Radiophysics: Методические указания по английскому языку

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ Государственное образовательное учреждение высшего профессионального образования «Оренбургский государственный университет» Кафедра иностранных языков естественно-научных и инженерно–технических специальностей

Г. Р. ХАЛЮШЕВА

RADIOPHYSICS МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ ПО АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ЯЗЫКУ

Рекомендовано к изданию Редакционно-издательским советом государственного образовательного учреждения высшего профессионального образования «Оренбургский государственный университет»

Оренбург 2004

ББК 81.2 Англ - 923 Х 17 УДК802.0 (07)

Рецензент кандидат филологических наук, доцент В.Л.Тёмкина

Х 17

Халюшева Г.Р. Radiophysics: Методические указания по английскому языку. Оренбург: ГОУ ОГУ, 2004. – 72 с.

Методические указания предназначены для использования на практических занятиях по английскому языку со студентами ΙΙ курса естественно-научного факультета специальности “Радиофизика”

ББК81.2 Англ - 923

 Халюшева Г.Р., 2004  ГОУ ОГУ, 2004

Содержание Введение….……………………………………………..…………………..…. ...4 1 Unit 1…………………….…………………………..…... …….….….……5 2 Unit 2……………………………………………………..……….….……11 3 Unit 3………………………………………………………..….…….……19 4 Unit 4…………………………………………….……………..…….……25 5 Unit 5………………………………………… ……………………….…..30 6 Unit 6………………………………………………………………….…...35 7 Unit 7……………………………………………………………………....40 8 Unit 8……………………………………………………………………....45 9 Unit 9……………………………………………………………………....49 10 Unit 10……………………………..…..……………………………….….55 11 Unit 11……………………………………….………………………….…62 12 Unit 12…………………………………….…………………………….…66 Список использованных источников…….………..………..…………………72

Введение Данные методические указания по английскому языку предназначены для студентов II курса (РФ) естественно-научного факультета. Основная цель методических указаний – формирование у студентов навыков говорения, чтения, письма и перевода в процессе работы с предложенным материалом. Методические указания включают 12 разделов, каждый из которых содержит тематический текст с системой тренировочных и речевых упражнений. Тематические тексты содержат все грамматические явления, предусмотренные учебным планом. После каждого текста следует лексический минимум, обязательный для активного овладения студентами данной специальности. Непосредственно после текста даются примечания, содержащие контекстуальный перевод отдельных слов и словосочетаний, объяснение незнакомых грамматических явлений, встречающихся в тексте, но не подлежащих активному усвоению, перевод реалий и т.д. Кроме того, в разделы включены диалогические тексты, повторяющие и расширяющие пройденные ранее темы, а также тексты, содержащие дополнительные темы.

1 Unit 1 1.1 Text 1 Why do you want to be a physicist? (From Live with Lightning by M. Wilson) (abridged) Professor Earle Fox’s office was on the twelfth floor in the south–west corner of the Physics Building.

“Professor Fox, Mr.Eric Gorin is here to see you.” The door of the office opened he saw a young man, about twenty–one, who entered behind his secretary. Fox rose to shake hands, then asked the young man to sit down. “We are very glad to have you here, Mr.Gorin,” he said gently. “This year we’ve taken on only one new assistant. You have come with excellent recommendations and I believe you’ll have every opportunity to live up to them. As you know, you’ll be teaching freshman physics lab while you take you own courses towards your doctorate. Professor Beans is the man to whom you’ll be responsible for your undergraduate teaching. He gives the freshman physics lectures. Professor Cameron will be your adviser in your graduate work. By the way, he said suddenly, “what makes you want to be a physicist?”

Erik looked at him. He thought he had misunderstood the proper meaning of the question. “I don’t know. It just never occurred to me to think of anything else.” At that moment he couldn’t understand why Fox was asking him about this. Fox smiled. “Never mind. In the meantime, each year just before the semester starts, Mrs.Fox and I hold an open house, for all the members of the staff so that the new men can meet everyone else. Naturally we are expecting you.” He stood up and shook hands. On the day of Professor Fox’s party, Tommy Maxwell the senior assistant, came to Erik’s room and asked whether he was Gorin. Erik nodded. “I’m Maxwell, the senior assistant. I’m getting ready for my finds. Fox told me that you were here and I thought we could go over to Fox’s together.” On the way Erik told Maxwell that he wanted to take his Ph.D. and then do research. “Well, you see it isn’t up to you,” said Maxwell. “All the Ph.D. candidates wind up in one of the laboratories and the professors pick up their research assistants from them. All kinds of work are going on except in nuclear physics, and even there a fellow named Haviland will start up a lab next year when he comes back from England.” “Haviland? Haven’t heard anything about him.” “You’ll see him at Fox’s.” Nuclear physics,” said Eric reflectively. “May be that’s for me.” *** In the Fox’s apartment, Maxwell approached Haviland. “Hello! How do you like working in England?” “Wonderful. When I come here in 32 there is going to be a lot of work to do. I am sorry you won’t be here to work with me.” “If I won’t be here, Gorin will. This is Erik Gorin, Tony. Gorin, Dr.Haviland.” “Have you read anything about nuclear physics, Mr.Gorin?”, he asked politely. “Not very much”, said Erik. “But I’m dying to work in a laboratory. Don’t you think you might be able to use me when you get back? I’ll have at least a year’s more experience than I have now. What would you especially want in an assistant?” Haviland smiled. “All right, Gorin. Take the regular schedule of courses, classical physics first, then quantum statistical mechanics. If you can lean some lab techniques, so much the better.” ***

A year passed. Haviland returned but he had forgotten about Erik. “I want to remind you of your promise,” said Erik when he met Haviland.

“A promise? Oh, yes. Now I remember. I promised that I’d take you into my lab. But at the moment I have nothing to offer you.” “I see,” said Erik slowly.” In other words you’re turning me down.” “Oh, now wait,” said Haviland. “From the expression on your face I can see that this plays hell with your plans, but what can I do?” “Allow me to work in your lab and you’ll see. I’m used to working with my hands. All I want is just a place where I can work.” Haviland lit a cigarette. “All right, come on Monday.” On Monday Haviland gave Erik the key to the laboratory and said: “Do anything you want in there but just don’t ever bother me. When I want to see you, I’ll know where you are.” As Haviland handed the laboratory keys over to Erik, the latter could hardly suppress his sense of victory. Haviland told him he could learn and permitted him to do anything he wanted there. Erik took Haviland’s words for granted. He believed he would really be complete master of himself and of his future. Nuclear physics! For him there was no other science but physics! But why did Fox ask him:” What makes you want to be a physicist?” At the moment he didn’t think of what question meant. It didn't occur to him then that in some years he would hate his profession, the one he had loved above everything else, that he would wish every bit of knowledge to be stricken away from his mind – the knowledge that turned against humanity! Perhaps this was the hidden meaning of Fox’s question.

1.2 Notes to the Text You’ll have every opportunity to live up to them – у вас будут все возможности их оправдать freshman physics lab – лабораторные занятия по физике со студентами первого курса to hold an open house – устраивать приемы it isn’t up to you – это от вас не зависит you are turning me down – вы мне отказываете this plays hell with your plans – это нарушает ваши планы took … for granted – поверил на слово (принял за чистую монету). 1.3 Words and word combinations to be remembered Advice – совет to advise – советовать adviser – консультант, научный руководитель to believe – верить, полагать to consider – считать, полагать; рассматривать;обдумывать empty – пустой to expect – ожидать, предполагать freshman – первокурсник humanity – человечество key – ключ to make (made, made) – делать, заставлять to mean (meant, meant) – значить, означать meaning – значение to meet (met, met) – знакомиться, встречать member – член to misunderstand (misunderstood, misunderstood) – неправильно понять naturally – естественно never – никогда nuclear – ядерный (to) offer – (v) предлагать; (n) предложение perhaps – может быть (to) promise – (v) обещание; (n) обещать responsible – ответственный to return – возвращаться schedule – программа senior – старший

suddenly – внезапно together – вместе undergraduate – студент (или аспирант) последнего курса (to) wish – (v) желать, (n) желание to shake hands – здороваться (прощаться) за руку to be responsible for smth – отвечать за что–либо to get ready – готовиться Ph.D. – доктор философии (ученая степень)

1.4 Exercises 1.4.1 Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary: assistant moment candidate regular course start up classical statistical discuss 1.4.2 Read and translate the text 1.4.3 Answer the following questions

1. Who entered Professor Fox’s office? 2. How old was the young man? 3. What did Fox do when he saw Erik? 4. What recommendations did Gorin come with? 5. What was Erik offered to teach? 6. What did Fox say about Erik’s future work? 7. Which of Fox’s questions didn’t Erik understand? 8. Why did the Foxes hold an open house? 9. What did Maxwell tell Erik on the way to the Foxes? 10. What did Erik think of when he heard about Haviland’s plans? 11. Did Haviland promise Erik to take him into his lab? 12. What courses did Haviland advise him to take? 13. Did Haviland remember his promise when he returned from Europe? 14. Did Haviland allow Erik to work in his empty laboratory? 15. Did it occur to Erik at that moment that he would hate his profession in some years? 16. Why did Erik begin to hate his profession?

1.4.4

Translate the following sentences and explain the use of tenses

1. Maxwell said that the professors picked up their research assistants from Ph.D. candidates. 2. Erik said that he had not heard anything about the latest achievements in nuclear physics. 3. It was said that soon Erik would be allowed to teach freshman physics lab. 4. Erik expected that Haviland would remember about his promise. 5. Haviland heard that Erik had come with excellent recommendations. 6. Fox asked Erik why he wanted to become a physicist. 7. During that year Erik didn’t know whether Haviland remembered his promise. 8. Erik told Maxwell he was willing to do research. 9. Erik believed that he would have plenty of time to get proper experience in lab techniques. 10. Erik realized that he was offered a wonderful opportunity to take a regular schedule of courses in thermodynamics, classical physics, and quantum and statistical mechanics. 11. Haviland was asked when he intended to permit Erik to start research. 12. Maxwell asked Haviland whether he was certain he would finish his work in nuclear physics in time. 1.4.5

Give the appropriate forms of the verbs instead of the infinitives

A

1. We know that you (to come) with excellent recommendations. 2. We are glad to take this young specialist on as he (to have) some experience in lab techniques. 3. I know this professor quite well as he (to be) my scientific adviser. 4. Before Erik came to the University, it never (to occur) to him to work in the field of nuclear physics. 5. By the time Haviland arrived at the Foxes’Maxwell (to tell) Erik about Haviland’s work in England. 6. ‘’When you arrive I (to take) the regular courses of classical physics and quantum mechanics,’’–said Erik. 7. By the end of the next semester he (to take) his Ph.D. 8. Before Erik arrived at the Foxes’ apartment, some members of the staff (to discuss) the schedule of work for all the assistants.

B 1. My adviser (to give) me excellent advice and I am going to follow it. 2. Yesterday he (to advise) me to meet the new members of the staff. 3. Last year he (to be) responsible for my undergraduate teaching. 4. By the end of the previous term the students (to maser) the necessary lab techniques. 5. Tomorrow Professor N. (to give) us a lecture on quantum mechanics. 6. By the time we began to do research we (to master) lab techniques. 1.4.6

Change the following sentences into indirect speech

A 1.Fox said to Erik: “You have excellent recommendations and we are glad to have you here.” 2. The senior assistant said: “I am getting ready for my finals.” 3. Erik said: “I haven’t met Dr.Haviland yet.” 4. Fox said to Erik: “We shall expect you tomorrow.” B 1.Erik asked Maxwell: “What lecture did Dr.Haviland deliver last semester?” 2. Maxwell asked Erik:” When do you intend to start the research?” 3. Fox was asked: “How many new assistants have you taken on this year?” 4. Erik asked: “Who will be responsible for my undergraduate teaching?” 5. Erik asked Maxwell: “Where is Haviland conducting the experiments?”

C 1. My friend asked me: “Have you ever been at the freshmen physics lectures?” 2. Erik asked his adviser: “Will you allow me to be present at your lecture next week?” 3. Maxwell asked Erik: “Do you want to meet Professor Haviland today?” 4. Erik's adviser asked him: “Do you know what kind of work is going on in our lab?” 5. Erik asked Haviland: “Will you return to America next year?”

D 1. Fox said to Erik: “Choose the subject for your doctorate.” 2. Erik said to Maxwell: “Introduce me to Dr.Haviland, please.” 3. Maxwell said to Erik: “Let’s go to the Foxes together.” 4. Erik said: “Show me the way to Haviland’s laboratory, please.” 5. Haviland said to Erik: “Learn some lab techniques, if possible.” 1.4.7

Translate the following sentences into English

1. Преподаватель говорит, что необходимо обратить внимание на это задание по сопротивлению материалов. 2. В прошлый раз он сказал, что необходимо обратить больше внимания на этот предмет. 3. Консультант спросил Эрика, читал ли он что–нибудь по ядерной физике. 4. Фокс спросил Эрика, почему он избрал эту область физики. 5. Максвелл спросил Эрика, знает ли он дорогу к дому профессора Фокса. 6. Эрик надеялся, что Хэвиленд будет помнить свое обещание. 7. Эрик верил, что теперь он будет проводить исследовательскую работу по ядерной физике. 1.4.8

Define the function of the verb to be in the sentence. Translate the text

Physics is the science studying various phenomena in nature. Its object is to determine exact relations between physical phenomena. Physics is divided very naturally into two great branches, experimental and theoretical physics. The task of the former is to make observations and carry out experiments. On the basis of the experimental facts theoretical physics is to formulate laws and predict the behavior of natural phenomena. Every law is based on experiments, therefore it is important that experiments be done very accurately. It was study of natural phenomena that made it possible to formulate various laws. There are still a lot of problems to be solved. Scientists all over the world are doing their best to find an answer to numerous yet unknown phenomena.

