Recipes for Project Success

for

for

A1 and Jackie DeLucia

PROJECT MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data DeLucia, Al. Recipes for project success / A1 and Jackie DeLucia p. cm. ISBN: 1-880410-58-3 (hc.) 1. Industrial project management. I. DeLucia,Jackie. 11. Title. T56.8.D47 1999 99-18505 658.4'04 - - dc21 CIP

Published by: Project Management Institute Headquarters Four Campus Boulevard, Newtown Square, Pennsylvania 19073-3299 USA Phone: 610-356-4600 or Vlsit our website: www.pmi.org ISBN: 1-880410-58-3 Copyright 01999 by the Project Management Institute. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States ofAmerica. N o part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, manual, photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission of the publisher. PMI Book Team Acting Editor-in-Chi4 Jeannette Cabanis Editor; Toni D. Knott Assistant Edit05 Lisa M. Fisher Graphic D e s k n u (text), Michelle T. Owen Graphic Designer (cover & graphics), Allison S. Boone Acquisitions Editor, Bobby R. Hensley Production Coordinatot: Mark S. Parker PMI@books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more information, please write to the Business Manager, PMI Publishing Division, Forty Colonial Square, Sylva, N C 28779 USA. Or contact your local bookstore. The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National Information Standards Organization (Z39.48--1984). -.

01998 Project Management Institute, Inc. All rights reserved. "PMI" is a federally registered trade and senrice mark, "PMP" and the PMP logo are federally registered certification marks; and the PMI logo, "PMBOK" and "Building professionalisn~in project management." are trademarks of Project Management Institute.

T

hanks to Nick Barbi oflardley Pennsylvania, for his hours spent reading, rereading, and providing feedback and ideas. Thanks also to Bob Cotter of Friends Select School in Philadelphia and to Chas Clifton and Mary Cumer-Clifton of Florence, Colorado, for their professional advice about how to get published. Thanks finally to all our family for inspiration and encouragement: Dave, Joan, Jack, Emily Richard, Elizabeth, Allie, Dennis, Alex, Sydney, Betty Jack, Laura, Kelly Jessica, Terri, Harold, Valerie, Nicholas, Mark, Noelle, and especially Jennifer and Jason, our children, who endured years of our cooking experimentation and survived.

Illustrations

ix

Introduction

xi

Chapter 1: Linear Plojects 3 A Simple Pasta Dinner 3 Project Management Aspects 4 Step 1: The Scope Statement 5 Step 2: The Work Breakdown Structure 6 Step 3: The Project Network Diagram 10 Exercises 12 Chapter 2: MultiplePath Projects 15 A Fresh Tomato Sauce 15 Project ManagementAspects 16 Pasta with Fresh Tomato Sauce 17 Exercises 20 Chapter 3: Complex-Path Projects 23 Steamed Fish 23 Project Management Aspects 24 Egg Fried Rice 24 Project Management Aspects 26 Meat and Potatoes 26 Project ManagementAspects 29 Step 4: Assigning Roles 29 Meat, Potato, and Bean Casserole 30 Project ManagementAspects 31 Exercises 32 Chapter 4: The Hierarchical Numbering System Making an Omelet 39 Project Management Aspects 40 Exercises 42 Chapter 5: Cost Estimating and Budgeting 45 Homemade Pizzas 45 Project ManagementAspects 46 Step 5: The Cost Breakdown Structure 47 Exercises 50 Chapter 6: Scheduling 53 Broth 53 Project Management Aspects 54 Step 6: The Project Integration Table Exercises 56

54

39

I

Chapter 7: Forward and Backward Passes Pastafazool 59 Project Management Aspects The Forward Pass 61 The Backward Pass 62 Float 63 Critical Path 64 Exercises 64

59

60

Chapter 8: A Parallel-Path Project

65

Christmas Breakfast 65 Project Management Aspects 66 Calculating Path Times 69 Resource Allocation 71 Subprojects 72 Exercises 72

Chapter 9: Baseline

79

The Annual Tomato Sauce-Making Party 79 Project Management Aspects 81 Step 7: Integrated Baseline Review 85 Step 8: Baseline Adjustment 87 Exercises 90

...Project Management Is People FunctioningWell Together

Chapter 10: Conclusion Appendix: Recipes 95

A Simple Pasta Dinner 95 A Fresh Tomato Sauce 96 Steamed Fish 97 Egg Fried Rice 98 Meat and Potatoes 99 Meat, Potato, and Bean Casserole 100 Making an Omelet 101 Homemade Pizzas 102 Broth 103 Pastafazool 104 Christmas Breakfast 105 The Annual Tomato Sauce-Making Party

Glossary

106

107

viii

93

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3 Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7 Figure 1.8 Figure 2.1 Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5 Figure 2.6 Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3.5 Figure 3.6 Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8 Figure 3.9 Figure 3.10 Figure 3.11 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4

WBS for Pasta Dinner 7 Generic WBS 8 WBS with Subdeliverables for Pasta Dinner 9 Generic WBS with Subdeliverables 10 WBS with Subtasks for Pasta Dinner 11 PND for Pasta Dinner: A Linear Project 11 Gantt Chart for Pasta Dinner 12 WBS for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction 13 WBS for Simple Tomato Sauce 17 WBS with SubordinateTasksfor SimpleTomatoSauce 18 PND for SimpleTomatoSauce: A Linear Project 19 WBS for Pasta with Tomato Sauce: A Parallel-PathProject 19 Gantt Chart for Pasta with Tomato Sauce 20 WBS for Pasta with Tomato Sauce and Salad: ATriple-Path Project 20 Gantt Chart for Pasta with Tomato Sauce and Salad 21 Gantt Chart for Custom-Built House: Conventional Design and Construction 21 Gantt Chart for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction 22 WBS for Steamed Fish 25 PND for Steamed Fish, Greens, and Rice: Converging Paths 26 WBS for Fried Rice 28 PND for Fried Rice 28 RAS for Meat and Potatoes Dinner 30 PND with Names Assigned for Meat and Potatoes Dinner 31 PND Reduced to Subprojects for Meat and Potatoes Dinner 31 RAS for Meat, Potato, and Bean Casserole 32 PND for Meat, Potato, and Bean Casserole 33 Resource Allocation PND with Subprojects for Meat, Potato, and Bean Casserole 33 PND for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction 34 WBS with Hierarchical Numbering System for Omelet 41 PND for Omelet 41 WBS with Hierarchical NumberingSystem for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction 42 PND with Hierarchical NumberingSystem for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction 43

Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Figure 5.5 Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 7.1 Figure 7.2 Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4 Figure 8.1 Figure 8.2 Figure 8.3 Figure 8.4 Figure 8.5 Figure 8.6 Figure 8.7 Figure 8.8 Figure 8.9 Figure 8.10 Figure 8.11 Figure 9.1 Figure 9.2 Figure 9.3 Figure 9.4 Figure 9.5 Figure 9.6 Figure 9.7 Figure 9.8 Figure 9.9 Figure 9.10 Figure 9.11

WBS for Homemade Pizzas 46 CBS for Homemade Pizzas flask Costs Estimated Only) 47 CBS for Homemade Pizzas rrask Costs Summed to Create Deliverable and Project Costs) 48 PND for Homemade Pizzas 50 CBS for Custom-BuiltHouse: Fast-Track Design arid Construction 52 Scope WBS for Bmth 55 PND for Broth 56 PIT for Broth 57 PIT with Estimated Costs and Durations for Custom-BuiltHouse: Fast-Track Design and Construction 57 Scope WBS for P a s t a f a d 61 PND for Pastafazwl 62 Task Box, Generic Format 63 PND with Duration Times and Forward and Backward Passes for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction 64 WBS for Christmas Breakfast 67 PIT for Christmas Breakfast 68 PND for Christmas Breakfast 68 Partial PIT, TPT Calculation, Meat Path, for Christmas Breakfast 69 Partial PIT, TPTCalculation, Pancake Path, for Christmas Breakfast 70 PIT with Labor and Materials Costs for Christmas Breakfast 70 CBS with Bottom-up Estimate for Christmas Breakfast 71 PIT with Resources Added for Christmas Breakfast 72 PND with Resources Added for Christmas Breakfast 73 PND Showing Only Subprojects for Christmas Breakfast 73 PIT with Resource Assignments Added for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction 74 WBS forTomat0 Sauce-Making Party 82 RAS for Tomato Sauce-MakingParty 83 PIT for Tomato Sauce-Making Party 84 Extended PIT for Tomato Sauce-Making Party 84 CBS with Bottom-up Estimate for Tomato Sauce-Making Party 85 PND for Tomato Sauce-MakingParty 86 PND with Crashing for Tomato Sauce-Making Party 89 Revised PIT with Delay and Crashing for Tomato Sauce-MakingParty 90 PIT with TPTCalculatedfor Tomato Sauce-Making Party 91 PND with Shifted CP for Custom-BuiltHouse: Fast-Track Design and Construction 91 PIT with TPT Shown for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction 92

A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service. There are many examples of projects in our everyday lives: building a model airplane, applying for a job, or cooking a meal; .these projects can be done by a single individual. However, others-such as raising a child, building an aircraft carrier, or electing a president-are more complex endeavors that require the efforts of people working together effectively over an extended period of time. Anyone with self-discipline can successfully complete a project requiring only individual effort. More complex projects, which usually have wider impact, require the coordinated efforts of a group of people-a team-to be successful. Project management provides a systematic approach to organizing the activities of a team. Still, there is a logical connection between projects requiring only the efforts of a single individual and those requiring a team. This book takes advantage of that connection by beginning with examples of simple projects to convey complex project management ideas, and then builds on the examples through progressively more complex food preparation situations. Cooking is ordinarily a simple project that presents a unique opportunity to illustrate project management principles in a practical, easily understood context. Preparation of a meal contains all the elements of a project: It is unique, with starting and ending points, a budget, limited resources, and different phases. Using meal preparation as a metaphor, this book outlines a practical project management system wherein the project manager leads the project team through a series of team-building exercises based on the following sequence of eight interrelated tools. In the Project Planning Process Step 1: The Scope Statement Step 2: The Work Breakdown Structure Step 3: The Project Network Diagram Step 4: Assigning Roles: The Resource Allocation Structure and Subprojects Step 5: The Cost Breakdown Structure Step 6: The Project Integration Table

In the Project Execution Process Step 7: Integrated Baseline Review Step 8: Baseline Adjustment Alternating a series of recipes, prepared in familiar situations, with discussions of applied project management techniques, the book leads the reader through three parts. Part 1, Qualitative Project Management, introduces concepts and diagrammatic techniques for organizing a project during the planning process. Part 2, Quantitative Project Management, presents numerical project management techniques, which build upon the concepts and diagrams introduced in Part 1. Part 3, Real-Life Project Examples, applies the techniques learned in Parts 1 and 2 to real-life project situations during the project execution process. Throughout the text, TIPS pcovide practical advice, and RULES are rules of thumb for applying the techniques presented. Words in bold indicate the first-time use of terms presented in the glossary. At the end of each chapter, a series of exercises provides an opportunity to practice in a different application area. A noncooking project, the design and construction of a custom-built house, is used as the basis for these exercises, which are developed along with the tools of the text. Without people interacting well, project management simply cannot exist. Therefore, this book begins and ends with discussions of people.

PART ONE Qualitative Project Management ... Project Management through Pictures An important element of project management is the effective organization of people toward attaining a common set of goals. Pictures and diagrams provide ready tools to organize people. Project management begins with getting your team to work together in a planning process, drawing diagrams that break down the project and organize its pieces in relation to each other. In this part of the book, diagrams are developed in a sequence of increasing complexity by using recipes as instructional examples. In real project situations, it is almost impossible to use all of these techniques. However, with an understanding of them, you can use those that best fit a given situation to push your team to a higher level of functioning or perhaps to correct a dysfunction after you are well into a project. For example, it may be beneficial to only use the exercises from Part 1 to jump-start the team.

A SIMPLE PASTA DINNER

A

1 remembers sitting at his grandmother's kitchen table, watching her cook Her table had a porcelain top, and she made pasta directly on it, shaping flour into a well, breaking two eggs into the well, and adding salt. She kneaded the dough and, when it was ready, worked it through a pasta machine directly into a large pot of water boiling on the stove. Because it was fresh, the pasta cooked for a very short time-five or six minutes-before she drained it and put it into Ai's bowl. On top of the pasta, she added a pat of butter, or sometimes olive oil, and grated cheese. If Grandpa wasn't there, she added a special treat of ginger ale tinted with a touch of red wine.

Ingredients I

Ib. pasta, fresh or dried

At least Y q t . boiling w a t e r 2-Y large pats butter, or 4-6tbsp. olive oil G r a t e d cheese t o taste

Get the water boiling, and add two tablespoons of oil or pats of butter. Don't salt the water. I

Recipes for Project Success

Use a lot of water because pasta gives off starch, which can cause stickiness when there's not sufficient water to dilute it. Cook the pasta and drain it. Don't rinse the pasta-toss it immediately with the butter or oil and cheese.

Al dente means to the tooth, and this is why pasta is so good in Italy-it is more a matter of texture than taste. Many Italians use dried pasta because it makes better at dente. Because fresh pasta is more delicate than dried, it begins cooking from a softer consistency and can never achieve ultimate al dente. Al's grandmother used fresh pasta more because of cost and convenience than because of taste. Dried pasta has historical significance. It is light, stores well, and is easy to transport over long distances. Armies on campaign have been fed dried pasta. Some scholars believe that dried pasta, hauled in carts behind the advancing Imperial Army, enabled the Roman Empire to extend as far as it did. TIP: Good project managers travel light. They only keep essential duties to themselves, delegating as often as they can. Whether you use fresh or dried pasta, it is important to stay with it while it is cooking, frequently stirring and testing. Because the pasta continues to cook after it is removed from the water, timing is crucial. TIP: A good project manager will stay close to the project, timing task completion, monitoring team interactions, and trying to anticipate problems before they occur.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS A project entails a related group of tasks united toward accomplishment of a set of predefined goals. Goals are conceptual statements usually made by upper management regarding a project s intended accomplishments. Tasks are the basic units ofwork that constitute projects; they are sometimes called work packages or activities. Therefore, tasks are verbs. Completed in logical sequence, tasks produce a desired set of products: the deliverables. A deliverable is a tangible result of the project. Therefore, deliverables are nouns. An objective is a measurable indicator of the success of the project. Thus, objectives should be quantifiable whenever possible. To define the project's scope, the team must translate goals into specific, tangible products and measurable indicators of success. Many teams make the mistake of beginning w o k before they understand exactly what the project is. The first and most vital step that a project manager must take is to lead the team toward a 7

Linear Projects

common understanding of the scope of the project before allowing team members to begin performing their separate tasks. Let's apply these thoughts to our pasta recipe.

STEP 1: THE SCOPE STATEMENT The tool used to initiate common understanding-and simultaneously start the team-building process-is the scope statement (SS). The SS is a short paragraph that describes in terms as simple as possible the principal deliverables and the limits or boundaries of the project. It should be short and should contain as many active verbs as possible, because it will later serve as a basis for creating tasks. What the SS says is not as important as how it is formulated. A project manager must not write the SS and present it to the project team. Although it gives a sense of control to the 'project manager, this approach fails to obtain understanding or, worse, buy-in from the team and may predestine the project to failure. Instead, the formulation of the SS should be an interactive team effort, with the project manager facilitating the exercise. Sometimes the project manager may find it necessary to create an SS to be used as a strawman and present it to the team in order to get the discussion going. Using a strawman should be a last resort because it may skew team thinking. A better approach might be to show the team examples from other projects or from this book. A good SS has three components. 1. The principal deliverables of the project. 2. The objectives, which are measures of the success of the project. 3. A justification for the project. For our pasta recipe, an SS might be: Prepare a quick meal of pasta tossed with a dressing that doesn't require separate preparation.

This SS includes the principal deliverables of our project: "pasta" and "dressing." It also includes objectives: "quick" and "a dressing that doesn't require separate preparation." But these are not very strong objectives because they are not measurable. Sometimes it may not be possible to include measurable objectives, but it is advisable for the team to strive for it. Even if the attempt is not successful, it will result in a better common understanding of the scope of the project. After further discussion, the team may decide that "quick" lends itself easily to quantification and that although "separate preparation" does not lend itself easily to quantification, the success or failure of the project in this regard will be selfevident. The team might therefore revise the SS as follows:

Recipes for Project Success

Prepare a meal of pasta tossed with a dressing that doesn't require separate preparation and that can be prepared in less than twenty minutes. "Twenty minutes" is a clear, measurable objective that can indicate the success or failure of our recipe. Suppose, upon further reflection, that our team notices that there is no justification in the SS. Although not absolutely necessary, inclusion of a justification in the SS will unite the team behind a common understanding of the purpose of the project. With this in mind, further team discussion may lead to a more complete SS formulation, perhaps as follows: Prepare a meal of pasta tossed with a dressing that doesn't require separate preparation, that can be prepared in less than twenty minutes in order to feed hungry children in a pinch. Understanding of the necessity to keep hungry children fed will keep the team inspired and focused during the project's execution process when the going gets tough. In summary, this SS captures the goal of the project: "prepare a meal." It also defines the limits of the project in very succinct terms: "dressing that doesn't require separate preparation." Thus, if one ofyour headstrong team members starts cooking a tomato sauce-a dressing that does require separate preparation-the rest of the team will immediately know that he is on the wrong track, wasting time and resources. The team will bring him into line at the next project meeting. TIP: Peer pressure can be a very effective tool if used properly Note that this SS leaves some freedom for later creative thinking, when the specifics of the project unfold through subsequent planning efforts and the execution process. For example, by not defining "dressing," this SS leaves room for subsequent creative development without compromising the objectives and boundaries of the project. Helping the team achieve this balance is the art of project management, where an effective project manager can make a tangible contribution.

