H = C3 , i = 1, 2, 3, be an othonormal basis and consider the mixture represented by ρ = p1 | ψ1 ψ1 | + p2 | ψ1 ψ1 | + p3 | ψ3 ψ3 | , where | ψ1 := cos α | 1 + sin α | 2 , | ψ2 := sin α | 1 + cos α | 2 and | ψ3 is such that

314

6 Quantum Information Theory

ψ3 | ψ1 = ψ3 | ψ2 = ψ1 | ψ2 = sin 2α . Suppose the system is subjected to a trace-preserving completely positive map such that F[| ψ1 ψ1 |] = | 1 1 | , F[| ψ2 ψ2 |] = | 2 2 | 1 1 F[| ψ3 ψ3 |] = | ψ1 ψ1 | + | ψ2 ψ2 | . 2 2

(6.81)

The puriﬁcation of a state ρ ∈ S(S) actually couples S to an ancilla and this coupling is embodied by an entangled pure state | Ψρ . The following ﬁdelity reﬂects how much the action of an operation on S described by a completely positive trace-preserving map F : S(S) → S(S) preserves this entanglement. Deﬁnition 6.3.7 (Entanglement Fidelity). The entanglement ﬁdelity of ρ relative to F is deﬁned by the square ﬁdelity of the states | Ψρ Ψρ | and F ⊗ id[| Ψρ Ψρ |], where | Ψρ is any puriﬁcation of ρ:

Fent (ρ, F) := F 2 | Ψρ Ψρ |, F ⊗ id[| Ψρ Ψρ |] . (6.82) Relations between these various ﬁdelities are as follows [224]. Proposition 6.3.13. 0 ≤ Fent (ρ, F) ≤ Fav ≤ F (ρ, F[ρ]) ≤ 1 ,

(6.83)

where Fav is any ensemble ﬁdelity corresponding to a decomposition of ρ.

Bibliographical Notes The literature on quantum information, communication and computation is vast and still growing. There are nowadays various introductions to quantum information and related topics: the most extended ones can be found in the books [48, 49, 224] and the lecture notes [242]. The book [165] oﬀers a detailed introduction to quantum computation, while more mathematically oriented presentations are to be found in [145, 239]. As far as entanglement theory is concerned the review [152] provides an exhaustive and up-to-date overview of the subject in its manifold aspects together with a complete list of references to the relevant literature. The book [71] collects a series of reviews from various experts in the ﬁeld where one can ﬁnd relevant information about many of the topics discussed or just touched upon in this chapter; among others, Gaussian states,

6.3 Relative Entropy

315

entanglement measures, bound entanglement, continuous variable systems, quantum algorithms, quantum cryptography and one-way quantum computation. Furthermore, the second half of the book provides an overview of the state-of-the-art concerning experimental and technological implementations. A thorough collection of recent results of quantum information and entanglement theory concerning continuous variable atomic and optical systems can be found in [76, 2]. As regards the role and use of Gaussian states in quantum information theory see also [115]. Rapid introductions to the basic tools of quantum information are provided in [100, 188]

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Quantum systems with inﬁnite degrees of freedom exhibit properties, like relaxation to equilibrium, phase-transitions and the existence of inequivalent representations of the CAR and CCR, that can satisfactorily be dealt with by means of the methods and techniques of algebraic quantum statistical mechanics [108, 64, 65]. The point of departure from standard quantum mechanics, is that in an inﬁnite dimensional context one is usually provided with the algebraic properties of the relevant observables, but, in general, not with an a priori given representation on a Hilbert space; the latter rather depends on to the physical properties of the systems under consideration [274, 290, 291]. Relaxation to Equilibrium As discussed in Remark 2.1.3.4, by discretizing chaotic classical systems, properties like the exponential growth of errors or a constant entropy production can survive only over times that scale logarithmically with respect to the discretization parameter. Indeed, beyond this time-scale, due to the ﬁnite number of allowed states, quasi-periodicity and recursion appear. While in classical dynamical systems, recursion can be eliminated by going to the continuum, this is impossible in quantum mechanics because of the intrinsic discretization of phase-space, due to > 0 and to the Heisenberg uncertainty relations. However, recursion times can be made longer and longer by letting the number of degrees of freedom go to inﬁnity [212, 300]. If we let N → ∞ in Example 5.6.1.2, the recurrence time diverges and, unlike for ﬁnitely many spins, inﬁnite spin chains may exhibit relaxation to equilibrium. Indeed, observe that (N −1)/2

fN (0, t) :=

cos

i=1

(N +1)/2

=

i=2

cos

t = 2i

(N −1)/2

i=1

cos

2t 2i+1

2t cos 2−(N +1)/2 t fN (0, 2t) ; = 2i cos t

then, when N → ∞, fN (0, t) tends to a function f∞ (t) which satisﬁes f∞ (t) cos t = f∞ (2t) together with f∞ (0) = 1. By expanding both members of the ﬁrst equality and comparing equal powers in t, it turns out that F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 7, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

317

318

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

f∞ (t) =

sin t ; (5.173) thus becomes t j ρ∞⊗ (σ+ (t)) = e2itBμj

sint . 2t

As a consequence, when t → ∞, the time-dependent state ρ∞ t deﬁned on the inﬁnite spin array by the expectations j j j → ρ⊗∞ (σ# ) := ρ⊗∞ (σ# (t)) , σ# t j tends to the state ω∞ such that ω∞ (σ j ) = 1/2 and ω∞ (σ± ) = 0 for all j.

Inequivalent representations One of the most relevant aspects of quantum mechanics with inﬁnite degrees of freedom is the existence of inequivalent irreducible representations of a same algebra; this fact explains physical phenomena such as symmetry breaking and phase-transitions [290, 291, 274, 275]. We let N → ∞ in Example 5.4.1 and set | vac ↑ := | 0 ⊗∞ , | vac ↓ := | 1 ⊗∞ ,

| i(n) ↑ := | i(n) ↓ :=

n j=1 n

i

(7.1)

i

(7.2)

σ−j | vac ↑ σ+j | vac ↓ ,

j=1

where i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in with ij ∈ N. The physical interpretation is straightforward: | vac ↑,↓ represent conﬁgurations consisting of inﬁnitely many spins all pointing up, respectively down, whereas the vector states | i(n) ↑,↓ describe local conﬁgurations that are obtained from | vac ↑,↓ by ﬂipping the spins at the sites speciﬁed by i1 , i2 , . . . , in by means of the raising and lowering operators σ± . By deﬁning the scalar product of inﬁnite tensor products of vectors as inﬁnite products of scalar products of vectors at single sites [300], one gets (n) | j (m) k = δn,m k i

n

δi j , k =↑, ↓,

↑ i

(n)

| j (m) ↓ = 0 .

=1

Indeed, in the ﬁrst scalar product, outside a local region where the spins may be ﬂipped, there are inﬁnitely many spins all pointing up (down). Therefore, the value of the scalar product is determined by the spins within the region where they are ﬂipped: it is 0 unless the ﬂipped spins on both sides of the scalar product match each other. On the contrary, in the second scalar product there are always (inﬁnitely many) spins in | j (m) that are orthogonal to the ones at the corresponding sites in | i(n) .

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

319

It thus follows that the completions of the linear spans of all vectors of the form | i(n) ↑ , respectively | i(n) ↓ give rise to two orthogonal Hilbert spaces H↑ , respectively H↓ . Furthermore, let A be the (local ) algebra generated by all products of Pauli matrices as in (5.61); the two Hilbert spaces then provide two irreducible, inequivalent representations π↑,↓ (A). In fact, suppose X ∈ B(H↑ ) commutes with π↑ (A), then (n) | X |j (m) ↑ = ↑ vac | ↑ i

p r=1

ir σ+

q

js σ− X |vac ↑

s=1

= ↑ vac | X |vac ↑ ↑ i(n) | j (m) ↑ , for

q

js σ+

s=1

p

ir σ− | vac ↑ = 0 unless raising and lowering operators match

r=1

each other. Thus, X acts as ↑ vac | X |vac ↑ 1l on a dense set of H↑ , whence X = ↑ vac | X |vac ↑ 1l and the commutant of π↑ (A) is trivial. Consider now the magnetization m(N ) relative to the ﬁrst N spins, that is the operator-valued vector m(N ) of components mi (N ) := μ

N

σin ,

i = 1, 2, 3 ,

n=1

and the average magnetization m = (m1 , m2 , m3 ) given by the formal limits mi :=

mi (N ) . N →+∞ N

(7.3)

lim

Choose N > jn ≥ im , 1 ≤ i1 ≤ j1 , then (k =↑, ↓) k i

(n)

| m3 (N ) |j

(m)

k = ±μ(N + in − jm ) + μ

jm

k i

(n)

| σ3n |j (m) k

=in k i

(n)

| m1,2 (N ) |j (m) k = μ

jm

k i

(n)

n | σ1,2 |j (m) k ,

=in

for σ3 | 0 = | 0 , σ3 | 1 = −| 1 , while 0 | σ1,2 |0 = 1 | σ1,2 |1 = 0. Then, 2 μ k =↑ (n) m3 (N ) (m) |j k = lim k i | −μ k =↓ N →+∞ N m1,2 (N ) (m) lim k i(n) | |j k = 0 . N →+∞ N Therefore, the mean magnetization m exists as a weak-limit (see (5.8)), that is with respect to the weak-operator topology determined by the representations π↑,↓ (A) on H↑,↓ . It thus depends on the representation with respect to

320

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

which the limit is calculated and belongs to the bicommutant π↑,↓ (A) (see Deﬁnition 5.3.1) where m0 = (0, 0, μ), m1 = (0, 0, −μ). If π↑,↓ (A) were unitarily equivalent, then there would exist a unitary operator U : H↑ → H↓ such that U † π↓ (A) U = π↑ (A); if so, it could be extended by continuity to the weak closures π↑,↓ (A) . Then, its action on the mean magnetization would give rise to a contradiction: −μ = m13 = U † m03 U = μ U † U = μ . The vectors | vac ↑,↓ behave as vacuum vectors for the spin algebra A; indeed, | vac ↑,↓ and the representations π↑,↓ (A) are unitarily equivalent to the GNS representations based on the expectation functionals ω↑,↓ (

p

r=1

ir σ+

q

js σ− ) :=

↑,↓ vac |

s=1

p r=1

ir σ+

q

js σ− |vac ↑,↓ .

s=1

Other interesting representations of A can be obtained by means of the following expectation functional n n i ωs σj = Tr(ρ σj ) , (7.4) =1

=1

where ρ is the spin density matrix of Example 5.5.5 and σji is the j Pauli matrix at site i . The corresponding GNS vector | Ωs can be identiﬁed with the inﬁnite tensor product of the vector states resulting from purifying ρ: ∞

, √ , 1−s 1+s |0 ⊗ |0 + |1 ⊗ |1 . | Ωs = | ρ = 2 2 n n=1 Further, the GNS representation πω (A) can be identiﬁed with the inﬁnite tensor product

, , M2 (C) ⊗ 1l2 . πs (A) = πρ (M2 (C)) = n

n

The von Neumann algebra πs (A) is not irreducible, but it is a factor since

, 1l + σ3 1l2 ⊗ M2 (C) . Since the commutant is πs (A) = σ− | 0 = 0, the 2 n projection A PN :=

2N 1l + σ3i is such that PN | i(n) 0 = 0 if the sites 2

i=N

i1 , i2 , . . . , in ∈ [N, 2N ], else PN | i(n) 0 = | i(n) 0 . Given | ψ ↑ ∈ H↑ and ε > 0, one can ﬁnd a vector | φ ↑ in the subset linearly spanned by | i(n) ↑ indexed by the sites within a suitable ﬁnite interval Iε such that | ψ ↑ − | φ ↑ ≤ ε; then, by choosing N such that Iε ∩ [N, 2N ] = ∅, one estimates

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

321

(PN − 1l)| ψ ↑ ≤ (PN − 1l)| φ ↑ + 2 | ψ ↑ − | φ ↑ ≤ 2ε . Therefore, PN → 1l strongly on H↑ . Instead, Tr(ρσ3 ) = s yields lim ωs (PN ) =

N →+∞

lim

N →+∞

1+s 2

2

N =

1 s=1 0 0≤s<1

Therefore, for 0 ≤ s < 1, the GNS representation πs (A) cannot be unitarily equivalent to π↑ (A). If so, there would exist an isometry U : Hs → H↑ such that 0=

lim Ωs | πs (PN ) |Ωs =

N →+∞

lim Ωs | U † π↑ (PN )U |Ωs = 1 .

N →+∞

In fact, U | Ωs ∈ H↑ and PN converges strongly and thus weakly on H↑ . Factor Types According to Example 5.6.2, the states ωs on the spin algebra A may be interpreted as thermal spin states at inverse temperature βs = – – –

1+s 1 log ; 2ω 1−s

the zero temperature state ω1 is equivalent to the vacuum state ω↑ ; ω0 is an inﬁnite temperature state with the properties of a tracial state (compare (5.55)) such that ω0 (XY ) = ω0 (Y X) for all X, Y ∈ A; for 0 < s < 1, ωs is a thermal state with no speciﬁc properties.

Correspondingly, the von Neumann algebras πs (A) that arise from the strong closures of the spin algebras πs (A) on the GNS Hilbert spaces Hs are instances of the so-called factors of type I, II and III [300]. The classiﬁcation of von Neumann algebras starts by considering diﬀerent possible classes of their projections. A projection p = p† = p2 of a von Neumann algebra A is called an Abelian projection if p M p is Abelian. Typical examples in this class are the minimal projections of Example 5.3.4.1: if p ∈ A is a minimal projection and q ∈ A is another projection, then 0 ≤ pqp ≤ p. Therefore, pqp = λp as all spectral projections of pqp are ≤ p and must then be equal to p. Since A is generated by its projections q, p A p is Abelian. Two projectors p, q are said to be equivalent, p q, if there exists U ∈ A such U † U = P and U U † = q. This is the case for the initial and range projections in the polar decomposition (see Remark 5.2.2). A projection p ∈ A is said to be ﬁnite if A q = q ∗ = q 2 ≤ p and q p imply =⇒ q = p. Any Abelian projection p ∈ A is ﬁnite; in fact, let q ≤ p and p = U † U , q = U U † . Then, since q ≤ p =⇒ qp = pq = q (see Example 5.3.4.1), it turns out that V := pU p = pqU = qU and V † commute so that V † V = U † q U = p2 = p = V V † = qU U † q = q .

322

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

1. A unital von Neumann algebra A is said to be of type I if its identity 1l can be decomposed into an orthogonal sum of Abelian projections pn ∈ A. Typical examples are A := L∞ μ (X ) and B(H) with H a separable Hilbert space. In the ﬁrst case, the characteristic functions of the atoms of any partition of X into disjoint measurable atoms are the required Abelian projections. In the second case, the projections pn = | n n | onto the orthonormal vectors {| n }n∈N of any ONB are Abelian and sum up to the identity. Then, also A ⊗ B(H) is of type I, the required Abelian projections being given by 1lA ⊗ pn . 2. A unital von Neumann algebra is said to be ﬁnite if its identity is a ﬁnite projection, semi-ﬁnite if its identity can be decomposed into an orthogonal sum of ﬁnite projections. Since the projections pn in the previous point are minimal, type I von Neumann algebras on inﬁnite dimensional Hilbert spaces are semi-ﬁnite, ﬁnite if dim(H) = n. 3. A unital von Neumann algebra is said to be of type II if it is semi-ﬁnite, but does not contain any non-zero Abelian projection; of type III if it does not contain any ﬁnite projection. The trace for ﬁnite dimensional systems (see (5.19)) is a particular realization of the following general notion. Deﬁnition 7.0.8 (Traces). [300] A trace on a von Neumann algebra A is a map Φ : A+ → R+ from its positive elements into the positive reals R+ such that λi Ai ) = λi Φ(Ai ) ∀λi ∈ R+ , , Ai ∈ A+ Φ( i

i

Φ(A) = Φ(U † A A)

∀A ∈ A+ , U ∈ A

unitary .

The trace is – – – –

faithful if Φ(A) = 0 ⇐⇒ A = 0 for A ∈ A+ ; ﬁnite if Φ(A) < +∞ for all A ∈ A+ ; semi-ﬁnite if for all A ∈ A+ there exists A+ B ≤ A with Φ(B) < +∞; normal if sup Φ(Aα ) = Φ(sup Aα ) for every increasing net {Aα } ⊂ A+ .

Analogously to what has been proved for states (see Example 5.3.2.3), it turns out that if Φ ≤ Ψ for two faithful, semi-ﬁnite traces on A, then there exists 0 ≤ X ≤ 1l in the center Z = A ∩ A such that Φ(A) = Ψ (X A) for all A ∈ A+ [300]. Then, if A is a factor, Z = {λ1l} and all traces on it are proportional; in fact, given any two traces Φi , i = 1, 2, Φ1 ≤ Φ1 + Φ2 =⇒ Φ1 = λ1 (Φ1 + Φ2 ) , λ1 λ−1 2 Φ2 .

Φ2 ≤ Φ1 + Φ2 =⇒ Φ2 = λ2 (Φ1 + Φ2 ) ,

whence Φ1 = Consequently, any chosen trace on a factor von Neumann algebra can be used to assign its projections an intrinsic dimension, thus providing a characterization of types [162, 117, 300]:

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

323

1. Factors of type I have a semi-ﬁnite, faithful, normal trace given by (5.19) whose range on projections is discrete and ﬁnite for ﬁnite type In factors, or countable for inﬁnite type I∞ factors: an example of the latter case is the spin algebra Πs (A) with respect to the zero temperature state ω1 ; 2. factors of type II have a semi-ﬁnite, faithful, normal trace whose range on projections is the whole interval [0, 1] for ﬁnite type II1 factors or the whole of R+ for inﬁnite type II∞ factors. An instance of the ﬁrst occurrence is the spin algebra πs (A) with respect to the inﬁnite temperature state ωs when s = 0; 3. ﬁnally, type III factors have no semi-ﬁnite, faithful, normal traces: this is the case of the spin algebra πs (A) when 0 < s < 1.

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics The physical scenario in the examples discussed in the previous section is a common one in quantum statistical mechanics. Indeed, the limit of inﬁnitely many degrees of freedom is in general achieved in the so-called thermodynamical limit, where one starts with N particles in a ﬁnite volume V ⊂ R3 (or Z3 in the case of a lattice system) and lets N, V → ∞ in such a way that N/V → ρ, where ρ ≥ 0 is a given spatial density. Each V ⊂ R3 has its own Hilbert space HV = L2dr (V ) of Lebesgue squaresummable functions and the corresponding C ∗ algebra AV = B(HV ) of bounded operators. Instead, in the case of a lattice system, each x ∈V carries ∗ and the C algebra A := B(H ), so that H = a Hilbert space H x x x V x∈V Hx and AV = x∈V Ax . Notice that in the continuous case each Hilbert space HV is inﬁnite dimensional, while in the discrete case it depends on whether the Hilbert spaces Hx at the lattice sites are ﬁnite dimensional or not. If c c and AV := V2 \ V1 , then HV1 = HV2 ⊗ HV12 becomes a V1 ⊆ V2 , set V12 1 c where subalgebra of AV2 by embedding any A1 ∈ AV1 into AV2 as A1 ⊗ 1lV12 c denotes the identity operator on the Hilbert space HV c . It follows that 1lV12 12 the set A0 := V AV is a ∗-algebra, namely it is closed under addition and multiplication of its elements; also, it is naturally endowed with the norm AV X → X for all V ⊂ R3 . Deﬁnition 7.1.1 (Quasi-Local C ∗ algebras). The normed ∗-algebra A0

·

is the algebra of local observables, while its norm-closure A := AV is known as a quasi-local C ∗ algebra.

V

Remark 7.1.1. The notion of quasi-local algebra is physically motivated by the fact that the only experimentally accessible observables of inﬁnitely extended quantum systems are the local ones. These can then be used to

324

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

approximate as much as one desires the non-local ones. From a mathematical point of view, the construction is an instance of inductive limit [117] of a directed net of C ∗ algebras. In the case of an increasing sequence {Ani }ni ∈N of ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebras Ani ⊆ Ani+1 the generated quasi-local C ∗ algebra is called Almost Finite (AF), if the algebras Ani are full matrix algebras Mni (C) then A is known as Uniformly Hyperﬁnite (UHF) [277, 244, 245]. Suppose an increasing sequence of ﬁnite-dimensional unital C ∗ algebras {Ani }ni is represented on a Hilbert space H, then the strong closure of ni Ani is a von Neumann algebra M which is called Hyperﬁnite. An Abelian instance of such an algebra is the von Neumann algebra of essentially bounded functions, L∞ μ (X ), which one can generate by means of the characteristic functions of ﬁner and ﬁner ﬁnite partitions of X as explained in Remark 2.2.3.4. Example 7.1.1. [10] Let Mn1 (C) ⊆ Mn2 (C) be two matrix algebras; given (1) 1 a system of matrix units {Ejk }nj,k=1 for the smaller one (see (5.12)), the orn1 (1) (1) thogonal projections Ekk sum up to the identity k=1 Ekk = 1l2 ∈ Mn2 (C), n1 (1) whence k=1 Tr2 (Ekk ) = n2 , where Tr2 denotes the trace computed with respect to the Hilbert space Cn2 . But then, using the cyclicity of the trace, (1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1) ), Tr2 (Ekk ) = Tr2 (Ekp Epk ) = Tr2 (Epk Ekp ) = Tr2 (Epp (1)

for all k, p = 1, 2, . . . , n1 , whence n2 = n1 × d, where d := Tr2 (Ekk ) for all k = 1, 2, . . . , n1 . Let {| fi ∈ Cn2 }di=1 be an ONB in the subspace projected (1) out by E11 and set (2)

(1)

(1)

E(k1 ,k2 );(j1 ,j2 ) := Ek1 1 | fk2 fj2 |E1j2 .

(7.5)

Since 1 ≤ k1 , j1 ≤ n1 while 1 ≤ k2 , j2 ≤ d, these are n21 × d2 = n22 matrices (1) in Mn2 (C); moreover, from (5.12) and E11 | fp = | fp it follows that (2)

(2)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

(1)

E(k1 ,k2 );(j1 ,j2 ) E(p1 ,p2 );(q1 ,q2 ) = Ek1 1 | fk2 fj2 | E1j1 Ep1 1 | fp2 fq2 | E1q1 (1)

= δj1 p1 Ek1 1 | fk2 fj2 | E11 | fp2 fq2 | E1q1 (1)

(1)

= δj1 p1 δj2 p2 Ek1 1 | fk2 fq2 | E1q1 (2)

= δj1 p1 δj2 p2 E(k1 ,k2 );(q1 ,q2 ) . Thus, (7.5) deﬁnes a set of matrix units in Mn2 (C). Set Ekd2 j2 := | fk2 fj2 |; (2)

(1)

then, E(k1 ,k2 );(j1 ,j2 ) can be isomorphically represented by Ek1 j1 ⊗ Ekd2 j2 on Cn2 = Cn1 ⊗ Cd . Therefore Mn2 (C) is isomorphic to Mn1 (C) ⊗ Md (C). The matrix algebras Mni (C) ⊆ Mni+1 (C) that generate a UHF algebra A must

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

325

be such that any ni must divide the subsequent one so that A is isomorphic to an inﬁnite tensor product of matrix algebras. The simplest instance of UHF algebra A is a quantum spin chain (see Section 7.1.5). In the case of the previously discussed inﬁnite spin system, -k A is the quasi-local algebra A generated by the local algebras A[−k,k] = =−k (M2 (C)) which are tensor products of 2 × 2 matrix algebras at each lattice site.

7.1.1 Bosons and Fermions Physical systems of quantum statistical mechanics usually consist of indistinguishable particles and are described by operators of creation and annihilation satisfying either the CAR (5.62) or the CCR (5.92). More precisely, one considers the Fock representation built upon the existence of a distinguished vacuum vector | vac (which was considered in Examples 5.6.2.1,2 for ﬁnitely many degrees of freedom). Let H be the Hilbert space describing a single Fermion or Boson and let {| ψi }i∈N be an ONB. Then, one introduces operators ai := a(ψi ) a†i

†

:= a (ψi )

such that a(ψi )| vac = 0 such that

a†i | vac

∀i ∈ N

= | ψi .

They are required to satisfy the CAR (5.62) if the particles are Fermions, the CCR (5.92) if Bosons. By expanding any | ψ ∈ H along the chosen ONB , | ψ = i ci | ψi , one can consistently deﬁne creation and annihilation operators of generic | ψ ∈ H: a† (ψ) = ci a†i , a(ψ) = c∗i ai . i∈N

i∈N

†

This yields a(ψ)| vac = 0, a (ψ)| vac = | ψ and C B C B C B a(ψ) , a(φ) = a† (ψ) , a† (φ) = 0 , a(ψ) , a† (φ) = ψ | φ (CCR ) a(ψ) , a(φ) = a† (ψ) , a† (φ) = 0 , a(ψ) , a† (φ) = ψ | φ (CAR ) , for all | ψ , | φ ∈ H. Furthermore, by using these algebraic relations one gets a(ψ)| φ = a(ψ)a† φ| vac = ψ | φ | vac . For both Fermions and Bosons the number operator is deﬁned by † ai ai . N := i∈N

Directly for Bosons and by means of

(7.6)

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7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

[a†i ai , a† (f )] = a†i {ai , a† (f )} − {a†i , a† (f )}ai = fi a†i ,

(7.7)

where fi := ψi | f , for Fermions, one ﬁnds that [N , a† (f )] = a† (f ) ,

[N , a(f )] = −a(f ) .

(7.8)

The Fock space HF,B for Fermions, respectively Bosons is generated by the completion of the linear span of vectors of the form P (a(f ), a† (g))| vac where P (a(f ), a† (g)) is any polynomial in Fermi, respectively Bose annihilation and creation operators. The Fermi operators a# (f ) are bounded on the Fock space; indeed, from the CAR it follows that, for any normalized | Ψ ∈ HF , a† (f )| Ψ 2 + a† (f )| Ψ 2 = f 2 . The polynomials P (a(f ), a† (g) with f, g ∈ HV , where V is a ﬁnite volume, generate, by norm completion, a local C ∗ -algebra, AF V. Remark 7.1.2. Given two volumes V1 ⊂ V2 ⊂ R3 , the local Fermi algebra F F cannot be isomorphic to AF V2 = AV1 ⊗ AV3 , where V3 := V2 \ V2 . In fact, if | f ∈ HV1 and | g ∈ HV3 , despite the fact that f | g = 0, commutators of the form [a# (f ) , a# (g)] need not vanish. However, because of (5.63), commutators vanish if one considers polynomial with even numbers of creation and annihilation operators: the quasi-local C ∗ algebra they generate is denoted by AG . The quasi-local algebra C ∗ generated by polynomial with a same number of creation and annihilation operators is denoted by AE ; it is known as even Fermi algebra and commutes with the number operator. Indeed, using (7.8), it turns out that the number operator generates the gauge-transformation e

iαN

†

a (f ) e

−iαN

=

+∞ (iα)k

k!

k=0

=

k times

+∞ (iα)k

k!

k=0

=

[N , [N , · · · [ N , a# (f )] · · ·]]

j

fj

+∞ k=0

j

fj [N , [N , · · · [ N , a†j ] · · ·]] k−1 times

(iα)k = eiα a† (f ) = a† (eiα f ) k!

eiαN a† (f ) e−iαN = e−iα a(f ) = a(eiα f ) .

(7.9) (7.10)

Therefore, the various phases compensate each other in polynomials with equal numbers of a and a† ; these are thus left invariant by the gaugetransformation for any α ∈ R and must therefore commute with the number operator N . For Bosons, [a# (f1 ) , a# (f2 )] = 0 if fi ∈ HVi and V1 ∩ V2 = ∅; however, the operators a# (f ) cannot be bounded (see (5.69)) In order to construct

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

327

local C ∗ algebras generating a Bose quasi-local algebra AB , one associates to | ψ ∈ H the bounded operators [108] a(ψ) + a† (ψ)

W (ψ) := exp i 2

(7.11)

which generalize the Weyl operators (5.96) and linearly generate a local Bosonic C ∗ subalgebra AB V by choosing ψ supported within the volume V . The C ∗ algebras AB,F are irreducibly represented on the Fock spaces HB,F . In order to show this one can use a similar argument as for the spin algebras π↑,↓ (A) discussed in the previous section. If X belongs to the commutant, X ∈ AB,F , then (7.6) yields

vac | a(gn ) · · · a† (g1 ) X a† (f1 ) · · · a† (fm ) |vac = = vac | X a(gn ) · · · a(g1 )a† (f1 ) · · · a† (fm ) |vac = vac | X |vac vac | a(gn ) · · · a(g1 )a† (f1 ) · · · a† (fm ) |vac , where (see (5.185) and (5.183)) 2

per([ gi | fj ]) det([ gi | fj ])

CCR . CAR (7.12) Therefore, X = vac | X |vac 1l whence the commutant is trivial; this means (see Lemma 5.3.2) that AB,F are irreducibly represented. †

†

vac | a(gn ) · · · a(g1 )a (f1 ) · · · a (fm ) |vac =

Quasi-free Automorphisms and Quasi-free States The gauge-transformation (7.9) is a particularly simple example of quasi-free automorphism. Deﬁnition 7.1.2. Every single particle unitary transformation U : H → H gives rise to a quasi-free automorphism on AB,F given by ΘU [a# (f )] = a# (U f ) .

(7.13)

Quasi-free automorphisms are typical time-evolutions of non-interacting particles possibly subjected to external potentials. They preserve the num ber operator; indeed, by expanding U | fi = j cij | fj with respect to the chosen ONB, it turns out that † a† (U fi )a(U fi ) = cij c∗ik a†j ak = aj aj , Θ[N ] = i∈N

for the matrix C = [cij ] is unitary.

i,j,k

j∈N

328

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Examples 7.1.2. 1. Let {Ux }x∈R3 be the unitary group of space-translations, | f → Ux | f = | fx ,

r | fx = f (r − x) ,

for all f ∈ L2dr (R3 ); then, {Θx }x∈R3 is the group of space-translation automorphisms of AB,F : Θx [a# (f )] = a# (fx ) .

(7.14)

2. Let h : H → H be a single-particle Hamiltonian with discrete spectrum, h = i εi | ψi ψi | being its spectral decomposition, and set # a# := a (ψ ). Therefore, the basic annihilation and creation operators i i annihilate and create single-particle energy eigenvectors. Consider the † second-quantized Hamiltonian H = i εi ai ai and the generated oneparameter group of automorphisms Θ := {Θt }t∈R , a# (f ) → Θt [a# (f )] := eitH a# (f ) e−itH . By expanding and summing as in Remark 7.1.2 one ﬁnds that, for both Bosons and Fermions, ∗

eαH a(f ) e−αH = a(e−α h f ) ,

eαH a† (f ) e−αH = a(eαh f ) ,

(7.15)

for all α ∈ C. Therefore, Θt [a# (f )] = a# (eith f ) ,

(7.16)

whence the group Θ is a quasi-free time-evolution. 3. Let us consider a single-particle Hamiltonian h with an absolutely continuous spectrum and the corresponding quasi-free time-evolution (7.16). For instance, the free-time evolution given by p | h |f = p2 /(2m)f (p) in momentum representation. In this cases, one can use the so-called Riemann-Lebesgue Lemma [258]. For an integrable function f : R → C with integrable ﬁrst derivative, it follows from integration by parts: f (ν)ei ν t +∞ i iν t dν f (ν) e = dν f (ν) ei ν t + it −∞ t R R i = dν f (ν) ei ν t −→ 0 t R when t → ±∞. Because of the assumed absolute continuity of the spectrum of the single-particle Hamiltonian h, this lemma ensures that lim [a(f ) , a† (eiht g)] = lim | f | eiht g | = 0

t→±∞

t→±∞

(7.17)

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

329

for all f, g ∈ H for Bosons and lim {a(f ) , a† (eiht g)} = lim | f | eiht g | = 0

t→±∞

t→±∞

(7.18)

for Fermions. While Bosonic annihilation and creation operators commute asymptotically in time, Fermionic ones anticommute. However, by means of (7.7), one computes [a(f1 )a(f2 ) , a† (eiht g)] = a(f1 ) f2 | eiht g − f1 | eiht g a(f2 ) . Then, [a(f1 )a(f2 ) , a† (eiht g)] → 0 when t → ±∞; furthermore, the same asymptotic commutativity in time holds for [X , Θt [Y ]] where X is an even polynomial in a, a† and Y any polynomial. By continuity, it extends to all X belonging to the even Fermi algebra AG and all Y ∈ AF . Moreover, this result holds for all quasi-free automorphisms Θt (a# (f ) = a(Ut f ) over AG consisting of a discrete or continuous group {Ut }t∈R,Z of single-particle unitaries Ut : H → H such that limt→±∞ f | Ut g = 0 for all f, g ∈ H. This phenomenon is known as asymptotic Abelianess. Deﬁnition 7.1.3. [65, 108] A quasi-free state on AB is any linear functional ωA such that ω(1l) = 1 and

1 ωA (W (ψ)) = exp − ψ | (1l + 2A) |ψ , (7.19) 4 where 0 ≤ A ∈ B(H) is a positive bounded operator on the single particle Hilbert space H = L2dr (R3 ). A quasi-free state on AF is any linear functional ωA such that ωA (1l) = 1 and ωA (a† (fm ) · · · a† (f1 )a(g1 ) · · · a(gn )) = δnm Det[ gi | A |fj ] ,

(7.20)

where 0 ≤ A ≤ 1l ∈ B(H) is a single particle operator on H = L2dr (R3 ). The Fock vacuum satisfying (7.12) is the simplest instance of a quasi-free state; the one with A = 0. Like classical Gaussian states, quasi-free states also can be reconstructed from their two-point correlation functions ωA (a† (f )a(g)) = g | A |f

∀f, g ∈ H .

(7.21)

This property results directly from the determinant in (7.20) for Fermions, while for Bosons it can be proved by showing that (7.19) leads to ωA (a† (fm ) · · · a† (f1 )a(g1 ) · · · a(gn )) = δnm Per[ gi | A |fj ] ,

(7.22)

where the so-called permanent is as in (5.185); indeed, (7.19) is a generalization of (5.186) to the inﬁnite dimensional case.

330

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Example 7.1.3. [65] Suppose a quasi-free state satisﬁes the KMS conditions (5.179) with respect to the quasi-free time-evolution (7.16); using the commutation relations and (7.15), it turns out that ωA (a† (f )a(g)) = g | A |f = ωA (a(g)Θiβ [a† (f )]) = ωA (a(g)a† (e−β h f )) = g | e−β h |f ± ωA (a† (e−β h f )a(g)) = g | e−β h ± Ae−β h |f . Since this is true for all f, g ∈ H it turns out that (compare (5.182) e−β h and (5.184)) A∓ = , where the plus sign holds for Fermions and 1l ∓ e−β h the minus sign for Bosons.

KMS States and Modular Theory We have seen that Gibbs states of ﬁnite dimensional quantum systems satisfy the KMS relations (5.179). These relations can be extended to inﬁnitely many degrees of freedom where they identify equilibrium states at a given temperature [131] (a simple instance of this fact was oﬀered in the previous example). Unlike with ﬁnitely many degrees of freedom (see Remark 5.6.1.1), there can be more than one equilibrium state at inverse temperature β. An equilibrium state is called extremal when it cannot be decomposed into a linear convex combination of other equilibrium states at the same temperature; extremal equilibrium states give rise to factor representations and can be in some cases rightly identiﬁed as pure thermodynamical phases [300, 65]. Given a triplet (A, Θ, ω), with a faithful state ω. The latter is said to be a KMS state at inverse temperature β with respect to the automorphism Θ if the functions (compare (5.178)) FXY (t) := ω(Θt [X]Y ) ,

GXY (t) := ω(Y Θt [X])

∀X, Y ∈ A ,

can be extended to analytic functions FXY (z), respectively GXY (z), on the strips −β < (z) < 0, respectively 0 < (z) < β, and continuous on their borders, where they satisfy ω(Θt [X]Y ) = ω(Y Θt+iβ [X]) .

(7.23)

We outline a few of the many properties of KMS states [300] (for a more detailed analysis see [65, 108]). These properties involve the GNS cyclic representation πω (A) on the GNS Hilbert space Hω and the GNS implementation of Θ by a unitary operator Uω .

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

331

Remarks 7.1.3. 1. When extended to the von Neumann algebra πω (A) , a KMS state ω remain KMS in the sense that

Ωω | X Uω (t)Y |Ωω = Ωω | Y Uω† (t + iβ)X |Ωω

∀X, Y ∈ πω (A) ,

2. KMS states are Θ-invariant: indeed, (7.23) implies fX (t) := ω(Θt [X]) = ω(Θt+iβ [X]) = fX (t + iβ) for all X ∈ A. Thus, fX (t) can be periodically extended over the whole of C where it deﬁnes a bounded analytic function for f (t) is bounded on the strip −β < (z) < 0. Therefore, this function must be constant: fX (t) = fX (0), whence Θt [X] = X for all X ∈ A. 3. The center Zω = πω (A) ∩ πω (A) of the GNS representation based on a KMS state ω consists of Θ-invariant global observables. Indeed, if T ∈ Zω , by the same argument as in the previous point, the function fX,T (t) := Ωω | πω (Θt [X]) T |Ωω = Ωω | T Θt+iβ [X] |Ωω = Ωω | πω (Θt+iβ [X]) T |Ωω = fX,T (t + iβ) can be extended to a bounded analytic function over C, for all X ∈ A. Then, it must be fX,T (t) = fX,T (0). Since t ∈ Zω , choosing X = Y † Z, Y, Z ∈ A, yields fY † Z,T (t) = Ωω | πω (Y )† Uω (t) T Uω† (t) πω [Z] |Ωω = fY † Z,T (0) = Ωω | πω (Y )† T πω (Z) |Ωω on a dense set, whence Uω (t) T Uω† (t) = T for all t ∈ R. 4. For ﬁxed inverse temperature, the KMS states form a convex set which is compact in the w∗ -topology [300]. 5. A KMS state is said to be extremal KMS if it cannot be written as a convex combination of other KMS states (at the same inverse temperature). The GNS representation based on an extremal KMS state is a factor: Zω = {λ1l}. If not, there would exist 0 ≤ T1,2 ∈ Zω with T1 + T2 = 1l which could be used to construct the states

Ωω | Ti πω (X) |Ωω ωi (X) =

Ωω | Ti |Ωω which turns out to be a KMS state with respect to Θ at inverse temperature β. Indeed,

Ωω | Ti πω (Θt [X])πω (Y ) |Ωω

Ωω | Ti |Ωω

Ωω | πω (Θt [X])Ti πω (Y ) |Ωω =

Ωω | Ti |Ωω

Ωω | Ti πω (Y )πω (Θt+iβ [X]) |Ωω = ωi (Y Θt+iβ [X]) . =

Ωω | Ti |Ωω

ωi (Θt [X]Y ) =

332

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

The modular theory or Tomita-Takesaki theory, which has been introduced in its simpliﬁed ﬁnite-dimensional version in Section 5.5.1, extend to generic von Neumann algebras M ⊆ B(H) with a faithful state (see Deﬁnition 5.3.2) [64]. More precisely, given a quantum triplet (A, Θ, ω), if the GNS state is such that X| Ωω = 0 =⇒ X = 0 ∀X ∈ πω (A) , then there exists a modular conjugation J : Hω → Hω , such that J 2 = 1l ,

Jω | Ωω = | Ωω ,

Jω πω (A) Jω = πω (A) ,

and a modular operator Δω : Hω → Hω such that Jω Δω X| Ωω = X † | Ωω ∀ X ∈ πω (A) .

(7.24)

(7.25)

Furthermore, the maps −it σωt : πω (A) X → Δit ω X Δω

(7.26)

form a group {σωt }t∈R of automorphisms, called modular group; moreover, they satisfy the KMS conditions

Ωω | X Y |Ωω = Ωω | Y σω−i (X) |Ωω

∀X, Y ∈ πω (A) ,

(7.27)

that we will shortly write as ω(XY ) = ω(Y σω−i (X)). Example 7.1.4. If M ⊆ B(H) is an Abelian von Neumann algebra (M ⊆ M ) with a cyclic vector | Ω , then it is maximally Abelian. In fact, | Ω is necessarily cyclic also for the commutant M , thence separating for the bicommutant M = M (see Lemma 5.3.1). Then, (7.25) gives √ J ΔX| Ω 2 = X † | Ω 2 = Ω | XX † |Ω = Ω | X † X |Ω = X| Ω 2 , for all X ∈ M since M is Abelian. Therefore, Δ = 1l and JXJ = X † , whence (7.24) yields M = M .

Example 7.1.5. A most used GNS representation [300], is the so-called thermal representation whose cyclic and separating vector is the tensor product of two vacuum states, | Ωβ = | vac ⊗ | vac , so that the GNS Hilbert space is isomorphic to the tensor product of two Fock Hilbert spaces. We shall consider the framework of Examples 5.6.2.2,3 without restrictions on the dimensionality of the single particle Hilbert space and on the cardinality of the spectrum of the single particle Hamiltonian h. We shall

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

333

denote by a# , respectively b# , Bose, respectively Fermi, creation and annihilation operators. In the Bose case, their action on | Ωβ is πβ (a(f )) =: aβ (f ) = a( 1l + A− f ) ⊗ 1l + 1l ⊗ a† (j A− f ) πβ (a† (f )) =: a†β (f ) = a† ( 1l + A− f ) ⊗ 1l + 1l ⊗ a(j A− f ) , where the single particle operator j : H → H is antilinear and satisﬁes

jf | jg = g | f , while in the Fermi case πβ (b(f )) =: bβ (f ) = b( 1l − A+ f ) ⊗ 1l + θ ⊗ a† (j A+ f ) πβ (b† (f )) =: b†β (f ) = b† ( 1l − A+ f ) ⊗ 1l + θ ⊗ a(j A+ f ) , where θ is an operator on the Fock space such that θ b# = −b# θ and θ| vac = | vac . Then, a†β (f )| Ωβ = | 1l + A− f ⊗ | vac , aβ (f )| Ωβ = | vac ⊗ | j A− f b†β (f )| Ωβ = | 1l − A+ f ⊗ | vac , bβ (f )| Ωβ = | vac ⊗ | j A+ f , whence

Ωβ | a†β (f )aβ (g) |Ωβ = j A− f | j A− g = g | A− |f

Ωβ | b†β (f )bβ (g) |Ωβ = j A+ f | j A+ g = g | A+ |f . The modular operators read −β Δ− β =e

i

εi a†i ai

⊗ e+β

i

εi a†i ai

−β , Δ+ β =e

i

εi b†i bi

⊗ e+β

i

εi b†i bi

,

# where a# i and bi create or annihilate eigenstates | εi of the single-particle Hamiltonian h. By means of calculations similar to those that led to (7.9) and (7.10), one explicitly calculates βh A− f Δ− β aβ (f )| Ωβ = | vac ⊗ | je βh Δ+ A+ f . β bβ (f )| Ωβ = | vac ⊗ | je

One can thus explicitly evaluate the action of the modular conjugation; from (7.25), ? † −β h/2 Jβ aβ (f )| Ωβ = Δ− 1l + A− f ⊗ | vac β aβ (f )| Ωβ = | e = | A− f ⊗ | vac ? β h/2 Jβ a†β (f )| Ωβ = Δ− A− f β aβ (f )| Ωβ = | vac ⊗ | je = | vac ⊗ | j 1l + A− f , in the case of Bosons, while for Fermions one obtains

334

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

?

† −β h/2 Δ+ 1l − A+ f ⊗ | vac β bβ (f )| Ωβ = | e = | A+ f ⊗ | vac ? β h/2 Jβ b†β (f )| Ωβ = Δ+ A+ f β bβ (f )| Ωβ = | vac ⊗ | je = | vac ⊗ | j 1l − A+ f .

Jβ bβ (f )| Ωβ =

Since thermal states are faithful, | Ωβ is cyclic and separating, therefore Jβ aβ (f ) Jβ = a† ( A− f ) ⊗ 1l + 1l ⊗ a(j 1l + A− f ) Jβ a†β (f ) Jβ = a( A− f ) ⊗ 1l + 1l ⊗ a† (j 1l + A− f ) for Bosons and, for Fermions,

Jβ bβ (f ) Jβ = b† ( A+ f ) ⊗ 1l + θ ⊗ b(j 1l − A+ f ) Jβ b†β (f ) Jβ = b( A+ f ) ⊗ 1l + θ ⊗ b† (j 1l − A+ f ) .

The thermal representation has been used in [211] to implement the transposition in an inﬁnite dimensional context and study the entanglement properties of inﬁnitely extended quantum systems (see also [308]), the starting point being (5.149) in the ﬁnite-dimensional case. Let V the ﬂip operator which exchange vectors in tensor products V | φ ⊗ ψ = | ψ ⊗ φ , then V † Jρ X † ⊗ 1lN Jρ V = X T ⊗ 1l . Analogously, in the thermal representation one may represent the transposition as follows γT− [aβ (f )] = V−† Jβ a†β (f ) Jβ V− = a† (j 1l + A− f ) ⊗ 1l + 1l ⊗ a† ( A− f ) γT+ [bβ (f )] = V+† Jβ b†β (f ) Jβ V+ = b† (j 1l − A+ f ) ⊗ 1l + θ ⊗ b( A+ f ) . Among the CPU maps on a C ∗ algebra A, a special role is played by the conditional expectations (see Deﬁnition 5.2.3). Suppose the orthogonal projections Pi in Example 5.2.9.1 commute with a given density matrix ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H), it then follows that ρ ◦ E(X) = Tr(ρE[X]) = Tr(Pi ρ Pi X) = Tr( Pi ρ X) = ρ(X)

i∈I

i∈I

for all X ∈ B(H) for i∈I Pi = 1l. One says that the conditional expectation from B(H) onto the Abelian subalgebra P ⊂ B(H) generated by the Pj respects the state ρ. Also, notice that if ρ is faithful then P is left invariant by the modular automorphism (5.180), that is σρt [P] = P. This is the key point how to extends these considerations to the case of general von Neumann algebras with faithful normal states, where conditional expectations are identiﬁed with normal projections of norm one (see Remark (5.2.7)). We state the result, for a proof see [293].

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

335

Proposition 7.1.1. Let A be a von Neumann algebra, ω a faithful normal state with associated modular group of automorphisms σωt , t ∈ R. Moreover, let A0 ⊂ A be a von Neumann subalgebra and ω0 the restriction ω |`A0 with associated modular automorphisms σωt 0 . Then, the following conditions are equivalent: 1. there exists a normal conditional expectation E : A → A0 that respects the state, ω ◦ E = ω; 2. σωt [A0 ] ⊆ A0 for all t ∈ R; 3. σωt 0 [A] = σωt [A] for all A ∈ A0 . 7.1.2 GNS Representation and Dynamics Quantum dynamical systems will be identiﬁed as non-commutative algebraic triplets (compare the analogous commutative Deﬁnition 2.2.4). Deﬁnition 7.1.4. Quantum dynamical systems are triplets (A, Θ, ω), where A is a C ∗ algebra with identity 1l, the dynamics Θ corresponds to a group of automorphisms Θt : A → A, t ∈ G, such that Θt ◦ Θs = Θs ◦ Θt = Θt+s ,

ω ◦ Θt = ω ,

∀ s, t ∈ G ,

where G = Z or G = R and the state ω : A → C is a normalized, positive, Θ-invariant expectation, namely ω ◦ Θt = ω for all t ∈ G. Given an algebraic triplet (A, Θ, ω), a natural Hilbert space formulation is based on the GNS construction (see Deﬁnition 5.3.7); it does provide not only a representation πω (A) on a Hilbert space Hω with a cyclic invariant vector | Ω , but also an implementation of the dynamics by a group of unitary operators. Proposition 7.1.2. [107, 300] Let (A, Θ, ω) be a C ∗ dynamical system and (Hω , πω , Ωω ) the associated GNS triplet, then, the C ∗ automorphism Θ is implemented by a unique unitary operator Uω : Hω → Hω , πω (Θ(X)) = Uω† πω (X) Uω

∀X ∈ A .

(7.28)

Proof: Given the GNS representation πω , π := πω ◦ Θ is another representation of A on Hω such that

Ωω | π(X) |Ωω = Ωω | πω (Θ(X)) |Ωω = ω(Θ(X)) = ω(X) . Therefore, Remark 5.3.2.1 ensures the existence of a unitary operator Uω such that (7.28) holds. If anotherC unitary operator W with the same properties B

exists, then W † Uω , πω (X) πω (Y )| Ωω = 0 for all Y ∈ A, namely on a dense set; therefore, W † Uω belongs to πω (A) for which | Ωω is separating (see Lemma 5.3.1). Then, W = Uω , since (W † Uω − 1l)| Ωω = 0.

336

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Remarks 7.1.4. 1. If the dynamics is speciﬁed by a one-parameter group of C ∗ automorphisms {Θt }t∈R which is weakly-continuous in the GNS representation, then the group Uω (G) := {Uω (t)}t∈G , G = R, is strongly continuous on Hω . In fact, the previous Proposition asserts that each Θt is implemented by a unitary operator Uω (t); furthermore, Uω† (t)Uω† (s)πω (X)| Ωω = Uω† (t)πω (Θs (X))| Ωω = πω (Θt+s (X))| Ωω = Uω† (t + s)πω (X)| Ωω on a dense set, whence the family {Uω (t)}t∈R forms a one-parameter group of unitaries on Hω . Strong continuity follows from weak continuity and

(Uω (t) − 1l)πω (X)| Ωω 2 = 2 ω(X † X) − (ω(X † Θt (X))) . 2. The Fock representation is unitarily equivalent to the GNS representation based on the vacuum state: ω(a(f )) = vac | a(f ) |vac = 0 for all | f in the single-particle Hilbert space H. Suppose Θ is a quasi-free Fermi automorphism as in Example 7.1.2.3; let V : HF → HF be the unitary operator that implements it on the Fock space. Since the number operator is left invariant by quasi-free automorphisms, if V belonged to AF , then it should also belong to the even Fermi algebra AE . Further, from asymptotic Abelianess, the invariance of the norm under unitary transformations and the fact that the various Vt commute, it turns out that, for any ε > 0 and X ∈ AF , [ Vt , Θs [X] ] = Vs† Vt X Vs − Vs† X Vt Vs = Vt X − X Vt = X − Vt† X Vt ≤ ε for all t ∈ R. This cannot be true for all X ∈ AF so that the unitary operator V ∈ B(HF ) does not belong to AF . However, since AF is irreducible (see (7.12)), V belongs to the bicommutant AB,F = {λC} = B(HF ). 3. Very rarely, starting from the Hamiltonian of a system of N interacting particles and going to the thermodynamic limit, one obtains a normcontinuous dynamics at the C ∗ algebraic level, that is independently of a given time-invariant state. Usually, the dynamics exists only in the GNS representation provided by that state; however, an instance of Galilei invariant interaction which gives rise to a norm-continuous group of automorphisms of the CAR algebra can be found in [300].

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

337

Example 7.1.6 (Inﬁnite Dimensional Quantum Cat Maps). The ﬁnite dimensional quantization of the torus T2 studied in Example 5.4.2 can be turned into an inﬁnite dimensional one by lifting the condition (5.86), namely the quantum counterpart of the folding constraint (2.15) in Example 2.1.3. Concretely, the Weyl relations (5.83) become Uθn1 Vθn2 = e4π i θ n1 n2 Vθn2 Uθn1 ,

θ ∈ [0, 1) ,

where U and V are two abstract unitary operators and n = (n1 , n2 ) ∈ Z2 . Notice that 2θ plays the role of 1/N in Example 5.4.2 and is a continuous deformation parameter : when θ = 0, the commutation relations are those that hold for the exponential functions (2.21), namely en em = em en . Then, as in (5.84), we deﬁne the unitary Weyl-like operators Wθ (n) := e−2i π θ n1 n2 Uθn1 Vθn2 ,

n ∈ Z2 ,

that satisfy relations similar to those in (5.85), Wθ (n) Wθ (m) = e2i π θ σ(n,m) Wθ (n + m) ,

∀n, m ∈ Z2 ,

(7.29)

with symplectic form σ(n, m) := n1 m2 − n2 m1 . Also, in analogy with (7.11), one sets f (n) Wθ (n) , (7.30) Wθ (f ) = n

where | f = {f (n)}n∈Z2 belongs to the subspace ∗ (Z2 ) ⊂ 2 (Z2 ) of squaresummable sequences with ﬁnitely many non-zero components. We shall call support of f the set Supp(f ) := n ∈ Z : f (n) = 0 (7.31) The following properties hold for all f, g ∈ ∗ (Z2 ), Wθ (f )† = Wθ (f T ) ,

f T (n) = f (−n)∗

Wθ (f )Wθ (g) = Wθ (f ∗ g) , with (f ∗ g)(n) := e2i π θ σ(n,m) f (n − m)g(m) .

(7.32) (7.33)

m∈Z2

Consider the ∗-algebra A∗θ := Wθ (f ) : f ∈ ∗ (Z2 ) generated by all possible linear combinations of Weyl operators Wθ (f ) with f ∈ ∗ (Z2 ). Let then ω denote the linear functional ω : A∗θ → C such that ω(Wθ (n)) = δn0 . Using (7.32) with (7.33) one checks that

(7.34)

338

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

/ 0 ω Wθ (f )† Wθ (g) = (f T ∗ g)(0) = f ∗ (m)g(m) = f | g .

(7.35)

m∈Z2

Thus ω is a positive normalized functional, namely a state on A∗θ similar to ωN in (5.187). Consider the associated GNS representation πω (A∗θ ) and set ∀ | f ∈ ∗ (Z2 ) ,

| f θ := πω (Wθ (f ))| Ω

where | Ωω is the cyclic GNS vector. Then, the vectors | n θ form an ONB in Hω and θ n | f θ = n | f = f (n). Therefore, Hω = 2 (Z2 ) = L2dr (T2 ), independently of the deformation parameter θ; also πω (Wθ (f ))| g = | f ∗ g .

(7.36)

The ∗-algebra A∗θ can be equipped with a ∗-automorphism which extends to the present case the dynamics discussed in Example 5.6.1.4: it is deﬁned on the Weyl operators by ΘA [Wθ (n)] = Wθ (AT n) ,

(7.37)

where A is a 2 × 2 integer matrix as in (5.176). The state ω is left invariant by ΘA which is then implemented by a same unitary operator Uω for all θ ∈ [0, 1) that coincides with the Koopman operator UA of Example 2.1.3. Indeed, f (n) Wθ (AT n) = f (A−T p) Wθ (p) = Wθ (UA f ) , ΘA [Wθ (f )] = n

p

for f (A−T n) = (UA f )(n) (compare (2.1.3)). Consequently, ω (Wθ (f )ΘA [Wθ (g)]) = Ω | πω (Wθ (f ))† Uω πω (Wθ (g)) |Ω = ω(Wθ (f )Wθ (UA g)) = f | UA |g .

(7.38)

(7.39)

The dependence on θ ∈ [0, 1) emerges when considering the closure of πω (A∗θ ) with respect to strong-operator topology thus obtaining von Neumann subalgebras Mθ ⊆ B(Hω ). While the GNS Hilbert space and the unitary implementation of the dynamics are the same for all von Neumann dynamical triplets (Mθ , ΘA , ω) 1 , for θ = 0 Mθ is isomorphic to the maximally Abelian von Neumann algebra 2 2 L∞ dr (T ) of essentially bounded functions on T (see Section 5.3.2), for θ irrational Mθ is a hyperﬁnite II1 factor, while Mθ is not a factor and of ﬁnite type In when θ is rational. Let us consider the case θ = 0; clearly, M0 is an Abelian von Neumann subalgebra of B(Hω ), actually, maximally Abelian since it has a cyclic vector 2 | Ωω (see Example 7.1.4.1); therefore, it is isomorphic to L∞ dr (T ) via the argument of Theorem 5.3.3 and a one-to-one mapping 1

ΘA and ω denote the extensions of the automorphism ΘA and of the state ω from A∗θ to the strong-operator closures Mθ .

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

en → Φ[en ] = W0 (n)

339

(7.40)

between the Weyl operators W0 (n) and the exponential functions (2.21). Indeed, one observes that the multiplication of vectors in L2dr (T2 ) by en and the action (7.36) of W0 (n) on vectors in Hω do coincide. We shall thus 2 identify M0 = L∞ dr (T ). Consider now the case of a rational deformation parameter, θ = p/q, p, q ∈ N; then, (7.29) yields Wp/q (qn)Wp/q (m) = e2π i p σ(n,m) Wp/q (qn + m) = Wp/q (m)Wp/q (qn) , for all n, m ∈ Z2 . Further, set Z2 n = (n1 , n2 ) = [n]+ < n >:= ([n1 ]+ < n1 >, [n2 ]+ < n2 >) , where, for any n ∈ Z, [n] = q m denotes the unique multiple of q such that 0 ≤ n − [n] =:< n >≤ q − 1. Then, one gets Wp/q (n) = Wp/q ([n]) Wp/q (< n >) . As a consequence, when θ is rational, every Wp/q (f ) can be written as

Wp/q (f ) = f ([n]+ < n >) Wp/q ([n]) Wp/q (< n >) ∈J(q)

=

[n]

Xf (s) Wp/q (s)

with

(7.41)

s∈J(q)

Xf (s) :=

f (qn + s) Wp/q (qn) ∈ M(q) ,

(7.42)

n∈Z2

J(q) := s = (s1 , s2 ) : 0 ≤ si ≤ q − 1 and where M(q) :=

f (n) Wp/q (qn)

(7.43)

n∈Z2

denotes the von Neumann subalgebra of Mp/q linearly generated by the Weyl operators of the form Wp/q (qn), n ∈ Z2 . Because of (7.41), they commute with Mp/q whence M(q) belongs to the center of Mp/q . Moreover, the exponential functions of the form W0 (qn) fulﬁl W0 (qn)(r) = W0 (qn)(r + s/q)

∀ s ∈ J(q) .