1.4.9

Reproduce the text of the lesson

2 Unit 2 2.1 Text 2

Newton’s three laws of moion Isaak Newton was born in 1642 in England to a poor farmer’s family. Isaak attended a country school until he was eleven. At the age of twelve he was sent to a town school, seven miles away from his home, to continue his education. The boy made good progress and worked hard for his goal – Cambridge. His application for entrance into Cambridge University was accepted in 1661. Soon his tutors found that he showed unusual knowledge of subjects that were to form the topics of further lectures. He had mastered those subjects independently because he was interested in them. The result was that he was soon excused from attending certain courses, which provided him with more time for making experiments. Newton’s interests were centered on mathematics and mechanics and on studying different phenomena of Nature. Newton was forty-two years old, however, when he started putting down on paper his ideas which were the result of more than twenty yeas of scientific thinking. It is indeed surprising that it took Newton only eighteen months to produce his wonderful work – the Principia, that was later on called the greatest product of a single human mind. Of the many things that Newton accomplished in the Principia, the major ones, namely the three laws of mechanics, are briefly touched upon below. First Law. Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line except in so far as it may be compelled by impressed force to change that state. The first law introduces the idea of inertia and is often called the law of inertia. Inertia is defined as that property by virtue of which a body resists changes in motion. Suppose that you are riding in a bus going 20 miles per hour. The bus stops suddenly. It is no longer doing 20 miles per hour. But you are. Unless you seize a handrail, you will keep moving due to your being a “body” in motion. Your having experienced a thrust is a demonstration of inertia. On the Earth’s surface, however, it is difficult to demonstrate fully the law of motion because air–resistance and the tremendous forces of gravity prevent an object from travelling at constant speed in a straight line. But one of the first proofs of the first law is found in the movement of the heavenly bodies which meet practically no friction in their travelling through space. Modern artificial satellites obey Newton’s first law. Their being set on proper orbits, completely free from the Earth’s atmosphere and air friction, is of great importance. It is known that some early satellites were burned up on account of their having been set on wrong orbits. Successful flights of modern spaceships have proved the validity of Newton’s first law in actual practice. Second Law. Any change in motion of a body is in proportion to the force pressing on it and takes place in the direction of the straight line in which the pressing force acts. The second law gives a valuable means for measuring forces. The mathematical relationships provided by the second law allow scientists to measure the force of gravitation at any point of the Earth’s surface. The ability of making such calculations is of great value in planning the orbit of an artificial satellite. The availability of electronic computers provides a reliable means for making the necessary calculations with great speed and accuracy. Third Law. For every action exerted on a body, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Another way of stating the third law is this: “Whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first body.” For example, when you press a stone with your finger, your finger is also pressed back by the stone. When you fire a rifle, the forward thrust of the bullet is matched by a backward thrust or “kick” against your shoulder. Nowhere else today, perhaps, is Newton’s third law of motion of such great importance as in the field of jet propulsion and rocket flights. In the case of jet-propelled plane’s flying the thrust of gases issuing from the jet engine reacts against the engine itself and causes a forward thrust. It is not true, as it was thought before, that the rearward gases push against the air; if it were so, Newton’s third law would not be true. But jet engines are air-breathers and the hot gases burned in them feed on the air supply they take from the atmosphere. Rockets on the other hand, carry their fuel along with them and are able of travelling in outer space where there is no air and hence, no air resistance. In the near-perfect vacuum of space Newton’s third law operates ideally. The powerful thrust inside the rocket’s engine results in an equal and opposite thrust forward of the rocket itself because there is no airfriction in outer space. Hence, the rockets' travelling with fantastic speeds of thousands of miles per hour is possible.

Both in the world of science and in our own daily lives Newton’s three brief statements of motion are of great importance. In his three laws of motion Newton established the framework for the general study of motion in terms of mass and force. The greatest achievements of science and engineering today are based on Newton’s laws of motion, which are always and everywhere true.

2.2 Notes to the Text Are briefly touched upon below – вкратце даны ниже It is no longer doing 20 miles per hour – Он (автобус) уже больше не делает 20 миль в час due to your being a “body” in motion – благодаря тому, что вы являетесь «телом», находящимся в движении When you fire a rifle – когда вы стреляете из винтовки

2.3 Words and word combinations to be remembered To accomplish – выполнять accuracy – точность action – действие to act upon – воздействовать на availability – наличие; пригодность backward – обратный; обратно brief – краткий to burn (burnt, burnt) up – сгорать constant – постоянный to define – определять Earth – земля equal – равный to establish – устанавливать to exert – оказывать (давление) to experience – (v) испытывать to feed (fed) – питать(ся) forward – (adj.) передний; (adv.) вперед friction – трение gravity – притяжение, сила тяжести hence – следовательно, отсюда to issue – выходить; истекать jet–propelled – реактивный to keep (kept, kept) on – продолжать to lead (led; led) – вести, руководить major – главный motion – движение namely – именно to obey – подчиняться object – предмет outer – внешний to persist – упорно продолжать; оставаться powerful – мощный to prevent – мешать, предотвращать proof – доказательство propulsion – движение to prove – доказывать relationship – отношение rearward – (adj.) обратный; (adv.) обратно reliable – надежный to resist – оказывать сопротивление rest – покой

space – пространство; космос surface – поверхность throughout – всюду, повсюду, везде thrust – давление; движение uniform – равномерный wrong – неверный, неправильный impressed force –приложенная сила in proportion – пропорционально on account of – вследствие, из–за, благодаря by virtue of – вследствие air–breather – воздушно–реактивный двигатель, аппарат с воздушно–реактивным двигателем to push against smth – отталкиваться от чего–либо, опираться на что–либо

2.4 Exercises 2.4.1 Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary: Atmosphere product demonstration proportion fantastic reaction formula rocket gravitation satellite inertia vacuum orbit version 2.4.2

Read and translate the text

2.4.3

Answer the following questions on the text

1. How old was Newton when he started writing his wonderful work? 2. How long did it take him to write the Principia? 3. How many laws of motion did Newton state? 4. What does the first law of motion state? 5. How is inertia defined? 6. Why is it difficult to demonstrate fully the first law of motion on proper orbits? 7. How is the second law of motion expressed? 8. What did the second law of motion provide the scientists with? 9. Did the second law of motion facilitate the planning of the orbits for artificial satellites? 10. How is the third law of motion defined? 11. What phenomenon occurs when you fire a rifle? 12. What do jet engines take their air supply from? 13. Why are rockets able of travelling in outer space? 2.4.4 Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the forms and functions of the gerund and the verbal noun A 1. Putting down his ideas on paper took Newton eighteen months. 2. We know of his having spent more than 20 years of scientific thinking before finally formulating them on paper. 3. We know of any object being prevented from moving at constant speed by air friction. 4. We have heard of Newton’s having been suggested to put down on paper his ideas, which he did. B 1. Demonstrating the first law of motion on the Earth’s surface is rather difficult due to the tremendous forces of gravity. 2. Newton’s having established the law of inertia has provided scientists with a means for setting satellites on proper orbits. 3. The aim of his experimenting is increasing the speed of calculations. 4. It seemed that Newton’s only pleasure was experimenting. 5. We know of this electrical engineer’s having designed a new type of a digital computer. 6. The motion of this body was changed because of its having been acted upon by an external force. 7. Scientists are able to

measure the forces of gravitation at any point on the Earth’s surface due to Newton’s having provided them with the second law of motion. 8. Having proved the validity of his theory, he went on working at it. 2.4.5

Analyse and translate the following sentences. State the function of the gerund and gerund phases

1. Original scientific thinking is very important for every researcher. 2. Many scientific discoveries preceded Newton’s stating his laws of motion. 3. Newton’s having stated his laws of motion is very important for modern science. 4. Without proper understanding the major laws of mechanics it is difficult for the students to take part in research. 5. On receiving wrong results one must repeat the experiment. 6. By studying Newton’s laws of motion we learn that they are applied not only in engineering but in our daily life as well. 7. While Newton was studying at Cambridge his favourite work was experimenting. 8. On his friend’s advice Newton started putting down on paper the results of his original scientific thinking. 9. The Principia’s having been written in such a short time was due to its author’s great previous work. 10. Newton was interested in making experiments since he was a student at Cambridge. 11. Newton’s having invented the mathematical machinery needed for proving the validity of the basic laws of mechanics was of great importance. 12. The Principia’s having been published brought Newton world fame. 13. On being set on a proper orbit completely free from the Earth’s gravitation a satellite keeps on moving forward through space. 14. Successful travelling of satellites depends on their having been set on a proper orbit. 15. There is a constant danger for every spaceship of being burned up because of its having been set on a wrong orbit. 16. The second law of motion provides scientists with a means for measuring forces, which is of great importance in planning the orbits for artificial satellites. 17. There are two ways of stating the third law of motion. 18. Jet engines on account of their being air–breathers require an air supply from the atmosphere for feeding the hot gases. 19. The state of rest or uniform motion of a body is changed after its being acted upon by some external unbalanced force. 20. By repeating experiments one gets more data which help arriving at right conclusion. 2.4.6

Exercise in word building

a) Give adjectives corresponding to the following nouns and translate them: possibility, ability, capability, availability, reliability, accuracy, importance, humanity, validity.

b) Give verbs corresponding to the following nouns and translate them: action, reaction, direction, definition, demonstration, calculation, computation, generalization, achievement, development, establishment, requirement, arrangement, pressure, resistance, supervision, addition, subtraction, division, multiplication. 2.4.7

Reproduce the text

2.4.8

Read and translate the following text

At the physics laboratory The physics lab of our University occupies several large rooms. In each room there stand laboratory benches. There is enough space in between the benches to allow several students to do experiments with various apparatuses and gauges, such as ampermeters, voltmeters, potentiometers, condensers, transformers, rheostats, oscillographs, etc. Let us follow a group of freshmen who are going to have their first lecture on physics. In the lab they see lab technicians who are busy arranging some apparatuses on the demonstration table. The teacher is drawing a scheme on the blackboard fixed against the wall behind the lecture table. As the students enter the lab the teacher turns round and greets them. Teacher: All right. Left’s begin. Today I am going to give you an introductory talk. First of all, while experimenting, you must be careful with electrical apparatuses. Don’t switch them on before you are instructed how to handle them properly. Wrong handling may cause either failure of the unit, or injury to human life, or both. Any carelessness may bring about an accident. There are certain rules of handling the electrical equipment and they should be strictly observed. So be attentive and careful! A student: Certainly, we shall observe all the rules. We promise neither to break the rules nor the apparatuses. Teacher: All right. Today’s talk is devoted to the discussion of a fundamental physical principle governing the motion of an artificial satellite. To begin with, let’s try a most primitive experiment. Watch it! Here is a small weight fastened to a string. Now, I’m swinging the weight in a circular orbit, letting the string wind up on my finger. Watching the

motion of the weight closely, you’ll observe that as the length of the string decreases, the speed of the weight increases and vice versa. The longer the string, the slower the speed of the weight. Now, who can tell me, which of Newton’s laws explains this phenomenon? A student: Force equals mass times acceleration. Teacher: That’s right. When a body in rotational motion moves in a radial direction, a force acts to speed up the body, it the radial motion is toward the centre of rotation. Now think, when does the same force slow down the body? A student: The force slows down the body, it the radial motion is away from the centre. Teacher: Good. Does anyone know what we call this force? A student: If I’m not mistaken, it’s the Coriolis force. Teacher: No, you are not mistaken. So, this weight on the string experiment illustrates the speeding up and slowing down effects on the string. In the case of an artificial satellite the string is replaced by the force of gravity. Who can tell me what happens when the orbit of a satellite comes closer to the Earth’s? A student: I can. The radius of curvature of its path decreases, so the satellite must speed up. Teacher: Just so! Now, do you happen to know what law explains this effect when observed in cellestial bodies? A student: This effect is explained by Kepler’s law. Teacher: And what does this law state? A student: Let me see, it seems to me that Kepler stated that planets move in elliptical paths, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse, and that the line from a planet to the Sun sweeps over equal areas in equal times during all parts of its path. Teacher: Oh, you seem to know the subject perfectly well. But there was also Newton’s third law – the law of planetary motion. From this, Newton derived the inversesquare law for circular orbits. By the way, this law was derived by at last three scientists besides Newton: by Robert Hooke, Edmund Halley and Christopher Wren. Do you know anything about these scientists? A students: Well, Robert Hooke stated the principle of the spring balance. Teacher: And what about Halley? A students: I’ve read of Halley’s comet. Maybe it was he who predicted its approach? Teacher: Yes, the prediction was made at the end of the 17th century. Afterwards the comet was seen at regular intervals of 75 years. Yet, Hally was unable to solve the problem of elliptical orbits himself. So he came to Newton and was surprised to learn that the latter had solved it two years before. But as Newton had lost his calculations, he was forced to perform the detailed mathematics all over again. You can well imagine the impression Newton’s work produced. It was in 1863. Then, Hally insisted that Newton should prepare his work for publication. As a result, in 1687 appeared the greatest scientific book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, which contained the laws of motion, the law of gravitation and much of Newton’s mathematical achievements. Now, what do you know about Wren? A student: Well, I’m not sure, but it seems that this name is connected with architecture. Or was it another Wren? Teacher: You are right. Wren was an outstanding English architect, the one that built St.Paul’s Cathedral in London. There is the bell. After the interval I’ll give you some problems to solve.