STEP 2: THE WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE

The second step in project management is to develop a diagram called the work breakdown structure (WBS). The WBS is a deliverable-oriented grouping of project elements that organizes and defines the total scope of the project. The WBS puts vertical boundaries on a project by breaking it into workable components from the top down. It then provides a systematic means for rebuilding the project, from the bottom up. Another way to look at it is that the

Linear Projects

Pasta Dinner

Whats (Nouns)

Level 1

-----

$. Water

Haws (Verbs)

Butter and Cheese

Pasta

+

+

+

Pour

Boil

Add Oil

I

Cook

-----

+ Drain

Level 2

Toss

Level 3

----Figure 1.1

WBS for Pasta Dinner

WBS breaks the project down into deliverables and, sometimes, tasks, which are then used as building blocks to reassemble the project in different ways, such as a bottom-up cost estimate. The team uses the SS as a basis to brainstorm, discuss, analyze, and break down the project into tangible parts used in the WBS. 1. Tape large pieces of paper on a wall. 2. Write the name of the project in the middle at the top. 3. Give your team members Post-it Notes and ask them to write on separate pieces everything they think is important to accomplish the project. These will either be deliverables (nouns) or tasks (verbs). 4. Lead the team in sorting and posting first the nouns on the wall under the project name. After this, lead the team in posting the verbs under the appropriate nouns. Discuss the results and revise until it is as good as it can be. The WBS shown in Figure 1.1 extends from the top down into deeper levels-Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3. Thus, it organizes the recipe into the project name at Level 1, deliverables (nouns) at.Level2, and tasks (verbs) at Level 3, below the respective deliverable that each produces. In generic terms, Figure 1.1 may be viewed as depicted in Figure 1.2. W S Flexibility, Deliverables, and Subdeliverables. The WBS structure is flexible; in fact, there are probably several different valid ways to construct a WBS for a given project. Let's get back to our pasta recipe and apply the concept of subdeliverables. To some people, it may seem that "water" is not a deliverable in itself; rather, it is TM

Ren'pesfor Project Succerc

Project Level

Project

Level 1

-----

+

.( Deliverable 1

Level 2

Deliverable 2

-----

+

+

+

Level 3

Task 1

Task 2

Task 3

----Figure 1.2

----Levels

----Task 4

Task 5

Task 6

Task Levels

----Generic WBS

prerequisite for preparing pasta. To accommodate this perspective, we might want to restructure our WE3S by making "water" a subdeliverable of "pasta," as shown in Figure 1.3. Let's change Figure 1.2 by adding subdeliverables to create the generic equivalent of Figure 1.3, as shown in Figure 1.4. Figure 1.4 retains the project level at Level 1. However, the deliverable levels are extended to include Level 3 to accommodate the subdeliverable. In this case, the task levels are at Level 4. Tasks can also be viewed as subsets of other tasks. Looking again at Figure 1.3, boiling water can be viewed as subordinate to pouring water and, likewise, adding oil to boiling water. Similarly, draining pasta can be placed under cooking pasta on the diagram. If this is the mindset of our team, it might modifjr Figure 1.3, as shown in Figure 1.5. Thus, certain tasks can be considered subordinate to other tasks in a relationship similar to that between deliverables and subdeliverables. Usually, the lead task is called an activity. Later in the book, we introduce a hierarchical numbering system that will sort out the relations between deliverables, subdeliverables, activities, and tasks in a structured way It is a matter of team preference whether the WBS is constructed only of nouns-deliverables, subdeliverables,sub-subdeliverables, and so on-or whether activities and tasks are also included. If activities and tasks are omitted, they can be picked up later during project network diagram development.

Linear Projects

Pasta Dinner

Level 1

Level 2

Project Level

4

4

Pasta

Butter and Cheese

-----

+

Level 3

Water

-----

1

+

+

v

v

v

Level 4

Pour

Boil

Add Oil

Cook

Drain

Toss

Figure 1.3

I

-----Deliverable Levels

-----Task Levels

WBS with Subdeliverablesfor Pasta Dinner

However, the WBS structure is very conducive to a sequence that starts with deliverables at the top and decomposes into subdeliverables and so on and eventually activities and tasks at the lower levels. This approach facilitates team brainstorming during the task-identification stage by organizing the tasks pictorially under the respective deliverables that they produce. The WBS not only enables us to decompose the project from the top down into its constituent parts, but also provides a means to systematically rebuild the project from the bottom up. Often, the first thing a team will do is create a task list and use that as a starting point to build the WBS from the bottom up. This can be a very effective approach if the results are then analyzed from a top-down perspective and then resorted as necessary. This process of breaking a project down and then rebuilding it during the planning stage through use of the WBS happens over and over again in various stages of project development. With all of this in mind, the actual way that a Wl3S is constructed will depend on the dynamics of the project team discussions. Work breakdown structure (WBS) flexibility is where team creativity has an opportunity to make a valuable contribution to the process, and it is where the leadership of a good project manager can have significant impact.

Recipec$r Projct Succecs

+

4

4

Deliverable 1

Level 2

-----

Project Level

Project

Level 1

4

Deliverable 2

I

Deliverable Levels

Level

Subdeliverable 1

-----

1

+

+

v

v

v

Level 4

Task 1

Task 2

Task 3

Task 4

Task 5

Task 6

Firmre 1.4

------

-----ask

Levels

Generic WBS with Subdeliverables

STEP 3: THE PROJECT NEMlORK DIAGRAM For simple projects, the WBS with its vertical orientation may provide sufficient organization for the project, but the WBS doesn't show the sequencing relationships of tasks. In other words, the WBS is not conducive for managing time aspects of a project. In complex projects where scheduling is an important consideration, a means of sequencing the tasks on a horizontal time scale is needed. The project network diagram (PND) is used for this purpose. First, develop the WBS to decompose the scope of the project, as previously described. Then, create a PND by sequencing the activities or tasks. This sequencing must consider the order of performance of the tasks, and which tasks are dependent on the prior completion of other tasks (predecessors), before they can be started. For example, in our recipe, the pasta cannot begin cooking until the water is boiling. For this recipe, we can create a PND, as shown in Figure 1.6. Post-it Notes" work well for this exercise. Note that there are no deliverables (nouns) in this diagram. Tasks are used to create the PND because it is an action diagram that entails items with durations and requiring work. Because only tasks are used, note that it does not matter whether Figure 1.1, Figure 1.3, or Figure 1.5 is the source WBS from which tasks are drawn for the PND. The PND puts horizontal boundaries on the project by isolating it between start and end points. In this case, the tasks follow one another serially along a

Linear Projectc

Pasta Dinner

Project Level

4

4

Pasta

Butter and Cheese

------

Deliverable Levels Water

------

4

7

7

Pour

Cook

Toss

4

4

Boil

Drain

Task Levels

4 Add Oil

Figure 1.5

WBS with Subtasks for Pasta Dinner

--,- - - - -

----Pour Water

Figure 1.6

Boil Water

-b

Add Oil

+

Cook Pasta

-,

Drain Pasta

-b

Toss with Butter and Cheese

PND for Pasta Dinner: A Linear Project

single path from start to end. This single-path project, with each task dependent only on one predecessor task, is known as a linear project. TIP: A Gantt chart is a relatively simple way to display the time aspects of a project; for that reason, upper management often prefers it. It uses horizontal bars to represent related series of tasks that are placed in relation to a horizontal time scale, and it often duplicates the shape of the PND in an outline form. The pasta

RecipesforProjed Success

Pasta

I I I I

I I I

Start

Figure 1.7

lme

-b

Finish

Gantt Chart for Pasta Dinner

dinner is a relatively simple project with only one related series of tasks. The Gantt chart for this project is depicted in Figure 1.7. Later examples will show Gantt charts broken down into separate tasks.

EXERCISES You've just been hired to manage a project for a client who owns an acre of land and wants a new custom-designed residence constructed on it. The constraints stipulate that the house must be 2,200 minimum square feet, total cost must not exceed $250,000, and the house must be ready for moving in within nine months. After consultation with the owner, you decide that the best method is to employ fast-track design and construction. You hire an architect to design the house and allow her to work with an engineering firm of her choice to design the engineering aspects. A general-construction contractor will construct the house based on the completed designs. You attend a kick-off meeting with your team: the owner, architect, engineer, and general-construction contractor. Exercise 1: With your team, create a scope statement (SS) for this project. Suggested Answer:The goal is a custom-built house, and the square-footage and cost objectives are clearly quantifiable. A good SS would be: "Design and build a custom house, based upon the owner's requirements, on his lot, in less than nine months, and at a cost less than $250,000, using fast-track procedures." Exercise 2: Based on the SS, you lead your team to brainstorm the tasks that will be necessary to complete the house. The resulting task list, in no particular order, is as follows:

--

-

Linear Projects

Fast-Track CustomBuiR Home Construction

4

1 Design

I

4

Figure 1.8

4

4

I

4

WBS for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

architectural design-the overall conceptual design of the house from a layout, elevation (facades), aesthetic, functional, and finish (wall coverings, and so on) point of view foundation design and construction superstructure design and construction-skeletd framing, exterior walls, doors, windows, roof, and so on heating, ventilating, air conditioning, electrical, and plumbing design and construction interior design and construction-interior partitions and walls, ceilings and finishes (i.e., paint, carpet, moldings, and so forth) inspection by the local building inspector, the architect, engineer, and the owner punch list--corrective work as a result of inspection that the generalconstruction contractor must do. Given this task list, create a WBS for this project. Suggested Answer: The tasks fall into three areas: design, construction, and inspection, which, as nouns, lend themselves nicely to deliverables at Level 2 of the WBS. Hence, a good WBS can be created by listing the tasks under their respective deliverables, as shown in Figure 1.8.

T

he word sauce derives from the Latin salsa. Salsa in turn derives from sal, which means salt. At the most fundamental level, a sauce consists of liquid and salt cooked with added meat, meat substitute, or vegetable to give it flavor and color.

A FRESH TOMATO SAUCE A tomato sauce is a form of dressing that can replace the butter-and-cheese dressing of the recipe presented in Chapter 1. However, a tomato sauce has more complex project management implications because it requires separate preparation of ingredients.

Ingredients 2-3 tbsp. olive oil 3 cloves chopped garlic. andlor 1 chopped small onion 2 Ib. chopped fresh plum tomatoes Optional: 2 tbsp. tomato paste I tbsp. dried or fresh-chopped parsley, basil, or oregano

Recbesfor Project Success

Optional:

I

Ib. beef, pork, veal. sausage, mushrooms, or other (see below).

chopped or sliced

Use plum tomatoes or round tomatoes after squeezing to remove excess water. You may boil fresh tomatoes first (about three to five minutes) to remove the skin. For a fresh sauce such as this, we like the texture that the skins give to the sauce. We're told that Sicilians prefer to remove the seeds. First, brown meat in butter or oil, then remove the meat and set it aside. Add the rest of the oil to the same pan and saute the garlic or onions over low heat until soft. Deglaze with several tablespoons of water, broth, or red wine; deglazing adds real flavor to the sauce. Then, add the tomatoes. If you are using fresh tomatoes, add salt to taste. Re-add the meat and add remaining spices; cook until blended, about twenty minutes. If you use mushrooms instead of meat, add them after you saute the oil and garlic, and cook them for a while before you add the tomatoes. Deglazing is not effective, so unnecessary. Green peppers, zucchini, or even celery can be used instead of the mushrooms by following the same procedure. We've even used ceci beans, drained, from a can. We've also tried canned tuna fish but don't like it. If only tomatoes are used, simply saute onions or garlic, and then add the tomatoes to the pan. Add paste, if necessary, to thicken.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS A scope statement for this recipe might be: "Prepare a simple tomato sauce that requires less than one-half hour preparation time so you can impress your mother-in-law." The boundaries of the project are that the sauce is made only of tomatoes. The goal is a simple tomato sauce. The objective is that the sauce is prepared in one-half hour, and the justification is to impress your mother-in-law. We could derive a work breakdown structure (WBS), as shown in Figure 2.1, for this recipe. Sometimes, a hierarchy of tasks can be established by placing those tasks that are dependent on other tasks in lower positions in the Wl3S, as illustrated in Figure 2.2. This approach has the advantage of getting the team to think in terms of task

Multiple-Path Projects

Simple Tomato Sauce

4 Chop Oil and Garlic

Figure 2.1

4

4

Base

Tomato Mixture

+

Saute Oil and Garlic

4 Tomatoes

+ + Add Tomatoes to Base

Add

spiar

4 Simmer

WBS for Simple Tomato Sauce

dependencies in preparation for the creation of the project network diagram (PND). This book will use a hierarchical approach. TIP: The lowest levels of the WBS are often called cost accounts or control accounts. These are single tasks or related groups of tasks, often called activities, which can be isolated so that they can be tracked in terms of cost. The entire system of cost or control accounts is ofien called the code o f accounts. Next, using only the tasks, create a PND, as shown in Figure 2.3.

PASTA WITH FRESH TOMlATO SAUCE Let's combine our pasta recipe with our sauce recipe (see Figure 2.4). Two linear, related recipes (Figures 1.6 and 2.3) can be viewed as one project if the start and end points of each are combined into a single PND, as illustrated in Figure 2.4. Note that we eliminated "toss with butter and cheese" from the pasta path, since instead we are using a tomato sauce dressing. This is an example of a parallelpath project, the simplest multiple-path project. It will take longer to prepare the sauce than to cook the pasta. The longest path through a project from start to end is called the critical path. Critical path (CP) is an important concept in project management. The CP is noted in Figure 2.4 by the double arrow path from start to finish. This notation will be followed throughout the book when the C P is shown. Because it is the longest path through a project,

Recipes3rProject S u m

Simple Tomato Sauce LI

I Tomato M~xture

Base

+

Chop Onion and Garlic

+

Saute Onion and Garlic

i

a

Chop Tomatoes

4 Add to Base

4 Add Splces

4

.

Simmer

Figure 2.2

WBS with Subordinate Tasks for Simple Tomato Sauce

the path time along the CP equates to the total time to project completion (TTPC) or the overall project schedule. Therefore, any delay of completion of a task along the CP will automatically result in a delay of the TTPC. Since it takes less time to cook the pasta than to prepare the sauce, there is time to waste along the pasta path. The allowable time to waste along this path, which does not delay preparation of the sauce, is called slack or float time. Float is the difference between the completion time of a non-CP in comparison to the CP; therefore, float allows slippage of task completion along the non-CP without delaying the TTPC. TIP: Float is a critical management tool for complex projects. In a large project such as the construction of a new building, a contractor makes or loses money depending on how effectively he uses float time for resource leveling, which is the effective deployment of resources. The different kinds and amounts of labor must be deployed to a job site when they can be utilized to maximum effect. The purchase and delivery of materials to a construction site must be made to enable

Multiple-PathProj'ects

--Chop

b )1 -

Start

Figure 2.3

---

-

Add

Saut6 Tomatoes -b Tomatoes -P -P Onan and ~ ~ Garl~c h , , ~ d Base

Add ~

Sp~ces ~ $

+

c

Simmer

41 -

End

PND for Simple Tomato Sauce: A Linear Project

Chop

nOdi%lf

*

Chop Tomatoes

Sautb

+ OFflFd

*

Add Add Tomatoes =$ spices

*

simmer

---r.= CP Figure 2.4

PND for Pasta with Tomato Sauce: A Parallel-Path Project

cash outlay to be minimized by eliminating excess inventory that drives up financing, storage, and security costs. Float time affords flexibility ifyou can control it. Litigation often results over who owm float: the contractor or the building owner. 'Eme truly is money when it comes to the use of float. The Gantt chart for our pasta and tomato sauce recipe is shown in Figure 2.5. Compare the shape of Figure 2.5 to that depicted in Figure 2.4. The Gantt chart allows for a good graphical representation of float; therefore, the CP, TTPC, and float are shown in Figure 2.5. The two principal deliverables of the pasta with fresh tomato sauce recipe lend themselves to a parallel-path structure. We could add a third path by fucing a salad at the same time that we are preparing the sauce and the pasta, perhaps as illustrated in Figure 2.6. The Gantt chart for this three-path project is depicted in Figure 2.7, which shows the float of both non-CPs in relation to the CI? Projects with two or more paths are called multiple-path projects. Figures 2.6 and 2.7 show a triple-path project with three principal deliverables. Theoretically, the number of paths could increase infinitely, but, in the real world, many paths become intertwined, as the next chapter demonstrates. TIP: Intertwined projects are difficult to show using Gantt charts; thus, the PND becomes more important in representing such projects.

Recipesfor Project Success

mc I I I Tomato Sauce I

I I

I

Pasta

1 -4 Float

lime

Start

Figure 2.5

I

I

I

+

Finish

Gantt Chart for Pasta with Tomato Sauce

.