(7.44)

They generate a ∗-algebra whose strong-closure is a von Neumann subalgebra (q) M0 ⊂ M0 of essentially bounded functions f on T2 such that f (r) = γs(q) [f ](r) := f (r + s/q) ,

(7.45)

340

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom (q)

for all s ∈ J(q). Let Πs : M0 → M0 be deﬁned by (q) M0 f → Πs [f ] := f (qn + s)W0 (qn) ∈ M0 ,

(7.46)

n∈Z

where s ∈ J(q). By decomposing

f= f (n) W0 (n) = f (m + s) W0 (qm) W0 (s) , n

m

s∈J(q)

it follows that Πs can be recast as Πs [f ] = W0 (−s)

1 (q) γt [f ] e−2 π i s·t/q . q2

(7.47)

t∈J(q)

Furthermore, a map similar to the one in (7.40), W0 (qn) → Φq [W0 (qn)] = Wp/q (qn)

∀ n ∈ Z2 ,

(7.48)

(q)

makes M(q) and M0 isomorphic so that (7.42), respectively (7.41) read Xf (s) = Φq [Πs [f ]], respectively Φq [Πs [f ]] Wp/q (s) . (7.49) Wp/q (f ) = s∈J(q)

Concluding: 1) Mp/q is not a factor, 2) due to the ﬁnitely many noncommuting Wp/q (s) with s ∈ J(q), the type of Mp/q is ﬁnite In (see the discussion of types preceding Section 7.1) and 3) Mp/q is hyperﬁnite for such (q)

is M0 (and thus M0 ) according to Remark 7.1.1. For θ irrational, Mθ is a factor; indeed, from (7.29), B C Wθ (n) , Wθ (m) = 2 i sin(2π θσ(n, m)) Wθ (n + m)

(7.50)

cannot vanish for n = m, whence the center Z = Mθ ∩ Mθ is trivial, that is it consists of multiples of the identity only. Since the state (7.34) is a trace on Mθ , according to the discussion following Deﬁnition 7.34, Mθ is a type II1 factor and also hyperﬁnite [263]. In the commutative setting of Example 2.2.3, the unitary Uω corresponds to the Koopman-von Neumann operator which cannot belong to the commutative von Neumann algebra M0 = L∞ μ (X ). As much as in this case and unlike for ﬁnite level quantum systems, the quantum dynamics is typically implemented by unitary operators which map the algebra of observables into itself, indeed Uω† (t) πω (X) Uω (t) = πω (Θt (X)) ∈ πω (A) ,

(7.51)

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

341

without Uω (t) itself belonging to πω (A). Given πω (A) and Uω (G), one can however consider all linear combinations of products of operators in πω (A) and elements Uω (t) which can always be reduced to the form (compare Example 5.3.2.7 for a similar structure) πω (Xi ) Uω (ti ) . (7.52) i∈I

These elements form an algebra, denoted by {πω (A), Uω (G)} whose bicommutant, namely its strong closure on Hω , turns out to be a useful tool to discuss ergodicity and mixing in quantum dynamics. Deﬁnition 7.1.5 (Covariance Algebra). Given a quantum dynamical system (A, Θ, ω) and the GNS implementation of the dynamics, the associated covariance algebra is the von Neumann algebra Rω := {πω (A), Uω (G)} . As we have seen in Section 5.3, besides the von Neumann algebra Rω itself, what is also important is its commutant; in particular, in the framework of the GNS construction, for what concerns the convex decompositions of the reference state ω (see Remark 5.3.2.3). As regards the covariance algebra Rω and its commutant Rω , notice that if X ∈ B(Hω ) commutes with Rω , it must commute with both πω (A) and Uω (G). Vice versa, if X ∈ B(Hω ) commutes with πω (A) and Uω (G), by continuity, it also commutes with the von Neumann algebra generated by them. Therefore, Rω = πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) ,

(7.53)

where Uω (G) is the algebra of the bounded constants of the motion, that is the algebra of all X ∈ B(Hω ) such that Uω (t)† X Uω (t) = X. Example 7.1.7. For the case of Example 5.6.2 the covariance algebra is

Rρ = πρ (M2 (C)) ∪ Uρ (R) = M2 (C) ⊗ 1l2 ∪ ρit ⊗ ρ−it = M2 (C) ⊗ {1l2 , σ3 } , where {1l2 , σ3 } stands for the commutative algebra of 2 × 2 matrices which are diagonal in the eigenbasis of ρ. Furthermore, the constants of the motion are contained in Uρ (R) = {1l2 , σ3 } ⊗ {1l2 , σ3 } and Rρ = πρ (M2 (C)) ∩ Uρ (R) = 1l2 ⊗ {1l2 , σ3 } . 7.1.3 Quantum Ergodicity and Mixing As seen in Section 2.3, ergodicity corresponds to a speciﬁc behavior of the time-averages of two-point correlation functions. Given a quantum dynamical

342

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

triplet (A, Θ, ω), two-point correlation functions have the form ω(AΘt (B)) where A, B ∈ A and t ∈ G, where G = R or Z. For sake of concreteness 2 , we will consider averages or invariant means as in (7.3), namely of the form (compare Deﬁnition 2.3.1) T −1 1 ω(A† Θt (B)C) T →∞ 2T + 1

3 4 ηt ω(A† Θt (B)C) = lim

(7.54)

t=−T

in discrete time, or else 3 4 ηt ω(A† Θt (B)C) = lim

1 T →∞ 2T

T

−T

dt ω(A† Θt (B)C)

if G = R .

(7.55)

Because of (5.49), it turns out that these averages are bounded, 3 4 ηt ω(A† Θt (B)C) ≤ A B C . Also, in the GNS construction based on the invariant state ω, the averages 3 3 4 4 ηt ω(A† Θt (B)C) = ηt Ωω | πω (A)† Uω† (t) πω (B) Uω (t) πω (C) |Ωω , provide bounded sesquilinear forms on a dense subset of the GNS Hilbert space Hω . This observation together with an argument similar to that in Example 5.3.2.3 lead one to introduce 1. an operator ηω [Uω ] ∈ B(Hω ) with matrix elements

ψ | ηω [Uω ] |φ = ηt [ ψ | Uω (t) |φ ]

∀ ψ, φ ∈ Hω ;

2. a linear map ηω : A → B(Hω ) deﬁned by 3 4

ψ | ηω [A] |φ = ηt ψ | Uω† (t) πω (A) Uω (t) |φ

(7.56)

∀ ψ, φ ∈ Hω . (7.57)

Notice that, because of Θ-invariance, ω(ηω [X]) = ω(X). Examples 7.1.8. 1. Consider a ﬁnite-dimensional dynamical system described by a ﬁnitedimensional Hilbert space H = Cd , by observables that are matrices in Md (C) and by a Hamiltonian H assumed to have non-degenerate eigenvalues ed ≥ ed−1 ≥ . . . e0 = 0 and eigenvectors | j , j = 0, 2, . . . , d − 1. The dynamics is thus given by (see (5.170))

2

For more details on the existence of invariant means see [107].

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

Ut = e−i t H = | 0 0 | +

d−1

343

e−i ej t | j j |

j=1

X → Xt = Ut† X Ut =

d−1

ei t(ej −ek ) k | X |j | k j | ,

j,k=0

for all X ∈ Md (C). Then, the time-average η yields η(U ) = | 0 0 | ,

η(X) =

d−1

j | X |j | j j | .

j=0

Thus, η : Md (C) → Md (C) amounts to the conditional expectation (see Example 5.2.9.1) onto the Abelian subalgebra of Md (C) generated by the minimal projections | j j |. 2. All the eigenvectors | j in the previous example provide, Ut -invariant expectation functionals ωj on Md (C). The corresponding irreducible GNS representations πωj (Md (C)) (see Section 5.5.1) act on a Hilbert space isomorphic to Cd with GNS cyclic vectors of the form | Ωj = | j ⊗ | j . The dynamics is implemented by unitary operators of the form Uωj (t) = e−itH ⊗ eitej 1ld , 3 4 so that they preserve | Ωj . It follows that ηωj Uωj = | Ωj Ωj |, while ηωj [X] = η(X) ⊗ | j j | for all X ∈ Md (C). 3. Consider the projection Pω onto the subspace of vectors | ψ ∈ Hω such that Uω | ψ = | ψ (the GNS vector | Ωω is certainly one of them). Then, since ψ, φ ∈ Hω are arbitrary,

ψ | ηω [Uω ] Pω |φ = ηt [ ψ | Uω (t) Pω |φ ] = ψ | Pω |φ implies ηω [Uω ] Pω = Pω ; analogously, Pω ηω [Uω ] = Pω . Moreover,

ψ | Uω (s)ηω [Uω ] |φ = ηt [ ψ | Uω (t + s) |φ ] = ψ | ηω [Uω ] |φ , whence ηω [Uω ] | φ is invariant. Thus, Pω ηω [Uω ] | φ = ηω [Uω ] | φ for all φ ∈ Hω and then ηω [Uω ] = Pω ηω [Uω ] = Pω . Notice that ηω [Uω ] belongs to Rω , for it arises from averaging correlation functions; furthermore, since it equals Pω , it does not depend on the speciﬁc invariant mean used. While the average of the time-evolution Uω (t) gives rise to the projector onto Uω (t)-invariant vectors (compare Proposition 2.3.4), the average of quasi-local observables A ∈ A transforms them into global constants of the motion, namely into observables that belong to the strong-closure of A and that are left invariant by the dynamics.

344

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Proposition 7.1.3. ηω [A] ⊆ πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) . Proof: We check this on the dense subset π(A)| Ωω ⊆ Hω . Let X belong to A and X to the commutant πω (A) , then, using (7.51),

Ωω | πω (A)† ηω [X] X πω (C) |Ωω = 3 4 = ηt Ωω | πω (A)† πω (Θt (X)) X πω (C) |Ωω 3 4 = ηt Ωω | πω (A)† X πω (Θt (X)) πω (C) |Ωω = Ωω | πω (A)† X ηω [X] πω (C) |Ωω . Thus, ηω [X] commutes with πω (A) whence ηω [A] ⊆ πω (A) . Similarly,

Ωω | πω (A)† ηω [X] Uω (s)πω (C) |Ωω = 3 4 = ηt Ωω | πω (A)† Uω† (t)πω (X)Uω (t + s) πω (C) |Ωω 3 4 = ηt Ωω | πω (A)† Uω (s)Uω† (t + s)πω (X)Uω (t + s) πω (C) |Ωω = Ωω | πω (A)† Uω (s) ηω [X] πω (C) |Ωω , for all X ∈ A and s ∈ G, whence πω (X) ∈ Uω (G) .

Example 7.1.9. We have just showed that X ∈ A =⇒ ηω [X] ∈ Uω (G) ; also, by construction (see Example 7.1.8.3), Pω = ηω [Uω ] ∈ Uω (G) . Then, it follows that [ηω [X] , Pω ] = 0, whence

Ωω | πω (A)† ηω [X] Pω πω (B) |Ωω = 3 4 = ηt Ωω | πω (A)† Pω πω (Θt (X)) Pω πω (B) |Ωω = Ωω | πω (A)† Pω πω (X) Pω πω (B) |Ωω on a dense set. Therefore, for all X ∈ A, it holds that ηω [X] Pω = Pω ηω [X] = Pω πω (X) Pω

∀X ∈ A .

In the case of classical ergodic systems, these latter systems are equivalently identiﬁed by the clustering properties of their two-point correlation functions (Propositions (2.3.2) and 2.3.9), by the spectral properties of the corresponding Koopman operator (Corollary 2.3.1) and by the extremality of their invariant states (Proposition 2.3.8). Clustering in the mean as in (2.65) or (2.75) and extremality are notions that readily extend to the non-commutative setting. Deﬁnition 7.1.6. A quantum dynamical system (A, Θ, ω) is η-clustering if ηt [ω(AΘt (B))] = ω(A)ω(B) clustering if

∀ A, B ∈ A ,

(7.58)

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

lim ω(A Θt (B)) = ω(A) ω(B)

t→±∞

∀X, Y ∈ A .

345

(7.59)

A state ν on A is extremal if ν = λν1 + (1 − λ)ν2 with 0 < λ < 1 and ν1,2 states on A implies ν1,2 = ν; ν is an extremal Θ-invariant if it cannot be written as a convex sum of other Θ-invariant states on A. Remarks 7.1.5. 1. If πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) = {λ 1l}, where {λ 1l} denotes the trivial algebra consisting only of multiples of the identity, then the global constants of the motion are trivial. It follows that (A, Θ, ω) is η-clustering. In fact, in such a case ηω [B] = ω(B) 1l for all B ∈ A, whence ηt [ω(AΘt (B))] = Ωω | πω (A)ηω [B] |Ωω = ω(A)ω(B) . 2. Suppose the invariant state ω in (A, Θ, ω) is not extremal invariant; then, there exists a state ν on A such that λν ≤ ω, for some 0 < λ < 1, and ν ◦ Θ = ν. Thus, from Remark 5.3.2.3, λν(X) = Ωω | T πω (X) |Ωω for all X ∈ A, with 0 ≤ T ∈ πω (A) . It turns out that T ∈ Uω (G) , too; indeed, Θ-invariance yields

Ωω | πω (A)† T Uω (t)πω (B) |Ωω = Ωω | πω (A)† T πω (Θ−t (B)) |Ωω = λ ν(A† Θ−t (B)) = λ ν(Θt (A)† B) = Ωω | πω (A)† Uω (t) T πω (B) |Ωω , on a dense set. Therefore, T ∈ Rω . Consider now the following list (we shall refer to it as ergodic list in the following) of statements [107] concerning clustering, extremal Θ-invariance and the spectral properties of the dynamics of quantum dynamical systems. ω is extremal invariant Rω = {λ1l}

(7.60) (7.61)

Rω ∩ Rω = {λ1l} (A, Θ, ω) is η-clustering

(7.62) (7.63)

Pω is a one-dimensional projector πω (A) ∩ Rω = {λ1l}

(7.64) (7.65)

ηω [X] = ω(X) 1l ∀X ∈ A (7.66) ω is the only normal invariant state on πω (A) (7.67) | Ωω is the only invariant vector state in πω (A)| Ωω . (7.68) From Remark 7.1.5.2 it follows that (7.61)=⇒ (7.60); also, if Rω is not trivial, then, as in Remark 5.3.2.4, ω can be decomposed into a convex combination

346

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

of Θ-invariant states. Therefore, (7.60)⇐⇒ (7.61). If ω is not extremal invariant, the corresponding operator 1l = T ∈ Rω provides an invariant vector state Uω (t)T | Ωω = T | Ωω , thus | Ωω is not the only invariant vector state and the projector Pω onto the invariant subspace of Hω cannot be one-dimensional, whence (7.68)=⇒ (7.60) and (7.64)=⇒ (7.60). Furthermore, using Example 7.1.8, one gets ηt [ω(AΘt (B)] = Ωω | πω (A) ηω [Uω ] πω (B) |Ωω = Ωω | πω (A) Pω πω (B) |Ωω ; together with Pω | Ωω = | Ωω and ω(A)ω(B) = Ωω | πω (A) | Ωω Ωω | πω (B) |Ωω , this yields (7.64)⇐⇒ (7.63). From Proposition 5.5.2 it follows that the normal invariant states ρ on πω (A) must correspond to density matrices ρ ∈ B+ 1 (Hω ) that commute with Uω (G); thus, ρ(ηω [X]) = ρ(πω (X))) for all X ∈ A and, if ηω [X] = ω(X) 1l, then ρ(ηω [X]) = ρ(πω (X)) = ω(X), whence (7.66)=⇒ (7.67). Also, from Remark 7.1.5.1, (7.66)=⇒ (7.63). Other implications are (7.61)=⇒ (7.62)=⇒ (7.65) and (7.67)=⇒ (7.68). Summarizing, Proposition 7.1.4. With reference to the previous list of ergodic properties, the following implications hold (7.64) ⇐⇒ (7.63) ⇐= (7.66) =⇒ (7.67) ⇓ ⇓ (7.65) ⇐= (7.62) ⇐= (7.61) ⇐⇒ (7.60) ⇐= (7.68)

.

While in a commutative setting the properties (7.60)– (7.68) are equivalent and each of them identiﬁes an ergodic system, it is not so in the quantum realm, unless (A, Θ, ω) is asymptotic Abelian [107, 300]. Deﬁnition 7.1.7 (Asymptotic Abelianess). Suppose (A, Θ, ω) enjoys one of the following properties 3 4 ηt ω(A† [B, Θt (C)] D) = 0 ∀ A, B, C, D ∈ A (7.69) lim ω(A† [B, Θt (C)] D) = 0

t±∞

lim ω(A† [B, Θt (C)]† [B, Θt (C)] A) = 0

t±∞

lim [B, Θt (C)] = 0

t±∞

∀ A, B, C, D ∈ A

(7.70)

∀ A, B ∈ A

(7.71)

∀ B, C ∈ A .

(7.72)

In the ﬁrst case, (A, Θ, ω) is called η-Abelian, in the second one weakly asymptotic Abelian, in the third case strongly Asymptotic Abelian and in the last one norm asymptotic Abelian.

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347

Physically speaking, asymptotic Abelianess corresponds to the fact that the non-commutativity of any pair of local observables is a property which dies out asymptotically under the action of the dynamics on one of them. Example 7.1.10. Quantum spin chains (see Example 7.1.1) are the simplest instance of norm-asymptotic Abelianess with respect to lattice-translations on the quasi-local C ∗ algebra A [277]. In the case of spins 1/2 at each site, lattice-translations correspond to the shift-automorphism Θσ : A → A deﬁned by N n O n i Θσ σj = σji +1 . =1

=1

Given A, B ∈ A, for any ε > 0 we can ﬁnd strictly local Aε , Bε ∈ A[−k,k] such B − BCε ≤ ε. If N n > 2k, Θσn [B] ∈ A[n−k,n+k] that A − Aε ≤ ε and B

commutes with Aε , A , Θσn [Bε ] = 0, whence

5B C5 5B C5 5B C5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 A , Θσn [B] 5 ≤ 5 A − Aε , Θσn [B] 5 + 5 Aε , Θσn [B − Bε ] 5 ≤ 2εB + 2ε(ε + A) . The mean magnetization m in (7.3) is not a quasi-local observable for the spatial-average collects contributions from all local regions: nevertheless, it exists in the GNS representations π↑,↓ (A) corresponding to the translationinvariant states ω↑,↓ in (7.1) and (7.2). Furthermore, local non-commutativity is suppressed by dividing by larger and larger number of sites with the result that the mean magnetization commutes with all local observables. By its very construction it also commutes with the GNS unitary operator Uω which implements the space-translations on the GNS Hilbert space. Therefore, m ∈ R↑,↓ = π↑,↓ (A) ∩ Uω (Z) . Since π↑,↓ (A) = {λ1l} it thus follows that m is a scalar multiple of the identity in the two representations. The fact that the mean magnetization commutes with all local observables holds, more in general, as a consequence of η-Abelianess; namely, ηω [A] ⊆ Rω follows from observing that (7.69) yields B B C C ηt Ωω | πω (A)† πω (X) , πω (Θt (Y )) πω (B) |Ωω = C B = Ωω | πω (A)† πω (X) , ηω [Y ] πω (B) |Ωω = 0 .

Remark 7.1.6. Proposition 7.1.3 states that ηω [A] ⊆ πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) ; if (A, Θ, ω) is η-Abelian then also ηω [A] ⊆ πω (A) , whence ηω [A] ⊆ Rω ∩ Rω . Since the latter is an Abelian von Neumann algebra, actually the center of Rω

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7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

B C (see Deﬁniton 5.3.4), it turns out that ηω [X] , ηω [Y ] = 0 for all X, Y ∈ A. Therefore, using Example 7.1.9, one proves that on a dense set, B C

Ωω | πω (A)† Pω πω (X) Pω , Pω , πω (Y ) Pω πω (B) |Ωω = B B C C = ηt Ωω | πω (A)† Pω πω (X) Pω , Uω (t) πω (Y ) Pω πω (B) |Ωω B B C C = ηt Ωω | πω (A)† Pω πω (X) Pω , πω (Θt (Y )) Pω πω (B) |Ωω B C = Ωω | πω (A)† Pω πω (X) Pω , ηω [Y ] Pω πω (B) |Ωω B B C C = ηt Ωω | πω (A)† πω (Θt (X)) Pω , ηω [Y ] Pω πω (B) |Ωω B C = Ωω | πω (A)† Pω ηω [X] , ηω [Y ] Pω πω (B) |Ωω = 0 , for all X, Y ∈ A. Therefore, η-Abelianess implies Abeliannes of Pω πω (A) Pω as a set (in general it is not an algebra). If (A, Θ, ω) corresponds to a classical dynamical system, then (7.70), (7.71) and (7.72) are equivalent statements implying (7.69). In a genuinely quantum setting, however, (7.71), (7.70) and (7.72) take into account the diﬀerences between convergence in the weak, strong and norm topologies, whereby, in general, (7.72)=⇒ (7.71)=⇒ (7.70)=⇒ (7.69). Interestingly, the weakest sort of Abelianess is suﬃcient to make properties (7.60)– (7.68) equivalent to each other. Indeed, the consequences of η-Abeliannes are as follows. Proposition 7.1.5. If (A, Θ, ω) is η-Abelian, then Rω = πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) . Corollary 7.1.1. If (A, Θ, ω) is η-Abelian, the properties (7.60)– (7.68) in the ergodic list are equivalent. Proof: Because of η-Abelianess, applying the previous proposition one gets that (7.65)=⇒ (7.66), whence the claimed equivalence follows from Proposition 7.1.4. Then, the following deﬁnition makes sense. Deﬁnition 7.1.8. An η-Abelian quantum dynamical system (A, Θ, ω) is ergodic if ω is extremal invariant. Remark 7.1.7. In the case of Example 7.1.8.2, the eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian are extremal as functionals on Md (C) and thus ergodic according to the deﬁnition above. However, ﬁnite-dimensional systems cannot be asymptotic Abelian; indeed, while condition (7.64) holds, condition (7.66) does not.

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

349

Proof of Proposition 7.1.5 The proof is based on 3 steps. •

Step 1:

If (A, Θ, ω) is η-Abelian then Pω Rω Pω is Abelian.

Indeed, from Remark 7.1.6 we know that Pω πω (A) Pω is Abelian, thus, by continuity, also Pω πω (A) Pω . On the other hand, since the elements of Rω are strong limits of operators of the form (7.52), it turns out that Pω πω (A) Pω = Pω Rω Pω , whence the latter is Abelian. •

Step 2:

If Pω Rω Pω is Abelian, then Rω is Abelian (Rω ⊆ Rω = Rω ).

Since Pω ∈ Rω , we can use Example 5.3.2.6 to deduce that Pω Rω Pω ⊆ (Pω Rω Pω ) = Pω Rω Pω . Further, since | Ωω is cyclic for Pω Rω Pω with respect to the Hilbert space Pω Hω , using Example 7.1.4.1 we conclude that Pω Rω Pω = Pω Rω Pω , whence the latter algebra is Abelian. In order to prove the statement, we show that Rω and Pω Rω Pω are isomorphic; for any X ∈ Rω set λ(X ) = Pω X Pω . This map is obviously linear and surjective; further, since Pω ∈ Rω , λ(X Y ) = λ(X )λ(Y ) for all X , Y ∈ Rω . Finally, suppose λ(Z ) = 0 for some Z ∈ Rω , then, since Pω | Ωω = | Ωω , Z πω (X)| Ωω = πω (X) Z Pω | Ω = πω (X) Pω Z Pω | Ωω = 0 on a dense set. Thus, Z = 0 and λ is also injective. • Step 3: πω (A) .

If X ∈ A and πω (X) ∈ πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) then ηω [X] = πω (X) ∈

This fact can be extended by continuity to the constants of the motion in the strong closure πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) so that πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) ⊆ πω (A) =⇒ πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) ⊆ Rω .

(7.73)

If X ∈ πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) , it commutes with the projector onto the invariant vectors Pω ∈ Rω , whence X Pω = Pω X Pω implies

πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) Pω ⊆ Pω πω (A) Pω . On the other hand, Example 7.1.9 and Proposition 7.1.3 yield ηω [A] = Pω πω (A) Pω ⊆ πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) , whence by continuity Pω πω (A) Pω =

πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) Pω .

Finally, from the ﬁrst two steps, (7.73) and (7.74), we derive

(7.74)

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7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Rω Pω = Pω Rω Pω ⊆ Pω Rω Pω = Pω πω (A) Pω

= πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) Pω = πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) Pω . Consequently, given X ∈ Rω there exists Y ∈ πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) such that (X − Y )| Ωω . As | Ωω is cyclic for Rω , it is separating for Rω , thence X = Y so that Rω ⊆ πω (A) or, equivalently, Rω ⊆ πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) which, together with (7.73) completes the proof. Remark 7.1.8. In case of η-Abelianess, from Rω = πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) it follows that Rω is contained in the center Zω = πω (A) ∩ πω (A) of πω (A) and is thus Abelian. Actually, Rω coincides with the commutative algebra of Θ-invariant classical observables of the quantum system (A, Θ, ω). Therefore, if (A, Θ, ω) is η-Abelian and ω is a factor state (see Remark 5.3.2.2), then Rω = {λ1l} and ω is extremal invariant and thus ergodic, according to Deﬁnition 7.1.8. If (A, Θ, ω) is η-Abelian, but the state ω is not extremal invariant, that is not ergodic with respect to Θ, then Rω cannot be trivial. However, it is Abelian and thus generated by a unique set of minimal projections Pj (see Section 5.3.2). Each of these projections are such that (Uω† )t Pj Uωt = Pj and thus provides a Θ-invariant state ωj on A: ωj (X) :=

Ωω | Pj πω (X) |Ωω . ω(Pj )

Since the Pj are minimal projections in Rω , they cannot be further decomposedin Rω , whence they are extremal invariant and yield a decomposition ω = j ω(Pj ) ωj of ω into its ergodic components. Example 7.1.11. [220] Let ω± be states of a one-dimensional spin chain of the form (7.4), where (the upper indices label the lattice sites, the lower ones the Pauli matrices) n

n n i 1l + (−1)i σ3 σj = σj = Tr (−1)i δj 3 ω+ 2 =1 =1 =1 n

n n i i 1l − (−1) σ3 σj = ω− σj = Tr (−1)i +1 δj 3 . 2 =1

=1

=1

Unlike the states (7.1) and (7.2) which are characterized by inﬁnitely many spins pointing up, respectively down along the z axis, these states are antiferromagnetic alternating spins up, at even sites ω+ , at odd sites ω− , and spins down. These are pure states and give rise to factor GNS representations πω (A) : in fact, as for the states (7.1) and (7.2), one can show that the

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

351

commutants π± (A) are trivial. Also, by considering the shift-automorphism of Example 7.1.10, it turns out that ω± ◦ Θσ = ω∓ so that the state ω :=

ω+ + ω− 2

(7.75)

is translation-invariant and can be decomposed in terms of pure states: ω± (A) =

Ωω | Q± πω (A) |Ωω ,

Ωω | Q± |Ωω

with Q± ∈ πω (A) . If ω could be decomposed into Θσ -invariant states ωi , these would correspond to 0 ≤ Qi ∈ Rω = πω (A) ∩ Uω (G) that provide decompositions of the pure states ω± as well ω± (A) =

ωω | Q± Qi πω (A) |Ωω ωω | Q± (1l − Qi )πω (A) |Ωω + ,

Ωω | Q± |Ωω

Ωω | Q± |Ωω

which is impossible. Therefore ω is extremal invariant, but not a factor state. As for the spin system considered at the beginning of this chapter, the followe,o e,o ing even and odd magnetizations me,o = (me,o 1 , m2 , m3 ) (see (7.3)) exist as strong operator limits in the GNS representations π± and πω : mei :=

N μ σi2i , N →+∞ 2N + 1

lim

=−N

moi :=

N μ σi2i+1 . N →+∞ 2N + 1

lim

=−N

They commute with all local observables and thus belong to the trivial centers Z± and the non-trivial one Zω . In the ﬁrst two ones they are multiples of the in the representation identity, me± = (0, 0, ±μ) and mo± = (0, 0, ∓μ), while > πω which can be conveniently split as πω (A) = π+ (A) π− (A),

1l 0 −1l 0 πω (me3 ) = μ , πω (m03 ) = μ . 0 −1l 0 1l Furthermore, while enjoying clustering in the mean, the representation πω , which is not a factor, is not clustering; indeed, ω(σ3i σ3i+ ) =

(−1) + (−1) (−1)k + (−1)1+k = (−1) while ω(σ3k ) = =0. 2 2

From the previous discussion, it turns out that if (A, Θ, ω) is η-Abelian and ω extremal invariant (property (7.60) in the ergodic list), then twopoint correlation functions factorize in the mean (property (7.63) in the ergodic list). Concerning the extension of the classical property of mixing (see Proposition 2.3.3, (2.66) and (2.76)) to quantum dynamical systems, due to non commutativity, one distinguishes between various way of clustering beside (7.59).

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7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Deﬁnition 7.1.9. A quantum dynamical system (A, Θ, ω) is weakly mixing if [42] (7.76) lim ω(AΘt (B)C) = ω(AC) ω(B) ∀ A, B, C ∈ A ; t→±∞

strongly mixing [42] (or hyperclustering in [215]) if lim ω(AΘt (B)CΘt (D)E) = ω(ACE) ω(BD)

t→±∞

∀ A, B, C, D, E ∈ A . (7.77)

Clearly, strong mixing implies weak-mixing and weak-mixing implies η-Abelianess; it also implies weak asymptotic Abelianess, whereas strongmixing implies strong-asymptotic Abelianess. The proof of the latter statement (the proof of the former one is similar) comes from (7.77) applied to ω(A† [Θt (B) , C]† [Θt (B), C]A) = = ω((CA)† Θt (B † B) CA) − ω((CA)† Θt (B)† C Θt (B) A) − ω(A† Θt (B)† C † Θt (B) CA) + ω(A† Θt (B)† C † C Θt (B) A) , which yields lim ω(A† [Θt (B), C]† [Θt (B), C]A) =

t→±∞

= ω((CA)† CA) ω(B † B) − ω((CA)† CA) ω(B † B) − ω(A† C † CA) ω(B † B) + ω(A† C † CA) ω(B † B) = 0 . Also, weak-mixing and strong-asymptotic Abelianess together imply strongmixing; this can be seen by rewriting ω(A† [Θt (B), C]† [Θt (B), C]A) = = ω((CA)† Θt (B † B) C A) − ω((CA)† Θt (B † B) C A) − ω(A† Θt (B † B) C † C A) + ω(A† C † C Θt (B † B) A) B B C

C

− ω (CA)† Θt (B † ) C † , Θt (B) CA − ω A† Θt (B)† C † , Θt (B) CA B C

+ ω A† Θt (B)† C † C , Θt (B) A . Now, weak-mixing means that the ﬁrst four terms factorize in the same way and thus cancel each other, asymptotically in time; on the other hand, each of the terms with the commutators vanish asymptotically if the system is strongly asymptotic Abelian. This comes out from the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality (5.49) which gives upper bounds of the form B C

2 ω (CA)† Θt (B)† C † , Θt (B) CA ≤ B C† B C

C † , Θt (B) CA . ≤ ω((CA)† Θt (B † B) CA) ω (CA)† C † , Θt (B)

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

353

Proposition 7.1.6. Given a quantum dynamical system (A, Θ, ω), we have the following implications: 1. strong-mixing (7.77) implies weak-mixing (7.76); 2. strong-mixing (7.77) implies strong asymptotic Abelianess (7.71): 3. weak-mixing (7.76) implies weak asymptotic Abelianess (7.70); 4. weak-mixing (7.76) and strong-asymptotic Abelianess (7.71) imply strongmixing (7.77).

Remark 7.1.9. If the state ω is faithful then weak-mixing is equivalent to the factorization of two-point correlation functions (see (7.59)). Of course, if (A, Θ ω) is weakly mixing, then ω(X Θt (Y )) asymptotically split into ω(X)ω(Y ). Vice versa, using the KMS conditions (7.27), if (7.59) holds, then lim ω(A Θt (B) C) = lim ω(σω (i)(C) A Θt (B) t

t→±∞

= ω(σω (i)(C) A) ω(B) = ω(A C) ω(B) . The same conclusion that (7.59) implies weak-mixing follows if one knows (A, Θ, ω) to be weakly asymptotic Abelian; one uses B C

ω(A Θt (B) C) = ω(A C Θt (B)) + ω A Θt (B) , C . The following proposition establishes a link, similar to the classical one, between mixing and the spectral properties of the time-evolution group Uω (G) in the GNS construction. Proposition 7.1.7. If (A, Θ, ω) is weakly mixing the following equivalent properties hold, w − lim πω (Θt (X)) = ω(X) 1l to±∞

∀X ∈ A

w − lim Uω (t) = | Ωω Ωω | . t→±∞

Proof:

(7.78) (7.79)

Weak-mixing asserts that lim πω (Θt (X)) = ω(X) 1l on a dense t→±∞

set, whence (7.78). Furthermore, from ω(A† Θt (B)) = Ωω | πω (A)† Uω (t)πω (B) |Ωω and ω(A† ) ω(B) = Ωω | πω (A)† | Ωω Ωω |πω (B) |Ωω , for all A, B ∈ A, it follows that (7.78) and (7.79) are equivalent. Remarks 7.1.10.

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7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

1. If (A, Θ, ω) is norm-asymptotic Abelian and ω is a factor state, then ω is clustering as in (7.59) [64]. Indeed, Zω = {λ1l} says that the C ∗ algebra B generated by πω (A) and πω (A) has trivial commutant B = {λ1l}, namely B = B(Hω ). Let X ∈ A and consider the vector Hω | ΨX := (πω (X) − ω(X)1l)| Ωω . It is orthogonal to | Ωω : thus, there exists B(Hω ) T = T † such that T | ΨX = 0 ,

T | Ωω = | Ωω .

Actually, T can be chosen in B [64]: the operators C1 := T (πω (X) − ω(X)1l) ,

C2 := (1l − T ) (πω (X) − ω(X)1l)

are in B. Further, C1 | Ωω = C † | Ωω = 0 and πω (X) = C1 + C2 = ω(X)1l; consequently, ω(XΘt [Y ]) − ω(X)ω(Y ) = Ωω | C1 πω (Θt [X]) |Ωω B C = Ωω | C1 , πω (Θt [X]) |Ωω . Now, for any ε > 0 one can approximate C1 ∈ B by a ﬁnite sum in πω (A) ∪ πω (A) : n 5 5 5 5 πω (Xj )Yj 5 ≤ 5C1 − j=1

ε , Y

so that |ω(XΘt [Y ]) − ω(X)ω(Y )| ≤

n B C Ωω | πω (C1 ) , πω (Aj ) Bj |Ωω + ε j=1

≤

n

5B C5 5 5 Bj 5 πω (C1 ) , πω (Aj ) 5 + ε .

j=1

Thus, since (A, Θ, ω) is assumed to be norm-asymptotic Abelian, then it turns out to be clustering whence, according to Remark 7.1.9, also weakly mixing. 2. If (A, Θ, ω) is norm-asymptotic Abelian and ω is an extremal KMS state, then it is a factor state (see Remark 7.1.3.4) and the system is weakly mixing.

Example 7.1.12. The inﬁnite dimensional systems of Example 7.1.6 provide an interesting framework to apply the previous abstract considerations [44].

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355

Since the ΘA -invariant state is tracial, as explained in Remark 7.1.9, correlation functions as those appearing in (7.76) can be reduced to two-point correlation functions as in (7.59). Then, (7.39) yields 0 / ω Wθ (f )ΘAt [Wθ (g)] = f | UAt |g . Therefore, if the underlying classical system is mixing, that is if the Koopman operator UA has absolutely continuous spectrum on the subspace orthogonal to the constant function ( namely to the GNS cyclic vector | Ωω ), then, for all f, g ∈ L2dr (T2 ), / 0 lim ω Wθ (f )ΘAt [Wθ (g)] = lim f | UAt |g t→±∞

t→±∞

= f ∗ | Ω Ω | g = ω(Wθ (f )) ω(Wθ (g)) . This means that, independently of the deformation parameter θ, the quantum dynamical systems (Mθ , ΘA , ω) are mixing when such is the classical dynamical system of which they represent a quantization. As regards strong mixing (7.77), observe that (7.50) implies B C† B C ω Wθ (n) , ΘAt [Wθ (m)] Wθ (n) , ΘAt [Wθ (m)] = = 4 sin2 (2πθσ(n, (B)t m)) ,

(7.80)

where we have set B = AT , the transposed of A. Since σ(n, Bt m) is an integer, when θ ∈ Q is rational, the right hand side of (7.80) is periodic in t and cannot vanish when t → ±∞. Therefore, the quantum dynamical systems (Mp/q , ΘA , ω) cannot be strong asymptotic Abelian, and thus not strongly mixing, because of Proposition 7.1.6. If θ is irrational, then, as proved in [44], the right hand side of (7.80) vanishes asymptotically at most for a countable set of θ ∈ [0, 1]. A concrete construction of a countable set of θ is as follows [209]. Let t ≥ 0; using (2.17)– (2.19) in Example 2.1.3 with b and c exchanged, one explicitly computes σ(n , Bt m) = C+ (m)αt (n1 a2+ − n2 a1+ ) + C− (m)α−t (n1 a2− − n2 a1− ) m1 a2− − m2 a1− = αt (n1 a2+ − n2 a1+ ) + O(α−t ) Δ αt+1 = m1 n1 (α−1 − a)(α − a) b(1 − α2 )

+m2 n2 b2 − m1 n2 (α−1 − a) − m2 n2 (α − a) . The transposed matrix B = AT has eigenvalues α±1 as A; therefore, Tr(Bt ) = αt + α−t ∈ Z for all t ≥ 0. It thus follows that

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7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

σ(n , Bt m) =

αt+1 m1 n1 c − m2 n2 b − (m1 n2 + m2 n1 ) a α2 − 1

+ m1 n2 α−1 + m2 n1 α + O(α−t ) 1 rk αt+k + O(α−t ) α2 − 1 2

=

k=0

1 t+k = 2 rk α + α−(t+k) + O(α−t ) , α −1 2

k=0

where the coeﬃcient rk ∈ Z and thus also the sum is an integer. Choose θ = α2 s mod (1), s ∈ Z, then θ σ(n , Bt m) = s(α2 − 1)σ(n , Bt m) mod (1) = O(α−t ) mod (1) . Therefore, when t → +∞, the function in (7.80) vanishes and normasymptotic Abelianess holds. Indeed, consider Wθ (f ) and Wθ (g) where f and g have compact supports, namely, there exists K > 0 such that f (n) = g(n) = 0 when n ≥ K; then, 5B 5B C5 C5 5 5 5 5 |f (n)| |g(m)| 5 Wθ (n) , Wθ (Bt m) 5 5 Wθ (f ) , ΘAt [Wθ (g)] 5 ≤ n,m

≤ α−t

|f (n)| |g(m)| Cn,m

(7.81)

n,m

for a suitable constant Cn,m . Because of the assumption on Supp(f ) and Supp(g), (7.81) goes to 0 with t → +∞. Thus, for θ = sα2 mod (1), s ∈ Z, (Mθ , ΘA , ω) are weakly mixing and norm-asymptotic Abelian; whence, according to Proposition 7.1.6, strongly mixing. 7.1.4 Algebraic Quantum K-Systems The notion of K-systems is naturally extended by removing the Abelian constraint from Deﬁnition 2.3.6. Deﬁnition 7.1.10. Let (A, Θ, ω) be a quantum dynamical system; if A is a C ∗ algebra it is called a C ∗ algebraic quantum K-system if there exists a C ∗ subalgebra A0 ⊂ A such that 1. $ At : Θt [A0 ] ⊂ At+1 for all t ∈ Z; 2. %t∈Z At = A; 3. t∈Z At = {λ1l},

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

357

% where the set theoretic intersection of the C ∗ subalgebras At $ t∈Z At denotes ∗ and t∈Z At the C they generate by norm closure. The nested sequence will be called a quantum K-sequence. If A is a von Neumann algebra acting on a Hilbert space, then (A, Θ, ω) is a von Neumman algebraic K-system if$there exists a quantum K-sequence of von Neumann subalgebras An , with t∈Z At denoting the von Neumann algebra obtained by strong-operator closure. Remark 7.1.11. Typically [220], starting from a C ∗ algebraic quantum Ksystem with K-sequence At , one considers the GNS representation πω (A) and the sequence of von Neumann subalgebras πω (At ) and checks whether it is a (von Neumann) K-sequence for (πω (A) , Θ, ω). We have seen in Section 2.3 that classical K-systems enjoy the strongest possible clustering properties corresponding to K-mixing; to some extent this notion extends to von Neumann quantum K-systems. Let a quantum dynamical system (A, Θ, ω) posses a sequence {At }t∈Z of C ∗ subalgebras such that, setting M := πω (A) and Mt := πω (At ) , {Mt }t∈Z is a K-sequence for the von Neumann triplet (M, Θ, ω). We assume ω to be a faithful state and the M0 to be invariant under the modular automorphism σω , so that Proposition (7.1.1) ensures the existence of a normal conditional expectation E0 : M → M0 which respects the state. It thus follows that the CPU maps Et := Θt ◦ E0 ◦ Θ−t : M → Mt are ω-preserving conditional expectations. Setting ∀A ∈ A , Pt πω (A)|Ωω := Et [πω (A)]| Ωω one obtains a bounded linear operator which can be extended to a bounded operator Pt : Hω → Ht , where Ht is the closure of the linear span πω (A)| Ωω and Hω is the GNS Hilbert space corresponding to ω. Proposition 7.1.8. The Pt are projectors such that Pt = Uω† (t) P0 Uω (t), where Uω (t) is the GNS unitary operator which implements Θ on Hω . If {Mt }t∈Z is a K-sequence, then [217] 1. Pt ≤ Pt+1 for all t ∈ Z; 2. s − limt→+∞ Pt = 1l; 3. s − limt→+∞ Pt = | Ωω Ωω |. Proof: From the properties of the conditional expectations (see (5.44) in Proposition 5.2.2), it follows that Pt2 = Pt . That Pt† = Pt follows from the assumption that ω ◦ Et = ω; indeed, using (5.42) and (5.43), one gets

πω (A)Ωω | Pt πω (B)Ωω = ω(A† Et [B]) = ω(Et [A]† Et [B])) = ω(Et [A]† ) B) = Pt πω (A)Ωω | πω (B)Ωω ,

358

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

for all A ∈ A (thus on a dense subset of Hω ). Also, on a dense subset, it holds that Pt πω (A)| Ωω = Θt ◦ E0 ◦ Θ−t πω (A)| Ωω = Uω† (t) E0 [Uω (t)πω (A)Uω† (t)]| Ωω = Uω† (t) P0 Uω (t)πω (A)]| Ωω . This proves the second statement of the Proposition, while, of the last assertions, the ﬁrst one is a consequence of Mt ⊂ Mt+1 and the last two relations follow from lim πω (A)† | (Pt − 1l) |πω (B) = lim ω(A† (Et [B] − B)) = 0

t→+∞

t→+∞

†

lim πω (A) | (Pt − | Ωω Ωω |) |πω (B) = lim ω(A† Et [B]) −

t→−∞

t→+∞

−ω(A)ω(B) = 0 . In fact, these two limits imply weak-operator convergence of projections to projections which is equivalent to strong-operator convergence. Notice that the second limit holds since Et maps onto the trivial algebra when t → −∞ and ω(Et [B]) = ω(B). Corollary 7.1.2. Let (M, Θ, ω) be a von Neumann algebraic quantum Ksystem as speciﬁed above; then, for any ε > 0, A0 ∈ M0 and A ∈ M there exists T > 0 such that ? † ω(A0 Θt [A]) − ω(A0 )ω(A) ≤ ε ω(A0 A0 ) for all t ≤ −T . Proof: The result is a consequence of the second strong-operator limit in the previous proposition and of [217, 300] ω(A0 Θt [A]) = ω(A0 P0 Uω† (t)A) = ω(A0 Uω† (t) P−t A) , whence

ω(A0 Θt [A]) − ω(A0 )ω(A) = ω A0 Uω† (t) (Pt − | Ωω Ωω |) A ? ≤ ω(A0 A†0 ) (Pt − | Ωω Ωω |) A| Ωω . Corollary 7.1.3. Let (M, Θ, ω) be a von Neumann algebraic quantum Ksystem as speciﬁed above; then, it is weakly-mixing.

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

Proof:

359

Because of Remark 7.1.9, one need show lim ω(AΘt [B]) = ω(A) ω(B)

t±∞

∀A, B ∈ M .

Since {Mt }t∈Z is a K-sequence, let ε > 0 and choose Aε ∈ M0 and s ∈ Z large enough such that (A − Θs [Aε ])| Ωω | ≤ ε . Then, for t suﬃciently large, ω(AΘ−t [B]) − ω(A)ω(B) ≤ ω((A − Θs [Aε ])Θ−t [B]) + +ω(Aε Θ−(t+s) [B]) − ω(A)ω(B) ≤ 2ε B . This shows clustering when t → −∞; when t → +∞, one uses the modular automorphism to rewrite ω(AΘt [B]) = ω(Θ−t [A]B) = ω(σωi [B]θ−t [A]) , and then applies the previous argument.

Remarks 7.1.12. 1. The result in Corollary 7.1.2 is the maximum of uniformity one can achieve in clustering; indeed, if ? ≤ ε ω(BΘ [A]) − ω(B)ω(A) ω(B B † ) t for all t ≤ −T and B ∈ M, then B = Θt [A† ] would yield

0 = ω(A† A) − |ω(A)|2 = ω (A† − ω(A)∗ )(A − ω(A)) . As ω was assumed faithful, this gives A = ω(A)1l for all A. 2. By substituting A0 with Θs [A0 ] for ﬁxed s, the uniformity in Corollary 7.1.2 holds with respect to any ﬁxed Ms . 3. The structure of the nested sequence of Hilbert subspaces {Ht }t∈Z corresponding to the projections Pt very much resembles that arising from the Lebesgue spectrum of classical K-systems (see the discussion after Remark 2.3.5). However, the projections {Pt }t∈Z have been constructed by relying on the existence of ω-preserving conditional expectations Et : M → Mt . For a state like the tracial state which has trivial modular automorphism, they surely exist; however, this need not be true in general. Luckily, the previous results can also be proved without referring to the existence of a K-sequence of projections [220].

360

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Example 7.1.13. As sketched in Example 2.3.3.4, the classical hyperbolic automorphisms of the torus are K-systems. Aided by this fact we shall show that, for rational values of the deformation parameter θ = p/q, their quantized versions (Mθ , Θ, ω) are algebraic von Neumann quantum Ksystems [44]. According to Example 7.1.6, we shall identify the classical automorphisms of the torus as triplets (M0 , ΘA , ω), where M0 is the von Neumann Abelian algebra of essentially bounded functions on T2 , ΘA is such that ΘA [f ](r) = f (A r), f ∈ M0 , and ω is the integration on T2 with respect to the uniform measure dr . Therefore, the K-partition characterizing them as K-systems amounts to the existence of a K-sequence {Nt }t∈Z of von Neumann subalgebras of M (see Deﬁnition 2.3.6). Because of the decomposition (7.49), let Mt ⊂ Mp/q be deﬁned, with obvious use of the notation, as Φq [Πs [Nt ]] Wp/q (s) . (7.82) Mt := s∈J(q)

In this way, the K-properties of the classical K-sequence {Nt }t∈Z would make the characterizing properties in Deﬁnition 7.1.10 also hold for the noncommutative sequence {Mt }t∈Z of subalgebras of Mp/q . The ﬁrst two conditions are in fact immediate, while the third one comes from the fact that (7.46) implies Πs [1l] = δs,0 . Unfortunately, one has ﬁrst to ensure that the Mt are subalgebras, namely that, if f, g ∈ Nt , also Φq [Πs [f ] Φq [Πt [g]] Wp/q (s) Wp/q (t) = s,t∈J(q)

=

s,t∈J(q)

=

Φq [Πs [f ] Φq [Πt [g]] Wp/q (q[s + t]) Wp/q (< s + t >) B C Φq Πs [f ] Φq [Πt [g] W0 (q[s + t]) Wp/q (< s + t >)

(7.83)

s,t∈J(q)

belongs to Mt . (q) To this purpose, consider the von Neumann subalgebra M0 ⊂ M0 2 consisting of those essentially bounded functions on T that satisfy (7.45). (q) Since M0 is mapped into itself by ΘA , the K-properties of the sequence (q) (q) {Nt }t∈Z extend to the sequence {Nt := Nt ∩ M0 }t∈Z , whence the triplets (q) (M0 , ΘA , ω) are also K-systems 3 . Further, let B denote the (von Neumann) subalgebra generated by the characteristic functions χΔ(s) of the partition of the torus into atoms si + 1 si ≤ xi ≤ , i = 1, 2 , Δ(s) := r : q q 3

Here, ΘA and ω denote the restrictions of the dynamics and the state to M0

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

where sin ∈ J(q); set Bt := ΘA (B), Bt] := von Neumann subalgebras

$t s=−∞

361

Bs . Finally, construct the

t := Nt(q) ∨ Bt] , N t }t∈Z . and consider the sequence {N t ⊂ N t+1 directly follows from the This is a K-sequence for M0 ; indeed, N $ (q) t = M is a analogous property of the K-sequence {N }t∈Z , while t∈Z N $ (q) (q) consequence of the fact that t∈Z Nt = M0 together with the observation $ (q) t . Finally, % that M0 = M0 ∨ B ⊂ t∈Z N t∈Z Nt = {λ1l} follows from the fact that, according to Proposition 2.3.5, Tail (B) = {λ1l}. t in the place of Nt in (7.82); usLet us now insert the subalgebras N t , s ∈ J(q), let us consider ing (7.47), for f ∈ N Πs [f ] W0 (s) =

1 (q) γt [f ] e−2 π i s·t/q . q2 t∈J(q)

Now, it turns out that the map in (7.45) fulﬁls

s As < As > γs(q) [ΘA [f ]] (r) = ΘA [f ] r + = f Ar + = f Ar + q q q B C (q) = ΘA γ [f ] (r) . (q)

Since γs maps the subalgebra B into itself for all s ∈ J(q), it turns out that, t , all the components in (7.82) also belong to N t . Therefore, with when f ∈ N f, g ∈ Nt , it follows that

t Πs [f ] W0 (s) Πt [g] W0 (t) = Πs [f ] Πt [g] W0 (q[s + t]) W0 (< s + t >) . N t) ∈Π<s+t> (N

This shows that the linear sets in (7.83) are subalgebras of Mp/q and completes the proof that the quantum dynamical triplets (Mp/q , ΘA , ω) are algebraic von Neumann quantum K-systems.

Remark 7.1.13. The reason why all quantized hyperbolic automorphisms of the torus are algebraic K-systems for rational deformation parameters is that the properties of their classical counterparts are inherited by the commutative subsystems (the centers) contained in (Mp/q , ΘA , ω). When the deformation parameter is irrational, this is no longer true and indeed one can prove that a part from countable sets of θ ∈ [0, 1] (Mθ , ΘA , ω) cannot be algebraic Ksystems [44].

362

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

7.1.5 Quantum Spin Chains As sketched in Example 7.1.1, the algebraic structure of quantum spin chains is as in Deﬁnition 2.2.5, the diﬀerence being that at each site of the onedimensional lattice indexed by the integers k ∈ Z, instead of diagonal matrix algebras, there remain assigned copies Ak of a same non-commutative algebra A. In the following, we shall consider A = Md (C), namely chains consisting of linear arrays of d-level quantum systems (or spins). The algebra AZ associated with the inﬁnite chain is the quasi-local C ∗ algebra which arises by taking the norm closure the ∗-algebra consisting -of ⊗(2 +1) , of operators from all local algebras A[− , ] := k=− Ak = Md (C) supported by the lattice sites in the interval [−, ]. If A0 denotes the strictly

·

local ∗ algebra ∈N A[− , ] , then AZ = A0 . - The local algebras A[− , ] = k=− Ak describe spin arrays located at ﬁnitely many lattice sites − ≤ k ≤ . Their elements are linear combinations of tensor products ⊗ k=− Ak , Ak ∈ Ak . If 0 ≤ ≤ p, the local algebra A[− , ] can be embedded into A[−p,p] as follows; we shall denote by 1l[i,j] := ⊗jk=i 1lk ,

1li−1] := ⊗i−1 k=−∞ 1lk ,

1l[j+1 := ⊗∞ k=j+1 1lk

(7.84)

the tensor products of identities at sites from i to j, from −∞ to i − 1 and from j + 1 to +∞, respectively. Then, A[− , ] is embedded into A[−p,p] as 1l[−p,− −1] ⊗ A[− , ] ⊗ 1l[ +1,p] . Analogously, A[− , ] is embedded into A0 as 1l− −1] ⊗ A[− , ] ⊗ 1l[ +1 . In the following, for sake of simplicity, we shall often identify local algebras A[− , ] with their embeddings, as well as their elements as elements of A0 . The dynamics over AZ is the shift automorphism Θσ : AZ → AZ Θσ (A[− , ] ) = A[− +1, +1]

⊗ 1l[ +2 . Θσ 1l− −1] ⊗ ⊗ k=− Ak ⊗ 1l[ +1 = 1l− ] ⊗ ⊗ +1 A k k=− +1 In order to complete the description of quantum spin chains as quantum dynamical systems we need provide AZ with translation invariant states, that is with positive functionals ω : AZ → C such that ω ◦ Θσ = ω. Given any such state, its restrictions ω[i,j] := ω |`A[i,j] to a local subalgebras A[i,j] := -j ⊗(j−i+1) . Since it originates from k=i Ak are density matrices ρ[i,j] ∈ Md (C) the global state ω, the family of ρ[i,j] is automatically compatible with the embedding of A[i,j] ⊂ A[i,j+1] , that is they fulﬁl the condition / 0 ω (Ai ⊗ · · · Aj ⊗ 1lj+1 ) = Tr[i,j+1] ρ[i,j+1] Ai ⊗ · · · Aj ⊗ 1lj+1 // 0 0 = Tr[i,j] Tr{j+1} ρ[i,j+1] Ai ⊗ · · · Aj / 0 = Tr[i,j] ρ[i,j] Ai ⊗ · · · Aj , where Tr[i,j] indicates that the trace has to be performed with respect to an orthonormal basis of the Hilbert space (Cd )⊗(j−i+1) associated with the spins at sites i ≤ k ≤ j. In other words,

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

Tr{j+1} (ρ[i,j+1] ) = ρ[i,j] ,

∀i, j ∈ Z .

363

(7.85)

Further, translation invariance implies ω(Θσ (Ai ⊗ · · · Aj )) = ω(1li ⊗ Ai ⊗ · · · Aj ) / 0 = Tr[i,j+1] ρ[i,j+1] 1li ⊗ Ai ⊗ · · · Aj ⊗ 1lj+1 // 0 0 = Tr[i,j] Tr{i} ρ[i,j+1] Ai ⊗ · · · Aj / 0 = ω(Ai ⊗ · · · Aj ) = Tr[i,j] ρ[i,j] Ai ⊗ · · · Aj , whence the local states satisfy ∀i, j ∈ Z .

Tr{i} (ρ[i,j+1] ) = ρ[i+1,j+1] = ρ[i,j] ,

(7.86)

Vice versa, if AZ is equipped with a family of local states ρ[i,j] , i, j ∈ Z, satisfying (7.85) and (7.86), then they deﬁne a translation invariant state ω on AZ such that its restrictions to local subalgebras satisfy ω |`A[i,j] = ρ[i,j] [10]. Deﬁnition 7.1.11 (Quantum Spin Chains). Quantum spin chains are dynamical systems represented by algebraic triplets (AZ , Θσ , ω) where 1. AZ is a quasi-local algebra with a d-level system at each site; 2. Θσ : AZ → AZ is the shift-automorphism over AZ ; 3. ω : AZ → C is a translation invariant state over AZ Example 7.1.14. Quantum spin chains turn out to be C ∗ algebraic quantum K-systems; indeed, one argues in the same way as for classical spin chains (see Remark 2.3.5). The K-sequence consist of the quasi-local algebras At := Θσt (A0 ) where A0 ⊂ AZ is the quasi-local algebra which arises as the C ∗ inductive limit of the local matrix algebras A[p,q] , with p ≤ q ≤ 0. If ω is a factor state, (AZ , Θσ , ω) is also a von Neumann algebraic quantum K-system. This can be seen as follows: denote by A[t the quasi-local algebra generated by all matrix algebras of the form A[p,q] with t ≤ p ≤ q and set Mt := πω (At ) , M[t := πω (A[t ) , Mt := (Mt ) for the various commutants. Clearly, the ﬁrst two conditions in the second part of Deﬁnition 7.1.10 are satisﬁed. The third one is obtained as follows: since M[t+1 ⊂ Mt , one ﬁnds [220]

Mt = Mt = (Mt ∪ M[t+1 ) = Mt ∪ M[t+1 t∈Z

t∈Z

t∈Z

t∈Z

t∈Z

= M ∪ M = (M ∩ M ) = λ1l for ω has been assumed to be a factor whence the center Zω = M ∩ M is trivial. This is not true in general; for instance, in the case of Example 7.1.11, the state (7.75) is not a factor and the von Neumann system is not clustering. Therefore, according to Corollary 7.1.3, (M, θσ , ω) cannot be a von Neummann algebraic quantum K-system.

364

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Ergodic Quantum Spin Chains In Remark 7.1.8, we have seen that asymptotic Abelianess allows to uniquely decompose non-extremal invariant states into their ergodic components. As a concrete application, consider a quantum spin-chain (AZ , Θσ , ω) whose state ω is extremal invariant (see Deﬁnition 7.1.8) with respect to the lattice translation by one site, Θσ , but not with respect to lattice translations by sites, Θσ , for some ∈ N. We prove the following result [58].

Proposition 7.1.9. Let (AZ , Θσ , ω) be an ergodic quantum spin-chain. For any ∈ N the state ω can be written as a convex decomposition ω=

n −1 1 ωj , n j=0

(7.87)

where n divides and the ωj are shift-invariant states over the spin-chain which are ergodic with respect to Θσ . Consider the commutant (R ω ) := πω (AZ ) ∩ Uω ) of the covari

ance algebra (see Deﬁnition 7.1.5) R ω := πω (A) ∪ Uω (Z) which is built Proof:

by means of the C ∗ algebra πω (AZ ) and the group of unitary GNS operators Uωn , n ∈ N, instead of Uω (Z). Since AZ is norm-asymptotic Abelian and ω is assumed not to be Θσ ergodic, because of Corollary 7.1.1, it turns out that R ω = {λ1l}. Let {Qi }i∈I be a decomposition of the identity by orthogonal projections in (R ω ) ; then, the cardinality of I, n , must fulﬁl n ≤ . Indeed, let P denote any of the Qi , i ∈ I, and set Pj := Uωj P (Uω† )j , 0 ≤ j ≤ − 1. Since P commutes with πω (AZ ), one derives πω (X)Pj = Uωj πω (Θj [X])P (Uω† )j = Uωj P πω (Θj [X])(Uω† )j = Pj πω (X) , for all X ∈ AZ . Moreover, Pj commutes with Uω , whence Pj ∈ (R ω ) for all $ −1 0 ≤ j ≤ − 1 and so does P := j=0 Pj , namely the smallest one among the projections Q such that Q ≥ Pj for all 0 ≤ j ≤ − 1. By decomposing n ∈ Z as n = m + r, 0 ≤ r ≤ − 1, it follows that −1 † n Uωn {Pj } −1 j=0 (Uω ) = {Pj }j=0 .

Therefore, P is Θσ -invariant, whence P = 1l as ω is ergodic with respect to Θσ -ergodicity of ω. Then, (7.61) in the ergodic list yields 1 = Ω | P |Ω ≤

n −1 j=0

Ω | Pj |Ω = Ω | P |Ω .

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

365

Applying this argument to each of the Qj , one obtains n . Qi |Ω ≥ 1 = Ω | i∈I

Since A is norm-asymptotic Abelian, from the second step in the proof of Proposition 7.1.5, one deduces that (R ω ) is Abelian. Let then Qj , 0 ≤ j ≤ n − 1 ≤ , be its minimal projections (see Example 5.3.4.1) with Q0 such that q0 := Ω | Q0 |Ω ≤ qj := Ω | Qj |Ω for all j > 0. Then, introduce the set S0 := j ∈ Z : Uωj Q0 (Uω† )j = Q0 . It follows that S0 ⊇ Z; further, set k0 := min{0 < j ∈ S0 }. Then, ∝ k0 ; otherwise, = p k0 + q, for some p ≥ 0 and 0 < q < k0 , so that q ∈ S0 thus contradicting the minimality of k0 . Furthermore, set Q0,j := Uωj Q0 (Uω† )j, 0 ≤ j ≤ k ; Q0,j belongs to (Rω ) . If it is not a minimal projector Qi(j) , then, Q0,j = i Qi thus contradicting $k0 −1 k0 −1 Qj = j=0 Qj (the q0 ≤ qj when j > 0. Thus, Q0,j = Qi(j) . If Q0 := j=0 projectors are now orthogonal), it follows that, as shown before, Q0 ∈ (R ω ) and hence Q0 = 1l. Consequently, because of the uniqueness of the orthogonal decomposition of the identity in an Abelian algebra, it turns out that k0 = n whence Qj = Uωj Q0 (Uω† )j and q0 = qj = n−1 . One can now introduce the states on AZ deﬁned by / 0 AZ X → ωj (X) := n Ω | Qj πω (X) |Ω = Ω | Q0 πω Θσ−j (X) |Ω = ω0 (Θσj [X]) , for all X ∈ AZ . It turns out that the ωj ’s are all Θσ -ergodic, otherwise it would be possible to further convexly decompose them (hence ω) into Θσ invariant components: ωj =

i

λji ωji ,

ω=

n −1 j=0

i

λji ωji . n

As explained in Remark 7.1.5.2, the decomposers ωji correspond to projectors λji = Ω | Pji |Ω and Pji ∈ (R ω ) such that n λji ωji (X) = n Ω | Pji πω (X) |Ω ≤ ωj (X) = n Ω | Pj πω (X) |Ω ,

∀X ∈ AZ .