2.4.9 Notes to the Text A force acts to speed up the body – действует сила, которая ускоряет движение тела inverse–square law for circular orbits – закон обратный пропорциональности силы притяжения квадрату расстояния для круговых орбит was surprised to learn – к своему удивлению узнал

3 Unit 3 3.1 Text 3 X–Rays Have you ever thought about the time when there was no radio, when flying was a dream of inventors and the cinema was only one year old? It was the time when the first motor–cars had just appeared. As soon as they had been brought to England the English Government issued a special bill which was intended to protect the population against those houseless monsters. The bill stated that self–propelled vehicles could venture on the public highway only when they were preceded by a man carrying a red flag by day or a red light by night. According to the bill the speed of the vehicles was not to surpass four miles per hour. It was in a world such as this that in the closing month of 1895 an announcement appeared that a German professor, Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen, no one had ever heard of before, had discovered a new kind of invisible rays which could pass through clothes, skin and flesh and cast the shadow of the bones themselves on a photographic plate. Can you imagine the impression this announcement produced at that time? Let us see how Rontgen came to discover those all–penetrating rays. One day Rontgen was working in his laboratory with the Crookes tube. Crookes had discovered that when he sealed two electric wires in a glass tube, pumped as much air as possible out of it and connected the wires to opposite electric poles, a stream of electric particles emerged out of the cathode, that is, the negative electric pole. Rontgen was interested in the fact that these cathode rays, as they were then called, caused certain chemicals to glow in the dark when they were brought within a few inches of the window the rays were emerging through. On this particular day Rontgen, who was working in his darkened laboratory, enclosed his Crookes tube in a box made of thin black cardboard. To make sure that this black box was light–proof Rontgen switched on the current to his tube to check that no light came through the box. No light did come through the box, but to his puzzlement Rontgen noticed a strange glow at the far corner of his laboratory bench. He thought that glow was merely his imagination and switched on the current again. And again he saw the glow at the far end of his bench. Still puzzled he drew back the curtain of the laboratory window and found that the glow had come from a small fluorescent screen which was lying at the far end of the bench. Rontgen knew that cathode rays could not penetrate the cardboard mask he had made for his tube. Yet, here his fluorescent screen had been set aglow. If, as Rontgen was certain, the fluorescent effect was not due to the cathode rays, then what mysterious new rays was it being caused by? When Rontgen had found that the newly discovered rays which he called X–rays were able to penetrate the air much more strongly than the cathode rays, and even came through his cardboard box, he placed all sorts of opaque materials between the source of his X–rays and the fluorescent screen. He found that those rays passed through wood, thin sheets of aluminium, the flesh of his own hand and some other materials; but they were completely stopped by thin lead plates and partially stopped by the bones of his hand. When he had tested their effect on photographic plates he saw that they were darkened on exposure to the X–rays. Rontgen was sure that his discovery would contribute much to the benefit of science, and indeed medicine was quick to realize the importance of Rontgen’s discovery. Yet the medical exploitation of X–rays is not the only field of their application; X–rays are increasingly used in industry as well.

3.2 Notes to the Text Caused certain chemicals to glow – вызывали свечение некоторых химикалий no light did come through the box – свет действительно не проникал через коробку (did служит в качестве усилительной частицы) still puzzled – все еще удивляясь yet, here – и все же medicine was quick to realize – медики сразу поняли

3.3 Words and word combinations to be remembered Again – опять, снова against – против to bring (brought, brought) – приносить, приводить,

доставлять to call – называть to cause – заставлять, вызывать certain – некоторый completely – полностью to contribute – вносить вклад; зд. приносить пользу corner – угол current – ток to discover – открывать (к.–л. явление) to enclose – помещать, заключать (в себе) even – даже field – область glass – стекло indeed – в самом деле, действительно to invent – изобретать inventor – изобретатель invisible – невидимый lead – свинец light – свет; светлый lightproof – светонепроницаемый opposite – противоположный particle – частица particular – особый, частный, данный to pass – проходить, проникать to penetrate – проникать (через, сквозь) to precede – предшествовать to protect – защищать, предохранять ray – луч sheet – лист source – источник speed – скорость stream – поток to surpass – превосходить to switch off – выключать to switch on – включать all kinds of = all sorts of – самые разнообразные, разные, всякие as much as possible – как можно больше to be certain = to be sure – быть уверенным to make sure – убедиться to set aglow – вызывать свечение

3.4 Exercises 3.4.1 Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary Airplane medicine aluminium mile cathode monster cinema negative effect photographic exploitationspecial fact stop flag tube fluorescent 3.4.2

Read and translate the text

3.4.3

Answer the following questions

1. What inventions preceded the discovery of X–rays? 2. What kind of device was Rontgen experimenting with? 3. What kind of device is the Crookes tube? 4. What phenomenon attracted Rontgen’s attention while he was experimenting with the Crookes tube? 5. What did Rontgen notice when he switched on the current? 6. What puzzled Rontgen? 7. Were was the mysterious glow coming from? 8. What was the source of those mysterious rays? 9. Why did Rontgen call those all–penetrating rays X–rays? 10. What materials can X–rays penetrate? 11. By what materials are X–rays stopped? 12. What are the main fields of application of X–rays? 13. Did the discovery of X–rays contribute much to the development of science? 3.4.4

Translate the following sentences and state how the attributes are expressed

A 1. X–rays penetrate steel sheets and aluminium plates. 2. A thick glass wall screens the operator from the stream of uranium particles. 3. Central electric power stations are using steam at high temperature and pressure. 4. In almost all four– and six–cylinder engines the cylinders are arranged one behind another. 5. The high efficiencies obtained from modern internal combustion and compression ignition engines have brought about improvements in the steam generation processes. 6. The lubrication of machine parts is effected by means of high–pressure oil systems driven by an electric pump. B 1. The piston descending to the bottom of the cylinder pushes the exhaust gases out. 2. As the descending piston approaches the end of its stroke, there is but little pressure left in the cylinder. 3. The emerging rays could be clearly seen. 4. The rays emerging out of the cathode were clearly seen in the darkened laboratory. 5. The nature of the newly discovered rays was unknown to Rontgen. 6. The rays discovered by Rontgen were called by him X–rays. C 1. A bill to protect the population against self–propelled vehicles was issued by the English government when the first cars appeared in England. 2. The machine to be tested has been designed by one of our engineers. 3. Rontgen made a lead screen to be used as protection against X–rays effect. 3.4.5

Reproduce the Text

3.4.6

Read the following text without using a dictionary and give a summary of it

The World’s First X–Ray Picture Joseph Thomson Crookes was very much interested in the composition and possibilities of cathode rays which he had discovered. But when cathode–ray tubes first appeared scientists thought that they were of no practical value, except for scientific research. Only in 1895 something changed that attitude. With the help of a cathode–ray tube, a German physicist, Doctor Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen, made his historic discovery of X–rays. One day, during the course of experimenting with the Crookes tube in his laboratory the scientist enclosed the tube in a lightproof box. Then he darkened his workshop to check whether any light was coming from the tube. To his surprise he noticed a glow coming from a nearby object, a metal screen coated with a fluorescent chemical. Rontgen thought that his cathode tube was giving off some kind of radiation rather than emitting light, but what it was he could not say. Thus he gave the name X–ray to the unknown radiation. Soon Rontgen found that those X–rays affected photographic plate. He made his wife place her hand on a photographic plate and armed the mysterious rays upon it. The bone structure of the hand was closely outlined on the plate. Thus he had taken the world’s first X–ray picture. 3.4.7 Read and translate the following text without a dictionary and write 8–10 questions covering the main idea of the text It is assumed that the scientific revolution of our time began with the discovery of X–rays by Rontgen in 1895. In its turn the discovery of X–rays led to the study of the nature of the atom, then, through the quantum theory, to nuclear analysis. This was followed by the discovery of the properties of electromagnetic waves. The latter were immediately made use of for signalling, for the wireless and for the devices that made the wireless effective. One of those devices, actually the very first one, was the three–electrode valve, which had been successfully operating until it was replaced by a great variety of transistors, masers and lasers∗. There is no doubt that the use of highly sensitive semiconductors, masers and lasers and *

maser = microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

the rapidly improving electronic devices, especially those which can operate at very low temperatures and with very high speeds, will bring about still greater transformations both in science and industry and pave the way to new victories of Man over Nature. 3.4.8

Translate into English

1. Говорят, что открытие рентгеновских лучей вызвало промышленную революцию. 2. Это открытие сделало возможным изучение природы атома. 3. За изучение природы атома последовало открытие свойств электромагнитных волн, которые использовались для специализации, для радио и для различных приборов. 4. Одним из этих приборов была трехэлектродная лампа. 5. Впоследствии трехэлектродную лампу вытеснили полупроводниковые приборы, мазеры и лазеры. 6. Так как, эти приборы могут работать при очень низких температурах и с огромной скоростью, они несомненно приведут к дальнейшим научным и техническим преобразованиям. 7. Все студенты технических вузов должны иметь представление о последних достижениях науки и техники. 3.4.9

Translate into English

Рентген, немецкий физик, жил во второй половине XIX века. Он очень интересовался влиянием катодных лучей на некоторые химикаты. Для своих опытов он пользовался устройством, которое было изобретено английским физиком Круксом. Это устройство состояло из стеклянной трубки, из которой был выкачан воздух и в которой были запаяны два электрических провода. Когда концы этих проводов присоединялись к противоположным электрическим полюсам, то из отрицательного полюса, т.е. из катода, вылетал поток электрических частиц. Это устройство называлось по имени его изобретателя трубкой Крукса. Однажды, в 1895 году, когда Рентген делал опыты в своей лаборатории, он заметил странное явление. Хотя трубка Крукса находилась в черной светонепроницаемой коробке, что–то светилось в дальнем углу лабораторного стола. Рентген обнаружил, что это была небольшая пластинка, которую он положил недалеко от черной коробки. Но что вызвало ее свечение? В лаборатории было совершенно темно, а катодные лучи не могли проникать сквозь светонепроницаемую коробку, которую он сделал из черного картона. Это означало, что на пластину действовали какие–то другие лучи. Так как Рентген ничего не знал об этих лучах, он назвал их X–лучами. После того как Рентген проделал много опытов с новыми лучами, он обнаружил, что они в состоянии проникать сквозь многие непрозрачные материалы, но не могут проникать сквозь свинец. Более того, он заметил, что под действием X–лучей темнеют фотографические пластинки. Открытие Рентгена имело большое значение для развития многих отраслей науки и техники.

laser = light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

4 Unit 4 4.1 Text 4 How sounds are produced? Sounds are produced by the vibrations of matter. If sound vibrations are regular, they are pleasant to the ear and are known as musical sounds. One can make matter vibrate in different ways. You can strike wires with a hammer. You can set air in vibration with your lips, your can even make gases vibrate. When you wave your hands back and forth they are vibrating in a way. However no sound is heard because the vibrations are not fast enough. A dog can respond to sounds that you cannot hear because its ears are sensitive to higher rates of vibration than you can receive.

A vibrating object makes the air around it vibrate. When a body vibrates, it sets up a wave motion in the surrounding air. The waves are carried in all directions from the vibrating body. They move as water waves move away from the spot where you have thrown a stone into the water. The difference between these two types of waves is that sound waves travel only on the surface of the water. The loudness of a sound depends on the amount of matter that vibrates. The waves are higher in water if you drop a large stone because more water is suddenly pushed aside. In the same way, the more air object causes to vibrate, the louder will be the sound. Loudness is due to amplitude; the amplitude is the height of the wave from the center to the top or bottom part of the wave. As the height of the wave becomes less as it moves away, so the loudness of sound decreases as you move away from the source. When sounds are made louder, as in a radio amplifier, the wave amplitude is increased. This is done by using a greater amount of energy to produce the sound vibrations. The number of times an object vibrates per second is its frequency of vibration. The frequency of vibration determines the pitch of a sound. By pitch we mean how high or low the sound is. If you strike a tuning fork against your hand or knee, its prongs will vibrate 256 times a second. No matter how hard you hit the fork, it will still vibrate 256 times a second. The pitch of the tone will stay the same. What did you change when you hit the fork harder? How might you change the pitch of the tuning fork? A wave length is the distance from the top of one wave to the top of the next succeeding wave. When you strike a tuning fork, the rate of vibration (frequency) and the wave length are constant. The amplitude of loudness of the sound depends on the force of the blow. Sound waves are usually carried to our ears by the air. Have you heard the shot of a gun fired at quite a distance from you? How did sound waves get from the gun to your ears? You probably have noticed that when you strike two stones against each other under water, you can hear the sounds produced under water. Gases, liquids, and solids carry sound waves. Sound travels in air at a speed of approximately 1, 100 feet per second. When you see a flash of lightning a mile away, the speed of light is such that the flash reaches your eye almost instantly. The sound of the resulting thunder reaches your ear later. By using an accurate stop watch, you can measure the interval between flash and thunder. Sound waves travel faster in water, and still faster in solids such as wood, stone, and iron. When the temperature of air rises, the speed of sound increases. Sound travels slower at high altitudes than it does near the earth’s surface. Why? Sound waves can be reflected. You no doubt have noticed that when you shout toward a distant wall, the sound is reflected back to you; we call sounds reflected in this way echoes. The ear cannot distinguish between direct sound and its reflected sound if they are less than one–tenth of a second apart. Sounds in small rooms are reflected back in time to be mixed with the original sound, and thus there is usually no noticeable echo. If the room is more than 55 feet long, echoes are produced which interfere with the original sounds. Auditoriums are now built with rounded corners and few large flat surfaces. This prevents sound waves from being reflected to any position. They are scattered in many directions and the only sounds heard are those sent out from the source. Many materials are made which absorb vibrations or break up the waves. Some fiber–boards having many holes are used to soundproof rooms. Again the waves are either absorbed or scattered so there is very little reflection. We find today that in modern buildings the architect uses methods and materials which reduce echoes and favor good sound transmission. 4.2 Words and word–combinations to be remembered Vibration – вибрация to vibrate – вибрировать; колебаться

matter – вещество hammer – молоток lips – губы to wave – махать back and forth – взад и вперед sensitive (to) – чувствительный (к) loudness – громкость amount – количество due to – благодаря amplitude – амплитуда to increase – увеличивать(ся); усиливать(ся) to decrease – уменьшать(ся); убывать frequency – частота pitch – тон tuning fork – камертон prongs – вилки no matter – неважно succeeding – последующий constant – постоянный; постоянная (величина) liquid – жидкость solid – твердое тело approximately – приблизительно, приближенно stop watch – хронометр altitude – высота to reflect – отражать(ся) reflected – отраженный to be mixed up – зд. чтобы смешаться to be scattered – рассеиваться to absorb – поглащать fiber–board – фанерный лист to soundproof – сделать звуконепроницаемым 4.3 Exercises 4.3.1 Give Russian equivalents: effect physicist energy physics gravitationproblem idea quantum logical result magic special magnetismtalent(ed) photoelectric theory physical control 4.3.2

Read and translate the text

4.3.3

Answer the following questions:

1. How are sounds produced? 2. How can one make matter vibrate? 3. Why can a dog respond to sounds that you cannot hear? 4. What is the difference between sound and water waves? 5. What does the loudness of a sound depend on? 6. What is the frequency of vibration? 7. What does it determine? 8.What is a wave length? 9. How are sound waves carried to our ears? 10. What matters can carry sound waves? 11. Do sound and light travel at the same speed? 12. Can sound waves be reflected?