Wash Lettuce

Add Oil, Vinegar, Salt, and Pepper

' ' Dry Lettuce

Add Olives

Chop

Chop

Saut6

Pour Water

Boil Water

Add Oil

-b Tomatoes -b OEljlcnd OElpd

Figure 2.6

I

'

Add Add -* Spices Tomatoes Cook Pasta

Drain Pasta

-b

Simmer

Toss

PND for Pasta with Tomato Sauce and Salad: A Triple-Path Project

EXERCISES Exercise 3: Create two Gantt charts, one for conventional design and construction and another for fast-track design and construction, and discuss the differences in these two approaches, as represented by these charts. Suggested Answer: Let's analyze the WBS shown in Figure 1.8 at the deliverable level (Level 2) and treat each deliverable as a subproject. In conventional design and construction, the entire design is completed before construction is started. Since construction is dependent on completion of the design, the subprojects' design and construction occur in series in the PND. Inspection cannot begin until construction is complete. Given this situation, the Gantt chart will look like the one shown in Figure 2.8, where construction is dependent on completion of the entire design before it can begin.

Mult@le-PathProjects

mc I I I

I

Tomato Sauce

I

,- Pasta Float

Pasta

,

Salad

Start

Figure 2.7

Time

1

I +I I I

I'-Salad Float

-+

Finish

Gantt Chart for Pasta with Tomato Sauce and Salad

6 No Overlap I I

I

Design I

I

Construction

W

I

TTPC I I

I

Inspection

I

I

I I

Start

Figure 2.8

Time -b

Finish

Gantt Chart for Custom-Built House: Conventional Design and Construction

In fast tracking, tasks or subprojects that normally occur in series are done in

parallel. In this exercise, it means that construction is started before design is complete, as shown in Figure 2.9. Note how the TTPC is compressed in relation to the horizontal time scale. This is the advantage of fast tracking. The disadvantage, however, is increased risk for the project because construction is started before design is complete. For example, following installation of the foundations, a problem in the kitchen layout

Reriperfor Pmject Sucm

I/-Overlap

H

Design Construction

I

I

I I

I I

mc I I

I

Inspection

I I

Start

Figure 2.9

Time -b

Finish

Gantt Chart for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

becomes apparent. If the best solution requires a change to the blueprint of the house, the owner will be forced to decide between incurring the increased costs and lost time of changing the foundation versus compromising the kitchen layout.

STEAMED FISH R h is delicate and should be handled minimally during the cooking process. Steaming is a healthful and easy way to cook fish.

Ingredients I

Ib. white fish filets. such as cod, scrod. haddock, or grouper. cut into obout 2-in. chunks

4 cups chopped kole, or

any other sturdy green, leafy vegetable, such as spinach.

mustard greens, or escarole

3 cloves chopped garlic andlor I small chopped onion 2 tbsp. olive, peonut. or canola oil. or. i f you like a rich taste. 2 tbsp. butter 1 /2 cup d r y or cream sherry

4 tbsp. soy sauce or

I

hot sauce

cup white rice

2 cups cold w a t e r or broth

Put the rice in a coverable pot, and rinse it repeatedly by mixing it with cold water until the water runs clear when you drain it. Drain

Recipesfor Project Success

as much water as you can from the pot, and add two cups cold water or broth. Cover the pot, bring it to a boil, then lower the heat and simmer for ten minutes, stirring occasionally Turn off the heat and, without removing the cover so that the pot retains the steam, let the rice rest for another ten minutes to finish cooking. Chop the garlic or onions. Saut6 them in a separate coverable pan in the oil or butter for two or three minutes. Lay the greens in'the pan on top of the garlic or onion mixture. Add the sherry. If you wash the greens and leave them very wet, use less sheny. Lay the fish chunks on top of the greens, being careful not to overlap pieces. Pour the soy or hot sauce over the fish, cover tightly, and simmer covered for ten to fifteen minutes, allowing the fish and greens to steam. Serve the fish and the greens over the rice, and pour the pan broth over both.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS The scope statement (SS) lends itself to simplicity: "Prepare a quick, low-fat fish dish with greens served over rice to provide a flavorful protein source for your diet." In this instance, fish, greens, and rice are the deliverables. Low fat, quick, and flavorful are the objectives. These deliverables suggest a work breakdown structure (WBS) that may look like the one shown in Figure 3.1. Since there are three deliverables, let's try a triple-path project network diagram (PND), as shown in Figure 3.2. Notice that two of the paths, the fish and greens, converge before the end of the project. The fish and greens are cut separately but are placed in the same pan to steam. Before we can start steaming, all tasks on both paths leading to the steaming task must be completed. In project management terminology, the steaming task is said to be dependent on completion of these prior tasks. A related concept, convergence, means that one task is dependent on the completion of two or more tasks.

EGG FRIED RICE A properly cooked omelet should slide out of the pan under its own weight when it is done; nothing should stick to the pan. You can cook it yourself or delegate it to someone who has had practice.

Complex-Path Projects

Steamed Fish Dish

1

1

Rice

Fish

Greens

1

1

1

Wash

Cut

Chop

1

1 -

Simmer

Add

Llqu~ds

1

Saute

On~onand Garl~c

1

1 1 1 1 1 1 Rest

Figure 3.1

Steam

WBS for Steamed Fish

TIP: Knowing when to delegate is an important project management skill. A good project manager maintains a balance between keeping control and letting go.

Ingredients 2 2 cloves chopped garlic. or one small chopped onion or 3-7 tbsp. olive oil. or 2 tbsp. butter 2 cups precooked white rice 3-5 tbsp. soy sauce. or t o taste

scallion

Cook the white rice as described in the steamed fish recipe; we will assume that the rice is already cooked at the start point of this recipe (projectic license).This recipe works best with leftover rice. Cook a two-egg omelet. Remove the omelet from the pan, chop it into one-half-inch squares, and set it aside. In the omelet pan, saute

Recipes3r project Success

5

Simmer d

Rest

Garlic

Figure 3.2

PND for Steamed Fish, Greens, and Rice: Converging Paths

onions, garlic, or scallions in the butter or oil until soft. Add the chopped omelet, and stir for a short while. Then, add the rice and keep on stirring for two to three minutes, or until hot. Before serving, add soy sauce and stir.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS The SS might be: "Prepare a fast meal using leftover rice to show your mother-inlaw that you don't just cook-Italian." The WBS is shown in Figure 3.3. Using the tasks, we create a PND, as shown in Figure 3.4. This recipe starts with a linear path from "Start" through "Heat Pan" and "Cook Omelet," in series, then diverges into parallel-paths. Divergence means that two or more tasks are dependent on completion of a single task O n the parallel-paths, we can simultaneously chop the omelet while we saute the oil and garlic; the paths converge at "Mix."

NlEAT AND POTATOES A traditional American meal has three components: meat, potatoes, and a vegetable-three deliverables. If three people are cooking, we could assign one

Complex-Path Projects

deliverable to each person. As long as they cooperate, we should end up with a balanced, hot meal to eat.

Ingredients 4 pork chops. 112-314 in. thick 4 medium-sized red potatoes 112 16. fresh green beans. sliced into 1-in. lengths

3 tbsp. butter. or oil o f I tsp. garlic powder

I

some kind

small onion, diced

2 tbsp. chopped fresh, or I

tbsp. dried parsley

1-3 tbsp. soy sauce Pepper and salt

Wash the potatoes. Without drying them, slice them into one-andone-half-inch chunks, and place them in a coverable, microwavable dish. Sprinkle one-half teaspoon or so of garlic powder over the potatoes and add parsley, pepper, and salt to taste. Add a little at a time until it tastes right. Italians have a phrase for this incremental technique: Quanto basta (as much as is needed). TIP: Incremental technique can be used effectively in many project situations, especially when you cannot predict the outcome of a change that you are proposing to make. For example, if you are crashing a critical task, you might want to authorize a maximum amount of overtime per day while simultaneously monitoring cost impacts and whether task completion is accelerating. Break up one tablespoon of butter and distribute it over the potatoes. Make sure that there is about one-quarter inch of water at the bottom of the dish for steaming; add more if needed. Cover and microwave on high for five minutes; remove, stir the potatoes, cover, and microwave for another three minutes. Test the potatoes; if they are too hard, stir and microwave until done. While someone is cooking the potatoes, someone else is cooking the beans (parallel-path). Leave the beans wet after they are washed. Saute the onion in one tablespoon of butter or oil until soft. Add the beans, cover, put over heat, and steam five to seven minutes. Add soy sauce and pepper to taste. Keep covered until served.

Recipesjir Pmject Success

-

Fried Rice

I

Omelet

4 Rice

4

4

Saute Onion and Garl~c

Heat Pan

4

4

-

Mix Chopped Omelet

Cook

4

4

Add Cooked R~ce

Chop

4 Add SOY

Figure 3.3

WBS for Fried Rice

Chop Omelet

Saute Onion and Garlic

I Figure 3.4

PND for Fried Rice

The third person, meanwhile, can prepare the pork chops (another parallel-path). Pat the chops dry, sprinkle with garlic powder and black pepper, and pound into each side. In a hot griddle or cast-iron frying

Complac-Path Projects

pan, add one tablespoon of butter or oil, and, before the butter starts burning, toss in the pork chops. Brown the pork chops for three or four minutes on each side. Remove the pork chops, and deglaze the pan with about one-half cup water, broth, sherry, or wine. When reduced to a desired thickness, pour the liquid over the pork chops, and serve with the potatoes and beans.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS The SS is: "Prepare a hearty meal using three traditional American foods for dinner on a cold winter night." The WBS utilizes the resource allocation structure (RAS), as shown in Figure 3.5; it is just the WBS with resource names applied. Figure 3.5 demonstrates an example of how the WBS, established on the basis of defining the scope of the project, can then be used for other purposes.

STEP 4: ASSIGNING ROLES

The Resource Allocation Structure. Project team members must have clear roles that do not overlap or conflict. In addition, they must understand how their performances impact the ability of other team members to perform their respective roles. The WBS and PND facilitate team members understanding of how their roles-i.e., the tasks they are assigned to perform-fit into the context of the overall project performance. The application of names to the tasks of these diagrams helps personalize the roles of team members. In this meat and potatoes recipe, there are three deliverables; with a team of three, a deliverable can be assigned to each person. Assuming that we have already created a WBS, we can derive an RAS from it by assigning names, as shown in Figure 3.5. Note that one person is responsible for all of the tasks under each deliverable. We can also create a PND with names attached, as illustrated in Figure 3.6. Assigning names to the PND helps team members understand upon whom they are dependent and who is dependent on them. Subprojects. We can simplift this diagram if we use subprojects, as shown in Figure 3.7. A subproject is a group of related tasks. Sometimes, the term is used analogously with the term activity because both are groups of related tasks. Projects that involve many tasks and paths can quickly become difficult for the eye to follow. Subprojects provide a means to simplift analysis and assign clear responsibilities. Also, subprojects provide convenient vehicles for establishing cost accounts at 7

Recipefor h+xf Success

+

Meat and Potatoes Dinner

Pork Chops

Potatoes

Dry (Mary Jo)

Sl~ce

+

f

Green Beans

,

*

Cho veeetagles (Mark)

(Nick)

$.

f

+

Sp~ce (Mary lo)

Add Butter and S Ices (Rick)

Saute Onion (Mark)

+ +

Brown (Mary Jo)

f

,

Nuke (Nick)

Deglaze (Mary Jo)

* *

Add Beans (Mark) Steam (Mark)

(Mark)

Figure 3.5

RAS for Meat and Potatoes Dinner

higher levels of the project, which in turn simplifies the distribution and monitoring of project funds. The project manager can delegate responsibility for subproject tasks to a subproject manager, who in turn can manage her subproject as a project. The usefulness of the RAS and subprojects will be clearer if we modiQ our meat and potatoes recipe to include some convergences and dependencies, as shown in the next recipe.

MEAT, POTATO, AND BEAN CASSEROLE We'll use the same ingredients as the previous recipe. First, brown the spiced pork chops, and deglaze them as before. Slice the potatoes, and chop the vegetables. SautC the onion in the butter in a coverable casserole dish, then add the potatoes and beans, the remaining garlic

Slice Add Butter Potatoes -b and Spices (Nick) (Nick)

Chops (MalyM

'

Chop Vegetables -b (Mark)

Figure 3.6

Spice (Mawlo)

Saut.6 Onion (Mark)

Nuke (Nick)

+

'

Brown (May Jo)

-b

Add Beans (Mark)

'

(Mawlo)

-

-b

(Mark)

Add -b (Mark)

PND with Names Assigned for Meat and Potatoes Dinner

Potatoes

(Mark)

Figure 3.7

PND Reduced to Subprojects for Meat and Potatoes Dinner

powder, parsley, pepper, and soy, and toss. Lay the browned pork chops on top of the other ingredients, and pour the deglazing liquid over everything. Cover and bake in a preheated 350-degree oven, stirring occasionally, for forty-five minutes or until potatoes are tender.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS Start the meat, potatoes, and bean casserole project by creating an SS, and then create a TUBS, from which an RAS can be derived, as shown in Figure 3.8.

Recipesfor Project Suaess

--

--

Meat, Potato, and Bean Casserole

+

Pork Chops

+

<

Potatoes

Green Beans

Casserole

f

f

v

Slice (Nick)

Chop Vegetables (Mark)

Saute Onion Uen)

f Add Potatoes and Beans (Jen)

+

Add S ices &en)

+

Add Pork Chops,to Deglaz~ng (Jen)

f Bake Uen)

Figure 3.8

.

RAS for Meat, Potato, and Bean Casserole

Compare Figure 3.8 to Figure 3.5, noting that in Figure 3.8, we added another de1iverab1e-"cassero1e." Let's again make a PND with names assigned, as depicted in Figure 3.9. Compare Figure 3.9 to Figure 3.6, and notice how paths have intertwined. As a result, the dependencies became more complex in Figure 3.9: Before Jen can saut6 the onions, Mark must chop the vegetables. In the succeeding task, before Jen can add potatoes and beans to the sautCed onions, Nick must slice the potatoes. We can again simplifjr Figure 3.9's subprojects, as illustrated in Figure 3.10. Compare Figure 3.10 to Figure 3.7. Notice that the PND can only be simplified to a limited extent;Jen's task-"SautC Onions"-must remain a separate task.

Complex-Path Projects

Slice

(Mark)

Figure 3.9

PND for Meat, Potato, and Bean Casserole

Potatoes (Nick)

Pork Chops (Mary Jo)

Saute

-+ Onions

Finish

Vegetables (Mark)

Figure 3.10

Resource Allocation PND with Subprojects for Meat, Potato, and Bean Casserole

EXERCISES Exercise 4: Continuing with the fast-track custom-built house design and construction project, create a PND. Suggested Answer: Review Figures 1.8 and 2.9. A parallel-path structure was predicted by the three deliverables at Level 2 of Figure 1.8 and the shape of the Gantt chart of Figure 2.9. Because of the overlap of the design and construction subprojects in Figure 2.9, we can expect that there will be complex task relationships in the PND, as shown in Figure 3.11. Exercise 5: Analyze the convergences and complex dependencies of the PND depicted in Figure 3.11. Before HVAC/E design can be started, superstructure design (S Des) and interior design (Int Des) must both be completed; i.e.,

I

Recipefor Pr@ct Success

Days

o

30

60

90 I I

I

120 I

150

180

210

I

I

II

240

I I

I

I 0

I

---

I

1C.

Int

+

Insp

fl

PIL Con*

I

I I

,

I

9

, Figure 3.11

PND for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

HVAC/E design (HVAC/E Des) is dependent on these two tasks. Likewise, HVAC/E construction (HVAC/E Const) is dependent on completion ofboth HVAC/E Design and superstructure construction (S Const). And, finally, interior constructure (Int Const) is dependent on completion of the entire design series, which culminates in Int Des, a direct predecessor of Int Const, and the series of ,previousconstruction components, which culminates in HVAC/E Const, also a direct predecessor of Int Const. TIP: In construction industry language, the beginning of interior construction is known as closing up. Manyjurisdictions require inspection before closing up.

PART TWO Quantitative Project Project Management Management by Nurnbers

...

I

Pictures convey concepts well. Sooner or later, however, concepts must be reduced to practical application, and the interface between concepts and application is a vulnerable point where many projects fail. TIP: Other project vulnerable points include transitions, handoffs, unnecessary complexity, and changes. Ifwe can make a better means of connection between project management concepts and their application, we can increase the chances of project success. Part 2 will bridge this interface by developing the concepts of Part 1 into quantitative tools.

MAKING AN OmLET

M

aking an omelet is tricky. It requires practice, especially in awareness ofwhen the pan is hot enough so the omelet won't stick but is not so hot as to burn it.

Ingredients 2 eggs

In cup chopped or grated cheese, such as Swiss or cheddar I tbsp. butter. or oil

Spices

Heat a ten-to-twelve-inch skillet. Our preference is a heavy cast-iron pan, which distributes and holds the heat evenly. While the pan is heating, break two eggs into a cup, and stir them until the mixture is evenly yellow Add salt, pepper, and garlic powder. Test the pan by

Recipesfor Project Success

sprinkling some water in it; the water should instantly evaporate. Add the egg mixture, and let it firm up. An important objective when cooking an omelet is to end with a clean pan. If you err, however, all is not lost; start stirring, and make scrambled eggs. Sprinkle the cheese on top. Fold the omelet over itself as you slide it onto a senring dish.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS The scope statement is: "Make an omelet that will slide out of the pan so that the pan won't need to be scrubbed, and you can have a good breakfast without much clean-up." The work breakdown structure (WBS) is illustrated in Figure 4.1. The hierarchical numbering system shown in Figure 4.1 is a tool that provides a means to maintain consistency during WBS formulation and with other project management tools. Note how the numbering system extends into deeper levels by adding one decimal point at each level. For example, in Figure 4.1, at the project level, Level 1, the "Omelet" is Project 1.0. If other projects coexisted, we could also have Project 2.0, Project 3.0, and so on. The numbering system builds on the appropriate project number. At the deliverable level, Level 2, one decimal point is added to the project number; for example, in our case, the "Eggs" constitute Deliverable 1.1. At the task level, another decimal place is added; e.g., "Breaking the Eggs" is Task 1.1.1. Let's see how this numbering hierarchy enables us to integrate the different project management tools into one overall system. The project network diagram (PND) for this is shown in Figure 4.2. Applying this numbering system to the PND allows easy cross-reference with the m S . This numbering system allows cross-referencing (integration) among all of the project management tools that we use. In Figure 4.2, we included the task names and numbers in the PND. Often, in complex project situations with many tasks, only numbers are used.