As the projections Pji and Pj belong to the commutant πω (AZ ) , by choosing X = Y † Z one gets

366

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Ω | πω (Y )† Pji πω (Z) |Ω ≤ Ω | πω (Y )† Pj πω (Z) |Ω . Since Y and Z are arbitrary elements of AZ and the vectors πω (X)| Ω are dense in the GNS Hilbert space, it turns out that Pji ≤ Pj . But the Pj ’s are minimal projections, thus Pji = Pj . Finitely Correlated States An interesting class of translation-invariant states on a quantum spin-chain AZ is constructed as follows [113]. Let (B, ρ, E) be an auxiliary triplet, where 1. B is a ﬁnite dimensional algebra that we shall ﬁx to be the algebra Mb (C) of b × b matrices acting on Cb ; 2. ρ is a state on B identiﬁed by a density matrix: ρ(B) = Tr(ρ B). 3. E : A → B is a completely positive map such that E(1lA ⊗ 1lB ) = 1lB

(7.88)

ρ ◦ E(1lA ⊗ B) = ρ(B) ,

(7.89)

where 1lA,B denote the identities of the algebras A, respectively B. Since they result from iteratively composing CPU maps, the following maps

(7.90) E(n) := E ◦ idA ⊗ E(n−1) : A⊗n → B , n ≥ 1 , E(0) := E , are also CPU . Consequently, the functionals ρ ◦ E(n) on A⊗n are positive ⊗n and normalized. They are thus states on the local -algebras A : moreover, ⊗n Mb (C) can be obtained the corresponding density matrices in Md (C) by duality: in fact,

(7.91) TrB ρ E[A ⊗ B] = TrA⊗B F[ρ] A ⊗ B , where F : S(B) → S(A ⊗ B) is the trace-preserving dual map of E which transforms states over B into states over A ⊗ B. Analogously, to the CPU maps E(n) there correspond the dual maps F(n) : S(B) → S(A⊗(n+1) ⊗ B) given by F(n) := (idA⊗n ⊗ F) ◦ F(n−1) , n ≥ 1 ,

F(0) := F .

Consider the states ω[− , ] deﬁned on the local subalgebras A[− , ] by

ω[− , ] (⊗ k=− Ak ) := TrB ρ E(n) [(⊗ k=− Ak ) ⊗ 1lB ]

(7.92) = TrB F(n−1) [ρ] (⊗ k=− Ak ) ⊗ 1lB . As a consequence of (7.88) and (7.89), they satisfy the compatibility relations (7.85), that is ω[− −1, +1] |`A[− , ] = ω[− , ] , and the translationinvariance conditions (7.86), namely ω[− , ] = ω[− +1, +1] . We illustrate these properties by means of the simplest non trivial case and choose A[1,2] ; then

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

367

ω(A ⊗ 1l2 ) = TrB ρ E[A ⊗ E[1lA ⊗ 1lB ]] = TrB ρ E[A ⊗ 1lB ] = ω(A)

ω(1l1 ⊗ A) = TrB ρ E[1lA ⊗ E[A ⊗ 1lB ]] = TrB ρ E[A ⊗ 1lB ] = ω(A) . Therefore, the family of local states ω[− , ] deﬁnes a global invariant state overt the quantum spin chain AZ . Deﬁnition 7.1.12 (Finitely Correlated States). Given a triplet (B, ρ, E) as speciﬁed before, all functionals ω on AZ locally deﬁned on A[i,j] by

ω(⊗jk=i Ak ) = TrB ρ E(j−i) [⊗jk=i Ak ] , are translation invariant states called ﬁnitely correlated (FCS).

Remark 7.1.14. The speciﬁcation ﬁnitely correlated refers to the ﬁnite dimensionality of the auxiliary algebra B. Without such a restriction, every translation-invariant state over AZ would be given as in the previous deﬁnition. Indeed, one could then choose B := A[1,+∞] , ρ := ω |`A[0,+∞] and as E the natural embedding of any A[i,j] into A[1,+∞] . Because of translation-invariance, ω |`A[i,j] = ω |`A[1,j−i+1] ; therefore, the local structure of ω is determined by the density matrices ρ[1,n] corresponding to ω |`A[1,n] . They are recursively obtained by means of the dual maps (7.92),

ρ[1,n] := TrB F(n−1) [ρ] . (7.93) In order to take a closer look at the recursive structure of FCS, we make use of the Kraus-Stinespring representation (5.195); concretely, † † E(A ⊗ B) = V j A ⊗ B Vj , Vj Vj = 1lB (7.94) j∈J

Vj†

j∈J

: C → C ⊗ C , b

d

b

Vj†

: C ⊗ Cb → Cb , d

(7.95)

where J is an index set of ﬁnite cardinality. With |ψiA , i = 1, , . . . , d and |ψkB , k = 1, 2, . . . , b two ONBs in Cd , respectively Cb , the action of Vj can be represented in the following two ways, Vj | ψiB =

b

A | Ψj,ik ⊗ | ψkB

(7.96)

B | ψ A ⊗ | Ψj,i ,

(7.97)

k=1

Vj | ψiB =

d =1

368

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

A B where the Ψj,ik , Ψj,i ∈ Cd are in general neither orthogonal nor normalised. From (7.96) it follows that b

Vj =

i,k=1

Thus, j∈J Vj† Vj = 1l whence hand, from (7.91) one gets b j∈J

=

A | ψkB Ψj,ik ⊗ ψkB | .

i,k=1

F[ρ] =

b

Vj† =

A | Ψj,ik ⊗ ψkB ψkB | ,

b

A k=1 Ψj,pk

j∈J

A | Ψj,qk = δpq . On the other

A A

ψpB | ρ |ψkB | Ψj,pq Ψj,ki | ⊗ | ψqB ψiB |

i,k=1 p,q=1

b b

A A r | Ψj, q Ψj, i | ⊗ | ψqB ψiB | ,

(7.98)

j∈J ,p=1 i,q=1

where we have chosen the eigenprojections of ρ as ONB in Cb , b conveniently B B that is ρ = =1 r | ψ ψ |. As condition (7.89) amounts to TrA F[ρ] = ρ, b A A A must also satisfy j∈J =1 r Ψj, i | Ψj, q = δiq rq . the vectors Ψj,ik By recursively inserting (7.98) into (7.93), one gets the following expression for the local density matrices ρ[1,n] , ρ[1,n] =

b

(n)

j r | Ψ p

(n)

j Ψ p

|,

(7.99)

j (n) ∈IJn ,p=1 (n)

j | Ψ p

:=

| ΨjA1 , i1 ⊗ | ΨjA2 ,i1 i2 ⊗ | ΨjA2 ,i2 i3 ⊗ · · ·

(n−1) i(n−1) ∈Ωb

· · · ⊗ | ΨjAn−1 ,in−2 in−1 ⊗ | ΨjAn ,in−1 p .

(7.100)

Remark 7.1.15. Notice that, despite the recursive structure involving more and more factor components, for each n-tuple j (n) = j1 j2 · · · jn ∈ IJn there (n)

j are at most b2 vectors Ψ p

∈ (Cd )⊗n . (n)

(n)

j j need not be normalized, Ψ p = 1; Example 7.1.15. The vectors Ψ p taking this fact into account, (7.99) provides the following natural decomposition of the local restrictions of FCS states,

ρ[1,n] =

j (n) ∈IJn

p(j

(n)

(n) ) ρj[1,n]

,

(n) ρj[1,n]

=

(n)

b ,p=1

j r Ψ p 2 b ,p=1

r Ψ

(n)

j P p

j (n) 2

p(j (n) )

, (7.101)

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics (n)

(n)

j where P p

369

(n)

j projects onto | Ψ p

j /Ψ p . It follows that the support of

(n)

each ρj[1,n] has dimension at most b2 . By deﬁning the completely positive

(non-unital) maps A ⊗ B A ⊗ 1l → Ej [A ⊗ B] := Vj† A ⊗ B Vj ∈ B, the weights p(j (n) ), j (n) = j1 j2 · · · jn ∈ IJn , can be rewritten as p(j (n) ) = Since

b

r Ψ j

(n)

2 = Tr ρ[1,n] Ej1 ◦ Ej2 ◦ · · · Ejn [1lA⊗n ⊗ 1lB ] .

=1

j∈J

Ej = E, from (7.88) and (7.89) it follows that the probabilities

π (n) = {p(j (n) }j (n) ∈I n deﬁne a shift invariant global state ωπ over the Abelian J algebra of generated by tensor products of inﬁnitely many card(J) × card(J) diagonal matrices, thus a classical spin chain (D⊗∞ J , Θσ , ωπ ). As regards the action of Vj in (7.97), we proceed as follows. Given the vectors | Ψ B j,i ∈ Cb , where j ∈ J, i = 1, 2, . . . , b and = 1, 2, . . . , d, let † † B ∈ Mb (C) be the matrix such that ψkB | vj |ψiB = ψkB | Ψj,k . Then, vj Vj =

d b

† | ψ A ⊗ vj | ψiB ψiB |

(7.102)

| ψiB ψ A | ⊗ ψiB |vj .

(7.103)

=1 i=1

Vj† =

d b =1 i=1

Then, (7.88) implies 1lB = the dual map F reads F[ρ] =

j∈J

Vj† Vj = 1lB =

d

d

j∈J

=1

† | ψpA ψqA | ⊗ vjp ρ vjq .

† vj vj . Further,

(7.104)

j∈J p,q=1

It then turns out that, in terms of the vj s, the translation-invariant condi d † tion (7.89) amounts to j∈J =1 vj ρ vj = ρ. Finally, using (7.93), the local density matrices ρ[1,n] exhibit the following recursive structure,

(7.105) | ΨkA(n) ΨiA(n) | TrB vj†(n) k(n) ρ vj (n) i(n) , ρ[1,n] = j (n) ∈I n J (n) k(n) ,i(n) ∈Ω d

where | ΨiA(n) := | ψkA1 ⊗ | ψkA2 ⊗ · · · | ψkAn and vj (n) i(n) := vj1 i1 vj2 i2 · · · vjn in . The above expression is particularly suited to deal with Deﬁnition 7.1.13 (Purely Generated FCS). A FCS ω is called purely generated if the deﬁning CPU E consists of only one Kraus operator [113]: E(A ⊗ B) = V † A ⊗ B V .

370

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

In terms of (7.102) and (7.103), the map E and its dual F read E[A ⊗ B] =

a

ψiA

| A |ψjA

vi B

vk†

, F[ρ] =

i,k=1

a

| ψkA ψiA | ⊗ vk† ρ vi ,

i,k=1

whereby compatibility (7.88) and translation-invariance (7.89) impose a

vi vi† = 1lB ,

i=1

a

vi† ρ vi = ρ .

(7.106)

i=1

The states ρA⊗B := F[ρ] on A⊗B and ρ[1,2] = TrB (idA ⊗F◦F[ρ]) on A[1,2] can be explicitly written out. Notice that, because of translation-invariance, ρ[1,2] describes any two nearest neighbor spins: ⎞ ⎛ v1 ρ v1† . . . v1 ρ va† ⎜ · a ··· · ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ρA⊗B = | ψiA ψjA | ⊗ vi ρ vj† = ⎜ ··· · ⎟ ⎟ (7.107) ⎜ · ⎝ · i,j=1 ··· · ⎠ † va ρ v1 . . . va ρ va† ⎛ ⎞ R1ij1 . . . R1ija a ··· · ⎟ ⎜ · ⎜ ⎟ ρ[1,2] = | ψiA ψjA | ⊗ ⎜ · ··· · ⎟ , (7.108) ⎝ ⎠ i,j=1 · ··· · Raij1 . . . Raija where Rij k := Tr(vi† vj† ρ v vk ). Example 7.1.16 (AKLT Model). A typical instance of the recursive ﬁnitely correlated structure is provided by the AKLT-model [4, 5], a spin-chain consisting of spin 1 particles with nearest-neighbor interactions described by the Hamiltonian N −1 2

2 1 M 1 1 S k · S k+1 + S k · S k+1 + H= , (7.109) 2 6 3 k=1

where S k = (S1k , S2k , S3k ) represents the spin operator for the k-th spin along the chain. The possible values of the total spin of two nearest neighbors are 0, 1 (k) (k) (k) and 2 with corresponding orthogonal projectors P0 , P1 , respectively P2 . Therefore, since

2 (k) (k) (k) (k) (k) (k) S k · S k+1 = −2P0 − P1 + P2 , S k · S k+1 = 4P0 + P1 + P2 (k)

(k)

(k)

and P0 + P1 + P2 = 1, it follows that the interaction between sites k (k) and k + 1 amounts to the projection P2 onto the subspace with total spin 2.

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

371

The spin 1 at site k can be described by means of two spins 1/2, labeled by k, k, by projecting with Pkk from C4 onto the 3-dimensional subspace (−) orthogonal to the singlet state |Ψk,k of the pair of spins 1/2 at k and k. Further, after associating the spins 1 at k, k + 1 with the pairs k, k, respectively k + 1, k + 1 of spins 1/2, one imposes valence bonds between the pairs, by (−) requiring that the spins 1/2 at k and k + 1 be in a singlet state |Ψk,k+1 . It follows that the common state of the pairs k, k and k + 1, k + 1, namely of (k) two neighboring spins 1 is eigenstate of P2 with eigenvalue 0. Further, by appending two spins 1/2 at the opposite ends, 0 and N + 1, of the spin 1 chain, it thus follows that the vector state

(−) (−) (−) (−) −1 ⊗N P (7.110) k=1 k,k+1 |Ψ0 1 ⊗ |Ψ12 ⊗ · · · |ΨN −1N ⊗ |ΨN N +1 is the unique ground state for the Hamiltonian H=

N −1 k=1

(2)

Pk

+

2 2 1 + s0 · S 1 + 1 + sN +1 · S N 3 3

(7.111)

which is obtained from 7.109 by adding two boundary interactions involving the boundary spin 1/2 operators s0 and sN +1 . In the limit of an inﬁnitely long spin-chain, the above valence-bond construction provides a unique, translation-invariant ground state of the AKLT-model, known as valencebond solid, which exhibits short-range correlations and an energy gap. In the limit of an inﬁnite spin-chain, its ground state, the valence-bond solid, corresponds to the triplet (B, ρ, E) with B = M2 , ρ(B) = 12 Tr(B) and E : M3 ⊗ M2 A ⊗ B → V † (A ⊗ B)V ∈ M2 ,

(7.112)

where, with |b1,2 ∈ C2 the eigenvectors of the Pauli matrix σ3 relative to the eigenvalues 1, −1 and |a1,2,3 the eigenvectors of Sz relative to the eigenvalues −1, 0, 1, 2 2 1 1 |a3 , b1 − √ |a2 , b1 , |a1 , b1 . V |b1 = V |b2 = √ |a2 , b2 − 3 3 3 3 (7.113) From (7.102), with σ± := (σ1 ± iσ2 )/2, it thus follows that 2 2 1 σ+ , v2 = − √ σ3 , v3 = σ− . v1 = − (7.114) 3 3 3 One can thus check that the conditions (7.106) are satisﬁed and, moreover, that the identity matrix 12 ∈ M2 is the only solution of the second relation in (7.106) in agreement with the translation invariance and purity of the valence bond solid. Further, from (7.107) one explicitly computes

372

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

⎛

ρA⊗B

⎛ 1−σ 1⎝√ 3 = 2σ+ 6 0

√ 2σ− √1 2σ+

0 0 √0 0 ⎞ 2 0 ⎜ 0 √2 √0 1⎜ 2 1 0 ⎜0 2σ− ⎠ = ⎜ 0 √1 6 ⎜0 0 1 + σ3 ⎝ 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 √ 2 1 0

⎞ 0 0⎟ ⎟ 0⎟ ⎟ , 0⎟ ⎠ 0 0 (7.115)

while (7.108) gives the nearest neighbor states ⎛

ρ[1,2]

0 0 ⎜0 1 ⎜ ⎜0 0 ⎜ 0 −1 1⎜ ⎜ = ⎜0 0 9⎜ ⎜0 0 ⎜ ⎜0 0 ⎝ 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 −1 0 2 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1 1 0 0 2 −1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 −1 0 1 0

⎞ 0 0⎟ ⎟ 0⎟ ⎟ 0⎟ ⎟ 0⎟ . ⎟ 0⎟ ⎟ 0⎟ ⎠ 0 0

(7.116)

Remark 7.1.16. Finitely correlated states are a useful arena for investigating the behavior of entanglement in quantum spin chains for these are determined by the triplet (B, ρ, E) (see [38, 204]). Furthermore, they are particular important as ground states of certain solid state Hamiltonians whereby one is interested in either the relations between entanglement and long-range order eﬀects [227] or in the possibility to create entanglement between distant sites by suitable local measurements [241].

Price-Powers Shifts The so-called Price-Powers shift [246, 247] are quantum dynamical systems described by an inﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebra Ag , whose building blocks are the identity operator 1l and operators ei , i = N, satisfying ei = e∗i ,

e2i = 1l .

(7.117)

Their algebraic properties are determined by a function g : N0 → {0, 1} ,

g(0) = 0 ,

(7.118)

called bitstream: according to its values, diﬀerent ei ’s commute or anticommute (7.119) ei ej = (−)g(|i−j|) ej ei , ∀i, j ∈ N .

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

373

By means of the above relations, every product of ﬁnitely many ei ’s can be reduced (up to a sign) to an operator of the form Wi = ei1 ei2 · · · ein ,

(7.120)

where i = i1 i2 · · · in ∈ N∗ stands for any choice of ﬁnitely many indices such that i1 < i2 < . . . < in : i will be called the support of Wi . It is convenient for later purposes to explicitly compute the commutator of two operators Wi and Wj with supports i = i1 i2 · · · in and j = j1 j2 · · · jm :

n m [Wi , Wj ] = Wi Wj 1 − (−) p=1 q=1 g(|ip −jq |) . (7.121) By means of the operators Wi one constructs ﬁnite-dimensional local subalgebras. Indeed, again by means of (7.117) and (7.119), products of Wi , with i’s consisting of indices from a same interval [p, q], p ≤ q, reduce up to a sign to some other Wi from the same interval. Thus, the algebra A[p,q] generated by Wi with i from [p, q] is a ﬁnite-dimensional unital C ∗ algebra that can be embedded into the spin algebra M2 (C)⊗(q−p+1 . This becomes apparent by representing the operators ej by means of tensor products of Pauli matrices: ej =

j−1 ,

(σzg(j−i) )i ⊗ (σx )j ⊗ 1l[j+1 .

(7.122)

i=1

Since σz σx = −σx σz , one can check that the relations (7.119) are indeed satisﬁed. The local C ∗ algebras generate the ∗-algebra A∗ = A[1,n] , n≥1

and -∞by norm closure (for instance as a subalgebra of the quantum spin chain n=1 M2 (C)) the quasi-local algebra Ag := A∗

·

.

(7.123)

As for quantum spin chains the dynamics on Ag is given by the shift to the right of the support of the operators Wi : Wi → Θσt [Wi ] =: Wi+t = ei1 +t ei2 +t · · · ein +t ,

t∈N.

(7.124)

Proposition 7.1.10. Let W∅ := 1l; the linear functional ω : Ag → C obtained by setting (7.125) ω(Wi ) = δi,∅ and by linearly extending it to A∗ deﬁnes a tracial Θσ -invariant state on Ag . This is the only tracial state on Ag if and only if the following property ∗ holds: n for all ﬁnite supports i = i1 i2 · · · in ∈ N there exists k ∈ N such that =1 g(|k − i |) is odd.

374

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Proof: The positivity of ω can be checked by setting W = and considering ω(W † W ) = c∗i cj ω(Wi† Wj ) .

i ci Wi , ci

∈C

i,j

ω(Wi†

The expectations Wj ) vanish unless Wi† Wj = 1l which can be true only if each eik in Wi is matched by an ej in Wj . Thus, ω(Wi† Wj ) = δi,j whence ω(W † W ) ≥ 0. Therefore, ω is positive, thus continuous (see (5.49)) and can be extended by continuity to the whole of Ag . That ω ◦ Θσ = ω follows directly from (7.124) and (7.125). Such a state has the tracial property ω(Wi Wj ) = ω(Wj Wi ). and that for all Suppose that a state ω on Ag has the tracial property n ﬁnite supports i = i1 i2 · · · in ∈ N∗ there exists k such that =1 g(|k − i |) is odd, then [10] using (7.117) and (7.119), one gets ω (Wi ) = ω (e2k Wi ) = ω (ek Wi ek ) n

= (−)

=1

g(|k−i |)

ω (e2k Wi ) = − ω (Wi ) .

Therefore, ω (Wi ) = 0 for all Wi = 1l whence ω = ω. i2 · · · in such that for all k ∈ N Viceversa, if there exists a support i = i 1 n g(|k − i |) is even, then (7.121) implies that Wi commutes with A∗ and =1 thus with Ag , whence, setting W := 1l + Wi (ω(W ) = 1)), it turns out that Ag Wj → ω (Wj ) := ω(W Wj ) ,

Wj ∈ Ag ,

deﬁnes another state on Ag with the tracial property.

Remark 7.1.17. The property that ensures the uniqueness of the tracial state ω deﬁned by (7.125) is guaranteed by non-periodic bitstreams [222]; we shall assume this in the following. Deﬁnition 7.1.14 (Price-Powers

Shifts). We shall call Price-Powers shifts the dynamical triplets Ag , Θσ , ω constructed as above with a unique invariant tracial state ω. Examples 7.1.17. [13] 1. The von Neumann algebras Mg := πω (Ag ) that arise from the strong closure of Ag in the GNS construction based on ω are hyperﬁnite. By extending Θ and ω to Mg one gets von Neumann triplets (Mg , Θ, ω) with ω still a unique tracial state. 2. If g ≡ 0 then (Mg , Θσ , ω) is an algebraic version of the classical balanced two-valued Bernoulli shift (Ω2 , Tσ , μ). The von Neumann algebra M0 is 1l ± ei generated by the projections pi := which are orthogonal for a 2 same index i and otherwise commute.

7.1 Observables, States and Dynamics

375

3. If g = 0, because of the existence of a unique normalized trace, all Mg are hyperﬁnite factors of type II1 . Indeed, their center Zg := Mg ∩ Mg = ∅, otherwise there would be a positive Z ∈ Zg with ω(Z) > 0 such that ω(Z Wi ) gives a diﬀerent tracial state on Mg contradicting ωZ (Wi ) := ω(Z) the uniqueness of ω: ω(Wj Z Wi ) ω(Z Wj Wi ) ω(Z Wi Wj ) = = ω(Z) ω(Z) ω(Z) = ωZ (Wj Wi ) .

ωZ (Wi Wj ) =

4. If g(1) ≡ 1 then Ag amounts to a discrete Fermi algebra endowed with an inﬁnite temperature state. Indeed, ei ej + ej ei = 0 if i = j so that the operators e2i−1 + i e2i e2i−1 − i e2i , a†i := , ai := 2 2 i ≥ 1, satisfy the CAR (5.62). Moreover, the expectations δij 2 are those of a Fermionic KMS state at inﬁnite temperature (see Example (7.1.3)). 5. The bitstream can be chosen such that the von Neumann dynamical triplets (Ag , Θσ , ω) are asymptotically highly anti-commutative [222]. This means the following: there exists a subset S ⊂ Ag such that 1) the set 1l∪S is dense in Ag and 2) for any S ∈ S, ε > 0 and N ∈ N there exist 0 < n1 < n2 < · · · < nN ∈ N such that the anti-commutators satisfy 5 5 5 ni † 5 5 Θσ [S ] , Θσnj [S] 5 ≤ ε ω(a†i aj ) =

for all ni = nj . In this case the tracial state ω turns out to be the only state which is invariant under the shift Θσ . Indeed, choose S ∈ S and set N 1 ni X := Θ [S], then N i=1 σ 5 5 5 2 1 5 5 † 5 5 ni † 5 5X X + X X † 5 ≤ S2 + 2 5 Θ [S ] , Θnj [S] 5 N N i=j

2 ε(N − 1) S2 + . N N Further, if ν is a translation-invariant state on Ag , then ν(X) = ν(S); thus, by applying (5.49), ? ?

ω(X † X + X X † ) 1 ν(X † X) + ν(X X † ) ≤ |ν(S)| = |ν(X)| ≤ 2 2 2 ε(N − 1) S + . ≤ N 2N ≤

376

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Because of the arbitrariness of N and ε > 0, it follows that ν(S) = 0 for all S ∈ S and because of the assumed density of the set 1l ∪ S, ν coincides with ω as deﬁned in (7.125). Like in Example 7.1.12, Price-Powers shifts are weakly mixing for all bitstreams; indeed, because of the quasi-local structure of the algebra and the of the tracial property of ω, one need only study the asymptotic behavior of ω(Wi Θσ [Wj ]) = ω(Wi Wj+t ) . Clearly, for suﬃciently large t, i ∩ (j + t) = ∅, then lim ω(Wi Θσ [Wj ]) = 0 ,

t→+∞

unless i = j = ∅. As regards strong-mixing, it is convenient to consider strong-asymptotic Abelianess ﬁrst; namely, at its simplest, using (7.121), it turns out that

2 / 0 ω [ei , ej+t ]† [ei , ej+t ] = 1 − (−1)g(|j+t−i|) . Therefore, unlike for weak-asymptotic Abelianess, the possibility of strongasymptotic Abelianess depend on the asymptotic behavior of the bitstream; for instance, highly anti-commutative Price-Powers shifts cannot be strongly asymptotic Abelian.

7.2 von Neumann Entropy Rate As seen in the introduction to this chapter, the usual setting of quantum statistical mechanics consists of a quasi-local algebra A which is the C ∗ inductive limit of local C ∗ -algebras AV ⊆ B(HV ) of operators localized in ﬁnite volumes V ⊂ R3 ; also, A is equipped with a locally normal state, namely with a state whose local restriction to AV , ω |`AV is a density matrix ρV ∈ B+ 1 (HV ). Usually, ω is translation-invariant, that is ρV +a = ρV , where V + a denotes the volume V rigidly translated by a ∈ R3 (or by a ∈ Z3 in the case of a lattice system). Consider two disjoint volumes V1 and V2 and let V := V1 ∪ V2 ; then, AV = AV1 ⊗ AV2 and ρV1,2 = TrHV2,1 ρV , namely the states localized within V1,2 are obtained as marginal states of ρV localized within the larger volume V . Each local state ρV has von Neumann entropy S(V ) := S (ρV ) = −Tr(ρV log ρV ) ; then, the subadditivity of the von Neumann entropy, that is the upper bound in (5.161) reads S(V ) ≤ S(V1 ) + S(V2 ) , (7.126)

7.2 von Neumann Entropy Rate

377

where the equality holds if and only if ρV = ρV1 ⊗ ρV1 . In order to understand the meaning of strong subadditivity in this setting, consider two volumes V and U such that V2 := V ∩ U = ∅ and set V1 := V \ V2 , V3 := U \ V2 , W = V1 ∪ V2 ∪ V3 = U ∪ V . Since V1,2,3 are disjoint volumes, it follows that AW = AV1 ⊗ AV2 ⊗ AV3 , AV = AV1 ⊗ AV2 and AU = AV2 ⊗ AV3 ; further ρV2 = TrHV1 ⊗HV3 (ρW ) , ρV = TrHV3 (ρW ) , ρU = TrHV1 (ρW ) . Then (5.162) reads S(U ∪ V ) + S(V2 ) ≤ S(U ) + S(V ) .

(7.127)

In general, the von Neumann entropy of ρV diverges when V ↑ R3 (or V ↑ Z2 ); 3 3 on thus wonders whether the rate S(V )/|V | exists when the V ↑ R , Z , where |V | = V dr. Among the many ways a sequence of volumes may ﬁll 3 ), a convenient one [314] is to consider a family of the whole space R3 (or Z parallelepipeds V (a) := x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ R3 : −ai ≤ xi ≤ ai , where a ∈ R3+ and then to let each ai → +∞ so that V (a) → R3 . Proposition 7.2.1 (Mean von Neumann Entropy). [314] If (A, ω) is a quasi-local shift-dynamical system with a locally normal translation invariant state ω, its mean von Neumann entropy is given by s(ω) :=

lim

V (a)→R3

S(V (a)) S(V (a)) = inf . |V (a)| V (a) |V (a)|

(7.128)

Proof: [314] Because of translationinvariance, in (7.128) we can consider parallelepipeds of the form V (a) = x ∈ R3 : 0 ≤ xi ≤ ai . Choose ε > 0 and a parallelepiped V (a0 ) in such a way that s(ω) = inf

V (a)

S(V (a0 )) S(V (a)) ≥ −ε . |V (a)| |V (a0 )|

(∗)

By decomposing R+ ai = ni ai0 + bi with ni ∈ N and 0 ≤ bi ≤ ai0 , any other V (a) can be written as the union of disjoint parallelepipeds Vk (a0 ) ∪ Vb (a0 ) V (a) = 0≤k1 ≤n1 −1 0≤k2 ≤n2 −1 0≤k3 ≤n3 −1

Vk (a0 ) := x ∈ R3 : ki ai0 ≤ xi ≤ (ki + 1)ai0 Vb (a0 ) := x ∈ R3 : ni ai0 ≤ xi ≤ ni ai0 + bi . Then, (7.126) yields

378

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

S(V (a)) ≤

3

ni

i=1

|V (a)|

S(V (a0 )) + S(Vb (a0 ))

(∗∗) .

By translation, Vb (a0 ) can be embedded within V (a0 ); furthermore, since 0 ≤ bi ≤ ai0 , each of them is the intersection of the interval [0, ai0 ] with an interval [−ci , ai0 − ci ], ci ≥ 0, of the same length. It thus follows that Vb (a0 ) can be written as the intersection V2 of V := V (a0 ) with a suitably translated V (a0 ) denoted by U . Then, from (7.127) and translation-invariance one derives the upper bound S(Vb (a0 )) = S(V2 ) ≤ S(U ∪ V ) + S(V2 ) ≤ S(U ) + S(V ) = 2 S(V (a0 )) . Finally, dividing (∗∗) by V (a) and going to the limit, similarly as in the proof of the existence of the Shannon entropy rate in (3.2), using (∗) one gets lim sup V (a)

S(V (a0 ) S(V (a)) S(V (a)) ≤ ≤ s(ω) + ε ≤ lim inf +ε, |V (a)| |V (a0 )| |V (a)| V (a)

whence the result follows from the arbitrariness of ε > 0. Examples 7.2.1. 1. For quantum spin chains (AZ , Θσ , ω), the mean entropy is given by 0 0 1 / 1 / S ρ[1,n] = inf S ρ[1,n] , n→+∞ n n n

s(ω) = lim

(7.129)

where ρ[1,n] is the density matrix corresponding to the restriction ω |`A[1,n] of the translation invariant state ω to the local subalgebra A[1,n] . 2. Because of their structure (see Remark 7.1.15), purely generated FCS ω have s(ω) = 0. Indeed, the support of local states ρ[1,n] is at most M b2 -dimensional where 0 b (C) = B is the auxiliary algebra in the triplet / (B, ρ, E); then S ρ[1,n] ≤ 2 log2 b. 3. Consider the Bosonic (7.22) and Fermionic (7.20) quasi-free states ωA and assume the action of the operator A on L2dr (R3 ) to be given by dx KA (r − x)ψ(x) ,

r | Aψ = R3

where the kernel KA has Fourier transform A (k) := 1 K dx e−ik·x KA (x) (2π)3 R3 A (k) ≤ M < +∞ for A (k) ≤ 1 for Fermions, 0 ≤ K such that 0 ≤ K Bosons. These quasi-free states are translation-invariant and their mean entropies can be explicitly calculated [233, 110],

7.2 von Neumann Entropy Rate

1 dk (2π)3 R3 1 dk s(ωA ) = (2π)3 R3

379

A (k)) + η(1 − K A (k)) (Fermions) η(K

A (k)) − η(1 + K A (k)) η(K

s(ωA ) =

(Bosons) .

Remarks 7.2.1. 1. The entropy density of quantum spin-chains scales as the power of the shift-automorphism, that is the entropy production per length time-step is times the entropy production per unit time-step: 1 (n )

= s(ω) , S ρ n→∞ n

s (ω) := lim

(7.130)

where ρ(n ) = ω |`A0,n −1 . Indeed, since the limit in (7.129) exists, it can be computed as s(ω) = lim

n→+∞

0 1 1 / S ρ[1,n ] = s (ω) . n

2. From (5.156), it follows that the entropy density is aﬃne over all convex decompositions of Θσ -invariant states ω of quantum spin-chains into Θσ . Namely, if ω = λ ω , with 0 ≤ λj ≤ 1, invariant components ω j j j j λ = 1, then j j s(ω) =

λj s(ωj ) ,

∀ ∈ N .

(7.131)

j

3. In the case of a decomposition of a translation-invariant state ω of a quantum spin-chain into θσ -invariant components ωj , the previous two points give λj s (ωj ) = λj s(ωj ) , ∀ ∈ N . (7.132) s (ω) = j

j

Let us consider the decomposition of a Θσ -invariant state ω over a quantum spin-chain which is not Θσ -ergodic into n Θσ -ergodic states (see Proposition 7.1.9). Lemma 7.2.1. Given the decomposition ω = tion of Remark 7.2.1, it turns out that

1 n

n −1 j=0

ωj , using the nota-

1. all states ωj have the same entropy density with respect to Θσ : s (ωj ) = s (ω), 0 ≤ j ≤ n − 1.

380

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

/ 0 ( ) (l) 2. Set sj := 1 S ρj , s( ) := 1 S ρ(l) and ﬁx η > 0; it turns out that the subsets of states ( ) A ,η := ωj : sj ≥ s(ω) + η (7.133) has asymptotically zero density. Namely, if #(A ,η ) denotes its cardinality, then #(A ,η ) lim =0. (7.134) n →∞ n Proof: Part 1 Because of (7.132), s (ωj ) = s (ω0 ), for 1 ≤ j ≤ n − 1. This fact follows from subadditivity (5.161) and the fact that (n )

ρj

= ω0 ◦ Θσ−j |`A[0,n −1] = ω0 |`A[−j,n −j−1] . [−j,n−j−1]

:=ρ0

Indeed, split the intervals [−j, n − j − 1], 0 ≤ j ≤ n − 1 into disjoint pieces (notice that, according to Proposition 7.1.9, n ≤ ), [−j, n − j − 1] = [−j, − 1] ∪ [, n − − 1] ∪ [n − , n − j − 1] ; I1

I2

I3

then, apply (5.161) to the density matrices ρj , respectively ρI01 ∪I3 ⊗ρI02 , and use translation-invariance together with the bound (5.155). It then follows

(n ) [ ,n − −1] (n −2 ) ≤ S ρ0 + S ρI01 ∪I3 ≤ S ρ0 + 2 log2 d . S ρj (n )

Vice versa, if instead of subdividing the interval [−j, n−j −1] of interest, we include it as a disjoint piece in a larger one [−, n + − 1] = [−, −1] ∪ [−j, n − j − 1] ∪ [n − j, n + − 1] , I1

I2

I3

then, subadditivity and boundedness give

(n ) [− ,n + −1] (n +2 ) ≥ S ρ0 − S ρI01 ∪3 ≥ S ρ0 − 2 log2 d . S ρj Dividing by n and taking the limit n → ∞ yield the result. #(A ,η0 ) Part 2 If there were η0 such that lim sup = a > 0, then there n n →∞ #(A j ,η0 ) = a. Then, since would be a subsequence j such that lim j→∞ n j nj −1

( j )

ρ

=

k=0

ρkj , subadditivity implies

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources −1

−1

j j n j ( j )

1 ( j )

( ) ≥ = S ρ S ρk sk j j j

n

n j s( j ) =

381

n

k=0

≥ #(A j ,η0 ) (s(ω) + η0 ) +

k=0

#(Ac j ,η0 )

( )

min sk j .

k∈Ac

j ,η0

The previous point, (7.130) and (7.129) obtain 1 m j

( ) ≤ j sj j whence S ρj m m #(Ac j ,η0 ) #(A j ,η0 ) ≥ (s(ω) + η0 ) + s(ω) . n j n j

j s(ω) = s j (ωj ) = inf s( j )

When n j → ∞, a contradiction arises: s(ω) ≥ (s(ω) + η0 )a + s(ω)(1 − a) > s(ω) .

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources Quantum spin chains (AZ , Θσ , ω), with A = Md (C), provide useful algebraic descriptions of quantum sources whose signals consist of quantum states acting on Hilbert spaces of increasing dimension. The local states ρ(n) obtained as restrictions of ω to the local subalgebras A(n) := A[1,n] describe ensembles of quantum strings of length n emitted by these sources. Quantum sources are one of the two ends of quantum transmission channels; like their classical counterparts, these consist of a source, a sender who encodes, a channel which transmits and a receiver which decodes. Channel inputs and outputs are generic quantum states and the encoding and decoding procedures, as well as the channel action are quantum operations described by trace-preserving CP maps on the state-space. In analogy with Figure 2.2, a quantum transmission scheme can be pictorially represented as in Figure 7.1. 1. At each stroke of time, a source A emits quantum states, represented by a density matrices ρi ∈ B+ 1 (H), i = 1, 2, . . . , a, H = C , with weights p(i). The statistical description of a single use of the source is given by means a of the density matrix ρ = i=1 p(i) ρi . 2. As a result of n uses of the source, the sender would collect generic (n) (n) ⊗n ), i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in ∈ Ωa , with weights density matrices ρi(n) ∈ B+ 1 (H p(n) (i(n) ). Consequently, the statistics of n uses of the source is described by the density matrix

382

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Fig. 7.1. Quantum Transmission Channel

ρ(n) :=

(n)

p(n) (i(n) ) ρi(n) ,

(7.135)

(n) i(n) ∈Ωa

which embodies purely classical correlations (the weights) and quantum (n) correlations due to the states ρi(n) .

⊗n ) → B+ 3. The encoding is a trace-preserving CP map E (n) : B+ 1 (H 1 (Kin ) (n) (n) (n) such that E [ρi(n) ] = σi(n) are density matrices that can all be consid(n)

(n)

ered as acting on a same (ﬁnite dimensional) Hilbert space Kin . (n) 4. The code-states σi(n) go through the (lossless) channel that transform (n)

(n)

them as a trace-preserving CP map F(n) : B+ 1 (Kin ) → B1 (Kout ) such that (n) (n) (n) F [σi(n) ] = σ i(n) , the latter being a, possibly not-normalized, positive (n)

matrix acting on a (ﬁnite dimensional) Hilbert space Kout . (n) 5. The channel output σ i(n) ﬁnally undergoes a decompressing procedure

⊗n ) corresponding to the action of a CP map D(n) : B1 (Kout ) → B+ 1 (H (n) (n) (n) σi(n) ] = ρi(n) . such that D [ 6. The eﬃciency of the encoding-decoding procedures with respect to the channel action F is measured by how faithfully the decompressed states (n) (n) ρi(n) reproduce the input states ρi(n) . (n)

The simplest instance of quantum source is the generalization of a classical Bernoulli process: at each use of the source, vector states | ψi ∈ H := Cd , i = 1, 2, . . . , a, (not necessarily orthogonal) are independently emitted with weights p(i). The quantum statistics of n uses of the source is thus described by the density matrix ρ⊗n :=

n , j=1

ρ=

(n) i(n) ∈Ωa

p(n) (i(n) )

n , j=1

ρij ,

ρij = | ψij ψij | ,

(7.136)

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

where ρ =

a i=1

p(i)| ψi ψi | and p(n) (i(n) ) =

n j=1

383

p(ij ).

Remarks 7.3.1. 1. Quantum spin chains as they appear in quantum statistical mechanics provide fairly general models of quantum sources. Their local states over n successive chain sites correspond to density matrices ρ(n) that describe a variety of possible quantum strings of length n consisting of separable and entangled states that can in turn be pure and mixed. 2. Like classical strings, quantum strings emitted from quantum sources of Bernoulli type can be chained together by tensorizing them; this is not anymore so obvious for generic quantum strings [60]. 3. Two classical strings can always be told apart, for instance by a nonzero value of the Hamming distance that counts by how many symbols they diﬀer. Instead, there are uncountably many quantum strings that can be arbitrarily close to one another, for instance with respect to the trace-distance (6.66), and which cannot then be perfectly distinguished. 7.3.1 Quantum Compression Theorems In analogy with classical coding, the idea how to compress quantum information in absence of noise is to consider quantum strings acting on Hilbert spaces H⊗n with n large and to map them into quantum strings acting on Hilbert spaces H(n) of smaller dimension in a way that allows for faithful decompression. Concretely, the procedure consists in a coding operation corresponding to ⊗n (n) ) → B+ ) and a a trace-preserving CP compression map E (n) : B+ 1 (H 1 (H decoding operation described by a trace-preserving CP decompression map (n) ⊗n ) → B+ ) that tries to retrieve the source signals. If the D(n) : B+ 1 (H 1 (H task is to compress the information contained in n uses of a quantum source, then each of the quantum strings in (7.136)) is subjected to the chain of maps (n)

(n)

(n)

(n)

(n)

ρi(n) → σi(n) := E (n) [ρi(n) ] −→ ρ˜i(n) := D(n) [σi(n) ] .

(7.137)

Any sequence {E (n) , D(n) }n will be referred to as a compression scheme and denoted by (E, D). In the following, we shall ﬁrst focus on quantum Bernoulli sources emitting n qubits, that is we shall consider Hilbert spaces H⊗n = C2 and local algebras A(n) = M2n (C). For them, the compression rate of a scheme (C, D) is deﬁned as follows. Deﬁnition 7.3.1 (Compression Rate). The compression rate of (E, D) for a qubit quantum source (AZ , ω) is given by R(E) := lim sup n→+∞

1 log2 dim(H(n) ) . n

384

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom (n)

where H(n) is the minimal support subspace of all quantum code-words σi(n) . According to the previous deﬁnition, for large n, 2n R(E) estimates the dimension of the subspace supporting the encoded signals, with R(E) roughly being the used number of qubits per encoded qubit . Clearly, one looks for compression schemes (E, D) such that R(E) < 1 with D(n) ◦ E (n) asymptotically approximating the identity map in a suitable topology. Compression of qubit Bernoulli Sources In the case of a Bernoulli quantum source, Shannon’s noiseless coding theorem 3.2.2 has a natural quantum extension whereby the von Neumann entropy plays the role of the Shannon entropy as optimal compression rate. A convenient ﬁdelity is the ensemble ﬁdelity introduced in Deﬁnition 6.3.6; using (6.71) it reads:

(n) (n) (n) (n) (n) (7.138) pi(n) Tr ρi(n) ρ˜i(n) . Fav pi(n) ρi(n) , D(n) ◦ E (n) = (n)

i(n) ∈Ω2

(n)

(n)

It is positive, bounded by 1 and equal to 1 if and only if ρ˜i(n) = ρi(n) . Useful as follows. upper and lower 2 bounds to Fav are obtained 2 If ρ = j=1 rj | rj rj | ∈ S(C ) is the spectral decomposition of the state describing a single use of the source, the eigenvalues rj (n) of ρ⊗n are n (n) of the form rj (n) =: i=1 rji . Let H(n) ⊆ H⊗n be the smallest subspace, of (n)

dimension d(n), supporting all code-words ρ˜i(n) and let Γ (n) : H⊗n → H(n) denote the corresponding orthogonal projection. Then,

(n) (n) (n) pi(n) Tr ρ(n) Γ (n) Fav pi(n) ρi(n) , D(n) ◦ E (n) ≤ (n)

(n)

i(n) ∈Ω2

d(n)

≤

ej (ρ⊗n ) .

(7.139)

j=1 (n)

Indeed, the ﬁrst inequality is implied by the fact that ρ˜i(n) ≤ Γ (n) , while the second one is the Ky Fan inequality (5.158), where ej (ρ⊗n ), j = 1, 2, · · · , d(n), are the ﬁrst d(n) largest eigenvalues of ρ⊗n . Vice versa, given Γ (n) : H⊗n → H(n) , consider the trace-preserving CP ⊗n (n) map E (n) : B+ ) → B+ ) deﬁned by 1 (H 1 (H E (n) [ρ] = Γ (n) ρ Γ (n) + | 0 Φk | ρ | Φk 0 | , (7.140) | Φk ⊥K(n)

| 0 0 | Tr (1l−P ) ρ

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

385

where | 0 ∈ H(n) is a suitable reference state. As a decompression map D(n) , choose the identity map on H(n) which embeds it into H⊗n . Then,

(n) (n) (n) ρ˜i(n) = Γ (n) ρi(n) Γ (n) + | 0 0 | Tr (1l − P ) ρi(n) , (n)

whence, since ρi(n) is a pure state, Fav

(n) (n) pi(n) ρi(n) , D(n) ◦ E (n) ≥

2

(n) (n) pi(n) Tr ρi(n) Γ (n)

(n)

=

(n)

i(n) ∈Ω2

(n)

pi(n) Tr ρi(n) Γ (n) (n)

i(n) ∈Ω2

≥ 2 Tr ρ⊗n Γ (n)

2

≥

(n) λi(n) 2 Tr ρi(n) Γ (n) − 1

i(n)

−1.

(7.141)

Exactly as the Shannon entropy in the classical case, a theorem of Schumacher [267, 159] shows that, for quantum sources of Bernoulli type, the von Neumann entropy S (ρ) is the optimal compression rate. Namely, this rate can be achieved by suitable compression and decompression schemes with high-ﬁdelity retrieval of increasingly long qubit strings; on the other hand, compression and decompression schemes with rates exceeding S (ρ) perform poorly with long qubit strings. Theorem 7.3.1 (Schumacher Theorem). Let (AZ , ρ⊗∞ ) be a qubit Bernoulli source with entropy density S(ρ). If R ≥ S(ρ) there exists a compression scheme (E, D) with rate R(E) = R and ensemble ﬁdelity Fav tending to 1. On the contrary, if R < S(ρ), then for every compression scheme such that R(E) = R the ensemble ﬁdelity tends to 0 in the limit n → ∞. Proof:

The eigenvalues rj (n) of ρ⊗n provide a probability distribution (n)

(n)

(n)

π (n) = {rj (n) }j (n) ∈Ω (n) on the strings j (n) ∈ Ω2 with Shannon entropy 2 n S(ρ). According to Proposition 3.2.2, for any δ > 0, > 0 and n large (n) enough, there exists a subset A of probability

(n) rj n = Tr ρ⊗n Γ (n) ≥ 1 − δ Prob(A(n) ) = (n)

j∈A

and cardinality d(n) satisfying (1 − δ)2n(S(ρ)−) ≤ d(n) ≤ 2n(S(ρ)+) . Let Γ (n) project onto the subspace linearly spanned by the eigenvectors (n) (n) | rj (n) = | rj1 ⊗ | rj2 · · · ⊗ | rjn corresponding to the eigenvalues rj (n) ,

386

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom (n)

j (n) ∈ Aε . Such Γ (n) can be used to construct the compression map (7.140); hence, from (7.141), Fav ≥ 1 − 2δ. Also, the bounds on d(n) ensures that any rate R < S(ρ) is achievable. Vice versa, if d(n) ≤ 2n(S(ρ)−ε) , then, according to Theorem 3.2.2, given (n) the probability distribution π (n) = {rj (n) }j (n) ∈Ω (n) , any subset Bd(n) with 2 d(n) strings has vanishingly small probability,

(n) rj n = Tr ρ⊗n Γdn) ≤ Prob(Bd(n) ) = j∈Bd(n)

for n large enough, where Γd(n) projects onto the subset spanned by the eigenvectors relative to the eigenvalues indexed by j (n) ∈ Bd(n) . It then follows that also the sum of the ﬁrst d(n) largest eigenvalues of ρ⊗n must be smaller than and so also Fav ≤ ε because of (7.139). Example 7.3.1. [159] In a single use, a Bernoulli qubit source emits the non-orthogonal states √ √ √ √ | ψ0 := 1 − ε| 0 + ε| 1 , | ψ1 := 1 − ε| 0 − ε| 1 where 0 < ε < 1/2, with probability 1/2 each; the corresponding statistical ensemble is described by ρ=

1 1 | ψ0 ψ0 | + | ψ1 ψ1 | = (1 − ε)| 0 0 | + ε| 1 1 | . 2 2

Suppose that, given the 3-qubit strings | ψi1 i2 i3 := | ψi1 ⊗ | ψi2 ⊗ | ψi3 , only two qubits can be transmitted; how can the transmission of quantum information be optimized? √ Since 0 | ψ0 = 0 | ψ1 = 1 − ε, 1 | ψ0 = − 1 | ψ1 = ε and ε < 1/2, the sender may encode and decode each 3-qubit string by tracing over the third qubit and appending the high probability state | 0 0 | in its place: (3)

(3)

(3)

| ψi1 i2 i3 ψi1 i2 i3 | → ρ˜i1 i2 i3 = D1 ◦ E1 [| ψi1 i2 i3 ψi1 i2 i3 |] = | ψi1 i2 ψi1 i2 | ⊗ | 0 0 | . The average ﬁdelity then results (1) = Fav

1 (3)

ψi1 i2 i3 | ρ˜i1 i2 i3 |ψi1 i2 i3 = 1 − ε . 8 i ,i ,i 1

2

3

A better strategy arises from considering the components of a 3-qubit string along the eigenvectors of ρ⊗3 : √ 3/2 | 000 | ψi1 i2 i3 | = (1 − ε)√ | 110 | ψi1 i2 i3 | = ε√1 − ε | 001 | ψi1 i2 i3 | = (1 − ε)√ε | 101 | ψi1 i2 i3 | = ε√1 − ε . , | 010 | ψi1 i2 i3 | = (1 − ε)√ε | 011 | ψi1 i2 i3 | = ε 1 − ε | 100 | ψi1 i2 i3 | = (1 − ε) ε | 111 | ψi1 i2 i3 | = ε3/2

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

387

Since ε < 1/2, the eigenvectors | 000 , | 001 , | 010 and | 100 provide higher probabilities than the second four eigenvectors; let P project onto the linear span. Observe that the unitary permutation ⎧ | 000 → | 000 | 111 → | 001 ⎪ ⎨ | 001 → | 010 | 110 → | 011 U: , ⎪ ⎩ | 010 → | 100 | 101 → | 101 | 100 → | 110 | 011 → | 111 1 is such that U P U † = 1l12 ⊗ | 0 0 |, where 1l12 = i,j=0 | ij ij | is the identity matrix of the ﬁrst two qubits . Therefore, one can construct a compression map as follows; ﬁrst, introduce the trace-preserving CP maps

E[ρ] = P ρ P + | 000 000 | Tr (1l − P ) ρ

U E[ρ] U † = 1l12 ⊗ | 0 0 | U † ρ U 1l12 ⊗ | 0 0 |

+| 000 000 | Tr (1l − P ) ρ . + 3 2 † Then, deﬁne E2 : B+ 1 (C ) → B1 (C ) as E2 [ρ] := E1 [U E[ρ] U ] and D2 : (3) + 2 3 † B+ 1 (C ) → B1 (C ) as D2 [σ] = U σ ⊗ | 0 0 | U . It follows that

(3) (3) D2 ◦ E2 [ρ] = P ρ P + | 000 000 | Tr (1l − P ) ρ . (3)

(3)

(3)

(3)

(3)

(3)

(3)

Thus, with ρ˜i1 i2 i3 = D2 ◦ E2 [| ψi1 i2 i3 ψi1 i2 i3 |], (3)

ψi1 i2 i3 | ρ˜i1 i2 i3 |ψi1 i2 i3 = | ψi1 i2 i3 | P |ψi1 i2 i3 |2 + | 000 | ψi1 i2 i3 |2 ψi1 i2 i3 | (1l − P ) |ψi1 i2 i3 = 1 − 9ε3 + 15ε4 − 9ε5 + 2ε6 . As the right end side of the last inequality is the same for all 3-qubit strings (2) considered, this is also the value of the ﬁdelity Fav . As shown in the ﬁgure (1) below, the latter turns out to be larger than Fav for 0 < ε < 1/2. Compression of Ergodic Quantum Sources As showed in Section 3.2.1, Proposition 3.2.2, Theorem 3.2.1 and Theorem 3.2.2 establish the role the entropy rate as the optimal compression rate of classical ergodic sources. Theorem 7.3.1 assigns the same role to the von Neumann entropy in the case of quantum sources of Bernoulli type. For this particular family of quantum chains, the von Neumann entropy coincides with their entropy density as deﬁned in Section 7.2; it is thus expected that a kind of general Quantum Shannon-Mc Millan-Breiman Theorem should hold for generic ergodic quantum sources. The relevance for quantum

388

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom 0.15 0.1 0.05

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

-0.05

(2)

(1)

Fig. 7.2. Fav − Fav against 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1.

information of quantum spin chains endowed with states with a more general structure than a tensor product has been emphasized in Section 7.3, where analogies and diﬀerences between classical and quantum contexts have also been outlined. In particular, in Remark 7.3.1.2 it was pointed out that, unlike for classical bit strings, one cannot proﬁt from any natural ”chaining together” qubit -strings. Though ideas how to circumvent such a problem have been put forward [60], this fact represents an obstruction to a full quantum generalization of the classical Breiman theorem. The latter is an almost everywhere statement regarding single sequences, while the Shannon-Mc Millan formulation is concerned with statistical ensembles; of this theorem there exist a number of extensions to particular non-commutative settings [223, 240, 169, 94] and a full quantum extension [58]. This general result has then been used [59] to devise compression protocols for ergodic sources consisting of encoding and decoding procedures similarly to what outlined in the previous section. Theorem 7.3.2. Let (AZ , Θσ , ω), with A = Md (C) as site-algebras, be an ergodic quantum spin-chain with mean entropy s(ω). Then, for all δ > 0 there is Nδ ∈ N such that for all n ≥ Nδ there exists an orthogonal projection pn (δ) ∈ An such that 1. ω(pn (δ)) = Trn (ρ(n) pn (δ)) ≥ 1 − δ, 2. for all minimal projections 0 = pn ∈ An dominated by pn (δ) (p ≤ pn (δ)) (1 − δ)2−n(s(ω)+δ) < ω(pn (δ)) < 2−n(s(ω)−δ) , 3. 2n(s(ω)−δ) < Trn (pn (δ)) < 2n(s(ω)+δ) . That the above results extend Proposition 3.2.2 is apparent: classical high probability subsets are replaced by orthogonal projections pn (δ) whose statistical weight with respect to the translation-invariant state ω is nearly 1; further, the typical subsets correspond to orthogonal projections whose normalization (dimension of the associated Hilbert subspaces), Tr(pn (δ)) goes as 2ns(ω) for large n.

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

389

Like in the case of a Bernoulli quantum source, the proof of Theorem 7.3.2 ( ) hinges upon considering the discrete probability distributions π ( ) = {ri }di=1 consisting of the eigenvalues of the density matrices ρ( ) describing the restrictions ω to the local subalgebra A = Md (C)⊗ with spectral decomposition d ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ri | ri ri |. The Shannon entropy H(π ( ) ) equals the von Neuρ = i=1 0 / mann entropy S ρ( ) ; further, from the deﬁnition of entropy density s(ω), given η > 0, for inﬁnitely many one has s(ω) = inf n

1 (n) 1 ( ) 1 S ρ ≤ S ρ = H(π ( ) ) ≤ s(ω) + η . n

(7.142)

For Bernoulli quantum sources, the products of eigenvalues of single site density matrices provide a natural Bernoulli stochastic process, whose entropy density s(ω) is exactly the von Neumann entropy of ρ. Such a structure is missing in the case of generic ergodic quantum source. 0 However, / from (7.142), one observes that choosing large enough, S ρ( ) s(ω). ( ) ( ) Moreover, the eigenvectors | ri ri | are minimal projections generating ( ) a maximally Abelian subalgebra D ⊂ A and the eigenvalues ri deﬁne a probability π ( ) over the symbols i ∈ I := {1, 2, . . . d }. By tensorizing copies of the Abelian subalgebra D, one can embed the Abelian subalgebras Dn := D⊗n into the local algebras An and C ∗ -induction yields a quasi-local Abelian algebra D∞ embedded into the quantum spin-chain AZ . The Abelian algebra D∞ is clearly associated to a triplet, or symbolic

( ) (see Deﬁnition 2.2.5 and the preceding discussion) where model ΩI , Tσ , μ I is the space of sequences of symbols from I, Tσ is the shift along these Ω I that arises from π ( ) . Further, sequences and μ( ) is the measure on Ω from (7.130), the (classical) entropy rate is 1 (n )

= s (ω) = s(ω) . S ρ n→∞ n

h(μ( ) ) = lim

(7.143)

I is not As the automorphism over D∞ corresponding to the shift Tσ on Ω Θσ , but its -th power

spin-chain associated to the symbolic Θσ , the Abelian ∞ ∞ model of above is DI , Θσ , ω |`DI (see Deﬁntion 2.2.5 and the preceding discussion). The state ω is Θσ -ergodic, but not in general Θσ -ergodic. If it

∞ ∞ were Θσ -ergodic, DI , Θσ , ω |`DI would amount to an ergodic process and we could use the classical techniques as in Proposition 3.2.2 with the mean entropy h(ω |`D∞ I ) = s(ω) in the place of the Shannon entropy as follows from the classical Shannon-Mc Millan-Breiman result in Theorem 3.2.1.

390

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Remarks 7.3.2.

∞ D∞ I , Θσ , ω |`DI

would follow from that of the quantum spin-chain AZ , Θσ , ω , since

1. The ergodicity of the embedded Abelian spin-chain

otherwise the resulting decomposition of ω |`D∞ I into ergodic components would provide a decomposition of ω as well. 2. In [240], the quantum Shannon-Mc Millan theorem was proved under the ( ) assumption of Θσ -ergodicity of the spin-chain state ω: such a property is known as complete ergodicity. This restriction has been removed in [58]. The possible lack of Θσ -ergodicity can be overcome by means of Proposition 7.1.9 and of Lemma 7.2.1. Indeed, the argument of above can be developed for the Θσ -ergodic components ωj indexed by j ∈ Ac ,η for which

( ) ( ) ≤ s(ω) + η, for some ﬁxed η > 0. For s (ωj ) = s(ω) and sj := 1 S ρj ( )

each of these ωj , one considers the local states ρj distributions

( ) πj

over A , the probability

corresponding to their spectra, the Abelian subalgebras Dj ( )

generated by their spectral projections pj,i , i ∈ Ij , and the associated ergodic

∞ Abelian spin-chains D∞ , Θ , ω | ` D j σ Ij Ij . Because of the bound (3.7) in Remark 3.1.1.1 and of the choice of indices j ∈ Ac ,η , these chains have entropy rates

( ) ( ) ≤ (s(ω) + η) . (7.144) hj ≤ H(πj ) = S ρj After identifying strings i(n) of symbols from Ij with minimal projections (n ) pi(n) ∈ Djn ⊂ An , so that πi(n) = Tr[0,n −1] (ρ(n ) pi(n) ), one can choose positive ε, δ and select subsets of minimal projections, (n) Cj := pi(n) ∈ Djn : 2−n(hj +δ) < Tr[0,n −1] (ρ(n ) pi(n) ) < 2−n(hj −δ) (7.145) such that, by using Proposition 3.2.2, Theorem 3.2.1 and (7.144), for n large enough (n)

#(Cj ) = Tr[0,n −1] (pi(n) ) ≤ 2n(hj +δ) ≤ 2n( s(ω)+η)+δ) (n)

(n)

πj (Cj ) =

(n)

Tr[0,n −1] pj ) ≥ 1 − (n)

pi(n) ∈Cj (n)

where pj

:=

(n)

pi(n) ∈Cj

ε , 2

(7.146) (7.147)

pi(n) .

In order to use these arguments and conclude the proof of the quantum Shannon-Mc Millan theorem, some further results are needed. The ﬁrst one deals with discrete subsets equipped with (not necessarily compatible)

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

391

probability distributions and with the asymptotic behavior of their minimal cardinality.

In , πn

Lemma 7.3.1. Let D > 0 and

n∈N

be a countable family of ﬁnite

sets In of cardinality #(In ) with associated probability distributions πn = 1 {pn (i)}i∈In . Suppose log2 #(In ) ≤ D for all n and deﬁne n αε,n (πn ) := min log2 #(Ω) : Ω ⊂ In , πn (Ω) ≥ 1 − ε . (7.148)

If

In , πn lim

n→∞

n∈N

satisﬁes

1 H(πn ) = h < ∞ (1) n

and

lim sup n→∞

1 αε,n (πn ) ≤ h n

(2) ,

for all ε ∈ (0, 1), then lim

n→∞

1 αε,n (πn ) ≤ h , n

∀ε ∈ (0, 1) .