4.4.4

Form nouns from the given words. Translate them into Russian:

-ist: physic(s); special -er: to work, to read; to lectur(e); to experiment; to convert

-or: to construct, to translat(e), to generat(e); to act -ing: to draw; to read; to begin -ment: to attach, to measure -th: long, broad, deep, strong -ion: to construct, to subtract, to illustrate, to express -ation: to combine, to inform -sion: to divide, to decide, to convert -ssion: to transmit, to permit 4.4.5

Translate the sentences, paying attention to the pairs of synonyms:

In the country where Mr.Hall lives: a) the maximum temperature is 45 Centigrade the upper temperature limit b) the maximum temperature is 0 Centigrade the lower temperature limit c) the average temperature is 22 1/2 Centigrade the mean 1. The maximum speed of this car is 130 kilometers per hour. The minimum speed is 5 km per hour. So the average speed is 67.5 km per hour. 2. The motor gives the maximum power for the minimum weight. 3. The mean distance between these two cities is about 600 kilometers.

4.4.6

Translate the sentences, paying attention to the pronouns and their synonyms:

1.This motor produces a great amount of energy. 2.The scientist presented a few methods of solution of this important problem. 3.A lot of changes took place in this field of knowledge. 4.If you work much, you will get good results. 5.There is some but not much mercury in the tube, put a little more. 6.How much water do rivers give off to the sea in a year? 7.Einstein studied plenty of subjects to increase his knowledge but physics became his life interest. 8.Not many scientists understood Einstein’s discovery at that time. 4.4.7

Reproduce the text “How sounds are produced”

4.4.8

Time for fun

At an examination the professor said: “Does the question embarrass you?” “Not at all, sir,” answered the student. “It is the answer that bothers me.” *** The teacher of geography was trying to teach a small boy the points of the compass. He explained, “Ok, your right is the East, on your left is the West, and in front of you is the North. Now what is behind you?” The boy thought a moment, and then cried, “I knew it. I told Mother you would see the patch on my pants.”

5 Unit 5 5.1 Text 5 The wireless

I am a Russian and I must give all my knowledge, all my work and all my achievements to my native country. A.S.Popov To speak about the radio is to speak about its inventor–the Russian scientist A.S.Popov (1859–1906).

Having thoroughly studied the contemporary theories of electricity A.S.Popov was one of the first to use practically the results obtained by H.Hertz. In fact many scientists knew Hertz to have proved the existence of electro–magnetic waves and to have studied their behaviour. But it was Popov, who first constructed an apparatus to transmit electro–magnetic waves at a distance. In 1895 A.S.Popov was allowed to demonstrate his dwice at a meeting held at ST.Petersburg University. Having explained the principle of its operation the scientist informed the audience that he was going to perfect the apparatus in order to make it useful for transmitting signals by means of rapid electric oscillations. To achieve this he was going to attach to his receiver a device for recording telegrams sent over by the wire telegraph. The new apparatus having been successfully tested in 1897, A.S.Popov demonstrated it to prove the possibility of radio communication, that is, the possibility of transmitting words over a wireless telegraph. And indeed, the apparatus proved to be a success when used for communication between the shore and ships three kilometres apart and between ships sailing five kilometres apart. A.S.Popov wrote that he expected all the ocean–going ships to be equipped with wireless telegraph apparatuses. He hoped that with wireless telegraph apparatuses installed on all ocean–going ships the Navy would be provided with a reliable means of communication. A year later, assisted by Ribkin and Troitsky, A.S.Popov constructed an apparatus capable of receiving audible signals. It was by means of that very radio telegraph that a battlesship was saved in the Black Sea. On hearing the news, Admiral Makarov declared the radio telegraph to be of great importance for the Nevy and highly praised the work of its inventor, Alexander Popov. Three years later, having overcome many difficulties, Popov built a radio–station, the first radio–station in the world. We know A.S.Popov to have been working under very hard conditions. Yet despite all hardships the scientist declined the offecs of foreign commercial companies to leave Russia and lend his invention for commercial use abroad. A.S.Popov died an early death in 1905 when he was only 47 years old. Scientists all over the world were quick to realize the importance and practical possibilities of radio and contributed much to its further development. During Word War II radio–engineering was greatly developed. A device for locating objects at long distances being given the name "radar" was constructed at that period. We know radar to be composed of the initial letters of a descriptive term: radio, detection and ranging. The basic principle of radar is the scanning of an area by a beam of microwaves from a station of known position, and the detection of the waves reflected from the object to be located. The speed of waves being known, it is only necessary to measure the time which elapses between the transmission of microwave pulses and the arrival of the reflected waves in order to locate the object which has caused the reflection, the location being determined both in direction and range. Now a days it is hard to imagine even our daily life without the wireless. It is impossible to overestimate its importance and to predict the possibilities of its further development. 5.2 Notes to the Text As was often the case – как это часто бывало died an early death – рано умер

5.3 Words and word combinations to be remembered To assemble – собирать audible – слышимый communication – связь contemporary (adj) – современный; (n) – современник to declare – заявлять detection – обнаружение, распознавание to elapse – протекать, проходить initial – начальный to install – устанавливать location – обнаружение, местонахождение microwave – микроволновый to overcome (overcame, overcome) – преодолевать to overestimate – переоценивать propagation – распространение radio set – радиоприёмник reflection – отражение to sail – плавать (о корабле) scanning – сканирование, поиск sea – море, морской to transmit – передавать to undergo (underwent, undergone) – подвергать (ся) on the contrary – напротив to hold a meeting – устраивать собрание three kilometres apart – оказывать помощь 5.4 Exercises 5.4.1 Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary antenna pulse apparatus radio engineering electro–magnetic sort gramtelegram patent telegraph 5.4.2

Read and translate the text

5.4.3

Answer the following questions on the text

1. When did A.S.Popov live? 2. Were the contemporary theories of electricity known to Popov? 3. What kind of apparatus did Popov succed in constructing? 4. What did Popov do to increase the range of operation of his receiver? 5. Where was Popov allowed to demonstrate his device? 6. How was Popov going to perfect his device? 7. What did he attach to his apparatus to transmit signals? 8. When was Popov's new apparatus tested? 9. What did the test prove? 10. What was the new apparatus used for? 11. Where did Popov expect the wireless apparatuses to be used? 12. Was it important to install wireless telegraph apparatuses on ocean–going ships? 13. Were wireless telegraph apparatuses a reliable means of communication? 14. Who assisted Popov in constructing an apparatus capable of receiving audible signals? 15. How was the usefulness of radio telegraph proved? 16. What was Admiral Makarov's opinion about the usefulness of the radio telegraph for the Navy? 17. What was Popov offered by foreign commercial companies? 18. Why did Popov decline this offer? 19. When did A.S.Popov die? 20. What does the word "radar" mean? 21. What are the basic principles of radar? 5.4.4

Translate the following sentences Analyse the forms and functions of the infinitive

1. We know Popov to have demonstrated his device at a meeting held at St.Petersburg University in 1895. 2. He expected the audience to realize the advantages of his device as an apparatus for transmitting signals. 3. Scienists and military men present at the sitting believed the new device to be efficient. 4. They suggested Popov to perfect it by increasing the range of its action. 5. Having explained the principle of operation of his device, Popov asked them to watch its operation attentively. 6. He wanted them to get an idea of how rapid electric oscillations could be used for transmitting signals. 7. Popov made his new device serve two purposes: to send signals and record the received signals. 8. We suppose Popov to have been working very hard at the problem of radio communication. 9. When the apparatus was tested on battleships, the observers could hear and see the device successfully perform both functions, namely, sending and receiving audible signals. 10. Thus Popov made the Naval authorities believe in the necessity of equipping all battleships with wireless apparatuses. 11. Several times specialists watched Popov manipulate his device and heard him explain the principle of its operation. 12. On many occasions did the members of the commession see him send and receive signals, the impression produced by the demonstration being so great that each time they made him repeat the interesting experiment over and over againg. 5.4.5 5.4.6 necessary

Reproduce the text Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the meaning of the articles where

1. The two facts you have just mentioned have brought about great changes in industry. Let us consider only the changes which have been brought about by the use of electricity in chemical processes. 2. Where has the new machine so much spoken about been installed? – It has been installed in the plant it was built for. 3. In our laboratory we deal with the materials which can withstand high temperatures. 4. This is a new radar set. The set can perform scanning of an area by a beam of microwaves. 5. Popov constructed an apparatus which could receive electromagnetic waves at a distance. The apparatus was approved of after having been sucessfully tested. 6. As the apparatus was intented for receiving signals, it was called the receiver. 7. Popov provided his receiver with an antenna; the antenna, made of a length of wire, increased the range of his receiver several times. 8. One day news was spread among the staff of the Naval office that an apparatus capable of receiving audible signals saved a battleship in the Black Sea by informing the shore officers of the signals received from the sinking ship. On hearing the news Admiral Macarov declared radio telegraph to be of great importance for the Navy. 5.4.7 5.4.8 "neither"

Write a composition about an eminent Russian inventor Read and translate the following dialogue. Remember the meanings and use of "either" and

A: Do you know what the words either and neither mean? B: Yes, I do. Either means "каждый", "любой", "любой из двух",while neither stauds for "ни один (из)". A: That's correct. Can you give examples? B: Yes, I can. For example: There is a member of lecture rooms on either side of the corridor. Which of these two dictionaries may be used for translating a technical text? – You may use either. A: And in what way is either translated when it is connected with or? For instance: "John, bring some dictionaries either from the library or from the reading room, please". B: Either... or ... means "либо...либо", "или...или". A: Now, let us speak about neither; it is the negative form of the pronoun either, meaning "ни тот ни другой ".For instance: I was offered two books, but I took neither of them, as I did not like them. B: And neither connected with nor means "ни...ни", for example: These problems seemed difficult neither to my friend, nor to me. A: Are these words used in any other way? B: Yes, they may be used in short negative sentences such as: "I don't like this book", said Peter. – "Neither do I," said Ann, which means "мне тоже (не нравится)". "I shall not go to the park tomorrow. He won't go either " "он тоже (не пойдёт)".

6 Unit 6 6.1 Text 6 Radio waves

Radio waves travel long distances through space, sound waves travel only short distances. A radio message may travel around the world, but the actual sound does not go much beyond the microphone. This is somewhat like a telephone. There, sound waves are changed to varying electric currents and these are changed back to sound waves in the receiver. If you drop a stone into water, circles of waves start to travel in all directions. The farther out they go, the smaller the waves become. If you use a small stone, the waves will be small, but a large stone will produce large waves. The distance from the top of one wave to the top of the next is the wave length. The height of a wave is its amplitude. Now if you drop a cork in these waves, you can count how many times it bobs up and down in one second. This is wave frequency. The longer the waves, the lower their frequency. Radio waves have higher frequencies than sound waves. Sound waves range from 16 to 20000 vibrations per second. But the lowest frequency of standard broadcasting radio waves is 550,000 vibrations per second. It is these very short radio waves that travel long distances through space. When a program is broadcast, the sound vibrations enter the microphone. The microphone is a special kind of telephone transmitter built in much the same way. Here the sound vibrations cause an electric current to vary at the same rates the vibrations enter. This rate of vibrations is called the audio frequency. It is usually less than 20,000 vibrations per second. The voltage of this fluctuating current is now increased by means of an audio amplifier, which contains a series of vacuum tubes. After the audio frequency has been amplified it is combined with the carrier frequency. The carrier frequency is the radio wave that will carry the message through space. It has a high frequency and is generated at the sending point. This means that the sound vibrations in the microphone are finally changed into corresponding vibrations of the carrier wave. The carrier waves travel through space from their origin to where they are received. The carrier waves in radio take place of the wires in telephone. The receiver takes the radio waves and produces sound again. When the radio waves reach the antenna, they cut back and forth across it. This produces a weak alternating current in the antenna. The receiving set is built to catch the weak current, to amplify it, and to tune to the frequency of the incoming wave. Each broadcasting station sends out waves of a certain frequency. The receiving set has a dial which permits tuning to the waves of different frequencies. Radio waves picked up by the antenna are so weak that vacuum tubes should be used to make them stronger. The vacuum tube acts as a valve to control the flow of current from the circuit. A new device, the transistor, is now being used to replace the vacuum tubes in many radiosets, hearing aids, and other types of electronic equipment. The current from the circuit or from a battery, now goes into the loud–speaker. The current varies the field of an electromagnet and makes a small disk vibrate. The vibrating disk sets up the sound waves you hear. The radio speaker is similar to the telephone receiver. Some radio waves do not travel as far as others. We have learned that radio waves used for standard broadcasting can travel long distances. These are the ones used for regular radio called AM radio (amplitude modulating broadcasting). But the waves used for FM radio (frequency modulation broadcasting) and for TV cannot go through space as far. Let us see why. Radio waves leaving the antenna at the sending point go out in all directions. Some of these waves follow the curve of the earth and we call them ground waves. These give you the best reception on your radio. Others travel up into the sky from the antenna and are called sky waves. During the day, many of the sky waves that go up into air are lost in outer space. But at night, certain layers of the atmosphere reflect the sky waves back to earth. These are called ionosphere layers. The ionosphere layers and the earth act like mirrors for the sky waves. The waves hit the ionosphere and are reflected back to earth. Then the earth reflects the waves and sends them back up to be reflected by the ionosphere again. This sometimes continues until the radio waves have gone thousands of miles. Now can you explain why you can hear certain distant radio stations only at night! To get good reception on FM and TV sets you must live near the station. What we have just learned about sky waves does not hold for certain high–frequency radio waves used for FM and TV. Your family may own one of these sets.If so, you know you cannot get steady reception if you live much beyond 50 miles from the station, unless there is some sort of relay to carry the station signals farther.This is because only the ground waves are useful at higher frequencies. The sky

waves go right through the ionosphere without being reflected back to earth. So the station can only send waves to the horizon, which is about 50 miles if no hills or large buildings are in the way. It is important to remember this if you plan on getting an FM or TV set and live far away from stations. 6.2 Words and word–combinations to be remembered Electric current – ток receiver – приёмник cork – пробка to bob up and down – подпрыгивать to broadcast – передавать (по радио,телевидению) transmitter – (радио) передатчик audio frequency – звуковая частота voltage – напряжение fluctuating – колеблющийся series (of) – ряд, серия origin – место возникновения carrier frequency – несущая частота to generate – порождать; вызывать; производить; генерировать wire – провод alternating current – переменный ток to catch (caught; caught) – ловить, захватывать to tune – настраивать dial – школа to permit – позволять picked up – зд. уловленные valve – лампа circuit – цепь; контур device – устройство; прибор hearing aids – слуховые аппараты ground waves – земные волны sky waves – волны, отражённые от верхних слоёв атмосферы to own – обладать relay – реле 6.3 Exercises

