Copyright ©
1993 by L o u i s L.
Jacobs
A l l rights r e s e r v e d u n d e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d P a n...
561 downloads
965 Views
10MB Size
Report
This content was uploaded by our users and we assume good faith they have the permission to share this book. If you own the copyright to this book and it is wrongfully on our website, we offer a simple DMCA procedure to remove your content from our site. Start by pressing the button below!
Report copyright / DMCA form
Copyright ©
1993 by L o u i s L.
Jacobs
A l l rights r e s e r v e d u n d e r I n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d P a n - A m e r i c a n C o p y r i g h t C o n v e n t i o n s . P u b l i s h e d i n the U n i t e d States b y V i l l a r d B o o k s , a division o f R a n d o m H o u s e , Inc., N e w Y o r k , Limited,
and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n C a n a d a b y
Random House of Canada
Toronto.
V I L L A R D B O O K S i s a r e g i s t e r e d t r a d e m a r k o f R a n d o m H o u s e , Inc. Library
of Congress
Jacobs,
Louis L.
Cataloging-in-Publication
Data
Q u e s t f o r the A f r i c a n d i n o s a u r s / b y L o u i s L . Jacobs. p.
Includes bibliographical ISBN
references.
0-679-41270-0
1. D i n o s a u r s QE862.D5J28
Africa. 1993
2. D i n o s a u r s 567.9'l'096
Research dc20
M a n u f a c t u r e d i n the U n i t e d States o f A m e r i c a 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 First
1st e d .
cm.
edition
2
Africa.
I. T i t l e .
92-15080
TO AND
MY
FAMILY,
FUTURE,
IN-LAW DISTANT, SISTERS
AND
GREAT OUT,
FATHER (NO
NEPHEWS,
AND
COUSINS,
BONNIE,
PRESENT,
AND
CLOSE AND
AUNTS, AND
GRAND, AND
MOTHER,
BROTHERS),
AND
DEDICATION
PAST,
NIECES UNCLES,
WITH
SPECIAL
AND
MELISSA
TO
MATTHEW,
T h i s t h i n g w e call e x i s t e n c e ; i s i t n o t a s o m e t h i n g w h i c h has its r o o t s far d o w n b e l o w i n t h e d a r k , and its branches s t r e t c h i n g o u t i n t o t h e i m m e n s i t y a b o v e , w h i c h w e a m o n g t h e b r a n c h e s c a n n o t see? — O l i v e S c h r e i n e r (nom de plume, The
Ralph I r o n ) ,
1883
Story of an African
Farm
PREFACE
THIS support
BOOK is a b o u t fossils and a b o u t A f r i c a . T h a n k s t o the g e n e r o u s o f the
National
Geographic
Society,
most
of it
is
based
on
my
e x p e r i e n c e s and f i e l d w o r k e x c a v a t i n g fossils o n the A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . But i t i s a b o u t m o r e than b o n e s d u g f r o m the Earth. I t i s also a b o u t the p e o p l e o f A f r i c a and h o w t h e i r l e g a c i e s h a v e shaped t h e i r l i v e s . A n d i t i s a b o u t h o w such a thing as an e x p e d i t i o n to find t h e a n c i e n t b o n e s of the past can be p u t to use n o w t o h e l p b u i l d t h e f u t u r e . T h e fossils i n this b o o k are t h o s e o f dinosaurs and t h e animals that l i v e d w i t h t h e m — w e i r d c r o c o d i l e s , s t r a n g e m a m m a l s , and m o r e familiar beasts, such as f r o g s and t u r t l e s . It is the w h o l e suite, t h e o n c e l i v i n g c o m m u n i t y , that i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t , b u t dinosaurs catch t h e i m a g i n a t i o n f i r s t . D i n o s a u r s and A f r i c a are t w o subjects that h a v e a s t r a n g e , i f n o t sinister, a p p e a l . D i n o s a u r s are scary giants; A f r i c a i s the D a r k C o n t i n e n t . T h o s e p e r c e p t i o n s o f dinosaurs and
o f A f r i c a are
partly m y t h ,
partly
true;
n e v e r t h e l e s s t h e appeal
they
e n g e n d e r s e e m s t o b e e n d u r i n g f o r e a c h . T h e y are b o t h e x c i t i n g , t r u e e n o u g h . But the v i e w o f A f r i c a a s the D a r k U n k n o w n i s a n o l d idea i n d e e d . A f r i c a i s n o l o n g e r a s i t w a s i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H o w c o u l d i t be? W h i l e s o m e things n e v e r s e e m t o c h a n g e , i n r e a l i t y a l m o s t e v e r y t h i n g d o e s . I n A f r i c a a s e l s e w h e r e i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o a p p r e c i a t e the past, and t o e n j o y t h e p r e s e n t , and
PREFACE
it is necessary to b u i l d f o r t h e f u t u r e . D o e s d i g g i n g f o r fossils in A f r i c a fit that bill? Y o u b e t i t d o e s . In W e s t e r n e y e s A f r i c a is p e r c e i v e d as a land f o r a d v e n t u r e r s and e x p l o r e r s . I t s e e m s that e v e r y o u t l a n d e r w h o has e v e r g o n e t o A f r i c a assumes that h e o r she has f o u n d s o m e t h i n g .
Each has
" d i s c o v e r e d " s o m e part o f the
c o n t i n e n t . But w h i l e A f r i c a is u n d e n i a b l y d i v e r s e and d i f f e r e n t , it has n e v e r b e e n a lost c o n t i n e n t — o n l y u n f a m i l i a r ,
underappreciated,
misunderstood,
o r f o r g o t t e n . E v e r y o u t l a n d e r w h o has e v e r g o n e t o A f r i c a has taken a part o f i t a w a y and
left s o m e t h i n g b e h i n d .
T h e results have
not always been
g o o d , n o r h a v e t h e y a l w a y s b e e n b a d , b u t t h e y h a v e all g o n e i n t o the m i x that m a k e s u p A f r i c a n s o c i e t y . I w a n t t o p u t i n s o m e t h i n g g o o d . I w a n t t o use m y w o r k o n the b o n e s o f A f r i c a t o b u i l d the capabilities o f o n e small p l a c e , r i g h t i n t h e h e a r t o f A f r i c a , s o that the p e o p l e can d o o n t h e i r o w n w h a t I d o w i t h t h e m n o w . I w a n t t o d r i v e m y s e l f e x t i n c t , a t least i n t e r m s of the
paleontological
development
of the
tiny
country
of Malawi.
This
b o o k tells h o w I a m d o i n g it. But i s i t a g o o d t h i n g f o r A f r i c a t o f o c u s the talents o f a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of e d u c a t e d p e o p l e on the study of fossils? Is that n o t f r i v o l o u s ? Is it necessary that a p o o r A f r i c a n n a t i o n d e v o t e r e s o u r c e s to such a t h i n g as fossils? T h a t is f o r A f r i c a n s t o d e c i d e . A t least w e k n o w that fossils are g o o d , i n a v e r y w a r m sense, n o m a t t e r w h e r e t h e y a r e f o u n d , e v e n A f r i c a . Just ask a k i d . B e s i d e s , i t can b e n o m o r e f r i v o l o u s and n o m o r e unnecessary than i n d e v e l o p e d countries,
where
very
respectable
profits
are
made
from
the
sale
of
dinosaurian a c c o u t e r m e n t s and m a n y a n e a g e r m i n d has o p e n e d t o the w o n d e r s o f s c i e n c e after b e i n g t a p p e d b y the e x c i t e m e n t o f t h e L o s t W o r l d o f the past. M o r e o v e r , b y w a y o f e x a m p l e , p a l e o n t o l o g y has c e r t a i n l y b e e n g o o d f o r the A f r i c a n n a t i o n o f K e n y a , j u d g i n g f r o m the lasting v a l u e o f the L e a k e y s ' w o r k b u i l t t h e r e using the fossils o f o u r c o l l e c t i v e h u m a n a n c e s t r y . T h e f i r s t c h a p t e r o f this b o o k d e f i n e s t h e scientific issues i n v o l v e d i n m y A f r i c a n w o r k and discusses h o w I g o t t o A f r i c a i n the f i r s t p l a c e . provides
the background
of evolution
and g e o l o g y necessary
for a
I t also fuller
a p p r e c i a t i o n o f w h y this p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l w o r k i n A f r i c a i s w o r t h d o i n g . T h e s e c o n d c h a p t e r i s d e v o t e d t o t h e m a j o r e a r t h l y f e a t u r e o f this part o f A f r i c a — a giant
lake.
The
lake
influences
e v e r y t h i n g and
everyone
in
the
country,
i n c l u d i n g its e a r l y E u r o p e a n e x p l o r e r s , w h o m a r v e l e d a t i t e v e n a s r e s i d e n t citizens and v i s i t o r s do t o d a y . But the lake is also a g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e , and u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w i t f o r m e d i s essential t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h y the fossils are
PREFACE
t h e r e a t all. T h i s t h e m e i s c o n t i n u e d b y d e t a i l i n g h o w t o f i n d a fossil a n d , o n c e found, h o w to get it out of the g r o u n d . T h e third chapter presents the country o f M a l a w i i n m o r e d e t a i l and narrates the d a y - t o - d a y a c t i v i t i e s o f a fossilh u n t i n g e x p e d i t i o n i n A f r i c a . T h e h u m a n s e t t i n g and its h i s t o r y a r e w o v e n i n t o the
fieldwork,
and that t h r e a d is c a r r i e d t h r o u g h in l a t e r c h a p t e r s . D r a f t s of
C h a p t e r 3 ( a n d parts o f s e v e r a l o t h e r c h a p t e r s ) w e r e w r i t t e n i n the f i e l d . I h o p e this i m p a r t s a n i m m e d i a c y , a spirit o f real t i m e and e x c i t e m e n t , t o m y descriptions
of fieldwork.
T h e n e x t f o u r c h a p t e r s are d e v o t e d t o specific g r o u p s o f fossils and t h e i r significance.
Chapter 4 e x a m i n e s the sauropod dinosaurs, w h i l e Chapter 5
c o v e r s the o t h e r dinosaurs and t h e i r r o l e s i n the M e s o z o i c w o r l d . C h a p t e r 6 discusses the v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g c r o c o d i l e s f r o m M a l a w i and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o t h o s e d i s c o v e r e d i n South A m e r i c a . C h a p t e r 7 i s d e v o t e d t o t h e search f o r early m a m m a l s . C h a p t e r 8 c o v e r s s o m e familiar b u t r a t h e r p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d animals and o u t l i n e s s o m e e n i g m a t i c p a t t e r n s i n l i v i n g s p e c i e s that t r a c e t h e i r roots to m o r e ancient times. T h e ninth c h a p t e r , w h i c h deals w i t h r u m o r s o f l i v i n g dinosaurs i n A f r i c a , is a bit of a s i d e l i n e , b u t a necessary o n e . A f r i c a and its r e m o t e n e s s is o f t e n m i s u n d e r s t o o d i n the W e s t . S c i e n c e i s also o f t e n m i s u n d e r s t o o d . T h e s e t w o p h e n o m e n a manifest themselves i n s o m e strange w a y s . O n e particularly o d d w a y i s t h e search f o r l i v i n g dinosaurs i n t h e s w a m p s o f t h e C o n g o . T h e r e a r e reasons t o l o o k a t A f r i c a a s a c o n t i n e n t e v e r c h a n g i n g t h r o u g h g e o l o g i c time,
w h i c h i t is, r a t h e r than a s a stagnant r e f u g i u m w h e r e l i f e , that o f
dinosaurs o r p e o p l e , n e v e r c h a n g e s . S c i e n c e n e v e r e n d s . Each e x p e r i m e n t a t t e m p t e d , each analysis p e r f o r m e d , each fossil m e a s u r e d o n l y leads t o m o r e q u e s t i o n s , m o r e e x p e r i m e n t s , m o r e analyses,
and m o r e m e a s u r e m e n t s .
Science never stops,
but my w o r k in
A f r i c a i s e n t e r i n g a n e w p h a s e , and that p r o v i d e s a c o n v e n i e n t m i l e p o s t f r o m which to reflect. T h e final chapter, an a f t e r w o r d , is designed to m e l d my f e e l i n g s f o r the c o u n t r y w i t h the scientific results o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n s , and t o p r e s e n t s o m e aspirations f o r the f u t u r e . M y M a l a w i a n c o l l e a g u e s a r e w e l l o n their w a y t o w a r d managing their o w n p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l resources in a p r o f e s sional, w o r l d - c l a s s w a y w i t h o u t n e e d i n g t h e e x p e r t i s e o f o u t l a n d e r s . T h e y a r e b e c o m i n g t h e e x p e r t s o n t h e i r o w n d i n o s a u r s . T h a t i s the w a y i t s h o u l d b e , and this phase o f m y A f r i c a n w o r k m u s t h a p p i l y y i e l d t o m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e strategies that A f r i c a n p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s w i l l w r i t e a b o u t i n t h e f u t u r e . N o n e o f the w o r k r e p o r t e d i n this b o o k c o u l d h a v e b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d
PREFACE
w i t h o u t t h e g o o d w i l l and c o m p a n i o n s h i p o f c o l l e a g u e s i n t h e f i e l d . I have l i s t e d t h e m e m b e r s o f the v a r i o u s A f r i c a n d i n o s a u r e x p e d i t i o n s a t the e n d , b u t I also w i s h t o e x p r e s s m y a p p r e c i a t i o n t o all t h e c o l l e a g u e s o f m a n y nations on other e x p e d i t i o n s in w h i c h I have b e e n a party on three continents. A m o n g these a r e t h e p e o p l e w h o h a v e had t h e g r e a t e s t i n f l u e n c e o n m y c a r e e r t h r o u g h t h e i r a c t i o n s d u r i n g m y t r a i n i n g and f o r m a t i v e y e a r s , e s p e c i a l l y E v e r e t t H . Lindsay,
Robert F.
Butler,
G e o r g e Gaylord Simpson,
Edwin H.
Colbert,
N o y e M . J o h n s o n , D a v i d P i l b e a m , and m y f e l l o w g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , all o f w h o m h a v e left o n m e a n i n d e l i b l e s t a m p . A n d n o w I a p p r e c i a t e the g r a d u a t e students w h o t e a c h m e t o d a y . I t i s w i t h a g r e a t deal o f fun that I a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m all. Further,
I m u s t a c k n o w l e d g e the f r i e n d s h i p and c o r d i a l c o o p e r a t i o n o f
G a d i M g o m e z u l u , n o w S e c r e t a r y f o r E d u c a t i o n and C u l t u r e , b u t p r e v i o u s l y the Principal C o n s e r v a t o r of Antiquities in M a l a w i . W h e n he m o v e d o n , he was replaced by Yusuf Juwayeyi.
W i t h o u t these t w o f i n e g e n t l e m e n t h e r e
w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o M a l a w i P r o j e c t . I m u s t also thank Z e f e K a u f u l u , n o w a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i , i n this r e g a r d . I n C a m e r o o n I had the e x c e p t i o n a l g o o d f o r t u n e t o b e associated w i t h Joseph V i c t o r H e l l . I a m also g r a t e f u l , f o r various reasons,
to W.
J.
Anderson,
Carolyn B r o w n , Michel Brunet, L.
N e t t a Blanchard,
James E .
Sprague d e C a m p , E d w i n H .
Brooks, Colbert,
W i l l i a m R . D o w n s , M a x F i n e , L a w r e n c e J . F l y n n , Brian M . F o y , Elizabeth Gomani,
John
Goodge,
Robert T.
Gregory,
Vicki
Hansen,
Harvey
Herr,
Paula H e r r , R o d n e y L . H o n e y c u t t , N i c h o l a s H o t t o n I I I , B o n n i e F . Jacobs, R i c h a r d E . L e a k e y , D a v i d James M a x w e l l ( a l s o k n o w n a s V i l l a g e H e a d m a n M a k o n g a n y a ) , A . L e e M c A l e s t e r , Phillip A . M u r r y , M o r r i s Mwafulira, O l i v e r M w e n i f u m b o , K e n t N e w m a n , David Pilbeam, Louis H . T a y l o r , Mary T a y l o r , Alisa J .
W i n k l e r , and D a l e A .
information about Tendaguru.
Winkler.
G e r h a r d M a i e r p r o v i d e d valuable
I am pleased to m e n t i o n the National G e o -
graphic Society, National Science Foundation, Margolis Foundation, Carl B. & F l o r e n c e E.
K i n g F o u n d a t i o n , Institute f o r the Study o f Earth and M a n ,
Johnson & Johnson O r t h o p a e d i c s , C a l t e x P e t r o l e u m C o r p o r a t i o n , and C a l t e x O i l M a l a w i L i m i t e d f o r s u p p o r t i n g this A f r i c a n f i e l d w o r k . T h r e e g e n t l e m e n a t C a l t e x , Brian F o y , S t e v e C a r s o n , and J . B . R . A l l e n , d e s e r v e special thanks f o r facilitating w o r k i n M a l a w i . T h e H u n t i n g f i e l d C o r p o r a t i o n , t h r o u g h the g o o d offices o f O w e n H e n d e r s o n and H . Russell M o r r i s o n , p r o v i d e d f o r the training
of a
Aquarium
Malawian
technician
a l l o w e d access t o
their
in
my
Dallas
extraordinarily
laboratories.
The
Dallas
interesting collection
of
PREFACE
s p e c i e s . M y l i t e r a r y a g e n t , John A . W a r e , m y e d i t o r , D o u g l a s S t u m p f , and the staff at V i l l a r d B o o k s , h a v e b e e n e x c e e d i n g l y skillful and s u p p o r t i v e in b r i n g i n g this b o o k t o f r u i t i o n . T h e illustrations w e r e c h e e r f u l l y , p l e a s a n t l y , enthusiastically, and realistically r e n d e r e d b y M a r y A n n Z a p a l a c .
My wife,
B o n n i e , r e a d and c o m m e n t e d u p o n s e v e r a l d r a f t s , e v e n a p p e a r i n g t o e n j o y t h e p r o c e s s . W h i l e i t m u s t h a v e b e e n hard o n h e r , i t w a s e n c o u r a g i n g t o m e , and I thank h e r f o r it. M y s o n , M a t t h e w , and m y d a u g h t e r , M e l i s s a , w e r e g r e a t helps, especially on the c o m p u t e r . Finally I w i s h t o o f f e r m y p r o f o u n d thanks t o A f r i c a , and i n p a r t i c u l a r t o the p e o p l e and the g o v e r n m e n t s o f M a l a w i , C a m e r o o n , and K e n y a . ZIKOMO!
CONTENTS
Preface List
ix
of Illustrations
xvii
1
T H E
F O R G O T T E N
D I N O S A U R S
O F
A F R I C A
3
2
T A H I T I
W I T H O U T
S A L T
3 6
3
J O U R N A L S
F R O M
T H E
G R O U N D
6 1
T I T A N
L I Z A R D S
119
4
T H E
R O A M I N G
5
A F R I C A N
D I N O S A U R S ,
B E F O R E
A N D
A F T E R
146
xri
6 T H E
C R O C O D I L E
O F
C A R N I V A L
7 F O R
O N E
T O O T H
194
8
O T H E R
N E I G H B O R S
219
9
A
L I V I N G
D I N O S A U R ?
243
10
T H E
Expedition
G O O D
Members
Suggestions Jor Index
O F
305
Further
D I N O S A U R S
285 Reading
291
266
111
L I S T
O F
I L L U S T R A T I O N S
FIGURE 1 (P. 5 ) . Location map of Africa. FIGURE 2 (p. 12). Spinosaurus. FIGURE 3 (P. 1 3 ) . Ouranosaurus. FIGURE 4 (P. 16). African life 145 million years ago. FIGURE S (P. 2 1 ) . David Livingstone and Charles Darwin. FIGURE 6 (p. 2 9 ) . How to date fossils. FIGURE 7 (P. 3 1 ) . Plate tectonics and continental drift. FIGURE 8 (P. 3 3 ) . Magnetic stripes aligned symmetrically along spreading centers such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. FIGURE 9 (p. 3 4 ) . Approximate geographic arrangements of the continents from 200 million years ago to the present. FIGURE 10 (p. 3 7 ) . Location map of Malawi. FIGURE 11 (P. 3 9 ) . Kungu mist, a horde of lakeflies. FIGURE 12 (p. 4 2 ) . Cichlids and a catfish in Lake Malawi. FIGURE 13 (P. 4 4 ) . A contemporary African lungfish. FIGURE 14 (p. 4 6 ) . Formation of the Great Rift Valley. FIGURE 15 (p. 5 5 ) . How to collect a fossil. FIGURE 16 (p. 6 7 ) . A baobab tree. FIGURE 17 (p. 6 9 ) . A Gule Wamkulu of the Nyau society. FIGURE 18 (p. 7 7 ) . A coffle of slaves. FIGURE 19 (P. 8 0 ) . The original Livingstonia Mission and the Ilala. FIGURE 20 (p. 8 1 ) . The Ngoni leader M'Mbelwa. FIGURE 21 (P. 8 6 ) . Malawi sausages—boiled, salted, and dried mice—for sale. FIGURE 22 (P. 9 8 ) . An ingenious spirit lamp. FIGURE 23 (p. 106). Birds of the African bush. FIGURE 24 (p. 108). A woman walking along the road. FIGURE 25 (P. 122). The paleontological Plimsoll line. FIGURE 26 (p. 124). Cantilevered-versus-erect posture in the necks of sauropod dinosaurs. FIGURE 27 (P. 126). The head shape, tooth shape, and family relationships of sauropod dinosaurs. FIGURE 28 (P. 128). Weight distribution in a horse and in a sauropod dinosaur. FIGURE 29 (p. 135). Ball-and-socket tail vertebrae of the titanosaurid sauropod Malawisaurus.
xvii
LIST
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
xviii
F I G U R E 30 ( P . 142). A family group of Malawi-saurus in a gallery forest. F I G U R E 31 ( P . 148). Relationships of lizard-hipped dinosaurs. F I G U R E 32 ( P . 149). Relationships of bird-hipped dinosaurs. FIGURE
33
(p.
166).
Archaeopteryx.
F I G U R E 34 ( P . 185). The Malawi crocodile. F I G U R E 35 ( P . 191). A view of the Cretaceous lake at Araripe, Brazil. F I G U R E 36 ( P . 195). Location map of Africa with Cameroon stippled. F I G U R E 37 (p. 2 0 8 ) . A sampling of modern mammals. F I G U R E 38 (p. 2 2 3 ) . A hagfish beginning to feed on a fish carcass. F I G U R E 39 (p. 2 3 2 ) . Green sea turtle. F I G U R E 40 (p. 2 4 1 ) . South American giant anteater. F I G U R E 41 (p. 2 4 8 ) . Giant forest hog. FIGURE
42
(P.
252).
The coelacanth Latimeria chalumnae.
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS OF
AFRICA
"I
BEG T O D R A W y o u r a t t e n t i o n t o A f r i c a . " T h o s e a r e the w o r d s o f
the m i s s i o n a r y D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e .
He was trying to focus the eyes of the
nineteenth-century w o r l d o n the interior o f the D a r k Continent. H e w a n t e d t o d e v e l o p the e c o n o m i c p o t e n t i a l o f its d o w n t r o d d e n slaving g r o u n d s a s a m e a n s o f saving it. O n e o f t h o s e w h o f o l l o w e d L i v i n g s t o n e i n his m i s s i o n w a s H e n r y D r u m m o n d , a n influential Scottish t h e o l o g i a n and scientist. I n 1 8 8 3 , t e n years after Livingstone died,
D r u m m o n d c o n d u c t e d a brief natural-history survey in
British C e n t r a l A f r i c a t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t species o f plants and animals inhabi t e d the r e g i o n , w h i c h m i g h t b e o f e c o n o m i c s i g n i f i c a n c e , and h o w suitable t h e area m i g h t b e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l and m i n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t . A c c o r d i n g t o his c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , D r u m m o n d , w h i l e e x c e e d i n g l y pleasant t o b e a r o u n d , w a s more
infatuated
w i t h the
idea o f b e i n g a f a m o u s
African
naturalist
than
e n d o w e d w i t h the attributes t o b e o n e . H i s e f f o r t s i n A f r i c a c a m e t o v e r y l i t t l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s i m p o r t a n t f o r this s t o r y that D r u m m o n d d i s c o v e r e d f o s s i l s — t h e f i r s t f r o m this p a r t o f w h a t u s e d t o b e L i v i n g s t o n e ' s l a n d s c a p e . N o o t h e r s w e r e f o u n d until the n e x t c e n t u r y , w h e n a British p l a n t e r s t u m b l e d across s o m e scraps o f p e t r i f i e d b o n e s and r e p o r t e d t h e m t o c o l o n i a l a u t h o r i ties. T h e y turned out to be dinosaurs.
LOUIS
In
1930,
five
JACOBS,
d e c a d e s after D r u m m o n d f i r s t f o u n d fossils,
PH.D.
the British
M u s e u m ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) sent a n e x p e d i t i o n t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e p o r t s o f dinosaurs. England.
It,
too,
found s o m e .
They
w e r e d u g u p and s h i p p e d back t o
Since t h e n t h o s e o l d d i n o s a u r b o n e s f r o m A f r i c a h a v e b e e n l y i n g
c o m a t o s e , v i r t u a l l y i g n o r e d , d o i n g n o t h i n g but haunting the b a s e m e n t o f the n a t u r a l - h i s t o r y m u s e u m o n C r o m w e l l R o a d , L o n d o n . F o r o v e r f i f t y years n o s e r i o u s d i n o s a u r h u n t e r r e t u r n e d t o f i n d m o r e b o n e s , o r t o m a k e sense o f the r o c k s that e n t o m b t h e m . T h e dinosaurs f r o m the W a r m H e a r t o f A f r i c a , the c o u n t r y n o w c a l l e d M a l a w i , w e r e f o r all practical p u r p o s e s f o r g o t t e n . I f y o u w a n t t o k n o w a b o u t d i n o s a u r s , m o r e specifically A f r i c a n dinosaurs, I s u p p o s e y o u c o u l d start i n the b a s e m e n t o f the British M u s e u m . O r , i n a v e r y b r o a d s o r t o f w a y , y o u c o u l d take the a d v i c e o f the k o l o k o l o b i r d :
" G o to
the banks o f t h e g r e a t g r a y - g r e e n , g r e a s y L i m p o p o R i v e r , all set a b o u t w i t h f e v e r - t r e e s , and f i n d o u t . " I f y o u a r e c u r i o u s a b o u t A f r i c a n fossils, g o t h e r e . T h e r e a r e m o r e b o n e s i n t h e g r o u n d . T h e A f r i c a n dinosaurs i n the British M u s e u m m a y b e m o l d e r i n g i n a state o f s e c l u s i o n , b u t i n t h e t i n y c o u n t r y o f Malawi
(Figure
1)
m o r e b o n e s a r e starting t o e m e r g e
f r o m the badlands
v i s i t e d s o l o n g a g o b y the British e x p e d i t i o n . T h e r e are t h r e e reasons w h y the fossil b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i are significant: First is t h e i r a g e ,
s e c o n d is t h e i r l o c a t i o n ,
and t h i r d is the species t h e y
r e p r e s e n t . A t a b o u t 100 m i l l i o n years o l d , t h e b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i r e p r e s e n t animals
l i v i n g a t the
very time
the
modern
world,
as we k n o w it,
was
b e g i n n i n g t o t a k e o n its o w n d e f i n i t i o n , e v e n a s the dinosaurs r e m a i n e d i n apogee.
T h e i r p l a c e i s significant b e c a u s e a t that t i m e t h e c o n t i n e n t s and
oceans of the w o r l d w e r e rearranging themselves dramatically.
Africa was
o n c e a part o f a g i g a n t i c s o u t h e r n s u p e r c o n t i n e n t . T h e o n c e - l i v i n g species that i n h a b i t e d i t , and t h e i r fossil b o n e s , a r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m animals that w e r e a t o n e t i m e p a r t o f a w i d e s p r e a d c o m m u n i t y l i v i n g o n the h u g e landmass. But A f r i c a w a s b r e a k i n g a w a y . M e m b e r s o f the g l o b a l animal c o m m u n i t y e v o l v e d t h e i r separate w a y s after A f r i c a , South A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a , India, and A n t a r c tica b e c a m e s e p a r a t e . M a l a w i i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t because the b o n e s that a r e e m e r g i n g t h e r e are abundant and w e l l p r e s e r v e d , and i t i s the o n l y p l a c e w h e r e s o m e u n i q u e s p e c i e s can b e f o u n d . T h a t b r i n g s u s t o the t h i r d reason w h y t h e b o n e s i n M a l a w i are significant: T h e y r e p r e s e n t a w i n d o w i n t o the past, a v i e w o f a n a n c i e n t c o m m u n i t y , that has n o t b e e n s e e n e l s e w h e r e . T h e R e p u b l i c o f M a l a w i i n s o u t h e a s t e r n A f r i c a i s a bit l a r g e r than L o u i s i ana, b u t n e a r l y a q u a r t e r of its area is w a t e r . A l a k e , L a k e M a l a w i , d o m i n a t e s the c o u n t r y . I t i s 3 6 0 m i l e s l o n g . T h e w h o l e c o u n t r y i s n o t all that m u c h
THE
FORGOTTEN
FIGURE
1:
DINOSAURS
Location map of Africa.
David Livingstone,
is stippled.
OF
Malawi,
AFRICA
a part of the Interior explored by
The major lakes of Africa are shown in black.
string of lakes in eastern Africa owe their existence to the Great Rift
The
Valley.
l o n g e r . A t its w i d e s t , the shores are 5 0 m i l e s a p a r t , a t its n a r r o w e s t , 1 1 . T h e total
area
Hampshire,
of Lake
Malawi
b u t n o t all
Mozambiquan territory.
is
almost
of it belongs
equal to
to
that
Malawi;
o f the
state
part of the
of N e w
lake
is
in
I t i s the w o r l d ' s t h i r d d e e p e s t l a k e , b e h i n d L a k e
T a n g a n y i k a , w h i c h lies just t o the n o r t h , and L a k e Baikal i n A s i a , w h i c h i s the
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D
d e e p e s t . L a k e M a l a w i i s 2 , 3 0 0 f e e t d e e p , n e a r l y half a m i l e , w i t h the surface at an e l e v a t i o n of 1,550 f e e t a b o v e sea l e v e l , and its d e e p e s t p o i n t at 7 5 0 f e e t b e l o w sea l e v e l . T h e L a k e i s fresh and b l u e , f i l l e d b y y e a r l y rains. I t drains t o the s o u t h , via t h e Shire R i v e r t o the Z a m b e z i . T h e Z a m b e z i f l o w s i n t o the Indian O c e a n south of C h i n d e in M o z a m b i q u e . M a l a w i is a beautiful s e t t i n g , and i t has b o n e s — l o t s o f t h e m .
AFRICA
HAS
BEEN f o r e v e r t h e m o s t i n t r o v e r t e d o f i n h a b i t e d c o n t i n e n t s .
T h e r e is no w a y a r o u n d the c l i c h e . It has a m y s t i q u e , a l e g a c y of e x o t i c t r i b e s , w i l d a n i m a l s , diseases, the u n k n o w n . F o r c e n t u r i e s the A r a b s , British, F r e n c h , G e r m a n s , and P o r t u g u e s e w e r e h e l d a t bay b y the f e v e r s o f D a r k e s t A f r i c a . Still the slavers and e x p l o r e r s , t r a d e r s and p l a n t e r s , and the m e n l i k e L i v i n g s t o n e — w h i t e s w i t h a m i s s i o n o f G o d — i n v a d e d the c o n t i n e n t . T h e y c a m e , and t h e y t o o k , and s o m e o f t h e m b e l i e v e d t h e y s a v e d .
But A f r i c a , t h o u g h
changed, was n o t assimilated. A c e n t u r y has passed. A f r i c a , its p e o p l e , and its animals are e x o t i c to this d a y . I t r e m a i n s u n k n o w n t o u s i n t h e W e s t . T h e m y s t i q u e r e m a i n s . But the m y s t i q u e e v o l v e s . T h e r e are still snakes, and s c o r p i o n s , and malaria. T h e r e i s m o r e w i l d g a m e than a n y w h e r e e l s e o n Earth. But a n e w set o f p r o b l e m s has taken o v e r t h e c o n t i n e n t . Starvation r e p l a c e s s l a v e r y . T h e r e a l i t y o f A I D S surpasses t h e d r e a d o f o t h e r diseases. T h e s p e c t e r o f e x t i n c t i o n supplants the e x c i t e m e n t o f d i s c o v e r y . O n safari, strings o f p o r t e r s h a v e lost t h e i r j o b s t o L a n d C r u i s e r s . A n d n o w w e s h o o t w i t h c a m e r a s . But the m y s t i q u e r e m a i n s . T h e mystique of Africa attracted m e , yet h o w I g o t there was as much an a c c i d e n t , an u n p r e d i c t a b l e set of c i r c u m s t a n c e s , as it w a s anything e l s e . F o r the kinds o f things I w a n t e d t o d o , g e t t i n g t o A f r i c a has n e v e r b e e n particularly easy. A s i t e n d e d u p , i n 1981 I w e n t t o w o r k f o r R i c h a r d L e a k e y a s head o f t h e D i v i s i o n o f P a l a e o n t o l o g y a t the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m s o f K e n y a . T h e L e a k e y f a m i l y and K e n y a , f i r m l y set i n the C r a d l e o f H u m a n k i n d , are f a m o u s f o r t h e i r d i s c o v e r i e s o f the r e m a i n s o f o u r early ancestors a t O l d u v a i G o r g e , L a k e T u r k a n a , and o t h e r places i n East A f r i c a . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e i s a s u p e r b c o l l e c t i o n o f o l d b o n e s f r o m the R i f t V a l l e y and L a k e V i c t o r i a s t o r e d i n the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m i n N a i r o b i , w h e r e R i c h a r d w a s d i r e c t o r . I t w a s m y responsibility
- r a v great fun—
to oversee them.
I g o t t h e j o b in N a i r o b i because I w a s in the r i g h t p l a c e at the r i g h t t i m e . T h e small m u s e u m i n A r i z o n a w h e r e I had b e e n w o r k i n g f o r the t h r e e years
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA
since g e t t i n g m y P h . D . w a s laying o f f r e s e a r c h e r s , and I w a s o n e m a r k e d t o go.
I
figured
I
would
be
out
o f the
bone
business
altogether
and
into
s o m e t h i n g e l s e , m a y b e selling s h o e s . It r e a l l y d i d n o t m a t t e r w h a t I d i d if I was n o t d o i n g fossils. I r a t i o n a l i z e d that the
fieldwork
I had d o n e p r e v i o u s l y
i n the w e s t e r n U n i t e d States, M e x i c o , and Pakistan d u r i n g t h e t i m e that I w a s lucky e n o u g h t o b e a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t had b e e n its o w n r e w a r d . C i r c u m s t a n c e s w e r e just m o v i n g m e o n . M y o n g o i n g f i e l d w o r k a t the t i m e w a s i n Pakistan. I had b e e n g o i n g t h e r e f o r the past six years as p a r t of a l a r g e r p r o j e c t t r y i n g to u n r a v e l the A s i a n chapter of human e v o l u t i o n ,
that o f t h e last e i g h t e e n m i l l i o n y e a r s ,
from
fossils f o u n d i n t h e s o u t h e r n f o o t h i l l s o f t h e H i m a l a y a s . T h e r e a r e similarities i n the fossil r e c o r d b e t w e e n Asia and A f r i c a i n d i c a t i n g that t h e r e w a s i n the past a certain a m o u n t o f m i g r a t i o n i n v o l v i n g a n u m b e r o f kinds o f a n i m a l s , i n c l u d i n g p r i m a t e s , s o m e o f w h i c h are c l o s e l y associated w i t h h u m a n ancestry.
T h e r e are m a n y kinds o f fossils f o u n d i n Pakistan,
and m y particular
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w a s t o f i n d , c o l l e c t , and i n t e r p r e t t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y p a t t e r n s o f all the t i n y m a m m a l s , such as m i c e , the o n e s so small that t h e y had b e e n overlooked before.
Because t h e y can b e f o u n d i n m u c h g r e a t e r a b u n d a n c e
than h o m i n o i d p r i m a t e s w h e n s e a r c h e d f o r w i t h the a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n i q u e s , the small m a m m a l s p r o v i d e useful m o d e l s f o r e v o l u t i o n i n s o u t h e r n A s i a g e n e r a l l y , and t h e y r e f l e c t c l o s e ties t o A f r i c a . I had at least o n e m o r e t r i p to Pakistan left w h i l e I still had a j o b .
It
o c c u r r e d t o m e that, since I w a s g o i n g t o b e o u t o f t h e business a n y w a y , I should have a final fling and do w h a t I had l o n g w a n t e d to d o . I should h a v e m y last p l a n e t i c k e t h o m e f r o m K a r a c h i w r i t t e n t h r o u g h A f r i c a b e c a u s e , I t h o u g h t , I w o u l d n e v e r g e t a n o t h e r c h a n c e t o see it. As
circumstances
would
have
it,
a t this
same
time
p a l e o n t o l o g y just h a p p e n e d t o b e m o v i n g o n a s w e l l . Leakey was in L o n d o n . project. position.
L e a k e y ' s head
of
Unbeknownst to m e ,
S o w a s D a v i d P i l b e a m , the l e a d e r o f t h e Pakistan
L e a k e y m e n t i o n e d that h e n e e d e d a r e p l a c e m e n t t o f i l l the vacant David
gave
my
name.
Meanwhile,
while
they
were
talking
in
L o n d o n , I w a s i n t h e f i e l d i n Pakistan talking a b o u t A f r i c a w i t h A n d r e w H i l l , one o f Leakey's e m p l o y e e s f r o m the m u s e u m i n N a i r o b i . A n d r e w w o u l d n o t b e i n N a i r o b i w h e n I w e n t t h r o u g h , b u t h e g a v e m e the k e y s t o his flat and a l e t t e r o f i n t r o d u c t i o n t o take t o R i c h a r d . I m e t L e a k e y f o r the first t i m e on that t r i p .
It w a s in his office at t h e
m u s e u m . I t h o u g h t it w a s just an o p p o r t u n i t y to m e e t h i m as a c o l l e a g u e . But
LOUIS
it was a j o b i n t e r v i e w .
There I was,
JACOBS,
PH.D.
i n f o r m a l , u n t u c k e d , r o l l e d u p , and
b e t h o n g e d . Because 1 d i d n o t k n o w o f t h e w o r d s b e t w e e n D a v i d , A n d r e w , and R i c h a r d , I w a s i g n o r a n t , u n a w a r e , and a n y t h i n g b u t n e r v o u s . T h a t m u s t h a v e b e e n w h a t d i d it. " I a m l o o k i n g t o h i r e s o m e o n e , " said L e a k e y .
T H E NEXT N O V E M B E R B o n n i e and I g o t m a r r i e d . She w a s still i n g r a d u a t e s c h o o l a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a , s t u d y i n g fossil p o l l e n and w h a t i t tells a b o u t a n c i e n t plants and e n v i r o n m e n t s . A m o n t h after w e g o t m a r r i e d , I left f o r A f r i c a w h i l e B o n n i e stayed b e h i n d t o w o r k o n h e r r e s e a r c h . I n A p r i l , after her P h . D . dissertation t o o k shape, Bonnie j o i n e d m e i n N a i r o b i . O u r African e x p e r i e n c e had b e g u n , and i t w a s e x c i t i n g f o r u s b o t h . B o n n i e set u p a p o l l e n l a b o r a t o r y and I w o r k e d w i t h b o n e s . A n d I n e v e r had t o g e t o u t o f the fossil business. M a n y o f m y duties i n K e n y a ran a u t o m a t i c a l l y . T h e staff w a s w e l l t r a i n e d and q u i t e pleasant. A l l the c u r a t o r s k n e w t h e i r f u n c t i o n s l o n g b e f o r e I a r r i v e d . A l f r e d a , M a r y , E m m a , A l i c e , and t h e o t h e r s n e e d e d l i t t l e s u p e r v i s i o n . T h e y l o o k e d after the c o l l e c t i o n s and I h e l p e d l o o k a f t e r f o r e i g n r e s e a r c h e r s .
I
c o n d u c t e d t r a i n i n g classes that h e l p e d t h e staff i n t h e i r w o r k and h e l p e d m e t o l e a r n A f r i c a n fossils. O n e o f m y g r e a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s — a n d p l e a s u r e s — i n L e a k e y ' s a b s e n c e w a s t o s h o w visitors t h r o u g h the c a t h e d r a l l i k e vault h o l d i n g t h e s a c r e d f o s s i l i z e d r e m a i n s o f h u m a n a n c e s t o r s . S o m e t i m e s the visitors w e r e d i g n i t a r i e s , such a s the f o r m e r s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l o f the U n i t e d N a t i o n s f r o m V e n e z u e l a , Javier P e r e z d e Akihito,
Cuellar,
o r the
C r o w n Prince,
now Emperor
o f Japan.
T h e v i e w i n g o f the p r i m a t e fossils, t h o s e m o s t majestic relics o f h u m a n e v o l u t i o n , each o n e d e l i c a t e l y c u s h i o n e d i n a c u s t o m - m a d e p r o t e c t i v e b o x , i s a s o l e m n c e r e m o n y i n d e e d . O n e b y o n e the b o x e s are r e m o v e d f r o m steel c a b i n e t s and p l a c e d on p a d d e d t a b l e s . T h e n s l o w l y , a t o p is l i f t e d , a s p e c i m e n i s b a t h e d i n soft light.
D u r i n g that f i r s t m o m e n t e v e r y o n e i n the v a u l t ,
e v e r y o n e w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , i s struck w i t h t h e s a m e a w e s o m e e m o t i o n . I t i s a b l o w that r e v e r b e r a t e s t h r o u g h the r e a c h e s o f h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s , like t h u n d e r b u t m o r e pleasant, d e a f e n i n g y e t stirring d e e p i n t o t h e soul. T o b e i n the p r e s e n c e o f such t r e m e n d o u s fossil
r e m i n d e r s o f o u r c o m m o n and
distant past i s a m o v i n g e x p e r i e n c e l i k e n o o t h e r , n o t r e l i g i o u s but inspiring all the m o r e . F r o m that v a n t a g e p o i n t , w i t h the vast e v o l u t i o n a r y distances
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA
o u r species has t r a v e l e d c l e a r l y in v i e w , t a n g i b l e and c r e d i b l e , it is but a s h o r t step t o the f u t u r e . N o o t h e r set o f fossils s o f o r c e f u l l y e m p h a s i z e s the n o t i o n that the w o r l d o f t o m o r r o w w i l l b e shaped b y the a c t i o n s o f t h o s e l i v i n g t o d a y because n o o t h e r set o f fossils d e m o n s t r a t e s s o frankly that w e o u r s e l v e s are the e a r t h l y p r o d u c t o f the lives o f distant and e q u a l l y e a r t h l y a n t e c e d e n t s .
O N SAFARI I N T O t h e A f r i c a n bush I s a w vast h e r d s o f a n t e l o p e , f a m i l i e s o f elephants,
and p r i d e s o f l i o n s .
C r o c o d i l e s basked o n the
w a r m banks o f
w a t e r c o u r s e s . I t r a v e l e d t h r o u g h d e e p r e d soil o n dusty r o a d s that h u n g l i k e native necklaces around
Mount Kenya,
s t r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r small
vegetable
p l o t s and s t e e p , hillside m a i z e shambas, d a n g l i n g f r o m t h e b y w a y s like b a n g l e s in
the
cool
K i k u y u highlands.
m o l e h i l l o f the g o d s ,
The
magnificent
volcano
and the s p l e n d i d scar that i s the
Kilimanjaro,
the
Great Rift Valley
testified t o the g e o l o g i c a l t e n s i o n c o n c e a l e d b e n e a t h t h e A f r i c a n l a n d s c a p e , c r e a t i n g i n places the c o n d i t i o n s just r i g h t f o r fossils. E v e n a t o u r h o m e , i n v i e w o f t h e N g o n g H i l l s , giraffe b r o w s e d b e l o w o u r h o u s e o u t s i d e t h e N a i r o b i suburb o f K a r e n . D u i k e r s ate t h e b e s t c a b b a g e s f r o m o u r g a r d e n . E a g l e o w l s r o o s t e d i n the t r e e s and g r u n t e d l i k e pigs i n t h e n i g h t .
Y e t while I was
s u r r o u n d e d b y this v i b r a n t w i l d l i f e and s u p e r b s c e n e r y , i n m y w o r k a t the m u s e u m I w a s i m m e r s e d i n l i f e ' s h i s t o r y — t h e r e m a i n s , e x c a v a t e d f r o m the Earth, of beasts and humans that e x i s t e d in past m i l l e n n i a . I d u g fossils m y s e l f f r o m the m u s t y m u d s t o n e o f the T u g e n H i l l s . D i r t f r o m the r o c k y g r a v e s o f ancient animals g r o u n d u n d e r m y f i n g e r n a i l s . A f r i c a is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p i e c e of t h e p u z z l e that is the fossil r e c o r d , and my
time
in
Nairobi
complemented
what
f i e l d w o r k i n b o t h N o r t h A m e r i c a and A s i a .
I
had
already
observed
in
my
I e n j o y e d b e i n g i n the A f r i c a n
s e t t i n g , l e a r n i n g w h a t A f r i c a had t o say a b o u t h o w life c h a n g e d f r o m the b o n e s o f t h e past t o the flesh and b l o o d o f t o d a y . M o s t o f m y r e s e a r c h e x p e r i e n c e w a s w i t h m a m m a l s — t h o s e animals that, w h i l e l i v i n g , h a v e fur, p r o d u c e m i l k , and s h o w p a r e n t a l care o f t h e i r y o u n g . In fact, as I m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , I w a s a specialist on rats d u e to my d o c t o r a l research o n fossil r o d e n t t e e t h f r o m Pakistan. I t s e e m s o d d t o say i t n o w , s o m u c h o u t o f c o n t e x t , but that i s w h a t I g o t m y P h . D . f o r — f o s s i l rats, m i l l i o n s o f years o l d . I t m a y s e e m o d d a l s o , b u t t h e y a r e v e r y , v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g . T h e i r fossils speak o f t h e i r o w n special e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y , b u t b e c a u s e t h e y a r e o f t e n abundant a s fossils, t h e y can s e r v e t o r e s o l v e g e o l o g i c t i m e . T h e y can
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D
e v e n t e l l u s a b o u t e v o l u t i o n a r y p h e n o m e n a that m i g h t also affect o t h e r kinds o f a n i m a l s , a n a l o g o u s t o t h e w a y l a b o r a t o r y m i c e are used i n m e d i c a l e x p e r i ments as m o d e l s for humans. T h e r e a r e p l e n t y o f fossil m a m m a l s i n A f r i c a , and s t u d y i n g fossil rats w o u l d h a v e b e e n the l o g i c a l w a y f o r m e t o p r o c e e d .
A n d i n fact I h a v e k e p t a n
i n t e r e s t in t h e m . But I w a s i n t e r e s t e d in o t h e r things and o t h e r animals as w e l l . I w a n t e d a n o t h e r r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t . O n e that w a s n e w t o m e and o u t o f t h e o r d i n a r y . T h a t i s a b i g o r d e r i n A f r i c a , w h e r e all p r o j e c t s a r e , b y nature o f t h e i r v e n u e , o u t o f t h e o r d i n a r y . I w a n t e d s o m e t h i n g that w o u l d m a k e a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e w o r l d o f fossils. A t t h e t i m e , t h e r e w a s o n l y o n e d i n o s a u r b o n e k n o w n f r o m all o f K e n y a , and i t w a s f r o m a n e x t r e m e l y r e m o t e area w e s t o f L a k e T u r k a n a . I c o u l d see i t e v e r y day b e c a u s e i t w a s o n display a t the M u s e u m i n N a i r o b i . I t had b e e n f o u n d years e a r l i e r , but n o p a l e o n t o l o g i s t since had b e e n back t o t h e s p o t . I w a s n o t , a t that t i m e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n d i n o s a u r s . T h e y w e r e f o r k i d s , and m u c h t o o p o p u l a r f o r a n e g g h e a d scientist like m e . B e s i d e s , d i d w e n o t a l r e a d y k n o w e v e r y t h i n g w o r t h k n o w i n g a b o u t dinosaurs? W h a t I w a s i n t e r ested in was w h a t might be found w i t h t h e m . T h e r e could be early m a m m a l s in t h e s a m e strata. I k n e w that unless A f r i c a w a s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r e s t o f the w o r l d d u r i n g the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , the r o c k s that the K e n y a n d i n o s a u r b o n e had c o m e f r o m c o u l d b e n o y o u n g e r than 6 6 m i l l i o n years o l d . T h a t w a s w h e n dinosaurs w e n t e x t i n c t , l o n g b e f o r e any o f t h e fossil m a m m a l s k n o w n f r o m K e n y a had l i v e d . If dinosaur bones w e r e p r e s e r v e d in those ancient sediments, other bones c o u l d b e a s w e l l . I f I c o u l d f i n d m a m m a l s , any m a m m a l s , f r o m that p a r t o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s i n A f r i c a , I w o u l d m a k e a significant scientific c o n t r i b u t i o n t o w a r d k n o w i n g h o w t h e kinds o f animals w e see t o d a y e v o l v e d . Such a f i n d w o u l d b e v e r y , v e r y i m p o r t a n t . T h e fossils w o u l d b e t i n y . T h e y w o u l d b e s t r a n g e . T h e y w o u l d b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m a n y t h i n g k n o w n t o d a y , b u t just h o w t h e y w o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t I c o u l d n o t say b e c a u s e n o o n e had e v e r s e e n t h e m b e f o r e . M o s t l i k e l y o n l y t h e i r t e e t h , t h e h a r d e s t , m o s t d u r a b l e parts o f t h e b o d y , w o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d . T h e y w o u l d b e m i n u t e . Each s p e c i m e n w o u l d n e s t l e snugly on t h e head of a p i n . But I k n e w I c o u l d find t h e m ; I w o u l d use the s a m e t e c h n i q u e s I had used p r e v i o u s l y to find s i n g l e , i s o l a t e d rat t e e t h in much younger rocks. I a p p r o a c h e d L e a k e y f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o search f o r m a m m a l s i n the dinosaur b e d s w e s t o f L a k e T u r k a n a . I t w a s n o t f o r t h c o m i n g . H e said n o . T h e reasons w e r e l e g i t i m a t e , but I was shattered. W h a t was I to do? I was convinced of
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA //
the scientific i m p o r t a n c e o f f i n d i n g e a r l y m a m m a l s i n A f r i c a , y e t I c o u l d n o t g o t o the s p o t I had p i c k e d t o search. I e x a m i n e d m a p s o f K e n y a t o f i n d suitable r o c k s s o m e w h e r e e l s e . T h e r e w e r e s o m e d o w n b y t h e c o a s t , a b i t o l d , b u t still i n t e r e s t i n g , a b o u t f o r t y m i l e s inland f r o m the o l d A r a b p o r t c i t y o f M o m b a s a . B o n n i e s e a r c h e d w i t h m e . N o luck. D i s a p p o i n t e d but n o t d e f e a t e d , i t w a s n o t i n t h e cards f o r m e t o f i n d early m a m m a l s i n K e n y a . I r e t r e a t e d f r o m the K e n y a coast. Still I c o u l d n o t g i v e u p . I r e a d a b o u t o t h e r A f r i c a n d i n o s a u r s , t r y i n g t o l o c a t e a n o t h e r p l a c e t o g o i n search o f e a r l y m a m m a l s . A f r i c a n dinosaurs h a v e n o t b e e n f o u n d in all that m a n y p l a c e s . Fish-eating Spinosaurus ( F i g u r e 2) and a f e w o t h e r s w e r e k n o w n f r o m E g y p t . T h e y had b e e n c o l l e c t e d b y G e r m a n s and s h i p p e d o f f t o E u r o p e , b u t m o s t o f t h e i r b o n e s w e r e d e s t r o y e d i n W o r l d W a r I I w h e n Stuttgart w a s b o m b e d b y A l l i e d f o r c e s . T h e F r e n c h had a f e w localities i n r e m o t e N o r t h A f r i c a . T h e star d i n o s a u r l o c a l i t y i n f r a n c o p h o n e (French-speaking) W e s t Africa is Gadoufaoua in N i g e r . At Gadoufaoua beautiful b o n e s o f t h e t w o - l e g g e d , s a i l - b a c k e d , h e r b i v o r o u s Ouranosaurus ( F i g u r e 3 ) w e r e f o u n d , a l o n g w i t h bits and p i e c e s and s k e l e t o n s o f f i s h , t u r t l e s , c r o c o d i l e s , and o t h e r d i n o s a u r s .
T h e F r e n c h w e r e r u m o r e d t o b e searching f o r
mammals there. O f the a g e I w a s i n t e r e s t e d i n , o n e l e g b o n e w a s k n o w n f r o m M o z a m b i q u e , a f e w scraps w e r e r e p o r t e d f r o m Z a m b i a , and a f e w m o r e f r o m Z i m b a b w e . A small handful
of localities w e r e
containing only
the
scattered around
f r a g m e n t a r y parts
of single
southern Africa,
skeletons.
Together
each they
added up to a m e a g e r r e c o r d . W h a t I n e e d e d was a locality rich in b o n e so that tiny m a m m a l s m i g h t h a v e a g r e a t e r c h a n c e o f b e i n g e n t o m b e d i n the s e d i m e n t s a l o n g w i t h any dinosaur parts.
E v e n w i t h all these- r e p o r t s , and
d e s p i t e a l o n g h i s t o r y o f e x p e d i t i o n s , t h e r e w a s n o d e n y i n g that A f r i c a w a s v e r y n e a r l y a f o r g o t t e n land f o r dinosaurs and the animals that l i v e d w i t h t h e m . I d e c i d e d that the b e s t p l a c e f o r m e t o g o f o r w h a t I w a n t e d t o d o w a s T e n d a g u r u in southern Tanzania. T h e grandest c o l l e c t i o n of dinosaur b o n e s e v e r t o c o m e o u t o f A f r i c a i s f r o m t h e r e . I t i s hard t o i m a g i n e a site r i c h e r i n dinosaurs. I t ranks a s o n e o f t h e t r u l y g r e a t d i n o s a u r l o c a l i t i e s o f the w o r l d . T e n d a g u r u ! Its n a m e c o n j u r e s u p the A f r i c a n m y s t i q u e . E v e r y t h i n g a b o u t T e n d a g u r u and its l o n g h i s t o r y m a d e m e w a n t t o g o t h e r e . T h e r e w a s e v e n a t r a d i t i o n l i n k i n g i t t o the m u s e u m i n N a i r o b i .
Louis Leakey,
Richard's
father, s e r v e d o n the f i r s t British e x p e d i t i o n t o T e n d a g u r u i n 1 9 2 4 w h e n this part o f T a n z a n i a w a s c a l l e d T a n g a n y i k a . Fate t o o k L o u i s L e a k e y t o T e n d a g u r u . W h i l e a s t u d e n t a t C a m b r i d g e , h e
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
12
FIGURE lungflsh.
2:
SPINOSAURUS,
a
carnivorous
shipped them to Europe, Stuttgart during
World
Africa,
eating
a
large
projections from
the
who
where they were destroyed in the Allied bombing of
War II.
SPINOSAURUS has a long,
suggests it might have eaten fish, long
dinosaur from
Bones of this beast were found in Egypt by German expeditions,
narrow snout,
which
and a saillike hump on its back supported by
vertebrae.
Like
other
of SPINOSAURUS would show three pointed toes.
carnivorous
dinosaurs,
the footprints
THE
FIGURE
FORGOTTEN
3:
DINOSAURS
OURANOSAURUS,
an
first discovered by the French the
OF
AFRICA
herbivorous dinosaur from Africa.
in
West Africa.
Although
vertebrae supporting a saillike hump similar to
SPINOSAURUS,
the two are not closely related.
grouped with
the duck-billed dinosaurs.
formidably
clawed
than
those
was
has long projections off
that seen
in
meat-eating
OURANOSAURUS is a plant-eater
Its footprints
of carnivorous
it
This dinosaur
would show blunter toes,
less
dinosaurs.
w a s k i c k e d i n the h e a d , t w i c e , i n a r u g b y m a t c h . T h i s caused his c r a n i u m t o ache w h e n e v e r h e c o n c e n t r a t e d . Studies w e r e o u t ; h e w a s f o r c e d t o take a y e a r ' s l e a v e . B e i n g b o r n i n K e n y a o f m i s s i o n a r y p a r e n t s , and b e i n g fluent i n Kiswahili,
a language used w i d e l y across East A f r i c a ,
he had the A f r i c a n
e x p e r i e n c e the e x p e d i t i o n n e e d e d and the t i m e o f f f r o m his studies t o a l l o w h i m t o take part i n the w o r k o f e x c a v a t i n g dinosaurs i n t h e c o n t i n e n t that w a s his h o m e .
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
14 E v e n b e f o r e L o u i s L e a k e y , T e n d a g u r u had a n illustrious history i n the annals o f p a l e o n t o l o g y . B o n e s w e r e f i r s t d i s c o v e r e d t h e r e b y a G e r m a n m i n i n g e n g i n e e r in Ostafrika.
By
1907,
in w h a t w a s t h e n c a l l e d
G e r m a n East A f r i c a ,
Deutsch-
1909 there was an e x p e d i t i o n under w a y , w e l l financed, for
G e r m a n h o n o r , t h r o u g h the d o g g e d d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the d i r e c t o r o f B e r l i n ' s n a t u r a l - h i s t o r y m u s e u m . E x c a v a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d f o r f i v e years until January 1 9 1 3 . A t the h e i g h t o f f i e l d w o r k n e a r l y f i v e h u n d r e d l a b o r e r s w e r e e m p l o y e d , all o f w h o m , and m a n y o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s , had t o b e p r o v i d e d w i t h f o o d and water.
I m a g i n e the logistics o f s u p p l y i n g a small t o w n f u l o f e x c a v a t o r s i n
t r o p i c a l A f r i c a e i g h t y years a g o . A f r i c a n c r e w s w o r k e d i n t h e pits u n d e r t h e w a t c h f u l e y e s o f t h e i r w h i t e s u p e r v i s o r s , scratching h u g e b o n e s f r o m t h e Earth. Each fossil w a s encased i n plaster o r c o v e r e d w i t h r e d m u d t o p r o t e c t i t f r o m d a m a g e .
T h e n i t was
c u s h i o n e d i n d r y grass and c r a t e d i n c y l i n d e r s o f b a m b o o slats and r o u n d c r o s s - s e c t i o n s o f l o g s . M o r e than 2 5 0 t o n s , w e l l o v e r f i v e thousand m a n - l o a d s o f fossils, each c a r r i e d o n a n aching s h o u l d e r o r t e e t e r i n g a t o p a t h r o b b i n g h e a d , w e r e t r a n s p o r t e d o v e r f i f t y m i l e s f r o m T e n d a g u r u t o the Indian O c e a n a t L i n d i t o b e s h i p p e d t o E u r o p e . I m a g i n e t h e e n d l e s s lines o f p o r t e r s snaking t h e i r w a y f o r days t o w a r d the c o a s t . T h i s w a s t h e A f r i c a o f t h e m o v i e s . N e v e r b e f o r e has t h e r e b e e n a d i n o s a u r e x p e d i t i o n of such m a g n i t u d e . It is difficult t o c o n c e i v e o f t h e r e e v e r b e i n g o n e l i k e i t again. In
1 9 1 4 , a t the h e i g h t o f the G e r m a n T e n d a g u r u e x p e d i t i o n s , the First
W o r l d W a r spread t o A f r i c a f r o m E u r o p e . Africa of the m o v i e s , Hepburn
in
because
The African
Queen.
our only But the
F o r m o s t o f u s this i s also the
familiarity
with
war was real.
it is
The
B o g a r t and
c o m m a n d e r of
G e r m a n f o r c e s i n East A f r i c a w a s Paul v o n L e t t o w - V o r b e c k , w h o s e n a m e s a k e is t h e T e n d a g u r u d i n o s a u r Dryosaurus lettowvorbecki.
Lake Malawi
in A u g u s t
1 9 1 4 w a s t h e v e n u e o f t h e f i r s t British naval v i c t o r y o f the w a r . T h e British s t e a m s h i p Guendolen fired u p o n a G e r m a n g u n b o a t , the Hermann von Wissman, w h i l e i t w a s b e a c h e d f o r r e p a i r s . T h e G e r m a n c a p t a i n , w h o k n e w the British captain as a f r i e n d , r o w e d o u t to the Guendolen to find o u t w h a t w a s h a p p e n ing.
He was placed under arrest.
G e r m a n y l o s t the
w a r and its A f r i c a n c o l o n i e s .
The
Cameroons were
d i v i d e d b e t w e e n Britain and F r a n c e . N a m i b i a b e c a m e a S o u t h A f r i c a n p r o t e c torate.
Deutsch-Ostafrika b e c a m e T a n g a n y i k a T e r r i t o r y in British East A f r i c a .
T h u s t h e stage w a s set f o r t h e British M u s e u m t o e n t e r T e n d a g u r u , w h i c h i t d i d a d e c a d e l a t e r . A n d , w i t h t h e British e n t r y i n t o T e n d a g u r u , the L e a k e y f a m i l y , b e c a u s e o f L o u i s ' s a c h i n g h e a d , e n t e r e d i n t o the w o r l d o f dinosaurs.
THE
FORGOTTEN
The
leader
DINOSAURS
o f the
first
British
OF
AFRICA
Tendaguru
expedition
was
a
Canadian
dinosaur h u n t e r n a m e d W . E . C u t l e r . H e had n e v e r b e e n t o A f r i c a b e f o r e , and that is w h y L o u i s L e a k e y , w i t h his k n o w l e d g e of A f r i c a as a n a t i v e - b o r n K e n y a n , w a s s o v a l u a b l e t o the e x p e d i t i o n . L e a k e y p r o c e e d e d b e f o r e C u t l e r f r o m L o n d o n t o L i n d i o n the A f r i c a n c o a s t , t h e n , w i t h fifteen p o r t e r s , h e set off u p - c o u n t r y t o T e n d a g u r u . Eight w e e k s l a t e r , i n June 1 9 2 4 , L e a k e y g u i d e d C u t l e r t o the c a m p h e had b u i l t . T h e t w o wazungu, hundred laborers,
whites, hired about a
s o m e f r o m a s far a w a y a s N y a s a l a n d ,
now Malawi.
In
O c t o b e r L e a k e y left f o r E n g l a n d w h i l e C u t l e r r e m a i n e d . N i n e m o n t h s later C u t l e r w a s d e a d o f malaria. C u t l e r w a s r e p l a c e d b y F . W . H . M i g e o d . H e had A f r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e f r o m his civil s e r v i c e b a c k g r o u n d , b u t h e w a s n o t a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t . I n 1 9 3 0 M i g e o d and a n assistant,
Rex
e x p l o r a t o r y side t r i p
Parrington,
a y o u n g C a m b r i d g e student,
made
an
f r o m Tendaguru to Nyasaland to d e t e r m i n e if bones
r e p o r t e d f r o m the n o r t h w e s t e r n s h o r e o f L a k e N y a s a ,
Livingstone's lake,
w e r e like t h o s e o f T e n d a g u r u . T h e y c r o s s e d t h e lake o n t h e Guendolen,
the
same ship that s i x t e e n years e a r l i e r had s c o r e d the W o r l d W a r I naval v i c t o r y against the G e r m a n s . M i g e o d n o t o n l y f o u n d d i n o s a u r s , h e also f o u n d o t h e r kinds o f b o n e s i n r o c k s o l d e r and y o u n g e r than t h e d i n o s a u r b e d s . A f t e r t w o months he returned to T e n d a g u r u . abandoned
Tendaguru
and
East
I n January
African
1931
dinosaurs.
the British M u s e u m No
one
has
seriously
w o r k e d there since. T h e British e f f o r t w a s n o w h e r e n e a r l y s o w e l l financed a s the G e r m a n e x p e d i t i o n s . C o n s e q u e n t l y the t w o w e r e o f d i f f e r e n t scales, and t h e i r results w e r e o f d i f f e r e n t m a g n i t u d e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e l d u p against any digs e x c e p t those o f the G e r m a n s a t T e n d a g u r u , the British e x p e d i t i o n s w e r e e x c e p t i o n a l . B o t h the G e r m a n s and t h e British o p e n e d q u a r r i e s i n t h e hilly c o u n t r y s i d e f o r a t w o - m i l e s t r e t c h f r o m n o r t h t o s o u t h , and a l m o s t the s a m e distance f r o m east t o w e s t . sediments
A l l t h r o u g h the area d i n o s a u r b o n e s lay e n t o m b e d i n r i v e r
145 m i l l i o n years o l d .
T h e dinosaurs o f T e n d a g u r u a r e n o t s o
different f r o m t h o s e o f t h e s a m e a g e i n U t a h , o r W y o m i n g , o r C o l o r a d o . L i k e their N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e c o u s i n s ,
the b o n e s b e l o n g e d t o m e n a c i n g car-
n i v o r e s , giant h e r b i v o r e s , l i g h t - b o n e d c o e l u r o s a u r s , and o t h e r e x t i n c t m e m b e r s o f t h e dinosaur c o m m u n i t y ( F i g u r e 4 ) . North American
Stegosaurus,
w i t h its r o w s o f t r i a n g u l a r plates r u n n i n g
d o w n its back t o t h e s p i k e d e n d o f its tail, has its T e n d a g u r u c o u n t e r p a r t i n Kentrosaurus, w i t h an e q u a l l y s m a l l , l o n g h e a d , b u t w i t h spikes r e p l a c i n g plates h i g h e r u p a l o n g the r u m p . T h e s e animals f e d o n v e g e t a t i o n l o w t o the g r o u n d .
FIGURE 4: African life famous fossil beds at
145 million years ago. Tendaguru,
Tanzania.
bays of the ancient East African coast.
This scene is a reconstruction of the
Dinosaurs lived along the shores and
Here ALLOSAURUS, a carnivore, spies a group
of the giraffe-necked sauropod BRiCHiosAURUS.
The plated stegosaur KENTROSAURUS
and the lightly built carnivore ELAPHROSAURUS are in DRYOSAURUS is in the far left.
Plant-eating
The trees are related to living monkey puzzles.
also cycads related to sego palms, pines.
the lower left.
horsetails,
There are
and low-growing conifers—relatives of
Notably missing are theflowering plants or angiosperms.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
A l s o l o w t o the g r o u n d w a s the s m a l l , p r i m i t i v e h e r b i v o r e Dryosaurus, scamp e r i n g i n g o a t l i k e f l o c k s , c o m m o n t o b o t h sides o f the e q u a t o r . Dicraeosaurus, w i t h its l o n g , sinuous n e c k , m i r r o r e d Diplodocus, and s o , t o o , b u t t o a lesser degree,
d i d Janenschia.
B i g Barosaurus l i v e d o n b o t h c o n t i n e n t s .
These w e r e
h u g e , f o u r - f o o t e d beasts. A s g i g a n t i c h e r b i v o r e s , t h e y w o r r i e d t h e t r e e s f o r f o d d e r to fill their bellies.
F e r o c i o u s AUosaurus,
w i t h d a g g e r s f o r t e e t h that
w e r e half a f o o t l o n g , p r e y e d o n w h i c h e v e r v i c t i m failed t o p a r r y its thrust. A t T e n d a g u r u Brachiosaurus t o w e r e d o v e r t h e m all, its spectacular f o r t y - f o o t h e i g h t e m b a r r a s s i n g its n e i g h b o r s . I t s t o o d o n all fours w i t h its f o r e l i m b s l o n g e r than t h e h i n d . T h a t raised its c h e s t , g i v i n g i t w h a t s o m e o f u s m i g h t call a p r o u d s t a t u r e . A t t h e s u m m i t o f its v e r t i c a l , g i r a f f e l i k e n e c k b a l a n c e d its g r o t e s q u e l y small h e a d , a b o u t t h e size o f a n o t - s o - l a r g e b e a c h b a l l . T h e f o r e h e a d w a s high and d o m e d , w i t h nostrils a t t h e a p e x . T h e p r o g n a t h o u s j a w s e x t e n d e d f o r w a r d i n t o a n a b s u r d , t o o t h y d u c k ' s b i l l . T h e c r o w n s o f t h e t e e t h w e r e h a r d l y the size o f t e a s p o o n s . T e n l a r g e b u l l e l e p h a n t s , o r a f a m i l y h e r d o f f e m a l e s and y o u n g , w o u l d b a r e l y e q u a l the w e i g h t o f o n e o f these giants. T h i s beast c o u l d w e i g h m o r e than f i f t y t o n s , p e r h a p s a s m u c h a s e i g h t y . H o w c o u l d this animal maintain its b u l k f e e d i n g , as it had to d o , t h r o u g h such a small head? T h e b o n e s a t T e n d a g u r u are s o c o m m o n , and t h e l o o k o f t h e dinosaurs s o f a m i l i a r , at least in a g e n e r a l s o r t of w a y , that it is a m u s i n g , if n o t i n f o r m a t i v e , to s p e c u l a t e a b o u t t h e i r l i v e s . I m a g i n e Brachiosaurus,
its h u g e size m a k i n g it
a p p e a r t o m o v e a s i f i n s l o w m o t i o n , h e a d e r e c t o n a thin o b e l i s k o f a n e c k , the b o d y resting on legs like the c o l u m n s of an animate t e m p l e .
I t stops
w a l k i n g and dips its h e a d slightly t o p l u c k sprigs and n e e d l e s f r o m t h e t o p o f a c o n i f e r . T h e d e e p g r e e n f o l i a g e r i d e s a p e r i s t a l t i c w a v e d o w n its f i r e - h o s e e s o p h a g u s . T h e b o l u s halts a t t h e g i z z a r d t o b e g r o u n d b y m i l l s t o n e s c a l l e d g a s t r o l i t h s b e f o r e sliding o n t o b e c o m e e n g u l f e d i n the r o i l i n g , h o t mass o f c o m p o s t f e r m e n t i n g in the cavernous gut.
E n e r g y f o r the g r e a t b o d y p i g -
gybacked on billions of c o m m e n s a l m i c r o b e s .
Brachiosaurus i s a l w a y s w a r m .
T h e f e r m e n t i n g c o m p o s t i n its b e l l y and t h e thickness o f insulating f l e s h assure a
high
temperature.
Hot
blood
from
deep
in
the
coelomic
cavity flows
t h r o u g h p u m p i n g a r t e r i e s , t h i c k a s r o p e s , t h e n passes t h r o u g h capillaries and v e i n s that c a r r y t h e heat t o the b o d y ' s d r y surface. T h i s d i n o s a u r likes the c o o l i n g f e e l o f rain w a s h i n g t h e dust f r o m its r o u g h skin. I t likes the c o o l taste of w a t e r .
I m a g i n e Brachiosaurus a l i v e !
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA 19
THEY
NO
trosaurus,
LONGER breathe,
Dryosaurus,
but five skeletons f r o m T e n d a g u r u — K e n -
Dicraeosaurus,
Elaphrosaurus,
and t h e n o b l e Brachiosaurus—
can b e seen t o d a y a t the M u s e u m fur N a t u r k u n d e o n p u b l i c display i n w h a t w a s f o r m e r l y East B e r l i n . T h e y w e r e all o n c e a l i v e and m e m b e r s o f the s a m e community.
W h a t else c o u l d h a v e b e e n l i v i n g w i t h t h e m ? W i t h s o m a n y
dinosaur b o n e s , t h e r e had t o b e small animals a s w e l l . A n d i n fact t h e r e w e r e . The
Germans
collected
a n u m b e r o f animals
besides
dinosaurs
including
sharks, f i s h , c r o c o d i l e s , flying p t e r o s a u r s , and o n e s m a l l , b r o k e n f r a g m e n t o f a j a w w i t h the b o n e missing o n o n e side and all t h e t e e t h g o n e . But that w a s e n o u g h t o s h o w i t w a s a m a m m a l . T e n d a g u r u had just w h a t I w a s l o o k i n g f o r in a n e w project. I could go into T e n d a g u r u w i t h my techniques, I thought, virtually assured o f f i n d i n g w h a t I w a n t e d . I d i d n o t n e e d h u g e e x p e d i t i o n s . A l l I n e e d e d w a s a f e w t o n s o f g o o d , fossiliferous d i r t . I c o u l d e x t r a c t t i n y m a m m a l t e e t h f r o m that. T h e dinosaurs w e r e all k n o w n a n y w a y , right? W h a t I w o u l d f i n d w o u l d b e n e w . I t d i d n o t o c c u r t o m e a t the t i m e , e v e n t h o u g h I w a s w o r k i n g i n a m u s e u m , h o w i m p o r t a n t the dinosaurs o u g h t t o b e i n e d u c a t i n g the g e n e r a l p u b l i c a b o u t the life o f the past and a b o u t this w o r k i n particular. N o r d i d I r e a l i z e a t t h e t i m e t h e t r u l y e x c i t i n g scientific q u e s t i o n s that dinosaurs p o s e d . I s h o u l d h a v e , b u t I d i d n o t . I w a s t o o i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e t h o u g h t o f tiny m a m m a l s . Living in K e n y a as I d i d , the logistics of w o r k i n g at T e n d a g u r u w o u l d be m a n a g e a b l e . E v e n t h o u g h the b o r d e r w i t h T a n z a n i a w a s officially c l o s e d , i f I g o t c l e a r a n c e t o w o r k a t T e n d a g u r u , p e r m i s s i o n t o cross t h e b o r d e r w o u l d f o l l o w . A f t e r all, had n o t B o n n i e and I b e e n a l l o w e d t o cross t h e b o r d e r and visit M a r y L e a k e y a t O l d u v a i G o r g e ? I w o u l d d r i v e d o w n t o T e n d a g u r u f r o m N a i r o b i , taking e v e r y t h i n g I n e e d e d — f o o d , c o l l e c t i n g e q u i p m e n t , a d r u m o f d i e s e l — b e c a u s e n o t h i n g w a s available o n the o p e n m a r k e t i n T a n z a n i a a t that t i m e . I l o o k e d f o r w a r d anxiously to driving the length of the country. I was ready t o g o . B y this t i m e I had s o m e f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h h o w A f r i c a n b u r e a u c r a c i e s w o r k . T h e y are d i f f e r e n t f r o m A m e r i c a n b u r e a u c r a c i e s , b u t n o t necessarily w o r s e . B o t h can b e e q u a l l y frustrating.
I set a b o u t the s l o w p r o c e s s o f o b t a i n i n g
permission f r o m Tanzanian authorities. M y f i r s t overtures w e r e encouragingly received. " A n excellent p r o j e c t , " I was told.
" P l e a s e c o n t a c t t h e n e x t administra-
tor. T h i s c o n t i n u e d f o r s o m e t i m e . I w a s l u l l e d i n t o a n u n w a r r a n t e d sense o f
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
20 i m p e n d i n g success. I s h o u l d h a v e k n o w n b e t t e r . T h e d o o r s l a m m e d shut w h e n I w a s t o l d that it w a s a g r e a t p r o j e c t , and s o m e o n e else w a s d o i n g it. N o o n e else has.
W H A T NEXT? TWO t i m e s n o w , i n K e n y a and i n T a n z a n i a , I had b e e n unable t o g e t w h e r e I w a n t e d t o g o . T w o strikes. S h o u l d I just hang i t up? T h e r e w a s n o w a y I c o u l d d o that n o m a t t e r h o w d i s c o u r a g e d I w a s . A n d t h e n , w o u l d n ' t y o u k n o w it, just a t that t i m e , a s fate w o u l d h a v e it, a B e r k e l e y s t u d e n t , a n A f r i c a n s t u d y i n g i n C a l i f o r n i a , w a s visiting t h e M u s e u m i n N a i r o b i in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h his d o c t o r a l r e s e a r c h .
I t h o u g h t he w a s T a n z a n i a n .
I
e x p l a i n e d the situation t o h i m , searching f o r s o m e lead i n his responses that m i g h t g i v e a c l u e a s t o h o w I c o u l d s u r m o u n t t h e obstacles b e t w e e n m e and t h e fossils. Z e f e l o o k e d a t m e q u i z z i c a l l y a s I s p o k e t o h i m o f T a n z a n i a . " I a m f r o m M a l a w i , " h e said.
" C o m e t h e r e . W e h a v e dinosaur b e d s . "
T H E ROCKS ZEFE w a s t a l k i n g a b o u t , the s a m e o n e s M i g e o d and P a r r i n g t o n had v i s i t e d a l o n g L i v i n g s t o n e ' s lake i n 1 9 3 0 , t h e s a m e o n e s that had y i e l d e d s p e c i m e n s t o t h e British M u s e u m , s o u n d e d a l m o s t t o o g o o d . T r u e , t h e y did n o t h a v e t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f T e n d a g u r u f o r vast quantities o f b o n e , but o n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e area w a s m o r e r e m o t e . I t had b e e n v i s i t e d b u t n e v e r seriously w o r k e d b y a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t . Y o u n g e r than the D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e r o c k s o f t h e r i g h t a g e t o c o n t a i n Australopithecus, h u m a n k i n d ' s a n c e s t o r . Z e f e w a s d o i n g his P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n o n t h e m , and h e had f o u n d m a n y b o n e s w e a t h e r i n g o u t already.
Still y o u n g e r , t h e r e w a s i n t e r e s t i n g a r c h a e o l o g y , cultural r e m a i n s
f r o m t h e A f r i c a n S t o n e A g e . Still o l d e r than the D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e r o c k s w i t h fossils o f animals that w e r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y c o n s i d e r e d sort o f e v o l u t i o n a r i l y " h a l f w a y " b e t w e e n r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s b e c a u s e , a l t h o u g h t h e y are o n the mammalian l i m b of the evolutionary t r e e , they have a p r i m i t i v e , reptilian l o o k to them. A l l o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t a g e d r o c k s w i t h t h e i r w e a l t h o f fossils w e r e f o u n d i n the s a m e area o f n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . S u r e l y a n e x p e d i t i o n t o such a p l a c e w o u l d pay off. If I d i d n o t g e t e x a c t l y w h a t I w a n t e d in t h e D i n o s a u r B e d s , I w o u l d just m o v e i n t o y o u n g e r r o c k s . I f that d i d n o t w o r k , I w o u l d g o o l d e r . T h e state o f k n o w l e d g e o f A f r i c a n p a l e o n t o l o g y b e i n g w h a t i t w a s , I w a s sure t o find s o m e t h i n g significant. It w a s a n o - l o s e situation.
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA 21
Y e s , M a l a w i w a s the p l a c e t o g o . Z e f e had a j o b w a i t i n g f o r h i m a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s i n t h e capital, Ph.D.
We g o t along w e l l .
Lilongwe,
w h e n h e f i n i s h e d his
He was probably as happy to have a colleague
i n t e r e s t e d i n c o m i n g t o w o r k i n M a l a w i a s I w a s i n g o i n g t h e r e . I w o u l d study the b o n e s , Z e f e w o u l d study t h e r o c k s t h e y c a m e f r o m . T o g e t h e r w e w o u l d u n r a v e l the g e o l o g i c a l history o f M a l a w i , and p u t its fossils i n t o t h e w h o ' s w h o o f ancient l i f e . A l l that r e m a i n e d w a s t o d o i t . Z e f e and I d e c i d e d that w e w o u l d w a i t f o r his i m m i n e n t g r a d u a t i o n f r o m Berkeley. T h e n , with P h . D . in hand, he w o u l d return to M a l a w i . I w o u l d s u b m i t a p r o p o s a l t o t h e N a t i o n a l G e o g r a p h i c S o c i e t y f o r funds t o s u p p o r t o u r work.
I f w e g o t f u n d e d , w e w o u l d b e off.
I t w a s t w o years b e f o r e t h e plan w a s p u t i n t o a c t i o n .
MY
COMMITMENT
T O i n v e s t i g a t i n g the fossils o f M a l a w i s t e m s f r o m a d e e p
and c o n s i d e r e d c a l c u l a t i o n that t h e y w o u l d p r o v i d e a n i m p o r t a n t c h a p t e r i n the history o f l i f e . Serious study o f t h e h i s t o r y o f life g o e s back a l o n g , l o n g w a y , but a g o o d p l a c e t o start l o o k i n g a t i t i s w i t h C h a r l e s D a r w i n ( F i g u r e 5 ) . David Livingstone was a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f D a r w i n ' s w h o s e masterful w o r k p r o v i d e d a f o u n d a t i o n f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g e v o l u t i o n and f o r m a k i n g sense o u t o f fossils. L i v i n g s t o n e f i r s t v i s i t e d t h e shores o f L a k e M a l a w i i n 1 8 5 9 , the s a m e year D a r w i n published
The Origin of Species.
It w a s an e x c i t i n g t i m e in t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f g r e a t ideas.
FIGURE
5:
David Livingstone,
the Interior of Africa to the natural
selection
as
the
whose explorations and opposition Western
world,
mechanism for
and Charles Darwin,
evolution.
to slavery opened who elucidated
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
22 L i v i n g s t o n e w a s t r a i n e d i n t h e o l o g y and m e d i c i n e , b u t h e had a b r o a d interest
in
natural
history
fostered
by
his
studies
with
the
great
British
a n a t o m i s t Sir R i c h a r d O w e n . I t w a s Sir R i c h a r d O w e n w h o c o i n e d the t e r m dinosaur, an e v e n t that o c c u r r e d just a f t e r L i v i n g s t o n e first d e p a r t e d f o r A f r i c a . Livingstone
admired
Owen,
and
the
admiration
was
reciprocated
b y the
t e a c h e r . Y e a r s after b e i n g a p u p i l , L i v i n g s t o n e b r o u g h t t o O w e n , all the w a y f r o m A f r i c a , a n i n t e r e s t i n g b u t h e a v y s p e c i m e n . I t w a s a n e l e p h a n t tusk w i t h a s t r a n g e spiral c u r v e . Sir R i c h a r d w a s v e r y influential i n b u i l d i n g the British M u s e u m . H e w a s a n a c c o m p l i s h e d and r e c o g n i z e d scientist. D a r w i n r e p e a t e d l y cites his w o r k s and
o p i n i o n s in
the
Origin
of Species.
Moreover Darwin
f o r m e r s t u d e n t by n a m e in C h a p t e r 1
r e f e r s to
Owen's
of t h e Origin, stating in his discussion
o f b i o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n u n d e r d o m e s t i c a t i o n , i n a passage o n the w i d e s p r e a d use o f s e l e c t i v e b r e e d i n g o f l i v e s t o c k ,
" L i v i n g s t o n e shows h o w much g o o d
d o m e s t i c b r e e d s [ o f animals] are v a l u e d b y the n e g r o e s o f the i n t e r i o r o f A f r i c a w h o h a v e n o t associated w i t h E u r o p e a n s . " Still, l o n g b e f o r e D a r w i n p u b l i s h e d the Origin of Species, L i v i n g s t o n e , in his own way,
c o n c l u d e d that
science
and
religion w e r e not opposed.
Both,
t h o u g h t L i v i n g s t o n e , w e r e m u t u a l l y necessary and helpful r e v e l a t i o n s o f the D i v i n e . H e r e m a i n e d , h o w e v e r , like O w e n , unsympathetic t o D a r w i n ' s v i e w s on
evolution.
His conclusion
was reached
not so
much by
the
study o f
D a r w i n ' s w o r k — t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e h e e v e r s t u d i e d i t — b u t r a t h e r because n o t h i n g i n his t r a v e l s s u g g e s t e d t o h i m that humans d e s c e n d e d f r o m a p e l i k e a n c e s t o r s . T h a t v i e w i s h e l d b y s o m e e v e n n o w , but w i t h m u c h less justificat i o n than i n L i v i n g s t o n e ' s d a y . E v o l u t i o n p r o v i d e s a f r a m e w o r k w i t h i n w h i c h w e can v i e w the i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f l i f e , o f all the m y r i a d d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s that h a v e e v e r e x i s t e d . T h e Earth t h r o u g h t i m e p r o v i d e s the s e t t i n g i n w h i c h e v o l u t i o n takes p l a c e . T h e w o r l d a s w e k n o w i t t o d a y results f r o m a vast a m a l g a m o f i n t e r t w i n e d physical and b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s a c t i n g f o r e v e r u n d e r the a m b i e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e t i m e s . T h e f u t u r e , i n its t u r n , w i l l b e m o l d e d b y t h e s e s a m e i m m a n e n t p r o c e s s e s . T h e r e i s a n u n b r o k e n c o n t i n u i t y i n Earth h i s t o r y . H o w e v e r , i n the f i n a l m e a s u r e , the Earth and life a r e c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g . N o t i m e i s e x a c t l y t h e s a m e a s any o t h e r , and n o p l a c e i s e v e r e x a c t l y t h e s a m e t w i c e . L i f e c h a n g e s t h r o u g h the m i l l e n n i a . N o s p e c i e s has r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f life o n Earth. M o s t s p e c i e s , t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y , a r e d i f f e r e n t and distinct in successive e p o c h s of Earth h i s t o r y .
T h a t is an
e m p i r i c a l fact. E v e n s o , a l t h o u g h a p p a r e n t l y g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b e t w e e n ,
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA
say, jellyfish and w h i p p o o r w i l l s , o r b e t w e e n k e l p and r h o d o d e n d r o n s , each distinct species i s r e l a t e d t o all o t h e r s .
O f this D a r w i n said,
" I t is a truly
w o n d e r f u l f a c t — t h e w o n d e r o f w h i c h w e a r e apt t o o v e r l o o k f r o m f a m i l i a r i t y — t h a t all animals and plants t h r o u g h o u t all t i m e and space s h o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r . " T h e r e i s c o n t i n u i t y i n the s p e c t r u m o f l i f e . A l l s p e c i e s , w h e t h e r e x t i n c t o r still l i v i n g , are r e l a t e d , i n g r e a t e r o r lesser d e g r e e , i n m u c h the s a m e w a y a s w e a s individuals are r e l a t e d t h r o u g h f a m i l y g e n e a l o g y t o g r e a t - g r a n d p a r e n t s o r s e c o n d cousins t w i c e
removed.
The
change
o f life t h r o u g h t i m e ,
this
historical p a r a d e o f r e l a t e d s p e c i e s , i s e v o l u t i o n . T h e b i g d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e and a g e n e a l o g i c a l t r e e i s that the branches o f a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e , u n l i k e f a m i l y h i s t o r i e s , c a n n o t j o i n and m e r g e t h e w a y f a m i l i e s c a n , w i t h t h e m a r r i a g e o f a S m i t h t o a J o n e s , f o r instance. C o n t e m p o r a r y species c a n n o t i n t e r b r e e d . N e i t h e r can t i m e s e q u e n tial s p e c i e s , but the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of an ancestral s p e c i e s to a d e s c e n d a n t species is a p r o c e s s that takes p l a c e t h r o u g h t i m e . A n c e s t r a l s p e c i e s e v o l v e into descendant species, or they go extinct. T h e c o n t i n u i t y o f life i s o b v i o u s and l o g i c a l w h e n r e a d i n t h e fossil r e c o r d , o r e v e n w h e n v i e w e d i n the i m m e n s e array o f l i v i n g s p e c i e s . M o r e o v e r , i t has a d e q u a t e t e s t i m o n y i n the f u n d a m e n t a l m o l e c u l e s o f l i f e , p e r h a p s m o s t p r o m i n e n t l y i n D N A , the substance that carries the g e n e t i c c o d e f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . T h e c o m p l e x m o l e c u l e s o f life are s u r p r i s i n g l y u n i f o r m i n t h e i r basic structural plans t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a n o p l y o f s p e c i e s a l i v e t o d a y ,
even
t h o u g h i n less f u n d a m e n t a l details t h e m o l e c u l e s o f d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s differ slightly.
M o l e c u l e s such a s D N A and p r o t e i n s a r e t h e basic f u n c t i o n a l and
structural c o m p o n e n t s o f c e l l s . N o life exists w i t h o u t t h e m . I n practical t e r m s it is this s i m i l a r i t y , this basic u n i f o r m i t y in b o t h c o m p o s i t i o n and f u n c t i o n at the m o l e c u l a r l e v e l , i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e d i v e r s i t y o f s p e c i e s , that a l l o w s , f o r e x a m p l e , the use o f l a b o r a t o r y rats a s substitutes f o r humans i n e x p e r i m e n t a l m e d i c i n e . I t i s the basis f o r the b i o t e c h n o l o g y r e v o l u t i o n , a l l o w i n g f o r the g e n e t i c e n g i n e e r i n g o f i m p r o v e d a g r i c u l t u r a l s t o c k s , o r the mass p r o d u c t i o n of medicines as by-products of m o d i f i e d bacteria. T h e s e advances d e r i v e f r o m the r e c o g n i t i o n o f the basic c o n t i n u i t y , the r e l a t e d n e s s , o f l i f e , the fact that species have c h a n g e d o v e r t i m e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . A s species o f o r g a n i s m s h a v e c h a n g e d t h r o u g h the m i l l e n n i a , s o has t h e level o f biotic sophistication, for w a n t o f b e t t e r w o r d s , changed. T h e simpler basic divisions o f l i f e , such a s s i n g l e - c e l l e d p r o t o z o a n s f o r i n s t a n c e , h a v e b e e n a r o u n d l o n g e r than m o r e c o m p l e x , m u l t i c e l l u l a r o r g a n i s m s w i t h d i f f e r e n t i -
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
24 a t e d tissues and o r g a n s y s t e m s .
T h i s is n o t an i n e x o r a b l e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l
progression f r o m single-celled bacterium in primordial o o z e to lofty, godlike h u m a n s in t h e G a r d e n of E d e n . It is a g e n e r a l i t y . B e s i d e s , t h e r e are still lots and l o t s o f d i f f e r e n t kinds o f b a c t e r i a a r o u n d . A n d yeasts. A n d algae.
And
s p o n g e s . A n d all kinds o f s i m p l e o r g a n i s m s . A f e w kinds o f s i m p l e o r g a n i s m s , such a s s o m e parasites, a r e s i m p l e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e d e g e n e r a t e . A l l these s p e c i e s h a v e a r o l e i n the c o m m u n i t y o f l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n g e n e r a l , t h e m o r e s i m p l e a c r e a t u r e is, if it has parts that w i l l f o s s i l i z e , the f a r t h e r b a c k i n t i m e fossils r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f its l e v e l o f sophistication can b e f o u n d . T h o s e s i m p l e o r g a n i s m s that are still a r o u n d — t h e b a c t e r i a , yeast, and o t h e r p r i m i t i v e c r e a t u r e s — b e l o n g t o species that e v o l v e d a l o n g lineages that h a v e n o t b r a n c h e d a s significantly, o r s o g r e a t l y , f r o m the ancestral s t o c k . T h u s , s i n g l e - c e l l e d b a c t e r i a , as a g r o u p , n o t any p a r t i c u l a r l i v i n g s p e c i e s , h a v e b e e n o n Earth m u c h l o n g e r than m u l t i c e l l u l a r s p o n g e s . T h e s e have b e e n a r o u n d l o n g e r than f i s h e s , and t h e y l o n g e r than r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s , and a m o n g m a m m a l s , h u m a n s a r e late on t h e s c e n e .
In this sense t h e r e is a
p r o g r e s s i o n , b u t o n l y v e r y g e n e r a l l y . T h i s i s n o t t o say that f i s h and r e p t i l e s and i n v e r t e b r a t e s are n o t s o p h i s t i c a t e d . T h e y o b v i o u s l y a r e , h a v i n g e v o l v e d along their o w n evolutionary pathways. T h e y live as m e m b e r s of complicated e c o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t i e s that h a v e c h a n g e d w i t h t i m e . C o m p a r e , f o r instance, t h e d i n o s a u r - d o m i n a t e d landscapes o f t h e M e s o z o i c w i t h t h e m a m m a l - d o m i nated communities of today.
T o fully u n d e r s t a n d t h e o r i g i n o f the m o d e r n
w o r l d , t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s p e c i e s i n v o l v e d , and the e v o l u t i o n o f the c o m m u nities t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g m u s t b e b r o u g h t t o l i g h t . A n d o r d e r i n g species in the d i m e n s i o n of t i m e is necessary for b o t h . C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e D N A o r c e r t a i n p r o t e i n s a m o n g l i v i n g s p e c i e s can lead t o c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g the a n t i q u i t y of s p e c i e s just as t h e study of fossils can lead t o such c o n c l u s i o n s . A l l s p e c i e s h a v e D N A w i t h essentially t h e s a m e a r c h i t e c t u r e , b u t m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s p e c i e s h a v e m o r e similar D N A ; less c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s p e c i e s h a v e i n c r e a s i n g l y m o r e , a l b e i t m i n o r , d i f f e r e n c e s . T h e basic structure
o f the
differences occur.
m o l e c u l e s is constant,
but r e l a t i v e l y
small
submolecular
A m o n g s p e c i e s , t h e s e add u p m o r e and m o r e w i t h the
i n c r e a s i n g distance o f r e l a t i o n s h i p and r e m o t e n e s s o f c o m m o n a n c e s t r y . T h e total d i f f e r e n c e i n the D N A o f t w o species i s g e n e r a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e that t h e i r e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e s h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e and distinct.
That
m e a n s that fossils o r m o l e c u l e s can s o m e t i m e s b e used t o test and v e r i f y c o n c l u s i o n s based o n o n e o r t h e o t h e r . A n d that i s p a r t o f t h e r e a s o n w h y r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s o f plant and insect D N A f r a g m e n t s p r e s e r v e d i n fossils are s o
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA
25 e x c i t i n g . T h e y have the p o t e n t i a l t o m e l d m o l e c u l a r e v o l u t i o n and p a l e o n t o l o g y i n a w a y n e v e r b e f o r e p o s s i b l e . I t i s s c i e n c e w i t h t h e e x c i t e m e n t , and t h e r e f o r e the a p p e a l , of f i c t i o n , s e e m i n g l y a m o v e t o w a r d r e a l - l i f e Jurassic Park. E v o l u t i o n is the basic fact of life f o r all s p e c i e s .
L i v i n g things c h a n g e
t h r o u g h t h e m i l l e n n i a , b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y necessary f o r life t o b e g e t l i f e , l i v i n g things i n t h e i r m o s t basic m e c h a n i s m s r e m a i n s i m i l a r . T h e m o r e things c h a n g e , t h e m o r e things stay the s a m e .
A T THE 1859,
TIME D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e f i r s t r e a c h e d t h e s h o r e s o f L a k e M a l a w i i n Charles
Darwin
was
presenting
the
world
with
a
mechanism
for
e v o l u t i o n . T h a t w a s w e l l o v e r o n e h u n d r e d years a g o . W e h a v e l e a r n e d m u c h since t h e n that D a r w i n d i d n o t k n o w — f o r instance that t h e g e n e t i c c o d e o f a c e l l , passed o n each t i m e the c e l l d i v i d e s , i s c a r r i e d b y D N A . N e v e r t h e l e s s D a r w i n m a d e lasting and s u r p r i s i n g l y r e s i l i e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o the study o f evolution.
H i s g e n i u s w a s r e c o g n i z e d b y his c o u n t r y m e n ;
t e n years after
Livingstone died, D a r w i n , t o o , was buried in W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y . Darwin's mechanism
for evolution
i s natural
selection,
a wonderfully
e l e g a n t c o n c e p t . M o r e r e p r o d u c t i v e c e l l s , s p e r m and e g g , a r e p r o d u c e d i n any species than w i l l e v e r successfully p r o d u c e p r o g e n y . A d d t o that t h e fact that each individual o f a s p e c i e s i s d i f f e r e n t . D a r w i n k n e w that, and h e k n e w f r o m d o m e s t i c a t e d animals that c e r t a i n traits b r e e d t r u e . N o t k n o w i n g a b o u t D N A , o r the g e n e t i c c o d e , D a r w i n ' s t h e o r y had a w e a k n e s s that i s o v e r c o m e t o s o m e d e g r e e b y m o d e r n genetics. W e k n o w much m o r e n o w about the nature o f g e n e t i c v a r i a t i o n , h o w i t i s m a i n t a i n e d , and h o w i t i s passed f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . I f i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o k n o w a b o u t e v o l u t i o n , i t i s necessary t o k n o w about genetics. T h e n e x t p r e m i s e o f natural s e l e c t i o n i s that r e s o u r c e s f o r e a c h s p e c i e s a r e l i m i t e d . F o o d , o r suitable habitat, o r m a t e s — t h e r e w i l l n e v e r b e e n o u g h o f s o m e t h i n g t o g o a r o u n d . S o s o m e i n d i v i d u a l s and s o m e s e x cells a r e b e t t e r able t o c o p e w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t b y v i r t u e o f the n a t u r e o f t h e i r v a r i a t i o n . T h o s e that can r e p r o d u c e m o r e than o t h e r s w i l l b e naturally s e l e c t e d f o r b y the e n v i r o n m e n t .
I n that sense r e p r o d u c t i v e success, l e a v i n g m o r e o f y o u r
o w n g e n e s , i s a m e a s u r e o f e v o l u t i o n a r y success. T h e l o g i c o f natural s e l e c t i o n i s s i m p l e and easy t o u n d e r s t a n d . I t d o e s h a v e a significant r o l e i n e v o l u t i o n . But c l e a r l y t h e r e has t o b e m u c h m o r e that w e d o n o t y e t u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t t h e f e e d b a c k f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t t o the g e n e t i c c o d e and a b o u t the c o n t r o l o f e m b r y o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t , f o r
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
26 instance.
A n d a b o v e all,
a b o u t the g e n e t i c c o d e itself.
T h a t i s w h e r e the
study o f l i f e ' s m o l e c u l e s and t h e i r r o l e i n e v o l u t i o n i s l e a d i n g t o d a y . process
of evolution,
w h e n it is
more
fully
understood,
will
The
encompass
g e n e r a l i t i e s o f f a r - r a n g i n g significance t o h o w life w o r k s because i t w i l l b e a synthesis o f results f r o m g e n e t i c s , m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g y , e m b r y o l o g y , e c o l o g y , and all o t h e r b r a n c h e s o f t h e life s c i e n c e s . T h a t i s t r u l y e l e g a n t . F o r any l i v i n g s p e c i e s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , w e can a l r e a d y l e a r n m u c h o f its e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y w r i t t e n a t t h e m o l e c u l a r l e v e l i n its D N A and p r o t e i n s . But that i s o n l y p a r t o f t h e p i c t u r e o f l i f e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t o n Earth. T h e s e things can n e v e r t e l l u s t h e w h o l e s t o r y a b o u t the w o n d e r f u l v a r i e t y o f l i f e , c o m p l e t e l y v a n i s h e d , lost t o o u r e y e s t h r o u g h e x t i n c t i o n . O n l y fossils can t e l l u s a b o u t t h e t r e m e n d o u s n u m b e r s o f o n c e - l i v i n g b i o l o g i c a l success s t o r i e s , n o w g o n e . O n l y fossils can t e l l u s the p a t h w a y s that e v o l u t i o n d i d t a k e , i n a d d i t i o n t o w h e r e t h e y e n d e d u p . A n d i t i s o n l y t h r o u g h t h e fossil r e c o r d that w e can o b s e r v e , e m p i r i c a l l y , the results o f t h e a d m i x t u r e o f Earth and life p r o c e s s e s . I f w e are w i s e e n o u g h t o r e a d t h e r e c o r d , i t can h e l p us, a s a species, predict the global o u t c o m e of o u r environmental actions, for better o r w o r s e , t h r o u g h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h o w fossil o r g a n i s m s r e s p o n d e d t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l changes i m p o s e d u p o n t h e m b y the Earth i n t i m e s l o n g past.
UNDERSTANDING
EVOLUTIONARY
history requires understanding g e o -
l o g i c t i m e b e c a u s e e v o l u t i o n is, b y d e f i n i t i o n , c h a n g e t h r o u g h t i m e . S o w e h a v e t o h a v e a w a y t o m e a s u r e g e o l o g i c t i m e . H o w d o w e d o it? H o w d o w e k n o w h o w o l d a fossil is? H o w can w e tell? O l d b o n e s , o r shells, o r p e t r i f i e d w o o d — a n y f o s s i l s — a r e usually f o u n d i n s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s f o r m e d f r o m d e p o s i t s o f m u d , sand, o r l i m e a t t h e b o t t o m o f lakes and r i v e r s , b e a c h e s and seas. A n i m a l o r p l a n t r e m a i n s g e t caught u p i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n a l p r o c e s s , m o r e o r less a s g e o l o g i c a l p a r t i c l e s t h e m s e l v e s . S o m e r o c k s , such a s chalk, o r c o a l , a r e m a d e u p a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y o f fossils. As a part of a sedimentary system, g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e past.
the
fossils w e
find
t e l l u s a b o u t the
But t h e y a r e also c o m p o n e n t s o f a o n c e -
l i v i n g c o m m u n i t y and as such t h e y t e l l us of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t and e c o l o g y in which they w e r e a part before
t h e y e n t e r e d the g e o l o g i c a l r e a l m .
These
e x t r e m e s — c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e , c o n d i t i o n s o f f o s s i l i z a t i o n — g r a d e o n e i n t o the o t h e r , and each tells u s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e o t h e r . T h e a g e o f a b e d o f r o c k , f o r m e d f r o m the h a r d e n i n g o f t h e s e d i m e n t s , r e p r e s e n t s t h e t i m e the fossils
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA 21
w e r e e n t o m b e d a n d , in a g e o l o g i c a l sense, is taken in m o s t instances as the t i m e w h e n the fossilized o r g a n i s m l i v e d . A n y b e d o f s e d i m e n t m u s t b e y o u n g e r than the surface o n w h i c h i t i s d e p o s i t e d . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s o b v i o u s that i n a s e q u e n c e o f s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s , the o l d e s t b e d i s o n t h e b o t t o m , the y o u n g e s t a t the t o p , and the a g e d e c r e a s e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y f r o m the f o r m e r t o t h e l a t t e r . T h i s c o n c e p t o f s u p e r p o s i t i o n ( F i g u r e 6 ) i s t h e s i m p l e basis f o r b e i n g a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e the r e l a t i v e a g e o f fossils. T h o s e a t the b o t t o m are o l d e r than t h o s e a t t h e t o p . T h a t i s also the f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e u n d e r l y i n g the e m p i r i c a l s t a t e m e n t that life changes through t i m e .
D i f f e r e n t fossils o c c u r i n l o w e r and h i g h e r b e d s ;
in other
w o r d s , o l d e r and y o u n g e r r o c k s . T h a t i s t h e c o n c e p t o f f a u n a l — o r f l o r a l — succession. D i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f o r g a n i s m s s u c c e e d each o t h e r i n stacked layers o f r o c k , and t h r o u g h t i m e . But i t i s n o t e n o u g h t o k n o w t h e r e l a t i v e a g e o f a fossil. W e r e a l l y w a n t t o k n o w h o w o l d , i n n u m b e r s o f y e a r s , a p a r t i c u l a r fossil is. T h e k e y t o t e l l i n g that kind o f g e o l o g i c t i m e i s t h r o u g h t h e natural r a d i o a c t i v i t y i n r o c k s . A f t e r r o c k s such a s basalt crystallize f r o m m o l t e n lava, r a d i o a c t i v e p o t a s s i u m o r other elements w i l l decay, through radioactivity, into another kind of matter. By k n o w i n g h o w rapidly a particular kind of radioactive e l e m e n t decays, the age o f the c o o l e d r o c k can b e c a l c u l a t e d . T h e idea i s s i m p l e . But i t o n l y w o r k s o n the right kinds o f r o c k s , and t h e n o n l y i f t h e y d o n o t g e t a d v e r s e l y affected b y o t h e r Earth p r o c e s s e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y the a p p r o p r i a t e r o c k s f o r d a t i n g are n o t g e n e r a l l y t h e o n e s that c o n t a i n fossils.
T h e technique
of radiocarbon
dating can actually d a t e fossils, b u t n o t v e r y o l d o n e s , and it is useless f o r things as o l d as d i n o s a u r s . It is easy to i m a g i n e a v o l c a n o such as M o u n t Saint H e l e n s s p e w i n g ash, o r lava o o z i n g d o w n a hillside t o the sea, a s h a p p e n s i n H a w a i i . P a r t i c l e s o f ash o r f l o w s o f lava b e c o m e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e s e q u e n c e o f s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k being f o r m e d .
R a d i o a c t i v e e l e m e n t s i n t h e v o l c a n i c r o c k s can b e assayed,
p r o v i d i n g a m i n i m u m a g e f o r all t h e r o c k l a y e r s , and t h e i r c o n t a i n e d fossils, b e l o w the d a t e d r o c k and a m a x i m u m a g e f o r all t h e r o c k s and fossils a b o v e the d a t e d r o c k . In a s e q u e n c e w i t h a l o t of fossils t h r o u g h o u t , and m a n y lavas o r v o l c a n i c ashes i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h t h e s e d i m e n t a r y l a y e r s , t h e d a t i n g can b e c o m e very accurate, g e o l o g i c a l l y speaking. T h e r e i s a n o t h e r w a y t o f i g u r e o u t the ages o f r o c k s . I t i s based o n t h e b e h a v i o r o f the
Earth's
magnetic
field.
Paleomagnetism
depends first on
k n o w i n g r e l a t i v e ages d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a s e q u e n c e o f fossils and t h e i r s u p e r -
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
28 p o s i t i o n , and o n r a d i o m e t r i c a g e c a l c u l a t i o n s . I t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s v e r y useful b e c a u s e i t a l l o w s e x t r e m e , l o n g - d i s t a n c e p r e c i s i o n i n i d e n t i f y i n g r o c k s that are o f i d e n t i c a l a g e b u t that c a n n o t t h e m s e l v e s b e r a d i o m e t r i c a l l y d a t e d . H e r e i s h o w i t w o r k s . T h e Earth has a m a g n e t i c f i e l d , a s w e all k n o w b e c a u s e a c o m p a s s n e e d l e aligns i t s e l f w i t h m a g n e t i c n o r t h . Because c o m p a s s n e e d l e s a l w a y s p o i n t n o r t h , w e are a b l e t o t e l l d i r e c t i o n s , e v e n i n the d a r k , and t h e r e f o r e w e d o n o t g e t l o s t . T h a t i s w e l l and g o o d f o r t h e p r e s e n t , but it just so h a p p e n s that at v a r i o u s t i m e s in the past the c o m p a s s n e e d l e d i d n o t p o i n t t o the n o r t h .
It p o i n t e d south,
180 d e g r e e s o p p o s i t e f r o m w h a t i t
s h o u l d . W h a t i s m o r e , these p e r i o d s o f r e v e r s a l a p p e a r t o have taken p l a c e at
random
intervals,
at
unpredictable
times
in
the
past.
Sometimes
c o m p a s s p o i n t e d south f o r a f e w h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d y e a r s , millions.
The
lengths o f t i m e
varied.
the
sometimes for
W e k n o w this because m a n y r o c k s
c o n t a i n m i n e r a l s that a c t e d a s t i n y c o m p a s s n e e d l e s w h i l e the r o c k s w e r e f o r m i n g . T h e E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d i s r e c o r d e d i n the s e q u e n c e o f r o c k s a t t h e E a r t h ' s surface. T h u s , i f y o u w e r e t o l o o k a t t h e h i s t o r y o f the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d and the d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e n o r t h e n d o f t h e c o m p a s s n e e d l e w o u l d p o i n t , a s if r e c o r d e d on a continuous tape, reversed
polarity intervals,
none
y o u w o u l d see a series o f n o r m a l and o f t h e m b e i n g e x a c t l y the
same
length,
b e c a u s e n o n e o f t h e m lasted t h e s a m e l e n g t h o f t i m e ( s e e F i g u r e 6 ) . Because o f the
variation
in
lengths
of intervals
of normals,
then
reversals,
then
n o r m a l s , t h e t a p e w o u l d p r e s e n t a k i n d o f c o d e , r a t h e r like a digital r e c o r d i n g . Just as the p a t t e r n of s i m p l e o n - o f f d i g i t s can r e c o r d a s y m p h o n y on a laser disk,
if a stratigraphic s e c t i o n is l o n g e n o u g h to e n c o m p a s s a n u m b e r of
p o l a r i t y r e v e r s a l s , and i f the r o c k s p r e s e r v e t h e n o r m a l - r e v e r s e d " d i g i t a l " signal
of the
Earth's magnetic
field
layer by layer,
the
magnetic pattern
p r e s e r v e d i n the r o c k s w i l l b e u n i q u e t o the t i m e i n t e r v a l i n w h i c h the r o c k s w e r e f o r m e d , the w a y a f i n g e r p r i n t p a t t e r n i s u n i q u e t o a p e r s o n . T h e p a t t e r n can be as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of that t i m e i n t e r v a l as a s y m p h o n y is of a c o m p o s e r . A n d just a s a r e c o r d e d s y m p h o n y can b e l i s t e n e d t o and a p p r e c i a t e d m o s t a n y w h e r e , a n y w h e r e r o c k s e x h i b i t a characteristic p a t t e r n o f p o l a r i t y c h a n g e s , y o u can b e sure t h e y are o f the a g e d e f i n e d b y that m a g n e t i c p a t t e r n . course,
t h e r e are
any n u m b e r
o f things
that m a k e
the
real
world
Of
more
c o m p l i c a t e d than t h e o r y , b u t i n g e n e r a l , that i s h o w p a l e o m a g n e t i s m w o r k s f o r t e l l i n g g e o l o g i c a l t i m e . I f a specific p o l a r i t y p a t t e r n can b e m a t c h e d u p f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e , t h e r o c k s r e c o r d i n g the p a t t e r n s are o f the same a g e . S o a r e t h e fossils t h e y m i g h t c o n t a i n .
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA 29
FIGURE 6: How to date fossils. by the patterns of lava,
On the left is a sequence of layered rocks as shown
ash, shale,
sandstone,
and limestone.
oldest at the bottom and progressively younger toward the top.
The rock layers are Fossils that occur
lower in a sequence of layered rock are older than those that occur higher in the sequence.
Volcanic rocks like basalt and ash can be dated using radioactive decay
of their constituent
minerals.
They set
older and younger limits on
the absolute
age, in numbers of years, of a fossil that occurs above, below, or between dated rocks.
The Earth's magnetic signal preserved in a sequence of rock is used to
compile a reversal pattern that can be matched with other rocks of the same age anywhere in the world that the pattern might be recognized.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
30 S o , w e can t e l l t i m e w i t h fossils and w i t h p a l e o m a g n e t i s m . But n e i t h e r t e c h n i q u e p r o v i d e s a n a g e i n n u m b e r s o f y e a r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i f any absolute date
happens
to
become
available
to
a
succession
o f strata
through
the
r a d i o m e t r i c d a t i n g o f a v o l c a n i c r o c k , that d a t e b e c o m e s a p p l i c a b l e w h e r e v e r t h e p r e c i s e m a g n e t i c i n t e r v a l , o r c o r r e l a t e d fossil i n t e r v a l , can b e i d e n t i f i e d , a n y w h e r e i n t h e w o r l d . O n t h e b o t t o m o f t h e o c e a n , o r the t o p o f a m o u n t a i n . A n u m e r i c a l d a t e is d e t e r m i n e d in o n l y o n e p l a c e , b u t t h r o u g h fossils and p a l e o m a g n e t i s m , i t can b e a p p l i e d all o v e r t h e p l a c e . T h i s i s a n e x t r e m e l y p o w e r f u l u n i o n o f m e t h o d s , far b e y o n d s i m p l e floral and faunal succession, in the resolution of g e o l o g i c t i m e . T h r o u g h these t e c h n i q u e s w e can c o m p a r e w h a t i s o c c u r r i n g a t a g i v e n t i m e all o v e r t h e E a r t h , f r o m r e g i o n t o r e g i o n . W e can l o o k i n e x c r u c i a t i n g d e t a i l at rates of e v o l u t i o n a r v c h a n g e as t h e y are p r e s e r v e d in the r o c k r e c o r d b e c a u s e t h e c h a n g e s can b e c a l i b r a t e d w i t h a b s o l u t e d a t e s . T h i s r e f i n e d v i e w of g e o l o g i c time is not simply relevant to evolution. It is relevant to understanding all o f t h e E a r t h ' s p r o c e s s e s that b e n e f i t f r o m the d i m e n s i o n o f t i m e . T h a t i n c l u d e s the f o r m a t i o n o f m a n y e c o n o m i c o r e d e p o s i t s , a n d , because fossils r e f l e c t e n v i r o n m e n t , t o m e c h a n i s m s o f c l i m a t e c h a n g e , such a s the g r e e n h o u s e e f f e c t . T h u s t h e w o r k o f p a l e o n t o l o g y has b r o a d i m p l i c a t i o n s . Just a s e v o l u t i o n a r y t h e o r y has c o n t i n u i t y w i t h t h e p r a c t i c a l aspects o f b i o l o g y and m e d i c i n e , s o , t o o , d o e s p a l e o n t o l o g y m e r g e w i t h e c o n o m i c and e n v i r o n m e n tal g e o l o g y and w i t h c l i m a t o l o g y . I n t h e s i m p l e s t t e r m s , t h e b i o s p h e r e o f life and l i t h o s p h e r e o f r o c k s are n o t i n d e p e n d e n t . T h e y a r e o n e . T h e y a r e c o m p o n e n t s o f a p e r p e t u a l tapestry o f incomprehensible
grandeur,
the
weft
of stone
and
warp
of life,
woven
c o n t i n u o u s l y o n the l o o m o f t i m e .
ONE
DOES
N O T n e e d t o g o t o A f r i c a t o study e v o l u t i o n o r g e o l o g i c t i m e .
T h a t can b e d o n e a n y w h e r e .
But t o a p p l y t h e c o n c e p t s o f e v o l u t i o n and
g e o l o g i c t i m e o n a g l o b a l scale,
A f r i c a d o e s h a v e t o b e b r o u g h t i n t o the
p i c t u r e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f c h a n g e t h r o u g h the m i l l e n n i a that m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d : c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t , t h e d a n c e o f the g r e a t Earth. I t i s w e l l a c c e p t e d a m o n g g e o l o g i s t s n o w a d a y s that t h e E a r t h ' s surface, the e n t i r e o u t e r shell o f the g l o b e , i s d i v i d e d i n t o r i g i d plates that m o v e r e l a t i v e t o each o t h e r . T h a t i s t h e c o n c e p t o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s ( F i g u r e 7 ) . T h e c o n t i n e n t s float o n t h e p l a t e s , b e c a u s e t h e y are m a d e o f l i g h t e r r o c k s , and are c a r r i e d a l o n g p a s s i v e l y a s t h e plates m o v e , d r i f t i n g a s i t w e r e across the p l a n e t .
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA 31
FIGURE
7: Plate tectonics and continental drift.
visualized than
with South America,
under tension may form rift
Africa,
Nowhere can this he better
and the ocean in between.
valleys and eventually tear apart.
ocean will be born where the landmasses separate.
Continents
If that happens,
an
That is what happened 100
million years ago as Africa and South America split.
Oceans grow larger as molten
rock rises from inside the Earth to form new ocean floor at spreading centers such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (bottom). an ocean basin, grows wider. often ft
Thus,
what begins as a rift valley may end up
with the continents drifting away from each other as the ocean
That is why the outlines of the continents on either side of the ocean
together like pieces of a puzzle.
On
the
western margin
of South America
(left) one plate dips deeply under another and is consumed in a subduction zone. Volcanic mountains such
as the Andes are formed along
the edge of the continent
as a result of the subduction process and the heat it generates.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
32 T h e m o t i o n o f plates can g o i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s . Plates m a y d i v e r g e a t spreading centers,
such a s the M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e d e e p u n d e r the o c e a n .
C o n t i n e n t s m o v e a w a y f r o m each o t h e r a s plates d i v e r g e .
Plates m a y c o n -
v e r g e , o r m o v e t o w a r d each o t h e r , o n e d i p p i n g b e n e a t h a n o t h e r i n a subduct i o n z o n e . T h i s causes the floating c o n t i n e n t s t o m o v e t o w a r d each o t h e r , e v e n c o l l i d e , f o r m i n g m o u n t a i n s such as the H i m a l a y a s . Plates also slide past o n e a n o t h e r , as is h a p p e n i n g n o w w i t h the San A n d r e a s Fault, a v e r y o b v i o u s b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t w o plates r i g h t i n o u r o w n b a c k y a r d — o r f r o n t y a r d , a s t h e case m a y b e . T h a t i s o n e r e a s o n w h y C a l i f o r n i a has s o m a n y e a r t h q u a k e s . S o m e d a y , m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s h e n c e , L o s A n g e l e s m a y lie w e s t o f San F r a n c i s c o . If, t h r o u g h c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t , the c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f the E a r t h ' s c o n t i n e n t s i s c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g , t h e n t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f o c e a n s , w h i c h separate the c o n t i n e n t s , m u s t be c h a n g i n g t o o . In fact, f o r an Earth that is 4 . 5 b i l l i o n years o l d , it is a b s o l u t e l y startling that t h e o l d e s t r o c k s in the o c e a n f l o o r t o d a y are a m e r e 2 0 8 m i l l i o n years o l d . A n d o n l y a f e w are that o l d . M o s t are y o u n g e r . S o m e are m u c h y o u n g e r . W h y are
S o m e are f o r m i n g r i g h t n o w .
o c e a n s s o y o u n g w h e n the
Earth i s s o
o l d ? Because
a t the
m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s m o l t e n lava rises f r o m d e e p i n the earth and c o o l s t o f o r m hard r o c k . N e w o c e a n f l o o r i s c o n t i n u a l l y b e i n g f o r m e d . A s n e w sea f l o o r i s f o r m e d , i t pushes the c o n t i n e n t s farther a w a y f r o m the s p r e a d i n g c e n t e r . A t c o n v e r g e n t b o u n d a r i e s s u b d u c t i n g slabs o f the E a r t h ' s crust pull the plates w i t h t h e i r floating landmasses d o w n a l o n g b e h i n d t h e m . I t i s a s i f the c o n t i nents are on c o n v e y o r belts. I t s o h a p p e n s that the m o v e m e n t o f c o n t i n e n t s can b e t r a c e d back i n t i m e using t h e m a g n e t i c signal p r e s e r v e d i n t h e r o c k s o f the o c e a n f l o o r . A s n e w r o c k i s a d d e d t o the E a r t h ' s crust a t m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s , m a g n e t i c m i n e r a l s align themselves
w i t h the
direction
o f the
Earth's
magnetic
field.
As
we
have
already s e e n , changes in the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c Held can be used f o r d e c i p h e r i n g g e o l o g i c t i m e . I n the sea f l o o r m a g n e t i c h i s t o r y i s r e f l e c t i n g the m a g n e t i c f i e l d a s n e w r o c k i s f o r m e d and e x t r u d e d o u t t o b e c o m e part o f the sea f l o o r itself ( F i g u r e 8 ) . T h e farther f r o m the r i d g e i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n , the o l d e r the r o c k . I f n e w r o c k i s c o n t i n u a l l y a d d e d t o the sea f l o o r a t m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s , the sea s u r r o u n d i n g the M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e m u s t h a v e b e e n s m a l l e r a t any g i v e n t i m e i n the past. A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a m u s t have b e e n c l o s e r t o g e t h e r . It f o l l o w s that the past p o s i t i o n of the c o n t i n e n t s at a g i v e n p o i n t in g e o l o g i c t i m e can b e easily r e c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e o r e t i c a l l y a n y w a y , b y i d e n t i f y i n g specificp o r t i o n s i n the f i n g e r p r i n t p a t t e r n o f the p a l e o m a g n e t i c r e c o r d o f the o c e a n floor. It is like r u n n i n g a t a p e in r e v e r s e .
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA
33
FIGURE
8:
Magnetic stripes aligned symmetrically along spreading centers such
the Mid-Atlantic centers.
Ridge
demonstrate
the same
time,
the time of their formation. preserve they
will
new ocean
fioor
Compare the magnetic reversal pattern seen
the vertical pattern in Figure 6. formed at
that
the
record
exhibit
of the
virtually
is formed at
as
spreading
here aligned horizontally
with
The patterns are the same because the rocks,
acquired
the
signature
of the
If rocks are of the same age, Earth's identical
magnetic field
at
magnetic patterns
the
Earth's and time
wherever
magnetic field at
if
they clearly
of their formation, they
are formed,
whether it be in the sea floor or on the continents.
Because the m a g n e t i c f i e l d affects t h e w h o l e w o r l d , the s a m e signal a t any g i v e n p o i n t i n t i m e , past o r p r e s e n t , w i l l b e r e c o r d e d i n s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k s piling up on continents, or in sea-floor rocks c o o l i n g along a m i d - o c e a n r i d g e . S o i f the s a m e m a g n e t i c f i n g e r p r i n t can b e i d e n t i f i e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n land and sea, w e should b e able t o d e t e r m i n e w h e r e a c o n t i n e n t w a s a t t h e p r e c i s e t i m e that a particular suite of fossils w a s l i v i n g on land. T h a t is t r u l y a m a z i n g . I f all the o c e a n s a r e y o u n g , g e o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , and i f w e can t r a c e t h e m o v e m e n t o f c o n t i n e n t s b a c k w a r d i n t i m e , w e w i l l d i s c o v e r that a t o n e t i m e all the landmasses w e r e a s s e m b l e d , p u z z l e l i k e , i n t o a s u p e r - s u p e r c o n t i n e n t , Pangaea. I t had itself b e e n a s s e m b l e d f r o m c o m p o n e n t c o n t i n e n t a l parts i n m u c h e a r l i e r t i m e s . I n its u l t i m a t e b r e a k u p t o f o r m the c o n t i n e n t s a s w e k n o w t h e m n o w ( F i g u r e 9 ) , Pangaea f i r s t b e g a n t o split i n t o a m a j o r b u t c o m p l i c a t e d s u p e r c o n t i n e n t in the n o r t h ,
Laurasia,
and i n t o a s e c o n d s u p e r c o n t i n e n t ,
called G o n d w a n a , i n the s o u t h . T h e s e g r e a t landmasses w e r e s e p a r a t e d i n t h e east by an o c e a n , a r e m n a n t of w h i c h is f a m i l i a r to us as t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea. A s t i m e p r o g r e s s e d , the A t l a n t i c b e g a n t o f o r m , a t f i r s t d i v i d i n g e a s t e r n N o r t h A m e r i c a f r o m n o r t h w e s t e r n A f r i c a . A t this stage t h e r e w a s n o s o u t h e r n A t l a n t i c because A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a w e r e still j o i n e d i n G o n d w a n a . A f r i c a b e c a m e p r o g r e s s i v e l y i s o l a t e d f r o m the rest o f G o n d w a n a , f i r s t o n its eastern m a r g i n , t h e n d o w n t o t h e s o u t h , t h e n u p t h e w e s t s i d e . I t w a s a s if a gigantic zipper around Africa b e c a m e unfastened.
The
South A t l a n t i c
O c e a n f o r m e d a s South A m e r i c a s e p a r a t e d f r o m A f r i c a ' s w e s t coast.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
34
FIGURE
9:
Approximate geographic
million years ago joined split
into into
the
to
the present
(Africa
super-supercontinent
Gondwana,
comprising
arrangements
is stippled).
of Pangaea
the modern
another large landmass called Laurasia. beginning have
to split from
achieved
and oceans
their
through
and the life on it. and
South
South America,
of the
By
continents from
All of the continents
200
million years
southern
ago.
were Pangaea
continents plus India,
100 million years ago Africa
and since
then
and
was
the continents and oceans
modern
distributions.
The geographic
arrangement
time
a fundamental
element
evolution
is
200
of the
of continents
of the
Earth
It explains why we should expect similarities between African
American
dinosaurs
(and
other animals) prior
to
100
million years ago.
T h e last d e t a c h m e n t o f A f r i c a f r o m r e m n a n t s o f G o n d w a n a o c c u r r e d 1 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o . A t that t i m e w h a t i s n o w Brazil i n S o u t h A m e r i c a slid a w a y f r o m W e s t A f r i c a . I m a g i n e , i f y o u can, standing o n t h e b e a c h i n the G u l f o f G u i n e a o n t h e A f r i c a n c o a s t , w a t c h i n g S o u t h A m e r i c a sailing across the o c e a n , the captain o f its o w n t e c t o n i c p l a t e , s p e e d i n g a w a y f r o m y o u a t the same rate a t w h i c h y o u r f i n g e r n a i l s g r o w ! A t that t i m e , o n e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n years a g o , in
what
may
seem
a
slow,
inexorable
process,
the
Atlantic
Ocean
was
c o m p l e t e d f r o m south t o n o r t h . A f r i c a and its animals b e c a m e isolated f r o m all o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s . W h a t happens w h e n
continents b e c o m e
isolated f r o m
each o t h e r ? A l l
c o n t i n e n t s h a v e t h e i r o w n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c plants and a n i m a l s . W h e n w e think o f A u s t r a l i a , w e think o f k a n g a r o o s , and w e think o f the d u c k - b i l l e d p l a t y p u s , its scientific n a m e ,
Ornithorhynchus anatinus,
m a d e i n t o a c h i l d r e n ' s s o n g by
M r . R o g e r s . F o r South A m e r i c a , w e m i g h t think o f o p o s s u m s , and sloths, and a r m a d i l l o s . A f r i c a has vast h e r d s o f a n t e l o p e and z e b r a o n t h e plains, and l i o n s , and aardvarks. W h y s h o u l d t h e r e b e characteristic animals o n d i f f e r e n t c o n t i nents?
THE
FORGOTTEN
DINOSAURS
OF
AFRICA 35
W h e n a c o n t i n e n t b e c o m e s i s o l a t e d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , its inhabitants l o s e the o p p o r t u n i t y t o i n t e r a c t i n any w a y w i t h the m e m b e r s o f t h e i r o w n s p e c i e s o n o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s f r o m w h i c h t h e y h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e d , unless m i x i n g o c c u r s later f o r s o m e r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r . F r o m that p o i n t o n w a r d i n t i m e e v o l u t i o n p e r f o r m s i n a separate t h e a t e r ,
distinct f r o m w h a t m a y h a p p e n o n o t h e r
c o n t i n e n t s , y e t d e p e n d e n t f o r its r a w t a l e n t o n the l e g a c y o f p r e v i o u s d i s t r i b u tions o f species across the g l o b e .
T h e current geographical distribution of
a n t e l o p e s has l i t t l e t o d o w i t h c o n t i n e n t a l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s because a n t e l o p e s , a s c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z a b l e a n t e l o p e s , a r e e v o l u t i o n a r i l y m u c h y o u n g e r than the p l a t e - t e c t o n i c e v e n t s o f the M e s o z o i c . W h e r e a n t e l o p e s l i v e today is a reflection of m o r e r e c e n t influences. T h e platypus, h o w e v e r , is a d i f f e r e n t s t o r y . Its r o o t s , and its g e o g r a p h y , m a y v e r y w e l l e x t e n d i n t o t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s . Its f o r e b e a r s w e r e a r o u n d i n Australia w h e n the c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f a n t e l o p e s and h u m a n s w a s l i t t l e m o r e than a furry g r u b b e r o f w o r m s and b u g s . B y 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , w h e n A f r i c a b e c a m e i s o l a t e d , f l o w e r i n g plants w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o d e v e l o p i n t o the m y r i a d s p e c i e s that n o w a b o u n d . Because o f that i t w a s a t i m e o f t r a n s i t i o n , f r o m the earth t o n e s o f p r e v i o u s e p o c h s t o a fragrant w o r l d splashed w i t h c o l o r — c o l o r p r o v i d e d b y f l o w e r s . F l o w e r s h a v e a p u r p o s e . T h e y attract insects that i n a d v e r t e n t l y p o l l i n a t e the f l o w e r s and t h e r e b y facilitate sexual r e p r o d u c t i o n . H o w c l e v e r ! A n d the insects g e t a m e a l . T h e b e a u t y of f l o w e r s is p a r t of a m a j o r shift in strategy f o r plant e v o l u t i o n , b u t i t c o u l d n o t h a v e w o r k e d unless insects c o u l d see c o l o r s . T h e y c o u l d , and t h e y s p e c i a t e d , i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r d i v e r s i t y and t h e i r n u m b e r s , a l o n g w i t h the f l o w e r s . T h e n e w d i v e r s i t y and a b u n d a n c e o f f l o w e r i n g plants and insects p r o v i d e d a n e x p a n d e d l a r d e r f o r p l a n t - e a t i n g h e r b i v o r e s , insect e a t e r s , and p r e d a t o r s that ate t h e m b o t h .
A m o n g these w e r e animals that w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y b e c o m e
familiar t o u s i n the m o d e r n w o r l d . T h e r e w e r e f r o g s and lizards and m a m m a l s . Each o f these m a j o r g r o u p s o f v e r t e b r a t e s had b e e n a r o u n d m u c h l o n g e r , b u t n o w t h e y w e r e m a k i n g e v o l u t i o n a r y leaps that w o u l d suit t h e m i n the m o d e r n w o r l d . T h e y still r e m a i n e d s o m e w h a t m i n o r characters i n the c o m m u n i t y o f s p e c i e s , v i e w i n g t h e f l o w e r s f r o m t h e s h a d o w s o f the dinosaurs. But i m p o r t a n t changes w e r e u n d e r w a y . T h e r e w a s a b l o s s o m i n g o f life b e g i n n i n g o n e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n years a g o , taking p l a c e o n f r a g m e n t i n g c o n t i n e n t s and l e a d i n g t o the richness o f t h e natural w o r l d that w e see t o d a y .
Africa,
c o n t i n e n t s , had its o w n special r o l e i n this g r e a t p l a y o f l i f e .
like all the o t h e r
TAHITI WITHOUT SALT
A
F R I C A HAS BEEN s h a p e d a n d m o l d e d f o r e o n s b y t h e g l o b a l p r o c e s s e s
of p l a t e t e c t o n i c s and c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t . O n e result is that it has a string of g r e a t lakes r u n n i n g across t h e eastern side o f t h e c o n t i n e n t . L a k e M a l a w i i s tin' s o u t h e r n m o s t oi the string ( F i g u r e 1 0 ) . It is the third largest and s e c o n d d e e p e s t . I n A f r i c a , o n l y V i c t o r i a and T a n g a n y i k a surpass L a k e M a l a w i i n area. O n l y T a n g a n y i k a i s d e e p e r . R a n k e d a m o n g t h e o t h e r lakes o f t h e w o r l d , i t i s t h e t h i r t e e n t h l a r g e s t , b u t i t i s the t h i r d d e e p e s t . L a k e M a l a w i , m o r e than any o t h e r single f e a t u r e , is t h e e s s e n c e of t h e c o u n t r y . It is p e r v a s i v e . It is overpowering.
T h r o u g h i t , t h e p r o c e s s e s o f t h e Earth and the l i v e s o f the
p e o p l e b e c o m e i n t e r t w i n e d i n a single f o c u s , a c o m m o n p e r c e p t i o n . Lake
Malawi
is blue,
lined
w i t h b o u l d e r s and
sand
beaches.
Vertical
m o u n t a i n s w i t h n e a r - p e r p e n d i c u l a r r o c k w a l l s p l u m m e t i n t o the l a k e , alternating w i t h stretches o f l o w , s o m e t i m e s marshy shore. T o w a r d the north e n d , the highlands f o r m t h e e a s t e r n b a n k . T h e r e t h e y are t h e s p l e n d i d L i v i n g s t o n e Mountains of Tanzania,
d r o p p i n g precipitously f r o m their height of nearly
1 0 , 0 0 0 f e e t h e a d l o n g i n t o the d e p t h s . T h e n t h e h e i g h t s a r e lost t o the eastern s h o r e , and highlands are o n t h e w e s t . T h e feet of the mountains are s u b m e r g e d in the depths. It is t h e r e , w h e r e r a m p a r t s b e g i n t o rise f r o m t h e d e e p , that t h e lake h i d e s its d e e p e s t h o l e s .
TAHITI
FIGURE
WITHOUT
SALT
10: Location map of Malawi.
shore of the lake.
Our camp is at Ngara in the north,
The Dinosaur Beds are near Aiwakasyunguti.
on the
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
>s S e e m i n g l y sheer cliffs m a y c l i m b m o r e than a m i l e f r o m the lake b e d , w i t h n e a r l y half o f t h e i r h e i g h t h i d d e n b e l o w the surface. G r a d u a l l y , a w a y f r o m the s t e e p banks, t h e lake b e c o m e s m o r e s h a l l o w , p r o g r e s s i n g f r o m the d e p t h s t o w a r d the o p p o s i t e , l o w - l y i n g s h o r e . P a l m t r e e s d o t the lake m a r g i n . T h e v i s i o n i s that o f a Pacific i s l a n d — b l u e w a t e r , g r e e n m o u n t a i n s , sand, p a l m s . But i t is, o f c o u r s e , v e r y d i f f e r e n t . F o r o n e t h i n g , L a k e M a l a w i is fresh. F o r a n o t h e r , this lake is an island of w a t e r i n a sea o f land. T h e o c e a n s h a v e n e v e r i n the h i s t o r y o f the A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t transgressed far e n o u g h inland t o i n u n d a t e M a l a w i . T h a t can b e said o f f e w countries. N o b o d y o f w a t e r the size o f L a k e M a l a w i i s m o n o l i t h i c . I t c h a n g e s ; i t i s dynamic.
Seasonal changes c o m e w i t h the rains, n o t w i t h t h e e x t r e m e s o f
t e m p e r a t u r e that c h a r a c t e r i z e the
seasons o f N o r t h A m e r i c a and
Europe.
W h e n skies a r e c l o u d y , the lake i s g r a y and s o m b e r . W h e n the sun shines, t h e w a t e r i s l i g h t , h a p p y . W i t h t h e c l o u d s and t h e c h a n g i n g l i g h t , the d e p t h s t a k e o n v a r y i n g hues o f b l u e , p u r p l e , and g r e e n , w i t h glints and sparkles, a s i f the lake w e r e a g i a n t g e m s t o n e . W a v e s r o l l o n the s h o r e . S o m e t i m e s t h e y are s l o w , p e r i o d i c , m e s m e r i z i n g . S o m e t i m e s t h e y are t h u n d e r . T h e w a t e r i s pleasant f o r b a t h i n g . T h e w i n d feels crisp o f f the l a k e . D r o p l e t s o f c l e a n , fresh w a t e r evaporating in the b r e e z e induce prickles of ephemeral e x c i t e m e n t . There
i s n o g r e a t e r v i s i o n than
the
lake
seen
f r o m the h e i g h t o f the
m o u n t a i n s . F r o m this v a n t a g e the distant shores o f T a n z a n i a o r M o z a m b i q u e f r a m e the v i b r a n t - b l u e w a t e r i n the p a s t e l - p u r p l e tints o f the far a w a y . B e l o w , t h e hills s t r e t c h g r e e n and v e r d a n t t o w a r d the d e p t h s . I n t h e right phase o f t h e m o o n , c l o u d s , l i k e s m o k e , rise f r o m t h e surface o f the lake ( F i g u r e 1 1 ) . L i v i n g s t o n e c a l l e d this kungu.
H o w e v e r , these c l o u d s a r e n o t the v a p o r s o f
w a t e r ; r a t h e r , t h e y are the hatching o f m i l l i o n s o f lakeflies, all taking t o w i n g i n u n i s o n . T h e y are a p a r t o f the s c e n e . I t adds t o t h e v i s i o n . A ship is o c c a s i o n a l l y s e e n p l y i n g the lake n o r t h w a r d f r o m M o n k e y Bay on its w a y t o C h i l u m b a and back t h r o u g h o t h e r p o r t s . T h e l e g a c y o f ships o n L a k e M a l a w i is a pleasant d i s t r a c t i o n . Ships h a v e a h i s t o r y in M a l a w i that g o e s back t o L i v i n g s t o n e ' s d a y . L i v i n g s t o n e ' s f i r s t E u r o p e a n b o a t w a s a s t e a m launch, the
Ma-Roben,
Livingstone.
the
mother
of R o b e r t ,
named
in
African
fashion
for
Mrs.
H e used i t o n t h e Z a m b e z i and Shire r i v e r s .
T h e f i r s t steamship o n t h e lake w a s t h e llala, n a m e d f o r the p l a c e w h e r e L i v i n g s t o n e d i e d . I t w a s b r o u g h t t o A f r i c a b y the L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n . Built i n L o n d o n and d i s m a n t l e d , the p i e c e s w e r e n u m b e r e d and s h i p p e d t o the D a r k
TAHITI
WITHOUT
SALT
39
FIGURE
11: Kungu mist,
a horde of lakeflies rising from
For scale notice the size of the canoes. collect
the tiny fiesfor the kitchen
if
the lake after hatching.
Moistened winnowing baskets are used to
the swarm
drifts over a lakeside
village.
C o n t i n e n t , w h e r e i t w a s r e a s s e m b l e d and l a u n c h e d o n the lake i n 1 8 7 5 . I n 1882 the A f r i c a n Lakes C o m p a n y t o o k i t o v e r . S u b s e q u e n t l y i t w a s s o l d and t r a n s f e r r e d o u t o f the l a k e . I n 1922 t h e o r i g i n a l llala, after n e a r l y f i f t y y e a r s ' s e r v i c e , w a s w o r k i n g a t the m o u t h o f the Z a m b e z i . I t sank s o o n a f t e r w a r d . T h e llala 11 p l o w s the lake t o d a y . It is d i e s e l - p o w e r e d . T h e r e w e r e m a n y o t h e r ships o n the lake b e t w e e n the t w o Ilalas. I h a v e already s p o k e n o f the illustrious s e r v i c e t o t h e British w a r e f f o r t , and later t o p a l e o n t o l o g y , of t h e g u n s h i p Guendolen.
T h e Dove w a s a s i d e - p a d d l e s t e a m e r
that p a t r o l l e d the u p p e r Shire R i v e r i n 1 8 9 3 , later m a k i n g runs o n the l a k e . Its n i c k n a m e w a s Chikapa,
a Y a o w o r d referring to the circular m o t i o n of
dancing buttocks. H o w appropriate.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
40 T h e r e w a s also t h e Chauncy Maples, b r o u g h t by the U n i v e r s i t i e s M i s s i o n to C e n t r a l A f r i c a and l a u n c h e d o n t h e lake i n 1 9 0 1 . I t w a s n a m e d f o r a m a r t y r t o the l a k e , Bishop C h a u n c y M a p l e s . M a p l e s w e n t t o L o n d o n i n 1895 t o b e c o n s e c r a t e d b i s h o p o f L i k o m a , a n island i n the lake n e a r the coast o f M o z a m bique.
T h e n e w b i s h o p w a s a n x i o u s t o r e t u r n t o his b i s h o p r i c .