(7.149)

Proof: Let δ > 0 be arbitrarily chosen and distinguish the following disjoint subsets of In : In1 (δ) := i ∈ In : πn (i) > 2−n(h−δ) , In2 (δ) := i ∈ In : 2−n(h+δ < πn (i) < 2−n(h−δ) , In3 (δ) := i ∈ In : πn (i) < 2−n(h+δ) . Suppose 1 ≥ lim supn→∞ πn (In3 (δ)) = b > 0; then, there exists n such that πn (In3 (δ) ≥ b and πn (In1 (δ)∪In2 (δ)) < 1−b. Choose 0 < ε < b; if πn (Ω) ≥ 1−ε,

1 − ε ≤ πn (Ω) < 1 − b + πn Ω ∩ In3 (δ) implies

b − ε ≤ πn Ω ∩ In3 (δ) < # Ω ∩ In3 (δ) 2−n(h+δ and

log2 # Ω ∩ In3 (δ) > log2 (b − ε) + n(h + δ) , 1 αε,n (πn ) > h + δ contradicting the second condition in the n statement of the lemma. Thus, lim πn (In3 (δ) = 0.

whence lim

n→∞

n→∞

It also follows that In3 (δ) cannot asymptotically contribute to the Shannon to the (non-normalized) entropy H(πn ); indeed, applying2 inequality (2.85) M πn (In3 (δ) , which are such distributions {pn (i)}i∈In3 (δ) and qn (i) := #(In3 (δ) i∈I 3 (δ) n that i∈In3 (δ) pn (i) = i∈In3 (δ) qn (i), yields

392

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

1 1 pn (i) log2 pn (i) ≤ − pn (i) log2 qn (i) n n 3 (δ) 3 (δ) i∈In i∈In

1 = − pn (i) log2 πn (In3 (δ)) − log2 #(In3 (δ)) n 3

h3n := −

i∈In (δ)

≤ −πn (In3 (δ))

1 log2 πn (In3 (δ) + D πn (In3 (δ)) . n

The right hand side of the last inequality goes to 0 with n → ∞ due to πn (In3 (δ) → 0 with n → ∞ and because log2 #(In ) ≤ nD by assumption. Further, this very same fact implies limn→∞ πn (In1 (δ) = 0 for all δ > 0, otherwise 1 1 1 H(πn ) = − pn (i) log2 pn (i) − pn (i) log2 pn (i) − h3n n n n 1 2 i∈In (δ)

i∈In (δ)

− δ) +

+ h3n

< h + δ πn (In1 (δ)) − πn (In2 (δ)) + h3n <

πn (In1 (δ)) (h

πn (In2 (δ))

would contradict the ﬁrst condition of the lemma for suﬃciently small δ. Consequently, lim πn (In2 (δ)) = 1 for suﬃciently small δ. Thus, choosing n→∞

n so that πn (Ω) ≥ 1−ε and πn (In2 (δ)) ≥ 1−η, it follows that πn Ω∩In2 (δ) ≥ 1 − ε − η, whence

# Ω ∩ In2 (δ) ≥ (1 − ε − η) 2n(h−δ) implies 1 1 αε,n (πn ) ≥ log2 (1 − ε − η) + h − δ . n n Since δ can be chosen arbitrarily small, the result follows. Returning to the probability distribution π spectrum of ρ( ) , ﬁx ε ∈ (0, 1) and set

( )

associated with the ordered

k ( ) Nε, := min 1 ≤ k ≤ d : ri ≥ 1 − ε ,

(7.150)

i=1

so that αε, (π ( ) ) = log2 Nε, . If 1 lim sup Nε, ≤ s(ω) , →∞

(7.151)

then, together with (7.142), this allows using Lemma 7.3.1. As follows: let I ( ) ( ) be the set of indices labeling the eigenprojections | ri ri |. Then, choose 2 0 < δ < δ and consider the subset I (δ ) as constructed in the lemma and set

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

P (δ) :=

( )

393

( )

| ri ri | .

i∈I2 (δ )

It turns out that, for suﬃciently large,

( ) ri = π ( ) (In2 (δ )) ≥ 1 − δ . Tr ρ( ) P (δ) = i∈I2 (δ )

Further, every minimal projection p ≤ P (δ) dominated by P (δ) projects onto a vector of (C2 )⊗ , ( ) p = | ψ ψ | , | ψ = ci | ri , |ci |2 = 1 , i∈I2 (δ )

i∈I2 (δ )

whence, by the deﬁnition of the subset I 2 (δ )

2− (s(ω)+δ) < 2− (s(ω)+δ ) < Tr(ρ( ) p) < 2− (s(ω)−δ ) < 2− (s(ω)−δ) . Finally, from Tr(ρ( ) P (δ)) ≥ 1 − δ and #(I 2 (δ )) 2− (s(ω)+δ) ≤ Tr(ρ( ) P (δ)) =

( )

ri

≤ #(I 2 (δ )) 2− (s(ω)−δ)

i∈I2 (δ )

it follows that (1 − δ) 2 (s(ω)−δ) ≤ Tr(P (δ)) = #(I 2 (δ )) ≤ 2 (s(ω)+δ) , thus concluding the proof of Theorem 7.3.2. Of course, it remains to be showed that (7.151) really holds true. The proof of this fact hinges upon a per se interesting result concerning the minimal dimension of the so-called high probability subspaces. Practically speaking, these are the relevant subspaces: as already seen in the case of Bernoulli quantum sources and as it will be showed at the end of this section, they allow for quantum compression with reliable retrieval. Deﬁnition 7.3.2 (Typical Subspaces). 1. Given a quantum spin chain (AZ , ω), projectors pn ∈ An such that ω(pn ) = Tr(ρ(n) pn ) ≥ 1 − ε will be termed ω-typical projectors and ωtypical subspaces the subspaces of (Cd )⊗n onto which they project. 2. For any ε > 0, let βε,n (ω) := min log2 Tr(q) : An q = q † = q 2 , Tr(ρ(n) q) ≥ 1 − ε . (7.152) The following result relates the spectrum of local states to the dimension of high probability subspaces [58, 140, 141]. Lemma 7.3.2. βε,n (ω) equals Nε,n in (7.150).

394

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Proof:

By deﬁnition, ω

ε,n N

(n) | ri

(n) ri

Nε,n

(n) (n) (n) | = Tr(ρ | ri ri |) ≥ 1 − ε ,

i=1

i=1

whence βε,n (ω) ≤ Nε,n . If the inequality is strict, then there exists a projection q ∈ An such that m := Tr(q) < Nε,n and Tr(ρ(n) q) ≥ 1 − ε. Then, using Ky Fan inequality (5.158), a contradiction emerges: 1 − ε ≤ Tr(ρ(n) q) =

m

qi | ρ(n) |qi ≤

i=1

m

(n)

ri

<1−ε ,

i=1

where | qi qi | are minimal projections such that q =

m i=1

| qi qi |.

For showing (7.151), the key result is

Lemma 7.3.3. For an ergodic quantum spin-chain AZ , Θσ , ω lim sup n→∞

1 βε,n (ω) ≤ s(ω) , n

∀ε ∈ (0, 1) .

Before proving it, observe that the previous two lemmas imply a quantum counterpart to the AEP (see Theorem 3.2.2). Proposition 7.3.1 (Quantum AEP (QAEP)). Let (AZ , Θσ , ω) be an ergodic quantum source with entropy rate s(ω). Then, for every 0 < ε < 1, lim

n→∞

1 βε,n (ω) = s(ω) . n

(7.153)

Remark 7.3.3. Operatively, the previous proposition states that any sequence of typical projections must project onto subspaces whose dimension goes as 2ns(ω) , asymptotically. Proof of Proposition 7.3.3 Lemma 7.2.1 ensures that for any ε > 0 and ﬁxed η > 0 there exists L ∈ N such that > L implies 0≤

#(A ,η ) ε ≤ , n 2

#(Ac ,η ) #(A ,η ) ε =1− ≥1− . n n 2 (n)

Consider the Θσ -ergodic components ωj of ω, the sets Cj in (7.146) and $ (n) (n) the smallest projector q (n := j∈Ac pj larger than all pj , j ∈ Ac ,η . If ,η

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

395

m = n + r, 0 ≤ r < , set qm := q (n ) ⊗ 1l[n ,n +r−1] and, by means of (7.147), estimate Tr[0,m−1] (ρ(m) qm ) =

n −1 1 (m) Tr[0,m−1] (ρj qm ) n j=0

=

n −1 1 (n ) Tr[0,n −1] (ρj q (n ) n j=0

≥

n −1 #(Ac ,η ) ε 1 (n ) (n) Tr[0,n −1] (ρj pj ) ≥ (1 − ) ≥ 1 − ε . n j=0 n 2

Then, deﬁnition (7.152) and (7.146) imply βε,m (ω) ≤ log2 Tr[0,m−1] (qm ) = log2 Tr[0,n −1] (q (n ) ) + r log2 d

(n) ≤ log2 Tr[0,n −1] (pj ) + r log2 d j∈Ac,η

≤ log2 #(Ac ,η ) + n((s(ω) + η) + δ) + r log2 d , whence the result follows from the arbitrariness of η and δ and from lim sup m→∞

1 1 δ βε,m (ω) ≤ lim sup log2 #(Ac ,η ) + s(ω) + η + . m m→∞ m

Universal Quantum Compression Based on the classical construction of universal codes [325, 168], of which a particular instance has been given in Section 3.2.1, one may disengage the compression from its explicit dependence on the quantum source statistics by resorting to Universal Quantum Compression Schemes [163]. In the following, the construction in [163] will be slightly modiﬁed. We shall consider a quantum spin chain AZ with an ergodic translation-invariant state ω, an increasing sequence of local subalgebras An as deﬁned in Section 7.3 and local states ω |`An described by density matrices ρ(n) . The idea is to construct the analogous of the typical subsets A(n) as in the proof of Proposition 3.2.3, with cardinality growing as 2nR and probability (n) πA (A(n) ) tending to 1 with n for all sources A (Bernoulli in that case) with entropy (rate) H(A) < R. As always when passing from classical to quantum sources typical subsets will be replaced by typical subspaces and by the associated orthogonal projectors.

396

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

Theorem 7.3.3 (Universal Typical Subspaces). (n) Let s > 0 and ε > 0. There exists a sequence of projectors Qs,ε ∈ An , n ∈ N , such that for n large enough

(n) (7.154) Tr Qs,ε ≤ 2n(s+ε) and for every ergodic quantum state ω on AZ with entropy rate s(ω) ≤ s it holds that (n) (n) ) = Tr(ρ(n) Qs,ε )=1. (7.155) lim ω (n) (Qs,ε n→∞

(n)

Deﬁnition 7.3.3. The orthogonal projectors Qs,ε in the above theorem will be called universal typical projectors at level s. We subdivide the proof of Theorem 7.3.3 in various steps. Step 1 Let ∈ N and R > 0. Any Abelian quasi-local subalgebra C ∞ ⊆ AZ constructed from a maximal Abelian −block subalgebra C ⊆ A , together with the probability distribution ω |`C ∞ corresponds to a classical ergodic stochastic process. The results in [168] imply that, independently of the latter, there exists a universal sequence of projectors (corresponding to classical universal typical (n) (n) subspaces) p ,R ∈ C ⊆ A n with 1 (n) log Tr(p ,R ) ≤ R , n

such that

(n)

lim π (n) (p ,R ) = 1

n→∞

for any ergodic state π on the Abelian algebra C ∞ with entropy rate s(π) < R. Notice that ergodicity and entropy rate of π are deﬁned with respect to the shift on C ∞ , which corresponds to the -shift on AZ . One then applies unitary operators of the factorized form U ⊗n , with U ∈ (n) A unitary, to the p ,R and introduces the projectors

( n)

w ,R := U ∈A

U ⊗n p ,R U ∗⊗n ∈ A( n) . (n)

(7.156)

unitary

These are, by deﬁnition, the smallest projectors such that, for all U , U ⊗n p ,R U ∗⊗n ≤ w ,R . (n)

( n)

(n) (n) (n) (n) Let p ,R = i∈I | i ,R i ,R | be a spectral decomposition of p ,R (with I ⊂ N some index set), and let P(V ) denote the orthogonal projector onto a given ( n) subspace V . Then, w ,R can also be written as

( n) (n) . w ,R = P span U ⊗n | i ,R : i ∈ I, U ∈ A unitary

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

It proves convenient to consider the projectors

( n) (n) , W ,R := P span A⊗n | i ,R : i ∈ I, A ∈ A

( n)

397

( n)

w ,R ≤ W ,R . (7.157) Given m = n + k with n ∈ N and k ∈ {0, . . . , − 1}, let w ,R := w ,R ⊗ 1⊗k ∈ Am , (m)

W ,R := W ,R ⊗ 1⊗k ∈ Am .

( n)

(m)

( n)

(m)

These are projectors and, as in [160], one estimates the trace of W ,R ∈ Am as follows. By an argument similar to that used in the proof of Lemma 3.2.2, the dimension of the symmetric subspace SY M (A n := span{A⊗n : A ∈ A } is upper bounded by (n + 1)dim(A ) , thus TrW ,R = TrW ,R ·Tr1l⊗k ≤ (n+1)2 Trp ,R ·2 ≤ (n+1)2 ·2Rn ·2 . (7.158) (m)

2

( n)

2

(n)

Step 2. Consider a stationary ergodic state ω on the spin-chain AZ with entropy rate s(ω) ≤ s. Let ε, δ > 0. If is chosen large enough, then the (m) projectors w ,R , where R := (s + 2ε ), are δ−typical for ω i.e.

(m) Tr ρ(m) w ,R ) ≥ 1 − δ , for m ∈ N suﬃciently large. This follows from the result in Proposition 7.1.9 concerning the convex decomposition of the ergodic state ω into k() ≤ k(l) 1 ( ) ( ) states ωi,l , ω = ω , that are ergodic with respect to the −shift on k(l) i=1 i,l AZ and have an entropy rate (with respect to the −shift) equal to s(ω). Moreover, according to Lemma 7.2.1, for every Δ > 0, if one deﬁnes the ( ) set of integers A ,Δ := {i ∈ {1, . . . , k()} : S(ωi, ) ≥ (s(ω) + Δ)}, then these states enjoy the following property with respect to the von Neumann #(A ,Δ ) entropy: lim = 0. →∞ k() Let Ci, be the maximal Abelian subalgebra of A generated by the one( ) dimensional eigenprojectors of the density matrices corresponding to ωi, ∈ ∞ generated A . The restriction of ωi, to the Abelian quasi-local algebra Ci, by Ci, is again an ergodic state. From the properties of the entropy density and of the von Neumann entropy one derives the chain of bounds ∞ · s(ω) = s(ωi, ) ≤ s(ωi, |`Ci, ) ≤ S(ωi,l |`Ci, ) = S(ωi, ) . ( )

Further, with Δ :=

R −s(ω),

( )

( )

( )

(l)

if i ∈ Ac ,Δ one has the upper bound S(ωi,l ) < R.

Let Ui ∈ A be a unitary operator such that Ui⊗n p ,R Ui∗⊗n ∈ Ci, . For every i ∈ Ac ,Δ , it holds that (n)

ωi, (w ,R ) ≥ ωi, (Ui⊗n p ,R Ui∗⊗n ) −→ 1 . ( n)

( n)

( n)

(n)

(n)

(7.159)

398

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom #(Ac

)

,Δ We can thus ﬁx an ∈ N large enough to fulﬁll k( ) ≥ 1 − 2δ and use the ergodic decomposition to obtain the lower bound

1 ( n) ( n) δ ( n) ( n) ( n) ω ,i (w ,R ) ≥ 1 − ωi, (w ,R ) . ω ( n) (w ,R ) ≥ min c i∈A k() 2 ,Δ c

i∈A,Δ

Then (7.159) yields ( n)

( n)

ω ( n) (W ,R ) ≥ ω ( n) (w ,R ) ≥ 1 − δ . Step 3. One can now proceed as in [163] and introduce a sequence of integers m , m ∈ N , where each m is a power of 2 fulﬁlling the inequality m 23· m ≤ m < 2m 23·2 m .

(7.160)

Let the integer sequence nm and the /real-valued sequence Rm be deﬁned by 0 ε and set ,, respectively R := · s + nm := + m m m 2 m @ Q(m) s,ε

:=

( n )

m W mm,Rm if m = m 23· m , ( m nm ) ⊗(m− m nm ) W m ,Rm ⊗ id otherwise .

(7.161)

Observe that 1 1 4 m log(nm + 1) Rm 1 log Tr Q(m) log TrQ(m) + + s,ε ≤ s,ε ≤ m nm m m nm m nm ε 1 4 m 6m + 2 + s + + 3 m , ≤ m 23 m − 1 2 2 −1 where the second inequality follows from (7.158) and the last one from the bounds on nm 23 m − 1 ≤

m m − 1 ≤ nm ≤ ≤ 26 m +1 . m m

Thus, for large m, it holds 1 log TrQ(m) s,ε ≤ s + ε. m

(7.162)

By the special choice (7.160) of m it is ensured that the sequence of projectors (m) Qs,ε ∈ Am is indeed typical for any quantum state ω with entropy rate (m) s(ω) ≤ s. This means that {Qs,ε }m∈N is a sequence of universal typical projectors at level s.

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

399

7.3.2 Quantum Capacities The χ-quantity in Holevo’s bound 6.33 limits the amount of classical information that can be retrieved by a POVM measurement from encoding 2, . . . , a} by quantum (mixed) states, i → ρi classical symbols i ∈ IA = {1, + coming from a mixture ρ = i∈IA pi ρi ∈ B1 (H) with a priori probabilities pi . In particular, the bound is in general hardly reachable; however, like in classical capacity theory, the amount of retrievable classical information per transmitted quantum state can be made arbitrarily close to the Holevo bound by means of suitable encodings of longer and longer strings (n) i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in ∈ IA := IA × · · · IA . Also, the Holevo bound is a limit to n times

the classical information per letter that can be encoded into quantum states and retrieved with negligible errors. As we shall see, this state of aﬀairs will lead to diﬀerent deﬁnitions of quantum capacities. In order to prepare the ground for a detailed discussion, appropriate notations must be introduced. We spectralize ρ = α∈Iρ r(α)| r(α) r(α) |, set Iρn := Iρ × · · · Iρ , denote n times

α(n) = α1 α2 · · · αn , αi ∈ Iρ , and write r(α(n) ) :=

n

r(αi ) ,

| α(n) :=

i=1

| r(αj )

(7.163)

j=1

ρ(i(n) ) := ρi1 ⊗ ρi2 ⊗ · · · ρin , ρ⊗n =

n ,

P (i(n) ) :=

P (i(n) ) ρ(i(n) ) =

n

pij

(7.164)

j=1

r(α(n) )| α(n) α(n) | .(7.165)

α(n) ∈Iρn

(n)

i(n) ∈IA

On the other hand, the spectral decompositions of the quantum code-words p(k|i) | p(k|i) p(k|i) | , (7.166) ρi = k∈Ji

with eigenvalues 0 ≤ p(k|i) ≤ 1 and eigenprojectors | p(k|i) p(k|i) |, provide conditional and joint probabilities. Denote by A(n) , respectively K (n) , the stochastic variableswith outcomes (n) n n , where IK := i(n) ∈I n J(i(n) ) i , respectively k(n) = ki1 ki2 · · · kin ∈ IK A

with J(i(n) ) := ×nj=1 Jij . Finally assign to A(n) and K (n) conditional and joint probabilities deﬁned by πK (n) |A(n) := {P (k(n) |i(n) }i(n) ∈I n , k(n) ∈J(i(n) ) , A where n P (k(n) |i(n) ) := p(kj |ij ) , (7.167) j=1

400

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

and by πA(n) ∨K (n) = {P (i(n) , k(n) )}i(n) ∈I n ,k(n) ∈I n , where A

K

P (i(n) , k(n) ) := P (i(n) ) P (k(n) |i(n) ) .

(7.168)

Shannon entropies are computed using (7.164) and additivity of von Neumann entropy, as follows: H(A(n) ) = n H(A) = n

a

pi log2 pi

(7.169)

i=1

H(A(n) ∨ K (n) ) = H(A(n) ) +

P (i(n) ) H(K (n) |i(n) )

n i(n) ∈IA

= H(A(n) ) +

P (i(n) ) S(ρ(i(n) ))

n i(n) ∈IA

a

= n H(A) + pi S(ρi ) .

(7.170)

i=1

According to the AEP (see Proposition 3.2.2), for any ﬁxed ε > 0, we can (n) (n) distinguish a subset of πA(n) -typical strings i(n) ∈ Uε ⊆ IA and a subset (n) (n) (n) of πA(n) ∨K (n) -typical strings (i(n) , k(n) ) ∈ Vε ⊆ IA × IK . These subsets (n) (n) are such that πA(n) (Uε ) ≥ 1 − ε and πA(n) ∨B (n) (Vε ) ≥ 1 − ε. Furthermore, (n) if i(n) ∈ Uε then 2−n(H(A)+ε) ≤ P (i(n) ) ≤ 2−n(H(A)−ε) ,

(7.171)

(n)

while if (i(n) , k(n) ) ∈ Vε , then

−n H(A)+

a

2

i=1

pi S(ρi )+ε

≤ P (i

(n)

,k

(n)

−n H(A)+

a

)≤2

i=1

pi S(ρi )−ε

. (7.172) As for classical capacity (see Section 3.2.2), we distinguish one more typical (n) (n) (n) subset, Wε ⊆ IA × IB , consisting of all jointly typical pairs, (i(n) , k(n) ) ∈ (n) Vε , where also i(n) ∈ U (n) . From (7.168), (7.171) and (7.172),

−n S(ρ)−χ+2ε

2

−n S(ρ)−χ−2ε

≤ P (k(n) |i(n) ) ≤ 2

,

(7.173)

where (6.33) has been used and χ is Holevo’s χ-quantity for ρ and its decoma position ρ = i=1 pi ρi . Finally, in terms of (7.164) and (7.165), ρ(i(n) ) = P (k(n) |i(n) ) | P (k(n) |i(n) ) P (k(n) |i(n) ) | (7.174) k(n) ∈J(i(n) )

ρ⊗n =

i(n) ∈I n A k(n) ∈J(i(n) )

P (i(n) , k(n) ) | P (k(n) |i(n) ) P (k(n) |i(n) ) | , (7.175)

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

401

-n where (see (7.166)) | P (k(n) |i(n) ) := j=1 | p(kj |ij ) . As showed in the proof of Theorem 7.3.1, for any ε > 0 there exists an orthogonal projector Πε ∈ B(H⊗n ) that commutes with ρ⊗n and (n) Tr(ρ⊗n Πε ) ≥ 1 − ε. Analogously, if the sum in (7.175) is restricted to Wε , + ⊗n ⊗n one gets a positive operator ρ˜n ≤ ρ ∈ B1 (H ) with P (i(n) , k(n) ) Tr˜ ρn = (n)

(i(n) ,k(n) )∈Wε

=

−

(n) (i(n) ,k(n) )∈Vε

P (i(n) , k(n) ) ≥ 1 − 2ε .

(7.176)

(n) (i(n) ,k(n) )∈Vε (n) i(n) ∈U / ε

Theorem 7.3.4. [136, 269] Let ρ = i∈IA pi ρi ∈ B+ 1 (H) provide a statistical mixture of quantum states available for encoding symbols i ∈ IA emitted by a classical source; let χ := χ (ρ, {pi ρi }i∈IA ). For any ﬁxed δ > 0 and suﬃciently large n, there exists an encoding i(n) → E(i(n) ) = ρ(i(n) ) on a subset n I˜A ⊆ IA consisting of M strings and a decoding POVM | Ψ (k(n) |i(n) Ψ (k(n) |i(n) ) | B(H⊗n ) ⊃ B (n) := i(n) ∈I˜A ∪

1l −

(n) (i(n) ,k(n) )∈Wε

| Ψ (k(n) |i(n) ) Ψ (k(n) |i(n) | ,

i(n) ∈I˜A (n) (i(n) ,k(n) )∈Wε

M such that − χ ≤ δ and en ≤ δ, where en is the decoding error n 2 1 en := 1 − P (k(n) |i(n) ) Ψ (k(n) |i(n) ) | P (k(n) |i(n) ) . M (n) ˜ i ∈IA k(n) ∈J(i(n) )

(7.177) The strategy of the proof consists of the following steps. n 1. choose an equidistributed set I˜A ⊆ IA of M sequences i(n) and to encode each of them by a density matrix E(i(n) ) = ρ(i(n) ). The encoding thus provides the density matrix (n)

ρE

:= =

1 M 1 M

E(i(n) )

i(n) ∈I˜A

i(n) ∈I˜A k(n) ∈J(i(n) )

P (k(n) |i(n) ) | P (k(n) |i(n) ) P (k(n) |i(n) ) | . (7.178)

402

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

2. Choose random encodings E as in the proof of Theorem 3.2.3: the argument does ensure that the required encoding and decoding procedures exist, but does not provide concrete instances of them (for a similar result see [144, 146]). 3. As regards the decoding protocol, the idea is to try to identify by means of (possibly of norm less than 1) vectors | Ψ (k(n) |i(n) ) only those (n) | P (k(n) |i(n) ) in (7.178) which are labeled by pairs (i(n) , k(n) ) ∈ Wε after the same have been projected by Πε onto the chosen high probability subspace of ρ(n) . All other | P (k(n) |i(n) ) will be made correspond to | Ψ (k(n) |i(n) ) = 0. 4. The non-trivial decoding vectors are constructed as follows. (For sake of simplicity we shall denote multi-indices i(n) , k(n) as i and k. Set | Φ(i, k) := Πε | P (i, k) , consider the matrix S with entries S(i,k),(i,k) := Φ(i, k) | Φ(i, k) = P (k|i) | Πε |P (k|i) ,

(7.179)

(n)

where i, i ∈ I˜A , k, k ∈ J(i), J(i) and (i, k), (i, k) ∈ Wε . This matrix is positive and its square root deﬁnes vectors | Ψ (i, k) such that [136] √ S (i,k),(i,k) =: Ψ (k|i) | Φ(k|i) = Ψ (k|i) | P (k|i) . Namely, Q−1/2 | Φ(k|i) where Q−1/2 is the (positive) inverse square-root ∗ ∗ | Φ(k|i) Φ(k|i) | (deﬁned only on the range of Q), where of Q := (i,k)

(i,k) (n) Wε .

denotes the sum restricted to the pairs (i, k) ∈ 5. The error (7.177) is complementary to the ensemble ﬁdelity (see Deﬁnition 6.3.6) that has been used in Theorem 7.3.1. Using the previous deﬁnitions and that Q−1/2 ≥ 0, it can be bounded as follows:

2 en ≤ P (k|i) 1 − Ψ (k|i) | P (k|i) M i∈I˜ A k∈J(i)

≤ 2−

∗ √ 2 P (k|i) S (i,k);(i,k) . M

(7.180)

i∈I˜A (i,k)

√ Proof of Theorem 7.3.4 Since 2(x − x) ≤ x − x2 for all x ≥ 0, the same inequality holds by substituting x with the positive matrix S in (7.179); taking diagonal values: ∗ √ 3 1 S (i,k);(i,k) ≥ S(i,k);(i,k) − S(i,k);(j, ) S(j, );(i,k) . 2 2 (j,k)

Then, using the ﬁrst inequality in (7.173), the bound (7.180) can conveniently be recast as follows

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

en ≤ 2 −

+

403

∗ 3 P (k|i) S(i,k);(i,k) M

1 M

i∈I˜A (i,k) ∗

2 P (k|i) S(i,k);(j, )

i∈I˜A (i,k)

2n(S(ρ)−χ+2ε) + M

∗

P (k|i) P (|j) S(i,k);(j, ) S(j, );(i,k) .

i,j∈I˜A (i,k)=(j, )

Suppose now to choose the M words i(n) ∈ I˜A randomly according to the probability distribution P (i); we obtain in this way a statistical ensemble of random codes and, as much as in the classical case, by averaging over the contributions of the randomly chosen i(n) one eliminates the dependence on n I˜A and remains with a sum over all i(n) ∈ IA . Therefore, the average error can be estimated from above by eav n ≤ 2 − 3

∗ (n) i∈IA

P (i) P (k|i) S(i,k);(i,k)

(i,k)

(7.181)

L1

+

∗ (n) i∈IA

(i,k)

2 P (i) P (k|i) S(i,k);(i,k)

(7.182)

L2a

M (M − 1) n(S(ρ)−χ+2ε) 2 M ∗ × P (i) P (j) P (k|i) P (|j) S(i,k);(j, ) S(j, );(i,k) .(7.183) +

(n)

i,j∈IA

(i,k)=(j, )

L2b

From (7.179) and (7.176),

L1 = Tr ρ˜n Πε = Tr ρ⊗n Πε − Tr (˜ ρn − ρ⊗n )Πε ≥ 1 − 3ε

(1) .

Further, S(i,k);(i,k) ≤ 1, thus L2a ≤ 1 (2a). Finally, the last sum can be bounded from above by observing that if 0 ≤ A ≤ B and 0 ≤ C ≤ D, then by means of cyclicity under the trace operation, √ √ √ √ Tr(AC) = Tr( AC A) ≤ Tr(AD) = Tr( DA D) ≤ Tr(BD) .

Therefore, since Πε commutes with ρ⊗n , L2b ≤ Tr Πε (ρ⊗n )2 ; on the other hand, from the quantum AEP we know that the dimension of the subspace

404

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

projected out by Πε is ≤ 2n(S(ρ)+ε) with eigenvalues ≤ 2−n(S(ρ)−ε) , whence L2b ≤ 2−n(S(ρ)−3ε) (2b). Altogether, inequalities (1), (2a) and (2b) yield −n(χ−5ε) eav = 9ε + 2−n(χ−R−5ε) , n ≤ 2 − 3(1 − 3ε) + 1 + M 2

where we have put the growth rate R into evidence M = 2n R . The latter can be chosen arbitrarily close to the Holevo χ quantity and still the average error becomes negligible with n → ∞. Therefore, for any δ ≥ 0 and n large n with R ≥ χ − δ and en ≤ δ. enough there is an I˜A ⊆ IA Example 7.3.2. Suppose the sender encodes classical symbols i ∈ I into states that she obtains by acting locally with unitary operators Ui on her system in a state ρ12 ∈ Md1 (C) ⊗ Md2 (C) which she shares with the receiver. She selects the unitary operators Ui with probabilities pi , and after changing ρ12 into ρi = Ui ⊗1l2 ρ12 Ui† ⊗1l she sends her system to the receiver. The sender tries to maximize the information accessible to the receiver by optimizing the Holevo bound, thus seeking [71] @ A pi S (ρi ) , ρ = pi ρi . CM := max S (ρ) − pi ,Ui

i

i

Note that S (ρi ) = S (ρ12 ) for unitary transformations do not change the von Neumann entropy; in order to maximize S (ρ), consider the marginal states ρ(1) = Tr2 (ρ) ,

(2)

ρ1 = Tr1 (ρ) = ρ2 (= Tr1 (ρ12 )) .

By subadditivity (5.160) and (5.155),

CM ≤ S ρ(1) + S (ρ2 ) − S (ρ12 ) ≤ log d1 + S (ρ2 ) − S (ρ12 ) . Choose as unitary operators the d21 Weyl operators Wd1 (n) of Example 5.4.2 with equal probabilities 1/d21 ; then, using (5.88) and (5.30), one gets ρ=

1 d21

n=(n1 ,n2 )

Wd1 (n) ⊗ 1l2 ρ12 Wd1 (n) ⊗ 1l2 =

1l1 ⊗ ρ2 , d1

so that CM ≥ log d1 + S (ρ2 ) − S (ρ12 ). This transmission protocol can thus achieve an optimal quantum transmission rate CM = log d1 +S (ρ2 )−S (ρ12 ). In general, like in classical transmission, the quantum states that have been used to code and transmit information are subjected to perturbing eﬀects of the transmission channel which is being used. Concretely, if the the quantum code-words are projections Pi ∈ Md (C) chosen with probabilities pi , thus making a statistical ensemble described by the density matrix

7.3 Quantum Spin Chains as Quantum Sources

405

ρ = i pi Pi , a probability preserving channel acts on them as a tracepreserving CP map Λ. In the light of the previous theorem, the channel capacity is deﬁned by [145, 276] A @ pi S (Λ[Pi ]) . CM [Λ] := max S (Λ[ρ]) − pi ,Pi

i

As much as for the entanglement cost (see (6.8)), in order to improve the capacity, one may consider n uses of the channel, thus a CP map Λ⊗n acting on states on Md (C)⊗n which may carry entanglement between diﬀerent uses. Then one introduces the regularized capacity C∞ [Λ] := lim

n→+∞

1 CM [Λ⊗n ] . n

Such a limit exists because the capacity is superadditive; indeed, consider (1) (1) (1) (1) CM [Λ1 ⊗ Λ2 ] and two statistical ensembles {pj , Pi } and {pj , Pi } that achieve CM [Λ1 ], respectively CM [Λ2 ]. The additivity of the von Neumann entropy over tensor products states implies that, for the not necessarily optimal (1) (2) (1) (2) statistical ensemble, {pi pj , Pi ⊗ Pj },

(1) (1) CM [Λ1 ⊗ Λ2 ] ≥ S Λ1 [ρ(1) ] − pi S Λ1 [Pi ]

i

(2)

+ S Λ2 [ρ

(2) (2) ] − pi S Λ2 [Pi ] = CM [Λ1 ] + CM [Λ2 ] . i

Were the capacity additive, the regularized capacity would coincide with CM [Λ]. This is another important open question in quantum information which is actually equivalent to the additivity of the entanglement of formation [276] (see also [43] for an approach to this problem based on the relations between the entanglement of formation and the the entropy of a subalgebra.) Bibliographical Notes A most exhaustive and complete review of the algebraic approach to quantum statistical mechanics is provided by [64]; in [65] one ﬁnds plenty of applications to spin and continuous systems. A fully developed mathematical theory of the canonical commutation and anti-commutation relations, quasifree states and quasi-free automorphisms can be found in [237, 200, 201, 202, 255, 256, 257]. Quantum ergodicity and mixing are presented in [260, 277, 300, 107, 64] in increasing order of mathematical sophistication; the second reference has provided most of the material of this book concerning these topics, the ﬁrst one concerning mixing. In [64] one also ﬁnds a detailed discussion of decomposition theory, while in [300] more recent developments are presented.

406

7 Quantum Mechanics of Inﬁnite Degrees of Freedom

In [215, 221] what has been called mixing in this book is termed clustering, the qualiﬁcation mixing being assigned to a stronger clustering behavior which is discussed in connection with Galilei-invariant interactions [218]. In [107, 300] one ﬁnds enlightening discussions about the physical meaning of the diﬀerent algebraic factor types and of Tomita-Takesaki modular theory. Applications of quantum mechanics with inﬁnite degrees of freedom to collective phenomena and thermodynamics can be found in [274], while in [290, 291] the emphasis is more on symmetry breaking phenomena and on the existence of inequivalent representations of the CCR and CCR with applications to physically relevant models. Quantum information related issues involving inﬁnitely many degrees of freedom and the necessary mathematical tools like quantum compression theorems and quantum capacities are discussed in [145, 239, 250]. For a review of diﬀerent formulation of quantum capacity related quantities and their relations see [182].

Part III

Quantum Dynamical Entropies and Complexities

Part III

Quantum Dynamical Entropies and Complexities

409

The last part of the book ﬁrst deals with two extensions of the Kolmogorov dynamical entropy to quantum systems and with their applications. Then, it discusses some recent generalizations to quantum systems of classical algorithmic complexity.

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

The ﬁrst part of this book has been devoted to illustrate some of the many properties of the classical dynamical entropy of Kolmogorov and Sinai; in particular, it has been showed that it provides the optimal compression rate of ergodic sources (Shannon-Mc Millan-Breiman Theorem 3.2.1), while, through the positive Lyapounov exponents (Pesin’s Theorem), it measures the dynamical instability of classical dynamical systems; ﬁnally, it gives the complexity rate of almost all trajectories of ergodic dynamical systems (Brudno’s theorem 4.2.1). Several extensions of the KS entropy to quantum dynamical systems can be found in the mathematical and physical literature (see the bibliographical notes at the end of this chapter). All of them predated or were developed independently of quantum information; due to its rapid growth, the latter more and more appears as an ideal ground for testing the physical meaning and the technical usefulness of these proposals. One of the aims behind the attempts at deﬁning quantum dynamical entropies was the possibility of classifying quantum dynamical systems, as much as it had been done for classical dynamical systems by means of the KS entropy (see Remark 3.1.2). Afterwards, the quantum dynamical entropies have been applied to the study of quantum chaotic phenomena and the quantum/classical correspondence; recently, they have been used to shed light on certain foundational aspects of quantum information, like quantum capacity and quantum algorithmic complexity. Of the various quantum dynamical entropies that have been proposed in recent years, we shall mainly focus upon two of them; namely, the entropy of Connes, Narnhofer and Thirring [88] (CNT entropy) and of Alicki and Fannes [9] (AFL entropy) 1 . These quantum dynamical entropies embody two radically diﬀerent ways of approaching the notion of information production in quantum mechanics; indeed, they may behave diﬀerently on a same quantum dynamical system. In Section 2.4, we have seen that partitions of the phase-space into ﬁnitely many, disjoint measurable atoms provide classical dynamical systems (X , T, μ) (see Deﬁnition 2.2.2) with symbolic models: ﬁnite measurable partitions P = {Pi }i∈I can be used to successively localize the moving phase-point 1

The L in AFL stands for Lindblad who introduced the notion in [194, 195, 196].

F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 8, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

411

412

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

within their atoms Pi and to quantify the predictability of the dynamics via the information relative to the next time-step that is gained by observing the evolving system. In Chapter 3, partitions have been interpreted as POVMs taken from a commutative dynamical triple (L∞ μ (X ), ΘT , ωμ ), where atoms have been identiﬁed with their characteristic functions and thus with orthogonal projections summing up to the identity (see Deﬁnition 2.2.3.2). Thus, partitions P deﬁne partitions of unit (see Deﬁnition 5.6.1) and CPU maps EX on the C ∗ -algebra B(L2μ (X )). However, because of commutativity, the action of E ∞ on L∞ μ (X ) reduces to the identity map; indeed, for all f ∈ Lμ (X ), EX [f ](x) =

i∈I

χPi (x) f (x) χPi (x) =

χPi (x) f (x) = f (x) .

i∈I

The dynamics is thus insensitive to measurements, ΘT ◦EX = EX ◦ΘT = ΘT , as well as the states on L∞ μ (X ): FX [ωμ ] = ωμ , where FX is the dual CP map such that FX [ωμ ](f ) = ωμ (EX [f ]). Given a quantum dynamical triplet (A, Θ, ω), if one wants to extend the notion of partition to such a non-commutative context, a natural step is to substitute commuting projections with non-commuting ones or, more in general, with non-projective POVMs . Diﬀerently from the classical case, the CPU maps E : A → A associated with them do not in general commute with the quantum dynamics, Θ ◦ E = Θ = E ◦ Θ, nor do the dual maps F preserve the quantum state, F[ω] = ω. Both E and F act as external perturbations; therefore, a preliminary question arises whether one should or not incorporate measurement processes into the very construction of quantum dynamical entropies. If the answer is yes, then, beside the dynamics itself, measurement processes themselves may act as a source of randomness; on the other hand, if the answer is no, the regular and irregular features of the dynamics refer to the system only, but are insensitive to the typical quantum phenomenon that getting information about quantum systems in general perturbs them. In other words, a perturbation-free quantiﬁer of quantum dynamical randomness might not measure the actual information production that always comes from observations of the time-evolving system; on the other hand, a quantiﬁer of quantum dynamical randomness that takes into account acquisition of information through measurement processes would add the randomness coming from the latter ones to that proper to the quantum dynamics itself. Purpose of this and the last chapter is to convey the idea that, unlike in classical dynamics, randomness in quantum dynamics has more than one facet and that choosing one of the two answers above just means exploring two of these inequivalent aspects.

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

413

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States The non-commutative algebraic structure which more closely resembles a commutative one is that of type II1 factor von Neumann algebras A (see point 2 after Deﬁnition 7.0.8). Indeed, the state ω which makes A a type II1 factor is a normalized trace such ω(X Y ) = ω(Y X) for all X, Y ∈ A. The CNT entropy [88] generalizes to generic von Neumann algebras previous extensions of the KS entropy to type II1 factors that were based on the above commutativity with respect to the state [107, 89]. The CNT entropy quantiﬁes the information rate in quantum dynamical systems described by algebraic triplets (A, Θ, ω) and it does it independently of external measurement processes, by relying only on the algebraic properties of A, Θ and ω. The basic idea of the whole construction is a clever use of the relation between entropy and relative entropy that has been discussed in Section 6.3.1 in relation to the entropy of a subalgebra (more in general of a CPU map: see Deﬁnitions 6.3.2 and 6.3.3). Before getting to that, we indicate why, in general, the steps that in Section 3.1 led to the KS entropy are not practicable in a quantum setting. Suppose M ⊂ A is a ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebra; if (A, Θ, ω) is a classical dynamical triplet, the KS entropy is constructed by considering – –

the ﬁnite partition corresponding to the subalgebra M ; $n−1 the partition M (n) = j=0 Θk (M ) generated by the time-evolved partitions {Θk (M )}n−1 k=0 ; – the Shannon entropy of the state ω restricted to M (n) : H(ω |`M (n) ); 1 – the asymptotic rate lim H(ω |`M (n) ). n→∞ n In the non-commutative context, by sheer analogy one might consider any ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebra M ⊆ A; $ n−1 the ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebras M (n) := k=0 Θk (M ) generated by n−1 k the n (ﬁnite-dimensional) subalgebras Θ (M )k=0 ;

– the von Neumann entropy of the restricted state ω |`M (n) : S ω |`M (n) ;

1 – the asymptotic rate lim S ω |`M (n) . n→∞ n However, this argument generally fails and the reason why it does fail is non-commutativity [301]: despite being ﬁnite-dimensional, the subalgebras at diﬀerent times Θk (M ) need not commute

thus generate an inﬁnite and can (n) (n) cannot in general be condimensional subalgebra M so that S ω |`M trolled. In order to overcome these diﬃculties, the idea is to extend the entropy of a CPU map Hρ (γ) (see Deﬁnition 6.3.3) to the entropy Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) of n CPU maps γi : M i → A from ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebras (that we shall always suppose with identity) M i into A.

– –

414

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

Remark 8.1.1. As in Section 6.3.1, when M is a subalgebra of A, then one chooses as CPU map γ the natural embedding ιM of M into A. Therefore, when dealing with the set of subalgebras {Θj (M )}n−1 j=0 , the n CPU maps are given by γj := Θj ◦ ιM . Like in the case of Hρ (γ), we shall consider linear convex decompositions of the state ω in terms of states ωi(n) . These states will now be indexed by strings i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in , ij ∈ Ij , each CPU map γj being associated with a generic index set Ij , carrying a total weight λ(i(n) ). Fixing ij ∈ Ij , after summing over the all other indices and after renormalization, one obtains auxiliary decompositions of ω associated to each γj . Concretely, from the multi-index decomposition λi(n) ωi(n) , I (n) := I1 × I2 × · · · In , (8.1) ω= i(n) ∈I (n)

one obtains subdecompositions ω =

λjij ωijj , j = 1, 2, . . . , n, where

ij ∈Ij

ωijj :=

λ (n) i λjij

i(n) ij fixed

Let Λ(n) :=

λjij :=

ωi(n) ,

λi(n) .

(8.2)

i(n) ij fixed

(n) λi(n)

be the probability distribution associated with the weights in (8.1) and Λj := λjij the marginal probability distrii(n) ∈I (n)

ij ∈Ij

butions consisting of the weights in (8.2). The generalization of (6.3.3) is as follows. Deﬁnition 8.1.1 (n-CPU Entropies). Given a C ∗ algebra A equipped with a state ω, let γi : M i ⊂ A, i = 1, 2, . . . , n, be CPU maps from ﬁnitedimensional C ∗ algebras into A. Their entropy with respect to ω is: @ n H(Λ(n) ) − H(Λj ) Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) := sup ω=

+

n

i(n)

λi(n) ωi(n)

λjij S ωijj |`γj , ω |`γj

j=1 ij ∈Ij

+

j=1

j=1

A

(8.3)

@ =

n

ω=

H(Λ(n) ) −

sup i(n)

S (ω |`M j ) −

λi(n) ωi(n)

ij ∈Ij

λjij S

n

H(Λj )

j=1

ωijj

|`γj

A

,

(8.4)

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

415

where, with η(x) := −x log x, x ∈ [0, 1], η(λi(n) ) , H(Λj ) = η(λjij ) . H(Λ(n) ) = ij ∈Ij

i(n)

As in Section 6.3.1, a concrete way to construct decompositions of ω is to use the GNS construction based on the state ω; it follows that the states ωi(n) contributing to ω = i(n) λi(n) ωi(n) are in one-to-one correspondence with the positive elements of the commutant of πω (A): λi(n) ωi(n) (X) = Ωω | Yi(n) πω (X) |Ωω , (8.5) where 0 ≤ Yi(n) ∈ πω (A) and i(n) Yi(n) = 1l. Also, if ω is faithful, one can express the decomposing states in terms of 0 ≤ X ∈ πω (A) by means of the modular automorphism σω (see (5.181) in Remark 5.6.1.3):

λi(n) ωi(n) (X) = Ωω | σωi/2 πω (Yi(n) ) πω (X) |Ωω , (8.6) where 0 ≤ Yi(n) ∈ A and

i(n)

Yi(n) = 1l.

In analogy with (6.47), we shall denote by {γj }n j=1

Hω

n

{λi(n) , ωi(n) } := H(Λ(n) ) − H(Λj ) j=1

+

n

λjij S ωijj |`γj , ω |`γj

,

(8.7)

j=1 ij ∈Ij

the contribution to the n-subalgebra entropy coming from a chosen decomposition of the state ω. The n-CPU entropies enjoy a number of very useful properties that can luckily be proved without being obliged to know the optimal decompositions; the ﬁrst one of these is a generalization of Proposition 6.3.4. Proposition 8.1.1. Given a C ∗ algebra A, a state ω on it and CPU maps γj : M j → A, j = 1, 2, . . . , n, from ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebras M j (n) (dim M j ≤ d) into A, consider a decomposition ω = i(n) ∈I (n) λi(n) ωi(n) (n) and ε > 0. Then, there exists a decomposition ω = j∈J (n) λj (n) ωj (n) where J (n) := J1 × J2 × · · · Jn is a multi-index set with card(J (n) ) depends on d and ε and j (n) := j1 j2 · · · jn , jk ∈ Jk , such that

{γj }n {γj }n (n) ≤ Hω j=1 λj (n) , ωj (n) (n) +ε. Hω j=1 λi(n) , ωi(n) (n) i

∈I (n)

j

∈J (n)

416

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

Proof: Following the steps in the proof of Proposition 8.1.1, consider parn titions Zj = {Zkjj }kjj=1 of the state-spaces S(M j ) into atoms Zkjj such that j are two states on M j belonging to any Zkjj , then ν1 − ν2 ≤ δ. The if ν1,2 cardinality nj of each of these partitions can be chosen not larger than the smallest number, r, of balls of radius ≤ δ needed to cover each S(M j ), a number which depends on dim M j and thus on d. Given the decompositions (n) λi(n) ωi(n) and ω = λkik ωikk , k = 1, 2, . . . , n ω= i(n) ∈I (n)

ik

one constructs the states

ωj k :=

ik ∈Ik ω k ∈Z k ik jk

λkik k ω , λjk ik

ωj (n) :=

λjk :=

λkik

ik ∈Ik ω k ∈Z k ik jk

(n)

λi(n)

i(n) ∈I (n) ω k ∈Z k ,k=1,2,...,n ik jk

λj (n)

λj (n) :=

ωi(n) ,

(n)

λi(n) ,

i(n) ∈I (n) ω k ∈Z k ,k=1,2,...,n ik jk

and the corresponding decompositions ω= λj (n) ωj (n) and ω = λjk ωj k . jk ∈Jk

j (n) ∈J (n)

(n) Then, introducing the probability distributions Λ(n) := λi(n) (n) (n) and i ∈I Λ := λj (n) (n) (n) , together with the respective marginal distributions j ∈J Λk := λkik i ∈I and Λk := λjk j ∈J , one estimates k

{γj }n j=1

Hω

k

k

(n) λi(n) , ωi(n)

+

n

λj (n) , ωj (n)

H(Λk ) − H(Λk )

j (n) ∈J (n)

=

k=1

⎞ 0 0 / / λkik S ωikk |`γk , ω |`γk − λjk S ωj k |`γk , ω |`γk ⎠

ik ∈Ik

jk ∈Jk

⎛ ⎝

k=1

{γj }n j=1

− Hω

i(n) ∈I (n) n

= H(Λ(n) ) − H(Λ ) +

k

≤ nε . Indeed, according to the proof of Proposition 8.1.1, each term in the second sum over k is ≤ ε, while the ﬁrst line after the equality is ≤ 0. This can be seen by considering the Λk as probability distributions over partitions Pk with atoms Pikk and Λ(n) as a probability distribution over the ﬁnite $n partition P (n) := k=1 Pk . Then (compare Remarks 2.4.2), the Λk and Λk

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

417

are probability distributions over coarser partitions Qk Pk , respectively $n Q(n) := k=1 Qk P (n) , whence, using the conditional entropy (2.90), H(P (n) ∨ Q(n) ) = H(P (n) ) = H(Q(n) ) + H(P (n) |Q(n) ) H(Pk ∨ Qk ) = H(Pk ) = H(Qk ) + H(Pk |Qk ) . Thus, from Lemma 2.4.3 and Corollary 2.4.2, n

H(P (n) ) − H(Q(n) ) ≤

H(Pk |Qk ) =

k=1

n

H(Pk ) − H(Qk ) .

k=1

From proposition 8.1.1 it follows that for any ε > 0, there exists a ﬁnite (n) decomposition ω = i(n) ∈I (n) λi(n) ωi(n) such that {γj }n j=1

Hω

(n) λi(n) , ωi(n)

i(n) ∈I (n)

≥ Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) − n ε ,

(8.8)

while, from Deﬁnition 8.1.1, {γj }n j=1

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≥ Hω

(n) λi(n) , ωi(n)

i(n) ∈I (n)

.

We shall call these decompositions ε-optimal and remark that their cardinality r := #(I (n) ) depends on ε and on the maximal dimension d of the ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebras on which the γj act. Then, the n-CPU map entropies result equicontinuous in the maps γj : M j → A with respect to the topology deﬁned on their linear space by the norm γ1 − γ2 ω := sup (γ1 − γ2 )(X)ω ,

(8.9)

X∈A X≤1

where X2ω := ω(X † X) for all X ∈ A. Proposition 8.1.2. Let γj and γj , j = 1, 2, . . . , n, be CPU maps from ﬁnitedimensional C ∗ algebras M j with dim M j ≤ d into A. Then, for any ε > 0 there can be found δ > 0 depending on ε and d such that Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) − Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≤ n ε when γj − γj ω ≤ δ. Proof: Consider a ﬁnite decomposition of cardinality r as in (8.8) with ε/2 in the place of ε; then,

418

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies {γj }n j=1

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) − Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≤ Hω {γ }n (n) −Hω j j=1 λi(n) , ωi(n)

(n) λi(n) , ωi(n)

i(n) ∈I (n)

n

0 / nε S (ω ◦ γj ) − S ω ◦ γj + = 2 j=1

j j nε j + . + λij S ωij ◦ γj − S ωij ◦ γj 2 i(n) ∈I (n)

+

ij ∈Ij

Choose 0 < δ < δ0 and δ0 such that the Fannes inequality 5.157 implies ε S (ν1 |`M ) − S (ν2 |`M ) ≤ 6 when M is a ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebra with dim M ≤ d and ν1,2 ∈ S(M ) are states on it such that ν1 − ν2 ≤ δ0 . Since |ω(X)| ≤ Xω (see (5.49)), it follows that ω ◦ (γj − γj ) =

whence

n j=1

sup M ∈M , M ≤1

|ω ◦ (γj − γj )(M )| ≤ γ− γj ω ≤ δ < δ0 ,

0

/ ε S (ω ◦ γj ) − S ω ◦ γj ≤ n . 6

In order to estimate the remaining sums, let us divide each index set Ij into two disjoint subsets, namely 2 M δ2 Ij0 := ij ∈ IJ : λjij ≥ 2 δ0 j j and its complement. Since ω = ij ∈Ij λij ωij , from (8.9), the state-based distances are such that, for all ij ∈ Ij0 , 1 γj − γj ωj ≤ ? γj − γj ω ≤ δ0 , ij j λij so that

0

/ ε ≤ n . Finally, using that λjij S (ω ◦ γj ) − S ω ◦ γj 6 0

n

j=1 ij ∈Ij

card(Ij ) ≤ card(I (n) ) ≤ r and dim M j ≤ d together with (5.155), one derives

δ2 λjij S ωijj ◦ γj − S ωijj ◦ γj ≤ r 2 log d . δ0 0

ij ∈I / j

Therefore, δ < δ0 such that r

δ2 ε log d ≤ , yields 2 δ0 6

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) − Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≤ n(

ε ε + 3 ) = nε , 2 6

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

419

whence the result follows by exchanging the sets {γj }nj=1 and {γj }nj=1 .

Other properties that are important for applications to concrete quantum dynamical systems are the following ones. Proposition 8.1.3 (Properties of n-CPU Entropies). Given a C ∗ algebra A equipped with a state ω and n CPU maps γi : M j → A from unital C ∗ algebras M j , j = 1, 2, . . . , n, with dim M j ≤ d, into A, it holds that: 1. the n-CPU map entropies are positive and bounded, 0 ≤ Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≤

n j=1

Hω (γj ) ≤

n

S (ω ◦ γj ) ≤ n log d ; (8.10)

j=1

2. the n-CPU map entropies do not depend on the order of their arguments: / 0 (8.11) Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) = Hω γπ(1) , γπ(2) , . . . , γπ(n) , with π(i) any permutation of 1, 2, . . . , n; 3. the n-CPU map entropies are not sensitive to repetitions of their arguments: Hω (γ1 , . . . γj−1 , γj , γj , γj+1 , . . . , γn ) = Hω (γ1 , γj−1 , γj , γj+1 , . . . , γn ) ; (8.12) 4. if Θ : A → A is an automorphism such that ω ◦ Θ = ω, then Hω (Θ ◦ γ1 , Θ ◦ γ2 , . . . , Θ ◦ γn ) = Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ;

(8.13)

5. the n-CPU map entropies are subadditive: Hω (γ1 , . . . , γp , γp+1 , . . . , γn ) ≤ Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γp ) +Hω (γp+1 , γp+2 , . . . , γn ) ;

(8.14)

6. the n-CPU map entropies are monotonic under composition of CPU maps; namely, if γj : N j → M j are CPU maps from ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebras N j into ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ -algebras M j , j = 1, 2, . . . , n, which are in turn mapped into A by CPU maps γj , then Hω (γ1 ◦ γ1 , γ2 ◦ γ2 , . . . , γn ◦ γn ) ≤ Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ;

(8.15)

7. the n-CPU map entropies increase by non-trivially increasing the number of their arguments: Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≤ Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn , γn+1 ) .

(8.16)

Before proving the previous properties we examine some simple cases where, in analogy with Example 6.3.6, the n-CPU map entropies can explicitly be computed.

420

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

Examples 8.1.1. 1. If in (8.15) one considers as CPU maps γj and γj the natural embeddings of subalgebras N j ⊆ M j ⊆ A, then that property asserts that the n-subalgebra entropies increases under embeddings into larger subalgebras. Suppose the ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ subalgebras {M j }nj=1 to be such$that they together generate a ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebra n M (n) := j=1 M j . This is the case, for instance, when each M j is a spin-algebra at site j on a lattice so that M (n) is the algebra of n spins at sites 1, 2, . . . , n. Then, M j ⊆ M (n) whence property (8.15) together with property (8.12) and property (8.10) give

Hω (M 1 , M 2 , . . . , M n ) ≤ Hω M (n) , M (n) , . . . , M (n)

= Hω M (n) ≤ S ω |`M (n) . (8.17) 2. Suppose A is an Abelian von Neumann algebra and {Aj }nj=1 are ﬁnite did

j . Then, mensional subalgebras generated by minimal projectors { aji }i=1 (n) n consider the products ai(n) := a1i1 a2i2 · · · anin , I = ×j=1 Ij , where i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in , ij ∈ Ij and Ij = {1, 2, . . . , dj }. Because of commutativity, these are projectors that one can use to decompose ω as follows

ω=

λi(n) ωi(n) ,

ωi(n) (a) =

i(n) ∈I (n)

ω( ai(n) a) ω( ai(n) )

∀a ∈ A .

Further, the various probability distributions and elements of the subdecompositions amounts to Λ(n) = {ω( ai(n) )}i(n) ∈I (n) ,

ωijj (a) =

ω( ajij a) , ω( ajij )

Λj = {ω( ajij )}ij ∈Ij .

It thus follows that 1) the states ω |`Aj = Λj and the states ω j |`Aj are pure states because the orthogonality of the minimal projectors implies ajk ) = ωijj (

ω( ajij ajk ) = δij k . ω( ajij ) (n)

Since the minimal projections ai(n) generate the Abelian subalgebra $n A(n) := j=1 Aj , this yields {Aj }n j=1

Hω

(n) λi(n) , ωi(n) =−

(n) (n) λi(n) log λi(n) = S ω |`A(n) .

i(n) ∈I (n)

Because of (8.17) this result is optimal; thus,

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

Hω (A1 , A2 , . . . , An ) = S ω |`A(n)

421

.

(8.18)

Notice that the latter von $n Neumann entropy is the Shannnon entropy of the random variable j=1 Aj distributed with probability Λ(n) , where the random variables Aj are distributed with marginal probabilities Λj . The outcomes of these random variables correspond to the minimal projections aji ; according to Section 5.3.2, via the Gelfand transform these can be turned into characteristic functions of the atoms of suitable measurable partitions. 3. The result in (8.18) also holds when the Aj are commuting Abelian ﬁnitedimensional subalgebras of a non-commutative A, but ω is the tracial state. Indeed, the minimal projectors of the Aj provide an optimal decomposition as in the previous example. The reason is that the modular automorphism of the tracial state is trivial; thus, (8.6) yields

ai(n) ) πω (a) |Ωω λi(n) ωi(n) (a) = Ωω | σωi/2 πω ( = Ωω | πω ( ai(n) a) |Ωω = ω( ai(n) a) . 4. Suppose {M j }nj=1 are ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ subalgebras that generate $n a ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebra M (n) := j=1 M j ⊆ A. Further, suppose they contain pairwise commuting Abelian subalgebras Aj ⊆ M j each belonging to the centralizer of ω 2 and such that the algebra $n (n) := j=1 Aj they generate is maximally Abelian in M (n) . Since A ajij the Aj pairwise commute the products of their minimal projectors (n) provide the minimal projectors ai(n) of Aj . By assumption, they are left invariant by the modular automorphism of ω and can thus be used to decompose ω as in the previous two examples. Then, from the second example above and from Example 6.3.3.2 one derives

{M j }n j=1 {ω( ai(n) ), ωi(n) }i(n) ∈I (n) Hω (M 1 , M 2 , . . . , M n ) ≥ Hω

= S ω |`A(n) = S ω |`M (n) . Therefore, the ﬁrst example yields Hω (M 1 , M 2 , . . . , M n ) = S (ω |`M 1 ∨ M 2 ∨ · · · M n ) .

(8.19)

Proof of Proposition 8.1.3 1. Positivity comes from choosing not to decompose ω at all, in which case the argument of the supremum in (8.3) vanishes. Further, the ﬁrst line in the argument of the supremum equals minus the relative en

tropy (see (2.94)) S Λ(n) , Λ(n) of the two probability distributions 2

They are therefore left pointwise invariant by the modular automorphism of ω.