6.3.1 Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary: automatic factor automation inert activematerial activity mechanical chemical ordinary civilization practical combinationpress communication progress elastic transformation electricity technological 6.3.2

Read and translate the text

6.3.3

Answer the following questions:

1.What is the difference between radio – and sound waves? 2.Now do we call the distance from the top of one wave to the top of the next? 3.What is the height of a wave? 4.What is the wave frequency? 5.What have you learnt about the microphone? 6.What is the carrier frequency? 7.What is the function of the antenna in a radio receiving set? 8.Why do you get poor reception on FM or TV sets it you live beyond 50 miles from the station? 9.What is the difference between ground waves and sky waves? 6.3.4

Insert the necessary prepositions:

1. Radio waves travel long distances ________ space.2. A radio message may travel _______ the world. 3. There, sound waves are changed ______ varying electric currents. 4. If you drop a stone _____ water, circles of waves start to travel _____ all directions. 5. The distance ______ the top of one wave ____ the top of the next is the wave length. 6. Sound waves range _______ 16 ____ 20,000 vibrations _____ second. 7. The voltage ____ this fluctuating current is now increased _______ means ____ an audio amplifier. 8. The carrier waves ______ radio take the place _____ the wires______ telephone. 9. Each broadcasting station sends _______ waves ______ a certain frequency. 10. Radio waves leaving the antenna _____ the sending point go ___ all directions. 6.3.5

Reproduce the text

6.3.6

Form adjectives from the given words and translate them into Russian:

- ful: help, wonder, use, power - less: use, help, power, motion, weight - ic: period, metre, atmosphere, base - al: physics, nature, experiment, mathematics - able: value, change, measure, compare - ant: import, resist - ent: differ, insist - ive: effect, act

6.3.7

Translate the following word–combinations, paying attention to the adverbs:

a valuable theory – a highly valuable theory an important discovery – a greatly important discovery an experimental construction – a largely experimental construction a productive method – a highly productive method equal volumes – nearly equal volumes big supplies of energy – immensely big supplies of energy simple devices – equally simple devices efficient research – highly efficient research . 6.3.8

Translate the sentences:

1. The farther out circles of waves go, the smaller the waves become. 2. The longer the waves, the lower their frequency. 3. The nearer the Earth, the denser the atmosphere. 4. The more experiments scientists make, the greater is their knowledge of the structure of matter. 5. The bigger the mass, the bigger the weight of the body. 6. The nearer the centre of the Sun, the higher the temperature. 7. The more the scientist studied the problem, the better he understood its importance for man. 8. The stronger the magnet, the greater the distance through which it acts.

6.3.9

Translate the sentences. Define the tense–form of the predicates

1. On May 7, 1895, a well-known Russian scientist Alexander Popov made a report about his invention at the meeting of the Russian scientific physical society. He had invented a device which received electrical signals at great distances without any wires. The first radio set was looked at with great interest by all the scientists present. Then A.S.Popov was asked a lot of questions. His invention was much spoken about in scientific circles. May 7, 1895, has enterd the history of world culture as the date of one of the greates inventions which is widely used by mankind. 2. Radio is playing an ever increasing part in human life on land, on sea and in the air. 3. In March 1938 the first television station came into being in Moscow, but the war soon stopped the development of television. 4. The international exchange of programmes will be developed still further in the future.

7 Unit 7 7.1 Text 7 Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) "See what I have for you, my boy. A mysterious box with a magic needle. Let's turn the box. Look! Still the needle points only this way." Albert took the box and turned it one way, then the other. The needle always returned gently and pointed in the same direction as before. "Papa, what makes the needle always point one and the same way?" the boy asked. "Well, you won't understand that. The magnetism of the Earth pulls it back." Albert took the compass to bed with him. It occupied all his thoughts for hours. His curiosity grew. He wanted to know more.

Albert Einstein was born in Germany on March 14, 1879. His unusual ability to mathematics and physics began to show itself at a technical school in Zurich. At the age of 21, after four years of university study, Albert Einstein got a job as a clerk at an office. But already in 1905 he made revolutionary discoveries in science. He published three papers. In the first he explained the photoelectric effect by means of Planck's quantum theory. The second paper developed a mathematical theory of Brownian motion. He presented his third paper on "Special Theory of Relativity" to a physical journal. Einstein expressed his theory in the equation E=mc, roughly that energy equals mass times the square of the speed of light. All over the world scientists read the work with great surprise. Few physicians understood its importance at that time. Everybody wanted to know as much as possible about the author. In which university did he teach? In what laboratory did he do his research? Albert Einstein was a very talented man, a great thinker. He had an ability to look at the world with eyes full of wonder. All problems were new to him and he liked to solve them in his own way. Einstein's fame among scientists grew slowly but surely. For a few years he lived in where he worked as a professor. When he came to Prague, he often told his students, "I shall always try to help you. If you have a problem, come to me with it, we shall solve it together." He liked questions and answered them at once, for there were no simple or foolish questions for him. He spoke much with his students about scientific problems and his new ideas. His advice to young students was, "Don't take easy problems." Einstein continued his research. His unified field theory was the result of 35 years of intense work. He expressed it in four equations where he combined the physical laws that control forces of light and energy with the mysterious force of gravitation. In 1922 Einstein got the Nobel Prize in physics not for the theory of relativity but for a logical explanation of the photoelectric effect. He gave all his life to the increase of human knowledge. His ideas produced revolution in the natural science of the 20th century.

7.2 Notes to the Text Albert Einstein – Альберт Эйнштейн, знаменитый немецкий физик и математик way – направление, путь, дорога; метод. only this way – зд. только в этом направлении in his own way – по-своему makes the needle point – заставляет стрелку показывать well – зд. видишь ли. Вначале предложения оно является междометием, выражающем уступку. Zurich – Цюрих (город в Швейцарии) Planck – Планк (1858 – 1947), выдающийся немецкий физик. Robert Brown – Роберт Броун (1773 – 1858), шотландский ботаник Prague – Прага

Unified Field Theory – единая теория поля. 7.3 Words and word–combinations to be remembered

Needle – стрелка (компаса) to point – показывать; указывать magnetism – магнетизм to pull back – притягивать обратно; оттягивать photoelectric – фотоэлектрический effect – эффект; действие quantum theory – квантовая теория Brownian motion – Броуновское движение Theory of Relativity – теория относительности equation – уравнение energy – энергия mass – масса Unified Field Theory – единая теория поля to combine – объединять (ся) force – сила gravitation – гравитация, сила тяжести; притяжение, тяготение logical – логический; логичный, последовательный

7.4 Exercises 7.4.1 Read and translate the following word–combinations. Pay attantion to the noun–forming suffixes (–ity; –ness; –ance; –ancy; –ence; –ency; –tion; –ion; –er; –age; etc.): the thickness of a needle; the usage of a word; the simplicity of the equation; the expression of relativity; the roughness of the surface; temperature readings; atom structure; the solution of the problem; the productivity of a worker; the efficiency of the method; the leakage of gas; the equality of position. 7.4.2

Read and translate the text

7.4.3

Answer the questions:

1. What was Einstein? 2. When and wnere was he born? 3.What discoveries did Einstein make in 1905? 4. In what equation did he express his theory of relativity? 5. Did many scientists of that time understand the importance of his discovery? 6. What theory was the result of his 35 year work? 7. What prize did Einstein get in 1922? 8. How did his ideas influence science? 7.4.4

Say if these statements are true or false

1. Albert Einstein was born in Germany on March 14, 1879. 2. At the age of 21 he got a job as a clerk. 3. His ability to mathematics and physics began to show itself much later. 4. In 1905 he published 2 papers. 5. Few physicists understood the importance of his discoveries at that time. 6. For a few years he worked as a professor in Prague. 7. His Theory of Relativity was the result of 35 years of work. 8. In 1922 Einstein got the Nobel Prize in physics for the theory of relativity. 7.4.5

Translate the sentences into English:

1. Альберт Эйнштейн был великим физиком ХХ столетия. 2. Он обладал необычайной способностью к математике и физике. 3. В течение нескольких лет Эйнштейн жил в Праге и преподавал в университете физику. 4. В1905 году он сделал несколько научных открытий. 5. Его идея поразила всех учёных. 6. В 1922 году Эйнштейн получил Нобелевскую премию. 7. Сегодня любой студент университета хорошо понимает теорию относительности. 8. Изучите биографию Эйнштейна и вы увидите, что он отдал свою жизнь науке. 7.4.6

Reproduce the text

7.4.7

Translate the following negative sentences

1. Little Albert did not understand his father's explanation about magnetism. 2. Nobody knew Einstein till 1905. 3. Einstein never proved his discoveries experimentally. 4. The students will not solve this problem without their teacher's help. 5. The experiment added nothing new to our knowledge about the properties of this substance. 6. My schoolfriend had no ability to mathematics. 7. There were not many changes in the properties of the solid under test. 7.4.8

Put the verbs in brackets in Present, Past or Future Indefinite

1. Albert Einstein (to be) born in 1879 in Germany.When he was 12, he (to begin) his study of mathematics and physics. Later he (to continue) his studies at the University. 2. Einstein (to present) his theory of relativity in 1905. His famous equation (to say) that energy (to equal) mass times the square of speed of light. The great discovery (to surprise) the scientists of the world. 3. The people of our great country (to produce) many geniuses such as Lomonosov, Mendeleev, Lobachevsky and others. Now our country (to have) a great number of brilliant scientists in all field of sciences. 4. Your experiment (not to give) good results until you (to change) the speed of the reaction. 5. Any square (to have) four right angles. 6. The square of two (to be) four. 7.4.9

Put special questions

a) to the Subject: 1. Einstein got the Nobel Prize in physics in 1922 (who). 2. The theory of relativity had great importance for physicists (what). 3. We shall have a new scientific laboratory in a month or two (who). 4. These new machines produce very good products (what).

b) to the adverbial modifier: 1. Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by means of Plank's quantum theory (how). 2. He presented his paper on special theory of relativity to a physical journal (where). 3. Einstein showed his pen when somebody wanted to see his laboratory instruments (when). 4. The great scientist always answered all student’s questions, for there were no foolish or simple questions for him (why). 7.4.10

Time for fun

How New Inventions Are Made? "How new inventions that change the face of the world are made?" somebody asked Einstein.

"Quite simply, "answered Einstein." Everybody knows that something is impossible. Then quite by chance, there happens an ignorant man who does not know it and he makes the invention." Different Means During his visit to an observatory Einstein got interested in the gigantic telescope with a mirror of 2.5 metres in diameter.

"What do you need such a big instrument for?" asked Einstein's wife. "We use it to study the structure of the universe," answered the director of the observatory. "Really?" said the lady. "My husband usually does it on the inside of an old envelope."

Einstein for a Day Albert Einstein, one of the world's most brilliant and respected scientists, is best known for formulating the theory of relativity which played a critical part in the development of atomic energy. What may not be widely known is that Einstein had a fine sense of humor. There is an amusing story about Einstein's visiting universities in a car driven by a chauffeur, giving lectures on relativity. One day the chauffeur said: "Mr. Einstein, I've heard you give this lecture about 30 times. I know it by heart, and I am sure I could give it myself." "Well, I'll give you a chance", said Einstein. "They won't recognise me at the school. When we get there, I'll put on your cap and you introduce yourself as me and give the lecture." The chauffeur gave Einstein's lecture without making a single mistake. On finishing, he started to leave, but one of the professors stopped him to ask a complex question. The chauffeur thought fast. "That problem is so trivial", he said, "I'm surprised that you have to ask me. In fact, to show you how simple it is, I'm going to ask my chauffeur to come up here and answer your question."

8 Unit 8 8.1 Text 8 On gravity waves In 1916 Albert Einstein published his theory of general relativity. In one of its major aspects this is a theory of the nature and operation of gravitational forces with which Einstein intended to replace the classical theory devised by Isaac Newton in the 17th century.

Einstein's theory makes a number of predictions that are radically different from those of Newton. One of the most striking of these is that gravitational forces should be propagated in waves in a manner similar to the way electric and magnetic forces are. These gravitational waves should consist of cyclically fluctuating gravitational forces; they should carry energy from place to place and they should cause minute fluctuations of the surfaces of objects they encounter. Any accelerated body could be a source of gravitational waves, but in practice physicists look to large astronomical bodies such as oblate starts or binary starts. The prediction was that gravitational waves would be extremely weak: for a cylinder a metre long the amount of surface disturbance would be a fraction of the diameter of an atomic nucleus. For 40 years no one seriously looked for gravitational waves, but in the late 1950's Dr.Weber began to develop equipment he thought would do the job. As receivers he used aluminium cylinders of about a ton's weight, and developed piezoelectric sensors that can record fluctuations in the surface of these cylinders amounting to fractions of a nuclear diameter. In 1969 Dr.Weber announced that his equipment had recorded gravitational waves. Since then he has been subjected to criticism, based mainly on his statistical analysis of the data. In spite of this, his work has led other people to enter the search for gravitational waves. Experiments are now in progress in many countries. Most of these try to make the detectors more sensitive or to design new kinds of detectors that will record frequency ranges other than the one – 1,660 cycles per second (Hertz) – that Dr.Weber has pioneered. Detectors for the waves can be designed either as broad–band receivers that respond to a range of frequencies or as narrow–band receivers that are excited only by a single frequency. Dr.Weber's cylinders are narrow. Today physicists are setting up an experiment that will repeat Dr.Weber's original work with the equipment of greater sensitivity. The plan is to use a bar with a square cross–section with a trapezoidal groove cut along the top. The scientists hope to detect the resonant frequency of the groove as its walls move under the influence of gravitational waves. Another experiment involves a set of balls and a torsion pendulum. Four balls are placed at the corners of a diamond, so that they can respond to gravitational waves going by. Two more balls are suspended from the rod back and forth. The pendulum swings at half the frequency of the gravitational wave. The device is a broad–band receiver capable of measuring a wide range of frequencies. The scientists are now trying to decide whether to set it up on the ground or in a satellite where it can be more easily isolated from extraneous disturbances.