The Hierarchical Numbering System

Project Level

+

Deliverable Level

Eggs

Task Levels

Break

1.1

* * *

1.1.1

1

Mix 1.1.1.1

Omelet 1 .o

Level 1

Cheese

Spices

+ 1.2.1 +

1.3

Level 2

Add to Eggs

Level 3

1.2

Grate

*

1.3.1

Add to Omelet

Level 4

1.2.1.1

Heat Skillet

Etc.

1.1.1.1.1

*

Pour

1.1.1.1.1.1

-,

Cook

1.1.1.1.1.1.1

*

Slide

1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1

Figure 4.1

WBS with Hierarchical Numbering System for Omelet

1

Grate

-

Slide * 1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1 471

1.1.1.1.1

Figure 4.2

PND for Omelet

Recipesf.r P'ect

Success

Fast-Track Custom-Buik Home Construction 1 .o

Design 1.1

,

I

Construction 1.2

I

I

I

I

I

Arch Des 1.1.1

Found Des 1.1.2

S Des 1.1.3

HVACIE Des 1.1.4

Int Des 1.1.5

Figure 4.3

-

_

I

Inspection 1.3

I

I

I

I

1

Found

S

HVACE

Int

PL

Const

Const

Const

Const

Const

1.2.1

1.2.2

1.2.3

1.2.4

1.2.5

WBS with Hierarchical Numbering System for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

EXERCISES Exercise 6: Add a hierarchical numbering system to the WBS presented in Figure 1.8. Suggested Answer: See Figure 4.3. TIP: Notice how the tasks of Figure 4.3 are oriented horizontally instead of vertically This orientation results in a numbering system with fewer decimal places. The disadvantage is the loss of ability to illustrate subordinate relationships among tasks. Either orientation is correct and depends on the preferences of the project team. Exercise 7: Transfer the hierarchical numbering system to the PND in Figure 3.11. Suggested Answer: See Figure 4.4.

Days

0

30

60

90

120

150

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PA + la + crnd i J 1.2.5 + I

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!

House: Fast-Track Desij

!

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!

HOR/IEMADE PIZZAS

0

nce, we were young and busy parents with very little money and hungry mouths to feed. If you ask our children, they will say their lunches consisted solely of limp peanut butter and jelly sandwiches and rubber carrots. By the end of the lean week before payday, we needed a respite from the growling stomachs and moods to match. On Saturdays we often made "pizza," made very simply with bread, tomatoes, olive oil, grated cheese, and spices.

Ingredients 6 pieces bread. sliced about 318-in. thick

a t a diagonal across the loaf

2 plum tomatoes, sliced about 114-in. thick 3 tbsp. olive oil 114 tsp. pepper 112 tsp. dried oregano or basil (optional) I tbsp. grated Italian cheese (stron g , such as pecorino Romano) Salt t o taste. which probably won't be necessary because of the cheese

Recipes for Project Success

Crust

Tomatoes

Bread 2.1.1

Purchase Purchase 2.4.1 Place on Pizzas 2.4.1.1 Toast 2.3.1.1.1

Figure 5.1

WBS for Homemade Pizzas

The bread should be a crusty long loaf, such as Italian bread or a French baguette. This recipe especially works well if the bread is a day or two old because of the added crustiness, which the oil and the juices from the tomatoes tend to soften during the cooking process. Slice the bread, and toast it. Place the bread on an ovenproof flat dish, and put tomato slices on the bread. Sprinkle the spices and olive oil on top of the tomatoes, followed by the cheese. Broil for about three minutes. Serve hot or cold.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS The scope statement is: "Use stale bread rather than throwing it away by making a small pizza snack that can double as an appetizer." A possible work breakdown structure (WBS) might be similar to the one depicted in Figure 5.1.

Cost Estimating and Budgeting

Figure 5.2

CBS for Homemade Pizzas (Task Costs Estimated Only)

STEP 5: THE COST BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE In Figure 5.2, we use only the hierarchical numbers to identifjr deliverables and tasks, producing a simpler diagram. Estimated costs in parentheses are added to the tasks in the figure. We supply the cost for each task because tasks are the building blocks of cost estimating. Once tasks costs are inserted, we can add them vertically through the cost breakdown structure (CBS) to obtain a cost for each deliverable. Then, deliverable costs are added for a total estimated project cost, as shown in Figure 5.3. This process of starting at the task level and adding costs up through the deliverable levels and finally to the project level is called a bottom-up estimate. It is also called a definitive estimate because it requires project decomposition before it can be done. Project decomposition requires completion of a detailed design. Sometimes it is desirable to estimate project costs before the project is decomposed. For example, upper management might want a preliminary estimate of the order-of-magnitude of expected costs before deciding to invest resources 7

Recipafor Projed Success

Figure 5.3

CBS for Homemade Pizzas (Task Costs Summed to Create Deliverable and Project Costs)

into preliminary project development. Estimates that are completed before the WBS is decomposed are called top-down estimates. There are two principal kinds of top-down estimates: historical and parametric estimates. Historical estimates are based on experience with similar projects. In this recipe, for example, we are making six pizzas. Ifwe made these pizzas many times before, our experience might tell us that it costs forty cents to make a pizza. For our recipe, then, a historical estimate of total project costs is:

A parametric estimate is based on a mathematical model. For example, research might tell us that it costs sixty cents per ounce for our pizzas. If each pizza weighs one-half ounce, we are making 6 x 1/2 = 3 ounces of pizza, and a parametric estimate would be: 3 ounces x $0.60/ounce = $1.80. As a project unfolds from beginning to end, it can be broken down into a series of interrelated processes. These project processes may have different names in

Cost Ertirnating and Budgeting

different application areas. A common system that is easy to remember is the concepts, development, execution, and finalization system. In recent years, however, the system that has become the accepted standard calls these processes initiating, planning, executing, and closing. An additional process, controlling, ranges across all of them. This book uses the second system, focusing mainly on the planning and executing processes, as outlined in the introduction. The architectural application area, for example, employs a design phase that is broken down into conceptual design, design development, and final design. Conceptual design occurs near the end of the planning process, design development overlaps the planning and executing processes, and final design starts near the beginning of the executing process. In what follows, we will use the design phase from architectural application area to explain the purposes of the different types of cost estimating. Top-down estimates are used early in the project during the initiating process when detailed design data are not yet available. They help owners evaluate and decide whether to proceed with the project, and may also be used to establish a preliminary budget for purposes of project authorization. A sketch of the project, often called conceptual design, may be completed at this point. These estimates are called order-of-magnitude estimates and have an expected accuracy range of -25 percent to +75 percent. Definitive estimates are done after decomposition, which is usually after the final design is completed. They have an expected accuracy range of -5 percent to 10 percent. During design development, because it occurs between conceptual design and final design, cost estimates are usually hybrids of top-down and bottom-up estimates. These hybrid estimates are often called budget estimates because owners may use them to allocate funds for the project. They have an expected accuracy range of -10 percent to +25 percent. The PND for the homemade pizza recipe is shown in Figure 5.4. It splits into two parallel-paths out of the start box, because the broiler can be preheating while the ingredients are being purchased. TIP: Try to lead your team to make as many parallel-paths as possible when constructing a PND because tasks completed in parallel-instead of in seriesreduce the length of the critical path and therefore shorten the overall project schedule. However, risk increases with increasing project complexity More parallel-paths render a project more complex and increase the level of awareness as the team starts placing tasks in parallel in its zeal to reduce the overall schedule.

+

Recipesf.r Project Success

Preheat

Slice Tomatoes 2.3.1.1

Figure 5.4

Place Tomatoes on Toast 2.3.1.1.1

PND for Homemade Pizzas

EXERCISES Exercise 8: If residential construction costs in the area where the land is located are known to be approximately $100 per square foot ($100/sf), and costs for design and inspection typically are 10 percent of the construction costs, prepare a topdown budgetary estimate for the project. Suggested Answer: Construction costs = 2,200 sfx $100/sf = $220,000 Design and inspection costs = 10% x $220,000 = $ 22,000 Total estimated project costs = $242,000

Exercise 9: Calculate the management reserves for the project; they represent the amount of money that the project manager--or sometimes the owner-keeps "in his pocket" as money available to cover unforeseen needs or emergencies that might emerge during project development. Suggested Answer: Since the owner does not want the total cost of the project to exceed $250,000, the management reserves for the project are:

or:

Three percent is a small management reserve. Most project managers prefer to work with a management reserve of from 5 to 10 percent.

Cost Estimating and Budgeting

Exercise 10: Your general-constructioncontractor informs you that construction costs can be allocated as follows for the planned construction tasks of the project: w foundations-10 percent W superstructure--40 percent HVACE-15 percent interior-30 percent punch list-5 percent. Also, your architect tells you that she will charge a flat fee of $3,000 for design, but that the remaining design tasks will each cost 5 percent of their respective estimated construction costs. She also tells you that the local building inspector charges $500 for inspection. Assemble a bottom-up cost estimate for the job. Suggested Answer: Foundation Construction = Superstructure Construction = HVACE Construction = Interior Construction = Punch List (PL) Construction =

10% x $220,000 = $22,000 40% x $220,000 = $88,000 15% x $220,000 = $33,000 30% x $220,000 = $66,000 5% x $220,000 = $11,000

Total Construction = 100% Architectural ~ e s i g n - = Foundation Design = 5% x $22,000 = Superstructure Design = 5% x $88,000 = HVACE Design = 5% x $33,000 = Interior Design = 5% x $66,000 = Inspection = Total Estimated Project Costs

$220,000 $ 3,000 $ 1,100 $ 4,400 $ 1,650 $ 3,300 $ 500

$233,950

Note how this estimate lends itself to tabular form. It anticipates the project integration table, which is presented in the next chapter. Exercise 11: Using this data, assemble a CBS for your job. Suggested Answer: See Figure 5.5. Cost accounts are at the lowest WBS level; in this instance, the lowest is Level 3. However, note that if we desired, we could establish cost accounts for the subprojects, design, construction, and inspection at Level 2.

Recipes$r Project Success

Figure 5.5

CBS for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

BROTH

w

e love to watch the cooking shows on PBS. A few years ago, we learned that many recipes depend on using a good broth as a base. So, we took the advice offered and always keep a good broth on hand in the freezer or refrigerator to use in our cooking. During the height of our "broth days," we had a temporary boarder. Our friend, Richard, was staying with us while he went apartment hunting and thus took part in our daily meals. Unfortunately, we went a bit overboard and usually managed to incorporate the broth we made on Sunday into each evening meal for the rest of the week. Richard had lots of patience. Following his third week on this regime, he suggested that we try to bottle and market our broth. The following Christmas, after Richard was safely in his own apartment, we gave him a two-quart jar of our special broth. Broth is used in many recipes. It is simple to make; all it requires is time. You can't hurry broth, which makes it a good recipe to introduce scheduling techniques.

Ingredients 2 qt. water

I large quartered onion 2 peeled and sliced carrots

Lt crushed cloves garlic 2 large, chopped stalks celery

Recipesfor Project Succecs

Bones from 2 chicken breasts 3 bay leaves 2-9 tsp. salt 1 tsp. pepper

Put the water in a pot on the burner. While waiting for it to come to a boil, add all of the ingredients to it. Lower the heat, cover, and simmer, stirring occasionally Skim the surface periodically with a large spoon. Cook for one-and-one-half to two hours. When done, strain into portions in freezer containers, and freeze immediatelydon't allow to cool outside freezer. Microwave the freezer container for two to three minutes when you are ready to use the broth.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS The scope statement is: "Prepare a hearty broth of neutral flavor for use in other recipes." The work breakdown structure (WBS) is shown in Figure 6.1. In Figure 6.1, notice that this recipe is Project 3.0, and the numbering system is developed accordingly from the top down through the WBS hierarchy Note also that duration times in minutes were added to all tasks, as shown in parentheses. We have also added duration times to the project network diagram (PND), as shown in Figure 6.2. Figure 6.2 shows the CP, which is discussed below

STEP 6: THE PROJECT INTEGRATION TABLE Let's arrange the data in Figure 6.2 into a tabular format, as shown in Figure 6.3. The tabular format shown in Figure 6.3 is called the project integration table (PIT), which horizontally integrates tasks with other baseline components. The PIT will evolve as you work through a project and in fact can have different sequences of column headings, depending on how the team develops the project. Thus far in the table depicted in Figure 6.3, scope (task components) and schedule (duration time components) are integrated horizontally Later, we will add costs and resource allocations to the PIT to create a fully integrated baseline.

Scheduling

Broth

3.0 7 '

Water

Vegetables

3.1

3.2

Boil 3.1.1 (5) L

Simmer

3.1.1.1 (90)

Spices

Meat

3.3

3.4

Add

Add

Sl~ce Vegetables

3.3.1

3.4.1

3.2.1

(0.5)

(0.5)

(4)

-

.

Add

3.2.1.1 (0.5)

Skim

3.1.1.1.1

Freeze

3.1.1.1.1.1

Figure 6.1

Scope WBS for Broth

The critical path (CP), Path 1, calculated in Figure 6.3 has a total time of 97.5 minutes. Any delay with a task along this path will delay completion of the project. For ease of presentation, we've shown the CP in Figure 6.2 along a central, evenly horizontal path through the PND. The next longest path is Path 2, with a total path time of 96.5 minutes. Since the difference between this path and the CP is 97.5 - 96.5 = 1 minute, we can delay slicingvegetables (Path 2) up to one minute without delaying the completion time of our project. In project management terms, we have one minute of float time along Path 2. Float or slack

Recipufor Project Success

Slice Vegetables

Add

Simmer

+ ,Meat ,,, + 3.1.1.1 (90) (0.5)

Skim

3.1.1.1.1 (5)

Figure 6.2

Path 1,2

Freeze

3.1.1.1.1.1 (1)

-

= CP

PND for Broth

time is the difference between the overall completion time of a path in comparison to the CI? The third longest path through the project is Path 3, with a total path time of 12.5 minutes. In this instance, the difference between this path and the CP is 97.5 - 12.5 = 85 minutes, which means that we can leisurely skim the broth for a total of five minutes spread over the eighty-one minutes of float without delaying completion of our recipe. TIP: The total path time for the CP is the same as the total time to project completion. It is also called the project schedule. Your project's stakeholdersclient or owner-and upper management will be very interested in the schedule. Therefore, the CP is a primary focus of your,project management efforts.

EXERCISES Exercise 12: Through discussion with your team members, create a PIT for the custom-designed house that you are managing. Tabulate the data you have assembled to date, and assign durations to the various tasks. Suggested Answer: See Figure 6.4.

Scheduling

Add Spices Add Meat

3.3.1 3.4.1

Total

Figure 6.3

0.5 0.5

0.5 0.5

0.5 0.5

97.5

96.5

12.5

PIT for Broth

Budget = $233,950

Figure 6.4

I

PIT with Estimated Costs and Durations for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

FORWARD AND BACKWARD PASSES

A

friend of ours tells about taking a trip to Italy, the country of his grandparents. He spoke fairly decent Italian and tried to communicate in that language during his visit. Most of his encounters were successful until he asked someone for the bathroom using the word handed down by his grandparents, buckhousa. The person did not understand him. Following his trip, he discovered that buckhousa meant "backhouse," the term that his family used for their outhouse. The family had continued to use the term after the advent of modern plumbing. Pasta and bean soup is often called pastafzool by Italian-Americans. In fact, the correct pronunciation for this delicious meal is pasta efagwle, meaning "pasta and beans."

Ingredients 1 I I I

Ib. pasta. either elbows o r small shells 16-oz. can pork and beans small can stewed tomatoes cup broth, or white wine

Recipmfor Project Success

1

small chopped onion

I

clove chopped garlic

I bay leaf 2 tbsp. olive oil G r a t e d cheese and pepper t o taste

Put two quarts ofwater on to boil. While waiting for the water to boil, sautt the onions and garlic in one tablespoon of the olive oil. When the onions become soft, add the beans, broth, stewed tomatoes, bay leaf, and pepper. Simmer this mixture for twenty minutes minimum. While the bean mixture is simmering, add the rest of the olive oil to the boiling water and cook the pasta a1 dente. When the pasta is cooked, drain it, put it in a large serving dish, and pour the bean mixture over it. Sprinkle with the cheese and serve.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS A straightforward scope statement for this recipe might be: "Cook a one-dish meal in less than one-half hour using canned ingredients." The work breakdown structure is shown in Figure 7.1. The project network diagram for this recipe is shown in Figure 7.2. This time, we are using numbers to identifjr the tasks-note that the diagram appears less cluttered-and task duration times, in minutes, are included in parentheses in each task box. Note also in Figure 7.2 that other numbers are in the comers of each task box. In general terms, the format of each task box is as shown in Figure 7.3; for example: ES = Early Start EF = Early Finish LS = Late Start LF = Late Finish. RULE: For two tasks in series, the ES of the second task is the same as the EF of the first task. RULE: Likewise, for two tasks in series, the LS of the second task is the same as the LF of the first task.