422

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

Λ(n) =

(n) λi(n)

i(n) ∈I

, respectively Λ(n) := (n)

n

j j=1 λij

i(n) ∈I (n)

on the

strings set of strings i(n) . Since the relative entropy is non-negative, the upper bound to the n-CPU map entropies follows from Lemma 6.3.1. (n) 2. In order to show (8.11), let ω = i(n) ∈I (n) λi(n) ωi(n) be an ε-optimal decomposition such that, as in (8.8),

{γj }n (n) Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≤ Hω j=1 λi(n) , ωi(n) (n) (n) + n ε . i

{γπ(j) }n j=1

Since Hω

(n) λπ(i(n) ) , ωπ(i(n) )

string iπ(1) iπ(2) · · · iπ(n) , equals lows that

∈I

, where π(i(n) ) denotes the

(n) i(n) ∈I

{γj }n (n) , Hω j=1 λi(n) , ωi(n) (n) i ∈I (n)

it fol-

(n) λπ(i(n) ) , ωπ(i(n) ) (n) (n) + n ε i ∈I / 0 ≤ Hω γπ(1) , γπ(2) , . . . , γπ(n) + n ε . {γπ(j) }n j=1

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≤ Hω

Equality follows from the arbitrariness of ε > 0 by exchange of the sets {γj }nj=1 and {γπ(j) }nj=1 . 3. In view of (8.11), to prove (8.12) we show that Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) does not change if the argument γn appears twice. Consider an ε-optimal decomposition for the right hand side of (8.12) and, according to (8.5), the corresponding positive decomposition of unity in the commutant π(A) , {Yi(n) }i(n) ∈I (n) . Then, construct a new decomposition (n+1) ω (n+1) λ ω= j (n+1) j j (n+1) ∈J (n+1)

based on a decomposition of unit consisting of π(A) Yj (n+1) := Yi(n) 1l, where j (n+1) := i(n) jn+1 , i(n) ∈ I (n) and jn+1 ∈ Jn+1 = {1}. Then, (n) (n+1) = ω(Yj (n+1) ) = λi(n) , λ j (n+1)

ω jkk = ωikk

∀ k = n + 1 ,

n+1 = 1 and ω while λ jn+1 = ω. Therefore, jn+1 n+1

(n) λi(n) , Yi(n) (n) (n) + n ε i ∈I

{γj }n (n+1) j=1 ∪γn = Hω λj (n+1) , Yj (n+1) (n+1) (n+1) + n ε {γj }n j=1

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≤ Hω

j

≤ Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn , γn ) + n ε . In order to invert this inequality, let (n+1) ω= λi(n+1) ωi(n+1) i(n+1) ∈I (n+1)

∈J

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

423

be an ε-optimal decomposition for the left hand side of (8.12) and consider (n) ω= ω j (n) , λ j (n) j (n) ∈J (n)

where j (n) = j1 j2 · · · jn with jk = ik for 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, while jn ∈ Jn := In × In+1 enumerates the pairs (in in+1 ) so that J (n) = I1 × · · · In−1 × Jn , (n) (n) λ = λi(n) , ω j (n) = ωi(n) . If 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, it also turns out that j (n) k k = λ and ω k = ω k , while λ ik

ik

n = λ jn

jk

ik

(n+1)

ω jnn =

λi(n+1) ,

1 λn

jn

i(n+1) in ,in+1 fixed

(n+1)

λi(n+1) ωi(n+1) .

i(n+1) in ,in+1 fixed

(n) Then, Λ(n) := λ j (n)

(n+1) k := λk = Λ , and Λ ik ik ∈Ik = Λk for j (n) ∈J (n) n . Finally, one can estimate 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1, whereas Λn := λ jn {γi }n i=1

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn−1 , γn ) ≥ Hω = H(Λ(n) ) −

n−1 j=1

−H(Λn ) +

H(Λj ) +

n−1

(n) λ (n) , ω j

j (n)

j (n) ∈J (n)

j j S ω ◦ γ , ω ◦ γ λ j j ij ij

j=1 ij ∈Ij

0 / n j S ω jn ◦ γn , ω ◦ γn . λ n

(∗)

jn ∈Jn

From (2.88) it follows that H(Λn ) ≤ H(Λn ) + H(Λn+1 ). On the other hand, with jn = (in , in+1 ), ωinn =

1 n n jn , λjn ω λnin i

ωin+1 = n+1

n+1

1

λn+1 in+1

in

n n ω λ jn jn

and (6.31) imply

n+1 0 0 / n / n S ω jn ◦ γn , ω ◦ γn ≥ λkik S ωikk ◦ γk , ω ◦ γk . λ jn

jn ∈Jn

k=n ik ∈Ik

Together with (∗) this yields {γj }n j=1 ∪γn

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn−1 , γn ) ≥ Hω

(n+1) λi(n+1) , ωi(n+1)

i(n+1) ∈I (n+1)

≥ Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn , γn ) − n ε . 4. Property (8.13) is a consequence of ω ◦ Θ = ω. In fact, given an ε-optimal decomposition for the right (left) hand side of (8.13) and the correspond ing positive decomposition of unit in the commutant,

(n)

Yi(n)

i(n) ∈I (n)

,

424

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

(n) then Uω† Yi(n) Uω

i(n) ∈I (n)

(n) ( Uω Yi(n) Uω†

i(n) ∈I (n)

), where Uω is the uni-

tary GNS implementation of Θ, provides a decomposition for the left (right) side. (n) 5. In order to prove subadditivity, let ω = ∈(n) λi(n) ωi(n) be an ε-optimal decomposition for Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) and construct from it the following two decompositions: λ1j (p) ωj1(p) , ω = λ2k(n−p+1) ωk2 (n−p+1) ω= j (p)

k(n−p+1)

where j (p) = i1 i2 · · · ip ∈ I (p) := I1 × I2 × · · · × Ip , while the indexes k(n−p+1) = ip+1 ip+2 · · · in ∈ I (n−p+1) := Ip+1 × Ip+2 × · · · × In and

ωj1(p) :=

k(n−p+1) ∈I (n−p+1)

ωk2 (n−p+1) :=

j (p) ∈I (p)

(n)

λi(n) λ1j (p)

(n) λi(n) λ2k(n−p+1)

ωi(n) ,

λ1j (p) :=

(n)

λi(n)

k(n−p+1) ∈I (n−p+1)

ωi(n) ,

λ2k(n−p+1) :=

(n)

λi(n) .

j (p) ∈I (p)

λ1j (p)

and Λ2 := λ2k(n−p+1) k(n−p+1) ∈I (n−p+1) are (n) marginal distributions of Λ(n) = λi(n) ∈I (n) , (2.88) yields

Since Λ1 :=

j (p) ∈I (p)

H(Λ(n) ) ≤ H(Λ1 ) + H(Λ2 )

whence

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γp ) + Hω (γp+1 , γp+2 , . . . , γn ) ≥

{γj }p ≥ Hω j=1 λ1j (p) , ωj1(p) (p) (p) + j ∈I

{γj }n j=p+1 2 λk(n−p+1) , ωk2 (n−p+1) k(n−p+1) ∈I (n−p+1) + Hω

{γj }n (n) ≥ Hω j=1 λi(n) , ωi(n) (n) (n) ≥ Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) − n ε . i

∈I

6. Property (8.15) follows from the monotonicity of the relative entropy under CPU maps. 7. Finally, property (8.16) is a consequence of (8.15) and of the fact that, given an ε-optimal decomposition for the left hand side, one may construct a decomposition for the right hand side as in the ﬁrst part of point 3 above. Proposition 8.1.4. [216] Given a C∗ algebra A equipped with a state ω, let {γj }nj=1 , γn be CPU maps from ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ -algebras {M j }nj=1 into A, then

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

425

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn−1 , γn ) − Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn−1 , γn ) ≤ Hω (γn | γn ) (8.20) Hγω1 ,γ2 ({λi , ωi }i∈I ) (8.21) Hω (γ1 | γ2 ) := sup ω=

Hγω1 ,γ2

i∈I

({λi , ωi }i∈I ) :=

λi ωi

λi S (ωi ◦ γ1 , ω ◦ γ1 ) −

i∈I

Proof: Let ω = that, as in (8.8),

− S (ωi ◦ γ2 , ω ◦ γ2 ) . (8.22) (n)

i(n) ∈I (n)

λi(n) ωi(n) be an ε-optimal decomposition such {γj }n j=1

Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) ≤ Hω

(n) λi(n) , ωi(n)

+ nε ,

i(n) ∈I (n)

then, according to (8.7), Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn−1 , γn ) − Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn−1 , γn ) ≤

{γj }n (n) ≤ Hω j=1 λi(n) , ωi(n) (n) (n) − i ∈I

{γj }n−1 ∪γ (n) − Hω j=1 n λi(n) , ωi(n) (n) (n) + n ε i ∈I / 0 / 0

≤ λnin S ωinn ◦ γ1 , ω ◦ γ1 − S ωinn ◦ γ2 , ω ◦ γ2 + nε . in ∈In

Since n is ﬁxed and ε is arbitrary the result follows.

Example 8.1.2. If A is an Abelian C ∗ algebra and γ1,2 are the natural embeddings of two ﬁnite-dimensional Abelian C ∗ algebras A1,2 ⊆ A, then Hω (A1 | A2 ) reduces to the conditional entropy of the random variables a1i }i∈I1 , I1 = 1, 2, . . . , d1 and A1,2 associated with the minimal projections { { a2j }j∈I2 , I2 = 2, . . . , d2 , of A1,2 . These projections give rise to probability 1 2 distributions ω |`A1 = {ω( a1i }di=1 and ω |`A2 = {ω( a1j }dj=1 and can be consida1i a2j ) ered as the outcomes of A1,2 . Accordingly, the set of expectations ω( corresponds to the probability distribution of the joined random variable A1 ∨ A2 . Consequently, by using the minimal projections of A1 to decompose ω=

ω( a1i )ωi ,

ωi (a) :=

i∈I1

ω( ai a) ∀a ∈ A , ω( ai ) 2

d

1 it turns out that ωi |`A1 = {ωi ( a1k ) = δik }k=1 and ωi |`A2 =

ω( a1i a2j ) ω( a1i )

Md2

Then, by means of (8.22) and of (2.91) one gets 1 ,A2 HA ({ω( a1i ), ωi }i∈I1 ) = H(A1 ) − H(A2 ) − H(A1 ) + H(A1 ∨ A2 ) ω

= H(A1 ∨ A2 ) ,

. j=1

426

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

where H(A1,2 ) := S (ω |`A1,2 ) are the Shannon entropies of the random variables A1,2 . We now show that no decomposition can do better; indeed, in the Abelian case at hands, decompositions of ω correspond to partitions of unit with positive elements { ck }k∈K in A such that ω=

ω( ck ) ωk ,

k∈K

ωk (a) =

ω( ck a) ω( ck )

∀a ∈ A .

Finally, Corollary 2.4.1 and strong subadditivity (see Proposition 2.4.1) yield 1 ,A2 HA ({ω( ck ), ωk }k∈K ) = H(A1 ) − H(A1 ∨ C) − H(A2 ) + H(A2 ∨ C) ω

≤ H(A1 ) − H(A1 ∨ C) − H(A2 ) + H(A1 ∨ A2 ∨ C) ≤ H(A1 ∨ A2 ) − H(A2 ) = H(A1 |A2 ) , where C, A1 ∨ C and A2 ∨ C are random variables with probability distribuck a1i )}i∈I1 ,k∈K and {ω( ck a2j )}j∈I2 ,k∈K . tions {ω( ck )}k∈K , {ω(

CNT Entropy Rate and CNT Entropy Apart from the relation (8.13), all other properties in Proposition 8.1.3 regard n-tuples of arbitrary maps γ without reference to the dynamics. Since the purpose of the CNT entropy is to quantify the information production in a given quantum dynamical triplet (A, Θ, ω), we set γj := Θj ◦ γ, where j = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 and γ : M → A is a CPU map from a ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebra into A. The ﬁrst step is to ensure the existence of the rate lim

n→∞

/ 0 1 Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θn−1 ◦ γ . n

This limit exists since (8.14) together with (8.13) yield / / 0 0 Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θn−1 ◦ γ ≤ Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θp−1 ◦ γ + / 0 + Hω Θp ◦ γ, Θp+1 ◦ γ, . . . , Θn−1 ◦ γ / / 0 0 = Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θp−1 ◦ γ + Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θn−p−1 ◦ γ . Thus, one can apply the same argument already used to show the existence of the classical entropy rate (3.2) or of the mean von Neumann entropy in quantum spin chains: actually, lim

n→∞

/ / 0 0 1 1 Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θn−1 ◦ γ = inf Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θn−1 ◦ γ . n n n (8.23)

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

427

Deﬁnition 8.1.2. Given a quantum dynamical triplet (A, Θ, ω), where A is a C ∗ or a von Neumann algebra and a CPU map γ : M → A from a ﬁnitedimensional C ∗ algebra M into A, the CNT entropy rate of γ is / 0 1 Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θn−1 ◦ γ , n→∞ n

hCNT (Θ, γ) := lim ω

(8.24)

while the CNT entropy of (A, Θ, ω) is deﬁned by (Θ) = sup hCNT (Θ, γ) . hCNT ω ω

(8.25)

γ

There are a few properties of the CNT entropy that easily follows from the above construction. Proposition 8.1.5. The following bounds hold for the CNT entropy rate of a quantum dynamical triplet (A, Θ, ω); given any CPU map γ from a ﬁnite dimensional C ∗ algebra M into A, one has: (Θ, γ) ≤ Hω (γ) 0 ≤ hCNT ω 1 CNT n h (Θ , γ) ≤ hCNT (Θ, γ) ≤ hCNT (Θn , γ) . ω ω n ω

(8.26) (8.27)

Proof: The bounds in (8.26) come from the properties (8.10) and (8.13) of the n-CPU map entropies. The upper bound in (8.27) follows from subadditivity (8.14) together with property (8.13); indeed, since the limit (8.24) exists, one can ﬁx N n > 0 and compute / 0 1 Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θnk−1 ◦ γ kn n−1

1 1 lim Hω Θj ◦ γ, Θn+j ◦ γ, . . . , Θn(k−1)+j ◦ γ ≤ n k→+∞ k j=0

1 Hω γ, Θn ◦ γ, . . . , Θn(k−1) ◦ γ = hCNT (Θn , γ) . = lim ω k→+∞ k

hCNT (Θ, γ) = lim ω

k→+∞

For the lower bound, ﬁrst notice that n-CPU entropies remain unchanged by adding to the maps γj in their arguments any number of CPU maps γj from trivial ﬁnite dimensional C ∗ algebras {c1lj } 3 into A. Indeed, for any such CPU map Hω (γ ) = 0, thus by subadditivity, ) ≤ Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn ) . Hω (γ1 , γ2 , . . . , γn , γ1 , . . . , γm

However, any optimal decomposition for the right hand side of the previous inequality can always be used to decompose ω in the left hand side, too. This 3

That is algebras consisting only of multiples of an identity operator 1lj

428

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

decomposition can then be used to invert the previous inequality; then, one expands Θjn ◦ γ into the set Γ (j) := Θjn ◦ γ , Θjn+1 ◦ γ , . . . Θjn+n−1 ◦ γ , where γ = γ ◦ γ and γ embeds the trivial subalgebra of M into M . Using (8.15), one ﬁnally gets

1 1 Hω γ, Θn ◦ γ, . . . , Θn(k−1) ◦ γ = Hω Γ (0) , Γ (1) , . . . , Γ (k−1) k k / 0 1 ≤n Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θkn−1 ◦ γ , kn whence the result follows by taking the limit k → +∞.

As much as for the KS entropy, one needs a means to avoid computing the supremum in (8.25). The structure of AF or UHF C ∗ algebras or hyperﬁnite von Neumann algebras resembles that of classical dynamical systems admitting a generating partition (see Deﬁnition 2.3.5) Indeed, by using the continuity properties of the n-CPU entropies discussed in Proposition 8.1.2, one can prove a non-commutative counterpart to the Corollary 3.1.1 of the Kolmogorov-Sinai theorem 3.1.1. Proposition 8.1.6. [88] Let (A, Θ, ω) be a C ∗ quantum dynamical triple which admits a sequence of CPU maps τj : M j → A and σj : A → M j from ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebras with identity into A and back such that limj→+∞ τj ◦ σj [A] − A = 0 for all A ∈ A. Then (Θ) = lim hCNT (Θ, τj ) . hCNT ω ω j→+∞

Proof: Let γ : M → A be any CPU map from a ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ algebra M into A; set γj := τj ◦ σj ◦ γ. Then, γj (M ) → γ(M ) in norm for all M ∈ M whence γj − γ → 0 when j → +∞ for M is ﬁnitedimensional. The same is true for the CPU maps Θk ◦ γj and Θk ◦ γ, k ≥ 0. Since Θk ◦ (γj − γ)ω ≤ Θk ◦ (γj − γ), Proposition 8.1.2 yields 0 / 0 1 / Hω γj , Θ ◦ γj , . . . , Θn−1 ◦ γj − Hω γ, Θ ◦ γ, . . . , Θn−1 ◦ γ ≤ ε n for any ε > 0 and j suﬃciently large, whence lim hCNT (Θ, γj ) = hCNT (Θ, γ) . ω ω

j→+∞

Now, using the monotonicity property (8.15), it turns out that (Θ, γ) = lim inf hCNT (Θ, γj ) ≤ lim inf hCNT (Θ, τj ) hCNT ω ω ω j→+∞

≤

lim sup hCNT ω j→+∞

j→+∞

(Θ, τj ) ≤ hCNT (Θ) . ω

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

The result thus follows by taking the supremum over γ.

429

∗

In case A is an AF or a UHF C algebra, namely the norm completion of an increasing sequence of ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ subalgebras M ni ⊂ A or matrix algebras Mni (C) (see Remark 7.1.1), one chooses as CPU maps σj the corresponding conditional expectations and, as the CPU maps τj , the natural embeddings ιM nj : M nj → A [88, 89, 231, 232]. A similar result as in Proposition 8.1.6 holds for von Neumann quantum dynamical systems with A a hyperﬁnite von Neumann algebra (for the proof see [88, 222]). Proposition 8.1.7. Let (A, Θ, ω) be a von Neumann dynamical triple, with A hyperﬁnite and generated by an increasing sequence of ﬁnite-dimensional von Neumann subalgebras {M k }k∈N ; then, (Θ) = lim hCNT (Θ, M k ) . hCNT ω ω k→+∞

Remark 8.1.2. When a quantum dynamical system under has the algebraic structure as in the above proposition, then the continuity properties of the CNT entropy allows to turn the lower bound in (8.27) into an equality [88], namely (Θn ) = |n| hCNT (Θ) ∀n ∈ Z . hCNT ω ω Moreover, this result can be extended to a one-parameter group of automorphisms {Θt }t∈R , that is [214, 222] (Θt ) = |t| hCNT (Θ) hCNT ω ω

∀t ∈ R ,

where Θ := Θt=1 . 8.1.1 CNT Entropy: Quasi-Local Algebras As seen in Section 7.1, in quantum statistical mechanics one often considers quasi-local algebras A which are generated (inductive limit) by local algebras AV , indexed by ﬁnite volumes V , that are not ﬁnite dimensional. For instance, this is the case with Bosons in R3 or with a lattice Z3 with inﬁnite dimensional Hilbert spaces at its sites; in such a setting one cannot resort to either of the preceding two propositions to compute the CNT entropy (8.25). Nevertheless, a quantum Kolmogorov-Sinai-like theorem holds under the following physically plausible assumptions [232]; we shall consider dynamical triples (A, Θ, ω) consisting of 1. a quasi-local C ∗ -algebra A which is the norm completion of V AV where the local algebras AV associated with ﬁnite volumes V ⊂ R3 share a same identity and are isomorphic to the von Neumann algebras B(HV ) 4 ; In the following we shall restrict to R3 for simplicity; the result holds in general for Rd and Zd , d ≥ 1 [232]. 4

430

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

2. if V ⊂ V , set V := V \ V , then HV = HV ⊗ HV , AV = AV ⊗ AV ; 3. the Θ-invariant state ω is locally normal, that is ω |`AV is a density matrix ρV ∈ B+ 1 (HV ). Let ιV denote the embedding of AV into A; as shown in [231, 232], using the second assumption one can construct a family of CPU conditional expectations σV : A → AV such that ιV ◦ σV [A] − A → 0 for all A ∈ A when V ↑ R3 . Consider a CPU map γ : M → A where M is a ﬁnite-dimensional unital C ∗ algebra and set γV := ιV ◦ σV ◦ γ. Now, limV ↑R3 γV − γ = 0 for M is ﬁnite dimensional whence Proposition 8.1.6 yields lim hCNT (Θ, γV ) = hCNT (Θ, γ) . ω ω

V ↑R3

From (8.25) and the previous equality one derives hCNT (Θ) = sup lim3 hCNT (Θ, γV ) ≤ lim sup sup hCNT (Θ, γV ) ω ω ω V ↑R

γ

≤ lim sup V

↑R3

V ↑R3

sup

λV :M →AV

hCNT ω

γ

(Θ, ιV ◦ λV ) ≤ hCNT (Θ) , ω

where the second inequality holds for not all CPU maps λV : M → AV are of the form of γV . Thus, hCNT (Θ) = lim3 ω

hCNT (Θ, γV ) . ω

sup

V ↑R γV :M →AV

(8.28)

+∞ i i i Fix a volume V ⊂ R3 with local density matrix ρV = i=1 rV | rV rV | i where the eigenvalues rV are repeated according to their multiplicities and k (k) (k) (k) decreasingly ordered. Let PV := i=1 | rVi rVi |, QV := 1l − PV and (k)

(k)

(k)

AV := PV AV PV

(k)

⊕ C QV .

The latter is a ﬁnite von Neumann subalgebra of AV ; consider the map (k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

σV [A] := PV A PV

+

(k)

ω(QV A QV ) (k) ω(QV )

(k)

QV

∀ A ∈ AV .

(k)

It linearly maps AV into AV , is unital and positive; further, if A ∈ AV and (k) (k) (k) (k) AV B = PV Z PV + cB QV , with cB ∈ C and Z ∈ AV , (k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

σV [A B] = PV A PV Z PV

+ cB

ω(QV A Q(k) ) (k) ω(QV ) (k)

(k)

(k)

QV = σV [A] B . (k)

Therefore, according to Deﬁnition 5.2.3, σV : AV → AV is a conditional expectation; then, for any CPU map γV : M → AV set τV := ιV ◦ γV and

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States (k)

(k)

(k)

431

(k)

τ (k) := ιV ◦ ιV ◦ σV ◦ γ, where ιV is the embedding of AV into AV . We now show that, for any γV : M → AV ,

(k) CNT Θ, τ . (8.29) hCNT (Θ, τ ) = lim h V ω ω V k→+∞

This lead to the result that, in order to compute the CNT entropy, one must essentially compute the CNT entropy rates of the ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebras projected out by the spectral projections of local states. Theorem 8.1.1. [232] Under the assumptions 1 − 3 on (A, Θ, ω),

hCNT Θ, A(k) . (Θ) = lim3 lim hCNT ω ω V ↑R k→+∞

(k) (k) Proof: Writing hCNT Θ, AV = hCNT Θ, ιV ◦ ιV and using (8.29) ω ω and (8.15) one gets ⎛ ⎞

(k) ⎝Θ, ιV ◦ γV ⎠ lim hCNT Θ, AV ≤ sup hCNT ω ω k→+∞ γV :M →AV τV

⎛ =

sup

γV :M →AV

⎞

⎜ ⎟ ⎜Θ, ιV ◦ ι(k) ◦ σ (k) ◦ γV ⎟ lim hCNT ω V V ⎝ ⎠

k→+∞

(k)

≤ lim

sup

n→+∞ γV :M →AV

(n)

Θ, τV hCNT ω

τV

(k) (k) Θ, ιV ◦ ιV = lim hCNT Θ, AV . ≤ lim hCNT ω ω k→+∞

k→+∞

Therefore, the result follows from (8.28) and the above estimates which yield

(k) sup Θ, AV . hCNT (Θ, ιV ◦ γV ) = lim hCNT ω ω γV :M →AV

k→+∞

Proof of (8.29) We argue as in the proof of Proposition 8.1.2; we thus set (k) γj := Θj ◦ τV , γj := Θj ◦ τV and estimate the norms 5 5 (k) 5 ω(X Θj ◦ τ [M ]) ω(Xi Θj ◦ τV [M ]) 5 5 5 V i (∗) − 5 5 , 5 5 ω(Xi ) ω(Xi ) where a short hand notation for (8.5) has beenused and the Xi are positive elements of the commutant πω (A) such that i Xi = 1l.

432

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies (n)

(n)

(n)

(n)

By writing AV X = (PV + QV )X(PV + QV ), and setting νi (M ) := (k) (k) ω(Xi Θj ◦ τV [M ]) and νi (M ) := ω(Xi Θj ◦ τV [M ]), one ﬁnds νi (M ) − νi (M ) = ω(Θ−j [Xi ]QV γV [M ] QV ) (k)

(k)

(k)

A

+ ω(Θ

−j

(k) [Xi ]PV

(k) γV [M ] QV )

+ ω(Θ−j [Xi ]QV γV [M ] PV ) (k)

B

− ω(Θ−j [Xi ]QV ) (k)

C (k) ω(QV γV

(k)

(k) [M ]QV ) (k) ω(QV )

.

D

Since 0 ≤ Θ−j [Xi ] =: Z ∈ πω (A) commutes with the projections Y = √ √ √ √ (k) (k) PV , QV , one can write ZY = ZY Z = ZY ZY ; thus, using the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality (5.49), one estimates |A|2 ≤ ω(ZQV ) ω(ZQV γV [M † ]QV γV [M ]QV ) (k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

≤ ω(Xi ) ω(ZQV )γV 2 M 2 (k)

|B|2 ≤ ω(ZPV ) ω(ZQV γV [M † ]PV γV [M ]QV ) (k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

≤ ω(Xi ) ω(ZQV )γV 2 M 2 (k)

|C|2 ≤ ω(ZPV ) ω(ZQV γV [M ]PV γV [M † ]QV ) (k)

(k)

(k)

(k)

≤ ω(Xi ) ω(ZPV )γV 2 M 2 (k)

|D|2 ≤ ω(Xi ) ω(ZQV ) γV 2 M 2 , (n)

where (5.33) and Y ≤ 1l =⇒ X † Y X ≤ X † X have been repeatedly used; further, in the expression C, Z has been transferred to the right side of ω(·) before applying (5.49). Since i Xi = 1l, these estimates obtain i

j 1 (k) (k) νi − νi 2 ≤ 16 γV ω(Θ−j [Xi ]QV ) = 16 γV 2 rV ω(Xi ) i j=k+1

≤ε for and ε > 0 and k suﬃciently large. Notice that the summands are ω(Xi ) times the squares of the norms (∗); we can now distinguish between the set I of those i’s such that the norms (∗) ≤ ε1/3 and the rest I c . Then, 5 5 (k) 52 5 5 ν i − νi 5 ε≥ ω(Xi ) 5 ω(Xi ) 5 ≥ ε2/3 5 5 ω(X ) i c c i∈I

i∈I

implies that the total weight of I c is smaller than ε1/3 . As in the proof of Proposition 8.1.2, this can be used to show that, for any η > 0,

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

433

/

0 (k) (k) (k) Hω τV , Θ ◦ τV , . . . , Θn−1 ◦ τV − Hω τV , Θ ◦ τV , . . . , Θn−1 ◦ τV ≤ nη

for k suﬃciently large.

8.1.2 CNT Entropy: Stationary Couplings In this section we reconsider the expressions (8.21) and (8.22) in the following algebraic setting: – – –

a von Neumann algebra A with a normal state ω; an Abelian von Neumann algebra B with a normal state ωμ 5 ; the tensor product von Neumann algebra A ⊗ B equipped with a normal state ω such that its marginal states are ω |`A = ω and ω |`B = ωμ .

Let A ⊆ A and B ⊆ B be ﬁnite-dimensional C ∗ subalgebras; as CPU maps γ1 , respectively γ2 in (8.21) we shall take the embeddings γi = ιB , respectively γ2 = ιA of B, respectively A into A ⊗ B. We shall focus upon the quantity Hω (B | A): one has the following result [210]. Proposition 8.1.8. Let B be the random variable corresponding to the subalgebra B and Hμ (B) denote the Shannon entropy corresponding to the von Neumann entropy of the state ωμ restricted to B. Then, Hω (B | A) = Hμ (B) − S (ω ⊗ ωμ |`A ⊗ B , ω |`A ⊗ B) .

(8.30)

Proof: Given the minimal projections {bj }j∈IB , IB = {1, 2, . . . , d} of the ﬁnite dimensional Abelian algebra B ⊆ B and a convex decomposiλω , one can construct a ﬁner decomposition of the form tion ω = i∈I i i ω = λi μij ω ij , by further decomposing ω i = j∈IB μij ω ij , where the i∈I;j∈IB

states ω ij on A ⊗ B and their weights μij are deﬁned by ω ij (a ⊗ b) :=

ωi (a ⊗ bj b) , ω i (bj )

μij := ω i (bj )

(∗)

for all a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Since for all i ∈ I ω i (bjbk ) ω ij (bk ) = = δjk , ω i (bj ) the restrictions ω ij |`B are probability distributions Λij = {δjk }k∈IB with zero Shannon entropy. Then, using (8.22) and (6.23), one computes 5

According to Section 5.3.2, the state ωμ corresponds to integration with respect to a suitable measure μ and measure space X .

434

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

HB,A ({λi μij , ω ij }i∈I,j∈IB ) = Hμ (B) − S (ω |`A) ω + λi μij S ( ωij |`A)

(∗∗)

j∈IB

HB,A ({λi , ω i }i∈I ) = Hμ (B) − S (ω |`A) ω

ωi |`A) − S ( λi S ( ωi |`B) . + i∈I

It thus turns out that HB,A ({λi μij , ω ij }i∈I,j∈IB ) − HB,A ({λi , ω i }i∈I ) = − ω ω −

λi S ( ωi |`A) +

i∈I

λi μij log μij

i∈I;j∈IB

λi μij S ( ωij |`A) ≥ 0 .

i∈I;j∈IB

Indeed, since μij ω ij ≤ ω i , the monotonicity of f (x) = log x as an operator function (see Example 5.2.3.9) gives

μij ω ij |`A log ω ij |`A = μij ω ij |`A log μij ω ij |`A − log μij j∈IB

≤

j∈IB

μij ω ij |`A log ω i |`A − log μij

j∈IB

=ω i |`A log ω i |`A −

μij ω ij |`A log μij .

j∈IB

Therefore, after multiplying by the weights λi and summing over i ∈ I, by taking the trace and considering that the marginal state ωij |`A has trace 1, one ﬁnally gets − λi μij S ( ωij |`A) ≤ − λi S ( ωi |`A) − λi μij log μij . i∈I;j∈IB

i∈I

i∈I;j∈IB

One thus concludes that in order to compute Hω (B | A) one can start with decompositions of ω in terms of states of the form (∗). Then, consider j , where the decomposition ω = j∈IB νj ω ω j (a ⊗ b) :=

ω (a ⊗ bj b) , ω (bj )

νj := ω (bj ) a ∈ A , b ∈ B .

Since S ( ωj |`B) = 0, this decomposition contributes with HB,A ({λj , ω j }j∈IB ) = Hμ (B) − S (ω |`A) + νj S ( ωj |`A) ω

(∗ ∗ ∗) .

j∈IB

Further, notice that the decomposition appearing in equation (∗∗) is such that

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

λi μij

λi μij = νj = ωμ (bj ) ,

i∈I

i∈I

νj

435

ω ij = ω j .

Therefore, by the concavity of the von Neumann entropy (see (5.156)) λi μij S ( ωij |`A) ≤ νj S ( ωj |`A) , j∈IB

j∈IB

whence decompositions of the form (∗ ∗ ∗) are optimal. The proof is ﬁnally completed by calculating S (ω ⊗ ωμ |`A ⊗ B , ω |`A ⊗ B) =

Tr ω |`A ⊗ ωμ |`B log ω |`A ⊗ ωμ |`B − log ω |`A ⊗ B = = −Hμ (B) − S (ω |`A) + =

νj Tr ω j |`A log νj ω j |`A =

j∈IB

νj S ( ωj |`A) − S (ω |`A) .

j∈IB

The previous considerations are useful in a diﬀerent approach to the CNT entropy which was developed in [264] (see also [222]). We shall refer to the formulation used in [13] Deﬁnition 8.1.3. Let (A, Θ, ω) be a dynamical triple with A a hyperﬁnite von Neumann algebra and ω a normal Θ-invariant state; a stationary coupling to a commutative dynamical triple (B, θ, ωμ ) where B is an Abelian von Neumann algebra, is any triplet of the form (A ⊗ B, Θ ⊗ θ, ω ) where ω is a Θ ⊗ θ-invariant state such that ω |`A = ω and ω |`B = ωμ . The quantity Hω (B | A) and its expression (8.30) can be generalized as follows [210]. For any ﬁnite dimensional subalgebra B ⊂ B let

ωi |`B , ω λi S ( |`B) − S ( ωi |`A , ω |`A) (8.31) Hω (B | A) := sup ω =λi ω i

i

ω |`A ⊗ B , ω ⊗ ωμ |`A ⊗ B) . = S (ωμ |`B) − S ( It then turns out [264, 222, 210] that KS h (Θ) = sup (θ, B) − H (B | A) . hCNT ω ω ωμ

(8.32)

(8.33)

B,B,θ, ω

where the supremum is computed over all possible stationary couplings and all ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebras B ⊂ B. Notice also that in the expression of the KS entropy, in according with Section 5.3.2, we have kept the algebraic

436

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

notation whereby B stands for a partition of a phase-space X , the automorphism θ for a measurable, invertible dynamical map T : X → X and the state ωμ for a T -invariant measure μ. Remark 8.1.3. The relative entropy as it has been used so far has always involved density matrices or restrictions of states to ﬁnite dimensional subalgebra, whereas in (8.31), because of the presence of the generic von Neumann algebra A, it apparently works in a more general context. It turns out that the expression (6.23) for the relative entropy has a generalization to any unital C ∗ algebra A and to generic positive, linear functionals (not even normalized) ω1,2 on it [88, 222, 300]: +∞ C dt B ω1 (1l) 1 − ω1 (y(t)† y(t)) − ω2 (x(t) x(t)† ) , S (ω1 , ω2 ) = sup t 1+t t 0 where y(t) = 1l − x(t) and t → x(t) ∈ A is any step function with values in A vanishing in a neighborhood of t = 0. 8.1.3 CNT entropy: Applications We start the presentation of various concrete applications of the CNT entropy by showing that in a commutative context it reduces to the KS entropy. Consider a classical dynamical system (X , T, μ) that possesses a generating partition P = {Pi }pi=1 (see Deﬁnition 2.3.5) and its corresponding von Neumann triplet (M := L∞ μ (X ), ΘT , ωμ ) (compare Deﬁnition 2.2.4). In this framework, the partition P is identiﬁed with the ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebra M P generated by the characteristic functions χPi of the atoms Pi of $k k P. Furthermore, the partitions P−k := j=−k T −j (P) (which generate the Σ-algebra of X when k → +∞) correspond to the Abelian ﬁnite-dimensional $k subalgebras M k := j=−k ΘTj (M P ) generated by the characteristic funck (these subalgebras generate M). We can thus tions of the atoms of P−k apply the argument of Example 8.1.1.2 to deduce that

/ 0 (n) = S ωμ |`M (n+2k−1) Hωμ M k , ΘT (M k , . . . , ΘTn−1 (M k ) = S ωμ |`M k = Hμ (P (n+2k−1) ) , where we used that ωμ is ΘT -invariant and that (n) Mk

=

n−1 =0

ΘTj (M k )

=

n+k−1

ΘTj (M )

=

ΘT−k

=−k

n+2k−1 j=0

together with (3.1). Thus, from Theorem 3.1.1, KS KS hCNT ωμ (Θ, M k ) = hμ (T, P) = hμ (T ) .

Then, hCNT (ΘT ) = hKS ω μ (T ) follows from Proposition 8.1.7.

ΘTj (M ) ,

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

437

CNT entropy: Finite Quantum Systems For ﬁnite-dimensional quantum dynamical systems, the C ∗ algebra A is a matrix algebra Md (C) and the states density matrices ρ ∈ Md (C) with von Neumann entropy always bounded from above by log d. All these systems cannot support a non-zero CNT entropy rate, in agreement with the fact that their dynamics, given by a unitary U ∈ Md (C), is quasi-periodic and shows the behavior discussed in Remark 7.1.7, at the most. We shall prove this by considering the slightly more general scenario studied in [39]. Proposition 8.1.9. Let (A, Θσ , ω) be a quantum dynamical system with A = B(H), ω corresponding to a density matrix ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H) with ﬁnite von Neumann entropy S (ρ) and invariant under the automorphism Θ such that B(H) X → Θ[X] = ei H X e−i H , where the Hamiltonian H has a discrete spectrum. Then, hCNT (Θ) = 0. ω Proof: Let P (n) be the projector onto the subspace of H spanned by the eigenvectors relative to the ﬁrst n decreasingly ordered eigenvalues of H and Q(n) := 1l − P (n) . Then A is generated as a von Neumann algebra by the increasing sequence of subalgebras A(n) := P (n) A P (n) ⊕ C Q(n) . These subalgebras are Θ-invariant; also, they diagonalize ρ for it commutes with H since ω ◦ Θ = ω. Then, from Proposition 8.1.7, (8.12) and (8.10) it follows that

1 Θ, A(n) = lim Hω A(n) , A(n) , . . . , A(n) hCNT (Θ) = lim hCNT ω ω n→+∞ n→+∞ n

1 1 Hω A(n) ≤ lim S ρ |`A(n) = 0 . = lim n→+∞ n n→+∞ n CNT Entropy: Quantum Spin Chains The algebraic structure of a quantum spin chain (AZ , Θσ , ω) is such that we can apply Proposition 8.1.6. Let then {A[− , ] } ∈N be an increasing sequence of ﬁnite-dimensional local subalgebras that generate AZ , then / 0 / 0 Θσ , A[− , ] = lim hCNT Θσ , A[1, ] , hCNT (Θσ ) = lim hCNT ω ω ω →∞

→∞

where the second equality follows from the translation invariance of ω and the property (8.13). Further, since Θσj [A[1, ] ] = A[1+j, +j] ⊂ A[1, +n−1] , for 0 ≤ j ≤ n − 1, using (8.15), (8.12) and (8.10) one derives / / 0 0 Hω A[1, ] , Θσ (A[1, ] ), . . . , Θσn−1 (A[1, ] ) ≤ Hω A[1, +n−1] , . . . , A[1, +n−1] / 0 / 0 = Hω A[1, +n−1] ≤ S ρ[1, +n−1] ,

438

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

where ρ[1, +n−1] is the local density matrix corresponding to the state ω restricted to the local subalgebra A[1, +n−1] . By using (8.24) and Example 7.2.1.1 one thus concludes with (Θσ ) ≤ s(ω) for any (AZ , Θσ , ω). Proposition 8.1.10. hCNT ω (Θσ ) ≥ s(ω), we use the folIn order to show whether and when hCNT ω lowing strategy. Consider a local subalgebra A[1, ] with ﬁxed ≥ 1 and set n = k + p, 0 ≤ p < in (8.24); using Deﬁnition 8.1.2 and property (8.16) we get the following lower bound: / 0 Θσ , A[1, ] hCNT (Θσ ) ≥ lim hCNT ω ω n→∞

/ 0 1 Hω A[1, ] , Θσ (A[1, ] ), . . . , Θk +p−1 (A[1, ] ) k + p

1 Hω A[1, ] , Θσ (A[1, ] ), . . . , Θ(k−1) (A[1, ] ) ≥ lim k→∞ k / 0 1 Hω A[1, ] , A[ +1,2 ] , . . . , A[(k−1) +1,k ] = lim k→∞ k

1 {A[j+1,(j+1)] }k−1 j=0 ≥ lim {λi(k) , ωi(k) } , Hω (8.34) k→∞ k where we used (8.7) with ω = i(k) λi(k) ωi(k) any chosen decomposition adapted to the k commuting local subalgebras A[j +1,(j+1) ] . ≥ lim

n→∞

CNT Entropy: FCS States If a quantum spin chain is endowed with a ﬁnitely correlated state ω as deﬁned in Section 7.1.5, then its CNT entropy coincides with the entropy density s(ω) (see Section 7.2) [133]. Proposition 8.1.11. Let (AZ , Θσ , ω) be a quantum spin chain with a FCS (Θσ ) = s(ω). ω, then hCNT ω Proof: Because of Proposition 8.1.10, the result follows if we show that (Θσ ) ≥ s(ω); for this we use the lower bound (8.34) and Remark 7.1.15. hCNT ω Therefore, we ﬁx a local subalgebra A[1, ] ; since altogether the arguments of the k-subalgebra entropy in (8.34) generate the local subalgebra A[1,k ] we need consider the local state ρ[1,k ] . We start from a decomposition as in (7.101) with n = k and regroup the indices j (k ) as follows j (k ) = j1 j2 · · · j j +1 j +2 · · · j2 · · · j(k−1) +1 j(k−1) +2 · · · jk . i1

i2

ik

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

439

Notice that the index j of the Kraus operators in the CPU map E deﬁning the FCS ω runs over a ﬁnite set J, whence j (k ) ∈ IJk , while each ip in the regrouped index i(k) = i1 i2 · · · ik belongs to the index set IJ ; thus i(k) ∈ IIk . J

We have seen in Example 7.1.15 that the weights p(j k ) assigned to the indices j (k ) give rise to a compatible family of local probability distributions π (k ) and that these deﬁne a global shift-invariant state ωπ over the classical . We then construct the decomposition ω = spin chain D⊗∞ J i(k) λi(k) ωi(k) , (k) i(k) where λi(k) := p(i ) and ωi(k) := ρ[1,k ] and use it to compute {A[j+1,(j+1)] }k−1 j=0 Hω

{λi(k) , ωi(k) } =

(k)

η(p(i

)−

k

η(pj (ij )) +

j=1 ij ∈I

i(k) ∈I k I J

+

k

J

k

0 / S ω |`A[(j−1) +1,j ] − pj (ij )S ωijj |`A[(j−1) +1,j ] , j=1 ij ∈I

j=1

J

where, with the notation of Example 7.1.15, pj (ij ) :=

p(i(k) ) ,

ωijj :=

i(k) ∈I k I J ij f ixed

i(k) ∈I k I J ij f ixed

p(i(k) ) i(k) ij ρ = ρ[1, ] . pj (ij ) [1,k ]

From translation invariance of FCS it follows that ω |`A[(j−1) +1,j ] = ρ[1, ] , ()

ωijj |`A[(j−1) +1,j ] = ρj[1, ] and pj (ij ) = p(j ( ) ) for some j ( ) ∈ IJ . Therefore, (8.34) reads @ A 1 1 hCNT (Θσ ) ≥ lim η(p(i(k) )) − η(p(j ( ) )) ω k→∞ k () k (k) i

+

∈I

j

I J

∈IJ

0 () 1 / 1 S ρ[1, ] − p(j ( ) ) S ρj[1, ] . () j

∈IJ

In the limit → ∞, the second term in the ﬁrst line gives the Shannon entropy rate of the classical spin chain (D⊗∞ J , Θσ , ωπ ) as well as the limit k → ∞ in the ﬁrst term, while the ﬁrst contribution in the second line gives the von Neumann entropy density of (AZ , Θσ , ω). Thus, ()

1 p(j ( ) ) S ρj[1, ] . →∞ ()

(Θσ ) ≥ s(ω) − lim hCNT ω

j

∈IJ

The proof

is then completed by using that, as discussed in Example (7.1.15), j () S ρ ≤ 2 log .

440

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

CNT Entropy: Price-Powers Shifts The non-commutative shifts discussed in Section 7.1.5 oﬀer an interesting variety of behaviors of the CNT entropy [13]. By construction the quasi-local algebra Ag is generated by the Abelian 1l ± e1 and by its images algebra A1 consisting of the orthogonal projections 2 n An := Θσ (A1 ). These are also Abelian subalgebras, but in general they do not commute with each other; moreover, denoting by M k the subalgebra generated by A , = 1, 2, . . . , k, these generate the von Neumann algebra (ΘT ) by means of Mg in Example 7.1.17.1. Therefore, one can compute hCNT ω Proposition 8.1.7. Notice that, because of (7.122), the M k can be represented as subalgebras of the spin algebras M2 (C)⊗k ; this fact allows to derive a bitstream-independent upper bound to the CNT entropy. Indeed, by using the properties in Proposition 8.1.3, one estimates / 0 Hω M k , Θσ (M k ), . . . , Θn−1 (M k ) ≤ Hω (M n+k−1 )

≤ Hω M2 (C)⊗(n+k−1) = (n + k − 1) log 2 whence hCNT (Θσ , M k ) ≤ log 2 =⇒ hCNT (Θσ ) ≤ log 2 . ω ω We discuss a few particular cases, a thorough analysis of the dependence of the CNT entropy on the bitstream being provided by [222].

1. For a bitstream g ≡ 0, Mg , Θσ , ω amounts to a classical Bernoulli shift and (8.35) hCNT Mg (Θσ ) = log 2 . 2. If g(n) = 1 for all n ≥ 1, then Mg describes a Fermi system on a onedimensional lattice at inﬁnite temperature (see Example 7.1.17.3), where pairs e2i , e2i+1 give rise to annihilation and creation operators ai , a†i fulﬁlling the CAR. Since n such operators generate an algebra isomorphic to M2n (C), an argument similar to the one that gave the universal upper log 2 yields / 0 Hω M k , Θσ (M k ), . . . , Θn−1 (M k ) ≤ Hω (M n+k−1 )

n+k−1 ] log 2 whence ≤ Hω M2 (C)⊗[(n+k−1)/2] = [ 2 log 2 log 2 =⇒ hCNT , hCNT (Θσ , M k ) ≤ (Θσ ) ≤ ω ω 2 2 where we have set [j/2] = j/2 for j even and [j/2] = (j + 1)/2 for j odd. On the other hand, (7.121) implies [e2j−1 e2j , e2k−1 e2k ] = (e2j−1 e2j ) (e2k−1 e2k ) ×

× 1 − (−1)g(|2(j−k)+1|)+g(|2(j−k)−1|) = 0 ,

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

441

for all j, k ≥ 1; therefore, operators of the form e2j−1 e2j commute. Let A denote the Abelian algebra generated by e1 e2 (which is isomorphic to the diagonal matrix algebra D2 (C)); then, the Abelian algebras {Θσ2j (A)}n−1 j=0 commute and generate an Abelian algebra isomorphic to the diagonal matrix algebra D2n (C). Then, using Example 8.1.1.1, one gets

Hω A, Θσ2 (A), . . . , Θσ2(n−1) (A) = n log 2 . Finally, (8.27) yields hCNT (Θσ ) ≥ hCNT (Θ, A) ≥ ω ω

1 CNT / 2 0 log 2 Θσ , A = h , 2 ω 2

whence

log 2 . (8.36) 2 3. In the case of an asymptotically highly anti-commutative Price-Powers shift [220], for any Wi ∈ Ag there exists an inﬁnite set I(i) of integers such that † † Θσn [Wi† ] , Θσm [Wi ] = Wi+n Wi+m + Wi+m Wi+n =0, hCNT (Θσ ) = ω

for all n, m ∈ I(i). We shall show that hCNT (Θσ ) = 0 . ω

(8.37)

In order to do that, we shall consider a stationary coupling of (Mg , Θσ , ω) to commutative dynamical triple (B, θ, ωμ ) (see Deﬁnition 8.1.3 and the preceding discussion), namely a triplet of the form (A⊗B, Θ⊗θ, ω ) where |`A = ω and ω |`B = ωμ . Let p ∈ B ω is a Θσ ⊗θ-invariant state such that ω be any projection; then, † † Wi+n ⊗ θn [p] , Wi ⊗ θm [p] = Wi+n , Wi ⊗ θn [p]θm [p] = 0 for all n, m ∈ I(i). As done in Example 7.1.17.5, by setting X :=

1 N

N

Wi ⊗ p

i=1:ni ∈I(i)

for an arbitrary N ∈ N, one estimates 1 (X) ≤ (Wi ⊗ p) = ω . ω N Since N is arbitrary, we deduce that ω (Wi ⊗ p) = 0 for all Wi ∈ Mg and all p ∈ B which means that the global state factorizes: ω = ω ⊗ ωμ . This fact in turn implies that the relative entropy contributions in (8.32) vanish so that Hω (B | A) = S (ωμ |`B) for all ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebras B ⊂ B. Since hKS ωμ (θ, ωμ ) ≤ S (ωμ |`B), the result follows from (8.33).

442

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

CNT Entropy: Quasi-Free Bosons and Fermions For quasi-local algebras of Bosons and Fermions in translation-invariant quasi-free states as those considered in Example 7.2.1.3, one can consider the discrete space-translation group Θ := {Θn }n∈Z3 (see Example 7.1.2.1) and enlarge the scope of Deﬁnition (8.1.2) to cover the fact that there are now three directions along which the n-CPU entropy (8.3) can increase. Given a CPU map γ : M → AB,F from a ﬁnite-dimensional unital C ∗ algebra into the Fermi, respectively Bose quasi-local algebra, a natural way to proceed [233] is to consider, for each k = (k1 , k2 , k3 ) ∈ N3 , the parallelepipeds B(k) := n ∈ N3 : 0 ≤ ni ≤ ki , i = 1, 2, 3 , CPU maps of the form Θn ◦ γ and then to replace (8.24) by hCNT ωA (Θ, γ) :=

/ 0 1 HωA {Θn ◦ γ}n∈B(k) . k1 ,k2 ,k3 →+∞ k1 k2 k3 lim

(8.38)

while keeping the deﬁnition of (8.25) for the CNT entropy of Θ. Notice that the limit in the right hand side of (8.38) exists because of the subadditivity property (8.14) and the assumed translation-invariance of the quasi-free state ωA together with property (8.13). With the same technical assumptions ensuring the result in Example 7.2.1.3, by means of (8.1.1) it can be showed that the CNT entropy of the space-translations coincides with the mean entropy [233]:

1 CNT A (k)) + η(1 − K A (k)) (Fermions) hωA (Θ) = dk η( K (2π)3 R3

1 A (k)) − η(1 + K A (k)) (Θ) = dk η(K (Bosons) . hCNT ωA 3 (2π) R3 Remarks 8.1.4. 1. Quasi-free automorphisms in the Fermionic case have been considered in [214, 289]; the following result holds [223]: let f, g ∈ L2[0,2π] (dp ) be single particle wave-functions for a Fermi system on a lattice ([0, 2π] being the momentum space). Consider ΘU (a# (f )) = a# (U f ) ,

(U f )(p) = ei ω(p) f (p) ;

it deﬁnes a quasi-free automorphism over the CAR algebra with single particle energy ω(p) assumed to be a real absolutely continuous function of the momentum variable p. Further, let 2π † ω(a(f )a (g)) = dp ρ(p) f ∗ (p) g(p) 0

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

443

deﬁne a quasi-free ΘU -invariant state over the system, with 0 ≤ ρ(p) ≤ 1 a measurable one-particle distribution over [0, 2π]. Then, (ΘU ) = hCNT ω

2π

dp |ω (p)| (η(ρ(p)) + η(1 − ρ(p))) ,

0

where ω (p) := dω(p)/dp is the group velocity. The physical interpretation is suggestive [214]: for a quasi-free automorphism the dynamical entropy production as described by the CNT entropy amounts to a ﬂux of single particle Fermionic entropy governed by the group velocity. 2. While in one-dimensional quantum dynamical systems the 1/n factor controls the asymptotic increase of the n-CPU map entropies, this is no longer true in higher dimension. An instance of this fact is the previous result where one divides by volumes in order to avoid divergences due to the freedom to move in more than one direction. In general, that is in the (Θ) = case of the time-evolution in dimension ≥ 2, it turns out that hCNT ω +∞; this problem arises already on the classical level and a possible way out is to consider space and time translation together [153, 39].

8.1.4 Entropic Quantum K-systems In Section 3.1.1 it was proved that the algebraic structure of classical Kolmogorov systems introduced in Section 2.3.1 can be characterized by means of the dynamical entropy rate. In particular, from the proof of Theorem 3.1.3 it emerges that the equivalence between the existence of a K-partition, namely property (1) in the theorem, and the entropic properties (3) − (6) hinges upon property (2) that is the triviality of the tail of all ﬁnite-dimensional partitions. Algebraic quantum K-systems have been introduced in Section 7.1.4 as generalizations of classical K-systems; in this section, we present an entropic characterization of non-commutative K-systems that partially mimics that given in Theorem 3.1.3. This gives rise to a class of quantum dynamical systems with particular clustering properties, but in general not K-systems from the algebraic point of view. We start by considering the relations (3) − (6) in the above mentioned theorem and study how they are aﬀected if one substitutes the n-subalgebra entropies for the Shannon entropies. For sake of simplicity, we shall restrict to the case of AF algebras A (see Remark7.1.1) so that we can consider ﬁnitedimensional subalgebras A ⊂ A as arguments of n-subalgebra entropies, namely, we take the natural embeddings ιA : A → A as CPU maps γ. Also, we shall restrict to faithful states ω so that the only subalgebra with 0 entropy with respect to ω is the trivial one (see Lemma 6.3.1).

444

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

Theorem 8.1.2. Given a quantum dynamical triple (A, Θ, ω) with A an AF C ∗ algebra and ω a faithful state, let {c1l} ⊂ A denote the trivial subalgebra and consider the following statements 1. the CNT entropy is strictly positive, namely for all non-trivial ﬁnitedimensional subalgebras A ⊃ A = {c1l}, (Θ, A) > 0 ; hCNT ω

(8.39)

2. for all ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebras A ⊃ A = {c1l}, (Θn , A) = Hω (A) ; lim hCNT ω

n→+∞

(8.40)

3. for all ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebras A ⊃ A = {c1l}, A ⊃ B and all sequences {jk }k∈N of positive integers, B / 0 lim lim inf Hω B, Θn+j1 (A), . . . , Θn+jk (A) n→+∞ k→+∞ / 0C −Hω B, Θn+j1 (A), . . . , Θn+jk (A) = Hω (B) ; (8.41) 4. for all ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebras A ⊃ A = {c1l} and all sequences {jk }k∈N of positive integers B / 0 lim lim inf Hω B, Θn+j1 (A), . . . , Θn+jk (A) n→+∞ k→+∞ / 0C −Hω B, Θn+j1 (A), . . . , Θn+jk (A) = 0 =⇒ B = {c1l} . (8.42) They stand in the following relations (8.40) =⇒ (8.39) ⇑ ⇑ . (8.41) =⇒ (8.42) Proof: (8.40)=⇒ (8.39) Because of the second property in Lemma 6.3.1, one can choose 0 < ε < Hω (A) and n such that, using the lower bound in (8.27), 1 CNT n Hω (A) − ε h >0. (Θ , A) ≥ n ω n (8.41)=⇒ (8.40) Consider the sequence {jk = (k − 1)n}k≥1 , from the assumption it follows that for any ε > 0 there exists n0 ∈ N such that, for all n ≥ n0 , B / 0 lim inf Hω A, Θn (A), Θn+n (A), . . . , Θnk (A) − k→+∞ / 0C − Hω Θn (A), Θ2n (A), Θ3n (A), . . . , Θnk (A) = B /

C 0 = lim inf Hω A, Θn (A), . . . , Θnk (A) − Hω A, Θn (A), . . . , Θn(k−1) (A) (Θ, A) ≥ hCNT ω

k→+∞

≥ Hω (A) − ε ,

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

445

where property (8.13) has been used in the ﬁrst equality. Further, since lim inf = sup inf it follows that there exists p0 ∈ N such that, for all p ≥ p0 , k→+∞

p≥0 k≥p

Δp := Hω (A, Θn (A), . . . , Θnp (A)) − Hω A, Θn (A), . . . , Θn(p−1) (A) B / 0 ≥ lim inf Hω A, Θn (A), . . . , Θnk (A) k→+∞

C − Hω A, Θn (A), . . . , Θn(k−1) (A) − ε ≥ Hω (A) − 2ε . Choosing p > p0 , one thus estimates p−1

1 1 Hω (A) n n(p−1) Hω A, Θ (A), . . . , Θ (A) = Δj + p p j=1 p

≥

p0 −1

1 Hω (A) p − p0 + Hω (A) − 2ε . Δj + p p j=1 p

Since the left hand side of the ﬁrst inequality is always smaller than Hω (A) (see (8.26)), the result follows from the arbitrariness of ε > 0 by letting p → +∞. (8.41)=⇒ (8.42) This follows from property 2 in Lemma 6.3.1. (8.42)=⇒ (8.39) When A = {c1l}, then, the same argument used to show that (8.41)=⇒ (8.40) implies that, for any ε and suﬃciently large (Θn , A) ≥ ε. Thus, the lower bound in (8.27) yields n, hCNT ω (Θ, A) ≥ hCNT ω

1 CNT n ε hω (Θ , A) ≥ > 0 . n n

While in a commutative context the above relations are equivalent, there are no proofs so far that they are such also for quantum dynamical systems. Also, the classical versions of relations (8.39)– (8.42) are equivalent to K-mixing which is the strongest possible way of clustering. If one wants to relate the behavior of the CNT entropy to the mixing properties of the dynamics, among the possible choices, (8.40) appears the more appropriate. (Θn , A) ≤ Hω (A); this is due to the fact that Indeed, one knows that hCNT ω the dynamics usually create correlations between past and future. Therefore, if, asymptotically, the equality holds as in (8.40) this means that for large intervals between successive events the system is aﬀected by memory loss [216]. Deﬁnition 8.1.4 (Entropic Quantum K-Systems). [215] A quantum dynamical triple (A, Θ, ω) is called an entropic K-system if, for any CPU map γ : M → A from a ﬁnite-dimensional algebra M into A, it holds that / t 0 Θ , γ = Hω (γ) . lim hCNT ω t→+∞

446

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

This choice is also convenient because the behavior of hCNT (Θn , M ) is ω CNT often more informative on the properties of the dynamics than hω (Θ). For instance, if (A, Θ, ω) is an entropic K-system, then

lim Hω M , Θt (M ), . . . , Θt(k−1) (M ) = k Hω (M ) , (8.43) t→+∞

for all k ∈ N and for all ﬁnite-dimensional subalgebras M ⊆ A. Indeed, from (8.23) it follows that

/ t 0 1 t t(k−1) M , Θ H Θ hCNT , M ≤ (M ), . . . , Θ (M ) ≤ Hω (M ) , ω ω k whence the result follows by taking the limit limt→+∞ . The asymptotic behavior (8.43) is an eﬀective expression of the memoryloss properties of the dynamics of entropic K-systems. Comparing the contributions in (8.3) to the n-CPU entropies, one sees that, for large t, the optimal / 0 (k) decompositions ω = i(k) λi(k) ,t ωi(k) ,t for Hω M , Θt (M ), . . . , Θt(k−1) (M ) must be such that lim

t→+∞

lim

t→+∞

(k)

where Λt

(k)

H(Λt ) −

k−1

H(Λj,t ) = 0

(8.44)

j=0

λjij ,t S ωijj ,t |`Θjt (M ) , ω |`Θjt (M ) = Hω (M ) ,

(8.45)

ij ∈Ij (k)

:= {λi(k) ,t }i(k) , Λj,t := {λjij ,t }ij and

λjij ,t

:=

i(k) ,ij f ixed

(k) λi(k) ,t

,

ωijj ,t

:=

(k)

λi(k) ,t ωi(k) , t

i(k) ,ij f ixed

λjij ,t

.