8.2 Words and word–combinations to be remembered Gravity – тяжесть; сила тяжести; тяготение. relativity – 1) относительность; 2) теория относительности to make predictions – делать прогноз; предсказывать to be propagated (in) –передаваться через среду, распростроняться gravitational waves – гравитационные волны cyclically – циклично; циклически to fluctuate – колебаться; колыхаться to cause smth. – быть причиной, вызывать что–либо surface – поверхность (on the surface – внешне; на поверхности) to accelerate – ускорять(ся) body – тело to be a source of smth. – быть источником, причиной чему–либо in practice – по практике; на деле physicist – физик

astronomical – астрономический oblate – сплющенный (у полюсов) binary – двойной, сдвоенный; бинарный cylinder – цилиндр syrface disturbance – колебание поверхности diameter – диаметр receiver – приёмный резервуар, ресивер piezoelectric sensor – пьезоэлектрический датчик to record – записывать; регистрировать fluctuation – колебание; качание, колыхание fraction – частица,доля to be subjected to criticism – подвергнуться критике data – данные; информация to be in progress – выполнять; быть в процессе становления, в развитии detector – детектор; прибор для обнаружения sensitive – чувствительный; восприимчивый frequency range – частотный диапазон broad–band receiver/narrow–band receiver – приёмник широкого/узкого диапазона частот to respond to smth. – отвечать, реагировать (на) to set up an experiment – ставить эксперимент bar – брусок cross–section – поперечное сечение; поперечный разрез groove – желобок; прорез resonant frequency – резонирующая частота pendulum – маятник rod – стержень; брус to swing (– swung) – качать(ся); колебать(ся) to be isolated from smth. – быть изолированным от ... extraneous disturbances – внешние (посторонние) помехи 8.3 Exercises 8.3.1 Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary Base problem cycle process economic sphere generate transmission generation transport generator turbine hydroelectric uranium principle 8.3.2

Read and translate the text

8.3.3

Answer the following questions:

1. What theory did Einstein intend to replace with his theory of general relativity? 2. What predictions does Einstein's theory make? 3. What can be a source of gravitational waves? 4. Who was the first after Albert Einstein to look for gravitational waves in the late 1950's. 5. What equipment did he develop for that purpose? 6. What did Dr.Weber announce in 1969? 7. Why was he subjected to criticism? 8. What is the difference between modern experiments and those of Dr.Weber? 8.3.4

Insert the necessary prepositions:

1. In 1916 Einstein published his theory ______ general relativity. 2. Einstein's predictions are radically different _______ those ______ Newton. 3. These gravitational waves should consist _______ cyclically fluctuating gravitational forces. 4. They should carry energy _____ place _____ place. 5. Any accelerated body could be a source ______ gravitational waves. 6. For 40 years no one seriously looked _______ gravitational waves. 7. Sience 1969, Dr.Weber has been subjected ______ criticism, based _____ his statistical anylysis ______ the data. 8. Experiments are now _____ progress ______ many countries. 9. Broad–band receivers respond _____ a range ______ frequencies. 10. Narrow–band receivers are excited only ______ a single frequency. 8.3.5 Reproduce the text 8.3.6 Translate the sentences, paying attention to modal verbs and their quivalents: 1. The subject of electronics should treat all phenomena that are associated with the electron, the fundamental unit of negative electricity. 2. Since the molecules are in motion, each must possess kinetic energy. 3. It is to be noted that although quantum theory is more than half a century old, it is just beginning to be employed. 4. The acceleration has to supply particles which have the speed nearly equal to that of light. 5. You ought to look through some latest magazines before you begin working at your report. 8.3.7

Read and translate the sentences into Russian:

1. It was after solving the problem of splitting the nuclei of some elements that the atomic energy could be received. 2. It is the Sun and the sunlike stars that have provided the key to the energy conversion that can be obtained with a hydrogen plasma. 3. It was Kurchatov who discovered the isomerism of artificial radio–active nuclei. 4. It is atomic electricity that will be the electricity of tomorrow. 8.3.8

Define the form and function of the Gerund. Translate the sentences:

1. There was no hope of their solving this complex engineering problem so soon. 2. After having arranged all the existing elements according to their atomic weights Mendeleyev was able to predict the existence of a few unknown elements and their properties. 3. Conducting heat and electricity is the property of most metals. Their having conducted heat and electricity made them widely used in industry. 4. She insisted on the experiment being repeated. 5. Besides its being used in common usage the term "work" is also used as a scientific term which has a special meaning when used in mechanics. 6. Gases are perfectly to their original volume as soon as the applied force has stopped acting. 7. The art of mixing metals and other substances began developing for getting the desirable characteristics in metals and for improving them. 8. After complicated calculations having been made scientists and inventors succeeded in creating space satellites. 9. Heat may be produced by burning coal, gas or any other fuel. 10. Mendeleyev's having been invited to lecture on organic chemistry at Petersburg University gave him the possibility to continue his numerous investigations. 11. Defining the precise coordinates of the stars and finding out the exact addresses of heavenly bodies is the eternal work of astronomers.

9 Unit 9 9.1 Text 9 A few words about atoms Operation of all electronic devices involves methods of producing and controlling a flow of electrons. Therefore, we shall first learn what electrons are, how they are made available, and some laws that govern their action under different conditions. Elements. All matter is composed of one or more than a hundred elements found in nature, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, lead, iron, silver, gold. An element is a substance that cannot be separated chemically into anything but itself. For example, hydrogen cannot be separated into anything but hydrogen no matter how small it is divided, nor can gold be changed chemically into anything but gold.

An atom is the smallest division that can be made of any element. Smallest and simplest is the hydrogen atom, while at the other end of the scale of elements is the uranium atom. It is the heaviest and most complex known, neglecting neptunium, plutonium, americium and curium, created artificially. Up to about 80 years ago we believed the atom to be the final division of matter. Then evidence began to accumulate that possibly it was composed of particles. Today through almost countless experiments by scientists we know this is so. Some 12 particles have been found in the atom. Of these, the three that we are most interested in are the following: 1. The electron, smallest subdivision of electricity, has a negative charge. 2. The proton, an elementary particle, has a positive electrical charge equal to the negative charge on the electron, but it weighs 1,836 times as much. 3. A neutron weighs about the same as a proton but is without an electrical charge; therefore it is electrically neutral. Hydrogen Atom. This atom has a proton that serves as a nucleus about which a single electron rotates. Here we have a solar system consisting of one sun, a single proton with a positive electrical charge about which revolves a single planet – an electron with a negative electrical charge. Atoms and electrons are so small that they cannot be seen under the most powerful microscopes. The hydrogen atom, smallest and lightest, has a diameter of about four billionths of an inch. But the electron's diameter is only about one– hundred–thousandth part of the atom's diameter. Compared with their dimensions, space is very great between electrons and between them and the nucleus about which they revolve. According to Rutherford's conception, if we imagine the electron enlarged to 30 feet diameter, it would be 300 miles from its proton, which would be the size of a pea. At ordinary temperatures the electron of the hydrogen atom has a velocity of about 75 miles per second in the orbit around its proton. The proton with its plus charge attracts the electron with its equal, negative charge so that they tend to fall together just as the earth tends to fall into the sun from gravitational pull. Because of their velocity, however, both earth and electron tend to fly out into space but are held in their orbits by the attraction between them and their sun or proton. Practically the total mass of the atom is in its nucleus. In the hydrogen atom the mass of the proton, or nucleus, is 1,836 times that of the electron. Because of its comparatively great mass the proton is very dense and, therefore, small compared with the electron. Isotopes. We may better understand helium, the next atom in the electron scale, if we consider the isotope of the hydrogen atom. Among all atoms, some are isotopes. They are identical with all the other atoms in a given element, but their atomic weight is different, which is due to the addition of one or more neutrons to the normal number in the nucleus. For example, the hydrogen atom has a single proton for a nucleus whereas its isotope has a proton and neutron bound closely together. Because the neutron has practically the same mass as the proton, the atomic weight of the hydrogen isotope is double that of the hydrogen atom. One in about every 5,000 atoms of hydrogen is an isotope and is known as "heavy hydrogen." Water containing this isotope is called "heavy water." The helium atom, next in the electron scale, has a compact nucleus with two electrons travelling around it in an orbit. The nucleus includes two protons with a positive charge equal to that of the two electrons. The neutrons have no charge but increase the atomic weight of the atom by an amount equal to their mass. A helium atom may be considered as two hydrogen isotopes compressed into a single atom; consequently, it has double the atomic weight. The conception of the structure of the atom here presented is according to the Bohr theory that assumes the electrons to be negatively charged particles moving in definite orbits. This theory has been discarded, however, for one that pictures electrons as wavelike disturbances in space about a nucleus. But this does not in any way affect our discussion of the atom's electron system. The atom as we show it serves our purpose for a practical and simple conception of a complex

structure. It also provides a mental picture that permits visualizing many electrical phenomena and how electronic devices operate. Physicists do not agree on the exact structure of atoms and many phenomena associated with them, particularly within the nucleus. But the simple solar–system conception we have discussed serves our purpose completely. Electron Flow. Not so long ago textbooks told us that the precise nature of electricity was not known, that it was an invisible and mysterious agent manifesting itself in many ways. Today we know this invisible and mysterious agent to be a flow of particles called "electrons", which form part of all atoms. Flow of an electric current is now accepted as being a slow drift of so–called "free electrons" through a conductor. How these free electrons are made available has not yet been definitely established. One of the most rational conceptions maintains that electrons in the outer orbits of the atoms of a conductor may at times be subjected to equal influences of two or more atoms. Until quite recently it was believed that an electric current flowed through a conductor at the speed of light, 186,000 miles per second. Now we know that the electron flow, which is the so–called "electric current", is slow under normal conditions, but an electrical impulse is transmitted through the circuit at the speed of light. When a voltage is applied to the ends of a circuit, it creates a field of force inside the conductor. This field gives direction to the random movement of the free electrons and causes what appears to be their coordinated, slow, average drift from one atom to another. The higher the voltage applied to a given circuit, the faster the electrons drift along the conductor, consequently the greater the current. But under normal full load on a light or power circuit, the electron drift is only about 1 foot per hour. Consequently it may require days for the electrons in a long d–c circuit to drift from one end to the other. In an a–c circuit when the voltage reverse 50 or 120 times per second, the electrons cannot drift far in either direction but swing back and forth through short distances in the circuit.

9.2 Words and word–combinations to be remembered Available – доступный; имеющийся в распоряжении to govern – управлять matter – вещество; материя to be composed of – состоять из hydrogen – водород oxygen – кислород nitrogen – азот carbon – углерод lead – свинец iron – железо silver – серебро gold – золото substance – вещество; материя to separate – отделять; разлагать (на части) scale – зд. система artificially – искуственно particle – частица negative (positive) charge – отрицательный (положительный) заряд to weigh – весить neutral – нейтральный nucleus (pl.–nuclei) – ядро to rotate – вращать(ся) solar system – солнечная система to revolve – вращать(ся), вертеть(ся) inch – дюйм (=2,5 см) to enlarge – увеличивать ordinary – обычный; ординарный velocity – скорость to tend – иметь тенденцию (к чему–либо) to fall together – соединяться dense – плотный bind (bound; bound) – связывать flow – поток conductor – проводник

rational – разумный, рациональный to be subjected to – подвергаться; быть подвергнутым impulse – импульс; толчок to be transmitted – передаваться circuit – цепь; контур random – беспорядочный load – нагрузка d.c. (direct current) – постоянный ток a.c. (alternating current) – переменный ток to drift – перемещаться (по течению) to swing back and forth – качаться, колебаться взад и вперёд voltage – напряжение 9.3 Exercises

9.3.1 Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary

9.3.2 9.3.3

Аtom

Еlement

Оperation

Americium

Helium

Orbit

Curium

Isotope

Proton

Compact

Mass

Plutonium

Diameter

Neptunium

Uranium

Electron

Neutron

Read and translate the text Answer the following questions:

1. What do we call an element? 2. What elements do you know? 3. What is atom? 4. What atoms, created artificially, do you know? 5. How many particles have been found in the atom? 6. What do you know about the electron (proton, neutron)? 7. What does the hydrogen atom look like? 8. What atoms are called isotopes? 9. What is the nature of electricity? 10. How are these free electrons made available? 11. What is the speed of the electron flow? 9.3.4

Use the verbs in brackets in the proper tense:

1. Operation of electronic devices (to involve) methods of producing and controlling a flow of electrons. 2. Therefore we first (to learn) what electrons are. 3. All matter (to be composed) of one or more elements. 4. Up to about 80 years ago we (to believe) the atom to be the final division of matter. 5. Some 12 particles (to be found) in the atom. 6. The electron (to have) a negative charge. 7. Atoms and electrons (not can) be seen under microscopes. 8. If we imagine the electron enlarged to 30 feet diameter, it (to be) 300 miles from its proton. 9. We may better understand helium, if we (to consider) the isotope of the hydrogen atom. 10. The atomic weight of the hydrogen isotope (to be) double that of the hydrogen atom. 11. The Bohr theory (to assume) the electrons to be negatively charged particles moving in definite orbits. 12. This theory (to be discarded) for one that pictures electrons as wavelike disturbances in space about a nucleus. 13. Physicists (not to agree) on the exact structure of atoms. 14. Not so long ago textbooks (to tell) us that the precise nature of electricity (not to be known). 9.3.5

Give an outline of this text

9.3.6

Define parts of speech. Translate the expressions into Russian:

to conduct a time service; a conductor of electricity; a semiconductor device; the conductivity of this metal; the conduction of electrons; good conductance; conducting capacity. to observe stars; an accurate observation; a careful observer; astronomical observatory instruments; an observable phenomenon. to perfect a process; perfect results; perfectly carried out experiments; the perfection of alloy qualities electric power; a power station; a powerful telescope; technical progress; hyghly skilful technician; modern technique. 9.3.7

Use these prefixes to form new words; translate them into Russian:

un-: able, obtainable; capable, productive, important, successful, natural, limited, equal, known, practical in-: efficient, dependent, visible, complete, definite, accurate im-: possible, pure, measurable non-: parallel, ferrous metals, conductive, metallic dis-: cover, apear, place, continue mis-: understand, inform, hear. 9.3.8

Translate the following text, put 10 questions and give a short summary of the text

Among the great Russian inventors of the past an honourable place is held by I.P.Kulibin. When quite young, he specialized in making watches of different size and appearance, some of them being spoken of as an 18th century wonder. Later Kulibin built the so–called planetary watch, the latter showing not only the day of the month, the week, the month, the season, the hour, the minute and the second, but also the quarter second. Kulibin's art having attracted attention in the capital, he was taken on as a mechanic at the St.Petersburg Academy of Sciences. While there, Kulibin created many useful things, the project of onespan bridge which was to be built across the Neva being one of them. In 1779 Kulibin made a lantern which could cast a powerful beam of light a long distance ahead. The lantern was made of a great number of small mirrors arranged so that they intensified the light of a single candle placed in its centre 500 times. But to his disappointment the lantern was mostly used for amusements. Having retired in 1801, Kulibin returned to Nizhny Novgorod and was soon forgotten, with many of his inventions unused and some of his projects unfinished. He died a very poor man.