A f t e r his
c o n s e c r a t i o n he rushed back to his s e e , b o a r d i n g the Sheniff n e a r sunset f o r the f i n a l sail across the lake t o L i k o m a , i n spite o f t h e lateness o f the h o u r and t h e c r e w ' s w a r n i n g s o f a n i m p e n d i n g g a l e . T h e b o a t c a p s i z e d i n the ensuing s t o r m . T h e b i s h o p c l u n g f o r a w h i l e t o a f l o a t i n g b o x , like a cat o n f l o t s a m . H e w a s t o l d that land w a s n e a r b y ; h e c o u l d s w i m t o safety. But h e refused t o r e m o v e his h e a v y b l a c k cassock. " S a v e y o u r s e l v e s , " h e i s said t o h a v e c r i e d .
" Y o u must not die for m e .
I am a miserable sinner. My hour to die is c o m e . " I t c e r t a i n l y had. T h e lake k e p t his b o d y f o r t w o w e e k s until i t w a s w a s h e d u p o n t o t h e s h o r e , r e c o g n i z a b l e o n l y b y t h e b l a c k cassock.
THE
FISH
O F L a k e M a l a w i a r e r e m a r k a b l e f o r t h e i r c o l o r and a b u n d a n c e .
T h e y abound in t r e m e n d o u s variety. M a n y , perhaps m o s t , have not even been n a m e d . O n e e s t i m a t e suggests that t h e r e are b e t w e e n f i v e h u n d r e d and o n e thousand distinct s p e c i e s i n the l a k e . A l m o s t all o f t h e s e are e n d e m i c , k n o w n f r o m n o w h e r e e l s e , n o t e v e n f r o m the s t r e a m s f l o w i n g i n t o the l a k e . M o s t , b u t n o t all, o f this spectacular v a r i e t y o f f i n n y d i v e r s i t y i s a c c o u n t e d f o r b y c i c h l i d s , t r o p i c a l f i s h m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f A f r i c a but also c o m m o n i n South America.
T h e A f r i c a n g r e a t lakes are each h o m e t o separate e v o l u t i o n a r y
radiations o f cichlids w i t h d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s e v o l v i n g t o f i l l similar e c o l o g i c a l niches,
sharing similar w a y s o f l i f e , b u t i n d i f f e r e n t b o d i e s o f w a t e r .
This
separate e v o l u t i o n in areas i s o l a t e d f r o m each o t h e r is on a s m a l l e r scale b u t c o n c e p t u a l l y i d e n t i c a l t o the e v o l u t i o n a r y i s o l a t i o n o n d i f f e r e n t c o n t i n e n t s caused b y c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t . S o m e o f the l i t t l e f i s h o f L a k e M a l a w i a r e the t i n y s w i m m i n g j e w e l s c a l l e d mbuna that are p r i z e d by f r e s h w a t e r - t r o p i c a l - f i s h enthusiasts. In days n o t l o n g past, m a n y mbuna o f m a n y d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s w e r e e x p o r t e d t o the aquaria o f A m e r i c a each y e a r . N o w t h e y a r e raised o n special c i c h l i d farms i n F l o r i d a . Mbuna are e x t r e m e l y v a r i e d , s o m e q u i t e c o l o r f u l , g o l d o r b l u e , s o m e s t r i p e d . O t h e r s are d r a b , and n o t o f m u c h i n t e r e s t t o h o b b y i s t s . P e o p l e have b e e n k n o w n t o p o i s o n the w a t e r s a r o u n d a r o c k y island l a c k i n g the c o l o r f u l mbuna
TAHITI
WITHOUT
SALT 41
l o c a l l y i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a v a c a n c y f o r m o r e d e s i r a b l e s p e c i e s that c o u l d t h e n b e transplanted t o t h e w a t e r s i n p l a c e o f l e s s - c o l o r f u l natural r e s i d e n t s . T h e r e i s o n l y o n e p l a c e i n M a l a w i w h e r e tourists are a b u n d a n t . T h a t i s a t C a p e M a c l e a r , a t the s o u t h e r n e n d o f t h e l a k e , w h e r e t h e o r i g i n a l L i v i n g s t o n i a Mission
was
established,
and
where
Lake
Malawi
National
Park
is
now
l o c a t e d . I t i s b e a u t i f u l . Its m a j o r a t t r a c t i o n s a r e t h e g r a n d e u r o f the c o u n t r y s i d e , the c r y s t a l - c l e a r w a t e r , and t h e s n o r k e l i n g a r o u n d the r o c k s and b o u l d e r s . I t i s like v i e w i n g t h e f i s h o f a c o r a l r e e f i n fresh w a t e r . A l t h o u g h tourists f r e q u e n t the national p a r k , mbuna inhabit m o s t o f t h e l a k e , e s p e c i a l l y i n r o c k y areas. T h e r e a r e m a n y places o t h e r than the p a r k that are e q u a l l y suited f o r snorkeling. N o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , f i s h c o m p r i s e a significant c o m p o n e n t o f t h e M a l a w i a n d i e t . M u c h o f the p r o t e i n c o n s u m e d i n M a l a w i i s i n the f o r m o f f i s h . O v e r f o r t y thousand t o n s o f i t c o m e s f r o m the lake e v e r y y e a r . A p p a r e n t l y t h e m o s t d e s i r e d fish f o r the table is chambo, a c i c h l i d panfish, similar to a b r e a m . But t h e r e are m a n y o t h e r kinds ( F i g u r e 1 2 ) . T h e r e a r e lake t r o u t that are n o t t r o u t at all b u t , like t r o u t , are s w i f t - s w i m m i n g p r e d a t o r s . T h e r e is a species that, like a s a l m o n , s w i m s up s t r e a m s to lay e g g s . A n d t h e r e are kampango,
the
giants o f the l a k e , w e i g h i n g u p t o a r o u n d o n e h u n d r e d p o u n d s . T h e s e a r e catfish, but o f a d i f f e r e n t f a m i l y f r o m t h o s e w e h a v e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . M u c h of the fish that is caught in M a l a w i is d r i e d in t h e sun on r o w after r o w o f hand-fashioned s t r a w o r r e e d m a t s s u p p o r t e d o f f the g r o u n d b y s p i n d l y sticks. O t h e r f i s h a r e p r e s e r v e d b y s m o k i n g . T h a t i s the b e s t w a y t o e n j o y kampango. Fishing is d o n e t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y of t e c h n i q u e s , but the use of small hand nets accounts f o r m o s t n o n c o m m e r c i a l , subsistence f i s h i n g . S o m e o f m y m o s t pleasant i m a g e s o f M a l a w i are o f f i s h e r m e n i n t h e i r c a n o e s . F i s h e r m e n on a c a l m lake is a g o o d i m a g e . T h e simple canoes of Lake M a l a w i impress me as they have many b e f o r e m y t i m e . T h e y are d u g o u t s , t w e n t y f e e t l o n g o r s o , b u t n o t o f the usual dugout design. W h o k n o w s h o w long they have been in use, but E. D. Y o u n g p r o v i d e d the f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m i n
1877:
I have n e v e r seen e l s e w h e r e , n o r do I k n o w that any p r e v i o u s travellers have n o t i c e d the singular build of these craft. T h e y are of c o u r s e , as in all these cases, m a d e by felling trees and h o l l o w i n g t h e m o u t by axe and fire. But the Nyassa canoes have this peculiarity about t h e m , that the g u n w a l e s are i n v e r t e d , so that the paddlers have o n l y a n a r r o w slit d o w n the c e n t r e
LOUIS
FIGURE or are
12:
dried—are a favorite
Cichlids and a catfish a
major
with
source
many
(bottom) in
of protein
tropical-fish
in
Lake Malawi.
Malawi.
Colorful
JACOBS,
Fish—-fresh, Lake
Malawi
PH.D.
smoked, cichlids
hobbyists.
of the canoe in w h i c h to sit. If a p i e c e of bark is stripped off a t r e e f r o m its w h o l e c i r c u m f e r e n c e , and d r i e d as in the sun, it w i l l p r o b a b l y assume the shape of w h i c h I speak; the t w o edges w i l l curl in along the c e n t r e . Built in this w a y they are e x c e e d i n g l y buoyant and tolerably s e a w o r t h y , a v e r y m a r k e d e x c e p t i o n to the ordinary run of r i v e r canoes, w h i c h are b r o u g h t to a standstill if there is o n l y a g o o d r i p p l e on the surface; for they have no m o r e life in t h e m in a sea-way than a g a r d e n r o l l e r , and go d o w n like stones as s o o n as they ship any w a t e r . T h e paddler uses a paddle about six feet l o n g , and either stands or sits.
TAHITI
WITHOUT
SALT 43
D o w n the w a y f r o m m y c a m p a t N g a r a , f i s h e r m e n r e t u r n i n g i n t h e e v e n i n g f r o m the d a y ' s w o r k w r e s t l e t h e i r d u g o u t s o n t o t h e b e a c h . T h e hulls a r e l a d e n w i t h the c a t c h , bushels o f t i n y , s l e n d e r , s i l v e r y f i s h , n o t m o r e than a n inch l o n g , strained f r o m t h e w a t e r s o f t h e lake t h r o u g h f i n e m e s h nets. W o m e n o f the v i l l a g e , and c h i l d r e n sent b y t h e i r m o t h e r s , c r o w d a r o u n d the b o a t s , each c l u t c h i n g a p o t t o b e f i l l e d w i t h t h e f i s h . T h e s e b u l l e t s o f p r o t e i n w i l l b e b o i l e d i n t o the e v e n i n g ' s m e a l o r d r i e d , t h e n s o l d i n upland m a r k e t s . O n e e v e n i n g w e w e r e o n o u r w a y back f r o m K a r o n g a t o L i l o n g w e .
We
s t o p p e d a t N k h a t a Bay t o c a m p , p u l l i n g i n t o the c a m p s i t e w e l l after d a r k . T h e d e e p e s t p o i n t i n L a k e M a l a w i lies a c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d f e e t o f f s h o r e f r o m t h e beach w h e r e w e u n r o l l e d o u r s l e e p i n g b a g s . T h e m o u n t a i n s r o s e a c o u p l e o f thousand f e e t a b o v e us. T h e r e w a s a b s o l u t e l y n o m o o n . T h e w a t e r and the season w e r e j u x t a p o s e d b y i n e x o r a b l e p r o b a b i l i t y , l i k e the a l i g n m e n t o f the sun, the e a r t h , and t h e m o o n i n a n e c l i p s e , i n t o the p e r f e c t n i g h t f o r f i s h i n g . W e c o u l d hear the e x c l a m a t i o n s o f the f i s h e r m e n t h r o u g h the darkness. T h e y w e r e a small c o m m e r c i a l c o n c e r n w i t h a l o n g n e t and a l o t o f p e o p l e t o pull i t in. Hissing p r e s s u r e l a m p s w e r e p o s i t i o n e d t o attract f i s h b y false m o o n l i g h t . T h e n e t w a s l o a d e d i n t o c a n o e s and f e r r i e d o u t t o the d e e p e s t part o f the l a k e , w h e r e i t w a s d r o p p e d .
T h e n the m e n o n s h o r e p u l l e d r o p e s
attached t o e i t h e r e n d o f the n e t , hauling i t t h r o u g h the w a t e r and c a p t u r i n g the w e a l t h o f f i s h that had e m e r g e d f r o m the d e p t h s t o f e e d . T h e r e w a s o n l y o n e p r o b l e m : T h e r o p e s b r o k e . T h e y w e r e r o t t e n and c o u l d n o t b e a r t h e strain. T h e n e t b e g a n t o s i n k — i n this case, t o the d e e p e s t part o f the t h i r d d e e p e s t lake i n t h e w o r l d . S o m e o n e had t o g o after i t . A small fleet o f c a n o e s s h i p p e d t h e m e n i n t o t h e n i g h t .
O v e r the side t h e y w e n t ,
s w i m m i n g b l i n d l y t h r o u g h the c h i l l y black w a t e r , d o w n a s far a s t h e y c o u l d g o , f o r as l o n g as t h e y c o u l d c o n t a i n t h e i r b u r s t i n g lungs, searching f o r the s l o w l y d r i f t i n g n e t , h o p i n g t o s w i m i n t o it. T h e y f o u n d it. But i t t o o k t i m e . T h e catch w a s lost. N e v e r m i n d . T h i n g s h a p p e n . T h e f i s h e r m e n w e r e fatalistic. T h e i n e x o r a b l e f l o w o f t i m e and p r o b a b i l i t y w o u l d b r i n g o t h e r nights f o r f i s h i n g .
WITH
ALL
ITS d i v e r s i t y o f f i s h s p e c i e s , t h e r e i s o n e kind o f f i s h , lungfish
( F i g u r e 1 3 ) , that is c o n s p i c u o u s by its absence f r o m this A f r i c a n l a k e . T h a t in itself is a significant s t a t e m e n t a b o u t L a k e M a l a w i . Lungfish inhabit m o s t o f sub-Saharan A f r i c a , f r o m S e n e g a l i n the w e s t t o M o m b a s a i n the east, t h e n
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
44 south o v e r the C o n g o Basin, b e y o n d the Z a m b e z i , t o the g r e a t g r a y - g r e e n , g r e a s y L i m p o p o R i v e r . T h e y are P a l e o z o i c r e l i c t s , t r a c i n g t h e i r g e n e a l o g y a s lungfish back i n t i m e f o r h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s o f years ( w h i c h i s w h y Spinosaurus can b e e a t i n g a lungfish i n F i g u r e 2 ) . A l l o f t h e m are n o w g o n e f r o m the n o r t h e r n c o n t i n e n t s , b u t t h e y persist i n S o u t h A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a , and o f c o u r s e A f r i c a , all t h r e e o f w h i c h w e r e a t o n e t i m e p a r t o f G o n d w a n a , the southern
supercontinent.
Lungfish inhabit a v a r i e t y o f w a t e r y e n v i r o n m e n t s , b u t t h e y s e e m m o s t t o f a v o r s w a m p s o r t e m p o r a r y m a r s h e s f l o o d e d b y seasonal rains. T h e s e p l u m p , e e l l i k e d e n i z e n s are o b l i g e d t o surface p e r i o d i c a l l y , t h r u s t i n g t h e i r f i s h y snouts o u t o f the w a t e r t o g u l p o x y g e n - r i c h air. A l t h o u g h t h e y are m o s t c e r t a i n l y f i s h , i f t h e y a r e h e l d u n d e r w a t e r , t h e y w i l l d r o w n . T h e i r gills c a n n o t e x t r a c t e n o u g h o x y g e n f r o m the w a t e r t h e y l i v e i n . I f t h e i r habitat d r i e s u p , t h e y s i m p l y b u r r o w i n t o t h e m u d , s e c r e t e a c o p i o u s s u p p l y o f m u c u s , and f o r m a c o c o o n i n w h i c h t o s l e e p a w a y t h e d r y season.
FIGURE
13: A
contemporary African
lungfish.
These animals have changed little in
hundreds of millions of years. SPINOSAURUS is eating one in Figure 2. Lake Malawi is the only major East African Rift
Valley lake where they no longer exist,
even
though they are found as fossils in sediments deposited in the lake as recently as a few
million years
ago.
TAHITI
WITHOUT
SALT 4]
T h e y also inhabit lakes, all the g r e a t lakes o f A f r i c a e x c e p t o n e — L a k e M a l a w i . T h e r e are n o p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s o f lungfish b e i n g caught i n the l a k e . N o r d o t h e y surface a m o n g the p i l e s o f fresh, s m o k e d , o r d r i e d f i s h i n any of the m a r k e t s I h a v e v i s i t e d in M a l a w i . In o t h e r places lungfish are e a t e n . E v e n the n a t i v e m a r k e t s o f N a i r o b i , n o w h e r e n e a r a g r e a t l a k e , a r e s t o c k e d w i t h lungfish f r o m L a k e V i c t o r i a . But it has n o t a l w a y s b e e n the case that lungfish w e r e absent f r o m L a k e M a l a w i . I n r o c k s f o r m e d f r o m the m u d d e p o s i t e d o n l y a f e w m i l l i o n years a g o b y w a t e r s o f the lake s o o n after i t w a s f o r m e d , m y t e a m f o u n d fossil lungfish. C l e a r l y , as s h o w n by the d e m i s e of the lungfish, t h e lake has c h a n g e d . It is a m o n o l i t h n e i t h e r o n the scale o f g e o l o g i c a l t i m e n o r o n the scale o f a h u m a n l i f e t i m e . Lungfish i n o t h e r lakes a r e k n o w n t o v e n t u r e a w a y f r o m s h o r e , but g e n e r a l l y t h e y s e e m t o p r e f e r p a p y r u s s w a m p s a l o n g lake m a r g i n s t o the offshore d e p t h s . W a s L a k e M a l a w i b o u n d e d b y m o r e s w a m p s i n the past? I s the b o t t o m n o w t o o f i r m , t o o f r e e o f o r g a n i c debris? A r e the p r e s e n t w a t e r s t o o clean and d e e p f o r lungfish? M a y b e t h e y a r e . O n e t h i n g i s s u r e . T h e lake has n o t r e m a i n e d static since it w a s f o r m e d . It has p r o b a b l y g o t t e n d e e p e r , and that i s d u e t o a n e v o l v i n g g e o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g . N o t o n l y that, but a s w e are a b o u t t o s e e , the g e o l o g i c a l s e t t i n g has facilitated the f o r m a t i o n o f fossils. Many of Africa's most famous l a k e s — T u r k a n a , Naivasha, Victoria, T a n ganyika,
Malawi—owe
their
existence
to
the
geologic
structure
o f East
A f r i c a . L i k e a scar s t r e t c h i n g f r o m the R e d Sea i n the n o r t h t o M o z a m b i q u e in the south is the G r e a t R i f t V a l l e y .
T h i s gash across A f r i c a is t a n g i b l e
e v i d e n c e o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s and c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t : i t i s the r u p t u r e o f the Earth a s the c o n t i n e n t i s r i p p e d apart ( F i g u r e 1 4 ) . T o the n o r t h i t has o p e n e d t o the sea. I n d e e d , i t i s the v e r y r e a s o n w h y the R e d Sea e x i s t s . T h e w o u n d , w i t h t i m e , m a y w e l l f l o o d p r o g r e s s i v e l y t o the s o u t h . O n e day sea w a t e r m i g h t f i l l a g u l f that is n o w the R i f t V a l l e y . In East A f r i c a , a l o n g the R i f t , the p r o c e s s e s that tear the c o n t i n e n t s apart and send t h e m o n t h e i r w a y across the g l o b e are e v i d e n t . T h e highlands that flank the R i f t , the g r e a t R u w e n z o r i M o u n t a i n s — t h e M o u n t a i n s o f the M o o n o f the e a r l y e x p l o r e r s — K i l i m a n j a r o , M o u n t K e n y a , and the A b e r d a r e s are v o l c a n i c masses r e f l e c t i n g t h e u p w e l l i n g o f heat and lava.
T h e Rift Valley
f o r m e d a l o n g w i t h b i g v o l c a n o e s a s the E a r t h ' s surface w a s s t r e t c h e d , c r e a t i n g spectacular
relief.
T h e c l i m a t e a t the b o t t o m o f the R i f t V a l l e y i s h o t and d r y . T h e f l a n k s a r e c o o l e r and m o r e pleasant. T h e heights s u r r o u n d i n g the R i f t V a l l e y a r e m u c h
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
46
FIGURE
14:
Formation of the
Great
Rift
continent causing blocks to drop down has many such faults (bottom). rifting.
Hillsides
and
downstream
Tensional forces pull on
along faults (top).
The
Volcanoes are often formed in
mountains formed from
weathered and eroded.
sediments
Valley.
rifting
and
Great
the
Rift
Valley
areas of active
volcanic
activity
are
The sediments derived from them are carried downslope and
where they are deposited.
Animals and plants entombed in the
become fossils.
c o o l e r still. M o u n t K e n y a , m o r e p r o p e r l y k n o w n a s K i r i n y a g a , r e a c h i n g t o a n a l t i t u d e o f 1 7 , 0 5 8 f e e t , i s c a p p e d w i t h s n o w , y e t i t i s o n the e q u a t o r . Each e n v i r o n m e n t — m o u n t a i n , v a l l e y , p l a i n , d e s e r t , and e v e r y t h i n g i n b e t w e e n — i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y its o w n c l i m a t i c r e g i m e , its o w n g e o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s , and its o w n suite o f plants and a n i m a l s . Sand and soil p a r t i c l e s and r o c k f r a g m e n t s and dust a r e c a r r i e d d o w n h i l l f r o m the flanks and highlands b y g r a v i t y , w i n d s , and w a t e r . Finally t h e y c o m e t o r e s t , d e p o s i t e d i n the b e d s o f the s t r e a m s , r i v e r s , and lakes o f the R i f t V a l l e y . Diatoms, uncounted
single-celled
numbers
in
plants
Rift
with
Valley
bodies
lakes,
of ornate
where
they
silica, share
flourish
their
in
watery
e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h s p e c i e s u p o n s p e c i e s o f f i s h . A s the d i a t o m s d i e , t h e i r beautiful silica b o d i c e s b e c o m e s e d i m e n t , f o r m i n g a l m o s t p u r e r o c k — d i a t o m i t e , used f o r m a k i n g t o o t h p a s t e — i n the c l e a n w a t e r s n e a r the c e n t e r o f a
TAHITI
WITHOUT
SALT 47
l a k e . C l o s e r t o t h e s h o r e , a l o n g s t r e a m s and d e l t a s , d i a t o m s m i x w i t h d e t r i t u s c a r r i e d d o w n f r o m the highlands.
P o l l e n f r o m f l o w e r i n g plants and s p o r e s
f r o m fungi s p r i n k l e the surface o f t h e w a t e r and j o i n i n the b o t t o m s e d i m e n t s as t h e y b u i l d up l a y e r by l a y e r . S e d i m e n t s such a s t h e s e — r i v e r silt and lake m u d — b l a n k e t b o n e s and b o d i e s o f d e a d f i s h , h i p p o s , c r o c o d i l e s , p e r h a p s t u r t l e s , w h a t e v e r animals d i e in the w a t e r . W a t e r lilies and s h o r e grasses a r e b u r i e d . So are snails and c l a m s , a r t h r o p o d s and crustaceans. A n i m a l s that d o n o t l i v e i n w a t e r , b u t d i e n e a r a lake o r s t r e a m , m a y b e w a s h e d i n b y rains. O c c a s i o n a l f l o o d s cause w a t e r l e v e l s t o r i s e , b l a n k e t i n g s e d i m e n t s o v e r t h e soil o f t h e f l o o d p l a i n , c o v e r i n g w h a t e v e r carcasses and scraps m a y r e m a i n o n t h e surface after t h e v u l t u r e s and hyaenas have had a t t h e m . T h e ash o f a distant v o l c a n o m a y rain d o w n t o c o v e r and p r e s e r v e a p i c t u r e of the l a n d ' s surface. A f t e r an animal d i e s , if it is to b e c o m e a fossil, it m u s t be b u r i e d b e f o r e the e l e m e n t s d e s t r o y t h e carcass c o m p l e t e l y .
Flesh m a y r o t and p u t r e f y .
S i n e w s m a y d r y and shrink, t w i s t i n g the n e c k o v e r the back i n a d e a t h p o s e . I t m a y b e s c a v e n g e d and e a t e n , o r the flesh m a y b e b u r i e d a l o n g w i t h t h e b o n e s t o d e c o m p o s e l a t e r . Burial i s d o n e b y s e d i m e n t s ; t h e r e f o r e , fossils a r e f o r m e d i n areas w h e r e r i v e r s o r lakes o r o c e a n s d r o p t h e i r s e d i m e n t l o a d s , just a s w a s discussed a b o v e .
A f t e r burial, minerals carried by percolating
g r o u n d w a t e r are d e p o s i t e d i n v u g s w i t h i n the b o n e s t r u c t u r e , o r t h e y m a y actually r e p l a c e b o n e salts, l i t e r a l l y t u r n i n g the b o n e t o s t o n e . M i l l e n n i a l a t e r , w i t h m o v e m e n t s o f the Earth and changes i n c l i m a t e that t r a n s f o r m d e p o s i tional settings t o t h o s e o f e r o s i o n , the fossil i s e x h u m e d — r e s u r r e c t e d . E v e r y thing a b o u t the fossil, its p r e s e r v a t i o n , a n a t o m y , the e n t o m b i n g s e d i m e n t s , what
is
buried
with i t — e v e r y t h i n g reveals
s o m e t h i n g a b o u t the
ancient
world. T h e s e p r o c e s s e s a r e s o m e o f the w a y s fossils f o r m . Each c o n t e x t l e a v e s its indelible mark. turned
to
stone
Past e n v i r o n m e n t s and e c o l o g y are r e f l e c t e d i n s e d i m e n t s with
time,
in
fossil
organisms
that
show
through
their
a n a t o m y t h e i r habits i n l i f e , and f r o m the b e h a v i o r a l r e l i c s , l i k e t h e m a r k s o f s c a v e n g i n g c a r n i v o r e s , that r e m a i n o n fossil b o n e . T h e c o n s t i t u e n t c h e m i c a l s o f b o n e s and shells and soil m a y r e f l e c t t h e ancient c l i m a t e o f a r e g i o n , o r the d i e t o f a n a n i m a l , o r the p h o t o s y n t h e t i c p a t h w a y o f a p l a n t . W e can r e a d t h e past f r o m the r e c o r d o f the r o c k s . T h e signals c h a n g e f r o m r o c k l a y e r t o r o c k layer t h r o u g h t i m e , r e v e a l i n g w i t h sensitivity the h i s t o r y o f life and the h i s t o r y of life's e n v i r o n m e n t . That is p a l e o e c o l o g y .
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D
48 T h e fossilization p r o c e s s i s o c c u r r i n g t o d a y i n t h e R i f t V a l l e y . I t o c c u r r e d i n the past. W e can see t h e results o f p r o c e s s e s o p e r a t i n g i n the past i n the f a m o u s fossil f i e l d s o f K o o b i F o r a , east o f L a k e T u r k a n a , K e n y a , rich i n t h e fossil r e m a i n s of t h e h u m a n a n c e s t o r s Australopithecus and Homo,
and m a n y ,
m a n y o t h e r kinds o f fossils. W e can see a similar situation a l o n g the n o r t h w e s t e r n s h o r e s o f L a k e M a l a w i , w h e r e a n a u s t r a l o p i t h e c i n e has r e c e n t l y b e e n found.
T h e r e a r e also fossil snails,
pigs,
elephants,
monkeys,
crocodiles,
t u r t l e s , h i p p o s , r h i n o s , and f i s h — l o t s o f f i s h — i n r o c k s r a n g i n g back t o a b o u t f i v e m i l l i o n years a g o . A l l t h e s e fossils w e r e f o r m e d i n the e a r l y stages o f L a k e M a l a w i . A l l a r e m u c h , m u c h y o u n g e r than d i n o s a u r s . S o L a k e M a l a w i i s m u c h y o u n g e r than dinosaurs t o o . T h e D i n o s a u r B e d s l i e c h e e k - b y - j o w l w i t h the a n c i e n t d e p o s i t s o f L a k e Malawi,
b u t that i s n o t b e c a u s e ancestral
Lake
Malawi
e x i s t e d w i t h the
d i n o s a u r s . T h e D i n o s a u r Beds a r e m u c h o l d e r , b y a b o u t 100 m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h e y w e r e d e p o s i t e d b y c l e a n , s w i f t - f l o w i n g streams and r i v e r s that b o u n c e d sand and fresh r o c k e r o d e d f r o m adjacent hills a l o n g t h e i r channels. T h e r e w e r e small p o n d s o c c a s i o n a l l y , b u t n o e v i d e n c e o f a g r e a t l a k e . Soils o n the river floodplains w e r e thin, or stripped away by rampaging torrents. G l o b s o f c a l i c h e , l i m e s t o n e l e f t f r o m w a t e r e v a p o r a t i n g o u t o f the g r o u n d , are f o u n d i n the r e m n a n t s o f a n c i e n t soils, s h o w i n g that t h e c l i m a t e w a s h o t . D u r i n g the days o f t h e dinosaurs t h e w e a t h e r w a s seasonal, b u t m o r e arid than n o w . T h e r o c k s o f t h e D i n o s a u r B e d s r e p r e s e n t a v e r y lost w o r l d c o m p a r e d w i t h the m o d e r n w o r l d c u r r e n t l y e x i s t i n g a l o n g s i d e the l a k e . I n M a l a w i t h e s t r u c t u r e and g e o m e t r y o f the R i f t i s c o n t r o l l e d b y o l d e r features o f t h e g e o l o g y o n w h i c h t h e n e w e r R i f t i s s u p e r i m p o s e d . S o m e o f the o l d e r features g o b a c k a b i l l i o n years t o w h e n A f r i c a w a s f i r s t a s s e m b l e d and u l t i m a t e l y c o n j o i n e d w i t h the rest o f the w o r l d ' s landmasses i n t o the supers u p e r c o n t i n e n t o f P a n g a e a . A s the c o n t i n e n t s a s w e k n o w t h e m n o w b e g a n to
take
shape,
the
seams
of the
original
constructions b e c a m e
zones
of
w e a k n e s s . T h e s e w e r e e x p l o i t e d b y the restless Earth a s A f r i c a u n z i p p e d f r o m t h e rest o f the c o n t i n e n t s b e g i n n i n g o v e r 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h a t i s o l a t i o n of A f r i c a f r o m o t h e r landmasses also b e g a n as a rift v a l l e y , just a s w e see h a p p e n i n g t o d a y . T h e initial s e p a r a t i o n o n the east side o f A f r i c a started a b o u t 150 m i l l i o n years a g o . A b i t l a t e r , b u t p r i o r t o 1 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o , M a d a g a s c a r w a s r i f t i n g a w a y f r o m t h e east c o a s t . T h e r i f t i n g p r o c e s s that s e p a r a t e d M a d a g a s c a r l e d t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o f f a u l t - b o u n d e d basins a l o n g the o l d e r c o n t i n e n t a l s e a m s , just i n t h e area w h e r e t h e m o d e r n R i f t V a l l e y i s n o w .
TAHITI
WITHOUT
SALT
I t i s these o l d basins, associated w i t h the split o f M a d a g a s c a r f r o m East A f r i c a , that w e r e f i l l e d w i t h t h e r i v e r s e d i m e n t s e n t o m b i n g t h e dinosaurs that l i v e d in northern M a l a w i so long a g o . T h a t is w h y the Dinosaur Beds w i t h their suite o f fossils a r e f o u n d i n the c u r r e n t R i f t V a l l e y . I t i s also w h y t h e y are found next to the much y o u n g e r deposits of Lake M a l a w i , which p r e s e r v e the n e a r l y m o d e r n fossilized r e m a i n s o f lungfish, h i p p o s , e l e p h a n t s , and p i g s . O n the o t h e r side o f A f r i c a d u r i n g this s a m e a n c i e n t t i m e , t h e S o u t h A t l a n t i c o p e n e d . F a u l t e d basins f o r m e d i n w h a t i s n o w C a m e r o o n , N i g e r , and N i g e r i a . T h e s a m e h a p p e n e d i n B r a z i l , and a t t h e s a m e t i m e , b e c a u s e t h e t w o areas w e r e o n e . R i v e r s and lakes f i l l e d the basins w i t h s e d i m e n t s , and i n s o d o i n g p r e s e r v e d fossils. T h e w h o l e b r o a d r e g i o n w a s a r i d , b u t w i t h a c o m p l e x o f lakes f e d b y r i v e r s d r a i n i n g i n t e r n a l l y t o t h e b i g basins.
Finally, at
100
m i l l i o n years a g o , Brazil cruised a w a y , b y c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t , i n t o the sunset. T h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n b e c a m e c o m p l e t e f r o m south t o n o r t h . A n y r i v e r d r a i n ages that m a y h a v e l i n k e d the t w o areas p r i o r t o t h e s e p a r a t i o n w e r e f o r e v e r s e v e r e d . T h e D i n o s a u r B e d s i n M a l a w i a r e a r e f l e c t i o n o f life and e c o l o g y i n the v e r y heart o f A f r i c a a t o n e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o , t h e v e r y t i m e A f r i c a w a s b e c o m i n g i s o l a t e d f r o m the rest o f the w o r l d . H o w c e r t a i n a m I a b o u t the a g e o f the fossils i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s o f n o r t h e r n M a l a w i ? N o t c e r t a i n a t all. C l e a r l y t h e y b e l o n g t o the M e s o z o i c , the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e dinosaurs t e l l us that. But t h e c o n f i d e n c e I h a v e in e s t i m a t i n g t h e i r p r e c i s e a g e i s n o t g r e a t . A l l I can say t o s u p p o r t m y c o n t e n t i o n s f r o m w i t h i n M a l a w i i s based o n fossils. T h e r e a r e n o t y e t any r e l e v a n t dates o r p a l e o m a g n e t i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n s f r o m w i t h i n the c o u n t r y . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c fossils f r o m the classic d i n o s a u r e x c a v a t i o n s at T e n d a g u r u are l a c k i n g , s u g g e s t i n g a d i f f e r e n t , p r o b a b l y y o u n g e r a g e f o r M a l a w i . S o m e o f t h e fossils k n o w n f r o m M a l a w i , b u t n o t k n o w n f r o m T e n d a g u r u , r e s e m b l e t h o s e f r o m C a m e r o o n and N i g e r i n W e s t A f r i c a , and f r o m Brazil i n South A m e r i c a . I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o s p e c u l a t e that these fossils are o f s i m i l a r , i f n o t e x a c t l y the s a m e , a g e . M o r e o v e r , the fossil r e c o r d o f o c e a n l i f e , w h i c h i s m u c h b e t t e r than that o f l a n d - d w e l l i n g a n i m a l s , plus t h e p a l e o m a g n e t i c r e c o r d f r o m t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n f l o o r , d e m o n s t r a t e that t h e n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n a r m s o f t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n d i d n o t c o n j o i n until a b o u t 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . I f t h e b o n e s o f B r a z i l , N i g e r , C a m e r o o n , and M a l a w i w e r e b u r i e d w h i l e the t w o c o n t i n e n t s w e r e still c o n n e c t e d , h o w e v e r f e e b l y , the c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e A t l a n t i c w o u l d s e e m t o put a l i m i t o n h o w y o u n g t h e b o n e s can b e — 1 0 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s . F o r the sake o f discussion, that i s t h e n u m b e r I w i l l use. T h e D i n o s a u r B e d s o f M a l a w i
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
50
are n o t l i k e l y t o b e y o u n g e r — u n l e s s t h e r e a r e m o r e surprises i n s t o r e . O n e h u n d r e d m i l l i o n years a g o i s s m a c k i n the m i d d l e o f the last p e r i o d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T e c h n i c a l l y i t i s late i n the Early C r e t a c e o u s .
E V E N T O D A Y T H E g e o l o g y o f the R i f t V a l l e y and the c l i m a t e o f East A f r i c a a r e n o t u n i f o r m f r o m n o r t h t o s o u t h , and that i n i t s e l f affects the fossilization p r o c e s s and t h e d i s c o v e r y o f fossils. T h e b i g d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n searching f o r fossils i n M a l a w i and a t L e a k e y ' s K o o b i F o r a f a r t h e r n o r t h a r e t w o .
First,
M a l a w i r e c e i v e s m o r e rainfall than n o r t h e r n K e n y a , s o m o r e plants g r o w , s o it is h a r d e r to see the g r o u n d . C o n s e q u e n t l y it is h a r d e r to see fossils that m i g h t s u r v i v e the r i g o r s o f soil f o r m a t i o n i n such a n e n v i r o n m e n t . S e c o n d , and p r o b a b l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y i n this p a r t i c u l a r c o m p a r i s o n , the g e o m e t r y o f the R i f t V a l l e y i s d i f f e r e n t i n t h e t w o areas. A t K o o b i F o r a , t o the n o r t h , i t i s b r o a d and o p e n ; i n M a l a w i , t o t h e s o u t h , i t i s n a r r o w , w i t h s t e e p w a l l s a l t e r n a t i n g f r o m east t o w e s t o n e i t h e r side o f t h e l a k e . T h e r e m a y b e lakes in b o t h areas, b u t the g e o l o g y is n o t e x a c t l y the s a m e , and that m a k e s a difference. T h e geological setting of a r e g i o n is important for finding, as w e l l as f o r m i n g and p r e s e r v i n g fossils. T h u s , t o f i n d fossils, t h e r o c k s i n w h i c h t h e y a r e p r e s e r v e d m u s t b e v i s i b l e . M a n y areas o f the Earth a r e , h a p p i l y , c o v e r e d w i t h d e e p soil and plants that, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , o b s c u r e t h e u n d e r l y i n g p a r e n t r o c k and d e s t r o y fossils. I t i s o f t e n difficult t o tell f r o m a m a p just w h a t the e x p o s u r e s o f r o c k w i l l b e like half a w o r l d a w a y . M y h e a r t n o s e - d i v e d t h e f i r s t t i m e I d r o v e t o the D i n o s a u r Beds in M a l a w i . I passed t h r o u g h a banana g r o v e so e x t e n s i v e and so d e n s e , I a l m o s t g a v e u p h o p e that t h e r e w o u l d b e any r o c k s a t all o p e n t o search. T h a n k g o o d n e s s that b e y o n d t h e r i v e r b e n d t h e bananas e n d e d and the r o c k s began. Scientific e x p e d i t i o n s t o f i n d fossils, collecting
trips.
They
must
be
pursued
or anything else, in
the
context
are n o t s i m p l y o f the
questions
a d d r e s s e d , t h e p r o b l e m s t o b e s o l v e d , t h e h y p o t h e s e s t e s t e d , and the m o d e l s f o r m u l a t e d . P a l e o n t o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i s n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m r e s e a r c h i n any o t h e r scientific d i s c i p l i n e in this r e g a r d . T h a t , in fact, is w h a t m a k e s p a l e o n t o l o g y a s c i e n c e . T h e M a l a w i P r o j e c t i s f r a m e d i n t e r m s o f the e m e r g e n c e o f the m o d e r n w o r l d — g e o g r a p h i c a l l y b y t h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f c o n t i n e n t s and b i o l o g i c a l l y b y t h e e v o l u t i o n o f n e w g r o u p s o f v e r t e b r a t e s that w e r e later t o e m e r g e f r o m t h e s h a d o w s o f t h e dinosaurs t o d o m i n a t e the landscape.
TAHITI
WITHOUT
Fossil c o l l e c t i n g and
SALT
fieldwork,
especially foreign
fieldwork,
is fun if all
g o e s w e l l . But i t i s c o m p l i c a t e d . L o g i s t i c s m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d . H o w d o y o u g e t t o w h e r e y o u w a n t t o g o ? H o w d o y o u supply a c a m p o n c e y o u are t h e r e ? T h e feasibility o f the plan must b e d e t e r m i n e d . I n M a l a w i I w a s f o r t u n a t e . M y c o u n t e r p a r t s a t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s a r e v e r y f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e logistics o f f i e l d w o r k i n t h e i r c o u n t r y . T h e y had a l r e a d y set a p r e c e d e n t f o r i t t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n f i e l d studies. O f c o u r s e , i n
fieldwork
a s i n any o t h e r
aspect o f s c i e n c e , e v e r y t h i n g h i n g e s o n g e t t i n g a d e q u a t e f u n d i n g . T h a t step i s n e v e r easy, b u t o n c e a c c o m p l i s h e d , the w o r k can g e t u n d e r w a y . T h e r e a r e t w o essential i n g r e d i e n t s t o a successful p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l e x p e d i t i o n : fossils and p e o p l e . T h e fossils are c o n t r o l l e d b y the r o c k s . T h e p e o p l e have t o f i n d the fossils. T o d o t h e i r b e s t , t h e y m u s t w a n t t o b e i n the f i e l d . E v e n u n d e r t o u g h c o n d i t i o n s , a g o o d f i e l d c r e w f i n d s s o m e t h i n g pleasant t o m a k e the hardships b e a r a b l e .
Still, n o t e v e r y o n e w h o w a n t s t o b e i s a d e -
q u a t e l y suited f o r f i e l d w o r k . I t takes a c e r t a i n k i n d o f t e m p e r a m e n t . T h e w o r k is d i r t y . It is h o t . T h e r e are b u g s . O b v i o u s l y a p r i m e c o n c e r n i s that r e a s o n a b l e p r e c a u t i o n s b e t a k e n f o r health and safety. F o o d m u s t n o t b e s k i m p e d o n , d i v e r s i t y s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d , and individual p r e f e r e n c e s should b e a c c o m m o d a t e d s o far a s p o s s i b l e . C o o k the f o o d w e l l and k e e p t h e dishes c l e a n .
An adequate supply of b e e r is
w e l c o m e . P e o p l e d o n o t t r a v e l h a l f w a y a r o u n d the w o r l d just t o suffer; t h e y w o r k better w h e n they d o not. A t t a c k s f r o m w i l d animals a r e n o t a g r e a t s o u r c e o f w o r r y i n A f r i c a these days, a l t h o u g h the t h r e a t i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y g o n e : C r o c o d i l e s c l a i m a f e w l i v e s e v e r y y e a r . H o w e v e r , t h e r e are o t h e r , m o r e l i k e l y natural hazards that m u s t be respected in
fieldwork—such
a s snakes. W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h o s e sorts o f
d a n g e r s , i t i s best t o f o l l o w the a d v i c e o f John M o i r , o n e o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f the A f r i c a n Lakes C o m p a n y : " F e a r d y s e n t r y [sic] and dissensions e v e n m o r e . " M o i r w a s speaking o f t h e t h r e a t o f slave r a i d e r s , b u t his are sage w o r d s f o r k e e p i n g the hazards o f f i e l d w o r k i n p e r s p e c t i v e a s w e l l . T h e c r e w m u s t g e t a l o n g and t h e y m u s t stay h e a l t h y .
M a l a r i a is a real p r o b l e m .
Tick-borne
diseases are w o r r i s o m e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , staying healthy i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y w i t h i n o u r c o n t r o l . O n e m o r n i n g in c a m p L o u T a y l o r , a f r i e n d since g r a d u a t e s c h o o l and a g r e a t person to be in the field w i t h , came to my tent. It was 6:00 A.M. He spoke i n a c a l m v o i c e . " B o s s , I think I ' v e g o t a p p e n d i c i t i s . " T h a t i s n o t h o w I l i k e to wake up.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
>2 L o u had b e e n sitting b y t h e lake since 4 : 3 0 , c h e w i n g t e n aspirin t o kill the p a i n . T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g that c o u l d b e d o n e until t h e day s t a r t e d , s o h e d i d not wake anyone. Off we
went down
the
M-l
highway
o n the
twenty-mile
trip
t o the
r e g i o n a l hospital a t K a r o n g a . L o u w a s h u r t i n g and w e w e r e all c o n c e r n e d a t t h e p r o s p e c t o f his h a v i n g t o u n d e r g o s u r g e r y .
T h e drive heightened our
a n x i e t y . O n the w a y t h e r o a d w a s o b s t r u c t e d b y a n o v e r l o a d e d p i c k u p that lay u p s i d e d o w n , like a f l i p p e d t u r t l e , o n its l o a d . W e s k i r t e d a r o u n d it. T h e r e was nothing we could do there. W h e n w e a r r i v e d a t t h e hospital L o u w a s g i v e n a P a n a d o l and taken t o a r o o m w h e r e h e lay o n the e x a m i n a t i o n t a b l e . A s p i d e r that s e e m e d t o have a s p r e a d of a b o u t e i g h t inches e m e r g e d f r o m a c r e v i c e near his head and c l i m b e d u p t h e w a l l . M o s q u i t o e s b u z z e d i n t h e c o r n e r s o f the r o o m . A used scalpel b l a d e c r u s t e d w i t h b l o o d lay a b a n d o n e d o n the d e s k . A t this stage n o o n e w a s e n c o u r a g e d . T h e hospital a t K a r o n g a i s n o t bad b y a m b i e n t standards, but at the
time
o f this
event the prevalence
of A I D S
in
A f r i c a and the
u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n h e r e n t i n the b l o o d supply w e r e a d d e d risks that w o u l d b e a v o i d e d i f L o u c o u l d just hang o n until h e g o t back t o the States. T w o technicians c a m e in. T h e y t o o k L o u ' s h i s t o r y and m a d e a p r e l i m i n a r y examination. Both w e r e very professional. T h e y k n e w what they w e r e doing. I t w a s n o w 7 : 0 0 . D o w n t h e hall t h e y w e n t t o call the d o c t o r , w h o w a s still a t his h o m e . I o v e r h e a r d t h e m saying that t h e y w e r e r u l i n g o u t a p p e n d i c i t i s , w h i c h g a v e m e i m m e d i a t e r e l i e f , b u t t h e n I w o n d e r e d w h a t t h e p r o b l e m really was. T h e d o c t o r a r r i v e d a t 7 : 3 0 . H e w a s D u t c h . H e t o o k a c l o s e l o o k a t the p a t i e n t , o r d e r e d a f e w tests, and d i a g n o s e d k i d n e y s t o n e s . I t w a s n o t a p p e n d i citis o r a n y t h i n g life t h r e a t e n i n g that w o u l d r e q u i r e a n i m m e d i a t e o p e r a t i o n . T h e c o l o r diffused back i n t o L o u ' s f a c e . T h e d o c t o r r e c o m m e n d e d that h e r e t u r n to the U . S . as s o o n as p o s s i b l e , a s u g g e s t i o n that m a d e all kinds of s e n s e . O n e d o e s n o t d o o n e ' s best d i g g i n g fossils w h i l e suffering e x c r u c i a t i n g pain and pissing b l o o d . He caught a p l a n e the n e x t d a y , his field season cut s h o r t , but o n l y b y a c o u p l e o f d a y s . H e w a s o k a y , w h i c h w a s the o n l y thing that really m a t t e r e d , and he had d o n e a fine j o b tor the
project.
I t i s n o t a l w a y s easy t o j u d g e b e f o r e h a n d w h o i s suited f o r f o r e i g n fieldw o r k and w h o i s n o t . S u p e r t o u g h h o m b r e s a r e n o t necessarily r i g h t f o r the f i e l d . M a y b e i t has s o m e t h i n g t o d o w i t h the i n f l e x i b i l i t y o f b e i n g m a c h o . I t depends on the individual, not on g e n d e r , w h o will be c o m p e t e n t , tolerant, and less p r o n e t o c u l t u r e s h o c k , w h i c h a r e the r e q u i r e d a t t r i b u t e s .
TAHITI
WITHOUT
SALT
O f course, o n e does not have t o d o f i e l d w o r k t o b e a g o o d paleontologist, and s o m e v e r y g o o d b o n e p e o p l e g e t o f f t o a s l o w start i n t h e f i e l d . M i g e o d w r o t e o f the y o u n g C a m b r i d g e s t u d e n t , R e x P a r r i n g t o n , w h o a c c o m p a n i e d h i m f r o m T e n d a g u r u t o N y a s a l a n d i n 1 9 3 0 : " I a m afraid that M r . P a r r i n g t o n i s n o t g i f t e d w i t h all t h e qualifications n e c e s s a r y f o r a n A f r i c a n e x p e d i t i o n r e q u i r i n g constant p e r s o n a l e x e r t i o n . T h e r e has b e e n f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the season a f i n e f i e l d f o r r e s e a r c h w h i c h m a n y m e n w o u l d h a v e w e l c o m e d . " A p p a r e n t l y M i g e o d t h o u g h t s o m e o n e else m i g h t h a v e b e e n b e t t e r suited f o r the j o b . I confess I h a v e felt the s a m e as M i g e o d on an o c c a s i o n or t w o . I o n c e t o o k s o m e o n e t o A f r i c a w h o , u n b e k n o w n s t t o m e , had e c c e n t r i c d i e t a r y p r e f e r e n c e s . T h e r e w a s little available i n r e m o t e A f r i c a that h e w a s i n c l i n e d t o e a t . I l e a r n e d f r o m h i m , a fully adult i n d i v i d u a l , b u t t o o l a t e , that his staple f o o d w a s P o p - T a r t s , a n i t e m u n i v e r s a l l y absent f r o m M a l a w i m e n u s . H e had n o a l l e r g i e s , but he had n e v e r in his life e a t e n a h a r d - b o i l e d e g g . T h a t is all r i g h t ; I p r e s u m e d h e just did n o t l i k e t h e s m e l l o f t h e m o r s o m e t h i n g . W h e n i t c a m e d o w n t o l i t t l e else t o e a t , h e d e c i d e d t o t r y o n e , but h e had t o b e taught h o w t h e p e e l i n g and eating are d o n e . A l l r i g h t , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g r e a l l y shameful i n that. A n d o n c e h e had t r i e d o n e , t h e y b e c a m e his f a v o r i t e f o o d .
He o r d e r e d them at a fine
restaurant i n Paris o n the w a y h o m e . O f c o u r s e , that i s all r i g h t t o o . T h e k n o w l e d g e o f h o w t o eat a h a r d - b o i l e d e g g i s n o t a r e q u i r e m e n t f o r success in p a l e o n t o l o g y , b u t it is t e l l i n g w i t h r e s p e c t to suitability f o r t h e field, especially i f the f i e l d i s i n a r e m o t e f o r e i g n c o u n t r y . T r o u b l e d o e s h a p p e n . T h e s e trips are n o t q u i t e v a c a t i o n s . I t c o u l d b e p e r s o n a l l y d a n g e r o u s t o g o i n t o the bush i f o n e i s n o t m e n t a l l y e q u i p p e d f o r i t . T h a t can m a k e i t d a n g e r o u s , o r a t least u n c o m f o r t a b l e ,
for your companions.
Each p e r s o n m u s t h a v e
c o n f i d e n c e i n the abilities o f o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e t e a m .
I t can b e v e r y
difficult t o j u d g e b e f o r e h a n d h o w s o m e o n e w i l l w o r k o u t . S o far a s R e x P a r r i n g t o n , M i g e o d ' s p r o b l e m i n the f i e l d , i s c o n c e r n e d , i n later years h e l e d successful e x p e d i t i o n s t o A f r i c a . H e b e c a m e a distinguished p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , o n e o f t h e t o p scholars i n his f i e l d , and a F e l l o w o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y . Y o u just n e v e r k n o w .
PROSPECTING,
the search f o r fossils,
m u s t take p l a c e i n areas o f a c t i v e
e r o s i o n , such a s g u l l i e s and b a d l a n d s , o r e v e n m a n - m a d e e x p o s u r e s o f r o c k , such a s r o a d cuts o r m i n e s . O n c e e x p o s e d o n the surface b y e r o s i o n , a fossil is often quickly destroyed. This seems strange. A f t e r lying protectively man-
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
S4 t i e d w i t h i n t h e e a r t h f o r m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s , a fossil e x p o s e d o n the surface can b e p i t i f u l l y f r a g i l e and easily l o s t . Fossils c o m e and g o o n the surface o f the g r o u n d t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s e s o f e r o s i o n and w e a t h e r i n g . I n t r o p i c a l A f r i c a i t d o e s n o t take l o n g f o r fossils t o b e d e s t r o y e d . T o m e , w o r r y i n g a b o u t fossils l o s t t o n a t u r e i s s o r t o f l i k e t h e s o u n d o f a t r e e falling i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s : I f t h e r e are n o e y e s p r e s e n t t o f i n d a b o n e , i t m i g h t a s w e l l n o t e x i s t . T h e r e s i l i e n c y o f a fossil d e p e n d s t o s o m e e x t e n t o n w h a t i t is, a s w e l l a s o n t h e e r o s i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s that e x p o s e d it. U s u a l l y , b u t w i t h m a n y e x c e p t i o n s , o n l y t h e hard parts o f animals f o s s i l i z e — s h e l l s , f o r e x a m p l e , o r i n v e r t e b r a t e s , b o n e s and t e e t h . T o o t h e n a m e l i s the h a r d e s t part o f a s k e l e t o n , s o t e e t h a r e m o r e r e a d i l y p r e s e r v e d and less p r o n e t o d e s t r u c t i o n e v e n than b o n e . B o t h b o n e s and t e e t h are p r e s e r v e d i n M a l a w i . T h e r e i s n o substitute f o r s h o e l e a t h e r i n searching the g r e a t o u t d o o r s f o r fossils. W a l k i n g and l o o k i n g . A n d p a t i e n c e . T h a t i s h o w i t i s d o n e . I t i s q u i t e pleasant m o s t o f t h e t i m e , e x c e p t that fossils s e e m i n g l y h a v e the nasty habit o f c o m i n g i n t o v i e w o n l y w h e n the w e a t h e r i s m i s e r a b l e . Fossil b o n e retains a t e x t u r e and a luster d i s t i n c t l y u n r o c k l i k e , b u t d e f i n i t e l y b o n e l i k e . T h o s e , and shape, a r e w h a t catch t h e p r o s p e c t o r ' s e y e . A f r a g m e n t o f fossil b o n e , but n o t m o d e r n b o n e , w i l l stick t o t h e t o n g u e . I t i s a test o f t e n a p p l i e d w h e n the f i r s t scrap i s f o u n d . S o m e t i m e s , i f y o u are l u c k y , t h e fossil w i l l b e w e l l e n o u g h p r e s e r v e d that i t can s i m p l y b e p i c k e d u p after c a r e f u l l y n o t i n g the details o f its o c c u r r e n c e . O t h e r t i m e s i t i s m u c h m o r e w o r k . No digging is e v e r d o n e w i t h o u t a reason.
B o n e m u s t b e seen o n the
surface o f the g r o u n d t o justify a g r e a t e r e f f o r t . Bits and p i e c e s o f fossils, like s t o n e s and balls, r o l l d o w n h i l l . A s t h e y w e a t h e r o u t o f the r o c k , g r a v i t y m o v e s t h e m d o w n s l o p e . W h e n a p i e c e o f b o n e i s f o u n d , t h e n e x t step i s t o t r a c e its path up the s l o p e . Is t h e r e m o r e in t h e g r o u n d ? H o p e f u l l y , as in M a l a w i , the a n s w e r i s y e s . T h e n t h e e x c a v a t i o n starts. T a k i n g fossil b o n e s o u t o f the g r o u n d i s r e a l l y r a t h e r s i m p l e i n p r i n c i p l e ( F i g u r e 1 5 ) . First, using a w l s and f i n e n e e d l e s , the b o n e i s u n c o v e r e d bit b y b i t until its o u t l i n e i s d e t e r m i n e d . T h i s i s o f t e n e n o u g h o f a c l u e t o d e t e r m i n e its i d e n t i t y . G l u e is a p p l i e d all o v e r to h a r d e n the s p e c i m e n . I use p o l y v i n y l a c e t a t e ( s u p p l i e d b y m y b r o t h e r - i n - l a w ) d i s s o l v e d i n a c e t o n e o r nail polish r e m o v e r and thin e n o u g h t o p e n e t r a t e t h e b o n e . A f t e r i t d r i e s , a t r e n c h i s cut a r o u n d the fossil,
slightly u n d e r c u t t i n g the b o n e ,
so that it stands on a
p e d e s t a l . O n c e a b o n e is on its p e d e s t a l , it is c o v e r e d w i t h p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l tissue. T h i s invaluable supply is r e a d i l y accessible in l a v a t o r i e s , in t w o - p l y
TAHITI
FIGURE
WITHOUT
15: How to collect a fossil.
enclosing earth (top), the
SALT
bone,
resting
ifyou prefer—which
A fossil bone is painstakingly cleared of its
then impregnated with hardener.
on
a
pillar of rock,
cushions
the fossil
is covered in
and
prevents
After the hardener dries, paper—"paleontological
plaster from
sticking
to
tissue" it.
The bone is then covered with plaster-soaked bandages. After the plaster sets, the fossil is flipped over, the field.
capped with plaster bandages,
labeled,
and then removed from
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
56 r o l l s of f o u r - i n c h squares that t e a r easily a l o n g p e r f o r a t i o n s . It is also called t o i l e t p a p e r . C o l o r o r floral p a t t e r n d o e s n o t m a t t e r , n o r d o e s i t m a t t e r i f the b r a n d is s c e n t e d or u n s c e n t e d . O n c e the p a p e r is a p p l i e d , the fossil is r e a d y for jacketing. Because fossils are usually c r a c k e d and b r o k e n , y o u t r e a t t h e m like w h a t t h e y a r e — b r o k e n b o n e s . J a c k e t i n g is the p r o c e s s by w h i c h a fossil is e n c a s e d i n p l a s t e r b a n d a g e s t o p r o t e c t i t , just a s i f y o u r a r m w e r e b r o k e n and the d o c t o r p u t it in a cast. In fact, f o r h a n d - s i z e d fossils I use m e d i c a l bandages o f g a u z e and q u i c k - s e t t i n g p l a s t e r o f P a r i s , g e n e r o u s l y s u p p l i e d t o the M a l a w i P r o j e c t by J o h n s o n & Johnson O r t h o p a e d i c s . If a s p e c i m e n is t o o large f o r m e d i c a l b a n d a g e s , strips o f b u r l a p cut f r o m gunnysacks o r l o o s e l y w o v e n c l o t h a r e u s e d . T h e s e strips a r e f i r s t i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h p l a s t e r , t h e n a p p l i e d t o the fossil. T h e j a c k e t p r e v e n t s t h e b r o k e n e d g e s o f b o n e s f r o m r u b b i n g against e a c h o t h e r s o that t h e y can b e g l u e d t i g h t l y t o g e t h e r a l o n g clean b r e a k s . T h e tissue cushions t h e fossil and p r e v e n t s the plaster f r o m sticking t o it. P l a s t e r - i m p r e g n a t e d b a n d a g e s a r e a p p l i e d o v e r the tissue i n m u l t i p l e layers to g i v e the jacket strength.
T h e undercutting of the pedestal provides
p u r c h a s e f o r the j a c k e t so that it d o e s n o t pull off. A f t e r the plaster has set, the
block
underside.
is
fully
undercut
and
flipped
over
onto
its
top,
exposing
the
T h e p a p e r i n g and p l a s t e r i n g i s t h e n r e p e a t e d o n the b o t t o m .
Braces o f w o o d o r t r e e b r a n c h e s are i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the j a c k e t i n g i f the s p e c i m e n i s l a r g e o r a w k w a r d . T h e f i n a l p r o d u c t i s a fully p r o t e c t e d fossil, s w a d d l e d in g l e a m i n g - w h i t e plaster.
T h i s b o n e and b a n d a g e
"biscuit"
is
r e a d y f o r t r a n s p o r t t o the lab. Substitutes f o r plaster can b e f o u n d i n d i r e n e c e s s i t y . A t T e n d a g u r u the Germans
o f t e n had t o use
m u d and
straw.
In
1 9 8 7 the
Malawi
Project
r e s o r t e d t o using c l o t h s o a k e d i n t h i c k , w h i t e w o o d g l u e t o j a c k e t dinosaur b o n e s and a v e r y l a r g e , b u t g e o l o g i c a l l y m u c h y o u n g e r , r h i n o c e r o s skull. If o n l y a single b o n e is f o u n d , the j a c k e t i n g p r o c e s s is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e n o u g h . I f t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f b o n e s , y o u have a q u a r r y o n y o u r hands. T h e n the fun r e a l l y starts. A q u a r r y is a b i g h o l e in the g r o u n d , b i g e n o u g h t o a l l o w f o r t h e r e m o v a l o f all the b o n e s y o u f i n d . T h e m o r e b o n e s t h e r e a r e , t h e l a r g e r i t is, and v e r y o f t e n t h e h a r d e r i t i s t o w o r k . T h e s t r a t u m c o n t a i n i n g the b o n e s i s d i s c o v e r e d o n t h e surface, but the b o n e s f o u n d s u b s e q u e n t l y are e n t o m b e d in sediments p r o t e c t e d by o v e r l y i n g rock. T h e sterile rock above t h e q u a r r y i s the o v e r b u r d e n . I t has t o b e r e m o v e d w i t h p i c k s , s h o v e l s , p o w e r t o o l s , o r s o m e t i m e s e v e n b a c k h o e s , i n o r d e r t o c o m e d o w n o n t o p o f the
TAHITI
WITHOUT
SALT 57
fossils and t o e x c a v a t e t h e m p r o p e r l y . T h e e f f o r t t o r e m o v e o v e r b u r d e n can b e c o n s i d e r a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y i f the p a y l o a d d i v e s i n t o t h e side o f a hill. T h a t i s w h a t h a p p e n e d i n M a l a w i . I f t h e hill i s s t e e p , the difficulties can b e p r o h i b i t i v e . T h a t has n o t h a p p e n e d i n M a l a w i y e t . K n o c k o n w o o d . . . A f t e r the o v e r b u r d e n i s r e m o v e d , e x c a v a t i o n b e g i n s o n each i n d i v i d u a l b o n e just as if it w e r e an i s o l a t e d find. If t h e b o n e s a r e small e n o u g h , s e v e r a l m i g h t be t a k e n o u t in a single m a n a g e a b l e j a c k e t . E x c a v a t i o n is a c o m p l i c a t e d task i f the b o n e s are abundant and j a c k - s t r a w e d o n e o n t o p o f t h e o t h e r . T h a t is often h o w it is in M a l a w i . Bones are m a p p e d as they b e c o m e e x p o s e d to p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o the spatial r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f each t o the o t h e r s and t o s e d i m e n t a r y f e a t u r e s . T h i s i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e b o n e s are m o r e o f t e n j u m b l e d t o g e t h e r than laid o u t as w h o l e s k e l e t o n s a r t i c u l a t e d as in l i f e . T h a t d o e s h a p p e n , b u t the usual situation i s that m i x e d - u p b o n e s m u s t b e s o r t e d o u t . M a p s h e l p d o that b e c a u s e t h e y h i g h l i g h t associations o f p a r t i c u l a r b o n e s that are n o t o b v i o u s i n t h e f i e l d . T h e j u m b l i n g that m i x e s b o n e s o c c u r s f o r a r e a s o n . M a p p i n g also h e l p s t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r t o p u z z l e o u t w h a t the cause might be. Q u a r r y w o r k i s fun, b u t i t can g e t o l d , d i g g i n g day after day i n the s a m e h o l e , s o m e t i m e s o n t h e s a m e b o n e , w i t h a w l s and n e e d l e s and w h i s k b r o o m s and brushes. Sitting f o r h o u r s o n t h e d a m p , m u s t y e a r t h causes a n i r r i t a t i n g itchy b u t t . T h e w o r k i s t e d i o u s . T e d i u m leads t o b o r e d o m . D i s t r a c t i o n c r e e p s in. Flies are stalked w i t h n e e d l e p o i n t s .
U n w a r r a n t e d attention is paid to
individual sand g r a i n s , n o t e n o u g h t o o t h e r i m p o r t a n t d e t a i l s . B y t h e n i t i s t i m e f o r a day off. B e t t e r that than d a m a g e fossils or l e t t e m p e r s flare. M o s t t r y i n g i n t h e q u a r r y are a g g r e s s i v e , b i t i n g insects a d a p t e d t o d r i n k i n g f r o m the c o r n e r s o f a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t ' s e y e s and f r o m s w e a t - l i n e d creases o f skin, such a s b e h i n d t h e k n e e s o r i n t h e a r m p i t s . T h e y l i k e t o c r a w l i n t o ears and b u z z . E v e r y t i m e the b l a c k flies g e t b a d i n M a l a w i , I think b a c k t o 1 9 7 9 , h u r r i e d l y and
not very
enthusiastically,
to
when
I
led
my first National
G e o g r a p h i c d i g i n the P a i n t e d D e s e r t o f A r i z o n a . W e w e r e d i g g i n g i n r o c k s f o r m e d a t the t i m e w h e n all the c o n t i n e n t s w e r e c o a l e s c e d i n t o P a n g a e a and w h e n s o m e o f the e a r l i e s t - k n o w n dinosaurs r o a m e d the E a r t h .
T h e fossils
w e r e g o o d , b u t g e t t i n g t h e m o u t had its a g g r a v a t i o n s . G n a t l i k e b i t i n g flies w e r e p e r s i s t e n t and painful. Insect r e p e l l e n t w a s t h e i r a m b r o s i a . T h e w h o l e c r e w had w e l t s and a l l e r g i c r e a c t i o n s . s l e e v e s and p a n t l e g s .
R u b b e r bands w e r e used t o c l o s e
C o l l a r b u t t o n s w e r e f a s t e n e d d e s p i t e the s w e l t e r i n g
heat. Still the flies z e r o e d i n o n t h e t i g h t lines w h e r e c l o t h e s m e t skin. W e
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
>8 w e r e d r i v e n t o t h e e d g e . E x t r e m e actions w e r e i n o r d e r . Finally w e r e s o r t e d t o fashioning makeshift s m u d g e p o t s .
T h e idea t o use t h e m w a s m y w i f e
B o n n i e ' s , b r o u g h t f r o m h e r w o r k i n M e x i c o . O u r s m u d g e p o t s w e r e piles o f d r y , s m o l d e r i n g c o w d u n g , c o l l e c t e d e a r l y i n t h e m o r n i n g b e f o r e the flies came
o u t and p l a c e d
i n each c o r n e r o f e v e r y
three-meter-square
o f the
e x c a v a t i o n . T h e s m o k e p r o v i d e d s o m e r e l i e f f r o m the i n s e c t s — b u t i t subjected us to dung-lung! A k i n d of g o o d - n a t u r e d , f r i e n d l y , d e g e n e r a t e c a m a r a d e r i e d e v e l o p s in a q u a r r y , c a t a l y z e d b y f a m i l i a r i t y and c l o s e q u a r t e r s . T h e r e i s a n o t h e r w i s e unusual candidness c h a r a c t e r i z e d by bad s o n g s , bad j o k e s , bad farts, and a g e n e r a l discussion o f b o d i l y f u n c t i o n s and d y s f u n c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y a s c o n c e r n s the digestive system.
I d o n o t k n o w w h y that is, b u t i t a l w a y s s e e m s t o
h a p p e n . A f t e r a f i e l d season i n the q u a r r y , f r i e n d s i n v a r i a b l y g o a w a y w i t h a pleasant f e e l i n g o f c l o s e n e s s , a s o r t o f s e c r e t s o c i e t y o f c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e . It a l w a y s h a p p e n s that w a y . A t t h e e n d o f a d i g t h e j a c k e t s are t r a n s p o r t e d back t o the lab. T h i s i s n o easy j o b i f the f i e l d season has b e e n successful. W e h a v e t o h i r e a special l o r r y i n M a l a w i t o take the b o n e s f r o m the f i e l d t o the facilities w e established a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s a t t h e o t h e r e n d o f t h e c o u n t r y . O n c e i n the l a b o r a t o r y , t h e p l a s t e r i s r e m o v e d and t h e fossil painstakingly r e s u r r e c t e d . Each b o n e i s h a r d e n e d . C l i n g i n g m a t r i x i s r e m o v e d . B r o k e n e d g e s are separ a t e d , c l e a n e d , and f i x e d t i g h t l y t o g e t h e r . N i c k s and cracks are f i l l e d w i t h p l a s t e r . M i s s i n g parts m a y b e f a b r i c a t e d . S u p p o r t s m a y b e a p p l i e d , and the fossil, i f n e c e s s a r y , i s c r a d l e d i n a f o r m - f i t t e d b e d t o p r e v e n t i t f r o m c o l l a p s i n g u n d e r its o w n w e i g h t .
O n l y t h e n i s the s p e c i m e n r e a d y f o r s t u d y , h a v i n g
u n d e r g o n e a p r o c e s s that m a y h a v e t a k e n y e a r s since its first d i s c o v e r y . If the s p e c i m e n i s f o r display, e v e n m o r e w o r k i s n e c e s s a r y . I t w i l l b e s o m e t i m e b e f o r e t h e b u l k o f the M a l a w i s p e c i m e n s a r e r e a d y f o r s t u d y , and e v e n l o n g e r b e f o r e t h e y a r e available f o r p u b l i c v i e w i n g . A n d the w h o l e p r o c e s s , f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o e n d , costs m o n e y . S e a r c h i n g f o r t i n y f o s s i l s — s u c h a s i s o l a t e d rat t e e t h o r e a r l y m a m m a l s — i s a little different.
T h e prospecting is about the same.
Walk,
walk,
walk,
scanning t h e g r o u n d f o r b o n e w e a t h e r i n g o u t . W h e n a l i k e l y s p o t i s f o u n d , i t i s s c r u t i n i z e d f o r t i n y flecks o f b o n e , s o m e t i m e s f r a g m e n t s o f o n c e - l a r g e r b o n e s , b u t all the b e t t e r i f t h e y b e parts o f v e r y small b o n e s o f v e r y small a n i m a l s . I t i s n o t necessary t o see m u c h small b o n e , just e n o u g h t o k n o w i t i s t h e r e . T h e n g u n n y s a c k a f t e r g u n n y s a c k i s f i l l e d w i t h the fossiliferous m a t r i x .
TAHITI
WITHOUT
SALT
S9 T h i s b u l k s a m p l e i s t h o r o u g h l y d r i e d , s o a k e d i n k e r o s e n e , and finally s i e v e d i n w a t e r t h r o u g h b o x e s w i t h sides and b o t t o m s o f f i n e - m e s h s c r e e n . W h e n the
kerosene-soaked
s e d i m e n t i n t h e b o x e s i s first p l a c e d i n w a t e r ,
the
k e r o s e n e rushes o u t o f it, o i l b e i n g l i g h t e r than w a t e r , and w a t e r rushes i n . T h i s causes t h e s e d i m e n t t o d i s a g g r e g a t e . T h e r e s i d u e o f this s c r e e n - w a s h i n g p r o c e s s l e a v e s p a r t i c l e s i n the size r a n g e o f sand and g r a v e l , just the size o f small m a m m a l t e e t h , c a p t u r e d b y t h e s c r e e n s . T h e silt and clay o f the o r i g i n a l s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k are w a s h e d a w a y . T h e r e s i d u e o f f t h e sieves i s t a k e n t o the lab and t h e b o n e f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e d b y passing i t t h r o u g h h i g h - d e n s i t y l i q u i d s . T h e s e float o f f light sand grains w h i l e t h e h e a v i e r b o n e s and t e e t h sink. T h e r e s u l t i n g u l t r a c o n c e n t r a t e i s w a s h e d and d r i e d ,
then sorted under a
m i c r o s c o p e . G o o d s p e c i m e n s o f t e e t h and b o n e s are g l u e d t o t h e heads o f pins stuck in c o r k s so that t h e y can be h a n d l e d easily. T h e c o r k s slip i n t o small glass vials f o r s t o r a g e . T h e technique of screen-washing, believe it or not, is remarkably effective. I n the n o t - s o - o l d e n days m a n y fossil c o l l e c t i o n s w e r e biased t o w a r d l a r g e r animals. O f c o u r s e v i r t u a l l y e v e r y natural c o m m u n i t y o f v e r t e b r a t e s has small s p e c i e s , a s w e l l a s m e d i u m - s i z e d and l a r g e o n e s . W h e r e w e r e t h e small o n e s in the fossil c o l l e c t i o n s that had o n l y l a r g e r species r e p r e s e n t e d ? In m a n y cases, until the a d v e n t o f s c r e e n - w a s h i n g , t h e y w e r e s i m p l y o v e r l o o k e d . W h e t h e r a fossil is f r o m s c r e e n i n g or f r o m a q u a r r y or just an i s o l a t e d find, it is i m p e r a t i v e that the l o c a l i t y w h e r e it w a s f o u n d and its p o s i t i o n in the r o c k s e q u e n c e b e a c c u r a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d and p r e c i s e l y r e c o r d e d . T h e s e t w o p i e c e s o f data are basic t o e v e r y fossil, m o r e i m p o r t a n t e v e n than its i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . T h e i d e n t i t y o f a fossil can b e r e p e a t e d l y d e t e r m i n e d b y w h o m e v e r w i s h e s t o d o s o , but o n c e a fossil i s o u t o f t h e g r o u n d , i t i s v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e , e x c e p t in rare circumstances, for anyone to pinpoint the exact place w h e r e it was f o u n d . T h e o n l y usual e x c e p t i o n i s the o r i g i n a l c o l l e c t o r , and t h e n o n l y s o w e l l as notoriously unreliable m e m o r y serves. W i t h o u t k n o w i n g a fossil's l o c a l i t y a c c u r a t e l y , its p l a c e i n the r o c k seq u e n c e c a n n o t b e p r e c i s e l y d e t e r m i n e d and n e i t h e r can its a g e b y any m e t h o d independent
of guessing
from
the
fossil
itself.
The
time
element—the
s t r e n g t h o f p a l e o n t o l o g y — i s d i m i n i s h e d . A fossil w i t h o u t t i m e i s l i k e y e s t e r d a y ' s d o u g h n u t s — y o u m i g h t s u r v i v e o n t h e m f o r a w h i l e , b u t w h o w a n t s to? F i e l d r e c o r d s are i m p o r t a n t .
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
60 AND
WHAT
O F p r o p e r f i e l d attire? I n the w o r d s o f Sir
H a r r y Johnston
speaking in 1 8 9 7 , " G e n e r a l l y , I m a y say this a b o u t c l o t h i n g , that a m a n should a l w a y s s t r i v e t o dress n e a t l y and b e c o m i n g l y i n C e n t r a l A f r i c a , o r h e w i l l q u i c k l y lapse i n t o a s l o v e n l y state o f e x i s t e n c e . " I find stout shoes are i m p o r t a n t .
JOURNALS F R O M
THE
GROUND
7
July
1
990,
Saturday.
The
beginning
of
the
field
season.
I a m o n m y w a y f r o m the U n i t e d States t o A f r i c a . It is 5:48 in the a f t e r n o o n . I am a b o a r d D e l t a F l i g h t 26 en r o u t e to Frankfurt. F r o m t h e r e it is s o u t h , a b r i e f transit s t o p in J o h a n n e s b u r g , t h e n u l t i m a t e l y on t o M a l a w i . I h a v e t w o b a c k - t o - b a c k o v e r n i g h t flights, o n e s e v e n h o u r s , the o t h e r f o u r t e e n . O n this o n e the seats are f i l l e d o n e i t h e r side o f m e . T h e r e is not much to do on an airplane, especially on an intercontinental flight, especially o v e r n i g h t , e s p e c i a l l y o n e that i s c r o w d e d . Y o u can t r y t o s l e e p o r try t o think, b u t y o u can d o n e i t h e r v e r y w e l l . I n a f e w m i n u t e s a t r a v e l c o m a w i l l take o v e r . F o r a t least a full t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s I w i l l b e n o t q u i t e a w a k e , but unable t o s l e e p . S o I w i l l w r i t e , a t least f o r a w h i l e . A s o f this w r i t i n g I h a v e m a d e f o u r trips t o M a l a w i — t h r e e o f t h e m actually o u t i n the f i e l d c o l l e c t i n g fossils; o n e , the f i r s t o n e , t o set i t all u p . T h e p r o j e c t has b e e n g o o d . another
field
T h e r e h a v e b e e n e n o u g h d i s c o v e r i e s each t i m e t o justify
season.
We
have
found
s p e c i e s , t h r e e kinds o f c r o c o d i l e s ,
dinosaur
bones
from
five
different
i n c l u d i n g half a d o z e n s k e l e t o n s o f the
strangest kind o f c r o c I h a v e e v e r s e e n .
We have e v e n found frogs.
I am
satisfied w i t h w h a t w e h a v e f o u n d s o far. N o w I a m o n t h e f i f t h t r i p . W i l l
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
62 Downs,
w h o will be coming next week,
e x p e d i t i o n t o the
Dinosaur Beds.
has b e e n w i t h m e o n each f i e l d
F o r D a l e W i n k l e r and
Kent N e w m a n ,
t r a v e l i n g w i t h m e , this i s the t h i r d t i m e . T h e last m e m b e r o f the A m e r i c a n c o n t i n g e n t i s Alisa W i n k l e r , w h o w i l l b e c o m i n g o v e r t o j o i n u s i n a f e w weeks.
This is her second trip to M a l a w i .
A l l are p r o f e s s i o n a l s ,
all are
s e a s o n e d i n t h e f i e l d , all h a v e A f r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e . T h a t is t h e w a y I w a n t e d it this y e a r . T h e strategy is to take t r u s t w o r t h y professionals t o M a l a w i f r o m h e r e ,
w o r k with D e p a r t m e n t of Antiquities
p e o p l e t h e r e , and r e c r u i t a g o o d M a l a w i a n s t u d e n t f o r f i e l d w o r k and g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g . T h e n , the n e x t t i m e , and t h e n e x t , m a y b e the p r o j e c t w i l l b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o i n c l u d e o t h e r students and n e w faces. N o w w e m u s t o b t a i n e n o u g h h i g h - q u a l i t y results to m a k e sure that t h e r e is a n e x t t i m e . W e k n o w e x a c t l y w h e r e w e are g o i n g . have the localities p i n p o i n t e d .
W e k n o w t h e r e are fossils.
W e k n o w w h a t w e are g o i n g after.
We
W e are
g o i n g t o q u a r r y b o n e s , and that m e a n s m a i n l y d i n o s a u r s . W e k n o w the r o c k s t h e y are p a c k e d i n , and w e k n o w h o w high t h e hills a r e . W e k n o w w h a t i t takes t o m o v e t h e supplies i n and the f i n i s h e d jackets o u t .
W e h a v e the
v e h i c l e s a r r a n g e d . W e k n o w w h e r e t o c a m p and h o w t o p r o v i s i o n the l a r d e r . I t s h o u l d b e just a m a t t e r o f d o i n g the w o r k . N o w , since w e are n o l o n g e r r o o k i e s i n M a l a w i , I w a n t t o d e t e r m i n e , t h r o u g h this s e a s o n ' s f i e l d w o r k , i n w h i c h d i r e c t i o n I can lead this p r o j e c t . T h e g o a l s are s i m p l e . W e w i l l increase t h e s a m p l e o f d i n o s a u r b o n e s . W e w i l l g e t m o r e o f t h e m . T h a t i s w h a t w e a r e a f t e r . D i n o s a u r b o n e s t o study and display.
Of course we w i l l not ignore nondinosaurs.
Maybe a mammal
w i l l t u r n u p . W e w i l l q u a r r y c a r e f u l l y , and w e m i g h t s i e v e i f the s e d i m e n t l o o k s g o o d e n o u g h . But w e h a v e d o n e that b e f o r e . T h i s y e a r w e m u s t p r o v e t h e e x t e n t o f t h e b o n e layers i n the g r o u n d and the c o m p l e t e n e s s o f the d i n o s a u r s k e l e t o n s . If t h e y are p r o f u s e and w e l l p r e s e r v e d , t h e i r value as a w i n d o w i n t o the c r y p t i c A f r i c a n past w i l l b e g r e a t e r . W e w a n t lots o f b o n e s , m a p s o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s , s a m p l e s o f the e n c l o s i n g s e d i m e n t s , and m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e i r host r o c k s . T h a t should take u p the t i m e . T h e field techniques will be as in previous expeditions.
A l l the c l o s e
e x c a v a t i o n w i l l b e d o n e w i t h small hand t o o l s , a w l s , and brushes. I n the e a r l i e r f i e l d seasons picks and s h o v e l s w e r e used t o r e m o v e t h e o v e r b u r d e n o f s t e r i l e soil and r o c k . W e h a v e d u g t h r o u g h the easy p a r t . T h i s y e a r w e w i l l m o v e t h e E a r t h . I n the c a r g o h o l d o f t h e p l a n e , c h e c k e d w i t h o u r duffel bags, a r e t w o r o t a r y and d e m o l i t i o n h a m m e r s — w e call t h e m r o t o - h a m m e r s — t o
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND 63
blast a w a y the r o c k . T h e y w i l l b e p o w e r e d b y a p o r t a b l e g e n e r a t o r w a i t i n g f o r u s a t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s i n L i l o n g w e . I w i l l o n l y h a v e a m o n t h in the field this y e a r . T h a t d o e s n o t s e e m l i k e m u c h , but it is all 1 can m u s t e r . T h e late t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y g o e s at a fast p a c e , with time being a c o m m o d i t y at a p r e m i u m . T o o bad. M u c h can b e a c c o m p l i s h e d i n a m o n t h . T h e c r e w , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e w a i t ing f o r u s i n M a l a w i , i s l a r g e , e x p e r i e n c e d , and efficient. W e can d o i n a m o n t h w h a t w o u l d h a v e taken
m a n y t i m e s l o n g e r i n t h e e a r l i e r days o f
p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n . A n d w e can c o l l e c t m o r e i n a m o n t h than can be p r e p a r e d in a y e a r — s e v e r a l y e a r s .
It is n o t l i k e T e n d a g u r u .
Besides,
T e n d a g u r u i s n o t b e i n g d u g a n y m o r e . M a l a w i is. I t s h o w s u s things a b o u t the past that T e n d a g u r u c a n n o t because t h e t w o a r e d i f f e r e n t w i n d o w s w i t h d i f f e r e n t v i e w s . N e w fossils are c o m i n g o u t o f M a l a w i . I t i s t h e o n l y d i n o saur e x c a v a t i o n o f its k i n d c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y i n A f r i c a .
E v e r y t h i n g has
b e e n d o n e , e v e r y t h i n g w e c o u l d think of, t o m a k e things g o s m o o t h l y w h i l e w e w o r k it. T o w a r d the e n d o f t h e season, a f t e r I l e a v e , W i l l , D a l e , and Alisa w i l l r e c o n n o i t e r the south e n d o f t h e c o u n t r y .
M a p s and o l d r e p o r t s r e v e a l a
possibility o f f i n d i n g dinosaurs and o t h e r fossils d o w n t h e r e i n the tsetse-flyinfested w o o d l a n d s o f L e n g w e and M w a b v i . E v e n i f t h e y d o n o t f i n d d i n o saurs, t h e r e is an e v e n b e t t e r p o s s i b i l i t y that t h e r e are lavas that can be d a t e d t o g i v e a m a x i m u m - a g e e s t i m a t e f o r the D i n o s a u r B e d s . T h a t i s v e r y i m p o r tant. M y efforts t o d a t e the r o c k s w i t h p a l e o m a g n e t i s m h a v e b e e n unsuccessful. T h e fossils g i v e an i m p r e c i s e a g e , and a n y w a y I n e e d a d a t e i n d e p e n d e n t o f the b o n e s w h o s e a n t i q u i t y I w a n t t o k n o w . I w a n t W i l l , and D a l e , and Alisa to find the lavas and b r i n g back a s a m p l e . T h e n , w i t h a g o o d d a t e , a firm handle o n t h e i r a g e , w e can r e a l l y f i t M a l a w i ' s D i n o s a u r Beds i n t o the g l o b a l p i c t u r e o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e b o n e s w i l l m a k e b e t t e r sense i f t h e i r a g e is m o r e precisely k n o w n . I have b u t t e r f l i e s i n m y g u t .
W i l l the g e n e r a t o r w o r k w i t h the r o t o -
h a m m e r s ? W i l l t h e v e h i c l e s h o l d up?
Will
we have plaster to jacket the
specimens? I f w e h a v e it, w i l l i t actually set t o p r o t e c t the b o n e s ? A n d w o r s t o f all, w i l l t h e fossils play out? W i l l t h e r e b e e n o u g h t o justify the effort? W i l l t h e y i n s p i r e e n o u g h t o c a t a l y z e f u r t h e r research? W i l l t h e y b e g o o d e n o u g h f o r display? W e w i l l n o t k n o w until w e d o the f i e l d w o r k . M y eyes w a n t t o close, but m y m i n d i s active. M y thoughts k e e p returning
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
64 t o the e v o l u t i o n this p r o j e c t has u n d e r g o n e . I t has b e e n a l o n g t i m e d e v e l o p i n g — s i x y e a r s a l r e a d y . H a s i t r e a l l y b e e n that l o n g ? M y f i r s t t r i p t o M a l a w i w a s i n January 1 9 8 4 . I n o l o n g e r l i v e d i n N a i r o b i , h a v i n g taken a j o b in T e x a s . I w a s in K e n y a d o i n g fieldwork on t h e p r o j e c t in the T u g e n H i l l s , b u t I c o u l d see signs that the plans f o r M a l a w i I had m a d e w i t h Z e f e t w o years p r e v i o u s l y w e r e steadily d r i f t i n g o f f c o u r s e . I t w a s taking t o o long to get them i m p l e m e n t e d . I quickly flew d o w n to M a l a w i to m e e t w i t h h i m . H e had f i n a l l y f i n i s h e d his d e g r e e and just r e t u r n e d f r o m C a l i f o r n i a . I also m e t his bosses a t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s , b o t h o f w h o m also h e l d P h . D . 's f r o m Berkeley. T h e y w e r e strongly behind the project. It was decided that I should s u b m i t a p r o p o s a l f o r f u n d i n g of a fossil-hunting e x p e d i t i o n to the
National
Geographic
Society immediately.
National
Geographic came
t h r o u g h , and I r e t u r n e d w i t h t w o o t h e r b o n e s e e k e r s f o r m y f i r s t e x p e d i t i o n i n June o f t h e s a m e y e a r . T h e p r o j e c t w a s f i n a l l y g e t t i n g o f f the g r o u n d . I was a bit c o n c e r n e d my first trip d o w n . T h e r e s e e m e d to be a f e w h o l d o v e r r e g u l a t i o n s o n t h e b o o k s d e s i g n e d t o p r e v e n t a n invasion o f lates u r v i v i n g h i p p i e s . N o l o n g hair. N o b e l l - b o t t o m e d t r o u s e r s f o r the m e n . N o pants o r shorts f o r the w o m e n . W h i l e n o n e o f these rules p o s e d any particular p r o b l e m , I w a s a l i t t l e a p p r e h e n s i v e . P e r h a p s t h e r e w e r e o t h e r rules that I m i g h t n o t b e a w a r e of.
As it turned out, no o n e was into bell b o t t o m s ;
c u l o t t e s s o l v e d a n o t h e r p r o b l e m ; and w h e t h e r c l o s e o r n o t , w e h a v e n e v e r had a c o n f r o n t a t i o n o v e r h a i r d o s . O r a n y t h i n g e l s e . K n o c k o n w o o d . O n that f i r s t t r i p t o t h e D i n o s a u r Beds I b e c a m e s o enthusiastic a b o u t the p o t e n t i a l f o r fossils that I w r o t e t o A l a n C h a r i g , c h i e f p a l e o n t o l o g i s t i n c h a r g e o f the A f r i c a n dinosaurs i n the British M u s e u m ( N a t u r a l H i s t o r y ) . I asked h i m if, o n m y w a y back t o t h e States, I m i g h t a r r a n g e a visit t o L o n d o n t o l o o k a t M i g e o d ' s c o l l e c t i o n o f M a l a w i a n b o n e s . C h a r i g r e p l i e d that h e w o u l d b e e x p e c t i n g m e o n July n i n t h . I n c l o s i n g h e o f f h a n d e d l y w r o t e , " S h o u l d y o u a c c i d e n t a l l y b u m p i n t o the P r e s i d e n t o f M a l a w i , D r . H a s t i n g s K . Banda, k i n d l y g i v e h i m m y r e g a r d s . ( H e used t o b e o u r f a m i l y d o c t o r i n the G o l d C o a s t , t h i r t y years a g o , and a v e r y g o o d doctor h e was t o o . ) " U n f o r t u n a t e l y I h a v e n e v e r had the o p p o r t u n i t y .
W H A T AN I N T E R E S T I N G place the w o r l d is for travelers. Everything is so n e w o n the f i r s t visit. T h e r e are s o m a n y things t o d i s c o v e r , t o l e a r n , and t o
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
6; e x p l o r e . It m u s t be that w a y f o r all t r a v e l e r s . In a N a i r o b i b o o k s t o r e in 1983 I d i s c o v e r e d a b o o k c a l l e d Sir Apolo Kagwa Discovers Britain. W h a t is i n t e r e s t i n g a b o u t this b o o k i s its u n i q u e and p e r s o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e o n A f r i c a n e x p l o r a t i o n . It is an e d i t e d v e r s i o n of Uganda's Katikiro in England, first p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 0 4 . It is a true story, w r i t t e n by H a m Mukasa, secretary to the p r i m e minister o f Buganda, A p o l o K a g w a . I n 1902 Sir A p o l o w a s a n i n v i t e d w i t n e s s t o the coronation of King Edward VII in London.
H e and his s e c r e t a r y , t h r o u g h
a c c e p t a n c e o f this i n v i t a t i o n , b e c a m e e x p l o r e r s i n Britain, s t r a n g e l y m i m i c k ing the h i s t o r y o f t h e i r o w n c o n t i n e n t . T h e y w e r e caricatures o f V i c t o r i a n e x p l o r e r s ; t h e E u r o p e a n s had g o t t e n t o A f r i c a f i r s t . H a m M u k a s a p r o v i d e d a n a c c o u n t of the a d v e n t u r e , just as L i v i n g s t o n e , and S t a n l e y , and B u r t o n , and Y o u n g , and countless o t h e r s , n o w i n c l u d i n g m e , h a v e d o n e f o r t h e i r o w n travels i n A f r i c a . But M u k a s a ' s d i s c o v e r i e s w e r e o f t u r n - o f - t h e - c e n t u r y G r e a t Britain. M u k a s a ' s a c c o u n t o f G r e a t Britain i s p a r t i c u l a r l y auspicious i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t because the initial E u r o p e a n c o l o n i z a t i o n o f M a l a w i w a s b y S c o t s . O n e o f the chapters i n his b o o k i s e n t i t l e d , " G l a s g o w C i t y C o u n c i l l o r s a r e D r u n k a r d s . " T h i s m a y o r m a y n o t a p p e a r l u d i c r o u s t o t h e c u r r e n t inhabitants o f that land; h o w e v e r , i n the c o n t e x t o f a d i s c o v e r e r o f A f r i c a , I a m c e r t a i n that m a n y o f m y o b s e r v a t i o n s m u s t a p p e a r l u d i c r o u s t o A f r i c a n s . It is like a l a t t e r - d a y H a m M u k a s a that I d i s c o v e r e d A f r i c a . It is a beautiful, diverse continent. T h e climate o v e r m u c h of it is tropical; the p e o p l e are w a r m . M y i m p r e s s i o n s o f A f r i c a d e r i v e f r o m K e n y a i n the east, C a m e r o o n i n the F r e n c h - s p e a k i n g w e s t , and M a l a w i i n the southeast. A l l t h r e e are differe n t , and each i s i n t e r n a l l y v a r i e d .
Kenya was my introduction to Africa.
M a l a w i i s n o w the focus o f m y A f r i c a n w o r k . C a m e r o o n has its o w n p l a c e i n this s t o r y , as w i l l be s e e n l a t e r . K e n y a , m u c h o f it, a b o u n d s w i t h w i l d l i f e . I n the south t h e vast h e r d s o f the
Serengeti make
their p e r i o d i c appearance w i t h the yearly migrations
across the grasslands. C o s m o p o l i t a n N a i r o b i , the c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d capital, i s set high near the c o o l f o o t o f the N g o n g H i l l s . T h e n o r t h e r n half o f K e n y a i s d e s e r t . I t i s sparsely i n h a b i t e d b y n o m a d i c o r s e m i n o m a d i c t r i b e s . T h e t r i b e s are v a r i e d : C u s h i t i c R e n d i l l e and B o r a n , N i l o t i c T u r k a n a , w e s t o f t h e lake t o w h i c h t h e y g i v e t h e i r n a m e , and S a m b u r u . T o the south o f these t r i b e s , t h e R i f t V a l l e y i s inhabited b y P o k o t , f i s h - e a t i n g N j e m p s a t L a k e B a r i n g o , and Masai. A large p r o p o r t i o n o f tribal p e o p l e l i v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y , h e r d i n g g o a t s , c o w s , c a m e l s , and d r i n k i n g t h e i r a n i m a l s ' b l o o d m i x e d w i t h m i l k . M a n y dress
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
66 in skins, plait t h e i r hair w i t h fat and o c h r e , fashion m u d packs on the backs o f t h e i r skulls, and a r m t h e m s e l v e s w i t h spears and k n o b k e r r i e s . W e s t e r n w a y s are s l o w t o m a k e incursions i n t o t h e m o r e r e m o t e , i n h o s p i t a b l e areas. M a l a w i has a d i f f e r e n t f e e l i n g f r o m
Kenya.
N o t b e t t e r o r w o r s e , just
d i f f e r e n t . It is the I n t e r i o r , as L i v i n g s t o n e c a l l e d it. It bills itself as the W a r m H e a r t o f A f r i c a , and that i s e x a c t l y the f e e l i n g i t i m p a r t s . M a l a w i has g a m e , b u t lacks the vast h e r d s o f w i l d e b e e s t and z e b r a and the g r e a t p r i d e s o f l i o n s o c o m m o n i n s o u t h e r n K e n y a . M a l a w i m a y n e v e r have s e e n such h u g e h e r d s as t h o s e that c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e S e r e n g e t i . T h e r e are no giraffe.
I t i s a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f land.
In M a l a w i , g a m e ,
e x c e p t f o r small
a n t e l o p e and d u i k e r , i s m o s t l y c o n f i n e d t o w i l d l i f e parks and r e s e r v e s . L i o n , e l e p h a n t , h i p p o , b u f f a l o , r o a n , and m o s t o f the o t h e r l a r g e animals can still b e s e e n . But animals i n t h e bush i n M a l a w i are s i m p l y b e t t e r h i d d e n and h a r d e r t o see than t h o s e o n t h e plains o f K e n y a . A l t h o u g h a small c o u n t r y ,
Malawi
is a m a z i n g l y d i v e r s e .
It has d a m p
f o r e s t e d hills and v e r d a n t m o u n t a i n s . D r y , flat w o o d l a n d s rest o n the s h a l l o w soil o f c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s , l e v e l e d t h r o u g h m i l l e n n i a o f ceaseless e r o s i o n . Bald, s t r a i g h t - w a l l e d , g r a n i t e i n s e l b e r g s and b a r e - r o c k kopjes p r o j e c t s k y w a r d . P r e c i p i t o u s cliffs w i t h w a t e r f a l l s and c o n v o l v u l u s v i n e s t u m b l e s t e e p l y d o w n , all h e a d e d t o w a r d the l a k e . T h e c o o l m o o r l a n d and h e a t h e r o f the N y i k a Plateau i n the n o r t h , w i t h m o r e than 120 species o f o r c h i d s , contrasts w i t h the h o t , dusty l a k e s h o r e p l a i n , d o t t e d w i t h n a k e d , e l e p h a n t i n e b a o b a b s , the c r e a m - o f tartar t r e e , t h e t r e e s built u p s i d e d o w n , t h e i r leafless j a g g e d b o u g h s r o o t e d i n the sky ( F i g u r e swiftly.
1 6 ) . R i v e r s that run f r o m the plateaus t o the lake f l o w
A s w a y i n g r o p e and b a m b o o b r i d g e p r o v i d e d the crossing o f the
N o r t h R u k u r u a t N c h e n a c h e n a until last y e a r . N o w a c o n c r e t e b r i d g e i s b e i n g built. T h e p e o p l e o f M a l a w i are w a r m and f r i e n d l y , c u r i o u s and t a l k a t i v e , and a b o v e all p o l i t e . T h e p o p u l a t i o n i s a b i t m o r e than e i g h t m i l l i o n , w h i c h i s n o t a l a r g e n u m b e r e x c e p t w h e n c o n s i d e r e d i n r e l a t i o n t o the size o f the c o u n t r y . I t has the a t m o s p h e r e o f a small t o w n . E v e r y o n e k n o w s e v e r y o n e e l s e . T h e p e o p l e really are f r i e n d l y . T h e r e appears t o b e l i t t l e c o r r u p t i o n b y A f r i c a n standards. T h e p o l i c e are strict, m a t t e r - o f - f a c t , b u t they d o n o t o p e n l y e x t o r t as a habit. T h e r e are f e w c h e c k p o i n t s on t h e r o a d s , and I h a v e n e v e r seen the g u a r d s that m a n t h e m d r u n k . T h e r e is a p l a c i d , if superficial, aura of safety and s e c u r i t y . T h e r e i s a m i x t u r e o f c u l t u r e s i n M a l a w i . M a n y Indians, m o s t l y d e s c e n d -
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
67
FIGURE 16: A baobab tree. According to an East African legend, the baobab was a vain and prideful tree whose vanity so disturbed the god N'gai that he uprooted the baobab and made it stand on its head for all eternity. scale.
Note the person for
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
68 ants
of laborers
brought
to
Africa by
the
British
in
colonial
times,
are
s h o p k e e p e r s and m e r c h a n t s i n m a j o r t o w n s . T h e r e are M u s l i m s . T h e y have been there
e v e r since
A r a b traders
f r o m t h e coast sent caravans t o the
I n t e r i o r . T h e o r i g i n a l tribal r e l i g i o n s w e r e animalistic and naturalistic, w i t h a
strong
reverence
for
ancestors.
M o s t nontraditional
religion
nowadays
f o l l o w s the British m i s s i o n a r y p a t h . J e h o v a h ' s W i t n e s s e s h a v e b e e n b a n n e d since
1972
f o r t h e i r c o n t i n u e d s e p a r a t i o n f r o m the n a t i o n ' s o n l y p o l i t i c a l
party. T h e r e is tribal d i v e r s i t y in M a l a w i , as in o t h e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . But o n e n e v e r sees M a l a w i a n s i n t r a d i t i o n a l tribal d r e s s . A b o u t t h e closest a p p r o a c h to it is in t h e b r o t h e r h o o d
of the
Gule
Wamkulu
(Figure
17).
These
are
f e a r s o m e m a s k e d and c o s t u m e d m e n p o r t r a y i n g g r o t e s q u e h u m a n o i d s and t e r r i f y i n g beasts. T h e y d a n c e a t I n d e p e n d e n c e D a y c e l e b r a t i o n s and the l i k e , but they are m e m b e r s of a secret society, the N y a u , w h o s e function is to m a i n t a i n social o r d e r b y w a r n i n g and p u n i s h i n g m i s c r e a n t s . T h e i r influence has b e e n r e d u c e d i n r e c e n t years a l l e g e d l y . T h e y a r e w i d e l y f e a r e d , and t h e y m a i n t a i n t h e i r s e c r e t w a y s . It is n o t u n c o m m o n to see a Gule Wamkulu a l o n g t h e r o a d i n c e n t r a l M a l a w i w h e r e the N y a u i s p r e v a l e n t , but t h e y are t o b e avoided. T h e name of M a l a w i p r i o r to gaining independence was Nyasaland.
In
1 8 9 1 , t h r o u g h the l e a d e r s h i p o f Sir H a r r y J o h n s t o n , i t w a s p r o c l a i m e d a British
Protectorate;
in
1953
it was
in
the
Federation
o f R h o d e s i a and
N y a s a l a n d . T h e sixties w a s the d e c a d e o f i n d e p e n d e n c e f o r A f r i c a . Nyasaland became Malawi in
1964. T h e name M a l a w i is d e r i v e d f r o m the Chichewa
t o n g u e , t h e national l a n g u a g e ; i t m e a n s " f l a m e s . " I t r e f e r s t o i m a g e s shimm e r i n g i n heat. T h e c i r c u m f l e x o v e r the w i s t h e p r e f e r r e d t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n t o E n g l i s h , a c c o r d i n g t o the N a t i o n a l C h i c h e w a B o a r d . Its p r e s e n c e indicates that t h e s o u n d o f the w i s aspirant, b u t i t i s subtle t o the W e s t e r n e a r — m i n e a n y w a y . T o t e l l y o u t h e t r u t h , I c a n n o t r e a l l y hear m u c h d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the s o u n d of a r e g u l a r w and an aspirant o n e .
But the aspirant w and a
c i r c u m f l e x i n the s p e l l i n g a r e c o r r e c t . A f r i c a ' s i n d e p e n d e n c e d e c a d e , the 1 9 6 0 s , w a s awash w i t h m e t a p h o r s . O n e o f t h e c o m m o n t h e m e s w a s a n e w d a y , a fresh b e g i n n i n g . I n C h i c h e w a the w o r d m e a n i n g " d a w n " i s kwacha. T h a t i s also t h e n a m e o f the f u n d a m e n t a l unit of c u r r e n c y . T h e e x c h a n g e r a t e is a b i t less than t h r e e kwacha to the d o l l a r . O n e h u n d r e d tambala, w h i c h m e a n s " r o o s t e r , " m a k e o n e kwacha. O n e h u n d r e d r o o s t e r s t o the d a w n , a c o n s t a n t allusion t o t h e p r o m i s e o f the f u t u r e .
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND 69
FIGURE
17:
A
GULE
in central Malawi,
WAMKULU
of the
Nyau
society.
GULE
WAMKULU
are
often
seen
where their secret society is most prevalent.
T h e p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r o f t h e c o u n t r y i s H i s E x c e l l e n c y the L i f e P r e s i d e n t N g w a z i D r . Hastings K a m u z u Banda. M a l a w i has a o n e - p a r t y , p a r l i a m e n t a r y s y s t e m of g o v e r n m e n t , and Banda is the o n l y l e a d e r the c o u n t r y has had since i n d e p e n d e n c e . H e w a s e d u c a t e d i n the U n i t e d States and S c o t l a n d . H e b e c a m e a m e d i c a l d o c t o r , p r a c t i c i n g f o r s o m e t i m e i n L o n d o n a n d , f o r a w h i l e i n the 1950s, i n W e s t A f r i c a , b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g h o m e t o b r i n g his c o u n t r y t o i n d e -
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
70 p e n d e n c e . A t t h e t i m e o f this w r i t i n g , Banda i s n e a r i n g n i n e t y and still g o i n g strong. M a l a w i has a l a r g e p o p u l a t i o n f o r its s i z e .
It lacks significant m i n e r a l
w e a l t h , e x c e p t f o r a b i t o f c o a l . I n t h e r e c e n t past m a n y y o u n g m e n j o i n e d migrations f r o m their h o m e s by choice in o r d e r to w o r k the mines of Zambia, Z i m b a b w e , and e s p e c i a l l y S o u t h A f r i c a . I n c e n t u r i e s past m a n y w e r e f o r c e d t o l e a v e t h e i r h o m e l a n d b y A r a b slavers. Banda r e c o g n i z e d his p e o p l e a s a r e s o u r c e . Early o n h e e m p h a s i z e d agricultural d e v e l o p m e n t . M a l a w i g r o w s r i c e , t o b a c c o , c o t t o n , c o r n ( c a l l e d m a i z e i n A f r i c a ) , and sugar. Foodstuffs are exported to neighboring countries. M a l a w i has m a i n t a i n e d a p o l i c y o f f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s w i t h South A f r i c a . I t has o p e n t r a d e , w h i c h a c c o u n t s f o r t h e a b u n d a n c e o f c o n s u m e r g o o d s available o n s t o r e s h e l v e s , i n c l u d i n g s o m e r a t h e r g o o d S o u t h A f r i c a n w i n e and o t h e r f r i v o l o u s p r o d u c t s that t h e p o p u l a t i o n at l a r g e c a n n o t a f f o r d . M a l a w i is o n e o f t h e f e w places i n A f r i c a w h e r e South A f r i c a n tourists can g o o n h o l i d a y o r b u s i n e s s m e n can g o o n c o m m e r c e . A s a p r a c t i c a l m a t t e r , the quality o f life f o r M a l a w i a n s p r o b a b l y i s b e t t e r w i t h t h e o p e n - t r a d e p o l i c y than i t w o u l d b e o t h e r w i s e . T h a t i s n o t t o say M a l a w i a n s a p p r o v e o f South A f r i c a n p o l i c y . I n t h e w o r d s o f O l i v e r M w e n i f u m b o , a M a l a w i a n b u s i n e s s m a n , " Y o u can t r a d e w i t h the d e v i l , b u t y o u d o n ' t h a v e t o l i k e his p o l i t i c s . " I f o t h e r black A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s t r a d e w i t h South A f r i c a , t h e y d o s o s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y . But t h e r e i s a n o t h e r c o m p o n e n t t o B a n d a ' s p o l i c y t o w a r d South A f r i c a that was especially important in borders
Malawians
know
the
that
e a r l i e r y e a r s o f the
white
South
Africans,
country. and
W i t h open
everyone
else,
c o m i n g t o M a l a w i can j u d g e f o r t h e m s e l v e s the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f b l a c k r u l e , and t h e y can see t h e e f f e c t o f the m a j o r i t y v o i c e o n the w h i t e m i n o r i t y . M o r e o v e r , i n t h e s t r u g g l e against a p a r t h e i d , M a l a w i ' s black d i p l o m a t s i n P r e t o r i a had t o be
e x t e n d e d the
same
courtesies
as
whites for diplomatic
reasons,
thus
c r e a t i n g at least a slight chink in racist a r m o r .
THAT
FIRST
M A L A W I expedition of mine in
1984 v i s i t e d the same area
w h e r e the British had g o n e b e f o r e . I n 1 9 3 0 , w h e n M i g e o d m a d e his side t r i p f o r t h e British M u s e u m t o the n o r t h w e s t side o f L a k e N y a s a , h e stayed w i t h a p l a n t e r n a m e d M a x w e l l a t the v i l l a g e o f N y u n g w e . I n 1 9 3 0 N y u n g w e w a s i n the m i d d l e o f n o w h e r e . N o w t h e m a i n r o a d i s p a v e d , but N y u n g w e i s still i n the m i d d l e o f n o w h e r e . I t i s l o c a t e d a t the t u r n o f f f r o m t h e m a i n r o a d o n t o the d i r t track
J O U R N A L S
F R O M
T H E
G R O U N D
71 l e a d i n g to the D i n o s a u r B e d s . Its b i g g e s t a t t r a c t i o n is a d i p tank to g i v e c a t t l e s o m e measure of p r o t e c t i o n f r o m h o r d e s of infesting ticks. I d o u b t w h e t h e r a n o t h e r w h i t e has l i v e d i n N y u n g w e since M a x w e l l l e f t . But h e l e f t a l e g a c y . In
1989, on my third M a l a w i e x p e d i t i o n , I d e c i d e d to c a m p at nearby
N g a r a , w h e r e M i g e o d had l a n d e d w h e n h e c r o s s e d t h e lake o n the Guendolen o v e r half a c e n t u r y e a r l i e r . It is a beautiful s p o t , r i g h t on t h e s h o r e of t h e l a k e , six m i l e s n o r t h o f N y u n g w e . I t i s a t i n y b u t i n t e r e s t i n g f i s h i n g v i l l a g e . S o m e o f the inhabitants are l i g h t e r s k i n n e d , w i t h u n - A f r i c a n g r a y e y e s t i n g e d w i t h g r e e n . I s o u g h t the p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n t o set u p c a m p . H e w a s q u i t e a g r e e a b l e , v a c a t i n g his f a v o r i t e shade t r e e i n a m a g n a n i m o u s g e s t u r e o f goodwill.
A s w i t h m a n y o t h e r w e l l - t o - d o A f r i c a n m e n o f the area, h e had
s e v e r a l w i v e s , each w i t h a small h o u s e s c a t t e r e d a l o n g the s h o r e , a b o u t f i f t y yards back f r o m the e d g e o f t h e l a k e . T h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n ' s n a m e ? M a x w e l l . C o u l d i t b e that t h e r e i s a n all b u t f o r g o t t e n b r a n c h o f t h e M a x w e l l clan? T h e a n s w e r i s y e s . I l e a r n e d the s t o r y f r o m the v i l l a g e h e a d m a n and his n e p h e w . W i l l i a m A l e x a n d e r M a x w e l l , a y o u n g S c o t , left h o m e t o e s c a p e his o v e r b e a r i n g father.
He
obtained a position
with
the
British
Cotton
Growers
A s s o c i a t i o n and fled t o M a l a w i i n 1 9 0 2 . H e a c q u i r e d land a t N y u n g w e , w h e r e h e m a d e his h o m e , o n the N y i k a P l a t e a u , w h e r e h e p l a n t e d p i n e s , and a t Ngara, w h e r e he built a c o t t o n ginnery. He returned to Scotland only o n c e , in 1923, briefly. W i l l i a m M a x w e l l t o o k six n a t i v e w i v e s . H e g o t o n e o f t h e m o n a t r i p t o t h e N y i k a . A y o u n g g i r l o f a b o u t e l e v e n c a u g h t his e y e . H e asked h e r father h o w m a n y c o w s h e w a n t e d f o r h e r . T h e a n s w e r w a s six. M a x w e l l t o o k t h e h o r r i f i e d c h i l d r i g h t t h e n o n c r e d i t , m a r c h e d back t o N y u n g w e , and sent the c o w s back t o h e r father. T h e g i r l and h e r husband n e v e r t a l k e d i n all the years o f t h e i r l o n g m a r r i a g e . She c o v e r e d h e r e y e s w h e n h e had s e x w i t h h e r . H i s p i n k b o d y l o o k e d t o h e r l i k e a h u g e mass o f r a w m e a t . Each o f M a x w e l l ' s w i v e s b o r e h i m o n e c h i l d . T h r e e w e r e sons. M a x w e l l w o u l d g a t h e r t h e m a t his f e e t i n the e v e n i n g s and t e l l t h e m s t o r i e s . H e s h o w e d t h e m fossils h e had f o u n d .
O n e o f his sons i s n o w t h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n a t
N y u n g w e . A n o t h e r — t h e y o u n g e s t — i s D a v i d James M a x w e l l , also k n o w n a s V i l l a g e H e a d m a n M a k o n g a n y a , the b i g m a n o f N g a r a . T h e p a t r i a r c h o f t h e M a x w e l l clan d i e d i n M a l a w i i n 1 9 6 3 .
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
72 THE
DINOSAUR
D I G S a r e a b o u t e i g h t m i l e s inland f r o m the lake near a
v i l l a g e c a l l e d M w a k a s y u n g u t i . W e m a d e friends w i t h the locals r i g h t a w a y o n o u r f i r s t t r i p . O n e e s p e c i a l l y b r i g h t r e s i d e n t o f t h e M w a k a s y u n g u t i area b e g a n to question W i l l D o w n s ,
a v e t e r a n w h o has h o p p e d t h e g l o b e c o l l e c t i n g
fossils, a b o u t w h a t e x a c t l y w e w e r e d o i n g t h e r e . W i l l e x p l a i n e d o u r l o f t y g o a l s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g life o n
Earth.
The
conversation turned to human
o r i g i n s . W i l l p a t i e n t l y e x p l a i n e d h u m a n e v o l u t i o n based o n the s e q u e n c e o f fossil r e m a i n s f o u n d i n K e n y a . H e g a v e the a g e o f Kenyapithecus, o n e o f L o u i s L e a k e y ' s early finds, as fifteen million years. " F o u r t e e n m i l l i o n , " h e was c o r r e c t e d . T h e Mwakasyunguti native k n e w the story! T h e m a n t o w h o m W i l l w a s s p e a k i n g w a s L i g h t w e l l M k w a l a , a t the t i m e a s t u d e n t and n o w a s e c o n d a r y - s c h o o l t e a c h e r . I h i r e d L i g h t w e l l to d i g b o n e s , and he has e x c a v a t e d a l o n g s i d e us f o r t w o seasons. L o n g h o u r s in a q u a r r y scratching b o n e s g i v e s p l e n t y o f t i m e t o g e t t o k n o w s o m e o n e . L i g h t w e l l g a v e s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g insight i n t o c o n t e m p o r a r y life i n rural M a l a w i .
H e also
taught us h i s t o r y . " W h a t d o M a l a w i a n s think a b o u t D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e , L i g h t w e l l ? " I asked this q u e s t i o n o f L i g h t w e l l b e c a u s e I k n e w t h e standard v e r s i o n o f the d e d i cated missionary w h o w a n t e d to o p e n up Central Africa to trade in o r d e r to s t o p t h e f l o w o f slaves e a s t w a r d f o r t h e insatiable a p p e t i t e s o f the A r a b s . 1 w a n t e d t o k n o w i f the M a l a w i a n p e r s p e c t i v e w a s d i f f e r e n t . " D r . D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e . T h e y like h i m . H e s t o p p e d s l a v e r y i n this part o f A f r i c a , and h e b r o u g h t e d u c a t i o n . " T h e standard v e r s i o n ; n o r e v i s i o n i s t historical scandal f o r L i v i n g s t o n e f r o m Lightwell. " D o t h e y think o f h i m a s a n e x p l o r e r ? " " O f course not. Africans k n e w they w e r e h e r e . " Sir A p o l o L i v i n g s t o n e d i s c o v e r s A f r i c a . T h e n L i g h t w e l l w e n t o n t o e x p l a i n t h e life o f L i v i n g s t o n e and the h i s t o r y of M a l a w i in very great detail. Livingstone was a man of action. Despite being an e v a n g e l i s t , he w a s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s and u n c o m f o r t a b l e at p u b l i c speaking, e s p e c i a l l y i n E n g l a n d . H i s v o i c e w a s i n d i s t i n c t , p e r h a p s unpleasant, because h e had a n o v e r l y l o n g u v u l a . A t o n e p o i n t h e had s u r g e r y t o c o r r e c t the p r o b l e m , but the a t t e m p t w a s a p p a r e n t l y n o t t o t a l l y successful. A t t h e t i m e L i v i n g s t o n e f i r s t s a w L a k e M a l a w i , the m o r a l issues i n v o l v e d w i t h slavery w e r e u n d e r i n t e n s e and c o n t i n u e d s c r u t i n y . P r i o r t o L i v i n g s t o n e ,
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
all t r a d e n o r t h o f P o r t u g u e s e t e r r i t o r y , w h a t i s n o w M o z a m b i q u e , and south o f British East A f r i c a w a s c o n t r o l l e d b y A r a b s . T h e m a j o r c o m m o d i t i e s w e r e i v o r y , b o t h w h i t e and b l a c k — t h e t e e t h o f e l e p h a n t s and the l i v e s o f p e o p l e . T h e motivation for Livingstone's e x p l o r a t i o n of the Interior was to bring t r a d e and c o m m e r c e and t o o p e n t h e area f o r w h i t e s . T h i s w a s his strategy f o r e n d i n g the East A f r i c a n slave t r a d e . I n t h e A r a b m a r k e t s o f Z a n z i b a r — t h e cesspool of wickedness, as it was c a l l e d — w h e r e cloves w e r e cultivated w i t h the b l o o d o f slaves, o r i n t h e m a r k e t s o f O m a n , M u s c a t , I r a q , o r any n u m b e r o f p l a c e s a l o n g the
Red
Sea and
Persian
Gulf,
there was no abolitionist
m o v e m e n t . T h e d e m a n d f o r slaves r e m a i n e d . I n the W e s t , slavery w a s n o l o n g e r a c c e p t a b l e . T o s t o p i t i n t h e East, t h e s u p p l y o f slaves had t o b e c u t . T h a t i s w h a t L i v i n g s t o n e set o u t t o d o . C l e a r l y , f o r h i m , i t w a s a m i s s i o n sanctioned b y G o d . T h e t r a d i t i o n o f s l a v e r y i n East A f r i c a g o e s b a c k t o t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y , m u c h l o n g e r than the W e s t A f r i c a n slave t r a d e that f e d t h e cannibalistic plantations o f the N e w W o r l d . T h e East A f r i c a n slave t r a d e , f o r m u c h o f its e x i s t e n c e , w a s a m i n o r c o m p o n e n t o f coastal S w a h i l i c o m m e r c e w i t h A r a b i a and p o i n t s east. A l o n g w i t h slaves, the city-states o f t h e East A f r i c a n coast e x p o r t e d i v o r y f r o m the I n t e r i o r , g o l d f r o m t h e Z i m b a b w e c u l t u r e , and i r o n . T h e n u m b e r o f slaves e x p o r t e d w a s n o t l a r g e , b u t , o f c o u r s e , t h e y w e r e still slaves. I n t h e latter half o f t h e ninth c e n t u r y t h o s e w h o had b e e n s h i p p e d t o the s o d d e n land o f s o u t h e r n Iraq r e v o l t e d . S o , t o o , i n later y e a r s , d i d t h o s e i n the small b l a c k e n c l a v e s o f w e s t e r n India. T h i s e a r l y phase o f t h e East A f r i c a n slave t r a d e d i d n o t d e c i m a t e the t r i b e s . H o w e v e r , s o m e c e n t u r i e s later t h e d e m a n d f o r slaves escalated a l o n g w i t h the rise o f l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e spice and sugar p l a n t a t i o n s . I n c r e a s e d d e m a n d f o r slaves c o i n c i d e d w i t h v i c i o u s i f u n r e l a t e d tribal h o s t i l i t i e s , and the result w a s t r u l y devastating. S o i t w a s w h e n L i v i n g s t o n e f i r s t w e n t t o A f r i c a i n 1 8 4 0 . I n t h e e a r l y years his w i f e , M a r y , and his c h i l d r e n w e r e w i t h h i m . T h e v shared his A f r i c a n hardships. I t b e c a m e t o o m u c h . T h e c h i l d r e n r e t u r n e d p e r m a n e n t l y t o Eng l a n d , b u t L i v i n g s t o n e r e m a i n e d , set i n his r e s o l v e . A n d r e s o l v e d h e w a s . H i s d a u g h t e r s a w h i m o n l y o n c e i n h e r l i f e , o n o n e o f his t w o visits back t o E n g l a n d , and that w h e n she w a s f i v e years o l d . By
1861
L i v i n g s t o n e had v i e w e d t h e r o t t i n g c o r p s e s and h u m a n b o n e s
l i t t e r i n g the charnel h o u s e that w a s t h e l a k e s h o r e . N i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A f r i c a w a s a h e c a t o m b o f slaughter. I t n e e d e d h e l p . M r s . L i v i n g s t o n e , w i s h i n g t o b e
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
74 w i t h h e r husband i n A f r i c a , t o share i n his m i s s i o n , r e t u r n e d o n c e m o r e t o the I n t e r i o r t o j o i n the g o o d d o c t o r .
She w a s c l a i m e d b y f e v e r a l o n g the
Z a m b e z i b e f o r e she c o u l d catch u p w i t h h i m . T h a t w a s i n 1 8 6 2 . Also in Stanley,
1 8 6 2 , h a l f w a y a r o u n d the w o r l d , t h e W e l s h m a n H e n r y M o r t o n
long before
he
found
Livingstone
in
Africa,
found
himself by
a
c i r c u i t o u s r o u t e i n the A m e r i c a n C i v i l W a r . H e w a s c a p t u r e d a t the Battle o f Shiloh w h i l e f i g h t i n g f o r t h e
Confederacy with Company E,
Dixie
Grays,
Sixth Arkansas R e g i m e n t . T o e s c a p e p r i s o n , h e j o i n e d the U n i o n A r m y . H e w a s l u c k y i n that w a r : H e s u r v i v e d . D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e ' s e l d e s t s o n , R o b e r t , w h o w a s also i n the A m e r i c a n C i v i l W a r , w a s n o t s o l u c k y . H e d i e d a U n i o n s o l d i e r i n a C o n f e d e r a t e p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r c a m p n o t l o n g after his m o t h e r d i e d in A f r i c a . N e a r l y a d e c a d e l a t e r c a m e the w o r d s , " D o c t o r L i v i n g s t o n e , I p r e s u m e . " Stanley, the n e w s p a p e r r e p o r t e r , d i s c o v e r e d a destitute D r . Livingstone at Ujiji o n t h e shores o f L a k e T a n g a n y i k a . S t a n l e y ' s search f o r L i v i n g s t o n e w a s o n e o f t h e g r e a t m e d i a stunts o f all t i m e . H e had b e e n sent b y the New York Herald f o r t h e s t o r y . I t t o o k h i m w e l l o v e r a y e a r t o g e t i t , and then i t w a s g r e e t e d with skepticism in England. L i v i n g s t o n e w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y f a m o u s i n E u r o p e , and t h e r e w a s c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t i n his w e l l - b e i n g . C o n s e q u e n t l y initial r e p o r t s o f his d e a t h g e n e r a t e d q u i t e a stir. A s i t t u r n e d o u t , t h e y w e r e g r e a t l y e x a g g e r a t e d . H i s p o r t e r s , i t s e e m s , had had e n o u g h o f L i v i n g s t o n e ' s s e v e r e l i f e , s o t h e y d e s e r t e d , p r e s u m ably t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r h o m e s i n the C o m o r o Islands b e t w e e n M a d a g a s c a r and the A f r i c a n coast. W h e n t h e y r e a c h e d Z a n z i b a r after t r e k k i n g o u t f r o m the Interior, they w e r e forced to explain their return w i t h o u t Livingstone. T h e y d i d n o t w a n t t o g e t i n t o t r o u b l e . W h a t c o u l d t h e y say? T h e y said L i v i n g s t o n e w a s d e a d , k i l l e d i n a n attack o n t h e caravan. But t h e y w e r e w i d e l y d i s b e l i e v e d . S t a n l e y ' s w a s the f o u r t h o f e i g h t r e l i e f parties sent after t h e g r e a t m a n , b u t b e i n g o n l y after a s t o r y , i t w a s the o n e having the least c o n n e c t i o n w i t h L i v i n g s t o n e ' s w o r k . D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e r e f u s e d t o r e t u r n t o c i v i l i z a t i o n w i t h Stanley. H e d i e d in May
1873,
south o f L a k e B a n g w e u l u i n w h a t i s n o w Z a m b i a , w e s t o f
M a l a w i . His heart was buried in Africa. His b o d y was returned to L o n d o n , w h e r e it was e n t o m b e d in W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y ,
the c e n t r a l edifice o f the
Church of England. T h e t h o u g h t o f L i v i n g s t o n e ' s h e a r t b e i n g b u r i e d i n his b e l o v e d A f r i c a i s t o u c h i n g . H o w e v e r , i t d o e s n o t a p p e a r that i t w a s d o n e s o m u c h a t his r e q u e s t
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
as t h r o u g h n e c e s s i t y . C h u m a and Susi, his m o s t faithful n a t i v e assistants, had t o p r e p a r e the c o r p s e f o r t r a n s p o r t back t o Z a n z i b a r t o p r o v e his d e a t h a t t h e British C o n s u l a t e . T h e y r e m o v e d all t h e internal o r g a n s , i n c l u d i n g the h e a r t , and b u r i e d t h e m . T h e n t h e y d r i e d t h e e v i s c e r a t e d carcass f o r t w o w e e k s i n the t r o p i c a l sun s o that i t c o u l d b e t o l e r a t e d w h i l e b e i n g c a r r i e d t o t h e coast. At Z a n z i b a r t h e b o d y w a s p o s i t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as L i v i n g s t o n e ' s . It had a p o o r l y m e n d e d b r o k e n a r m . Y e a r s e a r l i e r L i v i n g s t o n e had b e e n a t t a c k e d and m a u l e d b y a l i o n . H i s a r m w a s s h a t t e r e d b y t h e beast and d i d n o t set p r o p e r l y . T h i s bad a r m p r o v i d e d a signature f o r his w o r l d l y r e m a i n s . A f t e r Livingstone's explorations of the Interior m o r e Europeans c a m e , disciples o f L i v i n g s t o n e , also Scots f o r the m o s t p a r t , and m o s t l y p l a n t e r s and t r a d e r s . T h e y w e r e s u p p l i e d b y and s o l d t h e i r g o o d s t o the A f r i c a n Lakes Company,
a Scottish
firm
established t o c a r r y o n c o m m e r c e i n the area
o p e n e d b y L i v i n g s t o n e . Its A f r i c a n h e a d q u a r t e r s w e r e n e a r B l a n t y r e , the f i r s t m a j o r t o w n o f the' r e g i o n , f o u n d e d b y the Established C h u r c h o f S c o t l a n d i n the Shire highlands o f the south. I t i s still the m a j o r c i t y o f M a l a w i . B l a n t y r e w a s n a m e d b y the f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o f D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e ' s f o l l o w e r s f o r the small v i l l a g e east o f G l a s g o w , a l o n g t h e R i v e r C l y d e , w h e r e L i v i n g s t o n e w a s b o r n . T h e m i s s i o n o f the s e t t l e r s r e m a i n e d t h e s a m e a s L i v i n g s t o n e ' s a t f i r s t , b u t the d e c a d e n c e o f s o m e o f the E u r o p e a n s i n s u b s e q u e n t d e c a d e s , the abuse o f the p e o p l e , the c h e a t i n g , the b e d d i n g o f n a t i v e w o m e n , w e r e u n l i k e l y t o attract the L o r d ' s s a n c t i o n , and c e r t a i n l y n o t L i v i n g s t o n e ' s .
OTHER
SUBJECTS
I had l e a r n e d a b o u t f r o m L i g h t w e l l p o p i n t o m y m i n d
a s the a i r p l a n e ' s t u r b i n e s d r o n e i n m y ears. " L i g h t w e l l , w a s slavery bad h e r e i n n o r t h e r n M a l a w i ? " I asked o n c e . "Oooh, "How
yes." so?"
" W e l l , t h e r e w a s a n A r a b i n this p l a c e . H i s n a m e w a s M l o z i . H i s s t o c k a d e w a s near K a r o n g a . " K a r o n g a i s a m a j o r c i t y i n far n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . W e g o t h e r e f o r supplies. F o r the n e x t half h o u r I r e f l e c t e d o n w h a t L i g h t w e l l had t o l d o f the a t r o c i t i e s o f slavery and the h o r r o r s inflicted b y the b a r b a r o u s half-caste M l o z i d u r i n g the last t w o d e c a d e s o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . S o m e slaves w e r e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h purchase f r o m t r e a c h e r o u s tribal l e a d e r s . M o s t w e r e c a p t u r e d i n e a r l y - m o r n i n g raids b y M l o z i ' s ruga-ruga, m e r c e n a r i e s . M a n y o f the m e n o f a hapless v i l l a g e
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
w o u l d b e k i l l e d a s t h e y e m e r g e d , s l e e p still i n t h e i r e y e s , f r o m t h e i r huts. T h o s e p o o r f e w w h o w e r e n o t k i l l e d and c o u l d n o t escape t o the b u s h — w o m e n , c h i l d r e n , b o y s , t h e r e m a i n i n g m e n — w e r e h e r d e d t o g e t h e r and t h e i r n u m b e r s f u r t h e r d i m i n i s h e d until o n l y t h o s e w h o m i g h t s u r v i v e the m a r c h t o the coast w e r e l e f t . T h e y w e r e s t r i p p e d . T h e goree, o r slave stick, a f o r k e d b r a n c h , w a s y o k e d a r o u n d t h e n e c k o f e a c h . T h e l o n g , p o l e l i k e ends o f t w o slave sticks w e r e t i e d t o g e t h e r s o that each slave w a s affixed t o a n o t h e r . A t night the l o n g e n d o f t h e slave stick w a s t i e d v e r t i c a l l y t o a t r e e , t h e f o r k e d e n d p i n n i n g the m i s e r a b l e captive to the ground by the neck. V i l l a g e r s r a i d e d f r o m the
n o r t h e n d o f the
lake
w e r e kept in
Mlozi's
s t o c k a d e until t h e i r n u m b e r s w e r e high e n o u g h t o a s s e m b l e a caravan o f death d e s t i n e d f o r the coast f i v e h u n d r e d m i l e s a w a y ( F i g u r e 1 8 ) . Each s l a v e , near s t a r v e d , w a s f o r c e d t o c a r r y a l o a d , p e r h a p s o f i v o r y , and t o step t o the w h i p . A n y o n e i n the coffle w h o b e c a m e sick o r i n f i r m o n the t r i p s i m p l y d i e d . I t is said that t h e c o n d e m n e d w e r e o f t e n d e c a p i t a t e d , as that w a s an efficient method
f o r r e l e a s i n g the goree.
S t a r v a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t the
long
m a r c h , w h i c h c o u l d last t h r e e t o f o u r m o n t h s . T h e ruga-ruga
w e r e p a i d t h e i r daily r a t i o n s ,
the opportunity to l o o t ,
a
m i n o r share o f the slave caravan p r o f i t s , and t h e sexual use o f p r i s o n e r s . I n 1905
a f o r m e r ruga-ruga
from
East A f r i c a d e s c r i b e d the
rewards:
"Plenty
f o o d , p l e n t y w o m e n ; v e r y l o v e l y . " T h e y had n o c o m p a s s i o n o r c o n c e r n f o r the c o m m o d i t y they w e r e transporting for profit. T h e r e was, they thought, an e n d l e s s s u p p l y . O n c e a t t h e coast m a n y o f t h e slaves w e r e s o l d t o w o r k t h e local plantat i o n s o r t h e l a r g e sugar estates o n the F r e n c h islands n o w c a l l e d M a u r i t i u s and R e u n i o n . Females w e r e evaluated for their potential in Turkish harems. M o s t o f the r e m a i n i n g m a l e s w e r e castrated because eunuchs w e r e o f h i g h e r m a r k e t v a l u e i n the c o u r t s o f t h e O r i e n t . M a n y d i d n o t s u r v i v e t h e o p e r a t i o n . W h e n the s o u t h w e s t m o n s o o n s b e g a n i n A p r i l , A r a b d h o w s c a m e t o f e r r y t h e slaves f r o m the s t o c k a d e s o f t h e A f r i c a n coast t o Z a n z i b a r . T h e passage w a s a n i n c r e d i b l e h o r r o r . Each d h o w w a s e n g o r g e d w i t h a n anguish o f slaves. T h e y w e r e l e d a b o a r d and m a d e t o lie o n the d e c k . N o r o o m — a t a l l — w a s a l l o w e d the d e h u m a n i z e d v i c t i m s . O n t o p o f this l a y e r w a s built a t e m p o r a r y d e c k . O n this a n o t h e r s t r a t u m o f slaves w a s d e p o s i t e d . T h i s c o n t i n u e d until t h e d h o w w a s fully l a d e n . T h e r e w a s a b s o l u t e l y n o r o o m f o r m o v e m e n t , and n o n e w a s a l l o w e d until the c a r g o w a s o f f - l o a d e d a t Z a n z i b a r . A t best t h e v o y a g e w o u l d take a full day and n i g h t . I t c o u l d g o t h r e e days
J O U R N A L S
F R O M
T H E
G R O U N D
77
FIGURE
18: A
coffle of slaves.
nineteenth-century Africa
Nothing more graphically portrays the anguish
than yoked
and
shackled people
driven from
the
of
Interior
to the voracious slave dhows at the coast.
o r m o r e . I f t h e w i n d s c a l m e d , t h e c a r g o s t a r v e d . I f a p p r o a c h e d b y a British e n f o r c e m e n t v e s s e l , the c a r g o m i g h t b e t h r o w n o v e r b o a r d . T h e sick w e r e d i s p a t c h e d , r a t h e r than pay c u s t o m o n t h e m a t Z a n z i b a r .
T h e stench w a s
u n b e a r a b l e , the m i s e r y w a s h o r r i f i c , t h e i n h u m a n i t y w a s u n f a t h o m a b l e . I n Z a n z i b a r the s u r v i v o r s w e r e f a t t e n e d i n p e n s l i k e c a t t l e , t h e n put o n the m a r k e t . T h e l u c k y s t a y e d i n Z a n z i b a r t o w o r k t h e c l o v e plantations o f the sultan. O t h e r s had t o m a k e e v e n l o n g e r and m o r e h o r r i d v o y a g e s than the o n e t h e y had c o m p l e t e d , t o T u r k e y o r C h i n a o r s o m e e v e n t o Brazil. H o w m a n y p e o p l e d i e d f r o m all this? W h o can say? H o w m a n y p e o p l e o u t o f all t h o s e a f f e c t e d , b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e ruga-ruga r a i d s , l i v e d ? W h o can say? O n l y a small and sad p e r c e n t a g e , that is c e r t a i n .
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
7S ''LIGHTWELL,
WHAT
happened
to
Mlozi,
the
big
slaver
in
northern
Malawi? H o w was he s t o p p e d ? " " W e l l , h e b a t t l e d f o r s o m e t i m e , f o r a l o n g t i m e , w i t h the p e o p l e o f the A f r i c a n Lakes C o m p a n y , f o r e x a m p l e L . M o n t e i t h F o t h e r i n g h a m . T h e y had a t r a d i n g station i n K a r o n g a . T h e n h e w a s h a n g e d . " " W h e n was that?" " E i g h t e e n , let's see, eighteen ninety-five, I t h i n k . "
E N O U G H T H O U G H T O F t h e slave t r a d e f o r a w h i l e . But L i g h t w e l l ' s c o n v e r sation d i d n o t l e a v e m y m i n d . " E x c u s e m e , " said L i g h t w e l l ,
" d o y o u k n o w a b o u t Shaka the Z u l u ? "
" N o , " I said, " t e l l m e a b o u t h i m . " " W e l l , he was a Zulu.
I n fact, h e w a s the Z u l u l e a d e r .
He was very
fierce." "Very fierce?" "Oooh,
yes.
Very fierce."
Shaka w a s f i e r c e . H e b r o u g h t w a r t o s o u t h e r n A f r i c a a s i t had n e v e r b e e n . S o m e say h e w a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t w o m i l l i o n d e a t h s , a s t a g g e r i n g n u m b e r u n d e r any c i r c u m s t a n c e s , all the m o r e a p p a l l i n g c o n s i d e r i n g the l o w p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y o f the t i m e . Shaka c o m m a n d e d a w e l l - d i s c i p l i n e d and m e r c i l e s s a r m y . O n e o f his strategies w a s t e r r o r , w a n t o n b r u t a l i t y , w h i c h h e inflicted o n his o w n p e o p l e and w h i c h his a r m y inflicted u p o n t h o s e h e c o n q u e r e d . I n 1 8 1 9 the N g o n i faction o f the Z u l u s w a s v a n q u i s h e d b y Shaka and d r i v e n o u t o f t h e i r h o m e l a n d o f N a t a l i n w h a t i s n o w South A f r i c a . T h e y r e t a i n e d t h e i r Z u l u w a y s , m u r d e r i n g , p i l l a g i n g , and p l u n d e r i n g a s t h e y w o r k e d t h e i r w a y n o r t h w a r d , t h e n south again t o t h e r e g i o n o f M a l a w i . L i k e the v i c t i m s o f Shaka, a pitifully small p e r c e n t a g e s u r v i v e d the slaughter o f the N g o n i . T r i b e s w h o s e h o m e l a n d s lay b e f o r e the i n v a d e r s w e r e s p l i n t e r e d . T h o s e w h o c o u l d , fled i n a d v a n c e o f the o n s l a u g h t . Y o u n g m e n o f c o n q u e r e d tribes w e r e c o n s c r i p t e d i n t o the N g o n i w a r r i o r a r m y . D e s i r a b l e y o u n g w o m e n w e r e taken as w i v e s . M e n not conscripted w e r e brained, b l u d g e o n e d , or speared. U n d e sirable w o m e n had t h e i r breasts l o p p e d off, t h e n w e r e left t o d i e . S i x t e e n years a f t e r Shaka d r o v e t h e m f r o m N a t a l , f i v e years b e f o r e L i v i n g stone c a m e to Africa, the N g o n i reached the Z a m b e z i on their w a y north. It w a s t h e day o f a solar e c l i p s e , 2 : 0 0 P.M.,
19 N o v e m b e r 1835. T w o events
o f i n t e r e s t f o l l o w e d . L e g e n d has i t that the c h i e f o f t h e N g o n i , Z w a n g e n d a b a ,
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
79 struck the w a t e r s o f the Z a m b e z i w i t h his spear, and like M o s e s a t t h e R e d Sea, the w a t e r s p a r t e d . T h e N g o n i w e r e a b l e t o c r o s s . T h e s e c o n d e v e n t w a s t h e p r e m a t u r e b i r t h o f a son t o o n e o f Z w a n g e n daba's w i v e s , o v e r c o m e w i t h the e x c i t e m e n t o f the d a y . T h e s o n ' s n a m e w a s M'Mbelwa. The
H e w a s d e s t i n e d t o b e c o m e the l e a d e r o f the N g o n i .
Ngoni,
w h o w e r e basically pastoralists,
eventually settled in the
less-fertile highlands o f w h a t w a s t o b e c o m e M a l a w i . T h e y b e g a n t o face f o o d shortages and i n d e e d e v e n f a m i n e . C o n s t a n t l y t h e y r a i d e d the T u m b u k a and e s p e c i a l l y the T o n g a , w h o l i v e d o n the f e r t i l e g r o u n d s near t h e l a k e , taking f o o d and slaves. I t w a s n o t until years later that the N g o n i , u n d e r M ' M b e l w a , relinquished their belligerent ways.
I n t h e m e a n t i m e t h e i r w a y s , plus the
actions o f the slavers, c r e a t e d t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s f o u n d b y L i v i n g s t o n e . " S o w h a t t r i b e lives h e r e a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i n o w ? " I a s k e d . " W e are T u m b u k a , "
Lightwell replied.
" A n d h o w d i d the T u m b u k a c o m e t o b e h e r e ? " " W e c a m e f r o m the n o r t h . W e fled b e f o r e the N g o n i i n v a s i o n . " L i g h t w e l l l o o k e d a r o u n d a t the p i c t u r e s q u e L u w o n y a H i l l s .
" T h e Tumbuka, Henga,
N k a m a n g a , and o t h e r t r i b e s e s c a p e d t o t h e d e s o l a t e r e g i o n s . " I asked h o w the T u m b u k a d i f f e r e d f r o m the N g o n i . " W e are s o different.
W e have our l a n g u a g e . "
" W e l l , d o n ' t the N g o n i have a l a n g u a g e ? " " O h , n o . T h e y a d o p t e d the languages o f t h e t r i b e s t h e y c o n q u e r e d . T h e T u m b u k a k e p t t h e i r t o n g u e ; w e speak T u m b u k a . " " I s that the o n l y d i f f e r e n c e ? " " N o , t h e r e are s o m a n y . But w e used t o b e m o r e d i f f e r e n t . " "How
so?"