Forward and Backward Passes

Pastafazool 4.0

f Pasta 4.1

f

f

Boil Water 4.1.1

Saute Onion and Garlic 4.2.1

f

f

Add Oil 4.1.1.1

Add Bean, Tomatoes, Broth, and Spices 4.2.1.1

f

I

f

Cook Pasta 4.1.1.1.1

Simmer 4.2.1.1.1

f Drain 4.1.1.1.1.1

Figure 7.1

Scope WBS for Pastafazool

THE FORWARD PASS Return to Figure 7.2, begin at Start, and work forward using the ES and EF positions of each task; this technique is called a forward pass. RULE: Treat Start as a task that has no duration time; therefore, the start task has a zero in the upper right-hand comer for its EF. RULE: For each task, EF = ES Task Duration. Let's apply these rules to Path 1 of Figure 7.2. Task 4.1.1 follows the start task; it has an ES equal to the EF of Start: 0. Add the duration of Task 4.1.1 to its ES, 0, to yield an EF of 10 minutes for this task. Continuing along Path 1, Task 4.1.l.1 has an ES of 10, and, with a duration of 0.5 minutes, an EF of 10.5. Similarly, Task 4.1.1.1.1 has an ES of 10.5, a duration of 5, and an EF of 15.5. And Task4.1.1.1.1.1 has an ES of 15.5, duration of 0.5, and EF of 16. Since the next task has another path converging into it, we will put the calculations for it on hold for a moment.

+

Recipesfor Project Success

0

10

10

10.5

10.5

15.5

15.5

16

18

I8

(0.5) 18.5

18.5

23.5

23.5

24

4.1.1.1.1 4.1.1.1.1.1 ,4.1.1.1, (5), (0.5) \

4.1.1 (10) 8 0

3

4.2.1

+

(3) 0

Figure 7.2

3

4

3

3

4.2.1.1 (1)

4 +

4

4

24

4.2.1.1.1 (20) 24

24

-

25 Path l,2

4.2.1.1.1.1 (1) 24 25

4; I E d

= CP

PND for Pastafazool

RULE: Trace all forward paths. Return to Start, and trace Path 2 from left to right. Using the same task-by-task methodology, we arrive at Task 4.2.1.1.1 with an EF of 24. At this point, Path 2 also converges on Task 4.2.1.1.1.1. Since Paths 1 and 2 converge on Task 4.2.1.1.1.1, we must decide which preceding EF-16 or 24-- to use for the ES of Task4.2.1.1.1.1. RULE: Use the latest EF when tasks converge into another task Therefore, use 24 minutes for the ES of Task 4.2.1.1.1.1. With a duration of 1, Task4.2.1.1.1.1 has anEF of25. RULE: Like Start, End is viewed as a taskwith no duration. The ES and LS are the same for the end task. Because End has no duration, this number also equals the EF for the entire project. In other words, thls is the shortest possible total time to project completion (TTPC). Therefore, put 25 in the lower left corner of End.

1

THE BACKWARD PASS Return to Figure 7.2, begin at End, and work backwards-from right to left-using the LF and LS positions of each task. End has an LS of 25, which we place in the LF position of the prior Task 4.2.1.1.1.1. Two paths converge on Task 4.2.1.1.1.1. Let's first trace Path 1 backwards. RULE: O n the backward pass, LS = LF - Task Duration. For Task 4.2.1.1.1.1, subtract its duration of 1 from its LS of 25 to obtain an LS of 24. Then, place 24 minutes into the LF position of Task 4.1.1.1.1.1, subtract its 0.5-minute duration, and obtain an LS of 23.5 minutes for this task Continue backwards on Path 1 to Task 4.1 .I with an LF of 18 minutes and an LS of 8 minutes.

Forward and Backward Passes

ES

EF

TASK NUMBER (Task Duration) LS

b LF

ES = Early Start EF = Early Finish LS = Late Start LF = Late Finish

Figure 7.3

Task Box, Generic Format

RULE: Trace all backward paths. Return to Task 4.2.1.1.1 .I, and trace back along Path 2 from Task 4.2.1 .I.1 to Task 4.2.1 with an LF of 3 minutes and an LS of 0 minutes. For the LS of Start, use the smaller LS-in this case, 0 minutes from Task 4.2.1, RULE: O n the backward pass, use the smallest LS of tasks diverging from a task.

FLOAT We can now calculate float quantitatively In mathematical terms, the float of a task can be calculated two ways: float = LF - EF float = LS - ES. So, the float for Task 4.2.1.1.1.1 is 25 - 25 = 0, or 24 - 24 = 0. There is no float time for this task. However, ifwe continue backwards along Path 1, the float for Task4.1.1.1.1.1 is 24 - 16 = 8 minutes, which is the same as 23.5 - 15.5 = 8 minutes. TIP: A good way to check your math while doing the backward pass is to make sure that LS - ES = LF - EF. In Figure 7.2, look at the tasks in Path 1 before the path converges to Task 4.2.1.1.I.1. Although each of these tasks calculates a float time of eight minutes, each eight minutes must be shared with other tasks along the same branch. If one task uses any its float, the amount of float it uses is taken away from the other tasks along that branch.

Recipes3r Project Success

Days 0

Figure 7.4

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

PND with Duration Times and Forward and Backward Passes for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

RULE: Float of any task along a branch is shared among all the tasks on that branch; this is called shared float.

CRITICAL PATH In quantitative terms, the critical path (CP) is simply the path that has no floatin this case, Path 2 of Figure 7.2. All tasks along this path have zero float. This makes sense because any delay along the CP will delay the entire project schedule (the TTPC). RULE: The CP is the path with no float time. (It is the longest path through a project.)

EXERCISES Exercise 13: Based on the project network diagram (PND) and project integration table completed previously, indicate the duration times on the PND, complete the forward and backward passes, and determine the CP for your custom-designed house project. Suggested Answer: See Figure 7.4.

CHRISTMAS BREAKFAST

w

e have several traditions at Christmas. These traditions are not set in stone but have evolved over the years to fit changing circumstances. As is the case for most families, food and drink are prominent features. One of our best memories is the Christmas breakfast provided by our friends, Chris and Mike. They called some time before Christmas Day to ask if they could cook breakfast for us. The answer was an unequivocal "yes," and, after some negotiation about the time, we agreed we'd all be hungry around 11 A.M. Christmas morning, Mike and Chris came to our door loaded with a huge cooler, cooking instruments, and a portable grill that fit over two burners on top of the stove. It only took one eggnog each to fire the cooks into a flurry of activity that was met with encouragement and half-hearted offers of help from the hungry onlookers. Mike put together the pancakes while Chris browned the meat. We were soon to feast upon a breakfast of sausage, turkey bacon, and the lightest, tastiest pancakes imaginable. The pancakes were cooked some "wid" and some "widout" (as we say in South Philly), meaning that we had some plain and some with blueberries.

Recipesfor Project Success

Ingredients 2 1 1 /2 cups all-purpose flour 1 tsp. salt 3 tbsp. melted butter 1 cup buttermilk 114 cup milk I 314 tsp. baking powder 112 Ib. bacon. or turkey bacon

1

Ib. breakfast sausage

Turn on both burners underneath the griddle; when the griddle is hot, put bacon and sausage on to brown. While the meat is browning, separate the eggs. Mix buttermilk, milk, egg yolks, baking soda, and flour in mixing bowl. Lightly toss egg whites, and fold into mixture. Add butter to mixture, and stir lightly Turn the meat once while cooking about eight minutes per side, for a total cooking time of sixteen minutes. Wipe the griddle, keeping it hot. Spoon enough pancake mixture onto griddle to create pancakes approximately three inches in diameter. When bubbles form on top of pancakes, flip them over, and cook for about one more minute. Meat and pancakes are now ready to serve.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS The scope statement for this project is: "To cook a quick and delicious Christmas breakfast consisting of pancakes, bacon, and sausage while drinking eggnog and having good conversation with friends." A work breakdown structure (WBS) can be changed as feedback from the developmental process pushes your thinking further into the details of the project. However, one must be careful to maintain continuity throughout the process; if the WBS is changed after you have started development of the other diagrams, check them all for logical consistency. This recipe could probably be organized in several ways; Figure 8.1 illustrates one way

A ParalLcl-Path Pried

Christmas Breakfast 1.a

i Meat 1.1

Pancakes 1.2

i

4

Bacon 1.1.1

Sausage 1.1.2

4

.c

Brown 1.1.1.1

Bmwn 1.1.2.1

4

4

4

4

Separate

Mix Liquids

Eggs 1.2.1

and Dry Materials 1.2.2

L

i

4

+

Whip Egg Whites 1.2.1.1

Add Yolks 1.2.1.2

Add Butter 1.2.2.1

Egg Whites 1.2.1.1.1

1.2.2.1.1

1.2.2.1.1

Figure 8.1

WBS for Christmas Breakfast

There are two primary deliverables in Figure 8.1: the meat (1.1) and the pancakes (1.2), which are shown at Level 2 of the WBS hierarchy Note how the numbering evolves as lower levels of the WBS are penetrated. Deliverables (nouns) may be divided into subdeliverables at lower levels, as in this case, where the meat is broken down into the bacon and sausage at one level below "Meat" Further down, the WBS levels are comprised of tasks (verbs: action items requiring work). Deliverables or tasks with the same number of digits-for example, 1.1.1, 1.1.2, and 1.2.1--correspond to a same level of the WBS. Using the WBS as a guide, we can begin to organize the tasks into a partial project integration table (PIT) by estimating the duration times in minutes, as shown in Figure 8.2. Note that deliverables are not assigned duration times. Tasks only can be assigned duration times and used in a project network diagram (PND), similar to the one shown in Figure 8.3. In this example,

~

I

Recipesfor Projet Succecs

Brown Meat Separate Eggs Whip Egg Whites Fold Egg Whites Add Yolks Mix Add Butter Cook Pancakes Senre

I

Fiaure 8.2

I

PIT for Christmas Breakfast

Path 2

1.2.1.1

+

Mix 1.2.2 (1)

+

Fold 1.2.1.1.1 (1)

+

Butter 1.2.2.1

(0.5)

+

Cook 1.2.2.1.1 (2)

Yolks 1.2.1.2

Figure 8.3

PND for Christmas Breakfast

browning the bacon and the sausage were combined as one item, 1.1.1.1,instead of counting them twice, because they can be browned simultaneously in the same pan. These items could have been kept separate if desired. Similarly, serving was combined into a single task. There are two principal deliverables. This recipe lends itself to a parallel-path structure. These paths are independent and can be assigned to different people for completion.

A Parallel-Path ~ r o j e k

Figure 8.4

Partial PIT, TW Calculation, Meat Path, for Christmas Breakfast

CALCULATING PATH TIMES To determine the float (slack) time of a path, use the PIT to calculate the total path time (TPT) for that path, and compare it to the Cl? In Figure 8.4, the TPT for the meat path (Path 1) is seventeen minutes. For the pancake path (Path 2), the TPT is 7.5 minutes, as sh6wn in Figure 8.5. The critical path is Path 1. The float time of Path 2 is 16 - 7.5 = 8.5 minutes. Since Path 1 is the critical path, as shown in Figure 8.3, with double connecting arrows in the PND, Path 2 can be delayed 8.5 minutes without delaying completion of the meal. A master chef, who knows how to use float time to relax in the midst of preparing a recipe, is a good project manager. We can use the cost breakdown structure (CBS) to produce a bottom-up cost estimate for this recipe. A useful way to analyze costs is to break them down into two categories: labor and materials. Because we are completing the recipe ourselves, we could either ignore the labor component or, since labor is the time that a person spends on completing tasks, we could assign ourselves a rate, say ten cents per minute. We can extend the PIT, calculating the labor costs by multiplying the duration time by ten cents per minute and estimating the costs of groceries (materials), based on our supermarket experience, as shown in Figure 8.6. First, insert the costs into the WBS to create a CBS. Then, make a bottom-up estimate by adding the task costs upward through the hierarchy to create a cost for each subdeliverable and deliverable to establish a project budget. Note that we can make cost accounts at either the task, subdeliverable, or deliverable levels, as illustrated in Figure 8.7. During the execution process, when tasks are completed, their actual costs are inserted into the CBS, and project costs are recalculated and compared to the original project budget. There are various tools in use that quantifjr these comparisons, such as the budgeted cost ofwork scheduled, budgeted cost of

~'

Recipesfor Project Sucess

Partial PIT, TPT Calculation, Pancake Path, for Christmas Breakfast

Figure 8.5

Cook Pancakes Serve

Total

Figure 8.6

1.2.2.1.1 1.2.2.1.1.1

2 1

$0.20 $0.10

$0.00 $0.00

$0.20 $0.10

$8.93

PIT with Labor and Materials Costs for Christmas Breakfast

work performed, and actual cost of work performed. Further discussion of these concepts can be found in Earned Elue Project Management by Quentin W: Fleming and Joel M. Koppleman, Project Management Institute, 1996.

A Parallel-Path Project

,

Christmas Breakfast 1.o ($8.93)

1 Meat 1.1 ($7.70)

Pancakes 1.2 ($1.25)

4

&

Bacon 1.1.1

Sausage 1.1.2

4

4

Brown 1.1.1.1

Bmwn 1.1.2.1 ($7.60)

Separate Eggs 1.2.1 ($0.40)

Mix Liquids and Dry Mater~als 1.2.2 ($0.25)

J

4

Whip Egg Wh~tes

1 1.1.1.1.1

($0.10)

~ d d Yolks 1.2.1.2 ($0.10)

Egg Whites 1.2.1.1.1

Add Butter 1.2.2.1 ($0.08)

1

1.2.2.1.1 ($0.20)

1.2.2.1.1

Figure 8.7

CBS with Bottom-up Estimate for Christmas Breakfast

RESOURCE ALLOCATION We can further extend the PIT to include the people-the resources-by consulting the PND to assign tasks, as depicted in Figure 8.8. Although the PlT could probably be extended even further, for our purposes, it is complete: It links horizontally the four principal components of the project baseline: 1. Scope, via task components. 2. Schedule, via duration time components. 3. Cost components. 4. Resources.

Reciperfor Project Success

Add Butter Cook Pancakes Serve

Figure 8.8

1.2.2.1 1.2.2.1.1 1.2.2.1.1.1

0.5 2 1

$0.10 $0.05 $0.20 $0.10

$0.15 $0.03 $0.00 $0.00

$0.25 $0.08 $0.20 $0.10

Mike Mike Mike Mike

PIT with Resources Added for Christmas BreaMast

The PIT is the primary tool for integration of the project baseline. From the PIT, a resource allocation structure or a PND with resources added can be created to provide graphic tools to help the project team understand how each member's efforts fit into the project baseline (see Figure 8.9).

SUBPROJECTS

A clear assignment of tasks makes for a higher degree of team harmony Subprojects help delineate responsibilities. In our example, we can simplifjr the PND, as shown in Figure 8.10, in order to make it easier to visualize how Mike and Chris' respective tasks for the Christmas breakfast were interrelated. Subprojects greatly ease administration of complex projects.

EXERCISES Exercise 14: After discussion with your team, add resource assignments to the PIT developed previously in Figure 6.4 for your custom-built-house project. Suggested Answer: See Figure 8.11.

A Parallel-Path Project

Bmwn 1.1.1.1 (Chris)

Separate Whip 1.2.1 -* 1.2.1.1 (Mike) (Mike)

+

1.2.2 (Mike)

1.2.1.1.1 (Mike)

-b

1.2.2.1 (Mike)

+ 1.2.2.1.1 (Mike)

(Mike)

Figure 8.9

PND with Resources Added for Christmas Breakfast

Figure 8.10

PND Showing Only Subprojects for Christmas Breakfast

+= CP

Recipes for Project Success

Figure 8.11

PIT with Resource Assignments Added for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

F

our components developed during the project planning process constitute a project's baseline: scope, schedule, resources, and budget (formalized estimated costs). After the baseline is created, team members start the actual work, and the project execution process begins. During this process, the project manager leads the team in monitoring actual performance in relation to the baseline. The tool used for this monitoring is called the integrated baseline review. Change in one baseIine component inevitably impacts the other components. Integrated baseline review (IBR) is performed at mileposts established during the planning process. When a milepost is reached, tasks actually completed during project performance are compared to assumptions, projections, and estimates prepared during the planning process. Actual task performance is then added cumulatively and compared to cumulative estimates. The purpose of this analysis is to revise projections for project completion. Let's look at an example.

T'HE ANNUAL TONIATO SAUCE-MAKING PARTY During our tomato sauce years, we regularly attended the Philadelphia Phillies' baseball games with two other couples. The wives-Jackie, Alisa, and Maya-in order to pass some particularly slow moments in the games-began to plan an old fashioned "putting-up" party to celebrate the last good tomatoes of the season and the end of having to sit through baseball games.