10 Unit 10 10.1 Text 10 A revolution in physical science – electronics In the closing year of the nineteenth century an absent–minded professor of Physics in Cambridge discovered the electron. He was Joseph John Thomson, born in Manchester, first a student and then a lecturer in mathematics at Trinity College, and in 1884 was appointed Professor of Physics when he was only twenty–eight years old. However little his thoughts may have been concerned with everyday matters they were occupied to very good purpose in exploring the mysterious phenomena associated with the conduction of electricity through gases.

"I was led to investigations on this subject", he wrote, "by having come to the conclusion that whenever a gas conducts electricity some of its molecules have been split up and that it is the molecules which have been thus modified which impart electrical conductivity to the gas...It was not until 1897 that I discovered that the decomposition of the molecules was of quite a different type from ordinary atomic dissociation; then I found that one of the bodies into which the molecules split up, the one carrying the negative charge, is something totally different from an atom and is indeed smaller in mass than one thousandth part of the smallest atom known." This characteristic statement illustrates the clarity and originality of Thomson's thinking and the extraordinary insight into the invisible world of atoms which enabled him to identify and measure the incredibly small electron, and to inspire his pupils and colleagues to discover the structure of the atom. It would be naive to imagine that the discovery of the electron would have been long delayed if Thomson had been less brilliant. The time was ripe for it and in the main centres of physical research of the nineteenth–century world other scientists were making experiments. His great achievement was the peak of physical science in the nineteenth century and the source of its main stream in the twentieth. Thomson was a remarkable man who saw further than most of his colleagues but not even he could have foreseen the profound effect his discovery was to have on the lives of the people in the twentieth century. Before the discovery of the electron our knowledge of the nature of matter had advanced little beyond the conjectures of the Ancient Greeks. There was very strong evidence that all substances were made up of a limited variety of different kinds of "ultimate" particles called atoms. The word "atom" means "uncuttable" and it was generally accepted that if it were possible to cut up a piece of, say, pure gold into smaller and smaller bits, the process would end with a large number of very small, identical, gold atoms which could be cut no further. A great deal was known about the properties of substances like gold, copper and iron, yet no one could explain the differences between gold, copper and iron atoms. The efforts of the alchemists, for example, to change iron, copper or tin into gold simply underlined their ignorance of atomic structure. Today one can break up atoms into smaller bits and change some kinds of atoms into other kinds because we know something of how atoms are made. Modern atomic theory began with Thomson's discoveries in the Cavendish Laboratory and caused a revolution in physics which in turn translated the whole of science. The searchlight which Thomson threw on the hidden world of the atom paved the way for many exciting new discoveries at the Cavendish Laboratory and by physicists all over the world. The outstanding achievements alone included: the discovery of the atomic nucleus and the proton by Rutherford, Thomson's young collaborator from New Zealand who was to outshine even the illustrious "J.J." ; the discovery of the neutron by one of Rutherford's "young men", James Chadwick; and the invention of the particle accelerator by two others, Cockcroft and Walton. Discoveries such as these inspired the great mathematical physicists of the early twentieth century who were then formulating their revolutionary theories.Planck's Quantum Theory, Einstein's Theory of Relativity. Bohr's model of the atom,were all concerned to account for the observed behaviour of electrons,protons and other fundamental particles of the universe. The revolution in pure science rapidly bore fruit in many fields of electronics. The vacuum techniques developed for the study of free electrons led directly to the radio valve, and the Crooke's tube which aroused Thomson's interest in cathode rays was the father of the television receiver. The new electronics combined with the older techniques of the telegraph and telephone produced a revolution in communications. If the discovery of electron had led only to radio and television it would still represent a decisive factor in the shaping of our civilization – but it led to still wore discoveries of Russian and foreign scientists. Electronics produced radar.It led to nucleonics and hence to the exploitation of the immense store of energy locked in the atom. It gave birth to the electronic computer. By the middle of the twentieth century a rapidly expanding, world–

wide electronics industry was pouring out millions of parts of radio and television receivers and instruments for every branch of science and technology–instruments capable of unprecedented speed and sensitivity. Electronic devices give immense extension to our senses. One can now examine structures too small to be visible in even the most powerful optical microscope and receive signals from radio stars which started their long journey through space ages before here was any life on our planet. Electronics combined with rocketry has enabled scientists to take close– up pictures of the moon and made it possible for men to land on it. Electronics applied to medecine has already produced significant advances in diagnosis and treatment. In industry, electronics plays the leading role in automation which is generating a second industrial revolution of wider social significance than the first. In the home electronically controlled appliances will replace domestic drudgery and in the office electronic data processing machines will replace mental drudgery. The increased leisure which will result in the electronic revolution will create problems for society but it will also enrich and extend human culture and provide opportunity for the enjoyment of the vastly increased facilities for social and cultural interchanges which electronics will make possible.

10.2 Words and word–combinations to be remembered In exploring – в исследовании to be appointed – быть назначенным phenomenon (pl. phenomena) – явление, феномен to come to a conslusion – прийти к заключению, сделать вывод to split up – расщеплять(ся), раскалывать(ся) to modify – видоизменять to impart – давать, придавать, передавать decomposition – разложение, распад dissociation – разложение, распад, расщепление clarity – ясность insight – проникновение incredibly – невероятно to be long delayed – быть отложенным надолго time was ripe for – наступило время для to foresee (foresaw, foreseen) – предвидеть applied sciences – прикладные науки absurd – абсурдный, нелепый breathtaking – захватывающий, невиданный to determine – определять, обусловливать conjecture – предположение ultimate – зд. элементарный uncuttable – неделимый to underline – подчеркивать ignorance – неведение, незнание in turn – зд. в свою очередь to transform – изменять(ся); трансформировать(ся) searchlight – зд. луч света hidden – скрытый collaborator – сотрудник accelerator – ускоритель to bear fruit (bore, borne) – приносить плоды vacuum technique – вакуумная технология radio valve – электронная лампа decisive – решающий shaping – формирование radar – радиолокатор, радар nucleonics – нуклеоника, ядерная физика capable of – способный на ... unprecedented – беспрецедентный, беспримерный sensitivity – чувствительность rocketry – ракетная техника

close up – крупный план treatment – лечение drudgery – тяжёлая, нудная работа

10.3 Exersises 10.3.1 Learn the meanings of the following prefixes Prefix

Meaning

Example

micro milli centi deci hecto kilo mega

0.000001 or 10 0.001 or 10 0.01 0.1 100 1,000 or 10 1,000,000 or 10

microwatt, microfarad millimetre, milliampere centimetre, centigrade decimetre, decimal Hegtowatt Kilowatt megacycle, megohm

10.3.2

Read and translate the text

10.3.3

Answer the folowing questions

1. When was the electron discovered? 2. Who was the discoverer of the electron? 3. What enabled Joseph John Thomson to identify and measure the incredibly small electron? 4. What did people know about the nature of matter before the discovery of the electron? 5. What new discoveries followed Thomson's outstanding achievement? 6. How did the discovery of the electron result in applied sciences and technology? 7. How are electronic devices used today? 10.3.4

Find the sentences in which these wordcombinations are used in the text

The conduction of electricity; the decomposition of the molecules; the incredibly small electron; the time was ripe for it; the discovery of the electron; the conjectures of the Ancient Greeks; uncuttable; the properties of substances; ignorance of atomic structure; in turn; bore fruit; nucleonics; unprecedented speed and sensitivity; mental drudgery. 10.3.5

State the main ideas of each paragraph of the text "A Revolution in Physical Science–Electronics"

10.3.6

Reproduce the text

10.3.7

Write down an abstract of this text

10.3.8

Time for fun

Too Much Work The famous English atomic scientist Rutherford (1871 –1937 ), the discoverer of the atomic nucleus, came to his laboratory late in the evening . One of the pupils was still busy with the instruments. "What are you doing here at such late time? " Rutherford asked the young scientist. "I am working," came the proud answer. "And what do you do by day?" "Work, of course." "And do you work early in the morning ?" "Yes, professor, I work early in the morning as well," the pupil answered proudly. Rutherford looked at him with some pity and asked: "And when do you think?"

10.3.6 Read and translate the text" Some Discoveries of the 19th Century". Make up 12 questions on the text Some Discoveries of the 19th Century J.J.Thomson designed some apparatus which was the forerunner of our modern day electron guns which are found in television receivers and which are used as an electronic tool in experimental physics. His devise was based on the principle of accelerating electrons originating at a cathod and, while under the influence of the high voltage, they produce a narrow beam. This narrow beam then passed through an electric field and a magnetic field that deflected the beam in proportion to their strength ,striking on a fluorescent screen. A strong narrow beam of electrons is a useful tool in physics and is the heart of the television–receiver. Thomson performed outstanding experiments and came to the conclusion that the cathode rays were particles contained within the atom and that these particles were ejected from the atoms of the cathode during the discharge. These cathode rays are now called electrons. Rutherford's experiments, his ideas and conclusions were the beginning of the atomic structure picture developed by Bohr a few years later Bohr proposed that the positive charge of each atom is equal to the atomic number of the atom. One positive charge is now called a proton and its charge is equal to that of one electron. On this basis, hydrogen has one positive charge (one proton) since its atomic number is one, and one negative charge (one electron) since in its natural state the atom is neutral. The introduction of the quantum idea into the structure of the atom with its far reaching consequences, was a truly great achievement of Bohr and his colleagues.

10.3.7 Notes to the Text Forerunner – предвестник guns – пушки tool – инструмент; орудие deflected – отклоняли striking on a fluorescent screen – падая на флюоресцирующий экран. were ejected – были выброшены discharge – разрядка far reaching concequences – большие последствия truly – поистине

11 Unit 11 11.1 Text 11 What is an elecric current? The question is often asked: What is an electric current? "If we could examine the inside of a copper wire while a current is flowing, we should see an electron, leaving one copper atom, moving over to the next copper atom and so on .This stream of electrons moving along from atom to atom is called an electric current. The practical unit of current is called the ampere. No one has ever seen an electric current. We only know of the existence of a current owing to its effects. A current can heat a conductor, it can have a chemical action when passing through a solution, or it can produce a magnetic effect. We can measure currents by observing their heating, chemical or magnetic effects.

Two things are necessary to cause an electric current to flow: first – a complete circuit, and second– a driving force, called the electromotive force (e.m.f.). If we were to put 100 free electrons on an insulated copper ball,what would they do? In this case they would try to repel each other. In case we connected this charged ball to another ball of equall size by a copper wire, what would be the result? The electrons would move along the copper wire until the number of electrons on each ball were the same. This is an example electromotive force causing a current to flow. A battery has a surplus of electrons on one of its two plates; so we say that a battery furnishes an e.m.f. If a copper wire is run from one plate to the other, a current flows in the complete circuit thus made. If a small bulb is placed in the circuit, it will light up, giving evidence to a current flow. If the battery were disconnected and a generator substituted for it, we should have a typical lighting system. Both batteries and generators are the most common sources of electromotive force. The practical unit of e.m.f. is the volt. Current will flow more readily in some substances than in others, that is, various substances offer less or greater resistance to the flow of current. The practical unit of resistance is the ohm. An application of Ohm's law tells us that an e.m.f. of 1 volt will produce a current of 1 ampere in a wire which has a resistance of 1 ohm. Symbolically, Ohm's law is often written R = V / I or resistance = (potential difference) / current Such substances as porcelain, ebonite, rubber, glass and the like having extremely high resistance are known as insulators. Substances whose properties lie between those of conductors and insulators are called scmiconductors. Let us name but a few most widely used at present, they are germanium, silicon, selenium and copper oxide. The importance of semiconductors in our life cannot be overestimated. But for these tiny "workhorses" electronic industry would not have achieved such a great progress.