" W e l l , N g o n i are p a t r i l i n e a l , b y w h i c h I m e a n i f a m a n g e t s m a r r i e d , his w i f e w i l l c o m e t o l i v e i n his h o u s e . " " I s n ' t that the w a y y o u d o i t ? " " N o w i t is, but i n t h e past w e w e r e m a t r i l i n e a l . I n t h e past t h e s o n - i n - l a w w a s taken i n t o the h o m e o f the d a u g h t e r . O u r c u l t u r e has c h a n g e d . I t has changed in so many ways w i t h the m o d e r n t i m e s . " A little later we b e g a n a n e w subject. " L i g h t w e l l , w h y d o y o u say L i v i n g s t o n e b r o u g h t e d u c a t i o n ? " " H e f o u n d e d the m i s s i o n s , and the missions a l w a y s t e a c h . " L i g h t w e l l w a s c e r t a i n l y r i g h t a b o u t that. E d u c a t i n g the natives w a s a l w a y s a m a j o r part of L i v i n g s t o n e ' s p l a n , and it w a s p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e by his f o l l o w e r s
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
80 a s w e l l . T o d a y M a l a w i has a d e c e n t e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m , r e a c h i n g e v e r y o n e i n the c o u n t r y . T h i s l e g a c y p r o d u c e s p e o p l e like L i g h t w e l l , w h o are affected b y t h e b r o a d t r a d i t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n s t a r t e d s o l o n g a g o i n this far-off part o f the w o r l d . P u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n M a l a w i r e q u i r e s a n o m i n a l f e e e v e n t h o u g h the p e o p l e a r e v e r y p o o r . P a r e n t s , b y r e m i t t i n g f e e s , are t h o u g h t t o take a g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s p r o g r e s s ; t h e y w a n t t o b e sure t h e y are g e t t i n g t h e i r money's worth. T h e established e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m i n M a l a w i traces its r o o t s t h r o u g h a r e m a r k a b l e p e d i g r e e , e v e n after L i v i n g s t o n e . I n 1 8 7 5 , t w o years after D a v i d L i v i n g s t o n e d i e d , L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n , f o u n d e d b y R o b e r t L a w s o f the F r e e C h u r c h o f S c o t l a n d , w a s b e g u n a t the south e n d o f t h e lake ( F i g u r e 1 9 ) . I t w a s a beautiful s p o t , b u t u n h e a l t h y . A f t e r the d e a t h o f f i v e missionaries w i t h i n t h r e e y e a r s , L a w s m o v e d t h e m i s s i o n t o a h e a l t h i e r s p o t , B a n d a w e , o n the w e s t side o f the l a k e . B a n d a w e w a s near N g o n i l a n d ,
and i t w a s the N g o n i u n d e r M ' M b e l w a
(Figure 2 0 ) w h o first c a m e into contact w i t h Laws of Livingstonia Mission. L a w s f o l l o w e d the l o n g - s t a n d i n g m i s s i o n a r y p o l i c y o f n o t taking p a r t i n tribal m a t t e r s , e v e n t o t h e e x t e n t o f r e m a i n i n g n e u t r a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o N g o n i raiding activities.
FIGURE Captain
19:
T h e m i s s i o n a r i e s w e r e n o t r a i d e d , p r o b a b l y because t h e y w e r e
The original Livingstonia Mission
Elton
in
Interior shared his
1877).
Many of those
antislavery passion.
and the ILALA
(based on
a sketch by
who followed David Livingstone
into
the
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
81 armed.
Eventually
L a w s w o n the
confidence of M ' M b e l w a .
r e s p e c t o f all t h e
local
tribes
A long friendly relationship was begun.
and
the
Laws is
q u o t e d a s saying o f the chief, " G o d s e e m s t o have c a l l e d h i m and used h i m f o r the special p u r p o s e o f a d m i t t i n g t h e G o s p e l t o his p e o p l e . " T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p w a s n o t a l w a y s s m o o t h , h o w e v e r . T h e r e i s t h e tale o f M ' M b e l w a ' s y o u n g son visiting L a w s a t his c a m p . M a t r o n l y M r s . L a w s p a t t e d h i m o n the head and s p o k e k i n d l y t o h i m . T h e g e s t u r e w a s i n t e r p r e t e d b y s o m e o f the t r i b e a s a h e x , " s o h i g h and n o h i g h e r , " b e c a u s e s o o n a f t e r w a r d M ' M b e l w a ' s son d i e d . Passions ran high a m o n g the p e o p l e , b u t M ' M b e l w a refused
to
turn
on
Laws.
He
calmed
the
bloodthirsty
warriors.
Under
M ' M b e l w a ' s l e a d e r s h i p , s i x t e e n years after his f i r s t a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h L a w s , the N g o n i had g i v e n u p t h e p e r p e t r a t i o n o f g e n o c i d e o n t h e i r tribal n e i g h b o r s . T h e y w e r e a changed p e o p l e . L a w s spent f i v e d e c a d e s i n M a l a w i r u n n i n g the L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n . I n 1894 he m o v e d it f r o m
B a n d a w e t o its c u r r e n t h o m e i n the n o r t h w e s t
highlands o v e r l o o k i n g the l a k e . T h e r e i t has faced d a n g e r a s w e l l . D u r i n g t h e freedom m o v e m e n t in
1 9 5 9 , a p o l i t i c a l State o f E m e r g e n c y w a s d e c l a r e d
because o f w i d e s p r e a d unrest w h e n Banda, l a t e r t o b e c o m e p r e s i d e n t , w a s
FIGURE 20: finally
The Ngoni leader M'Mbelwa.
reigned over
the lake
and
Through his vision and leadership peace
its surroundings.
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
82 a r r e s t e d and l e d a w a y t o g a o l .
T h e same
British a u t h o r i t i e s w h o a r r e s t e d
Banda w e r e c o n c e r n e d o v e r t h e safety o f w h i t e s a t L i v i n g s t o n i a . T h e head o f the m i s s i o n w a s asked b y a i r - d r o p p e d m e s s a g e i f h e w i s h e d t o b e e v a c u a t e d . T h e r e p l y was spelled out in w h i t e w a s h e d stones in a field n e x t to Laws's old stone house:
"Ephesians 2 : 1 4 . "
Nothing more,
simply reference
t o that
passage f r o m P a u l ' s L e t t e r . I t r e a d s , " F o r h e i s o u r p e a c e , w h o has m a d e u s b o t h o n e , and has b r o k e n d o w n t h e d i v i d i n g w a l l o f h o s t i l i t y . " T h e m i s s i o n aries w a n t e d n o r e l i e f ; t h e y c a m e t o n o h a r m . L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n , t h r o u g h its s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , still turns o u t artisans, and t e a c h e r s , and b u s i n e s s m e n , and p r e a c h e r s , and l e a d e r s . In fact P r e s i d e n t H a s t i n g s K a m u z u Banda i s n a m e d f o r o n e o f its f o r m e r m i s s i o n a r i e s .
The
m o t t o o f t h e s c h o o l is, I w i l l t r y . T h e s t o r y o f L i v i n g s t o n i a s t u d e n t L e g s o n K a y i r a i s p a r t i c u l a r l y inspiring. He w a s a T u m b u k a f r o m near K a r o n g a .
T h e name
Legson was made up
b e c a u s e i t w a s t h o u g h t t o s o u n d British.
Having c o m p l e t e d Livingstonia in
1 9 5 8 , L e g s o n d e c i d e d t o g o t o c o l l e g e — i n t h e U n i t e d States. F i r e d b y the L i v i n g s t o n i a s c h o o l m o t t o , L e g s o n w a l k e d 2 , 5 0 0 m i l e s across A f r i c a , w i t h n o m o n e y , f e w b e l o n g i n g s , and n o s h o e s . I n U g a n d a h e w r o t e t o Skagit V a l l e y C o l l e g e i n W a s h i n g t o n . H e c a m e across the n a m e a t the U . S . I n f o r m a t i o n Service library. T h e y responded w i t h a promise of help. Legson walked on. A t K h a r t o u m a n A m e r i c a n c o n s u l a r o f f i c e r b e f r i e n d e d h i m and w r o t e t o the s c h o o l o n his behalf. T h e s c h o o l raised m o n e y f o r his s t u d i e s , p r o v i d e d f o r his a i r f a r e , and f o u n d a f a m i l y f o r h i m t o l i v e w i t h — a w h i t e f a m i l y that already had s e v e n c h i l d r e n , but w e l c o m e d this A f r i c a n y o u n g m a n . Embassy p e r s o n n e l g a v e h i m a suit and s o m e s h o e s . I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 6 0 L e g s o n a r r i v e d i n America.
H e g o t his e d u c a t i o n , f i r s t a t Skagit,
t h e n a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f
W a s h i n g t o n . He w r o t e a b o o k a b o u t his t r a v e l s e n t i t l e d / Will Try. H i s s t o r y of p e r s e v e r a n c e is r e p e a t e d in a high s c h o o l h i s t o r y t e x t , and Civilization,
c u r r e n t l y in
World History, Patterns
use in T e x a s .
T o r e a c h L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n , o n e m u s t m a k e a n e f f o r t , e v e n t o d a y , but i t is c e r t a i n l y w o r t h a visit. T h e r e is a m a g n i f i c e n t stained-glass w i n d o w , a n o m a lous i n the h e a r t o f A f r i c a . I t i s a r o m a n t i c p o r t r a y a l o f L i v i n g s t o n e . B e h i n d h i m stand Susi and C h u m a , his assistants, b e s t k n o w n f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g his b o d y t o Z a n z i b a r . H i s hand i s o u t s t r e t c h e d t o a g r o u p o f n a t i v e s , t w o m e n and a w o m a n . T h e w o m a n has a b a b y o n h e r b a c k , snugly n e s t l e d i n a c l o t h t i e d o v e r h e r s h o u l d e r i n t y p i c a l A f r i c a n fashion. L a k e M a l a w i i s i n t h e d i s t a n c e .
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND 83
' ' L E T ' S SEE I F I h a v e this straight, L i g h t w e l l . T h e N g o n i i n v a d e d and w e r e raiding o t h e r t r i b e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e M l o z i w a s taking slaves a b i t f a r t h e r t o the north around K a r o n g a ? " " I t was very b a d . " " T h e n L a w s and t h e L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n w o r k e d w i t h the N g o n i l e a d e r M ' M b e l w a t o pacify and e d u c a t e the t r i b e s ? " " T h a t is r i g h t . " " A n d the A f r i c a n L a k e s C o m p a n y p e o p l e s t a r t e d f i g h t i n g w i t h M l o z i and finally hanged him at about the same t i m e ? " " Y e s . A n d that i s also a b o u t t h e t i m e w h e n N y a s a l a n d w a s p r o c l a i m e d a p r o t e c t o r a t e b y the B r i t i s h . " " A n d L i v i n g s t o n i a M i s s i o n i s still u p t h e r e o n the hill t o the south o f u s ? " "Yes." " T h a n k s , L i g h t w e l l . Y o u h a v e taught m e a l o t a b o u t y o u r c o u n t r y . " " Y o u are w e l c o m e . "
T H A T I S T H E last I r e m e m b e r t h i n k i n g a b o u t o n the airplane b e f o r e I fell i n t o an a p p r e h e n s i v e s l e e p .
9
July,
Monday.
O v e r the L i m p o p o , o v e r t h e Z a m b e z i , t o K a m u z u I n t e r n a t i o n a l A i r p o r t o n the r o l l i n g L i l o n g w e P l a i n , e t c h e d i n r e d dust. W e h a v e a r r i v e d i n M a l a w i . I t i s hazy w i t h the d r y season.
All our baggage arrived,
c h e c k e d straight
t h r o u g h f r o m Dallas w i t h t h r e e transfers. N o p r o b l e m w i t h c u s t o m s . Yusuf, that is, D r . Y u s u f J u w a y e y i , P r i n c i p a l C o n s e r v a t o r o f A n t i q u i t i e s , and Fidelis M o r o c c o , D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s t e c h n i c i a n , m e t u s a t the a i r p o r t . O n t h e twenty-minute drive to t o w n I was brought up-to-date.
E v e r y t h i n g f o r the
f i e l d season w a s o r g a n i z e d . " L i k e c h e e s e o n b r e a d , " K e n t w o u l d say. Y u s u f had s e c u r e d o n e thousand p o u n d s o f d e n t a l p l a s t e r f o r u s f r o m G o v e r n m e n t M e d i c a l S t o r e s . O f c o u r s e o u r r e s e a r c h c l e a r a n c e had n o t c o m e t h r o u g h y e t , but i t w a s a t the a p p r o p r i a t e g o v e r n m e n t a l o f f i c e , i n g o o d o r d e r , a w a i t i n g a signature. T h e f o r m a l i t i e s a r e p r o c e e d i n g s m o o t h l y and e f f i c i e n t l y . T h e r e w i l l b e n o unnecessary d e l a y . W e w i l l s o o n h e a d o u t t o the f i e l d . But f i r s t t h e r e are a f e w things t o d o i n t o w n . W e can l o o k a r o u n d t h e c i t y w h i l e g i v i n g o u r b i o l o g i c a l c l o c k s a c h a n c e t o r e s e t and r e c o v e r f r o m j e t lag. L i l o n g w e , w i t h its specially built capital area, is a c i t y w i t h t h e v a c u o u s
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
84 ambience of a n e w house not quite ready for occupancy. T h e n e w e r sectors, w i t h d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n s , g o v e r n m e n t b u i l d i n g s , and the c e n t r a l s h o p p i n g m a l l , have w i d e streets l i n e d w i t h v i v i d r e d poinsettias g r o w n t o bush size i n the t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e . T h e r e a r e r o w s o f y e l l o w - g r e e n cassia t r e e s . L a w n s are m a n i c u r e d . T r a f f i c is l i g h t , like a Sunday no m a t t e r w h a t day it is. Streets b e a r such n a m e s a s A f r i c a n U n i t y A v e n u e , K a m u z u P r o c e s s i o n D r i v e , and Presidential W a y .
T h e f l o w o f v e h i c l e s i s c o n t r o l l e d a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s b y traffic
c i r c l e s , e x c e p t a t o n e T - j u n c t i o n , w h e r e t h e Japanese r e c e n t l y e r e c t e d a traffic signal f o l l o w i n g the d e a t h of o n e of t h e i r nationals in a car a c c i d e n t at that spot. Everywhere red,
green,
and b l a c k banners p r o c l a i m t h e t w e n t y - s i x t h
a n n i v e r s a r y o f i n d e p e n d e n c e , LONG LIVE K A M U Z U , t h e y shout. P o r t a l s w i t h the national c o l o r s and e m b l e m s , o v e r s e e n b y s t y l i z e d r e n d e r i n g s o f p a i n t e d b u f f a l o , a n t e l o p e , and l i o n , g r a c e the r o a d s . T h e tambala and kwacha,
the
r o o s t e r a t d a w n , d e c o r a t e the sides o f b u i l d i n g s . T h e o l d t o w n i s b u s t l i n g , full o f s h o p s , and n o i s e and the c e n t r a l m a r k e t . T h e air i s suffused w i t h d i e s e l f u m e s and b l a c k s m o k e b e l c h e d f r o m lurching buses and stalled l o r r i e s . I n t h e m a r k e t , d i v i d e d i n t o sections d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m e r c h a n d i s e , t h e din o f t h e sheet m e t a l w o r k e r s b a n g i n g and t a p p i n g o u t b u c k e t after b u c k e t , w a t e r i n g can after w a t e r i n g c a n , r e v e r b e r a t e s m e r c i lessly.
P i l e s and p i l e s o f b r o w n s m o k e d f i s h lie n e x t t o r o w s and r o w s o f
s i l v e r y d r i e d f i s h . T h e r e are heaps o f g l i s t e n i n g m o i s t fresh f i s h t o o . T h i s part of t h e m a r k e t has a d i s t i n c t i v e o d o r , b u t it is n o t b a d . C o l o r f u l c l o t h , and b a s k e t r y , h a r d w a r e , used nuts and b o l t s , a x e s , s a l v a g e d g e a r s and b e a r i n g s , fruits and v e g e t a b l e s — o r a n g e s , c a b b a g e s , o n i o n s , bananas, a f e w p a w p a w s and c a r r o t s — a n d the offal p i l e i n the c o r n e r , all h a v e t e r r i t o r i e s staked o u t i n the bazaar. Snack p e d d l e r s h a w k b o i l e d e g g s , p e a n u t s , c h i c k e n f e e t , and o t h e r such t i d b i t s . Y u s u f d r o p p e d me at C o u n t r y C a r H i r e (START W I T H us A N D SEE THE COUNTRY). I always rent vehicles there. T h e p r o p r i e t o r is an Asian. His family c a m e t o M a l a w i f r o m India i n the 1890s and has p r o s p e r e d e v e r since. H e appears to be e x c e e d i n g l y shifty, b u t he has a strange likability if y o u can stand t o b e a r o u n d h i m l o n g e n o u g h t o l e t i t s h o w t h r o u g h . H e n e v e r has a p o s i t i v e w o r d t o say a b o u t a n y t h i n g . T h e w o r l d i s p e r s i s t e n t l y o n the v e r g e o f c o l l a p s e . T h a t is, e x c e p t f o r o n e t h i n g . A s k h i m h o w business i s and h e w i l l invariably r e p l y that it is g o o d . H a v i n g paid his p r i c e s to r e n t his v e h i c l e s , I am sure it is. H e s u p p l i e d m e a L a n d R o v e r , assuring m e i t w a s i n g o o d w o r k i n g o r d e r .
J O U R N A L S
F R O M
T H E
G R O U N D
W e shall s e e .
Last y e a r w e t r i e d t h r e e b e f o r e w e s w i t c h e d t o a n Isuzu that
could get us out of t o w n . A t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s D a l e and K e n t i n v e n t o r i e d t h e p r o j e c t f i e l d supplies left o v e r f r o m last y e a r .
Everything was there.
No pilferage.
T e n t s and mattresses w e r e b e i n g s u p p l i e d t o the p r o j e c t b y the d e p a r t m e n t . M o s t w e r e t h e r e , b u t f o r o t h e r s w e had t o send t o B l a n t y r e . F i d e l i s , a l o n g w i t h James,
the
driver,
is to go
north to
set u p
camp
tomorrow.
The
d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r has a n a n g l e - i r o n l u g g a g e rack that e x t e n d s f r o m the back o f the c a b , f o r w a r d o v e r the h o o d , t o the f r o n t b u m p e r s , f r o m w h i c h i t i s s u p p o r t e d b y t w o l o n g a r m s . I t p r o v i d e s f o r the o v e r l o a d i n g o f the v e h i c l e s o that i t i s e x c e s s i v e l y t o p - h e a v y . W e w i l l m e e t F i d e l i s and James a t c a m p , after t h e y h a v e set i t u p . O u r t h i r d m e m b e r f r o m t h e d e p a r t m e n t , E l i z a b e t h G o m a n i , w i l l g o n o r t h o n the bus. Today at noon we m e t with a representative of Caltex O i l w h o presented the p r o j e c t w i t h a c h e c k f o r t e n thousand kwacha ( a b o u t t h r e e g r a n d ) t o offset o u r v e h i c l e e x p e n s e s . H e a l e r t e d the p r e s s . T h e y r e p o r t e d i t i n the n e w s p a p e r and o n R a d i o M a l a w i , thus i n f o r m i n g the v i l l a g e r s o f r e m o t e M w a k a s y u n g u t i o f o u r arrival i n the c o u n t r y l o n g b e f o r e w e w i l l g e t t o the f i e l d . T h e y w i l l b e e x p e c t i n g us. W e s e e m t o b e h a p p i l y r e m e m b e r e d b y the staff a t the L i l o n g w e H o t e l . S m i l y , the g r i n n i n g l i t t l e p o r t e r , i s still t h e r e and still s m i l i n g . Last y e a r K e n t w r o t e a letter for him, granting permission to r u m m a g e through our tattered discards. T h e p o o r g u y had b e e n r e p r i m a n d e d b y his boss f o r r e m o v i n g s o m e t o s s e d - o u t g o o d s f r o m t h e trash. H e t h o u g h t S m i l y had p i l f e r e d t h e m , b u t h e had n o t . I t i s n i c e t o b e back i n the W a r m H e a r t o f A f r i c a . T o m o r r o w i t w i l l b e n i c e t o head t o t h e f i e l d .
13
July,
Friday.
Ngara camp.
L u c k y F r i d a y the t h i r t e e n t h .
T h e d r i v e u p f r o m L i l o n g w e w a s pleasant. T h e w e a t h e r w a s p e r f e c t , the skies w e r e b l u e . National
Park on
W e b r o k e the t r i p i n t o t w o l e g s . the f i r s t day and
advantage o f its l o c a t i o n f o r r e s t .
s p e n t the
W e d r o v e t o Kasungu
n i g h t a t the
lodge,
taking
It g a v e us a chance to w a t c h elephant,
a n t e l o p e , and h i p p o , and t o see s o m e c o u n t r y s i d e . T h e rest o f o u r stay i n M a l a w i w i l l b e f i l l e d w i t h digging b o n e s , not sightseeing.
We w e n t for an
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D
86 a f t e r n o o n g a m e d r i v e and g o t m i r e d i n sticky m u d just a s the sun w a s g o i n g down.
I t t o o k t w o h o u r s i n the g r e a s y b l a c k o o z e t o e x t r i c a t e o u r s e l v e s .
L u c k i l y w e had flashlights and s o m e t o o l s w i t h us. W e also had a n a r m e d g a m e r a n g e r . H e , a t least, f e l t s e c u r e f r o m buffalo and o t h e r w i l d beasts w i t h his a n c i e n t r i f l e . I a m n o t sure that the rest o f u s w e r e s o c o m f o r t e d . T h e r o a d f r o m K a s u n g u t o M z u z u , w h i c h w e take t o g e t u p t o the n o r t h e r n e n d o f t h e c o u n t r y , passes t h r o u g h t h e plains and o n t o the spectacular forests o f the V i p h y a P l a t e a u .
Peasant f a r m e r s s o l d s w e e t p o t a t o e s a l o n g the r o a d .
B o y s and g i r l s h e l d o u t sticks o f M a l a w i sausages, d r i e d m i c e , f o r sale a s lunch t o t r a v e l e r s . T h e m i c e are caught i n t h e f i e l d s b y t h e c h i l d r e n . T h e n they are b o i l e d w i t h o u t m u c h f u r t h e r a d o . N o s k i n n i n g , n o r e m o v i n g the heads. A f t e r b o i l i n g , t h e i r n i c e b u t n u b b l y l i t t l e b o d i e s are d r i e d and salted. H a l f a d o z e n o r s o o f t h e stiff s u n - d r i e d carcasses a r e p l a c e d i n a p i e c e o f split b a m b o o f o r easy h a n d l i n g . T h e n t h e y a r e r e a d y f o r sale ( F i g u r e 2 1 ) . A n d f o r e a t i n g — h a i r , b o n e s , t e e t h , t o e n a i l s , and t a i l s — e v e r y t h i n g .
FIGURE 21:
Malawi sausages—boiled,
this is not your idea of lunch, culture.
salted,
and dried mice—-Jor sale.
Even
the child's smile is a disarming introduction
if
to the
J O U R N A L S
F R O M
T H E
G R O U N D
87 I have had s o m e d e a l i n g s w i t h these sausages. I am a l w a y s on t h e l o o k o u t f o r c o m p a r a t i v e skeletal m a t e r i a l o f m o d e r n s p e c i e s o f animals t o use i n m y studies o f fossils. W h a t a g o l d e n o p p o r t u n i t y t h e s e M a l a w i sausages p r e s e n t e d f o r m a k i n g a c o l l e c t i o n o f A f r i c a n m o u s e s k e l e t o n s that c o u l d b e used i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m y fossil-rat i n t e r e s t s .
Last y e a r I b o u g h t e v e r y stick o f
M a l a w i sausages that I c o u l d g e t m y hands o n . T h e c h i l d r e n m u s t h a v e t h o u g h t I w a s r a v e n o u s . I t o o k all m y s p e c i m e n s , f o r t h e y had n o w b e c o m e scientific, back t o the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s i n L i l o n g w e . I left t h e m i n t h e office t o b e s h i p p e d t o m e i n Dallas a l o n g w i t h s o m e o f the s e a s o n ' s i m p o r t a n t fossils. T h e y had n o t b e e n i n L i l o n g w e t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s b e f o r e the staff, t h i n k i n g I had b r o u g h t t h e m a t r e a t , ate m y e n t i r e s a m p l e o f A f r i c a n r o d e n t s ! T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l dishes b e s i d e s M a l a w i sausages that d o n o t s e e m t o b e particularly w e l l suited f o r the
W e s t e r n palate.
F o r instance,
The Malawi
Cookbook has an e n t i r e c h a p t e r on insects. F r o m it y o u l e a r n that b e e l a r v a e should be f r i e d w i t h a little salt and s e r v e d as a relish or a p p e t i z e r . L a r g e g r e e n c r i c k e t s that s w a r m a t s t r e e t l i g h t s should h a v e t h e i r w i n g s and the h o r n e d parts o f t h e i r legs r e m o v e d . dried,
and
panfried,
just
T h e n t h e y should b e b o i l e d f o r f i v e m i n u t e s ,
like grasshoppers
and
red
locusts.
R e c i p e s are
i n c l u d e d f o r t e r m i t e s , b l a c k flying ants, sand c r i c k e t s , cicadas, t h e r e g u l a r shield b u g , and t h e l a r g e g r e e n shield b u g . G r e e n c a t e r p i l l a r s are b e t t e r w i t h the s t o m a c h and intestine r e m o v e d . T h e n t h e y should b e b o i l e d and f r i e d . F o r variation add o n e c h o p p e d t o m a t o , a c h o p p e d o n i o n , and s o m e p e a n u t flour. A f t e r d r y i n g , c a t e r p i l l a r s can b e s t o r e d f o r t h r e e m o n t h s . I am p e r h a p s m o s t a m u s e d by t h e t i n y lakefly, Chaobora edulis, L i v i n g s t o n e ' s kungu, a s a n i n g r e d i e n t o f the M a l a w i k i t c h e n . E v e r y m o n t h a t t h e n e w m o o n these g n a t - s i z e d flies arise i n c l o u d s , b i l l i o n s o f t h e m , f r o m t h e l a k e . T h e i r mists can b e s e e n f r o m far i n the d i s t a n c e , e v e n f r o m t h e t o p s o f the high scarps o v e r l o o k i n g the lake ( s e e F i g u r e
11
in Chapter 2 ) . W h e n they drift
ashore at a v i l l a g e , m o i s t e n e d w i n n o w i n g baskets, usually used f o r separating chaff f r o m g r a i n , are w a v e d t h r o u g h t h e s w a r m . T h e t i n y m i d g e s stick t o the w e t basket. T h e n t h e y are s c r a p e d off and m o l d e d i n t o cakes b y p r e s s i n g t h e m i n t o a mass. T h e cakes are left to d r y in t h e sun. T o p r e p a r e , b r e a k the lakefly cake i n t o p i e c e s and b o i l i n salted w a t e r until soft. A d d a c h o p p e d t o m a t o , o n i o n , c r u s h e d p e a n u t s , and a l i t t l e o i l . C o o k g e n t l y and s e r v e w i t h r i c e . L i v i n g s t o n e said i t " t a s t e d n o t u n l i k e c a v i a r e , o r salted l o c u s t s . " S o u n d d e l i c i o u s ? N o , I h a v e n e v e r e a t e n M a l a w i sausage o r tasted any o f t h e r e c i p e s just related.
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
88 T h e d r i v e f r o m K a s u n g u P a r k t o N g a r a c a m p , past the c h i l d r e n selling M a l a w i sausages,
was uneventful
e x c e p t for the
radiator boiling dry.
We
a r r i v e d a t N g a r a c a m p t w o days a g o t o f i n d n o o n e . Fidelis and James had b e g u n t o set u p c a m p , b u t had l e f t i t unfinished. W h e r e w e r e they? I finally tracked Fidelis d o w n at n o o n yesterday in K a r o n g a . T h e y w e r e having vehicle t r o u b l e and had g o n e t o t o w n f o r r e p a i r s . T h e n t h e y c o u l d n o t g e t back t o c a m p . Stuck i n t o w n , F i d e l i s w a s a s l e e p a t t h e Enikani R e s t H o u s e w h e r e I f o u n d h i m . I t o o k h i m b a c k t o c a m p w i t h m e , l e a v i n g James t o l o o k after the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r . V e h i c l e p r o b l e m s are t o b e e x p e c t e d . N o w , a day l a t e r , t h e c a m p has t a k e n shape. It is at t h e v i l l a g e of N g a r a , w h e r e t h e M - l h i g h w a y runs c l o s e t o t h e l a k e . T h e v i l l a g e i t s e l f i s p r o b a b l y l a r g e r , b u t o t h e r w i s e n o t m u c h c h a n g e d since e a r l i e r days w h e n M i g e o d and P a r r i n g t o n v i s i t e d the S c o t s m a n M a x w e l l i n 1 9 3 0 . A sandy d i r t t r a c k f r o m the tarmac,
paralleling the
lakeshore,
leads
down
to
African
Mr.
Maxwell's
c o t t o n g i n n e r y . M r . M a x w e l l i s t h e official v i l l a g e h e a d m a n , a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n in the social and p o l i t i c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . Because his e l d e r b r o t h e r is also a v i l l a g e h e a d m a n , at N y u n g w e , this M a x w e l l has t a k e n on the official t i t l e o f V i l l a g e H e a d m a n M a k o n g a n y a . I t m e a n s " b i g m a n , " and t h e r e c o u l d n o t be a m o r e accurate description of h i m .
O n t h e w e s t side o f the dirt track,
b e t w e e n i t and t h e t a r m a c , a r e M a x w e l l ' s f i v e b r i c k h o u s e s , s t u c c o e d w i t h c o n c r e t e and c r o w n e d w i t h c o r r u g a t e d i r o n r o o f s . H e parks his o l d b r o w n M e r c e d e s o f f the t r a c k n e x t t o the f i r s t o n e . H i s houses are s u r r o u n d e d b y c h i c k e n c o o p s , c h i l d r e n , and his w i v e s ' o p e n c o o k i n g f i r e s . T h e area i s literally s w a r m i n g w i t h M a x w e l l o f f s p r i n g o f all a g e s . A t last c o u n t h e had t h i r t y - t w o c h i l d r e n f r o m six w i v e s , b u t that w a s a f e w years a g o . S o m e o f M a x w e l l ' s sons h a v e w o r k e d f o r m e . H e w i l l n o t a l l o w t h e m t o learn skills; e v e n the art o f truck driving is prohibited. He does n o t wish t h e m to be educated. He is very p r o t e c t i v e o f his d a u g h t e r s , w h o , w i t h t h e i r g r a y e y e s , are striking i n the extreme. I h a v e just l o o k e d o v e r t h e c a m p . I t i s g o o d . I t e x t e n d s a l o n g 165 f e e t o f p r i m e b e a c h f r o n t p r o p e r t y , across t h e track f r o m M r . M a x w e l l ' s houses. T h e b e a c h is sand w i t h a strand of c o b b l e s . T h e y g r i n d in t h e surf, a d d i n g t h e i r p e r c u s s i o n t o the r h y t h m o f the w a v e s , p r o v i d i n g a n a u d i b l e b a c k g r o u n d t o all w e d o a t this p l a c e . A n d b e c a u s e this i s o u r h o m e i n M a l a w i , w e w i l l d o a l o t a t this p l a c e . T h i s i s w h e r e w e w i l l r e t u r n after t h e d a y ' s w o r k , w h e r e w e w i l l e a t , and w h e r e w e w i l l r e s t . I w a n t i t t o b e pleasant and c o m f o r t a b l e . T h e c a m p sits o n a flat, dusty t e r r a c e o f sandy b l a c k soil f i f t e e n f e e t a b o v e
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
the l a k e . A rank of s p i n d l y y o u n g b l u e g u m s , as Eucalyptus t r e e s a r e c a l l e d , variable i n h e i g h t but n o n e m o r e than a f e w f e e t h i g h , lines the t e r r a c e e d g e a l o n g the c e n t r a l part o f c a m p . T h e n o r t h e n d i s b o u n d e d b y a c l u m p o f l o w - g r o w i n g p a l m s w i t h f a n - s h a p e d , p a l m e t t o l i k e f r o n d s . T h e r e i s also a n Acacia t r e e . N o r t h of that a f e w h u n d r e d yards is an a b a n d o n e d , c r u m b l i n g church b u i l d i n g and the c o t t o n g i n n e r y built b y the b i g m a n ' s father. D u r i n g t h e 1959 c i v i l disturbances t h e M a x w e l l h o m e a t N y u n g w e w a s r a z e d and the g i n n e r y c a m e u n d e r attack. T h e M a x w e l l b o y s w e r e a r m e d and sent t o the r o o f . T h e y w e r e t o l d t o s h o o t t o kill i f t h e y h e a r d t w o shots f r o m t h e i r f a t h e r ' s pistol.
O n e shot w a s f i r e d o v e r t h e heads i n the c r o w d .
No more w e r e
necessary. T h e g i n n e r y w a s s a v e d , and i t i s still o p e r a t i n g t o d a y . K e n t ' s b l u e - d o m e d n y l o n t e n t sits u n d e r t w o l a r g e , m o s t l y leafless e u p h o r bia t r e e s .
T h e A f r i c a n n a m e f o r t h e m i s mkomwa.
T h e y have thin,
light-
c o l o r e d , p e e l i n g b a r k and l a r g e , hairy seeds s c a t t e r e d b e n e a t h t h e i r b r a n c h e s . South o f K e n t ' s t e n t and t h e t w o mkomwa t r e e s i s m y a b o d e , a l a r g e g r e e n canvas safari t e n t , shaded by an Acacia. L a n d w a r d , and n e x t to m e , is D a l e ' s and W i l l ' s safari t e n t .
A small Gmelina t r e e , a m e m b e r of the teak f a m i l y
i n t r o d u c e d t o A f r i c a f r o m t r o p i c a l A s i a , sits t o t h e left o f t h e i r f r o n t f l a p . O u r t e n t s , at right a n g l e s , o p e n i n t o a c o m m o n area crisscrossed w i t h a s p i d e r w e b o f g u y r o p e s and c l o t h e s l i n e s . O u r t o w e l s and t h e d a y ' s l a u n d r y are h u n g o u t to d r y . Behind t h e i r t e n t is a l a r g e Gmelina and a c l u m p of fan p a l m s , i n t o w h i c h is set a g r a s s - w a l l e d s h o w e r e n c l o s u r e . T h e focal p o i n t o f c a m p i s a l a r g e t a m a r i n d t r e e , its shade, w i t h t y p i c a l A f r i c a n h o s p i t a l i t y , y i e l d e d t o u s b y the l o c a l b e e r d r i n k e r s .
Drinking is
p o p u l a r i n M a l a w i . T h e i n t e m p e r a t e natives o f N g a r a s e e m t o p r e f e r t h e i r o w n h o m e b r e w , o r else t h e y c a n n o t afford the c o m m e r c i a l p r o d u c t . T h e y imbibe
glass-bottled
beer
available is C a r l s b e r g .
only
infrequently.
The
It c o m e s in f o u r labels:
only
green,
commercial
brand
w h i c h is a l a g e r ,
progressing to b r o w n , w h i c h is an ale, then g o l d , w h i c h is e x p e n s i v e " s p e c i a l b r e w " f o r the M a l a w i a n y u p p i e c r o w d . T h e f o u r t h label i s f o r b l a c k s t o u t . T h e rallying cry of M a l a w i ' s Carlsberg drinkers is " G i v e a guy a g r e e n . " T h e b r e w i n g c o m p a n y has a t r e e - p l a n t i n g p r o g r a m t o f u r t h e r the g r e e n i n g o f t h e country. It is activated by the appropriate n u m b e r of g r e e n bottle tops. M a x w e l l and the b o o z y m e n o f the v i l l a g e s e e m i n g l y s p e n d e v e r y spare m o m e n t imbibing an acrid, cheesy h o m e b r e w . It is p r e p a r e d f r o m m i l l e t by the w i v e s . E v e r y t h r e e o r f o u r days a n e w batch i s r e a d y f o r d r i n k i n g . T h e thick, s e d i m e n t - l a d e n e l i x i r i s d r u n k t h r o u g h a c o m m o n s t r a w , s u b m e r g e d i n
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
90 a calabash to a d e p t h that p r o v i d e s f o r m a x i m u m
a l c o h o l and m i n i m u m
sludge. A c o m m e r c i a l v e r s i o n , chibuku,
s o l d in h a l f - g a l l o n - s i z e d m i l k - c o n t a i n e r -
t y p e c a r t o n s , takes t h e p l a c e o f h o m e b r e w d u r i n g n e c e s s i t y .
Chibuku,
like
h o m e b r e w but unlike b o t t l e d b e e r , is a dense m i l l e t c o n c o c t i o n . It continues f e r m e n t i n g a f t e r its d e l i v e r y f r o m t h e f a c t o r y . T h e sides o f t h e c a r t o n b e g i n t o b u l g e w i t h t h e p r e s s u r e o f g e n e r a t i n g gas. W h e n this h a p p e n s , the chibuku i s said t o b e t o u g h . T h e m i l l e t r e s i d u e settles t o the b o t t o m . A t d r i n k i n g t i m e t h e t o p o f the c a r t o n i s g r a s p e d and the p a c k a g e v i g o r o u s l y a g i t a t e d , g i v i n g t h e m i x e d l i q u i d the c o r r e c t t e x t u r e and c h e w y n e s s . T h e t o p o f t h e c a r t o n i s cut o f f and t h e p a c k a g e i s passed a r o u n d the c i r c l e o f f r i e n d s . H u g e , r i c k e t y a r t i c u l a t e d l o r r i e s d i s t r i b u t e the b r e w , t o u t e d a s " T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l B e e r , " across t h e l e n g t h and b r e a d t h o f the c o u n t r y , t h e i r g r u m b l i n g sides g a y l y p a i n t e d w i t h the c o m p a n y m o t t o , Shake, shake Chibuku] D r i n k i n g p a r t i e s can b e g i n
a t any t i m e
of day.
T h e y are often
loud,
a c c o m p a n i e d b y b l a r i n g m u s i c w h e n the g e n e r a t o r i s w o r k i n g o r i f t h e r e are b a t t e r i e s f o r t h e r a d i o . W e are n e v e r b o t h e r e d b y the i n e b r i a t e s , h o w e v e r , and t h e y d o n o t j o i n u s i n o u r c a m p . I think that i s v e r y g r a c i o u s o f t h e m c o n s i d e r i n g that t h e i r p r e f e r r e d v e n u e i s t h e shade o f the t a m a r i n d . U n d e r its t h i c k , s p r e a d i n g b r a n c h e s o u r t h r e e tables are p o s i t i o n e d e n d t o e n d . T h e r e w e sit, talk, and take o u r m e a l s .
B e t w e e n the tables and the
s c r a g g l y l i n e of b l u e g u m s at t h e t e r r a c e e d g e is F i d e l i s ' s and James's safari t e n t , w h i c h d o u b l e s f o r f i e l d and v e h i c l e s u p p l y s t o r a g e . O u t s i d e t h e i r t e n t , u n d e r t h e fly,
h u n d r e d - p o u n d sacks o f plaster o f P a r i s ,
t e n o f t h e m , are
s t a c k e d . H e r e , t o o , the g l e a m i n g r o w s o f w h i t e p l a s t e r j a c k e t s , each c o n t a i n i n g its t r e a s u r e of fossil b o n e s , w i l l be l i n e d in a display f o r constant i n s p e c t i o n and i n s p i r a t i o n as the season p r o g r e s s e s . B e h i n d the t a m a r i n d is t h e k i t c h e n . It is a r o o f l e s s t w o - r O o m grass e n c l o s u r e . T h e f i r s t has a makeshift w o r k t a b l e c o n s t r u c t e d o f r e e d s , f o u r o r f i v e b u c k e t s of lake w a t e r f o r w a s h i n g , a trash p i t , and t w o c o o k i n g fires. A stack o f f i r e w o o d i s r e p l e n i s h e d daily f r o m t h e h e a d o f a y o u n g w o m a n w i t h a baby o f a f e w m o n t h s o l d s w a d d l e d o n h e r back. She g e n u f l e c t s , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h l o c a l c u s t o m , w h e n she a c c e p t s p a y m e n t f o r the w o o d . T h e o t h e r e n c l o s u r e i s the p a n t r y and s l e e p i n g q u a r t e r s f o r R o n a l d , the c o o k . I t has a l o n g r e e d t a b l e t o k e e p f o o d supplies o f f t h e g r o u n d . Plastic b u c k e t s w i t h t i g h t - f i t t i n g lids p r o v i d e m o r a l s u p p o r t but f e w t a n g i b l e results i n t h e c o n t i n u i n g s t r u g g l e t o k e e p o u r f o o d supplies a w a y f r o m the j a w s o f
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
m a r a u d i n g ants. W e w o u l d e n j o y t h e r i g h t t o d i n e w i t h o u t t h e m , b u t t h e y a r e as m u c h a part of the c a m p as the t a m a r i n d t r e e . T h e r e is also a space f o r the storage o f small fossils, and f o r crates o f b e e r ( g r e e n s and b r o w n s ) and soda b o t t l e s . Finally t h e r e is a p i t , w h i c h is actually a s h o w of bush r e f r i g e r a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y . I t i s f i l l e d w i t h d r i n k s and c o v e r e d w i t h w e t b u r l a p and sand. T h e r e f r e s h m e n t s are k e p t m a r g i n a l l y , b u t p l e a s a n t l y , c o o l e r than t h e a m b i e n t temperature. N e x t t o the p a n t r y e n c l o s u r e i s the 1 5 0 - g a l l o n w a t e r b o w s e r , a tank o n a t r a i l e r , f o r s t o r i n g d r i n k i n g w a t e r . N e x t t o i t i s t h e car park f o r o u r t w o L a n d R o v e r s . B e y o n d , a t the e d g e o f the t e r r a c e , i s E l i z a b e t h ' s b l u e - d o m e d n y l o n t e n t . T h e south e d g e o f c a m p i s m a r k e d b y a t h i c k e t o f p r i c k l y p e a r , w h e r e local d r i n k e r s p e e ; a b a o b a b ; a p i n k - f l o w e r e d d e s e r t r o s e ; and a f e w c a s h e w t r e e s . T h e n starts t h e f i s h i n g suburb o f m u d and thatch huts, s m o k i n g sheds, and d u g o u t c a n o e s .
B e y o n d the f i s h i n g huts are the marshes w i t h
m o s q u i t o e s , m u d , and bilharzia. D i s c r e e t l y t u c k e d a w a y across the r o a d f r o m o u r c a m p i n a t h i c k e t o f fan p a l m i s the g r a s s - w a l l e d e n c l o s u r e f o r o u r l o n g drop. All
is
in
order at c a m p ,
and
we are
ready to begin
w i t h the b o n e s
t o m o r r o w . I t i s a l m o s t a s i f w e n e v e r left M a l a w i after the f i e l d season c l o s e d last y e a r . A l m o s t , b u t n o t q u i t e . T h i n g s are n o t e x a c t l y the s a m e this y e a r . T h e r e c e p t i o n i s t a t the D e p a r t m e n t i n L i l o n g w e d i e d , and V i l l a g e H e a d m a n M a x w e l l lost o n e o f his six w i v e s t o c e r e b r a l malaria.
14
July,
Saturday.
O u r f i r s t day i n the f i e l d . I t i s g o o d t o see this again, t o l e t m y e y e s take i t in. T h e fossil l o c a l i t i e s o f M w a k a s y u n g u t i sit high i n the L u w o n y a H i l l s o n the east side o f the v a l l e y o f the S i t w e R i v e r . T h e y are p e r c h e d i n the w h i t e and p a s t e l - r e d sands o f the D i n o s a u r B e d s . S u r r o u n d i n g t h e sites and d o w n the v a l l e y the s c r u b b y t r e e s are g r e e n and y e l l o w , s o m e w i t h l e a v e s d a u b e d r e d . I t i s the d r y season, and the rains w e r e p o o r this y e a r . M o s t o f the t r e e s are mercifully without thorns. T h e v a l l e y o n its eastern e d g e i s t o p p e d w i t h s t r a i g h t - w a l l e d w h i t e cliffs c a p p e d w i t h h a r d , r e d g r a v e l . T h e t e r r a i n i s r o u g h and b r o k e n f r o m the f o o t o f the cliffs d o w n t o the v a l l e y f l o o r . Patches o f d i n o s a u r - b e a r i n g s a n d s t o n e , w h i t e and pink and rust i n c o l o r , p e e k t h r o u g h the s c r u b . P a r c h e d , t a w n y grass patches the g r o u n d , g r o w i n g i n t i n y h i l l o c k s and m o u n d s . I t g r o w s a s
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
92 tall a s a p e r s o n i n s o m e o f t h e l o w p l a c e s . S h o r t f r o n d s o f p a l e - g r e e n p a l m a r e s c a t t e r e d a b o u t i n c l u m p s . A l o n g t h e r i v e r t h e t r e e s are a brilliant dark g r e e n . C o a r s e r e e d s g r o w thick and rank a l o n g the s t r e a m banks. T h e r e i s o n e small stand o f b a m b o o w i t h s p i d e r y l e a v e s and g o l d e n , j o i n t e d t r u n k s . Fields c l e a r e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r e a r e d o t t e d w h i t e w i t h c o t t o n o r i n f e s t e d w i t h spindly cassava. M o n s t r o u s g r a y baobabs l u m b e r o u t o f p a r c h e d e a r t h , g r a s p i n g the sky w i t h leafless, t o r t u r e d b r a n c h e s . T h e air s m e l l s c l e a n , e s p e c i a l l y i n the cool
morning.
A c r o s s the v a l l e y t h e v e g e t a t i o n i s c o l o r l e s s o n t h e d r y , crystalline slopes o f the o p p o s i t e h i l l s i d e . B e y o n d , t o the w e s t , t h r o u g h t h e A f r i c a n h a z e , i s the N y i k a P l a t e a u . B e y o n d that lies Z a m b i a and its L u a n g w a V a l l e y , w h e r e fossil b o n e s h a v e also b e e n f o u n d . T h e c l o u d s b u i l d u p daily o v e r t h e N y i k a , but i t w i l l n o t r a i n — a t least i t i s n o t l i k e l y t o a t this t i m e o f y e a r . T h e b r e e z e picks u p and d i e s . A s the day heats u p , t h e s w e a t b e e s e m e r g e , s o m e t i m e s i n d r o v e s . T o r e a c h the sites, w e m u s t f i r s t d r i v e south a l o n g the t a r m a c M - l
lake
r o a d f r o m N g a r a c a m p . A f t e r t e n m i n u t e s w e r e a c h N y u n g w e and turn r i g h t o n t o t h e d i r t r o a d that skirts t h e r i d g e o f c r y s t a l l i n e r o c k s f o r m i n g the east side o f t h e v a l l e y . A f t e r a n o t h e r t e n m i n u t e s w e turn n o r t h o n t o the r o u g h t r a c k that leads u p the v a l l e y t o the r e g i o n c a l l e d M w a k a s y u n g u t i . T h e j o l t i n g track requires f o u r - w h e e l d r i v e . It steeply fords the Sitwe R i v e r — t w i c e . W e w a v e a t p o t b e l l i e d c h i l d r e n , n a k e d o r i n r a g s , and m e n languid i n the shade.
Women,
pounding maize w i t h heavy four-foot-long pestles,
carry
babies t i e d t o t h e i r b a c k s . T h e y g r o u p t o g e t h e r a r o u n d t h e m u d and thatch huts. A f t e r half a n h o u r o r s o w e reach the n e w L a n d R o v e r path c o n s t r u c t e d i n o u r a b s e n c e b y M j u d a , o n e o f o u r local T u m b u k a l a b o r f o r c e . T h i s i s all f o u r - w h e e l d r i v e . W e can o n l y g o a n o t h e r f i v e m i n u t e s b e f o r e w e hit the e n d . M o r e r o a d w o r k i s n e e d e d . W e p a r k and w a l k t h e last f i f t e e n m i n u t e s o n a f o o t p a t h snaking t h r o u g h the d i v i d e s and drainages t o the q u a r r i e s . T h e t o t a l distance f r o m N g a r a c a m p i s e l e v e n m i l e s . T h e w h o l e trip takes just o v e r a n h o u r .
W e w o u l d save a
lot of time
if we
camped here at
Mwakasyunguti, but w e w o u l d g i v e u p s o m e important creature c o m f o r t s . T h e c a m p w o u l d b e m u c h m o r e difficult t o s u p p l y . T h e m o n o t o n y w o u l d play o n o u r m i n d s . T h e r e w o u l d n o t b e e n o u g h clean w a t e r f o r bathing. R e s o r t i n g t o t h e r i v e r w o u l d i n v i t e bilharzia. I t i s w o r t h the e x t r a d r i v e t o stay a t N g a r a . T h e a f t e r n o o n d i p in the lake is g o o d f o r the s o u l . It picks up the spirits and r e l a x e s the b o d y . I t i s g o o d f o r m o r a l e . B e t t e r t o c a m p t h e r e . O n c e w e h a v e t u r n e d o n t o the d i r t t r a c k i n t o the v a l l e y , w e n e v e r see any v e h i c l e s b e s i d e s o u r o w n L a n d R o v e r s . W e are t o l d the track i s also used b y
J O U R N A L S
F R O M
T H E
G R O U N D
93 the W a t e r D e p a r t m e n t f o r p e r i o d i c c h e c k s o n a b o r e h o l e and b y a m e d i c a l t e a m that cares f o r l e p e r s i n r e m o t e p l a c e s . T h e r e a r e n o stores o r shops i n t h e v a l l e y . T h e r e i s a s c h o o l and t h e r e i s a c l e a r i n g used f o r a s o c c e r field. V i r t u a l l y all t h e f o o d that is e a t e n in the v a l l e y i s raised h e r e . A l l a l o n g the r i v e r b o t t o m , i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h c o t t o n , t h e cash c r o p , a r e f i e l d s o f cassava, m a i z e , g r o u n d n u t s , a f e w beans and c o w p e a s , t o m a t o e s and squash, and a b i t of s u g a r c a n e . A r o u n d t h e huts and v i l l a g e s are d a r k - g r e e n m a n g o t r e e s , n o w i n f l o w e r , and the o d d p a w p a w t r e e . L u x u r i a n t banana g r o v e s t h r i v e i n l o w , w e l l - w a t e r e d earth a l o n g the r i v e r . T h e r e are c a t t l e , a f e w b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e - s p o t t e d h o g s , and c h i c k e n s a r o u n d e v e r y hut. S o m e d w e l l i n g s sport r o u n d p i g e o n roosts of reeds w o v e n into a f o u r - f o o t - l o n g c y l i n d e r , r o o f e d w i t h thatch. T h e r o o s t s sit o n stilts and a r e c l o s e d o f f a t n i g h t t o p r o t e c t t h e f u r r y - f o o t e d p i g e o n s f r o m i n t e r l o p e r s such a s g e n e t s and c i v e t cats. S t o r a g e g r a n a r i e s are also p e r c h e d o n stilts t o k e e p v e r m i n o u t o f the g r a i n a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e . L i f e appears i d y l l i c in the v a l l e y , but it is n o t . It is a difficult e x i s t e n c e , fraught w i t h disease and h a r d s h i p . Y e t the p e o p l e h a v e q u i c k , b r i g h t s m i l e s , abundant l a u g h t e r , and a r a d i a n t , e n d e a r i n g w a r m t h . T h i s i s the d r y season and w i n t e r b e l o w t h e e q u a t o r . F o r t h e p e o p l e o f the S i t w e V a l l e y i t i s the s l o w t i m e o f y e a r . T h e r e i s l i t t l e t o d o i n t h e f i e l d s , save a bit o f c o t t o n h a r v e s t i n g .
M u c h of their t i m e is taken up w i t h dancing.
W o m e n d a n c e t h e ndola, and m e n t h e malipenga. D i f f e r e n t d r u m s and r h y t h m s c h a r a c t e r i z e e a c h . W e w i l l hear t h e m p r a c t i c i n g m o s t e v e r y d a y , a t m o s t any t i m e o f day. T h e s o u n d o f t h e d r u m , the quintessential s o u n d o f A f r i c a , w i l l s u b l i m a t e o u r m i n d s w h i l e w e q u a r r y , and w e w i l l n e v e r f o r g e t it. T h e malipenga dances a r e b i g e v e n t s . Each v i l l a g e has a t e a m of d a n c e r s and musicians that c o m p e t e s w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g v i l l a g e s . T h e o n l y i n s t r u m e n t s used besides the d r u m s are k a z o o s m a d e o f calabashes w i t h m a t s o f s p i d e r w e b , o r o c c a s i o n a l l y bits o f plastic b a g , f o r r e v e r b e r a t i o n . T h e malipenga c o n j u r e s visions o f the C h i n e s e m a r t i a l art tai c h i , d a n c e d in synchrony to an African beat.
T h e m e n arrange themselves in a line,
d a n c i n g i n unison w h i l e p l a y i n g t h e i r k a z o o s . D r u m s and a p r i m a r y k a z o o e n s e m b l e are just o f f t o t h e s i d e .
Legs are kicked,
arms snaked, heel to
g r o u n d , then t o e p o i n t e d , and s p i n , all i n s l o w m o t i o n , o r a t m o s t half s p e e d . It is said that the malipenga is d e r i v e d in p a r t f r o m W o r l d W a r I p r i s o n e r - o f w a r c a m p s and f r o m the S o u t h A f r i c a n m i n i n g c a m p s o f transient w o r k e r s i n the 1 9 2 0 s . T h e w o m e n ' s ndola d a n c e i s m o r e a n i m a t e .
For t h e m , m o v e m e n t is in
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
94 c o u n t e r - c i r c l e s , w i t h f e e t m o v i n g and shuffling, r o u n d b u t t o c k s g y r a t i n g , and chests h e a v i n g t o t h e shrill s o p r a n o v o i c e characteristic o f A f r i c a n w o m e n i n song.
THE
OBJECTIVES
F O R o u r first day o f w o r k a t t h e fossil localities are
s i m p l e . T h e state o f t h e last y e a r ' s q u a r r i e s m u s t b e e v a l u a t e d , a p r e l i m i n a r y s t r a t e g y f o r e x c a v a t i o n m u s t b e d e v i s e d , t h e size o f the n e e d e d l a b o r f o r c e m u s t b e e s t i m a t e d , and the local c r e w m u s t b e a s s e m b l e d . O u r first day w e n t w e l l w i t h r e g a r d t o all o f t h e s e . I n o u r a b s e n c e o v e r the past y e a r , M j u d a , o u r former
employee,
has
w o r k e d on the road,
shown greatly
appreciated
initiative.
He
not
only
laying o u t a path all t h e w a y t o the q u a r r y , b u t h e
b u s h w h a c k e d t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y f o r a l a r g e part o f i t s i n g l e - h a n d e d l y . H e also m a i n t a i n e d a w a t c h f u l , p r o t e c t i v e v i g i l o v e r the sites, m a k i n g certain that d r a i n a g e channels t r e n c h e d a r o u n d i m p o r t a n t areas d i v e r t e d rain and runoff, s h i e l d i n g u n e x c a v a t e d fossils f r o m e r o s i o n and w e a t h e r .
N o cattle h o o v e s
w e r e a l l o w e d access t o the b o n e s still i n t h e g r o u n d . There
are
three
good
quarry
sites
strung out along
s e v e n t y yards
of
w e s t - f a c i n g hill s l o p e . C D - 9 w a s w o r k e d last y e a r and a bit the p r e v i o u s field season. I t w i l l b e o u r m a i n q u a r r y . C D - 1 0 w a s f o u n d b y Alisa i n 1 9 8 7 . I t has a v e r y i m p o r t a n t stegosaur p e l v i s ,
f r a g i l e but l a r g e and h e a v y .
W e have
p r o t e c t e d i t f o r t h r e e years b e c a u s e o f the difficulty i n r e m o v i n g it. T h i s y e a r , events p e r m i t t i n g , we w i l l g e t it out. T h e third quarry site, C D - I 1, is at a slightly h i g h e r l e v e l i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s than the o t h e r t w o . I t has s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g b o n e s sticking o u t and i t l o o k s t o h a v e a chance o f s o m e small animals as w e l l as d i n o s a u r s . W e a s s e m b l e d a c r e w and set t h e m t o c l e a r i n g o f f t h e o v e r b u r d e n a t C D - 9 . W e k n o w h o w m u c h t o r e m o v e because w e can a l r e a d y see t h e fossils o f the productive bone layer—the sweet zone.
18
July,
Wednesday.
T h e e x c a v a t i o n o f b o n e s has b e g u n . Fossils are c o m i n g fast and furious. I t i s fun t o w o r k l i k e this, w i t h e x c i t e m e n t r u n n i n g a t a p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l f e v e r p i t c h . T h e w h o l e e x c a v a t i o n c r e w i s a s s e m b l e d , b o t h f o r e i g n and d o m e s t i c c o m p o n e n t s . A l l t h r e e q u a r r i e s have b e e n o p e n e d . T h e g e n e r a t o r w o r k s , but i t can h a n d l e
o n l y o n e o f the t w o r o t o - h a m m e r s w e b r o u g h t a t a t i m e .
H o w e v e r , that o n e cuts t h r o u g h the o v e r b u r d e n a s i f i t w e r e c h e e s e . T h i c k
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
95 chunks s l u m p off. T h e r o t o - h a m m e r cuts r a p i d l y t h r o u g h t h e soft s a n d s t o n e , m o r e s l o w l y b u t still e f f e c t i v e l y t h r o u g h the s t o n y , h e a v i l y c e m e n t e d , c o n c r e t e l i k e sand. T h e c r e w likes t o use i t ; i t i s l i k e a t o y , n o i s y and p o w e r f u l . T h e p r o t e c t i v e soil and e n o u g h o v e r b u r d e n has b e e n s t r i p p e d f r o m each quarry t o a l l o w the e x c a v a t i o n t o start. A l a r g e b a m b o o and grass shade has been e r e c t e d o v e r C D - 9 , the main quarry.
A smaller one covers C D - 1 1 .
L a t e r , w h e n w e can e x p e n d m o r e e f f o r t t h e r e , I w i l l have o n e built o v e r CD-10. T h e b o n e , w h e n i t i s freshly e x p o s e d b y e x c a v a t i o n and n o t w e a t h e r e d o n the surface o f the g r o u n d , i s i n g o o d shape. I t i s n o t p e t r i f i e d fully t o s t o n e . A l t h o u g h i t i s f r a g i l e , i t i s w e l l p r e s e r v e d and n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t o r t e d , e v e n after 100 m i l l i o n years u n d e r the g r o u n d . Fresh b o n e i s p a l e , c r e a m y w h i t e w i t h a n i r o n - r e d stain o n the surface. W i t h the a b u n d a n c e o f fossils w e can see n o w , t h e r e i s n o sign that t h e y w i l l g i v e o u t , b u t h o w d o w e k n o w w h a t w i l l h a p p e n a f e w f e e t farther u n d e r the g r o u n d ? Last y e a r w e left a n u m b e r o f g o o d s p e c i m e n s i n p l a c e .
A t C D - 9 the
s a u r o p o d tail w e h a v e b e e n e x c a v a t i n g f o r t w o seasons i s c o n t i n u i n g i n t o the hillside. T h e r e are also t h r e e o r f o u r ribs and a f e w v e r t e b r a e . A t C D - 1 0 K e n t ' s first a s s i g n m e n t is to o u t l i n e t h e stegosaur p e l v i s . W h a t a b e a u t y it is! T h e small sliver o f b o n e n e x t t o i t l e d i n t o m o s t o f a s a u r o p o d f e m u r , a t h i g h b o n e . C D - I 1 has s o m e l i m b b o n e s , a r m s o r l e g s , but i t also appears rich i n small b o n e f r a g m e n t s .
D a l e has b e g u n m a p p i n g t h e f i r s t b o n e s t o g e t
u n c o v e r e d . K e n t has p l a s t e r e d a f e w . Fidelis and E l i z a b e t h are c l e a r i n g n e w s p e c i m e n s t h e y just f o u n d . T h i s is r e a l l y g o o d . T h e r e are as m a n y b o n e s as w e can h a n d l e — m o r e e v e n . W e hit t h e g r o u n d r u n n i n g this y e a r and i t feels great. I have a f i n e c r e w . F o r n o w t h e r e are f o u r A m e r i c a n s i n c l u d i n g m e . W i l l D o w n s is the mnyako mwembe, t h e b e a r d e d f r i e n d . He is a n i m a t e d , u n c o n v e n t i o n a l , and f o u l m o u t h e d . H i s face is h i d d e n b e h i n d a full, bushy b e a r d , starting to gray. His piercing eyes are quick behind m e t a l - r i m m e d spectacles. His dark p e l a g e i s thin o n t o p w i t h a f e w u n k e m p t strands r e m a i n i n g . T h e back and sides o f his head a r e f r i n g e d w i t h a d i s h e v e l e d s h o c k o f n o t e s p e c i a l l y l o n g , but w i l d and u n r u l y s w e p t - b a c k hair. H e had i t t r i m m e d b e f o r e h e c a m e h e r e w i t h m e i n 1 9 8 4 . I d o n o t think i t has g r o w n l o n g e r s i n c e . E n e r g e t i c and q u i c k t o laugh, h e i s a u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l i n the g o o d s e n s e . W e m e t w h e n I m o v e d t o the M u s e u m o f N o r t h e r n A r i z o n a after I g o t m y P h . D . i n 1 9 7 7 . H e w a s already e m p l o y e d t h e r e .
W e have w o r k e d t o g e t h e r consistently e v e r since.
W i l l has a d e g r e e in h u m a n i t i e s ,
but he is l o a t h e to f o l l o w standard
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
96
p a t t e r n s o f social s y s t e m s . H e i n h e r i t e d a t r e m e n d o u s r e s p e c t f o r the truth and an a d m i r a b l e d i s r e s p e c t f o r a u t h o r i t y f r o m his d a d . H i s father w a s a b i g n e w s m a n i n t h e days o f E d w a r d R . M u r r o w . H e i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y w e l l r e a d , p r o f i c i e n t i n M a n d a r i n C h i n e s e , and hates t e l e v i s i o n ( t h e r e i s n o n e y e t i n M a l a w i ) . H i s m i n d i s c r e a t i v e and p e r p e t u a l l y a c t i v e , s p r i n g i n g f r o m subject t o subject. H e f i r e s o f f q u e s t i o n s and ideas like a G a t l i n g g u n . L i f e i s n e v e r dull a r o u n d h i m . He k n o w s
fieldwork.
H i s e y e i s k e e n f o r f i n d i n g fossils. O n c e t h e y are
f o u n d , h e can g e t t h e m o u t o f the g r o u n d . H i s e x c a v a t i o n t o o l s are c u s t o m machined,
the paleontological equivalent of pearl-handled six-guns.
He is
p a t i e n t . H e i s g o o d w i t h his steady hands. H i s k n o w l e d g e o f f i e l d g e o l o g y i s f i r s t - r a t e and all s e l f - t a u g h t .
His e x p e r i e n c e is b r o a d :
the
United
States,
C h i n a , A f r i c a , G r e e n l a n d , t h e P u n j a b , and Baluchistan. N o w h e w o r k s a s a f r e e l a n c e w i t h m e , H a r v a r d , the U n i v e r s i t y o f A r i z o n a , the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , and I d o n o t k n o w w h o e l s e , b u t h e i s based a t Northern
Arizona
University
in
Flagstaff.
Besides
fieldwork,
he
prepares
fossils in the l a b o r a t o r y and translates C h i n e s e technical r e p o r t s i n t o English. D a l e W i n k l e r is as methodical as W i l l is i m p e t u o u s . He is clean-cut w i t h c u r l y b l o n d hair and s i d e b u r n s . H i s p e l a g e is as fair as W i l l ' s is dark. T h e o n l y s i m i l a r i t y is a t h i n n i n g on t o p . Q u i e t , d e l i b e r a t e , and p r e c i s e , D a l e is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r all t h e m a p p i n g and m e a s u r i n g . D a l e has b e e n w i t h m e f o r f i v e years n o w . H e ' s o r i g i n a l l y f r o m M i c h i g a n . I h i r e d h i m after I s a w his p r e s e n t a t i o n a t a scientific m e e t i n g o n fossils f r o m the T e x a s P a n h a n d l e . H i s q u a l i t y w a s immediately obvious.
H e b r i n g s e x p e r t i s e i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the e c o l o g i c a l
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f r o c k s and s e d i m e n t s and the p a t t e r n s i n w h i c h b o n e s are s c a t t e r e d . H e i s a n a b s o l u t e l y essential m e m b e r o f the t e a m . K e n t N e w m a n , a tall, b i g T e x a n w i t h b l o n d hair, c a m e t o w o r k f o r m e n e a r l y f o u r years a g o o n w h a t w a s t o b e a s i x - m o n t h stint p r e p a r i n g fossils i n the l a b o r a t o r y . H e has b e e n w i t h m e e v e r s i n c e , b u t after this f i e l d season h e w i l l b e g i n t e a c h i n g i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s . H e i s p r o u d and has a g o o d sense o f h u m o r . H i s m e m o r y h o l d s a w e a l t h o f t h e r i g h t facts, s t o r e d f o r use a t just t h e r i g h t m o m e n t . I w i l l b e s o r r y t o l o s e h i m , b u t the j o b I can o f f e r s i m p l y w i l l n o t p r o v i d e f o r a s e c u r e f u t u r e . M y loss i s the P i a n o I n d e p e n d e n t S c h o o l District's gain. He w i l l be the kind of teacher a school system always needs, a g o o d o n e . I h o p e h e , o r s o m e o n e v e r y l i k e h i m , teaches m y k i d s . A t the v e r y least h e w i l l h a v e g o o d s t o r i e s o f A f r i c a and dinosaurs t o e n l i v e n his c l a s s r o o m . K e n t and I w i l l b e t h e f i r s t t o l e a v e t h e f i e l d this y e a r .
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
T h e f i n a l m e m b e r o f the A m e r i c a n suite i s A l i s a W i n k l e r . She w a s m y f i r s t P h . D . s t u d e n t . Because she is so d e e p l y i n t e r e s t e d in s c i e n c e and so w i t h o u t p r e t e n s e , she i s t r u l y a p l e a s u r e t o w o r k w i t h . N o w she has a p o s t d o c and teaches a n a t o m y a t the m e d i c a l s c h o o l . She w i l l n o t a r r i v e until K e n t and I h a v e d e p a r t e d . T h e n she w i l l j o i n D a l e and W i l l o n t h e r e c o n n a i s s a n c e o f the south. She is p i g g y b a c k i n g a t r i p to K e n y a on this o n e . She w i l l e x a m i n e the dinosaur s p e c i m e n s i n t h e N a t i o n a l M u s e u m i n N a i r o b i . T h e y o n l y h a v e a f e w , but t h e y m i g h t b e i m p o r t a n t .
She w i l l also c o n t i n u e h e r studies o f small-
m a m m a l fossils f r o m the R i f t V a l l e y , e i g h t y ( a n d m o r e ) m i l l i o n years y o u n g e r than the D i n o s a u r Beds h e r e i n M a l a w i . She m a y w a n t t o s t o c k u p o n M a l a w i sausages f o r t h e i r b o n e s . Alisa and D a l e a r e m a r r i e d t o each o t h e r .
OUR
AFRICAN
C O L L E A G U E S h a v e a v e r y d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h t o life f r o m
that o f the A m e r i c a n c o n t i n g e n t . I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y the p e r v a s i v e fatalism s o c o m m o n i n the i m p o v e r i s h e d w o r l d . T h e r e i s a q u i e t r e s i g n a t i o n t o , i f n o t a n a c c e p t a n c e of, e v e n t s and c o n f l a g r a t i o n s that a r e , o r a p p e a r t o b e , b e y o n d i m m e d i a t e c o n t r o l . T h i n g s like high infant m o r t a l i t y , o r failed rainy seasons, o r n o spare p a r t s , o r t h e bus s h o w i n g u p t h r e e h o u r s late o r n o t a t all, o r , i f y o u have t h e f e w tambala i n c o i n , y o u r o r d e r o f a c o l d C o k e b e i n g f i l l e d w i t h a w a r m Fanta, a n o r a n g e d r i n k . T h e lack o f r e l i a b i l i t y , the u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y , and the fatalism suffuse t h e a t m o s p h e r e , b l a n k e t i n g e v e r y t h i n g ,
every
a c t i o n , w i t h the facade of c a l m n e s s . It is a p e a c e f u l v e n e e r o v e r a pitiless r e s i g n a t i o n . E n t e r i n g this s y s t e m f r o m t h e W e s t can b e frustrating, n e r v e w r a c k i n g . But i t i s t h e i r c o u n t r y and t h e i r l i v e s . T h i n g s a r e d o n e t h e i r w a y in Africa.
O f c o u r s e p e o p l e o f t h e D e v e l o p i n g W o r l d h a v e t h e s a m e basic
d e s i r e s , the s a m e f e e l i n g s , the s a m e e m o t i o n s , t h e s a m e a n x i e t i e s that are c o m m o n t o all p e o p l e . T h e y a r e just m o r e r e s i g n e d . T h e o b v e r s e o f the fatalism i s a k i n d o f i n g e n u i t y that a c c o m p a n i e s m a t e r i a l inadequacies.
T h e s y m b o l o f this i n g e n u i t y is, f o r m e , a spirit l a m p D a l e
b o u g h t i n the K a r o n g a m a r k e t ( F i g u r e 2 2 ) . I t i s m a d e f r o m a light b u l b and a tin can. M a n y r e m o t e areas o f M a l a w i are n o t y e t s u p p l i e d w i t h e l e c t r i c i t y . But a light b u l b still has its use. W i t h the m e t a l base r e m o v e d , l e a v i n g o n l y the g l o b e , and t u r n e d u p s i d e d o w n , i t m a k e s a p e r f e c t l y functional r e s e r v o i r f o r spirit. A string h a n g i n g d o w n i n t o t h e g l o b e i s the w i c k . T h e tin can i s cut and b e n t t o f o r m a stand and h o l d e r , c o m p l e t e w i t h handles o n e i t h e r s i d e . H o w very clever. W h a t a g o o d example of making do.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
98
FIGURE 22: An
ingenious spirit lamp.
People make their own light
where electricity
does not reach. A light bulb is inverted and used as a reservoir into which a wick dangles. the
A
tin
can
is cut
and fashioned into a
base—complete
with
handles—for
lamp.
M y M a l a w i a n c o l l e a g u e s are indispensable t o t h e p r o j e c t . T h e y are a s m u c h a p a r t o f i t a s any o f the A m e r i c a n s . W e all h a v e o u r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . T h e y , l i k e all M a l a w i a n s I h a v e m e t , a r e k i n d , f r i e n d l y , s o f t - s p o k e n , and e x c e e d i n g l y polite.
F i d e l i s M o r o c c o has w o r k e d w i t h m e since t h e f i r s t e x p e d i t i o n .
A
l o n g t i m e e m p l o y e e o f the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s , h e sports a u n i v e r s i t y T - s h i r t p u r c h a s e d d u r i n g his t h r e e - m o n t h t r a i n i n g p e r i o d i n m y Dallas labs last y e a r . He l e a r n e d to p r e p a r e fossils and has since set up a p r e p a r a t i o n lab in M a l a w i . James K h o m u i s the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r d r i v e r . H i s hands are full
trying to c o a x yet another k i l o m e t e r out of the tired gray
machine.
O c c a s i o n a l l y h e d o e s , b u t i t i s s o o l d that e v e r y e f f o r t , e v e n i f t h e b a t t l e i s w o n , i s a futile g e s t u r e t o w a r d a l o s t w a r . T w i c e a l r e a d y the v e h i c l e has b e e n i n f o r r e p a i r s and w e o n l y just g o t h e r e . I a n t i c i p a t e a l o n g c o n v a l e s c e n c e f o r
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
99 it. W e w i l l b e lucky t o h a v e i t a s a b a c k u p t o the r e n t a l v e h i c l e i f ( w h e n ? ) w e r e a l l y n e e d it. Elizabeth G o m a n i i s r e c e n t l y g r a d u a t e d f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i w i t h a s t r o n g b a c k g r o u n d i n Earth s c i e n c e s , c h e m i s t r y , and c o m p u t e r s . H e r v o i c e is so s o f t , it can b a r e l y be h e a r d . Last y e a r she j o i n e d us as a s t u d e n t . T h i s y e a r she w a s h i r e d b y the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s t o take o n this p r o j e c t . I f all g o e s w e l l , a s a n t i c i p a t e d , she w i l l u n d e r t a k e g r a d u a t e studies w i t h m e i n the U n i t e d States, t h e n r e t u r n t o h e r p e r m a n e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l p o s i t i o n at the d e p a r t m e n t . I t i s hard t o handicap the o d d s o f success f o r E l i z a b e t h . T h e r e i s n o p o o l o f aspiring p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s t o s o r t t h r o u g h t o f i n d the best p e r s o n f o r f o r e i g n training. O n l y o n e p e r s o n can b e s e l e c t e d , i n this case E l i z a b e t h . A l l the e g g s are i n o n e basket. T h a t i s the g e n e r a l case i n the D e v e l o p i n g W o r l d . O n l y a f e w have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a d v a n c e d study a b r o a d , and b y the t i m e t h e y a r e s e l e c t e d , t h e i r futures a r e l o c k e d — a n d s o i s that o f the s p o n s o r i n g a g e n c y . C e r t a i n l y Elizabeth has the a b i l i t y . A n d she has had e n o u g h e x p e r i e n c e w i t h m e and m y c r e w i n the f i e l d that she should k n o w b y n o w i f she can s t o m a c h it. She says she e n j o y s the w o r k and w i l l d e d i c a t e h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l life t o t h e study o f fossils. O k a y . L e t ' s g o w i t h it. A t the site w e h a v e f i v e p e r m a n e n t assistants d u r i n g the f i e l d season. F o u r o r f i v e o t h e r s are h i r e d a s day l a b o r e r s f o r r o a d w o r k o r w h e n t h e r e i s a n e x t r a - h e a v y l o a d o f p i c k - a n d - s h o v e l w o r k . T h e D i n o s a u r P r o j e c t i s the o n l y s o u r c e o f e m p l o y m e n t i n the v a l l e y . Because w e w o r k t h r o u g h a g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c y , the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s , I pay g o v e r n m e n t w a g e s , a b o u t t w o kwacha p e r day, less than o n e d o l l a r . T h a t is b e e f e d up w i t h a f e w p e r k s and a bonus at the e n d , but still field l a b o r r e m a i n s o n e of t h e s m a l l e r e x p e n s e s o f the e x p e d i t i o n . A l l but o n e o f t h e f i v e p e r m a n e n t staff h a v e w o r k e d f o r m e b e f o r e . M j u d a i s the m a n w h o w a t c h e d o v e r the sites i n o u r a b s e n c e and w h o laid o u t the n e w r o a d f r o m the track t o the q u a r r y . H e w o r k s f o r u s d i g g i n g b o n e s d u r i n g the day. A t night h e sleeps i n the canvas s t o r a g e t e n t a t C D - 9 t o k e e p a n e y e on the supplies. He is thin and s p a r e , missing a f e w t e e t h . H i s high v o i c e is characteristic, but his q u i c k , W o o d y W o o d p e c k e r g i g g l e i s his t r a d e m a r k . S o m e of the locals say he is a w i t c h d o c t o r and can turn p e o p l e i n v i s i b l e , but n o e x a m p l e s can b e c i t e d . H e has a c o m m a n d o f m e d i c i n a l p l a n t s , taught h i m b y his father and w h i c h h e i s passing o n t o his s o n . L i k e M j u d a , W e l l i n g t o n , Joseph, and Yasaki are g o o d g u y s . T h e y l i k e t o j o k e a r o u n d . W e l l i n g t o n s m i l e d and asked K e n t , " W h a t i s the capital o f N e w Z e a l a n d ? "
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
" W e l l i n g t o n , I t h i n k , " K e n t r e p l i e d , and W e l l i n g t o n b e a m e d w i t h p r i d e . Joseph is the m o s t q u i e t of t h e l o t . Yasaki is t h e least industrious and just a bit surly. Finishing o f f the c r e w i s D y s o n M k w a l a , the b r o t h e r o f L i g h t w e l l , t h e f o r m e r e m p l o y e e , n o w s c h o o l t e a c h e r , w h o taught m e M a l a w i history a t the site d u r i n g t h e f i r s t f i e l d season. D y s o n s p e n t m o s t o f t h e a f t e r n o o n t o d a y s i n g i n g "Frere Jacques" in English. A l l of the o t h e r s h a v e run t h r o u g h m o s t of t h e i r English v o c a b u l a r i e s . " O n e , t w o , t h r e e , f o u r , f i v e , six, s e v e n , e i g h t . " T h e n the c o u n t i n g stops. " T h i s i s m y n o s e , this i s m y e y e , this i s m y e a r " — a l l phrases f r o m t h e i r childhood
schooling.
T h e y g e t i n t o t h e i r w o r k . T h e i r e y e s a r e k e e n t o mafupa, b o n e , and s o m e o f t h e m a r e b e c o m i n g s k i l l e d e x c a v a t o r s . T h e y a p p e a r t o b e a t e a s e , laughing and j o k i n g , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y w o r k h a r d . T h a t i s h o w I p r e f e r i t t o b e . I t m a k e s the days fun.
23
July,
Monday.
C a m p life has b e c o m e a steady r o u t i n e , ably m a n a g e d b y M r . R o n a l d M w a g o m b a . R o n a l d i s the c o o k , and a v e r y g o o d o n e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h chambo f i s h and c u r r y . N o w i n his m i d - s i x t i e s , h e spent years w o r k i n g i n g o v e r n m e n t rest h o u s e s , w h i c h are a k i n d o f official h o t e l . H e started i n 1 9 4 6 , s e r v i n g a c o u p l e o f t w o - y e a r stints i n South A f r i c a . M a l a w i , itself b e i n g chiefly a g r i c u l t u r a l , has t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n a s o u r c e o f industrial and s u p p o r t l a b o r f o r the s o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e c o n t i n e n t , m a i n l y , i n M r . M w a g o m b a ' s e a r l y days, f o r the m i n e s o f t h e R h o d e s i a s and South A f r i c a . H e i s n o w r e t i r e d and r e a s o n a b l y w e l l off, relatively speaking, although not so w e l l off as he might have b e e n . Up to a c o u p l e o f years a g o h e had f o r t y c a t t l e . A l l b u t t w o have d i e d o f h o o f - a n d m o u t h disease.
H e s u p p l e m e n t s his p e n s i o n b y w o r k i n g f o r us. T h i s i s his
second year. M r . M w a g o m b a is a d a p p e r f e l l o w and he runs a tight k i t c h e n . H i s s t o v e b u r n e r s a r e b e d s o f coals f r o m t w o o p e n f i r e s . H e has t h r e e h e l p e r s . O n e o f t h e m , G r e s h a m , clean and s m a r t l y d r e s s e d a t d i n n e r t i m e , has b e e n taught b y M r . M w a g o m b a t o s e r v e m e a l s w i t h British d e c o r u m i n strict a d h e r e n c e t o the
protocol
of etiquette:
Serve
from
the
right,
remove
from
the
left;
E l i z a b e t h , the l a d y , m u s t b e s e r v e d f i r s t , t h e n m e a s e x p e d i t i o n l e a d e r . T h e day starts e a r l y , b e f o r e d a w n . R o n a l d and his assistants are u p b e f o r e f i v e . T h e rest o f u s g e t u p l a t e r , a w a k e n i n g i n o u r tents t o the n e a r b y sound
J O U R N A L S
F R O M
T H E
G R O U N D
101 o f the lake w i t h its s l e e p y m o r n i n g w a v e s l a p p i n g the s h o r e . I a m usually the last
one
out
of t h e
bag.
At
this
early
hour
the
sun
is
an
incandescent
o r a n g e - r e d s p h e r e rising f r o m the l a k e . Pans o f w a r m w a t e r a r e b r o u g h t t o the t e n t f o r the m o r n i n g ' s w a s h . A r o u n d six the c r e w b e g i n s t o g a t h e r a t t h e breakfast
table.
Maxwell's
wives
and
daughters
are
already
filling
water
b u c k e t s a t t h e lake and t r u d g i n g back t o t h e i r c o o k i n g f i r e s w i t h t h e full vessels b a l a n c e d o n t h e i r heads. Breakfast, usually s e r v e d by s i x - f i f t e e n , is t o a s t , c e r e a l , fresh fruit, t i n n e d j u i c e , c o f f e e o r t e a , and b o i l e d e g g s i f w e h a v e t h e m . A c c o m p a n y i n g breakfast i s malaria p r o p h y l a x i s : o n e P a l u d r i n e t a b l e t e v e r y day and t w o c h l o r o q u i n e tablets o n M o n d a y s . T h e A m e r i c a n Embassy r e m i n d e d u s t o take b o t h ; t h e y lost o n e o f t h e i r p e o p l e last y e a r . B y s e v e n w e a r e o n the r o a d t o t h e q u a r r y , each and all t u m b l e d i n t o o n e o f o u r t w o L a n d R o v e r s . I t i s usually the r e n t e d o n e because i t s e e m s t o b e the m o r e r e l i a b l e . W e t a k e turns d r i v i n g , r o t a t i n g t o a d i f f e r e n t d r i v e r each d a y . W h e n w e a r r i v e a t o u r p a r k i n g s p o t , p l a s t e r o r w h a t e v e r o t h e r supplies are n e e d e d a t the q u a r r i e s a r e c a r r i e d u p b y the local c r e w and w e set t o w o r k . D u r i n g the d a y , w h i l e w e a r e o u t , M r . M w a g o m b a o v e r s e e s t h e c l e a n i n g o f tents and w a s h i n g o f l a u n d r y .
H e i r o n s all t h e c l o t h e s , i n c l u d i n g u n d e r -
w e a r , w i t h a h e a v y m e t a l i r o n f i l l e d w i t h coals f r o m t h e f i r e . H e sets the p r o g r a m f o r r u n n i n g the c a m p , i n his fashion, w i t h little d i r e c t i o n f r o m m e . As l o n g as he is d o i n g such a g o o d j o b , t h e b e s t t h i n g I can do to h e l p h i m i s t o stay o u t o f t h e w a y . Some chickens,
supplies ducks,
for
the
kitchen
can
and a b i t o f m i l k are
be
obtained
available
at
Ngara.
around
camp,
Fresh f i s h , regularly
b r o u g h t i n b y o u r n e i g h b o r s . T h e w o r d has s p r e a d that w e are i n the m a r k e t f o r such things. E v e r y f o u r o r f i v e days a L a n d R o v e r m u s t d r i v e t h e f o r t y - m i l e r o u n d - t r i p t o K a r o n g a f o r d r y g o o d s and o t h e r s u p p l i e s . D r i n k i n g w a t e r , h e l d i n the
150-gallon b o w s e r ,
must be replenished at the Karonga T e a c h e r ' s
C o l l e g e , but it does not often r e q u i r e refilling. O n c e w e t o o k a b u s m a n ' s h o l i d a y t o g i v e R o n a l d and the c a m p c r e w a day off. It also g a v e us a c h a n g e of s c e n e r y and p r o v i d e d the o p p o r t u n i t y f o r me t o visit 2 5 0 m i l l i o n - y e a r - o l d K a r r o o r o c k s a t a spectacular l o c a l i t y o v e r l o o k i n g the lake near the v i l l a g e o f C h i w e t a . K a r r o o r o c k s are m o s t abundant i n South A f r i c a and are i m p o r t a n t in p a l e o n t o l o g y b e c a u s e t h e y c o n t a i n in m a s s i v e abundance a n e x t e n s i v e fossil r e c o r d o f m a m m a l i a n r e l a t i v e s a s t h e y e x i s t e d b e f o r e they can r e a l l y b e d e e m e d m a m m a l s i n t h e m o d e r n sense. T h e y are
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
102 m o r e p r i m i t i v e than all the animals w e c o m m o n l y and easily r e c o g n i z e a s mammals today.
T h e y used t o b e c a l l e d m a m m a l l i k e r e p t i l e s .
I had l o n g
w a n t e d t o see this s i t e , also v i s i t e d b y the Britisher M i g e o d i n his 1 9 3 0 t r e k to Nyasaland.
T h e locality is incredibly rich in b o n e p r e s e r v e d in tough
c o n c r e t i o n s . W e f o u n d t h r e e skulls and lots o f o t h e r fossils. T h e sky w a s b l u e , the b r e e z e w a s c o o l , the f o a m w a s w h i t e o n the crests o f the w a v e s dancing o n the l a k e — a n d t h e fossils s t a m p e d e d f r o m the g r o u n d . I t w a s just the kind of day o f f I l i k e . I n p r e v i o u s years w e used t o take o u r d a y - o f f d i n n e r s i n the f i r s t - c l a s s d i n i n g cabin of the llala w h e n it d o c k e d at C h i l u m b a . T h i s y e a r it is b e i n g r e f u r b i s h e d . W e t o o k o u r m e a l a t a small b u t pleasant a t t e m p t a t a tourist camp on the lake.
WE
ARE
M A K I N G g o o d progress at the quarries.
O u r daily ritual i s a n
obsession t o g e t t h e fossil b o n e s o u t o f t h e g r o u n d i n g o o d shape, r e a d y t o t r a n s p o r t , and w i t h all t h e necessary data a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e m t o m a x i m i z e t h e i r significance.
Dale continues the mapping, quarrying w h e n he is not
m e a s u r i n g . T h e rest o f u s are e i t h e r scratching a w a y a t a s p e c i m e n , a w l i n g t h r o u g h s e d i m e n t t o f i n d n e w o n e s , sacking u p m a t r i x , p l a s t e r i n g a b o n e , o r removing overburden.
The
musty
smell
of damp
earth i s
always in
our
n o s t r i l s , the rat-a-tat s o u n d o f the r o t o - h a m m e r c o n s t a n t l y rings i n o u r ears. G r a y c l o u d s o f f t h e N y i k a h a v e b e e n t h r e a t e n i n g the past c o u p l e o f days. T h e sky has spit rain, b u t n o t e n o u g h t o cause any d a m a g e .
I t k e e p s the
w e a t h e r c o o l . I d o u b t i t has r e a c h e d m u c h o v e r n i n e t y , i f that, since w e have b e e n h e r e . O v e r b u r d e n i s b e c o m i n g a p r o b l e m , b u t w e each have a little s p o t , a c h o i c e a r e a , i n w h i c h t o w o r k . I w a n t i t t o stay that w a y . T h e r o t o - h a m m e r is r u n n i n g full-tilt and f u l l - t i m e to c u t t h r o u g h the steadily increasing thickness o f r o c k c o v e r i n g t h e pay l a y e r a s w e q u a r r y farther i n t o the hillside. B o n e s , m o s t l y s a u r o p o d , are c o m i n g a s fast a s w e can handle t h e m . T h e y are s o j a c k - s t r a w e d that w e c a n n o t g e t o n e o u t w i t h o u t r u n n i n g i n t o a n o t h e r . W h i c h s h o u l d b e r e m o v e d f i r s t ? N e w s p e c i m e n s are f o u n d e v e r y d a y . W i t h e v e r y n e w b o n e , s o m e o n e o n t h e c r e w , t h e d i s c o v e r e r , has the i n t o x i c a t i n g h o n o r o f b e i n g the f i r s t p e r s o n e v e r t o lay e y e s o n that b i t o f the Earth's treasures. W i l l f o u n d w h a t l o o k s t o b e part o f a s a u r o p o d skull. T h a t i s q u i t e a f i n d b e c a u s e skull b o n e s are e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t . W h o w a n t s t o
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
see a dinosaur w i t h o u t a head? But W i l l ' s s p e c i m e n is so small, no l a r g e r than a s i z e - t e n s h o e . It is a l m o s t c u t e , if such things can b e . So n o w we h a v e skull b o n e s , c l a w s , tail v e r t e b r a e , and s o m e o f the b o n e s i n b e t w e e n . W h a t m o r e c o u l d w e w a n t ? T h e e x c i t e m e n t o f d i s c o v e r y persists t h r o u g h t h e m o r n i n g s , p r o v i d e s the subject f o r l u n c h t i m e c o n v e r s a t i o n s , and p r o p e l s u s t h r o u g h t h e sunny a f t e r n o o n s . L u n c h at the site is a r r a n g e d i n d i v i d u a l l y f r o m stocks of pilchards and sardines, fresh and d r i e d fruits, m a c a d a m i a s and p e a n u t s , c o r n e d b e e f , and assorted biscuits. T h e v i l l a g e r s c o o k nsima f o r o u r l o c a l l a b o r e r s . E l i z a b e t h , Fidelis, and James j o i n t h e m . Nsima is the staple dish of M a l a w i . It is g r o u n d m a i z e m e a l , s o r t o f like g r i t s . S o m e f o r m o f i t i s e a t e n all o v e r A f r i c a . T h e p r o j e c t p r o v i d e s nsima to the local c r e w just as it d o e s pilchards to the r e s t . A t t h r e e w e b e g i n t o clean u p the q u a r r y and p u t a w a y o u r t o o l s . T h e b o n e s and jackets r e m o v e d d u r i n g t h e day a r e t r a n s p o r t e d back t o t h e L a n d R o v e r o n the heads o f the c r e w . W e g e t back t o c a m p b e t w e e n f o u r - t h i r t y and f i v e . T h e n t h e l a k e . H o w refreshing it i s — t h e lake.
C o o l w a t e r w a s h e s a w a y the s w e a t and
g r i m e and dust, t h e s o r e backs and aching m u s c l e s o f t h e d a y , l e a v i n g the e u p h o r i a o f o u r pleasant s u r r o u n d i n g s and o u r g o o d f o r t u n e . T h e r e i s p l e n t y o f t i m e f o r u n w i n d i n g , s u n d o w n e r s , and sodas w i t h fresh r o a s t e d p e a n u t s . K e r o s e n e lanterns a r e l i g h t e d a t dusk.
We p r e f e r t h e m to pressure lamps
because t h e y cast a s o f t e r light and t h e y h a v e n o s o u n d t o p e r m e a t e t h e evening. Sunset is a v e r y special t i m e in A f r i c a . T h e t r o p i c a l sun d r o p s r a p i d l y , c a t a c l y s m i c a l l y , f r o m the sky, l e a v i n g a l m o s t n o t i m e f o r t w i l i g h t . T h e fading light t h r o u g h the A f r i c a n h a z e , i n w h i c h e v e r hue has b e e n c h o s e n f o r t h e n i g h t , has a thick, p a l p a b l e q u a l i t y , l i k e a pleasant taste that is just on the v e r g e o f b e i n g t o o s w e e t . I t f l o w s v i s c o u s l y and bathes and c o n s u m e s . T h e j a g g e d branches o f the t r e e s take o n a v i v i d b l a c k e r - t h a n - b l a c k c o l o r against the sky. C o n c e a l e d b y the r o a r i n g s i l e n c e i s the s o u n d o f t h e l a k e , and the b i r d s t a k i n g roost. T h e evening meal is served around six-thirty. It begins w i t h soup. T h e n c o m e s a m p l e , m a y b e t o o a m p l e , quantities o f r i c e o r nsima, a m a i n c o u r s e o f c h i c k e n , d u c k , o r f i s h , s o m e t i m e s b e e f , w i t h c a b b a g e and t o m a t o salad, and t i n n e d v e g e t a b l e s . R o n a l d m a k e s a m e a n stuffing t o g o w i t h d u c k . D e s s e r t i s usually t i n n e d o r fresh fruit w i t h c r e a m , also t i n n e d . A f t e r d i n n e r t h e r e i s b r a n d y and light c o n v e r s a t i o n ,
or perhaps d e e p
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
104 p h i l o s o p h y , a discussion o f chaos t h e o r y , o r w h o k n o w s w h a t e l s e . T h e d a y ' s results and t o m o r r o w ' s plans are m u l l e d o v e r . P r o b l e m s a r e anticipated and s o l u t i o n s discussed. T h e skies o f m o o n l e s s nights are i l l u m i n a t e d b y i n c r e d i b l e n u m b e r s o f i n c r e d i b l y b r i g h t shining stars.
T h e S o u t h e r n C r o s s hangs o v e r the f i s h i n g
v i l l a g e . T h e p l a n e o f the e c l i p t i c crosses d i a g o n a l l y o v e r c a m p , spraying the skies w i t h m i s t y d r o p s o f light.
Fireflies d a n c e a l o n g the line o f b r e a k i n g
w a v e s , a s e g u e f r o m t h e Earth t o the h e a v e n s . O n m o s t n i g h t s , e v e r y o n e i s r e a d y t o r e t i r e t o t h e tents b y e i g h t , r e a d a f e w p a g e s b y flashlight u n d e r t h e m o s q u i t o n e t , and drift o f f t o s l e e p , lulled o n c e m o r e b y the w a v e s . T h e sounds o f the l a k e , its seiche and c y c l e s i n w a k i n g and s l e e p i n g , p r o v i d e a s y m m e t r y t o the d a y .
25
July,
Wednesday.
Y e s t e r d a y w e had a f e w e q u i p m e n t p r o b l e m s . First the g e n e r a t o r failed. W e c o u l d b e h a n d i c a p p e d i n t h e e x t r e m e w i t h o u t t h e r o t o - h a m m e r t o k n o c k off o v e r b u r d e n . W e also had a b i t o f a v e h i c l e p r o b l e m . W e had c o m e t o the site i n the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r w i t h James d r i v i n g . U s u a l l y w e park a t the t o p o f the b i g hill a t the fault c u t t i n g t h r o u g h the D i n o s a u r B e d s . Because the g e n e r a t o r i s h e a v y and w e n e e d e d t o l o a d i t i n t o the L a n d R o v e r t o take i t for repairs, an attempt was m a d e to m o t o r along Mjuda's road to get closer t o the q u a r r y . T h a t w a y t h e g e n e r a t o r w o u l d n o t h a v e t o b e h a u l e d s o far b y h a n d . T h e plan w o r k e d w e l l e x c e p t f o r o n e t h i n g : T h e L a n d R o v e r g o t stuck i n a s t e e p h o l l o w b e t w e e n t w o hills. T h e d r i v e shaft b r o k e , k n o c k i n g o u t p o w e r t o t h e r e a r w h e e l s . W i t h n o p o w e r a t the b a c k , the f r o n t w h e e l s c o u l d n o t p u l l the L a n d R o v e r u p t h e i n c l i n e and o u t o f t h e bush. A t the m o m e n t o f this w r i t i n g i t i s sitting a l o n g the g u l l y w h e r e i t s t o p p e d , a t t h e c o n v e r g i n g bottom
o f t w o s t e e p hills,
in the m i d d l e
o f the
badlands,
unable
to go
anywhere. T h e r e w e w e r e , stuck a t the s i t e , w i t h n o easy w a y o f g e t t i n g back t o c a m p . W i l l , a c r o s s - c o u n t r y c y c l i n g enthusiast, s c r o u n g e d a t e e t e r y b i c y c l e f r o m w h o k n o w s w h e r e w i t h t h e h e l p o f M j u d a . I t had n e a r l y flat t i r e s , a b e n t s p r o c k e t , a chain w i t h the a n n o y i n g habit o f p o p p i n g off, and n o b r a k e s . But it w a s a b i c y c l e . D o w n the d i r t t r a c k w e n t W i l l , b o u n c i n g and w a g g l i n g , b o u n d f o r c a m p t o f e t c h t h e o t h e r L a n d R o v e r . T h e rest o f u s w a l k e d d o w n t o a b i g t a m a r i n d
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
t r e e in the v a l l e y . It w a s a l e i s u r e l y w a l k , and at that t i m e of d a y , q u i t t i n g t i m e , w e w e r e a b l e t o a p p r e c i a t e a p o r t i o n o f the vast and c o l o r f u l array o f b i r d l i f e i n A f r i c a : i r i d e s c e n t sunbirds, g r e e n b e e e a t e r s , r e d f i r e f i n c h e s , b l u e c o r d o n b l e u s , black d r o n g o s . C a s q u e - h e a d e d h o r n b i l l s c h a t t e r e d i n the t o p s o f trees (Figure 2 3 ) . U n d e r d i e t a m a r i n d w e r e the malipenga d a n c e s . W e w a t c h e d , m e s m e r i z e d b y the
drum
beat,
a s the
synchronous r o w s of dancers
performed
with
p r e c i s i o n u n d e r the e y e s o f t h e i r e l d e r l y c o a c h . T i n y c h i l d r e n , s t a t i o n e d a t the e d g e o f the adult s p h e r e , m i m i c k e d t h e i r d a n c i n g r o l e m o d e l s . T h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n , d r u n k o n local b r e w , a s v i l l a g e h e a d m e n s o m e t i m e s a r e , c a m e t o e x t e n d his g r e e t i n g s , h a v e his p h o t o g r a p h t a k e n , and j o i n i n the d a n c e the w a y that drunks o f t e n d o . I n the m e a n t i m e W i l l had m a d e i t safely back t o c a m p , a l t h o u g h the chain o n the b i c y c l e had b e g u n t o fail e v e r y h u n d r e d y a r d s .
H e d r o v e the L a n d
R o v e r back and p i c k e d u p the rest o f u s w h e r e w e w a i t e d u n d e r t h e t a m a r i n d .
T O D A Y W A S T H E day t o b e g i n r e p a i r i n g the d a m a g e . I had t o m a k e a t r i p t o K a r o n g a . A t s e v e n , a s usual, w e left c a m p i n t h e f u n c t i o n i n g C o u n t r y C a r H i r e L a n d R o v e r . A t the site I p i c k e d u p the d e f u n c t g e n e r a t o r a n d , l e a v i n g the c r e w a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i , h e a d e d back f o r c a m p w i t h F i d e l i s . I t w a s w i n d y and the lake w a s r o u g h , like the G u l f o f M e x i c o . I n c a m p w e p i c k e d u p James and the e x p e c t e d g a g g l e o f n e i g h b o r s n e e d i n g a lift t o t o w n . T h e n w e h e a d e d f o r K a r o n g a . Since I had t o g o t o t o w n t o g e t the g e n e r a t o r r e p a i r e d a n y w a y , this w a s a g o o d o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e s t o c k o u r s u p p l i e s . T h e d r i v e t o K a r o n g a i s l o n g e n o u g h , l o u d e n o u g h , and shaky e n o u g h t o i n d u c e a t r a n c e . The M-l
highway is always littered with pedestrians on both shoulders,
n o r t h and s o u t h , c o m i n g and g o i n g , f o r the e n t i r e t w e n t y m i l e s t o K a r o n g a . T h a t i s usual. M o s t p e o p l e i n M a l a w i d o n o t have cars, s o m o s t p e o p l e w a l k . M o s t p e o p l e i n this part o f M a l a w i l i v e near the l a k e , w h i c h i s w h e r e the r o a d lies. T h e y w a l k a l o n g the r o a d . I n c o n t r a s t , t h e r e w e r e f e w v e h i c l e s o n the r o a d t o K a r o n g a . T h e r e w e r e s o m e o x c a r t s and b i c y c l e s . A n d t h e r e w e r e a f e w o d d cars, a handful o f o v e r l o a d e d l o r r i e s , b e l c h i n g chibuku t r a n s p o r t s , a t r a c t o r , and o n e o r t w o b r o k e n - d o w n trucks. M o s t l y there w e r e p e o p l e . A l m o s t all the w o m e n a l o n g the r o a d had a l o a d o f s o m e s o r t , i f o n l y a baby slung o n b e h i n d . A f r i c a n w o m e n h a v e a c e r t a i n g r a c e and p o i s e . A s t h e v
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
106
FIGURE 23:
Birds of the African bush:
(upper right), inextricably
and a sunbird.
linked
with
that
a casque-headed hornbill (left),
Birds have an
a bee eater
illustrious evolutionary history
of dinosaurs.
w a l k , they carry their inanimate burdens on their heads. T h e y carry almost a n y t h i n g y o u can i m a g i n e :
amorphous bundles w r a p p e d in cloth, firewood,
a full pail o f w a t e r , shocks o f l o n g grass, baskets o f m a i z e , calabashes o f h o m e b r e w , and w h o k n o w s w h a t e l s e . O n e l a d y , b a r e f o o t e d , b a l a n c e d a single s h o e on h e r head and h e l d the o t h e r in h e r h a n d . T h i s is n o t so u n c o m m o n as y o u
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND 107
w o u l d p r o b a b l y t h i n k . T h e shoes are f o r s h o w o n dressy o c c a s i o n s . I f t h e y a r e u n c o m f o r t a b l e o n b r o a d f e e t used t o b e i n g u n f e t t e r e d , w h y n o t c a r r y t h e m t o the u l t i m a t e d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e n p u t t h e m on? W i t h t h e i r loads b a l a n c e d o n b o l d l y e r e c t h e a d s , the w o m e n g l i d e a l o n g the r o a d o n t h i n - c a l v e d l e g s . T h e i r p o s t u r e i s a c c e n t u a t e d b y t h e i r s t r i k i n g kitenges, a l o n g sheet of c l o t h w r a p p e d a r o u n d l i k e a skirt. T h e kitenges c o m e in many designs. prints.
S o m e are v i b r a n t g e o m e t r i c a l p a t t e r n s o r b r i l l i a n t floral
O n e popular m o t i f is political.
immortalized,
A l l o v e r A f r i c a , heads o f state are
t h e i r p i c t u r e s w o v e n i n t o kitenges,
o v e r the r o u n d b o t t o m s o f w o m e n .
then strategically placed
E v e n the p o p e has his h o l y likeness
g r a c i n g o n e . M o s t , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t p o l i t i c a l , but r a t h e r t h e y d e p i c t visions o f e v e r y d a y life and n a t u r e , things like a n t e l o p e , o r p e r h a p s a v i l l a g e s c e n e . T h o s e that h a v e m a d e t h e i r w a y d o w n f r o m T a n z a n i a h a v e a quaint m o r a l o r cliche w r i t t e n in Swahili u n d e r n e a t h the p i c t u r e . O n c e in K e n y a I s a w a kitenge w i t h the p i c t u r e o f a l a r g e insect b e i n g s p r a y e d s y m m e t r i c a l l y b y f o u r cans o f i n s e c t i c i d e a r r a n g e d a b o u t it.
H e r e in Malawi,
the t w o - h u m p e d bactrian
c a m e l i s particularly p o p u l a r . C a m e l s d o n o t inhabit this p a r t o f A f r i c a . T h o s e in the d e s e r t n o r t h are o n e - h u m p e d d r o m e d a r i e s . Kitenges are fun c l o t h e s that p r o v i d e a splash o f v e r v e t o hard l i v e s . D i n o s a u r s w o u l d l o o k g o o d o n t h e m (Figure 2 4 ) .
IT
IS
T O O l o u d t o talk inside the L a n d R o v e r ,
so it is a g o o d t i m e for
r e f l e c t i o n . W h a t a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e w o r l d o n e has f r o m inside a s c r e a m i n g v e h i c l e c o m p a r e d t o t h e v a n t a g e o f w a l k i n g a l o n g the r o a d . Inside i s a c a c o p h o n y o f n o i s e and p e t r o l f u m e s . O u t s i d e , a n o n y m o u s p e o p l e — t h e y m i g h t a s w e l l b e t r e e s — z i p b y the w i n d o w s , u n n o t i c e d , t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d . It is a d i s t o r t e d r e l a t i v i t y of t i m e and space. E v e r y t h i n g g l i m p s e d is g o n e in a n instant, but n o t h i n g c h a n g e s , b e c a u s e m o r e o f t h e s a m e r e p l a c e s that w h i c h has b e e n passed b y . Inside the L a n d R o v e r life is l o u d and fast. O u t s i d e the L a n d R o v e r , o n this r o a d w i t h f e w v e h i c l e s , the w a l k i s m o s t l y q u i e t , p u n c t u a t e d w i t h t h e o d d D o p p l e r r o a r and a c l o u d o f dust. T h e n i t i s g o n e , and it is as if it n e v e r h a p p e n e d . P e r i o d i c a l l y t h e p r o c e s s r e p e a t s , b u t i t has n o r e l e v a n c e t o the side o f t h e r o a d . L i k e the passengers i n the L a n d R o v e r , the pedestrians g e t w h e r e t h e y are g o i n g . I t just takes l o n g e r . T h e r i d e has s p e e d , but the q u i e t o f the w a l k has s o m e t h i n g t o o f f e r that the r i d e c a n n o t g i v e . S o m e p e o p l e c a n n o t afford t h e e f f o r t t o w a l k , o t h e r s d o n o t h a v e the r e s o u r c e s t o d o o t h e r w i s e . T h e p e r s p e c t i v e s o f t h e r i d e r s and the w a l k e r s are
LOUIS
FIGURE 24: A woman walking along the road. wraparound skirt decorated with
JACOBS,
She is wearing a KITENGE,
colorful patterns or pictures.
PH.D.
a sort of
The design shown
here is not one I have seen, but it looks good, doesn't it?
d i f f e r e n t , b u t t h e y a r e i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e . A f t e r all, p e d e s t r i a n s m a y o n e day r i d e , and r i d e r s m i g h t o n e day w a l k again.
AT T H E
E N D of the ride is Karonga. It is a grubby c o m m e r c i a l center in
n o r t h e r n M a l a w i , b u t n o t w i t h o u t its o w n b r a n d o f rustic A f r i c a n c h a r m . I t lies a l o n g s i d e the l a k e , south o f the T a n z a n i a n b o r d e r . T o t h e o u t s i d e r t h e r e a p p e a r s t o b e a c h r o n i c s h o r t a g e o f sugar and v a r y i n g a c u t e shortages d e p e n d -
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
ing o n the d e m a n d s o f t h e bustling s m u g g l e r t r a d e w i t h the n o r t h . T h e r e i s little m o t o r traffic, b u t l o t s o f p e d e s t r i a n s . A n d l o t s o f dust. I
motored
past
the
turnoff to
the
airport,
served by
Air
Malawi
on
M o n d a y s and F r i d a y s , past the t r a n s p l a n t e d W o r l d W a r I g r a v e s , past the n e w p o s t office and the t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r t . A l l o v e r A f r i c a , v i l l a g e s g o v e r n t h e m selves d e m o c r a t i c a l l y w i t h barazas. T h e s e are o p e n t o all w h o w i s h t o a t t e n d . T h e p e o p l e m e e t w i t h t h e v i l l a g e h e a d m a n i n the shade o f a t r e e t o w o r k o u t a c c e p t a b l e s o l u t i o n s t o p r o b l e m s . B o t h accuser and a c c u s e d , t r a n s g r e s s o r and v i c t i m , are p r e s e n t . A l l the facts a r e laid b a r e . O p t i o n s are discussed. E v e r y o n e has a say. E v e r y t h i n g is in t h e o p e n . A consensus is r e a c h e d .
Usually
conflicts are r e s o l v e d . M i s c r e a n t s a r e d e a l t w i t h . Last y e a r M j u d a ' s b r o t h e r , Brighton,
was brought before
a baraza
for beating o n e
o f his w i v e s .
He
suffered the o s t r a c i s m o f his n e i g h b o r s and r e m a i n e d a n outcast f o r s o m e t i m e . T h a t is a s t r o n g p u n i s h m e n t in rural A f r i c a , w h e r e e x t e n d e d f a m i l i e s are the c e n t e r o f social l i f e . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r t i n K a r o n g a i s a f o r m a l e x t e n s i o n o f the baraza s y s t e m o n t h o s e o c c a s i o n s w h e n difficulties c a n n o t b e s o r t e d o u t a t the v i l l a g e l e v e l and w h e n t h e y t a k e o n g r e a t e r legal significance. H o w e v e r , the p r o c e s s i s n o t m u c h d i f f e r e n t , e v e n i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o u r t , f r o m a v i l l a g e baraza. Each y e a r at the digs we h o l d a baraza
w i t h the area s c h o o l t e a c h e r s ,
p o l i t i c a l - p a r t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , and v i l l a g e h e a d m e n o f M w a k a s y u n g u t i p r e sent. O u r p u r p o s e s i n b e i n g t h e r e , s t r a n g e f o r e i g n e r s that w e a r e , d i g g i n g i n the g r o u n d , are e x p l a i n e d s o that t h e y d o n o t m i s u n d e r s t a n d o u r i n t e n t i o n s . Everyone
makes
a speech.
Mutual
friendship
is
expressed.
Blessings a r e
h e a p e d u p o n us. O n c e , after w e had p r e s e n t e d the s c h o o l w i t h a s o c c e r ball, the h e a d m a s t e r t h a n k e d u s p r o f u s e l y b e c a u s e , h e said, w i t h the ball " m o r e children will be d r a w n to s c h o o l . " I was given a chicken.
THE
R O A D T O d o w n t o w n K a r o n g a leads u p t o t h e T - j u n c t i o n across f r o m
the N e w A p o s t o l i c C h u r c h ( I n M a l a w i ) . Straight a h e a d , the N o r t h e r n C o r r i dor,
an
ambitious
road-building
project
to
allow
Malawi's
goods
to
be
t r a n s p o r t e d across T a n z a n i a t o t h e p o r t o f D a r e s Salaam, i s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n b y G e r m a n s . Just a f e w m i l e s d u e n o r t h o f h e r e G e r m a n y and Britain f o u g h t a b a t t l e d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I . I t has n o t g o t t e n m u c h a t t e n t i o n , a s battles g o . G e r m a n f o r c e s m a r c h e d south i n t w o c o l u m n s f r o m t h e b o r d e r w i t h G e r m a n East A f r i c a i n t o N y a s a l a n d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e a British f o r c e w a s
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
h e a d e d n o r t h , t o w a r d G e r m a n t e r r i t o r y . A s i t h a p p e n e d , the British m a r c h e d b e t w e e n t h e t w o G e r m a n c o l u m n s u n d e t e c t e d . N e i t h e r the British n o r the G e r m a n forces w e r e aware of the o t h e r ' s p r o x i m i t y .
T h e y w e r e like ships
passing in the n i g h t . T h e G e r m a n f o r c e c o n t i n u e d its m a r c h and at t ack ed the British g a r r i s o n a t K a r o n g a . T h e y w e r e r e p e l l e d . A s t h e y r e t r e a t e d , t h e y ran squarely i n t o the British c o l u m n . G e r m a n casualties w e r e h i g h , British losses w e r e less. M o s t o f the d e a d w e r e blacks. W h i t e G e r m a n s and British w h o d i e d — t h e r e w e r e not m a n y — w e r e buried in Karonga. T h e i r graves have been m o v e d so as not t o b e d e s t r o y e d b y a rising l a k e , b u t t h e y a r e still p r e s e r v e d t o this day. T h e y a r e m a i n t a i n e d b y the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s . T h e loss o f A f r i c a n lives i n this s k i r m i s h , the l i v e s o f black m e n c o n s c r i p t e d against t h e i r w i l l , w a s o n e o f the factors that p l a y e d o n John C h i l e m b w e , a n A f r i c a n m i s s i o n a r y t r a i n e d at L y n c h b u r g , V i r g i n i a . He l e d his f o l l o w e r s in a r e b e l l i o n i n 1 9 1 5 , p r e c i p i t a t e d b y the Battle o f K a r o n g a , that cost h i m his life a t t h e hands o f the British. T h i s w a s t h e first m a j o r c o l o n i a l uprising i n w h a t was to b e c o m e Malawi.
I
NEEDED T O g e t my e r r a n d s d o n e . I t u r n e d r i g h t past the H o m e of Sofas
F u r n i t u r e s t o r e , t h e C h i p i k u G e n e r a l S t o r e , and t h e T i k h a l e n a o G r o c e r y and B o t t l e S t o r e , its p a i n t e d w a l l s s h o w i n g C o c a - C o l a and s c r e a m i n g CAFENOL STOPS PAIN FAST! I d r o v e past t h e squalid chibuku bars w i t h r a n c i d e a r l y m o r n i n g c l i e n t e l e l o u n g i n g i n t h e l u r i d shade, d r i n k i n g o r s l u m p e d o v e r i n septic c o r n e r s . I left Fidelis and James a t t h e P V H O ( t h e a c r o n y m f o r Plant and V e h i c l e H i r e O r g a n i z a t i o n , I f o u n d o u t l a t e r ; i t i s the g o v e r n m e n t m e c h a n i c a l w o r k s h o p ) t o a r r a n g e f o r the e x t r i c a t i o n o f t h e stuck L a n d R o v e r and t o see t o g e n e r a t o r r e p a i r s . T h e n I w e n t t o m y first s t o p , the N a t i o n a l Bank o f M a l a w i , to c h a n g e d o l l a r s to kwacha. T h e bank is a small b l o c k b u i l d i n g w i t h m a n i c u r e d l a w n s n e x t t o t h e N a t i o n a l L i b r a r y S e r v i c e , K a r o n g a Branch. Bank transact i o n s are n o t s i m p l e in A f r i c a . I s t o p p e d in at the library w h i l e s o m e r e q u i r e d signatures w e r e b e i n g o b t a i n e d at t h e bank. It is a small r e a d i n g r o o m . I w a s surprised,
although I do not k n o w w h y ,
t o find
i t full o f y o u n g p e o p l e
p e r u s i n g b o o k s , n e w s p a p e r s , and m a g a z i n e s . It is, after all, a l i b r a r y . T h e library i s n e x t t o S o u t h e r n B o t t l e r s L i m i t e d , the s o f t - d r i n k and b e e r distributor.
I e x c h a n g e d e m p t i e s f o r t h r e e crates o f sodas, t h r e e crates o f
g r e e n , and a c r a t e o f b r o w n . U p the s t r e e t i s the p o l i c e s t a t i o n , w h i t e w a s h e d
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
111 a g l e a m i n g w h i t e and t r i m m e d i n b l u e . T h e M a l a w i P o l i c e insignia, a w h i t e h e a d e d f i s h e a g l e , v e r y m u c h l i k e the A m e r i c a n bald e a g l e , flies high o n t h e w a l l . R o w s o f w h i t e w a s h e d stones spell o u t :
WELCOME TOKARONGAPOLICE SUBDIVISION D o w n the s t r e e t i s the M a r i n a C l u b o n the l a k e , the hub o f u p p e r - c r u s t social life in K a r o n g a . It has a o n e - r o o m b a r , a dart b o a r d , a f e w c a b l e s p o o l s f o r tables s c a t t e r e d o u t s i d e , and s o m e h o t e l r o o m s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . Past that i s the G o v e r n m e n t R e s t H o u s e , w h e r e m y g r o u p stayed i n 1 9 8 7 . T h e c e n t e r o f t o w n i s the m a r k e t and bus s t a t i o n . I p a r k e d n e x t t o a t r e e across f r o m the C o r n e r T a r v e n (sic) C h i b u k u W e l c o m e b a r . O n t h e Gmelina tree in front was tacked a notice for a traveling m o v i e theater. It was s h o w i n g an o l d T a r z a n film. T h e m a r k e t i n K a r o n g a i s l e a n ; i t lacks the e x c e s s i v e c o l o r and v i b r a n c e , not
to
mention
the
foodstuffs,
of one
better
stocked.
I
continue
to
be
surprised at t h e lack of v e g e t a b l e d i v e r s i t y and a b u n d a n c e in this t r o p i c a l m a r k e t . Bright t o m a t o e s , p a l e - g r e e n c a b b a g e s , and shiny d r i e d beans p r o v i d e some c o l o r in the marketplace,
b r e a k i n g the
m o n o t o n o u s earth t o n e s o f
p e a n u t s , r i c e , t i n y o n i o n s , s h r i v e l e d s w e e t p o t a t o e s , and s o m e t i m e s e g g s . C a b b a g e is a a w o n d e r f u l field v e g e t a b l e b e c a u s e it k e e p s . It can last a c o u p l e o f w e e k s w i t h o u t g o i n g bad o r l o s i n g its f l a v o r .
Fish—dried,
smoked, or
f r e s h — i s the m a i n p r o t e i n s o u r c e . M e a t i s available e a r l y i n the m o r n i n g s , b u t i t i s usually sold o u t b e f o r e w e a r r i v e . T h e b u t c h e r y stalls are g r e a t charnel houses
thronged
with
customers.
The
butchers
smash t h e
b e e f carcasses
m e r c i l e s s l y w i t h a x e s , m o r e like w o o d s m e n than t h e s p a t t e r e d b u t c h e r s t h e y are. Each v e n d o r i n the m a r k e t has g o o d s a l i g n e d i n small piles o n the g r o u n d o r o n t a b l e s , each p i l e w o r t h a f e w tambala. T h e c a m p r e q u i r e s s o m u c h m o r e than the a v e r a g e h o u s e h o l d that m e r c h a n t s o u g h t t o e n j o y m y c o m i n g . I g o b y , s c o o p i n g u p p i l e after p i l e i n t o m y plastic m a r k e t b a g t o w h a t I w o u l d suppose m i g h t b e t h e i r d e l i g h t . S o m e are h a p p y and fun t o j o k e a r o u n d w i t h . O t h e r s are r e s i g n e d and fatalistic, e x p r e s s i n g l i t t l e satisfaction o v e r a b i g sale. T o t h e m , e i t h e r I w i l l b u y o r I w i l l n o t , and i t s e e m s t o h a v e l i t t l e c o n s e q u e n c e to them either w a y . O u t s i d e the m a r k e t are the fruit v e n d o r s . Bananas, o f c o u r s e , a r e cheap
LOUIS JACOBS, PH.D. 112 and a b u n d a n t .
P a w p a w s are less c o m m o n and m o r e e x p e n s i v e . T h e r e are
p l e n t y o f o r a n g e s , t a n g e r i n e s , and o c c a s i o n a l l y a v o c a d o s b r o u g h t d o w n f r o m Tanzania. M y n e x t e r r a n d w a s t o c h e c k t h e p r o g r e s s o n the g e n e r a t o r r e p a i r . I t w a s n o w i n w o r k i n g o r d e r . F o r the L a n d R o v e r , James and Fidelis had a r r a n g e d t h r o u g h the district c o m m i s s i o n e r f o r a P V H O r o a d - s e r v i c e v e h i c l e t o f i x o u r ailing s t e e d — s o m e t i m e . N o w i t w a s a p p r o a c h i n g lunch. I still n e e d e d t o call Y u s u f i n L i l o n g w e t o c h e c k i n w i t h h e a d q u a r t e r s . T h a t c o u l d b e d o n e later. T h e w a t e r b o w s e r n e e d e d filling. T h e p e t r o l n e e d e d topping off as w e l l . A n d t h e n I had to purchase c a n n e d g o o d s . I d e c i d e d on l u n c h . T h e culinary d e l i c a c y o f K a r o n g a i s susa, w h i c h i s small cubes o f b e e f and fat s k e w e r e d on a b i c y c l e s p o k e , r u b b e d in salt and c r u s h e d r e d p e p p e r , t h e n grilled o v e r a charcoal bucket.
It is d e l i c i o u s .
Its o n l y a c c o m p a n i m e n t is
r o a s t e d g r e e n u n r i p e banana, w h i c h is n o t s w e e t , b u t s e r v e s as a starchy " b r e a d . " F i d e l i s , J a m e s , and I s a u n t e r e d across the s t r e e t to a g r i m y susa m a n w h o s e stand w a s u n d e r a shade m a d e o f l o n g grass. O n e i t h e r s i d e , u n d e r the t r e e s and o u t o f t h e t r o p i c a l m i d d a y sun,
w e r e greasy bicycle repairmen
w o r k i n g i n the dust a t t h e e d g e o f the r o a d . L i g h t w e l l M k w a l a , i n t o w n f r o m his s c h o o l , p o p p e d u p and j o i n e d us. H e l o o k e d sharp i n his b r o w n t i e , a r e s p e c t a b l e t e a c h e r . W e a r r a n g e d a visit t o the c a m p f o r h i m after the school t e r m ends o n F r i d a y .
Lunch was t o p p e d off w i t h s o m e cold buttermilk.
T h e w a t e r b o w s e r was f i l l e d a t the Karonga T e a c h e r ' s C o l l e g e , w h e r e w e w e r e also a b l e t o p h o n e h e a d q u a r t e r s . A f t e r b u y i n g pilchards and t i n n e d fruit a t t h e P T C ( w h i c h stands f o r P e o p l e ' s T r a d i n g C e n t e r ) , w e c r o s s e d o v e r t o t h e p e t r o l station t o f i l l u p . I had t w o j e r r y cans t o c a r r y fuel f o r the g e n e r a t o r . T h e y also n e e d e d f i l l i n g . B o t h had h o l e s , s o I left t h e m — e m p t y — a t the P V H O t o b e w e l d e d . T h e a f t e r n o o n w o r e o n . Finally all w a s d o n e that c o u l d b e d o n e . T h e g e n e r a t o r w a s r e p a i r e d . W e d r o v e o u t o f t o w n , past the Enikani R e s t H o u s e , the Safari L o d g e , and the K a m p u n g a E n t e r t a i n m e n t C e n t e r . F o r the t w e n t y m i l e s back t o N g a r a I d r o v e past the u n b r o k e n l i n e o f p e d e s t r i a n s . A f t e r u n l o a d i n g a t c a m p I j o s t l e d h u r r i e d l y back t o M w a k a s y u n g u t i t o g e t t h e g a n g . T h e y had had a g o o d d a y .
F o u r b o n e s w e r e p l a s t e r e d , and they
f o u n d s o m e n e w o n e s . Best o f all, n o days w i l l b e lost d u e t o t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r o r the b r o k e n g e n e r a t o r . T h e w o r k w i l l g o o n u n i n t e r r u p t e d . Back again t o N g a r a and i n t o the e v e n i n g r o u t i n e . A t s u n d o w n a g r o u p o f f i s h e r m e n p u l l e d t h e i r b i g n e t n e a r o u r c a m p . R o n a l d ' s y o u n g e s t son and his g r a n d s o n , b o t h t h e s a m e a g e , e a r l y t e e n a g e r s I s u p p o s e , are w o r k i n g w i t h
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
t h e m . Fresh f i s h w i l l b e o n t h e t a b l e . T h e lake i s e x c e p t i o n a l l y c a l m t o n i g h t . T h e soft, l a p p i n g w a v e s are g o o d m u s i c f o r s l e e p i n g .
28
July,
Saturday.
W e are m a k i n g g o o d p r o g r e s s a t the q u a r r i e s . B o n e s a r e still c o m i n g thick and fast. Each day b r i n g s n e w d i s c o v e r i e s . T h e r e i s n o sign o f i t l e t t i n g u p . W e have o n l y b e e n w o r k i n g C D - 9 . T h a t o n e q u a r r y i s m o r e than w e can h a n d l e f o r the t i m e b e i n g . I t d o e s n o t l o o k like i t w i l l p l a y o u t b e f o r e w e l e a v e . Elizabeth found a l o w e r j a w of the sauropod yesterday. It is so tiny, smaller than the o n e W i l l f o u n d last Saturday. I f that o n e w a s c u t e , this o n e i s d a i n t y . S t r a n g e , but all the s a u r o p o d b o n e s s e e m s m a l l . T h e s t e g o s a u r p e l v i s d o e s n o t strike m e a s b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y d i m i n u t i v e , b u t t h e s a u r o p o d b o n e s a r e unusual in t h e i r uncharacteristically small s i z e . S a u r o p o d s , after all, i n c l u d e t h e l a r g e s t of all dinosaurs, the largest of all l a n d - d w e l l i n g animals e v e r . Is this a small s p e c i e s , o r are t h e y just y o u n g s t e r s ? T h e r e are c a r n i v o r o u s d i n o s a u r t e e t h , t o o , b u t n o l i m b b o n e s o r v e r t e b r a e that w e h a v e r e c o g n i z e d , o t h e r than t h e sharp, h o o k e d c l a w K e n t f o u n d last y e a r . C e r t a i n l y t h e r e a r e n o skulls o f a m e a t - e a t e r y e t . W h e r e a r e t h e y hiding? C l o u d s have b e e n g r a y and h e a v y f o r t h e past f e w d a y s , b u t thus far o n l y b l u s t e r , n o rain. T h e P V H O r o a d - s e r v i c e v e h i c l e c a m e o u t y e s t e r d a y t o r e p a i r the d r i v e train o f the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r , w h i c h had b e e n a w a i t i n g the arrival o f f i r s t a i d , n e s t l e d i n the h o l l o w w h e r e i t w a s s t r a n d e d . I had p r o v i d e d i t w i t h its o w n w a t c h m a n f o r c o m p a n y s o that i t w o u l d n o t g e t t o o l o n e l y . T h e P V H O mechanics f i n a l l y g o t i t functioning b y cannibalizing their o w n v e h i c l e , then w i t h o u t f o u r - w h e e l d r i v e t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y g o t stuck f o r t w o h o u r s w h i l e crossing the r i v e r . T h e y c h e w e d u p the r i v e r b e d , s p i n n i n g t h e i r w h e e l s , t r y i n g t o g e t o u t , w h i c h m a d e t h e c o n d i t i o n s d i c e y f o r u s t o pass t h r o u g h w h e n o u r turn c a m e . But all i s w e l l that e n d s w e l l . James w a s a b l e t o l i m p the d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r i n t o K a r o n g a f o r a t h o r o u g h g o i n g o v e r . Fidelis w e n t w i t h h i m . T h e P V H O d o e s n o t w o r k o n Saturdays ( t o d a y ) o r Sundays, so I e x p e c t James and Fidelis back no e a r l i e r than M o n d a y n i g h t , if t h e n . W e c o u l d sure use t h e m a t t h e s i t e . T h e r e a r e a l o t o f b o n e s t o g e t o u t , and t i m e i s g e t t i n g s h o r t . O h , w e l l , s o l o n g a s t h e r e n t e d L a n d R o v e r i s i n w o r k i n g o r d e r , k n o c k o n w o o d , w e can m a n a g e . A m o r e i m m e d i a t e p r o b l e m i s t h e g e n e r a t o r . T h e m o t o r runs f i n e n o w , this m i n u t e , but t h e r e is a l o o s e c o n n e c t i o n in t h e w i r i n g s y s t e m p r e v e n t i n g
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
114 t h e j u i c e f r o m g e t t i n g o u t . I t m u s t b e r e p a i r e d — a g a i n . W e d o n o t have the t o o l s t o w o r k o n i t , s o I h a v e i n s t r u c t e d Fidelis t o t r y t o find a n e l e c t r i c i a n i n K a r o n g a . T h e thickness o f t h e r o c k o v e r l y i n g the p a y l o a d i s n o w a real difficulty. T h e local l a b o r i s attacking i t w i t h h a m m e r s and chisels, but that i s i n e f f i c i e n t , and t h e y c a n n o t c l e a r e n o u g h t o g i v e each o f the e x c a v a t o r s r o o m t o q u a r r y . W e h a v e o p e n e d C D - 1 0 i n e a r n e s t t o sidestep t h e o v e r b u r d e n p r o b l e m . It, t o o , i s p a c k e d w i t h b o n e , and n o t just t h e stegosaur p e l v i s and s a u r o p o d f e m u r w e f o u n d e a r l i e r .
Parts o f t w o articulated tails have
t u r n e d u p , s o m e stegosaur p l a t e s , and s o m e u n i d e n t i f i e d s .
T H E R E WAS A l a b o r p r o b l e m w h e n I w a s i n t o w n last W e d n e s d a y . O n e o f m y e m p l o y e e s , Yasaki, the surly o n e , a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t w i s h t o s h o v e l w i t h t h e o t h e r s . H e w a s r u d e i n e x p l a i n i n g t o E l i z a b e t h that h e w a s n o t g o i n g t o do it. T h i s c e r t a i n l y is n o t t h e a t m o s p h e r e I w a n t . I sacked Yasaki. Fidelis g a t h e r e d all t h e T u m b u k a c r e w a r o u n d in a mini-baraza u n d e r the t r e e near the supply shed.
H e e x p l a i n e d i n e x c r u c i a t i n g detail w h y t h e sacking w a s
t a k i n g p l a c e . H e r e i t e r a t e d t o t h e m t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s sanction o f this p r o j e c t and its i n t e r e s t i n it. H e e x p o s t u l a t e d o n the f a m e i t w a s b r i n g i n g t o their r e g i o n . T h e m e n o f the local c r e w , t h e i r faces s t e r n , r e m i n d e d Yasaki that t h e y t h e m s e l v e s , his n e i g h b o r s and r e l a t i v e s , had s c o l d e d h i m f o r his b e h a v i o r . T h e y t o l d h i m h e should n o t h a v e b e e n a r g u i n g a b o u t the w o r k . H e should n o t h a v e b e e n r u d e t o E l i z a b e t h . Fidelis said Yasaki s e e m e d h u m b l e d b y the e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h i s w h a t barazas are s u p p o s e d t o d o i f s o m e o n e m i s b e h a v e s . It is t h e m e c h a n i s m f o r m a i n t a i n i n g social h a r m o n y . Yasaki w a s paid for his t i m e . H e absently s a u n t e r e d o f f t o j o i n the malipenga d a n c e . I h i r e d J o s e p h ' s b r o t h e r , A l f r e d , t o fill the g a p . A l f r e d i s a n i c e f e l l o w , b l i n d i n o n e e y e . H e w o r k e d for m e i n 1 9 8 7 . Fidelis used the baraza f o r s o m e t h i n g else since he had e v e r y o n e ' s attent i o n . H e m a d e t h e p o i n t , i n a n i c e w a y , that o v e r l y helpful c h i l d r e n l i v i n g i n these p a r t s , o r adults l o o k i n g f o r a q u i c k p r o f i t that t h e y w i l l n o t m a k e f r o m m e , should n o t p i c k u p b o n e s and b r i n g t h e m t o us. T h i s has increasingly b e c o m e a p r o b l e m , b u t i t i s n o t u n e x p e c t e d . W e k n o w t h e r e are b o n e s all o v e r this v a l l e y , b u t i t i s u n w i s e t o p i c k t h e m u p until t h e i r g e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t and t h e i r e x a c t l o c a t i o n can b e p r o p e r l y e v a l u a t e d . I f c h i l d r e n , o r a n y o n e e l s e , n o m a t t e r h o w w e l l - m e a n i n g , picks u p t h e f r a g m e n t s , t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t i s l o s t , plus clues a r e r e m o v e d that m i g h t h a v e h e l p e d u s t o find m o r e b o n e . But
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND US
m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y i m p o r t a n t , the g o v e r n m e n t o f M a l a w i , t h r o u g h t h e D e partment of Antiquities,
has strict rules p r o t e c t i n g fossils and o t h e r such
objects. T h e y are not t o b e disturbed w i t h o u t authorization. T h e d e p a r t m e n t is q u i t e serious a b o u t e n f o r c i n g its p o l i c i e s . It is e q u a l l y serious a b o u t e d u c a t ing the local p e o p l e s o that t h e y u n d e r s t a n d w h a t t h e y o u g h t and w h a t t h e y ought not d o .
M a n y W e s t e r n c o u n t r i e s c o u l d stand t o b e s o e n l i g h t e n e d .
Fossils i n M a l a w i are r e c o g n i z e d t o b e f o r t h e p u b l i c g o o d — l o n g t e r m .
L I G H T W E L L S H O W E D U P a t breakfast this m o r n i n g . H e has j o i n e d u s a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i , his h o m e area, b u t o n l y f o r t h e d a y . A t the s i t e , M j u d a , his legs b o w e d r i c k e t s l i k e , had o u r t o o l s laid o u t a s usual. H e maintains a w r i t t e n i n v e n t o r y , n o t o n m y i n s t r u c t i o n , b u t b y his o w n v o l i t i o n and d e s i r e t o d o a g o o d , r e s p o n s i b l e j o b . W e h a v e n o t lost s o m u c h a s a n a w l . H i s m o t h e r and father w e r e t h e r e . Y o u c o u l d see the p r i d e , theirs and his, a s h e s h o w e d t h e m a r o u n d the digs w i t h a flourish. I n o t i c e d a r i n g o f ashes a r o u n d the s u p p l y t e n t w h e r e M j u d a s l e e p s . T h e y w e r e f o r siafu.
Siafu are t h e safari ants o f l e g e n d a r y f e r o c i t y . T h e y t r a v e l i n
r o v i n g c o l u m n s , d e v o u r i n g hapless v i c t i m s o f any animal p e r s u a s i o n . W h e n they e n t e r a h u t , snakes and lizards l e a v e t h e i r safe havens in t h e w a l l s . I used t o pull the c l i n g i n g b o d i e s and c l a m p e d j a w s o f these fearless insects f r o m b e t w e e n the t o e s o f m y d o g s i n K e n y a .
H u m a n babies have s u c c u m b e d t o
t h e i r v i c i o u s attacks. T h e r e i s a s t o r y that M a r y L e a k e y o n c e set the l e g s o f o n e o f h e r s o n ' s cribs i n dishes o f k e r o s e n e t o p r e v e n t siafu f r o m g e t t i n g a t the s l e e p i n g c h i l d . M j u d a s a w s o m e o n the m a r c h n e a r the site y e s t e r d a y . K e n t c a m e across a r e g i m e n t o n t h e trail this m o r n i n g . M j u d a says t h e y w i l l n o t cross ashes. I h a v e h e a r d that b e f o r e , and I b e l i e v e it. Siafu are t o o painful n o t to find some protection from them.
2
August,
Thursday.
T o d a y w a s the last day o f q u a r r y w o r k f o r K e n t and m e .
I t w a s hard t o
c o n c e n t r a t e o n e x c a v a t i n g e v e n w h e n I had the c h a n c e . A f t e r l e a v i n g c a m p t o m o r r o w I w i l l b e s p e n d i n g a f e w days i n L i l o n g w e t y i n g u p l o o s e e n d s . W i l l and D a l e w i l l s p e n d a n o t h e r w e e k o r s o h e r e , t h e n seal t h e q u a r r i e s and head south, w a y d o w n the c o u n t r y . Alisa w i l l j o i n t h e m f o r a r e c o n n a i s s a n c e o f t h e southern equivalent of the Dinosaur Beds.
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
PH.D.
116 T h e bones have n o t played o u t in the quarries at Mwakasyunguti. T h e y s h o w n o signs o f d o i n g s o . I f o u r e x p e r i e n c e i s any i n d i c a t i o n , and I think i t is, t h e r e a r e b o n e s t o d i g h e r e f o r m a n y seasons t o c o m e . T h e r e are c l e a r l y e n o u g h s p e c i m e n s t o d o a t h o r o u g h scientific study. But t h e fossils are b e t t e r than that. T h e r e are e n o u g h t o m a k e a display available t o all the p e o p l e o f M a l a w i . T h a t w o u l d b e e x c i t i n g f o r e v e r y o n e , n o t just scientists.
Hooray!
T h e g e n e r a t o r has n o t b e e n w o r k i n g w e l l , just b a r e l y o r n o t a t all, f o r the past c o u p l e o f days. I t has n o t b e e n m u c h h e l p d u r i n g that t i m e . N e v e r m i n d . W e are b e y o n d t h e critical p o i n t . T w o days a g o t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l L a n d R o v e r r e t u r n e d f r o m t h e s h o p . Y e s t e r d a y i t w e n t b a c k f o r starter r e p a i r s . T o d a y i t is w i t h us again. Still t h e w o r k g o e s o n .
N o w w e h a v e the
e n v i a b l e p r o b l e m o f setting
p r i o r i t i e s f o r w h i c h o f t h e b o n e s can realistically b e r e m o v e d and w h i c h w i l l h a v e t o b e p r o t e c t e d , b u r i e d , and left f o r s e e d until the n e x t f i e l d season. I t is almost like t o o m u c h of a g o o d thing. C D - 1 0 is e v e r y bit as g o o d as C D - 9 . I f w e had t i m e t o f i n d o u t , I b e t C D - I 1 w o u l d b e a s w e l l . A f t e r a fast-paced e x c a v a t i n g s e a s o n , t h e c r e w has g r o w n t o g e t h e r . T h e y m o v e l i k e c l o c k w o r k . Senses a r e a c u t e , a t t u n e d t o t h e subtle nuances o f each e x h u m e d b o n e . Skills are h o n e d sharp. T h e c a m p i s full, l i t t e r e d w i t h h e a v y , t r e a s u r e - l a d e n p l a s t e r j a c k e t s c a r r i e d f r o m t h e q u a r r i e s o n the heads and s h o u l d e r s o f straining l a b o r e r s , w r e s t l e d i n t o t h e v e h i c l e s , and chauffeured t o t h e l a k e . A c a m a r a d e r i e has b u i l t u p . It is hard to l e a v e . A c o u p l e of days a g o a f e l l o w w i t h a h o m e m a d e g u i t a r s h o w e d up at the site.
H e m a k e s guitars h i m s e l f , b u t h e appears d e a f and d u m b , a n autistic
savant.
H e struck a g o o d c h o r d .
hammers
tapped
chisels
and
awls
S p o n t a n e o u s l y , a s the g u i t a r s t r u m m e d , drummed
shovels
in
a
paleontological
s y m p h o n y , c u l m i n a t i n g in a c r e s c e n d o of e x u b e r a n t l a u g h t e r .
It is a g o o d
crew. W e had visitors i n c a m p a t s i x - f i f t e e n this m o r n i n g . W e d o n o t g e t m a n y v i s i t o r s a n y w a y , b u t these w o u l d h a v e b e e n n o t e w o r t h y a t any t i m e . I t w a s a g r o u p o f v i l l a g e r s , m a y b e a d o z e n p e o p l e , all singing and d a n c i n g . T h e r h y t h m c a m e f r o m a n a l u m i n u m c o o k i n g suffria f i l l e d w i t h a bit o f u n c o o k e d r i c e and shaken t o the b e a t . O n e p a r t i c u l a r l y a n i m a t e d and o v e r w e i g h t w o m a n d a n c e d w i t h a t w o - p o u n d plastic b a g o f salt b a l a n c e d o n h e r h e a d , h e r j i g g l i n g c o n t o u r s o u t l i n e d b y h e r s o i l e d d r e s s . E v e r y t h i n g t o g e t h e r w a s a strange sight t o see s o e a r l y i n the m o r n i n g , w h e n o u r e y e s w e r e still d u s t e d w i t h s l e e p . I w o n d e r i f i t w o u l d h a v e s e e m e d less s t r a n g e later i n t h e day. T h i s w a s the
JOURNALS
FROM
THE
GROUND
A f r i c a n e q u i v a l e n t o f a n Irish w a k e . S o m e o n e i n the n e i g h b o r i n g v i l l a g e had d i e d d u r i n g the night. N o w this g r o u p o f d a n c e r s w a s g o i n g a r o u n d s o l i c i t i n g m o n e y f o r the funeral e x p e n s e s and f o o d t o f e e d t h e b e r e a v e d , w h o w o u l d b e a r r i v i n g shortly f r o m all o v e r M a l a w i , f r o m w h e r e v e r t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y had d i s p e r s e d . I d o n a t e d .
T H I S BEING THE last day f o r K e n t and m e , i t w a s the t i m e f o r a p h o t o session a t the q u a r r y . A l l o f the l o c a l c r e w w e r e d r e s s e d i n t h e i r b e s t . M j u d a had on a m i l i t a r y hat w i t h a M a r i a T h e r e s a m e d a l l i o n p i n n e d to it. He had a b i g leather b e l t a r o u n d his w a i s t and across his s h o u l d e r . H e w o r e b o o t s and high k n e e socks, but he w a s d i s a p p o i n t e d that he d i d n o t h a v e short pants l i k e a n official g u a r d and w a t c h m a n .
T h e g u y s b r o u g h t u p all t h e i r w i v e s and
c h i l d r e n . T h e y w e r e p r e t t y w o m e n and p l u m p b a b i e s , d o n e u p i n t h e i r b e s t . O n e o f W e l l i n g t o n ' s w i v e s c o u l d n o t n e g o t i a t e t h e r o c k y path t o t h e site i n her t h i c k - s o l e d , h i g h - h e e l e d shoes, s o naturally she c a r r i e d t h e m o n h e r head and w a l k e d b a r e f o o t u p and d o w n the hills.