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Together with the men-Cliff, Bob, and Al-we represented diverse ethnic backgrounds, including Irish,Jewish, English, African-American, French, and Italian. In this spirit of eclecticism, we began our yearly project, dubbed the Dazey seal.a.mealTM event in honor of the somewhat temperamental machine that sealed plastic freezer bags. This delicious homemade tomato sauce was the product of combined ideas from six people, and would supposedly get our three families through the winter months so barren of good fresh tomatoes. We set up an assembly line starting with peeling duty Peeling begins with loosening the skin of the tomatoes by immersing them for several minutes in boiling water. After being cooled in cold water, the tomatoes are peeled and squeezed, and some of the seeds are removed. While half the team peels, the others chop and brown the sausage, garlic, and onions. We then add the peeled tomatoes. Seasoning is added throughout the cooking as needed; we use a carrot, dried oregano, black pepper, salt, bay leaf, and basil. If the sauce seems a bit too watery, we add tomato paste, as needed. We allow some of the sauce to cool while we clean up the work area and begin the depletion of our wine and beer supply. The Dazey seal.a.mealm assembly is next; the plastic bags are three-quarters filled with cooled sauce and sealed. Some skill is required to seal the bags completely without burning through the plastic, and there is a certain amount of pride and competition in getting the best seal. In the future, we may have to use the simpler but less fun freezer bags that can be sealed with one swipe of the thumb. We divide the bags among the three families, and sit down to feast on the remainder. It is an enjoyable day, involving the coordinated efforts of several people. '

Ingredients YO Ib. (about 100) tomatoes 10 Ib. sweet

sausage

Aromatics:

1 head garlic 6 large yellow onions 1 large whole peeled carrot

I

cup olive oil

2 cups broth, or

red wine

3-4 small cans tomato paste 6 bay leaves 3 tsp. oregano, o r basil

Baseline

3 tbsp. parsley Y bay leaves 2 tsp. pepper 3 tsp. salt

Brown the sausage in a very large, thick saucepot. While the sausage is browning, clean and chop the onions and garlic. When the sausage is browned, remove it, lower the heat, and add the olive oil, the chopped onions, and garlic, and sautC until soft. Then add the broth or wine, and simmer the mixture while gently rubbing the bottom of the pot with a wooden spoon to dissolve the pan stickings into the simmering mixture. When the bottom of the pot is rubbed clean, add the tomato paste, one can at a time, while stirring to dissolve the paste into the mixture. Add enough paste to thicken: Quanto basta. Simultaneously, in a large pot, bring about four quarts of water to a boil. TIP: The word simultaneously is an indicator that your project will involve parallel-paths, and that the tasks involved likely can be assigned to different resources. Parboil the tomatoes in groups of ten for about five minutes, then place them in cold water to cool before removing the skin and squeezing out some of the juice. Place the skinned tomatoes into the simmering sauce pot as you clean them, and stir the mixture periodically, making sure nothing sticks to the bottom. When there is a sufficient volume of tomatoes simmering, add the browned sausage and the other spices to the pot. Add the carrot, which cuts the acid of the tomatoes and adds a slight sweetness to the sauce. Simmer the mixture, covered, for at least two hours over low heat while continuing to stir periodically

PROJECT MANAGEMENT ASPECTS The scope statement for this recipe is: "Make a large volume of sauce, sufficient to provide several tomato sauce meals for three families, but mainly as an excuse to spend a day cooking and dining with friends." The work breakdown structure (WBS) is shown in Figure 9.1.

Recipefor Project Succes

Tomato Sauce Party 5.0

+

Sausage 5.1

Tomatoes 5.2

Li uids 9.3

Aromatics 5.4

Spices 5.5

Brown 5.1.1

Parboil 5.2.1

Add to Sauce 5.3.1

Peel &Chop 5.4.1

Add 5.5.1

Add 5.1.1.1

Skin 5.2.1.1

Add

Saute

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

&Garlic Simmer 5.1.1.1.1

Figure 9.1

Saucepan 5.2.1.1.1

Simmer 5.3.1.1.1

Carrot 5.4.1.1.1

WBS for Tomato Sauce-Making Party

Because there are several people involved in this project, it is probably a good idea to create a resource allocation structure (RAS) at this point in our planning process (see Figure 9.2). TIP: Creating an RAS at this point is often a good procedure because it prompts team members to identifl with their roles. Although two "simmer" tasks exist in the WBS, they are combined into a single task (Task 5.1.1.1.1) in the RAS because one person, Alisa, can do all of the simmering. The project integration table (PIT) is illustrated in Figure 9.3. TIP: Often, the PIT is done at this point to enable easier creation of the project network diagram (PND). We can further extend the PIT to estimate the costs of each task, as shown in Figure 9.4. Using these estimated task costs, we can then create a cost breakdown structure (CBS) with a bottom-up cost estimate for our recipe, as illustrated in Figure 9.5.

Baseline

Tomato Sauce Party 5.0

v Sausage 5.1

Tomatoes 5.2

Liquids 5.3

Aromatics 5.4

Bmwn 5.1.1 (All

Spices 5.5

5.5.1 (Cliff)

Add 5.1.1.1 (Bob)

Simmer 5.1.1.1.1 (Alisa)

Figure 9.2

Add 5.2.1.1.1 (Jackie)

Add Carrot 5.4.1.1.1 (Maya)

RAS for Tomato Sauce-Making Party

Based on the WBS and considering the resource assignments in the RAS and the duration times from the PIT, we are now ready to create a PND (see Figure 9.6). In Figure 9.6, we have shown all of the task parameters in each box, and the task name, number, assigned resource, and duration time in parentheses. We've also completed the forward and backward passes and established the critical path (CP) along Path 4. The total time to project completion (TTPC) is calculated to be 216 minutes along this path.

5.5.1 5.1.1.1.1

Add Spices Simmer

Figure 9.3

1 120

PIT for Tomato Sauce-Making Party

Add Liquid Add Paste Peel and Chop SauU Onion and Garlic Add Carrot Add Spices Simmer

5.3.1 5.3.1.1 5.4.1 5.4.1.1 5.4.1.1.1 5.5.1 5.1.1.1.1

2 3 15 5 1 1 120

Cliff

Bob Maya Al

Maya Cliff Alisa

2 x .10 =$0.20 3 x .10 =$0.30 15 x .lo=$1.50 5 x .I0 = $0.50 1 x .10 =$0.10 1 x .lo= $0.10 120 x .lo= $12.00

Total Estimated Cost

Figure 9.4

Cliff Alisa

0.05 1.50 0 2.00 0.10 0.15 0

0.25 1.80 1.50 2.50 0.20 0.25 12.00 $74.00

Extended PIT for Tomato Sauce-Making Parly

Tomato Sauce Party 5.0 ($74.00)

v Sausage

(&*loo.

Tomatoes 5.2 ($19.50)

Li uids 9.3 ($2.05)

Aromatics 5.4 ($4.20)

Spices 5.5 ($0.75)

Brown

($!A)

Add 5.1.1.1 ($34.00)

Simmer 5.1.1.1.1 ($12.00)

Figure 9.5

Add 5.2.1.1.1 ($12.00)

Add Carrot 5.4.1.1.1 ($0.20)

CBS with Bottom-up Estimate for Tomato Sauce-Making Party

STEP 7: INTEGRATED BASELINE REVIEW Once the baseline is established, the planning process is complete, and project execution begins. During the execution process, the team shifts from a planning mode into a monitoring mode. Monitoring is conducted at mileposts established during the planning process. Notice that Figure 9.6 has been laid out according to a timeline against which the tasks are aligned in accordance with their early finish (EF) time. Since the estimated TTPC is 216 minutes, we divided by ten to create mileposts at every twenty minutes of project execution.

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Figure 9.6

PND for Tomato Sauce-MakingParty

Baseline

TIP: Mileposts can be created at convenient points of the project execution, but maximum effort should be made to take advantage of the natural stopping points that exist in every project. At each milepost, the team reviews the baseline component in relation to the assumptions, projections, or estimates established during the planning process. A change in one baseline component will usually impact the others; therefore, they must be analyzed holistically This is why it is called an integrated baseline review (IBR). At a milepost, the team should first analyze baseline components qualitatively For example, perhaps our dinner guest (our client) decided that he wanted a sweeter sauce. In response, Maya added some raisins as well as a carrot to the sauce. This change will add cost to our project because the raisins would have to be purchased, which may affect the CBS. It will add time to our project while Maya adds the raisins, which may in turn affect the PND. It may even add a resource to our project if someone besides Maya adds the raisins, which affects our RAS. At this point, the team should get into a more in-depth quantitative baseline analysis. For example, let's do a detailed milepost analysis of the schedule component of the baseline. At the first twenty-minute milepost, note that, according to our plan, Tasks 5.4.1,5.4.1.1.1, and 5.1.1 should be completed. Suppose that Task 5.4.1 is done on schedule-so far, so good. Task 5.4.1.1 could be beginning because it has an early start (ES) of twenty minutes. Note, however, that this task does not have to be started because it has a late start (LS) of eighty-six minutes. In fact, the float time of Task 5.4.1.1 equals 86 - 20 = 66 minutes; thus, this task need not be started for another s q - s i x minutes. Rather than have A1 begin sauteing the oil and garlic at milepost 20, we are free to use him on another task; this is known as resource leveling. We must ensure that A1 returns to begin sautCing before eightysix minutes-the LS of Task 5.4.1.I--elapses. If, at this point, Task 5.1.1 isn't done, schedule problems may occur. However, Task 5.1.1 is not on the Cl? It has smy-six minutes of float time, so it can be delayed up to sixty-six minutes. Let's look now at milepost 60. At this milepost, Tasks 5.4.1.1,5.3.1,5.3.1.1, and 5.2.1 should be completed in addition to those listed above for milepost 20. Suppose we find, however, that Task 5.2.1 was not completed until fifty-six minutes has elapsed. Task 5.2.1 is on the CP, so we know we have a serious problem.

STEP 8: BASELINE ADJUSTMENT When a CP task is delayed, or ifwe anticipate it will be delayed, we must take action. The most likely action will be to adjust a subsequent task on the CP,

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shortening its duration to try to absorb the time lost. In this case, since Task 5.2.1 was delayed six minutes, we can attempt to shorten the duration time of Task 5.2.1.1 (Skin), by six minutes. If we can, we will make up the lost time and avoid impact on the TTPC. A way to shorten duration time of a task is to crash it. Crashing occurs when we add more resources to complete a task, perhaps by allowing overtime or more labor to complete the task. In our example, we can let Cliff, who really does not have much else to do, help Jackie with the skinning. In Figure 9.7, we adjusted Task 5.2.1 to reflect the six-minute delay by adding six minutes to its duration time and changing the ES and EF calculations. Also, to Task 5.2.1.1, we added Cliff as a resource to help Jackie, and lessened the duration of this task by six minutes to reflect the added resource and the effects of crashing this task Therefore, we see that baseline adjustment in response to a need to keep one component-schedule-on target affected another component-resources. We might want to revise our RAS (see Figure 9.2) to add Cliff to Jackie on Task 5.2.1 under "Tomatoes" to reflect this crashing effort. We cannot stop our analysis here, however; additional resources are not free. C l i c at least in theory, is paid a wage for his effort, which impacts the cost component of our baseline. Let's have a look at the impact on cost of crashing. The best place to begin assessing this impact is the PIT. Let's revise Figure 9.4 to reflect our baseline changes, as depicted in Figure 9.8. Note that in Figure 9.8 we revised the PIT to reflect both the cost of delay to Task 5.2.1 and the cost of crashing Task 5.2.1.1. The resulting total estimated cost to our project is $75.90, or a net increase of $1.90 over our previous estimate of $74.00. RULE: When revising a cost estimate to reflect the effects of crashing, it is also necessary to make revisions to reflect the added costs of the delay that is causing the need for the crashing. The above analysis shows the importance of the PIT during the execution process. It also shows why IBR is so vital: A change in one baseline component impacts the others. RULE: At each milepost, the team must review the four baseline components: VlrBS, RAS, CBS, and PND. The PIT is a convenient integrated tabulation for analyzing changes and quantifjnng their impacts. Changes, unforeseen conditions, revised estimates, or actual developments will likely induce a need to reestablish the project baseline. Rather than wait for these kinds of changes to occur, it is better to find a way to anticipate them. Again, the PIT is a useful vehicle for anticipating areas of the project that are vulnerable. Let's go back to Figure 9.6, before the changes

Timeline (Minutes) 0

20

40

60

80

100

220

I

I

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I

15

0

5.4.1 Peel and

Path 1

27

95

JO

%

216

%

216

5.1.1.1.1

Paths 2 and 3 (1) 75

56

95

(20) %

5.2.1.1 Skin

%

116

12.

1

-Jackie0

56

5.2.1,

Paths 4 and 5

75

75

95

5.1.1.1 Add Sausage

) -Aha-

-Bob-

Path 5

(4)

(56) 0

79

56

92

%

---I= CP

Recipesfor Project Success

Figure 9.8

Revised PIT with Delay and Crashing for Tomato Sauce-Making party

occurred, and create a PIT which, this time, shows the total path time (TPT) for each path through the project (see Figure 9.9). Figure 9.9 shows the CP as Path 4, but note that Path 5 has the second longest TPT through the project. The second longest path is known as the near-critical path (NCP). The tasks along the NCP must be monitored as closely as are those along the CP, because a significant delay along the NCP could easily cause it to become the CP for the project. The team must always be aware of potential CP shifting.

EXERCISES Exercise 15: As you proceed through the construction of your custom-designedhouse project, you find that construction of the superstructure is delayed two weeks due to excessive rainfall. Determine the impact of this delay on your PND. Suggested Answer: Task 1.2.2 is assigned a new duration of forty-four days (thirty days plus the fourteen-day delay), and the forward and backward passes are recomputed, as shown in Figure 9.10. Note that the CP has shifted from Path 2 in Figure 7.4 to Path 4 in Figure 9.10. In other words, the CP has shifted to the NCF?

Baseline

Add Liquid Add Paste Peel and Chop Saute Onion and Garlic Add Carmt Add Spices Simmer TPT

5.3.1 5.3.1.1 5.4.1 5.4.1.1 5.4.1.1.1 5.5.1 5.1.1.1.1

2 3 15 5 1 I 120

2 3 15 5

2 3

120

120

120

1 120

120

136

145

150

216

199

15

5

1

Figure 9.9

PIT with TPT Calculated for Tomato Sauce-Making Party

Figure 9.10

PND with Shifted CP for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

Exercise 16: The CP shift depicted in Figure 9.10 could have been anticipated if the NCP had been known and monitored. Based on the PND of Figure 7.4, create a PIT that shows all TPTs, including that of the NCl?

R e c i pfor ~ Pq'ect SUCCBS

Found Const S Const HVACE Const Int Const lnsp PA. Const TPT

Figure 9.11

1.2.1 1.2.2

1.2.3 1.2.4

1.3 1.2.5

21

21

30

30

30

45

14 45

14 45

14 45

14 45

3

3

3

3

3

3

7

7

7

7

7

7

186

221

191

200

194

14 45

PIT with TPT Shown for Custom-Built House: Fast-Track Design and Construction

Suggested Answer:See Figure 9.11.

Note that Path 4 is the NCP that the team must monitor closely in anticipation of a shift. TP. Shifting of the CP to an NCP is a very common occurrence during the project execution process. Therefore, teams must not only closely monitor the Ce but also all NCPs and the compIetion of tasks along them.

E

isenhower said: "Planning is everything-Plans are nothing." The process of planning involving project management tools is critical not because they are ends in themselves. Rather, the creation of these diagrams during the planning process activates a forum, which encourages a team of people with different knowledge, experiences, and skills to work together in a mutually supportive way toward the accomplishment of a set of objectives. Continuous change in objectives, stakeholders, and circumstances is an inevitable pan of all projects: Projects succeed or fail, depending on how the project team responds to change. The purpose of the planning process is not only to provide structure to a project, but also to prepare the team to respond to change in a constructive way, using good team dynamics. Project management is what? Fill in the blank with any of the following, or get your team members to fill in the blank, and then rank their choices in order of importance, for example:

Recipesfor Project Success

W

w w W

W

w

w W

communications management being organized seeing the big picture seeing the little picture formalized team building being able to rapidly zoom focus from the details to the big picture change management anticipating risk management involving the client stakeholder management people people management being a good cook!

A SIMPLE PASTA DINNER I

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Ib. pasta, fresh or dried

4 qt. boiling w a t e r 2-4 large pats butter. or 4-6

At

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least

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tbsp. olive oil

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Grated cheese t o taste

!

j j

Get the water boiling, and add two tablespoons of oil or pats of butter. Don't salt the water.

jI

Use a lot ofwater because pasta gives off starch, which can cause stickiness when there's not sufficient water to dilute it. Cook the pasta and drain it. Don't rinse the pasta-toss it immediately with the butter or oil and cheese.

j

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!

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!

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!

Recipesfor Project Success

Ingredients 2-3 tbsp. olive oil

3

cloves chopped garlic, and/or

I

chopped small onion

2 Ib. chopped fresh plum tomatoes Optional:

I

2 tbsp. tomato paste

tbsp. dried o r fresh-chapped parsley, basil, o r oregano

Optional:

I

Ib. beef, pork. veal, sausage, mushrooms. o r other (see below),

chopped o r sliced

Use plum tomatoes or round tomatoes after squeezing to remove excess water. You may boil fresh tomatoes first (about three to five minutes) to remove the skin. For a fresh sauce such as this, we like the texture that the skins give to the sauce. We're told that Sicilians prefer to remove the seeds. First, brown meat in butter or oil, then remove the meat and set it aside. Add the rest of the oil to the same pan and sautC the garlic or onions over low heat until soft. Deglaze with several tablespoons of water, broth, or red wine; deglazing adds real flavor to the sauce. Then, add the tomatoes. If you are using fresh tomatoes, add salt to taste. Re-add the meat and add remaining spices; cook until blended, about twenty minutes. If you use mushrooms instead of meat, add them after you sautt the oil and garlic, and cook them for a while before you add the tomatoes. Deglazing is not effective, so unnecessary. Green peppers, zucchini, or even celery can be used instead of the mushrooms by following the same procedure. We've even used ceci beans, drained, from a can. We've also tried canned tuna fish but don't like it. If only tomatoes are used, simply saute onions or garlic, and then add the tomatoes to the pan. Add paste, if necessary, to thicken.