In fact, the diﬀerence in (8.44) can at most vanish, but never be positive, while each of the summands in (8.45) is bounded by Hω (M ). This also means that the optimal decompositions for large n must be such that the corresponding sub-decompositions are close to be optimal for Hω (M ). Example 8.1.3. Let (Aθ , ΘA , ω) denote a quantized hyperbolic automorphism of the torus, where A is the C ∗ algebra generated by the Weyloperators Wθ (f ), with θ =< α2 s >, s ∈ N; these quantum dynamical systems are norm asymptotic Abelian (see Example 7.1.12). By using the exponential decay (7.81) of their commutators, we shall show that they are entropic K-systems [209]. Let γ : M → Aθ be a CPU map from a ﬁnite dimensional algebra M into A. Fix ε > 0 and choose k such that

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

/ t 0 1 / 0 ΘA , γ ≥ Hω γ, ΘAt ◦ γ, . . . , ΘAt ◦ γ − ε Hω (γ) ≥ hCNT ω k k−1

1 (k) ≥ H(Λt ) − H(Λj,t ) k j=0 +

k−1

1 j λij ,t S ωijj ,t ◦ Θjt ◦ γ◦ , ω ◦ γ◦ . k j=0 i

447

(8.46)

(8.47)

j

Notice that ω is the tracial state; thus, its modular operator is trivial whence its decompositions can be chosen of the form (see (8.6)) ω=

λ j ωj ,

ωj (A) =

j

ω(Xj A) ω(Xj )

for A Xj ≥ 0 such that j Xj = 1l. Because of the norm-density of the Weyl operators within Aθ , given ε > 0, we can reach Hω (γ) ≤

p

λi S (ωi ◦ γ , ω ◦ γ) + ε

(8.48)

i=1

p

by means of a decomposition ω =

i=1

Xj := Wθ (fi )Wθ (fi ) ,

λi ωi , where

p

Wθ (fi )Wθ (fi ) = 1l ,

i=1

with functions such that fi∗ (−n) = fi (n). Moreover, we can arrange them in such a way that fj (n) = 0 for all 1 ≤ j ≤ p − 1 if n > K, while Wθ (fi ) ≤ ε.

t(k−1) , consider the posAs a trial decomposition for Hω γ, ΘAt ◦ γ, . . . , ΘA itive operators

† (k) (k) (k) Xi(k) ,t := Yi(k) ,t Yi(k) ,t where (k)

t(k−1)

Yi(k) ,t := Wθ (fi0 ) ΘAt [Wθ (fi1 )] · · · ΘA (k)

where i(k) ∈ Ωp . They satisfy Xijj ,t := = ΘAjt

i(k)

(k)

Xi(k) ,t = 1l; further,

(k)

Xi(k) ,t

i(k) ,ij f ixed

[Wθ (fik−1 )] ,

/

Y[ij+1 ,ik+1 ]

0†

Xij Y[ij+1 ,ik−1 ]

(8.49)

(k−j−1)t

(8.50)

ij+1 ...ik−1

Y[ij+1 ,ik−1 ] := ΘAt [Wθ (fij+1 )] · · · ΘA

[Wθ (fik−1 )] .

448

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

Usingthe tracial properties, the coeﬃcients of the convex decompositions ω = ij λjij ,t ωijj ,t are λjij ,t = ω(Xijj ,t ) = ω(Xij ) = λij .

(8.51)

Therefore, in (8.46), H(Λj,t ) = H(Λ) for all 0 ≤ j ≤ k − 1, where, in terms p η(λi ). Therefore, of η(x) = −x log x, H(Λ) = i=1 k−1

1 1 (k) (k) H(Λt ) − H(Λj,t ) = H(Λt ) − H(Λ) k k j=0 (k)

In order to control the probability distribution Λt (k) cients λi(k) ,t , we expand Wθ (fir ) =

fir (nr )Wθ (nr ) ,

(8.52)

consisting of the coeﬃ-

nr ∈ Supp(fir ) .

nr

By means of the Weyl relations (7.29), they thus read (k)

(k)

λi(k) ,t = ω(Xi(k) ,t ) =

n0 ...nk−1 m0 ...mk−1

× ω Wθ

k−1

k−1

fir (nr )fi∗r (mr ) e2 π iθβ({nr },{mr }) ×

r=0

Bjt (nj − mj )

where

j=0

β({nr }, {mr }) =

k−1 a−1

σ(Bnb nb , Bna na ) − σ(Bnb mb , Bna ma )

a=1 b=0

ω Wθ

k−1

Bjt (nj − mj ) = δ k−1 Bjt (nj −mj ),0 , j=0

j=0

where B = AT is the transpose of the dynamical matrix A. By expanding | nj − mj = γj | a+ + δj | a− along the eigenvectors of B, one gets k−1

k−1 γj αjt | a+ + γj α−jt | a− = 0 ,

j=0

j=0

where α > 1 ad α−1 are the eigenvalues of B, whence γk−1 +

k−2 j=0

γj α−(k−1−j)t = 0 = δ0 +

k−1 j=1

γj α−jt .

8.1 CNT Entropy: Decompositions of States

449

Suppose 1 ≤ ij ≤ p−1 for all ij ∈ i(k) , then the fij have compact support and, for t suﬃciently large, the above equalities imply γk−1 = 0 = δ0 . Iterating this argument, one gets nj = mj for 0 ≤ j ≤ k − 1, whence k−1

(k)

λi(k) ,t =

|fir (nr )|2 =

n0 ...nk−1 r=0

Then,

P

(k) η(λi(k) ,t ) i(k)

= k

p−1

k−1

ω(Xij ) .

j=0

η(λi ), where G denotes the sum over ij = p

i=1

for all 0 ≤ j ≤ k − 1. Therefore, 1 1 1 P (k) (k) (k) H(Λt ) = η(λi(k) ,t ) ≥ η(λi(k) ,t ) = H(Λ) − η(λp ) . i(k) k k (k) k i

Furthermore, from the assumptions, λp = ω(Xp ) ≤ ε; thus (8.52) can be estimated as follows k−1

1 (k) H(Λj,t ) ≥ ε log ε . H(Λt ) − k j=0

(8.53)

In order to lowerbound (8.47), we ﬁrst rewrite it by means of (8.51) as p k−1

1 j λij ,t S ωijj ,t ◦ Θjt ◦ γ , ω ◦ γ = S (ω ◦ γ) − λi S (ωi ◦ γ) k j=0 i i=1 j

+

k−1

0 1 / λij S ωij ◦ γ − S ωijj ,t ◦ Θjt ◦ γ . k j=0 i j

Secondly, by means of (8.48), we lowerbound it by Hω (γ) − ε +

k−1

0 1 / λij S ωij ◦ γ − S ωijj ,t ◦ Θjt ◦ γ . k j=0 i

(8.54)

j

Thirdly, we consider the expectations

/

0† ω Xijj ,t Θjt [Wθ (g)] = ω Y[ij+1 ,ik+1 ] Xij Y[ij+1 ,ik−1 ] Wθ (g) ij+1 ...ik−1

= ω(Xij Wθ (g)) +

ij+1 ...ik−1

and expand the commutator as

ω

/

Y[ij+1 ,ik+1 ]

0†

B C

Xij Y[ij+1 ,ik−1 ] , Wθ (g) ,

450

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

B C k−j−1 Y[ij+1 ,ik−1 ] , Wθ (g) = ΘAt [Wθ (fij+1 )] · · · a=1

···

(a−1)t ΘA [Wθ (fij+a−1 )]

B

C (a+1)t ΘAat [Wθ (fij+a )] , Wθ (g) ΘA [Wθ (fij+a+1 )] · · ·

t(k−j−1)

· · · ΘA

p

[Wθ (fik−1 ) .

Since Wθ (fi )Wθ (fi ) ≤ j=1 Wθ (fj )Wθ (fj ) = 1l, then Wθ (fi ) ≤ 1; therefore, using (7.81), one can estimate 5B B C5 k−j−1 C5 5 5 at 5 5 5 5 ΘA [Wθ (fij+a )] , Wθ (g) 5 5 Y[ij+1 ,ik−1 ] , Wθ (g) 5 ≤ a=1

≤

k−j−1 a=1

α−at

|fij+a (na )| |g(ma )| Cna ,ma .

na ,ma

Consequently, if all functions have compact support, the commutator goes to 0 exponentially fast with n; now, the function fp not necessarily with compact support is in any case such that Wθ (fp ) ≤ ε and any element in γ(M ) can be approximated in norm within ε by suitable 5 Wθ (g) where5g has 5 5 compact support. Therefore, one can adjust n so that 5ωijj ,t ◦ γ − ωij ◦ γ 5 ≤ ε, whence (8.54) and the Fannes inequality (5.157) yield k−1

1 j λij ,t S ωijj ,t ◦ Θjt ◦ γ , ω ◦ γ ≥ Hω (γ) − ε + h(ε) k j=0 i j

where h(ε) → 0 when ε → 0. Together with (8.46), (8.47) and (8.53), this last estimate proves the result; indeed, for all γ : M → Aθ and ε > 0, one can choose t large enough so that / t 0 ΘA , γ ≥ Hω (γ) + ε log ε − 2 ε + h(ε) . Hω (γ) ≥ hCNT ω The previous result puts into evidence the role of asymptotic commutativity in establishing the existence of a memory loss mechanism. One wonders whether the vice versa is also true, namely whether asymptotic memory loss implies asymptotic Abelianess and to which degree. The following result whose proof can be found in [42, 222] gives a partial answers to this question. Proposition 8.1.12. Let (A, Θ, ω) be a quantum dynamical triple with A a hyperﬁnite von Neumann algebra of type II1 equipped with the tracial state ω. Then, this dynamical system is strongly asymptotically Abelian. The following corollary regards quantized hyperbolic automorphisms of the torus with rational deformation parameter θ = p/q which are algebraic

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

451

quantum K-systems and expresses the generic inequivalence of this notion and the one of entropic quantum K-system. Corollary 8.1.1. The quantized hyperbolic automorphisms of the torus with rational deformation parameter θ = p/q cannot be entropic K-systems. Proof: As seen in Example (7.1.13), these quantum dynamical systems cannot be strongly asymptotically Abelian.

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs The quantum dynamical entropy developed by R. Alicki and M. Fannes [9] is based on an earlier approach of Lindblad [194] to the non-commutative generalization of the KS entropy and considers the description of C ∗ quantum dynamical systems (A, Θ, ω) by means of quantum symbolic models. In analogy with classical symbolic models (see Section 2.2), the time-evolution Θ is coarsely reconstructed by means of a shift automorphism Θσ on a quantum spin half-chain AX (see Section 7.1.5) equipped with a particular (unlike for classical dynamical systems, in general not translation-invariant) state ωX . We shall denote these quantum symbolic models by quantum dynamical triples (AX , Θσ , ωX ), where the subindex X denotes the fact that they are constructed by means of operational partitions of unity (OPUs) in a way that can be physically interpreted as corresponding to repeated measurements performed on the system (A, Θ, ω). Deﬁnition 8.2.1 (Operational Partitions of Unity). An operational |Z| partition of unity in A is any ﬁnite collection of operators Z = {Zi }i=1 , Zi ∈ A, such that |Z| Zi† Zi = 1l , (8.55) i=1

where |Z| is the cardinality of Z. OPUs correspond to the POVM measurements typical of quantum information (see Deﬁnition 5.6.1); as already observed, they are the most general algebraic extension of the notion of classical partitions to quantum systems. Furthermore, we shall see that OPUs can proﬁtably be used instead of partitions even in a classical context. |Z | |Z2 | , the algebraic exGiven two OPUs Z1 = {Z1i }i=11 and Z2 = {Z2j }j=1 tension of the notion of reﬁnement of two partitions (see Section 2.2) is as follows |Z1 | |Z2 | . (8.56) Z1 ◦ Z2 := {Z1i Z2j }i,j=1

452

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

What one gets by this deﬁnition is a ﬁner OPU; indeed, |Z1 | |Z2 |

† Z2j

† Z1i

Z1i Z2j =

i,j=1

|Z2 |

† Z2j Z2j = 1l .

j=1

Moreover, consider a measure-theoretic triple (X , T, μ) and the corresponding von Neumann algebraic commutative triple (L∞ μ (X ), ΘT , ωμ ). One can |P|

|Q|

associate to two ﬁnite, measurable partitions P = {Pi }i=1 and Q = {Qj }j=1 of the measure space X the OPUs ZP and ZQ from L∞ μ (X ) consisting of the characteristic functions χPi and χQj of their atoms. It then turns out that |P|,|Q| ZP ◦ ZQ = {χPi ∩Qj }i,j=1 corresponds to the reﬁned partition P ∨ Q. |Z|

Deﬁnition 8.2.2. Given an OPU Z = {Zi }i=1 ⊂ A, its time-evolution at time t = k ∈ Z under the dynamics Θ is deﬁned as |Z| Z k := Θk (Z) = Θk (Zi ) i=1 .

(8.57)

Further, Z (n) will denote the OPU Z (n) := Z ◦ Θ(Z) ◦ · · · Θn−1 (Z) = {Zi(n) }i(n) ∈Ω (n) |Z|

where Zi(n) = Θn−1 (Zin−1 ) · · · Θ(Zi1 )Zi0 ,

(8.58) (8.59)

(n)

and Ω|Z| i(n) := i0 i1 · · · in−1 with ij ∈ {1, 2, . . . , |Z|}. Note that Z k is an OPU follows since Θ is an automorphism of A: |Z|

Θ(Zi )† Θ(Zi ) = Θ

i=1

|Z|

Zi† Zi = Θ(1l) = 1l .

i=1

Then, Z (n) is also an OPU . 8.2.1 Quantum Symbolic Models and AFL Entropy |Z|

|Z|

Given an OPU Z = {Zj }j=1 , let {| zi }i=1 denote a ﬁxed orthonormal basis in the ﬁnite-dimensional Hilbert space C|Z| . The |Z| × |Z| matrix M|Z| (C) ρ[Z] :=

|Z|

| zi zj | ω(Zj† Zi )

(8.60)

i,j=1

is a density matrix. Indeed, normalization comes from Deﬁnition 8.2.1, while positivity is ensured by the fact that

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

ψ | ρ[Z] |ψ =

|Z|

453

ψi∗ ψj ω(Zj† Zi ) = ω(Zψ† Zψ ) ≥ 0 ,

i,j=1

|Z| |Z| where C|Z| | ψ = i=1 ψi | zi and Zψ := i=1 ψi∗ Zi . Furthermore, from ω ◦ Θ = ω, it follows that ∀t∈Z.

ρ[Z t ] = ρ[Z]

(8.61)

Consider the time-reﬁned OPU Z (n) ; the corresponding density matrix is of the form

M|Z| (C)⊗ n ρ[Z (n) ] = | zi(n) zj (n) | ω Zj†(n) Zi(n) , (8.62) (n)

i(n) ,j (n) ∈Ω|Z|

where | zi(n) := | zi1 ⊗ | zi2 ⊗ · · · | zin . At each iteration of the dynamics Θ, one component is added to the OPU Z (n) and one factor to the corresponding algebraic tensor product M|Z| (C)⊗ n . Therefore, to any given OPU Z ⊂ A there remains associated a quantum spin half-chain AZ (see Section 7.1.5), 4 a |Z|-dimensional spin at each site and 3 with a family of density matrices ρ Z (n) , n ∈ N. Since Θ is an automorphism, applying Deﬁnition 8.2.1, it turns out that these density matrices form a compatible family in the sense of (7.85), namely

Tr{n+1} ρ[Z (n+1) ] = Tr{n+1} | zi(n+1) zj (n+1) | ω Zj†(n+1) Zi(n+1) =

i(n+1) j (n+1)

| zi(n) zj (n) | zjn+1 | zin+1 ω Zj†(n+1) Zi(n+1)

i(n+1) j (n+1)

=

|Z|

| zi(n) zj (n) | ω Zj†(n) Θn (Zi† Zi )Zi(n) = ρ[Z (n) ] .

i=1

i(n) , j (n)

Thus the family ρ[Z (n) ], n ∈ N, provides a state ωZ over AZ . The dynamics Θ on A corresponds to moving right along AZ with the shift automorphism Θσ ; however, unlike the states of quantum spin chains (see Deﬁnition 7.1.11) which are Θ-invariant, the compatible family {ρ[Z (n) ]}n∈N , need not satisfy condition (7.86); namely, in general, ωX ◦ Θσ = ωX . For instance, in general, Tr{1} ρ[Z

(2)

]=

|Z| i1 ,j1 =1

|Z|

| zi1 zj1 | ω Zk† Θ(Zj†1 Zi1 )Zk = ρ[Z] . k=1

454

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

In the classical setting the KS -entropy is the maximal Shannon entropy per symbol over all symbolic models built upon ﬁnite measurable partitions. The AFL construction deﬁnes the quantum dynamical entropy of (A, Θ, ω) as the largest mean von Neumann entropy over all its symbolic models (AZ , Θσ , ωZ ) constructed from OPUs Z chosen from a selected Θ-invariant subalgebra A0 ⊆ A. Because of the lack of translation invariance, it is not guaranteed that the mean von Neumann entropy of (AZ , Θσ , ωZ ) exists as a limit. Deﬁnition 8.2.3 (AFL -Entropy). Let A0 ⊆ A be a Θ-invariant subalgebra and let Z ⊂ A0 be an OPU ; set

1 hAFL (Θ, Z) := lim sup S ρ[Z (n) ] , (8.63) ω n→∞ n / 0 where S ρ[Z (n) ] is the von Neumann entropy of the density matrix associated with the OPUs Z (n) . The AFL -entropy of (A, Θ, ω) is then deﬁned as (Θ) := sup hAFL (Θ, Z) . (8.64) hAFL ω ω Z∈A0

When needed, we shall explicitly refer to the dependence on A0 by writing (Θ, A0 ). hAFL ω As for the CNT entropy (compare (8.27)), when one considers powers Θq , q ≥ 0, of the automorphism Θ, one has the following bound. Proposition 8.2.1. For all N q ≥ 1, it holds that Proof:

1 AFL q h (Θ ) ≥ hAFL (Θ). ω q ω

|Z|

For any given OPU Z = {Zi }i=1 , set Z (q,n) := Θq(n−1) [Z] ◦ Θq(n−2) [Z] · · · Θq [Z] ◦ Z .

Given the OPU Z (q) , q ≥ 1, one veriﬁes that (Z (q) )(q,n) = Z (qn) . Therefore, writing n = kp + q with 0 ≤ q ≤ p, by means of (5.161) one gets

1 1 S ρ[Z (k q+p) ] hAFL (Θ, Z) = lim sup S ρ[Z (n) ] = lim sup ω n→∞ n k→∞ k q + p

1 1 1 1 ≤ lim sup S ρ[Z (k q) ] = lim sup S ρ[Z (q,k) ] q k→∞ k q k→∞ k 1 AFL q (q)

Θ ,Z . = hω q In fact, since the states ρ[Z (n) ] are density matrices on a spin-algebra -n−1 M|Z| (C)⊗n = j=0 (M|Z| (C))j , one derives the bound

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

455

0 / S ρ[Z (k q+p) − S ρ[Z (k q) ] ≤ S ρ[k q,k q+p] ≤ q log |Z| , -k q+p where ρ[k q,k q+p] is the marginal density matrix on j=k q (M|Z| (C))j . Since OPUs of the form Z (q) are a subclass of all possible OPUs, one concludes (Θ) = sup hAFL (Θ, Z) ≤ hAFL ω ω Z∈A0

1 AFL q h (Θ ) . q ω

Remarks 8.2.1. 1. Suppose the dynamics is trivial, Θ = idA , namely Θ[A] = A for all A ∈ A; (idA ) > 0, then it is from the previous result it follows that, if hAFL ω inﬁnite for one can choose an arbitrarily large q and idqA = idA . This eﬀect is clearly due to the perturbing action of the OPUs which themselves act as a source of entropy. Therefore, the Θ-invariant subalgebra A0 from where the OPUs are taken has to be chosen in such a way to minimize these perturbing eﬀects. 2. The request that OPUs consist of elements from a selected Θ-invariant subalgebra A0 ⊂ A usually comes from physical considerations. Indeed, OPUs as POVMs should correspond to physically realizable measurement processes which are always strictly local, namely they should consist of operators from local subalgebras of A. The obvious choice for A0 is thus the ∗-algebra containing all strictly local C ∗ algebras. 3. Unlike for the CNT entropy (see Remark 8.1.2), it is not known whether (Θq ) = q hAFL (Θ) holds. Indeed, the key an equality of the form hAFL ω ω ingredient in the proof of this equality for the CNT entropy is its strong continuity which is not usable in the case of the AFL entropy. Continuity is also important to check on its dependence on the OPUs : for results in this direction see [10, 133]. 8.2.2 AFL Entropy: Interpretation Like the KS entropy, one can interpret the AFL entropy as the asymptotic rate of information provided by repeated, coarse-grained observations of the time-evolution; the diﬀerence from the classical setting is in that a coupling to an external ancillary system is required. This can be seen by going to the GNS construction Hω , πω , Ωω based on the Θ-invariant state ω. |Z|

Consider an OPU Z = {Zi }i=1 , the pure state projection onto |Z|

Hω ⊗ C

| ΨZω

:=

|Z| i=1

πω (Zi )| Ωω ⊗ | zi

456

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

has the following marginal density matrices (see (8.62)) ρI =

TrC|Z| | ΨZω

ΨZω

|=

|Z|

πω (Zi )| Ωω Ωω |πω (Zi† )

i=1

=: Fω Z [| Ωω Ωω |] ,

(8.65)

ρII := TrHω | ΨZω ΨZω | =

Ωω | πω (Zj† Zi ) |Ωω | zi zj | = ρ[Z] . |Z|

i,j=1

The ﬁrst marginal state is a mixed state on Hω resulting from a POVM measurement (see Deﬁnition 5.6.1) on the GNS state | Ωω Ωω |. This eﬀect corresponds to the action of a map which, in the GNS representation, is the dual of the following CPU map on A: A A → EZ [A] =

|Z|

Zi† A Zi .

i=1

Since | ΨZω ΨZω | is a pure state, Proposition 5.5.5 ensures that ρ[Z] and Fω Z [| Ωω Ωω |] have the same von Neumann entropy. The same argument applies to0 the case of the reﬁned OPU Z (n) : the von Neumann entropy / (n) S ρ[Z ] equals that of Fω πω (Zi(n) )| Ωω Ωω |πω (Zi†(n) ) , (∗) Z (n) [| Ωω Ωω |] = (n)

i(n) ∈Ω|Z|

with Zi(n) as in Deﬁnition 8.2.2. Using the GNS implementation of the dynamics, πω (Θ(X)) = Uω† πω (X)Uω , and the fact that Uω | Ωω = | Ωω , one rewrites πω (Zi(n) ) | Ωω = Uωn−1 πω (Zin−1 )Uω† )n−1 ) · · · Uω πω (Zi1 )Uω† πω (Zi0 )| Ωω

= Uωn Uω† πω (Zin−1 )Uω† πω (Zin−2 ) · · · Uω† πω (Zi0 | Ωω , whence, setting Uω [A] := Uω A Uω† , A ∈ A, (∗) can be recast as

n n † ω Fω [| Ω Ω |] = U ◦ U ◦ F [| Ωω Ωω |] . (n) ω ω ω ω Z Z

(8.66)

It thus follows that

/ 0 (n) S Fω ] . Z (n) [| Ωω Ωω |] = S ρ[Z

(8.67)

Therefore, the AFL entropy can be regarded as the largest entropy production provided by POVM measurements based on a selected class of OPUs and performed at each tick of time on the evolving system coupled to a purifying GNS ancilla.

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

457

Because of this fact, while the CNT entropy which corresponds to the maximal compression rate of ergodic quantum sources, the AFL entropy appears to be related to the classical capacity of quantum channels. We shall show this after providing examples of quantum dynamical systems where the AFL entropy can be explicitly computed. 8.2.3 AFL-Entropy: Applications As for the CNT entropy, we ﬁrst ascertain whether the AFL entropy reduces to the KS entropy when the algebraic dynamical triple (A, Θ, ω) describes a classical dynamical system (X , T, μ). |P| As already remarked, classical partitions P = {Pi }i=1 of X , are associated |P| with OPUs ZP = {χPi }i=1 , then (n) ZP = ZPn−1 ◦ ZPn−2 ◦ · · · ZP = Θn−1 (χPin−1 )Θn−2 (χPin−2 ) · · · χPi0 = χT −n+1 (Pin−1 )∩T −n+2 (Pin−2 )∩···Pi0 = χP (n) , i(n)

so that Z (n) is the OPU associated with the reﬁned partition P (n) 0 / | zi(n) zj (n) | μ Pj (n) Pi(n) ρ[Z (n) ] =

6

and

(n)

i(n) ,j (n) ∈Ω|Z

=

P|

| zi(n) zi(n) | μ (Pi(n) )

(n)

i(n) ∈Ω|Z

P|

is diagonal with eigenvalues μ (Pi(n) ) so that (see (3.1))

(n) S ρ[ZP ] = − μ(Pi(n) ) log μ(Pi(n) ) = Hμ (P (n) ) (n)

i(n) ∈Ω|Z

P|

1 (n) lim sup S ρ[ZP ] = hKS μ (T, P) . n→+∞ n

(8.68)

However, in view of the fact that one is free to choose more general OPUs than those arising from classical partitions, Deﬁnition (8.2.3) may in general lead to an AFL entropy of (X , T, μ) which is larger than its KS entropy. Actually, this is not the case: in order to prove it let us consider a generic OPU given |F | by a ﬁnite collection F := {fi }i=1 of essentially bounded functions such that |F |

|fi |2 = 1 ∈ L∞ μ (X ) .

i=1 6

The notations is that used in (2.40) and (2.39).

458

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

The corresponding density matrix (see (8.60)) reads ρ[F] =

|F |

ωμ (fj∗ fi ) | zi

zj | =

i,j=1

= X

dμ (x) X

|F |

fj∗ (x)fi (x) | zi zj |

i,j=1

dμ (x) PF (x)

(8.69)

|F |

with {| zi }i=1 an ONB in C|Z| and M|F | (C) PF (x) = | ΨF (x) ΨF (x) | ,

| ΨF (x) :=

|F |

fi (x) | zi . (8.70)

i=1

Notice that, because F is an OPU, the PF (x) are projections onto normalized vector states. If an OPU results from the reﬁnement of other OPUs , then the associated density matrix is a continuous convex combination of tensor products of projections of the form (8.70). Concretely, if F = F1 ◦ F2 ◦ · · · Fn , n ,

M|Fj | (C) ρ[F] =

X

j=1

dμ (x) PF1 (x) ⊗ PF2 (x) ⊗ · · · PFn (x) .

(8.71)

Using this expression it is possible to prove that, without restrictions on the OPUs taken from M := L∞ μ (X ), the AFL entropy of (M, ΘT , ωμ ) coincides with the KS entropy of (X , T, μ). Proposition 8.2.2.

KS hAFL ωμ (ΘT , M) = hμ (T ) (see Deﬁnition 8.2.3).

Proof: Let P = {Pi }di=1 be any ﬁnite measurable partition of X with (n) P (n) = {Pi(n) }i(n) ∈Ω (n) its dynamical reﬁnement up to time t = n − 1 and let d

F be any other OPU from M. Given F (n) as in (8.58), let PF (n) (x) := PF (x) ⊗ PF 1 (x) ⊗ · · · PF n−1 (x) .

(∗)

Since the atoms of P (n) are disjoint, one can decompose ρ[F (n) ] into a convex sum of other density matrices in M|F | (C)⊗ n : (n) dμ (x) PF (n) (x) = μ(Pi(n) ) ρi(n) ρ[F (n) ] = X

ρi(n) :=

(n)

1 (n)

μ(Pi(n) )

i(n) ∈Ωd

P

(n) i(n)

dμ (x) PF (n) (x) .

Thus, the concavity of the von Neumann entropy (5.156) and the triangle inequality (5.161) implies

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

S ρ[F (n) ] ≤ −

(n)

(n)

μ(Pi(n) ) log μ(Pi(n) ) + (n)

459

(n)

μ(Pi(n) ) S (ρi(n) ) (n)

i(n) ∈Ωd

i(n) ∈Ωd

= Hμ (P (n) ) +

(n)

μ(Pi(n) ) S (ρi(n) ) (n)

i(n) ∈Ωd

n−1

(n) i(n) ∈Ωd

j=0

≤ Hμ (P (n) ) +

where, from (∗), ρk :=

/ 0 (n) μ(Pi(n) ) S ρij ,

(∗∗)

1

dμ (x) PF k (x). (n) μ(Pi(n) ) Pi(n) (n) Let Qk ∈ M|F | (C) be a projection; since S (Qk ) = 0, the Fannes inequality (5.157) implies S (ρk ) ≤ ρk − Qk 1 log |F| + η(ρk − Qk 1 ) .

Notice that each ρk ∈ C|F | is a continuous convex combination of pure state projections PF (n) (x); the partition P is arbitrary and can always be chosen in such a way that each ρk stays suﬃciently close to a projection Qk so that the right hand side of the previous inequality can be upperbounded by a quantity independent of n and i(n) . Consequently, dividing both sides of (∗∗) by n and taking the lim sup obtains hAFL ωμ (ΘT , F) ≤ lim sup n→+∞

1 KS Hμ (P (n) ) = hKS μ (T, P) ≤ hμ (T ) . n

On the other hand, from (8.68) one gets AFL KS hAFL ωμ (ΘT , M) ≥ sup hωμ (ΘT , ZP ) = hμ (T ) , ZP ∈Π

where Π is the ∗-subalgebra of M containing the OPUs ZP arising from all possible measurable partitions of X . Evidently, one would like to reach the KS entropy by computing the AFL entropy on a smaller set than the whole of M = L∞ μ (X ). The search for a suitable ∗-subalgebra M0 ⊂ M starts with the introduction [10] of an entropic distance between two OPUs F1,2 ⊂ M deﬁned by Δ[F1 |F2 ] := S (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ]) − S (ρ[F2 ]) .

(8.72)

Some useful properties of the entropic distance can be extracted by inspecting more closely the consequences of (8.71). Indeed, it turns out that, in a commutative context, the entropy of a composite OPU is invariant under permutations of the constituent OPUs : S (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ◦ F3 ]) = S (ρ[F2 ◦ F1 ◦ F3 ]) ,

(8.73)

460

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

for all OPUs F1,2,3 ⊂ M. In fact, because of their tensor product form, the density matrices ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ◦ F3 ] and ρ[F2 ◦ F1 ◦ F3 ] are unitarily equivalent. Also, (5.161) yields S (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ]) ≤ S (ρ[F1 ]) + S (ρ[F2 ]) ,

(8.74)

for all OPUs F1,2 ⊂ M. Indeed, by partial tracing ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ] over C|F1 | , respectively C|F2 | , one gets Tr2 (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ]) = dμ (x) PF1 (x) Tr(PF2 ) = ρ[F1 ] X dμ (x) Tr(PF1 (x)) PF2 ) = ρ[F2 ] . Tr1 (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ]) = X

A more interesting property is the following one: for all OPUs F1,2 ⊂ M, S (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ]) ≥ S (ρ[F1 ]) .

(8.75)

To prove this, consider the case in which the integration measure in (8.71) is a discrete probability distribution μ = {pj }dj=1 , that is ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ] = d pj PF1 (j) ⊗ PF2 (j). Then, construct the density matrix j=1

ρ123 :=

d

pj | j j | ⊗ PF1 (j) ⊗ PF2 (j) ,

j=1

where {| j }dj=1 is an ONB in Cd , where the labels denote the factors from left to right. Notice that ρ2 := Tr13 (ρ123 ) =

d

pj PF1 (j) = ρ[F1 ]

j=1

ρ12 := Tr3 (ρ123 ) =

d

pj | j j | ⊗ PF1 (j)

j=1

ρ23 := Tr1 (ρ123 ) =

d

pj PF1 (j) ⊗ PF1 (j) = ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ] .

j=1

Then, strong subadditivity (5.162) yields (8.74): indeed, because of Remark 5.5.5 and of the fact that PFi (j) projects onto a normalized vector in C|Fi | , it turns out that pj log pj . S (ρ123 ) = S (ρ12 ) = − j

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

461

Finally, probability distributions given by regular Borel measures μ can be approximated by discrete ones; thus, the inequality (8.75) can be extended to generic μ [10] by means of the continuity of the von Neumann entropy (5.157) (notice that all the density matrix considered act on a Hilbert space of ﬁxed ﬁnite dimension). Lemma 8.2.1. Given OPUs F1,2,3 ⊂ M, the entropic distance satisﬁes Δ[F1 |F2 ] ≥ 0 Δ[ΘT [F1 ]|ΘT [F2 ]] = Δ[F1 |F2 ] Δ[F1 ◦ F2 |F3 ] ≤ Δ[F1 |F3 ] + Δ[F2 |F3 | Δ[F1 |F2 ◦ F3 ] ≤ Δ[F1 |F2 ] (n) (n) Δ[F1 |F2 ]

(8.76) (8.77) (8.78) (8.79)

≤ nΔ[F1 |F2 ] .

(8.80)

Proof: Positivity is a consequence of (8.72) and (8.75) while time-invariance comes from (8.61). Subadditivity in the ﬁrst argument can be derived as follows. By using (8.73) one gets Δ[F1 ◦ F2 |F3 ] = S (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ◦ F3 ]) − S (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ]) = S (ρ[F1 ◦ F3 ◦ F2 ]) − S (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ]) . Setting ρ123 = ρ[F1 ◦ F3 ◦ F2 ], it turns out that ρ2 = Tr13 (ρ123 ) = ρ[F3 ], while ρ12 = Tr3 (ρ123 ) = ρ[F1 ◦ F3 ] and ρ23 = Tr1 (ρ123 ) = ρ[F2 ◦ F3 ]. Then, strong subadditivity (5.162) yields S (ρ[F1 ◦ F3 ◦ F2 ]) + S (ρ[F3 ]) ≤ S (ρ[F1 ◦ F3 ]) + S (ρ[F2 ◦ F3 ]) , whence Δ[F1 ◦ F2 |F3 ] ≤ S (ρ[F1 ◦ F3 ]) + S (ρ[F2 ◦ F3 ]) − 2S (ρ[F3 ]) = Δ[F1 |F2 ] + Δ[F2 |F3 ] . Further, using (8.78) and (8.73), Δ[F1 |F2 ◦ F3 ] = S (ρ[F1 ◦ F2 ◦ F3 ]) − S (ρ[F2 ◦ F3 ]) = Δ[F1 ◦ F3 |F2 ] − Δ[F3 |F2 ] ≤ Δ[F1 |F2 ] + Δ[F3 |F2 ] − Δ[F3 |F2 ] = Δ[F1 |F2 ] . (n)

Finally, if in (8.78) one puts F1 (see (8.58)) in the place of F1 ◦ F2 and (n) F2 in the place of F3 , then using of (8.79), (8.73) and (8.77) one gets (n)

(n)

Δ[F1 |F2 ] ≤

n−1

(n)

Δ[F k |F2 ] ≤

k=0

n−1

Δ[F k |F2 k]

k=0

= nΔ[F1 |F2 ] .

462

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

Deﬁnition 8.2.4. [10] A ∗-subalgebra with identity M0 ⊂ M is entropydense in M = L∞ μ (X ) if for any ﬁnite, measurable partition P of X and any ε > 0 there exists an OPU F ⊂ M0 such that Δ[ZP |F] ≤ ε, where ZP ∈ M denotes the OPU corresponding to P. Theorem 8.2.1. Let (L∞ μ (X ), ΘT , ωμ ) be the algebraic triple corresponding to a classical dynamical system (X , T, μ). Let M0 ⊂ M = L∞ μ (X ) be a Θinvariant entropy-dense ∗-subalgebra of M with identity, then KS hAFL ωμ (ΘT , M0 ) = hμ (T ) .

(8.81)

AFL Proof: Since M0 ⊂ M, Proposition 8.2.2 gives hKS μ (T ) ≥ hωμ (ΘT , M0 ). (n) its dynamical reﬁnement Let P be any ﬁnite, measurable partition of X , P (n) up to time t = n − 1 and ZP , ZP the corresponding OPUs in M. Fix ε > 0 and choose F to be an OPU in the entropy-dense M0 such that Δ[ZP |F] ≤ ε; then, using (8.75), (8.73), (8.72) and (8.80) one gets

(n) (n) (n) S ρ[ZP ] ≤ S ρ[ZP ◦ F (n) ] = S ρ[F (n) ◦ ZP ]

(n) = S ρ[F (n) ] + Δ[ZP |F (n) ] ≤ S ρ[F (n) ] + n ε .

By dividing by n and taking the lim sup, (8.68) obtains KS AFL AFL hAFL ωμ (ΘT , ZP ) = hμ (T, P) ≤ hωμ (ΘT , F) + ε ≤ hωμ (ΘT , M0 ) + ε AFL for all ε > 0. Therefore, hKS μ (T, P) ≤ hωμ (ΘT , M0 ) for all ﬁnite, measurable KS AFL partitions of X whence hμ (T ) ≤ hωμ (ΘT , M0 ).

Example 8.2.1. Consider the hyperbolic automorphisms of the torus T2 studied in Example 2.1.3. To the measure-theoretic triple (T2 , TA , dr) one 2 associates the algebraic dynamical triple (M, ΘA , ω) where M := L∞ dr (T ), ΘA := ΘTA and ω is the state obtained by integration with respect to dr . We now show that the ∗-subalgebra M0 ⊂ M linearly spanned by the exponential functions en (r) = exp (2π in · r) is entropy-dense in M. Given a ﬁxed N ∈ N, the following collection of exponential functions 2 M en FN = √ , IN := n = (n1 , n2 ) : −N ≤ ni ≤ N , M n∈IN where M := (2N + 1)2 , is an OPU ; indeed, en 2 1 √ = = 1l , M M

n∈IN

n∈IN

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

463

where 1l is the identity function on T2 . Notice that the functions en are orthogonal, namely ω(e∗n em ) = δn,m ; thus, (8.60) reads ρ[FN ] =

1 | zn zn | , M n∈IN

where {| zn }n∈IN is an ONB in CM . Then, S (ρ[FN ]) = log M which is also the von Neumann entropy of the state in (8.65), Fω FN [| Ωω Ωω |] =

1 1 PN , | en en | =: M M n∈IN

where PN is the orthogonal projection onto the M -dimensional subspace spanned by the M orthogonal vectors | en . Also, we have chosen the GNS representation where | Ωω is the identity function on T2 and the action of πω (f ) on vectors of L2dr (T2 ) is the multiplication by f ∈ M: r | πω (f ) |ψ = f (r)ψ(r) (see Example 5.3.2.2). 2 Consider now a ﬁnite, measurable partition P = {Pj }m j=1 of T and the corresponding OPU ZP ; we want to estimate Δ[ZP |FN ] = S (ρ[ZP ◦ FN ]) − S (ρ[FN ]) = S (ρ[ZP ◦ FN ]) − log M . The von Neumann entropy of ρ[ZP ◦ FN ] is the same as the von Neumann entropy of (see (8.67)) σN := Fω ZP ◦FN [| Ωω Ωω |] =

m 1 πω (χPj en )| Ωω Ωω |πω (χPj e∗n ) M j=1 n∈IN

m 1 Qj PN Qj , = M j=1

=

where

m 1 Tr(Qj PN Qj ) σj , M j=1

r | Qj |ψ = χPj (r)ψ(r) where

σj :=

Qj PN Qj . Tr(Qj PN Qj )

To compute Tr(Qj PN Qj ) we use Example 5.2.3.8; since Qj PN Qj = X † X, X := PN Qj , its spectrum is the same as that of X X † = PN Qj PN and thus their traces are the same. Since Tr(PN Qj PN ) =

en | Qj |en n∈IN

=

n∈IN

m

T2

dr |en (r)|2 χPj (x) = M μ(Pj ) ,

it follows that σN = j=1 μ(Pj ) σj . Furthermore, as the σj are density matrices with orthogonal ranges, Remark 5.5.5 yields

464

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

S (σN ) = − =− =

Δ[P|FN ] =

m j=1 m

η(μ(Pj )) +

j=1 m

1 M 1 M

m

η(μ(Pj )) +

j=1 m

μ(Pj ) S (σj )

j=1 m

μ(Pj )

j=1

Tr(η(Qj PN Qj )) + log(M μ(Pj )) M μ(Pj )

Tr(η(Qj PN Qj )) + log M Tr(η(Qj PN Qj )) ,

whence

η(x) = −x log x .

j=1

We now conclude tgeh proof by showing that, for N large enough, the right hand side of the last inequality can be made negligibly small. As already seen, Qj PN Qj and PN Qj PN have the same spectrum; therefore, Tr(η(Qj PN Qj )) = Tr(η(PN Qj PN )) . Further, η(x) ≥ x(1−x) for all 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and η(x)−x(1−x) is bounded; thus, for all ε > 0, there exists C(ε) > 0 such that [10] η(x) ≤ ε + C(ε) x(1 − x). Applying this inequality to the eigenvalues πjk of PN Qj PN and observing that 0 ≤ πjk ≤ 1 for PN Qj PN ≤ 1l, one gets

1 1 1 ε + C(ε) πjk (1 − πjk ) Tr(η(PN Qj PN )) = η(πjk ) ≤ M M M k k

1 Tr(PN Qj PN ) − Tr((PN Qj PN )2 ) ≤ ε + C(ε) M

1 = ε + C(ε) μ(Pj ) −

en | Qj PN Qj |en . M n∈IN

In the second inequality it has been used that the range of PN has dimension M . Since the exponential functions | en form an ONB in L2dr (T2 ), by increasing N (and thus M ) one makes PN → 1l so that 1 1

en | Qj PN Qj |en = μ(Pj ) −

en | Qj (1l − PN )Qj |en M M n∈IN

n∈IN

tends to μ(Pj ) when N → ∞. AFL Entropy: Finite Quantum Systems Like the CNT entropy, also the AFL entropy vanishes for ﬁnite-level quantum systems. In order to show this we start by deriving a useful bound [10] on the |Z| von Neumann entropy S (ρ[Z]) of a given OPU Z = {Zi }i=1 ⊂ B(H), when B(H) is equipped with a state represented by a density matrix ρ.

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

465

Let 0 ≤ rj ≤ 1 and | rj be the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of ρ and |Z| {| zj }j=1 an ONB in C|Z| ; because of Deﬁnition 8.2.1, the vectors | ΨjZ :=

|Z|

Zk | rj ⊗ | zk

k=1

are orthogonal, indeed (8.55) yields

ΨjZ | Ψ Z =

|Z|

rj | Zk† Zk |r = rj | r = δj .

k=1

Set ρZ :=

j

rj | ΨjZ ΨjZ |; then, S (ρZ ) = S (ρ) and

B1 (H) ρI := TrII (ρZ ) =

|Z| j

k=1

|Z|

B1 (C|Z| ) ρII := TrI (ρZ ) =

rj Zk | rj rj | Zk† =: FZ [ρ]

Tr(ρ Zk† Zj ) | j k | = ρ[Z] .

j,k=1

Applying subadditivity 5.161 to these marginal density matrices one obtains the following upper bound to S (ρ[Z]). Proposition 8.2.3. Let ρ ∈ B1 (H) be a state on A = B(H) and Z = |Z| {Zi }i=1 ⊂ B(H) any ﬁxed OPU ; then S (ρ[Z]) ≤ S (ρ) + S (FZ [ρ]) .

(8.82)

If B(H) = Md (C), then the von Neumann entropy of both ρ and FZ [ρ] are upperbounded by log d independently of Z. Since in the case of a ﬁnite-level system the dynamics is implemented by a unitary operator which belongs to Md (C), all OPUs from Md (C) are such that also the reﬁned OPUs Z (n) up to discrete time t = n − 1 also belong to Md (C). Then, the following results holds. Proposition 8.2.4. Let (A, Θσ , ω) be a ﬁnite-level quantum system, where A = Md (C), ω corresponds to a density matrix ρ ∈ B1 (Cd ) and Θ is implemented by a unitary U ∈ Md (C). Then, for all OPUs Z ⊂ Md (C), hAFL (Θ, X ) = 0 , ω

hAFL (Θ) = 0 . ω

466

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

Remark 8.2.2. The fact that for ﬁnite-level systems the AF entropy vanishes is neither a surprise nor is it the end of the story. Indeed, in quantum chaotic phenomena [75, 322], namely when studying the behavior for → 0 of quantum systems with a chaotic classical limit, the associated classical instability manifests itself in the presence of a logarithmic time-scale as in Remark 2.1.3.4. Roughly speaking, the explanation of this fact stems from the fact that, in the semi-classical approximation, quantizing means operating a coarse graining of the phase-space into atoms of size 2π: this forbids the existence of a bona ﬁde Lyapounov exponent, but makes its classical existence felt up to times that scale as − log(/S) (where is normalized to a reference classical action S). In some models, as for instance the quantized ﬁnite Arnold cat map in Example 5.6.1.3 and the kicked top in [184], the classical limit can be mimicked by the dimension of the underlying Hilbert space N → +∞. The AFL construction, notably the entropy of a time-evolving OPU , has been applied to such cases and proved to increase linearly with the number of timesteps T up to T log N [10, 12, 25]. Interestingly, the AFL entropy has also been applied to study the emergence of chaos in the continuous limit of discretized classical dynamical systems [24, 26], where the suppression of instability also ﬁnds its root in a ﬁnite coarse graining of the phase space. AFL Entropy: Quantum Spin Chains Interestingly, the AFL entropy of quantum sources diﬀers from the CNT entropy by a correction term which increases with the dimension of single site algebras. According to Remark 8.2.1, the OPUs will be taken from strictly local subalgebras of the quasi-local source algebra A. Proposition 8.2.5. Let (AZ , ω) be a quantum spin chain with single site matrix algebras Md (C). Relative to OPUs from any local subalgebra A[p,q] , X ⊂ A[p,q] ⊆ A0 := Aloc Z , the AFL entropy is given by (Θσ ) = s(ω) + log d , hAFL ω where the dynamics is the shift Θσ over AZ , and the translation-invariant state ω ◦ Θσ = ω has mean von Neumann entropy s(ω). Proof: Because of translation-invariance of ω, it is no restriction to take X = {Xi }pi=1 , Xi ∈ A[0, ] . It follows that the dynamical reﬁnements X (k) are localized within [0, + k − 1]. With ρ = ω |`A[0, +k−1] and FX (k) [ρ], both density matrices in Md (C)⊗ ( +k) , (8.82) yields hAFL (Θσ , X ) ≤ lim sup ω k→∞

S(ω |`A[0, +k−1] ) + log d = s(ω) + log d , k

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

467

whence hAFL (Θσ ) ≤ s(ω) + log d. The upper bound is reached by an OPU ω consisting X made of matrix units e0p0 q0 := | p0 q0 | from the algebra Mn (C) ONB in Cn [133]. at site 0, where {| i 2 }di=1 is an M 1 0 e and Explicitly, X = d1/2 p0 q0 (q0 ,p0 ) 2 X

(k)

=

ep(k) q(k) √ dk

M ,

ep(k) q(k) :=

(p(k) ,q (k) )

k−1 ,

eipi qi .

i=0

According to (8.60), the matrix elements of the (dk × dk ) × (dk × dk ) density matrix ρ[X (k) ] are thus given by k−1 , 1 1 (k) (k)

(k) i i ρ[X ]pq;rs = k ω esr epq = k ω esi ri epi qi d d i=0 k−1 k−1 , 1 i = k δr p ω esi qi . d i=0 i i i=0 The expectations on the right hand side of the last equality deﬁne the local state ρ[0,k−1] := ω |`A[0,k−1] so that ρ[X (k) ] =

1 1lCdk ⊗ ρ[0,k−1] , =⇒ S ρ[X (k) ] = S(ρ[0,k−1] ) + k log d k d

and hAFL (Θσ ) ≥ hAFL (Θσ ) X = s(ω) + log d. ω ω

AFL Entropy: Price-Powers Shifts Price-Powers shifts (see Deﬁnition 7.1.14) provide non-commutative contexts whereby the diﬀerences between CNT and AFL entropies can be better appreciated [13]: indeed, it turns out that, while the former depends on the bit-stream g, the latter does not. Proposition 8.2.6. Let the triplet (Ug , Θσ , ω) represent a Price-Powers shift (Θσ ) = 1 independently with bitstream g; then, relative to local OPUs , hAFL ω of g. Proof: As for quantum spin chains, OPUs will be taken from local subalgebras, X ⊂ A0 = Ugloc ; by translation-invariance of the state ω, we can always suppose X = {Xi }d1=1 ⊂ U[0, ] , so that X (k) ⊂ U[0, +k−1] . The latter local subalgebra is not isomorphic to a full-matrix algebra, to an >rather m orthogonal sum of m νj × νj full-matrix algebras: U[0, +k−1] = j=1 Mνj (C). As a linear space U[0, +k−1] is 2 +k dimensional (this is the number of independent Wi that generate it), while each of the contributing Mνj (C) is

468

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

a νj2 -dimensional linear space, whence the constraint 2 +k =

m

the splitting of U[0, ] , the elements Xi(k) , i(k) = i0 i1 · · · in−1 ∈ >m can be decomposed as Xi(k) = j=1 Xij(k) , and ρ[0, +k−1] =

m 1

2 j=1 νj . From (n) Ωd , of X (k)

δ j τj ,

j=1

where τj = ν1j 1lνj are tracial states on Mνj (C), while 0 < δj , account for the various multiplicities. It follows that ρ[X (k) ] =

m

(k)

δj ρj

,

m

j=1 δj

=1

(k) (ρj )q(k) p(k) := τj (Xpj (k) )† Xqj (k) .

j=1

Then, (8.82), (5.156), (5.155) and concavity of log x yield S(ρ[X (k) ]) ≤

m

νj2 (k) + log m ≤ δj S ρj δj log δj j=1 j=1

m

m ≤ log( νj2 ) = + k , j=1

whence hAFL (Θσ ) ≤ 1. The bound is attained at the OPU consisting of ω orthogonal projectors at site j = 0, X = {p01 , p02 } ,

p0i :=

0 In fact, X (k) = pi(k) := j=k−1 pjij

1l + (−)i e0 . 2 (k)

i(k) ∈Ω2

ρ[X

(k)

−k

]i(k) j (k) = ω(pj (k) pik) ) = 2

and

k−1

δi j = 2−k δi(k) j (k) .

=0

The last equality follows by using (7.119) and (7.125); ω is tracial and the pij orthogonal for ﬁxed i, thus k−1 k−1 r s ω(pj (k) pi(k) ) = ω pjr pis r=0

s=1

k−1 k−2 1 · · · pk−2 jk−2 pik−1 pik−2 · · · pi1

k−1 k−3 1 + p p · · · p = δi0 j0 δik−1 jk−1 δik−2 jk−2 ω p0i0 · · · pk−2 i1 jk−2 ik−1 ik−3 B C

k−2 k−1 k−2 k−3 + δi0 j0 δik−1 jk−1 ω · · · pk−3 . jk−3 pjk−2 pik−1 , pik−2 pik−3 · · ·

= δi0 j0 δik−1 jk−1 ω

p0i0

(∗)

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

469

Using (7.119) one calculates B

C 1 k−2 ik−2 +jk−1 pk−1 (1 − (−)g(1) ) ek−1 ek−2 . ik−1 , pik−2 = (−) 4

NoticeB that either Cthis commutator vanishes because g(1) = 1 or the operator k−1 k−2 pk−2 jk−2 pik−1 , pik−2 (it belongs to the subalgebra U[k−2,k−1] ) cannot be turned into an identity by means of (7.117) as all the other p come from diﬀerent sites. Thus, (∗) vanishes. Iteration of this argument yields k−1 k−1 (k) (k) ω(pj pi ) = δi j ω prjr = 2−k δij . =0

r=0

The density matrix ρ[X (k) ] is thus diagonal with eigenvalues 2−k whence (Θσ ) ≥ 1. S(ρ[X (k) ]) = k log 2 and hAFL ω Remark 8.2.3. While the AFL entropy is always log 2 for all bitstreams, instead the CNT entropy varies from 0 to log 2 (see (8.35)– (8.37)). Since the bitstream ﬁxes the degree of departure from commutativity, this fact indicates the CNT entropy is sensitive to the dynamics, but also to the algebraic structure of quantum dynamical systems, in particular to whether they are asymptotically Abelian. On the contrary, the AFL entropy accounts for the eﬀects of the dynamics not directly, rather through a particular family, in general not translation-invariant, of local density matrices over a quantum spin chain. As such, it is more sensitive to the properties of the state ω and in some cases strongly depends on the OPUs that are used to construct the local density matrices. The eﬀects of the OPUs are at the root of the fact that the AFL entropy of a spin chain is the entropy density augmented by the (Θσ ) = s(ω) + log d, logarithm of the dimension of the spin algebras, hAFL ω (Θσ ) = s(ω). If whereas the CNT entropy equals the entropy density hCNT ω freely chosen and not carefully selected from a suitable Θ-invariant A0 in such a way that the perturbations are kept to a minimum, it may happen that even dynamical systems without dynamics may have non-zero AFL entropy. An abstract though revealing example is that of a so-called Cuntz algebra [10], namely the C ∗ algebra A generated by the identity 1l and by linear combinations of products Wi := Si1 Si2 · · · Sin of two isometries Si , i = 0, 1, such that S0 S0† + S1 S1† = 1l . S0† S0 = S1† S1 = 1l , It turns out that S0† S1 = S0† ( S0 S0† + S1 S1† )S1 = S0† S1 + S0† S1 =⇒ S0† S1 = 0 . Let the Cuntz algebra A be equipped with the tracial state ω(Wi ) = 0 unless Wi = 1l in which case ω(1l) = 1 and take the dynamics as trivial Θ = idA

470

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

namely, Θ[Wi ] = Wi √ for all Wi . While hCNT (idA ) = 0, the AFL entropy ω of the OPU X = {Si / 2}1i=0 diverges. Indeed, the elements of the partition X (k) are of the form Xi(k) := 2−k/2 Sik Sik−1 · · · Si1 ; thus, Xi†(k) Xj (k) = 2−k Si†1 · · · Si†k−1 Si†k Sjk Sjk−1 · · · Sj1 = 2−k δi(k) ,j (k)

S ρ[X (k) ] = k log 2 =⇒ hAFL (idA , X ) = log 2 . ω

whence

Therefore, using Remark 8.2.1.1, one deduces that, if the OPUs are freely taken from A, then hAFL (idA ) = +∞. ω AFL Entropy: Arnold Cat Maps We now consider the inﬁnite dimensional quantized hyperbolic automorphisms of the torus in Example 7.1.6, namely the triplets (Mθ , ΘA , ω), where Mθ is the von Neumann algebra generated by the Weyl operators (7.30), equipped with the automorphism (7.34) and the ΘA -invariant tracial state (7.34). We shall show that, independently of the deformation parameter, when the OPUs are taken from the ΘA -invariant ∗ subalgebra A0 generated the by Weyl operators Wθ (f ) where the f have compact support, the AFL entropy of (Mθ , ΘA , ω) coincides with the KS entropy [15] (see Proposition 3.1.1). Proposition 8.2.7. hAFL (ΘA ) = log α for all (Mθ , ΘA , ω), where α > 1 ω is the largest eigenvalue of A (see Example 2.1.3) and the OPUs are taken from the ΘA -invariant subalgebra A0 ⊂ Mθ which is generated by the Weyl operators Wθ (f ) with compact Supp(f ). Remark 8.2.4. Since the AFL entropy does not depend on θ and because, for θ = 0, the quantum dynamical system (Mθ , ΘA , ω) reduces to the classical hyperbolic automorphisms of the torus (see Example 8.2.1), the proof which follows is another way to compute hKS μ (TA ) and thus the Lyapounov exponents. The OPUs that will be repeatedly used in the following have the form 2 Mp eiβi Z = Zi := √ Wθ (ni ) , ni ∈ Z2 . (8.83) p i=1 Since ω(Zj† Zi ) = ρ[Z] =

δni nj i(βi −βj ) e , from (8.60) one computes p

p i,j=1

| zi zj | ω(Zj† Zi ) =

i,j : ni =nj

ei(βi −βj ) | zi zj | . p

The index set {1, 2, . . . p} can thus be divided into disjoint equivalence classes

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

{1, 2, . . . , p} =

471

[i] := {1 ≤ a ≤ p : na = ni } .

[i] ,

i

If #[i] denotes the cardinality of [i], one can then write ρ[Z] :=

1 [i]

p

ei(βi −βj ) | zi zj | =

a,b∈[i]

where the vectors | [i] :=

#[i] [i]

k

| [i] [i] |

(8.84)

1 iβi e | za , are orthogonal. Thus, #[i] a∈[i]

S (ρ[Z]) = −

#[i] [i]

p

log

#[i] = η p

[i]

#[i] p

.

(8.85)

where (2.84) has been used. Consider now two OPUs of the form (8.83), @ @ Ap1 Ap2 (1) (2) (1) (2) iβi Wθ (ni ) iβi Wθ (ni ) Z1 = e , Z2 = e . √ √ p1 p2 i=1

i=1

According to (8.56) and (7.29), their reﬁnement is an OPU of the same form 2 Z1 ◦ Z2 =

Mp1 ,p2 eiβ(i,j) (1) (2) Wθ (ni + nj ) . √ p1 p2 i,j=1

(8.86)

One now introduces the equivalent classes (2) (1) (2) , [i, j] := (a, b) : n(1) a + nb = ni + nj , 1 ≤ a ≤ p1 .1 ≤ b ≤ p2 Notice that if x ∈ [a]1 is such that there exist y ∈ [b]2 such that (x, y) ∈ [i, j], then this is true for all pairs (u, v) with u ∈ [a]1 and v ∈ [b]2 . Therefore, one can write #[a]1 #[b]2 . #[i, j] = [a]1 : ∃b s.t. [a,b]=[i,j]

Lemma 8.2.2. The following two properties hold: S (ρ[Z1 ◦ Z2 ]) = S (ρ[Z2 ◦ Z1 ]) S (ρ[Z1 ◦ Z2 ]) ≥ S (ρ[Z2 ]) . Proof:

(8.87) (8.88)

The ﬁrst equality follows from (8.85) applied to (8.86) which gives #[i, j] S (ρ[Z1 ◦ Z2 ]) = η . p1 p2 [i,j]

472

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

The second one can be derived as follows: set

N (i, j) :=

[a]1 : ∃b s.t. [a,b]=[i,j]

#[a]1 , p1

and use that η(xy) = x η(y) + y η(x) ≥ x η(y) to estimate ⎞ ⎛

#[a] 1 #[b] 1 2 ⎠ η N (i, j) ⎝ S (ρ[Z1 ◦ Z2 ]) = N (i, j) p1 p2 [i,j] [a]1 : ∃b s.t. [a,b]=[i,j] ⎛ ⎞ #[a] #[b] 1 2 ⎠ ≥ N (i, j) η ⎝ . N (i, j) p1 p2 [i,j] [a]1 : ∃b s.t. [a,b]=[i,j] Since

[a]1 : ∃b s.t. [a,b]=[i,j]

1 #[a]1 =1, N (i, j) p1

the concavity of η(x) yields S (ρ[Z1 ◦ Z2 ]) ≥

[i,j] [a]1 : ∃b s.t. [a,b]=[i,j]

#[a]1 #[b]2 #[b]2

= η η p1 p2 p2 [b]2

= S (ρ[Z2 ]) . In fact, by summing over all [i, j], one sums over all [b]2 and [a]1 , the latter being as many as p1 /#[a]. q 1 We now concentrate on a special OPU , Z = √q+1 Wθ (nj ) , where, j=0

for a ﬁxed q ∈ N, we choose nj := ([αj ] − 1)n, 0 ≤ j ≤ q, with Z2 n = 0. Also, [αj ] < αj denotes the integer part of the j-th power of the eigenvalue α > 1. The reﬁned OPU q( −1)

Z q, := ΘA

q( −2)

[Z] ◦ ΘA

[Z] ◦ · · · ΘAq [Z] ◦ Z

has |Z q, ) | = [αq ] elements of the form eiβ(j

(n)

)

Wθ (n(j ( ) )) ,

n(j ( ) ) :=

−1

([αjk ] − 1)(AT )k n ,

k=0

where j ( ) /= j0 j1 .0. . j −1 with j ∈ I(q) := {0, 1, . . . , [αq−1 ] − 1. In order to evaluate S ρ[Z q, ] , we have to investigate the equivalence classes determined by relations of the form n(r ( ) ) = n(s( ) ), r ( ) , s( ) ∈ I . By expanding n along the (linearly independent) eigenvectors | ± of AT relative to the eigenvalues α±1 , | n = γ| + + δ| − , one gets

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs −1

473

λqk ([λrk ] − [λsk ]) = λq( −1) [λrk ] − [λsj ] +

k=0

+

−2

λ−q ( −k−1) ([λrk ] − [λsk ]) = 0 .

k=0

By choosing q large enough, such an equality can only be true if r −1 = k −1 ; iterating this argument yields n(r ( ) ) = n(s( ) ) ⇐⇒ r ( ) = s( ) . This implies that the equivalence classes contain one element only, [r ( ) ] = r ) , so that (8.85) obtains 0 1 1 / S ρ[Z q, ] = log |Z (q, ) | = log[αq ] .

(8.89)

(ΘA ) ≥ log α. Lemma 8.2.3. hAFL ω Proof:

Given the OPU of above, consider the reﬁned OPU q( −1)

Z (q( −1)+1 = ΘA

q( −1)−1

[Z] ◦ ΘA

[Z] ◦ · · · ΘA [Z] ◦ Z .

As already remarked, by reﬁning any pairs of the constituent OPUs one gets an OPU of the form (8.83); thus, by repeatedly applying (8.87) and (8.88), one gets

S ρ[Z (q( −1)+1 ] ≥ S ρ[Z (q, ) ] . One ﬁnally estimates

1 S ρ[Z q( −1)+1 ] →+∞ q( − 1) + 1

1 1 1 ≥ lim sup S ρ[Z q, ) ] ≥ log[αq ] , q →+∞ q

hAFL (ΘA ) ≥ lim sup ω

and the result follows by choosing q arbitrarily large.

In order to reverse the inequality in the previous lemma, we shall consider OPUs of the form Z = {W (fi )}pi=1 ; notice that p i=1

Wθ† (fi )Wθ (fi )

= 1l =⇒

p

fi 2 = 1

i=1

as turns out by computing the expectations with respect to ω of both sides of the operatorial equation and by using (7.35). Let the support of Z be deﬁned

474

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

p as the union of the supports of the constituent fi , Supp(Z) := i=1 Supp(fi ), where Supp(f ) is the set of n ∈ Z2 where f (n) = 0 (see (7.31)). The compactness assumption means that, given Z there exist ﬁnite real constants g, d such that Supp(Z) ⊆ Rg,d , where Rgd := n ∈ Z2 : | n = γ| a+ + δ| a− , |γ| ≤ g , |δ| ≤ d , with | a± the eigenvectors of A. As seen in Example 7.1.6, the vectors πω (Wθ (f ))| Ωω in the GNS representation, amount to the 2 (Z2 ) vectors | fi = {f (n)}n∈Z2 ; thus, (8.65) gives p S (ρ[Z]) = S | fi fi | ≤ log #(Supp(Z)) , (8.90) i=1

where #(Supp(Z)) denotes the cardinality of the support. Since the reﬁned OPU Z ( ) has elements ΘA −1 [Wθ (fi−1 )] ΘA −2 [Wθ (fi−2 )] · · · ΘA [Wθ (fi1 )] Wθ (fi0 ) , and each ΘAj [Wθ (fij )] is supported by vectors of the form Aj | nj = γj αj | a+ + δj α−j | a− , with nj ∈ Supp(fi ), it turns out that Supp(Z ( ) ) consists of vectors | n() =

−1

−1

αj γj | a+ + α−j δj | a−

j=0

n −1 j ≤ g α −1 , α γ j α−1 j=0

j=0

−1 −j α , α γj ≤ d α−1 j=0

whence #(Z (n) ) = O(αn ) and, from (8.90), lim sup n→+∞

1 S ρ[Z (n) ] ≤ log α n

for all OPUs from the chosen A0 . Lemma 8.2.4. hAFL (ΘA ) = supZ∈A0 hAFL (ΘA ) Z ≤ log α. ω ω Finally, Lemma 8.2.3 and Lemma 8.2.4 together prove Proposition 8.2.7

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

475

8.2.4 AFL Entropy and Quantum Channel Capacities In Section 7.3.2 we have discussed the encoding of strings i(n) of symbols from an alphabet IA emitted by a classical source by means of quantum code-words ρ(i(n) ) taken from a statistical ensemble with weights p(i(n) ). In [8] a diﬀerent encoding protocol is proposed; it uses a quantum dynamical system (A, Θ, ω) and the CPU maps M(A0 ) E : A → A. The idea is to encode strings i(n) = i1 i2 · · · in by perturbing the state ω with CPU maps Eij at each stroke of time t = j, 1 ≤ j ≤ n. Remark 8.2.5. As A is in general a quasi-local algebra, in order that the encoding protocols be physically implementable, the CPU maps are chosen to consist of ﬁnitely many Kraus operators taken from the union A0 of all strictly local subalgebras, Xi†j k A Xij k , Xij k ∈ A0 , A A → Eij [A] = k∈I(ij )

where k∈I(ij ) Xi†j k Xij k = 1l and the index set I(ij ) is of ﬁnite cardinality. The CPU maps are further distinguished in E ∈ Mb (A0 ) when they are bistochastic, see Example 6.3.3.1, in which case they are entropy increasing, and E ∈ Mu (A0 ) when the Xij k are unitary: Mu (A) ⊂ Mb (A0 ) ⊂ M(A0 ). In order to proceed with the explicit encoding, it is convenient to pass to i k := πω (Xi k ) and denote by the GNS triple (Hω , Uω , Ωω ); set X j j

i [B] = E j

† B X i k , X j ij k

B ∈ B(Hω ) ,

(8.91)

k∈I(ij )

the GNS representation of the CPU maps Eij as CPU maps on B(Hω ). Morei be their dual maps acting on B1 (Hω ), over, let F j i [ B1 (Hω ) ρ → F ρ] = j

i k ρ X † , X j ij k

(8.92)

k∈I(ij )

and let U−1 ρ] := Uω ρUω† denote the Schr¨ odinger time-evolution in the GNS ω [ representation. Then, the encoding procedure proposed in [8] is to assign to n a string i(n) ∈ IA a density matrix ρ(i(n) ) according to the following scheme: ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎠ [| Ωω Ωω |] i(n) → E (n) (i(n) ) =: ρ(i(n) ) = ⎝ U−1 ω ◦ Fij j=n

=

(U−1 ω

i ) ◦ ◦F n

(U−1 ω

i ) ◦ · · · (U−1 ◦ F i )[| Ωω Ωω |] , (8.93) ◦F ω n−1 1

476

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

The states ρ(i(n) ) are the GNS representations of perturbed states obtained from the given Θ-invariant state ω as follows: ⎛ ⎞ n Eij ◦ Θ⎠ = ω ◦ (Ei1 ◦ Θ) ◦ (Ei2 ◦ Θ) ◦ · · · (Ein ◦ Θ) . (8.94) ωi(n) := ω ◦ ⎝ j=1

Example 8.2.2. Let the encoding (8.93) be based on a Bernoulli quantum spin chain (AZ , Θσ , ω), where AZ consists of single site algebras Md (C), Θσ is the right shift and ω the product state ω(A) = Tr(ρ ⊗ ρ ⊗ · · · ρ A) ,

A ∈ A[p,q] .

p−q+1 times

Since the Kraus operators from the various CPU maps in (8.93) are ﬁnitely many and belong to local subalgebras of AZ , there exists an ∈ N such that Xij k ∈ A[− , ] for all ij ∈ IA and k ∈ I(ij ). With respect to (8.94), each Θ = Θσ shifts the Kraus operators of the CPU map to the right by one site; therefore, the Xij k of Eij , 2 ≤ j ≤ n, will be shifted to the right by j − 1 sites. Therefore, the perturbed states ωi(n) have the form (0)

(1)

(n−1)

ωi(n) = ω ◦ Ei1 ◦ Ei2 ◦ · · · Ein

◦ Θn−1 ,

(j−1)

where the Kraus operators of Eij , Θσj−1 (Xij k ), belong to A[− +j−1 , +j−1] . It thus turns out that the state ωi(n) in (8.94) amounts to a density matrix ∈ A[ , −n−1] tensorized with ρ over the sites k ∈ / [ , − n − 1]. In ρloc i(n) (n) the GNS representation, the corresponding ρ(i ) in (8.93) acts as a density on πω (A[− , +n−1] ) ⊗ πω (A[− , +n−1] ). matrix ρloc i(n) Example 8.2.3. Given a quantum spin chain as encoder, single-site encodings turn out to be particularly useful; that is, we will use CPU maps consisting of Kraus operators Xik belonging to single site algebras Md (C). The following CPU maps are three interesting possibilities. 1. Let {| i }di=1 denote a ﬁxed ONB in Cd ; then, consider the purifying maps Md (C) ρ → Fi [ρ] := Tr(ρ) | i i | ,

i = 1, 2, . . . , d .

These are the dual maps of the CPU maps Md (C) A → Ei [B] :=

d k=1

| k i | A | i k | = i | A |i 1l .

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

477

The encoding is performed by choosing Xik = | i k |, i, k = 1, 2, . . . , d, whence if Y ∈ A is such that Θσn−1 (Y ) ∈ A(n) = A[0,n−1] , then ωi(n) (Y ) = i(n) | Θσn−1 (Y ) |i(n) , where | i(n) := | i1 ⊗ | i2 ⊗ · · · | in . As a consequence, this particular encoding corresponds to a perturbation = | i(n) i(n) | ∈ A(n) . of ω such that ρloc i(n) 2. Consider the discrete Weyl operators in Example 5.4.2 with N = d and perform the encoding corresponding to the CPU maps Md (C) A → En [A] = Wd (n)† A Wd (n) , with n = (n1 , n2 ), ni = 0, 1, . . . d − 1. The Kraus operators involved are thus of the form Xik = Wd (ni ) where i = 1, 2, . . . , d2 enumerates the d2 pairs n and k = 1 for all i. Then, choosing Y ∈ A as in the previous case, the perturbed states turn out to be ⎛ ⎞ n , Wd (nij ) ρ Wd† (nij ) Θσn−1 (Y )⎠ , ωi(n) (Y ) = Tr ⎝ j=1

-n corresponding to A(n) ρloc = j=1 Wd (nij ) ρ Wd† (nij ). i(n) d 3. Let ρ = spectral representation of the single i=1 ri | ri ri | be the √ √ d site density matrix and | ρ = i=1 rj | rj ⊗ | rj its puriﬁcation. √ √ Consider the GNS representation where | Ωω = (| ρ ρ |)⊗∞ ; then, the encoding in the previous point yields a perturbed state (8.93) that amounts to a local density matrix of the form = πω (A(n) )⊗πω (A(n) ) ρloc i(n)

n ,

√ √ Wd (nij )⊗1ld | ρ ρ | Wd† (nij )⊗1ld .

j=1

n with As in Section 6.3.1, the classical source A emitting symbols i(n) ∈ IA (n) (n) probabilities p(i ) is described as a stochastic variable A with probability distribution π (n) = {p(i(n) )}i(n) ∈I n . The encoding (8.93) provides a statistical A mixture described by the density matrix p(i(n) ) ρ(i(n) ) , B1 (Hω ) ρE (n) = n i(n) ∈IA

and any decoding POVM B(n) = {Bj }j∈IB by means of operators in B(Hω ) (n) . The mutual information (6.32) of deﬁnes another stochastic variable B (n) is bounded by the Holevo χ quantity (6.33), A(n) and B

(n) ) ≤ S ( (8.95) I(A(n) ; B ρE (n) ) − p(i(n) )S ρ(i(n) , (n)

n i(n) ∈IA

478

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

and depends on the source probability πA(n) , on the CPU maps implementing the encoding E (n) and on the POVM B(n) . If the encoding (8.93) is based on Bernoulli quantum spin chains as in Example 8.2.2, then p(i(n) ) ρ(i(n) ) = Fω (8.96) ρE (n) = Y (n) [| Ω Ω |] , n i(n) ∈IA

where, using the argument which led to (8.66), Y (n) is a localized POVM whose elements are operators of the form Θσn−1 (Xin−1 kn−1 )Θn−2 (Xin−2 kn−2 ) · · · Xi0 k0 ∈ A[− , +n−1] , with Xij k ∈ A[− , ] . Then, from (8.95), (8.67) and Proposition 8.2.3

/ 0 (n) (n) ) ≤ S ( ρE (n) ) = S Fω [| Ω Ω |] = S ρ [Y] I(A(n) ; B (n) Y ≤ (n − 2)(S (ρ) + log d) .

(8.97)

Indeed, ρ(n) [Y] results from the tensor product density matrix ρ⊗ (n−2 ) on the algebra Md (C)⊗ (n−2 ) . Furthermore, if the decoding is operated by means of local POVMs B consisting of operators Bi ∈ A[p,q] , then in (8.95) one can substitute the density matrices ρ(i(n) ) and ρE (n) in the GNS representation with local density matri ces ρloc (i(n) ) and ρloc = i(n) p(i(n) ) ρloc (i(n) ). The corresponding Holevo’s E (n) bound reads

0 / (n) loc (n) − p(i )S ρ (i ) . (8.98) I(A(n) ; B (n) ) ≤ S ρloc (n) E n i(n) ∈IA

This bound and the fact that the various states are matrices in Md (C)⊗ (n−2 ) imply that, for encodings B by means of generic POVMs in A, I(A(n) ; B (n) ) ≤ (n − 2) log d ,

(8.99)

while, for POVMs B consisting of bistochastic maps I(A(n) ; B (n) ) ≤ (n − 2)(log d − S(ρ)) ,

(8.100) 0 / for the encodings are entropy increasing so that S(ρloc (i(n) ) ≥ S ρ⊗ (n−2 ) .

Example 8.2.4. With reference to the three encodings in Example 8.2.3, the Holevo χ quantity, denoted by χ1,2,3 for sake of simplicity, depend only on the structure of the perturbed states restricted to the ﬁrst n sites of the quantum spin chain n A. By choosing uniform Bernoulli probability distributions p(i(n) ) = j=1 pij over the indices i(n) , the product structure of the perturbed states yields:

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

479

1. Let π = {pi = 1/d}di=1 ; since ρloc = | i(n) i(n) |, S(ρloc ) = 0 and i(n) i(n)

p(i

(n)

) ρloc i(n)

=

i(n)

1ld d

⊗ n =⇒ χ1 = n log d .

-n 2 † 2. Let π = {pi = 1/d2 }di=1 ; since ρloc = j=1 Wd (nij ) ρ Wd (nij ), addii(n) tivity of the von Neumann entropy (5.160) and unitarity of the Weyl 0 / = nS (ρ). Further, from (5.30) it follows that operators imply S ρloc i(n) d2 † i=1 Wd (ni ) ρ Wd (ni ) = d 1ld . Thus

(n)

p(i

) ρloc i(n)

=

i(n)

1ld d

⊗ n =⇒ χ2 = n(log d − S(ρ)) .

-n √ √ † 3. Since ρloc = j=1 Wd (nij ) ⊗ 1ld | ρ ρ | Wd (nij ) ⊗ 1ld are pure, i(n) ) = 0. Also, using again (5.30), it follows that S( ρloc i(n) d2

1 √ √ √ √ Wd (ni )⊗1ld | ρ ρ | Wd† (ni )⊗1ld = 1l⊗TrI (| ρ ρ |) = 1l⊗ρ , d i=1 where TrI denotes partial trace over the ﬁrst factor. Therefore, choosing the probability π as in the previous point,

n 1ld ⊗ ρ p(i(n) ) ρloc = =⇒ χ3 = n(log d + S(ρ)) . i(n) d (n) i

According to Section 3.2.2, the classical capacity of the channel resulting from the considered encodings is: C :=

sup

lim sup

π (n) , E (n) , B(n)

n→∞

1 I(A(n) ; B (n) ) , n

(8.101)

where the supremum is computed varying probabilities, encoding and decoding protocols. The following possibilities are envisaged: i }i∈I ⊂ B(Hω ) con1. entanglement assisted capacity, Cent , when B = {B B sists of bounded operators on the GNS Hilbert space; 2. ordinary capacities, C ≥ Cb ≥ Cu , when B = {Bi }i∈IB ⊂ A and the encoding E (n) is performed with any localized CPU map (C) with localized bistochastic CPU maps (Cb ) and with localized CPU maps consisting of unitary Kraus operators (Cu ); 0 ≥ C 0 ≥ Cb0 ≥ Cu0 , when the supremum is taken 3. Bernoulli capacities, Cent n over input probabilities that factorize p(i(n) ) = i=1 pij .

480

8 Quantum Dynamical Entropies

Remark 8.2.6. The entanglement in the capacity Cent is due to the GNS vector | Ωω being entangled over the algebra πω (A) ⊗ πω (A) and the considered POVMs B consist of generic operators in B(Hω ). The entanglement of | Ωω is most simply seen in the case of a Bernoulli quantum spin chain as the one discussed in Example 8.2.3; there, the GNS construction amounts √ to purifying the single site density matrix ρ into a vector | ρ ∈ Cd ⊗ Cd which entangles Md (C) ⊗ 1l with 1l ⊗ Md (C) at each single site. The entanglement assisted capacity of Bernoulli quantum sources is bounded by the AFL entropy, for all triplets (A, Θ, ω), while the capacity equals the AFL entropy in the case of Bernoulli quantum spin chains. Proposition 8.2.8. The entanglement assisted capacity relative to Bernoulli classical sources encoded by using quantum dynamical systems (A, Θ, ω), is 0 ≤ hAFL (Θ, A0 ). bounded by the AFL entropy: Cent ω Moreover, the capacities of encodings by Bernoulli quantum spin chains (A, Θσ , ωρ ) can be explicitly computed: Cu0 = Cb0 = Cu = Cb = log d − S(ρ)

(8.102)

0

C = C = log d 0 Cent = Cent = S(ρ) + log d .

(8.103) (8.104)

Proof: As regards the ﬁrst part of the proposition, the source probabilities n p(i(n) ) = j=1 pij by assumption; therefore, (8.93) and (8.66) yield ρE (n) :=

⎛

p(i(n) ) ρ(i(n) ) = ⎝

n i(n) ∈IA

1 j=n

ω = U−n ω ◦ FX (n) [| Ωω Ωω |] ,

U−1 ω ◦

⎞ i ⎠ [| Ωω Ωω |] pij F j

ij ∈IA

√ X := { pi Xik }

i∈Ia k∈I(i)

.

/ 0 (n) ) ≤ S ρE (n) = S ρ(n) [X ] , whence Then, from (8.67) and (8.95) I(A(n) ; B the result follows from Deﬁnition 8.63. Concerning the second part of the proposition, for single site encodings of Bernoulli classical sources by means of Bernoulli quantum spin chains, we can use the result in Theorem 7.3.4. It ensures that one can always ﬁnd a suitable decoding POVM such that the asymptotic amount of transmitted information per symbol, namely the argument of the supremum in (8.101) equals the corresponding Holevo χ quantity. Consider now the ﬁrst case in Example 8.2.4, χ1 /n = log d and (8.99) imply that log d ≤ C 0 ≤ C ≤ log d, whence (8.102). In the second case χ2 /n = log d−S(ρ), this and (8.99) imply log d − S(ρ) ≤ Cb0 ≤ Cb ≤ log d − S(ρ) .

8.2 AFL Entropy: OPUs

481

Thus, (8.103) results from the fact that Cu0 ≤ Cb0 and Cu ≤ Cb . Finally, by means of the same argument, (8.104) follows from the third case in the quoted example and from (8.97): 0 ≤ CE ≤ log d + S(ρ) . log d + S(ρ) = χ3 ≤ CE

Bibliographical Notes The recent book [222] represents a most up to date and complete approach to CNT entropy and its applications to C ∗ and von Neumann dynamical systems of physical and mathematical origin. It also presents in full detail the approach to the CNT entropy developed in [264] and the construction of dynamical and topological entropies due to Voiculescu [311]. Another formulation of a quantum topological entropy, namely of a quantum dynamical entropy independent of the given invariant state, can be found in [154]. Older books also dealing with the CNT entropy are [22, 226], while a detailed presentation of the AFL entropy ad its applications is in [10]. The relations between the CNT entropy and the AFL entropy are reviewed in [155]. A diﬀerent proposal of quantum dynamical entropy based on coherent states and suitable to applications to quantum chaos and the semi-classical limit is in [282, 281, 74]. Possible applications of quantum dynamical entropies to chaotic phenomena in quantum spin chains are discussed in [243].

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

As already emphasized in Chapter 4 information is physical and the limits to information processing tasks are ultimately set by the underlying physical laws. For instance, the standing models of computation are based on the physics of deterministic and/or stochastic classical processes; instead, quantum computation theory [66, 128, 224, 165, 71] studies the new possibilities oﬀered by a model of computation based on quantum mechanical laws. The birth of such a theory ﬁnds a technological motivation in the high pace at which chip miniaturization proceeds. Indeed, information processing at the atomic level, namely at a scale where the physical laws are those of quantum mechanics, might soon become a concrete practical issue [66]. On the other hand, a strong theoretical impulse to the development of quantum computation theory came from Feynman’s suggestion [116, 139] that quantum computers might provide a more eﬃcient description of quantum systems than classical (probabilistic) computers and, above all, from the discovery of quantum algorithms with more eﬃcient performances with respect to what is classical achievable [224]. A ﬁrst theoretical step in this direction was the extension of the notions of TM and of UTM to those of quantum Turing machines (QTMs ) [99] and to universal QTMs (UQTMs ) [56]: very roughly speaking, these latter are computing devices that work as classical TMs and UTMs , the only diﬀerence being that their conﬁgurations behave as vector states of a suitable Hilbert space. Namely, given any set of possible conﬁgurations, their linear superpositions are also possible conﬁgurations. Once the existence of UQTMs is foreseen, a very natural theoretical step is to try to formulate quantum versions of the concepts introduced in Chapter 4; in particular, by extending algorithmic complexity theory to the quantum setting, one may try to set up a theory of randomness of individual quantum states [120] and of quantum processes. In the following, we shall consider some proposals that have recently been put forward concerning diﬀerent ways in which one might approach the algorithmic complexity of quantum states. All proposals start from the basic intuitive idea that complexity should characterize properties of systems that are diﬃcult to describe; they can roughly be summarized as follows:

F. Benatti, Dynamics, Information and Complexity in Quantum Systems, Theoretical and Mathematical Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-9306-7 9, c Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

483

484

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

1. one may attempt to describe quantum states by means of other quantum states that are processed by UQTMs [57]: the corresponding complexity will be referred to as qubit quantum complexity and denoted by QCq ; 2. one may decide to describe quantum states by classical [309] programs run by UQTMs : the corresponding complexity will be denoted by QCc and referred to as bit quantum complexity; 3. one may choose to relate the complexity of a qubit string to the complexity of the (classical) description of the quantum circuits that construct the qubit string [205, 206]. The corresponding complexity will be denoted by QCnet and referred to as circuit quantum complexity; 4. one may extend the notion of universal probability (see Section 4) and deﬁne a quantum universal semi-density matrix [119]. There then arise two possible deﬁnitions of quantum complexity, denoted by QC± u.p. that do not refer either to QTMs or to circuits. We shall mainly concentrate on the qubit quantum complexity QCq : it allows for a quantum generalization of Brudno’s theorem that will be presented in detail. On general grounds, one should not expect the above proposals to yield equivalent notions; very likely, each one of them will be sensitive to diﬀerent speciﬁc quantum properties, as we have seen to be the case with the quantum extensions of the KS dynamical entropy. Unlike in the classical domain (see Remark 4.3.1.4) where chaoticness and typicalness appear to be equivalent characterization of random bit sequences, qubit sequences are likely to be random in diﬀerent inequivalent ways.

9.1 Eﬀective Quantum Descriptions The notions of qubit and bit quantum complexity are based on the use of QTMs. In the following, we will not consider what quantum computers might do that classical computers do not, nor will we address their practical implementation (see for instance [128, 224]). We shall simply assume that such devices exist and proceed to deﬁne: 1. 2. 3. 4.

the targets of the algorithmic descriptions processed by QTMs ; which kinds of algorithms are processed by QTMs ; how these algorithms are processed by QTMs ; which are the outputs of these processes.

1. In the quantum setting, the targets of the eﬀective descriptions will be qubit strings; since one is always interested in targets of increasing length, a convenient mathematical framework is provided by quantum spin chains (see Section 7.1.5), namely by algebraic triples of the form (AZ , Θσ , ω) that have been introduced in Deﬁnition (7.1.11), with 2 × 2 matrix algebras at each site. As already noted in Remarks 7.3.1, in going from bit to qubit strings there are similarities, but also diﬀerences. In particular, there is a

9.1 Eﬀective Quantum Descriptions

485

larger variety of qubit strings. Therefore, by qubit strings it will be meant any local density matrix corresponding to generic mixed and entangled states ⊗n on local subalgebras A(n) = (M2 (C)) . 2. The inputs to QTMs will be generic qubit strings, loosely referred to as quantum programs; a subclass of these are the classical programs or bit strings that QTMs, as extensions of classical TMs, must also be able to process. 3. While classical TMs ultimately amount to speciﬁc transition functions between their conﬁgurations, QTMs are deﬁned by transition amplitudes between their conﬁgurations which form a Hilbert space. Any QTM will thus identify a speciﬁc quantum computation that is a speciﬁc unitary operators acting on the Hilbert space of its conﬁgurations. 4. Finally, the outputs of a quantum computation operated by a QTM will be a qubit string read out by a measurement process. Within the framework just outlined, the ﬁrst two generalizations of classical algorithmic complexity previously mentioned are based on qubit strings eﬀectively described by bit strings in the ﬁrst case and by qubit strings in the second one. 9.1.1 Eﬀective Descriptions by qubit Strings Given the quasi-local structure of quantum sources as C ∗ algebras generated by local n-qubit sub-algebras A(k) = M2 (C)⊗k , let us denote by Hk := (C2 )⊗k the Hilbert space of k qubits (k ∈ N0 ) and ﬁx in each single qubit Hilbert space C2 a computational basis | 0 , | 1 . In order to be as general as possible, superpositions of qubit states of diﬀerent lengths k are allowed: they >∞ correspond to vectors in the Fock-like Hilbert space HF := k=0 Hk . More in general, qubit strings will be represented by density matrices ρ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ) acting on HF . Example 9.1.1. Any bit string i ∈ {0, 1}∗ identiﬁes a computational basis vector in HF : the empty string λ corresponds to the vacuum | ΩF , the 1qubit subspace H1 is spanned by | 0 , | 1 , while the k-qubit subspace Hk is generated by the vectors corresponding to the bit strings of length k, i(k) ∈ (k) Ω2 , namely by | i(k) = | i1 i2 · · · ik , ij = 0, 1. Generic >nqubit strings amount + (H ) acting on H := to density matrices in B ≤n ≤n 1 k=0 Hk , its dimension n being k=0 2k = 2n+1 − 1. In the commutative setting, the length of a bit string is simply the number of bits it consists of; in the quantum setting, the number of qubits involved ﬁxes the Hilbert space dimension. Therefore, the following deﬁnition naturally extends the notion of length of a program.

486

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

Deﬁnition 9.1.1. The length, (ρ), of a qubit string ρ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ) is (ρ) := min{n ∈ N0 | ρ ∈ B+ 1 (H≤n )} ,

(9.1)

setting (ρ) = ∞ if this set is empty. As we shall see, QTMs act on and construct superpositions of vector qubit strings and, more in general, convex combinations of projection onto vector qubit strings of diﬀerent lengths. Moreover, like their classical counterparts, QTMs comprise diﬀerent parts as a read/write head, a control unit and one or more tapes all of them capable of being in states that are either Hilbert space vectors or density matrices acting on them. Therefore, the QTMs conﬁgurations too are generically described by density matrices acting on appropriate Hilbert spaces. Notice that mixed states are quite typical in such a context for they naturally appear when one is interested in the state of the read/write head, say, and therefore traces over the Hilbert spaces corresponding to the other QTMs components. As observed in Remark 7.3.1.3, unlike in the classical situation where there are countably many bit strings, there are uncountably many qubit strings that can be arbitrarily close to one another. In order to quantify how close two qubit strings ρ, σ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ) actually are, it is convenient to use the trace-distance introduced in Deﬁnition 6.3.4, D(ρ, σ). 9.1.2 Quantum Turing Machines Any model of computation is based on the physics of the processors performing the computations; both deterministic and probabilistic Turing machines (see Example 4.1.4) work according to the laws of classical physics. It was Feynman [116] who was the ﬁrst one to argue that quantum processes, to be eﬃciently simulated, require quantum computers. Indeed, quantum mechanics allow superpositions of states; in the case of TMs , the natural classical states are their conﬁgurations c := (σi )i∈Z , q, k (see Deﬁnition 4.1.1). The main feature of quantum computing machines is the possibility of producing and acting on linear superpositions of classical conﬁgurations, thus of performing in one single step of a computation what, classically, would only be achieved by an enormous number of TMs working in parallel (this is quantum parallelism, a phenomenon brieﬂy sketched in Example 6.1.1). The Hilbert space spanned by the classical conﬁgurations | c provides (vector) states | Ψ = c∈C Ψ (c)| c of the QTM , with Fourier coeﬃcients Ψ (c) that represent the complex amplitudes associated to the computational steps c. As in the case of PTMs, a quantum computation corresponds to a level-tree with an initial conﬁguration branching into others, the main difference being that the edges leading from one level to the next do not carry branching probabilities, rather branching amplitudes that give rise to interference eﬀects.

9.1 Eﬀective Quantum Descriptions

487

Example 9.1.2. With reference to Example 4.1.4 [128], consider the following branching tree that resembles the scheme of a Mach-Zender interferometer (see Figure 5.5). It describes a computational process starting oﬀ with an initial conﬁguration c0 that branches into two diﬀerent conﬁgurations c11 and c12 at level 1 with amplitudes a01 := a(c0 c11 ) and a02 := a(c0 c12 ) = 2−1/2 , so that |a01 |2 + |a02 |2 = 1. This ﬁrst computational step is then followed by a second one with two conﬁgurations at level 1 branch√ ing as follows: c11 into c21 and √ c22 with amplitudes a11 := a(c11 c21 ) = 1/ 2 and a12 := a(c11 c22 ) = √ 1/ 2, while c12 into c23 and √ c24 with amplitudes a23 := a(c12 c23 ) = −1/ 2 and a24 := a(c12 c24 ) = 1/ 2.

Fig. 9.1. Quantum Turing Machines: Level Tree

Thus, the overall amplitudes for the 4 conﬁgurations at step 2 are 1 1 , a(c22 ) := a01 a12 = , 2 2 1 1 = − , a(c24 ) := a02 a24 = . 2 2

a(c21 ) := a01 a11 = a(c23 ) := a02 a23

The most important diﬀerence with respect to classical PTMs is now apparent; indeed, consider the case of equal conﬁgurations c22 and c23 , say c22 = c23 = c∗ . Then, the amplitude for c∗ is the sum of the amplitudes for c22 and c23 , a(c∗ ) = 0, whence p(c∗ ) = |a(c∗ )|2 = 0. The corresponding destructive interference eliminates the conﬁguration c∗ from the computation. On the other hand, assume c21 = c24 = c∗ ; these two conﬁgurations constructively interfere at level 2 so that a(c∗ ) = 1, whence c∗ appears among the computational steps with probability p(c∗ ) = 1. The notion of QTM as a computing device working according to quantum mechanics was ﬁrst proposed by Deutsch[99]. A full and detailed analysis can be found in [56] and [3] and further developments in connection with the notion of universality in [208]. In the following, we shall assume the existence of such machines and provide a schematic presentation of how they perform their tasks. QTMs work analogously to classical TMs, that is they consist of

488

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

1. An internal control unit C with associated Hilbert space HC linearly spanned by the classical control states qi , i = 1, 2, . . . , |Q|, the typical control vector being | ΨC =

|Q| i=1

c(i) | qi ,

|Q|

|c(i)|2 = 1 .

i=1

We shall distinguish special initial and ﬁnal control states q0 and qf , respectively. 2. An input/output tape, whose vector states are of the form t(σ) | σ , | ΨT = σ ∈Σ Z where σ ∈ Σ Z denotes any sequence consisting of inﬁnitely many = {0, 1} blanks and only ﬁnitely many symbols from the alphabet Σ (see Section 4.1.1). The basis states | σ correspond to classical tapeconﬁgurations and span a (separable) tape Hilbert space HT . 3. A read/write head H that can position itself on the tape cells labeled by the integers k ∈ Z. The head Hilbert space HH is formed by squaresummable sequences and the typical head vector state is h(k) | k , |h(k)|2 = 1 . | ΨC = k∈Z

k∈Z

A QTM U will then be described by means of a Hilbert space of the form HU = HT ⊗ HC ⊗ HH with the conﬁguration basis vectors | σ, q, k providing a distinguished orthonormal basis. The time-evolution of standard quantum mechanical systems, that is isolated from their environment, is linear and reversible; as any step of a quantum computation corresponds, in absence of external noise, to a physical quantum process, it must be described by means of a unitary operator UU : HU → HU . Remarks 9.1.1. 1. The probabilistic transition functions (4.4) are replaced by a quantum transition function which assigns amplitudes (not probabilities) to the transitions (q, σ) → (q , σ , d): [0,1] , (q, σ; q , σ , d) → δ(q, σ; q , σ , d) ∈ C

(9.2)

˜ denotes the set of complex numbers α ∈ C, 0 ≤ |α| ≤ 1, such that where C there is a deterministic algorithm that computes the real and imaginary parts of α to within any ﬁxed precision 2−n in time polynomial in n.

9.1 Eﬀective Quantum Descriptions

489

Consider the linear operator UU on HU whose matrix elements with respect to the conﬁguration basis vectors are deﬁned by [229] 2 δ(q, σk ; q , σk , −1) if k = k − 1

q , σ , k | UU |q, σ, k = (9.3) δ(q, σk ; q , σk , +1) if k = k + 1 , where d = ±1 identify a head’s movement to the left d = −1), respectively to the right (d = +1), and the tape (classical) conﬁgurations σ and σ are such that their symbols σ j = σ j for all j = k. In this way the quantum transition function δ identiﬁes the possible transitions operated by the linear operator UU ; namely, UU operates a transition ⎫ ⎧ tape conf. σ tape conf. : σ ⎬ ⎨ cell with head on it: k + d cell with head on it : k −→ ⎭ ⎩ symbol in cell k : σk symbol in cell k : σk if and only if δ(q, σk , q , σk , d) = 0. Using the orthogonality of the conﬁguration vectors, one explicitly computes the action of UU as UU | q, σ, k = δ(q, σk ; q , σk , k + d) | q , σ k , j + d , (9.4) q ,σ k ,d where σ k denotes the tape-conﬁguration with all symbols equal to those of σ, but for the k-th one. In [229] necessary and suﬃcient conditions are given on the quantum transition function δ so that UU acts unitarily on HU and thus appropriately describes a quantum computation as a unitary discrete-time quantum evolution. 2. A possible model of a QTM is obtained via a quantum circuit consisting of unitary gates (see Example 5.5.9), a so-called circuit model. A quantum computation on, say, N qubits thus amounts to a unitary operator U acting on a 2N dimensional Hilbert space HN . It requires a certain number of gates to be implemented; if one had at disposal all 1-qubit unitary gates plus the CNOT 2-qubit gate, then any U would be exactly implementable [165]. In particular, the action of U : HN → HN on a given state | ψ requires O(2N ) of these gates to be implemented [206]. More constructively, one seeks ﬁnite sets of gates G that would provide a so-called complete gate basis in the sense that the action of any 1-qubit gate can be mimicked by gates from G up to an arbitrary precision: one such set consists [165] of the CNOT gate, the Hadamard gate and the 1-qubit gate

−iπ/8 e 0 . T := 0 eiπ/8 Consider a generic unitary action U : HN → HN of a quantum circuit consisting of m 1-qubit and CNOT gates; a result known as SolovayKitaev theorem [170, 306, 165, 206] states that that U can be reproduced

490

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

up to any ε > 0 by O(m logc m/ε) gates from G with c ∈ [1, 2]. Then, on a given | ψ ∈ HN , (U − V )| ψ ≤ ε where V : HN → HN is a unitary operator corresponding to a quantum circuit consisting of N (U, ε) gates from G, where [206], N

2 c N N (U, ε) = O 2 log . ε 3. Another model of quantum computation is based on the possibility of implementing unitary operations on qubits by means of the mechanism outlined in Example 6.1.5. This latter is at the root of the so-called oneway quantum computation [249, 323], whereby quantum gates, that is unitary transformations, on qubits are implemented by performing measurements, that is irreversible operations, on some other qubits, all of them prepared in certain entangled multipartite states called cluster states.

Deﬁnition 9.1.2 (QTMs: Starting and Evolution Conventions). Given a UQTM U and an input qubit string σ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ), we shall identify it with the initial state of a quantum computation by U again denoted by σ. It corresponds to a density matrix acting on HU with σ written on the input track over the cells indexed by [0, l(σ) − 1], and blank states # on the remaining cells of the input track and on the whole output track, while the control is in the distinguished initial state q0 and the head is in the state corresponding to its being positioned upon the 0 cell. The state Ut (σ) of U on input σ after / 0† t ∈ N0 computational steps will be given by Ut (σ) := UUt σ UUt . In the rest of this section we shall deal with the halting conditions for QTMs and with showing that their actions amount to deﬁnite quantum operations, that is to trace-preserving completely positive maps on B+ 1 (HF ). For this observe that, in accordance to the previous deﬁnition, the state of the control after t steps is given by partial trace over all the other parts of the machine, that is over the/ head0 and tape Hilbert spaces, HC and HT , respectively, UtC (σ) := TrH,T Ut (σ) . Deﬁnition 9.1.3 (QTMs: Halting Convention). A QTM U halts at time t ∈ N0 , that is after t computational steps, on input σ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ), iﬀ

qf | UtC (σ) |qf = 1

and

qf | UtC (σ) |qf = 0

where qf is a special control state.

for every t < t , (9.5)

9.1 Eﬀective Quantum Descriptions

491

Remark 9.1.2. The above halting convention expresses the possibility of checking whether a QTM halts on a certain input by measuring the orthogonal projection | qf qf |: if U has halted on input σ then, by measuring | qf qf |, one ascertains this fact with certainty. On the other hand, if U has not yet halted then measuring | qf qf | has no eﬀect on the still going on computation. In general, for a generic input σ = | ψ ψ | ∈ B+ 1 (HF ), 0 < qf | UtC (| ψ ψ |) |qf < 1; in such a case the vector | ψ will be called ˜ non-halting, otherwise t-halting. Let H(t) ⊂ HF denote the set of vector inputs with equal halting time t: their linear combinations are also inputs such ˜ that U halts on them at time t. Therefore, H(t) is a linear subspace of HF ; what is more important, if t = t , the corresponding subspaces H(t) and H(t ) are mutually orthogonal. Indeed, were this not true, non-orthogonal vectors could be perfectly distinguished by means of their diﬀerent halting times. It + (H ) on which U halts is the union B follows that the subset B+ F 1 t∈N 1 (H(t)). It proves convenient to consider a special class of QTMs with the property that their tape T consists of two diﬀerent tracks, an input track I and an output track O. This can be achieved by having an alphabet which is a Cartesian product of two alphabets, in our case Σ = {0, 1, #} × {0, 1, #}. Then, the tape Hilbert space HT can be written as HT = HI ⊗ HO . Deﬁnition 9.1.4 (Quantum Turing Machines). + A map U : B+ 1 (HF ) → B1 (HF ) will be called a QTM , if there is a twotrack QTM U with the following properties [56]: 1. the alphabet consists of Σ = {0, 1, #} × {0, 1, #}; 2. the corresponding time evolution operator UU is unitary,; 3. if U halts on input σ with a variable-length qubit string ρ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ) on the output track starting in cell 0 such that the i-th cell is empty for every i ∈ [0, (ρ) − 1], then U (σ) = ρ; otherwise, U (σ) is undeﬁned. In general, diﬀerent inputs σ have diﬀerent halting times t(σ) and the t(σ) corresponding outputs result from diﬀerent unitary transformations UU . + However, notice that the subset of B1 (HF ) on which U is deﬁned is of the form t∈N B+ 1 (H(t)). Therefore, by introducing an internal clock that keeps track of the halting times, the action of U restricted to this subset amounts to a well-deﬁned quantum operation, that is to a completely positive map + U : B+ 1 (HF ) → B1 (HF ). Lemma 9.1.1 (QTMs as Quantum Operations). + For every QTM U there is a quantum operation U : B+ 1 (HF ) → B1 (HF ), + such that U(σ) = U[σ] for every σ ∈ t∈N B1 (H(t)).

492

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

Proof: Let Bt be an orthonormal basis of H(t), > t ∈ N, and B⊥ an orthonormal basis in the orthogonal complement of t∈N H(t) within HF . Let an ancilla Hilbert space HA := 2 (N0 ) be added to the QTM, and deﬁne a linear operator VU : HF → HU ⊗ HA by specifying its action on the orthonormal basis vectors ∪t∈N {Bt } ∪ B⊥ : 2 t UU | b ⊗ | t if | b ∈ Bt , VU | b := | b ⊗ | 0 if| b ∈ B⊥ . The ancilla acts as a sort of internal clock which registers the halting times of the components of a vectors belonging to the halting subspaces and assigns time 0 to the non-halting components. With Bt = {| btjt }, B ⊥ = {| b⊥ j }: HU ⊗ HA | Ψ = VU | Ψ =

∞ t=0 jt ∞

CΨt (jt ) | btjt +

CΨ⊥ (j) | b⊥ j ,

j

CΨt (jt ) UUt | btjt ⊗ | t +

t=0 jt

CΨ⊥ (j) | b⊥ j ⊗ |0 .

j

From orthogonality, it turns out that the map VU is a partial isometry:

Ψ | VU† VU |Φ = Ψ | Φ ,

Ψ, Φ ∈ HU ⊗ HA .

Thus, the map σ → VU σVU† is trace-preserving and completely positive (see Section 5.2.2). Further, by partial tracing over the Hilbert spaces of the head, of the control unit, of the input tape and of the internal clock Hilbert spaces, one obtains the quantum operation U[σ] := TrC,H,I,A (VU σVU† ). We have seen in Chapter 4 that the deﬁnition of algorithmic complexity rests on a solid ground because the length of the shortest eﬀective description of a bit string is essentially independent of the computer that computes it once this is chosen from the class of universal Turing machines. Clearly, any deﬁnition of quantum complexity based on using QTMs will also need the existence of universal QTMs in order to be essentially machine-independent. In [56], a UQTM U was constructed that works as follows: for any QTM A there exists a classical description (bit string) iA of A such that / 0 D U(iA , T, | ψ ψ |, δ) , AT (| ψ ψ |) ≤ δ , for all inputs | ψ ψ | ∈ B+ 1 (HF ), computational steps T and δ > 0 with D(·, ·) the trace-distance introduced in Deﬁnition 6.3.4. According to this deﬁnition U is universal in that it simulates any other QTM up to an arbitrary accuracy for a given number of steps; notice that this latter piece of information must be part of the input. This means that, if A halts on a certain input, U is able to approximate the output of A only if provided with the halting time. While such a deﬁnition works perfectly

9.1 Eﬀective Quantum Descriptions

493

well for the aims of [56] which are directed to see the impact of QTMs on computational complexity (see Remark 4.1.2), it is on the other hand not appropriate for an approach to quantum algorithmic complexity simply because the halting times are likely to be enormous and in any case cannot be given beforehand. A useful deﬁnition of a UQTM U for algorithmic purposes must then be independent from the halting time of the simulated QTM A. The main problem is that, as the simulation is only approximate, such is in particular the simulation of the control state of A whence, when A halts, U will in general do it only with a certain probability thus violating the halting convention in Deﬁnition 9.1.3. In [208] it is showed how such a problem can be circumvented and how one can arrive at the following operative deﬁnitions of UQTM which is fully consistent from the point of view of quantum algorithmic complexity.

Theorem 9.1.1 (Strongly UQTMs ). [208] There is a QTM U such that for every QTM A and every qubit string σ for which A(σ) is deﬁned, there is a qubit string σA such that D (U(δ, σA ) , A(σ)) ≤ δ

∀δ ∈ Q+ ,

where (see Deﬁnition 9.1.1) (σA ) ≤ (σ) + CM , D(· . ·) is the trace-distance and CA ∈ N is a constant depending only on A. In the following theorem, both the universal simulator, U, and the QTM to be simulated, A, are provided with a quantum input and a classical input ﬁxing the accuracy δ of the approximation. Theorem 9.1.2 (Parameter Strongly UQTMs). [208] There is a UQTM U with the properties of the previous theorem such that for every QTM A and every qubit string σ, there is a qubit string σA such that, if A(2k, σ) is deﬁned, then D (U(k, σA ) , A(2k, σ)) ≤

1 2k

∀k ∈ N ,

and (σA ) ≤ (σ) + CA , CA ∈ N depending only on A. This result is not just a corollary of the preceding theorem: indeed, according to Theorem 9.1.1, the input, σA , may in general depend on k. Remark 9.1.3. A UQTM is able to apply a unitary transformation U on some segment of its tape within an accuracy of δ, if it is supplied with a ˜ as input such that complex matrix U

494

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

˜ ≤ U − U

δ √ , 2(10 d)d

d being the size of the matrix. The machine cannot apply U exactly; in fact, it ˜ . It also cannot apply U ˜ directly, for U ˜ is only only knows an approximation U approximately unitary, and the machine can only work unitarily. Instead, it ˜ will eﬀectively apply another unitary transformation V which is close to U and thus close to U , such that V − U < δ. Let |ψ := U |ψ0 be the output that one wants to have from U and let |φ := V |ψ0 be the approximation that is really computed by the machine. Then, both the

norm and trace-distance are small: | φ − | ψ < δ, D | φ φ |, | ψ ψ | < δ.

9.2 qubit Quantum Complexity As already remarked, unlike bit strings, qubit strings, are uncountably many and cannot be expected to be exactly reproducible by a QTM . It rather makes sense to try to approximate a target qubit string ρ by a qubit string ρ˜ within a trace-distance 0 ≤ D(ρ, ρ˜) - 1 (˜ ρ ≈ ρ). According to the previous section, ρ˜ will be the output of a QTM U that executes a quantum program ˜ := U[σ] ≈ ρ. σ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ): ρ Remark 9.2.1. In view of the deﬁnition of classical algorithmic complexity, one is particularly interested to seek whether the length of σ (see (9.1)) can be made shorter than that of ρ itself: (σ) < (ρ). The minimum possible length (σ) for reproducing ρ will get us close to the notion of qubit quantum complexity QCq . There are at least two natural possible deﬁnitions. The ﬁrst one is to demand only optimal (in the sense of minimal length) approximate reproductions of ρ within some trace distance δ. The second one is based on the notion of an approximation scheme. In order to deﬁne the latter, the chosen QTM has to be supplied with two inputs, the qubit string and a parameter. Deﬁnition 9.2.1. Let k ∈ N and σ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ). Let β(k) denote the string that consists of the at most +log2 k, bits of the binary expansion of k, each repeated twice and ends with 01. Let | β(k) β(k) | be the corresponding projector in the computational basis. The map (k, σ) → C(k, σ) := | β(k) β(k) |⊗σ + deﬁnes an encoding C : N × B+ 1 (HF ) → B1 (HF ) of a the pair (k, σ) into a single qubit string C(k, σ). Note that (C(k, σ)) = 2+log k, + 2 + (σ) .

(9.6)

We shall denote by U(k, σ) the result of the action of a QTM U on C(k, σ).

9.2 qubit Quantum Complexity

495

The above encoding has the typical self-delimiting form that we have already met in Example 4.1.5. In this way, the QTM U is able to detach in C(k, σ) the information about k from that about σ. Deﬁnition 9.2.2 (qubit Quantum Complexity). Let U be a QTM and ρ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ) a qubit string. For every δ ≥ 0, the ﬁnite-accuracy quantum complexity QCδU (ρ) is deﬁned as the minimal length (σ) of any quantum program σ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ) such that the corresponding output U(σ) has a trace-distance from ρ smaller than δ, (9.7) QCδU (ρ) := min (σ) : D (ρ, U(σ)) ≤ δ . Similarly, an approximation-scheme quantum complexity QCU is deﬁned as the minimal length (σ) of any density operator σ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ), such that when processed by U together with any integer k, the output U(k, σ) has tracedistance from ρ smaller than 1/k, for all k: 1 QCU (ρ) := min (σ) : D (ρ , U(k, σ)) ≤ for every k ∈ N . k

(9.8)

We now show that theorems 9.1.1 and 9.1.2 allow one to prove the independence (up to an additive constant) of the above deﬁnitions from the chosen QTM U if this is universal as speciﬁed in those theorems. Accordingly, we will ﬁx an arbitrary UQTM and, like in the classical case, drop reference to it and set QCq (ρ) := QCU (ρ) ,

QCδq (ρ) := QCδU (ρ) .

(9.9)

Theorem 9.2.1. There is a QTM U such that for every QTM A there exist constants CA ≥ 0 and CA,δ,Δ such that for every qubit string ρ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ) and 0 ≤ δ < Δ, it holds that QCU (ρ) ≤ QCA (ρ) + CA ,

δ QCΔ U (ρ) ≤ QCA (ρ) + CA,δ,Δ .

Proof: Let = QCδA (ρ), then there exists σ such that, according to (9.7), = (σ) and D(A[σ], ρ) ≤ δ. On the other hand, Theorem 9.1.1 implies that there exists a QTM U and a density matrix σA such that

D U(Δ − δ, σA ) , A(σ) ≤ Δ − δ whence, by the triangle inequality,

D U(Δ − δ, σA ) , ρ ≤ Δ .

496

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

Moreover, (σA ) ≤ (σ) + CA = QCδA (ρ) + CA ; thus, with C(Δ − δ, σA ) as in Deﬁnition 9.2.1, using (9.6) it follows that

C(Δ − δ, σA ) ≤ (σA ) + Cδ,Δ ≤ QCδA (ρ) + CA,δ,Δ . δ whence QCΔ U (ρ) ≤ QCA (ρ) + CA,δ,Δ . If = QCA (ρ), then there exists a qubit string σ such that = (σ) and D(A(k, σ), ρ) ≤ 1/k for all k ∈ N. On the other hand, Theorem 9.1.2 says that there exists a QTM U and a density matrix σA such

1 . It follows that that D U(k, σA ) , A(2k, σ) ≤ 2k

D U(k, σA ) , ρ ≤ D U(k, σA ) , A(2k, σ) + D A(2k, σ) , ρ

≤

1 1 1 + = . 2k 2k k

Together with the fact that (σA ) ≤ (σ) + CA ≤ QCA (ρ) + CA , this implies QCU (ρ) ≤ QCA (ρ) + CA . Remarks 9.2.2. 1. Deﬁnition 9.2.2 is essentially equivalent to that in [57], the only technical diﬀerence being the use of the trace distance rather than the ﬁdelity. 2. The same qubit program σ is accompanied by a classical speciﬁcation of an integer k, which tells the program to what accuracy the computation of the output state must be accomplished. Notice that in (9.8) the minimal length has to be sought among those σ such that anyone of them yields an approximation of ρ within 1/k for all k: this is an eﬀective procedure. 3. The exact choice of the accuracy 1/k is not important; choosing any computable function that tends to zero for k → ∞ will get an equivalent deﬁnition (in the sense of being equal up to some constant). The same is true for the choice of the encoding C: as long as k and σ can both be computably decoded from C(k, σ) and as long as there is no way to extract additional information on the desired output ρ from the k-description part of C(k, σ), the results will be equivalent up to a suitable constant. Examples 9.2.1. 1. If U is a UQTM , a noiseless transmission channel (implementing the identity transformation) between the input and output tracks can always be realized: this corresponds to classical literal transcription, so that automatically QCδU (ρ) ≤ (ρ) + cU for some constant cU . Of course, the key point in classical as well as in quantum algorithmic complexity is that there sometimes exist much shorter qubit programs than just literal transcription.

9.2 qubit Quantum Complexity

497

2. The ﬁnite accuracy and approximation scheme QCq are related to each other by the following inequality: for every QTM U and every k ∈ N , QC1/k (ρ) ≤ QCq (ρ) + 2+log k, + 2, q

∀ρ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ) .

Indeed, if QCU (ρ) = , there is σ ∈ B+ 1 (HF ) with (σ) = , such that D(U[k, σ], ρ) ≤ 1/k for every k ∈ N. Then σ := C(k, σ), where C is the encoding in Deﬁnition 9.2.1, is such that D (U[σ ], ρ) ≤ 1/k and QC1/k (ρ) ≤ (σ ) ≤ 2+log k, + 2 + = 2+log k, + 2 + QCq (ρ) , q where the second equality follows from (9.6). 9.2.1 Quantum Brudno’s Theorem In this section, we prove a quantum version of Brudno’s theorem (Theorem 4.2.1), by means of which we shall connect the quantum entropy rate s of an ergodic quantum spin chain to the qubit complexities QCq (ρ) and QCδq (ρ) of qubit strings that are pure states ρ = | ψ ψ | of the chain. It will be showed that there are sequences of typical subspaces of (C2 )⊗n , such 1 1 that the complexity rates QCq (q) and QCδq (q) of any one-dimensional n n projector q onto a state belonging to these subspaces can be made arbitrarily close to the entropy rate by choosing n large enough. Moreover, there are no such sequences with a smaller expected complexity rate. Theorem 9.2.2 (Quantum Brudno’s Theorem). Let (A, ω) be an ergodic quantum source with entropy rate s. For every δ > 0, there exists a sequence of ω-typical projectors qn (δ) ∈ A(n) , n ∈ N, i.e. limn→∞ Tr(ρ(n) qn (δ)) = 1, such that for every one-dimensional projector q ≤ qn (δ) and n large enough 1 QCq (q) ∈ (s − δ, s + δ) , n 1 QCδq (q) ∈ (s − δ(2 + δ)s, s + δ) . n

(9.10) (9.11)

Moreover, s is the optimal expected asymptotic complexity rate, in the sense that every sequence of projectors qn ∈ A(n) , n ∈ N, that for large n may be represented as a sum of mutually orthogonal one-dimensional projectors that all violate the lower bounds in (9.10) and (9.11) for some δ > 0, has an asymptotically vanishing expectation value with respect to ω. As for the proof of Brudno’s theorem 9.2.2, we ﬁrst prove upper and then lower bounds [40].

498

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

Lower Bounds In the classical case, it has been showed that there cannot be more than 2c+1 − 1 diﬀerent programs of length ≤ c and this fact has been used to prove the lower bound to complexity in Brudno’s Theorem. A similar result holds for QTMs , too. In order to show this, one can adapt an argument due to [57] which states that there cannot be more than 2 +1 − 1 mutually orthogonal one-dimensional projectors p with quantum complexity QCq (p) ≤ . The proof is based on the Holevo’s χ-quantity (see Proposition 6.3.3); we shall use it to provide an explicit upper bound on the maximal number of orthogonal one-dimensional projectors that can be approximated within trace-distance δ by the action of completely positive maps E on density matrices σ of length (σ) ≤ c. Lemma 9.2.1 (Quantum Counting Argument). / 0 Let 0 < δ < 1/e, c ∈ N such that c ≥ 1δ 4 + 2 log 1δ , K a linear subspace + of an arbitrary Hilbert space K, and E : B+ 1 (HF ) → B1 (K) a quantum operδ ation. Let Nc be a maximum cardinality subset of orthonormal vectors from the set Aδc (E, K) of all normalized vectors in K which are reproduced within δ by the operation E on some input of length ≤ c: (H ), D (E[σ ], | φ φ |) ≤ δ , Aδc (E, K) := | φ ∈ K : ∃σφ ∈ B+ ≤c φ 1 Then,

log2 |Ncδ | < c + 1 +

2+δ δc. 1 − 2δ

Proof: Let φj ∈ Aδc (E, K), j = 1, . . . , N , a set of orthonormal vectors and V denote the Abelian subalgebra of B(K) generated by the corresponding N projectors Pj := |φj φj | and PN +1 := 1K − i=1 Pi . By the deﬁnition of Aδc (E, K), for every 1 ≤ i ≤ N , there are density matrices σi acting on H≤c with D(E[σi ], Pi ) ≤ δ. N 1 Let σ := σi ; it also acts on H≤c and dim H≤c = 2c+1 − 1, N i=1 whence (6.33) yields χ(Eσ ) < c+1, where Eσ := {σ, σi /N }. Then, consider the N +1 + completely positive map EV : B+ 1 (K) → B1 (K), ρ → EV [ρ] := i=1 Pi ρPi . Applying twice the monotonicity of the relative entropy under completely positive maps, N N 1 1 S (EV ◦ E[σi ] , EV ◦ E[σ]) ≤ S (E[σi ] , E[σ]) N i=1 N i=1

≤ χ(Eσ ) . For every i ∈ {1, . . . , N }, the density matrix EV ◦ E[σi ] is close to the corresponding one-dimensional projector EV [Pi ] = Pi . Indeed, (6.68) yields

9.2 qubit Quantum Complexity

Let Δ := thus

1 N

499

D(EV ◦ E[σi ], EV [Pi ]) ≤ D(E[σi ], Pi ) ≤ δ . N i=1 Pi . The trace-distance is jointly convex (see (6.69)),

D(EV ◦ E[σ], Δ) ≤

N 1 D(EV ◦ E[σi ]), Pi ) ≤ δ . N i=1

Since δ < 1e , Fannes inequality (5.157) gives S (EV ◦ E[σi ]) = |S (EV ◦ E[σi ]) − S(Pi )| ≤ δ log2 (N + 1) + η(δ) S (EV ◦ E[σ]) − S(Δ) ≤ δ log(N + 1) + η(δ) , where η(δ) := −δ log2 δ. Combining the previous estimates yields c + 1 > χ(Eσ ) ≥ (1 − 2δ) log2 N − 2δ − 2η(δ) . 2+δ δc, then c+1 > c+1+δ(cδ−4)+2δ log δ, whence c < If log2 N ≥ c+1+ 1−2δ / 0 2 1 δ δ 2 + log δ . Therefore, the maximum number |Nc | of orthonormal vectors 2+δ δc. in Aδc (E, K) must fulﬁl log2 |Ncδ | < c + 1 + 1 − 2δ

The second step uses the previous lemma together with Proposition 7.3.1 about the minimum dimension of the typical subspaces. Notice that the limit (7.153) is valid for all 0 < ε < 1. By means of this property, one proves the lower bound for the ﬁnite-accuracy complexity QCδq (ρ), and then use Example 9.2.1.2 to extend it to QCq (ρ). 1 QCδq (ρ)). n Let (AZ , ω) be an ergodic quantum source with entropy rate s. Further, let 0 < δ < 1/e, and let (pn )n∈N be a sequence of typical projectors, according to Deﬁnition 7.3.2. Then, there is another sequence of typical projectors pn (δ) ≤ pn , such that for n large enough Corollary 9.2.1 (Lower Bound for

1 QCδq ( p) > s − δ(2 + δ)s n is true for every one-dimensional projector p ≤ pn (δ). Proof: The case s = 0 is trivial, so let s > 0. Fix n ∈ N, 0 < δ < 1/e and consider the set A˜n (δ) := p ≤ pn : p = | ψ ψ | , QCδq (p) ≤ ns(1 − δ(2 + δ)) . From the deﬁnition of QCδq (p), for any of such p’s there exists a density matrix σp with (σp ) ≤ ns(1 − δ(2 + δ)) such that D(U(σp ), p) ≤ δ, where,

500

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

as explained in Lemma 9.1.1, U(σp ) is the result of the quantum operation + U : B+ 1 (HF ) → B1 (HF ) associated with the UQTM U that has been ﬁxed as explained before Theorem 9.1.1. Then, using the notation of Lemma 9.2.1, A˜n (δ) ⊂ Aδns(1−δ(2+δ)) (U, Kn ), where Kn is the typical subspace supporting pn . Let pn (δ) ≤ pn be the sum of any maximal number of mutually orthogonal projectors from Aδns(1−δ(2+δ)) (U, Kn ). If n is such that 1 ns(1 − δ(2 + δ)) ≥ δ

1 4 + 2 log2 δ

,

Lemma 9.2.1 implies that log2 Tr pn (δ) < (ns(1 − δ(2 + δ))) + 1 +

2+δ δ(ns(1 − δ(2 + δ))) . (9.12) 1 − 2δ

Therefore, no one-dimensional projectors p ≤ pn (δ)⊥ := pn − pn (δ) exist such that p ∈ Aδns(1−δ(2+δ)) (U, Kn ). Namely, one-dimensional projectors p ≤ pn (δ)⊥ must satisfy 1 QCδq (p) > s − δ(2 + δ)s . n Since inequality (9.12)) is valid for every n ∈ N large enough, lim sup n→∞

1 5δ 4 s log2 Trn pn (δ) ≤ s − 2δ 3 s − < s. n 1 − 2δ

(9.13)

From Proposition 7.3.1 limn→∞ Tr(ρ(n) pn (δ)) = 0, whence pn (δ) := pn (δ)⊥ provide the required sequence of typical projectors. 1 QCq (ρ)). n Let (AZ , ω) be an ergodic quantum source with entropy rate s. Let (pn )n∈N with pn ∈ A(n) be an arbitrary sequence of typical projectors. Then, for every 0 < δ < 1/e, there is a sequence of typical projectors pn (δ) ≤ pn such that, 1 for n large enough, QCq (p) > s − δ is satisﬁed for every one-dimensional n projector p ≤ pn (δ). Corollary 9.2.2 (Lower Bound for

Proof: From Corollary 9.2.1, for every k ∈ N, there exists a sequence of typical projectors pn ( k1 ) ≤ pn , such that, if n is large enough, 1 1 1 QC1/k (p) > s − (2 + )s q n k k for every one-dimensional projector p ≤ pn (1/k). Then

9.2 qubit Quantum Complexity

501

1 1 2 + 2+log2 k, QCq (p) ≥ QC1/k (p) − q n n n

1 1 2(2 + log2 k) , > s− 2+ s− k k n where the ﬁrst estimate is by Example 9.2.1.2 and the second one is true for one-dimensional projectors p ≤ pn ( k1 ) and n ∈ N large enough. Fix a large k 1 δ 1 1 satisfying (2 + )s ≤ . The result follows by setting pn (δ) = pn ( ) with k k 2 k k, and n such that 1 1 δ (2 + )s ≤ , k k 2

2(2 + log2 k) δ ≤ . n 2

Upper Bounds The lower bound shows that, for large n, with high probability the qubit complexity of pure states of a quantum spin chain is bounded from below by a quantity which is close to the entropy rate of the chain. Similar upper bounds also hold from which Theorem 9.2.2 follows. Proposition 9.2.1 (Upper Bound). Let (AZ , ω) be an ergodic quantum source with entropy rate s. Then, for every 0 < δ < 1/e, there is a sequence of typical projectors pn (δ) ∈ A(n) such that for every one-dimensional projector p ≤ pn (δ) and n large enough 1 QCq (p) < s + δ n

and

1 QCδq (p) < s + δ . n

The proof of this statement is obtained by explicitly providing, for any p) n(s+δ), minimal projector p ≤ pn (δ) ∈ A(n) , a qubit string p of length ( that computes p with arbitrary accuracy. Such a qubit string is constructed by means of universal quantum typical subspaces introduced (see Deﬁnition 7.3.3); its length is in general not minimal and only upperbounds the quantum complexities QCδq (p) and QCq (p). However, it is shorter than the literal transcription of p (see Example 9.2.1.2): recall that the latter corresponds to a qubit string p comprising p itself plus the instructions to the UQTM U to copy p, whence its length ( p) n > n(s + δ) for n large enough and δ suﬃciently small. Let 0 < ε < δ/2 be an arbitrary real number such that r := s + ε is (n) rational, and let { pn := Qs,ε }n∈N be the universal projector sequence of Theorem 7.3.3, which is independent of the given state ω as long as s(ω) ≤ s. Though the dimension of the subspace supporting pn is 2nr , generic one dimensional projections q ≤ pn are not qubit strings as deﬁned in

502

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

Section 9.1.1 and their lengths need not be ( q ) nr. However, because of (7.154), if n is large enough then there exists some unitary transformation U † that transforms the projector pn into a projector belonging to the statespace B+ 1 (Hnr ), where (nr) is the smallest integer larger then nr. It follows that every one-dimensional projector p ≤ pn can be transformed into a qubit string p := U † pU of length (p) = (nr). According to Remark 9.1.3, p can be presented to the UQTM U together with some classical instructions including a subprogram for the computation of the necessary unitary rotation U . This UQTM starts by computing a classical description of the transformation U , and subsequently applies U to p, recovering the original projector p = U p U † on the output tape. Apart from technical details, the main point in the proof is the following: since the unitary operator U depends on ω only through the entropy rate s, the subprogram that computes U does not have to be supplied with additional information on ω and its restriction to A(n) . Therefore, the additional instruction for the implementation of U will contribute with a number of extra qubits which is independent of the universal projection index n. The quantum decompression algorithm D will formally amount to a mapping (r is rational) D : N × N × Q × HF → HF , (k, n, r, p) → p = D(k, n, r, p) . Remark 9.2.3. The decompression algorithm D is due to be short in the sense of being ”short in description”, not short (fast) in running time or resource consumption. Indeed, the algorithm D is in general slow and memory consuming; however, this does not matter. In fact, algorithmic complexity only cares about the length of the programs and not either in how fast they are computed or in how much resources they consume. In the following steps, D will deal with rational numbers, square roots of rational numbers, bit-approximations (up to some speciﬁed accuracy) of real numbers and vectors and matrices containing such numbers. Classical TMs as well QTMs can of course deal with all such objects. For example, rational numbers can be stored as lists of two integers (containing numerator and denominator), square roots can be stored as such lists supplemented with an additional bit to denote the square root operation, and, also, binary-digitapproximations can be stored as binary strings. Vectors and matrices are arrays containing those objects. They will be presented to the UQTM U as vectors of the computational basis and operations on them, like addition or multiplication, will as easily be implemented as by classical computers. The instructions deﬁning the quantum algorithm D are as follows. 1. Read n, r; ﬁnd ∈ N such that · 23 ≤ n < 2 · · 23·2 with a power of two (there is only one such ). Compute n := n . Compute R := r. ( n) 2. Compute a list of codewords Ω,R , belonging to a classical universal block code sequence of rate R. The construction of an appropriate algorithm can be found for instance in [168].

9.2 qubit Quantum Complexity

503

0n / ( n) ( n) Since Ωl,R ⊂ {0, 1}l , Ωl,R = {ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωM } can be stored as a list of l and the exact value of the binary strings. Every string has length (ωi ) = n ( n) n R cardinality M ≈ 2 depends on the choice of Ω,R . 3. Compute a basis A{i1 ,...,in } of the symmetric subspace SY M n (A() ) := span{A⊗n : A ∈ A() } . Namely, for every n -tuple {i1 , . . . , in }, where ik ∈ {1, . . . , 22 }, there is one basis element A{i1 ,...,in } ∈ A(n) , given by (,n) eσ(i1 ,...,in ) , (9.14) A{i1 ,...,in } = σ

where the summation runs over all n -permutations σ, and (, n)

()

()

()

ei1 ,...,in := ei1 ⊗ ei2 ⊗ . . . ⊗ ein , with

()

ek

22 k=1

a system of matrix units in A() . In the computational basis,

all entries of such matrices are zero, except for one entry which is one. There is / 0 2l −1 a number of d = n +2 = dim(SY M n (A() )) diﬀerent matrices A{i1 ,...,in } 22 −1 which we can label by {Ak }dk=1 . It follows from (9.14) that these matrices have integer entries and can thus be stored as lists of 2n × 2n -tables of integers without any need of approximations. 4. For every i ∈ {1, . . . , M } and k ∈ {1, . . . , d}, let |uk,i := Ak |ωi , where |ωi

denotes the computational basis vector which is a tensor product of |0 ’s and |1 ’s according to the bits of the string ωi . Compute the vectors |uk,i one after the other. For every vector that has been computed, check if it can be written as a linear combination of already computed vectors. (The corresponding system of linear equations can be solved exactly, since every vector is given as an array of integers.) If yes, then discard the new vector |uk,i , otherwise store it and give it a number. This way, a set of vectors {|uk }D k=1 is computed. These vectors (l n) linearly span the support of the projector W,R given in (7.157). n−n

5. Denote by {|φi }2i=1 the computational basis vectors of Hn−n . If n = 23·l , ˜ := D, and let |xk := |uk . Otherwise, compute |uk ⊗ |φi for every then let D ˜ k ∈ {1, . . . , D} and i ∈ {1, . . . , 2n−n }. The resulting set of vectors {|xk }D k=1 n− n ˜ has cardinality D := D · 2 . In both cases, the resulting vectors |xk ∈ Hn (n) span the support of the projector Qs,ε = pn . ˜ D 6. The set {|xk }k=1 is completed to linearly span the whole space Hn . This will be accomplished as follows. Consider the sequence of vectors n MD+2 2 MD˜ 2 M 2n 2 ˜ := | xj

∪ | Φj

, |x ˜j

j=1

j=1

j=1

n

where {Φk }2k=1 denotes the computational basis vectors of Hn . Find the smallest 2 Mi−1 ˜j

, and i such that |˜ xi can be written as a linear combination of | x j=1

discard it (this can still be decided exactly, since all the vectors are given as ˜ times until there remain only 2n linearly tables of integers). Repeat this step D ˜ of the |Φj . independent vectors, namely all the |xj and 2n − D

504

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

7. Finally, apply the Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization procedure to the resulting M 2n 2 ˜ of Hn , such that the ﬁrst D vectors, to get an orthonormal basis |yk

k=1 (n)

vectors are a basis for the support of Qs,ε = pn . Since every vector |xj and |Φj has only integer entries, all the resulting vectors |yk will have only entries that are (plus or minus) the square root of some rational number.

Up to this point, the previous steps did not involve any kind of numerical approximation. Instead, the next ones will compute an approximate description of the desired unitary decompression map U and apply it to the quantum state p. In view of Remark 9.1.3, the task is to calculate the number N of bits necessary to guarantee that the output will be within trace-distance δ = 1/k of p. 8. Read the value of k (which denotes an approximation parameter; the larger k, the more accurate the output of the algorithm will be). Due to the considerations above and the calculations√below, the necessary number of bits N n turns out to be N = 1 + log(2k2n (10 2n )2 ). Compute this number. Then, n compute the components of all the vectors {|yk }2k=1 up to N bits of accuracy. (This involves only calculation of the square root of rational numbers, which can be done to any desired accuracy.) Denote the resulting numerically approximated vectors by |˜ yk and write them as columns into an array (a matrix) ˜ := (˜ U y1 , y˜2 , . . . , y˜2n ). Let U := (y1 , y2 , . . . , y2n ) denote the unitary matrix with the exact vectors |yk as columns. Since N binary digits give an accuracy of 2−N , it follows that 1/k ˜ −N √ < . Ui,j − Ui,j < 2 n 2 · 2 (10 2n )2n ˜ are ε-close in their entries, they must be If two 2n × 2n -matrices U and U 2n · ε-close in norm, too. Whence we get ˜ − U < U

1/k √ . 2(10 2n )2n

So far, every step could have been performed on a classical computer; the intrinsically quantum part starts when one consider the qubit string p, that is the input quantum program. 9. Compute nr, which gives the length ( p). Afterwards, move p to some free space on the input tape, and append zeroes, i.e. create the state p ≡ |ψ0 ψ0 | := (|0 0|)⊗(n−(p)) ⊗ p on some segment of n cells on the input tape. 10. According to Remark 9.1.3, apply a unitary approximation to the unitary transformation U on the tape segment that contains the state p , move the result onto the output tape and halt.

9.2 qubit Quantum Complexity

505

Proof of Proposition 9.2.1 The triple (n, r, q˜) can be encoded into a single qubit string σ (note that the parameter k is not a part of σ) as follows. First, write both r and n in a self-delimiting way as computational basis vectors |β(r), respectively |β(n) (see Deﬁnition9.2.1), of length 2 log2 r + 2, respectively 2 log2 n + 2,. Then, consider the projectors Pn := |β(n) β(n)|, Pr := |β(r) β(r)| and attach to them the rotated projector p = U † p U , so that the resulting input qubit string is σ(p) := Pr ⊗ Pn ⊗ p. If n fulﬁls (7.162), then (σ(p)) = 2+log2 n, + 2 + c + (nr) , where C(r) ∈ N is some constant which depends on C(r), but not on n. This qubit string is presented to the UQTM U together with a description of the decompression algorithm D of ﬁxed length C (r) which depends on r, but not on n. This will give a qubit string σU (p) of length (σU (p)) = 2+log2 n, + 2 + C(r) + (nr) + C (r)

1 ≤ 2 log2 n + n s + δ + C (r) , 2 where C (r) is again a constant which depends on r, but not on n. The matrix U , whose construction is part of the decompression algorithm D, rotates (decompresses) a compressed (short) qubit string p back into the typical subspace. Conversely, for every one-dimensional projector p ≤ pn , (n) where pn = Qs,ε was deﬁned in (7.161), let p ∈ Hnr be the projector given ⊗(n−nr) by (| 0 0 |) ⊗ p = U † pU . Then, since D is such that the trace distance fulﬁls D U(σU (p), k), p < k1 for every k ∈ N, it follows that 1 C (r) log n 1 QCq ( . p) ≤ 2 2 + s + δ + n n 2 n If n is large enough, then the ﬁrst inequality in Proposition 9.2.1 follows, 1 while the second inequality is proved by letting k := ( 2δ ). Then, for every one-dimensional projector p ≤ pn and n large enough 1 1 1 2+log2 k, + 2 QC2δ p) ≤ QC1/k ( p) ≤ QCq ( p) + q ( q n n n n 2 log2 k + 2 < s+δ+ < s + 2δ , n

(9.15)

where the ﬁrst inequality follows from the obvious monotonicity property δ ≥ ε ⇒ QCδq (ρ) ≤ QCεq (ρ), the second one is by Example 9.2.1.2 and the third estimate is due to the ﬁrst inequality in Proposition 9.2.1. Let pn (δ) be the typical projector sequence 1 1 given in Proposition 9.2.1, i.e. the complexities QCq ( p) and QCδq ( p) of n n every one-dimensional projector p ≤ pn (δ) are upperbounded by s + δ.

Proof of Theorem 9.2.2

506

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

Due to Corollary 9.2.1, there exists another sequence of typical projectors 1 πn (δ) ≤ pn (δ) such that additionally, QCδq (π) > s − δ(2 + δ)s is satisﬁed n for all one-dimensional projections π ≤ πn (δ). Also, from Corollary 9.2.2, there is another sequence of typical projectors 1 π n (δ) ≤ πn (δ) such that QCq (π) > s − δ holds for all one-dimensional n projections π ≤ π n (δ). Further, the optimality of these upper and lower bounds, and thus of s as optimal expected asymptotic complexity rate, follows from applying Lemma 9.2.1 together with Proposition 7.3.1. Remark 9.2.4. Unlike in Theorem 4.2.1 where the result holds almost everywhere, its quantum generalization given above essentially holds in probability. The major obstruction to a stronger quantum version comes form the diﬃculty of extending to qubit strings what is natural for bit strings, namely their concatenation [60]. Example 9.2.2. Consider a quantum spin chain (A, ω) of Bernoulli type with a state ω which is the tensor product of tracial states ρ = 1l2 /2 for each qubit ; this quantum source is mixing, thus ergodic and its entropy rate is s = −Trρ log2 ρ = 1. Then, the quantum version of Brudno’s theorem states that there exists a sequence of subspaces Kn ⊆ HF of high probability, such that for any ε > 0, by taking n suﬃciently large, 1 QCq (| Ψ Ψ |) ≤ 1 + ε , n for all qubit pure state Ψ ∈ Kn . 1−ε≤

9.3 cbit Quantum Complexity A diﬀerent approach to quantum algorithmic complexity is proposed in [309] where as eﬀective descriptions of n-qubit strings | Ψ ∈ Hn one chooses bit strings corresponding to self-delimiting classical programs p ∈ Ω2∗ instead of generic qubit strings. These classical programs are presented to a ﬁxed UQTM U as computational basis vectors | p which, after being processed by U, outputs normalized vectors | U(p) ∈ Hn . Furthermore, the diﬀerence between the output | U(p) and the target | Ψ is taken care of by the scalar product Ψ | U[p] . Deﬁnition 9.3.1 (bit Quantum Complexity). The bit quantum complexity QCc (Ψ ) of n-qubit vector states | Ψ ∈ Hn is R Q , QCc (Ψ ) := min (p) + − log2 | Ψ | U[p] |2 where p ∈ Ω2∗ is any self-delimiting binary program.

9.3 cbit Quantum Complexity

507

The logarithmic correction acts as a penalty for bad approximations: − log2 | Ψ | U[p] | diverges for an eﬀective description of Ψ which yields a vector orthogonal to it, while it vanishes when | U(p) | Ψ . Therefore, the bit quantum complexity results from a tradeoﬀ between the length of the classical description and the permitted errors. Example 9.3.1. Let a vector Ψ ∈ Hn be called directly computable if there exists a self-delimiting program p ∈ Ω2∗ such that | U(p) = | Ψ . Then, n consider an orthonormal basis B := {| bi }2i=1 in Hn entirely consisting of directly computable vectors. Let K(B) denote its classical preﬁx-complexity achieved by a self-delimiting program qB , K(B) = (qB ). Let us ﬁx | bi ∈ B; if pi is any program such that | U(pi ) = | bi then no penalty for a bad approximation is to be payed and, with p∗ the shortest among such programs, QCc (bi ) ≤ (p∗ ) .

(∗)

On the other hand, let QCc (bi ) be attained at q∗ ∈ Ω2∗ , namely R Q QCc (bi ) = (q∗ ) + − log2 | U(q∗ ) | bi |2 . By letting U process the binary programs in dovetailed fashion (see Remark 4.1.5), q∗ can be used to construct the vector | U(q∗ ) ∈ Hn whose coeﬃcients bj | U(q∗ ) in the expansion with respect to the ONB B provide probabilities | bj | U(q∗ ) |2 that can be used to construct a Shannon-FanoElias code-word q(i) for | bi (see Example 3.2.3). Therefore, qB , q∗ and q(i) can be used to construct a self-delimiting program q = qB q∗ q(i) such that U does the following: – – –

it constructs the directly computable basis B and the vector | U(q∗ ) ; it computes the Shannon-Fano-Elias code for B with respect to | U(q∗ ) ; it outputs the vector with code-word q(i).

Since | U(q) = | bi , from (∗) one gets (p∗ ) ≤ (q) ≤ (q∗ ) + (q(i)) + K(B) + C = QCc (bi ) + K(B) + C ,

(∗∗)

whence, up to an additive constant, QCc (Ψ ) = min (p) : | U(p) = | Ψ for all Ψ belonging to a directly computable ONB . The preceding example can be used to show that bit quantum complexity and classical preﬁx complexity agree on bit strings. Proposition 9.3.1. For all i ∈ Ω2∗ , QCc (| i ) = K(i) up to an additive constant.

508

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities (n)

Proof: Choosing the computational basis {| i(n) }i(n) ∈ Ω2 as the directly computable ONB B of the previous example, the result follows from (∗∗) because the shortest program that tells U how to generate B is now such that (qB ) = O(1). For generic qubit strings, a loose upper bound is easily obtained. Proposition 9.3.2. [309] If Ψ ∈ Hn is normalized QCc (Ψ ) ≤ 2n + C , where C is a constant independent of Ψ . Proof: Consider the computational basis vectors | i(n) ∈ Hn ; by expand ing | Ψ (n) = i(n) ∈Ω (n) c(i(n) ) | i(n) , there must be at least one i∗(n) such 2

that |c(i∗(n) )|2 ≥ 2−n . Let p ∈ Ω2∗ be a self-delimiting program such that, by literal transcription, | U(p) = | i∗(n) . Then, with such a choice of eﬀective description of | Ψ one gets the upper bound R Q QCc (Ψ ) ≤ (p) + − log2 | U(p) | Ψ |2 ≤ 2 n + C . A lower bound to the bit quantum complexity of a subset of Ψ ∈ Hn can be obtained following an argument developed in [119]. For any Ψ ∈ Hn and α ≥ 0, let us deﬁne the subsets Ω2∗ ⊇ Πα (Ψ ) := p ∈ Ω2∗ : − log2 | U(p) | Ψ |2 < α and the quantities QCα (Ψ ) := min{(p) : p ∈ Πα (Ψ )}. If α ≥ β, then Πβ (Ψ ) ⊆ Πα (Ψ ), whence α ≥ β =⇒ QCβ (Ψ ) ≥ QCα (Ψ ) ≥ QC∞ (Ψ ) . Notice that QC∞ (Ψ ) is the length of the shortest classical programs p such that | U[p] is non-orthogonal to | Ψ , | U(p) | Ψ | > 0. Therefore, if QCc (Ψ ) is attained at q, that is if R Q QCc (Ψ ) = (q) + − log2 | U(q) | Ψ |2 , β

then, (q) ≥ QCβ (Ψ ) ≥ QCα (Ψ ) for all α ≥ β and QCc (Ψ ) ≥ QC∞ (Ψ ) + β .

(9.16)

The following Lemma shows that there are vectors Ψ ∈ Hn for which QC∞ (Ψ ) cannot be small.

9.3 cbit Quantum Complexity

509

Lemma 9.3.1. Let K(d) ⊆ Hn be a d-dimensional subspace; then, for all 0 ≤ a ≤ log2 d there exists a subspace Ka ⊆ K(d) of dimension da ≥ d − 2a such that QC∞ (Ψ ) ≥ a for all Ψ ∈ Ka . Proof: According to (4.6), there are less than 2a programs p ∈ Ω2∗ with (p) < a; it follows that the subspace H(a) linearly spanned by the corresponding vectors | U[p] has dimension ≤ 2a . Let K(d) ⊆ Hn be any subspace of dimension d ≥ 2a and choose Ka ⊆ K(d) orthogonal to H(a) and thus of dimension da ≥ d − 2a . Now, | Ψ ∈ Ka satisﬁes QC∞ (Ψ ) ≥ a, unless there is a program p with (p) < a with U(p) | Ψ = 0; this is impossible since, by construction, | Ψ is orthogonal to the linear span of | U[p] with (p) < a. Unlike for the qubit quantum complexity QCq where the corresponding complexity rate could be controlled by means of high probability subspaces, in the case of the bit quantum complexity QCc , one has to argue in terms of volumes of vectors. Indeed, one can estimate how many unit vectors | Ψ ∈ Ka satisfy QCα (Ψ ) < r. This will be done by representing Ψ as a point u ∈ R2da on the unit sphere S2da whose coordinates are the real and imaginary parts of the Fourier coeﬃcients of the expansion of | Ψ with respect to a chosen ONB in the subspace Ka . Let S2da (θ) denote the area of the sector of S2da consisting of unit vectors u ∈ R2da which have scalar product 1 ≥ u · e ≥ cos θ with respect to a ﬁxed vector e; it is expressed by θ dφ A2da −1 (sin φ) , S2da (θ) = 0

where An (t) = tn−1

2 π n/2 , Γ (n/2)

with Γ (z) the Euler Gamma function, is the area of the unit sphere Sn in Rn of radius t (notice that area of the unit sphere and area of the sector of angle θ are related by An (1) = Sn (π)). The sector area can be bounded from above as follows: θ 2π da −1/2 2π da −1/2 S2da (θ) = sin2(da −1) θ . dφ sin2da −1 φ ≤ Γ (da − 1/2) 0 Γ (da − 1/2) (9.17) Let S2da (θ) denote the sector area S2da (θ) normalized to that of the unit sphere, A2da (1); then, 2π da −1/2 Γ (da ) S2da (θ) S2da (θ) := ≤ sin2(da −1) θ A2da (1) Γ (da − 1/2) 2π da < da e−(da −1)(θ−π/2) , 2

(9.18) (9.19)

where the last inequality comes from expanding f (θ) := log sin θ around π/2,

510

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

1 1 1 f (θ) = − (θ−π/2)2 + f (θ) (θ−π/2)3 ≤ − (θ−π/2)2 , 2 6 2

θ ≤ θ ≤ π/2 ,

and from the fact that f (θ) ≥ 0. We now use (9.19) to estimate the relative volume, Fa (p, α), of the subset Fa (p, α) := | ψ ∈ Ka : − log2 | U(p) | ψ |2 < α consisting of vectors with penalty smaller than α with respect to a given output | U[p] . Since 2−α/2 < | U[p] | ψ | = cos θ = sin(π/2 − θ) ≤ π/2 − θ, Fa (p, α)) < da e−(da −1)2

−α

.

From this inequality we further deduce Lemma 9.3.2. The relative volume, Far (α), of the set Far (α) := | ψ ∈ Ka : QCα (ψ) < r has relative volume Far (α) such that Far (α) < da 2r e−(da −1)2

−α

.

Proof: If | ψ ∈ Ka is such that QCα (ψ) < r, then − log2 | ψ | U[p] |2 < α for at least one program p with (p) < r; the result then follows since there are ≤ 2r such programs. The complement Gar (α) of Far (α) consists of | ψ ∈ Ka such that either − log2 | ψ | U[p] |2 ≥ α or − log2 | ψ | U[p] ||2 < α, but (p) ≥ r. In other words, from (9.16) and Lemma 9.3.1, it turns out that Gar (α) consists of | ψ ∈ Ka such that QCc (ψ) ≥ QC∞ (Ψ ) + α ≥ a + α

(9.20)

QCc (ψ) ≥ r − log2 | ψ | U[p] ||2 ≥ r .

(9.21)

or relative volume Gra (α) of Gar (α) is large, Gra (α) ≥ 1 − ε if the of Far (α) is small, Far (α) ≤ ε. Lemma 9.3.2 can then be used

Notice that the relative volume to prove that for a large fraction of vectors | ψ ∈ Ka one has QCc (ψ) 2n when n → ∞.

Proposition 9.3.3. For any ε ≥ 0 and N n large enough, there exists a subspace Kn−1 ⊂ Hn of dimension ≥ 2n−1 containing a subset Gn−1 of relative volume Gn−1 ≥ 1 − ε such that, for all | Ψ ∈ Gn−1 , 2−ε≤

QCc (Ψ ) ≤2+ε . n

9.3 cbit Quantum Complexity

511

Proof: Choose H(d) = Hn in Lemma 9.3.1 and a = n−1; then, there exists a subspace Kn−1 ⊂ Hn of dimension dn−1 ≥ 2n − 2n−1 = 2n−1 such that QC∞ (Ψ ) ≥ n − 1 for all Ψ ∈ Kn−1 . Setting r = 2n and α = n − 1 − 2 log2 n in Lemma 9.3.2 one gets 2n (n − 1 − 2 log2 n) < e−(1−2 Fn−1

−n+1

)n2 + (3n−1) log 2

.

Thus, for n suﬃciently large, the subset Gn−1 ⊆ Kn−1 of Ψ ∈ Kn−1 that violate QCn−1−2 log2 n (Ψ ) < 2n has relative volume Gn−1 ≥ 1 − ε. The result then follows by applying the lower bound in Proposition 9.3.2 and the upper bounds (9.20) and (9.21). Remark 9.3.1. Proposition 9.3.3 states that a large fraction of n-qubit vector states belonging to a subspace of dimension not less than 2n−1 has a bit quantum complexity per symbol close to 2. Notice that this is twice the qubit quantum complexity per symbol of all pure states in the high probability subspaces of a Bernoulli quantum source (see Example 9.2.2). However, in the latter case the fact that the complexity rate 1 follows from the speciﬁc structure of the state ω on the quantum spin chain A. Instead, the result of Proposition 9.3.3 does not refer to the considered n qubits belonging to a quantum chain and thus to a reference global state ω. Indeed, the weights of the subsets of vectors with bit quantum complexity rate 2 are estimated in terms of relative volumes instead of probabilities as in Theorem 9.2.2. Circuit Algorithmic Complexity Any state | Ψ ∈ Hn of n qubits can be obtained as the result of an action on a ﬁxed state | Φ ∈ Hn by a suitable unitary operator U : Hn → Hn . From Remark 9.1.1.2 we know that the action of U can be approximated within any ε > 0 by means of a quantum circuit, that is by another unitary operator V : Hn → Hn , consisting of N (U, ε) gates from a complete gate basis G. Furthermore, to leading order in the number of qubits and of the 1

. accuracy ε, the number of gates scales as N (U, ε) = O 2n log ε This fact is essential in the deﬁnition of quantum algorithmic complexity proposed in [205, 206, 207] where the focus is not on the eﬀective description of the n-qubit states, whether quantum or classical, rather on the eﬀective description of the quantum circuits that can be used to eﬀectively construct those quantum states up to a certain ﬁxed accuracy ε. Given a complete gate basis G, the ﬁxed ready state | Φ and the accuracy parameter ε > 0, a same | Ψ can be reached up to ε by a certain set CG,ε Ψ of quantum circuits VΨG,ε that will be identiﬁed with their unitary actions on | Φ . Let the description of any of these circuits be encoded by a binary string iV G,ε ∈ Ω2∗ ; then Ψ

512

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

Deﬁnition 9.3.2 (Circuit Quantum Complexity). Let ΩΨG,ε ⊂ Ω2∗ be the subset of strings that encode the circuits in CG,ε Ψ ; the circuit quantum algorithmic complexity of an n-qubit state | Ψ ∈ Hn is the least classical preﬁx algorithmic complexity of the strings in ΩΨG,ε : G,ε . QCG,ε net (Ψ ) := min K(iV G,ε ) : iV G,ε ∈ ΩΨ Ψ

Ψ

Remark 9.3.2. The dependence of QCnet on the encoding of the descripcan be handled as in classical algorithmic tion of the circuits VΨG,ε ∈ CG,ε Ψ complexity: a change of code is taken care of by a ﬁnite additive constant corresponding to a suitable dictionary which is thus independent of the circuit described. The physical motivation behind such a deﬁnition is that, after all, quantum states can be prepared by means of arrays of unitary gates that can be eﬀectively described; then, the idea is to relate the complexity of vector states to the degree of compressibility of the descriptions of the quantum circuits that provide suitable approximations to them. Example 9.3.2. If one want to reproduce a bit string i(n) by a quantum circuit, the ﬁrst step is to associate it to a qubit vector state | i(n) of the so called computational basis (see Section 4.1.1), where | i(n) = | i1 ⊗ | i2 ⊗ · · · | in ,

ij = 0, 1 ,

σ3 | ij = (−1)ij | ij . i

This state can then easily be obtained by ﬂipping with σ1j the j-th qubit of | 0 ⊗n . The corresponding quantum circuit consists of n 1-qubit gates, either trivially the identity matrix 1l2 or the Pauli matrix σ1 ; therefore, an upper bound to the algorithmic complexity of the classical description of such a quantum circuit is easily seen to scale as n, exactly as the Kolmogorov complexity of a generic bit string of length n (see Proposition 4.1.1). Within this approach one usually estimates the complexity by upper bounds that depend on results as the one quoted in Remark 9.1.1.2, whence the circuit complexity of a state | Ψ of n qubits can be estimated as follows: 2 n QCG,ε net (Ψ ) = O(n 2 log 1/ε) ,

(9.22)

where f (n) = O(g(n)) if there exists Cf,g > 0 such that |f (n)| ≤ Cf,g |g(n)|. Remark 9.3.3. As already pointed out (see for instance Example 3.2.2), a bit string i(n) of length n can be associated with an interval in [0, 1] of length 2−n ; this latter can also be interpreted as the volume of the subset V (i(n) )

9.3 cbit Quantum Complexity

513

of bit strings of any length that are preﬁxed by i(n) . Therefore, the upper bound (4.5) to the algorithmic complexity of i(n) scales as − log V (i(n) ) = n. In a quantum context, because of the lack of discreteness, given a ﬁxed nqubit vector Ψ , one can in general only hope to construct it within an error ε; namely, a quantum circuit can be devised that outputs | ψ ∈ (C2 )⊗n such that | ψ | Ψ | ≥ 1 − ε for some accuracy parameter 0 ≤ ε ≤ 1. Using (9.17), one ﬁnds that the logarithm of the volume Vε (Ψ ) of such a cone scales as 2n log ε in agreement with (9.22). Notice that the upper bound to the bit quantum complexity in Proposition 9.3.2 is obtained by choosing | ψ such that | ψ | Ψ | ≥ 2−n ; this corresponds to a parameter in (9.22) which scales as ε 1 − 2−n and to an upper bound to QCG,ε net (Ψ ) which is only polinomially diﬀerent from the one to QCc (Ψ ) [207]. By means of the upper bound (9.22), it is possible to put into evidence the diﬀerence in circuit complexity between separable and entangled states. J , The important point is that a product state | Ψ = | Φj ∈ Hn can j=1

be constructed with accuracy ε by means of n circuits that construct the vectors | Φj with accuracy ε/n [205]. Suppose that the state | Ψ shows some -J entanglement between its constituent qubits ; namely, | Ψ = j=1 | Φj , J where j=1 nj = n and | Φj ∈ Hnj are entangled states of nj qubits. Then, one obtains J J

. QCG,ε (Ψ ) = O n2j 2nj log net ε j=1 For suﬃciently small ε, the sum is upper bounded by J j=1

n2j 2nj log

J J J 1 ≤ n2 2n J−1 log ≤ n2 2n log . ε 2 ε ε

Therefore, the upper bound is the largest when the state | Ψ is completely entangled, that is when J = 1 and nj = n; vice versa, in the case of complete separability, namely when J = n and nj = 1, one gets n

QCG,ε , net (Ψ ) = O 2n log ε with polynomial instead of exponential increase with the number of qubits. Quantum Universal Semi-Density Matrix Like in Section 9.3, the quantum extension of classical algorithmic complexity proposed in [119] starts from the classical description of quantum states

514

9 Quantum Algorithmic Complexities

| Ψ ∈ Hn of n qubit systems by means of bit strings i ∈ Ω2∗ . However, these descriptions are not considered as programs of a certain length which has to be minimized, rather as bit strings characterized by a given universal probability PU as explained in Remark 4.3.2.3. For instance, if a state | Ψ can be expanded with respect to the computational basis {| i(n) }i(n) ∈Ω (n) by means of coeﬃcients which are exactly 2 computable by a program j ∈ Ω2∗ processed by a ﬁxed UTM U, then m(Ψ ) := PU (j) naturally represents the universal probability of this state. Exactly computable states are termed elementary as well as linear operators X on Hn whose matrix elements with respect to the computational basis can be exactly computed; operators which can be approximated from below by an increasing sequence of elementary operators are called lower semi-computable (see Deﬁnition 4.1.4). Then, an argument similar to the one in Example 4.1.7.3 leads to the following result [119]. Theorem 9.3.1. A lower semi-computable semi-density matrix ρ ∈ B1 (Hn ), namely ρ ≥ 0 and ρ ≤ 1, can be eﬀectively constructed such that, for any other semi-computable semi-density matrix σ ∈ B1 (Hn ), there is a constant Cσ for which Cσ σ ≤ ρ. Moreover, ρ can be identiﬁed with m(Ψel ) | Ψel Ψel | , ρ= | Ψel ∈Hn

where the sum runs over all elementary vector states of n qubits. The operator ρ is a convex combination over elementary projections weighted with their universal probabilities; since the universal probability PU is not normalized, neither is ρ. Inspired by Remark 4.3.3, it is thus suggestive to introduce an operatorial complexity κ := − log2 ρ , and two possible deﬁnitions of algorithmic complexity of a state | Ψ : QC− u.p. (Ψ ) := − log2 ( Ψ | ρ |Ψ ) ,

QC+ u.p. (Ψ ) := Ψ | κ |Ψ .

From the the concavity of the function f (x) = log2 x it follows that + QC− u.p. (Ψ ) ≤ QCu.p. (Ψ ) .

Indeed (see the proof of Proposition 5.5.3), with ρ = spectral decomposition of ρ,

i

ri | ri ri | the

9.3 cbit Quantum Complexity

log2 ( Ψ | ρ |Ψ ) = log2 ≥

515

ri | Ψ | ri |

2

i 2

| Ψ | ri | log2 ri = Ψ | log2 ρ |Ψ .

i

For bit strings i(n) ∈ Ω2∗ the two possibilities coincide with the algorithmic complexity K(i(n) ). Indeed, consider the computational basis vectors i(n) , then { i(n) | ρ |i(n) }i(n) ∈Ω (n) is a semi-measure. As m is a universal semi2 measure on Ω2∗ it follows that there exists a constant Cρ such that Cρ i(n) | ρ |i(n) ≤ m(i(n) ) , (i(n) ) ≥ K(i(n) ) + O(1). whence, from Remark 4.3.3, QC− u.p. (n) On the other hand, ρ = ) | i(n) i(n) | is a lower semii(n) ∈Ω2∗ m(i computable, semi-density matrix. Therefore, the monotonicity of the logarithm as an operator function (see Example 5.2.3.6) yields Cρ ρ ≤ ρ =⇒ − log2 ρ + log2 Cρ ≥ κ , (n) ) ≤ K(i(n) ) + O(1). whence QC+ u.p. (i The operatorial complexity κ has an interesting similarity with the classical algorithmic complexity in that its mean value with respect to a lower semi-computable density matrix ρ equals its von Neumann entropy up to an additive constant [119] (compare Corollary 4.3.2),

Tr(ρ κ) = S2 (ρ) + O(1) , ˆ := Setting ρ

S2 (ρ) := −Tr(ρ log2 ρ) .

ρ ˆ ) ≥ 0, yields , the positivity of the relative entropy, S (ρ , ρ Tr(ρ) S2 (ρ) ≤ Tr(ρ κ) + log2 Tr(ρ) .

By assumption, there exists a constant Cρ such that Cρ ρ ≤ ρ; thus, as before, − log2 Cρ − log2 ρ ≥ κ =⇒ S2 (ρ) ≥ Tr(ρκ) + O(1) . Remark 9.3.4. The topics addressed in this chapter are relatively recent and still in their infancy so that the relations between the various extensions of classical algorithmic complexity theory to quantum systems are largely to be explored (a discussion of those between Vitanyi’s and G´ acs’ proposals can be found in [119]). Further, beside the previous result and Theorem 9.2.2, the connections between quantum algorithmic complexities and the von Neumann entropy or the von Neumann entropy rate have not yet been clariﬁed. In particular, the randomness of the quantum dynamics, rather than of quantum states have not been tackled yet; namely, a quantum extension of the dynamical version of Brudno’s theorem (see Corollary 4.2.1) is still missing.

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Index

A Algebras Abelian, 35, 37, 52–53, 80, 146, 151, 159, 165, 167, 169, 170, 173–174, 176–178, 293, 294, 296–302, 305–306, 309, 321–322, 324, 332, 334, 338, 343, 346–356, 360, 364–365, 369, 376, 389–390, 396–397, 420–421, 425, 426, 433, 435, 436, 440, 441, 446, 450–451, 469, 498–499 Banach, 30, 31, 140, 143, 144, 152, 154–156, 175, 262 bicommutant, 166, 167, 168–169, 172, 320, 332, 336, 341 C*, 31, 143–165, 166–167, 169, 170–171, 208, 210, 323–324, 327, 373, 413–415, 417, 419, 425, 427–428, 455, 485 AF, 182, 429, 443, 444 UHF, 324–325 commutant, 146, 166–170, 172, 209, 211–213, 298–299, 301, 319, 320, 327, 332, 341, 344, 354, 364, 365–366, 415, 422, 423, 431 commutative, 30, 32–33, 144, 167, 341, 350 factor, 38, 45, 49, 58, 65, 99–100, 101, 169, 170, 172, 211, 212, 221, 224, 238, 242, 263, 317, 320, 321–323, 330, 331, 338, 340, 350–354, 363, 368, 375, 396, 406, 413, 441, 443, 453, 460, 479 irreducible, 168, 170, 173, 175, 182, 185, 186, 187, 203, 211, 213, 318, 319, 320, 336, 343

maximally Abelian, 151, 167, 170, 300, 305, 309, 332, 338, 389, 421 operator-valued matrix, 2, 145, 167 quasi-local, 323–325, 347, 362, 363, 373, 376, 377, 389, 396, 397, 429, 440, 442, 466, 475, 485 Bosonic, 325–327 Fermionic, 325–327 topological dual, 143, 154, 175 unital, 52, 144, 146, 148, 157, 158, 162, 164, 166, 173–174, 176, 177, 247, 248, 249, 293, 300, 322, 324, 369, 373, 419, 430, 436, 442 von Neumann, 32, 34, 35, 39, 53, 166–178, 208, 253, 298, 320 hyperﬁnite, 428–429, 435, 450–451 traces, 322–323 types, 322–323, 338, 413, 450 Algorithmic complexity, 1–3, 7, 71, 105–134, 409, 411, 483, 485, 492–493, 494, 496, 502, 506, 511–515 classical counting argument, 498–501 plain, 113, 114, 116, 126 preﬁx, 127–130 rate, 122–127 semi-measure, 119–120, 133 quantum bit, 484, 506–509, 511, 513 circuit, 484, 511–513 qubit, 484, 494–511 counting argument, 498–506 universal semi-density matrix, 484, 513–515 527

528

Index

Ancillas, 239, 246 Angle-action variables, 15, 16 Annihilation operators, 182, 191, 204–205, 233, 277, 325, 326, 333 Bosonic, 188, 189, 197, 204, 208, 327, 329, 378 Fermionic, 181, 182, 183, 233, 378 Asymptotic Abelianess, 329, 336, 346, 347, 352, 353, 356, 364, 376, 450 η, 347–352 norm, 347, 354, 356, 364, 365 strong, 346, 352, 353, 355, 376, 450, 451 weak, 346, 348, 352, 353, 354, 356, 376 Automorphisms, 33, 34, 60, 80, 172, 227, 230–232, 236, 241, 330, 332, 334–336, 338, 357, 359, 360, 361, 405, 415, 419, 421, 429, 436, 437, 442, 443, 446, 450, 454, 462, 470 quasi-free space-translations, 327, 328, 329, 442 time-evolution, 241, 327, 328–330, 451 shift, 38, 347, 351, 362, 363, 379, 389, 451, 453 time, 327 B Baker map, 28–29, 52, 79 Bell states, 223, 246, 259, 266, 284, 285 Bernoulli sources classical, 382, 440, 480 quantum, 383–384, 389, 393, 480, 511 Bitstream, 372, 374–376, 440, 467, 469 Bloch sphere, 191, 227–228, 244–246, 255 Bloch vector, 191, 227–228, 244, 245–246 Borel σ-algebras, 10, 11, 13–14, 19, 29, 30, 34, 36, 52 regular measures, 11, 19–20, 33, 34, 461 sets, 10 Breaking time, 20

C Canonical algebraic relations anticommutation (CAR), 180–183, 185, 233–234, 317, 325–327, 336, 375, 440, 442–443 commutation (CCR), 183–186, 188–189, 193, 196–198, 201–203, 205, 207, 231, 234, 276, 317, 325, 327, 406 Capacity classical, 399, 400, 457, 479 quantum, 406, 411 regularized, 405 Cauchy sequences, 31 Center, 146, 151, 167, 169, 172, 211, 212, 322, 331, 339, 340, 347–348, 350, 351, 361, 363, 375 Channels classical memoryless, 58, 99, 101 noiseless, 59, 95, 98, 384, 496 noisy, 58, 68, 86, 102, 227, 295 quantum, 3, 258, 259, 457, 475–481 Chaos quantum logarithmic time, 466 Characteristic functions, 12, 31, 32, 36, 44, 50, 55, 198, 208, 235, 298, 322, 324, 360, 412, 421, 436, 452 Characters, 174–176, 177 Choi matrix, 160–161, 262, 283, 284–285 Classical dynamical systems direct products, 77–78 isomorphic, 76 Closure strong, 32, 169, 172, 321, 324, 339–340, 341, 343, 349, 374 weak, 32, 320 Coarse-graining, 20, 25, 27–28, 29, 71, 466 Codes average length, 88 preﬁx, 86–90 universal, 95–98 Commutators, 145, 197, 227, 241, 244, 247, 326, 352, 373, 375, 446, 449, 450, 469

Index Completeness, 76, 104, 121, 140, 157–164, 165, 183, 192, 201, 246, 247–251, 300, 369, 390, 489, 513 Compressibility, 1, 71, 105, 512 Computability, 110, 121 Computable functions, 110–111, 119, 134 Computational complexity, 112–114, 134, 493 Conditional entropy, 63–69, 72, 74, 76, 417, 425 Conditional expectations classical, 35 quantum, 164–165, 343 normal, 165, 334, 335, 429 Conditional probability distributions, 35, 63, 64, 66, 92–93 Convergence strong, 48 uniform, 32 weak, 48 Convex sets, 34, 218, 331 Correlation functions, 45, 48, 232–235, 329, 341–344, 351, 353, 355 matrix, 197–198, 200–201, 205–207, 236, 277, 278 Covariance algebra, 341 Creation operators Bosonic, 188–189 Fermionic, 182–186 Cylinders, 21 simple, 22, 29, 49, 52 D Decoding classical, 58, 381–383 quantum, 479, 480 Deformation parameter, 337, 338, 339, 355, 360, 361, 450–451, 470 Density matrices, 39, 40, 190–192, 196, 202–203, 208–219, 221–222, 224–225, 227, 232, 233, 241–242, 244–246, 261, 264–266, 272, 274, 276, 285, 287, 289, 290, 292, 294, 296, 297, 301, 303, 308–311, 320, 334, 346, 362, 366–369, 376, 378, 380–383, 389, 395, 397, 401, 404,

529

430, 436–438, 452, 455, 456, 458, 460–461, 463–467, 475–478, 480, 484–486, 490, 495–496, 498, 499, 513–515 Dovetailed computation, 132, 133 Duality, 14, 56, 159, 227, 249, 366 Dynamical entropy, 1, 2, 71–104, 121, 409, 411, 443, 451, 454, 481, 484 Kolmogorov-Sinai, 75, 76–77, 428, 429 quantum AFL, 451–482 rate, 455–457 CNT, 427, 467–470 rate, 457–458 Dynamical instability, 19, 71, 411 Dynamical systems classical chaotic, 20, 466 discrete, 10, 21, 41, 50, 51, 61, 76, 104, 134, 466 shift, 20–25 Hamiltonian, 10, 13–16, 20, 69, 183, 226–230, 232–234, 242–244, 292, 328, 332–333, 336, 342, 348, 370–372, 437 integrable, 16 quantum closed, 226–227, 238 continuous variable, 183, 188, 192, 198, 276–277, 315 ﬁnite level, 165, 183, 186, 212, 232, 233, 340–341, 464, 465–466 multipartite, 260, 490 open, 227, 237, 241–243, 249, 251, 254 Price-Powers shifts, 372–376, 440–441 shift, 20–25, 60, 127, 377 E Eﬀective descriptions, 106–122, 484, 485, 506–507 Encoding classical, 57, 58, 97, 179, 294–297, 381, 388, 399, 403, 404, 475, 479–480, 496, 512

530

Index

quantum, 294–296, 381–382, 388, 401, 476 Entanglement, 3, 222, 224, 242, 251, 253, 258, 261–287, 302, 307, 309, 314–315, 334, 372, 405, 479–480, 513 cost, 269–271, 405 distillation, 267, 269 formation, 267–269, 273, 302–309, 405 regularized, 270–271, 405 witnesses, 253, 262–263, 277, 279–281 Entropic distance, 459–461 Entropy functionals optimal decompositions, 270, 297, 303, 304, 307, 308, 415, 446 Gibbs, 61, 227 Shannon, 1, 61–63, 64, 69, 71–73, 88, 90, 92, 96, 123–125, 131, 214–215, 225, 298, 378, 384–385, 389, 391, 400, 413, 426, 433–434, 439, 443, 454 rate, 378, 439 strong subadditivity, 66–67 subadditivity, 72, 73 von Neumann, 213–216, 219–220, 225–227, 238, 245, 266, 287, 289, 293–294, 302, 309, 376, 384, 385, 387, 389, 397, 400, 404, 405, 413, 421, 426, 433, 435, 437, 439, 454, 456, 458, 461, 463–466, 479, 515 rate, 376–381 strong subadditivity, 377 subadditivity, 376–377 Entropy dense subalgebras, 462 Entropy functionals entropy of a subalgebra, 3, 294–314, 405, 413 n-CPU entropies, 414, 415, 419, 427, 428, 446 n-subalgebra entropies, 415, 420, 443 Ergodic systems classical, 344 time-averages, 40, 41, 44 quantum, 341 time-averages, 341–342 Essential norm, 32

F Flip operator, 158, 162, 264, 285, 334 Fock space Bosonic, 189 Fermionic, 326, 327 Folding condition, 16, 17, 19, 20, 29 Fugacity, 234 Functions continuous, 10, 30–33, 40, 56, 66, 148, 167, 171, 173, 175–176, 178, 442–443 essentially bounded, 32, 34, 35, 144, 167, 168, 173, 324, 338, 339, 360, 457–458 measurable, 10, 11, 19, 32, 35, 43–44, 52, 53 G G¨ odel friction, 122 G¨ odel numbers, 111 Gauge-transformations, 326–327 Gelfand-Naimark-Segal (GNS) construction, 172, 202, 209, 213, 298, 335, 341, 342, 353, 374, 415, 455, 480 Hilbert space, 172, 211, 212, 301, 321, 330, 332, 338, 342, 347, 357, 366, 479 triplet, 172, 211, 212, 335 unitary operator, 347, 357 vector, 172, 203, 212, 213, 320, 338, 343, 480 Gelfand transform, 174, 176, 298, 421 H Hadamard rotation, 180, 223–224, 257, 259 Heisenberg equation, 230 High probability subsets, 91, 388 Hilbert-Schmidt decomposition, 225 Holevo’s bound, 294, 296, 299, 399, 478 Hyperbolic motion Arnold cat map quantum ﬁnite, 231, 466 classical

Index Arnold cat map, 17 quantum Arnold cat map inﬁnite, 470 I Inequality Fannes, 215–216, 302, 418, 450, 459, 499 Kraft, 87–88, 107, 125, 129, 133 Ky Fan, 217, 384, 394 Information sources classical, 60 stationary, 59–60 quantum, 381–383 J Jamiolkowski isomorphism, 160, 262 K Kolmogorov (K-) systems classical algebraic, 53, 357, 361 entropic, 80, 445–446, 451 K-partitions, 50, 360, 443 K-sequences, 50, 52, 53, 80, 357, 359–361, 363 quantum algebraic, 3, 317, 357–358, 363, 443 entropic, 443–451 K-sequences, 357 Koopman operator, 12, 18, 33, 46–48, 53, 338, 344, 355 Koopman-von Neumann formalism, 15, 33, 46–47, 169 Kraus operators, 163, 243, 439, 475–477, 479 representation, 163 Kubo-Martin-Schwinger (KMS) conditions, 232, 233, 330, 332, 353 L Lebesgue spectrum, 53, 359 Limits C* inductive, 363, 376

531

low density, 249 singular coupling, 249 strong, 32, 47, 167, 349 thermodynamical, 323 uniform, 143–144 weak, 39, 46–47, 167, 319–320 weak-coupling, 243, 249, 253 Liouville equation, 227–228, 241, 243, 244 Liouville measure, 14, 17, 40 Logarithmic time-scale, 20, 466 Lyapounov exponents, 1, 19, 20, 79–80, 104, 411 M Mach-Zender interferometer, 195–196, 487 Maps completely positive (CP), 157 dilation of, 240 trace preserving, 289, 292, 381, 382, 384, 387 unital (CPU), 293 dynamical, 9, 10, 13, 33, 232, 241–243, 251–253, 293 embeddings, 158–159 N-positive, 159 positive, 157–159 decomposable, 262–263 Markov approximations, 243 Martin-L¨ of tests, 106, 128 Master equation, 243, 245, 251, 283 Maximal accessible information, 297, 299 Measurement processes, 139, 236–238, 412–413, 455 Measures σ-algebras, 10, 77–78 absolutely continuous, 34, 35, 55, 56, 328, 355, 442 Lebesgue decomposition, 34 mutually singular, 34 product, 24, 29, 49, 78 Minmax principle, 214, 217 Mixing systems classical, 40–47 K-mixing, 46, 51, 81, 352–353, 357, 445

532

Index

weakly mixing, 46 quantum hyperclustering, 352 strongly mixing, 352, 355, 356 weakly mixing, 352–354, 356, 358, 376 Modular theory, 212, 332 KMS conditions, 330–335 modular automorphisms, 232, 335 modular conjugation, 212, 332, 333 modular group, 233, 236, 332, 335 modular operator, 213, 232, 333, 447 relative modular operator, 287–290, 332 Mutual information, 63, 67–69, 100–101, 295, 477 N Neighborhoods strong, 31, 141, 169 uniform, 30–31, 140–142 weak, 32, 141 Non-commutative deformations, 139, 231, 344, 388 Norm C*, 144 sup-norm, 38 uniform, 33, 140, 143–145, 152, 182, 185 Number operator Bosonic, 189, 325, 326–327 Fermionic, 181, 325–326 O Observables functions, 9–10 local, 323, 343, 347, 351 Occupation number states Bosonsic, 189 Fermionic, 232 One-way quantum computation, 315 Open quantum systems dynamical semigroups, 247–248 Kossakowski-Lindblad generators, 250 Kossakowski matrix, 247, 249, 280–281

reduced dynamics, 227, 242–243, 251 Operational partitions of unit (OPUs), 451–452 density matrices, 452–453 reﬁnement of, 451, 471 time-evolution, 451, 452 Operations local, 253, 259, 267–268, 277, 278 LOCC, 258, 267–270 non-local, 223 Operators bounded, 140–141, 143, 144, 146, 167, 170–172, 182, 323, 327, 479 compact, 152, 167, 170 ﬁnite rank, 152, 170 Hilbert-Schmidt, 155–156 isometric, 12, 147 partial isometries, 148–149, 311, 492 polar decomposition, 148–149, 153, 321 singular values, 149, 153, 155–156 tensor product of, 141, 145, 180, 228 trace-class, 152–155 unitary, 12, 15, 53, 140, 147, 178, 184, 185, 203, 208, 226, 227, 231, 239, 256, 258, 307, 320, 330, 335–338, 340, 343, 347, 357, 396, 397, 404, 465, 485, 488–490, 502, 511 Weyl, 184–185, 187, 189, 202–203, 208, 229–230, 236, 277, 327, 337–339, 404, 447, 470, 477 P Partition functions Bosonic, 235 Fermionic, 234 Partitions, 25–27 entropy rate, 73–75 generating, 50–52, 76, 79–81, 93, 94, 127, 428, 436 tail, 51–52 Partitions of unity, 238, 451 Pauli matrices, 179–180, 226, 228, 246, 250, 259, 260, 272, 282, 285–286, 319, 350, 373 Probability empirical, 96, 125 Probability distributions

Index conditonal, 35, 60, 63, 157, 190–191, 198, 298–299, 389–391, 417 joint, 58, 62, 63, 67 marginal, 58, 62, 414, 416 Projectors, 37 minimal, 37, 39, 151, 297, 420–421 orthogonal, 139, 140, 190, 240, 293, 370, 395–396, 468, 500 Q Quantum circuits, 223, 484, 511–512 gates, 223, 256, 258, 490 noise, 249 universal semi-density matrix, 484, 513–515 R Radon-Nikodym derivative, 34–35, 55, 56, 164 Random sequences chaoticness, 105, 129, 484 stochasticness, 105–106 typicalness, 106, 129, 484 Random variables, 57–58, 60, 62–68, 71, 90, 99, 100, 225, 295, 421, 425, 426 Reduction map, 161, 164 Regular motion, 14–15 Relative entropy classical, 96 quantum, 221, 287 joint convexity, 289–292 monotonicity under CPU maps, 498–499 Relaxation to equilibrium, 56, 251, 317–318 Representations Fock, 183, 325, 326 GNS, 170, 172, 175, 210–213, 300, 320–321, 331, 332, 335–336, 338, 343, 347, 350, 351, 357, 456, 463, 474–478 momentum, 184, 188, 192, 328 position, 183, 184, 192, 198–199 thermal, 332, 334 Resolvent, 146

533

S Scalar product Hilbert-Schmidt, 155, 161, 179, 247, 287, 290–291 Semi-computability, 118–120, 132, 133, 514, 515 Semi-computable functions, 120 Semi-norms, 31, 32, 141, 143, 155, 173, 208 Sesquilinear form, 154, 173, 200–202, 342 Shift dynamical systems Bernoulli, 24–25 Markov, 24–25 Spectrum, 46, 47, 53, 146, 148, 149, 152, 158, 174, 176, 177, 182–183, 213–215, 218, 221, 227, 237, 263, 328, 332, 355, 359, 392, 393, 437, 463, 464 Spin chains classical, 37, 39–40, 53, 180, 363 quantum, 2, 347, 381–405 States coherent, 191–193, 200, 235, 481 cyclic, 66, 153, 168, 172, 178, 186, 203, 212, 213, 220, 232, 237, 299, 301, 324, 330, 332, 334, 335, 338, 343, 349–350, 355, 403 entangled, 222–226, 246, 253, 258–260, 262, 263, 266–271, 273, 281, 383, 485, 513 equilibrium, 7, 12, 14, 56, 71, 227, 232, 234, 235, 293, 330 expectation functionals, 33, 139, 170, 320, 343 factor, 350, 351, 354, 363 faithful, 212, 299–300, 330, 332, 357, 443–444 ﬁnitely correlated, 366–372, 438 Gaussian, 188–210, 276–279, 314–315, 329 Gibbs, 232–234, 292, 330 global, 22–24, 38, 40, 362, 369, 441, 511 KMS, 232, 233, 330–332, 354, 375 local, 22–25, 28, 39, 253, 363, 367, 376, 378, 381, 383, 390, 393, 395, 431, 438, 467

534

Index

marginal, 218–220, 225–226, 260, 261, 266–267, 269, 271, 291, 376, 404, 433, 434, 456 mean values, 11–14, 33, 34, 40, 41, 44, 90, 107, 139, 157, 160, 190, 237, 277, 515 mixed, 190, 210, 213, 216, 225, 241, 267, 270, 294–295, 312, 399, 456, 486 normal, 334, 335, 376, 433 NPT, 263, 268–269 phase-points, 11, 12, 139, 274 positive functionals, 33–34 PPT, 263, 264, 268, 269, 271, 278, 284–286 PPT entangled, 263, 264, 268, 269, 271, 286 probability distributions, 12 pure, 173–176, 190–191, 209, 211, 213, 216, 219, 223–229, 237, 238, 244, 266, 267, 269–270, 272, 295, 302, 303, 313, 314, 350, 351, 385, 420, 455, 456, 459, 497, 501, 506, 511 entangled, 266–267 puriﬁcation, 210 quantum convex decompositions, 294, 414, 448 quasi-free, 327, 329–330, 378, 442 separable, 224–225, 246, 262, 265–266 separating, 168, 172, 178, 212, 213, 247, 301, 332, 334–335, 350 shift-invariant, 2, 25, 364, 439 space of convex structure, 173, 190 symmetric, 151, 158, 225, 259, 265 tracial, 174, 175, 232, 266, 293, 298, 321, 359, 373–375, 421, 447, 450, 468–470, 506 Stationary couplings, 433–436, 441 Stochastic matrices, 25 Strings bit, 256, 485, 492, 512–513 qubit, 385–387, 484–486, 494, 497, 501, 506–508 Symbolic dynamics, 25–40 Symbolic models

classical, 295, 399, 404 quantum OPUs, 451, 452–454 Symplectic form, 18, 337 matrix, 13, 205, 207, 278–279 structure, 13 T Tensor products of algebras, 37–39 of projectors, 37 Theorem AEP classical, 91–95 quantum, 394 Birkhoﬀ ergodic, 44–45 Brudno classical, 123–127 quantum, 497–498 Kolmogorov-Sinai, 76, 428 Kraus, 163, 227 Liouville-Arnold, 16 no-cloning, 258, 260 noiseless coding, 95, 384 Shannon-Mc Millan-Breiman, 93, 94, 387, 389, 411 Stinespring, 162, 163, 367 von Neumann bicommutant, 169 von Neumann ergodic, 47 Time-evolution continuous, 9, 14, 40, 41 discrete, 9, 13, 14, 16, 21, 27, 33, 41, 50, 51, 76, 342, 465, 489 irreversible, 9, 241 reversible, 9, 241–242 Topology strong, 31–32, 141, 142, 169, 170 uniform, 30, 31, 140–142, 208 w*, 143, 208 weak, 32, 47, 141–142, 155, 166, 208 σ-weak, 141, 143, 155, 208–209 Totally symmetric projector, 151 Totally symmetric vector, 159 Trace, 38, 152–156, 161, 165, 190, 199, 202, 214–216, 219, 221, 224, 227, 232, 235–237, 241–242, 244, 249, 253, 262, 268, 282, 283, 288–290,

Index 292, 310–314, 322–324, 340, 363, 365, 366, 375, 381–384, 387, 397, 403, 413, 434, 479, 486, 492–496, 498, 499, 504 partial, 242, 479, 490 Trace map, 156, 161, 165, 282 Transition probabilities, 25, 39, 48, 49, 57–59, 61, 99, 111–112 Transmission rate, 404–405 Transposition, 140, 158, 159, 162, 163, 211, 261–263 partial, 158, 263–269, 277, 285 mirror reﬂection, 277, 278 Triplets classical C* algebraic, 39 measure theoretic, 29, 33, 34, 39 quantum algebraic, 332 Turing machines classical, 108, 109 preﬁx, 107, 127 probabilistic, 486 transition functions, 109–111

535

universal, 108, 492 quantum, 3, 255, 486–487, 491–492 universal, 492 Types, 96, 321–322, 340, 406 U Uncertainty relations, 196, 197, 201, 317 V Vacuum state, 181, 182, 191, 322, 332, 336 Bosonic, 189 Fermions, 182 W Wave-packet reduction, 237–239, 241 Weyl relations continuous variables, 185, 186 discrete, 187, 231