W e all t o o k turns i n v a r i o u s
p e r m u t a t i o n s o f p i c t u r e taking and p o s i n g . W i l l , the b e a r d e d f r i e n d , w a s i n b i g d e m a n d . A l f r e d , s e l f - c o n s c i o u s o f his bad e y e , w o r e dark glasses f o r his p h o t o g r a p h s . E v e r y o n e felt c l o s e . I t w a s r e a l l y a v e r y t o u c h i n g e v e n t . W h e n i t w a s o v e r , the ladies left and the m e n c h a n g e d i n t o t h e i r w o r k a d a y rags, w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f W e l l i n g t o n , w h o c o n t i n u e d t o w e a r a n e w makeshift hat o f b r i g h t y e l l o w c l o t h w i t h e m b r o i d e r y saying,
"I re m e m b e r . "
T h e n the press a r r i v e d . Y u s u f c a m e u p f r o m L i l o n g w e , b r i n g i n g w i t h h i m half a d o z e n n e w s p a p e r and m a g a z i n e r e p o r t e r s and p h o t o g r a p h e r s . I p a r t i c u larly w a n t e d Yusuf, a B e r k e l e y - t r a i n e d P h . D . a r c h a e o l o g i s t , t o see o u r d i g s . I had b e e n u r g i n g h i m to c o m e up and pay a visit f o r s o m e t i m e . He is t h e m a n i n a u t h o r i t y a t the D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s and h e w o u l d b e able t o e v a l u a t e , and h o p e f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e , o u r e f f o r t s . A f e w m i n u t e s o f his v i e w i n g the sites w o u l d d o m o r e f o r the p r o j e c t than all t h e f i n a l r e p o r t s I c o u l d w r i t e . N o t that t h e r e w a s any p r o b l e m ; Y u s u f has a l w a y s b e e n m o r e a m e m b e r o f the t e a m than a g o v e r n m e n t a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r . I w a n t e d h i m to see because he w o u l d like it. A n d he did.
S o d i d the p r e s s . T h e y p h o t o g r a p h e d and q u e s t i o n e d and
w r o t e and t a p e d .
H o w i t w i l l t u r n o u t I d o n o t k n o w , but t h e y s e e m e d
i m p r e s s e d . A s usual, t h e y w e r e f i r s t o f all i m p r e s s e d a t s e e i n g the r e s u r r e c t i o n o f these b o n e s f r o m the Earth.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
118 " H o w did they get t h e r e ? " they w o n d e r e d . N e x t t h e y w o n d e r e d a t h o w I e v e r c a m e t o this e x a c t spot t o f i n d these b o n e s , h a l f w a y a r o u n d the w o r l d f r o m w h e r e I l i v e . " H o w did y o u k n o w w h e r e t o d i g ? " Finally t h e y w e r e o v e r w h e l m e d w i t h the p r i d e that these dinosaurs are a part of little M a l a w i . " W i l l you put t h e m o n d i s p l a y ? "
T H E Y LEFT I N the m i d d l e o f t h e a f t e r n o o n , and I t r i e d t o g o back t o w o r k .
THE R O A M I N G
TITAN
LIZARDS
w
ITH SO MANY bones
c o m i n g o u t o f the g r o u n d i n
Malawi,
there
was
little q u e s t i o n that t h e y w o u l d h a v e a n i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t s t o r y t o t e l l a b o u t life i n the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n , b u t b y n o m e a n s all, o f the fossils that h a v e b e e n e x c a v a t e d s o dinosaurs.
W e assigned a r o u n d
far are
the
bones of sauropod
150 f i e l d n u m b e r s t o j a c k e t s and w r a p p e d
s p e c i m e n s o f s a u r o p o d s a l r e a d y taken o u t o f t h e g r o u n d . N o t all w e r e s i n g l e , isolated b o n e s . S o m e w e r e a r t i c u l a t e d sets f o u n d a s t h e y w e r e a r r a n g e d i n l i f e , m o s t n o t a b l y a s e c t i o n of tail w i t h t w e n t y - t w o v e r t e b r a e in a r o w and a set o f b r e a s t b o n e s p l a c e d just a s i f the d i n o s a u r had lain d o w n o n its b e l l y . T h e r e w e r e also t w o l o w e r j a w s , parts o f skulls, assorted v e r t e b r a e f r o m v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s a l o n g the b o d y , a r m b o n e s , t o e s , a c l a w , a t h i g h b o n e and o t h e r parts o f the hind l e g , and a spaghetti b o w l o f ribs. T h e n e x t s t e p , n o w that t h e s e s p e c i m e n s had b e e n r e m o v e d f r o m t h e g r o u n d , w a s t o m a k e sense o f t h e m . W e a l r e a d y k n e w m o r e than w h e n w e started o u t s i m p l y f r o m s e e i n g t h e b o n e s a s w e e x c a v a t e d t h e m , b u t that i s n o t e n o u g h . S o m e o f t h e fossils, a t least the m o r e i m p o r t a n t o n e s , o b v i o u s l y n e e d e d t o b e p r e p a r e d f r o m t h e i r jackets b e f o r e w e c o u l d g e t any r e l i a b l e , i f p r e l i m i n a r y , u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the animals t h e y r e p r e s e n t . I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m the p r e p a r e d s p e c i m e n s c o u l d b e s u p p l e m e n t e d w i t h p h o t o g r a p h s and m e a s u r e m e n t s o f o t h e r b o n e s r e c o r d e d
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
120 i n the q u a r r i e s w h i l e t h e y w e r e b e i n g e x c a v a t e d , and the p i e c e s o f the p u z z l e w o u l d b e g i n t o fall i n t o p l a c e . D a l e and I , a l o n g w i t h W i l l and E l i z a b e t h , j o i n t l y u n d e r t o o k t o study the s a u r o p o d s . S a u r o p o d dinosaurs a r e familiar t o m o s t e v e r y o n e . I t i s the g r o u p c o m m o n l y c a l l e d b r o n t o s a u r s , and w i t h such c r e a t u r e s as Brachiosaurus ( s e e F i g u r e 4 in C h a p t e r 1 ) , it i n c l u d e s the largest animals that h a v e e v e r l i v e d on land. L i k e m o s t all r e a l l y h u g e animals inhabiting the landscape at a g i v e n t i m e , the s a u r o p o d s w e r e h e r b i v o r o u s . T h e y ate plants and o n l y plants. T h e y w e r e b i g , and t h e y w e r e n o t necessarily f r i e n d l y , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t necessarily f e r o cious either. L a r g e r size o f t e n c o n v e y s c e r t a i n a d v a n t a g e s . I t stacks the d e c k i n f a v o r o f b i g g e r individuals i n t h e c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e same s p e c i e s . L a r g e r i n d i v i d u a l s can o b t a i n the b e s t s p a c e , r e s o u r c e s , m a t e s , and they m a y b e b e t t e r a b l e t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s . T h u s i n c r e a s i n g size t h r o u g h a b i o l o g i c a l lineage is a c o m m o n trend in evolutionary history. This trend to e v o l v e larger d e s c e n d a n t species f r o m s m a l l e r a n c e s t o r s i s k n o w n a s C o p e ' s r u l e . T h e b e s t - k n o w n s a u r o p o d s a r e o f g i g a n t i c p r o p o r t i o n s . T h e largest o f the sauropods might have w e i g h e d as much as fifty, sixty, m a y b e e v e n eighty tons. M o s t w e r e p r o b a b l y i n the t w e n t y - t o - t h i r t y - t o n r a n g e , still highly r e s p e c t a b l e . Early i n s a u r o p o d e v o l u t i o n t h e r e had t o b e e v e n s m a l l e r o n e s , p r e s u m a b l y , i f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f l a r g e r s p e c i e s f o l l o w e d C o p e ' s r u l e . T h e dinosaurian a n c e s t o r s o f the k n o w n s a u r o p o d s , the h y p o t h e t i c a l f i r s t t r u e s a u r o p o d , i f w e had a c o m p l e t e fossil r e c o r d , w o u l d h a v e b e e n m u c h s m a l l e r than the giants. Some
or
all
o f the
evolutionary
lineages
leading
to
different
species
of
s a u r o p o d giants b e c a m e l a r g e r w i t h g e o l o g i c t i m e until t h e y w e n t e x t i n c t . T h e o n l y animals that h a v e e v e r surpassed the s a u r o p o d size r e c o r d are the blue whales. T h e y , of course, have an advantage because they live in seawater, w h i c h is a d e n s e fluid that b u o y s up t h e i r m a s s i v e b o d i e s . If s t r a n d e d on land, w h a l e s , e v e n t h e s m a l l e r o n e s , w i l l suffocate f r o m b e i n g c r u s h e d u n d e r t h e i r o w n w e i g h t . T h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r b o d i e s c a n n o t k e e p t h e i r w e i g h t off o f their lungs. T h e p r o b l e m s o f s u p p o r t i n g w e i g h t f o r any animal are m u c h g r e a t e r o n land than t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d in an a q u e o u s m e d i u m , such as w h a l e s inhabit, b u t t h e p r o b l e m s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y difficult f o r t h o s e l a n d - d w e l l i n g animals o f e x c e p t i o n a l l y l a r g e s i z e . B e i n g such l a r g e animals a s m o s t o f the s a u r o p o d s a r e , shear b u l k p l a c e s a t r e m e n d o u s strain o n t h e m . O n e r e a s o n c o n t r i b u t i n g t o w h y s a u r o p o d dinosaurs w e r e a b l e t o e v o l v e i n t o such l a r g e and h e a v y
T H E
R O A M I N G
T I T A N
L I Z A R D S
121 f o r m s i s that a t s o m e t i m e i n t h e i r e a r l y h i s t o r y t h e y b e g a n t o w a l k o n f o u r legs rather than t w o .
S t r a n g e a s i t s e e m s , dinosaurs started o u t w a l k i n g ,
r u n n i n g , and standing o n t w o l e g s . B i p e d a l l o c o m o t i o n i s p r i m i t i v e f o r t h e g r o u p as a w h o l e ( a n d f o r m a n y of the m o r e f a m i l i a r d i n o s a u r s ,
such as
Tyrannosaurus rex). In s a u r o p o d s , dinosaurs s p e c i a l i z e d in o b t a i n i n g l a r g e s i z e , f o u r legs p r o v i d e a m o r e stable f o u n d a t i o n f o r b o d y mass and d o u b l e the n u m b e r o f pillars s u p p o r t i n g the a n i m a l . T h e r e are b i g ancillary p r o b l e m s associated w i t h C o p e ' s r u l e . T h e mass o f an a n i m a l ' s b o d y increases at a g r e a t e r r a t e than the s i m p l e i n c r e a s e in a linear d i m e n s i o n . T h a t m e a n s that a n a n i m a l t w i c e a s l o n g a s a n o t h e r o f the s a m e shape and physical a p p e a r a n c e w i l l w e i g h m o r e than t w i c e t h e s e c o n d a n i m a l ' s weight.
L a r g e r animals w e i g h p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y , a s w e l l a s a b s o l u t e l y , m o r e
than s m a l l e r animals. T h e r e f o r e , i f a s a u r o p o d l i n e a g e i s t o b e c o m e g i g a n t i c , i t m u s t b e able t o s u p p o r t a spiraling i n c r e a s e i n w e i g h t w i t h each m o d e r a t e i n c r e m e n t i n s i z e . T h e s t r e n g t h o f the b o n e s m u s t b e g r e a t e n o u g h t o h o l d u p all that b u l k , but i f the b o n e s are m a d e b i g g e r t o b e s t r o n g e r , t h e y w i l l reach a p o i n t w h e r e t h e y i n c r e a s e in w e i g h t faster than t h e y increase in strength. T h e r e is the d i l e m m a . T h e s o l u t i o n i s t o e v o l v e structural m o d i f i c a t i o n s i n the shape and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f b o n e s s o that t h e y a r e b o t h light and s t r o n g . Birds d o i t b y h a v i n g thin-walled, h o l l o w bones. Pterodactyls do it the same w a y . F r o m a p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , such b o n e s a r e f r a g i l e . T h a t i s w h y b o t h these g r o u p s o f flying r e p t i l e s a r e u n c o m m o n l y p r e s e r v e d a s fossils, and w h e n t h e y a r e , t h e y are usually c r u s h e d . O f c o u r s e , s a u r o p o d s d o n o t fly, b u t t h e i r b u l k necessitates m o d i f i c a t i o n of their supporting b o n e s . N o t surprisingly, they do it in a rather different sort o f w a y f r o m birds and p t e r o s a u r s — o n e that r e m i n d e d the g r e a t A m e r i c a n v e r t e b r a t e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t and d i n o s a u r e x p e r t E d w i n H . C o l b e r t o f a ship. A ship, i f laden w i t h m o r e than i t can safely h o l d , w i l l f o u n d e r . I n n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y Britain a l a w w a s e n a c t e d against the o v e r l o a d i n g o f s e a g o i n g v e s s e l s . I t w a s d e c i d e d t o p l a c e a l i n e o n t h e o u t s i d e o f British m e r c h a n t ships t o indicate the l a w f u l l e v e l o f s u b m e r g e n c e o f t h e hull. T h e ship c o u l d b e l o a d e d until i t r o d e i n t h e w a t e r a t the l e v e l o f t h e l i n e and n o m o r e . T h e m a r k w a s called a P l i m s o l l l i n e , after S a m u e l P l i m s o l l , t h e statesman w h o c h a m p i o n e d the
legislation.
Sauropods
no
more
ply
through
the
w a t e r than t h e y fly
t h r o u g h the air, but that is n o t w h a t t h e a n a l o g y w i t h the P l i m s o l l line is based o n . I t i s based o n the fact that t h e l i m b s o f s a u r o p o d s a r e h e a v y and r a t h e r
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
122 dense,
while
the
vertebrae
and
skull
are
light
with
many
weight-saving
m o d i f i c a t i o n s . I f y o u w e r e t o d r a w a l i n e a l o n g the base o f the b a c k b o n e i n a s a u r o p o d s k e l e t o n f r o m the s h o u l d e r g i r d l e t o t h e h i p s , the b o n e s b e l o w the l i n e — t h e paleontological Plimsoll l i n e — w o u l d be heavier in construction, and the b o n e s a b o v e w o u l d b e l i g h t e r ( F i g u r e 2 5 ) .
Such a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
w e i g h t p r o v i d e s f o r a l o w c e n t e r o f g r a v i t y and t h e r e f o r e g r e a t e r stability. T h i s has s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g e v o l u t i o n a r y i m p l i c a t i o n s . A b o v e the P l i m s o l l line
the
evolutionary
modifications
f o r m a k i n g the
skeleton
in
sauropods
l i g h t e r a r e p r o f o u n d . T h e o u t e r , superficial l a y e r o f each b o n e i s e x t r e m e l y t h i n , n o t all that m u c h t h i c k e r than that in a b i r d . Inside the b o n e the osseus tissue takes o n a n a p p e a r a n c e r a t h e r l i k e soap b u b b l e s , the c u r v e d surfaces o f f r a g i l e b o n e p r o v i d i n g i n t e r n a l s t r e n g t h t o t h e w h o l e . T h e v e r t e b r a e o f the b a c k and n e c k , and the h e a d , d o n o t h a v e t h e d e n s e internal s t r u c t u r e o f the b o n e s b e l o w the P l i m s o l l l i n e , b u t t h e y are n o t h o l l o w e i t h e r . T h e b u b b l y i n t e r n a l b o n y s t r u c t u r e i s a g o o d and a p p a r e n t l y v e r y e f f e c t i v e c o m p r o m i s e . However,
i t c r e a t e s p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m s f o r the p a l e o n t o l o g i s t .
Such thin-
w a l l e d b o n e w i t h w i s p y internal s t r u c t u r e i s easily d a m a g e d o r d e s t r o y e d
FIGURE
25:
The paleontological Plimsoll line.
The bones of the limbs
that support
the body of a sauropod are heavily constructed and dense relative to the vertebrae, which
are light
and have evolved a
ship the heavy ballast, the level above dinosaurs
are
which
number of weight-reducing features.
which gives stability,
a
is placed well below the Plimsoll line,
a ship cannot safely float.
top-heavy.
In
Neither ships nor sauropod
T H E
R O A M I N G
T I T A N
L I Z A R D S
123 unless the c o n d i t i o n s o f fossilization a r e just r i g h t . T h e b o n e s i n M a l a w i h a v e not
been
completely
petrified
into
stone,
so
excavating
them
and
even
p r e p a r i n g t h e m in t h e l a b o r a t o r y is a t e d i o u s j o b if t h e d e l i c a t e surface is n o t to be damaged.
I f t h e lightness o f s a u r o p o d b o n e s a b o v e the P l i m s o l l l i n e
p r e s e n t s practical f i e l d and l a b o r a t o r y p r o b l e m s t o t h e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , o t h e r structural adaptations f o r m a k i n g b o n e l i g h t e r w h i l e still s u p p o r t i n g w e i g h t p r o v i d e a w e a l t h o f features f o r a n a l y z i n g t h e f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s . O n e o b v i o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n f o r b e a r i n g w e i g h t i s t h e alterat i o n o f v e r t e b r a l s t r u c t u r e . V e r t e b r a e o f any l a n d - d w e l l i n g animal a r e c o m p l i cated,
but especially those of sauropods.
T h e vertebrae must be strongly
enough linked together to p r o v i d e for their support function, yet they must retain the capability t o b e n d a t the j o i n t s s o that t h e b a c k b o n e can r e t a i n flexibility.
O n t o p o f that, t h e y m u s t b e l i g h t . T h e w a y this i s a c h i e v e d i n
d i f f e r e n t s a u r o p o d s is a c l u e to t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . A l l s a u r o p o d s h a v e l o n g n e c k s . I n s o m e s p e c i e s t h e n e c k v e r t e b r a e and t h e adjacent v e r t e b r a e a t t h e f r o n t e n d o f the back are m o d i f i e d i n a special w a y . I f y o u tilt y o u r chin d o w n t o w a r d y o u r chest and f e e l t h e back o f y o u r n e c k , y o u w i l l n o t i c e the t i g h t nuchal l i g a m e n t that attaches f r o m y o u r h e a d t o y o u r back v e r t e b r a e . T h e h a r d , b o n y p r o j e c t i o n s i n y o u r back a t the base o f y o u r n e c k and d o w n are c a l l e d the n e u r a l spines o f y o u r v e r t e b r a e . T h e s e are q u i t e l o n g i n animals that m u s t h o l d u p a l a r g e h e a d and n e c k . T h i n k o f the h u m p o n a b u f f a l o ' s b a c k . T h e h u m p , b e n e a t h t h e h i d e , g e t s its shape f r o m l o n g spines o f the v e r t e b r a e and the m u s c l e s and l i g a m e n t s that run t o w a r d t h e h e a d . T h e spines m u s t also b e l o n g i n s a u r o p o d s , n o t s o m u c h b e c a u s e t h e y have b i g h e a v y heads b u t b e c a u s e the c r a n i u m i s s o far a w a y f r o m the b o d y o n such a l o n g n e c k . I n s o m e , b u t n o t all, s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s t h e spines a p p e a r t o b e f o r k e d , b i f u r c a t e d , i n t h e n e c k and adjacent b a c k , f o r m i n g a t r o u g h o r channel i n w h i c h the n e c k m u s c l e s lie ( F i g u r e 2 6 ) . I n g e n e r a l , a m o n g t h o s e species that s h o w this f e a t u r e , t h e s h o r t e r t h e f r o n t l e g s a r e , r e l a t i v e l y , t h e d e e p e r the trough.
S a u r o p o d s such as Diplodocus w i t h a t r o u g h a p p a r e n t l y
f o r m e d b y t h e i r v e r t e b r a l spines h a v e t h e i r l o n g n e c k s c a n t i l e v e r e d o u t i n f r o n t o f the b o d y .
T h e n e c k h e l d o u t i n that w a y p r o v i d e s a l o n g radius
t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e h e a d can m o v e w h i l e the animal i s f e e d i n g . I t c o u l d b r o w s e a large area w h i l e standing in o n e s p o t . In s a u r o p o d s such as Brachiosaurus t h e head i s h e l d a t o p a n e r e c t , g i r a f f e l i k e n e c k and t h e r e i s n o t r o u g h a t all f o r m e d b y the spines o f t h e v e r t e b r a e . f o l i a g e i n the t o p s o f t r e e s .
It w a s b e t t e r suited for feeding off higher
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
124
FIGURE
26:
Cantilevered-versus-erect posture in
One suggestion
of the weaning of differing
the necks of sauropod dinosaurs.
vertebral shape in sauropod necks is
that
vertebrae
with divided spines support cantilevered necks (top)
with
undivided spines support necks held in
while
vertebrae
a more erect posture (bottom).
T h e r e a r e a g r e a t m a n y v e r t e b r a e in a spinal c o l u m n , so it m a k e s sense that i f s o m e t h i n g c o u l d b e d o n e t o m a k e each o f t h e m l i g h t e r , i t w o u l d h a v e a relatively big effect w h e n totaled up along the entire b a c k b o n e . T h e main b o d y o f a v e r t e b r a , t o w h i c h the spine and o t h e r b o n y p r o c e s s e s attach, i s c a l l e d a c e n t r u m . T h e c e n t r u m i s t h e b i g g e s t single c o m p o n e n t o f a v e r t e b r a . C e n t r a a r e basically c y l i n d r i c a l in s h a p e , and in t h e b a c k b o n e t h e y line up o n e after the o t h e r l e n g t h w i s e .
( I n h u m a n s a s l i p p e d disk is a c a r t i l a g e p l a t e
b e t w e e n t w o v e r t e b r a l c e n t r a that has s h i f t e d . ) S o m e s a u r o p o d s have lightened the centra in ingenious ways.
L a r g e p o c k e t s , c a l l e d p l e u r o c o e l s , are
e x c a v a t e d i n the sides o f the c e n t r a ,
r e a r r a n g i n g the p r i m i t i v e
cylindrical
shape i n t o a f o r m that is l i g h t e r y e t still p r o v i d e s a d e q u a t e s t r e n g t h and retains a p p r o p r i a t e l e n g t h . N o t all s a u r o p o d s h a v e p l e u r o c o e l s , and n o t all t h o s e that d o h a v e t h e m d e v e l o p e d o n the s a m e v e r t e b r a e o r i n t h e s a m e w a y . I t s e e m s that o n c e t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o d u c i n g p l e u r o c o e l s w a s a c h i e v e d ,
T H E
R O A M I N G
T I T A N
L I Z A R D S
125 natural s e l e c t i o n and chance c o u l d m o l d t h e specific shape o f the p l e u r o c o e l s i n a n u m b e r o f d i r e c t i o n s d e p e n d i n g o n the s p e c i e s . A n d since t h e l i g h t e n i n g o f v e r t e b r a e t h r o u g h the d e v e l o p m e n t o f p l e u r o c o e l s i s o b v i o u s l y r e l a t e d t o the a t t a i n m e n t o f g i g a n t i c s i z e , p l e u r o c o e l s m a y h a v e e v o l v e d m o r e than o n c e in separate s a u r o p o d lineages as g r a n d size w a s a p p r o a c h e d . I t s e e m s p r e t t y c l e a r that h u g e animals m u s t h a v e a l a r g e i n t a k e o f f o o d to keep themselves alive.
Even a l o w estimate of food requirements w o u l d
have to be l a r g e in real t e r m s f o r such animals as s a u r o p o d s . T h e r e f o r e , it is all the m o r e a s t o u n d i n g t o take a l o o k a t a s a u r o p o d h e a d .
N o species o f
s a u r o p o d has a large h e a d ; all a r e small c o n s i d e r i n g the t o t a l size of the b o d y . Y e t all the f o o d that i s e v e r e a t e n m u s t e n t e r t h e t i n y p i n h e a d and pass d o w n the g u l l e t . S a u r o p o d heads h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r l y nasty habit so far as field p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s are c o n c e r n e d . T h e y are n o t o f t e n f o u n d . I n life t h e y m u s t h a v e b e e n w e a k l y attached t o the e n d o f the n e c k , because i n d e a t h the h e a d i s q u i c k l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m the b o d y . I c a n n o t shake the i m a g e o f a s a u r o p o d head r o l l i n g o f f l i k e a s o c c e r ball, b u t o f c o u r s e i t w a s n o t l i k e that. T h e l i g h t , thin b o n e s o f the head are as l i g h t l y b u i l t and as t h i n - w a l l e d as t h e v e r t e b r a e a r e . T h e y are i n s e c u r e l y fastened t o each o t h e r . A s a d e a d s a u r o p o d r o t t e d o r w a s d i s m e m b e r e d , the head s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e n e c k , and the d e l i c a t e b o n e s b e c a m e s c a t t e r e d and d e s t r o y e d . T h e p r o b l e m this m a k e s f o r p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s i s that m a n y species o f s a u r o p o d s a r e k n o w n o n l y f r o m b o n e s that c o m e f r o m the n e c k o r farther back i n the s k e l e t o n , and w e h a v e n o idea w h a t the h e a d w a s actually l i k e . species.
In
H e a d s are k n o w n i n o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f the n a m e d s a u r o p o d fact Apatosaurus,
the
real
name
of b r o n t o s a u r u s ,
suffered
for
d e c a d e s w i t h the w r o n g head until the m i s t a k e w a s caught and c o r r e c t e d . S a u r o p o d skulls that a r e k n o w n s h o w q u i t e a b i t o f d i v e r s i t y i n t h e i r shapes ( F i g u r e 2 7 ) . I n all, the b o n y h o l e s t h r o u g h w h i c h the nasal passages g o a p p e a r e x c e s s i v e l y l a r g e . I n life t h e s e a c c o m m o d a t e d , i n a d d i t i o n t o the air passages, tissue and b l o o d vessels that h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d s p e c u l a t i v e l y a t o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r t o c o n t r o l the
temperature
of b l o o d f l o w i n g to the brain,
to
r e s o n a t e the sounds u t t e r e d b y t h e beast, o r t o facilitate a f l e x i b l e p r o b o s c i s . T h e issue is still o p e n . S o m e s a u r o p o d s h a v e l o n g h e a d s , o t h e r s h a v e heads that are a l m o s t i n c r e d ibly b l u n t . E l o n g a t i o n o f s a u r o p o d skulls s e e m s t o h a v e e v o l v e d i n a t least t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s . Brachiosaurus w a s d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 1 as h a v i n g an a b s u r d , t o o t h y d u c k ' s b i l l . T h e f r o n t o f t h e h e a d i s l o n g b e c a u s e the b o n e s that h o l d
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
126
FIGURE 27: dinosaurs.
The head shape, This
the sauropods. cetiosaurids,
cladogram
tooth shape,
suggests
Two of the less
are not included,
focus for
where
of evolutionary
well known families,
the
branching
titanosaurid relationships lie
within
vulcanodontids and
but they may ft to the left of titanosaurids.
only one of many possible evolutionary trees. explain
and family relationships of sauropod
the pattern
This is
It is an hypothesis that seeks to among
the sauropods and provides a
discussion.
the t e e t h , c a l l e d m a x i l l a and p r e m a x i l l a , a r e e x a g g e r a t e d i n t o the shape o f a d u c k ' s b i l l . T h e nasal b o n e s , w h i c h s u p p o r t the n o s t r i l s , are l o o p e d high u p and b a c k , d o m i n g the skull. O t h e r s a u r o p o d s , such as Camarasaurus, have high h e a d s , b u t the j a w s a r e n o t d r a w n n e a r l y so far f o r w a r d as in Brachiosaurus and the
nostrils a r e n o t so
far back and u p .
S a u r o p o d s such as the
familiar
Apatosaurus and Diplodocus are d i f f e r e n t . T h e i r nostrils are back and on the t o p o f t h e i r h e a d s , b u t the nasal b o n e s are n o t l o o p e d and t h e b o n y o p e n i n g i n the skull f o r t h e nasal passage is m u c h s m a l l e r . T h e skulls in Diplodocus and Apatosaurus a r e o b l o n g - s h a p e d , s o m e w h a t like l o z e n g e s . T h e j a w s are l o n g , b u t t a p e r f r o m t h e back o f t h e skull t o the snout g r a d u a l l y , r a t h e r than b e i n g d r a w n o u t i n t o a d u c k ' s b i l l . A n d the t e e t h are r e s t r i c t e d t o the f r o n t part o f t h e u p p e r and l o w e r j a w s instead o f c o n t i n u i n g back a l o n g t h e sides o f the
THE
ROAMING
TITAN
LIZARDS
m o u t h . In a d d i t i o n , the f r o n t of the j a w s is s q u a r e d o f f and b l u n t , r a t h e r than c u r v i n g m o r e g e n t l y t o m e e t a t the m i d l i n e . Jaws
and
teeth
are
particularly
important
when
considering
how
the
s a u r o p o d giants m a n a g e d t o o b t a i n sufficient n o u r i s h m e n t . Besides the variat i o n i n j a w shape discussed a b o v e , t h e r e i s also v a r i a t i o n a m o n g s a u r o p o d species i n the shape o f the t e e t h ( s e e F i g u r e 2 7 ) . S o m e s a u r o p o d s , such a s Brachiosaurus and Camarasaurus, h a v e t e e t h w i t h s p o o n - s h a p e d c r o w n s . O t h e r s , such as Diplodocus,
h a v e t e e t h that a r e shaped l i k e p e n c i l s .
T h e y are l i t t l e
r o u n d c y l i n d e r s . B o t h o f t h e s e shapes o f s a u r o p o d t e e t h , w h e n m u l t i p l i e d b y a mouthful of t h e m ,
are a d e q u a t e f o r p l u c k i n g and n i p p i n g sprigs,
twigs,
f r o n d s , and l e a v e s , but t h e y a r e n o t g o o d f o r c h e w i n g t h e m u p . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y are n o t h e l d v e r y s t r o n g l y i n t h e i r s o c k e t s , and t h e y w e r e r e p l a c e d i n life a t f r e q u e n t intervals b y r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h g r o w i n g i n f r o m the r o o t s . A f t e r a s a u r o p o d d i e s , the t e e t h v e r y q u i c k l y fall o u t . Since n e i t h e r t o o t h shape is adequate for a g o o d , t h o r o u g h c h e w i n g of the f o o d ,
the t e e t h w e r e used
primarily to obtain f o o d . T h e processing of it was d o n e by gizzard stones, called g a s t r o l i t h s , that g r o u n d foodstuffs i n t o a m a s h , after w h i c h it w a s m o s t likely f e r m e n t e d b y the a c t i o n o f m i c r o b e s . T h e gastroliths are r o c k s that w e r e s e l e c t i v e l y s w a l l o w e d f o r the p u r p o s e . Birds and c r o c o d i l e s d o that n o w . I t is n o t all that unusual in the w o r l d of animal d i g e s t i o n . T h e r e can b e
variation
i n the shape o f t e e t h w i t h i n
c e r t a i n species o f
s a u r o p o d s . In Brachiosaurus, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e t e e t h in the f r o n t of the m o u t h are m o r e b r o a d l y s p o o n - s h a p e d than t h o s e farther b a c k . Still, e v e n i n the back o f the m o u t h t h e y are d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e p e n c i l - s h a p e d t e e t h f o u n d i n Diplodocus,
a shape that is m u c h m o r e s i m p l e and less variable because it is
basically a n u n c o m p l i c a t e d c y l i n d e r . B y c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r , m o r e p r i m i t i v e dinosaurs,
it s e e m s m o s t l i k e l y that the s p o o n - s h a p e d t e e t h are less
e v o l v e d and m o r e akin t o t h e shape o f t e e t h i n h y p o t h e t i c a l ancestral sauropods.
P e n c i l - s h a p e d t e e t h e v o l v e d f r o m the m o r e p r i m i t i v e s p o o n - s h a p e d
f o r m , b u t since o n e s i m p l e c y l i n d r i c a l shape l o o k s p r e t t y m u c h like any o t h e r s i m p l e c y l i n d r i c a l shape, t h e possession o f p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h a l o n e , w h e n c o n s i d e r e d a m o n g all the s p e c i e s o f s a u r o p o d s ,
d o e s n o t necessarily r e f l e c t a
c o m m o n ancestry. I n o t h e r w o r d s , simple teeth m a y have e v o l v e d f r o m m o r e c o m p l e x t e e t h m o r e than o n c e . T h a t idea plays a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n u n d e r standing the e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f the s a u r o p o d b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i . T h e h e a v i e r b o n e s o f the l i m b s , t h o s e that lie b e l o w t h e s a u r o p o d P l i m s o l l line,
are
designed
f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g the
total
w e i g h t o f the
animal t o
the
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
128 g r o u n d . N o w , f o r a d o g o r a h o r s e o r a l i z a r d , w a l k i n g o n f o u r legs i s the p r i m i t i v e w a y of d o i n g t h i n g s . B u t , as I said b e f o r e , f o r d i n o s a u r s , the style of l o c o m o t i o n that c h a r a c t e r i z e s the g r o u p as a w h o l e is b i p e d a l p r o g r e s s i o n — w a l k i n g o n t w o hind l e g s . T h e c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f all dinosaurs, t h e h y p o thetical f i r s t t r u e d i n o s a u r , w a s b i p e d a l . eaters,
S a u r o p o d s and s o m e o t h e r plant-
such as stegosaurs and c e r a t o p s i a n s ,
have
s e c o n d a r i l y r e s o r t e d to
w a l k i n g o n all f o u r s . E v i d e n c e o f t h e i r t w o - l e g g e d h e r i t a g e i s r e f l e c t e d i n the l e n g t h o f the back legs c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e o f the f r o n t . T h e y are g e n e r a l l y q u i t e a b i t l o n g e r and m o r e massive than t h e f r o n t l e g s , s h o w i n g that the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the w e i g h t i n a s a u r o p o d b o d y i s shifted t o w a r d the back e n d . I n b i s o n o r horses o r c a m e l s , g o o d s e l f - r e s p e c t i n g q u a d r u p e d s w h o n e v e r had a b i p e d a l a n c e s t r y , the f r o n t l i m b b o n e s are m o r e massive than the h i n d , r e f l e c t i n g a d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the w e i g h t , a d i f f e r e n t b u i l d , i f y o u w i l l (Figure 28). Such e v o l u t i o n a r y m o d i f i c a t i o n s as o c c u r in s a u r o p o d l i m b s are in l a r g e part g r a v i p o r t a l — a d a p t a t i o n s f o r c a r r y i n g g r e a t w e i g h t , a s i n e l e p h a n t s . T h e
FIGURE 28:
Weight distribution in a horse and in a sauropod dinosaur.
their ancestors have always been more massive As
a
than
consequence
the rear. of their
quadrupedal,
with
Horses and
the front end of their bodies
Quadrupedal dinosaurs evolved from bipedal ancestors. evolving four-legged
anatomically suited to moving about more toward the rear of their bodies.
on
locomotion from
hind limbs only,
ancestors
their weight is distributed
THE
ROAMING
TITAN
LIZARDS 129
legs o f g r a v i p o r t a l animals a r e a l w a y s h e a v i l y b u i l t ,
like the c o l u m n s o f a
G r e e k t e m p l e . L a r g e g r a v i p o r t a l animals c a n n o t lift all f o u r f e e t o f f t h e g r o u n d a t the s a m e t i m e . S a u r o p o d s , l i k e e l e p h a n t s , w e r e n o t j u m p e r s . N e v e r t h e l e s s g r a v i p o r t a l animals such as e l e p h a n t s can r e a r up on t h e i r h i n d l i m b s , and t h e y d o s o o c c a s i o n a l l y , r a t h e r than habitually, i n t h e i r natural state. A t A m b o s e l i Park i n s o u t h e r n K e n y a ,
w h e r e the h e r d i s l a r g e ,
I have witnessed t w o
elephants in the w i l d r e a r up facing each o t h e r and e n g a g e in a bit of a wrestling match. If it is t r u e that s o m e q u a d r u p e d a l m a m m a l s h a v e a w e i g h t d i s t r i b u t i o n d i f f e r e n t f r o m s a u r o p o d s , and w i t h m o r e m a s s i v e f o r e l i m b s than h i n d , t h e n an interesting analogy, w i t h regard to their r e p e r t o i r e of m o v e m e n t s anyway, m i g h t b e the r e a r i n g u p o f s a u r o p o d s o n t h e i r hind l e g s , c o m p a r e d w i t h the tilting o f h o r s e s o r buffalo o n t o t h e i r f o r e l e g s . H o r s e s , o f c o u r s e , can d o just that w h e n e v e r t h e y c h o o s e t o k i c k the hell o u t o f s o m e o n e . Bulls can a s w e l l ; just g o t o a r o d e o i f y o u w a n t t o see t h e m d o i t . E v e n e l e p h a n t s , w h i c h are m u c h m o r e s a u r o p o d l i k e than h o r s e s i n t h e i r g e n e r a l b o d y shape, because b o t h elephants and s a u r o p o d s are g r a v i p o r t a l , can do it. I saw t h e m do it last y e a r w h e n I t o o k m y c h i l d r e n t o t h e c i r c u s . Elephants can tilt u p o n t h e i r f r o n t legs i n t o a p a c h y d e r m handstand. I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h e y d o i t i n the w i l d , e x c e p t p e r h a p s i n t h e strangest o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s , b u t t h e y c e r t a i n l y c o u l d d o i t i f the m o o d s o struck t h e m . T h e r e i s o b v i o u s l y n o t h i n g i n t h e i r a n a t o m y that physically p r e v e n t s t h e m f r o m d o i n g handstands. A s q u a d r u p e d a l animals that r e v e r t e d t o q u a d r u p e d a l i s m i n t h e i r e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y , i t i s n o t u n t h i n k a b l e that e v e n the l a r g e s t o f t h e s a u r o p o d species m a i n t a i n e d the a n a t o m i c a l capacity t o r e a r u p o n t h e i r h i n d l i m b s . I n fact, i t has b e c o m e q u i t e p o p u l a r t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e m that w a y e v e n t o t h e p o i n t o f g o i n g o v e r b o a r d . I n t h e tails o f all s a u r o p o d s t h e r e a r e b o n e s , c a l l e d c h e v r o n s , that articulate w i t h the v e r t e b r a l c e n t r a and hang d o w n . A b l o o d vessel f l o w s a l o n g the u n d e r s i d e o f t h e v e r t e b r a e , and the c h e v r o n s b r a n c h a r o u n d and p r o t e c t i t , t h e n e i t h e r t h e y p r o g r e s s d o w n w a r d and b a c k w a r d , p r o v i d i n g areas f o r m u s c l e a t t a c h m e n t , o r t h e y f o r k i n t o a sled shape p o i n t i n g f o r w a r d u p the tail
t o t h e hip and b a c k w a r d t o w a r d t h e tip
o f the tail.
Diplodocus and its r e l a t i v e s , p e r h a p s u n i q u e l y a m o n g s a u r o p o d s , possess the sled-shaped c h e v r o n s . T h e s t r a n g e shape o f t h e c h e v r o n s , w h i c h o c c u r o n l y o n v e r t e b r a e i n the m i d d l e o f the tail, n o t t h e b a s e , has s u g g e s t e d t o s o m e that t h e y f o r m e d a p r o t e c t i v e shield o n t h e u n d e r s i d e o f the tail, a l l o w i n g t h e dinosaur to use it as a b r a c e w h e n r e a r i n g up on its hind l e g s . T h e c h e v r o n s
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
130 p r o t e c t e d the b l o o d vessel i n t h e u n d e r s i d e o f the tail f r o m b e i n g d a m a g e d , and w i t h the tail acting as a t h i r d l e g , t h e animal c o u l d stand and g r a z e f r o m t h e t o p s o f t r e e s f o r a s l o n g a s i t d e s i r e d . F u r t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r the s u g g e s t i o n c o m e s f r o m the h e i g h t o f the spines i n t h e d i p l o d o c i d r e a r e n d and the massive size
o f the
pelvic
bones.
None
of the
evidence
has
been
quantitatively
a n a l y z e d , b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s , that i s the w a y t h e s t o r y g o e s . I d o n o t b u y it. I t s e e m s a b i t t o o H o l l y w o o d f o r m e . T h e c o n c l u s i o n that h u g e g r a v i p o r t a l animals had such an habitual b e h a v i o r should f o l l o w d e t a i l e d analysis o f functional r e a l i t y based o n a t h o r o u g h r e v i e w o f t h e e v i d e n c e f r o m t h e b o n e s . I w i l l c o n c e d e , a n e c d o t a l l y , that s a u r o p o d s c o u l d r e a r u p , and i f t h e y c o u l d , I see n o r e a s o n w h y t h e y s h o u l d n o t g r a b a f e w snacks e v e r y n o w and t h e n that w a y . But t h e t h o u g h t o f t r i p o d a l d i n o s a u r s , e s p e c i a l l y d i p l o d o c i d s , t h e s a u r o p o d s w i t h the shortest f o r e l i m b s r e l a t i v e t o the hind l i m b s , and w i t h the l o n g e s t tails, disrupts m y sense o f s y m m e t r y . W h e n s a u r o p o d s d i d r e a r u p , i t v e r y l i k e l y w o u l d n o t have b e e n t o w a l k a b o u t i n any e x t e n d e d w a y . R a t h e r , i t m i g h t h a v e b e e n o n l y f o r a s e c o n d o r t w o , o r a little l o n g e r , p e r h a p s t o nip a leaf, o r t o i n t i m i d a t e a n o t h e r s a u r o p o d o f its o w n s p e c i e s , m a y b e t o w r e s t l e l i k e t h e e l e p h a n t s I saw a t A m b o s e l i . I t s e e m s r a t h e r u n l i k e l y that a h u g e animal l i k e a s a u r o p o d w o u l d habitually rear up on its h i n d legs to f e e d o f f the t o p s of t r e e s or as a d e f e n s i v e p o s t u r e against t h r e a t e n i n g c a r n i v o r e s , a s t h e y are s o m e t i m e s s h o w n . R e a r i n g u p w o u l d d o l i t t l e m o r e than e x p o s e t h e vital b e l l y t o t h e s c i m i t a r c l a w s and r a p i e r t e e t h of predators.
Animals,
w h e t h e r elephants or sauropods,
are c a p a b l e o f a
g r e a t e r r a n g e o f l o c o m o t i o n and m o v e m e n t than t h e y u t i l i z e a s a r e g u l a r part o f t h e i r natural b e h a v i o r . T h e fact that t h e y a r e a b l e t o rise o n t o t w o l e g s , w h e t h e r the f r o n t o r the r e a r , d o e s n o t m e a n t h e y d o s o a t e v e r y f e e d i n g , e v e r y attack b y a p r e d a t o r , o r e v e r y social e n c o u n t e r . S a u r o p o d s s h o w l i t t l e i n the w a y o f d e f e n s i v e structures e x c e p t l a r g e s i z e . S o m e s a u r o p o d s , l i k e Diplodocus and Apatosaurus, h a v e l o n g , thin tails, d r a w n o u t a t the t i p t o r e s e m b l e a w h i p l a s h . sauropods,
Shunosaurus and Omeisaurus,
Even m o r e strangely, t w o Chinese
are r e p o r t e d to s p o r t b o n y clubs on
the e n d s o f t h e i r tails. D e f e n s e has b e e n s u g g e s t e d a s the f u n c t i o n o f b o t h the clubs and the w h i p l a s h . But a w h i p is a w e a p o n of finesse, a trait n o t g e n e r a l l y associated w i t h g r a v i p o r t a l a n i m a l s , and a c l u b or a w h i p l a s h s w u n g at the e n d of a tail s e v e r a l yards l o n g c o u l d cause a l o t of unnecessary injury to the tail's o w n e r w h e n i t m a d e c o n t a c t . S a u r o p o d s m a y have used t h e i r tails t o c o m m u nicate w i t h their o w n kind,
m u c h t h e w a y that w o l v e s c o m m u n i c a t e , b y
THE
ROAMING
TITAN
LIZARDS
131 changing p o s t u r e s and h o l d i n g the tail i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s . T a i l s m a y w e l l have b e e n used f o r signaling, f o r t o u c h i n g and caressing, r a t h e r than as w h i p s o r b l u d g e o n s . T h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e shape o f the e n d s o f tails m a y r e f l e c t this kind o f use a m o n g d i f f e r e n t s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s . So h o w did sauropods protect themselves f r o m fierce predators if not by r e a r i n g u p t o squash t h e i r attackers o r s w a t t i n g t h e m w i t h t h e i r tails? A d u l t s a u r o p o d s , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s i z e , w e r e fully a b l e t o w a l k o v e r any animals a t t e m p t i n g t o s u b d u e t h e m . C e r t a i n l y y o u n g w o u l d b e v u l n e r a b l e , and e v e n large individuals m i g h t s u c c u m b t o a c o o r d i n a t e d attack b y a pack o f t h e r o p o d s , b u t basically I i m a g i n e s a u r o p o d s just t r i e d t o g e t a w a y . I n e s c a p i n g , t h e y m i g h t g o i n any d i r e c t i o n , a w a y f r o m the p r e d a t o r o r d i r e c t l y o v e r it. T h e i r b e h a v i o r w h i l e u n d e r attack m a y h a v e had n o m o r e m o t i v a t i o n than the u r g e t o f l e e . O n e o f the s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r s l e a d i n g t o the o p e r a t i o n o f C o p e ' s rule i n s a u r o p o d s m a y h a v e b e e n t h e f i n e d e f e n s e that g i g a n t i s m i n and o f i t s e l f p r o v i d e s . In fact, it is p o s s i b l e that t h e r e a s o n s a u r o p o d s g o t so l a r g e w a s b e h a v i o r a l l y n o m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d than the e v o l u t i o n o f a passive d e f e n s e mechanism.
IF ALL THIS talk of d i f f e r e n t features in t h e tails, t e e t h , l i m b s , skulls, and vertebrae of different species of sauropods is confusing to y o u , y o u are n o t a l o n e . I t has o f t e n b e e n l a m e n t e d b y t o p p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s that s a u r o p o d s are e v o l u t i o n a r i l y v e r y c o m p l e x . T h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s are difficult t o u n r a v e l w i t h the v e r y g o o d b u t l i m i t e d s a m p l e o f t h e i r fossils that i s k n o w n . T h e s a m p l e i s l i m i t e d because i t i s s p o t t y . S o m e s p e c i e s a r e b e t t e r k n o w n , s o m e c o n t i nents are m o r e t h o r o u g h l y s e a r c h e d , and s o m e t i m e s , g e o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , are m u c h b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d i n c o l l e c t i o n s . A n d that i s w h y t h e s a u r o p o d s f r o m M a l a w i are s o i m p o r t a n t . I t i s a n e w batch o f fossils, a w h o l e n e w set o f data, t o t h r o w i n t o the a r g u m e n t .
It gives better material on a p o o r l y
k n o w n s p e c i e s , f r o m a c o n t i n e n t that has n o t b e e n t h o r o u g h l y s a m p l e d and a t i m e that is p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d . S o m e w h e r e around 1 SO species of sauropods have b e e n n a m e d ; h o w e v e r , n o t n e a r l y that m a n y are r e a l l y v a l i d .
S o m e names have been applied to
fragments
their
of bone
so
incomplete
that
true
owners
are
completely
u n k n o w a b l e . T h e y d o n o t tell u s m u c h about anything. T h e g o o d , r e c o g n i z able species a r e g r o u p e d i n t o six f a m i l i e s , s o m e o f w h i c h a r e m o r e f a m i l i a r than o t h e r s .
T h e d i p l o d o c i d s c o n t a i n such g e n e r a as Diplodocus,
obviously,
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
132 Apatosaurus, and s o m e o t h e r s like Dicraeosaurus f r o m A f r i c a and Barosaurus f r o m b o t h A f r i c a and N o r t h A m e r i c a . ( A l l the n a m e s o f f a m i l i e s e n d h e r e i n " - i d , " t h e v e r n a c u l a r f o r the scientific e n d i n g o f f a m i l y n a m e s " - i d a e . " ) D i p l o d o c i d s have l o n g , w h i p l a s h tails, p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h l i m i t e d t o the f r o n t o f the m o u t h , l o n g h e a d s , and a t r o u g h f o r m e d b y t h e i r v e r t e b r a e t o h o u s e the m u s c l e s and l i g a m e n t s that c o n t r o l m o v e m e n t s o f t h e n e c k and h e a d . Brachiosaurids a r e t h e g i r a f f e - n e c k e d s a u r o p o d s w i t h l o n g f r o n t l e g s . T h e i r tails a r e short c o m p a r e d w i t h d i p l o d o c i d s , and t h e y d o n o t e n d i n a l o n g , thin w h i p l a s h . Camarasaurids a r e similar t o brachiosaurids i n h a v i n g s p o o n - s h a p e d t e e t h , but t h e spines o n the n e c k v e r t e b r a e a r e d i v i d e d i n t o the b e g i n n i n g s o f a t r o u g h , l i k e d i p l o d o c i d s . T h e v u l c a n o d o n t i d s are the m o s t p r i m i t i v e o f the s a u r o p o d s . T h e y h a v e a n e x t r a b u m p o n t h e t h i g h b o n e n e a r w h e r e i t slips i n t o t h e hip s o c k e t . T h e b u m p i s f o r m u s c l e a t t a c h m e n t , and i t i s p r e s e n t i n m o s t o t h e r d i n o s a u r s , but n o t t h e o t h e r f a m i l i e s o f s a u r o p o d s — t h a t i s o n e g o o d reason w h y
vulcanodontids are
considered so primitive.
O n e family,
the
g r o u p c a l l e d c e t i o s a u r i d s , i s basically a w a s t e b a s k e t full o f n a m e s , s o m e o f w h i c h r e p r e s e n t a p p a r e n t l y p r i m i t i v e s p e c i e s and s o m e that r e p r e s e n t o t h e r s p e c i e s that are o b v i o u s l y n o t p r i m i t i v e . N o n e o f t h e m has b e e n a d e q u a t e l y s t u d i e d . T h e f i n a l f a m i l y , t h e t i t a n o s a u r i d s , i s the o n e that w i l l c o n c e r n u s m o s t . T h e b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i e n a b l e u s t o g r a f t its b r a n c h o n t o the e v o l u t i o n ary t r e e o f s a u r o p o d s ( s e e F i g u r e 2 7 ) . S a u r o p o d s have b e e n k n o w n f r o m M a l a w i f o r a l o n g t i m e , since the 1920s i n fact. T h e s p e c i m e n s i n the British M u s e u m c o l l e c t e d b y M i g e o d i n 1 9 3 0 h a v e n e v e r , e v e n n o w , b e e n s t u d i e d i n d e t a i l , b u t t w o years b e f o r e M i g e o d , t h e S o u t h A f r i c a n Britisher S. the D i n o s a u r B e d s .
H.
H a u g h t o n n a m e d Gigantosaurus dixeyi f r o m
H e n a m e d i t f o r Frank D i x e y , the British head o f the
Geological Survey in Nyasaland,
t o w h o m a p l a n t e r n a m e d H o l t had f i r s t
r e p o r t e d fossils. D i x e y i n v e s t i g a t e d , c o l l e c t e d s o m e b o n e s , w h i c h h e sent t o H a u g h t o n , and later g u i d e d M i g e o d a r o u n d the fossil b e d s , s h o w i n g h i m all the l o c a l i t i e s h e k n e w .
A m o n g the fossils D i x e y sent t o H a u g h t o n w e r e a
v e r t e b r a f r o m the f r o n t part o f t h e tail, part o f a h i p b o n e , a b r e a s t b o n e , and part of a shoulder blade. It was those specimens to w h i c h Haughton applied the n a m e Gigantosaurus dixeyi.
N o f i r s t h a n d study o f s a u r o p o d s f r o m M a l a w i
w a s u n d e r t a k e n after H a u g h t o n ' s i n 1928 until m y p r o j e c t started i n 1 9 8 4 . I t has t a k e n six years t o d e v e l o p t h e s a u r o p o d b o n e s f o u n d b y m y g r o u p t o the p o i n t w h e r e t h e y m a k e sense and can say s o m e t h i n g o f real v a l u e i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g the dinosaurs.
THE
ROAMING
TITAN
LIZARDS
N e v e r t h e l e s s i t w a s k n o w n e a r l y o n , since
1911
i n fact, that the n a m e
Gigantosaurus w a s n o t v a l i d f o r A f r i c a n s a u r o p o d s ; i t had b e e n used b e f o r e f o r a n o t h e r fossil in V i c t o r i a n E n g l a n d , so it c o u l d n o t be used again f o r a d i f f e r e n t species i n w h i c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the o r i g i n a l w a s n o t d e m o n s t r a b l e .
The
n a m i n g legalities of Gigantosaurus dixeyi a r e e v e n m o r e c o m p l e x than w h a t I have w r i t t e n , but y o u g e t the p i c t u r e , I a m s u r e . I t b o i l s d o w n t o this: T h e species dixeyi is a g o o d s p e c i e s , b u t it d o e s n o t b e l o n g to Gigantosaurus. H a u g h t o n n a m e d o n l y o n e s p e c i e s o f s a u r o p o d f r o m the D i n o s a u r B e d s . M y p r o j e c t has s h o w n that t h e r e a r e t w o a t least. T h e e v i d e n c e p r o v i n g the e x i s t e n c e o f t w o species c a m e m o s t c o n c l u s i v e l y f r o m the t w o l o w e r j a w s w e c o l l e c t e d f r o m C D - 9 . T h e y a r e c l e a r l y n o t the s a m e . B o t h o f t h e m are s m a l l , a s s a u r o p o d j a w s g o , the l a r g e r b e i n g o n l y a b o u t a f o o t l o n g , a l t h o u g h the s p e c i m e n i s n o t c o m p l e t e i n t h e b a c k . T h e s e c o n d s p e c i m e n i s o n l y a little m o r e than half t h e size o f the f i r s t . T h e r e f o r e w e n e e d e d t o r u l e o u t t h e possibility that t h e d i f f e r e n c e s w e c o u l d see i n shape and f o r m b e t w e e n t h e t w o w e r e a result o f t h e a g e o f the i n d i v i d u a l s , b a b y versus adult. N e i t h e r o f the j a w s has functional t e e t h p r o t r u d i n g f r o m t h e i r s o c k e t s , b u t the tips o f a n u m b e r o f r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h are still t h e r e . F r o m w h a t can b e s e e n o f the r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h , t h e t o o t h shape i s d i f f e r e n t i n t h e t w o j a w s . T h e t o o t h sockets e x t e n d i n a r o w back t o n e a r t h e e n d o f t h e j a w i n the l a r g e r s p e c i m e n , but i n the s m a l l e r o f the t w o t h e t o o t h s o c k e t s s t o p m u c h farther f o r w a r d . Moreover, t o w a r d the
the f r o n t e n d o f t h e s m a l l e r j a w s e e m s t o c u r v e m o r e sharply "chin."
E v e n b e f o r e w e f o u n d t h e j a w s , t h e r e w a s e v i d e n c e f r o m t e e t h that t w o kinds o f s a u r o p o d s a r e p r e s e n t . I n q u a r r y i n g , t w o d i f f e r e n t kinds o f s a u r o p o d t e e t h w e r e f o u n d i s o l a t e d and s c a t t e r e d a b o u t t h r o u g h the s e d i m e n t .
One
g r o u p had a r o u n d e r c r o s s - s e c t i o n , the o t h e r w a s f l a t t e n e d , b u t n a r r o w , and also a bit l a r g e r in l e n g t h and b r e a d t h than t h e first. T h e l a r g e r - s i z e d t e e t h m a t c h e d w i t h the r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h o f t h e l a r g e r j a w , and the r o u n d e r t e e t h m a t c h e d w i t h the s m a l l e r j a w . I t t h e n b e c a m e c l e a r . T h e s m a l l e r j a w , r e g a r d less o f b e i n g a v e r y y o u n g a n i m a l , has p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h l i m i t e d t o the f r o n t o f the j a w , w h i c h c u r v e s m o r e o r less sharply t o w a r d the c h i n . T h e r e f o r e i t i s a d i p l o d o c i d . H o w e v e r , t h e r e w a s o n e a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e o f the small l o w e r j a w that s e e m e d strange and p u z z l i n g . T h e f r o n t e n d flares i n a w a y n o t s e e n i n o t h e r d i p l o d o c i d s . Based o n that, i t i s v e r y l i k e l y that the l i t t l e d i p l o d o c i d jaw f r o m M a l a w i represents a b r a n d - n e w species. But w h a t of the l a r g e r j a w ? If the s m a l l e r is a d i p l o d o c i d , and the l a r g e r
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
134 i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m it, t o w h i c h f a m i l y should t h e l a r g e r b e assigned? Frankly i t i s easier t o say w h a t i t i s n o t than t o say w h a t i t is. S o w e p r o c e e d e d t o f i n d o u t w h a t t h e rest o f the s a u r o p o d b o n e s c o u l d t e l l us. O n e i n t e r e s t i n g p a t t e r n i s that o f all the o t h e r b o n e s d i a g n o s t i c e n o u g h t o b e assigned t o a f a m i l y , n o n e s e e m e d t o b e d i p l o d o c i d , e v e n t h o u g h w e k n e w f r o m the tiny l o w e r j a w that that f a m i l y w a s t h e r e . M o r e o v e r , o f all t h e s p e c i m e n s that have b e e n p r e p a r e d , n o n e i s small e n o u g h t o g o w i t h t h e s m a l l e r l o w e r j a w . F r o m m e a s u r e ments taken w h i l e excavation was under w a y there s e e m e d to be o n e vertebra that m i g h t g o w i t h i t , b u t since i t has n o t b e e n p r e p a r e d and because o u r p h o t o g r a p h s a t h o m e a r e i n c o n c l u s i v e , w e h a v e n o w a y o f k n o w i n g f o r sure. A l l t h e rest o f t h e s a u r o p o d b o n e s s e e m t o b e l o n g t o o n e n o n d i p l o d o c i d family. T h e y are titanosaurid. T h e titanosaurid f a m i l y has a l o n g , c o m p l i c a t e d h i s t o r y . Its f i r s t m e m b e r w a s n a m e d i n 1 8 7 7 w h e n R i c h a r d L y d e k k e r c a l l e d s o m e tail v e r t e b r a e and a f e w o t h e r b o n e s f r o m t h e C r e t a c e o u s o f India Titanosaurus indicus.
The name
Titanosaurus, t h e " t i t a n l i z a r d , " w a s just t o o c l e v e r and t o o g o o d t o pass u p f o r n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s i n a f r e n z y t o n a m e giant r e p t i l e s n e v e r before
seen.
The
U n i v e r s i t y and E .
legendary D.
feuding paleontologists
O.
C.
Marsh of Yale
C o p e o f P h i l a d e l p h i a had o n e o f t h e i r m a n y e p i s o d e s
w h e n Marsh, quite independently f r o m L y d e k k e r , named an A m e r i c a n dinosaur Titanosaurus. T o his g l e e , C o p e w a s able t o r e p r i m a n d M a r s h b y p o i n t i n g out the preoccupation of the n a m e . Since the t i m e that L y d e k k e r n a m e d t h e f i r s t o n e , titanosaurids have b e e n f o u n d all o v e r the p l a c e .
T h e y are i n E u r o p e ,
Africa,
Madagascar,
South
A m e r i c a , and e v e n N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e i r o c c u r r e n c e s o u t s i d e o f A f r i c a are r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e C r e t a c e o u s P e r i o d , and m o s t l y the L a t e C r e t a c e o u s a t that, w e l l after t h e r e i g n o f t h e d i p l o d o c i d s and brachiosaurids that o c c u r r e d f o r t y m i l l i o n y e a r s — a n d m o r e — p r i o r t o t h e h e y d a y o f the titanosaurids. T h e r o o t s o f the f a m i l y can b e t r a c e d back t o t h e i r f i r s t g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d r e c o r d a t T e n d a g u r u in the s a m e area w i t h Brachiosaurus and d i p l o d o c i d s .
M a k i n g the
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n the l a t e r t i t a n o s a u r i d s , s p r e a d all o v e r the w o r l d , and the r a t h e r p o o r l y k n o w n and c o n f u s e d titanosaurid f r o m T e n d a g u r u w a s a difficult task f o r p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s . I n fact, i t c o u l d n o t b e d o n e satisfactorily until the M a l a w i s p e c i m e n s c a m e o u t o f the g r o u n d . T i t a n o s a u r i d s h a v e o n e f e a t u r e that w a s k n o w n t o L y d e k k e r , w h i c h set them
apart
from
all
other sauropods.
The
vertebrae
o f the
tail have
an
e x t r e m e l y p e c u l i a r shape ( F i g u r e 2 9 ) . T h e c e n t r u m has a d e e p c u p a t the f r o n t
T H E
R O A M I N G
FIGURE
29:
Ball-and-socket
Malawi-saurus. vertebra)
T I T A N
L I Z A R D S
tail
vertebrae
of the
titanosaurid sauropod
The rounded surface toward the bottom
is characteristic of titanosaurids and allows
left (the back side of the
them
to
be recognized
wherever they may be found.
end,
into
which
a
large
ball
at
the
back
o f the
V e r t e b r a e of this shape a r e c a l l e d p r o c o e l o u s .
preceding
c e n t r u m fits.
It is a b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t j o i n t
unlike that seen in any o t h e r g r o u p of s a u r o p o d s . Because that f e a t u r e is so characteristic and s o o b v i o u s , and because tail v e r t e b r a e are m o r e massive and t h e r e f o r e m o r e r e a d i l y p r e s e r v e d a s fossils than o t h e r v e r t e b r a e , the t i t a n o saurs can b e r e c o g n i z e d and i d e n t i f i e d w i t h o n l y a small a m o u n t o f v e r y lousy material.
E v e n t h o u g h t h e y are k n o w n f r o m m a n y p l a c e s , t h e b o n e s f r o m
m o s t o f t h e m d o n o t t e l l u s m u c h m o r e than that titanosaurids w e r e t h e r e . T h a t state o f affairs l e d t o titanosaurids b e i n g l o o k e d u p o n a s t h e bad b o y s o f the
sauropod
clan,
n o t t e l l i n g all
they
could
and n o t
seeming to
fit
in
anywhere. A s i t turns o u t , t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f d i a g n o s t i c features that h e l p t o m a k e sense o f titanosaurids. First o f all, the b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a e r e a l l y a r e a u n i q u e f e a t u r e that the f a m i l y shares w i t h n o o t h e r s a u r o p o d s .
Haughton
k n e w that w h e n he d e s c r i b e d and n a m e d Gigantosaurus dixeyi in 1 9 2 8 . T h a t is
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
136 w h y h e c a l l e d his n e w s p e c i e s Gigantosaurus t o b e g i n w i t h , because that i s w h a t t h e titanosaurid Tendaguru
f r o m T e n d a g u r u had f i r s t b e e n c a l l e d .
titanosaurid has
since
been changed
( T h e n a m e o f the
to Janenschia
t h r o u g h a n o t h e r i t e r a t i o n o n the w a y f r o m Gigantosaurus.
after passing
W i l l the c o n f u s i o n
n e v e r cease?) W h e n I w e n t i n t o M a l a w i , I k n e w that titanosaurid b o n e s had b e e n f o u n d t h e r e , and n o w m y p r o j e c t had v e r i f i e d i t . O n e t h i n g a b o u t i t , t h o u g h : N e i t h e r D i x e y n o r H a u g h t o n n o r m y p r o j e c t e v e r f o u n d any t r u l y g i g a n t i c b o n e s a t all. N o t o n e . T h e n a m e Gigantosaurus c e r t a i n l y d o e s n o t f i t , i f f o r n o t h i n g but e s t h e t i c r e a s o n s . I t i s hard t o a c c e p t that all o f the c o l l e c t i o n s m a d e o v e r the y e a r s b y H o l t , D i x e y , M i g e o d , and m y g r o u p r e p r e s e n t o n l y j u v e n i l e sauropods.
R a t h e r , I think we h a v e a p i c t u r e of n e a r - a v e r a g e - s i z e d i n d i v i d u a l s . I
think t h e M a l a w i t i t a n o s a u r i d is just small f o r a s a u r o p o d , p r i m i t i v e in size r e l a t i v e t o the g i a n t s , p r o b a b l y a b o u t t h i r t y f e e t l o n g , and p e r h a p s t e n t o n s i n w e i g h t . N o t bad f o r a p i p - s q u e a k . I n a d d i t i o n t o the b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a e , t h e r e are o t h e r features u n i q u e t o titanosaurids. F o r i n s t a n c e , o n e o f t h e b o n e s o f the h i p , the i s c h i u m , t h e b o n e i n humans o n w h i c h y o u sit, i s g r e a t l y e x p a n d e d and u n c o m m o n l y w i d e i n m o s t titanosaurids. N o n e o f t h o s e had e v e r b e e n f o u n d i n M a l a w i b e f o r e u s , b u t w e g o t o n e . W e also f o u n d a set o f b r e a s t b o n e s laid o u t a s i n l i f e . T h e i r s h a p e , and the w a y t h e y w e r e a r r a n g e d w a s e x a c t l y l i k e that o f the t i t a n o s a u r i d Alamosaurus as it w a s laid o u t in the hills of U t a h . H a u g h t o n had r e p o r t e d a b r e a s t b o n e f r o m M a l a w i , b u t t h e o n e h e had w a s i n bad shape. I t had t o b e p i e c e d back t o g e t h e r and p a t c h e d w i t h p l a s t e r . T h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w a s a tad iffy. W h a t it l o o k s l i k e m o s t is a b r e a s t b o n e , y e s , b u t it appears that H a u g h t o n ' s s p e c i m e n n e e d s t o b e r o t a t e d n i n e t y d e g r e e s c l o c k w i s e f r o m the w a y h e p u t i t i n his o r i g i n a l p i c t u r e t o g e t the p r o p e r o r i e n t a t i o n f o r j o i n i n g w i t h its c o m p a n i o n b o n e . T i t a n o s a u r i d s have a n o t h e r f e a t u r e that i s the m o s t o d d o f the l o t . T h e y h a v e b o n y a r m o r i n t h e i r skin.
That is not unheard of a m o n g vertebrate
a n i m a l s . A f t e r all, c r o c o d i l e s and alligators h a v e b o n e s i n t h e i r skins. ( T h a t i s w h y the fashion industry utilizes o n l y t h e b e l l y l e a t h e r o f c r o c o d i l e s f o r belts and purses and s h o e s . ) A r m a d i l l o s h a v e a b o n y shell m a d e u p o f m a n y d e r m a l plates.
S o m e other dinosaurs,
n o t a b l y t h e ankylosaurs, a r e w e l l a r m o r e d .
W h y n o t s a u r o p o d s ? T h e r e i s n o r e a s o n w h y n o t , b u t t h e r e i s also o n l y o n e f a m i l y o f s a u r o p o d s k n o w n t o b e a r m o r e d , and that i s the titanosaurids. S u r p r i s i n g l y e n o u g h , the s u g g e s t i o n o f a r m o r e d s a u r o p o d s w a s m a d e l o n g
THE
ROAMING
TITAN
LIZARDS
137 ago. T h e French paleontologist Charles D e p e r e t ,
w h i l e s t u d y i n g dinosaurs
f r o m M a d a g a s c a r , f o u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p i e c e s o f d e r m a l a r m o r that h e sugg e s t e d b e l o n g e d t o titanosaurids.
That was in
1896.
D e p e r e t ' s claim was
c o n s i d e r e d i n t e r e s t i n g b u t it d i d n o t m a k e a real splash b e c a u s e titanosaurids h a v e b e e n f o r s o l o n g b a c k - b u r n e r s a u r o p o d s , and a t t h e t i m e t h e c o n c e p t o f armored
dinosaurs
w a s just
too
foreign.
The
confirmation
of Deperet's
assertion c a m e n o t f r o m m o r e w o r k i n M a d a g a s c a r o r A f r i c a . I t c a m e f r o m South A m e r i c a . I n 1 9 8 0 t w o A r g e n t i n i a n p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s , Jose B o n a p a r t e and Jaime P o w e l l , w o r k i n g w i t h the e x c e l l e n t titanosaurid m a t e r i a l t h e y had b e e n e x c a v a t i n g — e x c e l l e n t e x c e p t f o r m i s s i n g the h e a d s — p u b l i s h e d a p a p e r illustrating scutes o f d e r m a l b o n e and p r o v i n g u n a m b i g u o u s l y that a t least s o m e titanosaurids w e r e a r m o r e d . T h e r e are a n u m b e r o f d i f f e r e n t shapes o f a r m o r p l a t e s , but basically t h e y h a v e a r o u n d base w i t h a r i d g e or c r e s t rising up f r o m its surface. T h e e x a c t a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e d i f f e r e n t v a r i a t i o n s o f this f o r m o n the b o d y i s c u r r e n t l y u n k n o w n , and t h e p u r p o s e , w h e t h e r f o r d e c o r a t i o n o r d e f e n s e o r s o m e o t h e r r e a s o n , i s also u n k n o w n .
But the titanosaurids are
armored. I f titanosaurids a r e a r m o r e d , and i f w e w e r e d i g g i n g u p titanosaurids i n the L u w o n y a H i l l s o f M a l a w i , t h e n w h y w e r e w e n o t d i g g i n g u p d e r m a l ossicles a l o n g w i t h t h e o t h e r bones? W e n e v e r h a v e , e v e n t o this d a y . H o w e v e r , w e w e r e finding a n u m b e r of strangely
shaped
objects
c o m p o s e d entirely of
crystals o f the m i n e r a l c a l c i t e . T h e s a m e m i n e r a l also g r e w i n t h e m a r r o w cavities o f s o m e o f the fossil b o n e s i n M a l a w i . L o o k i n g a t t h o s e c a l c i t e o b j e c t s c a r e f u l l y , w e c o n c l u d e d that t h e y had t o r e p r e s e n t s o m e shape o f b i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n . It is n o t all that r a r e in g e o l o g y f o r a s t r u c t u r e to be d i s s o l v e d a w a y and its shape t o b e f i l l e d w i t h a d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l . T h e r e s u l t i n g f o r m s are c a l l e d p s e u d o m o r p h s . I n o r g a n i c substances such as salt crystals, t h e m i n e r a l halite, can b e d i s s o l v e d a w a y f r o m r o c k , b u t t h e i r o r i g i n a l c u b i c f o r m left b e h i n d . I t can also h a p p e n w i t h b i o l o g i c a l structures i n t h e s a m e w a y . T h e calcite p s e u d o m o r p h s f r o m armor.
They
are
M a l a w i resemble nothing so much as dermal
n o t shaped
exactly
the
same as the a r m o r f r o m
South
A m e r i c a or Madagascar, but they are similar. T h e r e is no b o n e left, so if they are p s e u d o m o r p h s o f d e r m a l o s s i c l e s , all t h e b o n e w a s d i s s o l v e d a w a y and calcite g r e w i n its p l a c e . T h e p s e u d o m o r p h s h a v e a c i r c u l a r base w i t h a d o z e n or so p r o j e c t i o n s sticking o u t f r o m the e d g e . T h e r e is a tall spine that slants b a c k w a r d — a t least t o w h a t w e c o n s i d e r t o b e the b a c k w a r d d i r e c t i o n . S o i n M a l a w i w e have b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a e , a h i p w i t h a w i d e i s c h i u m ,
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
138 a r t i c u l a t e d b r e a s t b o n e s , and v e r y p o s s i b l y t h e r e m n a n t s o f d e r m a l a r m o r . A g o o d case f o r titanosaurids i n d e e d . Y o u m a y h a v e n o t i c e d that I h a v e n o t m e n t i o n e d the l a r g e r o f the t w o l o w e r j a w s f r o m M a l a w i b y n a m e , o r t h e f l a t t e n e d t e e t h . T h a t i s because they do
not
necessarily
fit
the
mold
of what
titanosaurid j a w s
and
teeth
are
s u p p o s e d t o l o o k l i k e . But t h e y a r e a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t i t a n o s a u r i d . W e c a m e to that c o n c l u s i o n t h r o u g h a c i r c u i t o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In
1 9 2 9 F r i e d r i c h B a r o n v o n H u e n e n a m e d the s a u r o p o d Antarctosaurus
wichmannianus f r o m the
Cretaceous of Argentina.
T h e s p e c i m e n consists o f
skull p a r t s , the f r o n t e n d o f a l o w e r j a w , s o m e t e e t h , p a r t o f a n i s c h i u m , and a f e w o t h e r o d d s and e n d s , b u t n o tail v e r t e b r a e . A t that t i m e t h e r e w a s n o w a y t o r e c o g n i z e titanosaurids o t h e r than b y the p r e s e n c e o f b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t caudal v e r t e b r a e .
So w h y d i d v o n H u e n e call Antarctosaurus a titanosaurid if
h e d i d n o t h a v e e v e n o n e b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a a m o n g t h e m a t e r i a l that h e d i d h a v e o f it? There
w a s p r o b a b l y n o p l a c e b e t t e r f o r h i m t o assign
i t than t o the
titanosaurid f a m i l y , j u d g i n g f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f h i n d s i g h t . I t w a s n o t a bad h y p o t h e s i s ( a n d t h e r e i s still the c h a n c e that i t m a y turn o u t t o b e substantially c o r r e c t , i n w h i c h case t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f titanosaurids w i l l b e e v e n m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d than i t s e e m s t o b e n o w ) .
P l e n t y o f g o o d titanosaurid
v e r t e b r a e w e r e k n o w n f r o m the C r e t a c e o u s o f South A m e r i c a , i t i s just that n o n e b e l o n g e d t o Antarctosaurus.
A n d b e s i d e s , i t w a s n o t l i k e h e k n e w that
Antarctosaurus had tail v e r t e b r a e d i f f e r e n t f r o m titanosaurids. T h e r e w e r e n o tail v e r t e b r a e of Antarctosaurus k n o w n at all f r o m South A m e r i c a . T h a t is still t h e case t o d a y . O n e o t h e r t h i n g : N o o t h e r f a m i l i e s o f s a u r o p o d s , n o n e b u t the titanosaurids,
w e r e k n o w n f r o m the C r e t a c e o u s o f South A m e r i c a i n v o n
H u e n e ' s day. N o n e o f this w o u l d m a k e any d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e s t o r y i n M a l a w i w e r e i t n o t f o r t h e j a w and the t e e t h o f Antarctosaurus that v o n H u e n e d e s c r i b e d . T h e t e e t h a r e p e n c i l l i k e , and t h e y are l i m i t e d t o the f r o n t o f the j a w , w h i c h itself c u r v e s sharply t o w a r d the c h i n . I t i s o n t h e basis o f that j a w and t h o s e t e e t h that e v e r y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f titanosaurid skulls until n o w has b e e n m o d e l e d after Diplodocus—long,
w i t h nostrils a t t h e t o p and t e e t h l i m i t e d t o t h e f r o n t .
T h e features o f Antarctosaurus a r e the s a m e o n e s w e used t o identify the s m a l l e r o f t h e t w o j a w s f r o m M a l a w i a s a d i p l o d o c i d . T h o s e are the same characters that w e use n o w t o suggest that, g i v e n t h e lack o f p o s i t i v e e v i d e n c e to t h e c o n t r a r y , Antarctosaurus is n o t a titanosaurid at all, but r a t h e r a South
THE
ROAMING
TITAN
LIZARDS
A m e r i c a n C r e t a c e o u s d i p l o d o c i d . F o r o v e r sixty y e a r s titanosaurids h a v e b e e n taking a b u m rap o v e r w h a t t h e i r heads l o o k l i k e . T h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a y have also caused s o m e p r o b l e m s f o r v o n H u e n e in his later studies. In 1933 he p u b l i s h e d a m o n o g r a p h on Indian dinosaurs with Charles A l f r e d M a t l e y . tosaurus,
I n i t t h e y r e c o g n i z e d a n e w species o f Antarc-
w h i c h t h e y c a l l e d Antarctosaurus septentrionalis.
T h e Indian s p e c i m e n
i n c l u d e d t h e back o f the skull, t h o u g h t b y v o n H u e n e and M a t l e y t o b e similar t o that f r o m South A m e r i c a . T h e y w e r e l e d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n , based o n that s i m i l a r i t y , that t h e animals f r o m w h i c h t h o s e b o n e s f r o m the back o f the skull w e r e d e r i v e d b e l o n g e d t o the s a m e c l o s e - k n i t g r o u p o f s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s . T h u s the g e n u s c a m e t o b e k n o w n f r o m b o t h A r g e n t i n a and India.
T h e Indian
s p e c i m e n also i n c l u d e d a b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a , w h i c h w a s t h e r e f o r e o b v i o u s l y titanosaurid ( b u t o f c o u r s e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , the first p l a c e f r o m w h i c h titanosaurids w e r e k n o w n w a s India, s o i t i s n o t surprising that m o r e o f t h e m should b e f o u n d ) . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e back ends o f skulls are o f t e n v e r y conservative
in
evolution.
In
this
case,
while
the
Indian
"Antarctosaurus"
m a t e r i a l i s d e f i n i t e l y titanosaurid ( w e k n o w that f r o m t h e tail v e r t e b r a ) , t h e South A m e r i c a n Antarctosaurus, t h e t r u e Antarctosaurus, m a y n o t b e . It is m o r e l i k e l y t o b e d i p l o d o c i d . T h e r e s e m b l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e S o u t h A m e r i c a n and Indian b o n e s f r o m t h e back o f t h e skull m a y u l t i m a t e l y p r o v e t o i n d i c a t e n o t h i n g m o r e than that b o t h b e l o n g t o s a u r o p o d s . V o n H u e n e and M a t l e y also d e s c r i b e d a s a u r o p o d u p p e r j a w b o n e ,
or
m a x i l l a , i n t h e i r m o n o g r a p h . N o w , this i s a n i n t e r e s t i n g s p e c i m e n . I t w a s d e s c r i b e d by t h e m as c o m i n g f r o m a beast w i t h a short and v e r y high s n o u t , s o t h e y c o n c l u d e d that i t c o u l d n o t h a v e c o m e f r o m Antarctosaurus, w h i c h t h e y thought to be a titanosaurid, but which we n o w k n o w may i n v o l v e sauropods o f t w o d i f f e r e n t families a n y w a y . V o n H u e n e had r e c o n s t r u c t e d Antarctosaurus as h a v i n g a l o n g Diplodocus-like
snout based
on
t h e Antarctosaurus j a w
from
South A m e r i c a that h e had d e s c r i b e d f o u r years e a r l i e r . A s w e shall s e e , the u p p e r j a w f r o m India f i t s w i t h n o t h i n g s o w e l l a s a t i t a n o s a u r i d , short snout and all, based o n w h a t has b e e n f o u n d i n M a l a w i . T h e r e w a s o n e o t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n . S o m e m o r e o r less p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h , n o t s p o o n - s h a p e d , had b e e n f o u n d w i t h g o o d titanosaurid b o n e s . A s I have said b e f o r e , i t i s n o t u n l i k e l y that s i m p l e t e e t h m a y h a v e e v o l v e d f r o m s p o o n shaped t e e t h m o r e than o n c e i n d i f f e r e n t s a u r o p o d e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e s . T h e l a r g e r s a u r o p o d t e e t h f r o m M a l a w i d e m o n s t r a t e that p o s s i b i l i t y because t h e y are n o t o f e i t h e r shape. T h e y are i n t e r m e d i a t e , m o r e d e r i v e d than s p o o n -
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
140 shaped t e e t h and m o r e p r i m i t i v e than p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h . I n m o s t features n o t w o f a m i l i e s o f s a u r o p o d s are m o r e u n l i k e each o t h e r than titanosaurids and d i p l o d o c i d s . T h a t s o m e t i t a n o s a u r i d s p e c i e s m a y h a v e p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h superf i c i a l l y r e s e m b l i n g d i p l o d o c i d s m e r e l y s h o w s that c y l i n d r i c a l t e e t h e v o l v e d s e p a r a t e l y m o r e than o n c e i n s a u r o p o d s . S i m p l y s t a t e d , t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o a c c e p t that titanosaurids had heads like d i p l o d o c i d s . Since that i s t h e c a s e , t h e r e i s n o particular r e a s o n t o l u m p the small d i p l o d o c i d j a w f r o m M a l a w i w i t h the b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t tail v e r t e b r a e and the o t h e r b o n e s that a r e d e f i n i t e l y t i t a n o s a u r i d . T h e o t h e r j a w , the l a r g e r o n e , w i t h its l o n g t o o t h r o w and f l a t t e n e d t e e t h , f i t s b e t t e r w i t h the titanosaurid b o n e s b e c a u s e i t i s the r i g h t s i z e . F r o m that r e a s o n i n g , w e can say that w e k n o w w h a t the l o w e r j a w o f t h e M a l a w i titanosaurid l o o k s l i k e . M o r e o v e r , t h e t e e t h , w h i c h a r e f l a t t e n e d , n o t p e n c i l l i k e , and h a v e the e d g e f o r m e d like that
i n b r a c h i o s a u r i d s and
camarasaurids,
show
c l e a r l y that the
common
a n c e s t o r o f d i p l o d o c i d s and titanosaurids d i d n o t h a v e p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h . O n c e i t w a s d e c i d e d that t h e l a r g e r o f t h e t w o l o w e r j a w s f r o m M a l a w i w a s t i t a n o s a u r i d , it b e c a m e r e l a t i v e l y easy to i d e n t i f y as titanosaurid a p r e m a x i l l a r y b o n e , the t o o t h - b e a r i n g b o n e r i g h t a t t h e f r o n t o f the skull, f o u n d i n M a l a w i . F o u r r e p l a c e m e n t t e e t h are still i n the s o c k e t s . T h e y are o f the f l a t t e n e d v a r i e t y , p r o v i n g that this p r e m a x i l l a b e l o n g s t o the s a m e species a s t h e l a r g e r l o w e r j a w . I n fact t h e t w o c o u l d h a v e b e l o n g e d t o the v e r y same a n i m a l . N o w w e c o u l d s h o w f o r the f i r s t t i m e w i t h r e a s o n a b l e c e r t a i n t y w h a t t h e l o w e r j a w and the s n o u t o f a titanosaurid r e a l l y l o o k e d l i k e . T h e p r e m a x i l l a is v e r y strange as sauropod premaxillaries g o . It is n o t so l o n g as in d i p l o d o c i d s or d r a w n o u t i n t o a t o o t h y d u c k ' s bill as in Brachiosaurus. T h e h o l e f o r the nasal passage is l a r g e . A thin p i e c e of the p r e m a x i l l a stands u p n e a r l y v e r t i c a l l y t o f o r m the f r o n t e d g e o f the n o s e . T h e p r e m a x i l l a s h o w s c o n c l u s i v e l y b y its s t r u c t u r e that t h e snout w a s b l u n t — v e r y ,
very blunt.
W e i r d l y b l u n t . T h e back e n d o f t h e p r e m a x i l l a e n d s i n a m o r e o r less straight e d g e that runs f r o m the b o t t o m o f the n o s e o p e n i n g i n a d o w n w a r d d i r e c t i o n , p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the t o o t h r o w .
T h a t e d g e i s w h e r e a m a x i l l a , the o t h e r
tooth-bearing b o n e o f the upper j a w ,
would fit.
T h e p r e m a x i l l a f r o m M a l a w i i s the o n l y titanosaurid p r e m a x i l l a that has e v e r b e e n f o u n d a n y w h e r e . I n a d d i t i o n t o s h o w i n g h o w b l u n t the face w a s , i t s h o w s that the f r o n t e n d o f t h e m a x i l l a r y b o n e e n d s b e l o w the nasal o p e n i n g w h e r e i t abuts against the p r e m a x i l l a . N o n e o f i t e x t e n d s i n f r o n t o f the n o s e h o l e s . T h a t , t o o , i s s t r a n g e f o r s a u r o p o d s . I n fact n o s a u r o p o d s k n o w n , e x c e p t
THE
ROAMING
TITAN
LIZARDS
titanosaurids, h a v e this f e a t u r e . S o m e o t h e r dinosaurs d o , such a s p r o s a u r o p o d s f o r instance, and that suggests that the p o s i t i o n o f the n o s e a t t h e v e r y f r o n t o f the head i s w h e r e , e v o l u t i o n a r i l y , i t started o u t i n s a u r o p o d s . T h o s e s a u r o p o d s i n w h i c h t h e nasal o p e n i n g s a r e farther back e v o l v e d f r o m s a u r o p o d ancestors that w e r e m o r e l i k e titanosaurids i n the p o s i t i o n o f the n o s e . A s I said, t h e r e i s o n l y o n e titanosaurid p r e m a x i l l a k n o w n i n all the w o r l d a s o f this m o m e n t — t h a t is, k n o w n t o m e a n y w a y . T h e r e i s also o n l y o n e m a x i l l a k n o w n , and that i s the o n e d e s c r i b e d b y v o n H u e n e and M a t l e y f r o m India in
1933,
but
confusion.
which
You
they
can t e l l
could
it
is
a
c o m p l e t e l y b e l o w the n o s e h o l e . shaped
like
the
one
from
not
identify because
titanosaurid b e c a u s e
o f t h e Antarctosaurus its
front
edge
ends
I t w o u l d f i t n i c e l y against a p r e m a x i l l a
Malawi.
Both
o f these
bones
show
important
features o f the titanosaurid skull: I t i s short b u t v e r y h i g h , and v e r y n a r r o w . F r o m the side these g u y s had heads that l o o k e d l i k e the f r o n t ends o f giant w o r m s (Figure 30). O b v i o u s l y t h e n e x t step i n t h e study o f the titanosaurid f r o m M a l a w i w a s to figure o u t w h a t to call it. H a u g h t o n had c a l l e d it Gigantosaurus dixeyi, b u t f o r the legalities o f n o m e n c l a t u r e , the n a m e Gigantosaurus w a s n o t g o o d . T h e w a y t o start the n e x t step w a s t o d e c i d e i f dixeyi w a s a g o o d s p e c i e s based o n its b i o l o g i c a l m e r i t , u n i q u e in the animal k i n g d o m ,
or if it w a s s i m p l y a
p a t r o n y m f o r a s a u r o p o d that w a s k n o w n m o r e c o m m o n l y u n d e r a n o t h e r n a m e . T h e w a y t o b e g i n f i n d i n g that o u t w a s t o c o m p a r e i t w i t h t h e titanosaurid f r o m T e n d a g u r u . Janenschia robusta w a s d e s c r i b e d in
1908
(under a different n a m e ) .
It is
k n o w n f r o m a tail and s o m e o t h e r b o n e s that m a y o r m a y n o t r e a l l y b e l o n g t o the same species o f animal a s t h e tail. I t d o e s n o t m a t t e r f o r o u r p u r p o s e s because all we r e a l l y n e e d in this case is to s h o w that t h e tail is, or is n o t , the same as that of dixeyi.
We can s h o w that it is n o t b e c a u s e the spines of
the v e r t e b r a e , and the b o n y p r o c e s s e s b y w h i c h t h e y attach t o t h e i r n e i g h b o r s , are d i f f e r e n t . T h o s e in Janenschia are m o r e l i k e o t h e r s a u r o p o d s . But t h e r e is o n e b i g s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n Janenschia and dixeyi.
W h i l e the v e r t e b r a e in the
f r o n t o f the tail are p r o c o e l o u s — t h e y h a v e b i g balls o n t h e back e n d o f the c e n t r a — t h e v e r t e b r a e t o w a r d the m i d d l e and i n the back o f the tail are n o t . T h e species dixeyi is distinct f r o m b u t similar to Janenschia robusta. Janenschia i s g e o l o g i c a l l y o l d e r and a n a t o m i c a l l y m o r e p r i m i t i v e . A l l the o t h e r titanosaurids s c a t t e r e d a r o u n d t h e w o r l d w i t h o n l y a c o u p l e o f e x c e p t i o n s have b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t caudal v e r t e b r a e all the w a y t o t h e e n d o f
FIGURE
30:
A family group
of Malawi-saurus
in
a
gallery forest.
braided streams and rivers drain nearby hills and mountains. seasonal.
The
vegetation—with ferns,
shrubs—is generally similar to
that
horsetails, at
cycads,
Tendaguru
except
Swift-flowing
The climate is
and conifer trees and that
by
100 million
years ago,
the time of the Dinosaur Beds and 45
million years after
flowering plants (angiosperms) were starting to come onto the scene. grew luxuriantly in the galleries along the watercourses, and
rivers vegetation was much less dense.
Tendaguru, Vegetation
but away from the streams
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
144 the tail. T h e r e f o r e dixeyi c a n n o t b e l o n g t o any o f t h o s e s p e c i e s g r o u p s e i t h e r . W e w i l l s o o n g i v e i t its o w n scientifically v a l i d f i r s t n a m e . F o r n o w I w i l l i n f o r m a l l y r e f e r to it as M a l a w i - s a u r u s . N e v e r t h e l e s s M a l a w i - s a u r u s is similar t o t h e titanosaurids o f S o u t h A m e r i c a , and e v e n N o r t h A m e r i c a , i n the shape o f t h e n e u r a l spines and o t h e r b o n y p r o c e s s e s o n the v e r t e b r a e . I t i s p a r t i c u larly c l o s e t o Andesaurus f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a . T h a t m e a n s i t i s i n t e r m e d i a t e i n b o t h a n a t o m y and i n a g e t o t h e o l d e r titanosaurid o f A f r i c a and the y o u n g e r titanosaurids o f the W e s t e r n H e m i s p h e r e . W i t h that b i t o f k n o w l e d g e , w e are able t o d e v i s e a g e o g r a p h i c s c e n a r i o f o r the e v o l u t i o n o f titanosaurids. The
oldest
k n o w n titanosaurid
i s Janenschia
from
Tendaguru,
approxi-
m a t e l y 145 m i l l i o n years o l d . T i t a n o s a u r i d s w e r e d e f i n i t e l y i n A f r i c a t h e n , n e a r b y o t h e r s a u r o p o d s i n c l u d i n g Brachiosaurus and d i p l o d o c i d s . T h e y are n o t c u r r e n t l y u n a m b i g u o u s l y k n o w n f r o m that t i m e i n t e r v a l i n any o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s , but that m a y b e m i s l e a d i n g . A t that t i m e the dinosaurs s h o w a g r e a t deal o f s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n N o r t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a a s a h o l d o v e r f r o m the P a n g a e a n g e o g r a p h y , w h e n landmasses w e r e b r o a d l y c o n n e c t e d and animals c o u l d r o a m w i d e l y . O f t h e six f a m i l i e s o f s a u r o p o d s , all a r e i n e x i s t e n c e b y the t i m e i n t e r v a l r e p r e s e n t e d a t T e n d a g u r u . A l l six a r e k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a , and f i v e , all b u t t h e t i t a n o s a u r i d s , are k n o w n f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a w a y back then.
Brachiosaurus and Barosaurus,
b o t h s a u r o p o d s , are k n o w n ,
albeit f r o m
d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s , i n b o t h N o r t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a . T h e similarities i n t h o s e d i n o s a u r faunas is p r e t t y a m a z i n g . T h e r e f o r e , it w o u l d n o t be surprising if a North
American
titanosaurid
Chinese paleontologist, s a u r o p o d Bellusaurus,
o f the
same
Dong Zhiming,
vintage
surfaced.
Moreover,
a
has o n l y r e c e n t l y n a m e d the n e w
w h i c h has tail v e r t e b r a e suspiciously l i k e titanosaurids.
But Bellusaurus is f r o m C h i n a , and so far no o n e w h o has s t u d i e d it firsthand has c a l l e d it a t i t a n o s a u r i d . T h e p o i n t of this is to say that the early fossil record
o f titanosaurids
is
so p o o r l y
known
at
this
time
that i t
is
quite
i m p o s s i b l e t o say w i t h any d e g r e e o f c e r t a i n t y w h e r e t h e y o r i g i n a t e d , b u t w i t h e v e r y d e g r e e o f c e r t a i n t y that t h e y w e r e i n A f r i c a b y T e n d a g u r u t i m e s . Then,
after T e n d a g u r u ,
through
plate
tectonics
and
continental
drift,
S o u t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a b e g a n t o s e p a r a t e a s t h e S o u t h A t l a n t i c o p e n e d . T h i s , the Early C r e t a c e o u s , i s t h e t i m e r e p r e s e n t e d b y M a l a w i - s a u r u s . D u r i n g the
Early
Cretaceous,
the
more
familiar sauropods w e r e
o n the
W h e r e a s t h e y used t o d o m i n a t e t h e landscape i n e a r l i e r t i m e s ,
decline.
they n o w
b e c a m e r a r e , i n t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e a t least. T o w a r d the e n d o f the Early
Cretaceous
to
the
beginning
of the
Late
Cretaceous,
about ninety
m i l l i o n years a g o , s a u r o p o d s a p p a r e n t l y b e c a m e e x t i n c t i n N o r t h A m e r i c a .
THE
ROAMING
TITAN
LIZARDS 145
M e a n w h i l e they persisted in the Southern H e m i s p h e r e .
Between Ten-
daguru t i m e s and M a l a w i - s a u r u s t h e characteristic features o f t h e a n a t o m y e v o l v e d that link M a l a w i - s a u r u s w i t h Andesaurus and the o t h e r South A m e r i c a n titanosaurids. A f t e r t h e South A t l a n t i c o p e n e d , t h e South A m e r i c a n titanosaurid fauna, and m o s t e v e r y t h i n g else that w a s t h e r e ,
e v o l v e d in isolation.
T h e South
A m e r i c a n c o n t i n e n t w a s s e p a r a t e d b y the sea f r o m A f r i c a and N o r t h A m e r i c a , and b y the r i g o r s o f A n t a r c t i c a , t o w h i c h i t w a s still a t t a c h e d , f r o m A u s t r a l i a . T h e isolation lasted f o r a b o u t t h e n e x t t h i r t y m i l l i o n y e a r s . I t w a s n o t until a r o u n d s e v e n t y m i l l i o n years a g o , n e a r t h e e n d o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s , that N o r t h and South A m e r i c a b e c a m e o n c e m o r e c o n n e c t e d b y d r y land, a c y c l e that w a s t o r e p e a t again a t a l a t e r t i m e d u r i n g t h e A g e o f M a m m a l s . W i t h t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e A m e r i c a s , animals f r o m o n e c o n t i n e n t , other,
w e r e able t o s p r e a d .
T h e b i p e d a l hadrosaurian
but n e w to the
dinosaur Kritosaurus
c a m e south. S o d i d the h o r n e d c e r a t o p s i a n s . S o , t o o , d i d marsupial m a m m a l s , the o p o s s u m s . A n d f r o m south t o n o r t h across t h e b r i d g e w e n t t h e titanosaurids. A f t e r t w e n t y m i l l i o n years o r s o w i t h o u t s a u r o p o d s , N o r t h A m e r i c a w a s i n v a d e d b y titanosaurids. T h e last N o r t h A m e r i c a n s a u r o p o d i s the titanosaurid
Alamosaurus
sanjuanensis,
named
for
the
old
Ojo
Alamo
trading
post,
Spanish f o r c o t t o n w o o d s p r i n g , n o w g o n e , just l i k e t h e w a t e r , i n the San Juan Basin o f N e w M e x i c o . Alamosaurus i s also k n o w n f r o m
U t a h and s o u t h e r n
W y o m i n g , b u t n o t f r o m farther n o r t h , and f r o m t h e Big B e n d o f t h e R i o G r a n d e in T e x a s . Alamosaurus, p o s s i b l y the last of all t h e s a u r o p o d s , d i e d o u t near the e n d o f t h e A g e o f t h e
Reptiles,
a part of the
G r e a t D y i n g that
d e c i m a t e d t h e M e s o z o i c w o r l d and b r o u g h t i t t o a c l o s e .
W H A T A HISTORY! T i t a n o s a u r i d s t r a c e d f r o m 145 m i l l i o n years a g o until t h e i r e x t i n c t i o n a t 6 6 m i l l i o n years a g o — 7 9 m i l l i o n y e a r s o f f a m i l y g e n e a l o g y l e a d i n g f r o m the shorelands o f a n c i e n t T e n d a g u r u , t h r o u g h the h e a r t o f A f r i c a , across South A m e r i c a , t h e n o v e r the land b r i d g e l i n k i n g South w i t h N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e r e w a s o n e r e a s o n , and o n e r e a s o n o n l y , w h y this h i s t o r y c o u l d b e c o m p l e t e d : the titanosaurian missing l i n k , M a l a w i - s a u r u s , had b e e n r e c o g n i z e d .
W H O SAYS S T U D Y I N G dinosaurs i n A f r i c a d o e s n o t t e l l y o u a b o u t things closer to home?
AFRICAN DINOSAURS, BEFORE AND AFTER
T
HE
SAUROPOD
M a l a w i - s a u r u s i s a p p a r e n t l y the
m o s t abundant animal
i n t h e D i n o s a u r B e d s , b u t i t i s b y n o m e a n s the o n l y o n e . T h e r e i s its s a u r o p o d c o u s i n , the n e w , u n n a m e d species o f d i p l o d o c i d . T h e r e a r e a t least t h r e e m o r e k i n d s o f dinosaurs besides the titanosaurid and d i p l o d o c i d s a u r o p o d s . Besides dinosaurs t h e r e are crustaceans, snails, f i s h , f r o g s , and c r o c o d i l e s . But d i n o saurs m a k e u p the b u l k o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n , i n mass and i n n u m b e r s o f specimens. D i n o s a u r s , b y d e f i n i t i o n , a r e n o t h i n g m o r e n o r less than a particular g r o u p o f g e n e t i c a l l y r e l a t e d r e p t i l e s . T h e y are m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o each o t h e r than t h e y a r e to any o t h e r r e p t i l e s b e c a u s e t h e y all share a c o m m o n a n c e s t o r . T h a t c o m m o n a n c e s t o r had specific characteristics and features that can b e r e c o g n i z e d i n its d e s c e n d a n t s , b u t n o t i n o t h e r r e p t i l e s , and that i s w h y they d e s e r v e to be l u m p e d t o g e t h e r under the dinosaur rubric. Q u i t e fortunately m a n y o f t h e d i a g n o s t i c features o f r e p t i l e s a r e i n the b o n e s ; t h e r e f o r e t h e y can b e s e e n i n fossils and w e can i n t e r p r e t r e p t i l i a n g e n e a l o g y f r o m b o n e s d u g o u t o f the g r o u n d . S o m e o f t h e d i a g n o s t i c features o f r e p t i l e s are i n the skull. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f b o n y arches i n t h e c h e e k r e g i o n , and the gaps and spaces that separate 146
t h e m , s h o w similarities a m o n g such s e e m i n g l y disparate g r o u p s a s lizards,
AFRICAN
DINOSAURS,
BEFORE
AND
AFTER
snakes, c r o c o d i l e s , d i n o s a u r s , and e v e n b i r d s , each o f these g r o u p s e x h i b i t i n g the same f u n d a m e n t a l p a t t e r n o f r e p t i l i a n a n a t o m y . D i n o s a u r s h a v e a n a d d i tional s t r u c t u r e i n f r o n t o f the e y e that separates t h e m f r o m snakes and l i z a r d s , and m a r k s t h e m a s m e m b e r s o f t h e R u l i n g R e p t i l e s , t h e A r c h o s a u r i a . Y o u m i g h t think that i t i s o v e r k i l l t o use such features a s the s t r u c t u r e o f the face and snout t o s o r t o u t r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n , say, snakes and d i n o saurs, b u t t h e r e are a g r e a t m a n y kinds o f r e p t i l e s , and the characteristic used t o m a k e g e n e a l o g i c a l sense o u t o f t h e m m u s t r e f l e c t f u n d a m e n t a l r e l a t i o n ships, n o t adaptations t o specific kinds o f l i f e - s t y l e s and e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e s . T o m a k e a light analogy w i t h o u r o w n species, w e w o u l d n o t e x p e c t m e m b e r s of the same trade union to be related by b l o o d necessarily, e v e n though in the same c o m m u n i t y m a n y o f t h e m m i g h t b e .
M o r e f u n d a m e n t a l relationships
w o u l d b e o b v i o u s f r o m o b s e r v i n g f a m i l y r e u n i o n s w h e n cousins and u n c l e s and the r e s t , all o f w h o m h a v e b e e n o u t i n t h e w o r l d t o m a k e t h e i r l i v i n g s i n their o w n w a y s ,
come together.
T h e family portrait shows the family
r e s e m b l a n c e , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n w o r k c l o t h e s . M a n y o f the m o s t o b v i o u s skeletal d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g animals r e f l e c t adaptations t o t h e i r w a y s o f l i f e , and c o n v e r s e l y , animals w i t h similar w a y s o f life m a y e x h i b i t similar adaptations and skeletal f e a t u r e s . O n e m u s t l o o k d e e p e r f o r characteristics o f genealogical
significance.
D i n o s a u r s are n o t the o n l y m e m b e r s o f t h e A r c h o s a u r i a , and t h e r e a r e , o f c o u r s e , s e v e r a l branches t o the d i n o s a u r t r e e . A l l o f t h e d i n o s a u r s , h o w e v e r , are u n i t e d b y the possession o f c e r t a i n characteristic features o f the skull, p e l v i s , and l i m b s . D i n o s a u r s , w i t h all t h e i r d i v e r s i t y , h a v e t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n divided into only t w o fundamental groups. T h e b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i r e p r e s e n t b o t h o f the classical d i v i s i o n s o f d i n o saurs, the " l i z a r d - h i p p e d " saurischians and the " b i r d - h i p p e d " ornithischians. T h e s a u r o p o d s are e x a m p l e s o f l i z a r d - h i p p e d d i n o s a u r s , and s o a r e t h e b i p e d a l c a r n i v o r e s , o f w h i c h w e h a v e f o u n d a f e w b o n e s and t e e t h ( F i g u r e 3 1 ) . T h e stegosaur that K e n t w a s w o r k i n g o n a t C D - 1 0 i s a n e x a m p l e o f a b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaur ( F i g u r e 3 2 ) . T h e r e c o g n i t i o n that the shape o f the p e l v i s i s i m p o r t a n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g the e v o l u t i o n a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f dinosaurs g o e s back t o n e a r the b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e i r study. H a r r y G o v i e r S e e l e y , a B r i t i s h e r , d e v i s e d this classification i n 1 8 8 7 , a t the t i m e the s l a v e r M l o z i w a s b e i n g b a t t l e d b y t h e British i n n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a n a t o m y b e t w e e n b i r d - h i p p e d and l i z a r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs a r e r e a l , b u t m o r e r e c e n t d i s c o v e r i e s , n o t i n M a l a w i b u t e l s e w h e r e , h a v e s u g g e s t e d t o s o m e i n v e s t i g a t o r s that t h e t w o f o l d
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D
148 d i v i s i o n m a y b e t o o s i m p l e t o a c c o u n t f o r all the d i v e r s i t y s e e n i n dinosaurs. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n discussing A f r i c a n d i n o s a u r s , t h e t w o f o l d d i v i s i o n i s c o n v e n i e n t and a d e q u a t e . T h e r e i s a g o o d r e a s o n w h y the p e l v i s s h o u l d b e s o i m p o r t a n t i n the study of dinosaurs.
Because dinosaurs are p r i m i t i v e l y b i p e d a l ,
walking about on
t h e i r t w o h i n d l e g s , t h e r e had t o b e structural changes i n the s k e l e t o n t o c a r r y the w e i g h t in a w a y different f r o m their quadrupedal ancestors. W a l k i n g on the back l e g s i n v o l v e s t i l t i n g t h e b o d y b a c k w a r d , w i t h the c o n s e q u e n t transm i s s i o n o f all t h e w e i g h t d o w n t h e hind legs t o t h e g r o u n d . I t m a k e s sense that the j o i n t c o n n e c t i n g t h e l e g s t o t h e h i p w o u l d b e m o d i f i e d , a s w e l l a s the m u s c l e s c o n t r o l l i n g the legs and b a c k . T h e r e a r e t w o m a j o r w a y s i n w h i c h that has b e e n d o n e i n d i n o s a u r s . T h e r e s u l t i n g skeletal changes are o b v i o u s i n the
FIGURE
31:
evolutionary facilitates shown
in
Relationships of lizard-hipped dinosaurs. tree of these dinosaurs.
discussion
and
investigation.
the lower right.
pelvis shown
in Figure 32.
It provides a The
bones
This cladogram
is one possible
logical arrangement of the
Compare this saurischian pelvis
that
lizard-hipped pelvis with
are
the bird-hipped
AFRICAN
DINOSAURS,
BEFORE
AND
AFTER
t h r e e b o n e s that m a k e u p the p e l v i s . T h o s e features a r e w h a t h a v e b e c o m e t e r m e d l i z a r d - h i p p e d o r b i r d - h i p p e d . B o t h g r o u p s c o n t a i n s o m e s p e c i e s that are b i p e d a l and o t h e r s that are q u a d r u p e d a l . G i v e n that b i p e d a l i s m i s p r i m i t i v e f o r dinosaurs i n g e n e r a l , i t s e e m s that i n b o t h the l i z a r d - h i p p e d and b i r d h i p p e d c a t e g o r i e s s o m e o f t h e s p e c i e s h a v e , t h r o u g h e v o l u t i o n , eased t h e i r f o r e q u a r t e r s back d o w n t o the g r o u n d and r e v e r t e d t o w a l k i n g o n all f o u r s . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , the dinosaurs can b e v i e w e d a s b e i n g e i t h e r c a r n i v o r o u s o r h e r b i v o r o u s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i r r o l e i n the e c o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y . As we have seen, w i t h regard to their l o c o m o t i o n , they are either bipedal or quadrupedal.
A l l o f the c a r n i v o r o u s dinosaurs b e l o n g t o the l i z a r d - h i p p e d
g r o u p ( s e e F i g u r e 3 1 ) , a s d o t h e q u a d r u p e d a l h e r b i v o r o u s s a u r o p o d s and t h e i r p l a n t - e a t i n g r e l a t i v e s , the b i p e d a l p r o s a u r o p o d s . W h i l e t h e r e are m a n y s p e cies o f b i p e d a l h e r b i v o r o u s d i n o s a u r s , b o t h l i z a r d - h i p p e d and b i r d - h i p p e d , t h e r e are n o q u a d r u p e d a l c a r n i v o r o u s d i n o s a u r s . A l l o f the c a r n i v o r o u s d i n o saurs t o g e t h e r are c a l l e d t h e r o p o d s . T h i s is t h e g r o u p that i n c l u d e s Tyrannosaurus rex, the giant m e a t - e a t e r at the e n d of the A g e of R e p t i l e s . T. rex w a s e n o r m o u s , w i t h a huge head a r m e d w i t h serrated daggerlike teeth. T h e hind
FIGURE
32:
Relationships of bird-hipped dinosaurs.
evolutionary tree of these dinosaurs. facilitates discussion
and
investigation.
shown in the lower right.
It provides a The
bones
This cladogram
is one possible
logical arrangement of the
ornithischian
that pelvis
are
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
ISO
l i m b s w e r e l a r g e , b u t the f o r e l i m b s , w h i l e s t r o n g , w e r e r e l a t i v e l y m i n u t e and had
only
two
fingers.
Other
theropods
are
not
quite
so
much
like
the
t y r a n n o s a u r i d m o l d . AUosaurus, f o r i n s t a n c e , k n o w n f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a and T e n d a g u r u i n A f r i c a , had l a r g e r f o r e l i m b s , w i t h t h r e e f i n g e r s , r a t h e r than t w o , on t h e h a n d . Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, s h o w n in F i g u r e 2 in C h a p t e r 1, is also k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a , b u t ^ f r o m E g y p t and f r o m r o c k s m u c h y o u n g e r than t h o s e at T e n d a g u r u .
It is o n e of t h e strangest of the t h e r o p o d s .
It had a
n a r r o w , c r o c o d i l e l i k e s n o u t , and o n its back w a s a sail o r h u m p s u p p o r t e d b y v e r y l o n g spines f r o m t h e v e r t e b r a e . T h e spines and the sail are e n i g m a t i c . A l l o f the t h e r o p o d s are i n t e r e s t i n g , b u t o n e r a t h e r c o n f u s e d j u m b l e o f t h e r o p o d s , the c o e l u r o s a u r s , I find p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g . E v o l u t i o n a r y relationships w i t h i n the g r o u p a r e v e r y i m p e r f e c t l y d e c i p h e r e d , and i t i s l i k e l y that a m a j o r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of the g r o u p w i l l o c c u r as its e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e is m o r e realistically r e s o l v e d . F o r n o w i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o discuss t h e m a s o n e set o f d i n o s a u r s . C o e l u r o s a u r s are l i g h t l y b u i l t , a c t i v e a n i m a l s . T h e r e i s a n e n o r m o u s v a r i e t y o f t h e m , e v e n s o m e that h a v e lost all t h e i r t e e t h . Elaphrosaurus bambergi f r o m T e n d a g u r u is an A f r i c a n c o e l u r o s a u r . Its skull is u n k n o w n . T h e small but v i c i o u s Deinonychus is a n o t h e r e x a m p l e of a c o e l u r o s a u r . It has o n e e n l a r g e d s i c k l e l i k e c l a w o n each h i n d f o o t . I t w a s shaped r a t h e r l i k e t h e can o p e n e r o n a Swiss a r m y k n i f e . T h e c l a w w a s h e l d o f f t h e g r o u n d as Deinonychus ran. It was constantly ready to be brought into use, like a switchblade, to disembowel
its
prey.
While
Deinonychus
was not
particularly
large,
i t possibly
h u n t e d i n p a c k s , m a k i n g i t the dinosaurian e q u i v a l e n t o f w o l v e s , and t h e r e f o r e t h e b e h a v i o r o f the s p e c i e s e n a b l e d i t t o b r i n g d o w n m u c h l a r g e r p r e y s p e c i e s . I n M a l a w i t e e t h o f t w o s p e c i e s o f c a r n i v o r o u s dinosaurs h a v e b e e n f o u n d . I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e is a c l a w that appears to b e l o n g to a c o e l u r o s a u r . T h e r e a r e m a n y t h e r o p o d s p e c i e s k n o w n o t h e r than t h o s e I have m e n t i o n e d , m a i n l y f r o m the c o n t i n e n t s o f the N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . T h e y are found on every continent,
including Antarctica.
T h e y w e r e t h e t o p o f the
e c o l o g i c a l p y r a m i d , the last link i n the M e s o z o i c f o o d chain. The
lizard-hipped
dinosaurs
also
include
three
groups
of plant-eating
dinosaurs. T h e first of these are the very large quadrupedal h e r b i v o r e s — t h e sauropods—like
Malawi-saurus,
Brachiosaurus,
Apatosaurus,
Diplodocus,
and
Camarasaurus, w h i c h w e r e discussed i n C h a p t e r 4 . T h e r e i s a l a r g e n u m b e r o f l e s s e r - k n o w n s p e c i e s t o c o m p l e m e n t the r a n g e o f the m o r e familiar giants. African sauropods,
besides Malawi-saurus,
include
Brachiosaurus,
Barosaurus,
A F R I C A N
D I N O S A U R S ,
B E F O R E
A N D
A F T E R
151 and Dicraeosaurus, k n o w n f r o m T e n d a g u r u , the f i r s t t w o f r o m N o r t h A m e r i c a as w e l l .
O t h e r African sauropods include
Vulcanodon f r o m Z i m b a b w e ,
Ceti-
osaurus and Rebbachisaurus f r o m N o r t h A f r i c a , Algoasaurus f r o m South A f r i c a , and bothriospondylus and
Titanosaurus f r o m t h e island of M a d a g a s c a r ( w h i c h w a s
n o t a n island f o r a g o o d p a r t o f t h e t i m e s a u r o p o d s l i v e d i n A f r i c a ) . N o t o n l y w e r e s a u r o p o d s w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d across the c o n t i n e n t , b u t t h e y w e r e t h e r e , a p p a r e n t l y , f o r as l o n g as s a u r o p o d s e x i s t e d on E a r t h , so far as we can t e l l . A l l the s a u r o p o d s can b e easily r e c o g n i z e d a s s a u r o p o d s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e differences
between
separate
species.
Although
distinct
in
shape,
all
the
s a u r o p o d s have r i d i c u l o u s l y small heads f o r t h e i r b o d y s i z e . T h e i r t e e t h are s i m p l e p e g s , o r s o m e t i m e s s p o o n shapes. T h e y are l o o s e l y set i n the j a w s , and seemingly not g o o d for much of anything, but obviously, if surprisingly, they w e r e functional. T h e t e e t h o f s a u r o p o d s are a s u n l i k e l y f o r t h e i r giant o w n e r s as a m e a t - e a t i n g d i n o s a u r ' s t e e t h a r e blatantly l i k e steak k n i v e s . B o t h e x i s t e d , s o the t i n y t e e t h o f s a u r o p o d s c l e a r l y d i d t h e i r j o b a s a n i n t e g r a l c o m p o n e n t o f the s a u r o p o d f o o d - p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m .
T h e m o s t g i a n t o f the s a u r o p o d s
w e r e the h e i g h t o f the h e r b i v o r e g u i l d , l i t e r a l l y and f i g u r a t i v e l y . T h e y d e r i v e d protection f r o m predators simply by virtue of their size. A herd of sauropods must have had q u i t e an effect on t h e landscape as it passed t h r o u g h , b r o w s i n g and t r a m p l i n g w i t h u n w o r r i e d e a s e . T h e s e c o n d g r o u p o f l i z a r d - h i p p e d p l a n t - e a t i n g h e r b i v o r e s are the b i p e d a l prosauropods (see Figure
3 1 ) . T h i s g r o u p o c c u r s e a r l i e r i n t i m e than the
s a u r o p o d s , and i t i s f r o m s o m e t h i n g like t h e m that the s a u r o p o d s e v o l v e d . T h e y are q u i t e w i d e s p r e a d across t h e g l o b e i n the e a r l y p a r t o f t h e A g e o f Reptiles.
S e v e r a l s p e c i e s are k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a .
T h e f i n a l g r o u p o f the l i z a r d - h i p p e d d i n o s a u r s , t h e s e g n o s a u r s , are v e r y p o o r l y k n o w n , t h e i r m a j o r f e a t u r e b e i n g a strange p e l v i c a n a t o m y that m i m i c s that o f a b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaur t o s o m e e x t e n t . H o w c o n f u s i n g ! N e v e r t h e l e s s , those w h o have m o s t s t u d i e d the segnosaurs think t h e y a r e a n o d d b u n c h o f l i z a r d - h i p p e d d i n o s a u r s , n o t b e l o n g i n g w i t h the t h e r o p o d s y e t n o t q u i t e a s a u r o p o d o r p r o s a u r o p o d e i t h e r . T h e consensus i s that t h e y a r e p l a n t - e a t e r s . T h e i r f o r e l i m b s are r o b u s t , and t h e y m a y h a v e spent a b o u t a s m u c h , o r m o r e , t i m e i n the q u a d r u p e d a l p o s i t i o n a s t h e y d i d b i p e d a l l y . N o n e i s k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a as y e t . All
o f the
bird-hipped
dinosaurs
(see
Figure
32),
w h e t h e r bipedal
or
q u a d r u p e d a l , are h e r b i v o r e s . T h e r e are n o b i r d - h i p p e d m e a t - e a t e r s . T h e i r t e e t h , e x c e p t i n the m o r e p r i m i t i v e f o r m s , are m u c h m o r e sophisticated than
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
152 t h e s i m p l e p e g s and s p o o n s o f s a u r o p o d s . P r i m i t i v e l y l e a f - s h a p e d , the t e e t h b e c o m e m o d i f i e d i n t o e l a b o r a t e c h o p p i n g and g r i n d i n g b a t t e r i e s . F o o d i s h e l d i n t h e m o u t h b y f l e s h y c h e e k s . W h i l e all ornithischians are p l a n t - e a t e r s , this g r o u p c o n t a i n s a startling and a m a z i n g d i v e r s i t y o f b o d y f o r m s , a l t h o u g h n o n e o b t a i n s t h e t r u l y g i g a n t i c size o f the b i g g e s t s a u r o p o d s . Just as in t h e l i z a r d - h i p p e d g r o u p , t h e b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs can be d i v i d e d i n t o t h o s e that w a l k o n t h e i r t w o hind f e e t and t h o s e that r e v e r t e d back t o f o u r . T h e g e o l o g i c a l l y o l d e s t b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs a r e s m a l l , b i p e d a l , and h a v e s i m p l e leaf-shaped t e e t h . ples
of primitive
bipedal
Small Hjpsilophodon and Dryosaurus are e x a m -
bird-hipped
dinosaurs.
They
and
their
relatives
b o u n d e d and g a m b o l e d g o a t l i k e across the M e s o z o i c l a n d s c a p e . T h e l a t t e r i s k n o w n f r o m T e n d a g u r u and N o r t h A m e r i c a . dinosaurs as a g r o u p toward
the
end
are
of the
anatomically
Age
r e s p e c t a b l e s i z e . Iguanodon,
H o w e v e r , bipedal bird-hipped
varied,
of Reptiles.
Many
especially of them
those
that l i v e d
achieved
quite
a
t h e first d i n o s a u r n a m e d in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n -
t u r y , w a s c a l l e d " i g u a n a t o o t h " b e c a u s e its t e e t h l o o k like t h o s e o f a n iguana lizard.
Its t h u m b w a s a stiff spike d i r e c t e d u p w a r d .
Its r e l a t i v e s w e r e the
d u c k - b i l l e d hadrosaurian d i n o s a u r s , s o c o m m o n n e a r the e n d o f the C r e t a ceous
in
North America.
Unlike
the
iguanodonts,
which have
a row
of
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e p l a n t - e a t i n g t e e t h , t h e hadrosaurs h a v e m a n y t e e t h f o r m i n g d e n t a l b a t t e r i e s that slice and s h r e d v e g e t a t i o n . Each of t h e t e e t h in a dental b a t t e r y i s s m a l l , and t h e r e are m a n y o f t h e m , c o n t i n u o u s l y g r o w i n g o u t f r o m the
roots
and
replacing
older
teeth
that
have
become
worn
down
from
c h e w i n g . T h e w o r n t e e t h a r e shed and spit o u t . C h e e k s i m p r i s o n the f o o d i n the m o u t h w h i l e i t i s b e i n g m a s t i c a t e d and t o r t u r e d . C l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the hadrosaurs are the l a m b e o s a u r s . T h e y d e v e l o p e d o r n a t e crests o n t h e i r skulls. T h e s e w e r e probably for interactions w i t h m e m b e r s o f their o w n species, i n c l u d i n g b o t h display and r e s o n a t i n g s o u n d t h r o u g h the g r e a t l y l e n g t h e n e d nasal passages, w h i c h c o u r s e d t h r o u g h e n l a r g e d cranial c r e s t s . T h e i r t r u m p e t ing was c o m m o n i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . Ouranosaurus ( s h o w n in F i g u r e 3 of C h a p t e r 1) is a b i p e d a l p l a n t - e a t e r f r o m A f r i c a r e l a t e d t o l a m b e o s a u r s , d u c k - b i l l e d d i n o s a u r s , and i g u a n o d o n t s . I t i s u n i q u e in h a v i n g a sail or h u m p on its back s u p p o r t e d by t h e spines of the v e r t e b r a e and superficially v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e A f r i c a n t h e r o p o d Spinosaurus, t o w h i c h it is n o t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . T h e s e sails are i n t r i g u i n g . I suspect that t h e y functioned
to
control
body temperature,
p e r h a p s b y e n g o r g i n g the
surface area t h e y p r o v i d e d w i t h h o t b l o o d i n o r d e r t o dissipate heat.
large
AFRICAN
DINOSAURS,
BEFORE
AND
AFTER
153 T w o o t h e r g r o u p s o f b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs d e v e l o p e d special b o n y arr a n g e m e n t s a r o u n d the skull. T h e s e a r e t h e b o n e - h e a d e d p a c h y c e p h a l o s a u r s and the h o r n e d dinosaurs o r c e r a t o p s i a n s ( s e e F i g u r e 3 2 ) . I n t h e i r e x t r e m e d e v e l o p m e n t the p a c h y c e p h a l o s a u r s h a v e a v e r y thick d o m e o f b o n e e n l a r g i n g the h e a d . T h e h e a d i s r e m i n i s c e n t o f a b a l d - h e a d e d m a n w i t h a l o n g f a c e . T h e thick skull r o o f w a s b e h a v i o r a l l y f u n c t i o n a l .
T h e p a c h y c e p h a l o s a u r s appar-
ently butted heads, slamming their b o n e d o m e s t o g e t h e r the w a y bighorn sheep slam t h e i r h o r n s . P a c h y c e p h a l o s a u r s are m o s t l y k n o w n f r o m t h e N o r t h ern H e m i s p h e r e , but o n e specimen is k n o w n f r o m Madagascar. The
horned
dinosaurs,
four-footed plant-eaters.
or
ceratopsians,
Their teeth,
beasts
like those
such
as
Triceratops,
are
of advanced bipedal her-
b i v o r e s , also e v o l v e d i n t o a n e f f i c i e n t s h r e d d i n g m a c h i n e , w h i c h t h e y used f o r c h e w i n g u p l o w - g r o w i n g plants c l o s e t o the g r o u n d . T h e r e i s g o o d e v i d e n c e that at least s o m e h o r n e d dinosaurs l i v e d in h e r d s and m i g r a t e d seasonally, just a s the g r e a t h e r d s o f w i l d e b e e s t d o t o d a y o n t h e S e r e n g e t i Plains o f A f r i c a . T h e r e are fossil l o c a l i t i e s w i t h i m m e n s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f c e r a t o p s i a n b o n e s e n t o m b e d i n s e d i m e n t s d e p o s i t e d b y rushing r i v e r s , a p p a r e n t l y the v i c t i m s o f f l o o d i n g , again similar t o the fate o f a p o r t i o n o f t h e S e r e n g e t i h e r d s . S o m e o f the e a r l y b i p e d a l b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs had small b o n y plates i n t h e i r skin. T h e s e s p e c i e s a r e a p p a r e n t l y c l o s e t o t h e a n c e s t r y o f g e o l o g i c a l l y l a t e r , and l a r g e r , dinosaurs that had b o n y plates o r a r m o r and that w a l k e d a b o u t o n all f o u r s . I n c l u d e d h e r e a r e the familiar s t e g o s a u r s , w i t h plates and spikes o f b o n e r u n n i n g d o w n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e b a c k f r o m t h e n e c k t o t h e t i p o f the tail, and o n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e n o d o s a u r i d s and a n k y l o s a u r i d s , w h i c h w e r e c o v e r e d w i t h b o n y a r m o r and spines ( s e e F i g u r e 3 2 ) . L i k e the h o r n e d c e r a t o p s i a n s , the a r m o r e d and p l a t e d dinosaurs f e d o n l o w - g r o w i n g v e g e t a t i o n . U n l i k e h o r n e d d i n o s a u r s , the a r m o r e d and p l a t e d dinosaurs d i d n o t h a v e a n e v o l v e d b a t t e r y o f t e e t h t o c h e w t h e i r f o d d e r ; r a t h e r , t h e y had s i m p l e , leaf-shaped t e e t h q u i t e b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs.
similar t o t h o s e
o f the
o l d e s t and m o s t p r i m i t i v e
T h e heads o f p l a t e d dinosaurs w e r e small w i t h l o n g
j a w s t o h o l d the t e e t h . I n the a r m o r e d dinosaurs the skull w a s c o v e r e d o v e r w i t h s e c o n d a r y g r o w t h s o f b o n e , b u t t h e y w e r e still r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , u n l i k e the c e r a t o p s i a n s . N o r t h A m e r i c a n Stegosaurus i s t h e b e s t k n o w n o f the p l a t e d d i n o s a u r s , b u t the g r o u p i s w i d e s p r e a d and also k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a . T h e b e s t - k n o w n A f r i c a n f o r m is Kentrosaurus f r o m T e n d a g u r u . It is v e r y m u c h l i k e Stegosaurus, b u t a bit s m a l l e r and w i t h spikes instead o f plates d o w n the tail e n d o f the b a c k .
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
754 T h e r e i s a s t e g o s a u r i n the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i — t h e o n e K e n t w a s digging on.
W e h a v e n o t y e t f o u n d the skull, b u t i t i s c l e a r l y a stegosaur
b e c a u s e o f the shape o f the p e l v i s . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e are s o m e u n i q u e features o n o n e o f the b o n e s that w e d o h a v e that d e m o n s t r a t e s that e i t h e r the M a l a w i stegosaur is a n e w ,
u n n a m e d s p e c i e s o r i t i s o n e o f the scrappy A f r i c a n
stegosaurs n a m e d o n m a t e r i a l that d o e s n o t i n c l u d e the p e l v i s . M o r e f i e l d w o r k w i l l s o r t o u t that p r o b l e m . T h e n o d o s a u r i d s and ankylosaurids a r e c o v e r e d w i t h a mail o f a r m o r . T h e y are f o u r - f o o t e d m i n i b u s - s i z e d ( o r s m a l l e r ) dinosaurs that fed o n plants g r o w i n g c l o s e t o t h e g r o u n d , using t e e t h that r e t a i n the p r i m i t i v e leaflike shape. T h e y p r o b a b l y r e s e m b l e d giant a r m a d i l l o s a s m u c h a s a n y t h i n g e l s e . I n N o r t h A m e r i c a t h e n o d o s a u r i d s are r a t h e r c o m m o n l y , s o i t s e e m s , f o u n d floated o u t i n t o r o c k s that w e r e d e p o s i t e d i n the sea, s o t h e y m u s t have e n j o y e d the seashore a s w e l l a s any o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t s t h e y m a y h a v e i n h a b i t e d . k y l o s a u r i d s h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r l y rich r e c o r d i n A s i a .
An-
No reliable records of
n o d o s a u r i d s o r ankylosaurids a r e k n o w n f r o m A f r i c a . T h e t h u m b n a i l sketches just p r o v i d e d p r e s e n t a taste o f the d i z z y i n g array o f dinosaurian s p e c i e s that i n h a b i t e d t h e M e s o z o i c w o r l d . T h e r e are m a n y m o r e than w e r e m e n t i o n e d b y n a m e a b o v e . T h e g r a n d p a n o p l y s e e m s infinite. Ornate
lambeosaurs,
spike-thumbed
iguanodonts,
duck-billed
hadrosaurs,
giant s a u r o p o d s , t i n y h y p s i l o p h o d o n t s , and all t h e o t h e r p l a i n , d e c o r a t e d , h o r n e d , or a r m o r e d herbivores fed on ancient g r e e n e r y . T h e carnivores fed on them o r ,
d e p e n d i n g o n the s p e c i e s ,
reptiles or insects.
other fare,
such a s e g g s o r small
D i n o s a u r s p e c i e s , all o f t h e m , m u s t h a v e had e l a b o r a t e
s o c i a l - s t r u c t u r e and b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e s equal t o the sophistication seen i n b i r d s and m a m m a l s . H o w c o u l d t h e y not? T o g e t h e r a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s , and w i t h all t h e o t h e r s p e c i e s o f plants and animals l i v i n g a t the
time,
they
c o m p r i s e d v i a b l e , w o r k i n g natural c o m m u n i t i e s , w e b s o f life d i f f e r e n t f r o m t o d a y b u t suited t o t h e i r t i m e s . T h e M e s o z o i c Era, t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s , lasted f r o m a b o u t 2 2 0 m i l l i o n t o 6 6 m i l l i o n years a g o .
I t w a s a n i n t e r v a l o f 154 m i l l i o n years o f dinosaur
d o m i n a n c e o v e r the e c o s y s t e m . D u r i n g that t i m e the c o n t i n e n t s r e a r r a n g e d f r o m t h e c o n f l u e n t landmass c a l l e d Pangaea t o e n d u p , i n m o s t essentials, a s t h e y a r e n o w . T h e r e w e r e p r o f o u n d changes i n the physical w o r l d , i n the g e o g r a p h y o f c o n t i n e n t s and o c e a n s , and i n c l i m a t e . A l l this vast d y n a m i s m i n t h e physical w o r l d i n v o k e d changes i n the b i o l o g i c a l w o r l d t h r o u g h natural s e l e c t i o n , w h i c h i n turn affected t h e physical w o r l d t h r o u g h the influence that
AFRICAN
DINOSAURS,
BEFORE
AND
AFTER 155
plants and animals h a v e o n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t s .
T h e M e s o z o i c was a long
expanse of t i m e , but it was e v e r changing. N o dinosaur species lived for the entire duration o f the M e s o z o i c . N o n e even
came
c l o s e t o d o i n g that.
There
was tremendous
faunal
succession
a m o n g the d i n o s a u r s . T h o s e s p e c i e s a l i v e a t the e n d o f t h e era d i d n o t e x i s t at the b e g i n n i n g , and t h o s e inhabiting the landscape at the b e g i n n i n g w e r e l o n g e x t i n c t b y t h e e n d . A s the sands o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s passed t h r o u g h the h o u r g l a s s , life w a s n o t still. T h e r e w a s a s o r t o f c o n t i n u o u s t u r n o v e r , a conveyor
belt
exhibiting
older
species
to
be
replaced
by
newer
models
through t i m e . D u r i n g the M e s o z o i c E r a , a s i n any e x t e n s i v e i n t e r v a l o f t i m e , the s p e c i e s o f life w e r e c h a n g i n g , and the physical w o r l d w a s c h a n g i n g , and t h e y w e r e b o t h influencing each o t h e r . F r o m this w e can m a k e c e r t a i n p r e d i c t i o n s . First, w e w o u l d e x p e c t the inhabitants o f t h e land t o b e m o r e u n i f o r m i f all t h e landmasses are j o i n e d , a s i n P a n g a e a , s u b j e c t , o f c o u r s e , t o r e g i o n a l differe n c e s that m a y affect t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a n i m a l s . R e g i o n a l e f f e c t s , i f t h e r e a r e n o a b s o l u t e m o u n t a i n b a r r i e r s o r o t h e r such o b s t a c l e s , s h o u l d b e a t a l o w e r level
o f significance
than
the
opportunities
for interbreeding provided by
b r o a d and m o r e - o r - l e s s easy access t h r o u g h o u t a c o n f l u e n t s u p e r c o n t i n e n t . W e should see a similar p a t t e r n o f faunal succession all across the landmass a s t i m e p r o g r e s s e d . N e x t , w e s h o u l d see i n c r e a s i n g d i f f e r e n c e s d e v e l o p i n t e r r e s t r i a l faunas a s the c o n t i n e n t s drift apart f r o m o n e a n o t h e r .
Greater
p e r i o d s o f i s o l a t i o n s h o u l d p r o d u c e g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g t h e faunas. I f land c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n c o n t i n e n t s b e c o m e r e e s t a b l i s h e d , e v e n i f f o r a b r i e f p e r i o d , w e should e x p e c t t o see the dispersal o f s p e c i e s , and n e w c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n s p e c i e s , i n the c o n n e c t e d faunas. A f r i c a should b e a n i d e a l c o n t i n e n t t o test these p r e d i c t i o n s d u r i n g t h e M e s o z o i c b e c a u s e o f its e a r l y inclusion i n Pangaea and its s u b s e q u e n t i s o l a t i o n f r o m South A m e r i c a d u r i n g t h e Early Cretaceous. Speaking specifically o f d i n o s a u r s , i n A f r i c a t h e y g o back t o t h e t i m e w h e n the w o r l d ' s landmasses w e r e c o a l e s c e d i n t o P a n g a e a ( s e e F i g u r e 9 i n C h a p t e r 1 ) , o v e r 2 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h a t w a s a t the t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g s o f the dinosaurs, w h e n t h e y f i r s t e v o l v e d .
W i t h all the c o n t i n e n t a l areas b r o a d l y
c o n n e c t e d a t that t i m e , i t i s e x p e c t e d that t h e animal inhabitants w o u l d b e substantially alike across t h e l a n d , a c e r t a i n a m o u n t of g e o g r a p h i c v a r i a t i o n in the fauna n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . T h a t is w h a t is s e e n in t h e d i n o s a u r s . T h e earliest k n o w n dinosaurs o f o v e r 2 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o w e r e n o t - s o - l a r g e , c a r n i v o r o u s
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
156 c r e a t u r e s that w a l k e d u p r i g h t o n t h e i r hind
legs,
f r e e i n g t h e i r hands f o r
m a n i p u l a t i o n and o t h e r f u n c t i o n s . T h o s e features c h a r a c t e r i z e the o r i g i n o f d i n o s a u r s . L a t e r , b u t n o t m u c h l a t e r , p l a n t - e a t e r s e v o l v e d . A t this early stage l i z a r d - h i p p e d and b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs l o o k e d v e r y m u c h a l i k e . H o w e v e r , they soon began t o d e v e l o p their o b v i o u s distinctions o f b o d y f o r m .
The
l i z a r d - h i p p e d and l a r g e p r o s a u r o p o d s b e c a m e the c o n s p i c u o u s p l a n t - e a t e r s . T h e r e was an interval of roughly evolutionary
beginnings
of the
3 0 t o 4 0 m i l l i o n years b e t w e e n the
dinosaurs
and
the
first
major
breakup
of
P a n g a e a . I n that t i m e p e r i o d the s e d i m e n t a r y r e c o r d s h o w s significant changes i n the e n v i r o n m e n t , and the fossil r e c o r d s h o w s c o n s i d e r a b l e changes i n the vertebrate life. T h e interior of what is n o w N o r t h A m e r i c a w e n t from a m o r e m e s i c , w e t t e r , c l i m a t i c r e g i m e t o o n e that w a s m o r e arid and d o m i n a t e d b y vast sand d u n e s . R i f t - v a l l e y lakes b e g a n f o r m i n g i n eastern N o r t h A m e r i c a , e x p r e s s i n g t h e t e n s i o n s a b o u t t o r i p t h e c o n t i n e n t s apart. T h e n , a r o u n d 180 m i l l i o n years a g o , t h e N o r t h A t l a n t i c b e g a n f o r m i n g , s h a l l o w seas c o v e r e d m u c h o f E u r o p e , and n o r t h w e s t e r n A f r i c a split a w a y f r o m southeastern N o r t h A m e r i c a . A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a w e r e still c o n j o i n e d w i t h each o t h e r and t h e o t h e r G o n d w a n a c o n t i n e n t s , but t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o N o r t h A m e r i c a w a s less c l e a r . O n e t h i n g i s c e r t a i n : A r i d c o n d i t i o n s i n the h e a r t o f N o r t h A m e r i c a w e r e r e p l a c e d b y m o r e pleasant c l i m a t e s , seasonal, but w i t h a r e a s o n a b l y abundant
w a t e r supply.
All
this
time
life
continued
to
evolve.
Now
the
e n v i r o n m e n t had a m u c h g r e a t e r c a r r y i n g capacity than the p r e c e d i n g t i m e o f d e s e r t s and sand d u n e s . T h a t set the stage f o r the L a t e Jurassic, 145 m i l l i o n years a g o , the g o l d e n a g e o f t h e d i n o s a u r s . T h e L a t e Jurassic i s m o s t n o t a b l e f o r h a v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t d i v e r s i t y o f the l a r g e s t c r e a t u r e s that e v e r l i v e d o n l a n d — t h e s a u r o p o d s . S u r p r i s i n g l y , e v e n t h o u g h the b r e a k u p o f P a n g a e a had b e g u n , b i g s a u r o p o d s a r e f o u n d all o v e r t h e p l a c e . T h e y are i n E u r o p e , S o u t h A m e r i c a , C h i n a , A u s t r a l i a , India, A f r i c a , and N o r t h A m e r i c a . V i r t u a l l y e v e r y w h e r e . Part of this is s i m p l y a l e g a c y , a h o l d o v e r f r o m earlier times w h e n Pangaea was t o g e t h e r . Broad connections still r e m a i n e d intact b e t w e e n the G o n d w a n a c o n t i n e n t s . But i t m u s t also m e a n that t e m p o r a r y o r o t h e r w i s e m i n o r c o n n e c t i o n s e x i s t e d b e t w e e n c l o s e - l y i n g landmasses that w e r e n o l o n g e r p e r m a n e n t l y c o n n e c t e d and had e m b a r k e d o n t h e i r d r i f t i n g c o u r s e s . T r u e , t h e r e a r e r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s across the g l o b e , and s o m e fairly s t r o n g o n e s , e v e n i n the s a u r o p o d fauna, e s p e c i a l l y i n C h i n a . Still, o n e c a n n o t h e l p b u t b e i m p r e s s e d w i t h t h e a m a z i n g , a l m o s t uncanny s i m i l a r i t i e s b e t w e e n t h e dinosaurs o f T e n d a g u r u and C o l o r a d o ,
Utah,
and
AFRICAN
DINOSAURS,
BEFORE
AND
AFTER 157
W y o m i n g . A n d n o t just the s a u r o p o d s ; the t h e r o p o d s and h y p s i l o p h o d o n t s are also s i m i l a r . A n d n o t just i n A f r i c a and N o r t h A m e r i c a . Apatosaurus and Brachiosaurus are also r e p o r t e d f r o m
Portugal.
W i t h the c l o s e o f the Jurassic, t h e h e y d a y o f the s a u r o p o d s w a s o v e r . T h e i r n u m b e r s d w i n d l e d i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , w h e r e t h e y had b e e n s o c o m m o n . T h e last p e r i o d o f t h e M e s o z o i c Era, t h e C r e t a c e o u s , s a w t h e final d i s m a n t l i n g o f G o n d w a n a and the d e v e l o p m e n t o f f a m i l i a r c o n t i n e n t a l p o s i t i o n s , n o t q u i t e m o d e r n o f c o u r s e , but n e a r l y s o . W i t h t h e C r e t a c e o u s c a m e m o r e changes in
climate,
m o r e areas o f i s o l a t i o n ,
and m o r e
transient c o n n e c t i o n s that
a l l o w e d dinosaurs t o m i g r a t e f r o m c o n t i n e n t t o c o n t i n e n t . S a u r o p o d s , specifically titanosaurids, w e r e r e i n t r o d u c e d t o N o r t h A m e r i c a f r o m South A m e r i c a n e a r t h e e n d o f the C r e t a c e o u s . S t e g o s a u r s , l i k e saurop o d s , have t h e i r m o s t abundant fossil r e c o r d f r o m the L a t e Jurassic i n t h e m i d d l e p o r t i o n o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , a r o u n d
145 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h e y
a r e k n o w n f r o m E u r o p e , N o r t h A m e r i c a , C h i n a , and A f r i c a i n t h e Jurassic, but n o t f r o m South A m e r i c a o r A u s t r a l i a , t h e n o r e v e r . T h e y d e c l i n e after t h e Jurassic. N o r t h A m e r i c a n ankylosaurids and n o d o s a u r i d s are m o r e abundant and d i v e r s e after the d e c l i n e o f t h e stegosaurs than t h e y w e r e b e f o r e . A t t h e time
sauropods begin their decline
Elsewhere,
stegosaurs
continue
on
in
North America,
into
the
Cretaceous
s o d o stegosaurs. in
China,
India,
E u r o p e , and A f r i c a , n o t a b l y i n M a l a w i . T h e d i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n ankylosaurids i n t h e L a t e C r e t a c e o u s i s due
to
the
intermittent
establishment
of a c o n n e c t i o n
across
the
Bering
Straits. T h e m o r e p r i m i t i v e o f t h e t w o a r m o r e d b i r d - h i p p e d d i n o s a u r f a m i l i e s , the n o d o s a u r i d s , a p p a r e n t l y had a b r o a d e r g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n than t h e i r s c i o n s , the ankylosaurids. A n k y l o s a u r i d s u n d e r w e n t a g r e a t deal o f i s o l a t e d e v o l u t i o n i n A s i a . T h e n , w h e n the straits a f f o r d e d the o p p o r t u n i t y , t h e y c a m e across. T h e y w e r e n o t a l o n e e i t h e r . T h e r e has b e e n a s u g g e s t i o n that the newly
named
sauropod,
Dyslocosaurus,
may
have
come
from
Asia.