Appendix

STEAWED FISH Ingredients I

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1 Ib. w h i t e fish filets, such as cod, scrod, haddock, o r grouper, cut into about 2-in. chunks 4 cups chopped kale, o r any other sturdy green, leafy vegetable, such os spinach. mustard greens, o r escarole

1

3 cloves chopped garlic andlor 1 small chopped onion

j

2 tbsp. olive, peanut, o r canola oil, or, i f you like a rich taste, 2 tbsp. butter

! I I I

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112 cup d r y o r cream sherry

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4 tbsp. soy sauce o r hot sauce 1 cup white rice

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2 cups cold w a t e r o r broth

j j j j

Put the rice in a coverable pot, and rinse it repeatedly by mixing it with cold water until the water runs clear when you drain it. Drain as much water as you can from the pot, and add two cups cold water or broth. Cover the pot, bring it to a boil, then lower the heat and simmer for ten minutes, stirring occasionally Turn off the heat and, without removing the cover so that the pot retains the steam, let the rice rest for another ten minutes to finish cooking.

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Chop the garlic or onions. Saute them in a separate coverable pan in the oil or butter for two or three minutes. Lay the greens in the pan on top of the garlic or onion mixture. Add the sherry. If you wash the greens and leave them very wet, use less sherry. Lay the fish chunks on top of the greens, being careful not to overlap pieces. Pour the soy or hot sauce over the fish, cover tightly, and simmer covered for ten to fifteen minutes, allowing the fish and greens to steam. Serve the fish and the greens over the rice, and pour the pan broth over both.

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Recipesfor Project Success

EGG FRIED RICE Ingredients 2 eggs 2 cloves chopped

or one smoll chopped onion or scullion

3-'f tbsp. olive oil. or 2 tbsp. butter 2 cups precooked white 3-5 tbsp. soy

rice

sauce, or t o taste

Cook the white rice as described in the Steamed Fish recipe; we will assume that the rice is already cooked at the start point of this recipe (projectic license). This recipe works best with leftover rice. Cook a two-egg omelet. Remove the omelet from the pan, chop it into one-halfinch squares, and set it aside. In the omelet pan, sautC onions, garlic, or scallions in the butter or oil until soft. Add the chopped omelet, and stir for a short while. Then, add the rice and keep on stirring for two to three minutes, or until hot. Before serving, add soy sauce and stir.

Appendix

r--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. I I

MEAT AND POTATOES

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Ingredients 4 pork chops. 112-314 in. thick 4 medium-sized red potatoes I/2 3

Ib. fresh green beans, sliced into I-in. lengths

tbsp. b u t t e r , o r oil o f some kind

I

tsp. garlic powder

I

small onion, diced

2 tbsp. chopped

fresh. o r

I

tbsp. dried parsley

1-3 tbsp. soy sauce Pepper and salt

Wash the potatoes. Without drying them, slice them into one-and-one-half-inch chunks, and place them in a coverable, microwavable dish. Sprinkle one-half teaspoon or so of garlic powder over the potatoes and add parsley, pepper, and salt to taste. Add a little at a time until it tastes right. Italians have a phrase for this incremental technique: Quanto basta (as much as is needed). Break up one tablespoon of butter and distribute it over the potatoes. Make sure that there is about one-quarter inch ofwater at the bottom of the dish for steaming; add more if needed. Cover and microwave on high for five minutes; remove, stir the potatoes, cover, and microwave for another three minutes. Test the potatoes; if they are too hard, stir and microwave until done. While someone is cooking the potatoes, someone else is cooking the beans (parallel-path). Leave the beans wet after they are washed. Saute the onion in one tablespoon of butter or oil until soft. Add the beans, cover, put over heat, and steam five to seven minutes. Add soy sauce and pepper to taste. Keep covered until served. The third person, meanwhile, can prepare the pork chops (another parallel-path). Pat the chops dry, sprinkle with garlic power and black pepper, and pound into . each side. In a hot griddle or cast-iron frying pan, add one tablespoon of butter or oil, and, before the butter starts burning, toss in the pork chops. Brown the pork chops for three or four minutes on each side. Remove the pork chops, and deglaze the pan with about one-half cup water, broth, sherry, or wine. When reduced to a desired thickness, pour the liquid over the pork chops, and serve with the potatoes and beans.

!

MEAT, POTATO, AND BEAN CASSEROLE j j

j j j j !

We'll use the same ingredients as the previous recipe. First, brown the spiced pork chops, and deglaze them as before. Slice the potatoes, and chop the vegetables. Sautt the onion in the butter in a coverable casserole dish, then add the potatoes and beans, the remaining garlic powder, parsley, pepper, and soy, and toss. Lay the browned pork chops on top of the other ingredients, and pour the deglazing liquid over everything. Cover and bake in a preheated 350-degree oven, stirring occasionally, for forty-five minutes or until potatoes are tender.

Appendix

MAKING AN OMELET i

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Making an omelet is tricky. It requires practice, especially in awareness of when the pan is hot enough so the omelet won't stick but is not so hot as to burn it.

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Ingredients !

2 eggs 112cup chopped or

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grated cheese, such as Swiss or cheddar

tbsp. butter. or oil

Spices

Heat a ten-to-twelve-inch skillet. Our preference is a heavy cast-iron pan, which distributes and holds the heat evenly. While the pan is heating, break two eggs into a cup, and stir them until the mixture is evenly yellow. Add salt, pepper, and garlic powder. Test the pan by sprinkling some water in it; the water should instantly evaporate. Add the egg mixture, and let it firm up. An important objective when cooking an omelet is to end with a clean pan. If you err, however, all is not lost; start stirring, and make scrambled eggs.

recipe sf.^Project Success

HOMEMADE PIZZAS Ingredients 6

pieces bread, sliced about 318-in. thick a t a diagonal across t h e loaf

2 plum tomatoes. sliced about 114-in. thick

3 tbsp. olive oil 114 tsp. pepper 112 tsp. dried oregano o r basil (optional) 1

tbsp. grated Italian cheese (strong, such as pecorino Romano)

S a l t t o taste, which probably won't be necessary because o f the cheese i

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The bread should be a crusty long loaf, such as Italian bread or a French baguette. This recipe especially works well if the bread is a day or two old because of the added crustiness, which the oil and the juices from the tomatoes tend to soften during the coolung process.

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Slice the bread, and toast it. Place the bread on an ovenproof flat dish, and put tomato slices on the bread. Sprinkle the spices and olive oil on top of the tomatoes, followed by the cheese. Broil for about three minutes. Serve hot or cold.

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Appendix

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Broth is used in many recipes. It is simple to make; all it requires is time. You can't hurry broth, which makes it a good recipe to introduce scheduling techniques.

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Ingredients 2 qt. w a t e r 1 large quartered onion 2 peeled and sliced carrots

4 crushed cloves garlic 2 large, chopped stalks celery Bones from 2 chicken breosts 3 bay leaves 2-4tsp. salt 1 tsp. pepper

Put the water in a pot on the burner. While waiting for it to come to a boil, add all of the ingredients to it. Lower the heat, cover, and simmer, stirring occasionally. Skim the surface periodically with a large spoon. Cook for one-andone-half to two hours. When done, strain into portions in freezer containers, and freeze immediately4on't allow to cool outside freezer. Microwave the freezer container for two to three minutes when you are ready to use the broth.

Recipesfor Project Succes

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Pasta and bean soup is often called pastafazoo1by Italian-Americans. In fact, the correct pronunciation for this delicious meal isparta efagiole, meaning "pasta and beans."

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Ingredients 1

Ib. pasta. either elbows or small shells

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16-02 can pork and beans

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small can stewed tomatoes

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cup broth, or white wine

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small chopped onion

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clove chopped garlic bay leaf

2 tbsp. olive oil Grated cheese and pepper t o taste

Put two quarts of water on to boil. While waiting for the water to boil, saut6 the onions and garlic in one tablespoon of the olive oil. When the onions become soft, add the beans, broth, stewed tomatoes, bay leaf,and pepper. Simmer this mixture for twenty minutes minimum. I

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While the bean mixture is simmering, add the rest of the olive oil to the boiling water and cook the pasta a1dente.

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When the pasta is cooked, drain it, put it in a large serving dish, and pour the bean mixture over it. Sprinkle with the cheese and serve.

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Appendix

CHRISTMAS B-AST Ingredients 2 I 112 cups all-purpose flour

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tsp. salt

3 tbsp. melted butter

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cup buttermilk

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cup milk

I 3/Y tsp. baking powder 112 Ib. bacon. o r turkey 1

bacon

Ib. breakfast sausage

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Turn on both burners underneath the griddle; when the griddle is hot, put bacon and sausage on to brown. While the meat is browning, separate the eggs. Mix buttermilk, milk, egg yolks, baking soda, and flour in mixing bowl. Lightly toss egg whites, and fold into mixture. Add butter to mixture, and stir lightly

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Turn the meat once while cooking about eight minutes per side, for a total cooking time of sixteen minutes. Wipe the griddle, keeping it hot. Spoon enough pancake mixture onto griddle to create pancakes approximately three inches in diameter. When bubbles form on top of pancakes, flip them over, and cook for about one more minute. Meat and pancakes are now ready to serve.

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Recipesfor Project Success

THE ANNUAL TOMTO SAUCEMAKING P m T Y Ingredients YO Ib. (about

100) tomatoes

10 Ib. sweet sausage Aromatics:

1

head garlic

6

large yellow onions

1

large whole peeled carrot

1 cup olive oil 2

cups broth, or red wine

3-4 small cans tomato paste 6 bay leaves

3 tsp. oregano, or basil 3 tbsp. parsley 4 bay leaves 2 tsp. pepper

3 tsp. salt

Brown the sausage in a very large, thick saucepot. While the sausage is browning, clean and chop the onions and garlic. When the sausage is browned, remove it, lower the heat, and add the olive oil, the chopped onions, and garlic, and sautt until soft. Then add the broth or wine, and simmer the mixture while gently rubbing the bottom of the pot with a wooden spoon to dissolve the pan sticking5 into the simmering mixture. When the bottom of the pot is rubbed clean, add the tomato paste, one can at a time, while stirring to dissolve the paste into the mixture. Add enough paste to thicken: Quanto basta. Simultaneously, in a large pot, bring about four quarts of water to a boil. Parboil the tomatoes in groups of ten for about five minutes, then place them in cold water to cool before removing the slun and squeezing out some of the juice. Place the skinned tomatoes into the simmering sauce pot as you clean them, and stir the mixture periodically, making sure nothing sticks to the bottom. When there is a suficient volume of tomatoes simmering, add the browned sausage and the other spices to the pot. Add the carrot, which cuts the acid of the tomatoes and adds a slight sweetness to the sauce. Simmer the mixture, covered, for at least two hours over low heat while continuing to stir periodically

Activity

Sometimes used synonymously with task; sometimes a collection of related tasks. (Also see Subproject and Task.) Actual development

Real completed taskvalues (e.g., duration or cost) that are used in the integrated baseline review to compare to planned values. Application area

The specific field, profession, industry, and so on where project management techniques are being used, such as construction, information technology, government, or food preparation. Authorization

The decision made by upper management to proceed with a project and approve funding (establish a budget) for the project. After authorization, the project manager usually is appointed, and the project team is assembled. Backward pass

Determined by working backward through the late finish and late start of each activity, from finish, as calculated in the forward pass. Baseline

The original plan, plus or minus approved changes, against which the project team measures actual project performance at pre-established mileposts. Usually used with a modifier, e.g., scope baseline, cost baseline, schedule baseline, resource baseline, and so forth.

Recipesfor PrOiect Success

Bottom up

A procedure through which a decomposed project is rebuilt from the lowest work breakdown structure level (the task, work-package, cost-account, or control-account level) upward, reassembling the project for a purpose such as estimating total project cost; opposite of Top down. Bottom-up cost estimate

An estimate completed using bottom-up procedures. (Also see Definitive estimate.) Boundaries

The limits, in terms of scope or tasks to be performed, of the project. Scope, work, or tasks performed, which are beyond the boundaries of a project, constitute a change that must follow project configuration management procedures. Boundaries can be viewed from a two-dimensional perspective in relation to projects: The work breakdown structure establishes the vertical boundaries, and the project network diagram, the horizontal. Brainstorming

A discovery procedure in which a team generates ideas about a subject. The primary rule of this procedure is that nobody criticizes any ideas; then, the group organizes the results. Branch

A portion of a path that is not interrupted by convergence or divergence. Budget estimate, or Budgetary estimate

Funds authorized for a project, usually based upon formalization of some kind of top-down or order-of-magnitude estimate. Forms an important cost component of the project baseline. Expected range of accuracy is -10 percent to +25 percent. Change

Any alteration to the existing project baseline. Can refer to a formal project change order or to a vulnerable point, such as a resource change, an interface, or a handoK Client

See Owner. Closing

One of the five traditional project management processes: initiating, planning, executing, closing, and controlling.

a

Glossary

Closing up

In the construction application area, installation of interior finishes--drywall and the like-that covers the work underneath, making it invisible during inspection. Code of accounts

A numbering system used to uniquely identifjr each element of the work breakdown structure. In this book, it is synonymous with hierarchical numbering system. Enables control of funds or budgets allocated to subprojects, activities, or tasks. (Also see Control account.) Conceptual design

In the architectural application area, a stage of design where preliminary sketches are presented to the owner or client to ensure that the developed project matches the intentions of the owner or client. Control account

See Cost account. Controlling

One of the five traditional project management processes: initiating, planning, executing, closing, and controlling. The process of comparing actual performance with planned performance, analyzing variances, evaluating possible alternatives, and taking appropriate corrective action as needed. Convergence

A point where two paths meet in a single task that is dependent upon completion of all the tasks along the paths leading into it. Cost account

Tasks are the lowest level of effort in the work breakdown structure. They are where costs are associated with the work for tracking purposes throughout the project life, and are the cost accounts for smaller projects. However, for more complex projects, it may be more convenient to create a cost account for a group of tasks assembled under a subproject.As a result, in recent years, cost accounts have been renamed control accounts because not only cost but also schedule and resources are controlled at the subproject level. In this sense, it is the amount of budget assigned to a subteam. (Also see Code of accounts and Task.) Cost breakdown structure

The work breakdown structure (WBS) with costs inserted into tasks and summed vertically upward through the TUBS hierarchy

Recipesfor Project Success

Crashing

When a task on the critical path has taken longer than its estimated duration time, the process of making up this lost time by adding resources to it or to a subsequent task in an attempt to ensure that the total time to project completion is not delayed. Critical path

The longest path through a project from its start to end points and therefore the project schedule or total time to project completion. In other words, the path through a project from start to end, which has no float time. (Also see Near-critical path.) Decomposition

A top-down process where the project is broken down progressively into smaller and smaller components until the smallest reasonably assigned components of work are identified. Definitive estimate

An estimate made after a project has been decomposed through the work breakdown structure. In this kind of estimate, the project is reconstructed from the bottom-up, starting at the task or work-package level, and up through the work breakdown structure hierarchical numbering system to arrive at a total estimated cost for the project. Usually completed at final design, when decomposition is extended to its maximum limits. Expected range of accuracy is -5 percent to 10 percent.

+

Deliverable

The primary thing (noun) that a project produces. A tangible outcome of project tasks. A project usually consists of several deliverables. Deliverables normally constitute Level 2 of the work breakdown structure. Also, deliverables are a required component of the scope statement. Sometimes, deliverables are referred to as products or vice versa. Dependent

A state where a task cannot begin until a prior task, in series, is completed. This prior task is called a Predecessor task. Design development

In the architectural application area, the stage of design between conceptual design and final design, where the project is past the idea stage and actual implementation methodologies are being introduced into the drawings and specifications.

Glossary

Divergence

A point where two or more paths leave a single task. Duration time

The amount of time, estimated or actual, that it takes to complete a single project task. Early finish

In a project network diagram, the earliest that a task can be completed considering its duration and the completion of tasks on which it is dependent. Measured in relation to the project's timeline. Early start

In a project network diagram, the earliest that a task can begin because it is dependent on completion of prior tasks. Measured in relation to the project's timeline. End

The final milepost of a project. The last task, with no duration, of the project network diagram. An example of a dummy task. Executing

One of the five traditional project management processes: initiating, planning, executing, closing, and controlling. The stage of the project where task performance has started, and where the team moves into a monitoring and adjusting posture in contrast to the types of activities that were performed during the planning process. During the execution process, the rubber literally hits the road; the quality of the work that the team accomplished during the planning process becomes evident here. Execution process

See Executing. Fast tracking An acceleration method wherein subprojects normally done in series because

of a predecessor relationship are broken into tasks to allow them to be done in parallel. Final design

In the architectural application area, the drawings and specifications that serve as the basis of a contract with a construction firm to construct the actual building. Final-design documents are legally binding.