11.2 Words and word combinations to be remembered Electric current – электрический ток copper – медь; медный. wire – провод and so on – и так далее owing to – благодаря (чему–либо). solution – раствор to measure – мерить; измерять to observe – наблюдать to cause – быть причиной, вызывать a complete circuit – замкнутая цепь driving force – движущая сила electromotive force – электродвижущая сила to insulate – изолировать insulated – изолированный to repel – отталкивать to connect smth to – присоединять что–либо к surplus – излишек, избыток; остаток

to furnish – предоставлять, доставлять to disconnect – разъединять, расцеплять to substitute – заменять resistance – сопротивление Georg Ohm (1787 – 1854) – a German physicist R=V/I – resistance is equal to potential difference divided by current. porcelain – фарфор rubber – резина, каучук and the like – и другие подобные (вещества) insulator – изолятор, непроводник property – свойство silicon – кремний to overestimate – переоценивать 11.3 Exercises

11.3.1 Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary: ampere ohm battery oxide ebonite rheostat electron selenium germanium volt magnetic 11.3.2

Read and translate the text

11.3.3

Answer the following questions:

1. What is an electric current? 2. What is the unit of current? 3. What can an electric current do? 4. What is necessary to cause an electric current to flow? 5. What are the most common sources of electromotive force? 6. How does current flow in various substances? 7. What is the unit of resistance? 8. What is R equal to? 9. What substances do we call insulators? 10. What semiconductors do you know? 11.3.4

Transform the word–combinations according to the model. Translate them into Russian:

model: earth surface – the surface of the earth; electron concentration, neutron research, energy conversion, reflection capability, research programs, communication means, air circulation. 11.3.5

Translate the word–combinations:

a) radio and radar equipment; city water–supply system; high–speed production process; ground–space communication station; high–voltage transmission lines; radio–wave length stabilization. b) left–right movements; up–and–down movements; not–very–distant future; left–hand plates.

11.3.6

Define the type of the conditional sentences:

1. In case there is no current in a conductor, there can be no electric field within it. 2. Should a permanent magnet be moved in and of a coil of wire, both the magnet and the coil would be used as a simple electric generator. 3. Providing

the two ends of the wire are maintained at a difference of potential, the electric current will flow through a conductor. 4. What would happen if a freely suspended needle were brought near a conductor carrying a current? In this case the needle would tend to place itself at right angles to the conductor. 5. It has been calculated that if a giant Atlantic liner could be constructed of light weight alloys, it would require engines of only 100,000 horse power instead of about 160,000 horse power to maintain the same speed. 6. Had there been no Earth's gravitation the artificial satellites would nave moved through airless space in a straight line at a uniform speed. 7. If the satellite's speed were much less than the necessary one, it might drop and enter the denser layers of the atmoshere. 8. It would have been impossible to launch space satellites and space rockets provided we had not had the necessary polymeric materials and synthetic fuels. 9. If the Earth were a small ball, 3 sentimetres in diameter, the Sun would be a globe (ball) 274 cm in diameter. 10. Unless the temperature rises, the speed of the motion of the molecules will not increase. 11. Were the temperature increased, the velocity of the molecular motion would also be increased. 12. If you were asked: "How can electric charges be made to flow and what factors influence their flow?" what would you answer? 11.3.7

Reproduce the text "What is an electric current"

11.3.8

Read and translate the text:

There exist several methods of producing electricity for practical purposes:

1. Chemical, as represented by the various types of batteries, where producing electricity takes place due to purely chemical actions. 2. Electromagnetic, forming the basis of operation of generators in which electricity is produced by conductors moving through a magnetic field. This is the method utilized in practice for generators of various sizes. 3. Thermo–electric, in which the heating of the junction between two different metals leads to producing a very small voltage which may be used for measuring temperature and as a source of power. 4. Piezo–electric, in which a very small voltage is produced across certain surfaces of a crystal by applying mechanical pressure. 5. Electronic, characterized by the flow of electrons through vacuum – or gas–filled tubes. In general the purpose determines the nature of the method used to generate energy.

11.3.9 Do you know... ...that M.V.Lomonosov (1711–1765) was the first in Russia to make experiments with atmospheric electricity and to equip a laboratory for investigating electrical phenomena? ...that V.V.Petrov (1761–1834) discovered the electric arc and indicated the possibilities of its utilization as a source of heat and light? ...that P.N.Yablochkov (1847–1894) invented the "Russian candle" (known abroad as "Russian light") which was the first source of electric light? ...that A.N.Lodygin (1847–1923) is the inventor of the incandescent lamp, the most common source of the electric lamp? ...that it was A.S.Popov (1859–1906) who invented the radio in 1895? His work laid the foundation for further inventions and improvements in the field of radiotelegraphy, broadcasting, television, radiolocation and so on.

12 Unit 12 12.1 Text 12 Mysterious devices or not One of the most exciting fields of the twentieth century science is optical electropics. One of the most interesting and often talked about devices of our modern space age has been these science fiction like laser and maser devices. Although these devices may have a mysterious and fantastic air about them they are basically nothing more than energy amplifiers. The mystery lies in how electrons can be amplified in the laser and maser. Although science fiction writers years ago imagined such things as ''ray guns" and "swords of heat" it was only in 1960 that the first laser beam was actually created, its discoverer being Dr.Theodore H.Maiman.

The laser is basically a device that controls the way in which photons are emitted by a light source, and it produces a beam having much greater intensity and coherence than one from any other source of light. Atoms emit rays of different length which prevents the forming of an intense beam of light. The laser forces its atoms to emit rays having the same length and travelling in the same direction. The result is a narrow, extremely intense beam of light that spreads out very little and is therefore able to travel very great distances. Early uses of the laser have been in optical radar, the cutting and welding of metals and as the basis of a branch of photography called holography, which produces three dimensional images. Future uses of the laser beam may include carrying millions of radio and television frequencies in a thousandth of a second. The controlled light from the laser beam is to conventional sources of light what nuclear power is to traditional explosives. Power densities many milions of times more intense than those on the surface of the sun can be produced, and yet laser beams can be so delicately controlled as to be used to operate on the human eye. The laser's potentialities in science and technology are formulated in terms of four basic categories: how the device offers advantages in welding, chemistry, spectroscopy, interplanetary signalling radar and communications. It is academician N.G.Basov the Russian physicist who is one of the founders of quantum radio physics. He worked out a thoroughly new method of generating electromagnetic oscillations by means of quanta systems. He created the first in the world molecular generator (maser). He put forward the idea of applying semiconductors for lasers and developed the method of designing semiconductor lasers. N.G.Basov and A.M.Prokhorov, his collaborator became Nobel Prize winners in 1964. The existing applications of lasers are numereous. For high precision welding and machining three dimensional photography of undreamed realism communications on earth through space for location, navigation and as an aid to gunnery they are already irreplaceable. They are moreover an entirely new tool for scientific research. Mention should be made that their potential and future exploration is limitless. Three dimensional television and cinema, wide and dramatic uses in surgery, X–ray laser beams and laser computers are only a few of the possibilities which must now be seriously considered. Certainly for many years to come lasers will continue to merit the description given to them immediately on their discovery – "A solution is in search of a problem." 12.2 Words and word–combinations to be remembered

Optical electronics – оптическая электроника science fiction – научная фантастика laser – лазер, квантовый усилитель. Слово "лазер" состоит из начальных букв фразы, описывающей функцию прибора: light amplification by stimula-ted emission of radiation – усиление света посредством стимулирования эмиссии излучений amplifier – усилитель to lie in – заключаться в to amplify – усиливать to imagine – представлять; воображать. gun – пушка sword – шпага; меч. intensity – интенсивность, напряжённость; сила, энергия. coherence – когерентность

source of light – источник света to emit – испускать, излучать to prevent – мешать, препятствовать to spread out – распространяться, рассеиваться welding – сварка holography – голография three dimensional – имеющий три измерения; трёхмерный image – изображение, образ conventional – обычный, традиционный, общепринятый explosive – взрывчатое вещество to operate on – оперировать in terms of – в виде advantage – преимущество to generate – порождать, производить, генерировать oscillation – качание, вибрация, колебание generator – источник энергии, генератор numerous – многочисленный machining – механическая обработка undreamed – невообразимый gunnery – артиллерийское дело to merit – заслуживать in search – в поисках 12.3 Exercises

12.3.1 Give Russian equivalents to the following words without using a dictionary Crystal luminescent emission medicine emit optical history radiation holography stimulate laser 12.3.2

Read and translate the text

12.3.3

Answer the following questions

1. When was the first laser beam created? 2. Who was the discoverer? 3. What is the laser? 4. What beam of light does the laser produce? 5. What were the early uses of the laser? 6. What are the laser's potentialities in science and technology? 7. Who created the first in the world molecular generator (maser)? 8. What are the existing applications of lasers? 12.3.4 Read these statements and find the right variant from those given below. Put down the corresponding number. Check yourself according to the key 1) To be found in the text; 2) false; 3) not to be found in the text. 1. One of the rarely spoken about devices of our modern era has been laser and maser devices. 2. These devices are used for amplifying energy. 3. Lasers and masers being mysterious and fantastic devices are of no practical importance. 4. Dr.Townes was the originator of the maser. 5. The Twentieth Century Science is famous for having developed one of the

most important fields – optical electronics. 6. Radar is an acronym for Radio Detecting and Randing. 7. Laser is fundamentally a device that controls the way in which photons are emitted by a light source. 8. The laser produces a beam which is much more intensive and coherent than one from any other source of light. 9. The first laser beam was created in 1900. 10. Early uses of the laser have been in optical radar, cutting and welding of metals. 11. The use of laser was a basis of a branch of photography called holography. 12. Power densities many millions of times more intense than those on the surface of the sun can be produced. 13. Laser beams are used for operating on the human eyes as they can be delicately controlled. 14. The laser's potentialities in science and technology are stated in terms of three basic categories. 15. N.G.Basov and A.M.Prokhorov have developed the foundations of quantum radio physics. 16. In future the laser beam will carry millions of radio and television frequencies. 17. The laser beam will burn away the decayed areas of a tooth in a thousandth of a second. 18. The laser beam will perform all operations at an unbelievable speed. 19. On the basis of radio– frequency quantum generators clocks have been made that measure time with an accuracy of one second per 300 years. 20. There are a great many applications of lasers nowadays. 21. In future the laser won't be used. 12.3.5 Reproduce the text "Mysterious Devices or not?" 12.3.6 Define the – ing– forms and translate the text

Using electricity on a large scale opens up great possibilities in various fields of science and everyday life. Using electric light in our homes we seldom think of those who were the pioneers in electrical engineering. Several remarkable Russian scientists have made a great contribution to the science, Yablochkov and Lodygin being the best known to us. Lodygin's having produced the first incandescent lamp is a generally recognized fact. His first lamps (1872), consisting of a glass bulb with a carbon rod serving as a filament, however, were imperfect, their life being only 30–40 minutes. Having introduced several carbon rods instead of one the scientist made the lamp serve a longer period. After having seen Lodygin's lamp Edison took great interest in the invention. We know of his having worked at the improvement of the lamp for several years. In 1879 Edison succeeded in creating an improved lamp which solved the problem of getting cheap electricity on a wide scale. However, the carbon filament not being efficient and economic enough, Lodygin turned to the study of metals. Soon the necessary metal having a high melting point was found, it was tungsten. Many difficulties having been overcome, the problem of lighting our streets, plants and homes was solved. 12.3.7

Read and translate the text. Make up 10 questions based on the text and answer them

The devices known as masers and lasers serve as amplifiers and generators of radiation. Their common characteristics is that they make use of the conversion of atomic or molecular energy to electro–magnetic radiation by means of the process known as stimulated emission of radiation. When the wave–length of the emitted radiation is in the range of 1 cm we speak of microwave amplifiers or masers. Devices generating or amplifying visible or nearly visible radiation are called optical masers or lasers. The most important property of the maser is its ability to amplify signals at extremely low levels, and when used as generator, it is capable of generating monochromatic radiation of extreme frequency stability.

The first ruby laser having been developed in 1960, many new laser types were discovered. The world's most powerful laser developed in England has reached an output of 250 kw for one millionth of a second, and produces a temperature about 2.5 million degrees Centigrade. Great power in lasers has many important research uses, such as making a plasma, the ionized state of matter, which will finally lead to fusion of atoms. This imitating of the Sun, where fusion of hydrogen atoms provides heat, light and energy, is like "making a star with a laser in the laboratory."

It has become clear to most scientists that experiments requiring relly high intensities in narrow spectral regions can only be done with lasers and not with conventional light sources. 12.3.8

Translate the following word–combinations

Radio, radio–wave, radio–wave length; electricity, electricity generation, electricity generation methods; power, power station, atomic power station capacity; space, space television, space television application; television, television studio, television studio equipment; television programmes, television programmes exchange; radio receiver, radio receiver characteristics; outspace relays, outspace relays function. 12.3.9

Time for fun Science and Profit

Faraday's discoveries in the field of electromagnetism attracted much attention but their importance was little understood. One day a member of parliament visited Faraday and asked him to show some of his experiments. Faraday demonstrated the phenomenon of induced currents (возбуждённый электрический ток). "What's the use of it? " asked the visitor. "Soon you will be able to tax it," was the scientist's answer.

The Gold From the Sun The German physicist Kirchhoff (1824–1887) was delivering a lecture. He explained that the dark lines shown by the spectroscope proved that the Sun contained gold. One of the listeners, a very rich man, said to Kirchhoff: "What is the use of the gold if I never can get it from the Sun? " Some time later the scientist was awarded a gold medal for his invention of the spectroscope analysis. Showing the medal to the rich man he said: "Look here, I got the gold from the Sun, nevertheless."

Список использованных источников 1 Андрианова Л.Н., Багрова Н.Ю., Ершова Э.В. Учебник английского языка для заочных технических ВУЗов. – М. : Высшая школа, 1972.- 84 с. 2 Новицкая Т.М., Макеева В.М. Книга для чтения к учебнику английского языка для технических ВУЗов. – М. : Высшая школа, 1976.- 73с. 3 Орловская И.В., Самсонова Л.С., Скубриева А.И.. Учебник английского языка для технических университетов и ВУЗов. – М.: Издательство МГТУ имени Н.Э. Баумана, 2000.- 390 с. 4 Шах-Назарова В.С., Журавченко К.В.. Английский для вас. – М. : Вече, 1996.- 656 с.