Other
g r o u p s used the straits as w e l l — d u c k - b i l l e d dinosaurs and l a m b e o s a u r s and big ferocious tyrannosaurids—and they have a c o m p l i c a t e d history of migrat i o n b e t w e e n Asia and N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e h o r n e d c e r a t o p s i a n s , s o c h a r a c t e r istic o f N o r t h A m e r i c a n fossil f i e l d s , t r a c e t h e i r r o o t s back t o A s i a . T h e y k e p t m o v i n g south t h r o u g h the c o n t i n e n t a n d , a l o n g w i t h o n e o f t h e d u c k - b i l l e d species and a f e w o t h e r s ,
c r o s s e d the C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n land b r i d g e f r o m
N o r t h A m e r i c a t o South A m e r i c a a s titanosaurids w e r e c r o s s i n g t h e o t h e r way.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
158 T h e fossil r e c o r d i n A f r i c a c o v e r s m u c h o f dinosaurian h i s t o r y , but i n a s p o t t y , i n c o m p l e t e , and n o t v e r y a d e q u a t e w a y . T h e r e i s a g o o d r e c o r d o f the e a r l y P a n g a e a n fauna. T h e r e are a f e w r e p o r t s f r o m t h e m i d d l e o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s p r i o r t o the e x c e l l e n t and a s t o u n d i n g suite o f fossils f r o m T e n d a g u r u . T h r o u g h o u t the C r e t a c e o u s , Early and L a t e , t h e r e are s c a t t e r e d o c c u r r e n c e s o f dinosaurs i n A f r i c a . F e w o f t h e m have b e e n a d e q u a t e l y w o r k e d and studied. T w o stand o u t m o r e than the o t h e r s : G a d o u f a o u a i n N i g e r , and the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i . G a d o u f a o u a i s i m p o r t a n t because i t has r e l a t i v e l y c o m p l e t e s k e l e t o n s o f a n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s . T h e m o s t f a m o u s d i n o s a u r f r o m t h e r e i s the ornithischian Ouranosaurus, t h e t w o - f o o t e d , p l a n t - e a t i n g , sail-backed c r e a t u r e r e l a t e d t o the c r e s t e d l a m b e o s a u r s . D a t i n g o f G a d o u f a o u a i s i m p r e c i s e , but it is Early C r e t a c e o u s . Ouranosaurus is n o t f o u n d in the D i n o s a u r B e d s of M a l a w i . N o r is anything l i k e it. T h e r e are s o m e similarities b e t w e e n t h e t w o s p o t s , f o r instance i n the c o m m o n o c c u r r e n c e o f the small c r o c o d i l e Araripesuchus, f i r s t d e s c r i b e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a . But no Ouranosaurus. Is that because G a d o u f a o u a is y o u n g e r ? M a y b e dinosaurs like Ouranosaurus had n o t e n t e r e d A f r i c a f r o m the n o r t h until after t h e D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e d e p o s i t e d ? O r i s i t because the e c o l o g y o f the t w o areas w a s d i f f e r e n t , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y w e r e a b o u t the s a m e age? O r i s i t just the c h a n c e o f c o l l e c t i n g ? W e d o n o t k n o w y e t , a l t h o u g h a s y o u w i l l see i n C h a p t e r 6 , t h e r e w e r e significant r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s across A f r i c a a t the t i m e i t w a s b r e a k i n g a w a y f r o m South A m e r i c a .
A T THE
CLOSE o f t h e C r e t a c e o u s , 6 6 m i l l i o n years a g o , after a n i m m e n s e
h i s t o r y o f d o m i n a t i o n and c h a n g e , o r i g i n a t i o n and e x t i r p a t i o n , the same thing h a p p e n e d in A f r i c a as h a p p e n e d e v e r y w h e r e e l s e : D i n o s a u r s , in the traditional sense, w e n t e x t i n c t . D u r i n g t h e i r t e n u r e o n Earth, dinosaurs had a l o n g and distinguished r e c o r d . T h e y inhabited e v e r y continent, including Antarctica, essentially
c o v e r i n g the
Earth's
entire range
of latitude,
from
w i t h i n the
A r c t i c C i r c l e , o v e r the t e m p e r a t e z o n e s , t h r o u g h the t r o p i c s , t o n e a r the South P o l a r r e g i o n . T h e i r t i m e o n Earth lasted o v e r 150 m i l l i o n years. T h e c o n s p i c u o u s giant and n o t - s o - g i a n t d e n i z e n s o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s p l a y e d major ecological roles in the c o m m u n i t i e s of the M e s o z o i c w o r l d .
Those
b e a s t s — D i p l o d o c u s , Allosaurus, and the r e s t — w e r e the o b v i o u s d o m i n a n t v e r t e b r a t e h e r b i v o r e s and c a r n i v o r e s o f the
Mesozoic community.
Nowadays
m a m m a l s d o m i n a t e . T h e r e f o r e a basic r e a r r a n g e m e n t i n the l i n e u p o f players
AFRICAN
DINOSAURS,
BEFORE
AND
AFTER
i n terrestrial e c o s y s t e m s has o c c u r r e d since t h e e n d o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e dinosaurs, w h i c h r u l e d the l a n d , are n o l o n g e r h e r e . O f c o u r s e , a s w e h a v e s e e n , n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e Earth o r the life o n i t r e m a i n s static f o r such an i m m e n s e span of t i m e as that r e p r e s e n t e d by the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . D i n o s a u r s u n d e r w e n t a g r e a t deal o f e v o l u t i o n d u r i n g that i n t e r v a l . T h e s p e c i e s that l i v e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e i r r e i g n w e r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e a t the e n d , o r e v e n i n t h e m i d d l e . T h u s , b e s i d e s the G r e a t D y i n g a t the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s ,
there w e r e numerous ex-
t i n c t i o n s o f lesser i m p a c t t o the g r o u p a s a w h o l e t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r t i m e o n Earth.
T h e r e w e r e also t i m e s o f o r i g i n a t i o n o f n e w s p e c i e s .
M a n y of the
details o f this e v o l u t i o n a r y p u z z l e r e m a i n t o b e d e c i p h e r e d b e c a u s e ,
con-
trary t o the c o m m o n p o p u l a r i t y o f dinosaurs and d e s p i t e the i m p r e s s i o n y o u m a y have
received
from
this s u m m a r y ,
dinosaurs
are
o n t h e w h o l e less
t h o r o u g h l y c o l l e c t e d , m o r e p o o r l y d a t e d , and less i n t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d than m a m m a l i a n fossils f r o m the s u c c e e d i n g era. T h e y a r e m o r e p o p u l a r because o f the size o f t h e i r giant m e m b e r s , w h i c h also m a k e s t h e m h a r d e r t o c o l l e c t , and the a m b i v a l e n t fear instilled i n s o m e o f u s b y the m o r e f e r o c i o u s species. R e g a r d l e s s o f the fact that m a n y d i n o s a u r s p e c i e s o r i g i n a t e d and w e n t e x t i n c t a t various t i m e s d u r i n g the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , t h e r e i s a n u n d e n i a b l e trauma i n t h e i r h i s t o r y a t t h e e n d o f the C r e t a c e o u s . T h e G r e a t D y i n g o f the dinosaurs i s o n e o f the m o s t c h a l l e n g i n g o f q u e s t i o n s because s o m a n y species w e n t e x t i n c t . T h a t , t o o , instills a n a m b i v a l e n t fear i n us. H o w e v e r , o u r v i e w o f i t should b e t e m p e r e d t o s o m e d e g r e e b y h a v i n g seen the c o m p l i c a t e d patterns o f o r i g i n a t i o n and e x t i n c t i o n that o p e r a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r r e i g n . But t h e r e are still o v e r p o w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s . W h y , and h o w , d i d dinosaurs g o e x t i n c t ? H o w c o u l d these vast b e h e m o t h s , a r o u n d f o r s o l o n g , y e t that n o o n e has e v e r o r e v e r w i l l see i n the flesh, the r u l e r s o f t h e land f o r m i l l i o n s and m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s , h o w c o u l d t h e y g o e x t i n c t ? T h e a n s w e r s w e h a v e s o far are n o t c o m p l e t e l y satisfying.
It is h a r d l y surprising that t h e r e are m a n y u n -
r e s o l v e d issues a b o u t e x t i n c t i o n . T h e e n d of s p e c i e s is n e a r l y as e n i g m a t i c as their o r i g i n . T h e G r e a t D y i n g affected m o r e than just d i n o s a u r s .
Monstrous marine
lizards, flying p t e r o s a u r s , a n u m b e r o f i n v e r t e b r a t e s , m a n y o f t h e m t i n y , and s o m e plants w e n t e x t i n c t a t the s a m e t i m e .
O t h e r groups survived, most
n o t a b l y c r o c o d i l e s , b i r d s , and m a m m a l s . W h y this s e l e c t i v i t y ? W h a t e v e r ideas m a y b e put f o r w a r d t o a c c o u n t f o r the e x t i n c t i o n , i n o r d e r t o b e realistic, t h e y
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
160 m u s t also a c c o u n t f o r t h e s p e c i e s that d i d n o t g o e x t i n c t b e c a u s e , f o r w h a t e v e r r e a s o n , t h e y w e r e a b l e t o resist the cause o f t h e d y i n g . M a n y t h e o r i e s have b e e n a d v a n c e d f o r t h e cause o f t h e t e r m i n a l C r e t a c e o u s e x t i n c t i o n e v e n t . C o l l e c t i v e c o n s t i p a t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e . O r disease. C h a n g i n g c l i m a t e s and e n v i r o n m e n t s v e r y o f t e n a r e a t t r i b u t e d a r o l e i n the p r o c e s s . S o m e o f t h e s e ideas m a k e m o r e sense than o t h e r s , and t h e e x t i n c t i o n c o u l d h a v e i n v o l v e d a train o f e v e n t s and c i r c u m s t a n c e s that o p e r a t e d synergistic a l l y , t o g e t h e r c u l m i n a t i n g i n a result that n o n e o f t h e m a l o n e m i g h t have c a u s e d . T h a t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e , i f n o t p r o b a b l e , b u t i t i s also r e a s o n a b l e t o search
for
a
catalyst,
some
constellation
of circumstances
or
events
that
p r e c i p i t a t e d the mass e x t i n c t i o n . T h e r e i s m o u n t i n g e v i d e n c e and a g r o w i n g consensus that e x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l e v e n t s , u l t i m a t e l y o r i m m e d i a t e l y , m a y h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o the d e m i s e o f the dinosaurs i n t h e c a l a m i t y that m a r k s t h e e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s .
The
f u n d a m e n t a l e v i d e n c e f o r a n e x t r a t e r r e s t r i a l - e x t i n c t i o n h y p o t h e s i s i s the p r e s e n c e o f a thin l a y e r o f clay a t the b o u n d a r y b e t w e e n t h e C r e t a c e o u s and o v e r l y i n g r o c k s . T h i s l a y e r has b e e n f o u n d i n m a n y places all o v e r the w o r l d . O n the face o f i t t h e m e r e p r e s e n c e o f such a w i d e s p r e a d clay layer appears t o b e r e f l e c t i n g s o m e g l o b a l e v e n t that o c c u r r e d r i g h t a t t h e e n d o f C r e t a c e o u s t i m e , and that o f c o u r s e i s t h e t i m e o f the d i n o s a u r - e x t i n c t i o n e v e n t . I s t h e r e a m e a n i n g f u l c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n these t w o o b s e r v a b l e p h e n o m e n a ? Chemical
analyses o f t h e
boundary
clay
layer have y i e l d e d
some very
i n t e r e s t i n g results. T h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g i s t h e a n o m a l o u s l y high c o n c e n t r a tion
of iridium,
a
metallic
element
of the
platinum
family.
r o c k s o f t h e Earth c o n t a i n v e r y , v e r y small a m o u n t s o f it.
Usually
the
H o w e v e r , irid-
i u m i s m a n y t i m e s m o r e a b u n d a n t i n t h e b o u n d a r y clay l a y e r than i t o u g h t t o b e . W h e r e o n Earth c o u l d all that i r i d i u m h a v e c o m e f r o m ? T h e r e i s n o good
explanation.
I t can b e a s s u m e d that all o f t h e c h e m i c a l e l e m e n t s m a k i n g u p the solid Earth w e r e o r i g i n a l l y p r e s e n t w h e n i t w a s f i r s t f o r m e d b i l l i o n s o f years a g o i n t h e c o s m i c p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e solar s y s t e m . I f that i s s o , t h e n the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f i r i d i u m i n t h e Earth s h o u l d b e the s a m e , o r a t least c o m p a r a b l e , t o that m e a s u r e d i n m e t e o r i t e s that c o m e i n t o o u r w o r l d f r o m o u t e r space and strike the E a r t h . T h a t is because m e t e o r i t e s and the Earth all had the same c o s m i c o r i g i n , a l o n g w i t h the rest o f the solar s y s t e m . O n the E a r t h ' s surface, h o w e v e r , the i r i d i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n d o e s n o t r e f l e c t c o s m i c a b u n d a n c e . Iridi u m is m a n y t i m e s less rich than the p r i m o r d i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n m e a s u r e d in
AFRICAN
DINOSAURS,
BEFORE
AND
AFTER
m e t e o r i t e s , e x c e p t i n o n e i n s t a n c e — t h e b o u n d a r y clay a t t h e t e r m i n a l C r e t a c e o u s e x t i n c t i o n e v e n t . T h i s raises t w o f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s . W h e r e has all the o r i g i n a l i r i d i u m i n t h e Earth g o n e , and w h y a r e the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e b o u n d a r y clay m o r e like c o s m i c p r o p o r t i o n s ? I r i d i u m is w h a t is c a l l e d a s i d e r o p h i l e ;
it is an e l e m e n t that l o v e s to
c o m b i n e c h e m i c a l l y w i t h i r o n . I n the e a r l y f o r m a t i o n o f t h e Earth, b i l l i o n s o f years a g o , b e f o r e life e x i s t e d , h e a v y e l e m e n t s l i k e i r o n c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e planet's c o r e ,
leaving lighter e l e m e n t s to m a k e up the crust.
Siderophilic
i r i d i u m p r e s u m a b l y a c c o m p a n i e d i r o n a s t h e c o r e and s u r r o u n d i n g m a n t l e w e r e f o r m e d , m i g r a t i n g t o the c e n t e r o f t h e E a r t h , e n r i c h i n g its c e n t e r w h i l e d e p l e t i n g the
crust.
The
result
is
the
observation
that c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
of
i r i d i u m m e a s u r a b l e t o d a y o n t h e surface o f t h e Earth are m u c h less than that in m e t e o r i t e s . But w h a t a b o u t the b o u n d a r y clay? E i t h e r the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s w a s r e s t o r e d t o that m o r e n e a r l y r e s e m b l i n g m e t e o r i c a m o u n t s b y f o r c e s b r i n g i n g r o c k f r o m d e e p i n the b o w e l s o f the Earth u p t o the surface, o r i r i d i u m w a s b r o u g h t t o t h e Earth f r o m s o m e w h e r e e l s e . T h e r e are n o o t h e r realistic o p t i o n s . W h i c h w a s it? T h e o n l y m e c h a n i s m f o r b r i n g i n g r o c k f r o m d e e p d o w n i n the Earth t o the surface o f the crust i s t h r o u g h v o l c a n i c p r o c e s s e s . T h e r e a r e i n fact l a r g e v o l c a n i c f i e l d s o f a b o u t t h e right age i n India. But t h e r e are s o m e p r o b l e m s w i t h the v o l c a n o h y p o t h e s i s that m a k e i t n o t c o m p l e t e l y satisfactory. instance,
For
w h y are t h e r e n o t m a n y m o r e layers high i n i r i d i u m c o m m o n l y
associated w i t h v o l c a n i c e v e n t s t h r o u g h o u t Earth t i m e ? O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a v o l c a n i c m e c h a n i s m has n o t b e e n r u l e d o u t c o m p l e t e l y . A s f o r the s e c o n d o p t i o n , h o w c o u l d i r i d i u m b e b r o u g h t f r o m o u t s i d e the Earth t o e n d u p i n the b o u n d a r y clay layer? T h e a n s w e r i s s i m p l e : T h r o u g h the c o l l i s i o n o f the Earth w i t h a m e t e o r i t e . M e t e o r i t e s h a v e the r i g h t c o m p o s i t i o n . Small o n e s e n t e r the E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e all t h e t i m e . T h e r e i s a m p l e evidence,
such
as
Meteor
Crater in
A r i z o n a or the
Steinheim
Crater
in
Bavaria, that l a r g e r o n e s can also strike the surface. W h e n a m e t e o r i t e slams i n t o t h e E a r t h , i t p l o w s i n t o the g r o u n d , v a p o r i z ing r o c k and itself and c r e a t i n g a massive e x p l o s i o n . T h e m a g n i t u d e o f the e x p l o s i o n d e p e n d s o n t h e size o f the m e t e o r i t e and the s p e e d o f the c o l l i s i o n . T h e size o f the h y p o t h e s i z e d m e t e o r i t e that m a y h a v e caused the G r e a t D y i n g w a s o v e r o n e - h a l f m i l e i n d i a m e t e r . T h e a m o u n t o f ejecta t h r o w n u p i n t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e b y its i m p a c t w o u l d h a v e b e e n o f e n o r m o u s p r o p o r t i o n s . A s the
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
162 dust r e s u l t i n g f r o m the e x p l o s i o n s e t t l e d o u t o f t h e sky, t h e b o u n d a r y clay l a y e r , e n r i c h e d i n i r i d i u m c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e usual c o m p o s i t i o n o f the Earth's c r u s t , f o r m e d in d e p o s i t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t s , such as in o c e a n basins, w h e r e t h e l a y e r is m o s t easily f o u n d . T h e r e i s a g r e a t deal o f s u p p o r t i n g e v i d e n c e t o suggest that the i m p a c t h y p o t h e s i s i s m o r e p r o b a b l e than the E a r t h b o u n d v o l c a n i c h y p o t h e s i s . C h i c x ulub C r a t e r o n the n o r t h w e s t e r n m a r g i n o f the Y u c a t a n Peninsula o f M e x i c o has e v e n b e e n s u g g e s t e d a s the site o f i m p a c t . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s u g g e s t i o n o f the t i m i n g o f the i m p a c t has b e e n m a d e based o n fossil plants f o u n d i n Wyoming.
Damage,
apparently
caused
by
freezing,
can
be
observed
in
a q u a t i c , w a t e r - d w e l l i n g , species that w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y f o s s i l i z e d . T h e fossil d e p o s i t is of the a p p r o p r i a t e g e o l o g i c a g e and o c c u r s in a stratigraphic s e c t i o n that also contains i m p a c t d e b r i s . T h e r e p r o d u c t i v e stage o f the fossil plants w h e n t h e y d i e d suggests that the f r e e z e that k i l l e d t h e m o c c u r r e d i n J u n e — e a r l y June n o less. Such p r e c i s i o n m u s t b e v e r y c r i t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d . A certain a m o u n t o f s k e p t i c i s m i s h e a l t h y . C o n c o r d a n c e o f data m a y b e m o r e a p p a r e n t than r e a l . E v e n if t h e r e is c o n c o r d a n c e , t h e r e m a y be a b e t t e r or an equally t e n a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n . N o n e t h e l e s s t h e s u g g e s t i o n s a r e plausible. In either hypothesis,
however,
Earthbound or asteroid,
the i m m e d i a t e
physical effects o f c o l l i s i o n o r v o l c a n i c e x p l o s i o n m u s t b e a n a l y z e d i n r e l a t i o n to the selective extinctions at the
e n d o f the
A g e of Reptiles.
In either
s c e n a r i o , t h e i m m e n s e a m o u n t s o f dust and v a p o r t h r o w n u p i n t o the a t m o s p h e r e w o u l d b l o c k t h e sun, casting the Earth i n t o a n e e r i e d a y t i m e darkness. I t w o u l d persist f o r m o n t h s . T e m p e r a t u r e s w o u l d p l u m m e t drastically, r e m a i n i n g b e l o w f r e e z i n g , l i k e a n e n d l e s s w i n t e r n i g h t , until the sun c o u l d f i g h t its w a y t h r o u g h t h e dusty a t m o s p h e r e t o w a r m the Earth. Plant p r o d u c t i v i t y , w h i c h d e p e n d s d i r e c t l y o n t h e sun's r a y s ,
w o u l d drop precipitously.
The
effect o n p h o t o s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i s m s , p l a n t s , w o u l d d e p e n d s o m e w h a t o n the season in w h i c h t h e i m p a c t o c c u r r e d , but in any case, on a g l o b a l scale it would
be
devastating.
That
is
the
basis
of estimating
the
t i m i n g o f the
unseasonable e a r l y June " w i n t e r " m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . T h o s e o r g a n i s m s n o t k i l l e d b y t h e i m m e d i a t e effects o f the blast w o u l d suffer
long,
agonizing,
species could not,
torturous
w o u l d not,
years
of ecological
s u r v i v e it.
readjustment.
Some
H e r b i v o r e s left w i t h o u t f o d d e r
w o u l d s t a r v e . P r e d a t o r s w o u l d b e d e p r i v e d o f p r e y . O n l y t h o s e species that c o u l d s u r v i v e the c o l d and d a r k w i t h the i n t e g r i t y o f t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s intact w o u l d e n d u r e t h r o u g h w h a t w a s t o b e c o m e the C r e t a c e o u s - T e r t i a r y b o u n d -
AFRICAN
DINOSAURS,
BEFORE
AND
AFTER 163
ary,
d e f i n e d b y the death o f s o m a n y s p e c i e s .
Small,
secretive mammals
s u r v i v e d . C r o c o d i l e s and t u r t l e s s u r v i v e d . F r o g s s u r v i v e d . A n d s o d i d w a r m b l o o d e d b i r d s . But n o t , f o r w h a t e v e r d i s m a l r e a s o n s , t h e dinosaurs.
D O E S THIS S C E N A R I O o f a n a t m o s p h e r e full o f d u s t , s h r o u d i n g t h e Earth f r o m the l i f e - g i v i n g e n e r g y rays o f t h e sun, sound u n c o m f o r t a b l y familiar? I s it an a p o c a l y p t i c tale? In fact s o m e of t h e s t i m u l a t i o n f o r the d i r e c t i o n s t ak en i n assessing t h e less i m m e d i a t e effects o n life o f t h e r m o n u c l e a r w a r , and i n d e v e l o p i n g the c o n c e p t o f n u c l e a r w i n t e r , c o m e s f r o m just this r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e effects o f dust i n the a t m o s p h e r e . I t d o e s n o t m a t t e r w h e t h e r t h e dust is put there by volcanic eruptions or m e t e o r i t e impacts or the irresponsibility o f h u m a n s . T h e calculations a r e d o n e t h e s a m e w a y i n each case, and t h e p r e d i c t e d o u t c o m e i s t h e s a m e . T h e d e m i s e o f t h e d i n o s a u r s , i n a v e r y real sense, displays t h e fragility o f l i f e . O n c e s o m e t h i n g l i k e a n i m p a c t h a p p e n s , t h e r e i s a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g that can b e d o n e t o s t o p u n c a r i n g , i n s e n s i t i v e , a m o r a l physical p r o c e s s e s f r o m r u n n i n g t h e i r c o u r s e and taking t h e i r t o l l . T h e lesson o f dinosaur e x t i n c t i o n i s a p o c a l y p t i c t o that e x t e n t . E v e n w i t h the s i m i l a r i t i e s , t h e r e a r e s o m e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the G r e a t D y i n g a t the e n d o f t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s and the m o s t realistic models of thermonuclear war.
The
effects
of intense
radioactivity due
a t o m i c e x p l o s i o n and fallout m u s t b e a d d e d t o the e q u a t i o n .
to
That w o u l d
r e n d e r the d e s t r u c t i o n o f life far g r e a t e r and far m o r e h o r r i f i c than the loss caused s i m p l y b y darkness and c o l d and t h e i r associated h a v o c . T h e s e c o n d fundamental d i f f e r e n c e , o f e v e n g r e a t e r significance, i s that i n t h e r m o n u c l e a r w a r w e are n o t speaking o f t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f dinosaurs. W e a r e talking a b o u t p e o p l e . P e o p l e d o n o t cause m e t e o r i t e s ; t h e y d o cause w a r s . W e d o n o t n e e d t o e x a m i n e the effects o f n u c l e a r w a r t o d e r i v e insights f r o m dinosaur e x t i n c t i o n . H o w l o n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , d o y o u think a catastrophic e x t i n c t i o n like o n e o f the m a g n i t u d e o f the G r e a t D y i n g takes t o o c c u r ? H o w l o n g i s a g e o l o g i c a l instant? T h e a n s w e r s t o b o t h t h o s e q u e s t i o n s v a r y , b u t think o f this: W e a r e n o w i n t h e m i d s t o f the g r e a t e s t e p i s o d e o f e x t i n c t i o n that the w o r l d has e v e r s e e n , all b r o u g h t a b o u t b y the effects o f h u m a n s , n o t t h r o u g h nuclear w a r b u t t h r o u g h o u r efforts t o b u i l d b e t t e r l i v e s f o r o u r s e l v e s , by
stealing
a
kiss
from
the
Earth
when
we
m i g h t be
building
a
lasting
ecological relationship. W i t h our current tools for unraveling g e o l o g i c t i m e , the e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d i n w h i c h w e n o w l i v e w o u l d appear b u t a n instant o n
L O U I S JACOBS,
PH . D
164 t h e E a r t h ' s scale o f things i f i t w e r e v i e w e d f r o m s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n years i n the future. T h e r e must be a better w a y .
A L L T H A T SORT o f talk i s d e p r e s s i n g . W e a r e f o r t u n a t e t o b e a t t h e e n d o f t h e C o l d W a r w h e n t h e t h r e a t o f n u c l e a r c o n f r o n t a t i o n appears less i m m i nent.
A l s o , a s a s o c i e t y w e are m o r e fully a w a r e o f the e c o l o g i c a l c o n s e -
q u e n c e s o f o u r actions i f w e c h o o s e t o c a r e . C a r e f u l a s w e o u g h t t o b e i n the f u t u r e , this i s n o t t h e p l a c e t o d w e l l o n the t h o u g h t . Ideas o f n u c l e a r w i n t e r m a y d e r i v e i n s o m e w a y f r o m the study o f d i n o s a u r s , and i n c o n g r u o u s l y w e m a y b e e n t h r a l l e d m o r e b y the e x t i n c t i o n o f dinosaurs than b y the species g o i n g e x t i n c t t o d a y , b u t t h e r e i s o n e t h i n g f o r c e r t a i n that dinosaurs are n o t s u p p o s e d t o b e — d e p r e s s i n g . H a p p i l y t h e r e are r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s o m e l i v i n g animals and dinosaurs that g i v e a m o r e p o s i t i v e v i e w o f l i f e . I n fact, l o o k i n g a t the issue o f d i n o s a u r e x t i n c t i o n f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f g e n e a l o g i cal r e l a t i o n s h i p s , r a t h e r than the fate o f the c o m m o n l y d e p i c t e d dinosaurian s p e c i e s , t h e y h a v e n o t r e a l l y g o n e e x t i n c t a t all. S o m e are still a l i v e . I n fact, they comprise
one of the m o s t c o m m o n ,
diverse,
and
familiar o f all t h e
v e r t e b r a t e g r o u p s . T h e y a r e the b i r d s . T h e c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f b i r d s and the t r a d i t i o n a l dinosaurs w a s a d i n o s a u r .
T h e r e f o r e b i r d s are t o o .
And while
dinosaurs i n t h e c o m m o n sense d i d n o t pass t h r o u g h the G r e a t D y i n g a t the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , b i r d s d i d . To
understand
the
origin
of birds
from
their
dinosaurian
roots,
and
t h e r e f o r e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e " n o n e x t i n c t i o n " o f d i n o s a u r s , w e m u s t g o back f o r a n o t h e r l o o k a t the t w o f o l d d i v i s i o n o f t h e d i n o s a u r s . R e c a l l that t h e r e are t h e l i z a r d - h i p p e d saurischians and t h e b i r d - h i p p e d ornithischians as p r o p o s e d b y S e e l e y i n t h e latter part o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
H e p r o p o s e d those
n a m e s f o r the v e r y s i m p l e r e a s o n that the p e l v i s o f s o m e dinosaurs r e m i n d e d him
of lizards,
and
the
others
reminded
him
of birds.
This
has
been
a
s u r p r i s i n g l y r e s i l i e n t w a y t o d i v i d e u p t h e d i n o s a u r s , later d i s c o v e r i e s n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e n a m i n g o f b i r d - h i p p e d o r ornithischian dinosaurs has t u r n e d i n t o a strange s o r t o f h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t . T h e r e s e m b l a n c e t o birds is superficial. T h e r e is a b o n y p r o c e s s that p o i n t s b a c k w a r d f r o m the fused and stiff p e l v i s o f m o d e r n b i r d s that r e c a l l e d a b a c k w a r d l y p r o j e c t e d dinosaurian p u b i c b o n e t o S e e l e y . I t turns o u t n o t t o b e the s a m e s t r u c t u r e a t all, s o the b i r d - h i p p e d dinosaurs d o n o t r e s e m b l e birds i n the w a y t h e y w e r e s u p p o s e d t o . M o r e o v e r , t o m a k e t h e s t o r y a bit m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g , a s y o u w i l l s e e , the
A F R I C A N
D I N O S A U R S ,
B E F O R E
A N D
A F T E R
birds e v o l v e d f r o m the l i z a r d - h i p p e d saurischians, n o t the b i r d - h i p p e d o r n i thischians. O n e feature that l i v i n g birds h a v e that n o o t h e r g r o u p o f o r g a n i s m s has i s feathers. F e a t h e r s are a b o d y c o v e r i n g , e v o l u t i o n a r i l y d e r i v e d f r o m r e p t i l ian scales, that shape the w i n g s and b o d y f o r flight and insulate the b i r d ' s w a r m - b l o o d e d b o d y , p r o t e c t i n g i t f r o m heat loss.
Living birds have other
f e a t u r e s , t o o , and the o n e s m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s are t h o s e o f the s k e l e t o n .
L i v i n g birds g e n e r a l l y h a v e t h i n - w a l l e d and h o l l o w b o n e s , a
f a c t o r that i s t h o u g h t t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r dismal fossil r e c o r d . M u c h m o r e o f t e n than n o t , the l i g h t , fragile b o n e s g e t d e s t r o y e d b e f o r e t h e y are p r e s e r v e d . M o s t m o d e r n b i r d s h a v e a l a r g e b r e a s t b o n e and a c u r v y w i s h b o n e , t o w h i c h the
m u s c l e s o f flight attach.
T h e f o r e l i m b s o f m o d e r n b i r d s are
u n i q u e , and the n u m b e r o f fingers and t h e i r c l a w s are r e d u c e d .
Several of
the a r m b o n e s have fused t o g e t h e r , a s h a v e s o m e i n the l e g . T h e p e l v i s has b e c o m e a s o l i d , r i g i d s t r u c t u r e , and the spinal c o l u m n i s s h o r t . T h e r e are n o t e e t h t o w e i g h t d o w n the skull, n o r d o l i v i n g s p e c i e s h a v e l o n g , b o n y tails. T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n d o e s n o t s o u n d v e r y m u c h l i k e a d i n o s a u r , s o w h y are birds t h o u g h t t o b e a d i n o s a u r s c i o n , a n e v o l u t i o n a r y s h o o t f r o m the m o s t f a m o u s of all fossils? T h e b i g g e s t and m o s t i m p o r t a n t c l u e c o m e s f r o m f e a t h e r s . Y o u w o u l d n o t think that feathers w o u l d p r e s e r v e i n t h e fossil r e c o r d , y e t s o m e o f the m o s t w o r t h w h i l e fossils k n o w n i n the w o r l d a r e the i m p r e s s i o n s o f feathers surr o u n d i n g the b o n e s of a c r o w - s i z e d s p e c i e s c a l l e d Archaeopteryx lithographica ( F i g u r e 3 3 ) . T h e f e a t h e r i m p r i n t s o w e t h e i r e x i s t e n c e t o a p a r t i c u l a r set o f g e o l o g i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s that c u l m i n a t e d in t h e i r p r e s e r v a t i o n . Archaeopteryx is about 1 50 m i l l i o n years o l d , L a t e Jurassic. It is f o u n d o n l y in the S o l n h o f e n L i m e s t o n e o f Bavaria. T h i s l i m e s t o n e w a s d e p o s i t e d i n a s h a l l o w sea c o v e r i n g m u c h o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e and w a s p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d t o c o n t i n e n t a l m o v e m e n t s f o l l o w i n g the initial b r e a k u p o f Pangaea i n t h e N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . T h e sea w a s b r o a d , s h a l l o w , and q u i e t . I t w a s s o q u i e t , and t h e w a t e r s o still, that v e r y fine grains o f l i m e , c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e , w e r e d e p o s i t e d u n d i s t u r b e d o n the seabed.
T h e f i n e l i m e b l a n k e t e d the b o d i e s o f m a n y kinds o f v e r t e b r a t e s ,
i n c l u d i n g Archaeopteryx, small d i n o s a u r s , and p t e r o s a u r s , a m o n g o t h e r s p e c i e s . T h e e x t r e m e l y small size o f t h e s e d i m e n t a r y p a r t i c l e s , s l o w l y f i l t e r i n g o n t o the carcasses, e n c a s e d the b o d i e s w i t h o u t any s u b s e q u e n t d i s t u r b a n c e t o speak of. T h e l i m e w a s left t o lithify i n t o l i m e s t o n e , p r e s e r v i n g i n e x q u i s i t e detail the s k e l e t o n s o f the animals c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n i t , s o m e t i m e s e v e n r e t a i n i n g the
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
166 shapes and i m p r e s s i o n s o f tissue that w o u l d n o r m a l l y vanish. T h a t i s w h y the feathers
of Archaeopteryx
are
preserved.
T h e S o l n h o f e n L i m e s t o n e t o d a y lies i n t h i n , hard layers that h a v e b e e n q u a r r i e d f o r b u i l d i n g and flagstone f o r h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s .
Because i t i s s o
f i n e - g r a i n e d , i n e a r l i e r days i t w a s used t o m a k e l i t h o g r a p h i c illustrations. Basically t h e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s d r a w i n g a p i c t u r e on a p o l i s h e d surface of the s t o n e w i t h a w a x p e n c i l . T h e b l o c k is t h e n s u b m e r g e d in an acid that etches a w a y the surface w h e r e i t i s n o t p r o t e c t e d b y the w a x . T h e n the s t o n e i s w a s h e d and c l e a n e d o f the w a x . T h e result i s a raised surface w h e r e the w a x w a s and a l o w e r e d surface, e a t e n d o w n b y the a c i d , w h e r e the w a x w a s n o t . T h e s t o n e i s t h e n r e a d y f o r i n k i n g , and the i m a g e i s p r e s s e d o n t o p a p e r . A l t h o u g h i t i s n o l o n g e r practical t o use s t o n e l i t h o g r a p h y , s o m e o f the m o s t beautiful illustrations e v e r m a d e o f fossil b o n e s w e r e d o n e w i t h this t e c h nique.
The
Archaeopteryx
FIGURE oldest
use its
of the specific
33: ARCHAEOPTERYX, unquestionable
bird.
Solnhofen epithet,
Limestone
for
lithographic
plates
lithographica.
the most primitive,
and at
150 million years,
the
gave
AFRICAN
DINOSAURS,
BEFORE
AND
AFTER
167 Archaeopteryx has t r u e f e a t h e r s ,
as is c l e a r f r o m
the i m p r e s s i o n s in
the
S o l n h o f e n L i m e s t o n e , and f r o m that w e can c o n c l u d e that i t i s a b i r d . W h a t o t h e r features d o e s it have? It has t e e t h , w h i c h s e e m s u n b i r d l i k e , b u t it turns o u t that s o m e b i r d s f r o m t h e C r e t a c e o u s h a v e t e e t h . T h e p r e s e n c e o f t e e t h , t h e r e f o r e , is o n l y a p r i m i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , lost in m o d e r n b i r d s but p r e s e n t in s o m e e x t i n c t b i r d s and also in m o s t all d i n o s a u r s , p r e d i c t a b l y i n c l u d i n g t h e a n c e s t o r of b i r d s . Archaeopteryx r e s e m b l e s t h e ancestral c o n d i t i o n in a n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t w a y s . N o n e o f the w i n g b o n e s i s fused. T h e r e are t h r e e f i n g e r s . T h e b r e a s t b o n e is p o o r l y d e v e l o p e d . T h e r e is a l o n g tail s u p p o r t e d by a string o f v e r t e b r a e . T h e b o n e s o f the legs h a v e fused i n a specific k i n d o f w a y . T h e r e a r e o t h e r characteristics a s w e l l ,
and t h e y all s e e m t o p o i n t i n the s a m e
d i r e c t i o n . Archaeopteryx is a d i n o s a u r . It is a special o n e , b u t it is o n e n e v e r t h e less. It is also a b i r d because it has f e a t h e r s . It is o f t e n said that if Archaeopteryx had b e e n p r e s e r v e d w i t h o u t the f e a t h e r i m p r e s s i o n s , i t w o u l d have b e e n c a l l e d a dinosaur and m u c h o f t h e i n t e r e s t and c o n t r o v e r s y s u r r o u n d i n g i t w o u l d n o t have m a t e r i a l i z e d o r w o u l d a t least h a v e b e e n f o r e s t a l l e d .
But the feathers
w e r e p r e s e r v e d , and Archaeopteryx is u n d e n i a b l y a p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l m i s s i n g link. Thank goodness for those feather impressions! I f Archaeopteryx and all o t h e r b i r d s are d i n o s a u r s , t o w h i c h o f the t r a d i t i o n a l dinosaurs are t h e y m o s t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d ? S u r e l y n o t the stegosaurs, o r c e r a t o p sians, o r d u c k - b i l l e d d i n o s a u r s . T h o s e a r e ornithischians, and w e k n o w that the p e l v i s of Archaeopteryx,
strange as it m a y s e e m , is n o t " b i r d - h i p p e d " in
S e e l e y ' s sense o f the t e r m .
It is lizard-hipped,
and the b o x l i k e p e l v i s o f
m o d e r n b i r d s i s e v o l v e d f r o m that. But t h e r e a r e m a n y kinds o f saurischians. Birds surely are n o t m o s t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o M a l a w i - s a u r u s o r t h e o t h e r s a u r o p o d s . T h o s e giants are q u a d r u p e d a l , and e v e r y o n e can see f r o m the s p a r r o w s h o p p i n g a b o u t a t the w i n d o w that birds are n o t . W e m u s t l o o k t o the b i p e d a l t h e r o p o d s . M e a t - e a t i n g giants like Tyrannosaurus rex, w h i c h in m a n y w a y s a r e p r i m i t i v e t h e r o p o d s , are t o o s p e c i a l i z e d t o h a v e g i v e n rise t o Archaeopteryx b e c a u s e , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , T. rex has o n l y t w o fingers in t h e hand and Archaeopteryx still has t h r e e . S o m e o t h e r t h e r o p o d s h a v e t h r e e f i n g e r s , plus the s a m e k i n d o f l e g s t r u c t u r e , plus a similar k i n d o f w i s h b o n e . T h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f characters a m o n g s p e c i e s ( a n d s o m e o t h e r s I h a v e n o t g o n e i n t o ) , all t a k e n t o g e t h e r , indicates that Archaeopteryx—and t h e r e f o r e the p r i m i t i v e state o f all b i r d s — h a s the d e f i n i n g features o f c o e l u r o s a u r i a n dinosaurs. A n o t h e r w a y o f stating the s a m e t h i n g i s t o say b i r d s a r e c o e l u r o s a u r i a n dinosaurs ( s e e F i g u r e 3 1 ) . Y o u c o u l d say that all b i r d s a r e c o e l u r o s a u r s but
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
n o t all c o e l u r o s a u r s are b i r d s . T h a t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . A l l c o e l u r o s a u r s share a c o m m o n a n c e s t r y w i t h each o t h e r that o t h e r g r o u p s o f dinosaurs d o n o t share.
rex and AUosaurus j o i n t h e g e n e a l o g i c a l t r e e farther back.
T.
branched off the
main
t h e r o p o d trunk before
birds, f o r m e d their o w n branch. separate
the
coelurosaurs,
They
including
A f t e r that b r a n c h w a s f o r m e d , the b i r d s ,
f r o m other coelurosaurs,
split and
split in an a d a p t i v e radiation
l e a d i n g t o the h u g e d i v e r s i t y o f f e a t h e r e d s p l e n d o r that b r i g h t e n s o u r w o r l d t o d a y , w i t h c o l o r and s o n g , each l i v i n g s p e c i e s its o w n t w i g o n the t r e e o f life. T h e r e a r e m a n y s p e c i e s o f c o e l u r o s a u r s that e v o l v e d b i r d l i k e features i n parallel w i t h b i r d s , y e t t h e y are n o t t r u e b i r d s . T h e o s t r i c h d i n o s a u r s , f o r e x a m p l e , h a v e a b u i l d m o r e o r less l i k e a n o s t r i c h , and t h e y h a v e n o t e e t h , as in m o d e r n birds.
But t h e o s t r i c h dinosaurs are t h e i r o w n e v o l u t i o n a r y
l i n e a g e , a separate b r a n c h w i t h i n the c o e l u r o s a u r s , t o b e s u r e , but n o t part o f t h e b i r d b r a n c h o f c o e l u r o s a u r s . O s t r i c h dinosaurs a r e n o t t h e o n l y o n e s w i t h b i r d l i k e characteristics. I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e m o s t b i r d l i k e o f the n o n b i r d c o e l u r o s a u r s , the g r o u p that i n c l u d e s s i c k l e - c l a w e d Deinonychus, t i v e l y late i n t i m e , l o n g after Archaeopterjx,
o c c u r rela-
b y tens o f m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s , and
e v e n after s o m e o t h e r fossil b i r d s w e r e o n the s c e n e . If we
look
at
the
fossil
record
of coelurosaurs
and
their
distribution
t h r o u g h t i m e , w e f i n d that o n e o f the o l d e s t - k n o w n c o e l u r o s a u r s i s Archaeopterjx
lithographica.
Famous
Archaeopterjx.
It
has
feathers.
Only
birds
have
f e a t h e r s . Archaeopterjx is a l r e a d y a b i r d . T h e r e are s o m e o l d e r c o e l u r o s a u r s g o i n g back t o w a r d t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f d i n o s a u r s , b u t t h e y are p o o r l y k n o w n and
confusingly
difficult
with
respect
to
early
dinosaur,
much
less
bird,
e v o l u t i o n . C o e l u r o s a u r s start t o b e c o m e b e t t e r k n o w n a t a b o u t the t i m e o f Archaeopterjx. daguru
In fact,
called
I m e n t i o n e d above a nonbird coelurosaur f r o m T e n -
Elaphrosaurus
bambergi.
H o w can i t b e that t h e fossil r e c o r d o f b i r d o r i g i n s i s s o t o p s y - t u r v y ? W h e r e a r e the o l d e r , n o n f e a t h e r e d c o e l u r o s a u r ancestors o f birds? T h i s i s a b o t h e r f o r t h o s e , l i k e m e , w h o w o u l d p r e f e r the fossil r e c o r d t o r e f l e c t the s e q u e n c e , s p e c i e s b y s p e c i e s , o f the e v o l u t i o n o f m a j o r g r o u p s o f animals. U n f o r t u n a t e l y that is an ideal that the fossil r e c o r d has b e e n unable to l i v e up t o i n m a n y cases. I f i t a l r e a d y d i d that, t h e r e w o u l d b e less r e a s o n t o search f o r fossils. T h e t r u e ancestral s p e c i e s m a y n e v e r b e f o u n d , b u t s o what? W e c a n n o t e v e n say f o r sure that the s p e c i e s ancestral to b i r d s w a s f o s s i l i z e d . In this c a s e , r o c k s o f the a p p r o p r i a t e a g e — t h a t is, i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g Archaeopterjx—and
representing
the
necessary
depositional
environment
to
pre-
A F R I C A N
D I N O S A U R S ,
B E F O R E
A N D
A F T E R
169 s e r v e b i r d a n c e s t o r s are r a r e .
N e v e r t h e l e s s the hypothesis,
based o n the
a n a t o m y o f b i r d s , d i n o s a u r s , and all o t h e r a n i m a l s , r e m a i n s that all b i r d s , n o t just Archaeopteryx, are c o e l u r o s a u r s , and that t h e y e v o l v e d specifically f r o m an o l d e r , as yet u n k n o w n ancestor. This p r o v i d e s a prediction, as g o o d hypotheses d o , that such a n animal m a y b e f o u n d . T h e h y p o t h e s i s d o e s n o t d e p e n d on such a d i s c o v e r y . It c o u l d , in p r i n c i p l e , be falsified, that is, it c o u l d be s h o w n t o b e i m p o s s i b l e , strictly f r o m a n a t o m i c a l data d e r i v e d f r o m k n o w n species.
That would
not be
intellectually devastating
so
l o n g a s realistic
m o d e l s o f b i r d e v o l u t i o n can b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m w h a t w e h a v e i n t h e fossil r e c o r d and i n l i v i n g s p e c i e s , c o n s t r a i n e d i n t i m e t o s o m e e x t e n t and t e s t e d b y future d i s c o v e r i e s . I f n e w d i s c o v e r i e s can b e e x p e c t e d t o test h y p o t h e s e s , t h e y can also b e e x p e c t e d t o t h r o w a f e w w r e n c h e s i n t o the g e a r s . T h a t i s w h a t has h a p p e n e d w i t h Archaeopteryx and the o r i g i n o f b i r d s . N e w fossils f o u n d o n l y a f e w years a g o i n W e s t T e x a s a p p e a r v e r y b i r d l i k e t o t h e i r d i s c o v e r e r , s o m u c h s o that a n e w g e n u s and species n a m e , Protoavis texensis, w a s g i v e n to t h e m . In fact, the pheasant-sized Protoavis i s r e p o r t e d t o b e m o r e l i k e m o d e r n b i r d s than i s Archaeopteryx. T h i s is n o t i m p o s s i b l e , b u t w h a t m a k e s the r e p o r t so fascinating is that Protoavis is o l d e r than Archaeopteryx by s e v e n t y - f i v e m i l l i o n y e a r s ! T h a t w o u l d m o v e the fossil r e c o r d o f b i r d s back t o a t i m e c o m p a r a b l e w i t h the o r i g i n of dinosaurs, a p o s i t i o n that is n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e . It w o u l d m e a n that birds split o f f e a r l y i n d i n o s a u r h i s t o r y ,
and
i t w o u l d i m p l y that all c o -
e l u r o s a u r s , if t h e y actually h a v e any m e a n i n g as a natural g r o u p i n g of d i n o saurs, d i d s o a s w e l l .
T h e issue, h o w e v e r , b o i l s d o w n t o the a n a t o m i c a l
features o f the s k e l e t o n o f Protoavis.
N o feathers o f i t are k n o w n .
L i k e Archaeopteryx, Protoavis has a l o n g tail. It also has t e e t h , b u t t h e y are l i m i t e d t o the f r o n t e n d o f t h e j a w r a t h e r than e x t e n d i n g farther b a c k , a s i n Archaeopteryx. T h e e n t i r e skull a r c h i t e c t u r e i s m o r e l i k e that o f m o d e r n b i r d s . T h e e y e sockets are l a r g e , p r o v i d i n g f o r b i n o c u l a r , t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l v i s i o n . T h e b r a i n , j u d g i n g f r o m t h e b o n e s that h o u s e i t , w a s b u i l t f o r balance and the acuity necessary in a flying b i r d . Protoavis d o e s a p p e a r f r o m the d e s c r i p t i o n to
have
been
more
"birdlike"
than
Protoavis has n o t g o n e u n c h a l l e n g e d .
Archaeopteryx—reallv. S u g g e s t i o n s h a v e b e e n m a d e that
Protoavis is n o t a b i r d at all, just a c o m p o s i t e of b o n e s of s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t species t h r o w n t o g e t h e r in a p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l p o t p o u r r i . But w h a t if Protoavis withstands the scrutiny and turns o u t t o b e a b i r d after all? W h a t d o e s that do
to
Archaeopteryx?
T h e a n s w e r i s that i t d o e s a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g t o t h e r o l e o f Archaeopteryx
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
170 in the e v o l u t i o n of b i r d s . T h e fact r e m a i n s , w h e t h e r Protoavis is a b i r d or n o t , that Archaeopteryx i s p r i m i t i v e , t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e o f k n o w n b i r d s . I t m a y b e g e o l o g i c a l l y y o u n g e r than Protoavis, b u t it still r e s e m b l e s t r a d i t i o n a l dinosaurs m o r e than Protoavis d o e s . S p e c i e s l i v i n g t o d a y i n v a r i a b l y e x h i b i t a m o s a i c o f p r i m i t i v e and a d v a n c e d features i n t h e i r a n a t o m y . L a m p r e y s h a v e n o j a w s , f o r e x a m p l e . T h a t i s o n e o f t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e features that any v e r t e b r a t e c o u l d h a v e , b e c a u s e v e r t e b r a t e s e v o l v e d f r o m j a w l e s s a n c e s t o r s , y e t l a m p r e y s are a l i v e t o d a y . T h a t m a k e s t h e m a s o r t o f l i v i n g fossil, a t least w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r lack o f j a w s . I f b i r d s had b e e n a r o u n d f l y i n g , h a p p i l y f l i t t e r i n g , f o r 7 5 m i l l i o n years b e f o r e Archaeopteryx l i v e d , it m e a n s that Archaeopteryx w a s a l i v i n g fossil i n its o w n day.
F r o m that w e can m a k e a p r e d i c t i o n :
The common
a n c e s t o r of Protoavis, if it is t r u l y a b i r d , and Archaeopteryx m u s t h a v e l i v e d p r i o r t o Protoavis,
a r o u n d 2 2 0 m i l l i o n years a g o .
T h a t m e a n s t h e r e are still g o o d fossils t o f i n d .
THE CROCODILE
OF
CARNIVAL
WHEN
W E S T E P P E D f r o m t h e L a n d R o v e r i n t o the tall grass o n t h e
w a y t o p r o s p e c t the D i n o s a u r B e d s f o r the f i r s t t i m e , w e m e t a snake. I t c o u l d have b e « n a bad o m e n . In K e n y a , in t h e T u g e n H i l l s , I o n c e saw a spitting c o b r a spit a t p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s w a l k i n g a l o n g a path b a c k t o c a m p . I t g a v e m e the c r e e p s . B o n n i e o n c e a l m o s t p e e d o n a s a w - s c a l e d v i p e r . T h a t g a v e h e r the c r e e p s . It is bad luck to h a v e c o b r a s and puff a d d e r s and v i p e r s a r o u n d . T h e s e c o n d thing w e s a w i n t h e f i e l d i n M a l a w i w a s a g o o d o m e n . I t w a s dinosaur b o n e — l o t s o f it. T h a t w a s e x c i t i n g . Snakes o r n o t , w e w e r e o n t h e right track. Just w h i c h fossil species m i g h t b e f o u n d w e a t h e r i n g o u t o f t h e g r o u n d o n any particular f i e l d t r i p i s t o u g h t o say i n a d v a n c e , r e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t o n e really w a n t s t o f i n d . T h e r e a r e s o m e things that a r e s i m p l y u n p r e d i c t a b l e . S o m e t i m e s w h a t is f o u n d , w h i l e u n e x p e c t e d , is just as i m p o r t a n t as w h a t is b e i n g s o u g h t . I guess i t c o u l d b e c a l l e d the luck o f the d r a w . I n t h e e a r l y stages o f t h e M a l a w i P r o j e c t m y c o n s u m i n g g o a l w a s t o f i n d p r i m i t i v e m a m m a l s , c o n t e m p o r a r i e s o f the d i n o s a u r s . T h e r e f o r e the p r i m e o b j e c t i v e i n the f i e l d w a s t o l o c a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f small b o n e s i n the r o c k that c o u l d t h e n b e s i e v e d t o o b t a i n m a m m a l s , i f t h e y w e r e t h e r e . M o s t o f the fossils w e w e r e f i n d i n g i n the D i n o s a u r Beds a t f i r s t w e r e b o n e f r a g m e n t s o f
l o u i s
j a c o b s ,
p h . d .
172 n o v a l u e e x c e p t a s clues that w e w e r e i n the r i g h t area. T h e s m a l l e r p i e c e s o f b o n e that w e r e p r e s e n t i n t h e r o c k d i d n o t c o m e f r o m small a n i m a l s ; rather t h e y w e r e o n l y the
f r a g m e n t a r y r e m a i n s o f a o n c e - l a r g e r b o n e o f a large
a n i m a l . T h a t i s b e t t e r than n o t h i n g . T h e rainy seasons and the p o r o u s s a n d s t o n e o f the D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e o b v i o u s l y u n k i n d t o fossils, p a r t i c u l a r l y o n c e t h e y lay e x p o s e d o n the surface o f the g r o u n d t h r o u g h e r o s i o n .
O c c a s i o n a l l y o n e o f the m o r e d u r a b l e frag-
m e n t s w e f o u n d w o u l d b e r e c o g n i z a b l e . T h e s e s p e c i m e n s , w h i l e n o t spectacular, w e r e o f s o m e scientific v a l u e . W e d i d n o t f i n d m o r e than o n e b o n e i n a s p o t , and e v e n w h e n w e d u g d o w n , w e d i d n o t f i n d b e t t e r b o n e s .
I t was
getting to be discouraging. T h e n o n June 5 o f the f i r s t f i e l d e x p e d i t i o n , I n e e d e d t o g o t o the bush. S e e k i n g p r i v a c y , I s e a r c h e d t h e h i d d e n n o o k s and crannies o f the dinosauri n f e s t e d badlands until I f o u n d a t i n y c a n y o n w i t h just the right a m b i e n c e . A g l i n t o f w h i t e i n t h e g u l l y w a l l caught m y e y e . Y o u n e v e r k n o w w h e n y o u m i g h t f i n d s o m e t h i n g g o o d . I t can h a p p e n a t t h e m o s t a w k w a r d t i m e s . What is that? I asked m y s e l f . It's probably one of those damned weathered metamorphic pebbles, maybe not.
Oh,
hell,
I t h o u g h t , but
this can wait.
Pants b u t t o n e d . I r e a c h e d o v e r w i t h m y p i c k - m a t t o c k and h a m m e r e d t h e p o w d e r y s t o n e f r o m the w a l l . I p i c k e d u p t h e half that fell o u t . It had t e e t h . Oops! W i l l D o w n s heard my w h o o p s . He came at a run. I was o v e r j o y e d with the find of a skull, b u t m i l d l y e m b a r r a s s e d , at least a l i t t l e sheepish, at my lack of finesse. " O k a y , Jacobs. I ' l l t a k e o v e r f r o m h e r e . " I e x p e c t e d h i m t o . H e has g o o d , sure hands, w e l l a d a p t e d f o r salvaging and r e p a i r i n g b r o k e n fossils. W i l l r e m o v e d the remaining fragments f r o m the wall. W e began t o l o o k a r o u n d . T h e r e w a s a p i e c e o f t u r t l e . A n d t h e r e w a s a n o t h e r skull! I t w a s a b o u t t h r e e inches l o n g , t h e s a m e size a s t h e f i r s t , b u t n o t b r o k e n . Fantastic! O v e r all it had b e e n a g r e a t m o r n i n g . I b r o k e t h e first s p e c i m e n , b u t I also f o u n d it. A n d c l e a r l y i t w a s n o t d a m a g e d b e y o n d r e p a i r . M o r e o v e r , w e had a s e c o n d skull.
These w e r e our first really g o o d finds. T h e
locality was
d e s i g n a t e d C D - I . ( T h e C D stands f o r " C r e t a c e o u s D i n o s a u r B e d s . " T h a t i s h o w g e o l o g i c m a p s label t h e r o c k s . )
THE
CROCODILE
OF
CARNIVAL
F r o m w h a t w e c o u l d see i n t h e f i e l d , w e k n e w the t w o skulls w e r e g o o d s p e c i m e n s . But t o h e i g h t e n o u r a n x i e t y , w e c o u l d n o t tell e x a c t l y w h a t t h e y w e r e . W e w e r e n o t e v e n sure i f t h e y w e r e the s a m e k i n d o f a n i m a l . T h e y c e r t a i n l y w e r e n o t dinosaurian.
E v e n t h o u g h t h e y w e r e o n l y the size o f a
Chihuahua d o g , t h e y s e e m e d a b i t l a r g e f o r a n e a r l y m a m m a l , b u t w h o k n e w h o w big Cretaceous m a m m a l s w e r e supposed to be in Africa? W e just c o u l d n o t see the skulls w e l l e n o u g h t o j u d g e w h a t t h e y w e r e because b o t h w e r e c o v e r e d i n a r e d c r u s t . O n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y d i d w h i t e , friable bone p e e k through. T h e y w o u l d have to be p r e p a r e d in the laboratory, n o t f i d d l e d w i t h i n the f i e l d . W e w o u l d o n l y b e able t o see t h e m r e a l l y w e l l , f r e e f r o m t h e i r r o c k c o v e r i n g , i n a f e w m o n t h s . N e v e r t h e l e s s w e k n e w w e had a w i n n e r . T h e s e w o u l d b e e n o u g h t o m a k e the p r o j e c t a success i n its f i r s t y e a r . T h a t w e k n e w e v e n f r o m w h a t little w e c o u l d s e e . N o c o m p a r a b l e skulls, and t h e r e f o r e n o c o m p a r a b l e a n i m a l s , had e v e r b e e n f o u n d i n A f r i c a b e f o r e . T h e s e w e r e u n i q u e . T h e o n l y casualty o f the day w a s m y r e g u l a r i t y . T h e season c o n t i n u e d a n o t h e r f e w w e e k s after t h e skulls w e r e f o u n d . W e stayed w i t h the f i e l d w o r k and c o n t i n u e d p r o s p e c t i n g f o r a s p o t w o r t h s i e v i n g . W e c o n t i n u e d the t e d i o u s e x e r c i s e o f e x a m i n i n g e v e r y square inch o f e x p o s e d r o c k f o r a p o c k e t that m i g h t y i e l d t i n y b o n e s . f r a g m e n t s o f dinosaurs.
We continued to pick up
T w o days after the skulls w e r e f o u n d ,
W i l l came
t h r o u g h . H i s e a g l e e y e s p o t t e d p a r t o f a l i z a r d l i k e t h i g h b o n e , a b o u t half a n inch l o n g , w e a t h e r e d f r o m a sandstone o r i g i n a l l y p l a c e d t h e r e as an o l d s t r e a m channel. T h e t h i g h b o n e w a s n o t o f a m a m m a l , b u t i t s h o w e d that small animal r e m a i n s w e r e p r e s e r v e d r i g h t t h e r e i n that a n c i e n t s t r e a m b e d . A n d t h e r e w a s m o r e b o n e still i n the g r o u n d . W e w e r e e l a t e d again. C a r e f u l l y w e b e g a n q u a r r y i n g the c h a n n e l , w h i c h w e d e s i g n a t e d l o c a l i t y C D - 4 . W e b e g a n t o f i n d t h e s e r r a t e d steak-knife t e e t h o f m e a t - e a t i n g d i n o saurs. T h e r e w e r e also l o t s o f r o u n d e d hunks o f b o n e , t u m b l e d and s m o o t h e d b y the r i v e r that had d e p o s i t e d t h e channel sands w e w e r e e x c a v a t i n g . T h e sands w e r e s o c o a r s e , and m o s t o f the b o n e s o t u m b l e d , that w e b e g a n t o w o n d e r a b o u t the p r o b a b i l i t y o f f i n d i n g the r e a l l y small b o n e s and t e e t h w e w e r e after. P e r h a p s t h e y had b e e n d e s t r o y e d b e f o r e t h e y c o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d . L u c k i l y , a b o u t t e n f e e t a b o v e u s t h e r e w e r e m o r e b o n e s , and i n a m u d d i e r m a t r i x . T h i s w e c a l l e d C D - 5 . W e b a g g e d gunnysacks full o f the fossiliferous s e d i m e n t s f r o m b o t h s p o t s , e a g e r t o take i t t o w a t e r , w h e r e w e c o u l d s i e v e f o r tiny b o n e s w i t h the e a g e r n e s s , e n t h u s i a s m , and a p p r e h e n s i o n o f f o r t y niners p a n n i n g f o r g o l d . O u r f i r s t task w a s t o g e t the bags o f m a t r i x back t o t h e L a n d R o v e r . F o r
LOUIS JACOBS, PH.D. 174 this I w a n t e d t o h i r e s o m e o f the local v i l l a g e r s . T h e o n l y p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e t o o u r i n q u i r i e s w a s f r o m s o m e o f t h e v i l l a g e w o m e n . T h e y w e r e q u i t e happy t o balance t h e h e a v y bags o n t h e i r h e a d s , t o t e t h e m t o the v e h i c l e , a distance o f a c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d yards o v e r r o u g h and b r o k e n g r o u n d , then r e t u r n f o r a n o t h e r l o a d . I paid by the bag. W h e n the m e n s a w t h e w o m e n turn t o , and that t h e i r industry r e a l l y w a s b e i n g r e w a r d e d r e a s o n a b l y w e l l c o n s i d e r i n g the w o r k i n v o l v e d , t h e v w a n t e d a p i e c e o f t h e a c t i o n . T h e w o m e n , h o w e v e r , had a l r e a d y f o r m e d a m o n o p o l y and w o u l d a d m i t n o m e n . A l t h o u g h all the chatter w a s i n T u m b u k a , t h e r e s e e m e d t o b e a l o t o f g o o d - n a t u r e d r i b b i n g taking p l a c e . N e v e r since that day h a v e w o m e n b e e n available t o w o r k f o r u s i n the f i e l d . T h e y d o n o t s e e m t o b e a l l o w e d . T r a d i t i o n insures that the m e n m a y d o this sort of labor if they choose.
W o m e n w o r k i n c r e d i b l y hard i n M a l a w i , but
n o w , p e r h a p s because i t i s f o r w a g e s , o n l y m e n w o r k f o r m y p r o j e c t . T h e gunnysacks full o f s e d i m e n t that the w o m e n c a r r i e d t o the L a n d R o v e r w e r e d r i v e n t o the G o v e r n m e n t V e t e r i n a r y F a r m i n K a r o n g a . W e n e e d e d a n a p p r o p r i a t e p l a c e t o s i e v e o u r s a m p l e s because w e d i d n o t w a n t t o c o n t a m i nate t h e lake w i t h t h e r e s i d u e o f k e r o s e n e - s o a k e d d i r t .
We made arrange-
m e n t s w i t h the f a r m t o d o the w o r k w h e r e i t c o u l d d o n o d a m a g e using a large s h e e t - m e t a l f i s h tank, b o r r o w e d f r o m the G o v e r n m e n t Fisheries D e p a r t m e n t , a s a s i e v i n g t r o u g h . C h r i s D a b o r n , the e x p a t r i a t e v e t e r i n a r i a n , a g r e e d t o let u s h a v e w a t e r f r o m t h e f a r m a t n o c h a r g e . T h a t w a s i m p o r t a n t because o f the state o f the K a r o n g a W a t e r W o r k s i n 1 9 8 4 . W a t e r w a s n o t r e l i a b l y d e l i v e r e d , s o l a r g e s t o r a g e cisterns w e r e necessary f o r a c o n s i s t e n t f l o w . T h e cistern w e used at the f a r m w a s the r e s i d e n c e of a l a r g e m o n i t o r l i z a r d , a f o o t or so in l e n g t h , w h i c h I d i s c o v e r e d o n l y after I filled the c i s t e r n and t o o k a d r i n k f r o m the n o z z l e l e a d i n g f r o m it. T h e m o n i t o r s c r a m b l e d o u t o f the e n d o f the hose w h e r e o n l y a f e w s e c o n d s b e f o r e I had had m y m o u t h . W e had o n e p r o b l e m w i t h the s i e v i n g . T h e r e w a s n o k e r o s e n e , o r paraffin a s i t i s c a l l e d i n M a l a w i , i n w h i c h t o soak o u r d i r t . T h e r e w a s n o n e w h a t s o e v e r i n all o f n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . W e n e e d e d t o f i n d a substitute. T h i s w e d i d i n the f o r m o f d i e s e l o i l . I t i s a n e x t r e m e l y unpleasant substance t o w o r k w i t h i n this w a y . W e used plastic g l o v e s t o p r o t e c t o u r hands, but after a f e w m i n u t e s t h e y w o u l d b e g i n t o d i s s o l v e i n t o a g u m m y w a d . D e s p i t e that, w e c o u l d g e t the job done. S o w e set t o the task o f s i e v i n g . A s s e d i m e n t w a s s c r e e n e d and d r i e d , w e passed casual m o m e n t s s o r t i n g t h r o u g h the c o a r s e r f r a c t i o n o f r e s i d u e left i n
T H E
C R O C O D I L E
O F
C A R N I V A L
175 the s c r e e n - b o t t o m e d b o x e s . J e r r y B r i t t , a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , f o u n d a strange t o o t h . It w a s a b o u t an e i g h t h of an inch l o n g , w i t h a b i g c e n t r a l c o n e and a r i d g e c o m i n g d o w n f r o m the t i p . I t l o o k e d a b i t l i k e e a r l y m a m m a l s k n o w n f r o m e l s e w h e r e i n the w o r l d , b u t n o t e n o u g h l i k e t h e m t o d e m o n s t r a t e that it really was a m a m m a l t o o t h . T h e r e w a s no indication of a g o o d r o o t on it, like m a m m a l s h a v e , but t h e n again, the base w a s b r o k e n . W e f i n a l l y c o n c l u d e d it c a m e f r o m a fish. O t h e r than that t o o t h and a f e w d i n o s a u r - t o o t h scraps, w e d i d n o t p i c k anything
particularly
good
out
of the
wash
while
we
were
in
the f i e l d .
P a t i e n c e i s a v i r t u e i n p a l e o n t o l o g y . W e s h i p p e d all o u r c o n c e n t r a t e back t o the States a t the e n d o f the f i e l d season, w h e r e W i l l s e p a r a t e d the b o n e f r o m the sand using h e a v y l i q u i d c h e m i c a l s . T h e n h e p i c k e d t h r o u g h the b o n e s and scraps.
W e g o t n o m a m m a l s , but w e d i d g e t s e v e r a l o f t h o s e " f i s h " t e e t h ,
s o m e f r o g b o n e s , bits and p i e c e s o f o t h e r tiny b o n e s , l i t t l e crustaceans, and c u r i o u s l y e n o u g h a c o u p l e o f s e e d l i k e s t r u c t u r e s — o u r o n l y plant r e m a i n s . T h e f i r s t s c r e e n i n g c a m p a i g n i n the D i n o s a u r Beds w a s n o t a c o m p l e t e bust, but i t w a s d o w n a t the b o t t o m o f t h e b a r r e l f o r a g u y w h o w a n t e d m a m m a l s . Still, i t p r o v i d e d a m o r e c o m p l e t e f i r s t g l a n c e o f the life o f the D i n o s a u r Beds than w e had g o t t e n f r o m p i c k i n g b o n e s off the surface o f the g r o u n d . W h e n w e r e t u r n e d h o m e f r o m the 1984 f i e l d season, W i l l n o t o n l y s o r t e d the c o n c e n t r a t e b u t h e b e g a n t o p r e p a r e t h e skulls w e had f o u n d a t C D - I . H e w a s w o r k i n g in his l a b ,
in A r i z o n a .
Each day he sat staring t h r o u g h his
m i c r o s c o p e , s c r a p i n g , g l u i n g , c l e a n i n g w i t h a v a r i e t y o f t o o l s . I w a s i n Dallas. A s the skulls e m e r g e d f r o m t h e i r shrouds o f i r o n - s t a i n e d crust, W i l l f e d m e b l o w - b y - b l o w r e p o r t s o v e r the p h o n e . " J a c o b s , this is w e i r d . I can see p a r t of a n o t h e r t o o t h . It has l o t s of cusps. This could be a m a m m a l . " N e x t call:
" J a c o b s , the r o o t s a r e all w r o n g . T h i s i s a f i s h . "
N e x t call: " J a c o b s , this is a r e p t i l e . " W e w e r e a bit like b l i n d m e n t r y i n g t o d e s c r i b e a n e l e p h a n t f r o m the parts w e w e r e familiar w i t h , but n o t r e a l l y m a k i n g m u c h sense. A s each l i t t l e hunk o f o b s c u r i n g crust w a s s c r a p e d a w a y t o r e v e a l t h e details o f h i d d e n b o n e , i t b e c a m e m o r e o b v i o u s that w h a t e v e r w e h a d , i t w a s b i z a r r e . T h e s e w e r e t h e skulls o f the animals w i t h the o d d t e e t h w e had f o u n d i n the s i e v i n g . O f c o u r s e we w e r e pleased.
W e k n e w all a l o n g that searching a n u n k n o w n t i m e i n
A f r i c a ' s past w o u l d v e r y l i k e l y y i e l d u n p r e d i c t a b l e f i n d s . H e r e w e had t h e f i r s t o f t h e m , and t h e y w e r e m o r e s t r a n g e than a n y t h i n g w e c o u l d have e x p e c t e d .
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
7 76 B o t h skulls f r o m that f i r s t season are l i t t l e m o r e than t h r e e inches l o n g , s o the animals t h e m s e l v e s w e r e n o t v e r y l a r g e , m a y b e a f o o t i n l e n g t h . O n e skull is in b e t t e r shape than the o t h e r , o w i n g to the w a y I had f o u n d the first. T h e m u z z l e i s s h o r t and d e e p , t h e b a c k o f t h e skull i s b r o a d . T h e nostrils are o n t h e sides and c l o s e t o t h e tip
of the snout.
T h e l o w e r j a w s are still
c o n n e c t e d t o t h e skulls i n b o t h s p e c i m e n s . T h e b o n e s a r e p u r e w h i t e and v e r y s o f t , w h i c h m a d e i t difficult and s l o w f o r W i l l t o f r e e t h e m f r o m t h e i r r o c k y crust. T h e e n a m e l o f the t e e t h i s a m u t e d b e i g e c o l o r . T h e t e e t h s e e m e d t o b e cuspy r o u n d e d " m o l a r s " i n the b a c k o f the j a w s , p r e c e d e d b y s m a l l e r , cuspy " p r e m o l a r s , " t h e n s o m e large " c a n i n e s , " and f i n a l l y s o m e t i n y t e e t h i n the f r o n t o f the u p p e r j a w . F o r s o m e o n e l i k e m e w h o w a s a t t h e t i m e m o s t f a m i l i a r w i t h m a m m a l s , this a r r a n g e m e n t o f t e e t h i s v e r y m a m m a l l i k e , s o r t o f r a c c o o n y . But this animal was not a m a m m a l . W i l l and I t o o k the s p e c i m e n s t o t h e annual m e e t i n g o f the S o c i e t y o f V e r t e b r a t e P a l e o n t o l o g y , w h e r e w e had g r e a t fun s h o w i n g t h e m a r o u n d . I t w a s o b v i o u s to s e v e r a l p e o p l e a t t e n d i n g that this animal w a s a c r o c o d i l e , a strange o n e , b u t a c r o c o d i l e n e v e r t h e l e s s . T h e y w e r e c o r r e c t . I t i s clear f r o m t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f b o n e s and h o l e s i n the skull and l o w e r j a w . But such a weird crocodile!
C R O C O D I L E S and t h e i r kin c o m p r i s e o n e o f t h e t w o l i v i n g g r o u p s o f R u l i n g R e p t i l e s , the A r c h o s a u r i a . T h e o t h e r l i v i n g g r o u p i s the b i r d s . T h a t i s r i g h t . A m o n g l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s , c r o c o d i l e s a r e m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o birds than t o a n y t h i n g e l s e . Birds and c r o c o d i l e s share a c o m m o n a n c e s t o r s o m e w h e r e back i n t h e m u r k y , distant past that n o o t h e r l i v i n g animals shared w i t h t h e m . But t h e y d o h a v e s o m e e x t i n c t r e l a t i v e s t o w h i c h t h e y are c l o s e l y r e l a t e d . T h e r e are the dinosaurs ( f r o m w h i c h t h e b i r d s , b u t n o t the c r o c o d i l e s , d e s c e n d e d ) , the f l y i n g p t e r o s a u r s , w h i c h a r e n o t b i r d s a t all e v e n t h o u g h t h e y c o u l d f l y , and a n u m b e r o f l e s s e r - k n o w n g r o u p s . I n t h e i r p r i m i t i v e states all o f these g r o u p s r e s e m b l e each o t h e r m u c h m o r e than any o n e o f t h e m r e s e m b l e s a n y t h i n g e l s e . M u c h o f t h e r e s e m b l a n c e lies i n t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f the b o n e s in the skull. T h e y are also c h a r a c t e r i z e d by c o n i c a l t e e t h set in h o l e s a l o n g the j a w , b u t w i t h o u t h a v i n g g o o d r o o t s t o h o l d t h e m i n the s o c k e t s . ( L i v i n g b i r d s , o f c o u r s e , h a v e e v o l u t i o n a r i l y lost all t h e i r t e e t h , b u t s o m e fossil species had t h e m , a s d i d t h e i r archosaurian a n c e s t o r s . )
THE
CROCODILE
OF
CARNIVAL
Because o f these shared f e a t u r e s , and a f e w m o r e , all o f t h e m — c r o c s , b i r d s , p t e r o s a u r s , and d i n o s a u r s — a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e archosaurs. N o animals w i t h o u t t h o s e specific characteristics o f a n a t o m y can b e l o n g t o t h e c l u b . I t i s o n l y the separate paths o f e v o l u t i o n f o l l o w e d s u b s e q u e n t l y b y c r o c s , dinosaurs, b i r d s , and p t e r o s a u r s that m a k e s each o f t h e m a p p e a r s o d i f f e r e n t f r o m each o t h e r i n o u r e y e s . A l l o f t h o s e g r o u p s , i n s u m the archosaurs, a r e distantly r e l a t e d t o the lizards and snakes, and m o r e distantly r e l a t e d still t o the t u r t l e s .
C R O C O D I L I A N S h a v e a n e x c e l l e n t fossil r e c o r d g o i n g w a y back a c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d m i l l i o n y e a r s , b u t t h e r e a r e o n l y t h r e e g r o u p s still a r o u n d . T h e f i r s t g r o u p i s e x e m p l i f i e d b y the N i l e c r o c o d i l e , e v e n n o w a c o m m o n animal i n m a n y parts o f A f r i c a . T h e r e a r e also c r o c o d i l e s i n A u s t r a l i a and N e w G u i n e a , Asia, and A m e r i c a . S o m e inhabit salt w a t e r . T h e r e are d w a r f c r o c o d i l e s i n W e s t A f r i c a . A l l o f these are c l o s e r e l a t i v e s o f t h e N i l e c r o c o d i l e . T h e n t h e r e are the a l l i g a t o r s , n o w i n c l u d i n g t h e A m e r i c a n a l l i g a t o r o f t h e G u l f Coastal states, its c o u s i n , the C h i n e s e a l l i g a t o r , and the caimans o f South A m e r i c a . T h e y have b l u n t snouts c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e N i l e c r o c o d i l e . T h e t h i r d g r o u p contains o n l y the l o n g - s n o u t e d gharial o f t h e Indian r e g i o n . A l l o f the l i v i n g species o f all t h r e e g r o u p s a r e c a r n i v o r o u s and s e m i a q u a t i c , m e a n i n g that t h e y lead a n a m p h i b i o u s l i f e - s t y l e , h a n g i n g o u t i n the w a t e r o f s w a m p s , estuaries, r i v e r s , o r lakes and t h e n c r a w l i n g u p o n land a s u r g e s and instincts take t h e m t o bask o r r e p r o d u c e . A m o n g the t w e n t y - t w o l i v i n g species t h e r e i s q u i t e a v a r i e t y o f head shapes. A l l i g a t o r s h a v e r a t h e r b l u n t s n o u t s , w h i l e c r o c o d i l e snouts are m o r e n a r r o w , and the gharial has the n a r r o w e s t snout o f all. T h e p r e s e n c e o f l o n g , thin, n a r r o w snouts i n aquatic animals indicates a p r e f e r e n c e f o r a f i s h y d i e t . T h e gharial has a m e n u m o r e r e s t r i c t e d t o f i n n y p r e y than d o crocodiles or alligators. A l l o f the l i v i n g c r o c o d i l e clan share s o m e i m p o r t a n t similarities i n t h e i r a n a t o m y that are d i f f e r e n t f r o m s o m e fossil c r o c s . living species,
F o r i n s t a n c e , i n all the
the v e r t e b r a e j o i n t o g e t h e r i n b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t j o i n t s .
Each
v e r t e b r a l o o k s kind o f l i k e t h o s e i n t h e tail o f titanosaurid s a u r o p o d s , b u t t h e r e s e m b l a n c e i s c e r t a i n l y s e p a r a t e l y e v o l v e d , and i n the case o f t h e c r o c s , b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t v e r t e b r a e a r e n o t l i m i t e d t o the tail. L i v i n g c r o c s also h a v e a h a r d , b o n y s e c o n d a r y p a l a t e — a shelf o f b o n e f o r m i n g the r o o f o f t h e m o u t h and separating the nasal passages f r o m t h e m o u t h c a v i t y . It is an i m p o r t a n t
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
178 s t r u c t u r e f o r c r o c s t o h a v e . T h e l i v i n g s p e c i e s , w i t h t h e i r nostrils o n the t o p o f t h e i r s n o u t s , can h o l d t h e i r n o s e s o u t o f t h e w a t e r t o b r e a t h e , y e t t h e i r m o u t h s can b e o p e n and full o f w a t e r o r f o o d . M a m m a l s , i n c l u d i n g us, h a v e a similar b o n y p a l a t e , w h i c h s e r v e s t h e s a m e f u n c t i o n as that in c r o c s , w a l l i n g o f f the air passages f r o m the m o u t h .
C r o c s have certainly e v o l v e d in s o m e
i n t e r e s t i n g w a y s , a s w e can t e l l s i m p l y f r o m l o o k i n g a t t h e l i v i n g s p e c i e s . B u t t o t h e d i v e r s i t y o f l i v i n g s p e c i e s o f c r o c s can b e a d d e d t h e i r v e r y rich fossil r e c o r d and its 2 0 0 - m i l l i o n - y e a r h i s t o r y . N o t all fossil c r o c o d i l i a n s had c o m p l e t e b o n y palates o r b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t v e r t e b r a e ; i n fact m o s t o f t h e m d i d not.
S o m e of them w e r e not even amphibious.
S o m e w e r e strictly land-
d w e l l e r s . O t h e r s w e r e strictly m a r i n e , t h e i r tails e v o l v i n g t o l o o k and funct i o n l i k e t h o s e o f sharks and t h e i r l e g s e v o l v i n g i n t o f i n l i k e p a d d l e s . T h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s e c o n d a r y palate i n v a r i o u s s p e c i e s i s particularly important
in
deciphering
the
evolutionary history
of crocs.
In
the
most
p r i m i t i v e g r o u p o f c r o c o d i l i a n s p e c i e s , t h e s e c o n d a r y palate i s n o t a t all w e l l d e v e l o p e d , s o t h e i n t e r n a l n a r e s , the h o l e s o n the inside that are c o n n e c t e d b y t h e air passage t o t h e n o s e h o l e s o n the o u t s i d e o f the skull, are w a y u p a t the f r o n t o f t h e r o o f o f the m o u t h . T h e r e i s n o s e c o n d a r y palate t o speak of, and that i s the p r i m i t i v e c o n d i t i o n . T h e n e x t g r a d e o f s t r u c t u r e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n o f the c r o c o d i l i a n s e c o n d a r y palate is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by the i n t e r n a l nares l y i n g q u i t e far back and t h e air passage e x t e n d i n g f o r a l o n g e r distance t h r o u g h the s n o u t . In the m o s t a d v a n c e d e v o l u t i o n a r y g r a d e t h e i n t e r n a l nares are w a y back i n the skull and t h e s e c o n d a r y palate i s c o m p l e t e . C r o c o d i l i a n s w i t h the m o r e a d v a n c e d g r a d e o f palate s t r u c t u r e also h a v e b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t v e r t e b r a e . F r o m M a l a w i w e h a v e skulls o f t h e l i t t l e c r o c ( I w i l l r e f e r t o i t a s the M a l a w i c r o c , f o r w a n t o f a b e t t e r t e r m ) , w h i c h s h o w s i t t o b e o f the s e c o n d , or intermediate, grade of crocodilian evolution w i t h respect to the construct i o n o f t h e s e c o n d a r y p a l a t e . O n t o p o f that, r a t h e r than b e i n g a flattish skull, l i k e N i l e c r o c o d i l e s and a l l i g a t o r s ,
the M a l a w i c r o c skull i s d e e p e r .
The
n o s t r i l s are n o t p l a c e d o n t h e t o p o f t h e s n o u t f o r s n o r k e l i n g i n w a t e r . Instead t h e nasal b o n e s g o f o r w a r d t o a p o i n t a t the e n d o f the snout and the nostrils lie b e l o w t h e m . But i t w a s n o t the s n o u t o r e v e n the s e c o n d a r y palate that caught m y i n t e r e s t f i r s t . T h e r e w a s s o m e t h i n g e l s e a b o u t t h e m o u t h o f the M a l a w i c r o c that i n t r i g u e d m e m o r e . T h i s w a s n o t t h e m u s k y , tusky o r i f i c e a c r o c o d i l e should h a v e . I t w a s d i f f e r e n t . H a v i n g s t u d i e d rats and o t h e r m a m m a l s f o r q u i t e some time,
o n e g l a n c e a t that c r o c ' s t e e t h t o l d m e i t w a s far o u t o f the
T H E
C R O C O D I L E
O F
C A R N I V A L
179 o r d i n a r y . T h i s c r o c m o v e d its l o w e r j a w f o r w a r d w h e n i t c h e w e d . But h o w c o u l d that be? M o d e r n c r o c s d o n o t c h e w . T h e y r i p a hunk o f flesh f r o m a carcass and fling i t d o w n t h e i r t h r o a t s , n o fuss, n o m u s s , n o b o t h e r . But t h e y do not chew. T h e t e e t h o f t h e l i v i n g N i l e c r o c o d i l e a r e basically c o n e s . V e r y sharp c o n e s . T h e i r j a w j o i n t s are h i n g e s . T h e y o p e n and t h e y c l o s e b y r o t a t i n g a b o u t a f i x e d p o i n t o n the skull, s n a p p i n g the j a w s t i g h t l i k e a v i c i o u s pair o f scissors. T h e r e i s n o m o t i o n a t all a t t h e j o i n t , e x c e p t t h e o p e n i n g and c l o s i n g o f the j a w . E v e n w e humans can slide o u r j a w s a r o u n d a b i t a t t h e j o i n t , just t r y it. C r o c o d i l e s c a n n o t d o that. T h e i r sharp t e e t h and f i x e d j a w j o i n t s are s u p e r b l y a d a p t e d f o r g r a b b i n g and h o l d i n g p r e y s t r u g g l i n g i n p a n i c . T h e d i e t o f the N i l e c r o c o d i l e c h a n g e s w i t h the s i z e , and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e a g e , o f the a n i m a l . Y o u n g e r and s m a l l e r individuals t a k e a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f insects. L a r g e r c r o c s eat f i s h , f r o g s , t u r t l e s , w a t e r f o w l , w h a t e v e r t h e y can catch. T h e b i g o n e s can g r a b a d r i n k i n g a n t e l o p e b y the s n o u t , haul i t i n t o t h e w a t e r , d r o w n i t , l e a v e i t t o p u t r e f y , l e t the m e a t s o f t e n and t e n d e r i z e , t h e n pull i t apart and eat it.
C r o c s a r e m e a n . E v e n t o d a y t h e y are a d a n g e r t o
p e o p l e a l o n g m a n y r i v e r s and lakes i n A f r i c a . E v e r y y e a r s e v e r a l h u m a n b e i n g s d i e f r o m c r o c attacks. O f all the m a n y , m a n y d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f c r o c s , l i v i n g and e x t i n c t , n e a r l y all o f t h e m h a v e t e e t h m o r e o r less l i k e t h o s e o f t h e N i l e c r o c o d i l e . A l i t t l e m o r e b l u n t , o r a l i t t l e m o r e sharp, o r a l i t t l e m o r e squished f r o m side t o s i d e , b u t m o s t all c r o c s h a v e basically t h e s a m e k i n d o f c o n i c a l t e e t h . A n d the j a w j o i n t i s t h e s a m e i n a l m o s t all o f t h e m t o o . So the M a l a w i c r o c is s t r a n g e f o r a c r o c o d i l e . It has the head of a c r o c o d i l e , but n o t s o flat, and its t e e t h are s t r a n g e , and its j a w j o i n t i s s t r a n g e . T h e j a w j o i n t has a l o n g surface that a l l o w s t h e l o w e r j a w t o slide f o r w a r d a s t h e m o u t h i s c l o s e d . Its u p p e r " m o l a r " t e e t h h a v e a b i g c e n t r a l cusp w h o s e p o i n t leans t o w a r d the back o f the t h r o a t . A small b u t sharp r i d g e runs b a c k w a r d f r o m the t i p . T i n y cusps g o a l o n g the e d g e o f the base. L o w e r " m o l a r s " are a l m o s t e x a c t l y like the u p p e r s , b u t w i t h o n e b i g e x c e p t i o n : T h e tip o f the b i g c u s p , and the r i d g e that c o m e s o f f o f i t , p o i n t t o w a r d t h e f r o n t o f t h e j a w r a t h e r than the back as in t h e u p p e r s . It is as if a m i r r o r w e r e h e l d to the back of an upper t o o t h , the m i r r o r image being a l o w e r t o o t h . O n e g l a n c e a t that and i t i s easy t o c o n c l u d e that t h o s e t e e t h had t o w o r k against each o t h e r . T h e y d i d n o t g r i n d e n a m e l against e n a m e l a s m a m m a l s l i k e y o u d o w h i l e c h e w i n g , b u t the t e e t h d i d m o v e t o w a r d each o t h e r a s t h e beast
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
180 c h e w e d . T h e j a w m o v e d n o t l i k e a pair o f scissors, b u t a s the m o u t h c l o s e d , the j a w m o v e d f o r w a r d . T h i s c r o c c h e w e d f r o m back t o f r o n t , slicing and b r e a k i n g f o o d b e t w e e n its t e e t h .
Rats c h e w f r o m back t o f r o n t .
But self-
respecting crocs should not. T h e n e x t step w a s t o u n d e r s t a n d i n e v e n m o r e d e t a i l the m e c h a n i s m o f h o w m o d e r n c r o c o d i l e s c h e w i n o r d e r t o a p p l y that k n o w l e d g e t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g the M a l a w i c r o c m o r e t h o r o u g h l y . I t w a s also necessary t o u n r a v e l w h i c h , if any,
of the k n o w n species of c r o c s ,
living or extinct,
o u r animal f r o m
M a l a w i w a s m o s t c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o . T h i s w a s a f o r m i d a b l e task because o f the w i d e s p r e a d fossil r e c o r d o f c r o c s . M y f r i e n d Jim C l a r k w a s a l r e a d y a n e x p e r t o n c r o c o d i l e s and t h e i r fossils. H e had e x p r e s s e d a n i n t e r e s t i n the M a l a w i c r o c , s o I i n v i t e d h i m o n b o a r d f o r t h e initial study. H e w o u l d p r o v i d e the p e r s p e c t i v e o f his e x p e r i e n c e a s a d e d i c a t e d c r o c j o c k .
T h e expertise he
b r o u g h t g a v e d e p t h t o t h e u n f o l d i n g s t o r y o f the u n i q u e animal w e had. J i m k n e w a b o u t the a n a t o m y o f m o d e r n c r o c o d i l e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y h o w the c h e w i n g m u s c l e s w o r k , w h e r e t h e y attach o n t h e skull, and i n w h i c h d i r e c t i o n t h e y p u l l w h e n the j a w c l o s e s . I t b e c a m e c l e a r t o h i m that the a n a t o m y o f the M a l a w i c r o c j a w j o i n t w o r k e d w i t h t h e m u s c l e s that c l o s e the m o u t h t o a l l o w t h e l o w e r j a w t o slide f o r w a r d w h e n the m o u t h shuts. T h a t a g r e e s w e l l w i t h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n m a d e f r o m t h e shape o f t h e t e e t h . T h e r e a s o n t h e j a w s o f o t h e r c r o c s d o n o t slide i s that t h e r e i s a buttress o f b o n e o n t h e l o w e r j a w that h o o k s a r o u n d back o f t h e j o i n t surface o f the skull. I f that buttress w e r e r e m o v e d , the j a w c o u l d s l i d e . T h e M a l a w i c r o c d o e s n o t h a v e it. T h e j a w c o u l d slide b o t h w a y s , t o w a r d the f r o n t and t o w a r d t h e b a c k , b u t w e k n e w f r o m the shape o f t h e t e e t h that, e v e n t h o u g h the l o w e r j a w m o v e s b a c k and f o r t h , the p o w e r s t r o k e w a s i n the f o r w a r d d i r e c t i o n a s t h e m o u t h c l o s e d . F o o d i n t h e m o u t h w o u l d bank against the u p p e r t e e t h and b e c r u s h e d and s l i v e r e d a s t h e l o w e r j a w slid t o w a r d the f r o n t e n d o f the h e a d . T h u s , the shape o f t h e t e e t h , the a n a t o m y o f the j a w j o i n t , and the function o f m u s c l e s i n l i v i n g c r o c o d i l e s all h e l p e d u s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e w a y this fossil species,
100 m i l l i o n y e a r s o l d , ate its f o o d . T h e o n l y l i v i n g r e p t i l e w h o s e
l o w e r j a w m o v e s i n this s a m e w a y i s the l i z a r d l i k e tuatara that t o d a y inhabits small islands o f f N e w Z e a l a n d . I t i s n o t a c r o c o d i l e . T h e m u s c l e s that m o v e t h e tuatara's j a w f o r w a r d are a n a t o m i c a l l y the s a m e a s t h o s e that m o v e the M a l a w i c r o c ' s j a w . R o d e n t s , w h o s e j a w s also m o v e f o r e and aft, d o i t w i t h d i f f e r e n t m u s c l e s . T h e s i m i l a r i t y o f c h e w i n g m o t i o n s i n the M a l a w i c r o c , the tuatara,
and s o m e r o d e n t s w a s e v o l v e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y .
This phenomenon,
THE
CROCODILE
OF
CARNIVAL 181
w h e r e b y a n a d a p t i v e f e a t u r e e v o l v e s s e p a r a t e l y i n distinct e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e s , i s c a l l e d c o n v e r g e n c e . T h e e v o l u t i o n o f a s e c o n d a r y palate i n c r o c o d i l ians
and
in
mammals
is
another
example
of
convergence.
So
is
the
b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t v e r t e b r a e o f a d v a n c e d c r o c o d i l i a n s and i n the tail o f titanosaur i d s a u r o p o d s . T h e similarity a m o n g species caused b y c o n v e r g e n c e i s real b u t superficial, and i t d o e s n o t r e f l e c t a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p o r c o m m o n a n c e s t r y . C o n v e r g e n t e v o l u t i o n reflects
a likeness in
f u n c t i o n and a d a p t a t i o n ,
not
h e r i t a g e . I t i s b o d y f o r m a t w o r k w i t h l i f e - s t y l e and e c o l o g y . T h e M a l a w i c r o c is a g r e a t e x a m p l e of it. J i m also p o i n t e d o u t t o u s that, after all, the M a l a w i c r o c i s n o t a l o n e i n the c r o c o d i l e w o r l d i n h a v i n g a n e l o n g a t e d surface o n t h e j a w j o i n t that w o u l d a l l o w s o m e m o v e m e n t . T h e r e is also a fossil species in South A m e r i c a that shares the s a m e characteristic f e a t u r e . I t , t o o , i s C r e t a c e o u s i n a g e , b u t L a t e C r e t a c e o u s , a bit y o u n g e r than t h e M a l a w i c r o c . It is c a l l e d Notosuchus. T h e r e are o t h e r features b e s i d e s t h e j a w j o i n t i n c o m m o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o , f o r instance the w a y the snout i s b u i l t . O u r s p e c i m e n s f r o m M a l a w i are n o t the same s p e c i e s , o r e v e n g e n u s , b u t a r e i n the s a m e f a m i l y , the N o t o s u c h i d a e , a s the South A m e r i c a n f o r m . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c h e w i n g cusps o n t h e t e e t h set the M a l a w i c r o c apart, u n i q u e l y , f r o m e v e r y o t h e r c r o c i n t h e w o r l d , e v e n its closest South A m e r i c a n fossil r e l a t i v e s . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f t h e M a l a w i c r o c , and the distrib u t i o n o f its f a m i l y m e m b e r s i n t i m e and space i s r e a l l y e x c i t i n g . A l l a l o n g w e had b e e n i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e
G o n d w a n a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n A f r i c a and
South A m e r i c a . N o w w e had a f a m i l y o f c r o c o d i l e s c o m m o n t o b o t h p r o v i d i n g further t e s t i m o n y o f the i n f l u e n c e o f g l o b a l g e o g r a p h y o n life i n t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s . M o r e o v e r , Notosuchus f r o m South A m e r i c a and t h e M a l a w i c r o c are d i f f e r e n t e n o u g h f r o m each o t h e r t o m a k e the s t o r y e v e n m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g . T h e i r c o m m o n a n c e s t o r had t o l i v e p r i o r t o the M a l a w i c r o c , and i t i s n o t likely t o h a v e b e e n e x a c t l y l i k e e i t h e r t h e A f r i c a n o r South A m e r i c a n f o r m i n its a n a t o m y . I t i s still w a i t i n g t o b e d i s c o v e r e d , s o m e w h e r e i n G o n d w a n a . T h e " m a m m a l i a n " features o f t h e M a l a w i c r o c , that is, its c o m p l i c a t e d , cuspy t e e t h and the c o m p l e x w a y i t m o v e d its j a w i n p r o c e s s i n g f o o d , b e g s the q u e s t i o n o f its o u t c o m p e t i n g m a m m a l s f o r a p l a c e i n t h e A f r i c a n e c o s y s t e m d u r i n g t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s . N o m a m m a l s h a v e y e t b e e n f o u n d i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s . But o n the o t h e r h a n d , t h e s a m p l e o f small animal fossils o f any kind is sparse in M a l a w i . It is r e a s o n a b l e to e x p e c t m a m m a l s to turn up a s m o r e and m o r e small fossils are f o u n d . I t w o u l d b e u n f o u n d e d s p e c u l a t i o n
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
a t this t i m e t o suggest that m a m m a l s a r e absent f r o m the D i n o s a u r Beds b e c a u s e t h e m a m m a l n i c h e w a s f i l l e d b y the M a l a w i c r o c . N e v e r t h e l e s s the n o t i o n of c o m p e t i t i o n b e t w e e n the t w o is not so farfetched as to be c o m p l e t e l y b e y o n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A f t e r all, t h e M a l a w i c r o c d i d e v o l v e c o n v e r gently with mammals. It is v e r y l i k e l y that the M a l a w i c r o c p r o c e s s e d its f o o d m o r e , and in a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d w a y , than o t h e r c r o c o d i l e s . I t c h e w e d , but i t did n o t c h e w e x a c t l y l i k e m a m m a l s because the t e e t h d o n o t s e e m t o c o m e i n c o n t a c t w i t h each o t h e r , a s h a p p e n s i n m o s t m a m m a l s . But w h a t did the M a l a w i c r o c c h e w ? W h a t w a s its diet? All
living
species
of crocodiles
eat
flesh
of one
sort
or
another.
No
c r o c o d i l e species i s k n o w n t o b e h e r b i v o r o u s . S m a l l , y o u n g N i l e c r o c o d i l e s eat m o r e insects a n d , a s t h e y g r o w l a r g e r , take p r o g r e s s i v e l y l a r g e r p e r c e n t ages o f v e r t e b r a t e p r e y , such a s f i s h , f r o g s , b i r d s , and m a m m a l s . I d o n o t k n o w a t this p o i n t e x a c t l y w h a t the M a l a w i c r o c a t e , b u t i t a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y w a s n o t a h e r b i v o r e , based o n t h e d i e t a r y habits o f l i v i n g c r o c s i f n o t h i n g e l s e . It is a small c r o c , p r o b a b l y n o t o v e r a f o o t in total l e n g t h , so it c o u l d n o t have t a k e n l a r g e p r e y . F r a n k l y I d o u b t w h e t h e r i t w a s o v e r l y particular a b o u t w h a t it a t e , p u r s u i n g m o r e or less w h a t e v e r it c o u l d catch. I suspect it m a y have e a t e n insects and s p i d e r s , m a y b e crayfish, crabs and o t h e r crustaceans, thins h e l l e d snails, and p e r h a p s small f r o g s and the o c c a s i o n a l fish caught a l o n g a r i v e r b a n k . I suspect its f o r a g i n g w a s m o r e l i k e l y d o n e o n land than i n w a t e r , p e r h a p s o c c a s i o n a l l y i n the s h a l l o w s and b a c k w a t e r s o f a s t r e a m o r p o n d . I t d i d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e the s a m e h u n t i n g tactics as m o d e r n c r o c s . In fact it p r o b a b l y d i d n o t . T h e M a l a w i c r o c m a y h a v e b e e n a less stealthy, i f m o r e a c t i v e , f o r a g e r . C o u l d this k i n d o f animal h a v e c o m p e t e d f o r the same f o o d w i t h early mammals? M a m m a l s are v e r y r a r e i n t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s . T h e y are n o t particularly abundant a n y w h e r e in the w o r l d , c e r t a i n l y n o t as abundant as m a m m a l fossils b e c o m e after dinosaurs g o e x t i n c t . M o s t a r e q u i t e t i n y , a b o u t t h e size o f small m i c e . T h o s e m a m m a l s that are k n o w n f r o m the Early C r e t a c e o u s are e i t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d h e r b i v o r e s o r t h e y h a v e t e e t h suitable f o r e a t i n g a v a r i e t y o f small animal p r e y — t h e y a r e c a r n i v o r o u s i n the sense that t h e y w o u l d eat w h a t e v e r l i t t l e m o l l u s c s , a r t h r o p o d s , o r v e r t e b r a t e s t h e y m i g h t c a t c h . I n g e n e r a l the c a r n i v o r o u s m a m m a l s k n o w n f r o m the fossil r e c o r d a p p e a r m o r e d i v e r s e o n a g l o b a l scale than the h e r b i v o r e s d u r i n g C r e t a c e o u s t i m e s . T h e r e s e e m t o b e m o r e species o f t h e m . T h e d i e t o f c a r n i v o r o u s e a r l y m a m m a l s , s o m e o f t h e m
THE
CROCODILE
OF
CARNIVAL
a n y w a y , m i g h t o v e r l a p a g r e a t d e a l w i t h w h a t i s s u g g e s t e d f o r the M a l a w i croc. I n the fossil c o m m u n i t y r e p r e s e n t e d i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s , I w o u l d e x p e c t t o f i n d b o t h h e r b i v o r o u s and i n s e c t i v o r o u s m a m m a l s i f the fossil r e c o r d w e r e c o m p l e t e . I t w o u l d b e unjustified t o a t t r i b u t e the lack o f all m a m m a l fossils t o c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h the M a l a w i c r o c , o n e r e a s o n b e i n g that t h e r e w o u l d b e little c o m p e t i t i o n , f o r f o o d a n y w a y , b e t w e e n the c r o c and p l a n t - e a t i n g m a m mals.
N e v e r t h e l e s s the M a l a w i c r o c m i g h t o v e r l a p t o s o m e e x t e n t i n its
habitat and e c o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h e a r l y c a r n i v o r o u s m a m m a l s , and therefore I do not c o m p l e t e l y rule out competition with t h e m . O f particular i n t e r e s t i n this r e g a r d i s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a n e w Early Cretaceous
mammal
from
Brazil,
Candidodon
itapecuruense.
This
species
is
k n o w n o n l y f r o m a f e w small i s o l a t e d t e e t h . W h a t m a k e s i t s o i n t e r e s t i n g i s that the t e e t h a p p e a r t o b e q u i t e similar t o t h e M a l a w i c r o c ' s . E i t h e r Candidodon i s a c r o c i n disguise, w h i c h w o u l d n o t b e o v e r l y surprising n o w that w e k n o w a b o u t M a l a w i , o r i t i s a p a r t i c u l a r l y striking e x a m p l e o f e v o l u t i o n a r y c o n v e r g e n c e . E i t h e r w a y , i t p r o v i d e s a n i m p o r t a n t d i r e c t i o n f o r the study o f G o n d w a n a faunas. T h e r e i s still m u c h w e d o n o t k n o w a b o u t t h e M a l a w i c r o c . O u r initial study i n v e s t i g a t e d o n l y t h e skull and t e e t h , and e v e n t h o s e r e q u i r e m o r e d e t a i l e d study.
I n the
1 9 8 7 f i e l d season g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t John C o n g l e t o n
f o u n d a s p o t w i t h half a d o z e n or so of the l i t t l e c r o c s in it across the g u l l y f r o m C D - I . A n o t h e r skull w a s f o u n d i n the 1 9 8 9 season. N o w w e h a v e a b o u t a d o z e n really g o o d s p e c i m e n s . T h e r e a r e six f i n e skulls, all w i t h the l o w e r jaws attached.
We
also h a v e
some
skeletons
with
the
bones
still j o i n e d
t o g e t h e r m o r e o r less a s t h e y w e r e i n l i f e . S o m e o f t h e s e s h o w the thin b o n y plates that a r m o r e d the a n i m a l ' s b a c k , similar t o the c o n d i t i o n i n m o d e r n crocs. A l l o f the g o o d s p e c i m e n s c o m e f r o m a small area o f just a f e w square yards a t C D - 6 and across the g u l l y . T h e skulls and s k e l e t o n s o c c u r i n a c o a r s e r e d sand w i t h p e b b l e s and n o d u l e s i n i t h e r e and t h e r e . I n fact, t h e c r o c o c c u r s at several o t h e r l o c a l i t i e s , but just as a f e w bits and p i e c e s , or single t e e t h . A l l o f the r e a l l y g o o d o n e s are f r o m that s i n g l e s p o t . S o m e o f t h e s k e l e t o n s s e e m t o b e s c r u n c h e d u p , a s i f t h e y w e r e l y i n g i n a b u r r o w and had g o t t e n b u r i e d . O n l y d e t a i l e d study w i l l t e l l u s f o r sure i f the M a l a w i c r o c l i v e d i n b u r r o w s , b u t i t i s c e r t a i n n o w that t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c o m p l e t e s k e l e t o n s o f the c r o c , all i n t h e s a m e a r e a , w i t h n o o t h e r species o f fossils t o speak o f f o u n d
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D
184 w i t h t h e m , i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o t h e r fossil localities i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s . I think i t o w e s its e x i s t e n c e t o the w a y the animal l i v e d . M a y b e its b e h a v i o r i n life c o n t r o l l e d its p r e s e r v a t i o n after d e a t h . W e shall learn m o r e a b o u t h o w the M a l a w i c r o c l i v e d w h e n the a n a t o m y o f its s k e l e t o n i s m o r e t h o r o u g h l y s t u d i e d . A l r e a d y s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g features a r e c o m i n g t o l i g h t . F o r i n s t a n c e , i t l o o k s a s i f this c r e a t u r e m i g h t have h e l d its h e a d u p ,
a s i f y o u h e l d y o u r hand h o r i z o n t a l l y , p a l m d o w n ,
forearm
v e r t i c a l , and y o u r w r i s t b e n t a t a n i n e t y - d e g r e e a n g l e . A t least the parts o f t h e n e c k v e r t e b r a e t o w h i c h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e m u s c l e s and l i g a m e n t s w o u l d attach, and t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e h o l e i n the back o f the skull w h e r e the spinal c o r d passes, suggest that t h e p o s t u r e o f t h e M a l a w i c r o c i s n o t that o f the N i l e c r o c o d i l e . A n d w h y should i t be? S o t h e studies w i l l c o n t i n u e . S h o u l d the r e a d e r b e w o n d e r i n g w h a t the M a l a w i c r o c i s f o r m a l l y c a l l e d , I m u s t l e a v e y o u h a n g i n g . T h e r e i s o n e study, h o w e v e r , that d e f i n i t e l y m u s t b e f o r t h c o m i n g . T h a t i s the o n e i n w h i c h the M a l a w i c r o c is g i v e n a n a m e . I h a v e s o m e v e r y h a p p y f e e l i n g s t o w a r d the M a l a w i c r o c . I t w a s o u r f i r s t b i g s t r i k e in the D i n o s a u r B e d s . It is c l e a r l y u n i q u e in t h e w o r l d . Its f a m i l y i s k n o w n f r o m w h a t i s n o w A f r i c a and f r o m South A m e r i c a , possibly a t the s a m e t i m e a s t h e M a l a w i c r o c w a s l i v i n g i n t h e area that w a s t o b e c o m e the D i n o s a u r B e d s , and c e r t a i n l y i n g e o l o g i c a l l y y o u n g e r South A m e r i c a n r o c k s . Its a n a t o m y m a k e s m y i m a g i n a t i o n run w i l d . Just f o r fun, think o f i t h o l d i n g its h e a d u p , searching f o r a b u g ( F i g u r e 3 4 ) . If it s a w o n e h o p , it dashed in f o r t h e k i l l , p u n c t u r i n g t h e t o u g h m o r s e l w i t h its p o i n t e d c a n i n e s , masticating t h e c h i t i n o u s e x o s k e l e t o n w i t h c u s p y t e e t h — t e e t h w i e l d e d b y its p i s t o n j a w , f o r c e f u l l y p u n c h i n g f o r w a r d , t h e n r a p i d l y p u l l i n g b a c k . I f i t sensed d a n g e r , i t dashed f o r its b u r r o w . I t w o r e a c r o c o d i l i a n c o a t o f a r m o r , b u t i t b e h a v e d like a m o n g o o s e , a reptilian m e e r k a t .
It is a l m o s t like a small m a m m a l in a
c r o c o d i l e c o s t u m e , l i k e a k i d d r e s s e d up f o r a s h o w . Its c o s t u m e is as striking a s any o n e m i g h t e x p e c t t o see a t R i o d e J a n e i r o ' s C a r n i v a l i n B r a z i l , w h e r e its c l o s e s t r e l a t i v e s l i v e d . T h e M a l a w i c r o c m i g h t h a v e l o o k e d g o o d a m o n g the fruit o n C a r m e n M i r a n d a ' s hat, g o i n g f o r insects that w o u l d b e a t t r a c t e d t o t h e b r i g h t c o l o r s — i t i s just 100 m i l l i o n years t o o o l d ! T h e M a l a w i c r o c w o u l d h a v e b e e n a g o o d f i n d b y itself, b u t i t i s a part o f a fauna, a c o m m u n i t y o f a n i m a l s . A n d i t i s n o t t h e o n l y c r o c o d i l i a n m e m b e r of the c o m m u n i t y p r e s e r v e d in the Dinosaur Beds.
T h e r e are t w o o t h e r
s p e c i e s o f c r o c s a s w e l l , b o t h k n o w n o n l y f r o m t e e t h . O n e , the m o r e p o o r l y
THE
CROCODILE
FIGURE 34:
CARNIVAL
The Malawi crocodile.
a gallery forest,
with
This new species of small crocodile is shown in
one croc rearing to capture a dragonfly lunch,
peering from its burrow. insect.
OF
another
The frog looks jealous of the crocodile's success with
the
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
186 r e p r e s e n t e d o f t h e t w o , has n o n d e s c r i p t c o n i c a l t e e t h . T h e o t h e r i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y s m a l l , b l u n t t e e t h that a r e flattened f r o m side t o side b u t n o t r e a l l y sharp. T h e s e t e e t h ,
like t h o s e o f t h e M a l a w i c r o c , can also b e t r a c e d t o
r e l a t i v e s i n South A m e r i c a . T h e l i t t l e f l a t t e n e d t e e t h b e l o n g t o a g e n u s o f c r o c o d i l e c a l l e d Araripesuchus. I t has t w o s p e c i e s , t h e first o n e d e s c r i b e d f r o m South A m e r i c a , and r e p r e s e n t e d b y t w o skulls and a s k e l e t o n . T h e o t h e r species w a s f i r s t d i s c o v e r e d in N i g e r in Araripesuchus
W e s t Africa. also
occur
in
It is k n o w n Cameroon,
from one West
skull.
Africa,
but
Isolated teeth of they
cannot
be
a t t r i b u t e d t o o n e o r the o t h e r o f t h e n a m e d species w i t h any c e r t a i n t y . B o t h species are a b o u t the s a m e a g e a s t h e fossils f r o m the D i n o s a u r B e d s . W i t h o n l y i s o l a t e d t e e t h f r o m M a l a w i , l i t t l e m o r e can b e d o n e than t o suggest that Araripesuchus is p r e s e n t , b u t that is an i m p o r t a n t s t a t e m e n t to be able to m a k e . Araripesuchus, j u d g i n g f r o m t h e skulls that are k n o w n ,
is similar to t h e
M a l a w i c r o c w i t h respect to the d e v e l o p m e n t of the secondary palate. Both a r e a b o u t the m i d d l e g r a d e o f e v o l u t i o n , w i t h the i n t e r n a l nares n o t s o far back a s i n m o d e r n l i v i n g c r o c o d i l e s and a l l i g a t o r s .
T h e e x t e r n a l nares i n
Araripesuchus, a s i n the M a l a w i c r o c , a r e n o t o n t h e t o p o f the snout but r a t h e r o n t h e sides o f t h e t i p , and the nasal b o n e s are l o n g and p o i n t e d . T h e head i s d e e p i n b o t h , n o t flat a s i n a l l i g a t o r s . T h e t e e t h i n the t w o are o b v i o u s l y d i f f e r e n t , s o t h e y d i d n o t eat t h e s a m e w a y o r possibly n o t e v e n the same t h i n g s . Araripesuchus d o e s n o t h a v e t h e l o n g j a w a r t i c u l a t i o n o f the M a l a w i c r o c that a l l o w s i t t o c h e w f r o m back t o f r o n t .
Araripesuchus i s stuck w i t h the
scissorlike j a w c l o s u r e o f m o s t o t h e r c r o c s . T h e v e r t e b r a l c e n t r a are similar and p r i m i t i v e i n t h e t w o , b u t the neural spines i n the n e c k a p p e a r t o b e m u c h l o n g e r i n t h e M a l a w i c r o c , and the h o l e a t t h e back o f t h e skull f o r the spinal c o l u m n i s farther u n d e r i n the M a l a w i c r o c , r a t h e r than m o r e o u t the back of t h e skull as in Araripesuchus. Araripesuchus,
l i k e the M a l a w i c r o c , w a s b e t t e r a d a p t e d f o r a m o r e fully
t e r r e s t r i a l w a y o f life than f o r a s e m i a q u a t i c o n e such a s t h e N i l e c r o c o d i l e has. T h a t i s c l e a r f r o m its h i n d l i m b s , w h i c h are l o n g e r than the f o r e l i m b s and less s p r a w l i n g , m o r e u n d e r n e a t h the a n i m a l , than t h o s e i n m o d e r n c r o c s . T h e shape o f t h e h e a d , d e e p w i t h n o s t r i l s b e l o w the e n d , i s n o t like that o f semiaquatic crocs either. T h e South A m e r i c a n s p e c i e s , Araripesuchus gomesii,
c o m e s f r o m o n e o f the
w o r l d ' s g r e a t fossil areas, f r o m t h e A r a r i p e Basin o f Brazil. T h o u s a n d s u p o n thousands u p o n thousands o f fossils are k n o w n f r o m t h e r e . Far and a w a y m o s t
THE
CROCODILE
OF
CARNIVAL
o f the v e r t e b r a t e s k n o w n f r o m the Basin are fish. T h a t i s b e c a u s e t h e r o c k s of the A r a r i p e Basin are lithified s e d i m e n t s d e p o s i t e d in a g r e a t l a k e , o n e that p e r s i s t e d f o r s e v e r a l , i f n o t tens of, m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s . T h e lake a p p a r e n t l y u n d e r w e n t a t least o n e p e r i o d w h e n i t d r i e d o u t , and t o w a r d the e n d o f its life the sea transgressed far e n o u g h inland t o r e a c h t h e l a k e . A n d a l o n g w i t h the s e a w a t e r c a m e a f e w m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s . A t the
time
the
Araripe
lake
came
into
existence,
A f r i c a and
South
A m e r i c a w e r e still j o i n e d i n the s u p e r c o n t i n e n t o f G o n d w a n a . T h e s e p a r a t i o n had b e g u n a t the s o u t h e r n e n d o f A f r i c a , b u t the t w o c o n t i n e n t s w e r e still c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h Brazil and s e v e r a l w e s t e r n A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , m o s t n o t a b l y C a m e r o o n . L a k e A r a r i p e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n a d e e p r i f t - v a l l e y lake like L a k e M a l a w i . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t o w e d its e x i s t e n c e t o d o w n w a r p i n g caused b y the same structural features that w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y lead t o the f o r m a t i o n o f the South A t l a n t i c , e v e n i f L a k e A r a r i p e w a s o f f t o t h e side f r o m the m a i n rift. A n d i t w a s d e e p e n o u g h a t t i m e s t o b e stratified and t o d e v e l o p s t e r i l e b o t t o m w a t e r s w i t h n o d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n l e f t i n the w a t e r . S o m e t i m e s e v a p o r a t i o n e x c e e d e d the i n f l o w o f fresh w a t e r , causing crystals o f salt t o g r o w i n the s e d i m e n t s . T h e r i v e r s d r a i n i n g the i n t e r i o r o f G o n d w a n a , s o m e o f t h e m a t least, m u s t have f l o w e d i n t o the w i d e n i n g g u l f f o r m e d a s s o u t h e r n A f r i c a m o v e d a w a y f r o m s o u t h e r n South A m e r i c a . I t m a y h a v e b e e n r e m i n i s c e n t o f t h e C o l o r a d o R i v e r f l o w i n g i n t o the G u l f o f C a l i f o r n i a . T h e rift v a l l e y that w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y p r y A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a c o m p l e t e l y apart e x t e n d e d n o r t h w a r d f r o m t h e ancient g u l f b e t w e e n t h e s o u t h e r n e x t r e m i t i e s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a , then i t b r a n c h e d . T h e c l i m a t e i n c e n t r a l G o n d w a n a w a s a r i d . T h e p l a c e w a s c l o s e t o b e i n g a d e s e r t . Y e t t h e r e w a s e n o u g h w a t e r f r o m rainfall t o c o l l e c t i n t o lakes. Just a s i n the G r e a t Basin o f t h e A m e r i c a n W e s t t o d a y , f o r s o m e o f the c e n t r a l G o n d w a n a lakes, n o t a b l y A r a r i p e , t h e r e w e r e n o o u t l e t s . T h i n k o f G r e a t Salt L a k e . B e t t e r y e t , think o f L a k e C h a d i n A f r i c a , q u i t e s o l i d l y i n the m i d d l e o f a n e a r - d e s e r t e n v i r o n m e n t , y e t p e r m a n e n t l y c o n t a i n i n g w a t e r , s u p p o r t i n g an a b u n d a n c e of fish and o t h e r aquatic l i f e , and fluctuating in size w i t h the c y c l e s o f rainfall. M o r e o v e r , the l o c a t i o n o f L a k e C h a d , o u t i n t h e exact middle of n o w h e r e , in the m i d d l e of Africa, was dictated by geological structures that are g e n e t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o the o p e n i n g o f t h e S o u t h A t l a n t i c , and t h e r e f o r e are cousins t o the structures that f o r m e d L a k e A r a r i p e s o l o n g a g o . T h e area o f A r a r i p e has u n d e r g o n e s u b s e q u e n t Earth m o v e m e n t s and c l i m a t i c change that h a v e t r a n s f o r m e d the lake s e d i m e n t s i n t o an e r o d i n g plateau and
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
188 t r a n s f o r m e d Brazil i n t o the lush g r e e n land that it is t o d a y . But it w a s n o t a l w a y s l i k e that. L a k e C h a d has n o t a l w a y s b e e n like i t i s n o w , e i t h e r , but i t has had a d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y f r o m A r a r i p e . M o s t o f the r e a l l y g o o d fossils f r o m A r a r i p e are p r e s e r v e d i n c o n c r e t i o n s — m a s s e s of limestone chemically precipitated f r o m w a t e r around dead o r g a n i s m s . H a d t h e o r g a n i s m n o t b e e n t h e r e , the l i m e s t o n e m a y n o t have c o m e o u t o f s o l u t i o n and t h e c o n c r e t i o n m a y n o t h a v e f o r m e d . But because the concretions did f o r m ,
t h e y p r e s e r v e animals i n e x q u i s i t e d e t a i l .
The
c o n c r e t i o n s can b e p l o p p e d i n t o a bath o f acid and s u p e r s k e l e t o n s w i l l y a w n i n t o t h e l i g h t . T h e y are t r u l y m a g n i f i c e n t fossils. T h e a c i d - p r e p a r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e has o n l y b e e n used o n t h e m f o r a short t i m e , b u t fossils i n the A r a r i p e c o n c r e t i o n s h a v e b e e n k n o w n f o r o v e r a c e n t u r y and a half. V i r t u a l l y e v e r y m u s e u m that is serious a b o u t fossils has s o m e , and e v e r y r o c k shop has o n e o r t w o f o r sale. T h e c o n c r e t i o n s f o r m a s a r e a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c h e m i s t r y o f the lake w a t e r and t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r o f a d e a d o r g a n i s m . T h u s t h e y are o n l y f o u n d in strata that r e f l e c t a suitable e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h e m i s t r y . history of Lake A r a r i p e ,
G i v e n the v a r i e d
o n l y s o m e o f t h e strata c o n t a i n c o n c r e t i o n s , b u t
l u c k i l y m a n y o f the o t h e r strata also p r e s e r v e fossils, e v e n i f t h e y are n o t s o spectacular. T h e f i s h fauna f r o m
Lake
Araripe
is
tremendous.
There
are
at
least
t w e n t y - o n e d i f f e r e n t g e n e r a . V i r t u a l l y all o f t h e m are k n o w n f r o m e x c e l l e n t c o m p l e t e s k e l e t o n s . T h e r e i s a k i n d o f p r i m i t i v e shark. T h e r e i s a r a y . T h e r e is
an
abundance
of bony fish. T h e r e
are
even
two
kinds
of coelacanth,
l o b e - f i n n e d f i s h e s that are distantly r e l a t e d t o the f i r s t a m p h i b i a n s that c a m e o u t o f t h e w a t e r t o c o n q u e r t h e l a n d . S t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , like L a k e M a l a w i , L a k e A r a r i p e lacks lungfish, e v e n t h o u g h t h e y are k n o w n t o h a v e inhabited G o n d w a n a at the t i m e , and as in A f r i c a , t h e r e are lungfish l i v i n g in South America today. B e s i d e s f i s h t h e r e i s a h u g e list o f o t h e r s p e c i e s . T h e r e a r e vast n u m b e r s of i n s e c t s — c o c k r o a c h e s , mayflies, dragonflies, termites, crickets, katydids, l e a f h o p p e r s , g r a s s h o p p e r s , w a s p s , and m o r e . T h e r e are s p i d e r s . T h e r e are s h r i m p and c r a b s . T h e d i v e r s i t y o f animals i s a m a z i n g . T h e r e are plants t o o . T h e r e a r e f e r n s and c o n i f e r s and a v a r i e t y o f f l o w e r i n g - p l a n t p o l l e n . W h a t Lake A r a r i p e does not have is an abundance or diversity of land-dwelling v e r t e b r a t e s , and t h e reasons f o r that should b e o b v i o u s : U n l e s s a carcass e n d e d u p i n the m i d d l e o f t h e l a k e , i t c o u l d n o t b e p r e s e r v e d .
THE
CROCODILE
OF
CARNIVAL
A r a r i p e i s a n i m p o r t a n t site i n p a l e o n t o l o g y because o f its l o c a t i o n , n e x t t o the p l a c e w h e r e G o n d w a n a b r o k e a p a r t , and its a g e . I n all p r o b a b i l i t y i t straddles the t i m e i n t e r v a l w h e n A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a m a d e t h e i r f i n a l s e p a r a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e i t p r o v i d e s u s a n a b s o l u t e baseline o f w h a t t o e x p e c t i n b o t h c o n t i n e n t s w h e n t h e y set o u t o n t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l paths o f h i s t o r y . T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n g e o g r a p h i c and e c o l o g i c a l v a r i a t i o n a w a y f r o m t h e c e n t e r o f the
continents,
b u t t h e area a r o u n d A r a r i p e w a s t h e s a m e
for
b o t h . I t w o u l d b e w o n d e r f u l i f t h e r e w e r e m o r e sites l i k e A r a r i p e , p e r h a p s a f e w places d i r e c t l y c o m p a r a b l e t o i t . But t h e r e a r e n o t , s o w e use w h a t w e have. S o m e o f the f i s h s o b e a u t i f u l l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n Brazil are k n o w n f r o m less c o m p l e t e and less n u m e r o u s s p e c i m e n s f o u n d in r o c k s of a similar a g e in A f r i c a . T h e similarities w i t h fossils i n W e s t A f r i c a — N i g e r and C a m e r o o n — are p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g , a s y o u m i g h t e x p e c t i n r o c k s o f the s a m e a g e that w e r e so close t o g e t h e r at the t i m e they w e r e f o r m e d .
T h e similarities a r e n o t
l i m i t e d t o f i s h . Araripesuchus, t h e c r o c o d i l i a n , i s o n e o f s e v e r a l animals k n o w n f r o m b o t h c o n t i n e n t s , b u t best k n o w n f r o m A r a r i p e . Araripemys.
T h e r e i s the t u r t l e
A n d there are frogs f r o m b o t h continents.
T h e f l y i n g v e r t e b r a t e s p r e s e r v e d a t A r a r i p e are e x c e e d i n g l y i n t e r e s t i n g , although n o n e i s p r e s e r v e d , o r p r e s e r v e d s o w e l l , i n A f r i c a . T h e r e i s a b i r d feather. T h e r e i s also a m i n d - b o g g l i n g d i v e r s i t y o f p t e r o s a u r s , f l y i n g r e p t i l e s — a r c h o s a u r s m o r e p r e c i s e l y — r e l a t e d t o dinosaurs and c r o c o d i l e s . T h e i r w i n g m e m b r a n e s , c o v e r e d w i t h l i t t l e hairy p r o j e c t i o n s , w e r e s u p p o r t e d b y a n immensely elongated forth digit, the ring finger. T h e y w e r e almost certainly f i s h - e a t e r s . T h e y c o n g r e g a t e d a r o u n d L a k e A r a r i p e l i k e t e r n s and p e t r e l s o v e r a bay, s o a r i n g , s w o o p i n g , and d i p p i n g f i s h f r o m the surface w a t e r s o f the l a k e . T h e r e are n o less than f o u r t e e n species f o u n d a t A r a r i p e . T h e r e a l l y e n d e a r i n g thing a b o u t t h e m i s the unreal shape o f t h e i r l i g h t - b o n e d skulls. T h e y h a v e l o n g snouts, b u t s o m e o f t h e m h a v e b i z a r r e b o n y sails o n t h e i r n o s e s . T h e s e s u p p o s e d l y h e l p e d t h e m cut t h r o u g h the w a t e r a s t h e y d o v e t o catch a s i l v e r y , slithery fish. T h e r e are a f e w d i n o s a u r f r a g m e n t s f r o m A r a r i p e , b u t n o t m a n y , and n o n e o f those that h a v e b e e n s t u d i e d i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i a g n o s t i c . O n e has b e e n c a l l e d an
ornithischian,
and
that
would
not
be
unreasonable
considering
that
Ouranosaurus l i v e d just across the rift in N i g e r and C a m e r o o n . T h e r e is at least o n e t h e r o p o d , again n o t surprising, and a c o u p l e o f o t h e r s p e c i m e n s n e e d i n g preparation or under study.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
190 I f w e take things a t face v a l u e , L a k e A r a r i p e w a s a l a r g e b o d y o f w a t e r i n a flat, d r y c o u n t r y . T h e land w a s o p e n , the v i e w u n o b s t r u c t e d b y d e n s e vegetation (Figure 35).
L o w - g r o w i n g f e r n s , h o r s e t a i l s , bushy shrubs, and
o c c a s i o n a l p r i m i t i v e f l o w e r i n g plants c o v e r e d the g r o u n d . H e r b a c e o u s conifers g r e w o n salty flats a l o n g the s h o r e . A l l b u t the ferns and horsetails are o n l y distantly r e l a t e d t o l i v i n g s p e c i e s . T r e e s such a s m o n k e y p u z z l e s and o t h e r c o n i f e r s that h a v e n o l i v i n g d e s c e n d a n t s d o t t e d the landscape and c l u m p e d like junipers on gentle slopes. T h e w a t e r s o f the lake t e e m e d and its surface r i p p l e d w i t h f i s h chasing m a y f l y larvae and s h r i m p . C r a b s s c a v e n g e d the s h a l l o w s near the s h o r e l a n d , but
not
the
depths
where
there
was
no
oxygen.
A
plethora
o f soaring
p t e r o s a u r s c h o s e t h e f i s h m e n u f r o m t h e i r v a n t a g e i n the air. T h e y n e s t e d a m o n g t h e distant cliffs o f hills and m o u n t a i n s associated w i t h t h e rift v a l l e y and its s t r u c t u r e s , s o m e o f t h e m v i s i b l e o n t h e h o r i z o n , and f r o m w h i c h the p t e r o s a u r s launched t h e m s e l v e s t o f l y and t o g l i d e w i t h ease o n t h e r m a l c u r r e n t s . Birds s k i t t e r e d i n t h e s c r u b b y t r e e s n e a r b y . T u r t l e s and a m p h i b i o u s c r o c o d i l e s sunned t h e m s e l v e s . crocodile,
pounced.
Frogs
Arahpesuchus,
hopped
away,
t h e small and agile t e r r e s t r i a l escaping
among
the
ferns
and
h o r s e t a i l s , b o u n c i n g i n t h e tubs that w e r e d i n o s a u r f o o t p r i n t s , m a d e w h e n they t r a m p l e d along the w a t e r ' s e d g e as they came to drink. C o m p a r e that i m a g i n a r y v i s i o n t o the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i ( s e e F i g u r e 3 0 i n C h a p t e r 4 ) , the s a m e a g e , b u t w a y across t h e A f r i c a n p o r t i o n o f the G o n d w a n a c o n t i n e n t . T h e c l i m a t e w a s seasonally a r i d , but n o t s o h o s t i l e . T h e land w a s r o u g h and b r o k e n , v e r d a n t i n the rainy s e a s o n , less s o w h e n i t w a s d r y . T h e r e w e r e mountains nearby. T h i c k gallery forests o f m o n k e y puzzles and t h e i r c o n i f e r o u s r e l a t i v e s l i n e d t h e p e r m a n e n t s t r e a m s . T h e s u r r o u n d i n g w o o d l a n d s w e r e o p e n b u t g r e w m o r e d e n s e l y u p hillside c a n y o n s . T h e o p e n g r o u n d s p o r t e d a c o v e r o f l o w shrubs, tiny f l o w e r s , and f e r n s . C y c a d s and s i m i l a r - l o o k i n g plants,
distinctive w i t h round,
s t u m p y stalks t o p p e d w i t h
l o n g , p a l m l i k e c r o w n s o f d a r k g r e e n e r y , f i l l e d the i n t e r m e d i a t e heights b e t w e e n t h e h e r b a g e and t h e t r e e s . I n t h e rainy season w a t e r f l o w e d briskly d o w n from
the
mountain flanks in
the
channels
of intermittent streams.
H o r s e t a i l s and ferns g r e w a l o n g t h e w a t e r ' s e d g e . Fish o c c a s i o n a l l y f o u g h t the c u r r e n t s . T h e r e w a s n o l a k e , s o t h e r e w e r e f e w e r p t e r o s a u r s i n the sky. But t h e r e w e r e f r o g s and turtles a l o n g t h e banks, and t h e y , t o o , l i k e t h e i r cousins at Araripe, footprints.
f o u n d c o m f o r t i n t h e b a c k w a t e r p o n d s f o r m e d f r o m dinosaur
THE
CROCODILE
OF
CARNIVAL
191
FIGURE 3S: A view of the Cretaceous lake at Araripe, Brazil. Lake Araripe was in the middle of a
dry, flat
country—the
Gondwanan
shores were dotted with horsetails, Jems, flowering plant.
Frogs,
turtles,
conifers,
interior.
It had no outlet.
Its
and occasionally a small
and crocodiles inhabited the shores.
visited to drink and left their footprints in the soft earth.
Dinosaurs
The waters teemed with
fish. Here a pterosaur is eating the coelacanth AxELRODlCHTHYS.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
192 T h r o u g h the g r e e n e r y ,
crashing this w a y and that,
a family g r o u p of
M a l a w i - s a u r u s b r o w s e d , each s t o p p i n g e v e r y f e w f e e t t o p l u c k the f o l i a g e that g r e w i n t h e easily accessible h e m i s p h e r e a r o u n d the f r o n t e n d o f its b o d y . M a l a w i - s a u r u s used its l o n g n e c k t o take its head t o t h e f o o d . Stegosaurs m u n c h e d , t o o , b u t t h e i r heads w e r e c a r r i e d l o w e r t o the g r o u n d and t h e i r n e c k s w e r e n o t s o l o n g . T h e y ate t h e s h o r t e r plants. A l l o f t h e m , s a u r o p o d and s t e g o s a u r , w e r e w a t c h e d . W h e n t h e y w a l k e d t o o c l o s e t o a c o l o n y o f the mammallike
Malawi
crocs,
the
furtive
little
beasts t o o k s h e l t e r i n t h e i r
b u r r o w s . W h e n t h e dinosaurs passed b y , w h e n d a n g e r passed, o u t p o p p e d the c r o c s , searching a n e w f o r b u g s ( s e e F i g u r e 3 4 ) . T h e dinosaurs w e r e b e i n g w a t c h e d b y s o m e t h i n g else a s w e l l . I m a g i n e a y o u n g d i p l o d o c i d o n the o t h e r side o f t h e r i v e r b e i n g stalked b y a t h e r o p o d . C o u l d that h a v e b e e n the w a y i t was? A r e t h o s e i m a g e s o f A r a r i p e and the
D i n o s a u r Beds realistic? T h a t
I
do not k n o w .
We
may never k n o w .
But t h e y are r e a s o n a b l e p i c t u r e s , g i v e n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n w e h a v e . T h a t information is not extensive. Araripe.
T h e r e a r e s o m e fossil l e a v e s and p o l l e n f r o m
A d d i t i o n a l l e a v e s and p o l l e n are k n o w n f r o m n e a r b y C a m e r o o n .
T h e r e are o n l y a f e w tiny fruit o r s e e d l i k e plant fossils f r o m M a l a w i , and w e h a v e n o idea w h a t the plants that p r o d u c e d t h e m l o o k e d l i k e . inferences as
to
what the
Cretaceous
vegetation
was
like
in
Other
Malawi
or
A r a r i p e c o m e f r o m a g e n e r a l o v e r v i e w o f the plant-fossil r e c o r d . W e have a p r e t t y g o o d idea o f w h a t w a s g r o w i n g o n the p l a n e t , and w e have s o m e idea o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f species i n d i f f e r e n t c l i m a t e s and i n s o m e e c o l o g ical c o n t e x t s . T h e r e c o n s t r u c t e d i m a g e s o f A r a r i p e and the D i n o s a u r Beds a r e just b e s t g u e s s e s , b u t t h e y are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e data, and t h e y can b e c o r r e c t e d w h e n t h e y n e e d t o b e . F o r n o w , that i s h o w I see t h e m . T o p l a c e t h e m i n p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e s e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s should b e v i e w e d a s hyp o t h e t i c a l f r a m e s i n a f i l m o f t i m e . T h e y are d i f f e r e n t f r o m that p r e s e n t e d for T e n d a g u r u in Chapter
1 . T e n d a g u r u had d i f f e r e n t a n i m a l s , a p p a r e n t l y
across t h e b o a r d , a l t h o u g h s o m e o f t h e m are g r o s s l y similar t o t h o s e f o u n d in
Malawi.
T h e plants w e r e d i f f e r e n t .
At Tendaguru,
145
m i l l i o n years
a g o , there was probably a greater variety of coniferous plants. T h e r e w e r e n o f l o w e r i n g plants that w e k n o w of. I n y o u n g e r t i m e s , i n t h e L a t e C r e t a c e o u s , f l o w e r i n g plants w e r e o n the r i s e . T h e p i v o t a l t i m e f o r t h e m s e e m s t o b e t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s , the t i m e r e p r e s e n t e d b y A r a r i p e and t h e D i n o saur B e d s . A l o n g w i t h t h e a b u n d a n c e o f f l o w e r i n g plants, the dinosaurs o f the Late Cretaceous w e r e different f r o m earlier t i m e s .
THE
CROCODILE
OF
CARNIVAL
N o m a t t e r h o w c o r r e c t o r i n c o r r e c t the v i s i o n o f M a l a w i ' s D i n o s a u r B e d s m i g h t b e , n o m a t t e r h o w p r e c i s e and a c c u r a t e t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e t i m e p r e s e r v e d in the D i n o s a u r Beds w a s o n l y a t e m p o r a r y phase in t h e e v o l u t i o n o f life. E v e r y t i m e i n t e r v a l b e c o m e s the n e x t , and a s t i m e c h a n g e s , things are n o l o n g e r the s a m e .
FOR ONE TOOTH
M
Y
FIRST
EXPEDITION
to
Malawi was completed.
We
had
found
m a m m a l s , w h i c h i s w h a t w e w e r e p r i m a r i l y after o n that t r i p . L u c k i l y the mammallike
crocodile
more
than m a d e
up
f o r o u r shortfall
in terms of
e x c i t e m e n t and scientific i n t e r e s t . T h e M a l a w i c r o c t o l d u s a b o u t a s p e c i e s , i n t e r e s t i n g i n its o w n r i g h t , that w a s a r o u n d a t t h e t i m e the v e r y ancient ancestors of living m a m m a l s e m e r g e d .
But e a r l y m a m m a l s i n A f r i c a w e r e
t u r n i n g o u t t o b e frustrating and e l u s i v e . I d i d n o t g e t o n e i n K e n y a , w h e r e I f i r s t l o o k e d . T h a t w a s strike o n e . I d i d n o t g e t o n e i n M a l a w i , w h e r e I c o n t i n u e d t h e search. T h a t w a s strike t w o . E v e n w o r s e , t h e p r o s p e c t s o f e v e r g e t t i n g t i n y m a m m a l s f r o m the sandy r o c k s o f the D i n o s a u r Beds d i d n o t l o o k p r o m i s i n g . N e v e r t h e l e s s I still w a n t e d t o f i n d t h e m s o m e w h e r e . 1 w a s m o r e c o n v i n c e d than e v e r , s t u b b o r n i n m y o p i n i o n , that k n o w i n g a b o u t t h e m w a s i m p o r t a n t f o r k n o w i n g a b o u t t h e m a m m a l s o f the m o d e r n w o r l d , and that i n c l u d e s us. I t w a s i m p o r t a n t t o f i n d t h e m . I f I w a s t o a v o i d striking o u t a l t o g e t h e r , m y search f o r e a r l y m a m m a l s i n A f r i c a w o u l d have t o g o farther afield. I n January 1986 I had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o g o t o C a m e r o o n i n f r a n c o p h o n e W e s t A f r i c a ( F i g u r e 3 6 ) . M y F r e n c h i s a b y s m a l , I a m n o t p r o u d t o say, b u t w h a t a g r e a t o p p o r t u n i t y this w a s .
A multinational project c o m p o s e d of
no
FOR
ONE
TOOTH
195
FIGURE 36: Location map of Africa with Cameroon stippled. below the kink to the south of Lake Chad.
The Koum Basin is
The dinosaurs of the Koum Basin lived
on the eastern side of the South America—Africa rift at the time (probably) that Lake Araripe existed on the western side of the rift.
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
196 C a m e r o o n i a n s , F r e n c h , and m y o l d b u d d i e s f r o m Pakistan and K e n y a days, m a i n l y British and A m e r i c a n , w a s e x t e n d i n g the search f o r m o r e fossil e v i d e n c e o f h u m a n e v o l u t i o n . V i r t u a l l y n o t h i n g o f significance t o that issue w a s known
from
all o f W e s t A f r i c a .
N o r w e r e t h e r e any b o n a f i d e g o r i l l a o r
c h i m p a n z e e fossils k n o w n f r o m a n y w h e r e . T h e fossil r e c o r d o f the a p e and h u m a n d i v e r g e n c e n e e d e d w o r k . W i t h o u t d o u b t , W e s t A f r i c a n fossils, i f t h e y c o u l d b e f o u n d , w o u l d b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g the e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f the g r e a t apes and h u m a n s o v e r the past t w e n t y m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h i s w a s t o o g o o d a p r o j e c t f o r m e t o pass u p , e v e n t h o u g h m y m a j o r r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t had b e g u n t o shift t o the m u c h o l d e r r o c k s o f the C r e t a c e o u s . Besides, C a m e r o o n w a s t h e f i n a l p o i n t o f c o n t a c t b e t w e e n S o u t h A m e r i c a and A f r i c a . I f things g o t s l o w i n t h e y o u n g e r r o c k s , m a y b e I c o u l d g e t a p e e k a t the o n e s that r e c o r d e d the a n c i e n t r i f t i n g o n t h e east side o f the A t l a n t i c , p e r h a p s I m i g h t e v e n f i n d s o m e fossils, m a y b e e v e n e a r l y m a m m a l s . T h e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n w e r e a g r e e a b l e t o this; t h e y c o u l d see t h e significance o f the o l d e r rocks also. So off I w e n t to C a m e r o o n . T h e n a m e C a m e r o o n has a l w a y s s o u n d e d u n - A f r i c a n t o m e i n the same sort o f w a y that C o t e d ' l v o i r e , o r I v o r y C o a s t a s w e used t o say, d o e s n o t sound African.