Recipes for Project Succecs

Float

The amount of time that the completion of a task can be delayed without delaying the overall time to complete the project. A task on the critical path has zero float time. Tasks on paths not on the critical path inevitably have float time, which can and should be used flexibly to maximum advantage for project success. Same as slack time. (Also see Branch and Shared float.) Forward pass A method for quantitatively determining the critical path and float times of a

project. In this method, along all paths from start to finish, successively for all tasks, the duration of a given task is added to the latest early finish of previous tasks upon which the given task is dependent, to obtain the early finish of the given task. Gantt chart

A horizontal bar chart that shows relative task or subproject start and completion times in relation to a horizontal time scale. Not as good as a project network diagram for showing dependencies or predecessor relationships, but better at showing project relationships from a global perspective. Gantt charts are favored by upper management. Goal

What the project is intended to accomplish in conceptual terms. Usually formulated by management when the project is first conceived, before a project manager is assigned or a project team is assembled. Handoff

A passing of responsibility from one person or group to another, such as transfer of a project from a design group to a construction administration group, or from a marketing or sales group to an engineering or manufacturing group. Examples of handoffs are endless and, without exception, cause problems, which the project manager must anticipate. It allows the handingoff group to absolve itself of responsibility and the receiving group to criticize the handing-off group. Hierarchical numbering system

A decimal-based numbering system patterned after the levels of the work breakdown structure, which is used in all of the project tools and serves as the primary integrating device among these tools. (Also see Code o f accounts.) Historical estimate

An estimate of costs based on past experience with similar tasks.

Hybrid estimate An estimate done by combining other estimating techniques-for example, by combining a parametric estimate with a bottom-up estimate. Usually done at midpoint of design or at the end of the design-development stage. If done at final design, it is an indicator of a lack of thoroughness in completion of the design. Incremental technique A process of implementing change in slow, manageable units so that effects can be monitored before they become unmanageable or irreversible. Initiating One of the five traditional project management processes: initiating, planning, executing, closing, and controlling. The initiating process is transitional between upper management deciding to proceed with and authorize a project, and the project team beginning project development. Integration Viewing all project baseline components together in a related context, such as the project integration table; sorts and ties together common parameters. Interface A project juncture in every sense, in series, parallel, vertical, horizontal, between people, phases, things, or events, including handoffs from one person or group to another. Interfaces are major points of project vulnerability, and therefore must be monitored with extra caution. Justification The reason that the project is being undertaken; a required component of the scope statement. Late finish In a project network diagram, the latest that a task can be comple'ted without delaying the total time to project completion. A task has duration and must wait for completion of prior tasks upon which it is dependent, but also has available an additional amount of time due to the available float on its path. Measured in relation to the project's timeline.

Recipesfor Projet Success

Late start

In a project network diagram, the latest that a task can be started without delayirig the total time to project completion. A task must wait for completion of tasks upon which it is dependent, but can wait an additional amount of time up to the available float on its path. Measured in relation to the project's timeline. Level

A horizontal stratum of the work breakdown structure that identifies degrees of decomposition of the scope. Linear project

A project with one path between its start and end points. Management reserve

A confidential amount of money available to the project, which the owner or project manager "keeps in his pocket" to cover unexpected developments or emergencies that inevitably crop up on a project. Called a contingency reserve in some application areas. Milepost

A significant event of the project. A point at which the project team chooses to compare actual project progress during the execution process to that which was projected, assumed, or estimated during the planning process. Monitoring

Comparison of assumptions, projections, and estimates to actual project progress that the project team accomplishes at project mileposts. Multiple-path project

A project involving more than one path either partly or entirely from start to end. Near-critical path

A path other than the critical path. Delay of a task completion along the nearcritical path could change it into the critical path. Objective

A quantifiable or otherwise measurable indicator of project success or lack of success; a component of the scope statement.

Glossary

Order-of-magnitude estimate

A preliminary estimate done during the project initiation process used by upper management to decide whether to authorize a project. Often used to establish the initial project budget. Usually a top-down estimate. Expected accuracy range is -25 percent to +75 percent. Owner

The person, group of persons, or organization that conceives, authorizes, and funds the project. The party that approves changes to the project baseline. Often also referred to as the client. A special stakeholder of the project. Parallel

Simultaneous performance of tasks or subprojects. Parallel-path project

A project with two or more nonconverging paths from its start to end points. Or, separate paths, which allow tasks to be accomplished simultaneously (Also see Series and Fast tracking.) Parametric estimate

A cost estimate that is based on a mathematical model, e.g., dollars per square foot or dollars per pound. A form of top-down estimate used in the early phases of project development (e.g., conceptual design) before enough information is available to enable decomposition down to a meaningful workpackage level. Path

A series of tasks from start to end in a project. Phases (of a project)

A project can have many phases. Within each phase are the processes of initiating, planning, executing, closing, and controlling. For example, the architectural application area includes a design phase and a construction phase. Planning

One of the five traditional project management processes: initiating, planning, executing, closing, and controlling. The stage of the project where tasks have not yet begun, where the team strategizes by brainstorming, anticipating, projecting, assuming, and estimating-via an organized, formal procedurehow the project will be accomplished.

Planning process

See Planning. Predecessor

See Predecessor task. Predecessor task

See Dependent. Processes A group of related actions aimed toward specific, predetemined results. When

formalized, they can be viewed as subsets of project management. Project management literature generally has identified five formal processes: initiating, planning, executing, closing, and controlling. This book explores the planning and executing processes. Product

See Deliverable. Project

A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service. Project integration table A vehicle for progressive development of baseline parameters at the task level

so that relationships are clear in an organized format. Project manager

The individual responsible for managing a project. Project network diagram

A time-scaled flowchart of tasks showing their dependencies, which traces all paths of project execution from start to end of the project. (Also see Timeline, Schedule, Critical path, and Total time t o project completion.) Project schedule

See Total time t o project completion. Project team

A set of people, usually with different skills, assembled to complete a project. Often just referred to as the "team" or, more recently, the "integrated product team" or IPT in project management literature. Sometimes referred to as a "multidisciplinary team" or "interdisciplinary team."

Glossary

Projectic license

Discretion used by the project manager to skew facts or developments in favor of project success. Punch list

A list of items resulting from final inspection by the owner, or a representative of the owner, or code officials, which must be corrected before final payment is made. Resources

The people, materials, systems (e.g., computer programs or systems), or contractors employed for project execution. For ease of instruction, in this book, the term resources will apply only to the people assigned to a project. Resource allocation

The assignment of labor, materials, contractors, and so on to tasks or subprojects for completion. Resource leveling

The adjustment of resources in order to evenly distribute them in better accord with the demands of the project. Risk

Calculated degrees of project uncertainty that the project team anticipates and assesses during the project-planning phase. There are usually tradeoffs between the amount of risk assumed and the cost and time necessary to complete a project. Schedule

Usually refers to the total time it will take to complete a project, the total time to project completion, which is measured along the critical path; however, the schedule is usually subdivided into segments based on planned project mileposts. Scope

The boundaries of a project in terms of what it delivers and the items of work that constitute what it delivers. With these parameters in mind, a project has definite limits that are defined by its scope. (Also see Deliverable, Scope statement, and Task.)

Recipesfor Project Success

Scope statement

The initial step of the project planning process. A single, simple paragraph that the team creates, which defines the scope of the project in terms of the project deliverables, objectives, and justification. Series

A relationship between two tasks where the second is dependent on completion of the first before it can be started. (Also see Path, Predecessor task, Parallel, Fast tracking, and Crashing.) Shared float

Float time along a branch, which is available to all tasks along that branch where, if one task uses some or all of that float, it is no longer available to the other tasks on the branch. Slack

See Float. Stakeholder

A person, within or, usually, without the project team, with a vested interest in the success or failure of the project. Examples are management, government regulatory agencies, team members, functional managers, owners, clients, tenants, contractors, employees, and so on. Because of the complex possibilities of a spectrum of stakeholders, it is advisable for the project team to perform a stakeholder analysis at an early stage of project development, and develop a plan to proactively manage important stakeholders. Start

The first milepost of a project. The first task, with no duration, of the project network diagram. Strawman

A draft or practice write-up, sketch, schedule, or procedure, and the like; prepared by a subteam for the purpose ofjump-starting discussion by the whole team. Subdeliverable

A secondary thing (noun) that the project produces. A subcomponent of a deliverable, subdeliverables often constitute Levels 3 or 4 of the work breakdown structure. (Also see Deliverable.)

Glossary

Subproject

A set of related tasks that are bundled so that they can be assigned to a person, group of people, or other resource for tracking and completion. A level at which a cost or control account is established. (Also see Activity and Gantt chart.) Task

Also called an activity, work package, or cost account. Identifies the smallest unit or work into which the project can be decomposed. Because it requires work or effort, it is a verb. Timeline

A scaled reference line for project development, usually to which the project network diagram, Gantt chart, or project schedule is referred. Top down

A procedure whereby a project is decomposed from the highest workbreakdown-structure level down to the task, work-package, cost-account, or control-account level. A process that disassembles from the conceptual down to the particulars. Opposite of Bottom up. Top-down estimate

An estimate done in the early phases of project development (e.g., conceptual design) before enough information is available to enable decomposition down to a meaningful work-package level. Historical and parametric estimates are examples of top-down estimates. Order-of-magnitude estimates are a form of top-down estimate used by upper management during the initiation process to decide whether to proceed with a project, and to authorize it. Total path time

The time to complete the series of tasks along a path. Total time to project completion

The total path time along the critical path; the project schedule. Unforeseen conditions

Circumstances not anticipated during the planning process, which arise during the execution process and usually result in changes.

Recipcjir project Success

Upper management

Stakeholders at the top who have a conceptual idea ofwhat they want from a project but usually have no idea how the project translates into the particulars of implementation. The project manager serves as a primary bridge between upper management and the project team. Upper management usually has a top-down view The project team usually has a bottom-up view, and both of these views meet at the project manager's level. Vulnerable point

Indicator during project development upon which the project manager must immediately focus because it is a signal of possible project failure. Examples are handoffs, interfaces, changes, outside influences, new stakeholders, personality conflicts, and so.on. Work packages

The lowest level of the work breakdown structure, where decomposition has reached the point that identifiable units of effort are isolated enough to be assigned to an individual, contractor, or team. (Also see Task, Activity, Cost account, Control account, and Subproject.)

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SUCCESSFUL INFORMATION SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION, SECOND EDITION Successful implementation of information systems technology lies in managing the behavioral and organizational components of the process. Past data on this subject has involved mostly case studies, but this book provides practical information those implementing information systems can use now. Pinto and Millet offer practical information on "approaching the subject from a managerial, rather than a technical, perspective." The second edition of this work covers such topics as implementation theory, prioritizing projects, implementation success and failure, critical success factors, and more! ISBN: 1-880410-66-4

TOOLS AND TIPSFOR TODAY'S PROJECT MANAGER This guide book is valuable for understanding project management and performing to quality standards. Includes project management concepts and terms--old and new-that are not only defined but also are expalined in much greater detail than you would find in a typical glossary. Also included are tips on handling such seemingly simple everyday tasks as how to say "No" and how to avoid telephone tag. It's a reference you'll want to keep close at hand. ISBN: 1-880410-61-3 (paperback)

This comprehensive book introduces and explains task-oriented, independent, and interdependent levels of project portfolios. It says that you must first have a strong foundation in time management and priority setting, then introduces the concept of Portfolio Management to timeline multiple projects, determine their resource requirements, and handle emergencies, putting you in charge for possibly the first time in your life! ISBN: 1-880410-65-6 (paperback)

NEW RESOURCES FOR PMP CANDIDATES The following publications are resources that certification candidates can use to gain information on project management theory, principles, techniques, and procedures. PMP RESOURCE PACKAGE Earned Ihlue Project Management by Quentin W Fleming and Joel M. Koppelman Effeive Project Management: How to Plan, Manage, and Deliver Projects on 7ime and Within Budget by Robert K. Wysocki, et al. A Guide to the Projct Management Body offiowledge (PMBOKM Guide) by the PMI Standards Committee Human Resource Skills for the Project Manager by Vijay K Verma The New Project Management by J. Davidson Frame Organizing Projects for Succw by Vijay K Verma Principlu ofProject Management by John Adams, et al. Project 6 Program Risk Management by R. Max W~deman,Editor Project Management Casebook edited by David I. Cleland, et al. Project Management:A Managerial Approach, Third Edition by Jack R. Meredith and Samuel J. Mantel, Jr. Project Management:A System Approach to Planning, Scheduling, and Controlling,Sixth Edition by Harold Kerzner

A GUIDE TO THE PROJECT MANAGEMENT BODY OF KNOWLEDGE (PMBOK" GUIDE) The basic management reference for everyone who works on projects. Serves as a tool for learning about the generally accepted knowledge and practices of the profession. As "management by projects" becomes more and more a recommended business practice worldwide, the P M B O T MGuide becomes an essential source of information that should be on every manager's bookshelf. Available in hardcover or paperback, the PMBOICMGuide is an official standards document of the Project Management Institute. ISBN: 1-880410-12-5 (paperback), ISBN: 1-880410-13-3 (hardcover) INTERACTIVE PMBOK GUIDE This CD-ROM makes it easy for you to access the valuable information in PMI's PMBOK" Guide. Features hypertext links for easy reference-simply click on underlined words in the text, and the software will take you to that particular section in the PMBOICMGuide. Minimum system requirements: 486 PC; 8MB RAM; 10MB free disk space; CD-ROM drive, mouse, or other pointing device; and Wmdows 3.1 or greater.

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MANAGING PROJECTS STEP-BY-STEPTM Follow the steps, standards, and procedures used and proven by thousands of professional project managers and leading corporations. This interactive multimedia CD-ROM based on PMI's PMBOICM Guide will enable you to customize, standardize, and distribute your project plan standards, procedures, and methodology across your entire organization. Multimedia illustrations using 3-D animations and audio make this perfect for both self-paced training or for use by a facilitator.

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PMI PUBLICATIONS LIBRARY CD-ROM Using state-of-the-art technology, PMI offers complete articles and information from its major publications on one CD-ROM, including P M Network (1990-97), Projet ManagernentJouml(1990-97), and A Guide to the Project Management Body ofkizowledge. Offers full-text search capability and indexing by PMBOKTM Guide knowledge areas. Electronic indexing schemes and sophisticated search engines help to find and retrieve articles quickly that are relevant to your topic or research area.

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Project Management for Managen Mihily Gorog, Nigel J. Smith ISBN: 1-880410-54-0 (paperback)

Achieving the Promise of Information Technology Ralph B. Sachan ISBN: 1-880410-03-6 (paperback)

Project Leadership: From Theory to Practice Jeffery K. Pinto, Peg Thoms,Jeffrey Trailer, Todd Palmer, Michele Govekar ISBN: 1-880410-10-9 (paperback)

Leadership Skills for Project Managers Editors' Choice Series Edited by Jeffrey K. Pinto, Jefiey W Trailer ISBN: 1-880410-49-4 (paperback)

Annotated Bibliography of Project and Team Management David I. Cleland, Gary Rafe, Jefiey Mosher ISBN: 1-880410-47-8 (paperback), ISBN: 1-880410-57-5 (CD-ROM)

The Virtual Edge Margery Mayer ISBN: 1-880410-16-8 (paperback)

How to Turn Computer Problems into Competitive Advantage Tom Ingram ISBN: 1-880410-08-7 (paperback)

ABCs of DPC Edited by PMI's Design-Procurement-Construction Specific Interest Group ISBN: 1-880410-07-9 (paperback)

Project Management Casebook

Value Management Practice

Edited by David I. Cleland, Karen M. Bursic, Richard Puerzer, A. Yaroslav Vlasak ISBN: 1-880410-45-1 (paperback)

Michel Thiry ISBN: 1-880410-14-1 (paperback)

Project Management Casebook Instructor's Manual

John R. Schuyler ISBN: 1-880410-39-7 (paperback)

Edited by David I. Cleland, Karen M. Bursic, Richard Puerzer, A. YaroslavVlasak ISBN: 1-880410-18-4 (paperback)

The World's Greatest Project

PMI Book of Project Management Forms ISBN: 1-880410-31-1 (paperback) ISBN: 1-880410-50-8 (diskette version 1.0)

Principles of Project Management John Adams et al. ISBN: 1-880410-30-3 (paperback)

Decision Analysis in Projects

Russell W Darnall ISBN: 1-88041046-X (paperback)

Power & Politics in Project Management Jeffrey K Pinto . ISBN: 1-880410-43-5 (paperback) Best Practices of Project Management Groups in Large Functional Organizations

Organizing Projects for Success

Frank Toney, Ray Powers ISBN: 1-880410-05-2 (paperback)

Human Aspects of Project Management Series, Volume 1, Vijay K Verma ISBN: 1-880410-40-0 (paperback)

Vladimir I. Voropajev ISBN: 1-880410-02-8 (paperback)

Human Resource Skills for the Project Manager Human Aspects of Project Management Series, Volume 2, Vijay K Verrna ISBN: 1-880410-41-9 (paperback)

Managing the Project Team Human Aspects of Project Management Series, Volume 3, Vijay K Verrna ISBN: 1-880410-42-7 (paperback)

Earned Value Project Management Quentin W. Fleming, Joel M. Koppelman ISBN: 1-880410-38-9 (paperback)

Project Management in Russia

A Framework for Project and Program Management Integration R. Max W~deman ISBN: 1-880410-01-X (paperback)

Quality Management for Projects & Programs Lewis R.Ireland ISBN: 1-880410-11-7 (paperback)

Project & Program Risk Management Edited by R. Max W~dernan ISBN: 1-880410-06-0 (paperback)

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