T h e y d o n o t b e c a u s e t h e w o r d s are n o t A f r i c a n .
C a m e r o o n is a
E u r o p e a n w o r d . I n t h e f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y the P o r t u g u e s e sailed i n t o the estuary o f t h e W o u r i R i v e r and f o u n d i t t e e m i n g w i t h s h r i m p .
T h e n a m e o f the
country derives f r o m the Portuguese w o r d for " p r a w n s . " The
northern
half o f
Cameroon,
where
most
o f the
country's
game
r e s i d e s , is also the best p l a c e to search f o r fossils. It is a r i d , but n o t so d r y as n o r t h e r n K e n y a . It, t o o , has a l a r g e lake in the n o r t h , just as K e n y a has. C a m e r o o n b a r e l y r e a c h e s t o L a k e C h a d , a lake a s w e s a w i n C h a p t e r 6 , w h i c h has n o o u t l e t . T h e B e n o u e R i v e r , full o f h i p p o s , f l o w s across the c o u n t r y s i d e t o the south o f L a k e C h a d t o its c o n f l u e n c e w i t h the N i g e r .
T h e Benoue
p r o v i d e s a b o u n t y o f fresh f i s h , and i t supplies w a t e r f o r small t r u c k g a r d e n s , t h e p r o d u c t s o f w h i c h m a k e t h e i r w a y t o the b u s t l i n g m a r k e t s o f n o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n . T h e N i g e r d e b a u c h e s i n t o t h e O c e a n a t the G u l f o f G u i n e a , w h e r e its d e l t a f o r m s the e a s t e r n e d g e o f t h e B i g h t o f B e n i n . Back i n the n o r t h , the r o a d s l e a d i n g t o the fossil g r o u n d s f r o m o u r staging area a t t h e E c o l e d e F a u n e , the s c h o o l o f w i l d l i f e , i n t h e d u s t - b o w l t o w n o f G a r o u a a r e l i t t e r e d w i t h a r m y c h e c k p o s t s . T h e s o l d i e r s are usually d r u n k o n B e a u f o r t o r T r e n t e - t r o i s , t h e local b e e r , and t h e y can b e — l i k e t o b e — r a t h e r
F O R
O N E
T O O T H
197 f r i g h t e n i n g . T h e y s e e m t o e n j o y it. G l a r i n g t h r o u g h s q u i n t i n g , s o g g y e y e s i n the
brilliant
African
sunlight,
they fish for
bribes,
usually
halfheartedly.
Clutching their w e a p o n s , they scrutinize clearance papers f r o m a discerning i f illiterate p e r s p e c t i v e .
T h e y e x a m i n e the g e a r i n t h e back o f t h e T o y o t a .
M o s t l y t h e y just cast glances f r o m u n d e r h e a v y lids t o w a r d the r e a r w i n d o w . O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e i r c l a m m y f i n g e r s , l i k e the t e n t a c l e s o f a n o c t o p u s , e x p l o r e o u r g o o d s as if searching f o r a v a l u a b l e m o r s e l . It is a c h i l l i n g e x p e r i e n c e . But s o o n the s o l d i e r s ' g a m e s a r e o v e r and the c h e c k posts are i n the r e a r v i e w mirror. M o s t o f the p e o p l e i n this area o f n o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n are F u l b e . T h e m e n dress in f l o w i n g kanzus and c o v e r t h e i r heads w i t h e m b r o i d e r e d tarbooshes. T h e i r r e l i g i o n i s Islam. T h e y a r e f a r m e r s , g r o w i n g c o t t o n f o r e x p o r t , m i l l e t , p e a n u t s , t o m a t o e s , and o k r a . A n d t h e y a r e h e r d e r s . T h e i r c a t t l e a r e l o n g horned
zebu.
Some
of the
men,
especially
the
older
ones,
wear
wide-
b r i m m e d s t r a w hats w i t h p i n n a c l e d c r o w n s o v e r t h e i r tarbooshes, t i e d u n d e r their chins.
T h e y g r e e t each o t h e r enthusiastically,
"Jaam, jaam." T h e m o r e
n o m a d i c and t r a d i t i o n a l o f t h e F u l b e , the M b o r o r o , m a y t a t t o o t h e i r faces, even today.
M o s t m e n c a r r y straight d a g g e r s .
Leather is d y e d purple, a
r e m n a n t o f the crafts o f a n c i e n t T i m b u k t u , and w o r k e d i n t o scabbards o r i n t o pouches
to
hold
crystals
of galena—lead
ore—to
be
ground
into
black
p o w d e r and used t o a c c e n t the e y e s o f w o m e n . S t r a n g e l y , i n the far n o r t h , a r o u n d M a r o u a , t h e r e i s a t r a d i t i o n o f h o r s e m a n s h i p and s w o r d s . It, t o o , i s a remnant of an ancient culture.
I t s e e m s o u t o f p l a c e , b u t i n that part o f
t r o p i c a l A f r i c a horses can s u r v i v e disease. I n the m a r k e t s the p e o p l e o f n o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n bargain w i t h unsurpassed v e r v e . H e r b a l i s t s , e x p e r t s i n t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i v e m e d i c i n e , sell p h a r m a c o p o e i a l t r e e bark and strange animal p a r t s , such as hyaena skin or h e d g e h o g fur or bat w i n g s o r p o r c u p i n e q u i l l s . L e a t h e r - c o v e r e d a m u l e t s , each c o n t a i n i n g the j a w o f a rat o r the t o o t h o f a m o n g o o s e , o r p e r h a p s a special s e e d , a r e s o l d t o w a r d o f f e v i l . T r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e and o t h e r p r a c t i c e s a r e s l o w t o b e r e p l a c e d , e v e n w h e n i t w o u l d b e t o the b e n e f i t o f t h e p e o p l e . L i v i n g s t o n e , e a r l y i n his c a r e e r , g a v e u p m o s t o f his m e d i c a l w o r k , e x c e p t f o r s e v e r e cases, because h e c o u l d n o t a r g u e i n n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A f r i c a n l o g i c against m e d i c i n e m e n and the traditional b e l i e f i n r a i n m a k i n g . T h e n a t i v e s insisted that t h e r e w a s n o m o r e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n his m e d i c i n e and t h e c u r i n g o f disease than b e t w e e n t h e i r m e d i c i n e and rain. H e a r g u e d that rain falling after t h e i r c e r e m o nies,
as it occasionally
did,
was
only coincidence
and
not
due
to
their
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
198 practices.
They
argued
that h e
could
show
no better
f o r his
medicine.
S o m e t i m e s rain d i d n o t c o m e ; s o m e t i m e s patients d i e d . T h e r e w a s n o differe n c e . L i v i n g s t o n e g a v e u p t h e a r g u m e n t and c o n c e n t r a t e d o n saving souls. T r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c i n e is still p r a c t i c e d . Shops and kiosks i n C a m e r o o n are small and d i n g y .
A l l o f t h e m carry
stocks o f t i n n e d sardines, p i l c h a r d s , and M a j i , a soy sauce—like f o o d a d d i t i v e . T h e l a r g e r and fancier shops are run b y L e b a n e s e t r a d e r s . T h e Fali c o m e d o w n f r o m the hills o c c a s i o n a l l y t o visit the m a r k e t and t o b u y a t the shops. T h e y a r e p e o p l e o f a n o t h e r , m u c h m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l l o o k . Superficially they appear t o m y W e s t e r n e y e like the Masai o f K e n y a , o n l y s h o r t e r i n stature. T h e y r e p r e s e n t w h a t i s left o f t h e t r i b e s w h o l i v e d h e r e b e f o r e t h e Fulbe m i g r a t e d i n t o t h e area and s u p p l a n t e d t h e m .
THE
C A M E R O O N P r o j e c t started a y e a r b e f o r e I j o i n e d it.
T h e French
c o n t i n g e n t w a s l e d b y M i c h e l B r u n e t f r o m P o i t i e r s , a suave c o n t i n e n t a l w i t h fieldwork e x p e r i e n c e in Iraq and A f g h a n i s t a n . He is a specialist on m a m m a l s . W i t h h i m w a s A b e l B r i l l a n c e a u , a r e g i s t e r e d w i n e taster and chain s m o k e r o f G a u l o i s e c i g a r e t t e s , a n e n g i n e e r and g e o l o g i s t . H e m a n a g e d v e h i c l e logistics f o r the p r o j e c t and h e l p e d o u t w i t h the g e o l o g y . Jean D e j a x w a s the tall, slim p a l e o b o t a n i s t w i t h a g o o d sense o f h u m o r . S e v k e t Sen w a s a n a t i v e T u r k , but a n a t u r a l i z e d F r e n c h c i t i z e n . H e had b e e n w i t h M i c h e l i n Afghanistan and was p r o f i c i e n t i n b o t h fossils and p a l e o m a g n e t i s m . H e w a s t h e r e o n l y i n m y f i r s t o f t h r e e seasons. O t h e r F r e n c h c o l l e a g u e s c a m e i n the later seasons, o r a t t i m e s w h e n I w a s n o t i n the f i e l d . T h e r e w e r e q u i t e a n u m b e r o f t h e m . T h e A m e r i c a n and British c o n t i n g e n t s w e r e b e g i n n i n g t o w i n d d o w n t h e i r involvement
after
the
initial
expedition
to
Cameroon
in
search
ot
fossil
humans and g o r i l l a s . I n the s e c o n d e x p e d i t i o n w e c o n t i n u e d t o search f o r these t h i n g s , b u t as the p r o b a b i l i t y f o r finding t h e m g r e w less and less as m o r e and m o r e area w a s s e a r c h e d unsuccessfully, w e b e g a n t o shift emphasis t o the C r e t a c e o u s , specifically t o the search f o r early m a m m a l s . T h e o n l y p e r s o n w h o p r o v i d e d c o n t i n u i t y f r o m t h e f i r s t t r i p t o the n e x t a m o n g the a n g l o phones was Larry Flynn. He is a happy guy, originally f r o m Cleveland, with w h o m I had b e e n a g r a d u a t e student at A r i z o n a . He had spent t i m e at Paris U n i v e r s i t y , a t the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , and h e i s n o w a t H a r v a r d . L a r r y is a c o m p e t e n t field m a n , an e x c e l l e n t scientist, and a g e n u i n e l y g o o d h u m a n b e i n g . H e i s also fluent i n F r e n c h . I e n j o y e d g e t t i n g back
FOR
ONE
TOOTH
199 o u t i n t o the f i e l d w i t h h i m . T h e r e w a s also a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t f r o m W y o m i n g , K a t h y Flanagan, w h o had b e e n a n u n d e r g r a d u a t e a t A r i z o n a w h e n L a r r y and I w e r e g r a d u a t e students t h e r e . T h i s w a s h e r f i r s t t r i p t o C a m e r o o n . T h e C a m e r o o n i a n f i e l d c o m p o n e n t w a s l e d b y Joseph V i c t o r H e l l , o f t h e i r e q u i v a l e n t of a national g e o l o g i c a l s u r v e y . J o s e p h is a s e d i m e n t o l o g i s t t r a i n e d a t P o i t i e r s , w h e r e M i c h e l , the l e a d e r o f the F r e n c h c o n t i n g e n t , t e a c h e s . H e had d o n e his g r a d u a t e w o r k o n the o i l f i e l d s o f t h e G u l f o f G u i n e a , that part o f the A t l a n t i c that f o r m e d a s the o p e n i n g e m b a y m e n t b e t w e e n South A m e r ica and A f r i c a . He is a s t r o n g , e n e r g e t i c g e o l o g i s t , g r e a t fun in the field, and a f o r m e r star s o c c e r p l a y e r . W i t h h i m f r o m t h e s u r v e y w e r e Sodia, a t e c h n i cian, and also a c o o k . T h e f i r s t c o o k w a s sacked b e c a u s e h e w a s d r u n k t o o o f t e n a t breakfast. S a l l e e , the r e p l a c e m e n t , w a s m u c h b e t t e r , m o r e r e l i a b l e , and s i n c e r e l y l i k a b l e . O n c e Sallee b o u g h t a g o a t f r o m a n M b o r o r o w h i l e w e w e r e i n the field because i t w a s c h e a p e r than b u y i n g o n e i n t o w n . H e n e e d e d t h e g o a t t o pay f o r a b r i d e , his o n l y w i f e h a v i n g d i e d s h o r t l y b e f o r e . T h e idea o f a bargain w a s irresistible t o J o s e p h , w h o w a s also c o n t e m p l a t i n g m a r r i a g e . tered for a big white zebu,
c l o s e d the d e a l ,
H e bar-
and m o n e y c h a n g e d hands.
A r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e m a d e f o r Joseph t o r e t u r n o n a c e r t a i n date t o p i c k u p the s t e e r . W h e n h e d i d , the M b o r o r o w a s n o w h e r e t o b e f o u n d . T h e z e b u and
the
Mbororo
herdsman
were
never
seen
again.
Joseph
had
been
c h e a t e d . H e had t o b u y a n o t h e r c o w i n t o w n f o r m o r e m o n e y than h e lost o n his o r i g i n a l b a r g a i n , b u t h e i s m a r r i e d n o w a n y w a y . A l l i s w e l l that ends well. O c c a s i o n a l l y w e had w i t h u s a g e n e r a l l y u n r e l i a b l e d r i v e r n a m e d S a m u e l . I o n c e caught h i m at 1 0 : 0 0 A . M . in t h e c a m p supply t e n t , in b e d w i t h a p r o s t i t u t e . F o r a n u m b e r o f reasons I t h o u g h t this t o b e p o o r f o r m . S a m u e l i s a b i g b o y and h e can d o w h a t h e w a n t s — b u t n o t i n c a m p . H i s activities c e r t a i n l y w e r e n o t i n t h e best interests o f o b t a i n i n g the e x p e d i t i o n o b j e c t i v e s . Besides, the p r e s e n c e o f s t r a n g e r s , m u c h less p r o s t i t u t e s , leads t o p i l f e r a g e . Joseph, a s the r a n k i n g C a m e r o o n i a n , c a l l e d S a m u e l o u t and i n s t r u c t e d h i m t o dismiss his c o n s o r t . A m o r o u s S a m u e l w a s s o d r u n k , h e v e r y n e a r l y sloshed o v e r flat o n his f a c e . H e w a s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n t r i t e . M o r e o v e r , h e w a s sulky f o r a day o r t w o b e c a u s e his p a r t y had b e e n p u t t o a n u n t i m e l y e n d . Finally a rabbit was b r o u g h t i n t o o u r c a m p by a v i l l a g e r . S a m u e l p u r c h a s e d it and had i t c o o k e d . I c a n n o t r e m e m b e r i f h e d i d i t h i m s e l f o r i f h e had Sallee d o it; p r o b a b l y the l a t t e r . He passed a r o u n d p o r t i o n s of the d e l i c i o u s lapin as a p e a c e
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
200 o f f e r i n g . S a m u e l w a s h a p p y again, and h e b e h a v e d after that, but h e w a s n o t given much rope.
FIELDWORK
U N D E R c o n d i t i o n s o f hardship can b e t r y i n g , and strains can
b e e x a c e r b a t e d i f results a r e s l o w t o c o m e . C a m e r o o n w a s t o u g h d u t y , m a i n l y because fossils w e r e hard t o c o m e b y . T h e c r e w , b e i n g a m i x t u r e o f d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e s , w a s c a l l e d u p o n f o r special u n d e r s t a n d i n g , t o l e r a n c e , and f l e x i b i l i t y . It is i m p o r t a n t to h a v e a p o s i t i v e f o r c e such as L a r r y F l y n n i n v o l v e d in p r o j e c t s like that. I t k e e p s things o n a n e v e n k e e l t o h a v e a fair, unflustered m i n d t o deal w i t h p e t t y ,
unnecessary,
and e v e n m e a n i n g l e s s p r o b l e m s that m i g h t
c r e e p i n w i t h the a g g r a v a t i o n and t e d i u m o f s l o w p r o g r e s s . A n d p r o g r e s s w a s s l o w a t first i n C a m e r o o n . T h e l a r g e c r e w d i v i d e d i n t o s m a l l e r g r o u p s t o m a k e e x p l o r a t o r y m i s s i o n s . I t o o k a g r o u p t o the M b e r e R i v e r , w h i c h is in a s p e c t a c u l a r v a l l e y w i t h its s t e e p s o u t h e r n w a l l rising sharply across the r i v e r f r o m o u r c a m p . T h e v a l l e y f l o o r w a s m o s t l y c o v e r e d w i t h f l a m i n g - r e d l a t e r i t e , an i r o n - r i c h t r o p i c a l soil that d e s t r o y s all fossils. It w a s d o t t e d w i t h a b u n d a n t , o r a n g e - f r u i t e d p a l m s and luscious a v o c a d o t r e e s . M u s h r o o m - s h a p e d t e r m i t e m o u n d s e m e r g e d f r o m the g r o u n d . Elephant grass g r e w in profusion.
T h i s w a s n o t t h e ideal p l a c e t o l o o k f o r fossils.
Rock
e x p o s u r e s w e r e just plain m i s e r a b l e . W e had t o adapt a special strategy just t o find t h e m . W e g o t local g u i d e s t o take u s a r o u n d f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e w h e r e t h e y k n e w patches o f g o o d r o c k m i g h t b r a v e the surface. W e l o o k e d i n all the w a t e r w e l l s . N o luck. W e l o o k e d w h e r e w o m e n d u g clay t o m a k e p o t s . N o l u c k . W e h i k e d the s t r e a m b e d s . Still n o l u c k . But t h e v a l l e y w a s pleasant and the a v o c a d o s w e r e d e l i c i o u s . T h e p e o p l e o f C a m e r o o n a r e v e r y e n j o y a b l e , b u t t h e i r e a t i n g habits can take a l i t t l e g e t t i n g used t o . T h e y h a v e a c a t h o l i c d i e t ; t h e y eat e v e r y t h i n g . T h e r e s e e m e d t o b e n o t h i n g that m o v e d a b o u t o f w h i c h Joseph w o u l d n o t say, " I t ' s a very good m e a t . "
O n c e w h e n w e w e r e i n t o w n , Joseph o r d e r e d
m o n i t o r lizard at the O s t r i c h R e s t a u r a n t . It tasted like c h i c k e n . I saved the b o n e s and b r o u g h t t h e m back t o m y lab i n D a l l a s . M o n i t o r l i z a r d , t o m e , w a s o d d e n o u g h , a c u l t u r a l l y f o r e i g n dish, b u t a n o t h e r t i m e w h i l e crossing t h e M b e r e R i v e r on a pont des lianes, a b r i d g e of v i n e s spanning the w a t e r , on a l o n g w a l k i n search o f r o c k e x p o s u r e , w e m e t a m a n c a r r y i n g a gunnysack. H e and o u r g u i d e , D a o u d a , the c h i e f ' s b r o t h e r , e n g a g e d i n a l i v e l y c o n v e r s a t i o n in t h e language of the F u l b e p e o p l e . Inside the sack w a s a d e a d , d r e s s e d
FOR
ONE
TOOTH
201 python of immense proportions.
T h e s n a k e ' s carcass w a s d e s t i n e d f o r t h e
l a r d e r . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m e a t , t h e r e w a s a sticky w a d o f g o o e y y e l l o w i s h p y t h o n fat and s o m e p y t h o n e g g s t a k e n f r o m inside t h e b o d y . A f t e r c o n t i n u e d p a l a v e r , D a o u d a s t r e t c h e d a n o o z y mass o f fat o n t o a banana leaf. W i t h this g e n e r o u s gift f r o m his f r i e n d , w e w e n t o n o u r w a y . I s u p p o s e D a o u d a e n j o y e d it. A f t e r all the possibilities o f r o c k e x p o s u r e s and all the leads o n fossil localities w i t h i n w a l k i n g distance o f t h e M b e r e R i v e r c a m p w e r e e x h a u s t e d , w e w e r e forced t o expand the reconnaissance. W e d r o v e out f r o m camp i n the m o r n i n g s , s t o p p i n g a t e v e r y l i t t l e v i l l a g e t o i n q u i r e a b o u t p o t t e r y clay. W e w e r e s h o w n pits and s c o u r e d t h e m f o r fossil f r a g m e n t s . N o luck. S o o n w e w e r e r u n n i n g o u t o f days and t r a v e l i n g l o n g h o u r s t o reach n e w v i l l a g e s . T h e process was b e c o m i n g tedious. W i t h four of us in the g r o u p , there w e r e m o r e p e o p l e than necessary t o d o the j o b . I t w o u l d h a v e b e e n efficient o n l y w i t h o n e o r t w o p e o p l e , and t h e y w o u l d n e e d t h e p a t i e n c e o f J o b . I started t o b e c o m e c o n c e r n e d because t h e r e w e r e n o t a n g i b l e , p o s i t i v e field results c o m i n g o u t o f the M b e r e Basin. T r u e , I w a s g e t t i n g a handle o n the r e g i o n a l g e o l o g y , and I had g o t t e n a first b u t r a t h e r u n i n s p i r i n g g l i m p s e o f the C a m e r o o n i a n C r e t a c e o u s . But I w a n t e d a t least t o g e t e n o u g h samples and r a w data t o d e r i v e s o m e k i n d o f scientific c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m the s o j o u r n a t the M b e r e . A t that t i m e studies o f m o l e c u l a r e v o l u t i o n w e r e c o m i n g i n t o v o g u e . D N A c o m p a r i s o n s based o n m o l e c u l e s taken f r o m fresh l i v e r o r o t h e r organs c o u l d s h o w h o w d i f f e r e n t , o r s i m i l a r , t w o species m i g h t b e .
I had
already used fossils to try to figure o u t the r e l a t i o n s h i p s of rats in Pakistan and K e n y a . It w a s g r a s p i n g at s t r a w s , b u t if I c o u l d n o t g e t fossils, p e r h a p s I c o u l d g e t s o m e m o u s e l i v e r s f o r s o m e o n e w h o w o u l d s a m p l e the D N A , and t h e n the h y p o t h e s e s based o n fossils c o u l d b e t e s t e d . R o d e n t s are a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d p e s t s , disease v e c t o r s , and d e s t r o y e r s o f g r a i n . H u m a n s w a g e a constant b a t t l e against t h e m . T h e y are n e v e r p r o t e c t e d i n the D e v e l o p i n g W o r l d ( a n d v e r y f e w r o d e n t species are e n d a n g e r e d o r p r o t e c t e d i n the W e s t e r n w o r l d ) . B y s a m p l i n g t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n s i n the M b e r e V a l l e y s o m e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i r b i o l o g y and e v o l u t i o n c o u l d b e m a d e . T h r o u g h that w e w o u l d k n o w m o r e a b o u t b i o l o g y and e v o l u t i o n i n g e n e r a l . Because r o d e n t s are basically a p l a g u e , n o o n e w o u l d e v e r c a r e i f t h e y w e r e caught, m u c h less i f t h e i r l i v e r s w e r e d o n a t e d t o s c i e n c e . I w a s n o t c o n c e r n e d a b o u t catching a n y t h i n g f r o m t h e m ; bubonic plague.
T h e w i l d m i c e o f the
I had b e e n i n o c u l a t e d f o r
M b e r e V a l l e y are n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y
insidious in t h e i r effect on h u m a n s , but had I k n o w n that the v i l l a g e of Lassa,
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
202 f o r w h i c h the r o d e n t - b o r n e h e m o r r h a g i c disease Lassa f e v e r w a s n a m e d , w a s just across t h e b o r d e r t o t h e w e s t i n N i g e r i a , I m i g h t n o t h a v e b e e n s o a n x i o u s t o g u t t h e s p e c i m e n s and e x t r a c t t h e i r o r g a n s . It w a s t h e d r y season, and t h e tall grass w a s b e i n g b u r n e d off, as it is o v e r m u c h o f A f r i c a e v e r y y e a r , t o m a k e w a y f o r n e w g r o w t h m o r e suitable f o r g r a z i n g c a t t l e . I e n g a g e d a c o u p l e o f v i l l a g e b o y s t o catch r o d e n t s f o r m e . T h e y w o u l d set f i r e t o a stand o f e l e p h a n t grass, t h e n catch the m i c e s c a m p e r i n g f r o m hole to hole.
I t w a s e f f e c t i v e , b u t t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n hazards t o this
m e t h o d w h e n p r a c t i c e d b a r e f o o t e d . T h e b o y s a l t e r n a t e d m o u s e catching w i t h j u m p i n g u p and d o w n t o c o o l t h e c a l l o u s e d soles o f t h e i r f e e t . My mouse
collectors w e r e
successful
i n o b t a i n i n g a small b u t d i v e r s e
s a m p l e . T h e y g o t p e r h a p s half a d o z e n s p e c i e s . I d e c i d e d t o k e e p o n c o l l e c t ing, so I b o u g h t a n u m b e r of mousetraps at the m a r k e t . O n e e v e n i n g , near t h e t o w n o f N ' G a o u n d e r e , n a m e d f o r a h u g e b o u l d e r p e r c h e d a t o p a hill and shaped l i k e an o u t y - s t y l e b e l l y b u t t o n , I c h o s e w h a t I t h o u g h t to be a v e r y l i k e l y s p o t t o set t h e t r a p l i n e . W h e n I w e n t t o c h e c k the traps a t d a w n , I f o u n d s o m e o t h e r p e o p l e — C a n a d i a n s , a s I r e c a l l — a l s o c h e c k i n g traps. T h e y w e r e after r o d e n t s f o r a d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n , and the s p o t had l o o k e d g o o d t o t h e m t o o . N e i t h e r g r o u p had b e e n a w a r e o f the o t h e r ' s a c t i v i t i e s . I had n o idea a n y o n e e l s e i n t h e n a t i o n o f C a m e r o o n w a s e n g a g i n g i n scientific rat t r a p p i n g . I a m c e r t a i n t h e y also d i d n o t . W h a t a n a m a z i n g c o i n c i d e n c e that w e should b u m p i n t o each o t h e r , d o i n g t h e s a m e t h i n g , a t t h e same p l a c e , o n t h e s a m e n i g h t ! U n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r t h e t r a p p e r s , the rats a v o i d e d b o t h trap lines. I n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e D N A , I w a s t o l d b y m y m o l e c u l a r c o l l e a g u e s , the l i v e r and o t h e r o r g a n s o f the s p e c i m e n w e r e t o b e p l a c e d i n e t h a n o l . W e l l , I had no e t h a n o l o u t in the field in t h e M b e r e Basin. So I used g i n . U l t i m a t e l y I t u r n e d the p r e s e r v e d s p e c i m e n s o v e r t o a m o l e c u l a r b i o l o g i s t w i t h lots o f A f r i c a n e x p e r i e n c e s o that h e c o u l d study t h e m . A l a s , t e c h n o l o g y i s m a k i n g m y c o l l e c t i n g m e t h o d all b u t o b s o l e t e . N o w t h e r e are c l o n i n g t e c h n i q u e s t o multiply
minor
amounts
of D N A
such
as
can
be
retrieved
from
stuffed
m u s e u m s p e c i m e n s , and f r o m that t o m a k e e n o u g h f o r c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s . M i c e can rest easier f o r it. T h e M b e r e V a l l e y d i d n o t p r o d u c e fossils o f any k i n d , m u c h less a n c i e n t mammals.
W e h e a d e d back t o h e a d q u a r t e r s i n G a r o u a t o r e g r o u p .
It was
d e c i d e d that the K o u m Basin, farther t o t h e arid n o r t h , w a s w o r t h a visit. A r i v e r , t h e M a y o R e y , cuts t h r o u g h the e l o n g a t e basin f r o m east t o w e s t . A l o n g
F O R
O N E
T O O T H
203 its v a l l e y t h e r e a r e e x p o s u r e s o f r o c k . I s a w p u r p l e shales o f the C r e t a c e o u s . T h e s e w e r e t h e b e s t - l o o k i n g s e d i m e n t s I had s e e n i n all o f C a m e r o o n . M u c h o f the g r o u n d w a s c o n c e a l e d b y l a t e r i t e and e l e p h a n t grass. Still, the K o u m Basin i s d r i e r than the M b e r e and i t has m u c h m o r e r o c k e x p o s u r e . T h e m e r e sight o f t h o s e r o c k s after all the days o f s e a r c h i n g clay pits w a s e n o u g h t o e x c i t e m y spirit. T h e K o u m Basin i s r e m o t e , l y i n g a s i t d o e s a l o n g t h e b o r d e r w i t h C h a d . I n c e r t a i n seasons the e v i l , d u s t - l a d e n w i n d s o f the h a r m a t t a n b l o w south f r o m the Sahara, c h o k i n g and b l i n d i n g p e o p l e and animals and t u r n i n g the sky y e l l o w . A t o t h e r t i m e s i t i s just h a z y , a c o m b i n a t i o n o f dust and t h e u b i q u i t o u s smoke
of African fires.
A r o a d runs d o w n the axis o f the basin, a l o n g t h e n o r t h s i d e , parallel t o the M a y o R e y , f r o m the t o w n o f T c h o l l i r e i n t h e w e s t t o t h e v i l l a g e o f M a y o D j a r e n d i and b e y o n d i n the east. T o the n o r t h o f the r o a d i s the Boubanjida G a m e R e s e r v e , t e e m i n g w i t h w i l d l i f e . T o the south i s t h e r i v e r w i t h e x p o sures o f r o c k . A n i m a l s are p l e n t i f u l i n t h e basin. W h i l e p r o s p e c t i n g f o r fossils I o n c e surprised a p o a c h e r r e n d e r i n g p o i s o n and fixing it to his a r r o w s . In t h e d r y season W e s t e r n h u n t e r s pay fees t o s h o o t the animals that stray o f f the reserve.
C a m e r o o n , e v e n i n this day and a g e , has a s t r o n g c o n t i n g e n t o f
E u r o p e a n s m i g r a t i n g south e v e r y y e a r t o hunt. I n fact the g o v e r n m e n t e n c o u r ages it. It is b i g business. A f r i c a has it as p a r t of its l o n g l e g a c y . M o s t of the b o o k s w r i t t e n a b o u t A f r i c a i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y speak g r a n d l y o f s p o r t and g a m e . But o f c o u r s e w e h a v e n o t b e e n i n the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y f o r a l o n g , l o n g t i m e . C o n s e r v a t i o n and g a m e m a n a g e m e n t a r e b e g i n n i n g t o m e a n s o m e t h i n g i n d e v e l o p i n g A f r i c a these d a y s . W h e n h u n t e r s i n C a m e r o o n g o o u t i n t o the bush, t h e y o f t e n m a k e t h e i r w a y d i r e c t l y t o t h e K o u m Basin, t o the area b o r d e r i n g the g a m e p r e s e r v e . T h e y stay a t R h i n o c e r o s C a m p , a r o n d a v a l o n the r i v e r t e r r a c e o v e r l o o k i n g the M a y o R e y south o f t h e v i l l a g e o f K o u m . T h e y can h i r e a c o o k . T h e y can f i n d g u i d e s t o t a k e t h e m o u t o n the g a m e trails and to dress t h e i r kills. As a c o n s e q u e n c e t h e area a r o u n d the c a m p is l i t t e r e d w i t h the b o n e s o f animals left o v e r f r o m h u n t e r s and s c a t t e r e d a b o u t b y small animals and b i r d s c o m e t o p i c k t h e m c l e a n .
Rhinoceros C a m p is centrally
l o c a t e d f o r o u r w o r k , and since i t i s c l o s e t o t h e r i v e r , i t i s c o n v e n i e n t f o r s i e v i n g . I t i s r e l a t i v e l y safer than t h e m o r e r e m o t e east e n d o f the basin. W e o c c a s i o n a l l y set u p o u r tents and m o s q u i t o nets i n t h e c l e a r i n g t h e r e . Elephants are t o o w i s e t o stray far f r o m t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f the g a m e r e s e r v e d u r i n g the h u n t i n g season. I n the rainy s e a s o n , w h e n f i f t y o r s o inches o f rain
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
204 falls, t h e y c o m e d o w n past the v i l l a g e s a l o n g the r o a d . T h e i r d u n g and s p o o r a r e e v e r y w h e r e . P e r h a p s s e e i n g m o d e m e l e p h a n t tracks i s w h a t t u r n e d o u r e y e s t o t h e t e l l t a l e traces p r e s e r v e d i n the r o c k s . O n the v e r y f i r s t t r i p t o the K o u m Basin,
w i t h i n the f i r s t day o r t w o ,
K a t h y Flanagan f o u n d dinosaur
f o o t p r i n t s n e a r R h i n o c e r o s C a m p . W i t h that w e w e r e f i n a l l y g e t t i n g s o m e w h e r e in the C a m e r o o n i a n Cretaceous. W e d i d n o t h a v e l o n g i n the basin,
o n l y a f e w days.
B o n e s failed t o
m a t e r i a l i z e a r o u n d R h i n o c e r o s C a m p . W e d r o v e east t o M a y o D j a r e n d i and p a r k e d o n the r o a d near t h e r i v e r . W e s e a r c h e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e h o t a f t e r n o o n . Flanagan f o u n d a single scrap o f b o n e . T h e n e x t day w e had t o l e a v e the basin b e c a u s e o u r flight f r o m G a r o u a and o u t o f C a m e r o o n left i n t h e e v e n i n g . T h e f i e l d season w a s all b u t o v e r . I t w a s a f i v e - h o u r d r i v e f r o m the K o u m Basin to
Garoua,
three of them o v e r grueling dirt roads.
Still,
Mayo
Djarendi
l o o k e d g o o d . W e d e c i d e d t o r e t u r n t o t h e area e a r l y i n the m o r n i n g t o put i n just a f e w h o u r s ' p r o s p e c t i n g . W a l k i n g and l o o k i n g , w a l k i n g and l o o k i n g . N o t h i n g t u r n e d u p . W e w e r e to m e e t at t h e L a n d C r u i s e r at high n o o n — s h a r p . I l o o k e d at my w a t c h ; I had t o m a k e m y w a y back r i g h t a w a y . I s p e d a l o n g a t a brisk w a l k , e y e s g l u e d t o the g r o u n d m o v i n g under the pendula of my feet. A l l of a sudden my psyche w a s shaken. M y l e f t f o o t c a m e d o w n d i r e c t l y o n t o p o f a d i n o s a u r b o n e . T h e r e w a s n o w a y t o c o l l e c t t h e b o n e i n the t i m e available. I c o u l d n o t e v e n d o a t h o r o u g h s u r v e y o f t h e area. W e had t o g e t back t o t o w n . O u r A i r C a m e r o o n flight w o u l d n o t wait for us if we w e r e late. I l o o k e d hurriedly a r o u n d . T h e r e w a s a l o t o f b o n e w e a t h e r i n g o u t . A n d t h e r e w a s small b o n e i n t h e p u r p l e m u d s t o n e m a t r i x e n t o m b i n g t h e d i n o s a u r b i t s . T h i s s p o t had t o be w o r k e d . That was clear. I t o o k o u t m y c o m p a s s and r e a d b e a r i n g s t o t h r e e distant hills. T h e n I built a cairn t o m a r k t h e s p o t . T h e small s t o n e I p i c k e d u p last t o c r o w n m y p i l e o f r o c k s w a s a d i n o s a u r t o o t h . H e r e w a s a g o o d s p e c i m e n that I c o u l d take b a c k , i d e n t i f y , and use t o m a k e a case f o r future w o r k . T h e n I t o o k p h o t o g r a p h s . As a habit, I c a r r y my c a m e r a in a plastic bag to k e e p it f r e e f r o m dust.
A f t e r p h o t o g r a p h i n g t h e s i t e , I f i l l e d t h e plastic b a g w i t h m a t r i x t o
s a m p l e a t least s o m e small a m o u n t f o r m i c r o v e r t e b r a t e s b e c a u s e t h e s e d i m e n t l o o k e d so p r o m i s i n g . I labeled the bag K B - 6 , then placed it on my head, A f r i c a n s t y l e , and s c a m p e r e d back t o t h e v e h i c l e , and back h o m e t o the U n i t e d States. A y e a r passed.
D u r i n g that t i m e I p l a n n e d r e t u r n e x p e d i t i o n s t o b o t h
F O R
O N E
T O O T H
C a m e r o o n and M a l a w i . I w o u l d g o t o C a m e r o o n i n January, and t h e n M a l a w i in July. I t a l k e d up K B - 6 . It w a s the o n l y p l a c e of w h i c h I k n e w in C a m e r o o n that had g o o d b o n e s , and I w a s the o n l y p a l e o n t o l o g i s t w h o had e v e r s e e n i t , and t h e n f o r o n l y t w e n t y m i n u t e s . I s c r e e n e d t h e s a m p l e I b r o u g h t b a c k . T o my delight it p r o d u c e d bones. N o t h i n g v e r y g o o d , but bones nevertheless. T h e r e w a s e v e n a scrap o f w h a t I t o o k t o b e a m i n u t e j a w , and that I t o o k e v e n f u r t h e r t o b e m a m m a l i a n . O n t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f K B - 6 , the dinosaur t o o t h I had b r o u g h t b a c k , and the m e a g e r but p r o m i s i n g results f r o m the initial s i e v i n g o f a f e w p o u n d s o f s e d i m e n t , L a r r y and I a p p r o a c h e d the N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n f o r f u n d i n g . T h e y r e s p o n d e d p o s i t i v e l y . W e had s o m e m o n e y t o d o the w o r k . N o w p i c t u r e this. T h e r e w e w e r e b a c k i n t h e K o u m Basin. I w a s surrounded by Larry,
W i l l D o w n s , a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , and m y F r e n c h c o l -
l e a g u e s . I c o u l d n o t find the s i t e ! "Jacobs,
are y o u sure y o u w r o t e d o w n the b e a r i n g s c o r r e c t l y ? "
Will
asked, unable t o h i d e his disgust b u t t r y i n g t o b e g e n t l e . " L o u i s , it was very hot w h e n you w e r e here b e f o r e , " began Michel's theory,
spoken sympathetically,
b u t w i t h an e d g e I am sure I i m a g i n e d .
" P e r h a p s y o u d i d n o t w a l k s o far f r o m t h e r o a d a s y o u t h o u g h t . " F o u r days w e had b e e n t h e r e , h a l f w a y a r o u n d the w o r l d f r o m o u r h o m e s , searching f o r K B - 6 . I t w a s h u m i l i a t i n g . Since this w a s a m u l t i n a t i o n a l p r o j e c t , it was a multinational humiliation. W h a t could have g o n e w r o n g ? T h e French g r o u p , i n c l u d i n g o n e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t w h o had risen i n the ranks o f the d i p l o m a t i c c o r p s , had t o l e a v e . T h a t left t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n g e n t o n l y , w h i c h w a s n o t q u i t e s o bad o n m y e g o . Still, I had this s u b l i m i n a l , c l o y i n g a p p r e h e n s i o n that s o m e h o w h o n o r w a s a t stake. I t f e l t like i t d o e s just b e f o r e a n a n x i e t y attack. T h e n John, m y g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , f o u n d t h e site again. W h a t a r e l i e f . I t had b e e n right t h e r e w h e r e w e had b e e n l o o k i n g , w h e r e w e had b e e n standing w h i l e I felt s o r i d i c u l o u s .
My bearings w e r e e v e n c o r r e c t .
W h a t had g o n e
wrong? I t w a s that d a m n e d b u r n i n g o f t h e e l e p h a n t grass. I t i s d o n e e v e r y y e a r , but w i t h n o p a t t e r n t o it.
T h e p r e v i o u s y e a r , w h e n I f o u n d t h e site, the
grass w a s u n b u r n e d . T h i s y e a r i t w a s . O n c e t h e grass a r o u n d t h e site w a s b u r n e d , the g r o u n d w a s c o v e r e d w i t h b l a c k , o b s c u r i n g ash.
Soot covered
the fossils, h i d i n g c l u e s . T h e area a r o u n d K B - 6 l o o k e d sufficiently d i f f e r e n t f r o m the p r e v i o u s y e a r that t h e b o n e s lay h i d d e n until t h e y w e r e s t u m b l e d
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
206 o v e r again.
But n o w t h e site w a s r e l o c a t e d and the w o r l d l o o k e d b e t t e r
to m e . W e s p e n t the n e x t m o n t h c a r e f u l l y q u a r r y i n g . O u r c a m p w a s o n the sandy bank o f the M a y o R e y a t t h e far east e n d o f the basin,
w e l l away from
R h i n o c e r o s C a m p . T o s l e e p , w e s t r e t c h e d sisal t w i n e f r o m t r e e s , o n w h i c h w e hung our m o s q u i t o nets.
T e n t s w e r e pitched for those w h o preferred
s l e e p i n g a w a y f r o m the e q u a t o r i a l v i e w o f the n i g h t sky. T h e r e w a s a b i g supply t e n t and a c o o k t e n t . G u i n e a f o w l and chickens w e r e t e t h e r e d t o a n acacia t r e e n e x t t o the c o o k t e n t . I t w a s a pleasant c a m p , a t w e n t y - m i n u t e w a l k f r o m t h e site w e w e r e w o r k i n g . A t n i g h t w e c o u l d w a t c h the d i s t a n t — o r s o m e t i m e s n o t s o d i s t a n t — g l o w o f b u r n i n g e l e p h a n t grass. W e slept pleasa n t l y , e x c e p t t o w a r d m o r n i n g o n the o c c a s i o n s w h e n a b o i s t e r o u s r o o s t e r c h o s e t o c r o w . T h e c u l p r i t b e c a m e s u p p e r s o o n after that habit w a s d e v e l oped.
O n c e , b e f o r e d a w n had b e c o m e a serious issue, a r o o s t e r t o o k t o
c r o w i n g i n t h e w o r s t i m a g i n a b l e w a y . L a r r y j u m p e d o u t o f his s l e e p i n g b a g , sacrificing h i m s e l f t o the chill air f o r t h e g o o d o f the c a m p , b o u n d t o q u i e t the b i r d . B a r e f o o t e d and i n his B V D s , L a r r y chased the b i r d a r o u n d the acacia t r e e . I t w a s n o t a fair m a t c h . T h e b i r d w a s t i e d . But L a r r y still caught it. H e c o v e r e d i t w i t h a b u c k e t , w h i c h sent i t g e n t l y back t o s l e e p , insuring that i t w a s fully r e s t e d f o r the s t e w p o t . A m o s q u i t o n e t w a s also e r e c t e d o v e r t h e q u a r r y , n o t f o r bugs but f o r shade.
I t w a s s o m e t h i n g , a m e a g e r g e s t u r e , t o c u t the f o r c e o f the sun's
t r o p i c a l rays and y e t l e a v e e n o u g h light f o r u s t o see w h a t w e w e r e really a f t e r — m a m m a l s . T h e r e w a s p l e n t y o f small b o n e i n t e r s p e r s e d w i t h dinosaur t e e t h and f r a g m e n t s o f l a r g e r b o n e s . T h e r e w e r e lots o f f r o g fossils. T h e site had e v i d e n t l y b e g u n as a s t r e a m d e p o s i t in the e a r l y stages of its f o r m a t i o n . T h e n , a s s t r e a m f l o w r e d u c e d , a p o n d had f o r m e d . I t had t e e m e d w i t h f r o g s . T h e p o n d e v e n t u a l l y silted u p , e n t o m b i n g w h a t e v e r b o n e s and b o d i e s had sunk t o the b o t t o m . T h e n a soil b e g a n t o d e v e l o p o n the t o p o f the m u d s that had f i l l e d i n t h e p o n d and p r e s e r v e d the fossils. T h e ancient soil i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n its o w n r i g h t . I t i s i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e , the caliche
of semiarid environments.
T h e s t r e a m s and f l o o d p l a i n s o f ancient
C a m e r o o n w e r e c e r t a i n l y n o t l o w l a n d forests and s w a m p s . W i t h i n the ancient soil f o r m e d a t t h e t o p o f t h e p o n d s e d i m e n t s a r e clusters o f e l o n g a t e o v o i d structures a n inch o r s o l o n g . T h e s e w e r e c l e a r l y o f b i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n . T h e y a r e n o t fossil e g g s , but w h a t are t h e y ? T h e y turn o u t t o b e the r e m a i n s o f insects, actually the h o m e s o f s w e a t b e e s o r s o m e t h i n g like t h e m .
FOR
ONE
TOOTH
207 T h e insect r e m a i n s are r e a l l y v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g b e c a u s e i t i s n o t until a b o u t this t i m e in Earth h i s t o r y , the Early C r e t a c e o u s , that flowering plants b e g a n their vast r a d i a t i o n and d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n . L o o k e d a t a n o t h e r w a y , i t w a s n o t until t h e n that the Earth g a i n e d the b e a u t y o f
flowers
w i t h all t h e i r f l a m b o y a n t
c o l o r s and s w e e t scents. T h e c o l o r s and t h e scents attract insects, w h i c h i n turn p o l l i n a t e the f l o w e r s . I f f l o w e r s w e r e u n d e r g o i n g a n e v o l u t i o n a r y radiat i o n 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , t h e animals that p o l l i n a t e t h e m m u s t h a v e b e e n c o e v o l v i n g right a l o n g w i t h t h e m .
O t h e r w i s e , h o w could insect-pollinated
plants r e p r o d u c e , and w h a t w o u l d the p o l l i n a t i n g insects eat? N o w , i f t h e insects w e r e d i v e r s i f y i n g a l o n g w i t h the f l o w e r i n g plants, w o u l d i t n o t m a k e sense that the animals that eat insects w o u l d b e c o e v o l v i n g right a l o n g w i t h t h e m ? H e r e i n C a m e r o o n , a t K B - 6 , w e had t h e r e m a i n s o f social, f l o w e r p o l l i n a t i n g insects, a t t h e s a m e l o c a l i t y w i t h d i n o s a u r s , f r o g s , and w h o k n e w what else.
OBVIOUSLY
WHAT
I had h o p e d f o r w a s a m a m m a l .
A l l living mammals
h a v e hair and p r o d u c e m i l k t o n u r t u r e t h e i r y o u n g . T h e y can b e d i v i d e d i n t o three fundamental g r o u p s distinguished by their m e t h o d of r e p r o d u c t i o n as w e l l a s o t h e r features ( F i g u r e 3 7 ) . T h e f i r s t g r o u p o f l i v i n g m a m m a l s i s the e g g - l a y i n g m o n o t r e m e s . T h e s e c o n d i s the p o u c h e d m a r s u p i a l s , w h o g i v e birth t o p o o r l y d e v e l o p e d y o u n g , b o r n a t q u i t e a n i m m a t u r e s t a g e . T h e y are hairless and pink and b l i n d , but t h e i r a r m s are s t r o n g f o r t h e i r s i z e . T h e y c l i m b f r o m the vagina, u p the b e l l y o f the m o t h e r , p u l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s a l o n g f r o m hair t o hair, until t h e y r e a c h t h e p o u c h . O n c e i n s i d e , the y o u n g marsupial s w a l l o w s a n i p p l e , and f o r m o s t o f t h e r e m a i n d e r o f its life i n t h e p o u c h , i t i s p o w e r fed m i l k b y m u s c u l a r c o n t r a c t i o n s i n the breast o f t h e m o t h e r . I t i s a g o o d life i f that f i r s t j o u r n e y can b e m a d e successfully. T h e third g r o u p o f living m a m m a l s is the p l a c e n t a l s , w h i c h r e t a i n a d e v e l o p i n g fetus in t h e u t e r u s , nourishing it t h r o u g h a p l a c e n t a . T h e platypus and e c h i d n a s , o r spiny a n t e a t e r s , a r e m o n o t r e m e s .
They
a l o n e a m o n g l i v i n g m a m m a l s lay e g g s . T h e y a r e o n l y k n o w n n o w a d a y s f r o m Australia, T a s m a n i a , and N e w G u i n e a . H o w e v e r , a fossil m o n o t r e m e p e r h a p s 6 0 m i l l i o n years o l d w a s r e c e n t l y r e p o r t e d f r o m South A m e r i c a . T h e l i v i n g o p o s s u m s , k a n g a r o o s , w o m b a t s , and t h e i r r e l a t i v e s are marsupials. T h e y a r e m o s t characteristic t o d a y o f t h e island c o n t i n e n t o f A u s t r a l i a , and t o s o m e e x t e n t , South A m e r i c a . T h e V i r g i n i a o p o s s u m i s the o n l y marsupial that n o w
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
208
FIGURE 37: A sampling of modern mammals. anteater sloth
and
bear,
a
platypus,
a placental;
both
egg-laying
monotremes from
and a pouched kangaroo,
Mammalian
distribution,
during
time of the dinosaurs.
the
Clockwise from
even
today,
a
upper left, Australia;
marsupial,
an
a spiny Asian
also from Australia.
bears the stamp of events that occurred
l i v e s i n t h e U n i t e d States. T h e r e used t o b e m a n y n a t i v e N o r t h A m e r i c a n m a r s u p i a l s , as s h o w n by t h e fossil r e c o r d , b u t t h e trash can ' p o s s u m is a r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t f r o m South A m e r i c a .
Placentals a r e m o r e n u m e r o u s and m o r e
d i v e r s e than m a r s u p i a l s , and h u g e l y m o r e s o than m o n o t r e m e s . W h a l e s , d o g s , cats, h u m a n s , fruit bats, e l e p h a n t s , i n fact m o s t f a m i l i a r m a m m a l s , and t h e i r e x t i n c t r e l a t i v e s , are p l a c e n t a l s . T h e y inhabit m o s t o f the Earth.
F O R
O N E
T O O T H
209 O n e v e r y i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f m a m m a l s i s that t h e y are w a r m - b l o o d e d . T h e r e is a s o p h i s t i c a t e d p h y s i o l o g i c a l m e c h a n i s m f o r internal t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l o f the b o d y . T h a t insures a r e a s o n a b l y c o n s t a n t , n o n f l u c t u a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , m a i n t a i n e d a t a n o p t i m u m f o r t h e b i o c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e s that e n a b l e the o r g a n i s m t o o p e r a t e . T h e r e s u l t , basically, i s that m a m m a l s are m o r e a c t i v e animals m o r e o f t e n than, say, lizards o r m o s t o t h e r r e p t i l e s . T h e r e a r e r e q u i r e m e n t s that g o a l o n g w i t h b e i n g w a r m - b l o o d e d .
Heat must be con-
s e r v e d . H a i r , a s o p p o s e d t o scales, p r o v i d e s insulation and r e d u c e s heat loss f r o m the surface o f the b o d y . W a r m - b l o o d e d animals also r e q u i r e a m o r e o r less constant supply o f f o o d , fuel f o r t h e internal f i r e s i f y o u w i l l , a s o p p o s e d t o r e p t i l e s . A snake m a y eat o n l y o n c e a w e e k o r s o , b u t y o u eat e v e r y day and s o d o m o s t o t h e r m a m m a l s . S o d o b i r d s , w h i c h are w a r m - b l o o d e d , and s o w o u l d have any o t h e r dinosaurs that m i g h t h a v e b e e n w a r m t h r o u g h similar p r o c e s s e s o f internal t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l . Because o f t h e changes that h a v e o c c u r r e d w i t h t i m e i n v a r i o u s e v o l u t i o n ary l i n e a g e s , the casual o b s e r v e r m i g h t b e hard p r e s s e d t o r e c o g n i z e the t i n y s h r e w l i k e c r e a t u r e s that w e r e the earliest m a m m a l s and e l e p h a n t s , f o r e x a m p l e , a s b e l o n g i n g t o the s a m e g r o u p o f animals d e f i n e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f hair and the p r o d u c t i o n o f m i l k .
But t h e y d o .
Unfortunately m a m m a r y glands,
w h i c h p r o d u c e m i l k , are n o t the sorts o f things that a r e o f m u c h use i n t r y i n g to understand fossil m a m m a l s because t h e y are just n o t p r e s e r v e d as fossils. N e i t h e r i s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f the u t e r u s .
H a i r i s o c c a s i o n a l l y p r e s e r v e d and
fossilized, but n o t o f t e n e n o u g h t o b e o f m a j o r significance i n t h e fossil r e c o r d . S o m e features o f b o n e g r o w t h , a p p a r e n t l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h w a r m - b l o o d e d n e s s , can b e o b s e r v e d i n fossil b o n e u n d e r the m i c r o s c o p e , but a b r o a d e r u n d e r standing o f b o t h b o n e g r o w t h and w a r m - b l o o d e d n e s s i s necessary t o p u t the suggestions o f m i c r o s c o p i c b o n e s t r u c t u r e t o full u s e . T h e r e n e e d s t o b e a c a t a l o g o f r e l i a b l e characteristics o f t h e s k e l e t o n w i t h w h i c h t o r e c o g n i z e fossil m a m m a l s . Such characteristics m u s t b e p r e s e r v e d i n fossils, and t o b e o f g r e a t e r use, w e s h o u l d b e able t o o b s e r v e t h e m d e v e l o p i n g e v o l u t i o n a r i l y o v e r t i m e . F o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e a r e such d e f i n i n g skeletal characteristics i n l i v i n g m a m m a l s and that a l l o w s t h e i r r o o t s t o b e t r a c e d w e l l back i n t o the fossil r e c o r d . T h e structural features o f the s k e l e t o n h a v e functional significance a s w e l l a s g e n e a l o g i c a l i m p o r t a n c e . T h e d e m a n d f o r a c o n s t a n t f o o d supply t o m a i n tain a constant w a r m - b l o o d e d b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e and t h e e n e r g e t i c s o f such a life-style are i n t i m a t e l y i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h t h e structural e v o l u t i o n o f m a m -
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
210 m a l s . O n e o f t h e m o s t o b v i o u s features o f m o s t m a m m a l s i s t h e i r p o s t u r e . U n l i k e m o s t c r o c o d i l e s , l i z a r d s , o r o t h e r such t e r r e s t r i a l r e p t i l e s , m a m m a l s a r e n o t s p r a w l i n g , w i t h t h e i r legs sticking o u t s i d e w a y s f r o m the b o d y , t h e n t u r n i n g d o w n a t the e l b o w s and k n e e s . T h e f r o n t and h i n d legs o f m a m m a l s a r e p o s i t i o n e d d i r e c t l y u n d e r the b o d y , t r a n s m i t t i n g the w e i g h t straight d o w n the legs b e c a u s e o f the m o r e e r e c t p o s t u r e . D i n o s a u r s a r e a special case a m o n g t h e r e p t i l e s b e c a u s e t h e i r l i m b s , l i k e t h o s e o f m a m m a l s , are p o s i t i o n e d m o r e d i r e c t l y b e n e a t h the b o d y . T h e j o i n t s i n t h e f r o n t and h i n d legs o f m a m m a l s a r e g e n e r a l l y m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d , m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d , than i n r e p t i l e s , m a k i n g f o r a t i g h t e r f i t o f adjacent b o n e s a t the j o i n t . T h a t i s m a d e p o s s i b l e b y the w a y m a m m a l i a n bones g r o w as c o m p a r e d w i t h those of reptiles in general. T h e b o n e , an upper a r m b o n e f o r e x a m p l e , i s p r e f o r m e d i n cartilage i n a y o u n g and d e v e l o p i n g mammal.
As
it g r o w s ,
bone
salts,
the
stuff that m a k e s b o n e h a r d ,
are
d e p o s i t e d i n t h e shaft o f the b o n e and also a t the e n d s w h e r e the j o i n t s a r e . B e t w e e n t h e areas o f b o n e - s a l t d e p o s i t i o n , the c a r t i l a g e k e e p s g r o w i n g and the b o n e gets longer.
A f t e r a w h i l e the d e p o s i t i o n o f b o n e salts o u t p a c e s the
g r o w t h o f c a r t i l a g e , and the ends fuse w i t h the shaft. W h e n that h a p p e n s , t h e b o n e essentially stops g r o w i n g i n s i z e . T h a t i s w h y i f y o u are t w e n t y years o l d and f i v e f e e t tall, y o u m i g h t a s w e l l g i v e u p ideas o f p l a y i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l b a s k e t b a l l . Y o u w i l l n o t g e t any t a l l e r . R e p t i l e s , a s o p p o s e d t o m a m m a l s , g e n e r a l l y but n o t a l w a y s , h a v e the ends o f t h e i r l i m b b o n e s e n c a s e d i n c a r t i l a g e caps, w h e r e g r o w t h takes p l a c e w h i l e b o n e salts a r e d e p o s i t e d i n t h e shaft. T h a t g r o w t h can take p l a c e m u c h l o n g e r , and t h e r e f o r e , m a x i m u m size o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s n o t f i x e d i n m a n y r e p t i l i a n s p e c i e s in the s a m e sense that it is in m a m m a l s . T h e result is that the j o i n t s in
the
limbs
of reptiles,
because
their bones
lack
complex
ends that f i t
t o g e t h e r l i k e i n t r i c a t e k e y s , h a v e a l o o s e r , less efficient l o o k t o t h e m than d o the j o i n t s i n t h e l i m b s o f m a m m a l s . C o u p l e this w i t h the d i f f e r e n c e i n p o s t u r e , and the g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n i s that m a m m a l s h a v e e v o l v e d a m u c h m o r e efficient l o c o m o t o r r e p e r t o i r e than m o s t any o t h e r t e r r e s t r i a l v e r t e b r a t e s . I t i s n o t that r e p t i l e s are i n c o m p e t e n t . T h e y o b v i o u s l y d o q u i t e w e l l w i t h w h a t t h e y h a v e . I t i s just that m a m m a l s a r e d i f f e r e n t . T h e utility o f a n efficient s k e l e t o n w i t h r e s p e c t to d i e t in a w a r m - b l o o d e d a n i m a l is in m o v i n g it to its f o o d s o u r c e , p r o v i d i n g the t o o l s — n o t a b l y t e e t h and c l a w s — w i t h w h i c h t o catch and p r o c u r e a m e a l , o r e n a b l i n g i t t o flee t o a v o i d b e c o m i n g o n e . M a m m a l s b i t e and c h e w t h e i r f o o d w i t h t h e i r t e e t h and j a w s , c u t t i n g m e a t
F O R
O N E
T O O T H
211 as in c a r n i v o r e s and g r i n d i n g h e r b a g e as in h e r b i v o r e s . B e t w e e n t h o s e e x t r e m e s are
all the
o t h e r adaptations f o r f o o d p r o c e s s i n g — s l i c i n g ,
dicing,
j u i c i n g , p u l p i n g — a n y t h i n g ( a l m o s t ) a V e g - O - M a t i c can d o . S o m e m a m m a l species h a v e lost t h e i r t e e t h a l t o g e t h e r and f e e d b y l a p p i n g and sucking n e c t a r o r t e r m i t e s . Since m a m m a l s m u s t f e e d a t r e g u l a r and c l o s e l y s p a c e d i n t e r v a l s to s t o k e the fires that maintain t h e i r b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e , it is h a r d l y surprising that the m a m m a l i a n d e n t i t i o n p r o v i d e s a w e a l t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n the d i e t a r y adaptations o f fossil s p e c i e s . T h a t i s w h y i t i s s o v e r y f o r t u n a t e f o r p a l e o n t o l o gists that t e e t h are the m o s t c o m m o n l y p r e s e r v e d m a m m a l i a n skeletal e l e m e n t s . T h e y m a k e g o o d fossils b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t h e hardest parts o f t h e b o d y , and t h e r e f o r e t h e y resist d e s t r u c t i o n b y g e o l o g i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s that r e t a r d fossilization. A g e n e r a l f e a t u r e o f m a m m a l s i s that t h e t e e t h a r e c o m p l i c a t e d . M a m m a l s usually have a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t - s h a p e d t e e t h , and t h e r e is a d i v i s i o n of l a b o r b e t w e e n the i n c i s o r s , c a n i n e s , p r e m o l a r s , and m o l a r s . M a n y o f the t e e t h h a v e n u m e r o u s b u m p s and cusps, a s y o u can t e l l f r o m r u n n i n g y o u r t o n g u e o v e r t h o s e i n the back o f y o u r m o u t h .
T h e s o p h i s t i c a t e d cusp p a t t e r n o f
individual t e e t h e n a b l e s the u p p e r t e e t h t o fit w i t h the l o w e r t e e t h i n p r e c i s e occlusion.
This
precise
occlusion
allows
for
precise
function—the
exact
a l i g n m e n t o f shearing crests and g r i n d i n g m o r t a r s t o p r o d u c e t h e r e q u i r e d r e s u l t , m a s t i c a t e d f o o d . M a m m a l s , a s a r u l e , h a v e o n e set o f b a b y t e e t h and o n e set o f p e r m a n e n t t e e t h . T h e y d o n o t c o n t i n u o u s l y r e p l a c e t e e t h the w a y dinosaurs d i d . T h e result is that p r e c i s e o c c l u s i o n is m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t life. M a n y structural
features h a v e i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n the
c o m p l i c a t e d and
integrated process of m a m m a l i a n c h e w i n g . T h e teeth are anchored securely i n the j a w s b y m u l t i p l e r o o t s . M o s t r e p t i l e s , i f t h e y h a v e r o o t s , h a v e o n l y o n e f o r each t o o t h . S o c k e t s i n t o w h i c h the t o o t h r o o t s sit a r e a r r a n g e d a l o n g t h e e d g e o f the j a w s i n o n e r o w . T h i s i s o b v i o u s t o us, b u t m a n y n o n m a m m a l i a n v e r t e b r a t e s h a v e m u l t i p l e r o w s o f t e e t h , s o m e o n b o n e s that n e v e r b e a r t e e t h in mammals. In m o d e r n mammals there is only o n e tooth-bearing bone in each half o f the l o w e r j a w , and t h e c o u n t e r p a r t s a r e c o n n e c t e d a t the c h i n . I n s o m e v e r y early and e x t i n c t m a m m a l s , and i n r e p t i l e s , t h e r e i s m o r e than o n e b o n e i n each half o f the l o w e r j a w . T h a t i s t h e p r i m i t i v e c o n d i t i o n . T h e additional b o n e s a r e m o s t l y t o w a r d t h e back o f t h e j a w . T h a t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t because the j a w j o i n t , w h e r e t h e l o w e r j a w and the skull m e e t , i s f o r m e d b y d i f f e r e n t b o n e s i n m o d e r n m a m m a l s than i n r e p t i l e s .
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
212 T h e j a w j o i n t a l l o w s t h e m o u t h t o o p e n and c l o s e , s o i t i s clear that its c o n s t r u c t i o n m u s t b e a r s o m e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e w a y a n animal c h e w s . I n m a m m a l s its c o n s t r u c t i o n is an a d a p t a t i o n that facilitates p r e c i s e o c c l u s i o n and the mammalian w a y o f c h e w i n g . T h e b o n e s that f o r m the m a m m a l i a n j a w j o i n t are c a l l e d the squamosal i n t h e skull and t h e d e n t a r y in the l o w e r j a w .
In r e p t i l e s t h e articulation is
b e t w e e n t h e q u a d r a t e i n the skull and t h e articular i n t h e l o w e r j a w . T h r o u g h e m b r y o l o g y , a n a t o m y , and t h e fossil r e c o r d , w e can d e t e r m i n e the h o m o l o g y o f these b o n e s b e t w e e n r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s ; that i s t o say, w e can p i n p o i n t e x a c t l y w h e r e i n t h e m a m m a l i a n s k e l e t o n t h e b o n e s e q u i v a l e n t t o the r e p t i l i a n q u a d r a t e and articular are l o c a t e d . T o d o that w e m u s t e x a m i n e the s t r u c t u r e o f the m i d d l e e a r , a s e n s o r y o r g a n l o c a t e d n e a r the j a w j o i n t . S o u n d v i b r a t i o n s are t r a n s m i t t e d f r o m the e a r d r u m t o t h e o v a l w i n d o w o f the i n n e r e a r b y b o n e s i n b o t h r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s . R e p t i l e s h a v e o n l y o n e , b u t m a m m a l s h a v e t h r e e b o n e s i n each ear. T h e possession o f t h r e e m i d d l e - e a r b o n e s is a f u n d a m e n t a l f e a t u r e of all l i v i n g m a m m a l s . In c o m m o n p a r l a n c e the three are
c a l l e d the h a m m e r ,
equivalent of the stirrup.
anvil,
and
stirrup.
Reptiles have
o n l y the
T h e e q u i v a l e n t s o f the q u a d r a t e and articular o f
t h e r e p t i l i a n j a w j o i n t h a v e u n d e r g o n e a n e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n the h i s t o r y o f m a m m a l s t o b e c o m e t h e anvil and h a m m e r o f the m a m m a l i a n m i d d l e ear. That is w h y reptiles have only o n e m i d d l e - e a r b o n e , yet m o d e r n m a m m a l s h a v e t h r e e . I t i s also w h y m a m m a l s h a v e t h e j a w j o i n t f o r m e d f r o m d i f f e r e n t b o n e s than r e p t i l e s , and w h y m o d e r n m a m m a l s h a v e o n l y o n e b o n e i n each half o f t h e l o w e r j a w . A l l o f t h o s e features are easily s e e n i n the fossil r e c o r d . A n d t h e y are all r e l a t e d t o the f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e t e e t h i n p r e c i s e o c c l u s i o n , a n a d a p t a t i o n f o r f e e d i n g that facilitates w a r m - b l o o d e d n e s s , b e cause t h e j a w j o i n t and t h e m u s c l e s that o p e r a t e i t m u s t p r o v i d e f o r p r e c i s e occlusion to occur.
T H E T E E T H O F m a m m a l s d e s e r v e a c l o s e r l o o k because t h e y are the p r i m a r y f o o d p r o c e s s o r s f o r a n a n i m a l . E v e r y o n e k n o w s that v a r i o u s kinds o f m a m m a l s h a v e d i f f e r e n t diets and that t h e i r t e e t h l o o k d i f f e r e n t . M e a t - e a t e r s such as l i o n s l o o k l i k e t h e y d o w h e n t h e y r o a r b e c a u s e o f t h e i r b i g , stabbing fangs. T h e t e e t h i n t h e back o f t h e j a w s slice m e a t a s c l e a n l y a s scissors c u t t i n g p a p e r . H o r s e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e g r a z i n g animals that m u s t g r i n d l a r g e a m o u n t s o f abrasive f o o d , w h i c h i s t o say grass. T h e i r c h e e k t e e t h are like m i l l s t o n e s ,
FOR
ONE
TOOTH 213
n o t a d a p t e d f o r p u n c t u r i n g flesh a t all. F r o m these e x a m p l e s w e can see t w o things: T h e shape o f t e e t h i s r e l a t e d t o t h e e c o l o g y o f m a m m a l species and the r a n g e of shapes is q u i t e vast.
N a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n surely plays a r o l e in
e v o l u t i o n a r i l y d i r e c t i n g t h e shape o f t e e t h w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i e t . Species w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r i e s can e v o l v e s i m i l a r l y shaped t e e t h s i m p l y as adaptations to similar d i e t s . G i v e n the adaptational significance o f t o o t h shape and the c o n s e q u e n t l i k e l i h o o d o f c o n v e r g e n t e v o l u t i o n , i t w o u l d b e useful t o d e t e r m i n e a structural c o m m o n plan f r o m w h i c h all m a m m a l i a n t o o t h shapes can b e d e r i v e d . T h a t i s n o t s o s i m p l e , f o r o n e r e a s o n because l i v i n g m o n o t r e m e s h a v e n o functional t e e t h . F o r marsupials and placentals i t s e e m s that the p r i m i t i v e p a t t e r n i s like that o f a n o p o s s u m o r a s h r e w . R i d g e s o f t h e l o w e r t e e t h shear across crests o n the u p p e r t e e t h . T h e n , a s t h e j a w slams shut, the m a i n cusps o n the u p p e r m o l a r s crush i n t o basins o n t h e l o w e r t e e t h . T h i s dual f u n c t i o n , shearing and c r u s h i n g , i s w h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s the t e e t h o f the c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f marsupial and placental m a m m a l s a s j u d g e d b o t h f r o m t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r ations and f r o m the fossil r e c o r d . A s e v o l u t i o n p r o c e e d e d , the c r u s h i n g and g r i n d i n g f u n c t i o n b e c a m e e n h a n c e d in disparate lineages of h e r b i v o r o u s m a m m a l s , such as k a n g a r o o s , w h i c h are marsupials, and h o r s e s , w h i c h are p l a c e n t a l s . I n t h o s e t w o species the t e e t h d o n o t l o o k s o m u c h a l i k e , b u t t h e t a p i r , a c l o s e r e l a t i v e o f the h o r s e , has t e e t h q u i t e similar to a k a n g a r o o ' s . P i g s , h u m a n s , and e v e n bears h a v e t e e t h w i t h l o w , r o u n d e d cusps that l o o k v e r y m u c h alike b e c a u s e all t h r e e have diets that i n c l u d e a l i t t l e b i t of e v e r y t h i n g . In fact, fossil b e a r and j a v e l i n a t e e t h h a v e b e e n m i s i d e n t i f i e d a s h o m i n o i d . I n c a r n i v o r e s the p r i m i t i v e shearing f u n c t i o n i s p e r f e c t e d a t the e x p e n s e o f structures r e l a t i n g t o crushing and g r i n d i n g . T h u s , o n e p r i m i t i v e k i n d o f t o o t h shape, o n e that c o u l d b o t h shear and g r i n d , g a v e rise t o t h e i n c r e d i b l e v a r i e t y o f t o o t h shapes s e e n i n marsupials and placentals t o d a y . W h a t a b o u t m o n o t r e m e s ? T h e i r l i v i n g m e m b e r s d o n o t h a v e functional t e e t h . T h e platypus has h o r n y pads o n its j a w s , but luckily the v e s t i g e s o f t e e t h can b e seen a s the animal d e v e l o p s . S o m e fossil species h a v e t e e t h similar t o the d e v e l o p m e n t a l stages o f t h e p l a t y p u s , thus p r o v i d i n g i m p o r t a n t c l u e s . I t s e e m s that m o n o t r e m e s c o m p r i s e a b r a n c h that split o f f o n its o w n c o u r s e p r i o r t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e k i n d o f t e e t h that c h a r a c t e r i z e marsupials and placentals.
T h a t m a k e s all kinds o f sense.
M o n o t r e m e s are also p r i m i t i v e
because t h e y lay e g g s r a t h e r than g i v e b i r t h t o l i v e y o u n g a s i n the o t h e r t w o
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
214 g r o u p s . T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s that a m o n g the t h r e e g r o u p s o f m o d e r n m a m m a l s l i v i n g i n the w o r l d t o d a y ,
marsupials and placentals h a v e a m o r e r e c e n t
c o m m o n a n c e s t o r than e i t h e r d o e s w i t h m o n o t r e m e s , and t h e r e f o r e those t w o a r e m o r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o e a c h o t h e r than e i t h e r i s t o platypuses. W h a t i s r e a l l y f o r t u n a t e f o r p a l e o n t o l o g y is that this r e l a t i o n s h i p can be seen w i t h n o t h i n g m o r e than isolated t e e t h . I s n ' t it fascinating? Structural changes that f u n c t i o n in h e a r i n g and in c h e w i n g h a v e a c o m m o n s o u r c e i n e v o l u t i o n that a l l o w s u s t o d e f i n e m a m m a l s apart f r o m t h e features o f hair and m i l k and r e p r o d u c t i o n that d o n o t p r e s e r v e i n t h e fossil r e c o r d . T h e shape o f t e e t h , w h i c h i s u l t i m a t e l y e n m e s h e d i n the c o m p l e x o f j a w and ear c h a n g e s , p r o v i d e s i m p o r t a n t e v i d e n c e a b o u t the d i e t o f e x t i n c t m a m m a l s and the e v o l u t i o n a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g t h e m . A g o o d bit o f the e a r l y e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f m a m m a l s t o o k p l a c e i n the s h a d o w s , i f n o t the f o o t p r i n t s , o f d i n o s a u r s .
V i e w e d i n this w a y , w e can
i m a g i n e m a m m a l s a s s e c r e t i v e , v o r a c i o u s , and t i n y s h r e w l i k e c r e a t u r e s , scurr y i n g f r o m h a r m ' s w a y . T h e s e u n o b t r u s i v e e l e m e n t s o f the fauna e m e r g e d i n t h e i r o w n r i g h t d u r i n g the A g e o f M a m m a l s , after the G r e a t D y i n g , t o b e c o m e w h a t t h e y are n o w . But d i n o s a u r s , e x c e p t f o r b i r d s , w e n t e x t i n c t . S o w h e n and w h e r e d i d the t h r e e g r o u p s o f m o d e r n m a m m a l s — m o n o t r e m e s , m a r s u p i a l s , and p l a c e n t a l s — r e p r e s e n t i n g e v e r y m a m m a l i a n species a l i v e t o d a y , f i r s t d i v e r g e f r o m each o t h e r t o e v o l v e t h e i r separate ways? W h a t w e r e t h e i r earliest t r u e m e m b e r s like? W h a t w e r e t h e i r ancestors like? W h y did they diverge? W a s it because G o n d w a n a was fragmenting into the m o d e r n s o u t h e r n c o n t i n e n t s ? T h e s e a r e basic q u e s t i o n s a b o u t m o d e r n m a m m a l s , and I thought Africa might hold s o m e answers. That is w h y I was in C a m e r o o n l o o k i n g f o r a n c i e n t fossils. T h e attributes that a n a t o m i c a l l y d e f i n e all l i v i n g m a m m a l s as a single i n c l u s i v e g r o u p a p p e a r t o h a v e e v o l v e d n o l a t e r than a b o u t 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , s o m e w h e r e w i t h i n the r o u g h l y 4 0 m i l l i o n years o f t i m e that i s c a l l e d the Early C r e t a c e o u s . T h e d i v e r g e n c e o f placentals and marsupials, i t i s t h o u g h t , can b e t r a c e d back t o a c o m m o n a n c e s t o r slightly later i n t i m e , later than the split b e t w e e n t h e i r c o m m o n a n c e s t o r and the m o n o t r e m e s , b u t still i n the Cretaceous. But w h e r e d i d the m o n o t r e m e - m a r s u p i a l - p l a c e n t a l c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s c o m e f r o m ? W e k n o w f r o m fossils that r e c o g n i z a b l e m a m m a l s e v o l v e d m u c h e a r l i e r , a r o u n d 2 2 0 m i l l i o n years a g o i n fact, a t a b o u t the t i m e dinosaurs o r i g i n a t e d . E v e n t h o s e s p e c i e s o f o v e r 2 0 0 m i l l i o n years
FOR
ONE
TOOTH 215
a g o have a l o n g and u n i q u e h i s t o r y separate f r o m r e p t i l e s . T h e s e v e r y earliest m a m m a l s are q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o n e s a r o u n d t o d a y . T h e y are e v e n v e r y different f r o m
the o n e s a r o u n d i n
the
Early
Cretaceous.
T h e y w e r e the
inhabitants o f P a n g a e a . T h e y had the m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l skeletal features o f m a m m a l s , but t h e y had n o t y e t e v o l v e d t h e features o f t h e t e e t h , e a r s , and j a w t o the e x t e n t s e e n i n m o d e r n m a m m a l s . B y 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , after m a m m a l s had m o r e than
100 m i l l i o n years o f p r i o r e v o l u t i o n u n d e r t h e i r
b e l t s , and after Pangaea had f r a g m e n t e d , s o m e o f the species r e a c h e d t h e g r a d e o f m o d e r n m a m m a l s . I t i s w i t h i n this Early C r e t a c e o u s c o m p l e x that w e must search f o r the o r i g i n s o f m o n o t r e m e s , m a r s u p i a l s , and p l a c e n t a l s , because
that
is
the
time
when
the
features
that d e f i n e
these
groups
of
m a m m a l s first e v o l v e .
T H E Q U A R R Y I N G A T K B - 6 c o n t i n u e d . W e w r a p p e d m a n y small s p e c i m e n s f o r p r e p a r a t i o n i n the lab, b u t n o n e o f t h e m w a s i d e n t i f i e d a s m a m m a l i a n . M a t r i x w a s c o l l e c t e d — e i g h t t o n s o f i t that y e a r — a n d taken back t o R h i n o c e r o s C a m p , w h e r e e v e r y bit o f i t w a s s i e v e d . T h e small s p e c i m e n s and the s i e v e d c o n c e n t r a t e w e r e s h i p p e d t o m y lab. M o n t h s l a t e r , back in D a l l a s , I g o t a p h o n e call. I w a s at h o m e on a Sunday a f t e r n o o n . I t w a s m y s t u d e n t , John C o n g l e t o n , e x c i t e d . " I h a v e a m a m m a l ! " h e said. H o m e run! T h a t w a s the first d e c e n t m a m m a l s p e c i m e n t o c o m e o u t o f C a m e r o o n — o r f r o m the e n t i r e A f r i c a n C r e t a c e o u s f o r that m a t t e r . T h e p r o j e c t c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k K B - 6 the n e x t y e a r and t h e n e x t . I n 1988 w e w e n t t o set the c a m p i n the usual s p o t o n the banks o f the M a y o R e y a t the east e n d o f the basin. A t that t i m e t h e r e w a s a lull i n the s h o o t i n g w a r b e t w e e n L i b y a and C h a d . T h a t left s o m e a r m e d Chadians w i t h n o t m u c h t o s h o o t , b u t w i t h p l e n t y o f t i m e o n t h e i r hands. T h e y had taken t o crossing the b o r d e r i n t o the K o u m Basin.
They became highwaymen,
robbing p e o p l e on the road.
Thirteen
vehicles returning f r o m market at the b o r d e r village of Mandingrin d o w n the r o a d f r o m c a m p had b e e n s t o p p e d all a t o n c e and r o b b e d a t g u n p o i n t . T o c o m b a t the t h r e a t , the a u t h o r i t i e s o r d e r e d all l o r r i e s t o t r a v e l i n e v e n l a r g e r c o n v o y s . Soldiers in plainclothes, a r m e d w i t h machine guns, r o d e shotgun in each t r u c k . It l o o k e d like a situation that c o u l d t u r n sticky f o r a b u n c h of wazungu
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
216 c a m p e d o u t i n the m i d d l e o f n o w h e r e w i t h s o m a n y fancy a m e n i t i e s , such a s t e n t s and s l e e p i n g b a g s , f o o d and funds. I spread t h e w o r d a m o n g the local v i l l a g e r s that w e w o u l d b e
encamped
f o r six w e e k s , just s o that a n y o n e
i n t e r e s t e d w o u l d n o t think t h e r e w a s a n e e d t o rush i n t o d e v i l m e n t . I n f i v e days w e had s t o c k p i l e d a s u p p l y o f m a t r i x f o r w a s h i n g and c o m p l e t e d the n e e d e d g e o l o g i c a l study a r o u n d t h e s i t e .
I
ordered camp
struck w i t h o u t
f u r t h e r n o t i c e . W e m o v e d t o the r e l a t i v e safety o f R h i n o c e r o s C a m p . F u r t h e r w o r k a r o u n d K B - 6 w a s d o n e i n day t r i p s .
W e had n o p r o b l e m s — l u c k i l y .
Since that f i r s t m a m m a l t o o t h , a n u m b e r o f s p e c i m e n s h a v e c o m e t o l i g h t , all i m p o r t a n t . N o n e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s p e c t a c u l a r , b u t that d o e s n o t m a t t e r . T h e f i r s t s p e c i m e n s f r o m the A f r i c a n C r e t a c e o u s w e r e the hardest t o f i n d . W e b r o k e the g r o u n d .
O t h e r s w i l l c o m e m o r e easily b e c a u s e n o w i t i s k n o w n
where to look. T h e r e are p r o b a b l y f o u r s p e c i e s o f m a m m a l s ,
a t least,
represented by
fossils f r o m t h e K o u m Basin, b u t o n l y o n e has y e t b e e n n a m e d . N o n e o f the C a m e r o o n i a n m a m m a l fossils are p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e m a r s u p i a l s , o r placentals, o r m o n o t r e m e s , s o far a s I can t e l l . A n d n o n e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y l i k e the w i d e spread
mammals
that
inhabited
the
megacontinent
of Pangaea,
landmasses w e r e j o i n e d and w h e n m a m m a l s f i r s t e v o l v e d , earlier
than
when
the
Cameroonian
mammals
lived.
when
all
100 m i l l i o n years
Their
most
similar
r e l a t i v e s s e e m t o b e f r o m r o c k s a t least 4 0 m i l l i o n years o l d e r than t h e y a r e , and f o u n d in E n g l a n d . T h a t w a s a s u r p r i s e . A s i t stands n o w ,
i t appears that m a m m a l s g e n e r a l l y
like those
from
C a m e r o o n w e r e w i d e s p r e a d across the N o r t h e r n and S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e s at the
b e g i n n i n g o f the
Cretaceous.
T h e y may
not have
been
extremely
a b u n d a n t , b u t t h e r e w e r e p r o b a b l y q u i t e a f e w s p e c i e s o f t h e m . F r o m this w i d e s p r e a d s t o c k , m o n o t r e m e s , the l i v i n g e g g - l a y e r s , e v o l v e d i n the S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . I n that sense the C a m e r o o n i a n fossil m a m m a l s a r e r e l a t e d t o the d u c k - b i l l e d p l a t y p u s e s . Based o n that l o g i c , all o t h e r things b e i n g e q u a l , t h e y also laid e g g s . S o m e tens o f m i l l i o n s o f years after m o n o t r e m e s e v o l v e d , w h e n Australia and S o u t h A m e r i c a w e r e still c o n n e c t e d t h r o u g h A n t a r c t i c a , b u t after A f r i c a had split off, the c o m m o n a n c e s t o r o f placentals and marsupials e v o l v e d . I t e v o l v e d n o t i n t h e S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e , b u t i n the N o r t h e r n . G e o g r a p h y c o n t i n u e d t o play a r o l e . D e s c e n d a n t s o f the c o m m o n a n c e s t o r g a v e rise t o species
that
diversified
into
marsupials
in
North
America,
and
placental
m a m m a l s i n A s i a . M a r s u p i a l s d i d n o t g e t t o A f r i c a until tens o f m i l l i o n s o f
FOR
ONE
TOOTH
217 years l a t e r ,
and e v e n t h e n ,
coming from
Europe as they did,
they only
inhabited N o r t h A f r i c a . T h e i r stay i n A f r i c a w a s o n l y f o r just a b r i e f p e r i o d of time. T o w a r d t h e e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , n o t l o n g b e f o r e dinosaurs b e c a m e e x t i n c t , marsupials i n v a d e d S o u t h A m e r i c a f r o m the n o r t h and s p r e a d across A n t a r c t i c a t o Australia. South
America.
The
T h e n A n t a r c t i c a split o f f f r o m A u s t r a l i a and f r o m
geography
of pouched
mammals
was
following
the
a r r a n g e m e n t o f the c o n t i n e n t s ( s e e F i g u r e 9 i n C h a p t e r 1 ) . T h a t e x p l a i n s w h y the m o d e r n m a m m a l fauna o f A u s t r a l i a i s s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , w i t h platypuses and koalas and k a n g a r o o s , b u t still r e s e m b l e s that o f South A m e r i c a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y than a n y w h e r e e l s e . M u c h , m u c h l a t e r m i c e and d i n g o s and humans h o p p e d f r o m island t o island, f i n a l l y t o r e a c h i s o l a t e d A u s t r a l i a , a s w e shall s e e , l o n g after placentals i n h a b i t e d o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s . Placental m a m m a l s h a v e a c o m p l e x g e o g r a p h i c a l h i s t o r y , b u t t h e i r s p r e a d t o s o u t h e r n c o n t i n e n t s c o m e s after t h e m a j o r g e o g r a p h i c r e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s o f the C r e t a c e o u s . P l a c e n t a l s e n t e r e d South A m e r i c a f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e near the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , r o u g h l y s e v e n t y m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o , p r o b a b l y a b o u t the same t i m e marsupials w e r e h e a d i n g s o u t h . N e w d i s c o v e r i e s i n d i c a t e that, like marsupials, t h e y c a r r i e d o n t o A u s t r a l i a , b u t t h e s e e a r l y i n v a d e r s n e v e r g a i n e d a s t r o n g f o o t h o l d . M u c h later o t h e r p l a c e n t a l s , such a s m i c e , e n t e r e d Australia p e r h a p s as r e c e n t l y as e i g h t or t e n m i l l i o n years a g o . H u m a n s and d i n g o s c a m e e v e n l a t e r . W h y d i d n ' t t h e e a r l y placentals flourish i n Australia like the marsupials did? T h a t i s a g o o d q u e s t i o n and n o o n e k n o w s t h e a n s w e r .
CAMEROON
WAS
B O T H g o o d t o u s and b a d .
N o matter h o w great the
p r e c a u t i o n s , c o m p l i c a t e d situations can arise i n t h e f i e l d . T r a g e d i e s d o s t r i k e . I n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r t h e y can strike a n y w h e r e . W e had a d e a t h . I n 1989 o u r c o l l e a g u e A b e l B r i l l a n c e a u , the c h a i n - s m o k i n g w i n e taster, m a s t e r o f l o g i s t i c s , g e o l o g i s t , and g o o d f r i e n d t o u s all, d i e d o f spinal malaria w h i l e i n C a m e r o o n . E i t h e r A b e l w a s n o t taking malaria p r o p h y l a x i s , a s h e should h a v e , o r h e w a s and i t d i d n o t w o r k . T h e Plasmodium m e r o z o i t e struck w i t h a high f e v e r . H e w a s b e i n g a i r l i f t e d t o F r a n c e w h e n his h e a r t s t o p p e d o n the r u n w a y o f the G a r o u a a i r p o r t .
He was g o n e .
W e m u s t assume that A b e l w a s satisfied w i t h his l i f e , d o i n g w h a t h e c h o s e t o d o w h e n the m o s q u i t o bit h i m . Still, h e w a s a p a r t o f the e f f o r t . H i s fate c o u l d have v i s i t e d any o f us. W e h a v e n o a d e q u a t e w a y t o h o n o r o u r fallen
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
218 c o l l e a g u e — b u t w e t r y . M i c h e l , L a r r y , and I , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r friends o n the p r o j e c t , n a m e d Abelodon abeli after h i m .
It is t h e o n l y fossil m a m m a l e v e r
named from Cameroon.
I T W A S w i t h a g r e a t deal o f e f f o r t that t h o s e f i r s t m a m m a l s w e r e r e t r i e v e d f r o m t h e A f r i c a n C r e t a c e o u s . A t t h e t i m e I b e g a n p l a n n i n g the M a l a w i P r o j e c t t h e r e w e r e n o fossil m a m m a l s o f E a r l y C r e t a c e o u s a g e , that is, b e t w e e n 144 and 9 7 . 5 m i l l i o n years o l d , k n o w n f r o m any o f the s o u t h e r n c o n t i n e n t s . N o w , a d e c a d e l a t e r , t h e y a r e k n o w n f r o m South A m e r i c a , A u s t r a l i a , and A f r i c a . T h e y d o n o t a p p e a r t o b e v e r y c o m m o n animals o f the Early C r e t a c e o u s w o r l d , b u t t h e y are t h e r e . W a s i t l u c k that w e f o u n d t h e m i n C a m e r o o n , t h o s e p i n h e a d - s i z e d teeth? M a y b e s o , b u t w e w e r e l o o k i n g f o r t h e m . I s i t luck w h e n y o u fly halfway a r o u n d the w o r l d , o n t w o b a c k - t o - b a c k o v e r n i g h t flights, t o a n A f r i c a n n a t i o n , t h e n catch a t w o - h o u r d o m e s t i c flight t o the n o r t h e n d o f t h e c o u n t r y , t h e n d r i v e f i v e h o u r s , t h r e e o f t h e m o n j o l t i n g d i r t r o a d s , t o g e t t o t h e banks o f a b i l h a r z i a - i n f e s t e d r i v e r , search t h e g r o u n d o n f o o t f o r h o u r after h o u r until a l i k e l y s p o t i s f o u n d , t h e n c o l l e c t e i g h t t o n s o f d i r t , s i e v e it, t r a n s p o r t the r e s i d u e b a c k , r e t r a c i n g y o u r steps t h e s a m e w a y y o u c a m e , s o r t i t u n d e r a m i c r o s c o p e , and c o m e u p w i t h a m a m m a l t o o t h o v e r 100 m i l l i o n years o l d ? Is it l u c k , skill, e f f o r t , or just plain crazy? It is at least t h e first t h r e e . I am n o t sure a b o u t t h e last.
OTHER NEIGHBORS
DINOSAURS,
CROCODILES,
A N D mammals have s h o w n themselves
t o b e i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s o f A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , t h e y d i d n o t l i v e i n a v a c u u m and t h e y w e r e n o t the o n l y v e r t e b r a t e s f o r w h i c h this p e r i o d i s a n i m p o r t a n t t i m e o f i n n o v a t i o n . M a n y kinds o f b a c k b o n e d animals i n a d d i t i o n t o b i r d s and m a m m a l s w e r e u n d e r g o i n g significant d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v a l p r i o r t o 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . S o m e m o d e r n families o f f r o g s and lizards p r o b a b l y had t h e i r o r i g i n s t h e n . A similar s t a t e m e n t can b e m a d e f o r snakes. A l l o f this e v o l u t i o n , l e a d i n g t o o u r m o d e r n w o r l d , w a s n o t i n d e p e n d e n t o f the r e a r r a n g e m e n t s i n t h e E a r t h ' s g e o g r a p h y , n o r w a s v e r t e b r a t e e v o l u t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t a m o n g its v a r i o u s s u b g r o u p s o r f r e e f r o m the influence o f plants and insects, w h i c h w e r e e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e i r o w n r a d i a t i o n s .
Food
w e b s w e r e u n d e r g o i n g s o m e r a t h e r drastic m o d i f i c a t i o n s t h r o u g h all this c o e v o l u t i o n . F r o m that m i l i e u e m e r g e d a w o r l d m o r e r e c o g n i z a b l e , m o r e c l o s e l y similar t o w h a t w e have n o w . S u b s e q u e n t t o 100 m i l l i o n years a g o the E a r t h ' s c o n t i n e n t s d i d n o t cease t h e i r a d v e n t u r e t h r o u g h t i m e . T h e g e o g r a p h y o f c o n t i n e n t s and o c e a n s c o n t i n u e d t o c h a n g e . M o u n t a i n s w e r e u p l i f t e d and e r o d e d . C l i m a t e s c h a n g e d . T h e Ice A g e s w a x e d and w a n e d . E x t i n c t i o n s o c c u r r e d , m o s t n o t a b l y the G r e a t D y i n g , b u t also m a n y o f lesser p o p u l a r i t y . E v o l u t i o n a r y radiations o c c u r r e d , r e p l e n i s h i n g the n u m b e r o f species inhabiting t h e Earth.
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
220 E v o l u t i o n a r y radiations can b e d e f i n e d a s r e l a t i v e l y short t i m e i n t e r v a l s , g e o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , j a m m e d full o f l o t s and l o t s o f e v o l u t i o n . T h e n e t result i s usually
the
appearance
of a large
n u m b e r of n e w species.
I f the
time
i n v o l v e d a p p e a r s t o b e n o t a b l y s h o r t , the r a d i a t i o n m a y b e t e r m e d e x p l o s i v e . T h e flock of cichlid fish species living n o w in Lake M a l a w i is the p r o d u c t of an e x p l o s i v e radiation. It c a m e about w h e n a f e w species of the cichlid family g o t i n t o t h e lake a t s o m e late d a t e i n its h i s t o r y . S o m e e s t i m a t e s , based o n m o l e c u l a r differentiation
of D N A
in the
cichlid
species,
suggest that
the
r a d i a t i o n b e g a n o n t h e o r d e r o f a scant c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d thousand years a g o . T h a t i s n o t m u c h t i m e a t all f r o m a g e o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e . O n c e t h e r e , the cichlids e v o l v e d r a p i d l y t o f i l l a n a s t o u n d i n g v a r i e t y o f fishy n i c h e s , u t i l i z i n g m u c h o f t h e s p e c t r u m o f t h e l a k e ' s habitats and its f o o d r e s o u r c e s . T h i s w a s d o n e , p r e s u m a b l y , t o the d e t r i m e n t and n e a r e x c l u s i o n o f o t h e r n o n c i c h l i d fish species. T h e A g e o f M a m m a l s , t h e C e n o z o i c Era i n technical p a r l a n c e , w a s initiated s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n years a g o b y a n a d a p t i v e r a d i a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g the d e m i s e o f t h e d i n o s a u r s . T h e t i m i n g i s s o p r e c i s e that i t i s s u g g e s t i v e . W e r e t h e m a m m a l s , a g r o u p that had its e v o l u t i o n a r y o r i g i n s at a b o u t the s a m e t i m e as dinosaurs, in s o m e w a y held back, p r e v e n t e d f r o m achieving p r e d o m i n a n c e , b y a n e c o l o g i c a l l y s u p e r i o r d i n o s a u r clan? I d o n o t k n o w , but the p o s s i b i l i t y has s u g g e s t e d
itself t o m a n y p e o p l e .
million-year history of the A g e of M a m m a l s ,
T h r o u g h o u t the
sixty-six-
a f t e r that initial r a d i a t i o n o f
s p e c i e s , t h e m a m m a l s d i d n o t s i m p l y r e s t o n t h e i r l a n d - c o n q u e r i n g laurels. They
continued
to
speciate
and
to
radiate
periodically
throughout
their
history. T h e r e s e e m t o b e a t least t w o sorts o f e v o l u t i o n a r y r a d i a t i o n s . O n e o c c u r s when
new
connections
are
made
between
previously
isolated
landmasses
t h r o u g h g e o g r a p h i c changes associated w i t h c o n t i n e n t a l drift o r o t h e r m a j o r physical p r o c e s s e s .
O f t e n i n such cases, t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f p r e v i o u s l y un-
r e p r e s e n t e d s p e c i e s i n t o a n e w area results i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f n e w s p e c i e s , not
uncommonly
to
the
detriment
of native
species,
similar t o
the
case
h y p o t h e s i z e d f o r the c i c h l i d fishes of L a k e M a l a w i . In such a case it appears a l m o s t a s i f t h e r e a r e unfilled e c o l o g i c a l niches w a i t i n g t o b e e x p l o i t e d . I t i s a m a t t e r of b e i n g in the r i g h t p l a c e at the r i g h t t i m e and h a v i n g the right e q u i p m e n t . R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e specific details o f L a k e M a l a w i , b u t using i t a s an e x a m p l e , t h e c u r r e n t d i v e r s i t y of c i c h l i d s , plus h i n d s i g h t , tells us that as a g r o u p the cichlids w e r e e v o l u t i o n a r i l y a b l e t o e x p l o i t the situation i n w h i c h they found themselves.
OTHER
NEIGHBORS
T h e other sort of radiation occurs w h e n an adaptive threshold is crossed, a n e w w a y of m a k i n g a l i v i n g is d e v i s e d , such as g n a w i n g in r o d e n t s . O n c e a basic n o v e l t y i s e v o l v e d , t h e r e a r e m a n y , m a n y variations o n t h e t h e m e t o b e e x p l o i t e d . T h a t i s a m a j o r f a c t o r , p r o b a b l y , i n w h y t h e r e are s o m a n y species o f bats and rats, these t w o b e i n g t h e m o s t d i v e r s e g r o u p s o f l i v i n g m a m m a l s . T h e e v o l u t i o n of an i n n o v a t i v e w a y to m a k e a l i v i n g , b i o l o g i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , is a r e c u r r e n t p a t t e r n . I t has h a p p e n e d o v e r and o v e r again i n the h i s t o r y o f life o n Earth. T h e initial a c h i e v e m e n t o f a n a d a p t i v e f e a t u r e , a n a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f e c o l o g i c a l e n t r e p r e n e u r ship, p a v e s t h e w a y . T h e n d e s c e n d a n t species fan o u t . F l i g h t i n v e r t e b r a t e s offers p r i m e e x a m p l e s . B i r d s , w h i c h e v o l v e d a s flying dinosaurs f r o m a single ancestral s p e c i e s , e x h i b i t an u n e q u a l e d f l a m b o y a n c e , all t i e d , i n o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r , t o the e c o l o g i c a l d o o r o p e n e d t o t h e m b y the acquisition o f t h e i r initial a d a p t a t i o n — f l i g h t .
Pterosaurs,
the
o t h e r flying
archosaurs, u n d e r w e n t a fine r a d i a t i o n , and it is r e g r e t t a b l e f o r us that n o n e h a v e s u r v i v e d , because t h e y w o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e fun t o w a t c h . Bats are t h e t h i r d g r o u p o f v e r t e b r a t e s t o e v o l v e t r u e flight. T h e r e a r e m o r e species o f bats l i v i n g t o d a y than any o t h e r o r d e r o f m a m m a l s e x c e p t f o r the r o d e n t s , w h o h a v e u n d e r g o n e t h e i r o w n e x p l o s i v e and a d a p t i v e r a d i a t i o n s , l e a v i n g t h e m w i t h a n u n e q u a l e d n u m b e r o f species i n t h e t e r r e s t r i a l - v e r t e b r a t e r e a l m . A f t e r the d e m i s e o f the d i n o s a u r s , the c o m b i n e d r e s u l t o f the basal A g e of M a m m a l s m a m m a l i a n r a d i a t i o n , plus all the s u b s e q u e n t o n e s , is a vast n u m b e r o f s p e c i e s , a vast d i v e r s i t y o f b o d y f o r m s , and a vast fossil r e c o r d that reflects a l o t o f changes a m o n g t h e s u m t o t a l o f the species i n v a r i o u s s e g m e n t s o f the A g e o f M a m m a l s . T h u s the s p e c t r u m o f m a m m a l s o b s e r v a b l e t o d a y s h o w s i m m e n s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n h o w v a r i o u s species l i v e and w h a t t h e y l o o k l i k e . C o m p a r e a flying bat w i t h a s w i m m i n g w h a l e . C o m p a r e a fruit bat, also c a l l e d a flying f o x , w i t h its l o n g snout and l a r g e D r a c u l a w i n g s , w i t h a t i n y l e a f - n o s e d b a t . T h e y are v e r y d i f f e r e n t . C o m p a r e a b l u e w h a l e w i t h a s p e r m w h a l e , or a humpback, or a killer, or a blind r i v e r dolphin. A l l are whales, but they are v e r y d i f f e r e n t .
C o m p a r e any o f t h e m w i t h t h e i r m a m m a l i a n
cousins that h a v e also i n v a d e d the s e a — s e a l s , w a l r u s e s , sea c o w s , sea o t t e r s . A l l o f these d i f f e r e n t e x a m p l e s f o l l o w e d d i f f e r e n t e v o l u t i o n a r y paths t o e n d u p a t the same p l a c e ,
which is the w o r l d of today.
W e c o u l d use o t h e r
e x a m p l e s and d o t h e s a m e e x e r c i s e that w e just d i d w i t h w h a l e s . W e c o u l d e x a m i n e the d i v e r s i t y w i t h i n t h e p r i m a t e s , o r w i t h i n all c a r n i v o r e s , o r w i t h i n all h e r b i v o r e s and w e w o u l d r e a c h t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n : M a m m a l i a n d i v e r s i t y i s a s t o u n d i n g . A n d w e h a v e n o t e v e n t a k e n e x t i n c t species k n o w n o n l y f r o m the fossil r e c o r d i n t o a c c o u n t . T h e p o i n t i s that t h e r e h a v e b e e n t r e m e n d o u s
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
222 e v o l u t i o n a r y changes i n t h e m a m m a l s d u r i n g the r e l a t i v e l y short p e r i o d o f Earth h i s t o r y c a l l e d the A g e o f M a m m a l s — o n l y s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n y e a r s . Other groups
of vertebrates
cannot
boast
such
a
track r e c o r d .
Some
s p e c i e s l i v i n g t o d a y a p p e a r s o p r i m i t i v e , s o u n m o d i f i e d f r o m w h a t the ancest o r m u s t h a v e b e e n l i k e , that t h e y stand o u t c o n s p i c u o u s l y f r o m o t h e r l i v i n g species. M a n y times the m o s t p r i m i t i v e of living species in a g i v e n g r o u p of v e r t e b r a t e s r e s e m b l e s a n a n c i e n t m e m b e r o f its e v o l u t i o n a r y c l a d e o t h e r w i s e k n o w n o n l y f r o m t h e d e p t h s o f the fossil r e c o r d . S o m e t i m e s p r i m i t i v e l i v i n g s p e c i e s h a v e v e r y p o o r fossil r e c o r d s . T h e lack o f a g o o d fossil r e c o r d , o r c o n v e r s e l y t h e r e s e m b l a n c e o f t h e l i v i n g s p e c i e s t o a fossil species f r o m e a r l y i n its g e n e a l o g y , suggests that t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e o f l i v i n g s p e c i e s a r e , i n s o m e s e n s e , l i v i n g fossils. D a r w i n r e c o g n i z e d t h e c o n c e p t in the Origin of Species. H i s e x a m p l e s i n c l u d e t h e p l a t y p u s and t h e lungfish. H e w r o t e o f differential rates o f e v o l u t i o n o n the o n e h a n d , and o f e x t i n c t i o n o n t h e o t h e r , b o t h o f w h i c h c o u l d r e s u l t i n l i v i n g s p e c i e s a p p e a r i n g t o b e l i v i n g fossils. M y f a v o r i t e l i v i n g fossil c o m e s f r o m t h e w o r l d o f f i s h e s , a s d o e s D a r w i n ' s lungfish e x a m p l e , b u t I think t h e hagfish i s m u c h m o r e s t r i k i n g . A t the earliest stages o f t h e i r e v o l u t i o n , g e t t i n g back b e y o n d 5 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o , v e r t e b r a t e s had n o j a w s .
T h e borders of their mouths w e r e not supported by
h i n g e d , b i t i n g s t r u c t u r e s . V e r t e b r a t e a n c e s t o r s fed b y straining f o o d particles t h r o u g h a b a s k e t l i k e o r g a n in the t h r o a t .
It is this basket that e v e n t u a l l y
e v o l v e d t o b e c o m e the gills and t h e i r b o n y s u p p o r t s , a n d , a t the f r o n t e n d , t h e j a w s . T h e e v i d e n c e f r o m a n a t o m y and e m b r y o l o g y i s q u i t e s t r o n g and unequivocal on
the
derivation
of the jaws.
The
earliest v e r t e b r a t e
fossils
b e l o n g t o animals w i t h soft f i s h l i k e b o d i e s and h a r d , p o i n t y " t e e t h " — n o t true teeth, but b o n y food-gathering organs nonetheless. T h e s e w e r e c o n o d o n t s . V e r t e b r a t e s f r o m a slightly y o u n g e r t i m e i n the g e o l o g i c r e c o r d w e r e c o v e r e d w i t h a b o n y shell f o r m e d i n the skin. T h e y had n o j a w s . L o c o m o t i o n w a s p r o b a b l y t h r o u g h j e r k y f l e x i n g o f t h e i r tails, m o v i n g t h e animals e r r a t i cally f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e , t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e f e e d i n g basket t o d i f f e r e n t spots o n t h e o c e a n f l o o r , w h e r e t h e y snuffled i n t h e b o t t o m o o z e t o f i l t e r o u t d i g e s t i b l e particles. N o such animals e x i s t t o d a y — n o t e x a c t l y a n y w a y .
H o w e v e r , t h e r e are
l i v i n g animals w i t h n o j a w s , and f o r that v e r y b i g r e a s o n t h e y are p r i m i t i v e a m o n g all l i v i n g v e r t e b r a t e s .
T h e r e are t w o groups of living jawless v e r t e -
b r a t e s . T h e m o r e f a m i l i a r o f t h e t w o i s the l a m p r e y s f r o m the G r e a t Lakes region.
L a m p r e y s are a n a d r o m o u s , m e a n i n g t h e y l i v e i n t h e o c e a n m o s t o f
O T H E R
N E I G H B O R S
223 their l i v e s , but r e t u r n t o f r e s h w a t e r r i v e r s and s t r e a m s t o b r e e d .
Besides
h a v i n g n o j a w s , l a m p r e y s h a v e n o b o n e i n t h e i r s k e l e t o n s , n o scales, and n o p a i r e d f i n s , u n l i k e m o r e f a m i l i a r f i s h . T h e y h a v e o n l y the f i n that runs a l o n g the m i d l i n e o f t h e b o d y and tail. L a m p r e y s n o t o n l y lack j a w s , t h e y lack t e e t h a s w e l l . T h e y o b t a i n t h e i r f o o d n o t a s m u d - g r u b b i n g f i l t e r f e e d e r s , b u t b y sucking o n t o t h e side o f a f i s h w i t h t h e i r r o u n d , j a w l e s s m o u t h s , t h e n rasping a h o l e i n the side o f t h e i r v i c t i m s w i t h t o u g h , h o r n y s t r u c t u r e s inside t h e i r m o u t h s . T i s s u e fluids f r o m a n a b r a d e d v i c t i m w e e p i n t o t h e l a m p r e y ' s g u l l e t . Because l a m p r e y s attack c o m m e r c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t s p e c i e s , t h e y a r e w e l l k n o w n t o G r e a t Lakes f i s h e r m e n . T h e y are v e r t e b r a t e parasites, and like all parasites t h e y t e n d t o turn o u r s t o m a c h s . But l e t ' s h a v e a l o o k a t t h e o t h e r g r o u p o f l i v i n g j a w l e s s f i s h e s . T h e lesser k n o w n o f t h e l i v i n g j a w l e s s f i s h e s are the e x c l u s i v e l y m a r i n e hagfish and s l i m e hags. Q u a i n t n a m e s , d o n ' t y o u think? T h e hagfish and s l i m e hags ( F i g u r e 3 8 ) are e v e n m o r e p r i m i t i v e than the l a m p r e y s because t h e y h a v e f e w e r s e m i c i r c u l a r canals i n t h e i n n e r e a r , w h i c h
FIGURE 38: A hagfish beginning to feed on a fish carcass. knot,
which it then moves forward to push against the fish
head.
A hole is ripped in
presumably
the side of the fish,
happily—enters.
through
It throws its body into a while it pulls with its
which
the hagfish—
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D
224 p r o v i d e f o r balance and o r i e n t a t i o n , and t h e y h a v e o n l y a single n o s t r i l . T h e s e w e r e a p p a r e n t l y t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e m o s t a n c i e n t o f v e r t e b r a t e s , and the l i v i n g hagfish h a v e r e t a i n e d t h e m as characteristic f e a t u r e s .
Hagfish are so
p r i m i t i v e that s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s d o n o t e v e n i n c l u d e t h e m inside the v e r t e b r a t e s , p l a c i n g t h e m a s t h e i r o w n special g r o u p that b r a n c h e d off the e v o l u tionary
tree
even
before
lampreys.
This
is
a
rather m o o t point in
our
discussion since hagfish are c l e a r l y n o t r e l a t e d t o a n y t h i n g but v e r t e b r a t e s . Hagfish lack b o n e , t e e t h , and scales, l i k e the l a m p r e y s , and t h e r e f o r e , t h e y also h a v e a dismal fossil r e c o r d . T h e i r p l a c e i n e v o l u t i o n i s d e c i d e d m o r e o n the a n a t o m y o f l i v i n g species than o n fossils. T h e o n l y k n o w n fossil hagfish, and the f i r s t o n e o f t h e f e w k n o w n fossil l a m p r e y s that h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d , c o m e f r o m 300-million-year-old rocks i n Illinois. T h e t w o living jawless f i s h g r o u p s w e r e s u r e l y distinct w e l l b e f o r e t h e n . Hagfish and l a m p r e y s are l i v i n g fossils in the sense that t h e y r e p r e s e n t t h e i r fossil a n t e c e d e n t s and h a v e n o t e v o l v e d i n t o c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t sorts o f a n i m a l s . L a m p r e y s and hagfish m a y e v e n have b e e n separated on different branches of the evolutionary tree l o n g e r than any o t h e r pair o f v e r t e b r a t e species a l i v e t o d a y — l o n g e r , f o r instance, than t h e h u m a n and l a m p r e y b r a n c h e s h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e d . T h a t i s assuming hagfish and l a m p r e y s d i v e r g e d b e f o r e a n y t h i n g e l s e — i n c l u d i n g the b r a n c h that w e a r e o n — s p l i t f r o m t h e l i n e a g e that g a v e rise t o m o d e r n l a m p r e y s . I t i s a m a t t e r o f the g e o m e t r y o f the e v o l u t i o n a r y t r e e . S o hagfish m i g h t b e m o r e p r i m i t i v e than l a m p r e y s , b u t n e i t h e r o f t h e m has j a w s . Hagfish h a v e a d i f f e r e n t s t y l e o f f e e d i n g f r o m that o f the l a m p r e y s . T h e y are p r e d a t o r s and t h e y are strictly m a r i n e . M o s t o f the d o z e n o r s o species o f hagfish a p p a r e n t l y b u r r o w t h r o u g h b o t t o m o o z e i n search o f w o r m s . O n c e t h e y f i n d o n e , i t i s h o o k e d i n t o the m o u t h b y the a l t e r n a t e w o r k i n g o f h o r n y m o u t h parts. Hagfish a r e also a t t r a c t e d t o d e a d o r n e a r l y d e a d f i s h , w h i c h t h e y e n t e r and c o n s u m e f r o m the i n s i d e o u t .
T h e y have an interesting m e t h o d of getting
i n s i d e . T h e m o u t h d e s i g n o f hagfish i s such that w h e n the r o u n d , j a w l e s s o r i f i c e is a p p r e s s e d against t h e surface of a b o d y , t h e t o n g u e can be p u l l e d back to create an increasingly strong g r i p , like a vicious Chinese finger puzzle. U s u a l l y the hagfish c h o o s e s a s p o t on t h e b o d y of a d e a d fish w h e r e t h e flesh is r o u g h , p e r h a p s at an injury or at t h e anus or g i l l s , a n y p l a c e w h e r e the hag can gain a b e t t e r p u r c h a s e . T h e n the hagfish l o o p s its e e l l i k e b o d y i n t o a k n o t a t t h e tail, w h i c h i t slides f o r w a r d o n its b o d y t o w a r d the h e a d and f i n a l l y against t h e carcass o f t h e m e a l . I t f o r c e s its k n o t against the b o d y w a l l o f the
O T H E R
N E I G H B O R S
225 d e a d f i s h w h i l e p u l l i n g w i t h its a t t a c h e d m o u t h until a hunk o f flesh i s r i p p e d o u t , o p e n i n g the d o o r f o r e n t r y . O n c e i n s i d e , d i n i n g i s e a s i e r , i f n o t m o r e leisurely. W h e n a morsel of f o o d is s w a l l o w e d , it b e c o m e s e n v e l o p e d in a mass o f m u c u s t h r o u g h w h i c h d i g e s t i v e j u i c e s pass and n u t r i e n t s e x i t . T h e n the m u c u s - w r a p p e d u n d i g e s t i b l e r e m a i n s a r e e x p e l l e d . W h i l e t h e i r m e t h o d o f e a t i n g m i g h t strike the m o r e a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c o f u s as disgusting, that is n o t w h y these c r e a t u r e s h a v e e a r n e d t h e n a m e s hagfish and s l i m e hags. T h e real r e a s o n i s that t h e y s e c r e t e c o p i o u s a m o u n t s o f thick mucus f r o m their l o n g ,
slimy,
pinkish p u r p l e b o d i e s .
In addition,
coiled
s e g m e n t s o f p r o t e i n are m i x e d w i t h t h e m u c u s . T h e s e u n c o i l i n s e a w a t e r , s e r v i n g t o t a n g l e the m e s s a r o u n d the a n i m a l . T h e y are n o t a l w a y s i n that state. U s u a l l y t h e y a r e just a v e r a g e s l i m y . H o w e v e r , w h e n d a n g e r t h r e a t e n s , the s l i m e glands k i c k i n t o high g e a r . It is a d e f e n s e m e c h a n i s m , and a g o o d o n e . N o t o n l y h u m a n s f i n d i t d i s g u s t i n g , s o d o p r e d a t o r s . T h e y t e n d t o pass, n o d o u b t c e r t a i n that t h e hagfish i s n o t s o g o o d t o e a t , and t h e y c o n t i n u e searching f o r a m e a l that is just a b i t m o r e a p p e t i z i n g . W h e n t h e hagfish is o u t o f d a n g e r , i t again t h r o w s its b o d y i n t o a k n o t . A s the k n o t m o v e s f o r w a r d f r o m the tail t o the h e a d , the e x c e s s m u c u s i s b u l l d o z e d b e f o r e i t d o w n t o the n o s e . T h e n the hagfish issues a b i g s n e e z e l i k e c o n v u l s i o n , f r e e i n g itself f r o m the s l i m e , and s w i m s o f f t o c o n t i n u e its l i f e . D e s p i t e t h e i r l i f e - s t y l e , hagfish d e s e r v e t o b e u n d e r s t o o d because t h e y a r e of considerable c o m m e r c i a l interest. On the negative side, they damage the catch in g i l l nets by f e e d i n g on t r a p p e d fish. But t h e y also h a v e a p o s i t i v e s i d e , b e l i e v e i t o r n o t . F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e y a r e e a t e n — b y h u m a n s — i n s o m e parts o f the w o r l d . A n d y o u p r o b a b l y d i d n o t k n o w that hagfish p r o v i d e eelskin f o r wallets.
H o w i g n o b l e t o b e c o m e a y u p p i e w a l l e t after h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s
o f years o f p r e c i o u s m a i n t e n a n c e o f the p r i m i t i v e status q u o . A f t e r all its l o n g e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y t h e hagfish m a y b e t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e of living vertebrates, but paradoxically it is n o t necessarily v e r y m u c h like the earliest v e r t e b r a t e s f r o m w h i c h it w a s d e r i v e d . It is a l i v i n g fossil because it has n o j a w s and b e c a u s e o f a f e w o t h e r f e a t u r e s . Its e a r l y j a w l e s s a n c e s t o r s surely d i d n o t h a v e the u n i q u e a t t r i b u t e s s e e n t o d a y i n l i v i n g hagfish. T h e c o n o d o n t s had hard " t e e t h " w h i l e hagfish d o n o t . B e i n g c o v e r e d w i t h a r m o r p l a t e s , o t h e r early j a w l e s s v e r t e b r a t e s k n o w n f r o m t h e fossil r e c o r d c o u l d n o t t i e t h e m s e l v e s i n k n o t s , n o r d i d t h e y e n j o y the d e f e n s e o f s e c r e t i n g e n o r m o u s a m o u n t s o f m u c u s and t h e n s n e e z i n g i t all a w a y w h e n d a n g e r passed. P e r h a p s hagfish e v o l v e d f r o m c a r t i l a g i n o u s a n c e s t o r s that left n o r e c o g n i z a b l e ( o r a s
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
226 y e t d e c i p h e r a b l e ) fossil r e c o r d . P e r h a p s they e v o l v e d f r o m c o n o d o n t s . E v e n s o , i t w o u l d strain c r e d u l i t y t o p r o p o s e that hagfish, l i v i n g fossils o r n o t , are e x a c t l y like t h e i r a n c e s t o r s o f o v e r 5 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o . E m p i r i c a l l y , j u d g i n g f r o m all w e can o b s e r v e , e v o l u t i o n d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o w o r k that w a y . O r g a n i s m s e v o l v e as a w e l l - i n t e g r a t e d mosaic of features, s o m e primitive like the ancestral c o n d i t i o n and o t h e r s a d v a n c e d , o r , i n o t h e r w o r d s , d e r i v e d f r o m that o f the a n c e s t o r . Hagfish are a m o s a i c . T h e lack o f j a w s i s p r i m i t i v e , but the details o f the h o r n y b i t i n g parts i n the r o u n d m o u t h a r e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y d e r i v e d relative to their ancestors. T h e mucus-Hood defense is v e r y likely a derived
feature n o t present in
the
earliest
vertebrates.
The
reason
it is
p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d is because it is so s p e c i a l i z e d . If a s t r u c t u r e is s p e c i a l i z e d , the o p t i o n s f o r t h e d i r e c t i o n s i n w h i c h i t can e v o l v e further b e c o m e l i m i t e d . T h e lesson f r o m all this is that a l t h o u g h species l i v i n g t o d a y have a l o n g history o f e v o l u t i o n a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , s o m e features o f a species e v o l v e faster than o t h e r s . E v e n species that can l e g i t i m a t e l y be r e f e r r e d to as l i v i n g fossils are u n i q u e and u n l i k e t h e i r a n c e s t o r s e x c e p t in a v e r y g e n e r a l sense and in a f e w v e r y basic d e t a i l s . O f c o u r s e , n o t all g r o u p s o f v e r t e b r a t e s e v o l v e w i t h the a p p a r e n t e x c r u c i ating s l o w n e s s o f s l i m e hags o n the o n e h a n d , o r the a p p a r e n t e x p l o s i v e n e s s o f m a m m a l s o n the o t h e r . T h e r e i s n o e v o l u t i o n a r i l y c o r r e c t p r e s c r i p t i o n . Each g e n e a l o g y i s d i f f e r e n t i n d e t a i l . T h e history o f o r g a n i s m s i s c o m p l e x , involving
internal
biological
attributes
o f the
individual
and
the
species,
e x t e r n a l factors i m p o s e d b y the physical e n v i r o n m e n t and o t h e r i n t e r a c t i n g s p e c i e s , plus a b i g d o s e o f statistical p r o b a b i l i t i e s , o r w h a t w e m i g h t c o m m o n l y r e f e r t o a s c h a n c e , m a y b e e v e n luck. T h e v a r i o u s characteristics o f a single species e v o l v e a s a n i n t e g r a t e d m o s a i c , s o m e faster and s o m e s l o w e r , s o i t m a k e s sense that i f w e l o o k a t a c o m m u n i t y o f a n i m a l s , a c o l l e c t i o n o f s p e c i e s all l i v i n g i n p r o x i m i t y , s o m e w i l l s e e m t o b e m o r e e v o l v e d , w h i l e o t h e r s a p p e a r less e v o l v e d . S o m e w i l l b e m o r e like l i v i n g fossils than o t h e r s . The
different patterns
of evolution
o f the
individual
species w i t h i n
a
c o m m u n i t y w i l l usually r e f l e c t , a t least i n s o m e g e n e r a l w a y , the g e o g r a p h y that has i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r e v o l u t i o n , w h e t h e r i t b e t h e d i v i d i n g o f s u p e r c o n t i n e n t s , t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f a n isthmus a l l o w i n g animal m i g r a t i o n , o r the p r e s e r v a t i o n o f suitable p r o t e c t i v e r e f u g i a . W e have a l r e a d y seen e x a m p l e s f r o m the dinosaurs, c r o c o d i l e s , and m a m m a l s o f g e o g r a p h i c r e a r r a n g e m e n t s influencing the a d m i x t u r e o f species p r e s e n t o n a g i v e n c o n t i n e n t a t a g i v e n t i m e . Frogs p r o v i d e another e x a m p l e .
O T H E R
N E I G H B O R S
227 F r o g s e v o l v e d just a bit b e f o r e d i n o s a u r s , c r o c s , and m a m m a l s . T h e y are one of three
l i v i n g d i v i s i o n s i n the
v e r t e b r a t e class A m p h i b i a .
The most
ancient a m p h i b i a n s g o w a y back i n t i m e t o w h e n v e r t e b r a t e s f i r s t left a n o b l i g a t o r y aquatic l i f e - s t y l e and b e g a n t o i n v a d e t e r r a f i r m a . N o n e o f t h e l i v i n g a m p h i b i a n s l o o k s a g r e a t deal l i k e t h e i r P a l e o z o i c f o r e r u n n e r s . Back t h e n the a m p h i b i a n s l o o k e d like t w o - f o o t - l o n g , and l o n g e r , spatulas h a v i n g stubby l e g s and s t o u t b o d i e s . T h e i r p a n c a k e - t u r n e r heads w e r e f i t t e d w i t h j a w s e a g e r t o snap shut o n p r e y . N o n e o f t h e e a r l y a m p h i b i a n s w a s h e r b i v o r o u s . E v e n n o w , all are c a r n i v o r o u s , at least as adults. F r o g s do n o t a p p r o a c h the size of t h e large
early amphibians,
and t h e y a r e
r a t h e r distantly
related
(within
the
A m p h i b i a ) t o m o s t o f t h e m , b u t w h i l e t h e i r skull b o n e s a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t , l i v i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the class still s h o w t h e b r o a d , flat h e a d and e n d e a r i n g K e r m i t the F r o g s m i l e o f all a m p h i b i a n s . O b t a i n i n g the l a n d , a s a m p h i b i a n s d i d , p r e s e n t s all kinds o f p r o b l e m s . Since b o d i e s d o n o t float i n air like t h e y d o i n w a t e r ,
the most obvious
p r o b l e m i n v o l v e s s u p p o r t i n g the a n i m a l ' s w e i g h t . V a r i o u s structural m o d i f i cations and e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n s o c c u r r e d e a r l y i n a m p h i b i a n h i s t o r y . T h e backb o n e w a s r e i n f o r c e d , and the l i m b s s t r e n g t h e n e d . D r y i n g o u t i s a p r o b l e m , m o r e s o than b r e a t h i n g . Early a m p h i b i a n s had lungs l i k e t h e i r f i s h y aquatic a n c e s t o r s . M o r e o v e r , air-breathing
through
t h r o u g h m o i s t skin.
lungs The
absorbing
oxygen
d o w n s i d e o f m o i s t skin i s that m o i s t u r e
could
be
supplemented
by
i s lost
t h r o u g h i t , d e h y d r a t i n g and k i l l i n g the a n i m a l i f the d e h y d r a t i o n g e t s o u t o f c o n t r o l . L i v i n g a m p h i b i a n s a l w a y s h a v e a t o u g h t i m e w i t h that. T h e y are m o s t c o m m o n a r o u n d l o w , w e t areas, p o n d s , o r s t r e a m s , and w h e n t h e y are f o u n d e l s e w h e r e , t h e r e are s o m e s o p h i s t i c a t e d survival tricks b r o u g h t i n t o play. R e p r o d u c t i o n in m o d e r n amphibians f o l l o w s a rather p r i m i t i v e pattern that in its basic f o r m w o u l d be just as g o o d f o r a fish. U s u a l l y the f e m a l e sheds o v a d i r e c t l y i n t o the w a t e r and a m a l e d u m p s s p e r m i n t o t h e w a t e r t o f e r t i l i z e t h e m o u t s i d e o f the f e m a l e ' s b o d y .
T h e n , in m o s t species, the d e v e l o p i n g
amphibians u n d e r g o a f r e e - l i v i n g , fully aquatic t a d p o l e s t a g e . T h a t is v e r y unlike r e p r o d u c t i o n i n r e p t i l e s and m a m m a l s , b o t h o f w h i c h h a v e internal f e r t i l i z a t i o n and fetal m e m b r a n e s , i n c l u d i n g a n a m n i o n , e m b r a c i n g the d e v e l oping embryo. L i v i n g amphibians c o m p r i s e t h e caecilians, the s a l a m a n d e r s , and the f r o g s ( w i t h t h e i r w a r t y b u d d i e s , the t o a d s ) . C a e c i l i a n s h a v e n o l e g s . T h e y l i v e i n the t r o p i c s , b u r r o w i n g i n t h e g r o u n d . A f e w s p e c i e s are fully a q u a t i c , l i v i n g
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
228 the
whole
of their
lives
i n fresh w a t e r .
In
Africa
caecilians
seem
to be
p a r t i c u l a r l y f o n d o f b u r r o w i n g t h r o u g h t h e o r g a n i c l o a m o f banana plantat i o n s . T h e y h a v e a m i s e r a b l e fossil r e c o r d , n o t v e r y i n f o r m a t i v e e x c e p t f o r s o m e t i n y s p e c i m e n s f r o m A r i z o n a , d a t i n g f r o m b e f o r e Pangaea b r o k e u p . T h e A r i z o n a s p e c i m e n s h a v e l e g s . It should n o t be surprising that an ancient fossil caecilian has d i m i n u t i v e l e g s w h i l e l i v i n g caecilians have n o n e . L e g l e s s caecilians had t o e v o l v e f r o m a n c e s t o r s w i t h l e g s . N e v e r t h e l e s s i t i s a t r u l y w o n d e r ful thing to find t h e m in the fossil r e c o r d and to see t h e m . It is a p u z z l e p i e c e that f i t s p e r f e c t l y i n t o the h y p o t h e t i c a l h o l e w h e r e i t s h o u l d . S a l a m a n d e r s are o f t e n q u i t e p r e t t y w i t h brilliant y e l l o w o r o r a n g e c o l o r p a t t e r n s . T h e y h a v e l o n g b o d i e s and tails and b r o a d , s m i l i n g faces. A s they w a l k , t h e y s w i n g t h e i r b o d i e s back and f o r t h i n a n S - s h a p e d c u r v e , like the f l e x i n g o f a f i s h tail. T h e y are m o s t d i v e r s e i n the A p p a l a c h i a n r e g i o n , but t h e y are d i s t r i b u t e d all o v e r m u c h o f the N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e . O n e salamander f a m i l y e n t e r e d S o u t h A m e r i c a , a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y , and l i v e s t h e r e t o d a y . Salamanders a p p e a r t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d i n the n o r t h after G o n d w a n a separated in the breakup of Pangaea. Frogs are currently w o r l d w i d e in distribution, amphibians,
t h e y a r e l i m i t e d b y salt w a t e r .
a l t h o u g h like all o t h e r
T h e i r earliest r e c o r d i s f r o m
M a d a g a s c a r . T h e y e v o l v e d just a bit b e f o r e t h e dinosaurs and m a m m a l s d i d . T h r o u g h o u t t h e i r 2 0 0 - m i l l i o n - y e a r - p l u s h i s t o r y f r o g s h a v e b e e n unmistakable a s f r o g s . O n c e t h e structural and a d a p t i v e t h r e s h o l d o f f r o g d o m w a s passed, f r o g s w e r e h e r e t o stay. I t i s a plan that w o r k s . T h e r e are m a n y l i v i n g s p e c i e s , and t h e r e is v a r i e t y in w h a t t h e y do in n a t u r e , b u t basically a f r o g is a f r o g i s a f r o g . T h e y a r e n o t like m a m m a l s , m a n y m o d e r n species o f w h i c h b e a r l i t t l e r e s e m b l a n c e t o t h e m a m m a l s o f 1 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h e y a r e , i n the sense of h a v i n g a s t r o n g s i m i l a r i t y to e a r l y fossil f r o g s , l i v i n g fossils. Because t h e y w e r e a r o u n d since the days o f P a n g a e a , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t that the s e p a r a t i o n o f N o r t h e r n and S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e landmasses had a n effect o n s u b s e q u e n t f r o g e v o l u t i o n , w h i c h i t d i d , and that the later b r e a k u p o f G o n d w a n a also had a n i n f l u e n c e .
S o m e o f the m o d e r n d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f r o g
families m a y w e l l b e r e l a t e d t o the d i s s e c t i o n o f P a n g a e a , just a s the distribut i o n o f s a l a m a n d e r s is. T h e g e n e a l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g l i v i n g f r o g s h a v e b e e n studied f r o m the p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r b i o c h e m i s t r y , b u t n o t s o m u c h f r o m t h e i r a n a t o m y and e a r l y fossil r e c o r d . T h a t i s i n part because the a n a t o m y o f f r o g s , e x c e p t in a f e w n o t a b l e and i m p o r t a n t studies, is p e r c e i v e d as b e i n g m o n o t o n o u s .
O T H E R
N E I G H B O R S
229 Using the magnitude of immunological
reactions a m o n g frogs,
it w a s es-
t i m a t e d that s o m e o f the m o d e r n f a m i l i e s o f f r o g s d i v e r g e d f r o m each o t h e r d u r i n g t h e C r e t a c e o u s . O n e f a m i l y o f l i v i n g f r o g s , the p i p i d s , i s n o w e s p e cially characteristic o f A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a .
O f t e n t h e y are c o n s i d e r e d
q u i t e p r i m i t i v e a m o n g f r o g s . P i p i d s , t h e g r o u p that i n c l u d e s the m i d w i f e t o a d s and the little mail o r d e r f r o g s f o r c h i l d r e n , are n o w a d a y s e n t i r e l y aquatic. A s s u m i n g that t h e y have t h e i r o r i g i n i n the t i m e b e t w e e n the split o f Pangaea and
the
breakup
of G o n d w a n a ,
the
fossil
frogs
collected
in
Malawi
and
C a m e r o o n o u g h t t o i n c l u d e p i p i d s . T h a t appears t o b e the case. Partial skulls f r o m b o t h M a l a w i and C a m e r o o n are h e a v i l y c o n s t r u c t e d like m o d e r n p i p i d s ' skulls a r e . T h e b e s t f r o g s a m p l e available t o m e i s f r o m the o l d C r e t a c e o u s p o n d i n C a m e r o o n . T h e r e are b o t h adults and p r o b a b l y t a d p o l e s t h e r e , b u t I h a v e n o t b e e n able t o m a k e m o r e sense o u t o f t h e m than t o r e c o g n i z e p i p i d s . T h a t s e e m s t o b e the o n l y f a m i l y t h e r e , f o r n o w a n y w a y . L i z a r d s and t u r t l e s ,
t w o groups of living reptiles,
have
a distribution
p a t t e r n similar t o a m p h i b i a n s and e q u a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . T h u s w e a r e b e g i n n i n g t o see c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n s o f b i o t i c c h a n g e e m e r g e f r o m t h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s , initiated u n d e r the f e e t o f dinosaurs and c o n c l u d i n g w i t h o u r o w n familiar m o d e r n w o r l d . A m o n g t h e b e t t e r - k n o w n l i z a r d s , the iguanas and t h e i r c l o s e relatives seem
to have
originated
in
G o n d w a n a f o l l o w i n g the
breakup
of
Pangaea. W i t h further f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f t h e s o u t h e r n landmass, c h a m e l e o n s emerged.
Skinks, g e k k o s , r a c e r u n n e r s ,
G i l a m o n s t e r s , and m o n i t o r s m a y
trace t h e i r g e o g r a p h i c o r i g i n s back t o N o r t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e landmasses after the
breakup
o f Pangaea.
Considerable
mixing
of Northern
and
Southern
H e m i s p h e r e lizards has o c c u r r e d since t h e e n d of the C r e t a c e o u s , just as it has f o r m a m m a l s , but the fossil r e c o r d of lizards is less c o m p l e t e , or at least less intensively studied. T u r t l e s p r e s e n t a p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g s t o r y because t h e y are such an o d d g r o u p o f animals. I n s o m e w a y s , m o s t n o t a b l y i n the s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r skulls, t h e y are t h e m o s t p r i m i t i v e o f r e p t i l e s .
A m n i o t e s , that i s all t h o s e
v e r t e b r a t e s h a v i n g a n a m n i o t i c m e m b r a n e d u r i n g fetal d e v e l o p m e n t , can b e d i v i d e d u p i n t o basically t h r e e d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e w a y t h e i r c h e e k b o n e s arch. T h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f c h e e k b o n e s i s i m p o r t a n t f o r h o w animals c h e w because s o m e o f the i m p o r t a n t m u s c l e s that w o r k the l o w e r j a w attach t o t h e m o r c o n t r a c t n e x t t o t h e m . T o test this, f e e l y o u r c h e e k b o n e t o l o c a t e i t i n y o u r face. T h e n slide y o u r hand d o w n t o w a r d the a n g l e o f y o u r j a w and b i t e . Y o u w i l l feel the b u l g e o f y o u r m a s s e t e r m u s c l e . T h e n m o v e
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
230
y o u r hand t o y o u r t e m p l e r e g i o n and b i t e again.
N o w y o u w i l l feel y o u r
t e m p o r a l muscles. Both function w h e n you c h e w . Y o u r cheekbone provides a strut a l l o w i n g the m u s c l e s t o w o r k e f f i c i e n t l y . P r i m i t i v e l y the skull of v e r t e b r a t e s is c o n s t r u c t e d l i k e a b o x w i t h all the muscles for c h e w i n g confined within the b o x . b o n e s t o f o r m c h e e k arches o p e n s u p g a p s ,
T h e r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f skull or w i n d o w s ,
through which
m u s c l e s can pass, a l l o w i n g t h e m t o b e c o m e l o n g e r and t h e r e f o r e s t r o n g e r . T h e m u s c l e s o f t e n attach a r o u n d t h e w i n d o w o p e n i n g , and w h e n t h e y c o n t r a c t , the b u l g e o f the e x e r t i n g m u s c l e has a p l a c e t o g o , t h r o u g h the w i n d o w , r a t h e r than b e i n g t r a p p e d in a b o x l i k e skull. Y o u , and o t h e r species in the mammal
clade,
have but o n e
cheekbone
arch o n
each side
o f the skull.
D i n o s a u r s , b i r d s , c r o c o d i l e s , lizards, and snakes e i t h e r have t w o o r t h e y have skulls that w e r e m o d i f i e d f r o m a n c e s t o r s that had t w o . A l l l i v i n g r e p t i l e s are o f the t w o - a r c h skull v a r i e t y , w i t h o n e e x c e p t i o n — t h e t u r t l e s . T u r t l e s retain a b o x l i k e skull, but m o d i f i e d i n o t h e r w a y s . T h e y d o n o t have c h e e k arches a t all and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e i r c h e w i n g m u s c l e s w o r k d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m the basic plan o f o t h e r r e p t i l e s . A s a m a t t e r o f fact, turtles d o n o t e v e n have t e e t h . T h e i r jaws are c o v e r e d by a horny beak. E v o l u t i o n a r i l y a d v a n c e d t u r t l e s h a v e s o p h i s t i c a t e d skulls and c h e w i n g m u s cles,
which
evolved
in
other
directions
from
those
taken
by
mammals.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , b e c a u s e t u r t l e s lack c h e e k arches i n the sense o f m a m m a l s o r as
in
other
primitive
reptiles,
amphibians
and b e c a u s e lack
cheek
geologically
arches,
turtles
ancient are
and
evolutionarily
considered
primitive
a m o n g the a m n i o t e s . T h e i r cheeks may leave a little something to be desired f r o m an advanced a m n i o t e p e r s p e c t i v e , b u t t u r t l e s c l e a r l y h a v e t h e i r o w n u n i q u e specializations. Just think a b o u t the shell. I t i s n a t u r e ' s o w n m o b i l e h o m e , the W i n n e b a g o o f v e r t e b r a t e e v o l u t i o n . T o g e t a n i d e a o f just h o w r e m a r k a b l e the t u r t l e shell is, r e a c h b e h i n d y o u r back and f e e l y o u r s h o u l d e r b l a d e . I t juts o u t , right? N o w f e e l y o u r ribs b e l o w y o u r s h o u l d e r b l a d e . Y o u r s h o u l d e r b l a d e and y o u r c o l l a r b o n e , the b o n e s that m a k e u p y o u r s h o u l d e r g i r d l e , t o w h i c h y o u r a r m attaches, all o f i t lies o u t s i d e o f y o u r rib c a g e . N o t s o w i t h t u r t l e s . T h e b o n y shell o f t u r t l e s i s m a d e u p m o s t l y o f ribs and the b a c k b o n e . O b v i o u s l y the shoulder b l a d e — a n d arms,
l e g s , tail, and n e c k , f o r that m a t t e r — a r e n o t
attached o u t s i d e o f t h e r i b c a g e . T h e y c o u l d n o t b e and still b e seen e x t e n d i n g o u t f r o m inside the s h e l l , o r , m o r e i m p r e s s i v e l y i n s o m e s p e c i e s , the a p p e n d ages c o u l d n o t b e r e t r a c t e d c o m p l e t e l y i n t o the p r o t e c t i o n o f the shell. T h e
OTHER
NEIGHBORS
231 s k e l e t o n s o f t u r t l e s , t h e r e f o r e , n o m a t t e r h o w p r i m i t i v e the c h e e k arches m i g h t b e , a r e v e r y special s t r u c t u r e s . T h e r e are t w o major groups o f living turtles.
T h e m o r e c o m m o n and
abundant g r o u p c o m p r i s e s t h e h i d d e n - n e c k e d t u r t l e s .
T h e mechanism for
d r a w i n g the head i n t o t h e shell r e l i e s o n a c o m p l i c a t e d suite o f v e r t e b r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s a l l o w i n g the n e c k t o b e essentially l o o p e d u p o n itself i n a n S - s h a p e d c u r v e and t h e n r o t a t e d in a v e r t i c a l p l a n e back i n t o the shell. T h e o t h e r m a j o r g r o u p i s t h e s i d e - n e c k e d t u r t l e s . T h e y s i m p l y s w i n g t h e i r heads t o the side t o f i t i t u n d e r the p r o t e c t i o n o f the shell. T h e s i d e - n e c k e d turtles are c o n s i d e r e d the m o r e p r i m i t i v e o f the t w o g r o u p s . T u r t l e s t r a c e t h e i r o r i g i n s back t o the h e y d a y o f P a n g a e a , and t h e r e i s g o o d e v i d e n c e that the t w o g r o u p s o f t u r t l e s w e r e distinct b e f o r e t h e b r e a k u p o f Pangaea b e g a n . H o w e v e r , as in the case of f r o g s and lizards, the isolation and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f G o n d w a n a had a m a j o r effect o n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v a r i o u s t u r t l e families a s w e f i n d t h e m t o d a y . T h e s i d e - n e c k e d t u r t l e s a r e basically S o u t h e r n H e m i s p h e r e i n d i s t r i b u t i o n , w h i l e S - n e c k e d t u r t l e s are m u c h m o r e w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d , i n c l u d i n g i n the o c e a n s o f t h e w o r l d because s o m e o f t h e m , such as l e a t h e r b a c k s and g r e e n sea t u r t l e s , have i n v a d e d the m a r i n e environment. Fossil turtles w e r e f i r s t f o u n d i n the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i l o n g a g o . In fact o n e of t h e m w a s n a m e d Platycheloides nyasae in
1 9 2 8 . Platycheloides is
a s i d e - n e c k e d t u r t l e . T h e s a m e k i n d o f t u r t l e i s f o u n d i n r o c k s o f similar a g e i n the W e s t A f r i c a n n a t i o n o f N i g e r a l o n g w i t h o t h e r t u r t l e s m o s t similar t o t h o s e f o u n d a t A r a r i p e i n Brazil. T h e fossil r e c o r d o f turtles i s a n o t h e r case w h e r e ancient life r e f l e c t s the l a r g e - s c a l e g e o g r a p h y o f the C r e t a c e o u s . U n t i l r e c e n t l y i t w a s h e l d a m o n g s o m e r e s e a r c h e r s that g r e e n sea t u r t l e s , a l i v i n g species, s h o w a p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f o r m a t i v e l i f e - s t y l e that harkens back to t h e i r a n c e s t o r ' s habits o f 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . G r e e n sea turtles are o n e o f t h e S - n e c k e d species that h a v e taken t o the o c e a n s ( F i g u r e 3 9 ) . F e m a l e s l e a v e the sea o n l y t o s c r a m b l e o n t o sandy beaches and lay e g g s . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l b r e e d i n g c e n t e r s f o r t h e s p e c i e s . G r e e n sea turtles are h e r b i v o r e s . S o m e p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e m g r a z e o n sea grass o f f the coast o f Brazil, but b r e e d and lay t h e i r e g g s o v e r 2 , 3 0 0 k i l o m e t e r s distant, s o m e 1,400 m i l e s a w a y . Each y e a r a g r o u p o f g r e e n sea turtles turns t h e i r beaks t o t h e east and s w i m s t o t h e island o f A s c e n s i o n , a n u n p r e p o s s e s s i n g v o l c a n i c r o c k j u t t i n g a b o v e the surface o f the o c e a n a l o n g the M i d - A t l a n t i c Ridge.
I t i s unclear e x a c t l y h o w the n a v i g a t i o n i s m a n a g e d ,
perhaps by
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
232 utilizing
the
sun
or
moon,
perhaps
ocean
currents,
perhaps
the
Earth's
magnetic field, perhaps by a combination of several means. T h e most recent studies i m p l i c a t e the d i r e c t i o n o f w a v e s and p e r h a p s the local v a r i a t i o n i n the intensity o f the E a r t h ' s m a g n e t i c f i e l d caused b y t h e m a g n e t i c stripes i n the sea f l o o r as p o s s i b l e clues f o r t u r t l e n a v i g a t i o n ( s e e F i g u r e 8 in C h a p t e r 1 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s the fact r e m a i n s that a p o p u l a t i o n of g r e e n sea t u r t l e s feeds off t h e coast o f B r a z i l , t h e n r e g u l a r l y t h e s a m e g r o u p r e t u r n s faithfully, i t s e e m s , t o the s a m e f o r s a k e n island i n t h e m i d d l e o f the A t l a n t i c t o r e p r o d u c e . I t w a s s u g g e s t e d a t o n e t i m e that t h e m o d e r n m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n o f t h e g r e e n sea t u r t l e w a s n o t h i n g m o r e than a n u p d a t e d v e r s i o n o f the a n c i e n t p a t t e r n o f the ancestral b r e e d i n g c y c l e established as A f r i c a and South A m e r i c a split apart through continental
drift.
W h e n those
continents rifted apart,
the
South
A t l a n t i c O c e a n f o r m e d . A s t h e y c o n t i n u e d t o drift a p a r t , t h e A t l a n t i c O c e a n g o t w i d e r and w i d e r until the p r e s e n t g e o g r a p h y w a s r e a c h e d . O n e fly i n t h e o i n t m e n t i s the age o f A s c e n s i o n Island. I t i s n o w h e r e near o l d e n o u g h t o h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t i n the e a r l y stages o f the f o r m a t i o n o f the S o u t h A t l a n t i c . I t i s q u i t e y o u n g , n o t m o r e than a f e w m i l l i o n years o l d . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e that t u r t l e s w e r e b r e e d i n g o n its b e a c h e s e i t h e r late i n the A g e o f R e p t i l e s o r early i n the A g e o f M a m m a l s b e c a u s e i t s i m p l y w a s n o t t h e r e . T h e d i l e m m a could be solved by realizing h o w geologically active mid-ocean
FIGURE 39: Island in
Green sea turtle. A population of these sea turtles nests on Ascension
the middle of the Atlantic
Ocean.
OTHER
NEIGHBORS
233 ridges
are.
There
are
always
new
volcanic
islands b e i n g f o r m e d
because
m o l t e n r o c k i s c a r r i e d t o t h e surface a l o n g m i d - o c e a n r i d g e s , n e w sea f l o o r is created (see Figure 7 in Chapter
1 ) , and s o m e t i m e s i n t h e h e a t o f t h e
g e o l o g i c a l m o m e n t lava i s e x t r u d e d t h r o u g h v o l c a n o e s t o such a n e x t e n t that a p i l e rises a b o v e the surface o f t h e o c e a n w a t e r . L i k e A s c e n s i o n , I c e l a n d i s an island on the M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e . In fact I c e l a n d is the largest island on t h e ridge. O n c e a v o l c a n i c island i s f o r m e d a l o n g a m i d - o c e a n r i d g e , t w o f o r c e s b e g i n t o act o n it. First i t b e g i n s a n i n e x o r a b l e v o y a g e a w a y f r o m the r i d g e d u e s i m p l y t o t h e w a y p l a t e t e c t o n i c s w o r k s . N e w sea f l o o r i s c r e a t e d and o l d e r sea f l o o r , i n c l u d i n g that o n w h i c h v o l c a n o e s are s t a c k e d , m o v e s l a t e r a l l y a w a y . A s sea f l o o r m o v e s a w a y f r o m the r i d g e , i t c o o l s and b e c a u s e i t i s c o o l e r , i t b e c o m e s d e n s e r . T h e c o o l e r , d e n s e r sea f l o o r a w a y f r o m t h e r i d g e settles d e e p e r i n t o t h e m o r e plastic substance o f the E a r t h ' s i n t e r i o r . T h e n e t result i s that the islands that w e r e o n c e e m e r g e n t a b o v e t h e r i d g e s l o w l y s u b m e r g e as they m o v e away f r o m the r i d g e . T h e s e c o n d f o r c e a c t i n g o n t h e island i s that o f e r o s i o n . W a v e s i m m e d i ately b e g i n b a t t e r i n g its surface as s o o n as it is f o r m e d . Such h o s t i l e actions b y the o c e a n against t h e shores s p e e d u p t h e p r o c e s s o f s u b m e r g e n c e . E v e n t u ally a flat t o p is p u m m e l e d o n t o the island and it sinks c o m p l e t e l y b e n e a t h t h e w a v e s t o b e c o m e w h a t i s k n o w n a s a s e a m o u n t . T h e H a w a i i a n Islands, w h i l e e r u p t e d o v e r a h o t s p o t in the o c e a n crust r a t h e r than a s p r e a d i n g c e n t e r , are a chain that illustrates t h e p r o c e s s . T h e y o u n g e s t island i s t h e b i g o n e , H a w a i i . T h e islands are o l d e r i n a l i n e g o i n g t o the n o r t h w e s t f r o m M a u i t o M o l o k a i t o O a h u t o K a u a i . T h e o l d e s t islands i n t h e H a w a i i a n chain are n o l o n g e r islands. T h e y are the E m p e r o r S e a m o u n t s . T h a t i s w h a t i s g o i n g t o h a p p e n t o A s c e n s i o n Island. I n t i m e i t w i l l sink. W h e n i t d o e s , t u r t l e s v e r y c e r t a i n l y w i l l breed there no longer. S o w h e r e w i l l t h e y g o ? T h e s i m p l e a n s w e r i s just s o m e w h e r e e l s e . T h e y w i l l f i n d a n e w p l a c e t o lay e g g s , o r t h e y w i l l d i e o u t . N o w s u p p o s e that this t u r t l e s p e c i e s w i t h its e x a c t i n g sense o f n a v i g a t i o n s w i m s t o w a r d A s c e n s i o n , b u t a n o t h e r island has s p r o u t e d n e a r b y f r o m b e neath the w a v e s a l o n g the m i d - o c e a n r i d g e . W o u l d t h e y just lay t h e i r e g g s o n the n e w beaches? I f the t u r t l e s w e r e t o f i n d a n o t h e r island that w a y , i t m a y n o t matter to
the
turtles
that
Ascension goes
under.
Is
it possible
that
A s c e n s i o n is o n e island in a l o n g string of islands a p p e a r i n g and d i s a p p e a r i n g t h r o u g h t i m e ? I t i s easy t o i m a g i n e such a t h i n g i f w e l o o k a t t h e H a w a i i a n
LOUIS JACOBS, PH.D. 234 island chain on a m a p ,
strung a l o n g f r o m a v o l c a n i c s o u r c e , the y o u n g e r
islands fresh and h i g h , t h e o l d e r islands l o w e r and less r u g g e d , phasing i n t o s e a m o u n t s . T h e r e are s e a m o u n t s a l o n g t h e M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e , s o the q u e s t i o n b e c o m e s , h a v e t h e g r e e n sea t u r t l e s l e a p - f r o g g e d f r o m m i d - o c e a n island t o m i d - o c e a n island a s the S o u t h A t l a n t i c w i d e n e d f o r a p e r i o d o f 100 m i l l i o n years? W h a t a n e a t s t o r y if t h e y had. T h e fossil r e c o r d o f sea t u r t l e s i s less e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d than i t o u g h t t o b e i n o r d e r t o m a k e sense o f t h e h i s t o r y o f the g r e e n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s turtles o f a similar e v o l u t i o n a r y g r a d e had t a k e n t o t h e sea b y C r e t a c e o u s t i m e s . T h e y c a n n o t h a v e i n v a d e d the South A t l a n t i c until i t w a s o p e n , o b v i o u s l y , s o unless they
were
in
the
hypersaline
waters
off southwest
Africa,
which
seems
u n l i k e l y , g r e e n sea t u r t l e s p r o b a b l y d i d n o t e x i s t a r o u n d A f r i c a , i f t h e y e x i s t e d i n the C r e t a c e o u s a t all. M o r e o v e r , t h e l i f e - s t y l e o f g r e e n sea turtles i n the A t l a n t i c d e p e n d s o n the p r e s e n c e o f l a r g e fields o f sea grass, o n w h i c h the s p e c i e s f e e d s , m o r e than i t d e p e n d s o n t h e b e a c h e s o f A s c e n s i o n Island, w h e r e o n l y o n e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e s p e c i e s lays e g g s . T h e r e are n o indications that t u r t l e grass w a s w i d e l y d i s t r i b u t e d until the l a t t e r half o f t h e A g e o f M a m m a l s , p e r h a p s a r o u n d t w e n t y m i l l i o n years a g o o r less. C o n c l u s i v e p r o o f that the g r e e n sea turtles of A s c e n s i o n Island are not the s u r v i v o r s o f a l o n g and majestic r a c e o f M i d - A t l a n t i c seafaring turtles c o m e s from
a
detailed
comparison
of their genetic
material
with
that
of other
p o p u l a t i o n s o f g r e e n sea t u r t l e s . T h e m o l e c u l e s o f i n h e r i t a n c e c l e a r l y indicate that t h e r e has b e e n m i x i n g , a t least t o s o m e d e g r e e , o f the f e m a l e s f r o m the v a r i o u s p o p u l a t i o n s o f the s p e c i e s . T h e A s c e n s i o n Island p o p u l a t i o n has n o t b e e n s e p a r a t e all t h e s e y e a r s , and t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f the b e a c h e s i n the m i d d l e o f the A t l a n t i c , w h i l e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y a n a m a z i n g feat o f animal m i g r a t i o n , i s not
necessarily
the
end
result
of a
chain
of longer
and
longer
distance
c o l o n i z a t i o n s b y a s i n g l e c o n t i g u o u s p o p u l a t i o n . I t c o u l d b e n o t h i n g m o r e than happenstance
that
the
beaches
of A s c e n s i o n
are
used
as
a
nesting area,
r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r o t h e r islands a l o n g the M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e h a v e , o r have n o t , b e e n u t i l i z e d i n t i m e s past. T h e i d e a o f i s l a n d - h o p p i n g v e r t e b r a t e s i s n o t l i m i t e d t o t u r t l e s , and i t i s not even
limited
to true
islands,
n o r t o animals that s w i m .
I t has b e e n
s u g g e s t e d that the r a t h e r c o n s t a n t s u p p l y o f v o l c a n i c r o c k s t o I c e l a n d has m a i n t a i n e d t h e island a b o v e t h e surface f o r tens o f m i l l i o n s o f y e a r s . T h a t part o f i t l y i n g o v e r t h e M i d - A t l a n t i c R i d g e , t h e s o u r c e o f lava, r e m a i n s e m e r g e n t , but the lateral flanks of t h e island subside and d i s a p p e a r . It is similar to the
O T H E R
N E I G H B O R S
235 n o t i o n o f c o n t i n u a l l y c r e a t i n g n e w islands a l o n g t h e r i d g e , e x c e p t that w i t h I c e l a n d the island is a l w a y s f o r m e d at the s a m e s p o t . T h u s , such t e r r e s t r i a l animals a s m a y have b e e n inhabiting I c e l a n d t w e n t y m i l l i o n years a g o h a v e n e v e r b e e n w i t h o u t d r y l a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o this t h e o r y , and the land surface w h e r e they l i v e d a c t e d a s a s o r t o f t r e a d m i l l , w i t h t h e inhabitants r e q u i r e d t o maintain their p o s i t i o n o v e r the r i d g e o n y o u n g e r and y o u n g e r r o c k a s t i m e progressed.
It is an i n t e r e s t i n g i d e a , but t h e r e is no d i r e c t e v i d e n c e that
v o l c a n i c islands have b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y significant in this r e g a r d , at least so far a s t e r r e s t r i a l v e r t e b r a t e s a r e c o n c e r n e d . But s o m e e v i d e n c e i s s u g g e s t i v e . O n e r e c e n t study i n t r o d u c e s the p o s s i b i l i t y that the life o f t h e G a l a p a g o s Islands, straddling the e q u a t o r o f f t h e coast o f E c u a d o r i n t h e eastern Pacific O c e a n , can b e v i e w e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f islands t h r o u g h t i m e , w e a r i n g t o s e a m o u n t s , subsiding and s u b m e r g i n g w h i l e n e w islands f o r m . T h i s i s a n e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g s u g g e s t i o n b e c a u s e t h e G a l a p a g o s Islands p l a y e d a c e n tral r o l e in D a r w i n ' s f o r m u l a t i o n of e v o l u t i o n by natural s e l e c t i o n . It is a u n i q u e set o f islands w i t h a n i n t e r e s t i n g fauna and flora. T h e n a m e G a l a p a g o s d e r i v e s f r o m the Spanish w o r d f o r t o r t o i s e . large,
to o v e r
100 p o u n d s
in
fact.
The
Galapagos tortoises g r o w quite
islands w e r e
a regular stop
for
b u c c a n e e r s and later f o r m o r e l e g i t i m a t e sailing ships. T h e t o r t o i s e s p r o v i d e d a n easy s o u r c e o f fresh m e a t and t h e y c o u l d b e c o n v e n i e n t l y s t o r e d o n t h e i r backs i n a ship's h o l d f o r w e e k s w i t h o u t t r o u b l e . Besides t o r t o i s e s t h e r e are all kinds o f n o t e w o r t h y animals o n t h e islands. G a l a p a g o s p e n g u i n s s u r v i v e a t t h e e q u a t o r because o f t h e c o l d - w a t e r c u r r e n t s that c o m e u p f r o m A n t a r c t i c a a l o n g t h e w e s t coast o f S o u t h A m e r i c a . M a r i n e iguanas are lizards that h a v e t a k e n to f e e d i n g in t h e sea o f f plants g r o w i n g a l o n g the r o c k y shores o f the islands. D a r w i n w a s struck b y the s i m i l a r i t y o f m o s t o f the fauna o f the islands t o that o f m a i n l a n d South A m e r i c a , y e t each island h e l d a d i f f e r e n t b u t r e l a t e d set o f s p e c i e s . D a r w i n r e a s o n e d that each island i n the a r c h i p e l a g o p r o v i d e d a separate locus f o r natural s e l e c t i o n and c o n s e q u e n t l y f o r the d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f s p e c i e s , p e r h a p s m o s t f a m o u s l y the b i r d s k n o w n a s D a r w i n ' s f i n c h e s . If t h e G a l a p a g o s Islands are s i m p l y the last e m e r g e n t r o c k s in a s y s t e m that i n c l u d e s s e a m o u n t s that w e r e p r e v i o u s l y islands, t h e a n c e s t o r s o f t h e t e r r e s trial inhabitants m a y h a v e h o p p e d f r o m island t o island t h r o u g h t i m e . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n i s that t h e i r e v o l u t i o n has b e e n m o r e c o m p l e x than that e n v i s i o n e d by Darwin.
The
e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m the
fact that t h e r e are s e a m o u n t s
associated w i t h the p r e s e n t islands, and the l i m i t e d b i o m o l e c u l a r e v i d e n c e
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
236 suggests that the b i r d s m a y n o t have had such a l o n g separate history as the marine
iguanas
have
had
from
their terrestrial
cousins.
It
would
not be
p a r t i c u l a r l y startling i f t h e y d i d n o t , b e c a u s e d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s d o n o t necessarily c o l o n i z e islands at the s a m e t i m e . A m o r e p r e c i s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g is likely t o f o l l o w d e t a i l e d m o l e c u l a r studies and c o m p a r i s o n s a m o n g islands and w i t h the m a i n l a n d o f South A m e r i c a . W h e t h e r t h e h i s t o r y o f G a l a p a g o s species i s m o r e o r less c o m p l e x ,
t h e r e s u l t — o b t a i n e d b y the p r o c e s s e n v i s a g e d b y
Darwin—is
Different
the
same.
but
related
species
evolved
on
separate
islands t h r o u g h natural s e l e c t i o n .
ON
THE
the
mid-ocean
O T H E R side o f t h e o c e a n ' s s u r f a c e — t h e p e r m a n e n t l y w e t s i d e — ridges
and
their
islands
have
been
of great biogeographic
s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e f e e t o f v o l c a n i c islands f o r m a substrate u p o n w h i c h c o r a l and o t h e r o r g a n i s m s n e e d i n g c l e a n o c e a n w a t e r w i t h i n the r a n g e o f sunlight can flourish. C o r a l , b e c a u s e o f t h e s t o n y l i m e i t s e c r e t e s , actually builds r o c k . C l e a r l y , t h e n , m a r i n e o r g a n i s m s h o p f r o m the shores and l a g o o n s o f o n e island t o the n e x t , taking a d v a n t a g e o f a fresh p l a c e t o call h o m e . A s o t h e r i n v e r t e b r a t e s j o i n the c o r a l t o b u i l d a c o m p l e x c o m m u n i t y , s o , t o o , d o v e r t e b r a t e s j o i n the p a r t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e vast array o f c o r a l - r e e f f i s h e s . T h e r e i s e v e n a v e r y l i k e l y case of a l i v i n g fossil, c a l l e d a c o e l a c a n t h (its b i o l o g y w i l l be discussed at g r e a t e r l e n g t h in the n e x t c h a p t e r ) , in w h i c h the a n i m a l , its kind s u p p o s e d l y e x t i n c t f o r e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s , n o w l i v e s o n l y a l o n g the s t e e p sides o f v o l c a n i c islands o n l y f i v e m i l l i o n years o l d o r s o . I t i s o n l y k n o w n f r o m t h e C o m o r o Islands b e t w e e n M a d a g a s c a r and A f r i c a , e x c e p t f o r o n e s p e c i m e n caught o f f t h e coast o f S o u t h A f r i c a . Coelacanths
are
not
deep-sea
dwellers;
rather
they
inhabit
moderate
d e p t h s . T h e i r l i m i t e d g e o g r a p h i c d i s t r i b u t i o n can o n l y b e e x p l a i n e d b y t h e i r h o p p i n g f r o m island f o o t t o island f o o t ( o r a l o n g v o l c a n o e s that n e v e r b r o k e the surface o f the sea) a s t h o s e features w e r e f o r m e d . E i t h e r that o r w e m u s t a d m i t that w e s i m p l y d o n o t k n o w m u c h a b o u t w h e r e animals l i v e u n d e r the sea. T h e l a t t e r i s t r u e t o s o m e e x t e n t , and t h e f o r m e r m a y b e a s w e l l . T h e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f t h e f e e t o f islands b y c o r a l s and o t h e r life d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s i n c r e a t i n g n e w real estate and i n a d d i n g t o the d i v e r s i t y o f e n v i r o n m e n t s available f o r life t o i n v a d e and e x p l o i t . c o r a l - r e e f habitats
are
centered
in
the
photic
zone,
the
depth
The
of water
p e n e t r a t e d b y l i g h t . B e l o w t h e p h o t i c z o n e , o n t h e s e a b e d , the p r o c e s s e s o f
O T H E R
N E I G H B O R S
p l a t e t e c t o n i c s p r o v i d e o t h e r areas w h e r e life m i g h t t h r i v e . H o t w a t e r escaping f r o m inside the Earth t h r o u g h v e n t s a l o n g o c e a n r i d g e s p r o v i d e f o r a n o t h e r k i n d o f b i o l o g i c a l c o m m u n i t y , o n e that d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n sunlight f o r its primary energy but on chemical reactions. These h y d r o t h e r m a l vent c o m m u nities are r e l a t i v e l y n e w t o u s b e c a u s e e x p l o r a t i o n o f the o c e a n f l o o r i s such a n o v e l t y . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is a characteristic suite of o r g a n i s m s l i v i n g in the dark d e p t h s , w e l l a w a y f r o m any h o p e o f sunlight. T h e r e a r e b a c t e r i a . T h e r e are m o l l u s c s and crustaceans. T h e r e are w o r m s o f m a n y k i n d s , s o m e g r o w i n g t o i n c r e d i b l e l e n g t h s and h a v i n g t e n t a c l e s l i k e f l o w e r p e t a l s . I t i s a w h o l e d i f f e r e n t w o r l d , and o n e that i n s o m e r e s p e c t s m a y r e f l e c t life o n Earth prior to produce.
photosynthesis
and
the
abundant
free
oxygen
that g r e e n
plants
O r g a n i s m s e v o l v i n g i n the w a r m t h o f a h y d r o t h e r m a l v e n t d e e p
b e n e a t h the seas are s h e l t e r e d f r o m m e t e o r i t e s and c l i m a t i c fluctuations that m i g h t d r i v e s p e c i e s a t t h e surface t o e x t i n c t i o n . C h e m o s y n t h e t i c c o m m u n i t i e s are n o t l i m i t e d t o h y d r o t h e r m a l v e n t s a l o n g o c e a n - f l o o r - s p r e a d i n g c e n t e r s . T h e r e are o t h e r w a y s t o establish a n a p p r o p r i ate c h e m i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e m . F o r e x a m p l e , and s t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , the carcass o f a w h a l e d e c o m p o s i n g a t the b o t t o m o f the sea p r o v i d e s the c o r r e c t c o m b i n a t i o n o f factors f o r a small u n d e r s e a island o f c h e m o s y n t h e t i c life t o e x i s t . It is a t r a n s i e n t c o m m u n i t y , b u t still, it is a l i t t l e e n c l a v e , just like an island, in an o t h e r w i s e o v e r w h e l m i n g l y p h o t o t r o p h i c sea. I s n ' t that amazing? T h e c o n d i t i o n s at a m i d - o c e a n r i d g e and at a d e c a y i n g w h a l e carcass are sufficiently similar that the s a m e g e n e r a l k i n d o f c o m m u n i t y o f o r g a n i s m s flourishes a r o u n d e a c h .
W h a t is so special a b o u t w h a l e carcasses that t h e y
should do this? T h e a n s w e r i s that t h e r e i s n o t h i n g r e a l l y special a b o u t w h a l e s o t h e r than t h e i r size and p e r h a p s t h e i r high o i l c o n t e n t . If a w h a l e carcass can s u p p o r t a
chemosynthetic
community
under the
sea,
then
so
can
sufficiently l a r g e size t o p r o v i d e t h e r i g h t e n v i r o n m e n t .
any
carcass of
So the bodies of
v e r t e b r a t e animals c o u l d h a v e b e e n a c t i n g as islands u n d e r t h e sea e v e r since large m a r i n e v e r t e b r a t e s e v o l v e d . W h a l e s o n l y g o back 5 2 m i l l i o n years o r s o . H o w e v e r , large f i s h g o back m u c h e a r l i e r . T h e h u g e m a r i n e r e p t i l e s o f the M e s o z o i c g o back 2 0 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s ,
t o the t i m e o f Pangaea.
Plesiosaurs,
ichthyosaurs, and mosasaurs, t h e t h r e e g r e a t r e p t i l i a n l i n e a g e s that r u l e d the sea d u r i n g the M e s o z o i c , m a y h a v e p l a y e d a r o l e i n the e v o l u t i o n o f h y d r o t h e r m a l - v e n t faunas w a y back t h e n just a s w h a l e s d o n o w . L i k e t h e p a t t e r n seen o n l a n d , the w h a l e s — m a r i n e m a m m a l s — d i d n o t b e c o m e t h e b e h e m o t h s
L O U I S JACOBS, P H . D . 238 o f t h e o c e a n s — i n d e e d t h e y d i d n o t e v e n e v o l v e — u n t i l after the r e p t i l i a n giants o f t h e o c e a n s b e c a m e c o m p l e t e l y e x t i n c t a t the G r e a t D y i n g , the e n d o f the
SEA
Cretaceous.
T U R T L E S e v o l v e d b e f o r e w h a l e s , b u t n e v e r h a v e t h e y p r o d u c e d species
c o m p a r a b l e i n size t o the b i g g e s t m a r i n e m a m m a l s . Still, sea turtles a c h i e v e q u i t e r e s p e c t a b l e d i m e n s i o n s . M o r e o v e r , t h e y are r e p t i l e s and t h e r e f o r e they h a v e a d i f f e r e n t m e t a b o l i s m f r o m the w a r m - b l o o d e d m a m m a l s that maintain h i g h e r rates o f b o d i l y a c t i v i t i e s . C o m p a r i n g the m e t a b o l i c characteristics o f a l a r g e r e p t i l e that u n d e r g o e s t a x i n g t e m p e r a t u r e changes (such as sea t u r t l e s ) w i t h t h o s e o f a m a m m a l m i g h t b e v e r y i n s t r u c t i v e and p e r h a p s r e l e v a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g dinosaurs. Leatherback
turtles,
another
species
o f the
S-necked
group,
grow
to
b e t w e e n f o u r and f i v e h u n d r e d p o u n d s i n w e i g h t . T h e y s w i m i n latitudes r a n g i n g f r o m the w a r m - w a t e r t r o p i c s t o t h e f r i g i d A r c t i c C i r c l e . T h u s , since they
swim,
temperature
they
are
while
forced
remaining
to
experience
active.
Their
rather
extreme
measured
conditions
metabolic
rates
of are
b e l o w t h o s e e x p e c t e d i n m a m m a l s o f t h e s a m e s i z e , s o the leatherbacks m u s t b e s o l v i n g t h e i r p r o b l e m s o f m a i n t a i n i n g a c t i v i t y and b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e i n ways different f r o m w a r m - b l o o d e d m a m m a l s .
N o t surprising.
I n b o t h l a r g e m a m m a l s and l a r g e r e p t i l e s , t h e sheer bulk o f flesh b e t w e e n the inside and the o u t s i d e o f the b o d y p r o v i d e s insulation against the loss o f h e a t . H o w e v e r , l e a t h e r b a c k s m u s t s o m e h o w dissipate t h e i r b o d y heat w h i l e s w i m m i n g i n w a r m e r w a t e r s , and c o n v e r s e l y t h e y m u s t c o n s e r v e t h e i r heat while s w i m m i n g in colder N o r t h Atlantic waters. This is accomplished by r e g u l a t i n g c i r c u l a t i o n , increasing t h e f l o w o f b l o o d t o areas w h e r e heat can b e m o r e easily lost w h e n t h e animal i s i n d a n g e r o f o v e r h e a t i n g , and restricting the f l o w o f b l o o d w h e n heat loss i s d e t r i m e n t a l . C e n t r a l t o t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e b y l e a t h e r b a c k s , h o w e v e r , i s l a r g e size and the insulation that b u l k p r o v i d e s . It m a k e s a g r e a t deal of s e n s e , t h e n , that d i n o s a u r s , at least the l a r g e r species,
may have e m p l o y e d the same kind of g i g a n t o t h e r m y in regulating
t h e i r b o d i e s a s l e a t h e r b a c k t u r t l e s d o , s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e o f l a r g e size. T h e c o n c l u s i o n , if that is s o , is that g i g a n t o t h e r m i c dinosaurs c o u l d have b e e n a c t i v e t h r o u g h a w i d e r a n g e o f t e m p e r a t u r e s . O t h e r d i n o s a u r s , particularly the s m a l l e r o n e s , m a y n o t h a v e b e e n a b l e t o c o n t r o l t h e i r b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e
OTHER
NEIGHBORS
239 i n the s a m e u n c o n s c i o u s w a y .
S o m e must have d e v e l o p e d a true w a r m -
b l o o d e d n e s s , e v e n w i t h small b o d y size.
W e k n o w that f o r c e r t a i n b e c a u s e
b i r d s are w a r m - b l o o d e d . D i n o s a u r g e o g r a p h y p r o v i d e s e v i d e n c e that these r e p t i l e s v e r y p r o b a b l y w e r e tolerant of a w i d e range of temperatures. T h e geographic distribution o f dinosaurs i s h u g e . I t g o e s f r o m t h e l o w e q u a t o r i a l t r o p i c s t o the high p o l a r latitudes.
Early
C r e t a c e o u s dinosaurs are k n o w n f r o m Australia and L a t e
C r e t a c e o u s dinosaurs are k n o w n f r o m b o t h Alaska and A n t a r c t i c a .
It is a
t r e m e n d o u s g e o g r a p h i c r a n g e , e m b r a c i n g e x t r e m e s o f t e m p e r a t u r e , b u t leat h e r b a c k turtles h a v e a similar r a n g e f r o m the t r o p i c s to t h e A r c t i c , so it is n o t necessarily strange that dinosaurs d o . T h e a v e r a g e y e a r l y t e m p e r a t u r e f o r Australia i n t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e less than 5 d e g r e e s c e n t i g r a d e , w h i c h i s o n l y 4 1
degrees
F a h r e n h e i t . T h a t i s a y e a r l y a v e r a g e o f t e m p e r a t u r e based o n t h e g e o c h e m i s t r y o f o x y g e n . T e m p e r a t u r e s w o u l d h a v e fluctuated w i t h t h e seasons just a s t h e y d o n o w . Austral w i n t e r s w e r e dark and v e r y l i k e l y b i t t e r l y c o l d . S u m m e r s w e r e w a r m . T h e Antarctic polar region was probably icebound. Overwintering
in
harsh
conditions—in
the
dark—with
temperatures
p l u m m e t i n g and f o o d g r o w i n g s c a r c e , i s difficult. S o m e d i n o s a u r s , perhaps the s m a l l e r o n e s , m a y h a v e b e e n able t o s u r v i v e d u r i n g the w i n t e r because they w e r e a c t i v e and w a r m - b l o o d e d .
O t h e r dinosaurs m a y h a v e s o l v e d the
p r o b l e m b y h i b e r n a t i n g , s l e e p i n g t h r o u g h the t o u g h t i m e s . Still o t h e r s m a y have m i g r a t e d t o m o r e pleasant c l i m e s o n the n o r t h e r n side o f A u st r al i a. T h a t is all s p e c u l a t i o n . W h a t is so i n t e r e s t i n g a b o u t t h e l e a t h e r b a c k t u r t l e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o dinosaurs i s that t h e y are r e p t i l e s , t h e y suffer e x t r e m e s o f t e m p e r a t u r e , and t h e y m i g r a t e .
M o s t importantly w e k n o w something about h o w
their b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e i s c o n t r o l l e d and that i t enables t h e m t o t r a v e l t h r o u g h the r a n g e o f t e m p e r a t u r e s that t h e y d o . P e r h a p s s o m e o f the dinosaurs w e r e similar.
T E M P E R A T U R E , b o t h inside and o u t s i d e t h e b o d y , i s a n i m p o r t a n t factor f o r all animals, but the o u t s i d e t e m p e r a t u r e plays a p e c u l i a r r o l e in s o m e l i v i n g r e p t i l e s . I n m o s t t u r t l e s , s o m e l i z a r d s , and i n c r o c o d i l e s the t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h e g g s are i n c u b a t e d at a critical t i m e in t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t d e t e r m i n e s the sex o f the a n i m a l . Sea t u r t l e e g g s p r o d u c e m a l e s i f i n c u b a t e d b e l o w 2 8 degrees centigrade
(82
degrees
Fahrenheit),
but they p r o d u c e
females if
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
i n c u b a t e d a b o v e 2 9 . 5 d e g r e e s ( 8 5 d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t ) d u r i n g the m i d d l e third o f d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e r e f o r e , since c r o c o d i l e s , a l l i g a t o r s , s o m e lizards, and s o m e o t h e r t u r t l e s d e v e l o p i n similar fashion, i t i s n o t u n r e a s o n a b l e t o assume that s o m e o r e v e n m o s t dinosaurs had a similar m e t h o d o f sex d e t e r m i n a t i o n . I t c a n n o t b e p r o v e n , b u t i t has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that c h a n g i n g c l i m a t e s t o w a r d t h e e n d o f the M e s o z o i c m a y h a v e a f f e c t e d t h e s e x r a t i o o f dinosaur species and
thereby contributed to
t h e i r e x t i n c t i o n b y d i s r u p t i n g the p o p u l a t i o n
balance.
T H I S C H A P T E R BEGAN b y l o o k i n g a t d i f f e r i n g rates and p a t t e r n s o f e v o l u t i o n r e s u l t i n g in a d a p t i v e radiations on t h e o n e hand and l i v i n g fossils on the o t h e r . F r o m t h e e x a m p l e s p r e s e n t e d i t s h o u l d b e clear that t h e r e i s n o set path that a n e v o l u t i o n a r y l i n e a g e m u s t f o l l o w , b u t that the g e n e t i c p o t e n t i a l o f a s p e c i e s w i l l l i m i t its e v o l u t i o n a r y o p t i o n s , a s w i l l the constraints i m p o s e d b y its b i o l o g i c a l and physical e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e physical processes o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s m o d i f y the
Earth and c r e a t e n e w e n v i r o n m e n t s f o r life t o
c o l o n i z e . A s t h e E a r t h ' s g e o g r a p h y c h a n g e s , s o a r e l i f e ' s strategies m o d i f i e d . S o m e g e n e r a l i t i e s a b o u t the r o o t s o f the m o d e r n w o r l d b e g i n t o e m e r g e . Pangaea o f 2 0 0 m i l l i o n years a g o p r o v i d e d a n i n t e r c o n n e c t e d canvas o f c o n t i n e n t s across w h i c h w a s p a i n t e d the r u d i m e n t s o f t e r r e s t r i a l v e r t e b r a t e life f o r the m o d e r n w o r l d : p r i m i t i v e f r o g s , l i z a r d s , m a m m a l s , t u r t l e s , and p e r h a p s b i r d s . N o n e had a c h i e v e d the sophistication o f t h e i r m o d e r n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . T h a t c a m e w i t h t h e later stages o f g e o g r a p h i c r e a r r a n g e m e n t w h e n Pangaea b r o k e apart and G o n d w a n a f r a g m e n t e d . T h e vicars left o n d r i f t i n g landmasses e v o l v e d t h e i r separate w a y s , o f t e n t o r e a c h d i f f e r e n t , but f o r each, m o r e d e r i v e d g r a d e s o f e v o l u t i o n . T h e d i n o s a u r s , t o o , e v o l v e d a l o n g the lines of geographical vicars,
s e p a r a t e d f r o m each o t h e r b y w i d e n i n g o c e a n s and
f o u n d e r i n g land b r i d g e s . O n l y s p o r a d i c a l l y d i d landmasses c o n j o i n t o a l l o w the m i x i n g o f t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e r e i s o n e a d d i t i o n a l case, i n s o m e w a y s t h e m o s t i n t r i g u i n g , o f the g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f animals t h r o u g h t i m e that should b e b r o u g h t u p h e r e : the E u r o p e a n fossil l o c a l i t y o f M e s s e l . L o c a t e d i n G e r m a n y near Frankfurt am M a i n , the site is r o u g h l y f o r t y m i l l i o n years o l d . It is the r e m a i n s of a n ancient lake that e x i s t e d a r o u n d t w e n t y - s i x m i l l i o n years after the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , w e l l i n t o the A g e o f M a m m a l s . M e s s e l w a s o r i g i n a l l y e x c a v a t e d f o r o i l shale. Such a l a r g e h o l e i n the g r o u n d i n c r o w d e d E u r o p e w i l l n o t g o
O T H E R
N E I G H B O R S
u n n o t i c e d b y all sorts o f p e o p l e w i t h j o b s t o a c c o m p l i s h . n e a r l y t u r n e d i n t o a g a r b a g e d u m p until it w a s s a v e d .
Messel was very
N o w it is a fossil
reserve. T h e fossils that are p r e s e r v e d a t M e s s e l a r e e x q u i s i t e . M a n y s p e c i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y w h o l e , a r t i c u l a t e d s k e l e t o n s . N o t o n l y that, b u t s o m e o f t h e m a m m a l s h a v e the i m a g e of t h e i r hair p r e s e r v e d as an o r g a n i c film in t h e shale. S o m e e v e n have the s t o m a c h c o n t e n t s o f t h e last m e a l . B e i n g i n the A g e o f M a m m a l s , a s i t is, M e s s e l has a n i n t e r e s t i n g suite o f m a m m a l i a n fossils. T h e list i n c l u d e s i n s e c t i v o r e s , p r i m a t e s , r o d e n t s , b a t s — v e r y nice b a t s — a n d other species. It e v e n includes an anteating p a n g o l i n , a k i n d o f m a m m a l f o u n d t o d a y i n Asia and A f r i c a . T h e y a r e c o v e r e d i n l a r g e , stiff scales, w h i c h m a k e t h e m l o o k a l o t like w a l k i n g p i n e c o n e s . H o w e v e r , the strangest of all m a m m a l s f r o m M e s s e l is a n o t h e r k i n d of a n t e a t e r . It is an a n t e a t e r that i s the o n l y E u r o p e a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e — f o s s i l o r l i v i n g — o f a g r o u p o f s p e c i a l i z e d anteaters n o w l i v i n g i n South A m e r i c a ( F i g u r e 4 0 ) . H o w c o u l d i t have g o t t e n t o M e s s e l w i t h o u t l e a v i n g a t r a c e a n y w h e r e else? T h e a n s w e r f o r s o m e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s i s that this g r o u p o f a n t e a t e r s , and perhaps
other
groups
of placental
mammals,
differentiated
between
100
m i l l i o n vears a g o and the b e g i n n i n g o f the A g e o f M a m m a l s a t 6 6 m i l l i o n years
FIGURE 40: was found in
South American giant anteater. Germany.
A fossil related to
this living species
Alight similar fossils one day he found in Africa?
L O U I S JACOBS,
PH . D
242 a g o i n w h a t i s n o w A f r i c a . T h e t i m i n g w o u l d b e later than the D i n o s a u r Beds o f M a l a w i , o r t h e K o u m Basin i n C a m e r o o n , o r A r a r i p e i n Brazil. I t w o u l d also b e y o u n g e r than t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f South A m e r i c a and A f r i c a i s usually c o n s i d e r e d t o b e unless the p r o c e s s o f s e p a r a t i o n i s actually m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d than has b e e n p r e s e n t e d . T h e r e i s n o v i a b l e fossil r e c o r d i n A f r i c a r e p r e s e n t i n g that i n t e r v a l , s o the p o s s i b i l i t y c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d o n the basis o f w h a t w e c u r r e n t l y k n o w o f A f r i c a n l i f e . I t i s p o s s i b l e that the m o v e m e n t o f A f r i c a and South
Africa
away
from
each
other
during
this
interval
was
sufficiently
c o m p l i c a t e d that island h o p p i n g , o r p e r h a p s c o n t a c t , m i g h t just have o c c u r r e d . I f i t d i d , the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the South A m e r i c a n a n t e a t e r and its M e s s e l relative m i g h t be explained. By Messel t i m e the anteaters, primates, pangol i n s , e a r l y r e l a t i v e s o f h o r s e s , and s o m e o t h e r kinds o f m a m m a l s had m i g r a t e d into E u r o p e , possibly f r o m Africa. I h a v e n o idea w h e t h e r such a s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s actually o c c u r r e d . T h e e v i d e n c e is w e a k and i n c o n c l u s i v e .
However,
it is an h y p o t h e s i s that is
p l a u s i b l e to the e x t e n t that it e x p l a i n s the M e s s e l fauna, and it p r e d i c t s that a n u n d o c u m e n t e d e p i s o d e o f m a m m a l i a n e v o l u t i o n o c c u r r e d late i n t h e A g e of Reptiles in Africa.
I t also p r e d i c t s w h i c h kinds o f m a m m a l s should b e
i n v o l v e d i n it. T h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s w i l l b e t e s t e d w h e n fossils o f the right a g e and i n t h e r i g h t p l a c e a r e f o u n d . T h i s c o u l d b e a n o t h e r case o f g o o d fossils just w a i t i n g t o b e d i s c o v e r e d . W h a t e v e r the case, i t i s c l e a r that t o w a r d t h e e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s the Earth w a s rich i n b i o l o g i c a l d i v e r s i t y . I n m a n y w a y s i t w a s r e c o g n i z a b l e as the parent of today's w o r l d . In one w a y , h o w e v e r , it was very different. T o d a y ' s rulers,
the
mammals,
did
little
b u t skulk
furtively about
in
the
M e s o z o i c w o r l d . T h e y d i d n o t suffer f r o m a n i d e n t i t y crisis; t h e y w e r e c l e a r l y m a m m a l s and o f the t h r e e m a j o r g r o u p s ( p l a c e n t a l s , m a r s u p i a l s , and m o n o t r e m e s ) that w e r e c o g n i z e t o d a y , plus s o m e m a m m a l i a n g r o u p s that have since b e c o m e e x t i n c t . Y e t i t s e e m s t h e m a m m a l s w e r e a l m o s t i n t i m i d a t e d b y the dinosaurs.
T h e y s i m p l y and u n d e n i a b l y d i d n o t flourish d u r i n g the A g e o f
R e p t i l e s . O n l y after the t e r m i n a l C r e t a c e o u s e x t i n c t i o n s , w h e n dinosaurs and m a n y o t h e r c r e a t u r e s w e n t e x t i n c t , d i d the c h a n g i n g o f the g u a r d o c c u r and a n e w p e r i o d o f faunal a d j u s t m e n t t a k e p l a c e . A n d n o w here w e are.
A
LIVINC
DINOSAUR?
F
OSSILS O F M A N Y
K I N D S r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e w o r l d o f 100 m i l l i o n years
a g o can b e f o u n d t o d a y , p r e s e r v e d i n the a n c i e n t r o c k s o f A f r i c a . M a n y o f t h e m are s t r a n g e . H o w e v e r , o n o n e o f m y flights t o M a l a w i I r e a d i n a n airline m a g a z i n e o f s o m e t h i n g e v e n m o r e s t r a n g e . I t w a s a " s e r i o u s scientific e x p e d i tion"
t o D a r k e s t A f r i c a i n search n o t o f fossils, n o t e v e n o f l i v i n g l i o n s ,
hyaenas, o r e l e p h a n t s , b u t o f a living d i n o s a u r . N o t b i r d s , b u t dinosaurs i n the traditional
sense.
A
sauropod.
Something
presumably
resembling
bron-
tosaurus, or m a y b e a M a l a w i - s a u r u s . T h e e x p e d i t i o n I r e a d a b o u t is n o t the f i r s t t o p r o p o s e the search. T h e r e h a v e b e e n a t least f o u r o t h e r s . T h e s e are n o t scientific e x p e d i t i o n s . T h e y a r e s c i e n c e f i c t i o n — a n d n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d s c i e n c e fiction, e i t h e r , j u d g i n g f r o m t h e 1985 m o t i o n p i c t u r e Baby: Secret of the Lost Legend, w h i c h is based on such a search. A f r i c a , the D a r k C o n t i n e n t , the land of t h e u n k n o w n , is a c l i c h e , an allure e v e n n o w . T h a t m y s t i q u e used t o b e j u s t i f i e d . A t least p a r t o f i t g o e s back t o the intense i n t e r e s t that t h e V i c t o r i a n era t o o k i n t h e search f o r the h e a d w a t e r s o f the N i l e . I n the l a t t e r half o f the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the g e o g r a p h y o f A f r i c a really w a s m u c h m o r e p o o r l y k n o w n than that o f m o s t o t h e r c o n t i n e n t s . Back t h e n the I n t e r i o r w a s a blank spot o n t h e British m a p , e v e n t h o u g h i n e a r l i e r c e n t u r i e s t h e P o r t u g u e s e had a b e t t e r r e c k o n i n g o f it. N o w A f r i c a i s n o l o n g e r
243
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
244 s o r e m o t e , s o h i d d e n , a s i t used t o b e . T h e b i g q u e s t i o n s o f o l d , such a s the c o u r s e s o f its r i v e r s and the t r a c e s o f its m o u n t a i n s , are n o t o b s c u r e . The
River
Nile
originates
from
the
lake
region
o f East
Africa
and
d e b a u c h e s i n t o the M e d i t e r r a n e a n Sea. T h e R i v e r C o n g o , t h r o u g h the Lualaba and t h e I t u r i , has its h e a d w a t e r s n e a r t h o s e o f the N i l e . I t f l o w s n o r t h t h e n w e s t f r o m t h e lake r e g i o n t o d r a i n the f e t i d s w a m p s o f C e n t r a l A f r i c a i n t o the A t l a n t i c . O n l y o n e g r e a t l a k e , L a k e M a l a w i , drains south, o u t t h r o u g h the Shire and t h e n the Z a m b e z i t o t h e Indian O c e a n . T h e r i v e r s w e r e h i g h w a y s w h e n t h e c o n t i n e n t o p e n e d u p t o E u r o p e a n s . E x p l o r e r s used t h e m t o t r a v e l through the land. D a n i e l D e f o e ' s f i c t i o n a l h e r o C a p t a i n B o b S i n g l e t o n , the p i r a t e , c r o s s e d the A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t t h r o u g h his a u t h o r ' s p e n , o n p a p e r and i n the imaginat i o n , b u t m u c h b e f o r e his t i m e .
D e f o e w r o t e Singleton's made up travel
a d v e n t u r e s m o r e than a c e n t u r y b e f o r e
L i v i n g s t o n e actually d i d cross the
c o n t i n e n t i n 1 8 5 4 . L i v i n g s t o n e f o l l o w e d a c o u r s e a l o n g the Z a m b e z i f o r m o s t o f t h e w a y . H e m a d e i t t o t h e A t l a n t i c coast and t h e n h e m a d e his w a y back. T h e truth o f A f r i c a n e x p l o r a t i o n i s s t r a n g e r than
fiction.
M e n like D a v i d
L i v i n g s t o n e are n o t n o r m a l . H e w a s caught u p i n t h e search f o r the h e a d w a t e r s o f t h e N i l e . L i v i n g s t o n e w a s a m i s s i o n a r y , b u t h e , like R i c h a r d B u r t o n and John S p e k e , e x p l o r e d t h e R i f t V a l l e y w h e r e the g r e a t lakes o f A f r i c a hang like d e l i c i o u s w e t g r a p e s o n a d r y b r o w n stalk. H e s e a r c h e d f o r the h e a d w a t e r s o f the N i l e f o r y e a r s . H e t h o u g h t h e had f o u n d t h e m , b u t h e had n o t . H e w a s still s e a r c h i n g w h e n h e d i e d . H e n r y Stanley s e a r c h e d f o r L i v i n g s t o n e and b e c a m e i n f e c t e d w i t h the f e v e r of African
exploration.
Bula
Matari,
"the
breaker
of r o c k s , "
as
Stanley
b e c a m e k n o w n t o t h e n a t i v e s , t o o k o n L i v i n g s t o n e ' s q u e s t . H e f o l l o w e d the c o u r s e o f t h e Lualaba, n o t t o t h e N i l e a s h e w a n t e d b u t all the w a y t o the C o n g o , e v e n t o t h e w e s t coast o f A f r i c a . I t i s all p a r t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n , this searching and e x p l o r a t i o n o f A f r i c a . T h e e x p l o r e r s , driven m e n , k n e w what they w e r e looking for.
T h e y had t h e i r
r e a s o n s , and t h e reasons w e r e v a l i d . T h e searches m a d e sense t o the n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y w o r l d . T h e N i l e d o e s h a v e h e a d w a t e r s , and t h e y w e r e i m p o r tant
to
find.
Livingstone
was
alive
when
Stanley
searched,
and
he
was
i m p o r t a n t t o f i n d . T h e e a r l y e x p l o r e r s o p e n e d u p the c o n t i n e n t t o E u r o p e . T h e r e are n o m o r e b l a n k spots o n the m a p . T h e o n l y w a y n o t t o b e a w a r e of Africa nowadays is to i g n o r e , for w h a t e v e r reason, the c o m m o n , hard-won knowledge
o f that c o n t i n e n t .
A
LIVING
DINOSAUR? 245
E x p e d i t i o n s t o A f r i c a i n search o f l i v i n g d i n o s a u r s , l i k e t h e o n e I r e a d a b o u t i n the airline
magazine,
are based o n w o r d - o f - m o u t h r e p o r t s o f a
l e g e n d a r y beast c a l l e d Mokele-Mbembe. the
reports
o f the
Loch
Ness
T h e p h e n o m e n o n is no different f r o m
Monster,
Yeti,
or
Bigfoot.
The
only
real
d i f f e r e n c e is that in this case it is set in A f r i c a . Mokele-Mbembe's haunts a r e a l l e g e d t o b e the Likouala S w a m p o f the P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c o f t h e C o n g o , r i g h t i n the e x t r e m e d e p t h s o f the c o n t i n e n t . T h i s i s t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f the h u g e s w a m p y r e g i o n t r a v e r s e d b y Stanley o n his s e v e n - m o n t h float d o w n the C o n g o R i v e r . Mokele-Mbembe i s t h o u g h t t o l o o k l i k e a b r o n t o s a u r u s — t h e w o r d used b y English-speaking s e a r c h e r s — b a s e d m o s t s t r o n g l y , i n t h e i r o p i n i o n , o n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m u g shots b y n a t i v e s .
A man named Appolonaire encoun-
t e r e d b y o n e o f the e x p e d i t i o n s e v e n s k e t c h e d a c r u d e effigy i n the soil that w a s said to r e s e m b l e a s a u r o p o d . He had s e e n the b e a s t , he said, at the v i l l a g e o f P i k u n d a , n o t far f r o m the r o u t e Stanley t o o k o n his t h i r d A f r i c a n e x p e d i t i o n . O n that o n e Stanley left i n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h his r e a r g u a r d t o j o i n h i m w i t h e x t r a supplies and a m m u n i t i o n . T h e r e a r g u a r d n e v e r caught u p w i t h S t a n l e y , partly because t h e y h e a r d h e w a s d e a d . S u p p o s e d l y h e had b e e n m u r d e r e d i n r e t a l i a t i o n f o r the a t r o c i t i e s h e a l l e g e d l y b e s t o w e d o n t h e n a t i v e s .
Rumors
w e r e r a m p a n t a m o n g the local p o p u l a t i o n s that h u m a n a r m s and legs had b e e n seen i n S t a n l e y ' s c o o k i n g p o t s . T h e r e w a s g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e o f a q u a l i t y e q u a l to that used in the search f o r Mokele-Mbembe.
S t a n l e y , w h o w a s assuredly n o t
d e a d , w r o t e , " S k e t c h e s b y a n a m a t e u r artist a r e said t o h a v e b e e n m a d e o f w h o l e parties i n d u l g i n g i n cannibal r e p a s t s . " Stanley, o f c o u r s e , had n o t b e e n m u r d e r e d , t h e English w e r e n o t cannibals (any m o r e than t h e n a t i v e s w e r e ) , and the sketches o f S t a n l e y ' s c o o k i n g p o t s had n o b e a r i n g o n r e a l i t y . I d o n o t k n o w w h a t the C o n g o l e s e A p p o l o n a i r e d r e w , o r w h y , b u t t h e r e p o r t that h e s k e t c h e d a s a u r o p o d d o e s n o t substantiate t h e i r e x i s t e n c e a l i v e i n the C o n g o . N e v e r t h e l e s s a n e x p e d i t i o n t o the L i k o u a l a S w a m p c o u l d b e scientifically v e r y i m p o r t a n t i f q u e s t i o n s o f m o r e g e n e r a l significance w e r e b e i n g a s k e d : W h a t i s the d i v e r s i t y o f l i f e — p l a n t and a n i m a l — i n t h e L i k o u a l a S w a m p ? H o w m a n y species are t h e r e ? W h a t i s the e c o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o m m u n i t y ? H o w d o e s i t c o m p a r e w i t h o t h e r t r o p i c a l j u n g l e s , such a s the A m a z o n ? W h a t i s the c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e A f r i c a n t r o p i c s t o t h e g l o b a l e c o l o g i c a l balance? W h a t are the e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t species? W h i c h species h a v e m e d i c i n a l p r o p e r t i e s ? H o w has the s w a m p c h a n g e d t h r o u g h g e o l o g i c t i m e ? H o w i s i t b e i n g affected b y h u m a n i m p a c t ? I s i t b e i n g d e s t r o y e d ? A r e steps necessary f o r
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D
246 c o n s e r v a t i o n ? H o w can t h e p e o p l e o f the r e g i o n b e s t and m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y utilize their resources? If q u e s t i o n s such as these w e r e a d d r e s s e d ,
sauropods,
if t h e y e x i s t e d ,
w o u l d t u r n u p i n d u e c o u r s e . W h e t h e r t h e y d i d o r d i d n o t , w e w o u l d have a m u c h g r e a t e r k n o w l e d g e a b o u t this p a r t o f the w o r l d and i t w o u l d b e o f much greater consequence. But s u r e l y , o n e m i g h t insist, dinosaurs could b e l i v i n g s o m e w h e r e i n A f r i c a , c o u l d t h e y not? S u r e , t h e y c o u l d . A n d that w o u l d b e fun. But h o w likely i s it? T h e o d d s are so g r e a t against it that the p r o b a b i l i t y of finding a l i v i n g s a u r o p o d has,
f o r all i n t e n t s and p u r p o s e s , r e a c h e d z e r o .
I r e g r e t that it
i s — s a d l y — a virtual c e r t a i n t y that n o n e w i l l b e f o u n d a l i v e . But i t d o e s m a k e sense. N o t a single r e a l l y n e w k i n d o f l a r g e animal has b e e n d i s c o v e r e d i n A f r i c a since t h e o k a p i , a r e l a t i v e o f t h e g i r a f f e , w a s n a m e d i n 1 9 0 1 , v e r y n e a r l y a century a g o . A n d p e o p l e have l o o k e d . T h e p y g m y hippopotamus was discove r e d i n 1 9 1 2 , but r e g u l a r h i p p o s w e r e a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r l o n g b e f o r e t h e n . T h e giant f o r e s t h o g w a s f o u n d i n 1 9 0 2 , b u t p e o p l e a l r e a d y k n e w that pigs w e r e a r o u n d . A l m o s t c e r t a i n l y s o m e less c o n s p i c u o u s small animals still r e m a i n t o b e d i s c o v e r e d and d e s c r i b e d f r o m m a n y parts o f the w o r l d . T h i n g s such a s m i c e , i n s e c t s , o r f i s h are sure t o h a v e m u l t i t u d e s o f u n n a m e d s p e c i e s . Perhaps e v e n s o m e l a r g e r t e r r e s t r i a l s p e c i e s w i l l b e d i s c o v e r e d . But w h i l e t h e r e m a y b e species n e w t o s c i e n c e , t h e y a r e u n l i k e l y t o b e g r o s s l v d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t is already k n o w n . T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g the E u r o p e a n d i s c o v e r y o f the giant f o r e s t hog,
Hjlochoerus meinertzhageni,
are
well
documented,
so
they
ought
to
be
i n f o r m a t i v e a s t o h o w n e w and l a r g e animals w e r e d i s c o v e r e d i n the V i c t o r i a n past. R i c h a r d M e i n e r t z h a g e n , f o r w h o m the s p e c i e s w a s n a m e d , r e c o r d e d the e v e n t s in his d i a r y .
A s o l d i e r and an a v i d s p o r t s m a n in the sense of early
t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y A f r i c a , h e spent m u c h t i m e afield. H e l i v e d i n the bush, b e i n g s t a t i o n e d i n s e v e r a l r e m o t e and m o u n t a i n o u s posts i n K e n y a . H e k e p t a s c r u p u l o u s r e c o r d of his daily l i f e . M e i n e r t z h a g e n w r i t e s in his diary on 5 S e p t e m b e r 1902 w h i l e on a t r i p to the A b e r d a r e Mountains,
W h i l e w a n d e r i n g in the forest at dusk I saw t w o animals I have n e v e r seen b e f o r e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y I caught o n l y a fleeting g l i m p s e of t h e m . . . . [ O n e ) was an e n o r m o u s black pig, p r o b a b l y a forest variety of the w a r t h o g . H e r e again I o n l y just saw the beast for a m o m e n t .
A
LIVING
DINOSAUR? 247
T h e n , i n 1 9 0 4 , t w o years l a t e r , w h i l e o n a p u n i t i v e e x p e d i t i o n against t h e Embu tribe of M o u n t Kenya:
Just as we w e r e e m e r g i n g f r o m the forest the leading man of my patrol fired a shot at something w h i c h I could n o t see, and on c o m i n g up I found he had killed a huge pig w i t h l o n g black hair, unlike anything I e v e r heard of. I put a piece of the skin i n t o my haversack but left the carcass. I shall send to bring it in t o m o r r o w . As we have several of the e n e m y in the vicinity I could not remain and e x a m i n e h e r , f o r she was a s o w , but I n o w wish I had brought h o m e the skull, w h i c h was unlike that of any pig I know.
Then on 24 March 1904 he w r o t e ,
I may as w e l l n o t e d o w n what I k n o w of the huge forest p i g w h i c h I found on 11 M a r c h in the K e n y a forests. Up till n o w I have seen but o n e , a s o w , and she after she had b e e n k i l l e d . A l l I have of this beast is a small piece of skin. 1 asked all my Masai levies w h e t h e r they k n e w the animal and they all said they did but that it l i v e d in thick forest and was called elguia by t h e m . T h e y m a d e their shields of its tough skin, and I actually purchased a shield w h i c h purports to be m a d e f r o m the forest p i g . Its o w n e r t o l d me he bought the skin f r o m a D o r o b o hunter w h o had killed it on the M a u escarpment, w h i c h shows the animal has a w i d e range. T o w a r d s the end o f the e x p e d i t i o n m y m e n found several large pieces of skin in villages. O n e p i e c e in particular is e n o r m o u s and c o u l d n e v e r have been taken off an animal m u c h smaller than a d o n k e y . T h e hair is l o n g and black, measuring s o m e 10 inches on the crest. O n returning t o Fort H a l l I e n q u i r e d f r o m the W a k i k u y u c o n c e r n i n g the pig and found they all k n e w it w e l l , calling it numiira. I have offered a c o w to the first man w h o can g e t me a c o m p l e t e skin w i t h the skull. I have sent all the skin I h a v e , t o g e t h e r w i t h the a b o v e i n f o r m a t i o n , to Ray Lankester at the British M u s e u m . I think there can be no d o u b t that the animal is n e w to science. It is exasperating n o t to have g o t a skull, but I live in hopes and shall hunt f o r him in forest w h e n I g e t the chance. I am c o n v i n c e d that the pig I saw in the A b e r d a r e s . . . was this forest
PigT h e e l e m e n t s o f M e i n e r t z h a g e n ' s " d i s c o v e r y " o f the giant f o r e s t h o g ( s e e F i g u r e 4 1 ) are p e r s o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n , t a n g i b l e r e m a i n s , and v e r i f i a b l e g e n e r a l
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D
248 k n o w l e d g e o f the beast f r o m l o c a l inhabitants. S c i e n c e r e q u i r e s that t h e r e b e s o m e t h i n g t a n g i b l e , s o m e r e p e a t a b l e , testable s t r e a m o f l o g i c , i n o r d e r f o r a n i d e a — o r the c l a i m o f a n e w a n i m a l — t o b e a c c e p t e d . A f r i c a n natives n o t o n l y had n a m e s f o r the giant f o r e s t h o g , t h e y m a d e shields f r o m its h i d e . M e i n e r t z h a g e n c o l l e c t e d a p i e c e o f h i d e h i m s e l f . I n June o b t a i n e d a skull significant.
f r o m o n e o f the
1904 M e i n e r t z h a g e n e v e n
local inhabitants.
That
w a s particularly
Skulls are v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n m a m m a l o g y — t h e study o f m a m -
m a l s — w h i c h i s w h a t the giant f o r e s t h o g is, because a l m o s t e v e r y species can b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y the s t r u c t u r e o f its skull b o n e s and t e e t h . Meinertzhagen w r o t e on
FIGURE 4 1 : until
early
were
recorded and provide
known.
in
Giant forest hog. the
twentieth
1 6 June,
This species was unknown to the scientific community century.
a
The
circumstances surrounding
model for how large
"unknown"
its
animals
"discovery" become
A
LIVING
DINOSAUR?
249 But today I had e v e n b e t t e r luck. I had seen the tracks of p i g in the forest and have often b e e n out after t h e m .
It was o n l y today w h e n I was
successful. I came on her in s o m e thick stuff and killed her at about 40 yards. She is a y o u n g s o w , and I was able to p r e s e r v e the c o m p l e t e skull and skin, which I shall send to the British M u s e u m . T h i s is p r o b a b l y the first of her kind to be killed by a E u r o p e a n .
S o i t w a s a t the t u r n o f the c e n t u r y . W h e n M e i n e r t z h a g e n m o v e d t o N a n d i Fort in western Kenya in
1904, he found,
" F o r e s t h o g are quite c o m m o n
h e r e ; I saw o n e t o d a y , and t h e y f r e q u e n t l y c o m e i n t o m y v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n a t n i g h t . " H i s infatuation w i t h this a n i m a l c o n t i n u e d .
O n 8 June
1905 h e
writes,
I r e c e i v e d by t o d a y ' s mail the description and figure of the skull of my n e w forest pig. T h o u g h the beast occurs in the forest all r o u n d my house up h e r e , my efforts to obtain specimens have so far p r o v e d fruitless; y e t the natives k n o w the beast w e l l . I have o f f e r e d a h a n d s o m e r e w a r d f o r a specimen in the flesh, but I suppose they cannot c o n c e i v e that a n y o n e can be so mad as to w a n t a pig and m e r e l y regard my w h i m as a f o r m of insanity.
T h e h o g s v i s i t e d his g a r d e n :
I n o w have m o s t English vegetables g r o w i n g and they are n o w b e i n g raided by jackal, small antelope and forest p i g . I sat up last night and saw a forest duiker and t w o forest p i g , o n e a n e n o r m o u s b o a r , calmly r o o t i n g u p m y potatoes and t o m a t o e s . . . . S o m e day I shall p e p p e r those pig or put a bullet into o n e .
T h e discovery of the living okapi was not much different f r o m the discove r y o f the giant f o r e s t h o g . scientists,
In
1900 the okapi was u n k n o w n to W e s t e r n
a l t h o u g h n o w t h e y can b e s e e n i n m o s t z o o s .
T h e okapi is a
s h o r t - n e c k e d giraffe that inhabits t h e d e e p j u n g l e s o f t h e C o n g o Basin, w h e r e dinosaurs are s u g g e s t e d t o b e l i v i n g n o w . A t the turn o f t h e c e n t u r y p y g m i e s t o l d Sir H a r r y J o h n s t o n — t h e s a m e Sir H a r r y w h o had e a r l i e r s e c u r e d N y a s a l a n d , n o w M a l a w i , a s a British P r o t e c t o r a t e — o f a m u l e l i k e animal w i t h z e b r a l i k e s t r i p e s .
H e sent t w o p i e c e s o f t h e
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
250 s t r i p e d h i d e that had b e e n g i v e n h i m back t o B r i t a i n , and i n 1 9 0 1 , o n the basis of that e v i d e n c e , it w a s n a m e d Equus? johnstoni after h i m . L a t e r that same y e a r , w i t h b e t t e r and m o r e s p e c i m e n s , t h e beast w a s c o r r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e d t o b e a m e m b e r o f t h e giraffe f a m i l y . T h e r e f o r e , the n a m e w a s c h a n g e d t o Okapia johnstoni b e c a u s e it is c e r t a i n l y n o t a z e b r a or d e s e r v i n g of the h o r s e n a m e Equus. W h i l e t h e o k a p i i s a distinct s p e c i e s o f g i r a f f e , s o m e i n v e s t i g a t o r s early i n this c e n t u r y t h o u g h t that i t b o r e s o m e r e s e m b l a n c e t o e x t i n c t giraffes, also w i t h s h o r t n e c k s , w h i c h had b e e n k n o w n f r o m fossils f o r s o m e t i m e . C r y p t o z o o l o g i s t s , a s such p e o p l e w h o i n v e s t i g a t e c l a i m s o f h i d d e n species like t o call t h e m s e l v e s , p i c k e d up the o k a p i as an e x t i n c t animal f o u n d alive m i l l i o n s of years
after it
was
supposed
to
have
gone
extinct,
as Mokele-Mhemhe
is
s u p p o s e d t o b e . H o w e v e r , t h e o k a p i c l e a r l y i s n o t o n e o f the f o r m e r l y k n o w n fossil s p e c i e s , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the a n c i e n t r e c o r d o f the giraffe f a m i l y o r the p r i m i t i v e shortness o f t h e o k a p i ' s n e c k . The
d i s c o v e r i e s o f the g i a n t f o r e s t h o g and
the
okapi
are p a r t i c u l a r l y
e n l i g h t e n i n g w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h the r u m o r s o f a n o t h e r a n i m a l , s u p p o s e d l y l i v i n g i n t h e s a m e g e n e r a l area a s the g i a n t f o r e s t h o g , but w i t h n o t a n g i b l e p r o o f o f its e x i s t e n c e .
T h a t o n e i s c a l l e d the N a n d i b e a r .
T h e r e are t w o
t h e o r i e s as to w h a t a N a n d i b e a r m a y r e p r e s e n t . O n e is that it is r e a l l y a h o n e y badger or ratel,
a large m e m b e r of the weasel family. T h e other is m o r e
a p p e a l i n g t o l o n g - l o s t - a n i m a l enthusiasts. I t has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that the N a n d i b e a r is r e a l l y an e x t i n c t m a m m a l c a l l e d a c h a l i c o t h e r e .
C h a l i c o t h e r e s have
l o n g , h o r s y h e a d s , l o n g f r o n t l i m b s , and c l a w s o n t h e i r f i n g e r s . T h e y are g o r i l l a - s i z e d o r l a r g e r . W h i l e c h a l i c o t h e r e s h a v e a l o n g and s e e m i n g l y g o o d fossil r e c o r d i n m a n y parts o f the w o r l d i n c l u d i n g N o r t h A m e r i c a , E u r o p e , A s i a , and A f r i c a , i t i s a s hard t o i m a g i n e t h e i r e x i s t e n c e i n w e s t e r n K e n y a t o d a y a s i t i s t o i m a g i n e l i v i n g s a u r o p o d s i n the C o n g o , m o n s t e r s i n L o c h N e s s , o r A b o m i n a b l e S n o w m e n o n the t o p s o f m o u n t a i n s . I f c h a l i c o t h e r e s e x i s t e d n o w , t h e y w o u l d h a v e b e e n f o u n d o u t just like t h e giant f o r e s t h o g w a s . I f t h e r e is a n y t h i n g to the N a n d i - b e a r s t o r y b e s i d e s i m a g i n a t i o n , I suspect it m a y b e the w o r d - o f - m o u t h d e s c r i p t i o n o f g o r i l l a s passed across the c o n t i n e n t f r o m areas w h e r e t h e y l i v e t o areas w h e r e t h e y d o n o t . T h e r e a r e f o u r g e n e r a o f m a m m a l s — w o r l d w i d e — k n o w n f i r s t a s fossils, then d i s c o v e r e d to have living representatives. O n e is a peccary, a pig relative f r o m South A m e r i c a . O n e i s a m e m b e r o f t h e d o g f a m i l y , also k n o w n f r o m South A m e r i c a . O n e , n o t a l w a y s p u t i n this c a t e g o r y , i s a s m a l l , m o u s e l i k e
A
LIVING
DINOSAUR? 251
o p o s s u m k n o w n f r o m A u s t r a l i a , the f i r s t l i v e o n e , i n t e r e s t i n g l y e n o u g h , b e i n g caught in a ski hut in the Australian A l p s . T h e last e x a m p l e is a fruit bat f r o m N e w G u i n e a . N o n e o f the fossils i s h i g h l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m o t h e r , p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n r e l a t i v e s , and n o n e i s a n y w h e r e n e a r t h e tens o r e v e n h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s o f years o f dinosaur a n t i q u i t y .
If sauropods, so very different f r o m
a n y t h i n g else a l i v e t o d a y , w e r e still e x t a n t i n A f r i c a , s u r e l y s o m e r e m a i n s o f t h e m , e v e n a scrap o f skin a s i n the case o f t h e o k a p i o r f o r e s t h o g , w o u l d b e available t o v e r i f y the c l a i m . T h e s h o w p i e c e o f c r y p t o z o o l o g i c a l d i s c o v e r i e s i s t h e l i v i n g f i s h Latimeria ( F i g u r e 4 2 ) , t h e c o e l a c a n t h discussed b r i e f l y i n C h a p t e r 8 . I t b e l o n g s t o a g r o u p o f b o n y f i s h that w a s t h o u g h t t o h a v e b e e n e x t i n c t f o r e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h e n i n 1938 M i s s M . C o u r t e n a y - L a t i m e r w a s i n t r i g u e d b y a strange f i s h caught
in
the
Indian
Ocean
off South
Africa near the
mouth
of the
C h a l u m n a R i v e r . A l i v i n g c o e l a c a n t h had b e e n c a u g h t ! T h i s w a s t r u l y a stellar d i s c o v e r y . W h i l e Latimeria itself, as a distinct s p e c i e s , has no fossil r e c o r d , it i s a m e m b e r o f the l a r g e r c o e l a c a n t h g r o u p that had b e e n u n k n o w n f o r the vast l e n g t h o f t i m e b e t w e e n the A g e o f R e p t i l e s and n o w . T o this d a y , l i v i n g coelacanths are k n o w n o n l y f r o m a small p a t c h o f t h e o c e a n . T h e f i r s t w a s caught b y a South A f r i c a n f i s h i n g t r a w l e r . A l l the rest h a v e b e e n c a u g h t n e a r the C o m o r o Islands b e t w e e n M a d a g a s c a r and the A f r i c a n coast. T h e C o m o r o s w e r e the h o m e o f t h e p o r t e r s w h o d e s e r t e d L i v i n g s t o n e and r e p o r t e d h i m dead,
leading to
Stanley's
search
for
Livingstone.
Living coelacanths
are
k n o w n f r o m n o w h e r e else b u t t h o s e t i n y s p o t s , b u t m o s t l y the C o m o r o s , i n all the vast, vast o c e a n . C e r t a i n l y this i s a n e x a m p l e o f the fossil r e c o r d s o m e h o w p l a y i n g t r i c k s o n us. I t d o e s n o t a d e q u a t e l y r e f l e c t the e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f c o e l a c a n t h s . E v e n until t o d a y t h e r e h a v e b e e n n o fossil d i s c o v e r i e s t o f i l l t h e e i g h t y - m i l l i o n - y e a r gap i n the fossil r e c o r d . T h e r e a s o n m o s t l i k e l y lies w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r e f e r e n c e s o f fossil and l i v i n g c o e l a c a n t h s . Fossil c o e l a c a n t h s a r e p r e s e r v e d i n s h a l l o w - w a t e r e n v i r o n m e n t s , b o t h fresh and m a r i n e , that a r e a b u n d a n t l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n the r o c k r e c o r d . Latimeria l i v e s i n d e e p e r w a t e r , 6 5 0 f e e t d e e p , 2 0 0 m e t e r s or s o , in a m a r i n e e n v i r o n m e n t , and in a v e r y specific habitat as w e l l . T h e r u g g e d sea b o t t o m a l o n g t h e s t e e p l y s l o p i n g f e e t o f t h e C o m o r o Islands is f o r m e d f r o m lava. Latimeria hangs o u t in and a r o u n d c a v e s in the lava r o c k , f o r a g i n g and s w i m m i n g a b o u t , f o r the m o s t p a r t casually. Such e n v i r o n ments
as
those
frequented
by
Latimeria
are
rarely
preserved
in
the
rock
r e c o r d , e s p e c i a l l y i n such a state that fossils m i g h t b e p r e s e r v e d w i t h t h e m .
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
252
FIGURE
42:
The
coelacanth
coelacanths
were
turned
alive off the coast
up
thought
LATIMERIA
to
have
been
CHALUMNAE.
The
extinct for eighty
ultimate
living fossil,
million years
until
one
of South Africa.
M o r e o v e r , t h e y m a y n o t last all that l o n g . T h e C o m o r o s are v o l c a n i c islands, and a s w e h a v e s e e n , o c e a n i c v o l c a n o e s m o v e a w a y f r o m t h e i r lava s o u r c e b y p l a t e t e c t o n i c s and b e c o m e s u b m e r g e d t o g r e a t e r d e p t h s . Latimeria's habitat i n the C o m o r o s c a n n o t b e o l d e r than t h e islands t h e m s e l v e s , w h i c h i s o n l y a f e w m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h a t c r e a t e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a d o x : H e r e i s a l i v i n g fossil, disjunct f r o m its p r e d e c e s s o r s b y e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s , y e t l i v i n g a l o n g the u n d e r s e a s l o p e s o f a n island p e r h a p s o n l y
five
m i l l i o n years o l d .
Clearly
Latimeria m u s t e i t h e r l i v e u n d i s c o v e r e d e l s e w h e r e b e s i d e s the C o m o r o s ( a n d p e r h a p s n e a r t h e C h a l u m n a R i v e r ) o r i t i s s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d i n its d i s t r i b u t i o n . E i t h e r w a y i t has b e e n d o i n g s o m e u n d e r w a t e r island h o p p i n g a l o n g the f e e t of n e w l y c r e a t e d v o l c a n o e s . I suspect it is s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d in its g e o g r a p h y and that i t has b e e n h o p p i n g v o l c a n o e s f o r a l o n g , l o n g t i m e .
A
L I V I N G
D I N O S A U R ?
Latimeria is a n a t o m i c a l l y and b e h a v i o r a l l y an e x t r e m e l y i n t e r e s t i n g a n i m a l . It is h e a v i l y b u i l t , and like s o m e o t h e r fish that l i v e at similar d e p t h s , its flesh i s q u i t e o i l y . T h e tail f i n has t h r e e l o b e s , a n e x t r a o n e c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r f i s h . T h e p a i r e d f i n s , r e p r e s e n t i n g the a r m s and legs o f t e r r e s t r i a l a n i m a l s , a r e f l e s h y w i t h b o n y internal s u p p o r t s e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e b o d y i n t o t h e f i n s , thus d i s c l o s i n g t h e c o e l a c a n t h ' s c r y p t i c e v o l u t i o n a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p t o lungfish and t e t r a p o d s . I t d o e s n o t u t i l i z e its p a i r e d f i n s t o w a l k a l o n g the b o t t o m , but o f t e n its s l o w , d e l i b e r a t e m o v e m e n t s a r e s y n c h r o n i z e d and a l t e r n a t i n g . Its m o v e m e n t s appear a s a f i s h y f o r e s h a d o w o f t h e l o c o m o t i o n i n t e r r e s t r i a l v e r t e b r a t e s . It is a c a r n i v o r e , f e e d i n g on fishes and s q u i d s , p e r h a p s o t h e r things as w e l l . E v e n t h o u g h it is c a r n i v o r o u s , it is g e n e r a l l y sluggish, l e i s u r e l y m a i n t a i n i n g its p o s i t i o n i n the w a t e r w i t h casual f l i c k s o f this f i n o r that. P e r h a p s m o s t i n t r i g u i n g o f its b e h a v i o r a l traits i s its habit o f standing o n its h e a d . T h e r e are o r g a n s i n t h e snout that are q u i t e sensitive t o e l e c t r i c i t y . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a small a m o u n t of e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t to the w a t e r n e a r a Latimeria w i l l e l i c i t a head-standing r e s p o n s e .
It has
the
same behavior naturally,
without a
r e s e a r c h e r a p p l y i n g the c u r r e n t . T h a t suggests that Latimeria uses e l e c t r i c i t y t o sense its e n v i r o n m e n t , p o s s i b l y i n l o c a t i n g o t h e r a n i m a l s . W i t h Latimeria l i v i n g n o w a s i t d o e s , and w i t h the a n c i e n t fossil r e c o r d o f c o e l a c a n t h s , w h i c h i s r e a s o n a b l y g o o d e x c e p t f o r that e i g h t y - m i l l i o n - y e a r g a p , s h o w i n g a d i v e r s i t y of s p e c i e s and habitats f o r Latimeria's c o u s i n s , the c o e l a canths m u s t have a v e r y c o m p l i c a t e d s t o r y t o t e l l . inhabited b o t h salt and fresh w a t e r .
Early o n ,
coelacanths
T h e s a m e k i n d o f fossil c o e l a c a n t h i s
k n o w n f r o m the C r e t a c e o u s o f W e s t A f r i c a and f r o m A r a r i p e i n B r a z i l . ( A p t e r o s a u r i s e a t i n g a c o e l a c a n t h i n F i g u r e 3 5 ) . A t e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s a g o the m o r e easily o b s e r v e d f r e s h w a t e r and s h a l l o w - m a r i n e species b e c a m e e x t i n c t . D e s c e n d a n t species abundant since
the
such as Latimeria
Cretaceous.
may n e v e r have been particularly
T h e y m a y have just b o u n c e d
along from
s u b m e r g e d island t o s u b m e r g e d island, t h e i r r a n g e and a b u n d a n c e d i m i n i s h i n g w i t h the passage o f g e o l o g i c t i m e . Because w e k n o w that Latimeria i s d i f f e r e n t a t the f a m i l y l e v e l f r o m o t h e r c o e l a c a n t h s , w e k n o w that e v o l u t i o n i n the g r o u p d i d n o t s t o p , it just c h a n g e d v e n u e . Latimeria is a l i v i n g fossil, to be sure, and the r e a s o n is because it still s h o w s s o m e p r i m i t i v e f e a t u r e s , at least in its a n a t o m y , that are l i t t l e c h a n g e d f r o m o l d e r fossil s p e c i e s .
In o t h e r
r e g a r d s Latimeria i s u n d o u b t e d l y d e r i v e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e ancestral c o n d i t i o n . It is a l i v i n g fossil, but it is its o w n u n i q u e animal at the s a m e t i m e . Even
though
the
example
o f Latimeria
is
widely
touted
by
the
cryp-
t o z o o l o g y c o m m u n i t y , t h e r e i s n o m e a n i n g f u l a n a l o g y b e t w e e n the d i s c o v e r y
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
254 o f a n e w f a m i l y o f f i s h o v e r f i f t y y e a r s a g o , w h i c h i n o n e sense i s w h a t the d i s c o v e r y o f Latimeria a m o u n t e d t o , and the p r e d i c t i v e ability t o f i n d l i v i n g d i n o s a u r s , also b e l i e v e d t o b e e x t i n c t since the A g e o f R e p t i l e s . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e o b v i o u s : W e h a v e the f i s h ; w e d o n o t h a v e the d i n o s a u r . N o m a t t e r h o w r e m o t e the L i k o u a l a S w a m p is, i t i s n o t a s r e m o t e a s the o c e a n a r o u n d t h e C o m o r o Islands, 6 5 0 f e e t d o w n .
I t i s m u c h m o r e l i k e l y that a l i v i n g
s a u r o p o d w o u l d b e f o u n d , i f t h e y i n fact e x i s t e d , than that Latimeria w o u l d be f o u n d , m u c h less o b s e r v e d and p h o t o g r a p h e d in its natural habitat. T h e r e i s a n o t h e r b i g d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f Latimeria and the search f o r l i v i n g d i n o s a u r s . T h e search f o r l i v i n g dinosaurs i s justified o n l y o n the basis o f i n d i v i d u a l t e s t i m o n i e s . T h e r e i s n o o b j e c t i v e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e i r e x i s t e n c e i n the p r e s e n t w h a t s o e v e r . T h i s a p p r o a c h had a b s o l u t e l y n o r o l e i n t h e d i s c o v e r y o f Latimeria. rumors,
nor
searching
Miss M.
for
C o u r t e n a y - L a t i m e r w a s n o t o u t chasing
monsters
under
her
bed
or
in
her
extended
b a c k y a r d . She w a s a m u s e u m specialist m a k i n g c o l l e c t i o n s of fish on a South A f r i c a n t r a w l e r . A n o d d f i s h w a s c a u g h t , and t h e n , t h r o u g h the a t t e n d v e n e s s o f the c a p t a i n , i t w a s b r o u g h t t o h e r e y e . She k n e w she w o u l d f i n d f i s h o n a f i s h i n g b o a t . Small w o n d e r . T h e s h o c k c a m e w h e n she r e c o g n i z e d w h a t the f i s h w a s . T h e scientific significance o f h e r d i s c o v e r y c a n n o t b e c h a l l e n g e d , but the e x i s t e n c e o f Latimeria c a m e a s n o surprise t o the natives o f the C o m o r o Islands, w h o had caught t h e m b e f o r e . T h e scientific significance c a m e f r o m k n o w i n g w h a t it m e a n t .
Latimeria is a l i v i n g but distant r e l a t i v e of the fish
ancestral t o t h e f i r s t b a c k b o n e d animals t o l e a v e t h e w a t e r and take t o the land permanently. E v e n i f s a u r o p o d s w e r e still a l i v e , w h y should D a r k e s t A f r i c a b e t h e i r h o m e as o p p o s e d t o , say, L o n g Island? T h e a p p a r e n t r e a s o n is that A f r i c a is u n k n o w n i n t h e W e s t , a t least t o t h o s e p e o p l e m o u n t i n g the e x p e d i t i o n s t o the C o n g o . D i n o s a u r survival i n f a m i l i a r , w e l l - k n o w n , o r p o p u l a t e d c o r n e r s o f the U n i t e d States w o u l d tax the c r e d u l i t y o f e v e n t h e m o s t d y e d - i n - t h e - w o o l c r y p t o z o o l o g i s t , b u t i t i s a c c e p t a b l e , i n s o m e c i r c l e s , t o b e l i e v e s a u r o p o d s are i n A f r i c a . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a m o r e ad hoc reason that is usually o f f e r e d . T h e C o n g o Basin i s c o n s i d e r e d b y c r y p t o z o o l o g i s t s — a n d , i n fairness t o t h e m , b y s o m e s c i e n t i s t s — t o h a v e b e e n e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y stable since the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n years a g o . T h e e n v i r o n m e n t i s n o t s u p p o s e d t o h a v e c h a n g e d i n any significant w a y . A t all. T h e e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s i s t h e m a g i c t i m e b e c a u s e that i s w h e n dinosaurs vanished f r o m the fossil r e c o r d e v e r y w h e r e e l s e i n the w o r l d . I f the s w a m p s o f A f r i c a w e r e
A
L I V I N G
D I N O S A U R ?
n e v e r - c h a n g i n g , dinosaurs c o u l d have s u r v i v e d i n the sanctuary o f this s l i m y , murky,
unknown refugium.
H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s abundant and c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e that e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s i n A f r i c a have c h a n g e d w i t h t i m e , that s a u r o p o d s w e r e n o t l i m i t e d t o s w a m p s , and that the fossil r e c o r d w i t h its vast array o f species contains not
one
sauropod
specimen
from
any
place
on
Earth,
not
one
scrap
of
s a u r o p o d b o n e , since the A g e o f R e p t i l e s e n d e d . A l l that m u s t b e c o m b i n e d w i t h the o b s e r v a t i o n that t h e r e i s n o t o n e s h r e d o f t a n g i b l e e v i d e n c e , n o t a p i e c e o f skin, n o t a t o e n a i l , n o e v i d e n c e a t all that s a u r o p o d s l i v e t o d a y — anywhere. I t i s e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y that the p a r a m e t e r s d e f i n i n g the e n v i r o n m e n t s o f the A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t have r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t , h a v e n o t w a v e r e d , f o r s i x t y - s i x m i l l i o n y e a r s . T h e Earth, as a s p h e r e , s h o w s variations in t e m p e r a t u r e as o n e g o e s f r o m the t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s a d j o i n i n g the e q u a t o r t o the t e m p e r a t e z o n e s , and i n t o the c o l d h i g h - l a t i t u d e b o r e a l and a r c t i c c l i m a t e s .
In addition to
variation i n the sun's heating capacity r e l a t i v e t o the c u r v a t u r e o f the Earth, o c e a n s and
landmasses h a v e d i f f e r e n t t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s ,
h e a t i n g up
and
c o o l i n g d o w n a t d i f f e r e n t rates. H e a t differential and the spinning o f t h e Earth c r e a t e a t m o s p h e r i c and o c e a n i c c u r r e n t s , w h i c h d i s t r i b u t e t h e r m a l e n e r g y about the g l o b e i n patterns specific t o the shapes o f the c u r r e n t s . It should be o b v i o u s that physical changes in the g e o g r a p h y of c o n t i n e n t s and oceans w i l l c h a n g e c l i m a t e . I f c o n t i n e n t s d r i f t apart t h r o u g h plate t e c t o n i c s , the c l i m a t e w i l l b e d i f f e r e n t f r o m w h a t i t i s a t t i m e s w h e n landmasses are c o n j o i n e d . C o n t i n e n t s that c h a n g e
latitude t h r o u g h t i m e e x p e r i e n c e a n e v o l u t i o n o f
c l i m a t e . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f s h a l l o w seas c o v e r i n g l a r g e p o r t i o n s o f c o n t i n e n t s w i l l affect c l i m a t e . T h e f o r m a t i o n o f n e w o c e a n s w h e r e n o n e e x i s t e d p r e v i o u s l y w i l l m o d i f y o c e a n c u r r e n t s and influence c l i m a t e . But o n t o p o f all that t h e r e are a s t r o n o m i c a l c y c l e s that i m p o s e c l i m a t i c fluctuations o n t h e Earth. T h e a m o u n t of e n e r g y f r o m t h e sun r e a c h i n g the Earth varies in a r e c u r r e n t fashion. T h e r e are several causes. T h e Earth w o b b l e s o n its axis o f r o t a t i o n i n a p r e d i c t a b l e w a y , c o m p l e t i n g a c y c l e i n a b o u t 2 6 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . T h e tilt o f the E a r t h ' s axis also varies o v e r a p e r i o d o f about 4 1 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . M o r e o v e r the E a r t h ' s o r b i t a r o u n d the sun is n o t p e r f e c t l y r o u n d , and t h e r e is v a r i a t i o n in the t i m e of y e a r that the Earth is closest to or farthest a w a y f r o m the sun. T h i s t h i r d v a r i a b l e has a c y c l e of about 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s . A l l t h r e e o f the c y c l e s are p e r p e t u a l l y influencing the a m o u n t o f e n e r g y r e c e i v e d f r o m the s u n — a n d its d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t h e g l o b e — a n d t h e r e f o r e they influence c l i m a t e t h r o u g h t i m e .
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
256 T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s q u i t e c l e a r : T h e c l i m a t e and e n v i r o n m e n t o f any g i v e n p l a c e o n Earth w i l l c h a n g e . I t w i l l c h a n g e because o f the effects b r o u g h t a b o u t b y the physical r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f p l a t e t e c t o n i c s , and i t w i l l b e c h a n g e d b y the i m p o s i t i o n o f a s t r o n o m i c a l c y c l e s . A s s o c i a t e d w i t h all o f that, t h e r e are any
number
of small-
or
large-scale
influences
on
climate,
some
purely
p h y s i c a l , o t h e r s caused b y b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y . A l l o f these v a r i o u s influences c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o f c l i m a t e t h r o u g h t i m e , t o the e n v i r o n m e n t s and e c o s y s t e m s w i t h i n w h i c h o r g a n i s m s e v o l v e , and t o the c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h species g o extinct. I f c l i m a t i c c h a n g e i s t r u e f r o m a t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e n w e should b e a b l e t o see e v i d e n c e o f i t i n t h e r o c k s , and i n fact w e can. E v i d e n c e o f g l a c i e r s and i c e ages h a v e l o n g b e e n s e e n i n r o c k s . A n c i e n t b u r i e d soils l e a v e t e l l t a l e c l u e s a s t o the c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n u n d e r w h i c h t h e y f o r m e d . S o m e o f the
most
compelling
evidence
for
past
climate
comes
from
fossils.
The
a d a p t a t i o n s o f plants and animals o f t e n i n d i c a t e t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h t h e y m u s t l i v e . Fossil p o l l e n i s f r e q u e n t l y p a r t i c u l a r l y i n f o r m a t i v e w h e n i t can be r e c o v e r e d , w h i c h is surprisingly often. H o w e v e r , r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s in g e o c h e m i s t r y have p r o v i d e d s o m e o f the b e s t n e w e v i d e n c e o f ancient climates. T h e E a r t h ' s a t m o s p h e r e i s m a d e u p o f a m i x t u r e o f gases, m o s t l y n i t r o g e n , but also o x y g e n c o n t r i b u t e d b y p h o t o s y n t h e t i c p l a n t s , c a r b o n d i o x i d e , w a t e r v a p o r , and o t h e r m i n o r c o m p o n e n t s . A t o m s m a k i n g u p these gases c o m e i n v a r i o u s " f l a v o r s " a t t h e s u b a t o m i c l e v e l , and the a l t e r n a t i v e " f l a v o r s " are called isotopes.
A n y r o c k f o r m i n g i n c h e m i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h the a t m o -
s p h e r e , or an o r g a n i s m — s u c h as a c l a m , f o r i n s t a n c e — b u i l d i n g its shell f r o m e l e m e n t s i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h the a t m o s p h e r e w i l l r e f l e c t the i s o t o p i c c o m p o sition f o u n d at that p a r t i c u l a r t i m e in t h e air s u r r o u n d i n g the Earth.
Even
t h o u g h w e are talking a b o u t e l e m e n t s and i s o t o p e s and a t o m s and m o l e c u l e s , s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e s a l l o w the w e i g h t s o f d i f f e r e n t i s o t o p e s t o b e m e a sured w i t h g r e a t p r e c i s i o n . O x y g e n atoms of concern here c o m e in t w o isotopes.
O n e isotope is
h e a v i e r than the o t h e r . W h e n d e a l i n g w i t h such small p a r t i c l e s a s a t o m s and m o l e c u l e s , y o u w o u l d think that such a t r e m e n d o u s l y m i n u t e d i f f e r e n c e c o u l d not possibly have
any c o n s e q u e n c e .
But i t d o e s .
O x y g e n combines with
h y d r o g e n to f o r m w a t e r molecules. T h o s e w i t h an a t o m of heavy o x y g e n will w e i g h m o r e than a w a t e r m o l e c u l e m a d e w i t h a light o x y g e n . Subtle differe n c e s i n i s o t o p i c c o m p o s i t i o n affect the physical p r o p e r t i e s o f the w a t e r .
A
LIVING
DINOSAUR? 257
T h e s e slight d i f f e r e n c e s i n f l u e n c e t h e w a y the w a t e r m o l e c u l e s b e h a v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y , h o w easily t h e y g o i n t o t h e g a s e o u s state b y e v a p o r a t i o n a n d , o n c e t h e r e , h o w t h e y c o n d e n s e and fall t o t h e Earth a s rain o r s n o w . T h e s y s t e m i s c o m p l i c a t e d , b u t t h e e n d r e s u l t i s that s o m e v a r i a t i o n s i n c l i m a t i c p a r a m e t e r s , such a s t e m p e r a t u r e , h a v e a c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h o x y g e n i s o t o p e c o m p o s i t i o n , and that r e l a t i o n s h i p can b e m e a s u r e d . Since r o c k s o r shells f o r m i n g i n e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e a t m o s p h e r e w i l l r e f l e c t the r a t i o o f l i g h t - t o - h e a v y o x y g e n a t the t i m e o f t h e i r f o r m a t i o n , a stratigraphic s e c t i o n , usually o f m a r i n e r o c k s and fossils, w i l l r e c o r d t h e h i s t o r y o f c l i m a t e - r e l a t e d o x y g e n - i s o t o p e variations through t i m e .
That is h o w a long geochemical
r e c o r d o f the E a r t h ' s c l i m a t e i s b u i l t u p . O n c e t h e t e c h n o l o g y i s a t hand t o m a k e the m e a s u r e m e n t s , and after g o o d s a m p l e s h a v e b e e n c o l l e c t e d , i t i s basically q u i t e s i m p l e t o u n d e r s t a n d . I s o t o p e s o f o x y g e n a r e useful p a l e o c l i m a t i c t o o l s ,
but the t e m p e r a t u r e
r e g i m e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e m i s usually a n a v e r a g e f o r t h e Earth a s a w h o l e . T h a t i s e n o u g h t o t e l l u s that t h e r e h a v e b e e n e p i s o d e s o f significant g l o b a l c l i m a t e c h a n g e . T h e e v i d e n c e i s c l e a r o n that. I f the c l i m a t e o f the w h o l e Earth has u n d e r g o n e c h a n g e s ,
n o p l a c e has b e e n u n a f f e c t e d .
Still,
the c l i m a t i c
h i s t o r y o f specific r e g i o n s o f the g l o b e — t h e L i k o u a l a S w a m p f o r i n s t a n c e — i n contrast t o t h e E a r t h ' s a v e r a g e c l i m a t i c values m e a s u r e d t h r o u g h t i m e , i s o f t e n m o r e difficult t o d e c i p h e r . A v a r i e t y o f m e t h o d s i s o f t e n u s e d d e p e n d i n g o n what is available, including p o l l e n samples e x t r a c t e d f r o m sediments, envir o n m e n t a l l y sensitive a n c i e n t soils, fossil animals and p l a n t s , e v e n the shape of the l a n d — g e o m o r p h o l o g y , as it is c a l l e d . I n o r d e r f o r s w a m p s t o e x i s t , t w o basic r e q u i r e m e n t s m u s t b e m e t : T h e r e m u s t b e a d e q u a t e rainfall i n the w a t e r s h e d s that e m p t y i n t o t h e m , plus t h e r e must be a s l o w drain through w h i c h the accumulated w a t e r exits. T h a t is what k e e p s s w a m p y basins full. W a t e r m u s t p o n d and m e a n d e r , stand and stagnate, rather than f l o w s w i f t l y and c l e a n l y o u t o f t h e s y s t e m .
M o d i f y e i t h e r the
a m o u n t o f w a t e r o r the e f f i c i e n c y o f d r a i n a g e and t h e c o n d i t i o n s p r o d u c i n g the s w a m p w i l l b e a l t e r e d . T h e s w a m p w i l l c h a n g e . I t w i l l t r a n s f o r m t o r e f l e c t c h a n g i n g c l i m a t e and rainfall p a t t e r n s ,
and t o r e f l e c t the
d e v e l o p m e n t of
m o u n t a i n s and o t h e r l a n d f o r m s that m o d i f y the d r a i n a g e basins. M a j o r Earth p r o c e s s e s such as p l a t e t e c t o n i c s and c o n t i n e n t a l d r i f t c r e a t e m o u n t a i n s and o c e a n s , and a s w e k n o w , t h e y affect c l i m a t e . At
100
million
years
ago
South
America
w a s just
beginning
to
drift
w e s t w a r d a w a y f r o m A f r i c a . Since t h e n t h e t w o h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o drift apart.
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
2S8 A c o n t i n u o u s l y w i d e n i n g A t l a n t i c O c e a n m u s t affect o c e a n i c and a t m o s p h e r i c c i r c u l a t i o n — a n d c l i m a t e . A f t e r 100 m i l l i o n years a g o , and w e l l i n t o the A g e o f M a m m a l s , m u c h o f N o r t h and W e s t A f r i c a w a s i n u n d a t e d b y fluctuating seas, s o m e e x t e n d i n g q u i t e c l o s e t o t h e L i k o u a l a r e g i o n o f the C o n g o . T h e s e seas had a n e f f e c t o n c l i m a t e that w o u l d h a v e b e e n e x p r e s s e d i n C e n t r a l Africa. T h e m i g h t i e s t m o u n t a i n s o f t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t r e f l e c t g e o l o g i c a l history that o c c u r r e d after the Africa;
A g e of Reptiles.
Kilimanjaro,
the highest p e a k i n
K e r i n y a g a o r M o u n t K e n y a , w i t h the s e c o n d - h i g h e s t p e a k ; and the
R u w e n z o r i e s o r P t o l e m y ' s " M o u n t a i n s o f the M o o n , " o n the eastern e d g e o f t h e C o n g o B a s i n — t h e s e a r e all y o u n g c o n s t r u c t i o n s associated w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e East A f r i c a n R i f t S y s t e m . T h e C o n g o Basin drains the w e s t e r n side o f the East A f r i c a n highlands. I n W e s t A f r i c a , M o u n t C a m e r o o n and
the
Adamoua
Plateau,
just
to the
northwest
of Likouala,
are
much
y o u n g e r than the y o u n g e s t - k n o w n d i n o s a u r s . T h e g e o l o g i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f all these highlands m u s t h a v e a f f e c t e d n o t o n l y c l i m a t e but also drainage p a t t e r n s . T h o s e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s that m a k e the C e n t r a l A f r i c a n s w a m p s w e r e not
there
throughout
much
o f the
Age
of Mammals.
Sure,
there
were
d r a i n a g e s , and s o m e spots w e r e l o w e r and w e t t e r than o t h e r s , but based o n g e o m o r p h o l o g y t h e l a n d f o r m s that m a k e the s w a m p s t o d a y s i m p l y d i d n o t e x i s t until g e o l o g i c a l l y m o r e r e c e n t t i m e . T h e g e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t o f A f r i c a c l e a r l y r e f l e c t s the d y n a m i c s o f the past and a r g u e s against a n e v e r l a s t i n g and abyssal C e n t r a l A f r i c a n s w a m p . O n t o p o f all this a d d the fluctuations o f g l o b a l c l i m a t e r e c o r d e d i n o x y g e n i s o t o p e s and
the
cyclic
fluctuations
influences o n the
Earth.
known
to
G i v e n these
have
occurred
circumstances,
due
to
astronomical
there is virtually no
g e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n t o think that the L i k o u a l a S w a m p w o u l d have r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d since the days o f t h e d i n o s a u r s . Moreover,
e n v i r o n m e n t a l e v i d e n c e f r o m a n u m b e r o f s o u r c e s indicates
that no e x t e n s i v e l o w l a n d rain f o r e s t s such as c h a r a c t e r i z e the C o n g o Basin t o d a y e x i s t e d i n A f r i c a a t 100 m i l l i o n years a g o . C l a y m i n e r a l s o f that a g e , w e a t h e r e d f r o m A f r i c a n r o c k s and b l o w n o u t t o settle g e n t l y o n the o c e a n f l o o r , a r e o f the k i n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y f o r m e d i n seasonally arid e n v i r o n m e n t s , n o t i n s w a m p s . A n c i e n t soils and fossils o f plants w i t h special adaptat i o n s f o r d r y o r salty habitats d e m o n s t r a t e seasonal a r i d i t y . T h e r e is, u n f o r t u n a t e l y , n o fossil r e c o r d f r o m the depths o f the Likouala S w a m p . T h e reason is straightforward e n o u g h . It being a s w a m p , sediments
A
LIVING
DINOSAUR?
259 are b e i n g d e p o s i t e d , h i d d e n u n d e r w a t e r and rank v e g e t a t i o n , r a t h e r than b e i n g e x p o s e d t h r o u g h e r o s i o n t o d i s c l o s e w h a t e v e r fossils t h e y m i g h t c o n tain. B o n e s f o u n d i n N i g e r , C a m e r o o n , and M a l a w i s h o w that A f r i c a n d i n o saurs, i n c l u d i n g s a u r o p o d s , i n h a b i t e d a seasonally d r y , h o t land. T h e dinosaur fossils f r o m C a m e r o o n are l o c a t e d a short f i v e h u n d r e d m i l e s t o the n o r t h w e s t o f the L i k o u a l a . T h e g e o l o g i c a l changes that h a v e r e s u l t e d i n uplift, e r o s i o n , and the d i s c o v e r y o f fossils i n C a m e r o o n a r e r e l a t e d t o the g e o l o g i c a l e v e n t s that m o l d e d the n o r t h w e s t e r n m a r g i n o f the C e n t r a l A f r i c a n s w a m p l a n d s .
THERE
IS
ANOTHER related bit of science
fiction—or
rather pseudo-
s c i e n c e — t h a t is as e q u a l l y u n t e n a b l e as l i v i n g s a u r o p o d s in A f r i c a . It is the search f o r human fossils associated w i t h dinosaur fossils. G l e n R o s e , T e x a s , a t w o - h o u r d r i v e s o u t h w e s t o f D a l l a s , i s t h e w o r l d ' s h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r that search. I n this p a r t o f T e x a s the P a l u x y R i v e r f l o w s t h r o u g h 111 - m i l l i o n - y e a r - o l d r o c k s , r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e n t i n a g e t o those o f M a l a w i , C a m e r o o n , and A r a r i p e i n Brazil. T h e r o c k s a t G l e n R o s e r e p r e s e n t the r e m n a n t s o f o l d s h o r e l i n e s and m u d flats f r o m a t i m e w h e n t h e o c e a n s c o v e r e d m u c h o f w h a t i s n o w T e x a s . Dinosaur
footprints—four-footed
sauropods,
strong-clawed
three-toed
t h e r o p o d s , and b l u n t " b i r d - f o o t " o r n i t h o p o d s — c r i s s c r o s s t h e a n c i e n t flats, p r e s e r v i n g single m o m e n t s o f m o v e m e n t i n t h e l i v e s o f these g r e a t beasts. T h e e x i s t e n c e o f dinosaur t r a c k w a y s i n the P a l u x y R i v e r b o t t o m s has b e e n k n o w n since e a r l y i n this c e n t u r y . T h e Apatosaurus a t the A m e r i c a n M u s e u m o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y i n N e w Y o r k , until r e c e n t l y , t o w e r e d o v e r G l e n R o s e footprints.
O f c o u r s e the b o n e s o f t h e Apatosaurus s k e l e t o n are a b o u t
145
m i l l i o n years o l d , and the f o o t p r i n t s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y y o u n g e r , a scant 111 m i l l i o n . T h e f o o t p r i n t s b e a r t h e n a m e Brontopodus birdi, n a m e d f o r R o l a n d T . B i r d w h o , w i t h the h e l p o f W P A w o r k c r e w s , b r a v e d the f l o o d s o f the P a l u x y t o c o l l e c t fossils f o r the m u s e u m i n N e w Y o r k . F o o t p r i n t s , a s a special kind o f trace fossil,
n o t a part of an animal,
b u t v e r y c e r t a i n e v i d e n c e o f its
p r e s e n c e , and e v e n its b e h a v i o r , can b e g i v e n t h e i r o w n scientific n a m e s . D u r i n g the D e p r e s s i o n and after, a f e w o f the l o c a l r e s i d e n t s a t t e m p t e d t o sell prints to b r i n g in s o m e scarce cash.
D i g g i n g up dinosaur f o o t p r i n t s is
tough w o r k . Apparently some ingenious entrepreneurs decided it w o u l d be easier t o c a r v e n e w f o o t p r i n t s i n s t o n e r a t h e r than d i g u p o l d o n e s . T h e p r i n t s t h e y c h o s e t o c a r v e w e r e i n the shape o f h u m a n f e e t .
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
PH . D
260 F u n d a m e n t a l i s t s c a r r i e d this a step f u r t h e r . ( E x c u s e t h e p u n ; I c o u l d n o t resist i t . ) T h e y i d e n t i f i e d s o m e e l o n g a t e e r o s i o n a l d e p r e s s i o n s — t o o l a r g e , but n e v e r m i n d — a s h u m a n p r i n t s , m a k i n g the c l a i m that dinosaurs and humans w a l k e d t o g e t h e r a l o n g t h e s h o r e o f the a n c i e n t G l e n R o s e sea. T h e claims are s o o u t r a g e o u s l y false that t h e w h o l e s t o r y w o u l d b e c o m i c a l w e r e i t n o t f o r the i m p l i c a t i o n s t o p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l i s t a g e n d a .
Y e t this
nonsense is amazingly resilient. T h e r e is a m u s e u m outside of G l e n R o s e , the C r e a t i o n E v i d e n c e s M u s e u m , that p r e s e n t s such absurdities a s t h e p e t r i f i e d f i n g e r o f a w o m a n ( r e a l l y a b u r r o w f i l l i n g o r c o n c r e t i o n f r o m the G l e n R o s e L i m e s t o n e ) , a b n o r m a l l y l a r g e c l o t h i n g t o d e m o n s t r a t e that giants l i v e , and a h y p e r b a r i c c h a m b e r . T h i s last o n e i s a m u s i n g . T h e l o g i c g o e s s o m e t h i n g like this: I n the days o f N o a h , w i t h all that r a i n , the a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e m u s t h a v e b e e n m u c h h i g h e r than i t i s n o w .
O r g a n i s m s , s o the creationists say,
g r o w t o unnaturally l a r g e size u n d e r such a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . T h e h y p e r b a r i c c h a m b e r i s a m e t a l s e p t i c tank o r s o m e such c o n t a i n e r , p r e s u m a b l y b e i n g c o n v e r t e d t o h o u s e k i t t y cats and o t h e r v i c t i m s u n d e r p r e s s u r e , a l l e g e d l y t o turn t h e m i n t o giants. B e l i e v e r s i n the association o f d i n o s a u r and h u m a n f o o t p r i n t s r e j e c t v i r tually all standably,
intelligent explanation. do
not
generally
c o n t i n u a l l y d o u s i n g such
A n d professional paleontologists,
address
the
issue.
frivolous backfires,
If their
time
under-
was
spent
legitimate research questions
w o u l d g o u n a d d r e s s e d . T h e r e i s a t r e m e n d o u s b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e testifying a s t o w h y the creationists are w r o n g o n this issue.
L i b r a r i e s are full o f it.
M o s t all o f w h a t has b e e n discussed i n this b o o k d i s p r o v e s i t ( a n d t h e r e s t i s n o t r e l e v a n t t o t h e i s s u e ) . M o s t c r e a t i o n i s t s just s i m p l y c h o o s e t o r e m a i n overzealous, unaware, uninformed, or purposely deceitful. T h e r e is no excuse f o r such shabby, i n n u m e r a t e l o g i c w h e n t h e p r o b l e m s the w o r l d faces require
deliberate,
considered,
and
reasoned
solutions.
Much
to
their
c r e d i t , t h e latest falsifications o f f u n d a m e n t a l i s t f o o t p r i n t d o g m a h a v e b e e n made
not
by
professional
paleontologists
but
by
interested
and
curious,
d e e p l y w o n d e r i n g a m a t e u r p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s . T h e i r attitudes a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l . Unfortunately w h e n e v e r one allegation is disproved, another o n e ,
equally
ludicrous, crops up. T h e r e i s a v e r y s i m p l e r e a s o n w h y c r e a t i o n i s t s c l i n g t o the G l e n R o s e f o o t p r i n t s and insist o n t h e c o - o c c u r r e n c e o f m e n and d i n o s a u r s :
Such a n
association w o u l d d i s p e l the necessity o f a n Earth w i t h vast a n t i q u i t y . T h e e n t i r e h i s t o r y o f c r e a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g the day o f r e s t , c o u l d b e a c c o m m o d a t e d
A
LIVING
DINOSAUR?
i n the s e v e n b i b l i c a l days o f the G e n e s i s m y t h . quished.
For creationists,
Evolution w o u l d be van-
l i v i n g dinosaurs w o u l d d o the s a m e t h i n g .
fundamentalist c r e a t i o n i s t m o v e m e n t
was
involved
in
at
least o n e
The
o f the
Likouala S w a m p e x p e d i t i o n s . In A f r i c a I ran i n t o a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t f o o t p r i n t p h e n o m e n o n similar to w h a t I w a s familiar w i t h i n T e x a s . I n 1988 the C a m e r o o n e x p e d i t i o n d i s c o v e r e d o v e r t w o h u n d r e d dinosaur tracks a l o n g the M a y o R e y , a s t r e a m i n the K o u m Basin n o t all that far f r o m w h e r e w e f o u n d M e s o z o i c m a m m a l s . T h i s i s a s t r o n g l y M u s l i m area o f the c o u n t r y n e a r t h e b o r d e r w i t h C h a d .
We were
v e r y e x c i t e d w i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y o f l o t s and lots o f t r a c k s . Back a t R h i n o c e r o s C a m p , w h e r e w e w e r e staying, I t o l d o u r local l a b o r e r s a b o u t o u r " d i s c o v ery. T h e y had the p e r f e c t r e p l y :
" W h y d i d n ' t y o u t e l l u s that i s w h a t y o u
w a n t e d t o f i n d ? W e c o u l d h a v e taken y o u t h e r e t o b e g i n w i t h . " I t w a s e x p l a i n e d t o u s that t h e f o o t p r i n t l o c a l i t y w a s w e l l k n o w n t o the native
populace.
Of course
they
did
not
know
about
dinosaurs
per
se.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , f r o m t h e i r w a y o f l i f e , l i v i n g i n the bush a s t h e y d o , t h e y c o u l d c e r t a i n l y r e c o g n i z e s p o o r , n o t that that i s hard t o d o w i t h d i n o s a u r f o o t p r i n t s , e v e n i f t h e y d i d n o t k n o w w h a t c r e a t u r e s had m a d e the trails. S o m e o f the m o r e d e v o u t and i m a g i n a t i v e o f t h e m c l a i m e d that t h e y had s e e n , i n a m o n g s t the tracks, the k n e e , e l b o w , and f o r e h e a d p r i n t s o f o n e o f the g e n u f l e c t i n g Islamic faithful p r a y i n g t o M e c c a . I n t h e d e p t h s o f A f r i c a r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n talism w a s s h o w i n g itself a m o n g d i n o s a u r t r a c k s , just as it d o e s back h o m e in T e x a s . M y friends w e r e unable t o r e l o c a t e the h u m a n p r i n t s , s o t h e y c o u l d n o t b e s h o w n t o m e . But m y g u i d e s w e r e sure t h e y had s e e n t h e m b e f o r e . N o w , M u h a m m a d w a s n o t b o r n until the sixth c e n t u r y . I d o n o t k n o w w h e n M u s l i m i n f l u e n c e f i r s t b e g a n t o b e felt i n n o r t h e r n C a m e r o o n , b u t i t c o u l d have b e e n fairly l a t e , m a y b e w i t h i n the last c o u p l e o f h u n d r e d y e a r s — m a y b e e v e n later than that. H o w m i g h t c r e a t i o n i s t s i n t e r p r e t this? C o u l d t h e y argue
that dinosaurs
are
not an
Old
Testament
legacy,
drowned
in
the
N o a c h a n f l o o d , that t h e y l i v e d w e l l i n t o l a t e r t i m e s — w h e n w e h a v e , i n c i d e n tally, abundant and e l a b o r a t e w r i t t e n r e c o r d s — a n d also w e l l i n t o t h e t i m e that the E a r t h ' s b i g animals w e r e b e c o m i n g g e n e r a l l y familiar? I t w o u l d m e a n n o t h i n g i f such a r g u m e n t s w e r e m a d e — j u s t s o l o n g a s t h e y stay o u t s i d e t h e science c l a s s r o o m .
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
262 THE
REAL
I M P O R T A N C E o f that site i n C a m e r o o n i s i n t h e f o o t p r i n t s .
D i n o s a u r t r a c k s , as fossils, are i n t e r e s t i n g . U n l i k e b o d y fossils such as b o n e s or t e e t h , t r a c k w a y s p r e s e r v e an instant in t i m e . It is fossilized m o v e m e n t , and therefore
it
embodies
Dinosaur
tracks
are
the
n o t so
spirit rare
o f the as
behavior
you
might
that
think.
movement
entails.
Their preservation
d e p e n d s o n dinosaurs m o v i n g across the r i g h t k i n d o f g r o u n d , soft e n o u g h t o l e a v e an i m p r e s s i o n , y e t firm e n o u g h and n o t so m u s h y as to fill in the shape o r o b s c u r e d e f i n i t i o n . S o m e o f the t r a c k w a y s i n C a m e r o o n s h o w the trackm a k e r p r o g r e s s i n g f r o m f i r m e r t o s l o p p i e r substrate. T h e size and w e i g h t o f dinosaurs can b e e s t i m a t e d using m a t h e m a t i c a l e q u a t i o n s based o n f o o t p r i n t m e a s u r e m e n t s . Estimates o f s p e e d and gait can b e d e t e r m i n e d . D i r e c t i o n s o f t r a v e l can b e s e e n , and the sizes o r r e l a t i v e ages o f individuals l i k e l y t o b e t r a v e l i n g i n the s a m e g r o u p can b e c o n t e m p l a t e d . A t the m a i n track site i n C a m e r o o n ,
c a l l e d K B - 1 7 because i t w a s the
s e v e n t e e n t h l o c a l i t y f o u n d i n t h e K o u m Basin, t h e r e are f o u r s u p e r i m p o s e d stratigraphic
levels,
four
bedding
surfaces
on
the
tops
o f f o u r sequential
s e d i m e n t a r y strata, that h o l d m o s t of the t r a c k w a y s . T h e site itself is a stretch o f t h e M a y o R e y i n the m i d d l e o f the basin. T h e south bank i s f o r m e d o f C r e t a c e o u s sandstone and s i l t s t o n e , t i l t e d d o w n t o the n o r t h a t a t e n - d e g r e e a n g l e . T h e r i v e r i n f l o o d d u r i n g the rainy season s w e e p s the sandstone clean and e x p o s e s t h e surfaces p o c k e d w i t h tracks. T r a c k s a r e n o t the o n l y s e d i m e n tary structures p r e s e n t . T h e r e are t r a c e s o f a n c i e n t plant r o o t s i n a t least o n e s p o t . T h e r e are r i p p l e m a r k s i n p l a c e s , s h o w i n g that w a t e r c o v e r e d the m u d . T h e r e are m u d c r a c k s , s h o w i n g i t d r i e d o u t . T h e r e i s e v e n a d i n o s a u r track m a d e o n a flat surface, w i t h o u t r i p p l e m a r k s , but inside the track a r e m u d c r a c k s . W a t e r c o l l e c t e d i n the i m p r i n t o f the d i n o s a u r f o o t , m a k i n g a little p o o l . A s the w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d and s o a k e d i n t o the g r o u n d , the m u d inside the p r i n t w a s left t o d r y . A s i t d i d , the m u d shrank and c r a c k e d . A l l that t o l d in one print. W e spent s e v e r a l days o n the slab m e a s u r i n g t o e s , a n g l e s , p a c e s , s t r i d e s , e v e r y t h i n g necessary t o r e c o n s t r u c t the site o n p a p e r i n a d e t a i l e d m a p . M y g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , John C o n g l e t o n , d i d a fine j o b on the s t u d y , as y o u can j u d g e f r o m the s u m m a r y that f o l l o w s .
At K B - 1 7 we measured forty-seven
separate t r a c k w a y s w i t h a t o t a l o f n e a r l y 2 5 0 i n d i v i d u a l p r i n t s . T h e i d e n t i t y o f the tracks m a t c h e d w h a t w e e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e s c r a p p y b o n e s and t e e t h w e had f o u n d i n o u r q u a r r i e s a t the east e n d o f t h e basin, s o t o g e t h e r the t w o sets o f data c o m p l e m e n t e d each o t h e r i n w h a t t h e y c o u l d say about the
A
L I V I N G
D I N O S A U R ?
263 dinosaurs that l i v e d t h e r e . B o t h are i m p o r t a n t because n o dinosaurs had e v e r b e e n f o u n d i n t h e K o u m Basin b e f o r e o u r e x p e d i t i o n s w e n t t h e r e . U s i n g b o d y fossils, w e c o u l d i d e n t i f y a c o u p l e o f kinds o f t h e r o p o d s based o n m e a t - e a t i n g t e e t h . W e also had a f e w s a u r o p o d t e e t h and o n e lousy t o o t h that c o u l d possibly have c o m e o u t o f a s t e g o s a u r ' s m o u t h . T h e sail-backed p l a n t - e a t e r Ouranosaurus ( s e e F i g u r e 3 in C h a p t e r 1) w a s c l e a r l y p r e s e n t . T h e other
members
of the
fauna,
based
on
body
parts,
include
crustaceans,
lungfish and a t least o n e o t h e r f i s h s p e c i e s , f r o g s , t u r t l e s , and c r o c o d i l e s , m o s t n o t a b l y little Araripesuchus.
A n d of course we got what we w e n t there f o r —
early m a m m a l s . The
footprints
i n the
Koum
Basin w e r e all m a d e b y d i n o s a u r s .
Most
abundant b y far are t h e r o p o d prints ( l i k e t h o s e o f Spinosaurus i n F i g u r e 2 ) . These show three narrow toes.
M o r e than o n e s p e c i e s i s p r o b a b l y r e p r e -
s e n t e d . L a r g e r p r i n t s w i t h t h r e e b r o a d t o e s w e r e m a d e b y Ouranosaurus i n all p r o b a b i l i t y . T h e smallest prints f o u n d a r e o n l y a b o u t t h r e e inches o r s o i n l e n g t h . T h e y also h a v e t h r e e t o e s . T h e y m a y r e p r e s e n t a small s p e c i e s o f dinosaur, or they could b e l o n g to y o u n g of o n e of the larger species. A l l three o f the t r a c k w a y s m a d e b y the s m a l l e s t f e e t w e r e t r a v e l i n g t o the n o r t h e a s t . W e f o u n d n o s a u r o p o d prints a t K B - 1 7 , b u t just a short distance a w a y t h e r e w e r e u n m i s t a k a b l e traces o f s a u r o p o d s w a l k i n g i n sticky m u d .
Their feet,
a d a p t e d t o b e a r i n g w e i g h t o n t h e e n d s o f p i l l a r l i k e l e g s , sank d e e p i n t o the o o z e , l e a v i n g b e h i n d t h e i r t r a c e s , m o r e h o l e s than p r i n t s , a s t h e f e e t w e r e t u g g e d f r o m the m u d that sucked t o h o l d t h e m in. A b o u t half o f the dinosaur t r a c k w a y s a t K B - 1 7 p r o c e e d e d p r e f e r e n t i a l l y i n a northeast-southwest
direction.
The
o t h e r half w e r e
g o i n g the
opposite
d i r e c t i o n . P e r h a p s the same individuals w e r e g o i n g s o m e p l a c e i n o n e d i r e c t i o n and c o m i n g back f r o m i t i n the o t h e r . O n l y o n e t r a c k w a y i s o r i e n t e d eastw e s t . Because the t r a c k w a y s are spread o v e r m o r e than f o u r h u n d r e d y a r d s ' d i s t a n c e , t h e y are o n f o u r d i f f e r e n t s e d i m e n t a r y b e d d i n g surfaces, and t h e y r e p r e s e n t s e v e r a l species o f d i n o s a u r s , the u n i f o r m i t y i n the a l i g n m e n t o f the t r a c k w a y s , w h e t h e r c o m i n g o r g o i n g , i s s t r i k i n g . I t suggests that s o m e e n v i r o n m e n t a l o b s t r u c t i o n , such a s a r i v e r , c o n t r o l l e d the a v e n u e o f m o v e m e n t . Perhaps the dinosaurs w e r e m o v i n g parallel t o a r i v e r c h a n n e l , a l o n g its bank, o r m a y b e t h e y w e r e c o n s t r a i n e d i n the d i r e c t i o n s t h e y c o u l d t r a v e l b y s o m e o t h e r physical b a r r i e r . M o s t o f the dinosaurs a t K B - 1 7 w e r e w a l k i n g w h e n t h e y left t h e i r p r i n t s ; h o w e v e r , t h e r e are e x a m p l e s o f o t h e r gaits a s w e l l . T h e r e are e x a m p l e s o f
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
264 t r o t t i n g and s p r i n t i n g , a s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e l e n g t h o f s t r i d e , and e v e n s o m e cases o f s p e e d i n g u p and s l o w i n g d o w n . S m a l l e r dinosaurs s e e m t o h a v e b e e n m o r e active
and agile than
larger ones.
O n e t r a c k m a k e r m a y have b e e n
i n j u r e d , as its t r a c k w a y i n d i c a t e s it w a s l i m p i n g a l o n g its w a y .
At first I
t h o u g h t w e had t h e m a r k s o f a tail d r a g g i n g i n o n e o f the t r a c k w a y s , but I w a s w r o n g . W h e n w e m a p p e d i t o u t , the t r a c k w a y s h o w e d a t h e r o p o d m a k i n g a t u r n , its o u t s i d e f o o t m a k i n g a b r o a d s w e e p o n the substrate. T h e lack o f tail drags e v e r y w h e r e i s significant and tells u s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t h o w dinosaurs h e l d t h e i r tails: u p o f f t h e g r o u n d . T h e t r a c k w a y s I r e m e m b e r m o s t pleasantly a t K B - 1 7 can b e i n t e r p r e t e d in
a
controversial
manner,
and
I
really
have
no
way
of supporting
my
c o n t e n t i o n , but here it g o e s . T h e r e are t w o trackways at the w e s t e r n end of the s i t e ,
b o t h t h r e e - t o e d t h e r o p o d s b u t o n e c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r than the
o t h e r . T h e l a r g e r is s t r o l l i n g a l o n g , b u t c u r i o u s l y it is w a l k i n g in a c u r v i n g p a t h . T h e s m a l l e r o f the t w o i s w a l k i n g a l o n g b e s i d e i t , i n the same d i r e c t i o n , p a r a l l e l i n g the c u r v e to a r e m a r k a b l e d e g r e e . C o u l d this be an adult and its offspring traveling along
together?
If s o ,
it reflects a
sophisticated
social
s t r u c t u r e . W h y n o t ? I i m a g i n e a m o t h e r w i t h y o u n g . I t w o u l d n o t b e startling r e a l l y , i t i s just that I c a n n o t p r o v e that the t w o w e r e actually w a l k i n g t o g e t h e r at the s a m e t i m e p u r p o s e l y r a t h e r than t h e i r associated tracks b e i n g a spurious and f o r t u i t o u s c o i n c i d e n c e .
P a r e n t a l b e h a v i o r in h e r b i v o r o u s dinosaurs has
a l r e a d y b e e n d o c u m e n t e d i n n e s t i n g areas and w i t h j u v e n i l e a g g r e g a t e s . T h e y also f o r m e d h e r d s and f l o c k s ,
s o m e of them anyway. T h e r o p o d s may w e l l
h a v e b e h a v e d i n t h e s a m e g e n e r a l w a y , c a r i n g f o r y o u n g and p e r h a p s f o r m i n g packs. T h e r e a r e n o l i v i n g dinosaurs i n A f r i c a ,
a t least i n the sense o f r e l i c t
s a u r o p o d s , but w e h a v e c e r t a i n l y b e e n able t o learn a g r e a t deal a b o u t the o n e s f o u n d t h e r e a s fossils. W e can a p p r e c i a t e t h e m a s l i v i n g a n i m a l s , a s w e l l w e s h o u l d , b e c a u s e we k n o w that in a m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e sense dinosaurs are still living.
A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n , t h e y are l i v i n g i n the f o r m o f b i r d s , the
descendants of t h e r o p o d s .
Birds a r e dinosaurs that fly,
that have c o l o r f u l
p l u m a g e , and d e l i c a t e e g g s , and p a r e n t s that c a r e f o r t h e y o u n g . T h e y are n o t s a u r o p o d s , t y r a n n o s a u r s , o r any o f the o t h e r p o p u l a r M e s o z o i c d e n i z e n s , b u t w e can b e t t e r i m a g i n e t h o s e beasts b y h a v i n g a n a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r the l i v i n g dinosaurs. speculate
T h r o u g h b i r d s w e can w a t c h the on
the
courtship
behavior
m a t i n g dances o f cranes and
of Ornithomimus.
Birds,
as
dinosaurs,
p r o v i d e a fascinating n e w d i m e n s i o n t o d i n o s a u r b i o l o g y — a n d a w i n d o w t h r o u g h w h i c h t o v i e w it.
A
LIVING
DINOSAUR? 265
E v e r since t h e i r o r i g i n f r o m t h e r o p o d s , b i r d s h a v e u n d e r g o n e a m a r v e l o u s radiation beautifully e x e m p l i f i e d in tropical Africa. Is it n o t m o r e grand, m o r e inspiring,
t o see b i r d s a s l i v i n g dinosaurs e v o l v i n g t h r o u g h t i m e w i t h the
e c o l o g y of a c h a n g i n g Earth, to l e a r n a b o u t the past as it w a s and f o r w h a t i t m e a n s t o the f u t u r e , than t o h o l d fast w i t h n o g o o d r e a s o n t o t h e n o t i o n that s a u r o p o d s still l i v e o r that h u m a n s w a l k e d w i t h g i a n t dinosaurs? T h e A g e o f R e p t i l e s i s s i m p l y a n e x p i r e d w o r l d that n o l o n g e r e x i s t s e x c e p t t h r o u g h its l e g a c y — i t s f o u n d a t i o n f o r o u r m o d e r n w o r l d .
THE
GOOD
OF
DINOSAURS
T
H E FIELD SEASON i s o v e r f o r m e . I t w a s successful. W e g o t fossils.
N o w I a m i n t h e airplane and the p e o p l e o f M w a k a s y u n g u t i are o n the g r o u n d . I g o t t h e fossils and n o w I a m l e a v i n g . F r o m h e r e i n t h e a i r p l a n e , flying o v e r , the v a l l e y of t h e D i n o s a u r Beds l o o k s insignificant. version
o f d r i v i n g past p e d e s t r i a n s .
The
It is like a large-scale
perspective
is
so
different.
Can
M w a k a s y u n g u t i m a t t e r , this s p e c k l y i n g i n t h e v a l l e y s o far b e l o w m e ? C a n M a l a w i ? It is so o u t - o f - t h e - w a y and such a small p l a c e . Its t e l e p h o n e d i r e c t o r y i s a p u n y half-inch t h i c k — i n c l u d i n g t h e y e l l o w p a g e s — f o r the w h o l e c o u n t r y . I t i s easy t o b e cynical a b o u t A f r i c a . L o n g a g o t h e g e o l o g i s t J . W . G r e g o r y w r o t e that L i v i n g s t o n e ' s d e a t h i n
1873
" c l o s e d t h e w o r k o f the d r e a m e r s
. . . h e n c e f o r w a r d t h e y [ w o u l d b e ] u n i m p o r t a n t . " T h a t can n e v e r have b e e n less t r u e than n o w i n p r e s e n t - d a y A f r i c a . W i t h o u t d r e a m s t h e r e i s n o v i s i o n . W i t h o u t v i s i o n , h o w can p r o b l e m s b e s o l v e d ? W i t h o u t A f r i c a n s o f v i s i o n , h o w can A f r i c a s o l v e its p r o b l e m s ? I s u p p o s e that i f M w a k a s y u n g u t i d o e s n o t m a t t e r i n the g r e a t s c h e m e o f things, M a l a w i does not. If M a l a w i does n o t , Africa does not. A n d if Africa does not matter, neither does the w o r l d at large. A l l of them matter, or none o f t h e m d o e s . I n the f i n a l analysis, w e all h a v e t o l i v e o n this Earth. S o M w a k a s y u n g u t i d o e s m a t t e r . I t i s n o t insignificant. Still, the p r o b l e m s
266
THE
GOOD
OF
DINOSAURS 267
of such a t i n y c o u n t r y as M a l a w i , stuck w a y o f f in A f r i c a , a p p e a r i n s u p e r a b l e . A n d a hunt f o r dinosaurs in such a p l a c e a p p e a r s l u d i c r o u s , s o m e t i m e s e v e n t o m e . But it is n o t . T h e r e is so m u c h a b o u t w o r k i n g in a d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e that is i n c o n g r u o u s . So much of Africa is incongruous.
M u c h of what I do not understand is
pleasant, such as the sign on the business e s t a b l i s h m e n t b e l l o w i n g o u t , WELDING AND DISCOTHEQUE.
W h a t can that m e a n ? O n the o t h e r h a n d ,
s o m e of
w h a t I do n o t u n d e r s t a n d is n o t pleasant at all. O n e o f the b i g g e s t p r o b l e m s M a l a w i faces can b e blatantly o b s e r v e d o n the m a i n h i g h w a y . T h e r o a d south f r o m L i l o n g w e t o B l a n t y r e , w h e r e o u r fossils are p r e p a r e d i n the l a b o r a t o r y f o r s t u d y , runs f o r p a r t o f its l e n g t h a l o n g the c o u n t r y ' s w e s t e r n b o r d e r w i t h M o z a m b i q u e . O n the r i g h t s i d e , i n M o z a m b i q u e , h o m e s and shops stand d i l a p i d a t e d and v a c a n t — b o m b e d o u t .
Such
d o o r s a s r e m a i n slap i n e f f e c t u a l l y i n the b r e e z e o n the r e m n a n t s o f rusty h i n g e s . T u m b l e w e e d s . I t i s d e s e r t e d . A c r o s s t h e r o a d , i n M a l a w i , life t e e m s a m o n g c r o w d e d shacks. H e r e are t h e r e f u g e e s o f M o z a m b i q u e ' s d e c a d e - a n d a-half n o t - s o - c i v i l w a r , w h i c h has lasted since t h e P o r t u g u e s e p u l l e d o u t o f their i l l - p r e p a r e d c o l o n y . T h e m a j o r i t y o f the r e f u g e e s i n M a l a w i are w o m e n and c h i l d r e n . M o z a m b i q u a n m e n are m o s t l y d e a d , c o n s c r i p t e d , o r e l s e w h e r e . Malawi,
a country
of s o m e
eight
million
inhabitants,
has
over
850,000
r e f u g e e s l i v i n g i n its b o r d e r s . I n o n e d i s t r i c t , r e f u g e e s o u t n u m b e r M a l a w i a n s nearly t w o t o o n e . T h e p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o f A f r i c a are E u r o p e a n i m p o s i t i o n s . W i t h n e p o tism r o y a l , Q u e e n V i c t o r i a t r a n s f e r r e d s o v e r e i g n t y o f K i l i m a n j a r o t o h e r f i r s t grandson,
Kaiser W i l h e l m II of G e r m a n y .
In
1 8 9 0 , just b e f o r e N y a s a l a n d
b e c a m e a p r o t e c t o r a t e , Britain and G e r m a n y w e r e n e g o t i a t i n g b e t w e e n t h e m selves t o d e f i n e t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s p h e r e s o f i n f l u e n c e o n the D a r k C o n t i n e n t . T h e L i v i n g s t o n e M o u n t a i n s w e n t t o t h e G e r m a n s . T h a t i s w h y the L i v i n g stones t o d a y are i n T a n z a n i a and M a l a w i t e r r i t o r y stops w e s t o f t h e m . T h e British s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e , u p until W o r l d W a r I , e n d e d a t the S o n g w e R i v e r , n o w the b o r d e r b e t w e e n M a l a w i and T a n z a n i a . T h i s n o r t h e r n area o f w h a t i s n o w M a l a w i fell t o the British o n l y b e c a u s e , d u r i n g the s p h e r e - o f - i n f l u e n c e n e g o t i a t i o n s , Britain r e l i n q u i s h e d c l a i m t o the N o r t h Sea island o f H e l g o l a n d , t u r n i n g i t o v e r t o G e r m a n y i n e x c h a n g e f o r the t e r r i t o r y south o f the S o n g w e . But t h e p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o f A f r i c a are t r a d i t i o n a l l y m e a n i n g l e s s f r o m a fundamental cultural p e r s p e c t i v e , just a s t h o s e o f East and W e s t G e r m a n y w e r e , o r N o r t h and South K o r e a a r e . T h e r e f u g e e s f r o m M o z a m b i q u e are the
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
268 s a m e p e o p l e — Y a o , N g o n i , Sena, and o t h e r t r i b e s — a s l i v e i n the areas across the M a l a w i b o r d e r w h e r e t h e y settle i n r e f u g e e c a m p s . T h e c u l t u r e i s the s a m e , the l a n g u a g e is t h e s a m e . O f t e n this is n o t e n o u g h to i n d u c e a h u m a n i tarian r e s p o n s e t o t h e t r a g e d i e s o f w a r i n adjacent c o u n t r i e s . Warm
Heart
of Africa,
does
have
a
humanitarian
M a l a w i , the
philosophy,
accepting
r e f u g e e s f r o m t h e i r w a r - r a v a g e d n e i g h b o r and c a r i n g f o r t h e m . But i t i s n o t easy. T h e n u m b e r o f r e f u g e e s has s w e l l e d t e n f o l d since 1 9 8 6 . T h e r e f u g e e s are a l m o s t all i l l i t e r a t e peasants, subsistence f a r m e r s r e s i g n e d to simple lives. T h e y do not want to be in M a l a w i . T h e y want to be h o m e . F a r m i n g t h e land.
T h e r e i s r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e m i g r a t i o n o f r e f u g e e s f r o m the
c a m p s i n rural b o r d e r areas t o u r b a n c e n t e r s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y c r i m e has n o t y e t s k y r o c k e t e d the w a y o n e m i g h t h a v e p r e d i c t e d w i t h such a massive influx o f impoverished,
downtrodden people.
R e f u g e e s r e c e i v e h u m a n i t a r i a n assistance, t h e basics f o r s u r v i v a l : f o o d and c l o t h i n g . T h e daily f o o d r a t i o n i s just o v e r t w o thousand c a l o r i e s , b a r e l y a t the a c c e p t a b l e m e d i c a l l i m i t s . F o o d r a t i o n s a r e m a d e u p o f m a i z e m e a l , pulses ( m e a n i n g peas and b e a n s ) , sugar, salt, e d i b l e o i l , s o m e d r i e d f i s h , and d r i e d skim milk.
P e l l a g r a , a n u t r i t i o n a l disease caused by lack of niacin f o u n d in
fresh v e g e t a b l e s , i s b e c o m i n g c o m m o n . S u p p l e m e n t a r y f o o d i s p r o v i d e d t o m a l n o u r i s h e d c h i l d r e n and t o p r e g n a n t o r lactating w o m e n i n the f o r m o f likuni phala,
a marginally higher-protein mixture
of 80 p e r c e n t m a i z e ,
10
p e r c e n t p e a n u t s , and 1 0 p e r c e n t p u l s e s . Each f a m i l y i s a l l o t t e d o n e c o o k i n g s e t , o n c e , and t w o w a t e r c o n t a i n e r s , again o n l y o n c e .
O t h e r n o n f o o d items include s o a p — a bit o v e r one pound
per family per m o n t h ,
o n e b l a n k e t e v e r y t w o y e a r s f o r each p e r s o n , and
c l o t h i n g . Infants r e c e i v e a y a r d and a half of c l o t h , b o y s and m e n g e t a pair o f shorts and a shirt, g i r l s g e t a d r e s s , w o m e n g e t a t w o - y a r d l e n g t h o f c l o t h and o n e b l o u s e o r T - s h i r t . T h e t o t a l v a l u e o f life p l a c e d b y t h e w o r l d o n the 8 5 0 , 0 0 0 r e f u g e e s w a s $ 2 4 m i l l i o n last y e a r . Less than t h i r t y d o l l a r s a h e a d . A n d the r e f u g e e s d i d n o t cause t h e w a r . N e i t h e r d i d M a l a w i . A l l parties i n v o l v e d a g r e e that life i s m o r e than t h i r t y d o l l a r s ' w o r t h o f beans and b l a n k e t s . T h e a t t e m p t t o s o l v e the p r o b l e m surely d e s e r v e s m o r e s u p p o r t . But i t i s n o t f o r t h c o m i n g . T h e h e l p that i s available c o m e s f r o m the i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y , i n p a r t i c u l a r f r o m the U n i t e d N a t i o n s H i g h C o m m i s s i o n f o r R e f u g e e s , and f r o m p r i v a t e aid g r o u p s . T o M a l a w i the g r e a t e s t costs are h i d d e n , y e t t h e y a r e s e v e r e .
Health,
sanitation, e d u c a t i o n , and social s e r v i c e s a r e strained b e y o n d capacity. T h e
T H E
G O O D
O F
D I N O S A U R S
269 roads
and
physical infrastructure a r e b e i n g w o r n
out.
The
land i s b e i n g
d e f o r e s t e d f o r f i r e w o o d . M a l a w i i s a small c o u n t r y w i t h h a r d l y e n o u g h land f o r its o w n agricultural uses. Its o w n p o p u l a t i o n i s b u r g e o n i n g . Jobs are scarce e v e n f o r M a l a w i a n s . H o w can t h e y sacrifice m o r e ? Still, the M a l a w i a n s r e m a i n h u m a n i t a r i a n , h o s p i t a b l e , and o p e n . T h e r e is no resolution to the refugee p r o b l e m e x c e p t repatriation. That has t w o basic r e q u i r e m e n t s : T h e r e f u g e e s m u s t f e e l i t i s safe t o r e t u r n h o m e , and t h e y m u s t b e able t o e k e o u t a l i v i n g o n c e t h e y a r e t h e r e . T h e latter i s n o t a b i g r e q u i r e m e n t . Subsistence f a r m i n g i n the m u d - a n d - t h a t c h v i l l a g e s o f rural A f r i c a i s h a n d - t o - m o u t h i n t h e best o f t i m e s . But e v e n i f t h e p e o p l e a r e w i l l i n g t o g o h o m e just i n the r e a s o n a b l e aspiration o f s u r v i v i n g i n t h e i r o w n h o m e l a n d , t h e y c a n n o t d o s o until the w a r q u i t s . P e r h a p s that w i l l b e s o o n e r than later. If t h e r e e v e r w a s a f a t h o m a b l e reason f o r the h o s t i l i t i e s , this w a r has g o n e on so l o n g , so v i c i o u s l y , and so r u i n o u s l y that reasons p r o b a b l y c a n n o t b e r e m e m b e r e d , m u c h less m a t t e r a t this stage. M a n y o f t h e c o m b a t ants, like the m e r c e n a r y ruga-ruga o f the slavers o f o l d , n o w s i m p l y kill f o r f o o d and p l u n d e r . Voluntary repatriation is understandably not g o i n g w e l l . T h e r e is a v e r y e f f e c t i v e g r a p e v i n e f o r w a r i n f o r m a t i o n a m o n g the r e f u g e e s ; t h e y w i l l k n o w w h e n i t i s safe t o r e t u r n .
A t this t i m e i n m o s t o f M o z a m b i q u e i t i s n o t .
N o w a d a y s a b o u t f i v e thousand r e f u g e e s p e r y e a r r e t u r n t o " s a f e " areas. M o s t o f the repatriates a r e the heads o f h o u s e h o l d s . T h e i r f a m i l i e s r e m a i n a t the r e f u g e e c a m p s , and w i t h u n f o r t u n a t e f r e q u e n c y , t h e r e p a t r i a t e , n o t e x p e c t i n g t o s u r v i v e i n his h o m e l a n d , f l e e s again f o r the sanctuary o f the c a m p . I n the c a m p s t h e r e i s little t o d o , n o land t o f a r m . T h e r e i s n o official j o b s p r o g r a m , i t b e i n g difficult e n o u g h t o f i n d w o r k f o r M a l a w i a n s , but v o c a t i o n a l training i s part o f the r e p a t r i a t i o n p l a n — h e a l t h w o r k e r s , t e a c h e r s , m e t a l w o r k e r s , c a r p e n t e r s . A f e w p r i v a t e aid o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a v e m e a g e r s e l f - h e l p and f o o d f o r - w o r k schemes. T h e r e i s little else that can b e d o n e w i t h tight m o n e y . E v e n i f m o n e y w e r e easy, o n l y p e a c e w i l l r e a l l y s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m . F r i e n d l y , p e a c e f u l M a l a w i w i l l d o w h a t i t can f o r its b e l e a g u e r e d n e i g h b o r . M a l a w i ' s r o a d s , its f o r e s t s , its f a r m e r s d e p r i v e d o f land n o w used f o r r e f u g e e c a m p s , and its h e a l t h , e d u c a tional and social s y s t e m s m u s t c o p e . A f r i c a n r e s i g n a t i o n c o m e s i n t o p l a y , o n c e again a l l o w i n g p e o p l e t o l i v e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m . provide
adequate
water,
Malawians get
some
A t least,
benefit
i n the e f f o r t t o
from
newly
drilled
w e l l s . But the p r o b l e m m u s t still b e s o l v e d . T h e r e f u g e e p r o b l e m i s a c u t e , b u t M a l a w i m u s t also face the c h r o n i c
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
270 problems
of development
common
to
all
countries
o f the
impoverished
w o r l d . T h e process of d e v e l o p m e n t is interminable. It seems to progress at the s a m e u n n o t i c e a b l e p a c e a t w h i c h e r o s i o n w e a r s a w a y g r a n i t e . W h i l e the i m p o v e r i s h e d w o r l d d e v e l o p s , the D e v e l o p e d W o r l d m o v e s ahead w i t h R & D , p r o d u c i n g taster c o m p u t e r s , lasers, C A T scans, and all the o t h e r a c c o u t e r m e n t s o f t h e n e x t c e n t u r y . I t i s r e a l l y easy t o b e c y n i c a l a b o u t the p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e D e v e l o p i n g W o r l d . H o w can i t e v e r catch up? H o w can i t s o l v e the p r o b l e m s that h i n d e r i t f r o m m a k i n g p r o g r e s s ? O n the o t h e r hand, h o w are m o u n t a i n s e v e r e r o d e d t o t h e sea? M a l a w i has b e e n i n d e p e n d e n t f o r t w e n t y - n i n e y e a r s , a b o u t the same l e n g t h o f t i m e a s m o s t A f r i c a n , i n d e e d m o s t all d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . T h e m a t u r i n g p r o c e s s f o r a n a t i o n d o e s n o t take p l a c e o v e r n i g h t . I t takes t i m e . I t t o o k t i m e f o r all t h e d e v e l o p e d nations t o o . A n d f o r M a l a w i the p r o c e s s m u s t take place i n t h e d i s t i n c t l y A f r i c a n c o n t e x t that e x i s t s n o w . A f r i c a n s h a v e a n A f r i c a n p e r s p e c t i v e , n o t W e s t e r n b y any m e a n s , but o n e that is instilled by t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s . T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e d e r i v e s at least in part f r o m the social d y n a m i c s o f e x t e n d e d f a m i l i e s . T h e y a r e c l o s e - k n i t , and o l t e n t h e r e are
large numbers of children.
E x t e n d e d families p r o v i d e a sort of
t r a d i t i o n a l insurance against t h e t r i b u l a t i o n s o f o l d a g e and o t h e r hardships that can b e eased and a l l e v i a t e d b y familial c o m p a s s i o n . C o m m e r c i a l insurance and p e n s i o n funds, o u r usual m e t h o d s , a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y affordable t o m o s t Africans.
A l t h o u g h the g o v e r n m e n t p r o v i d e s t h e m e d i c a l and o t h e r social
s e r v i c e s its m e a n s a l l o w , these a r e l i m i t e d . I n A f r i c a large families are the safety nets that h e l p p e o p l e c o p e w i t h w h a t t h e y c a n n o t c o n t r o l — d r o u g h t , disease, d e a t h , h u n g e r . But large f a m i l i e s cause o v e r p o p u l a t i o n . W i t h d e v e l o p m e n t and p r o g r e s s a n e w safety n e t m u s t b e f o u n d . R e l i g i o n , a l w a y s a b i g cultural f a c t o r , t r a d i t i o n a l l y i n c l u d e d the spirits o f animals and a n c e s t o r s , b u t t h o s e b e l i e f s are n o w o f t e n m a n t l e d w i t h the c l o a k of W e s t e r n missionary indoctrination. introduced
T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n g i v e s s o m e o f the
Christian r e l i g i o n s a distinctly A f r i c a n f l a v o r .
S o m e aspects o f
m i s s i o n a r y faith are r e a d i l y a c c e p t e d . A l f r e d a Ibui i n N a i r o b i o n c e t o l d m e she l i k e d C h r i s t i a n i t y . " O t h e r w i s e t w i n s are bad l u c k , and m y sons w o u l d have been k i l l e d . " A f r i c a n t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n has n o t b e e n d e s t r o y e d , i t has e v o l v e d t o f i t m o d e r n Africa. social v a l u e ,
Traditions change,
but s l o w l y .
A t each step s o m e t h i n g o f
d e r i v e d f r o m past t r a d i t i o n but suited f o r the p r e s e n t ,
must
a l w a y s r e m a i n . Social s y s t e m s m u s t r e t a i n i n t e g r i t y . I t i s part o f the m a t u r i n g process.
T H E
G O O D
O F
D I N O S A U R S
F r e e d o m and i n d e p e n d e n c e f o r M a l a w i w a s w o n , s o i t i s said, t h r o u g h U n i t y , L o y a l t y , O b e d i e n c e , and D i s c i p l i n e . E a r l y o n , P r e s i d e n t Banda i d e n t i f i e d the t h r e e g r e a t e n e m i e s o f the p e o p l e a s p o v e r t y , disease, and i g n o r a n c e . T h e f o u r t r a d i t i o n a l qualities o f the p e o p l e that l e d t o i n d e p e n d e n c e a r e still t r a i n e d o n these e n e m i e s a s t h e path t o e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e c o u n t r y is
racially
fully i n t e g r a t e d ,
but
citizens
of Asian descent,
w h o are
often
successful m e r c h a n t s , are a l l o w e d t o o p e n t h e i r shops o n l y i n g r e a t e r Blant y r e , L i l o n g w e , M z u z u , and Z o m b a . T h i s i s s u p p o s e d t o b e a k i n d o f affirmat i v e a c t i o n w h e r e b y m o r e black s h o p k e e p e r s are i n t r o d u c e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y . T h e p o l i c i e s o f the g o v e r n m e n t , i f n o t the t r a d i t i o n s o f the p e o p l e , insure access t o o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r w o m e n . The
e c o n o m i c strength of M a l a w i
i s its
agricultural
system.
I t i s the
l i f e b l o o d o f the c o u n t r y . M a l a w i i s usually self-sufficient i n f o o d , e v e n e x p o r t ing to n e i g h b o r i n g c o u n t r i e s . It p r o d u c e s cash c r o p s such as t o b a c c o , sugar, c o t t o n , t e a , and m a c a d a m i a nuts. I t i s p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h c o n c o m i t a n t g r o w t h i n s u p p o r t industries that the b a t t l e against p o v e r t y is being w a g e d . M o r e o v e r , today M a l a w i is setting an e x a m p l e in sub-Saharan A f r i c a b y p r o d u c i n g charcoal f r o m t h e l u m b e r i n g w a s t e w o o d o f c o m m e r c i a l plantations,
t h e r e b y p r o v i d i n g fuel f o r u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n s and
easing s o m e w h a t the p r e s s u r e f o r
firewood
o n natural v e g e t a t i o n .
D e s p i t e t h e b u r d e n s p l a c e d o n t h e m , health c a r e and s e r v i c e s a r e steadily i m p r o v i n g . A c c e s s t o hospitals and m e d i c a l w o r k e r s i s i n c r e a s i n g . T h e r e a r e w i d e s p r e a d p r o g r a m s f o r i n o c u l a t i o n , n u t r i t i o n , h y g i e n e and sanitation, and safe d r i n k i n g w a t e r . T h e r e i s a n a c t i v e e f f o r t t o face the A I D S t h r e a t . T h e y had b e t t e r m a k e a n a c t i v e e f f o r t : T h e p r o b l e m s caused b y r e f u g e e s p a l e i n c o m p a r i s o n t o the reality o f A I D S i n A f r i c a . Since t h e disease strikes t h o s e i n t h e i r p r i m e o f l i f e , a c t i v e p e o p l e full o f v i g o r , and i t i m p o s e s t e n years o r s o o f i m p r e s s e d s e r v i c e a s a n u n w i t t i n g c a r r i e r o f the v i r u s , the t r a g e d y m u s t o n l y g e t w o r s e b e f o r e i t g e t s b e t t e r . D e a t h f r o m A I D S i s b e c o m i n g m o r e and m o r e c o m m o n p l a c e , r e m o v i n g s o m e o f the m o s t t a l e n t e d and e n e r g e t i c f r o m t h e l a b o r f o r c e and f r o m the ranks o f m i d d l e m a n a g e m e n t . W h o w i l l see t o the e v e r y d a y r u n n i n g o f the c o u n t r y a s t h e n e x t c e n t u r y begins? W h o w i l l c a r e f o r the thousands u p o n thousands o f o r p h a n e d y o u n g s t e r s , t h e i r p a r e n t s g o n e and their aunts and uncles d y i n g , a s t h e i r p a r e n t s w i l l h a v e d o n e , f r o m A I D S , and their g r a n d p a r e n t s passing o n t h r o u g h attrition? W h a t h a p p e n s t o e x t e n d e d - f a m i l y safety nets w h e n t h e r e i s n o o n e l e f t i n the f a m i l y t o e x t e n d a hand? I t i s easy t o b e d e s p a i r i n g and d e c i d e t h e r e i s n o h o p e . But t h e r e m u s t b e .
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
272 L i f e m u s t adjust, e v e n t o this latest a t r o c i t y . I t i s easy t o b e c o m p l a c e n t f r o m across t h e sea, b u t A I D S i s h e r e , t o o , and t h e m a g n i t u d e o f the p r o b l e m i n this c o u n t r y has n o t s e e n its l i m i t . I n M a l a w i the e f f o r t s t o c o m b a t the A I D S virus are b e i n g i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h e n l i g h t e n m e n t p r o g r a m s . P o i g n a n t e d u c a t i o n a l s l o g a n s , such a s D e a t h b y A I D S i s t h e d e a t h o f M a l a w i , catch the m i n d s o f the p e o p l e . E d u c a t i o n s i m p l y m u s t w o r k i f the ravages o f the disease are t o b e m i t i g a t e d . L u c k i l y e d u c a t i o n has had a l o n g and a c c e p t e d t r a d i t i o n i n M a l a w i . I g n o r a n c e i s c o m b a t t e d t h r o u g h a s y s t e m o f local v i l l a g e schools such as
the
one
in
which
our
friend
Lightwell
teaches,
boarding
schools
for
s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n , v o c a t i o n a l and t r a d e s c h o o l s , t e a c h e r s ' c o l l e g e s , and the U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i . T h e u n i v e r s i t y i s staffed w i t h f o r e i g n and d o m e s t i c a l l y t r a i n e d M a l a w i a n s and s o m e e x p a t r i a t e s .
M a n y M a l a w i a n professionals are
e d u c a t e d a b r o a d , q u i t e a f e w i n A m e r i c a , w h e r e Banda r e c e i v e d his training. T h e r o a d t o d e v e l o p m e n t i s p o t h o l e d and a r d u o u s . T h e r e i s a l o n g w a y t o g o . But M a l a w i has m a d e p r o g r e s s b y k e e p i n g f o c u s e d o n its real e n e m i e s : p o v e r t y , d i s e a s e , and i g n o r a n c e . W i l l M a l a w i e v e r b e h o m o g e n i z e d i n t o the W e s t e r n w o r l d ? W h y s h o u l d it? W i l l i t o v e r c o m e t h e hardships i m p o s e d b y t h e r e f u g e e p r o b l e m ? I t has t o . W i l l i t s u r v i v e t h e A I D S e p i d e m i c ? I t m u s t . W h a t are the alternatives? M a l a w i is an o p t i m i s t i c c o u n t r y that has f o l l o w e d
its o w n path since
i n d e p e n d e n c e . T h o s e are appealing qualities, imparting self-respect, a l l o w i n g i t t o b e h a p p y . T h e r e m a y n o t b e a n A p p l e c o m p u t e r i n e v e r y hut, b u t t h e r e m a y c o m e t o b e , w i t h hard w o r k and v i s i o n , f u l l - b e l l i e d , h e a l t h y , w i s e p e o p l e in t h e m . It is w i s d o m , w i t h i n a realistic c o n t e x t , that charts the c o u r s e of d e s t i n y . M a l a w i w i l l set its o w n c o u r s e . Q u i e t , p e a c e f u l , little M a l a w i . N o o n e hears o f i t i n the W e s t . E v e r since i n d e p e n d e n c e , all the w a y till n o w , it has b e e n t o o s t a b l e .
BECAUSE
OF ITS stability, t h e friendliness and h o s p i t a l i t y of the p e o p l e , and
t h e r e l a t i v e l y efficient b u r e a u c r a c y , M a l a w i i s a g o o d p l a c e t o run a n e x p e d i t i o n . T h e scientific a g e n d a o f m y M a l a w i P r o j e c t has c h a n g e d o v e r the last d e c a d e . T h a t i s t h e w a y i t should b e . H y p o t h e s e s e v o l v e a s m o r e i s l e a r n e d ; n e w strategies m u s t b e d e v i s e d t o a n s w e r n e w q u e s t i o n s . But o n e o b j e c t i v e has n o t c h a n g e d since its i n c e p t i o n : T h e p r o j e c t should c o n t r i b u t e t o M a l a w i , n o t parasitize it. T h i s o b j e c t i v e i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f the scientific results o f the p r o j e c t t o t h e e x t e n t that i t can b e , r e c o g n i z i n g that the c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e
T H E
G O O D
O F
D I N O S A U R S
o f t h e p r o j e c t rests p r i m a r i l y o n the a d e q u a c y o f the s c i e n c e .
I would not
a r g u e that this p r o j e c t has b e e n a m a j o r f o r c e in the b a t t l e against p o v e r t y , disease, and i g n o r a n c e . T h e o n l y a m m u n i t i o n t h e p r o j e c t has s u p p l i e d against disease is the dispensing of a f e w aspirins and s o m e q u i n i n e t a b l e t s . I do h o p e , o n the o t h e r hand, that t h e r e m a y b e s o m e p o s i t i v e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , h o w e v e r m i n u s c u l e , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e m i t i g a t i o n o f p o v e r t y and a l l e v i a t i o n o f i g n o rance. O v e r the years the cost o f f i e l d w o r k i n M a l a w i has a m o u n t e d t o n e a r l y $ 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 , much of it c o m i n g f r o m the National G e o g r a p h i c Society. Conside r i n g I have run f i v e field seasons and d o n e s o m e l a b o r a t o r y w o r k t h e r e , this sum is, b y s o m e m e a s u r e s , n o t m u c h m o n e y .
B y o t h e r s , i t is.
Excluding
international t r a v e l e x p e n s e s , m o s t o f t h e m o n e y w a s spent i n M a l a w i , and m u c h o f i t i n e c o n o m i c a l l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d p o r t i o n s o f the n o r t h . I n M w a k a s y u n g u t i , w h e r e t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f o n e U . S . d o l l a r pays a m a n f o r a d a y ' s l a b o r , and I a m the o n l y e m p l o y e r , t h e i m p a c t o f t h e D i n o s a u r P r o j e c t , i n t h o s e relative t e r m s , is considerable indeed. Each f i e l d season the p r o j e c t has specific g o a l s and o b j e c t i v e s . T h e M w a k a syunguti l a b o r f o r c e h e l p s t h o s e g o a l s b e r e a l i z e d . T h e v i l l a g e r s a r e o n e o f the c o m p o n e n t s that m a k e f o r a successful season. G o o d results p o s i t i o n t h e project
for
continued
funding,
which
means
more
employment.
As
the
project blossoms, n e w avenues must be traveled. Early on I r e a l i z e d that dinosaurs in A f r i c a p r e s e n t f o r m i d a b l e l o g i s t i c a l p r o b l e m s . T h i s w a s n o t m u c h o f a b o t h e r i n the f i r s t t w o e x p e d i t i o n s b e c a u s e c o l l e c t i n g dinosaurs w a s n o t a p r i m a r y g o a l , finding m a m m a l s w a s . I g o t a m a m m a l l i k e c r o c o d i l e i n s t e a d , but that animal i s n o t l a r g e e n o u g h t o cause p r o b l e m s . T h e n i n the
1 9 8 9 season t h e emphasis b e g a n t o shift, and f r o m
1 9 9 0 dinosaurs have b e e n the m a i n thrust. O n c e the b o n e s w e r e o u t o f t h e g r o u n d , h o w w o u l d I e v e r g e t t h e m p r e p a r e d o u t o f t h e i r jackets? C l e a r l y t h e cost o f shipping plaster and b o n e biscuits t o m y labs i n D a l l a s , t h e n s h i p p i n g f i n i s h e d b o n e s b a c k , w a s p r o h i b i t i v e . I had t o f i n d a n o t h e r w a y . T h e s o l u t i o n w a s to train a p e r s o n in the t e c h n i c a l skills r e q u i r e d in fossil preparation.
S e n d i n g s o m e o n e t o the States f o r a f e w m o n t h s had distinct
advantages. F o r o n e t h i n g i t i s m u c h m o r e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e than s e n d i n g b o n e s . For another it is a much m o r e long-range solution,
supplying to M a l a w i
i n - c o u n t r y technical e x p e r t i s e t o h a n d l e t h e i r o w n p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s o n a c o n t i n u i n g basis. T h i s o b v i o u s l y a p p e a l e d t o t h e A n t i q u i t i e s D e p a r t m e n t , w h o assigned F i d e l i s , w h o had b e e n w i t h m e i n t h e f i e l d e v e r y t i m e , the
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
274 r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f l e a r n i n g t o b e a fossil p r e p a r a t o r . I o b t a i n e d s o m e p r i v a t e f u n d i n g , e n a b l i n g Fidelis t o c o m e t o Dallas f o r t h r e e m o n t h s i n 1 9 8 9 . T h e r e h e w o r k e d i n t e n s i v e l y w i t h K e n t , l e a r n i n g all t h e t e c h n i q u e s w e c o u l d teach h i m and g a i n i n g p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e o n the fossils. I p r o v i d e d h i m w i t h m u c h o f t h e e q u i p m e n t necessary t o h a v e a f u n c t i o n i n g , e f f i c i e n t p r e p a r a t i o n laboratory. N o w there is one in M a l a w i w h e r e there was not one before. T e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e i s o n l y half the b a t t l e . W h a t happens t o the b o n e s o n c e they
are
prepared?
There
is
no
professional
paleontological
expertise
in
M a l a w i , s o t h e pleasures and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f the scientific i n v e s t i g a t i o n have b e e n l e f t t o t h e A m e r i c a n c o n t i n g e n t . W h i l e w e are h a p p y t o study the fossils, the a r r a n g e m e n t i s n o t i d e a l . F o r o n e t h i n g , t h e r e i s m o r e t o d o than D a l e and W i l l and I can h a n d l e . F o r a n o t h e r , I find the w h o l e c o n c e p t o f e n t e r i n g i n t o a c o o p e r a t i v e e x p e d i t i o n in a f o r e i g n c o u n t r y , o b t a i n i n g the professional a d v a n t a g e s , t h e n a b a n d o n i n g the c o u n t r y a t the c l o s e o f t h e p r o j e c t t o b e l a t t e r - d a y i n t e l l e c t u a l e x p l o i t a t i o n and v i s c e r a l l y d i s p l e a s u r a b l e . I w o u l d h a v e to train a M a l a w i a n s t u d e n t . It is n o t a l w a y s so easy to find an appropriate candidate. W h y , for instance, should little M a l a w i want to h a v e a p r o f e s s i o n a l p a l e o n t o l o g i s t ? W h a t g o o d d o e s i t d o the c o u n t r y ? W o u l d n o t all t h e r e a l l y g o o d students b e i n t e r e s t e d i n m e d i c i n e , l a w , e c o n o m i c s ? Of course,
m o s t a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n p u r s u i n g t h o s e subjects.
But individual
i n t e r e s t s v a r y , and t h e r e are p e o p l e i n t e n s e l y i n t e r e s t e d i n the Earth and the life o n it. T h e y can b e f o u n d i n M a l a w i just a s t h e y can b e f o u n d i n e v e r y o t h e r c o u n t r y . M o r e o v e r , M a l a w i has a f i r s t - c l a s s D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s i n the M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a t i o n and C u l t u r e . I t runs the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m , p r o t e c t s the n a t i o n ' s m o n u m e n t s , s u r v e y s the c o u n t r y ' s cultural and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s , and c o n d u c t s scholarly r e s e a r c h . T h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s o f the d e p a r t m e n t teach c o u r s e s a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i . A v e r t e b r a t e p a l e o n t o l o g i s t is n o t such an absurd t h i n g f o r an educational organization, w h e t h e r a m u s e u m or university, in a d e v e l o p i n g country to h a v e . T h e r e s e a r c h o f p a l e o n t o l o g y can b e a s h i g h - t e c h , o r a s l o w - t e c h , a s facilities a l l o w . T h a t translates t o the fact that s o m e l e g i t i m a t e and i m p o r t a n t lines of i n v e s t i g a t i o n can be p u r s u e d at r e l a t i v e l y l o w c o s t . P a l e o n t o l o g y is a b a r g a i n . M o r e o v e r , a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t m u s t b e familiar w i t h a g r e a t n u m b e r o f d i s c i p l i n e s . T o take e x a m p l e s f r o m this b o o k , e f f e c t i v e p a l e o n t o l o g y r e q u i r e s k n o w l e d g e o f g e o l o g y , e c o l o g y , a n a t o m y , animal b e h a v i o r , and any n u m b e r o f o t h e r subjects. W h e n staffing p o s i t i o n s are l i m i t e d , a v e r t e b r a t e p a l e o n t o l o gist can g o a l o n g w a y t o w a r d r o u n d i n g o u t a d e p a r t m e n t . T h e c o u n t r y o f Malawi will be needing talented young p e o p l e , broadly proficient in a number
THE
GOOD
OF
DINOSAURS 275
of p r o f e s s i o n a l skills. A p a l e o n t o l o g i s t c o u l d do o t h e r things as w e l l as fossils. A p a l e o n t o l o g i s t c o u l d b e s e c o n d e d i n t o s e r v i c e w i t h the c o u n t r y ' s g e o l o g i c a l s u r v e y or w a t e r d e p a r t m e n t . need evaluation, school
might
N a t u r a l hazards such as landslides and f l o o d s
and cities n e e d t o b e p l a n n e d a c c o r d i n g l y .
need
instructors
in
human
anatomy.
The
T h e medical
university
might
r e q u i r e instructors i n s c i e n c e . M u s e u m s n e e d t a l e n t . A l l o f these o r g a n i z a t i o n s n e e d w h a t i s t o o o f t e n lacking i n e v e r y c o u n t r y : c o m p e t e n t , w e l l - i n f o r m e d , k n o w l e d g e a b l e l e a d e r s . A d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y such a s M a l a w i c o u l d d o m u c h w o r s e than r e c r u i t a r i g o r o u s l y and b r o a d l y t r a i n e d p a l e o n t o l o g i s t . S o c o u l d m a n y universities in this c o u n t r y . T h e a u t h o r i t i e s a t the
Department
of Antiquities,
in
response
to
the
e x c i t i n g results w e w e r e o b t a i n i n g , c r e a t e d a n e w p o s i t i o n f o r a p r o f e s s i o n a l paleontologist. N o w , if I trained a M a l a w i a n for a P h . D . , there w o u l d be a j o b w a i t i n g o n the r e t u r n . T h e s t u d e n t c o u l d , a s a r e s e a r c h t o p i c , d e v o t e the necessary l o n g h o u r s t o the i n t e n s e study o f the c o l l e c t i o n o f b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i that i s e v e n n o w b e i n g p r e p a r e d b y F i d e l i s . I t w i l l take a t least a s l o n g to p r e p a r e t h e b o n e s as to study t h e m f o r a d i s s e r t a t i o n . P r e p a r a t i o n has a head start, s o the s c i e n c e w i l l n o t b e d e l a y e d . T h e future d e p a r t m e n t a l p a l e o n t o l o g i s t m u s t h a v e t h e necessary t r a i n i n g f o r the a p p r o p r i a t e
m a n a g e m e n t and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l r e -
s o u r c e s , the i n t e r e s t and ability f o r o r i g i n a l r e s e a r c h , and the i n c l i n a t i o n t o teach
t h r o u g h the
Malawi
higher
education
system
to
b r i n g the
relevant
c o n c e p t s o f Earth and life sciences t o a b r o a d e r , b e t t e r - e d u c a t e d a u d i e n c e . I f e v e r y t h i n g g o e s a c c o r d i n g t o p l a n , M a l a w i can m a n a g e its o w n p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l r e s o u r c e s , and m y v a l u e t o t h e i r c o u n t r y , such a s i t is, w i l l d i m i n i s h . T h a t w o u l d b e the m e a s u r e o f success. I t i s v e r y difficult,
f o r m e a n y w a y , t o p r e d i c t the o d d s f o r a s t u d e n t ' s
success. S o m u c h d e p e n d s o n the f o r t i t u d e o f the i n d i v i d u a l . T h i s i s t r u e u n d e r the b e s t o f c o n d i t i o n s ,
when
there
is
a large
applicant p o o l ,
and
when
universities can s e l e c t i v e l y p i c k and c h o o s e w h o w i l l b e a d m i t t e d . I t i s o f t e n m o r e difficult w i t h f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s , s t e e p e d i n u n f a m i l i a r c u l t u r e s . I n cases like that o f M a l a w i , o n e p e r s o n w i l l b e a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t and assume all the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y that the p o s i t i o n w i l l o b t a i n . O n e p e r s o n i s s e l e c t e d f r o m the c o u n t r y , f r o m a m o n g p e o p l e w h o are e a g e r b u t n o t k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t the subject o r p e r h a p s n o t e v e n p r e d i s p o s e d t o a c o n s u m i n g d e d i c a t i o n t o it. W h o k n o w s , p e r h a p s the p e r s o n m i g h t t u r n o u t t o dislike fossils. T h e n y o u are stuck. A l l the e g g s are i n t h e basket o f the single p e r s o n s e l e c t e d f o r t r a i n i n g . I e n l i s t e d the h e l p o f m y M a l a w i a n c o l l e a g u e s i n the search f o r a n a p p r o p r i -
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
276 ate c a n d i d a t e . R e q u i r e m e n t s w e r e a s t r o n g m a t h and s c i e n c e b a c k g r o u n d and a n e x c e l l e n t p e r f o r m a n c e a t the U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i . T h e D e p a r t m e n t o f Antiquities i n t e r v i e w e d the most promising candidate.
T h a t was Elizabeth
G o m a n i . She has a s t r o n g b a c k g r o u n d in m a t h , c o m p u t e r s , statistics, c h e m i s t r y , and Earth s c i e n c e — a v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e b a c k g r o u n d . I n 1 9 8 9 and again i n 1990
Elizabeth joined
the
expedition
in
the
field
to
get
some
practical
p a l e o n t o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s also a l l o w e d m e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e v a l u a t e h e r a s a p o t e n t i a l s t u d e n t , f o r h e r t o d e c i d e i f she r e a l l y w a n t e d t o pursue this o p t i o n , and f o r u s b o t h t o g e t a chance t o k n o w each o t h e r . M y o p i n i o n : E l i z a b e t h has w h a t it t a k e s . E l i z a b e t h a r r i v e d t o start g r a d u a t e s c h o o l t w o y e a r s a g o last January. She started i n t h e w i n t e r s e m e s t e r . H e r flight o v e r b r o u g h t h e r t h r o u g h C h i c a g o , w h e r e she s a w s n o w f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . T h a t e v e n i n g she s a w t e l e v i s i o n f o r the f i r s t t i m e . T h e n e x t day she ate p i z z a and a r e d a p p l e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e . I t o o k h e r o n a t o u r a r o u n d c a m p u s . I s h o w e d h e r the brass f l o o r p l a t e u n d e r the d o m e o f t h e m a i n hall. A f t e r w a r d , w a l k i n g d o w n the s t r e e t , she e x a m i n e d each
manhole
cover
very
carefully.
She
is
doing well.
Malawi
now
has
t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e and i t w i l l s o o n h a v e p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r t i s e t o handle its f o s s i l s — a l l o f t h e m , dinosaurs i n c l u d e d o f c o u r s e . A n d f o r the p u r p o s e s o f the p r o j e c t , w h e n E l i z a b e t h has c o m p l e t e d h e r t r a i n i n g , l i k e a d i n o s a u r i n the traditional v i e w , I w i l l go extinct. D i n o s a u r s h a v e g r e a t p o p u l a r a p p e a l i n M a l a w i , just a s t h e y d o e v e r y w h e r e e l s e . W i t h all t h e f i e l d w o r k w e w e r e d o i n g , i t w a s i n e v i t a b l e that the w o r d a b o u t o u r a c t i v i t i e s w o u l d suffuse i n t o t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e and that this w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y s w e l l i n t o national e x c i t e m e n t . I t w a s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o g e n e r a t e e x c i t e m e n t a t t h e r i g h t t i m e , n o t t o o s o o n , b e f o r e the scientific significance o f t h e p r o j e c t c o u l d b e g u a r a n t e e d , and n o t t o o l a t e , w h e n the enthusiasm w o u l d b e o f n o h e l p f o r insuring c o n t i n u e d success. T h e 1 9 9 0 season w a s the r i g h t t i m e . B o n e s w e h a d , and n o w w e n e e d e d t o k e e p t h e p r o j e c t r o l l i n g . F i d e l i s had r e c e i v e d his t r a i n i n g , and the w h e e l s w e r e turning to g e t Elizabeth into graduate school.
Benefits t o the c o u n t r y
w e r e b e c o m i n g a p p a r e n t . M o r e o v e r , C a l t e x O i l i n M a l a w i had d e c i d e d t o m a k e a d o n a t i o n t o t h e p r o j e c t ( a n d t h e y h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p o r t u s subs e q u e n t l y ) . T h e y w a n t e d publicity for their part, so they i n f o r m e d the press. A r e p o r t e r and a p h o t o g r a p h e r w e r e p r e s e n t w h e n M r .
A l l e n , the C a l t e x
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , p r e s e n t e d t h e c h e c k a t o u r arrival i n e a r l y July. T h e result w a s a f r o n t - p a g e s t o r y , short b u t i n f o r m a t i v e , in the Malawi Times and a r e p o r t on
THE
GOOD
Radio Malawi.
OF
DINOSAURS
I t w a s heard a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i b e f o r e w e g o t t o the f i e l d .
T h e n , i n A u g u s t a t the e n d o f m y t i m e i n t h e f i e l d , r e p o r t e r s and p h o t o g r a p h e r s c a m e to the s i t e .
A feature article appeared
s h o r t l y after in
Quest,
Malawi's foremost magazine. A l l this fans the flames o f e x c i t e m e n t i n the g e n e r a l p u b l i c — a d u l t s and c h i l d r e n . N o o n e e v e r t h o u g h t that d i n o s a u r s , t h o s e s t r a n g e , b i z a r r e , f a r a w a y c r e a t u r e s , w o u l d actually b e f o u n d i n t i n y , p e a c e f u l , n o t h i n g - e v e r - h a p p e n s M a l a w i . Y e t t h e y w e r e , and s o m e p e o p l e had k n o w n i t f o r y e a r s . N o w i t i s e v e r y b o d y ' s t u r n . T r i v i a l a s i t m a y s e e m i n s o m e r e g a r d s , t h e dinosaurs are a s o u r c e o f national p r i d e , o f esprit.
T h a t is g o o d .
W i t h increased interest w i l l c o m e s o m e complications. P e o p l e w i l l w a n t t o see the dinosaurs. O t h e r s w i l l w a n t t o o w n t h e m . V i s i t o r s t o the n o r t h e r n reaches
of Malawi
might
want to
see
the
site,
or perhaps
take h o m e
a
s o u v e n i r . A s all t o o o f t e n h a p p e n s , that g e n e r a t e s a c o m m e r c i a l d e m a n d f o r fossils.
That w o u l d be bad.
T h e paleontological resources of the
country
b e l o n g t o all its c i t i z e n s , n o t t o just a s e l e c t f e w . T h e scientific v a l u e b e l o n g s t o the w o r l d .
T h e fossils o f M a l a w i are f r a g i l e .
T h e y are a n o n r e n e w a b l e
resource. T h o s e w h o w o u l d have a m e m e n t o on their mantel do m o r e harm than t h e y k n o w ; the careless r e m o v a l o f fossils f r o m the surface o f t h e g r o u n d d e s t r o y s the clues that g i v e fossils m e a n i n g and that p r o v i d e a m e a n s t o f i n d i n g still-buried s p e c i m e n s . resources
of the
In
country
M a l a w i such b e h a v i o r carries a risk: are
protected
by
law,
and
the
T h e fossil
Department
of
A n t i q u i t i e s i s serious i n the e x t r e m e a b o u t l i v i n g u p t o its c a r e t a k e r r e s p o n s i bilities. T h e y i n t e n d t o n i p any p r o b l e m i n the b u d . A n a p p r o p r i a t e s t r a t e g y for protection is being devised.
It involves educating locals,
and p e r h a p s
establishing a site m u s e u m a l o n g the lines o f D i n o s a u r N a t i o n a l M o n u m e n t i n U t a h . It a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y w i l l r e q u i r e a small b u t p e r m a n e n t staff at M w a k a syunguti. A f e w jobs w i l l be created. T h a t w i l l be g o o d . Still, t h e p u b l i c d e m a n d f o r dinosaurs m u s t b e m e t f o r t h r e e r e a s o n s : I t is fun, it is p r o f i t a b l e , it is e d u c a t i o n a l . T h e fun of e x t i n c t animals is u n d e n i a b l e . It is o b v i o u s . So is the p r o f i t a b i l i t y . W a l k t h r o u g h m o s t any s t o r e in t h e U n i t e d States that sells g o o d s f o r c h i l d r e n and y o u w i l l see t h e d i n o s a u r m o t i f . Breakfast c e r e a l , s p a g h e t t i , H a l l o w e e n c o s t u m e s , T - s h i r t s , p o s t c a r d s , backpacks, r o c k e r s , T V s h o w s , c o l o r i n g b o o k s , cassettes, p o s t e r s , w i n d u p t o y s , b o a r d g a m e s , v i d e o g a m e s . Y o u n a m e it. T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f d i n o s a u r m a n i a is w o r l d w i d e .
I f a n y o n e k n o w s t h e e c o n o m i c v a l u e o f this p e r s i s t e n t and
n e v e r - e n d i n g c r a z e , I h a v e n o t b e e n able t o f i n d o u t . Y e t i t m u s t b e t r e m e n -
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
278 d o u s . I n s o m e f o r m o r o t h e r this c o m m e r c i a l p h e n o m e n o n w i l l d e v e l o p i n M a l a w i . A n d that w i l l b e g o o d . T h e k i c k e r a b o u t dinosaurs is that t h e y are just as g o o d at selling science a s t h e y are a t s e l l i n g t o y s o r breakfast c e r e a l o r c a n n e d spaghetti. T h e y m i g h t e v e n b e the best single t h i n g a r o u n d f o r a t t r a c t i n g p e o p l e t o science a t all l e v e l s , k i n d e r g a r t e n t h r o u g h g r a d u a t e s c h o o l . N o t e v e r y o n e w h o likes fossils w i l l b e c o m e a p a l e o n t o l o g i s t , b u t that is n o t the p o i n t . P a l e o n t o l o g y itself does not
need
a
recruiting
drive.
A
lot
of p e o p l e
like
the
subject
matter
of
p a l e o n t o l o g y just f o r w h a t i t is. T h e y w i l l like w h a t p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s d o , e v e n if they are not paleontologists themselves. T h e e d u c a t i o n a l aspects o f m y w o r k i n M a l a w i I f i n d m o s t i n t r i g u i n g . I n e f f e c t the dinosaurs a r e a t o o l ,
the b a i t ,
i f y o u w i l l , t o s t i m u l a t e healthy
c u r i o s i t y and the g o o d habit o f e n j o y i n g it. E d u c a t i o n i s a n i t e r a t i v e p r o c e s s , c o n s t a n t l y b e i n g r e d o n e and e m b e l l i s h e d i n individuals and constantly r e p e a t e d f o r each age g r o u p o f c h i l d r e n . M a n y o f the d e m a n d s and r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e t h e s a m e f o r any c l a s s r o o m , w h e t h e r i t b e i n rural M a l a w i o r i n a n affluent p r i v a t e s c h o o l i n t h e U n i t e d States. T h e r e f o r e these A f r i c a n dinosaurs o u g h t to have educational value for e v e r y o n e e v e r y w h e r e .
T h e y teach a b o u t the
h i s t o r y o f life and o f t h e E a r t h , a s dinosaurs f r o m a n y w h e r e d o . T h e y teach specifically a b o u t M a l a w i . M a l a w i a n s c h o o l k i d s k n o w w h e r e the U n i t e d States is; h o w m a n y A m e r i c a n s o f any age k n o w w h e r e M a l a w i is? H o w can t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l o f these dinosaurs b e s t b e r e a l i z e d ? I n M a l a w i the A n t i q u i t i e s D e p a r t m e n t w i l l p l a c e t h e m o n display i n the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m i n B l a n t y r e . T h e r e m a y a l s o , i n t i m e , b e a site m u s e u m a t M w a k a s y u n g u t i , and p e r h a p s a small t r a v e l i n g e x h i b i t . S u p p l e m e n t a r y b o o k l e t s f o r v a r i o u s g r a d e l e v e l s are p l a n n e d . O u t s i d e o f M a l a w i n e w s o f this w o r k w i l l e v e n t u a l l y f i l t e r d o w n t o c h i l d r e n ' s b o o k s . But t o m e i t w o u l d b e m u c h m o r e e l e c t r i f y i n g t o r e s u r r e c t these dinosaurs i n l i f e l i k e c r e a t i v i t y and let t h e m tell t h e i r o w n s t o r y b y t o u r i n g the w o r l d f o r all t o s e e . T h e n t h e r e w o u l d b e s o m e i n t e r e s t g e n e r a t e d — i n A f r i c a , i n M a l a w i , and i n s c i e n c e . I t o n l y takes m o n e y .
O F COURSE
ALL this p r e s u p p o s e s that t h e M a l a w i dinosaurs h a v e a w o r t h -
w h i l e s t o r y t o t e l l . I think t h e y d o . Just l o o k a t w h a t w e h a v e s e e n . A t least t h i r t e e n kinds o f b a c k b o n e d animals h a v e b e e n f o u n d i n t h e D i n o s a u r B e d s , plus a f e w s e e d l i k e plant r e m a i n s , and t w o kinds o f f r e s h w a t e r i n v e r t e b r a t e s . B o n e s are abundant and w e l l p r e s e r v e d , a l l o w i n g u s t o d e t e r m i n e a g r e a t deal
T H E
G O O D
O F
D I N O S A U R S
a b o u t the animals o f a n c i e n t A f r i c a .
T h e a g e o f t h e fossil r e m a i n s i s Early
C r e t a c e o u s , falling s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n 144 and 9 7 . 5 m i l l i o n years a g o . T h i s i n t e r v a l i s g e n e r a l l y the m o s t p o o r l y k n o w n o f any i n the A g e o f R e p t i l e s , but it is i m p o r t a n t because it is in this t i m e i n t e r v a l that the animals and plants o f the m o d e r n w o r l d e m e r g e . M a l a w i p r o v i d e s a m a j o r s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the terrestrial a n i m a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e a n i m a l s , o n t h e Earth d u r i n g that t i m e . It m a y be the best in A f r i c a f o r its a g e . But it is n o t an isolated o c c u r r e n c e . I t exists i n a g l o b a l c o n t e x t , its v e r y p r e s e n c e g o v e r n e d b y the g r a n d p r i n c i p l e s o f g e o l o g y and b i o l o g y . W h a t i t c o n t r i b u t e s t o o u r k n o w l e d g e of the w o r l d as a w h o l e , and A f r i c a ' s p l a c e in its e v o l u t i o n , is g r e a t e r by far than any little details a b o u t any specific a n i m a l . It is i m p o r t a n t to k n o w this b i g p i c t u r e because i f the w o r l d o f t h e Early C r e t a c e o u s w a s n o t a s i t w a s , the w o r l d o f t o d a y w o u l d n o t b e a s i t is. D o w e n o t w a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t w e can d o t o the w o r l d o f t o m o r r o w , t o plan r a t i o n a l l y f o r the future? T h e D i n o s a u r Beds are a u n i q u e w i n d o w i n t o the past f o r a t least t w o reasons. T h e y p r e s e r v e a fauna, a suite of a n i m a l s , the likes of w h i c h is f o u n d n o w h e r e else in the w o r l d . It has r e l a t i v e s e l s e w h e r e , and that h e l p s us to understand its p l a c e , but n o o t h e r l o c a l i t y p r e s e r v e s e x a c t l y t h e s a m e a m a l g a m o f s p e c i e s . M o r e o v e r the M a l a w i fossils r e p r e s e n t the c o m m u n i t y o f animals l i v i n g just a t the t i m e A f r i c a w a s b e c o m i n g i s o l a t e d f r o m South A m e r i c a . O n t o p o f that, the b o n e s a r e p r e s e r v e d i n s e d i m e n t s r e f l e c t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s that are i n s o m e w a y s d i f f e r e n t f r o m the usual e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e dinosaurs are f o u n d . T h a t tells u s s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e i r e c o l o g y . F i v e species o f d i n o s a u r s , a t least, o c c u r i n n o r t h e r n M a l a w i . T h e c a r n i v o r o u s o n e s are the m o s t p o o r l y r e p r e s e n t e d . T h a t m a k e s s e n s e . C a r n i v o r e s a r e high
on
the
food
chain,
and
in
a balanced
community
they
should
not
o u t n u m b e r t h e i r p r e y . T h e h e r b i v o r e s are a s p i k y - p l a t e d s t e g o s a u r that f e e d s o n l o w plants c l o s e t o the g r o u n d and a t least t w o kinds o f s a u r o p o d s that eat taller plants. O n e o f the s a u r o p o d s i s a n e w and d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s o f d i p l o d o c i d , r e p r e s e n t e d at first by a small j a w , p r o b a b l y f r o m a b a b y . Last field season w e r e c o v e r e d m o r e o f it.
T h e o t h e r s a u r o p o d i s t h e titanosaurid M a l a w i -
saurus. T h a t species is the best r e p r e s e n t e d of all the dinosaurs in M a l a w i . Parts o f the s k e l e t o n are k n o w n f r o m sets o f b o n e s a r t i c u l a t e d a s i n l i f e . O t h e r b o n e s are s c a t t e r e d . V e r y i n t e r e s t i n g l y , parts o f t h e skull, the l o w e r j a w , and s o m e t e e t h have b e e n f o u n d . I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e M a l a w i - s a u r u s s a m p l e , o f the m o r e than 150 species o f s a u r o p o d s that h a v e b e e n n a m e d w o r l d w i d e , perhaps o n l y t w o d o z e n are r e a s o n a b l y w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d b y fossils. O f t h e s e ,
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D .
skulls are k n o w n i n less than half. T h e fossils o f M a l a w i - s a u r u s i n c l u d e the o n l y s a u r o p o d - s k u l l m a t e r i a l k n o w n i n all o f A f r i c a f r o m b e t w e e n the t i m e o f T e n d a g u r u and the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s — a n i n t e r v a l o f n e a r l y e i g h t y m i l l i o n y e a r s . W i t h such n i c e m a t e r i a l o f this s a u r o p o d , its relationships can be w o r k e d o u t . It is n o t like Diplodocus or Apatosaurus.
It d o e s n o t have the
l o n g skull, p e n c i l l i k e t e e t h , o r s c a l e s o m e , f l a i l s o m e tail o f t h o s e t w o . Its a r m s are s h o r t e r than Brachiosaurus, and its t e e t h and s n o u t are d i f f e r e n t f r o m b o t h Brachiosaurus and Camarasaurus. It is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g , t h e n , that r e g a l M a l a w i saurus a l l o w s f o r the r e v i s i o n o f ideas a b o u t the f a m i l y t r e e o f s a u r o p o d s , especially
with
regard
to
the
place
o f titanosaurids.
Titanosaurids,
while
h a v i n g s o m e d e r i v e d features u n i q u e t o t h e i r o w n f a m i l y , and w h i l e b e i n g m u c h m o r e characteristic o f the C r e t a c e o u s than t h e L a t e Jurassic h e y d a y o f the s a u r o p o d s , a r e basically p r i m i t i v e i n t h e i r a n a t o m y . O n e o f t h e i n t e r e s t i n g features o f M a l a w i - s a u r u s i s its s i z e . A t t h i r t y f e e t l o n g and p e r h a p s a d o z e n t o n s in w e i g h t , it is small f o r a s a u r o p o d . As I said e a r l i e r , o f all the b o n e s c o l l e c t e d i n M a l a w i f r o m all t h e m a n y d i f f e r e n t spots i n the D i n o s a u r B e d s , n o n e a p p r o a c h e s t h e size o f a t r u l y l a r g e s a u r o p o d . T h i s i n c l u d e s e v e r y t h i n g c o l l e c t e d b y c o l o n i a l e x p a t r i a t e s i n t h e 1920s, M i g e o d i n 1 9 3 0 , and all the b o n e s m y c r e w s h a v e c o l l e c t e d . M a l a w i - s a u r u s i s o n l y o n e t h i r d the size o f Diplodocus. W h y s h o u l d that be? W h i l e i n the f i e l d I t h o u g h t o f t w o p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s . P e r h a p s the b o n e s c o m e f r o m y o u n g individuals. E v e n the d i n o s a u r giants m u s t g r o w f r o m h a t c h l i n g s , b u t n o n e o f the places w h e r e b o n e i s f o u n d appears t o b e a n e s t i n g area o r o t h e r social a g g r e g a t i o n b r o u g h t a b o u t b y the b e h a v i o r o f b a b y dinosaurs.
I f n o t b a b i e s , m a y b e the
b o n e s f r o m M a l a w i are t h o s e o f d i n o s a u r t e e n a g e r s , a s i t w e r e . O n the o t h e r h a n d , m a y b e M a l a w i - s a u r u s r e a l l y w a s a small s a u r o p o d s p e c i e s . C r e t a c e o u s s a u r o p o d s a r e p o o r l y k n o w n all o v e r t h e w o r l d , and m o s t real giants a p p e a r t o h a v e l i v e d m i l l i o n s o f years e a r l i e r , but I h a v e t o a d m i t t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g amusing, e v e n appealing, about a t h i r t y - f o o t - l o n g sauropod dinosaur, a p y g m y i f y o u l i k e , l i v i n g i n A f r i c a o v e r 100 m i l l i o n years a g o w h e r e t o d a y , after all that t i m e , p y g m y h u m a n s l i v e . T h e r e is, o f c o u r s e , n o c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n dinosaur and h u m a n p y g m i e s . M a l a w i - s a u r u s is a distinct s p e c i e s of a n i m a l ; h u m a n p y g m i e s are just a p o p u l a t i o n o f the o n e g l o b a l h u m a n species w i t h a s m a l l e r a v e r a g e h e i g h t . But still, the t h o u g h t o f p y g m y s a u r o p o d s i s e n t e r t a i n ing. S a u r o p o d s h a v e o f t e n i n the past b e e n d e p i c t e d a s c r e a t u r e s o f the l o w lands—swamps,
seashores,
sluggish r i v e r b a n k s , and b a y o u s .
Indeed,
their
T H E
G O O D
O F
D I N O S A U R S
281 f o o t p r i n t s a r e m o s t o f t e n f o u n d i n r o c k s r e p r e s e n t i n g these e n v i r o n m e n t s . T h e r o c k s o f M a l a w i ' s D i n o s a u r Beds w e r e d e p o s i t e d b y f a s t - f l o w i n g s t r e a m s that d r a i n e d the hilly c o u n t r y a t the f e e t o f m o u n t a i n s . probably
fairly
rugged
and
the
vegetation
not
T h e terrain was
particularly
dense,
except
p e r h a p s f o r the g a l l e r i e s a l o n g w a t e r c o u r s e s . T h e v e g e t a t i o n w a s c e r t a i n l y n o t as d e n s e as that in a rain f o r e s t . T h e w e a t h e r w a s h o t and seasonal, oscillating b e t w e e n w e t and d r y seasons. T h e s a m p l i n g o f this kind o f e n v i r o n m e n t , a s p r o v i d e d b y the D i n o s a u r B e d s , m a y b e r e l e v a n t t o w h y the s a u r o p o d s w e r e small. W a s the c o u n t r y s i d e t o o r o u g h f o r f i f t y - t o n b e h e m o t h s ? D i d the y o u n g o f giants l i v e i n the hills, a w a y f r o m the l o w l a n d s ? A l l o w m e t o s p e c u l a t e a l i t t l e f u r t h e r . T h e r e a l l y giant s a u r o p o d s are v e r y specialized
animals.
They
had
to
evolve
from
species
smaller
and
more
p r i m i t i v e than t h e m s e l v e s , b u t t h o s e ancestral species are c u r r e n t l y u n k n o w n t o p a l e o n t o l o g i s t s . T h e y m u s t h a v e l i v e d w h e r e the r e a l l y b i g o n e s d i d n o t , o t h e r w i s e w e should h a v e f o u n d t h e m a t T e n d a g u r u o r D i n o s a u r N a t i o n a l M o n u m e n t or s o m e other famous dinosaur hot spot. Malawi-saurus is b o t h small f o r a s a u r o p o d and it has s o m e p r i m i t i v e features in the v e r t e b r a e and the skull. T h i s has s o m e v e r y i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r d i n o s a u r s . T i t a n o s a u r i d s , as a f a m i l y , are the last of the s a u r o p o d s . T h e y are m o s t c o m m o n i n r o c k s y o u n g e r than the D i n o s a u r B e d s , n o t i n A f r i c a , but i n India and South A m e r i c a . T h e y also a p p e a r i n the L a t e C r e t a c e o u s o f E u r o p e and i n N o r t h A m e r i c a ( t h e beast c a l l e d Alamosaurus), w h e r e t h e y w e n t e x t i n c t a t the G r e a t D y i n g that m a r k s the e n d o f the A g e o f R e p t i l e s .
Malawi-saurus
p r o v i d e s a k i n d o f m i s s i n g link b e t w e e n o l d e r C r e t a c e o u s titanosaurids and t h o s e o f the
Late
Cretaceous
so
c o m m o n i n t h e rest o f t h e
world.
The
titanosaurids m a y h a v e e v o l v e d i n A f r i c a and t h e n s k i p p e d o v e r t o S o u t h A m e r i c a just p r i o r t o the o p e n i n g o f the South A t l a n t i c O c e a n . S o m e f o r t y m i l l i o n years after t h e y left A f r i c a , t h e y w e r e i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h e bizarre m a m m a l l i k e c r o c o d i l e f r o m unexpected.
M a l a w i tells u s t o e x p e c t t h e
W e c a n n o t a l w a y s p r e d i c t a c c u r a t e l y w h a t w e w i l l f i n d i n the
u n k n o w n past, e v e n t h o u g h w e can c o n s t r u c t h y p o t h e s e s that m a k e r e a s o n able p r e d i c t i o n s . T h e M a l a w i c r o c w a s u n e x p e c t e d , b u t i t d o e s n o t v i o l a t e t h e b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e u p o n w h i c h p a l e o n t o l o g y i s b a s e d . I t i s just a n i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c o v e r y , a p p e a l i n g i n its w a y just a s the d i n o s a u r d i s c o v e r i e s f r o m M a l a w i a r e . D o e s the p r e s e n c e o f the m a m m a l l i k e c r o c h a v e any r e l e v a n c e t o the a p p a r e n t a b s e n c e o f t r u e m a m m a l s f r o m t h e D i n o s a u r Beds? M a y b e s o , b u t e v e n i f i t d o e s n o t , i t d e m o n s t r a t e s that v i a b l e , l o n g - l i v e d , f u n c t i o n i n g e c o l o g -
LOUIS
JACOBS,
PH.D.
282 ical c o m m u n i t i e s can b e m a d e u p o f species vastly d i f f e r e n t f r o m those a r o u n d t o d a y , each w i t h its special r o l e i n t h e w e b o f l i f e . A s e x e m p l i f i e d b y the D i n o s a u r B e d s , the e c o s y s t e m s o f t h e past a r e n o t s i m p l y j u n i o r - l e a g u e m o d e l s o f t h o s e that e x i s t t o d a y . T h e y w e r e d i f f e r e n t , and t h e y had t o b e m o d i f i e d f o r the w o r l d t o b e c o m e w h a t i t is. A l l o f the studies d o n e thus far a r e p r e l i m i n a r y . M o r e w o r k n e e d s t o b e d o n e o n e v e r y t h i n g . T h e f r o g s are u n s t u d i e d , the m a m m a l l i k e c r o c i s n o t y e t named,
n o r are M a l a w i - s a u r u s o r o u r n e w species o f d i p l o d o c i d f o r m a l l y
n a m e d . T h e stegosaur and t h e r o p o d s n e e d d e t a i l e d e x a m i n a t i o n . W h a t w i l l t h e y t e l l us? T h e q u e s t i o n s g o o n and o n . I t w i l l b e years b e f o r e t h e f i n a l r e p o r t s a r e c o m p l e t e d . I t w i l l b e years b e f o r e E l i z a b e t h has t u r n e d i n her f i n i s h e d dissertation and r e t u r n e d t o h e r c o u n t r y t o u n d e r t a k e n e w investigations in M a l a w i ' s fossil b e d s .
E v e n after that has h a p p e n e d , scholars w i l l
f o r e v e r e m p l o y the s p e c i m e n s c o l l e c t e d i n o u r M a l a w i e x p e d i t i o n s , and those f r o m C a m e r o o n , just a s t h e y use b o o k s i n a l i b r a r y , f o r t h e i r o w n research p u r p o s e s . Ideas w i l l c o n s t a n t l y b e r e v i s e d , e t e r n a l l y u p d a t e d , n e v e r static. W h a t w e think n o w a b o u t M a l a w i - s a u r u s and t h e o t h e r fossils f r o m A f r i c a i s sure to c h a n g e in t h e f u t u r e . In o n e sense that m e a n s that w h a t is b e i n g said t o d a y i s sure t o b e w r o n g ,
or at best,
not c o m p l e t e l y right;
in a m o r e
i m p o r t a n t sense i t m e a n s that w h a t i s b e i n g said n o w w i l l h e l p u s b e c l o s e r to the truth n e x t t i m e .
THIS
August
IS
H O W i t w a s w h e n I left N g a r a c a m p :
3,
Friday.
L i g h t w e l l w a s i n c a m p this m o r n i n g b e c a u s e K e n t and I are l e a v i n g t o d a y . H e came quietly up to m e . " E x c u s e m e , s i r , " h e said, " m a y I speak t o y o u ? " I w a s h e a d i n g f o r m y t e n t . " S u r e , " I a n s w e r e d . " C a n y o u talk w h i l e I pack my gear?" L i g h t w e l l f o l l o w e d m e o v e r t o t h e s u b d u e d light b e n e a t h the g r e e n canvas of my Malawi home. " S i r , I h a v e p r e p a r e d a s o r t o f r e p o r t , w h i c h I w o u l d l i k e t o r e a d because y o u are l e a v i n g . " "Okay, go ahead."
T H E
G O O D
O F
D I N O S A U R S
283 L i g h t w e l l started t o r e a d . I s t o p p e d h i m . " I think this i s f o r the w h o l e g r o u p . L e t ' s g o back and g a t h e r e v e r y o n e , " I suggested. A r o u n d the t a b l e , u n d e r t h e shade o f t h e t a m a r i n d t r e e , L i g h t w e l l b e g a n . " F i r s t , b e f o r e I r e a d m y r e p o r t , please l e t m e say that i f a n y t h i n g w a s d o n e that o f f e n d e d y o u , please f o r g i v e us, f o r y o u a r e v i s i t o r s h e r e and w e n e v e r d o anything t o o f f e n d y o u . But i f w e d i d s o m e t h i n g that o f f e n d e d y o u w i t h o u t o u r k n o w l e d g e , I am s o r r y . I h a v e h e a r d that Yasaki m i s b e h a v e d and had to b e sacked f o r b e i n g r u d e . I a m s o r r y . H e e m b a r r a s s e d u s . " W e e c h o e d w a r m s e n t i m e n t s , and I assured h i m o f o u r d e e p f e e l i n g s f o r all the p e o p l e o f M w a k a s y u n g u t i , i n c l u d i n g Y a s a k i . G o o d - b y e s i n M a l a w i are always g l o r p y . L i g h t w e l l r e a d his h a n d w r i t t e n n o t e w i t h t r e m b l i n g l i p :
Farewell
Report
It is my great appreciation and sincere gratitude f o r y o u o n c e m o r e c o m i n g here t o visit m y c o u n t r y , i n particular m y village T h a w i l o . I again thank y o u for the best t i m e I spent w i t h y o u h e r e on Saturday, 28th July. I e x t e n d my sincere gratitude to y o u also f o r the g o o d and fruitful ideas y o u shared w i t h me on that day. M a y I take an o p p o r t u n i t y for thanking y o u o n c e again for the p o i n t o f d e v e l o p i n g m y h o m e area. Because of this s o m e of my h o m e b r o t h e r s are able to g e t a sort of e m p l o y m e n t w h e r e b y they can obtain m o n e y f o r their living. In addition to this d e v e l o p m e n t , my village bears its i m p o r t a n c e and great fame in the country. It is my absolute b e l i e f that p e o p l e always tend to n e g l e c t places found in r e m o t e areas or away f r o m the main r o a d . But w i t h the case of T h a w i l o , in particular M w a k a s y u n g u t i v i l l a g e , no o n e can n e g l e c t it as it is n o w . So for y o u to d i s c o v e r such an e x p e n s i v e thing in my h o m e area, it is because of the great w i s d o m p o u r e d in y o u . T h e r e f o r e , may y o u and y o u r family be healthy and strong all the w a y to Dallas in the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a as y o u w i l l be g o i n g back h o m e .
M a y y o u have such an
e x c e l l e n t w i s d o m so that all the best quality businesses planned and prepared for y o u may be fulfilled. It is of no w o n d e r that y o u have left p e o p l e of T h a w i l o w i t h great e x c i t e m e n t and healthy pockets for such an unforgettable d e v e l o p m e n t y o u have i n t r o d u c e d in the area. To say for sure, p e o p l e in Mwakasyunguti
L O U I S
J A C O B S ,
P H . D
284 village n e v e r f o r g e t y o u though y o u l e a v e t h e m because y o u have brought a sort o f d e v e l o p m e n t i n T h a w i l o . T h e y always feel happy w i t h y o u w h e n y o u live a m o n g t h e m . A l t h o u g h t i m e has c o m e n o w for y o u t o leave t h e m , spiritually y o u w i l l always b e a m o n g t h e m .
Please,
may y o u r families
r e m e m b e r us h e r e . I o n c e m o r e say thanks are due to y o u , D r . Louis Jacobs, D r . D a l e W i n k l e r , K e n t D . N e w m a n , and W i l l i a m D o w n s . I wish y o u all a g o o d journey.
YOU
ALL
DESERVE
BEST
L.S.E. L I G H T W E L L
WISHES
AND
THANKs!
M K W A L A
SADALA
ENDSON
MKWALA
M y o w n e m o t i o n s a b o u t M a l a w i , its p e o p l e , and its future j o s t l e d w i t h i n m e a s w e r a t t l e d o f f d o w n the t a r m a c t o K a r o n g a , t h r o u g h the t e r r i t o r y M l o z i and his slavers had s a v a g e d a c e n t u r y b e f o r e . W e d r o v e past the sign f o r the S y n o d o f L i v i n g s t o n i a , past t h e W o r l d W a r I g r a v e s , past K a r o n g a T e a c h e r s ' C o l l e g e , past the b r i g h t , n e w r e g i o n a l h o s p i t a l , t o the a i r p o r t . " W i l l i t fly t o d a y ? " I asked t h e A i r M a l a w i t i c k e t a g e n t . T h r o u g h a broad grin h e r e p l i e d ,
"I hope s o . "
EXPEDITION 1
MEMBERS M A L A W I
9 8 4
E X P E D I T I O N
R. Jerry Britt (Southern M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y ) W i l l i a m Chilinda ( D e p a r t m e n t o f Antiquities) William R.
D o w n s ( S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y and N o r t h e r n A r i z o n a University) L o u i s L . Jacobs ( S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y ) Zefe M.
Kaufulu ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s )
Biswick K h o m b a ( D e p a r t m e n t of Antiquities) Petros Mfiri (Karonga) Fidelis M o r o c c o ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s ) Greavens Mwanza (Karonga) Lloyd Nyalwa (Karonga) N i c o l a Stern ( H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y )
( O u r s o n , M a t t h e w , w a s b o r n i n S e p t e m b e r after the 1 9 8 4 M a l a w i E x p e d i t i o n . I n M a y 1 9 8 5 , B o n n i e and I t o o k M a t t h e w w i t h u s t o K e n y a w h i l e w e did o u r w o r k o n y o u n g e r fossils. T h a t y e a r I d u g dinosaurs and o t h e r b o n e s i n T e x a s and A r i z o n a . )
1
C A M E R O O N
9 8 6
E X P E D I T I O N
Sodia A d a m o u ( Y a o u n d e ) A b e l Brillanceau ( U n i v e r s i t e d e P o i t i e r s , F r a n c e ) Michel Brunet (Universite de Poitiers) Jean D e j a x ( M u s e u m national d ' H i s t o i r e n a t u r e l l e , P a r i s ) Kathryn M .
Flanagan ( U n i v e r s i t y o f W y o m i n g )
L a w r e n c e J. Flynn (Harvard University)
285
E X P E D I T I O N
M E M B E R S
286 E m i l e H e i n t z ( M u s e u m national d ' H i s t o i r e n a t u r e l l e ) Joseph V i c t o r H e l l ( I n s t i t u t e d e R e c h e r c h e G e o l o g i q u e e t M i n i e r e , Garoua) L o u i s L. Jacobs Jean (last n a m e n o t k n o w n , G a r o u a ) J e a n - P i e r r e (last n a m e n o t k n o w n , G a r o u a ) S e v k e t Sen ( U n i v e r s i t e d e Paris V I )
1
9 8 7
C A M E R O O N
E X P E D I T I O N
Sodia A d a m o u Abel
Brillanceau
Michel Brunet John D .
Congleton (Southern Methodist University) Jean D e j a x William R.
Downs
V e r a E i s e n m a n n ( M u s e u m national d ' H i s t o i r e n a t u r e l l e ) Kathryn M.
Flanagan
L a w r e n c e J. Flynn Emile
Heintz
Joseph V i c t o r H e l l L o u i s L. Jacobs Y v e s Jehenne ( U n i v e r s i t e de Poitiers) Guy Mouchelin (Universite de Poitiers) David Pilbeam (Harvard University) Sallee (last n a m e n o t k n o w n , G a r o u a ) Samuel (last n a m e n o t k n o w n , G a r o u a )
1
9 8 7
M A L A W I John D .
E X P E D I T I O N
Congleton
William R.
Downs
L o u i s L. Jacobs Alfred
Kapira ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) Zefe
Kaufulu
James K h o m u ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s ) B r i g h t o n Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i )
E X P E D I T I O N
M E M B E R S
287 M j u d a Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) W e l l i n g t o n Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) Lightwell Mkwala (Mwakasyunguti) Fidelis M o r o c c o Kent D. N e w m a n (Southern Methodist University) Alisa J . W i n k l e r ( S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y ) Dale A. W i n k l e r (Southern Methodist University)
1
C A M E R O O N
9 8 8
E X P E D I T I O N
Sodia A d a m o u A b e l Brillanceau M i c h e l Brunet John D . C o n g l e t o n Jean D e j a x Joseph V i c t o r H e l l L o u i s L. Jacobs Guy Mouchelin Sallee
1
9 8 9
M A L A W I
E X P E D I T I O N
William R. Downs Elizabeth G o m a n i ( U n i v e r s i t y o f M a l a w i ) L o u i s L. Jacobs Joseph K a p i r a Zefe
Kaufulu
James K h o m u Laura M a c L a t c h y ( H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y ) Augustine M a x w e l l ( N g a r a ) Patson M a x w e l l ( N g a r a ) Yasaki M h a n g o ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) M j u d a Missiska W e l l i n g t o n Missiska Lightwell Mkwala Fidelis M o r o c c o Ronald M w a g o m b a (Karonga)
E X P E D I T I O N
M E M B E R S
288 Kent D.
Newman
Gresham N g w i r a (Ngara) Dale A.
1
9 9 0
Winkler
M A L A W I
E X P E D I T I O N
William R.
Downs
Elizabeth G o m a n i ( D e p a r t m e n t o f Antiquities) L o u i s L. Jacobs Alfred
Kapira
Joseph K a p i r a James K h o m u Augustine
Maxwell
Patson M a x w e l l Yasaki M h a n g o Dyson Mkwala (Mwakasyunguti) M j u d a Missiska W e l l i n g t o n Missiska Fidelis M o r o c c o Ronald
Mwagomba
Kent D.
Newman
Gresham
Ngwira
Alisa J . W i n k l e r Dale A.
Winkler
( T h e r e w a s n o A f r i c a n f i e l d season i n 1 9 9 1 , b u t D a l e W i n k l e r and I w e n t t o the
D e p a r t m e n t of Antiquities to prepare
fossils i n t h e i r l a b o r a t o r y
with
Fidelis M o r o c c o . )
1
9 9 2
M A L A W I
E X P E D I T I O N
John Chilachila ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s ) E l i z a b e t h G o m a n i ( D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t i q u i t i e s and S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t University) L o u i s L. Jacobs Alfred
Kapira
Joseph K a p i r a
E X P E D I T I O N
M E M B E R S
289 James
Khomu
Saulos M a k a l e ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) Banana Joe Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i . I c a n n o t resist g i v i n g t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f Banana J o e ' s n a m e .
His given name in T u m b u k a sounded very much
like the C h i c h e w a w o r d f o r e g g s . H e a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t l i k e that. O n a t r i p t o L i l o n g w e h e w a s v i s i t e d b y spirits i n his s l e e p , s o h e says, and t h e y instructed h i m t o c h a n g e his n a m e t o Banana J o e , w h i c h h e d i d . ) K e n i Missiska ( M w a k a s y u n g u t i ) Mjuda
Missiska
Wellington Dyson
Mkwala
Fidelis Ronald Kent D.
Missiska
Morocco Mwagomba
N e w m a n ( S o u t h e r n M e t h o d i s t U n i v e r s i t y and P i a n o I n d e p e n d e n t School District, W i l s o n M i d d l e School) Gresham
Ngwira
Locala N y i l o n g o (Mwakasyunguti) Louis H . T a y l o r ( W e s t e r n Interior Paleontological Society, D e n v e r ) Thomas Thwindwa Dale A.
(Ngara)
Winkler
Suggestions For Further Reading ( T h i s is not an exhaustive b i b l i o g r a p h y , o n l y an i n t r o d u c t i o n to the l i t e r a t u r e , but it should lead the interested r e a d e r to the w e a l t h of published sources available about the topics of this b o o k . S o m e references are r e l e v a n t to m o r e than o n e chapter, but each is listed o n l y o n c e , in the m o s t appropriate p l a c e . )
C H A P T E R
1 .
T H E
F O R G O T T E N
D I N O S A U R S
O F
A F R I C A A l b r i t t o n , C. C. 1986. The Abyss of Time. F r e e m a n , C o o p e r and C o m p a n y , N e w York. Blaikie, W.
Garden.
1910.
The Personal Life of David Livingstone. John M u r r a y ,
London. Campbell, R. J.
1930. Livingstone. D o d d , M e a d & C o m p a n y , N e w Y o r k .
Crichton, Michael.
1990. Jurassic Park. A l f r e d A . K n o p f , N e w Y o r k .
C o l b e r t , E d w i n H. 1973. Wandering Lands and Animals. E. P. D u t t o n & C o m p a n y , Inc., N e w Y o r k . D a r w i n , C. 1859. The Origin of Species. John M u r r a y , L o n d o n . (A v a r i o r u m t e x t edited b y M o r s e Peckham [ 1 9 5 9 , U n i v e r s i t y o f Pennsylvania Press] indicates that the passage m e n t i o n i n g L i v i n g s t o n e was changed in the fifth e d i t i o n t o , " L i v i n g s t o n e states that g o o d d o m e s t i c b r e e d s are valued by the n e g r o e s in the interior o f Africa w h o have n o t associated w i t h E u r o p e a n s . " ) DeSalle,
Rob;
Gatesy, John;
Wheeler, Ward;
and G r i m a l d i ,
David.
1992.
" D N A Sequences f r o m a Fossil T e r m i t e i n O l i g o - M i o c e n e A m b e r and their Phylogenetic Implications." 257:1933 Drummond, Henry. .
1888.
1884.
36.
" G e o l o g y o f Central A f r i c a . " Nature 2 9 : 5 5 1 .
Tropical Africa.
H o d d e r and S t o u g h t o n , L o n d o n .
G o u l d , Stephen Jay. 1980. The Panda's Thumb. W . W . N o r t o n & C o m p a n y , N e w York.
291
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
292 .
1 9 8 3 . Hen's Teeth and Horses Toes. W. W. N o r t o n & C o m p a n y , N e w
York. .
1985.
H a l l a m , A.
The Flamingo's Smile.
W. W. N o r t o n & Company, N e w York.
1973. A Revolution in the Earth Sciences. C l a r e n d o n , O x f o r d .
Hillis, D a v i d M . , and M o r i t z , Craig.
1990. Molecular Systematics. Sinauer Associ-
ates I n c . , Sunderland, Mass. Jacobs, Louis L.; W i n k l e r , D a l e A . ; and D o w n s , W i l l i a m R . Paleontological
Heritage."
1992. " M a l a w i ' s
Occasional Papers of the Malawi Department of An-
1:5—23.
tiquities
Kenyatta, J o m o .
1938. Facing Mount Kenya:
The Tribal Life of the Gikuyu.
Seeker
and W a r b u r g , L o n d o n . Kipling,
Rudyard.
1978. Just So Stories for Little Children.
Weathervane Books,
N e w Y o r k . ( T h e r e are, o f c o u r s e , many editions o f this delightful w o r k . T h e advice o f the k o l o k o l o bird i s f r o m " T h e Elephant's C h i l d . " A f e w other d e s c r i p t i v e t e r m s f r o m o t h e r stories have also b e e n u s e d . ) Maier, Gerhard.
1989. Tendaguru Through Time: The Information Trail of a Scientific
Expedition. T h e U n i v e r s i t y of A l b e r t a , Unpublished Research P r o j e c t submitted to the Faculty of Library and I n f o r m a t i o n Studies. M i g e o d , F . W . H . 1930. " R e p o r t o n the British M u s e u m East Africa E x p e d i t i o n . Season
1929."
Natural History Magazine 2 ( 1 9 3 0 ) :
185-98.
. 1931 A . " B r i t i s h M u s e u m East Africa E x p e d i t i o n . A c c o u n t o f the W o r k D o n e in . Morell,
1930."
193IB.
Virginia.
Natural History Magazine 9 : 8 7 - 1 0 3 .
" D i g g i n g for D i n o s a u r s . " Discovery 1 2 : 1 4 2 ^ 4 5 . 1992.
" T h i r t y - M i l l i o n - Y e a r - O l d D N A Boosts a n E m e r g i n g
F i e l d . " Science 2 5 7 : 1 8 6 0 - 6 2 . Parkinson, J.
1930. The Dinosaur in East Africa: An Account of the Giant Reptile Beds
of Tendaguru,
H.
Tanganyika Territory.
F.
& G.
Witherby, London.
Paul, G . S . 1988. " T h e Brachiosaur Giants o f the M o r r i s o n and T e n d a g u r u w i t h a
D e s c r i p t i o n of a N e w
Subgenus,
Giraffatitan,
and
a comparison
of the
W o r l d ' s Largest D i n o s a u r s . " Hunteria 2:1—14. Scotese,
Christopher (chairman).
structions.
Technical
Report
1990. Atlas of Phanerozoic Plate Tectonic Recon-
90,
Paleomap
Project
Technical
Report
No.
10-90-1, University of Texas, Arlington. Simpson, G e o r g e G a y l o r d .
1963.
This View of Life:
The World of an Evolutionist.
H a r c o u r t , Brace & W o r l d , Inc., N e w Y o r k . .
1 9 8 3 . Fossils and the History of Life.
Scientific A m e r i c a n B o o k s , N e w
York. W i l l i a m , G. Calif.
1982.
The Road to Jaramillo.
Stanford U n i v e r s i t y Press, Stanford,
S U G G E S T I O N S
W i l s o n , J.
F O R
Tuzo;
F U R T H E R
and others.
R E A D I N G
1972.
Continents Adrift.
W.
H.
F r e e m a n and
C o m p a n y , San Francisco.
C H A P T E R
T A H I T I
2 .
W I T H O U T
A n d e r s o n - M o r s h e a d , A . E . M . ; and G a r l a n d , V e r a . Story of Lake Malawi's M.
Chauncy M a p l e s .
V.
SALT
1 9 9 1 . Lady of the Lake: The Central Africana,
Blantyre,
Malawi. A v i s e , John C .
1990. " F l o c k s o f African F i s h e s . " Nature 3 4 7 : 5 1 2 - 1 3 .
Bemis, W i l l i a m E.; B u r g g r e n , W a r r e n W . ; and K e m p , N o r m a n E . ( e d i t o r s ) . 1987.
The Biology and Evolution of Lungfshes.
Carter, Judy.
1987. Malawi:
A l a n R. Liss, I n c . , N e w Y o r k .
Wildlife, Barks and Beserves.
M a c M i l l a n Publishers
Ltd., London. Clark, J. D e s m o n d ; H a y n e s , C. V a n c e ; M a w b y , John E.; and G a u t i e r , A. 1970. " I n t e r i m R e p o r t o n P a l a e o - A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l Investigations i n the Lake M a l a w i Rift."
Quaternaria
C o l e - K i n g , P. A.
13:305-54.
1987. Lake Malawi Steamers.
D e p a r t m e n t of A n t i q u i t i e s , Li-
longwe, Malawi. C o l i n , J . - P . ; and Jacobs, L .
L.
1990.
" O n the A g e o f the M a l a w i Dinosaur
B e d s . " Comptes Bendus de Academie des Sciences, Paris 311:1025—29. D i x e y , F. 1927. " T h e Mlanje M o u n t a i n s of N y a s a l a n d . " The Geographical Review 17(4):611-26. —.
1928.
" T h e Dinosaur Beds of Lake N y a s a . "
Society of South Africa Fryer, G . ; and lies, T.
16:55 D.
Transactions of the Royal
66.
1972.
The Cichlid Fishes of the Great Lakes of Africa.
T . F . H . Publications, N e p t u n e C i t y , N . J . Gibbons, Ann.
1 9 9 1 . " J a w b o n i n g P r e h i s t o r y . " Science 2 5 3 : 8 4 6 .
Johnston, H a r r y H . . Konings, A d .
1897. British Central Africa. M e t h u e n , L o n d o n .
1990. Konings's Book of Cichlids and All the Other Fish of Lake Malawi.
T . F . H . Publications, N e p t u n e C i t y , N . J . L e w i s , D i g b y ; Reinthal, P e t e r ; and T r e n d a l l , Jasper. 1986. A Guide to the Fishes of Lake Malawi National Park.
W o r l d W i l d l i f e Fund, G l a n d , S w i t z .
M a t e e r , Niall J.; and others. 1 9 9 2 . " C o r r e l a t i o n of N o n m a r i n e C r e t a c e o u s Strata of Africa and the M i d d l e E a s t . " Cretaceous Besearch 13:273—318. M e y e r , A x e l ; K o c h e r , T h o m a s D . ; Basasibwaki, P.; and W i l s o n , A . C .
1990.
" M o n o p h y l e t i c O r i g i n o f Lake V i c t o r i a Cichlid Fishes Suggested b y M i t o chondrial D N A S e q u e n c e s . " Nature 3 4 7 : 5 5 0 - 5 3 . (See also the c o m m e n t s o n this paper in Nature 3 5 0 : 4 6 7
68.)
M e y e r , A x e l ; and W i l s o n , Allan C .
1990. " O r i g i n o f T e t r a p o d s Inferred f r o m
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
294 T h e i r M i t o c h o n d r i a l D N A Affiliation to L u n g f i s h . " journal of Molecular Evolution
31:359-64.
M o i r , Fred.
1923. After Livingstone. H o d d e r and S t o u g h t o n , L o n d o n .
M o i r , Jane F. 1 8 9 1 . A Lady's Letters from Central Africa. A journeyfrom Mandala, Shire Highlands to Ujiji, Lake Tanganyika, and Back in 1890. James M a c l e h o s e & Sons, G l a s g o w . (Reissued w i t h a n e w i n t r o d u c t i o n in
1991
by Central Africana
Limited, Blantyre.) N y a m w e r u , Celia. 1980. Rifts and Volcanoes: A Study of the East African Rift System. T h o m a s N e l s o n and Sons L t d . , N a i r o b i . Reinthal,
P.
1990.
" T h e L i v i n g J e w e l s o f Lake M a l a w i . "
National Geographic
177(5):42-51. Sturmbauer, Christian; and M e y e r , A x e l . 1992. " G e n e t i c D i v e r g e n c e , Speciation and M o r p h o l o g i c a l Stasis in a L i n e a g e of African Cichlid F i s h e s . " Nature 358:578-81. Y o u n g , E. D.
1877. Nyassa: A journal of Adventures. John M u r r a y , L o n d o n .
C H A P T E R
J O U R N A L S
3 .
Benson, C. W . ; and Benson, F. M.
F R O M
THE
G R O U N D
1986. The Birds of Malawi. M o n t f o r t Press,
Limbe, Malawi. Bernstein, J. 1990. " T h e Dark C o n t i n e n t of H e n r y S t a n l e y . " The New Yorker, 31 D e c e m b e r 1990: 9 3 - 1 0 7 . C l o u g h , Juliet.
1989. Malawi:
The
Warm Heart of Africa.
Hanns R e i c h V e r l a g ,
Munich. D a v i d s o n , Basil.
1978. Let Freedom Come: Africa in Modern History. L i t t l e , B r o w n
and C o m p a n y , Boston. .
1980. The African Slave Trade. L i t t l e , B r o w n and C o m p a n y , Boston.
.
1 9 9 1 . African Civilization Revisited: From Antiquity to Modern Times. Africa
W o r l d Press, I n c . , T r e n t o n N . J . F o t h e r i n g h a m , L. M o n t e i t h . 1 8 9 1 . Adventures in Nyassaland; A Two Years' Struggle with Arab Slave-Dealers in Central Africa.
Sampson L o w , M a r s t o n , Searle, &
Rivington, London. Howson,
P.
J.
1972.
A
Short History of Karonga.
Department
of Antiquities
Publication II, G o v e r n m e n t Press, Z o m b a . Johnston, H a r r y H. 1930. A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races. N e w revised e d i t i o n . C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m b r i d g e . K a n d o o l e , B. F.; and Phiri, K. M. dence in Malawi,
1964—1989.
1989. Malawi 25: Twenty-five Years of Indepen-
Silver Jubilee C o m m e m o r a t i v e B o o k .
Publishing C o m p a n y L i m i t e d , Blantyre, M a l a w i .
Dzuka
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
295 Kayira, L e g s o n .
1965. / Will Try. D o u b l e d a y & C o m p a n y , I n c . , G a r d e n C i t y ,
N.Y. L a m p o r t - S t o k e s , Barbara.
1989. Blantyre: Glimpses of the Early Days. T h e Society
o f M a l a w i , Historical and Scientific. Blantyre, M a l a w i . L i v i n g s t o n e , D a v i d ; and L i v i n g s t o n e , Charles. the Zambesi and Its John
1858-1864.
L i v i n g s t o n e , W.
P.
1865. Narrative of an Expedition to
Tributaries; and the Discovery of Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa
Murray,
London.
1 9 2 1 . Laws of Livingstonia: A Narrative of Missionary Adventure
and Achievement. H o d d e r and Stoughton L i m i t e d , L o n d o n . ( W r i t t e n by D a v i d Livingstone's son.) Mukasa, H a m .
1975. Sir Apolo Kagwa Discovers Britain. Edited by Taban Io L i y o n g .
H . E . B., H e i n e m a n n , L o n d o n . N e l s o n , H . D . ; D o b e r t , M . ; M c D o n a l d , G . C ; M c L a u g h l i n , J . ; M a r v i n , B.; and W h i t a k e r , D. P. 1975. Area Handbook for Malawi. U. S. G o v e r n m e n t Printing Office, Washington, D . C . O ' T o o l e , Thomas.
1989. Malawi . . . i n Pictures. L e r n e r Publications C o m p a n y ,
M i n n e a p o l i s . ( T h i s is a g o o d m i d d l e - s c h o o l g e o g r a p h y t e x t . ) Pachai, B. ( e d i t o r ) .
1972. The Early History of Malawi. L o n g m a n G r o u p L i m i t e d ,
London. Ransford,
Oliver.
1966.
Livingstone's Lake:
The History of Malawi.
John M u r r a y ,
London. R o t b e r g , R o b e r t I. ( e d i t o r ) .
1970. Africa and Its Explorers: Motives, Methods, and
Impact. H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m b r i d g e , Mass. Schoffeleers, J.
M . ; and R o s c o e , A.
A.
1985.
Land of Fire: Oral Literature from
Popular Publications, L i m b e , M a l a w i .
Malawi.
Shaxson, A . ; D i c k s o n , P.; and W a l k e r , J.
1985. The Malawi Cookbook. Blantyre
Printing and Publishing C o . L t d . for the G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t e r , Z o m b a . Sheriff, A.
1987.
Slaves,
Spices Sc Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African
Commercial Empire into the World Economy,
1770—1873.
O h i o U n i v e r s i t y Press,
Athens, O h i o . Stanley, H. M. —.
1872. How I Found Livingstone.
1909. Autobiography of Sir Henry M.
Sampson L o w , L o n d o n .
Stanley.
D o r o t h y Stanley ( e d i t o r ) .
Sampson, L o w , M a r s t o n and C o m p a n y , L t d . , L o n d o n . W a s s e r m a n n , J. 1933. Bula Matari, Stanley, Conqueror of a Continent. Translated f r o m the G e r m a n b y Eden and C e d a r Paul. L i v e r i g h t , I n c . , Publishers, N e w Y o r k . W i l l s , A. J. Zimbabwe. Young,
E.
London.
1985. An Introduction to the History of Central Africa: Zambia, Malawi, O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, O x f o r d . D.
1868.
The Search After Livingstone.
Letts,
Son,
and C o m p a n y ,
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
296
C H A P T E R Alexander,
R.
T H E
4 .
McNeill.
1989.
R O A M I N G
T I T A N
L I Z A R D S
Dynamics of Dinosaurs and Other Extinct
Giants.
C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y Press, N e w Y o r k . Benton,
M.
J.
1989.
" E v o l u t i o n of Large
Size."
In
Briggs,
D.E.G.;
and
C r o w t h e r , P. R. ( e d i t o r s ) , Palaeobiology: A Synthesis. Blackwells, O x f o r d , p p . 147-52. B e r m a n , D. S.; and M c i n t o s h , J. S. 1978. " S k u l l and Relationships of the U p p e r Jurassic Sauropod Apatosaurus ( R e p t i l i a : Museum
of Natural History
S a u r i s c h i a ) . " Bulletin of the Carnegie
8:1—35.
Bonaparte, Jose F.; and P o w e l l , Jaime E .
1980. " A Continental Assemblage o f
T e t r a p o d s f r o m the U p p e r C r e t a c e o u s Beds o f E l B r e t e , N o r t h w e s t e r n A r g e n tina (Sauropoda - Coelurosauria - Carnosauria - A v e s ) . " Memoires de la Societe Geologigue de France,
Nouvelle Serie
139:19-28.
C a l v o , Jorge O. and Bonaparte, Jose F.
1 9 9 1 . Andesaurus delgadoi gen et s.p.
nov. ( S a v r i s c h i a - S o u r o p o d a ) , Dinosauria Ttanosauridae de la F o r m a t i o n R i o Limay ( A l b i a n o - C e n o m a n i a n o ) , N e u q v e n , Argentina. Ameghiniana, V o l . 28 (3-4):303-10. C a r p e n t e r , K . ; and C u r r i e , P. J. ( e d i t o r s ) . 1990. Dinosaur Systematics: Approaches and Perspectives. C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m b r i d g e . ( T h i s is a fine b o o k about dinosaurs and it contains a v e r y i m p o r t a n t paper on sauropods by the dean of sauropodologists, John S. M c i n t o s h . T h e r e f e r e n c e edited by W e i shampel, D o d s o n , and O s m o l s k a listed under the n e x t chapter also contains an e x c e l l e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n by M c i n t o s h . ) C a r r o l l , R o b e r t L. 1988. Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution. W. H. Freeman and C o m p a n y , N e w Y o r k . ( T h i s i s the standard t e x t for v e r t e b r a t e p a l e o n t o l o g y . ) Colbert,
E d w i n H.
1983.
Dinosaurs: An Illustrated History.
Hammond Incorpo-
rated, M a p l e w o o d , N.J. C o o m b s , W a l t e r P., Jr. 1975. " S a u r o p o d Habits and H a b i t a t s . " Palaeogeography, Palaeclimatology,
Palaeoecology
17:1—33.
D e p e r e t , Charles. 1896. " N o t e sur les Dinosauriens Sauropodes & T h e r o p o d e s du C r e t a c e Superieur de M a d a g a s c a r . " Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France 24:176-96. Dong Zhiming.
1990. " O n Remains o f the Sauropods f r o m Kelamaili R e g i o n ,
Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, C h i n a . "
Vertebrate PalAsiatica 2 8 : 4 3 - 5 8 .
D o n g Z h i m i n g , P e n g G u a n g z h a o , and Huang D a x i . 1989. " T h e D i s c o v e r y o f the Bony T a i l C l u b of S a u r o p o d s . "
Vertebrata PalAsiatica,
7:219-24.
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
297 G i l l e t t e , D a v i d D. 1 9 9 1 .
"Seismosaurus halli, g e n . et sp. n o v . , a N e w Sauropod
Dinosaur f r o m the M o r r i s o n F o r m a t i o n ( U p p e r Jurassic/Lower C r e t a c e o u s ) of N e w M e x i c o ,
U S A . " Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
11(4):417—33.
H a u g h t o n , S . H . 1928. " O n S o m e Reptilian Remains f r o m the Dinosaur Beds of N y a s a l a n d . "
Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa
16:69—83.
H u e n e , F . v o n . 1929. " L o s Saurisquios y Ornithisquios d e C r e t a c e o A r g e n t i n e " Anales del Museo de La Plata (series 2) 3:1 — 196. Huene,
F.
v o n ; and M a t l e y ,
C.
A.
1933.
" T h e C r e t a c e o u s Saurischia and
Ornithischia of the Central P r o v i n c e s [sic] of I n d i a . " Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India,
Palaeontologia Indica
26:1—74.
Rothschild, Bruce M . ; and B e r m a n , D. S. 1 9 9 1 . " F u s i o n of Caudal V e r t e b r a e in Late Jurassic S a u r o p o d s . " Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
1 1:29—36.
W i l d , R. 1 9 9 1 . 'Janenschia n. g. robusta ( E . Fraas 1908) pro Tornieria robusta ( E . Fraas 1908) ( R e p t i l i a , Saurischia, S a u r o p o d o m o r p h a ) . " Stuttgarter Beitrage zur Naturkunde,
C H A P T E R
serie B (Geologie und Palaontologie)
5 .
A F R I C A N
173:1—4.
D I N O S A U R S ,
BEFORE
A N D
A F T E R Barinaga, Marcia. 1992. " E v o l u t i o n i s t s W i n g It w i t h a N e w Fossil B i r d . " Science 255:796. Chatterjee, Sankar. 1 9 9 1 . " C r a n i a l A n a t o m y and Relationships of a N e w Triassic Bird f r o m T e x a s . " Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B 332:277-346. Chiappe, Luis M . 1 9 9 1 . " C r e t a c e o u s A v i a n Remains f r o m Patagonia Shed N e w Light on the Early Radiation of B i r d s . " Alcheringa
15:333—38.
C h u r e , Daniel J.; and M c i n t o s h , J . S . 1989. " A Bibliography o f the Dinosauria (Exclusive of the A v e s )
1 6 7 7 - 1 9 8 6 . " Museum of Western Colorado Paleontology
Series 1. Dong Zhiming.
1988. Dinosaurs from China.
China O c e a n Press, Beijing.
Ehrlich, P . R.; and others. 1983. " L o n g - t e r m Biological C o n s e q u e n c e s o f N u clear W a r . " Science 2 2 2 : 1 2 9 3 - 1 3 0 0 . Elliot, D a v i d K. ( e d i t o r ) . 1986. Dynamics of Extinction. John W i l e y & Sons, N e w York. G r a t z , A . J.; N e l l i s , W . J.; and H i n s e y , N . A . 1992. " L a b o r a t o r y Simulation o f Explosive V o l c a n i c L o a d i n g and Implications f o r the Cause of the K/T Bounda r y . " Geophysical Research Letters 19(1 3 ) : 1 3 9 1 - 9 4 . H e c h t , M a x K . ; O s t r o m , John H . ; V i o h l , G i i n t e r ; and W e l l n h o f e r , P e t e r ( e d i -
S U G G E S T I O N S
tors).
1985.
The Beginnings of Birds.
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
Freunde des Jura-Museums Eichstatt,
Willibaldsburg, Ger. H i l d e b r a n d , A l a n R . ; and others. 1 9 9 1 . " C h i c x u l u b C r a t e r : A Possible Cretaceous/Tertiary Boundary Impact C r a t e r o n the Yucatan Peninsula, M e x i c o . " Geology
19:867-71.
M c i n t o s h , John S.; C o o m b s , W a l t e r P., Jr.; and Russell, D a l e A . 1992. " A N e w D i p l o d o c i d Sauropod ( D i n o s a u r i a ) f r o m W y o m i n g , U . S . A . " Journal of Verte12:158—67.
brate Paleontology
N o r m a n , D a v i d B. 1985. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. C r e s c e n t B o o k s , New Padian,
York. Kevin
(editor).
1986.
The
Origin
of Birds and the Evolution
of Flight.
California A c a d e m y of Sciences, San Francisco. S e r e n o , Paul C. 1 9 9 1 . "Basal Archosaurs: P h y l o g e n e t i c Relationships and Functional I m p l i c a t i o n s . " Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
11,
Supplement to 4,
1-53. Sereno,
Paul C ; and R a o C h e n g g a n g .
Perching:
New
Evidence
from
the
" E a r l y E v o l u t i o n o f Avian Flight and Lower
Cretaceous of C h i n a . "
Science
255:845^-8. T u r c o , R . P.; and others. 1990. " C l i m a t e and S m o k e : A n Appraisal o f N u c l e a r W i n t e r . " Science 2 4 7 :
166-76.
W e i s h a m p e l , D. B.; D o d s o n , P.; and O s m o l s k a , H. ( e d i t o r s ) . 1990. The Dinosauria.
U n i v e r s i t y of California Press, B e r k e l e y . ( T h i s is the best b o o k on
dinosaurs I k n o w of. T h e chapter by M c i n t o s h on sauropods is the best s u m m a r y of the g r o u p that e x i s t s . ) W e l l n h o f e r , P e t e r . 1 9 9 1 . The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Pterosaurs. C r e s c e n t Books, New
York.
W o l f e , Jack A.
" P a l a e o b o t a n i c a l E v i d e n c e f o r a June ' I m p a c t W i n t e r ' at the
Cretaceous/Tertiary B o u n d a r y . "
C H A P T E R
6 .
T H E
Nature 352:420—23.
C R O C O D I L E
O F
C A R N I V A L
Bonaparte, Jose F. 1 9 9 1 . " L o s V e r t e b r a d o s Fosiles de la F o r m a c i o n R i o C o l o r a d o , de la Ciudad de N e u q u e n y Cercanias, C r e t a c i c o Superior, A r g e n y i n a . " Bevista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales "Bernardino Bivadavia" e Instituto Nacional de Investigation de las Ciencias Naturales, Buffetaut,
E.
1979.
"The
E v o l u t i o n of the
Paleontoloia 4 ( 3 ) : 15—123.
Crocodilians."
Scientific American
241(4): 1 30^44. C a r v a l h o , Ismar d e Souza; and C a m p o s , D i o g e n e s d e A l m e i d a .
1988.
"Um
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
M a m i f e r o T r i c o n o d o n t e do C r e t a c e o Inferior do M a r a n h a o , B r a s i l . " Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciencias 6 0 ( 4 ) : 4 3 7 — 4 6 . Clark, J . M . ; Jacobs, L . L.; and D o w n s , W . R .
1989. " M a m m a l - l i k e D e n t i -
tion and Mandibular M o v e m e n t in a M e s o z o i c C r o c o d y l i a n . " Science 2 4 4 : 1064-66. C o t t , H u g h B.
1961.
" S c i e n t i f i c Results of an Inquiry into the E c o l o g y and
E c o n o m i c Status of the N i l e C r o c o d i l e (Crocodilus niloticus) in Uganda and Northern
Rhodesia."
Transactions of the Zoological Society of London
29:211-
357. G r a h a m , Alistair; and Beard, P e t e r . 1973. Eyelids of Morning: The Mingled Destinies of Crocodiles and Men. Jacobs,
B.
F.
1990.
N e w Y o r k Graphic Society, L t d . , G r e e n w i c h , C . T . " L o w e r C r e t a c e o u s Diaspores f r o m M a l a w i . "
National
Geographic Research 6: 516—18. Jacobs, L . L .
;
W i n k l e r , D . A . ; Kaufulu, Z . ; and D o w n s , W . R .
1990. " T h e
Dinosaur Beds of N o r t h e r n M a l a w i , A f r i c a . " National Geographic Research 6: 196-204. Maisey,
John
G.
(editor).
1991.
Santana Fossils: An Illustrated Atlas.
T.F.H.
Publications, N e p t u n e C i t y , N . J . Ross, Charles A. (consulting e d i t o r ) . 1989. Crocodiles and Alligators. Facts on F i l e , New
York.
C H A P T E R Bonaparte, Jose. itos
7 .
F O R
O N E
T O O T H
1990. " N e w Late C r e t a c e o u s M a m m a l s f r o m the L o s A l a m -
Formation,
Northern
Patagonia."
National
Geographic
Research
6(1):
63-93. Brunet, M . ; and others. 1990. " N e w Fossil M a m m a l s f r o m the Early C r e t a c e o u s of C a m e r o o n , W e s t A f r i c a . " Comptes Rendus de 1'Academie des Sciences, Paris 310, II, 1139—46. ( W e n a m e d Ahelodon aheli in this p a p e r . ) D e n i s , A l a i n . 1984. Beyond Sight: Cameroon. Editions du D a m a l i s q u e , Paris. G o d t h e l p , H . ; and others. 1 9 9 2 . " E a r l i e s t K n o w n Australian T e r t i a r y M a m m a l Fauna."
Nature 356:514—16.
H a r g r e a v e s , J. D.
1963. Prelude to the Partition of West Africa.
M a c M i l l a n Press
Ltd., London. Hiiemae,
Karen
M.;
and
Crompton,
Alfred W.
1985.
"Mastication,
Food
T r a n s p o r t , and S w a l l o w i n g . " I n H i l d e b r a n d , M . ; B r a m b l e , D . M . ; L i e m , K.
F.;
and
Wake,
D.
B.
(editors),
Functional
Vertebrate
Morphology.
Belknap Press o f H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m b r i d g e , p p . 2 6 2 - 9 0 .
The
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
300 Jacobs,
L.
L.; and others.
A f r i c a . " Nature 3 3 6 :
1988.
" M a m m a l T e e t h f r o m the Cretaceous of
158-60.
Pascual, R o s e n d o ; and others. 1 9 9 2 . " F i r s t D i s c o v e r y of M o n o t r e m e s in South America."
Nature
356:704-706.
R i c h , P. V . ; van T e t s , G. F.; and K n i g h t , F. 1985. Kadimakara: Extinct Vertebrates P i o n e e r D e s i g n Studio, V i c t o r i a , A u s .
of Australia. Savage,
R . J . G . ; and L o n g , M.
R.
1986. Mammal Evolution: An Illustrated Guide.
Facts o n File Publications, N e w Y o r k . V i c k e r s - R i c h , P.; M o n a g h a n , J . M . ; Baird, R . F.; and R i c h , T . H . 1 9 9 1 . Vertebrate Pioneer
Paleontology of Australasia.
Design
Studio
Pty.,
Ltd.,
and
Monash
U n i v e r s i t y Publications C o m m i t t e e , M e l b o u r n e .
C H A P T E R Bardack,
D.
1991.
8 .
O T H E R
N E I G H B O R S
" F i r s t Fossil Hagfish ( M y x i n o i d e a ) :
A R e c o r d f r o m the
Pennsylvanian of I l l i n o i s . " Science 2 5 4 : 7 0 1 —703. Bonaparte, Jose F. 1986. " H i s t o r y of the T e r r e s t r i a l C r e t a c e o u s V e r t e b r a t e s of Gondwana."
IV Congess Argentina Paleontologia y Bioestratigraphia
2:63—95.
B o w e n , B . W . ; M e y l a n , A . B.; and A v i s e , J . C . 1989. " A n O d y s s e y o f the G r e e n Sea T u r t l e : Ascension Island R e v i s i t e d . " Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,
U.S.A.
Brasier, M . D . Briggs,
D.E.G.
86:573-76.
1974. " T u r t l e D r i f t . " Nature 2 5 0 : 3 5 1 . 1992.
"Conodonts:
A
Major
Extinct
Group
A d d e d to
the
V e r t e b r a t e s . " Science 2 5 6 : 1 2 8 5 - 8 6 . Carr, Archie.
1967.
So Excellent a Fishe: A Natural History of Sea
Turtles.
The
Natural H i s t o r y Press, G a r d e n C i t y , N . Y . ( T h i s is a classic of natural history. It has b e e n reissued as The Sea Turtle by the U n i v e r s i t y of T e x a s P r e s s . ) C a r r , A r c h i e ; and C o l e m a n , P. J.
1974. " S e a f l o o r Spreading T h e o r y and the
O d y s s e y o f the G r e e n T u r t l e . " Nature 2 4 9 : 1 2 8
30.
C a r s o n , H a m p t o n , L . 1992. " T h e Galapagos T h a t W e r e . " Nature 3 5 5 : 2 0 2 - 2 0 3 . C h r i s t i e , D . M . ; and o t h e r s .
1992.
" D r o w n e d Islands D o w n s t r e a m f r o m the
Galapagos H o t s p o t I m p l y E x t e n d e d Speciation T i m e s . " Nature 3 5 5 : 2 4 6 - 4 8 . Ciochon,
Russell L.; and Chiarelli, A.
Brunetto ( e d i t o r s ) .
Biology of New World Monkeys and Continental Drift.
1980.
Evolutionary
P l e n u m Press, N e w Y o r k .
D u e l l m a n , W i l l i a m E.; and T r u e b , Linda. 1986. Biology of Amphibians. M c G r a w Hill Book C o m p a n y , N e w Y o r k . Estes, R i c h a r d , D . 1983. " T h e Fossil R e c o r d and Early Distribution o f L i z a r d s . " In R h i d i n ,
A n d e r s G.
L.
( e d i t o r ) , Advances in Herpetology and Evolutionary
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
Biology: Essays in Honor of Ernest E. Williams, p p . 365—98. M u s e u m of C o m p a r a t i v e Z o o l o g y , H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y , C a m b r i d g e , Mass. Estes, Richard D . ; and P r e g i l l , G. Lizard Families.
(editors).
1988. Phyletic Relationships of the
Stanford U n i v e r s i t y Press, Stanford, Calif.
Gaffhey, E. S.; Hutchinson, J. H . ; Jenkins, F. R . ; and M e e k e r , L. J. " M o d e r n Turtle
Origins:
The
Oldest
Known
Cryptodire."
1987.
Science
237:
289-91. Gingerich, P. D.
1990. " A f r i c a n D a w n f o r P r i m a t e s . " Nature 3 4 6 : 4 1 1 .
G r e g o r y , R . T . ; D o u t h i t t , C . B.; D u d d y , I . R . ; R i c h , P . V . ; and R i c h , T . H . 1989.
" O x y g e n Isotopic C o m p o s i t i o n o f C a r b o n a t e C o n c r e t i o n s f r o m the
L o w e r Cretaceous o f V i c t o r i a , Australia:
Implications f o r the E v o l u t i o n o f
M e t e o r i c W a t e r s on the Australian C o n t i n e n t in a P a l e o p o l a r E n v i r o n m e n t . " Earth and Planetary Science Letters 92:27—42. Jensen, D a v i d . Lack, D a v i d .
1966.
" T h e H a g f i s h . " Scientific American 2 1 4 ( 2 ) : 8 2 - 9 0 .
1947. Darwin's Finches: An Essay on the General Biological Theory of C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m b r i d g e , Eng.
Evolution.
Lewin, Roger.
1989. " N e w L o o k a t T u r t l e M i g r a t i o n M y s t e r y . " Science 2 4 3 :
1009. Lohmann,
K e n n e t h J.
1992.
" H o w Sea T u r t l e s N a v i g a t e . " Scientific American,
January: 1 0 0 - 1 0 6 . M a r t i l l , D . M . ; Cruickshank, A . R . I . ; and T a y l o r , M . A .
1 9 9 1 . " D i s p e r s a l via
W h a l e B o n e s . " Nature 3 5 1 : 1 9 3 . McKenna, M. C.
1983. " H o l a r c t i c Landmass R e a r r a n g e m e n t , C o s m i c E v e n t s ,
and C e n o z o i c T e r r e s t r i a l O r g a n i s m s . " Annals of the Missouri Botanical Gardens 70:459-89. Paladino, F . V . ; D o d s o n , P.; H a m m o n d , J . K . ; and Spotila, J . R . 1 9 8 9 . " T e m p e r a t u r e - D e p e n d e n t Sex D e t e r m i n a t i o n in Dinosaurs? Implications f o r P o p u lation D y n a m i c s
and
Extinction."
Geological Society of America
Special Paper
238:63-70. Paladino, F . V . j O ' C o n n o r , M . P.; and Spotila, J . R .
1990.
" M e t a b o l i s m of
Leatherback T u r t l e s , G i g a n t o t h e r m y , and T h e r m o r e g u l a t i o n o f D i n o s a u r s . " Nature Reisz,
344:858-60.
Robert
Turtles."
R.; Nature
and
Laurin,
R i c h , T . H . V . ; and R i c h , P . V . Cretaceous
of
Michel.
1991.
"Owenetta
and
the
O r i g i n of
349:324-26.
Southeastern
1989. " P o l a r Dinosaurs and Biotas o f the Early Australia."
National
Geographic
Besearch
5:
15-53. R i c h , P . V . ; R i c h , T . H . ; Wagstaff, B . E.; M a s o n , J . M c E w e n ; D o u t h i t t , C . B.;
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
302 G r e g o r y , R . T . ; and F e l t o n , E . A . 1988. " E v i d e n c e for L o w T e m p e r a t u r e s and B i o l o g i c D i v e r s i t y in C r e t a c e o u s H i g h Latitudes of A u s t r a l i a . " Science 242.1403-1406. Sansom, I . J . ; Smith, M .
P.; A r m s t r o n g , H . A . ; and Smith, M .
M.
1992.
" P r e s e n c e of the Earliest V e r t e b r a t e H a r d Tissues in C o n o d o n t s . " Science 256:1308-11. Smith, C . R . ; K u k e r t , H . ; W h e a t c r o f t , R . A . ; Jumars, P . A . ; and D e m i n g , J . W . 1989. " V e n t Fauna o n W h a l e R e m a i n s . " Nature 3 4 1 : 2 7 - 2 8 . Squires, R . L.; G o e d e r t , J . L.; and Barnes, L . G . 1 9 9 1 . " W h a l e C a r c a s s e s . " Nature
349:574.
Steadman, D a v i d W . ; and Z o u s m e r , S t e v e n .
1988. Galapagos: Discovery on Dar-
win's Islands. Smithsonian, W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . Stock, D a v i d W . and W h i t t , G r e g o r y S .
1 9 9 2 . " E v i d e n c e f r o m 185 R i b o s o m a l
R N A Sequences That L a m p r e y s and Magfishes f o r m a Natural G r o u p . " Science 257:787-89. Storch, G e r h a r d .
1992.
" T h e M a m m a l s o f Island E u r o p e . " Scientific American,
February:64—69. T u n n i c l i f f e , V e r e n a . 1 9 9 2 . " T h e N a t u r e and O r i g i n o f the M o d e r n H y d r o t h e r mal V e n t F a u n a . " Palaois 7 : 3 3 8 - 5 0 .
C H A P T E R Arens,
William.
1979.
9. The
A
L I V I N G
Man-eating
Myth:
D I N O S A U R ? Anthropology
and Anthropophagy.
O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, O x f o r d , Eng. Bird,
R o l a n d T.
1985.
Bones for Barnum Brown: Adventures of a Dinosaur Hunter.
T C U Press, F o r t W o r t h . D a r w i n , Charles. 1962. The Voyage of the Beagle. L e o n a r d Engel ( e d i t o r ) . D o u b l e day & C o m p a n y , I n c . , N e w Y o r k . ( T h i s is e d i t e d f r o m the 1845 v e r s i o n . ) Defoe,
Daniel.
1990.
The Life,
Adventures,
and Pyraces of the Famous Captain
Singleton. O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, O x f o r d , Eng. (First published in 1 7 2 0 . ) E v e , R a y m o n d A . ; and H a r r o l d , Francis B. Modern America. Forey, Peter.
1991.
The Creationist Movement in
T w a y n e Publishers, Boston.
1990.
" T h e Coelacanth Fish: P r o g r e s s and P r o s p e c t s . " Science
Progress 7 4 : 5 3 - 6 7 . F o r e y , P e t e r . 1 9 9 1 . " B l o o d Lines o f the C o e l a c a n t h . " Nature 351:347-1-8. Fricke, H. 1988. " C o e l a c a n t h s : T h e Fish T h a t T i m e F o r g o t . " National Geographic 173(6): 824-38. Fricke, H . ; and Hissman, K. 346:323-24.
1990. " N a t u r a l Habitat of C o e l a c a n t h s . " Nature
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
303 Fricke, H . ; R e i n i c k e , O . ; H o f e r , H . ; and Nachtigall, W . 1987. " L o c o m o t i o n o f the Coelacanth Latimeria chalumnae in its Natural E n v i r o n m e n t . " Nature 329: 331-33. F r i c k e , H . ; Schauer, J . ; Hissman, K . ; Kasang, L.; and P l a n t e , R . 1 9 9 1 . " C o e l a canth Latimeria chalumnae A g g r e g a t e s in C a v e s :
First O b s e r v a t i o n s on their
Resting Habitat and Social B e h a v i o r . " Environmental Biology of Fishes 30:281 — 85. G i l l e t t e , D. D . ; and L o c k l e y , M. G. ( e d i t o r s ) . 1989. Dinosaur Tracks and Traces. C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m b r i d g e , Eng. ( W e published the f i r s t n o t i c e o f dinosaur footprints f r o m C a m e r o o n i n this b o o k .
Since then m y f o r m e r
student, John C o n g l e t o n , c o m p l e t e d a t h o r o u g h study of t h e m for his mast e r ' s thesis.) G o r r , T . ; K l e i n s c h m i d t , T . ; and F r i c k e , H . 1 9 9 1 . " C l o s e T e t r a p o d Relationships of the
Coelacanth Latimeria
Indicated by H a e m o g l o b i n S e q u e n c e s . "
Nature
351:394—97. ( S e e also the c o m m e n t s on this paper in Nature 353:217—19, 1991.) H u x l e y , Elspeth.
1959.
The Flame Trees ofThika: Memories of an African Childhood.
Chatto and W i n d u s , L o n d o n . ( T h i s v e r y pleasant b o o k is m e n t i o n e d h e r e in part t o balance M e i n e r t z h a g e n ' s c o l d - b l o o d e d account, listed b e l o w . ) Lockley,
Martin.
1991.
Tracking Dinosaurs,
A
New Look
at an Ancient
World.
C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, C a m b r i d g e , Eng. M a c k a l , R o y P.
1987. A Living Dinosaur? In Search of Mokele-Mbembe.
E. J. Brill,
Leiden, Netherlands. Martin, C . G . C .
1980. Maps and Surveys of Malawi. A. A. Balkema, C a p e T o w n ,
S.A. Meinertzhagen, Richard.
1983. Kenya Diary (1902-1906).
Eland B o o k s , L o n d o n .
(First published in 1 9 5 7 . ) N e l k i n , D. 1982. The Creation Controversy: Science or Scripture in the Schools. Beacon Press, Boston. Simpson, G. G.
1984. " M a m m a l s and C r y p t o z o o l o g y . " Proceedings of the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society
128(1):
1-19.
Smith, J . L . B . 1956. Old Fourlegs: The Story of the Coelacanth. L o n g m a n s , G r e e n and C o . , London. Strahler, A. N.
1987. Science and Earth History:
The Evolution/Creation Controversy.
P r o m e t h e u s B o o k s , Buffalo, N . Y . T h o m s o n , K e i t h S.
1 9 9 1 . Living Fossil: The Story of the Coelacanth. W. W. N o r t o n
& Company, N e w York. Thulborn, T o n y .
1990. Dinosaur Tracks. Chapman and H a l l , L o n d o n .
S U G G E S T I O N S
F O R
F U R T H E R
R E A D I N G
304
C H A P T E R
1 0 .
T H E
G O O D
O F
D I N O S A U R S
A l e x a n d e r , C a r o l i n e . 1 9 9 1 . " P e r s o n a l H i s t o r y : An Ideal S t a t e . " The New Yorker, 16 D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 1 : 5 3 - 8 8 . G r e g o r y , J. W. 191 3. Livingstone as an Explorer: An Appreciation. James M a c L e h o s e and Sons, G l a s g o w . Howgate,
Mike.
1989.
"A Pteranodon in Every B i t e . "
New Scientist,
June
1989:67-68. T e p l i t z - S e m b i t z k y , W . 1 9 9 1 . " W a s t e w o o d a s a Source o f W o o d f u e l : T h e Case of M a l a w i and Its R e l e v a n c e to Sub-Saharan A f r i c a . " Natural Resources Forum, February 1 9 9 1 : 5 9 - 6 5 .
INDEX
Africa, 229, 242
Age of Reptiles
and climatic change, 258
dating of, 10
dinosaur overview in, 158
See also individual reptiles; Dinosaur fossils;
exploration of, 243 -44
Dinosaurs
first dinosaur fossils in, 3
AIDS, 52, 271-72
formation of, 4, 33, 34, 48, 187,
Alamosaurus sanjuanensis, 145
189 and hunting, 203
Alcoholic beverages, 89-90 Algoasaurus, 1 5 1
importance of, 267
Alligators, 177
and "living" dinosaur, 245, 246, 251-65
Allosaurus, 16-17, 18, 150, 168
and marsupials, 216 17
Amniotes, 229
mystique of, 6
Amphibia
paleontological role of, 9 reconstructed image of, 190, 192 See also individual names and subjects;
characteristics of, 227 living, 227-29 Ankylosaurids, 153, 157
Cameroon project; Malawi; Malawi
Antarctica, 216, 217, 239
project
Antarctosaurus, 138-39, 141
Africans, outlook of, 97 Age of Mammals
Ants, 115 Anvil, in ear, 212
vs. dinosaur dominance, 220
Apatosaurus, 125, 126-27, 130, 131-32, 259
emergence of, 242
Arabs, and slave trade, 70, 72, 73, 75
evolutionary diversity of, 221-22
Araripe Basin, 186-90, 191, 192
See also Cameroon project; Mammal fossils;
Araripemys, 189
Mammals
Araripesuchus, 186, 189, 190
305
Archaeopteryx lithographica, 165 70, 166
head of, 125-26
Archosauria, 147, 176
overview of, 18
Arizona, 6 7, 228
See also Sauropods
Armor, 153, 154, 183
Brazil, 49, 186
of titanasaurids, 136-37
Breathing, in amphibians, 227
Ascension Island, 231-33, 232, 234 Asia, 216
death of, 217-18
Asians, in Malawi, 271 Atlantic Ocean, formation of, 33
Brillanceau, Abel, 198
British Museum, 4, 22 34, 49
Britt, Jerry, 175
Atmosphere, and climatic change, 256-57
Brontosaurus, 125
Attire, for field workers, 60
Brunei, Michel, 198, 199, 205
Australia, 207, 217, 239 Australopithecus, 20, 48
Caecilians, 227 28 Caimans, 177
Bacteria, and evolution, 24
Caltex Oil, 276
Banda, Dr. Hastings Kamuzu, 69 70, 81 82
Camarasaurus, 126, 127, 132
Baobah tree, 66, 67
Camels, 107
Barazas, 109, 114
Cameroon, 49, 186, 187, 190, 192, 229, 259
Barosaurus, 132, 144, 150
geography of, 197
Battle of Karonya, 109-10
people of, 196 98
Beer, 89-90 Bellusaurus, 144 Benoue River, 196
See also Cameroon project Cameroon project conditions in, 206
Bering Straits, 157
death in, 217-18
Bipedal locomotion, 121, 128
dinosaur discovery in, 204
and pelvic structure, 148 Bird, Roland T., 259 Bird-hipped dinosaurs, 147, 149, 149, 151-54, 155, 164-65, 167 Birds, 105, 106, 239, 264-65 ancestry of, 165-70
and footprints, 262-64 luck in, 218 mammal finds of, 216, 218 objective of, 214 personnel of, 198-200 rodent search in, 201 2
bones of, 121
site described, 206 7
and crocodiles, 176
and site location, 205-6
Blantyre, Malawi, 75
Camp (Malawi), description of, 88 91
Blue whale, 120
Candidon itapecuruense, 18 3
Bonaparte, Jose, 137
Canoes, 41—42
Bones
Cape Maclear, 41
of birds, 165, 167
Carnivorous dinosaurs, 149 50
of mammals, 209 14
Cartilage, 210
of reptiles, 210, 212
Cenozoic Era, 220
and weight support, 121-25, 122, 127-30 See also Dinosaur fossils; Fossils; Mammal fossils
See also Age of Mammals Centrum, 124, 134 35 Ceratopsians, 153
Bothrwspondylus, 151
Cetiosaurids, 1 32
Boubanjida Game Reserve, 203
Chadians, 215
Brachiosaurus, 16 17, 19, 120, 123, 127, 132,
Chalicothere, 250
144, 150
Chambo, 41
I N D E X
307 Charig, Alan, 64
Crocodiles
Cbauncey Maples, 40
anatomy of, 177-78, 180
Cheekbones, and chewing, 229-30
fossil discovery of, 172, 175-76
Chemosynthetic life, 237
lineage of, 176-77
Chevrons, 129-30 Chewing
" M a l a w i " type, 178-84, 18S, 192 Cryptozoologists, 250, 254
crocodile style, 179-80, 182, 186
Cushitic Rendille, 65
mammal style, 211-14
Cutler, W . E . , 15
turtle style, 229-30 Cbicapa, 39
Daborn, Chris, 174
Chicxulub Crater, 162
Dances, of Malawians, 93 94
Chilembwe, John, 110
Darwin, Charles, 21, 21, 22, 23, 235, 236
China, 144
Dating, 63
Cichbds, 4a 41, 42, 220
techniques for, 26-30
Clark, Jim, 180
Death, African " w a k e " for, 116 17
Climate
Defensive structures, of sauropods, 130-31
changes in, 255-59 and fossil searches, 50
Defoe, Daniel, 244 Dehydration, in amphibians, 227
Coelacanth, 188, 236, 251-54
Deinonychus, 150, 168
Coelurosaurs, 150-51
Dejax, Jean, 198
and birds, 167-70
Department of Antiquities, 114—15
Colbert, Edwin H., 121
Deperet, Charles, 137
Communication
Diatoms and diatomite, 46 47
among lambeosaurs, 152
Dicraeosaurus, 18, 19, 132, 151
among sauropods, 130-31
Digging, justification for, 54
Comoros Island, 251-52
Dinosaur Beds, 158, 184
Concretions, 188
age of, 48, 49-50
Congleton, John, 183, 215, 262
fossil productivity of, 172
Congo Basin, environmental stability of, 254
imagined image of, 191-92
Conifers, 190
and mammal fossils, 181-82
Conodonts, 222, 225, 226
overview of, 279-82
Continents characteristic animals of, 34—35 and plate tectonics, 4, 30-36, 144 See also specific names and subjects; Plate tectonics Convergence, as evolutionary phenomenon, 180-81
reconstructed image of, 191
93
Dinosaur fossils earliest discoveries of, 3—4 and Malawian economy, 272-73 and rocks, 10 scarcity of, 11 shipping logistics of, 273-74
Cope, E.D., 134
significance of, 4
Cope's rule, 120, 131
and Tendagura, 14—20
Coral, 236
See also individual names and subjects; Dinosaur
Courtenay-Latimer, M., 251, 254 Creationism, 260-61 Cretaceous Period, 144, 157, 158, 182-83, 192, 207, 214-15, 218, 229, 234, 239
Beds; Dinosaurs; Fossils; Malawi project; Sauropods Dinosaurs and birds, 164, 167
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, 160 63
classical divisions of, 147
Crew. See Field crew
common features of, 146 47
I N D E X
308 Dinosaurs (cont'd) definition of, 146
factors in, 226 and mammalian tooth function, 213-14
etymology of, 22
and natural selection, 25-26
evolution and migration traced, 155-58
overview of, 22-25
extinction of, 158-63
and volcanic islands, 232-36
limb position of, 210
Evolutionary radiations, types of, 220 21
"living," 245, 246, 251, 254-65
Excavation, procedures for, 54—55, 55
and pelvic structure, 147-56
Expedition, essential ingredients of, 50,
popular appeal of, 276-78 social structure of, 264
51 Extinction
and temperature regulation, 238
and sex ratio, 240
tracks of, 261-64
theories on, 158 63
See also individual names and subjects; Dinosaur fossils Diplodocus, 123, 126-27, 129, 130, 131-32, 133 Dixey, Frank, 132, 136 D N A , 23, 201 and species antiquity, 24—25 Dong Zhiming, 144 Dove, 39 Downs, Will, 61 62, 72, 104-5, 172, 175, 205, 274, 284 described, 95-96 Drainage, and swamps, 257-58 Drummond, Henrv, 3
Fali tribe, 198 Faunal succession, concept of, 27 Feathers, evolution of, 165, 167 Field crew (Malawi) African members of, 97
100
American members of, 95-97 camaradarie of, 58 overview of, 51 Field work, logistics of, 51 60 Fish, 220, 222 and Araripe basin, 188 and Lake Malawi, 40 43 See also individual names and subjects
Dtyosaurus, 16-17, 18, 19, 152
Flanagan, Kathy, 199, 204
Ear, and bones, 214
Floral succession, concept of, 27
Early Cretaceous. See Cretaceous Period
Flowering plants, evolutionary role of, 35
Flight, and evolutionary radiation, 221
Earth, climatic cycles of, 255-56
and insects, 207
Earthquakes, 32
Flynn, Larry, 198-99, 200, 205, 206
Echidna, 207
Food
Ecology, and human policy, 163 64
for field crew, 51
Egypt, 11
Malawi style, 87
Elaphosaurus, 76-/7, 19, 150, 168
and warm-bloodedness, 209
Elephants, 129, 204
Footprints and tracks, counterfeit, 259 61
England, 216
Forest hog, 246-49, 248
Erosion, on volcanic islands, 233
Fossils
Euphorbia trees, 89
and climate, 50, 256 59
Europe, 217
dating, 26-30
Evolution
formation processes of, 46-47
and Age of Mammals, 220 22
"living," 222-26, 245-65
and amphibians, 227-29
vs. modern bone, 54
and birds, 165-70
potential information in, 26
and chemosynthesis, 237-38
of rats, 9-10
defined, 26
resiliency of, 53-54
I N D E X
See also individual names and subjects; Dinosaur fossils; Mammal fossils French archeologists, 11
Heads and skulls of crocodilians, 177 of plated dinosaurs, 153
Frogs, 227, 228 29
of Protoavis, 169
Fruit bat, 251
of sauropods, 125
Fulbe tribe, 197, 198
of turtles, 230
Funding, 51, 85
Heat, and warm-bloodedness, 209
from Caltex Oil, 276
Hell, Joseph Victor, 199, 200
outlook for, 273
Herbivorous dinosaurs, 149, 150 Hill, Andrew, 7
Gadoufaoua, Niger, 11, 158
Himalayas, 32
Gait, and dinosaur tracks, 264
Homed dinosaurs, 153
Galapagos Islands, 235
Human evolution and fossils
Galapagos penguins, 235
Asian chapter of, 7
Galapagos tortoises, 235
and counterfeit footsteps, 259-61
Gastroliths, 127
and Leakey finds, 6
Gekkos, 229
and West Africa, 196
Geneological tree, vs. evolutionary tree, 23
Hunting, 203
Genetics, and natural selection, 25
Hydrothermal vents, 237
Geomorphology, 257
Hyperbaric chamber, 260
German East Africa, 14
Hypsilophodon, 1 52
Germans, 240—42 and Tendagura expedition, 14, 15
Iceland, 233, 234-35
Gharial, 177
Iguanodon, 152
Gigantosaurus dixeyi, 132 33, 135-36, 142, 144
llala and llala II. 39
Gila monsters, 229
India, 139
Giraffe, 249-50
Indians, 66, 68
Glen Rose, Texas, 259-61
Insects
Gomani, Elizabeth, 85, 99, 276, 282 Gondwana, 33-34, 34, 156, 157, 181, 187, 188, 189, 228, 229, 231 Government, of villages, 109
as food, 87 vs. field crew, 57-58 and flowering plants, 207 and Lake Araripe, 188
Graviportal design, 128 29
Iraq, 73
Great Dying, 159-63, 164, 238
Iridium, and extinction theorv, 160-62
See also Extinction
Ischium, of titanosaurids, 136, 137
Great Rift Valley, 5, 9, 45, 46
Islam, 197, 261
Green sea turtles, 231
/ Will Try (Kayira), 82
34, 232
Gregory, J . W . , 266 Guendolen, 14, 15 Gule Wamkulu, 68, 69
Jacketing application of, 56—57 removal of, 58
Hadrosaurs, 152
Jacobs, Bonnie, 8, 11, 58, 171
Hagfish, 222-26, 223
Jacobs, Dr. Louis,
Hair, and warm-bloodedness, 209
on Africa, 266-68
Hammer, in ear, 212
biographical data on, 6-8
Haughton, S.H., 1 32, 1 33, 1 35
and Cameroon project, 194
Hawaiian Islands, 233 34
and crocodile skulls, 172
Jacobs (cont'd)
Laurasia, 33, 34
in Kenya, 6-20
Laws, Robert, 80-81
See also individual names and subjects; Malawi
Leakey, Louis, 11, 12, 14
project
Leakey, Mary, 19
Janescbia robusta, 141
Leakey, Richard, 6, 10
Jaws
hiring by, 7—8
of crocodiles, 179-80, 182
Leatherback turtles, 238
evolutionary derivation of, 222
Likoualo Swamp, 245, 254, 257 59
and "living" fossils, 222 26
Lilongwe, Malawi, 21, 83
of mammals, 211-12
Lithography, 166
of sauropods, 126-27, 133 34, 138-39
Livingstone, Dr. David, 3, 21 22, 36, 38, 72,
Johnston, Sir Harry, 60, 68, 249
75, 79, 197-98, 244, 251
Joints, of mammals, 210
Livingstone, Mary, 73-74
Jurassic period, 157
Livingstonia Mission, 80-83
Juwayeyi, Dr. Yusuf, 83
Lizard-hipped dinosaurs, 147-51, 148, 155
Kampango, 41
Lizards, 229
Kangaroos, 207
Locality, and fossil identity, 59
Karonga, Malawi, 75, 108-12
Luck, role of, 218
Karoo rocks, 101 2
Lungfish, 43 45, 44, 188, 222
Kayira, Legson, 82
Lydekker, Richard, 134
and birds, 164, 167
Kentrosaurus, 15, 16 17, 19, 153 Kenya, 194
Madagascar, 4 8 ^ 9 , 137, 153
early work in, 6-11
Magnetic fields
overview of, 65
reversal of, 28
Khomu, James, 98-99, 11 3
See also Paleomagnetism
Kitenges, 107, 108
Malaria, 51, 217-18
Koobi Fora, 48
Malawi, 229, 259
climate of, 50 Koum Basin, 195, 202^, 216, 261
arrival in, 83-85 64
Kntosaurus, 145
climate of, 50 economy of, 273 food in, 87
Lactimeria cbalumnae, 251 54, 252
geography of, 4
Lake Araripe, 187-90, 191, 192
outlook for, 272
Lake Baikal, 5 6
overview of, 66, 68 71
Lake Chad, 187 88, 196
paleontology career in, 274 75
Lakefiy cakes, 87
social problems of, 267-72
Lake Malawi described, 4 6, 36, 37, 38 fish of, 40 43
women in, 174 See also individual names and subjects Malawi Cookbook, 87
Lake Nyasa, 15
Malawi croc, 178 84, 185, 192, 281
Lake Tanganyika, 4, 36
Malawi project
Lake Victoria, 36
base camp for, 88-91
Lambeosaurs, 152
crew described, 95-100
Lamprey, 170, 222-23, 224
daily routine of, 100-2
Lassa fever, 202 3
excavation of, 94-95
Late Cretaceous. See Cretaceous Period
future of, 116
I N D E X
last days of, 116-18
Meteorites, and extinction theory, 161 63
original proposal on, 21
Mice, as sausage, 86 87, #6
pre-trip overview of, 61-64
Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 31, 32, 33. 234
sites described, 91-93
Middle ear, bones of, 212
summary of, 278-82 Malawi-saurus, 142-143.
Migeod, F . W . H . , 15, 53, 136 144-45, 281
Missionaries, 80-83
See also Sauropods
Mjuda, 99, 115, 117
Malawi sausages, 86-87
Mkwala, Dyson, 100
Malipenga dances, 93, 105
Mkwala, Lightwell, 72, 75, 78, 79 83, 1 15,
Mammal fossils, 171-72, 175
282 84
and Cameroon Project, 196, 204, 215
18
and Dinosaur Beds, 181-82
Mlozi, 75 78, 83 M'Mbelwa, 79 83, 81
elusiveness of, 194
Moir, John, 51
and Karoo rocks, 101 2
Mokele-Mbembe, 245-62 Mombasa, Kenya, 11
of Messel, 241-42 recognizable characteristics of, 209
14
Monitors, 229
searching for, 58-59
Monotremes, 207, 213 15, 216
and Tendagura, 19
Morocco, Fidelis, 83, 85, 88, 113, 114
See also Mammals Mammals, 7 emerging dominance of, 242 evolutionary roots of, 214-15, 216-17, 218 groups of, 207-8, 208
background of, 98 Mountains, and continental drift, 31, 32 Mozambique, 1 1 refugees from, 267-69 Mukasa, Ham, 65
as "living fossils," 250 51
Museum fur Naturkunde, 19
metabolism of, 238 39
Mwagomba, Ronald, 100 101
as reptile competitors, 182 warm-bloodedness of, 209
Nandi bear, 250
See also Mammal fossils
Nares, and crocodiles, 178, 186
Maples, Bishop Chauncey, 40
National Geographic Society, 21, 273
Mapping, roles of, 57
National Museums, Kenva, 16
Marine iguanas, 235, 236
National Science Foundation, 205
Marsh, O . C . , 134
Natural selection, 25, 236
Marsupials, 207-8, 208, 213, 214 15, 216-17 Masai, 65
See also Evolution Navigation, of turtles, 231-32
Matley, Charles Alfred, 139, 141
Ndola dances, 93-94
Maxwell, David James, 71
Newman, Kent, 62, 115, 1 17, 274
Maxwell, William Alexander, 70-71
described, 96
Mayo Rey River, 202 3, 206, 215, 261
Ngara, Malawi, 88
Mbere River, 200-2
Ngong Hills, 9
Mbororo tribe, 197
Ngoni, 78 83, 81
Mbuna, 40-41
Niger, 11, 49, 186, 189
Medicine, in Cameroon, 197-98
Nigeria, 49
Mediterranean Sea, 33
Niger River, 196
Meinertzhagen, Richard, 246 -49
Nile crocodile, 178, 180
Mesozoic Era, overview of, 154-57
Nilotic Turkano, 65
Messel, Germany, 240 42
Njemps, 65
Metabolism, reptilian vs. mammalian, 238-39
Nodosaurids, 153, 157
I N D E X
312 North America, 144, 145, 152, 156, 208, 216, 228
Pleurocoels, 124 Plimsoll line, 121-23, 122, 127
Nostrils, of sauropods, 126
Pokot, 65
Notosuchus, 181
Posture, of mammals, 210
Mima, 103
Powell, Jaime, 137
Nuclear winter, 163 64
Primate fossils
Nyasaland, 68 Nyungwe, Malawi, 70—71
emotional impact of, 8-9 See also Human fossils Procoelous vertebrae, 135
Oceans, and continental drift, 32
Prosauropods, 141, 151
Omeisaurus, 1 30
Prospecting, fundamentals of, 53
Oppossums, 207-8, 250-51
Protoavis texensis, 169-70
Origin of Species (Darwin), 21, 22
Pseudomorphs, 137
Ostrich dinosaurs, 168
Pterasaurs, 176, 189, 190
Ouranosaurus. 1 1, 1 3, 13, 152, 158, 189
Pterodactyls, bones of, 121
Overburden, 56 57, 114
Pygmies, 280
O w e n , Sir Richard, 22 Oxygen, and climatic change, 257
Quadripedal locomotion, 121, 128
Pachycephalosaurs, 153 Painted Desert, 57-58
and pelvic structure, 149 Quest, 277
Pakistan, field work in, 7 Palate, of crocodileans, 177-78, 186
Racerunners, 229
Paleoecology, 47
Radiocarbon dating, 21, 29
Paleomagnetism, 27-28, 29, 30
Rainfall, and swamps, 257
and continental drift, 32, 33, 33 Paleontology, 50
Rainmaking, and Cameroon, 197-98 Rats, fossils of, 9-10
as career, 274 75
Kebbachisarus, 1 5 1
implications of, 30
Red Sea, 45
Paluxy River, 259
Refugees, in Malawi, 267 69
Pangea, 33, 34. 215, 216, 228, 229, 231
Religion, 270
legacy of, 240 See also Plate tectonics Parrington, Rex, 15, 53
and science, 22 Reproduction, in amphibians, 227 Reptiles
Peccary, 250
bones of, 210
Pellagra, 268
ear bones of, 212
Pelvis, evolutionary significance of, 147
metabolism of, 238
Photic zone, 236
See also individual names and subjects;
Pilbeam, David, 7 Pipids, 229 Placentals, 207, 208, 208, 213, 214-15, 217 Plate tectonics, 30-36, 31, 33, 34, 144
Dinosaur fossils; Dinosaurs; Sauropods Rhinoceros Camp, Cameroon, 203, 204, 216 Rocks
and climatic change, 255
and dating, 26-30
and ocean life, 236-37
and dinosaur beds, 10, 11
and volcanic islands, 233, 252
and excavation, 56-57
Platycheloides nyasae, 231
in Malawi beds, 21
Platypus, 207, 213, 217, 222
visibility of, 50
I N D E X
313 Rodents
Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, 176
chewing style of, 180
Sodia, 199
of Mbere Valley, 201-2
Solnhofen Limestone, 165-67
Roto-hammer, 94-95
South Africa, 70 South America, 137, 138, 139, 145, 157, 181,
Salamanders, 228
185, 186-87, 189, 207, 208, 216, 217,
Sallee, 199
228, 229, 235, 236, 257
San Andreas Fault, 32
formation of, 33, 34
Saurischians. See Lizard-hipped dinosaurs Sauropods, 102-3, 150-51, 168
South Adantic, 187 Spinosaurus, 11, 12, 44, 150
defensive structures of, 130-31
Stanley, Henry Morton, 74, 244, 245, 251
fossil assortment found, 119
Stegosaurus, 15, 113, 114, 153-54, 157
head of, 125
Stirrup, in ear, 212
on hind legs, 129-30
Sunset, description of, 103
and Jurrasic Era, 156-57
Superposition, principles of, 27, 29
"living," 245, 246, 251, 254-65
Susa, 112
size of, 120-21, 280-81
Swamps, requirements for, 257-58
species of, 131-32 structural design of, 121-23,
122, 127-30
titanosaurid family of, 134-45 vertebrae of, 123-25, 124
Tails, 264 of sauropods, 130-31 Tanzania, 11,12—20
Science, and religion, 22
Taylor, Lou, 51-52
Screen-washing, 59
Tectonics. See Plate tectonics
Sealey, Harry Govier, 147, 164
Teeth
Seamount, 233
and birds, 167, 176
Segnosaurs, 151
of crocodiles, 175, 176, 178-80, 186
Sen, Sevket, 198
as fossils, 54
Sex determination, and temperature, 239—40
of hadrosaurs, 152
Shaka, 78
of mammals, 210-14
Shell, of turtles, 230-31
of plated dinosaurs, 153
Sheriff, 40
of Protoavis, 169
Ships, and Lake Malawi, 39
of sauropods, 126, 138-39
Shunosaurus, 1 30
Temperature, regulation of, 238-39
Siafu, 115
Tendagura, 11, 12-20, 63, 136, 144, 150,
Siderophile, iridium as, 161
152, 153
Sieving, 174-75
Texas, 259
Sir Apolo Kagwa Discovers Britain (Mukasa), 65
Thermonuclear war, and nuclear winter,
Sitwe River, 91, 92 Size evolutionary role of, 120 and vertebrae structure, 125
163-64 Theropods, 149-50, 187 and birds, 167 Titanosaurids, 126, 132, 134-45, 151, 281
Skinks, 229
Tourists, in Malawi, 41
Skulls. See Heads and skulls
Town meeting, and African villages, 109
Slavery, 72 73, 75-78, 77
Trees, of Tendagura,
Slave stick (goree), 76
Triceratops, 153
Slime hags. See Hag fish
Tugen Hills, 9
Snakes, 171, 201
Tumbuka, 79, 82
16-11
I N D E X
T u r t l e grass, Turtles,
234
and h u m a n fossils,
229-34,
238-39
Tyrannosaurus rex, 1 4 9 , 157, 1 6 7 , 168
Whales,
237-38
W i n k l e r , Alisa, 6 2 , United Nations,
268
described,
University of M a l a w i ,
272,
described, Wombats, 178
of sauropods,
123-25,
124,
134-35,
V o l c a n i c islands, 2 3 2 - 3 6 , 252
von H u e n e , Friedrich,
138-39,
von L e t t o w - V o r b e c k , Paul,
r e q u i r e m e n t s for,
127-30, West
Africa
128
161
African,
105-7
World W a r I,
Yasaki,
151
114
Young, E.D., 41
238-39
42
Zambezi River, 6, 79
209
Z a m b i a , 11 120-25,
Z i m b a b w e , 11 Zulus, 78 Zwandgendaba,
174
109-10
141
14
W e i g h t , structural s u p p o r t of,
135
in M a l a w i culture,
Volcanism, and extinction theory,
Warm-bloodedness,
96
207
Women
of crocodiles,
132,
115
97
W i n k l e r , D a l e , 6 2 , 1 15, 2 7 4
274
Vertebrae
Vulcanodontids,
196
See also C a m e r o o n ; C a m e r o o n p r o j e c t ; N i g e r
78-79
A B O U T
T H E
A U T H O R
L o u i s JACOBS received his P h . D . from the University of Arizona in 1977. His doctoral research was based on fossils he collected in Pakistan. After a short time in northern Arizona he m o v e d to Kenya to b e c o m e Head of the Division of Palaeontology
at
the
National
Museum,
working
for
Richard Leakey. He has conducted extensive field w o r k in the United States, Pakistan, M e x i c o ,
Kenya,
Cameroon,
M a l a w i , and Y e m e n . He recently discovered the first dinosaur known from the Arabian Peninsula. He has published nearly 100 technical papers. Currently he lives and teaches in Dallas. His wife studies fossil plants and his son and daughter like to accompany them in search of fossils.
Praise for Quest for the African Dinosaurs "A gripping adventure to t w o mysterious realms—the heart of Africa, and the world of giant dinosaurs. Lou Jacobs is that rarest of creatures—a scientist w h o can write for us all, and make his discoveries c o m e alive." — D O N I.I SSI \i
President, the Dinosaur Society, and author of Kings of Creation
"Louis Jacobs has produced a most interesting book, w h i c h will certainly give the reader a feel for dinosaur h u n t i n g in some exotic and unusual places. M a n y books have been written on the collecting of dinosaurs in North America, but this book is very different, and I found it refreshing, fun, and informative." —RICHARD E. LEAKEY
Director, Kenya Wildlife Service "Splendid book. If y o u like dinosaurs, this is for y o u . If y o u e n j o y reading engaging stories of life in the field, this is for y o u . And if y o u care to reflect a bit on the personal impact of the West on the developing world, and—as i m p o r t a n t — of the developing world on us, this is certainly for you. It's a most engaging read." — D R . DAVID PILBKAM
Henry Ford II Professor of the Social Sciences, Harvard University "I love it. The book is just what I have learned to expect of Lou Jacobs—original, delightfully entertaining, accurate, and stimulating. Lou Jacobs writes as well as he talks, n o t o n l y about h o w paleontologists study dinosaurs and w h a t they come up with, but also about w h y they do it and w h y t h e study of such esoterica as dinosaurs is of intellectual and emotional value to all of humanity. In his warm and witty style, Lou Jacobs has made a significant contribution to t h e demystification of science, which is badly needed in these days of creeping scientific illiteracy." — D R . NICHOLAS HOTTON III
Research Curator, Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution