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Reconstructing Ancient Maya Diet Edited by Christine D. White THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH PRESS Salt Lake City
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Reconstructing Ancient Maya Diet Edited by Christine D. White THE UNIVERSITY OF UTAH PRESS Salt Lake City
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Disclaimer: This book contains characters with diacritics. When the characters can be represented using the ISO 88591 character set (http://www.w3.org/TR/images/latin1.gif), netLibrary will represent them as they appear in the original text, and most computers will be able to show the full characters correctly. In order to keep the text searchable and readable on most computers, characters with diacritics that are not part of the ISO 88591 list will be represented without their diacritical marks.
© 1999 by The University of Utah Press All rights reserved LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGINGINPUBLICATION DATA Reconstructing ancient Maya diet / edited by Christine D. White. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 087480602X (alk. paper) 1. Mayas—Food. 2. Mayas—Nutrition. 3. Central America— Antiquities. 4. Mexico—Antiquities. I. White, Christine, D., 1951 F1435.3.F7R43 1999 641.3'008997'4152—dc2l 9915542
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To my father, Robert R. White, to whom I owe my curiosity and love of things ancient. I will remember him with all that I write. C.D.W.
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CONTENTS Acknowledgments
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Introduction: Ancient Maya Diet Christine D. White
ix
Part I: Botanical and Faunal Analyses
1. Plant Resources of the Ancient Maya: The Paleoethnobotanical Evidence David L. Lentz
3
2. Classification of Useful Plants by the Northern Petén Maya (Itzaj) Scott Atran
19
3. Continuity and Variability in Postclassic and Colonial Animal Use at Lamanai and Tipu, Belize Kitty F. Emery
61
4. Social and Ecological Aspects of Preclassic Maya Meat Consumption at Colha, Belize Leslie C. Shaw
83
Part II: Paleopathology
103
6. Land Use, Diet, and Their Effects on the Biology of the Prehistoric Maya of Northern Ambergris Cay, Belize David M. Glassman and James F. Garber
119
7. Dietary Change of the Lowland Maya Site of Kichpanha, Belize Ann L. Magennis
133
8. Caries and Antemortem Tooth Loss at Copán: Implications for Commoner Diet Stephen L. Whittington
151
9. Late Classic Nutrition and Skeletal Indicators at Copán, Honduras Rebecca Storey
169
5. Coming Up Short: Stature and Nutrition among the Ancient Maya of the Southern Lowlands Marie Elaine Danforth
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Part III: Bone Chemistry
183
11. The Elements of Maya Diets: Alkaline Earth Baselines and Paleodietary Reconstruction in the Pasión Region Lori E. Wright
197
12. Dietary Carbonate Analysis of Bone and Enamel for Two Sites in Belize Shannon Coyston, Christine D. White, and Henry P. Schwarcz
221
Glossary
245
Contributors
250
Index
251
10. Cuisine from HunNalYe David Millard Reed
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The production of this volume would not have been possible without the work and encouragement of many people, first and foremost the authors, who were punctual, patient, and always cheerful through its many stages. I would also like to thank Kim Law for her invaluable help in preparing the manuscript, and the Department of Anthropology of the University of Western Ontario for its support. And then there are the many Maya archaeologists who not only challenge us to elucidate the character of Maya society and the conditions of ancient life using human biology but also allow us to challenge archaeological theory in the search for an elusive "truth." Last, but not least, I am most grateful to Jeff Grathwohl, editor at the University of Utah Press, for believing that the study of diet has an important role to play in the understanding of a culture. CHRISTINE D. WHITE
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INTRODUCTION ANCIENT MAYA DIET Christine D. White Food is a vital component of both human biology and culture. It is necessity and pleasure, macronutrient and metaphor. It is nature nurturing nature, and it is nature transformed by culture into culture. Just as our dietary evolution characterizes our anatomy, so is the global diversity of foods we consume a reflection of our cultural adaptability. Culture is identified, among other things, by a shared repertoire of food choices, preparation techniques, and ritual and everyday food behaviors that have symbolic meaning. In addition to the broad distinctions that exist between cultures, there are, within cultures, distinct groups (e.g., socioeconomic, religious, occupational, gender, age) that may further express their identity through selective cuisine and food consumption behavior. At the most minute level of variation, there are individuals who have food preferences that serve as an expression of personal identity. Overlying this synchronic complexity in diet and food behavior is the inevitability of change—ideological, environmental, and technological—which produces new sets of food consumption patterns and habits. Because food behavior and the vital necessity of eating articulates with cultural identity and process, the reconstruction of systematic and idiosyncratic diversity from the archaeological record should be a primary objective for those who wish to understand both ancient cultural ideology and the relationship of culture, environment, and biology. Eating constitutes an act of belief transformed into meal, environment transformed into menu, and technology transformed into biology. Reconstructing the diet of any ancient culture, therefore, provides theoretical and methodological means of framing both synchronic snapshots and diachronic process. For these reasons alone, the reconstruction of Maya diet is a worthwhile pursuit. But the way we have come to understand ancient Maya foodways also provides a good demonstration of how both theory and data come to be resituated through processes of natural paradigm shift and new discovery. Initial interest in Maya subsistence can certainly be seen as a reflection of a generalized concern for reconstructing foodways which was rooted in the processual approach to archaeology arising in the 1960s and 1970s. Motivations for reconstructing Maya subsistence were particularly strong, however, because they were concomitantly propelled by the discovery of heavy population densities surrounding Maya ceremonial centers (Haviland 1969, 1970), densities that in many cases appear to have been greater than those existing today (Culbert and Rice 1990). Ethnohistoric accounts described slashandburn
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horticulture as the primary subsistence technique (Landa 1566, in Tozzer 1941; Hellmuth 1977). These, combined with modern analogy, in which the same form of procurement is practiced, led archaeologists to believe that the continuity of procurement observed from the Colonial period to the present would also extend from the Colonial period backward in time. How such large ancient populations provisioned themselves posed two major problems of explanation. First, it was not believed that slashandburn horticulture produced enough food over the long term to support such large numbers of people. Second, how could the fragile tropical ecosystem survive the shifting and destructive nature of an extensive milpabased food economy? Thus, the reconstruction of subsistence practices became critical to understanding processes of development and decline in Maya culture. The emergence of these questions produced a duality in response: the production of theoretical models and a flurry of data collection. The dominant theoretical model of the time (and one that continues to have many adherents) posited an ecological explanation for the collapse of Classic Maya society (Willey and Shimkin 1973; Coe 1980; PodoLedezma 1985; Santley et al. 1986; Culbert 1988; Webster et al. 1992). Although the ecological model is contextualized within the contemporary preoccupation of Mayanists to explain the collapse, it takes its place among other explanatory models (Demarest 1992, 1993; Miller 1993; Suhler and Friedel 1992; Fash 1994). In the most simplistic form of this model the Maya were assumed to have outstripped their environment of sustaining food resources, the consequences of which were social, economic, and demographic decline. Set in the modern context of rising North American environmentalism, this research also took on a relevance to the continued survival of contemporary civilizations. The Maya were to teach us a lesson from the past. Meanwhile, new data on previously unrecognized environmental usage were elucidating alternate processes of Maya food production and changing our understanding of ecological relationships (Bronson 1966; Lange 1971; Wiseman 1972, 1985; Siemens and Puleston 1972; Turner 1974, 1978; Matheny 1976, 1982; Willey 1978; Healy et al. 1980, 1983; Turner and Harrison 1981, 1983; Puleston 1982). The agronomic status of the Maya quickly moved from horticultural to agricultural with the discovery of intensive production techniques such as raised fields, extensive hillside terracing, and water control and storage techniques. These subsistence methods had apparently gone into disuse by the time of the Spanish Conquest, and the technology was essentially lost to modern people in these areas (Hellmuth 1977; Lambert et al. 1984). The existence of intensive agriculture, even without the help of draft animals or plows, concomitantly implied the existence of population pressure (Sanders 1977; Turner et al. 1977). It illustrated an adaptive cultural response and altered the simplistic ecological explanation for the "collapse." Environmental degradation now needed to be contextualized within methods of intensive land use, some of which (e.g., terraces and raised fields) appeared indefinitely sustainable. Furthermore, the nature of the collapse as a geographically uniform experience had been questioned. Although the Maya clearly had the ability to produce
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much more food than previously thought, extensive research now suggests that intensive production techniques varied considerably by region (Pope and Dahlin 1989; Fedick and Ford 1990; Dunning and Beach 1994). This is consistent with the broad ecological diversity that exists in the Maya region. Although much effort has gone into the study of land use, environmental features, and cultural process relating to procurement, relatively less has been accomplished in the actual reconstruction of human diet. Unfortunately, procurement is often equated with consumption, but the leap from procurement methods to ingestion of specific foods is a big one. As useful as it is to reconstruct how the Maya used their land for food production, and the effect this may have had on ecology and political economy, the reality is that procurement studies tell us little about consumption patterns. To examine Maya culture from the inside out, we need to answer the basic questions of what was consumed by whom, when, where, and how. Such knowledge has been inhibited by a number of factors. First, tropical conditions generally result in poor preservation of data sources for diet reconstruction. Maya environments are full of destructive agents, such as heat and moisture that speed the rate of decay, heavy rainfall that flushes away tiny remains and promotes the breakdown of bone, insects and animals that feed on remains, and rapid root growth that breaks up and displaces plant and animal remains. Consequently, plant remains (macro and micro) are relatively rare, and bone remains (animal and human) are generally in poor condition and fragmentary. Second, archaeological research design in the past was largely focused on architecture, ceremonial centers, spatial distribution, and artifacts. Thus it tended to yield relatively little in biological sources for data. In spite of the difficulties in gleaning dietary data from Maya sites, greater effort has been made recently to do so. There are several reasons for movement in this direction. Some reflect the current state of physical anthropology and archaeological fashion in general. Other reasons relate specifically to changes in activity and theory in Maya archaeology. The last 25 years have seen a major shift in focus within skeletal biology which recognizes the importance of bone in reconstructing both life experiences and the effects of culture and environment on biology. Through this change in direction, archaeology has come to place greater value on the contribution of skeletal biology (human and faunal) to the understanding of ancient lifeways and cultural dynamics. For example, in Maya research most skeletal data were traditionally relegated to descriptive sections of site monographs. Where osteological work was used independently, it tended to be typological, emphasizing the description and categorization of cranial deformation and dental decoration or focusing on biological distance and/or epigenetic traits (see Buikstra 1997 for a quantitative historical review of topic trends). Nevertheless, it is significant that in spite of the preservation problems, Maya osteology was at the forefront of the movement away from traditional description and toward the healthrelated bioarchaeology that dominates North American research in skeletal biology. For example, with Haviland's (1967) work on
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stature at Tikal, we witness the emergent use of skeletal populations to reflect cultural change and complexity. In addition, Saul's classic work, The Human Skeletal Remains of Altar de Sacrificios (1972), was one of the earliest osteobiographies produced. More recently, techniques for collecting and analyzing data have become even more sophisticated. Furthermore, attempts have been made to standardize these processes (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994), and interpretive theory is developing out of sampling and demographic issues (Wood et al. 1992). Paleodiet and paleopathology should be contextualized within this movement. The academic appeal of these fields is twofold. First, they encompass a diversity of sources and methodologies and thus, through multiple lines of evidence, can have great power of explanation. Second, they articulate with broader issues such as disease etiology, ecological change, demography, social relationships and complexity, and economy, issues that are also of interest to other Maya scholars. Paleodiet has been revitalized by the development of chemical techniques for analyzing bone (Gilbert 1977; DeNiro and Epstein 1978, 1981; Schoeninger 1979; Schwarcz and Schoeninger 1991). Both isotopic and trace element analysis of bone have several advantages over the more traditional techniques of faunal and floral analysis. They provide data on real rather than potential consumption (i.e., they give us the ''meal" rather than the "menu" [Bumsted 1985]), they obviate the need for individuals to be pathological before dietary assumptions can be made, and they can make use of fragmentary, nondiagnostic material. The lastmentioned is particularly significant for Central American skeletal populations. Although it is obvious that the ultimate goal of most archaeological dietary studies (including plant and animal analyses) is to reconstruct the diets of humans, it is only recently that we have been able to extract data directly from humans themselves. Because of some of the limitations of chemical data (e.g., see Sillen et al. 1989), however, their interpretation is best made in the context of either a priori knowledge of diet or multiple lines of evidence. The need to know diet before it can be reconstructed sets up an intuitively counterproductive "catch22" mode of explanation. Although methodology has an apparent weakness in this respect, the combined use of related methodology can ultimately result in greater depth of understanding. Data from discrete techniques will either be reinforcing or elucidate areas that need further study. Essentially, multiple lines of evidence end up testing one another and can dramatically improve the power of explanation. Reconstructing Ancient Maya Diet illustrates this process, in that floral and faunal analyses are integrated with human data from bone chemistry and paleopathology in addressing shared research issues. The nature of research in paleopathology has also changed over the last 15 years. Previously, it was characterized by description that may have been considered esoteric and by the "grocery list" appearance of case studies. As pathology was increasingly employed to address issues in anthropology and archaeology, the goal of using archaeological bone just to reconstruct pathogenic process was displaced, at least in part, by epidemiological and population
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approaches. Significantly, paleopathology also played a key role in the development of a popular model for the Classic Maya collapse, one that continues to color our perceptions of ancient Maya living conditions. The discovery of a high frequency of the bony manifestation of irondeficiency anemia at the Cenote of Sacrifice (Chichén Itzá) spawned the idea that nutritional deficiency may have played a major role in the downfall of the Classic Maya (Hooton 1940). Cases of anemia subsequently found fueled ecological theories of collapse (Wright and White 1996), so that nutritional deficiency became equated with ecological degradation. Motivation increased to gather pathology data that would test the nutritional theory, but poor preservation continues to limit the potential of this avenue of research. In addition to the fact that there is a greater acceptance of the belief that biological data from plants, animals, and humans reflect cultural dynamics and issues, the level of activity in Maya archaeology has also increased in recent years (Buikstra 1997; Danforth et al. 1997). The romance and enigmatic nature of Maya culture has no doubt attracted researchers and created public popularity. However, the rise in productivity for Maya archaeology, and especially skeletal biology, may also coincide with the real and perceived loss of research opportunities associated with repatriation and reburial of native North American skeletal material. Furthermore, the development of Central American tourist industries that feature ancient history has promoted excavation (e.g., Ball 1993; Sheets 1992). Consequently, more material is now available for analysis.
New Paradigms and Paleodiet Fortunately for paleodiet studies, this amelioration of data gathering occurred at the same time that issues of subsistence in Mesoamerican environments became a focus of study. The positioning of these research contexts is further influenced by changes in the way archaeologists are thinking about the relationship between theory and data. During the process of reconstructing Maya culture, research design naturally frames interpretation and model building. There are four perceptual shifts in Maya archaeology to which dietary data, in particular, can make significant contributions. The first is the recognition that spatial variation exists in subsistence practice, demography, and sociopolitical and socioeconomic systems and that it needs to be understood as much as temporal variation does (Culbert and Rice 1990). Too often false analogies and assumptions led to the development of models that were weak or without depth. A case in point is the example of the unidimensional maize dependency model of Maya diet. Although there are some important exceptions that challenge the primacy of maize as the carbohydrate staple (Bronson 1966; Barerra et al. 1977; Puleston 1982; Atran 1993; McKillop 1994), maize is generally considered the foundation, and heart and soul, of Maya diet. But to assume that little variation existed over time and space in the absolute and relative quantities of maize consumed is to lose much definition of the character of Maya society. Maya sites differ enormously in
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their biotic and abiotic environments, their demographic characteristics, their political economies, and consequently their food production, consumption choices and patterns, and resultant health status. This book urges the recognition and celebration of both geographic and temporal dietary variation among the Maya. The second is the move toward understanding cultural dynamics from the bottom up rather than from the top down (Sharer 1996; Fedick 1989; Lentz 1991). The main analytical unit has traditionally been monumental architecture (i.e., the top). While this was the case, perceptions of Maya culture could only be based on elite activities, thus creating a strong bias in our understanding of Maya life. Theoretically, change in food behavior of elites may or may not appear in that of other classes. Therefore, in diachronic perspectives particularly, foodways can constitute a measure of the social depth of cultural change. The movement to use households as analytical units allows a better reconstruction of daily life for what we might assume would constitute the bulk of the population and fits well with dietary measures of how the Maya filled the basic need for food. Thus, reconstructing consumption choices and patterns adds another stage of refinement to a "bottom up" perspective. It adds a different dimension to our understanding of temporal and spatial variability. The third shift is the recognition that social complexity needs to be defined more clearly and reconstructed more precisely for an understanding of the structure and function of Maya politics and economy (Chase and Chase 1992). The traditional view of Maya society as a twotiered system (Haviland 1970; Webster 1985) is now yielding to revisions that emphasize a multiclass culture (Chase and Chase 1992) that may not be distributed in a simple concentric hierarchical fashion around site epicenters. The identification of elites has largely been artifactually or architecturally based, but as Chase and Chase point out, these archaeological identifiers are less than consistent in their associations—for example, luxury goods may be found in burial contexts that do not represent increased energy expenditure. There has been some use of skeletal evidence in the identification of elites. This has been mainly limited to intentional and unintentional morphological alteration such as cranial deformation, dental modification, and stature (Haviland 1967, 1970). Based on the assumptions that status affects access to resources and that valued foods are culturally defined, food consumption is another useful means of determining social differentiation. Chemical analysis of bone, in particular, can directly characterize the diets of individuals and thus has the potential for identifying individuals or groups that have differential access to the most fundamental resources for life. In conjunction with other lines of biological evidence—for example, dental and physical health, faunal and floral remains, and archaeological evidence (e.g., grave goods, grave type, burial location)—dietary assessment can be an invaluable tool. Because of its independence of pathology or cultural alteration, diet has a potential to identify social patterning in a way no other line of evidence can, for example, sorting out status affiliation for multiple burials in elite contexts. The fourth shift is the postprocessual move to connect ideological with
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materialist or economic modes of explanation (e.g., Pyburn 1989). The study of food behavior is well situated to illustrate the integration of this apparent duality because of the association of food with metaphor and the fact that food is an aspect of material culture, often a major part of market and trade economies. The Maya themselves used food as metaphor. The Popul Vuh, a sacred Quiche Maya text, describes maize as the staple food from which humans were created and on which the Maya civilization was built (Béhar 1968). Food appears in Maya iconography, is depicted in art, and was an important part of ritual activity. It is unlikely coincidental that the Maya considered themselves religiously connected to food while the base of their economy was agriculture. Just as food was used by the Maya as a metaphor for their belief system, it can be used by us as a metaphor for understanding their culture. The selection of diet and the patterning of consumption through time, across space, and within populations can greatly extend our understanding of cultural behavior, values, and interactions. In terms of economic systems, the potential contribution of reconstructing foodways is mainly in understanding local and longdistance food distribution systems. Trade patterns have largely been understood through analysis of artifacts less perishable than foodstuffs. Nonetheless, food must have been an integrative aspect of ancient exchange, as it is today. And it may not have just been the material nature of food that moved across the landscape but its ideological representation as well.
Approaches to Maya Diet This book samples the breadth and depth of the contribution paleodiet research has made to Maya archaeology. In three sections—paleobotany and zooarchaeology, paleopathology, and bone chemistry—practical applications of diverse methodologies are used to address shared issues and show how the reconstruction of diet articulates with the new paradigms described above. Each chapter emphasizes its own methodological strengths and weaknesses. Because a primary goal of this book is to demonstrate levels of complexity in cultural behavior through dietary behavior, a deliberate attempt was also made to secure a variety of studies from different temporal and geographical contexts. Four main time periods are represented, periods for which dietrelated or subsistencerelated issues are of concern and for which dietary data exist in some form. They include the Preclassic (pre1000 B.C.A.D. 250), Classic (A.D. 250900), Postclassic (A.D. 9001500), and Historic (post1500) (chronology varies somewhat by site). Paleodiet research makes a contribution to two general concerns throughout this sequence. The first is the identification of trade networks. Chapters 3,4, 6,11, and 12 (Emery, Shaw, Glassman and Garber, Wright, Coyston et al.) deal with evidence of trade in a variety of time periods. The second is the characterization of social organization and complexity. In recognition of the importance of this kind of reconstruction, all the chapters (except one review chapter [Chap. 1, Lentz]) present data that represent degrees of dietary differentiation by socioeconomic status, gender, or age. In addition, each time period is associated with its own specific issues. Data
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from the Preclassic period speak to both the rise of intensive agriculture to meet the demands of population increase, and the emergence and entrenchment of class differentiation. The dominant issues to be addressed by dietary data for the Classic period center on regional variability and the theories of ecological degradation and nutritional deficiency as explanations for the "collapse." Postclassic data provide a means of contrasting the effects of cultural process on diet with environmental interaction, as the political structures and economic bases of Maya culture undergo change. Postclassic populations represent cultural and biological survival and help define the conditions for cultural success. In the succeeding Historic period, issues include the effects of the Spanish presence on agricultural, biological, and cultural systems. Five chapters—3, 4, 7, 11, and 12 (Emery, Shaw, Magennis, Wright, Coyston et al.)—provide sitespecific diachronic comparisons of at least two time periods. Three chapters review data from multiple sites and time periods in an effort to differentiate general from specific patterns of nutrition (Chap. 5, Danforth) and plant use (Chaps. 1 and 2, Lentz, Atran). The sites studied and used for comparison in this text are dominantly located in the Maya Lowlands, that is, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras (Figure I.1). The focus on the Lowlands is simply a reflection of the availability of bioarchaeological data. Although this region of Mesoamerica has a broadly defined tropical environment, within the Maya area more finely defined local environmental diversity exists. The selection of sites representing potential variation in food resources helps us understand the relative importance of panMaya cultural ideology in food consumption patterns versus food behavior on local polity and household levels. Future research will undoubtedly result in the ability to compare similarities and differences in highland and lowland areas as well. The book begins with the most traditional archaeological methods of diet reconstruction: botanical and faunal analyses. Both methods are absolutely fundamental to paleodiet research, creating a portrait of available biological resources. In essence, they provide us with ancient "menus" (Bumsted 1985), forming a comparative base for data derived from methods aimed at reconstructing "meals." It is appropriate that the opening chapter is a muchneeded and longawaited review of plant use among the Maya for more than 3,000 years. Significantly, David Lentz notes that we are now at the point in Maya archaeology where the techniques of paleoethnobotanists and the strategies of archaeologists have been synthesized sufficiently to provide artifactual (botanical) evidence to replace speculation about diet, ecology, and agriculture. While outlining general patterns of plant use, Lentz not only addresses some old issues, such as controversy over defining the staple of Maya diet, and ecological adaptation, but also makes suggestions for future research. His focus is on both agricultural and arboricultural dietary resources but also includes botanical resources that had other cultural uses or that may have been implicated in trade. Extending the use of ethnobotany in a more ideological and metaphoric way, Scott Atran provides us in Chapter 2 with linguistic and cognitive data that
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Figure 1 Sites referred to in the text.
integrate with ethnohistorical and archaeological data on plant use among the Maya of the northern Petén in Guatemala. In a diachronic approach that reaches into modern times, Atran notes that the majority of edible and medicinal species used today were also used at the time of the Conquest and may have had continuity into more ancient times. He provides us with important reference tables of biologically useful plant species, their folk and scientific names, and their cultural uses. The data in this chapter are not only invaluable for their detail and completeness but also particularly important for posterity, as we are warned of loss of this knowledge in the very near future. In contrast, the two faunal chapters are site specific but make significant methodological and substantive contribution to our understanding of Maya diet. In Chapter 4 Leslie Shaw not only emphasizes the need to be aware of
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sampling error in faunal analysis but also notes that analytical methods developed for cultures in temperate climates that have domesticated animals should not be applied to the Maya, who lived in tropical environments and appear to have subsisted on wild species and/or had very few domesticated species (e.g., dog, turkey). She emphasizes the importance of developing interpretive models to suit Maya circumstances. In keeping with the general shift in archaeology to examine culture from the bottom up, Shaw examines how faunal use at the household level reflects the emergence of trade and of social and economic inequality in the Preclassic period at Colha, Belize. With a similar awareness of how the complexity of tropical ecosystems might affect the analysis of faunal material, in Chapter 3 Kitty Emery offers a complex methodological approach using multiple measures that help control for sampling error while creating finer reconstructive detail. She analyzes faunal use diachronically at two related sites in Belize (Lamanai and Tipu), for which rare data spanning the Postclassic to Colonial transition are available. In contrasting the patterning at the two sites, Emery finds both continuity and variability in the use of animals. She analyzes animal use to elucidate the economic strategies of trade networks and the influence of the Spanish on the use of food as ethnic identification. Thus, she is able to connect ideological with economic and material considerations in her interpretation of data. The section on paleopathology is devoted to the reconstruction of diet through measures of physiological response in human skeletal remains. Here we are getting closer to actual food consumption by indirect assessment of nutritional quality of diets. Four out of five chapters in this section include data on dental pathology. The importance of teeth in diet reconstruction should not be underestimated. They are the most basic of all food processors. Everything we eat passes over them, and the evidence of this is left behind in dental disease and morphological alteration. But there is another reason for the dominance of dental analyses in Maya pathology. Because of preservation problems in the Maya area, teeth often provide the most reliable, and largest quantity of, data. Reflecting the methodological improvement in osteological research, each of the pathology chapters attempts to maximize the power of explanation in the data. This has been done by (1) using multiple lines of evidence from both teeth and bones (Chaps. 6 and 9, Glassman, Storey), (2) integrating data from one line of evidence with research done by others at a single site (the work at Copán is a good illustration of this kind of strategy—see Chaps. 8 and 9, Whittington, Storey), (3) using intersite comparison (Chaps. 5 and 6, Danforth, Glassman and Garber), (4) using intertemporal comparison (Chaps. 5, 6, 7, and 8, Danforth, Glassman and Garber, Magennis, Whittington), and (5) using powerful statistics (Chap. 8, Whittington). Sites appearing in this section vary in location, time period, size, and political importance, thus providing some crosssectional perspective. The longest time sequence for these sites is found at Kichpanha, Belize, stretching from the Protoclassic to the Late/Terminal Classic (250 B.C. to 900 A.D.) (Chap. 7, Magennis). Three Classic period phases are represented at Copán, Honduras (Acbi, Coner, and Late Coner) (Chap. 8, Whittington), and the Late and Termi
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nal Classic periods are represented at Ambergris Cay (Chap. 6, Glassman). Notably, all these sites were abandoned by the end of the Classic period. The data are skewed to periods preceding the Postclassic and Colonial periods because recent research on human skeletal material from these periods is as scarce as excavated samples. Environmental contexts vary from coastal (Ambergris Cay—Chap. 6, Glassman) to inland lacustrine with proximity to wetlands (Kichpanha—Chap. 7, Magennis) to river valley with restricted agricultural land (Copán—Chaps. 8 and 9, Whittington, Storey). Given the importance of ecological degradation as an explanation for the Classic collapse, a comparison of human biological response to diets derived from diverse physical environments is crucial to understanding cultural processes. Each site is a different size and appears to have a different political structure. Ambergris Cay (which actually includes the two sites of San Juan and Chac Balam) is the smallest of the three areas examined. Its physical structures are distinct from the other two sites, and its sociopolitical structure appears to have been based on trade (Chap. 6, Glassman). Kichpanha (Chap. 7, Magennis) is probably typical in size and political structure of the many mediumsized ceremonial centers of the tropical lowlands. Copán (Chaps. 8 and 9, Whittington, Storey) is a very large and powerful polity with a highly complex political structure. If we are going to understand similarities and differences in food behavior as they may relate to political structure and economy, we must work with contrasting samples such as these. The paleopathology section starts with a review of Maya stature data (Chap. 5, Danforth). It is fitting to begin with stature, as it historically represents one of the earliest attempts to use biology to illustrate social complexity and the effects of cultural and environmental change (Haviland 1967). Marie Elaine Danforth applies modern concepts concerning genetic and environmental factors involved in growth to stature as a measure of adaptability in the Maya. Using virtually all the published data currently available, she apprises us of areas of weakness in stature data, examines evidence for sexual dimorphism and discusses its implications, and identifies regional variation. Most significantly, Danforth warns us against using existing stature data to make broad generalizations, especially as they pertain to the Classic collapse. In Chapter 6 David Glassman and James Garber provide us with a good methodological model to apply to small samples. They reconstruct health and nutritional status at two closely related sites on Ambergris Cay in northern Belize using multiple lines of evidence that include mainly nonspecific pathology. Because it is not possible to assess chronological trends within their sample, Glassman and Garber compare their data with those of contemporaneous inland sites. They note a difference in the patterning of dental pathology, from which a distinctive diet is inferred. The Ambergris populations are set apart not only by diet, size, and sociopolitical structure but also in patterns of health. It appears that good health was not sufficient to maintain survival in a political economy based on trade, as the cay was abandoned after trade was restructured during the Postclassic.
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In a diachronic study of dental caries and calculus (Chap. 7), Ann Magennis investigates diet change at Kichpanha, Belize. While emphasizing the importance of multiple lines of evidence in improving explanation, she integrates the dental data with a variety of botanical sources of data for the site. Although the frequency of caries and calculus increases over time, patterns here are not completely consistent with those of contemporaneous sites. On the surface, this phenomenon may appear to be due to regional differences, but Magennis aptly warns us of the possible effect of status and/or processing as confounding variables. In Chapters 8 and 9, respectively, Stephen Whittington and Rebecca Storey provide us with complementary studies of paleopathology at the large and complex site of Copán, Honduras, over a sequence of Classic period phases. These chapters reflect the need to know how the different social segments of a population adapt biologically in articulation with a shared culture, as they also document levels of stress from the bottom up. Using dental caries and antemortem tooth loss, Whittington examines the diet of commoners, who would have been closest to the production of food but who, he assumes, would have been less buffered from biological stress because of the structure of political economies. With sophisticated statistical techniques that are applied to a large sample and that factor in variables such as time, residence type and location, tooth class, age, and sex, Whittington shows us that although there is a sex difference in caries, stress was pervasive among commoner households at Copán at the time of the collapse. Notably, the dental data support his previously published demographic data (Whittington 1991). Comparing these data with those of other sites, Whittington emphasizes the existence of dietary heterogeneity by geographic location but asserts that Copán may have been more dependent on maize, which would be consistent with its more restricted environmental context. The crosssectional perspective on social rank at Copán is provided by Storey's analysis of multiple nonspecific health indicators. Here we have a good example of how social complexity is reflected by biological response. It appears that all segments of Copán society were affected by stress but that higherstatus individuals may have survived childhood stress more often. Thus, although even the elite exhibit high levels of morbidity, differential nutrition and living conditions protected them at least somewhat from mortality. Storey's interpretation illustrates well the recent theoretical perspectives of the "osteological paradox" (Wood et al. 1992) and is integrated with supporting data from stable isotope analysis of human bone (Reed, this volume) and botanical analysis (Lentz, 1991; this volume). Differences between status groups seem to be more marked than gender differences, which suggests a good degree of gender equality. However, not only is there is ambiguity in gender data within Copán (see also Whittington and Reed, this volume), which probably reflects the social complexity of the site, but there is also variation in the degree of gender differences between sites. Paleopathological analyses, by definition, rely on biological responses recorded in bone. Although studies of ancient health and disease may be able to
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reveal nutritional deficiencies, in which case they indirectly reconstruct diet, conversely they may indicate normality. Nothing could be said about the specific composition of diet from osteological analysis if nutrition was adequate. Unlike faunal and botanical analyses, both pathology and bone chemistry analyses operate at the level of the individual consumer and eventually build a population perspective. Bone chemistry, however, also moves the level of analysis from menu (botanical and faunal) and biological response to actual consumption. One might ask why we don't simply begin with chemical analysis of bone and dispense with indirect measures. The answer is that the other methods give bone chemistry an interpretive base, potentially provide depth to our understanding of biological responses, and increase the power of explanation. Without pathology, we cannot speak of nutrition; without bone chemistry, it is hard to speak of diet. The studies in the bone chemistry section represent several different regions in the Maya Lowlands. Chapters 11 and 12 (Wright, Coyston et al.) compare diet derived from distinct ecosystems, and Chapter 10 (Reed) provides further contrast. This regional crosssection sheds light on the degree to which local environment can circumscribe food consumption. Chapters 11 and 12 (Wright, Coyston et al.) work with long chronologies. Thus we can examine the degree to which cultural process overlies or interacts with environmental restrictions. Because all the studies encompass the period of the Classic collapse, we now have another means of evaluating ecological models of the collapse. Adding another layer of complexity to this reconstruction, each chapter also examines social status. Socially meaningful patterning is found at each site, some of which is not discernible from artifactual or archaeological data. Although issues of environmental interaction, chronological patterning, and social rank are addressed in each chapter, each study represents a different type of chemical analysis. All take their primary data from human bone. The organic portion of bone (collagen) is analyzed isotopically for Copán (Chap. 10, Reed), the inorganic portion (apatite) is analyzed isotopically for Lamanai and Pacbitun (Chap. 12, Coyston et al.), and the inorganic portion is analyzed elementally for Altar de Sacrificios, Seibal, and Dos Pilas (Chap. 11 Wright). In spite of the fact that slightly different constituents of diet are reconstructed, each method is able to quantify maize consumption. Although restricting bone chemistry studies to a single method would provide the most soundly controlled intersite comparison, there are advantages to using the methodological diversity in this volume. First, a comparison of chapters illustrates the strengths and limitations of each chemical technique. Second, because each technique has its own way of measuring maize consumption, in effect we are still able to make comparisons of relative quantities of foods consumed over time and by intrapopulational variables. Third, within each study there is methodological control or balance. For example, carbon isotopes in collagen are more validly interpreted when combined with nitrogen isotopes. Here we are looking at two different measures of protein consumption (Chap. 10 Reed). Carbon isotopes in apatite give depth to the interpretation of carbon isotopes in collagen (Chap.
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12, Coyston et al.). Here the apatite allows quantification of the proportions of macronutrients (fat, carbohydrates, protein), thus adding depth to the interpretation of collagen data, which reflects only protein consumption. Barium and strontium are both measures of plant versus meat and marine food consumption (Chap. 11 Wright). Reed's analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in bone collagen at Copán articulates with and supports the pathology research done by Storey and Whittington, particularly in terms of dietary differentiation by socioeconomic status. The isotope data especially lend credence to the etiological explanation that the patterning in nonspecific health indicators is, at least in some part, dietary. But Reed's analysis takes us one step further by finding patterning that has not been detected in any other analyses, specifically rural/urban differences and agespecific gender differences. The isotopic data, therefore, add to our appreciation of social complexity at the large center of Copán. Using a novel approach to chemical analysis, Wright brings out the methodological sophistication and interpretive complexity of elemental analysis in paleodiet interpretation. Human bone data are compared to data for baseline ecosystem components, and the effects of different maize processing techniques are quantified, thus linking biology to technology. Overlying patterns created by postmortem chemical change (diagenesis), Wright finds patterning between three Petén sites—Altar de Sacrificios, Seibal, and Dos Pilas—which has implications for models of agricultural trade. Variation within these sites also reflects chronological trends that address the relationship between diet and agricultural economy from Preclassic to Terminal Classic periods. Again, social rank is dietarily defined. In a study that complements previously published analyses of stable isotope data for bone collagen (White and Schwarcz 1989; White et al. 1994), Coyston et al. isotopically analyze the mineral portion (carbonate) of human bones and teeth. Two sites in Belize, Lamanai and Pacbitun, which had contrasting survival success after the Classic period, are used to compare the relationships between diet and ecology, trade, culture change, social status, and gender. The role of maize versus marine resources in particular is reassessed in light of the macronutrient reconstruction made possible with the use of isotopic analysis of carbonate. Significantly, shifts observed in the faunal data for the Postclassic and Historic periods at Lamanai (Chap. 3, Emery) are supported by the isotopic data and seem to reflect social, economic, or political factors.
What Do We Know about Maya Diets? Although there is a great need for more research, these chapters tell us that although maize was the dominant staple, ancient Maya diets were far from simple. Thus, although there exists a panMaya ideological grounding for dietary regimes, there is little to offer at present in terms of universal dietary patterning within the Maya sphere. The amount of maize consumed and the foods consumed with it varied by location, time period, site size, social status, gender, and age.
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The majority of sites investigated here which represent more than one time period show dietary shifts of some sort (i.e., in plant or terrestrial versus marine animal consumption), but no sound generalizations can be made yet about increasing or decreasing maize consumption, for example, or about the effects of animal exploitation. The extremity and nature of temporal change in diet appears to depend on resource availability created by either local environments or ability to trade. Local ecology probably had a profound effect on food consumption. In fact, this is one of the few areas in which one can make some generalizations. Not surprisingly, coastal sites and those sites with more heterogeneous environments appear to have offered the best nutrition to their inhabitants, whereas areas with more tightly circumscribed environments and less production potential (e.g., Copán) produced more generalized health stress. Environment contributed to the longterm survival and physical wellbeing of Maya populations but did not completely determine it. Socially meaningful patterning in food consumption is found at each site, whether based in status, gender, or age differences. Although status differences in diet exist at all sites, these differences do not take the same form, that is, there is no single apparent'' highstatus diet." In some cases elites eat more maize, and in some they eat less. Therefore, elite diets are probably better defined within the context of local resources than by any strict cultural prescription. By contrast, gender patterning in diet is not found at all sites. Where it does exist, however, it operates like the patterning in diets of socioeconomic status groups, that is, there do not appear to be any rules governing what males eat versus what females eat. Male diets may more closely approximate highstatus diets, however. It is clear from the chapters in this book that Maya diets need to be interpreted first at the household, site, and polity levels before the complexity of Maya foodsystems can be fully understood.
Prospects: Where Do We Go from Here? In recent years archaeologists have improved the quality of our understanding of the Maya by using multidisciplinary approaches, applying new analytical technologies, reconstructing written history, and developing regionspecific models for cultural and environmental phenomena. The level of research activity has also markedly increased. Therefore, there is much reason to be optimistic about the expansion and clarification of our picture of the Maya. Perhaps osteology can now take its turn in contributing to our understanding ancient Maya culture. This volume provides a starting point through the collection and analysis of data on food behavior and the use of food as a metaphor for culture. The chapters in this book have illustrated that diet can be associated with social, political, economic, ecological, and nutritional factors and that Maya foodsystems were complex. They justify paleodiet as a research area with enormous potential to test archaeological hypotheses and to connect biology with culture. Although the lack of universality in Maya foodways which exists in the face of a symbolically based foodsystem may seem distressing at first glance, it
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is precisely the variability that gives definition and meaning to our understanding of Maya life and culture. Quite simply, complex societies (such as that of the Maya) should have complex foodsystems and exhibit considerable dietary diversity (Gummerman 1997). Our current and future challenge is to use this diversity to establish patterns of Maya culture and to try to find reasons for the particular form they take. Methodological advances such as those presented in each section of this volume will aid in this endeavor, but there is still a need to seek and develop new ways of collecting and analyzing data. The ability to address both longstanding and emerging issues in Maya archaeology naturally follows from the move to understand variation. Expansion and integration of archaeological and skeletal data are needed to continue clarification of complex issues currently existing in Maya archaeology, such as the existence of a Late Preclassic collapse, population pressure and the intensification of agriculture, the rise and maintenance of social status, the role of human influence on the environment, sociopolitical restructuring in the Postclassic, and the effect of the Spanish presence. The chapters in this book underscore this need by giving us a glimpse of the potential of integrated paleodiet studies. Dietary data also have a potential to address other issues that are important to archaeologists everywhere, such as gender, the identification of lineages within sites, the identification of foreigners in local populations, the establishment of marriage patterns, the relationship between mortuary treatment and social status, and the relationship among ideology, economics, and material culture. Perhaps more important, paleodiet research has a potential to test hypotheses not defined by archaeologists but useful to them, and to discover inter and intrasite variability that is often not detectable from the archaeological data alone. These chapters are presented as an example of the specific contribution dietary research can make to Maya archaeology, but I hope they will also be used as a model for a different way of addressing common issues for archaeology everywhere.
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Healy, P. F.; van Waarden, C.; and Anderson, J. J. (1980) Nueva evidencia de antiquas terrazas Mayas en Belice. America Indígena 40:733796. Hellmuth, N. M. (1977) CholtiLacandon (Chiapas) and PetenYtza agriculture. In N. Hammond (ed.): Social Process in Maya Prehistory. London: Academic Press, pp. 421428. Hooton, E. A. (1940) Skeletons from the cenote of sacrifice at Chichén Itzá. In C. L. Hay (ed.): The Maya and Their Neighbors. New York: AppletonCentury, pp. 272280. Lambert, J. D. H.; Arnason, J. T.; and Siemens, A. H. (1984) Ancient Maya drained field agriculture: Its possible application today in the New River flood plain, Belize, C.A. Agriculture, Ecosystems, and Environment 11:6784. Lange, F. W. (1971) Marine resources: A viable subsistence alternative for the prehistoric lowland Maya. American Anthropologist 73:619639. Lentz, D. L. (1991) Maya diets of the rich and poor: Paleoethnobotanical evidence from Copán. Latin American Antiquity 2:269287. McKillop, H. (1994) Ancient Maya tree cropping: A viable subsistence adaptation for the Island Maya. Ancient Mesoamerica 5:129140. Matheny, R. T. (1976) Maya lowland hydraulic systems. Science 193:639646. Matheny, R. T. (1982) Ancient Lowland and Highland Maya water and soil conservation strategies. In K. V. Flannery (ed.): Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston. New York: Academic Press, pp. 157178. Miller, M. E. (1993) On the eve of the collapse: Maya art of the eighth century. In J. A. Sabloff and J. S. Henderson (eds.): Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 355414. PodoLedezma, L. F. (1985) Enfermedades transmitidas por el agua el colapso de la civilización Maya Clásica. Mesoamérica 10:391410. Pope, K. O., and Dahlin, B. H. (1989) Ancient Maya wetland agriculture: New insights from ecological and remote sensing research. Journal of Field Archaeology 16:87106. Puleston, D. E. (1982) The role of ramon in Maya subsistence. In K. V. Flannery (ed.): Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston. New York: Academic Press, pp. 353367. Pyburn, K.A. (1989) Maya cuisine: Hearths and the Lowland economy. In P. A. McAnany and B. L. Isaac (eds.): Research in Economic Anthropology: Prehistoric Maya Economies of Belize, Supplement 4. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, pp. 325344. Sanders, W. T. (1977) Environmental heterogeneity and the evaluation of the Lowland Maya civilization. In R. E. W. Adams (ed.): The Origins of Maya Civilization. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 287297. Santley, S. R.; Killion, T W.; and Lycett, M. T. (1986) On the Maya collapse. Journal of Anthropological Research 42:123159. Saul, F. P. (1972) The Human Skeletal Remains of Altar de Sacrificios: An Osteobiographic Analysis. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 63, No. 2. Cambridge: Harvard University. Schoeninger, M. J. (1979) Diet and status at Chalkatzingo: Some empirical and technical aspects of strontium analysis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51:295310. Schwarcz, H. P., and Schoeninger, M. J. (1991) Stable isotope analysis in human nutritional ecology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 34:283321. Sharer, R. J. (1996) Daily Life in Maya Civilization. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. Sheets, P. D. (1992) The Ceren Site. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Siemens, A. H., and Puleston, D. E. (1972) Ridged fields and associated features in southern Campeche: New perspectives on the Lowland Maya. American Antiquity 37:228239. Sillen, A.; Sealy, J. C.; and van der Merwe, N. J. (1989) Chemistry and paleodietary research: No more easy answers. American Antiquity 54:504512.
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Suhler, C., and Freidel, D. (1992) The Selz Foundation Yaxuna Project: Final Report of the 1992 Field Season. Dallas: Southern Methodist University. Tozzer, A. M. (trans.) (1941) Landa's Relación de los Cosas de Yucatán. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 18. Cambridge: Harvard University. Turner, B. L. II (1974) Prehistoric intensive agriculture in the Maya lowlands. Science 185:118124. Turner, B. L. II (1978) The development and demise of the swidden thesis of Maya agriculture. In P. D. Harrison and B. L. Turner II (eds.): PreHispanic Maya Agriculture. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 1322. Turner, B. L. II; Hanham, R. Q.; and Portararo, A. V. (1977) Population pressure and agricultural intensity. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 67:384396. Turner, B. L. II, and Harrison, P. D. (1981) Prehistoric raisedfield agriculture in the Maya Lowlands. Science 213:399405. Turner, B. L. II, and Harrison, P. D. (1983) Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize. Austin: University of Texas Press. Webster, D. (1985) Recent settlement survey in the Copán Valley, Honduras. Journal of New World Archaeology 5:3951. Webster, D.; Sanders, W. T.; and van Rossum, P. (1992) A simulation of Copán population history and its implications. Ancient Mesoamerica 3:185197. White, C., and Schwarcz, H. P. (1989) Ancient Maya diet: As inferred from isotopic and elemental analysis of bone. Journal of Archaeological Science 16:451 474. White, C.; Healy, P. F.; and Schwarcz, H. P. (1994) Intensive agriculture, social status, and diet at Pacbitun, Belize. Journal of Anthropological Research 49:347 375. Whittington, S. L. (1991) Detection of significant demographic differences between subpopulations of Prehispanic Maya from Copán, Honduras, by survival analysis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 85:167184. Willey, G. R. (1978) PreHispanic Maya agriculture: A contemporary summation. In P. D. Harrison and B. L. Turner II (eds.): PreHispanic Maya Agriculture. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. Willey, G. R., and Shimkin, D. B. (1973) The Maya Collapse: A summary view. In T. P. Culbert (ed.): The Classic Maya Collapse. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 457502. Wiseman, F. M. (1972) A model for increased productivity in Lowland milpa agriculture. Journal of the Arizona Academy of Sciences Proceedings 7:14. Wiseman, F. M. (1985) Agriculture and vegetation dynamics of the Maya collapse in Central Peten, Guatemala. In M. Pohl (ed.): Prehistoric Lowland Maya Environment and Subsistence Economy. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 77. Cambridge: Harvard University, pp. 6371. Wood, J. W.; Milner, G. R.; Harpending, H. C.; and Weiss, K. M. (1992) The osteological paradox: Problems of inferring prehistoric health from skeletal samples. Current Anthropology 33:343370. Wright, L. E., and White, C. D. (1996) Human biology in the Classic Maya collapse: Evidence from paleopathology and paleodiet. Journal of World Prehistory 10:147198.
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PART I BOTANICAL AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
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Chapter 1 Plant Resources of the Ancient Maya The Paleoethnobotanical Evidence David L. Lentz During the last 15 years there have been tremendous strides in the documentation of the sources of sustenance for the ancient Maya. Many of these advances have been made by combining paleoethnobotanical techniques with archaeological excavation strategies, and the results have been fruitful. Data from across the Maya realm have been generated by paleoethnobotanists working in close cooperation with archaeologists, so that now a discussion can begin based on recovered artifacts rather than speculation concerning the dietary practices, past ecology, and agricultural adaptations of the ancient Maya. This chapter is an effort to summarize the currently available paleoethnobotanical data and synthesize the corpus into a meaningful framework that addresses some old questions and provides some direction for future research. Methodology Most paleoethnobotanical studies are conducted using a methodical collection scheme whereby soils from archaeological units are sampled uniformly to examine the plant remains found within. This generally involves the collection of measured units of soil that can be analyzed for their content of macro and microremains. Macroremains, fragments large enough to be detected with the unaided eye, usually are processed through some type of flotation device that separates carbonized materials that float to the surface of a suspending liquid (water in most cases) from soil particles, rocks, and other debris that sink to the bottom. Sometimes deflocculants are employed to free charred remains from the soil matrix. Many devices and techniques have been devised for flotation, and thorough discussions of the various options can be found elsewhere (Pearsall 1989; Struever 1968; Watson 1976). Soil samples for analysis of microremains (pollen and phytoliths) should be collected along with flotation samples, but these must be processed using chemical extraction techniques and carried out in properly equipped laboratories (Bohrer and Adams 1977; Pearsall 1989). A combination of these data sets can be a powerful tool in the effort to elucidate plant use practices of the past; however, most of the securely identified food remains thus far retrieved from Mesoamerican archaeological sites have been derived from the analysis of macroremains, and that is the focus of the discussion here.
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Ancient Maya Subsistence The earliest archaeological plant remains from the Maya area were found in 3,000yearold deposits in Belize at the Cuello site (Miksicek et al. 1991), followed closely by other sites with Formative components, such as Copán, Pulltrouser Swamp, and Cerros. Accordingly, the discussion of dietary patterns of the ancient Maya, at least for the moment, begins with the Formative period because archaeobotanical data from earlier times are absent. Beginning with the Formative period and extending through the Postclassic, we can observe a more or less fully formed subsistence pattern based on domesticated plants and a host of wild or partially cultivated plants. Paleoethnobotanical remains from several Classic period sites—Cobá, Cerén, Dos Pilas, Wild Cane Cay, Copán, and, to a lesser extent, Tikal and Río Azul—have been examined and can furnish the background for an understanding of the food procurement strategies that took place during the florescence of Mayan culture at civicceremonial centers with large populations. Postclassic sites of Cihuatan and Naco provide insights into the subsistence practices of satellite communities after the Maya collapse. These patterns are described in general terms, yet there certainly were special localized adaptations to diverse habitats, such as the marine environment modification seen at Wild Cane Cay (McKillop 1994). One of the earlier concepts of ancient Maya subsistence, a dietary pattern with heavy reliance on maize, beans, and squash, has indeed been borne out by the paleoethnobotanical record. Evidence for maize utilization was recorded at virtually every site where systematic archaeobotanical surveys were conducted (Table 1.1). Most of the maize fragments identified have a morphological resemblance to the ChapaloteNalTel complex (part of a cluster of races that Benz refers to as the Isthmian Alliance [1986]), and there are few references to other kinds of corn. ChapaloteNalTel is a complex that grows well in warm climates at low elevations and would have been well suited to the Maya Lowland areas. The complex has a wide range of adaptation in terms of soil requirements and matures quickly (Wellhausen et al. 1957). The ears are short, with 814 rows, and have smooth, rounded kernels. This complex of maize races has been described largely from existing land races, but several examples have been identified from designs or impressions on ceramic vessels in Late Classic Monte Albán in Oaxaca, Mexico, and at the Augustin site in Guatemala (Wellhausen et al. 1952). Archaic period examples of archaeological ChapaloteNalTel maize were recovered from La Perra Cave in Tamaulipas, Mexico (Mangelsdorf et al. 1956), and dry caves in Chihuahua and Sonora (Mangelsdorf and Lister 1956). Clearly, maize of this complex was widely propagated throughout ancient Mesoamerica from early times and likewise was grown as a mainstay of the Maya. Other races of maize surely were exploited as well but have yet to be unearthed and described. A pervasive problem in the Maya area is preservation: the ravages of the wet and dry tropics cause many archaeological plant parts to deteriorate rapidly. The result of this depredation is that we do not find whole cobs with the key characteristics needed to determine racial origin in the Maya area as often as in some other regions where conditions are
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more favorable to preservation. Furthermore, information about maize in the highlands is sparse to nonexistent, largely a result of inadequate recovery efforts, so data regarding interregional variability for this valuable food source are lacking. Continued investigations should resolve these difficulties, and eventually sufficient data will accumulate to more adequately elucidate the maize races used by the ancient Maya. A thorough knowledge of early maize races will not only help define the origins of this vital domesticate but direct us to the seed sources and agricultural antecedents of the first Maya farmers as well. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), the second part of the Mesoamerican food triad, originally domesticated in two areas, Middle America and the Andes (Gepts and Debouck 1991), appeared in the Maya area sometime between 945 and 340 B.C. (Miksicek et al. 1991) and probably was introduced much earlier. Bean remains at Lowland Maya sites are not common, largely because they do not preserve well. The parts most often found are the seed cotyledons, which under normal circumstances would be consumed and not discarded, unlike corncobs. An exception to this unfortunate situation was found at the Cerén site in northcentral El Salvador.1 Rapid deposition of volcanic ash resulted in excellent preservation of plant parts at this small farming village, which was inundated sometime around A.D. 600 (Sheets 1994). Much like Pompeii, the site was occupied at the time of a volcanic eruption, so plant parts and other artifacts were preserved in situ, providing us with perhaps one of our best views of agricultural and subsistence practices in Mesoamerica. Large handfuls of beans, both common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and sieva beans (P. lunatus L.) plus some wild relatives, were found in ceramic vessels and other storage units. Because different kinds of beans were mixed together, it appears that the Cerén farmers were not very careful about separating varieties of the cultigen (Lawrence Kaplan, personal communication 1996). Presumably, these mixed collections would be cooked or sown together as well. The Cerén bean collection is perhaps the largest from Mesoamerica and will tell us much about this valuable domesticate. In any case, the combination of beans with maize formed the nucleus of the diet of the ancient Maya and other New World indigenes. The synergistic effects of a diet of corn and beans have been well publicized. When consumed together, they provide all the essential amino acids for human nutrition. Where maize is deficient, as in tryptophan, beans provide an adequate supplement (Kaplan 1973). Corn soaked in limewater provides an essential boost in dietary calcium. Additionally, beans, with the help of their nitrogenfixing Rhizobium spp. symbionts, can produce highquality proteins even when grown in nitrogendeficient soils. This is a real asset in many of the less fertile areas of Mesoamerica, and it undoubtedly helped see the Maya through many plantings on exhausted soils. Squash is the third component of the Mesoamerican food triad. It is a good carbohydrate source and provides substantial quantities of A and B vitamins, niacin, pantothenic acid, calcium, and potassium (Dunne 1990). Squash also works well with maize as a crop because it can be planted between the stalks of 1
There has been a question as to the ethnic affinity of the Cerén inhabitants; they may not have been Maya. In any case, they shared in the Maya lithic and ceramic traditions and undoubtedly their agricultural practices as well (Sheets 1992). The same question may be raised for the occupants of other sites in El Salvador and the Naco site in Honduras. If they were not Maya, at the very least the site occupants were nearest neighbors with the Maya, had active exchange networks with them, and would have shared their floral germplasm.
Page 6 Table 1.1. Plant Remains from Maya Sites. Parts Founda
Useb
Locationc
Timed
Referencee
Taxon
Common Name
Agavaceae
Agave sp.
agave
8,9
5
11
2
10
Aizoaceae
Mollugo verticillata
carpet weed
1
?
1
1
1
Anacardiaceae
Anacardium occidentale
cashew
5
1,3
2,14
1,3
2,13
Astronium graveolens
frijolillo
5
2,3
10
2
9
Spondias sp.
hog plum
2,5
13
13,7,9,13,16
1,2
13,6,8,12,15
Metopium brownei
chechem
1?
4?
13
2
12
Annonaceae
Annona sp.
soursop
5
1,2
2,9
1
2,8
Apocynaceae
Aspidosperma sp.
malady
5
2,3
11
2
10
Stemmadenia sp.
cojeton
5
2?
2
1
2
Thevetia gaumeri
chilidrón
1
4?
13
2
12
Arecaceae
Acrocomia aculeata
coyol
2
1,7
1,36,8,10,11
1,2
1,35,7,9,10
Attalea cohune
cohune
1,2
1,7
3,4,7,10
2
3,6,9
Bactris major
jaucote palm
5
2,3,7
2,3,4,9
1,2
2,3,8
Bactris sp.
huiscoyol
2
1,7
1,2,10,14
13
1,2,9,13
Crysophilia argentea
escoba palm
5
2,3
2,7
1,2
2,6
Sabal sp.
botan
1,5,8
3
5,7,10
1,2
4,6,9
Asteraceae
sunflowers
3
1?
1,2
1,2
1,2
Baltimora recta
flor amarilla
1
?
14
3
13
Helianthus annus
sunflower
3
1?
16
1
15
Melampodium sp.
flor amarilla
1
?
7
2
6
Tithonia rotundifolia
9
9
11
2
10
Bignoniaceae
Crescentia spp.
calabash
4,5
1,2,6
3,7,9,11,16
1,2
3,6,8,10,15
Cydista diversifolia
?
?
13
2
12
Bombacaceae
Ceiba pentandra
ceiba
5
2,3
16
1
15
Pachira aquatica
provision tree
5
2,3?
9
1
8
Boraginaceae
Cordia sp.
siricote
1,5
13
2,5,7,9,10
1,2
2,4,6,8,9
Brassicaceae
Brassica sp.
mustard
1
1?
1
1,2
1
Burseraceae
Bursera spp.
gumbolimbo
5
24,9
2,7,10,13,16
1,2
2,6,9,12,15
Protium copal
copal
9
4,9
5,9
1
4,8
Caricaceae
Carica papaya
wild papaya
1
1
7
2
6
Chenopodiaceae
Chenopodium sp.
goosefoot
1
1
1
1
1
Clusiaceae
Rheedia intermedia
caimito
5
2,3
1,10
2
1,9
Combretaceae
Bucida buceras
bullet tree
1,5
2,3
5,7,9
1,2
4,6,8
Terminalia sp.
nargusta
5
2,3
7,9
1
6,8
(table continued on next page)
Page 7
(table continued from previous page) Parts Founda
Useb
Locationc
Timed
Referencee
Taxon
Common Name
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea sp.
morning glory
1
4,9
13,14
2,3
12,13
Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbita moschata
squash
1
1,7
1,2,6
1,2
1,2,5
Cucurbita sp.
squash
1,4
1
1,2,5,7,9,11,13,14
13
1,2,4,6,8,10,12,13
Lagenaria sp.
gourd
4
6
1,11
2
1,10
Sechium edule
pataste
1
1
1
2
1
Cyperaceae
3
?
2
1
2
Cladium jamaicense
razor grass
1,9
?
2,9
1
2,8
Cyperus canus
sedge
8
9
10
2
9
Scleria sp.
sawgrass
1
?
1,2
1,2
1,2
Dilleniaceae
Curatella americana
sandpaper tree
5
2,3
7
1
6
Ebenaceae
Diospyros sp.
persimmon
1
1
5,13
1,2
4,12
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia sp.
spurge
1
4?
13
2
12
Jatropha gaumeri
pomolché
1?
?
13
2
12
Manihot esculenta
manioc
5,9
1,2,
2,11
1,2
2,10
Sapium sp.
5
2,3?
1
1,2
1
Fabaceae (sensu lato)
Acacia sp.
cockspur
5,9
2,3
2,7,13
1,2
2,6,12
Albizzia sp.
5
2,3
1
1
1
Cassia sp.
1
4?
1
2
1
Crotalaria sp.
chinchin
1
1
2
1
Dalbergia sp.
rosewood
5
2,3
1
2
1
Desmodium sp.
beggar's lice
1
Enterolobium sp.
guanacaste
5
2,3
2,9
1
2,8
Haematoxylon sp.
logwood
5
2,3,9
7
1,2
6,8
Hymenea sp.
guapinol
5
13
1,2
1
1,2
Indigofera suffructicosa
indigo
5
9
2
1
5
Inga sp.
bribri
5
13
2,9
1
2,8
Lysiloma sp.
tsolam
1
4?
13
2
12
Mimosa sp.
sensitive plant
1?
4?
14
3
13
Phaseolus lunatus
sieva bean
1
1
11
2
10
P. vulgaris
common bean
1
1
1,9,11,12
13
1,8,10,11
Phaseolus sp.
bean
1
1
1,2,13,14
1,2
1,2,12,13
Pithecellobium sp.
turtlebone
5
2,3
2,9
1
2,8
Pterocarpus sp.
bloodwood
5
2?
1
2
1
Vigna sp.
frijol
1
1?
1
2
1
Fagaceae
Quercus sp.
oak
5
2,3
1
1,2
1
Flacourtiaceae
Casearia sp.
wild lime
5
2,3
11,13
2
10,12
Muntingia calabura
capulin
1
1
11,16
1,2
10,15
Lauraceae
Nectandra sp.
aguacatillo
5
2,3
10,12
2
9,11
Ocotea sp.
aguacatillo
5
2,3
1
2
1
Persea americana
avocado
2,5
13
13,69,11,16
1,2
13,58,10,15
(table continued on next page)
Page 8
(table continued from previous page) Parts Founda
Useb
Locationc
Timed
Referencee
Taxon
Common Name
Malpighiaceae
Byrsonima crassifolia
nance
2,5
1,2
13,5,6
1,2
15
Malvaceae
Gossypium hirsutum
cotton
1,9
1,5,7
2,5,11,14
13
2,4,10,13
Sida sp.
escobilla
1
9
2,7,14,
1,3
2,6,13
Meliaceae
Cedrela mexicana
Spanish cedar
5
2,3
2,11
1,2
2,10
Menispermaceae
Cissampelos pareira
peteltun
1
4?
5
1
4
Moraceae
Brosimum alicastrum
ramón
1?
1
13
2
12
Cercropia peltata
trumpet tree
5
2
2
1
2
Ficus sp.
wild fig
1,5
1?,2,3,9
2,3,79,11
1,2
2,3,68,10
Pseudolmedia oxyphyllaria
manax, cherry
5
2,3
2
1
2
Trophis racemosa
San Ramón
5
2,3
7
2
6
Myrtaceae
Pimenta diioica
allspice
5
2,3,9
2,7,9
1
2,6,8
Psidium guajava
guava
5
2,3,9
2,11
1
2,10
Nyctaginaceae
Pisonia sp.
uña de gato
1
?
5
1
4
Onagraceae
Oenothera sp.
evening primrose
1
?
12
2
11
Oxalidaceae
Oxalis sp.
wood sorrel
1
?
9
1
8
Passifloraceae
Passiflora sp.
passion flower
1
1
1,2,5
1,2
1,2,4
Phytolacaceae
Rivitia sp.
tropical pokeweed
1
?
2,7
1,2
2,6
Pinaceae
Pinus caribaea
Caribbean pine
5
2,3
2,7
1,2
2,6
P. oocarpa
ocote
5
2,3
10,1
1,2
9,10
Pinus sp.
pine
5
13
1,12,14
13
1,11,13
Piperaceae
Piper sp.
cordoncillo
5
24?
2
1
2
Poaceae
Echinocloa sp.
barnyard grass
1
?
7
2
6
Paspalum sp.
virgin grass
3
?
1,2,7
1,2
1,2,6
Trachypogon
8,9
3
11
2
10
Zea mays
maize
6,7,9
1
114
13
13,613
Rhizophoraceae
Rhizophora mangle
red mangrove
5
2,3
9
1
8
Rosaceae
Prunus sp.
cerezo
5
13
11
2
10
Rubiaceae
Randia sp.
tujé
1?
1?
13
2
12
Hamelia patens
redhead
5
2
2,7,16
1
2,6,15
Sapindaceae
Cupania sp.
pava
5
2,3
10
2
9
Talisia oliviformis
kinep
1
?
2,13
1,2
2,12
(table continued on next page)
Page 9
(table continued from previous page) Taxon
Parts Founda
Common Name
Useb
Locationc
Timed
Referencee
Sapotaceae
5
13
3
2
3
Calocarpum mammosum
mamey
1,5
13
13,5,8,10,16
1,2
14,7,9,15
Chrysophyllum sp.
star apple
1,2
1
2
1
2
Manilkara achras
sapodilla
1,5
1,2
2,69
1,2
2,3,58
Mastichodendron capiri
tsabak
1,5
2,3
1,5
1,2
1,4
Solanaceae
Capsicum annuum
chile pepper
1,9
1
2,10,11
1,2
2,9,10
Capsicum sp.
chile pepper
1
1
5
1
4
Solanum sp.
nightshade
1,5
?
2,7,9
1
2,6,8
Sterculiaceae
Guazuma ulmifolia
wild bay cedar
1,5
2,3
2,7,10
1,2
2,6,9
Melochia sp.
escobilla
1
5?
7
2
6
Theobroma cacao
cacao
1,4,5,9
13
1,2,5,7,11,14,15
13
1,2,4,6,10,13,14
Tiliaceae
Corchorus siliguosus
escobillo
1
?
1
2
2
Typhaceae
Typha sp.
cattail
8
3?
7,9
1,2
6,8
Ulmaceae
Celtis sp.
hackberry
2,5
1
1,2,5,11
1,2
1,2,4,10
Verbenaceae
Cornutia pyramidata
zopilote
5
2?
17
2
6
Vitex sp.
fiddlehead tree
5
2,3
1,10,13
2
1,9,12
Vitaceae
Vitis sp.
wild grape
1
1
1
2
1
a
1 = seed; 2 = pit; 3 = achene; 4 = rind; 5 = charcoal; 6 = kernel; 7 = cupule; 8 = leaf; 9 = other.
b
1 = food; 2 = firewood; 3 = construction; 4 = medicine; 5 = fiber; 6 = container; 7 = oil; 9 = other.
c
1 = Copán; 2 = Cuello; 3 = Wild Cane; 4 = Tiger Mound; 5 = Cerros; 6 = Tikal; 7 = Pulltrouser Swamp; 8 = Colha; 9 = Albion Island; 10 = Dos Pilas; 11 = Cerén; 12 = Naco; 13 = Cobá; 14 = Cihuatán; 15 = Río Azul; 16 = Santa Leticia. d
1 = Preclassic; 2 = Classic; 3 = Postclassic.
e
1 = Lentz 1991a; 2 = Miksicek et al. 1991;3 = McKillop 1994; 4 =Cliff & Crane 1989; 5 = Turner & Miksicek 1984; 6= Miksicek 1983; 7 = Caldwell 1980; 8 = Miksicek 1990; 9 = Lentz 1994; 10 = Lentz et al. 1996; 11 = Lentz 1991b; 12 = Beltrán Frias 1987; 13 = Miksicek 1988; 14 = Hurst et al. 1989; 15 = Miksicek 1986.
Page 10
maize as it is growing. This excellent ground cover fills in areas of exposed soil to help eliminate weedy competitors and reduce erosion at the same time. The intercropping of maize and squash is a common practice among the Paya of Honduras (Lentz 1993) and other contemporary indigenous groups of Central America. Most of the cucurbit remains retrieved from Mesoamerican archaeological sites have been from the rind of the fruit (Table 1.1), a tissue layer that generally cannot be identified to the species level. Peduncles, the stem attachments to the fruit, and seeds are diagnostic parts that are most likely to be recovered. Unfortunately, no peduncles have been found, but several seeds of Cucurbita moschata (Duch.) Duch. ex Poir. have been identified. No other evidence for Cucurbita species has been recorded other than C. pepo L. pollen from Edzna (Turner and Miksicek 1984) and several seeds of the same species from Cerén (Lentz et al. 1996). The Cerén C. pepo seeds may have been modern intrusions and therefore are not included in Table 1.1. Other species of Cucurbita probably were used by the Precolumbian Maya, and additional research in the area should reveal the full complement of squashes eaten in the past. One reason squash seeds are not common at Maya sites is that they were probably targeted as a food source; they are a good source of oil and are delicious when dried, so they are unlikely entrants into the trash pile. It seems reasonable to suggest that maize, beans, and squash were grown in swidden, or shifting cultivation, fields away from the house compounds as is the general practice in Mesoamerica today. Evidence from the Cerén site, however, where a cornfield planted in neat rows was growing directly adjacent to a house compound, indicates that even the most reasonable assumptions can be erroneous, and the ancient Mesoamericans continue to show more complexity in their adaptive patterns than our simple models can accommodate. Additional intensive Maya farming techniques included terracing (Beach and Dunning 1995; Turner 1974), raised fields (Siemens and Puleston 1972; Turner and Harrison 1983), check dams (Turner and Johnson 1979), drained fields (Pohl et al. 1996), and other forms of hydraulic agriculture (Bloom et al. 1983; Matheny 1976; Scarborough 1991). Until recently, cultivated chile peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) have been almost invisible in the paleoethnobotanical record. Perhaps the earliest example of chile came from Phase II (Formative period) deposits at Cuello (Miksicek et al. 1991). One seed was found and was of such small size it may have been from a wild variety, C. annuum var. aviculare (Dierb.) D'Arcy & Eshbaugh. Another chile seed was found at Late Formative Cerros (Cliff and Crane 1989), and carbonized peduncles were identified at Late Classic Dos Pilas (Lentz 199b). This meager evidence might lead us to believe that chile peppers were not important to the Precolumbian Maya, but recent studies at the Cerén site present quite a different picture. Carbonized chile seeds, peduncles, and rinds were found in great abundance, especially in storage rooms and a kitchen, where they were hung from the rafters in large clusters (Lentz et al. 1996). Several ceramic vessels contained seeds that possibly were in storage for subsequent planting or consumption. Chiles, with their abundant vitamin con
Page 11
tent, were clearly an important component of the diet at the Cerén site, at least by Middle Classic times. Probably these were grown as house garden plants as is the practice among the Kekchi Maya of Guatemala today. Manioc (Manihot esculenta Crantz) has been hypothesized as a major crop for the ancient Mesoamericans (Bronson 1966), but little documentation for this practice has been found in the Maya area. Some carbonized manioc stems were found in Late Formative deposits at Cuello (Miksicek et al. 1991), and manioc root casts were uncovered at Cerén (Lentz et al. 1996) in a house garden near one of the domiciliary structures. The limited evidence for manioc cultivation is at least in part due to the double problem of poor preservation of root crops in seasonally wet areas and the difficulty in identifying the fleshy parts, especially after they have been crushed or carbonized. Also, manioc is usually propagated vegetatively without the use of seeds, so there are few opportunities for seeds to become preserved by usual means. Hather and Hammond (1994) also report manioc from Cuello based on electron micrographs of charred parenchymatous tissue, but secure identification of root organs is complete only with clearly discernible vascular tissue embedded within the parenchyma. In addition to manioc, Bronson hypothesized Maya exploitation of other root crops, such as cocoyam (Xanthosoma sp.), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas [L.] Lam.), and jícama (Pachyrhizus erosus [L.] Urb.), but substantive evidence has yet to be identified. Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) may well have been an indigenous crop in the Maya area. Not only was it used as a source of fibers for clothing and other purposes, but the seeds were also used as a source of oil. Confirmation of this was found in a metate trough adjacent to a food storage area at Cerén where 74 cotton seeds were being ground for oil extraction (Lentz et al. 1996). The oil may have been used as a base for paints, as a liniment, or for other purposes, but the archaeological context suggests the seeds were being ground for cooking purposes. If the oil had been used for cooking, it would have added fats to a diet that is in other respects deficient. One drawback to unrefined cottonseed oil, however, is that it contains about 0.36 percent gossypol (Smallwood 1978), a polyphenolic binapthalenedialdehyde. At high concentrations gossypol is toxic. For example, the LD50 (lethal dose in 50 percent of the cases tested) in rats is 2,870 mg/kg (Telek and Martin 1981). In other experiments a 15 percent diet of cotton meal with 1.1 percent gossypol caused growth suppression in baby chickens (Krishnamurthi 1954). If these results can be converted to human equivalents, a child with a diet of 45 percent cottonseed oil would suffer from stunted growth, or a 50kg adult who ingested 40 liters of cottonseed oil in one sitting would receive a lethal dose of gossypol. These possibilities are, at best, highly unlikely. More realistically, individuals probably consumed far less oil. Accordingly, the use of small quantities of cottonseed oil for cooking purposes may have been plausible in Precolumbian times. These calculations, however, do not take into account possible longterm effects of gossypol consumption. Gossypol does have an interesting side effect: it lowers sperm counts and has been used as a reliable male contraceptive in China with only mild side effects (Telek and Martin 1981). One can only wonder at the impact this may have had
Page 12
on Precolumbian society. One final note on cotton: because its natural habit is to grow as a shrub, it seems likely that cotton was grown as a perennial at Cerén and elsewhere in Mesoamerica. Another fiber plant, agave (Agave spp.), currently cultivated widely throughout Central America, was grown as a prolific home garden plant at Cerén. Casts of many of these plants define the location of an extensive, carefully tended, infield garden that was directly adjacent to one of the house compounds (Lentz et al. 1996). This garden and others like it were the source of raw material for the many examples of agave fiber twine found at the site. To color textiles and other artifacts, the Maya may have used indigo (Indigofera suffructicosa Mill.) and inkwood (Haematoxylon campechianum L.) as dye plants (Turner and Miksicek 1984). Numerous authors have hypothesized, in various ways, how the ancient Maya relied extensively on tree cropping (Caballero 1989; Dahlin 1979; Folan et al. 1979; GómezPompa et al. 1987, 1990; Lange 1971; Lundell 1938; Miksicek 1990; McBryde 1947; McKillop 1994; Netting 1977; Pérez Romero and Cobos P. 1990; Puleston 1968, 1982; Turner and Miksicek 1984; Wilken 1971; Wiseman 1978), and the paleoethnobotanical data largely support these assertions. The remains of many fully domesticated fruit trees—for example, avocado (Persea americana Mill.), cacao (Theobroma cacao L.), and cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.)— have been found in two or more sites. Other fruitbearing trees that existed somewhere along the continuum of wild tree to completely domesticated crop included such native species as mamey (Calocarpum mammosum Pierre), calabash (Crescentia spp.), guava (Psidium guajava L.), hogplum (Spondias mombin L.), nance (Byrsonima crassifolia [L.] H.B.K.), capulín (Muntingia calabura L.), and papaya (Carica papaya L.). These are fruit trees that could have been gathered from forest stands or may have been grown in dooryard orchards. Once again, for insights as to how this was accomplished in Precolumbian times, we can turn to Cerén, where economically important trees were planted in household courtyards. Branches, leaves, and cotyledons of avocado; abundant casts of whole guava fruits; branches and rinds of calabash; and stems and fruits of nance were arrayed across the activity surfaces of several house compounds. Clearly, the citizens of Cerén grew much of their fruit in infield gardens or orchards directly adjacent to their houses where they could be fertilized with household waste and night soil. One aspect of the ancient Maya subsistence pattern revealed from the archaeobotanical record which was not predicted by early scholars was the widespread use of palms. The most widely used palms were the indigenous coyol (Acrocomia aculeata [Jacq.] Lodd. ex Mart.),2 huiscoyol (Bactris spp.), and cohune (Attalea cohune [Mart.] Henderson) (Lentz 1990). Remains of all these have been recovered from numerous sites throughout the region (Table 1.l), often with more than one species being exploited at any one site. The Maya may have been interested in palm fruits because of their high oil content. Fats are an essential part of the diet; nutritionists recommend that 2030 percent of the caloric intake consist of fats (Dunne 1990). In addition to providing energy, fats 2
Acrocomia aculeata is often listed in botanical and archaeological literature as Acrocomia mexicana.
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act as carriers for the fatsoluble vitamins A, D, E, and K; aid in the absorption of vitamin D; and help convert carotene to vitamin A (Dunne 1990). An examination of Table 1.1 reveals that fat sources from plants, with notable exceptions of mamey, squash seeds, and avocado, were limited for the Precolumbian Maya, a fact that was especially problematic in light of their meager assortment of domesticated animals. Although the Maya domesticated turkeys, Muscovy ducks, and dogs, most of their animal meat came from whitetailed deer, generally regarded as a lean meat source. All the palms listed in Table 1.1 are native to Mesoamerica, are good oil producers, and could have been exploited as wild plants. It seems likely, however, that at least one species, coyol, was cultivated during prehistoric times by peoples of central Mexico (Smith 1967) and the Maya, who were responsible for its introduction to the Copán region (Lentz 1991a). The Copán Maya recognized the value of the palm and cultivated it to enhance their nutritional options. Curiously, there appears to have been no extensive use of palms at Cerén as a food source. The explanation may be that the Cerén inhabitants had no need for palms because they obtained their oil from other sources. In short, each community in the ancient Maya realm needed a good source of fats, and the oil of palm could have filled this dietary need. Of course, when the Spaniards arrived in the sixteenth century, the Mesoamerican diet changed rapidly to a reliance on fats from a new source: the adipose tissues of Old World domesticated animals. In spite of the growing body of paleoethnobotanical data, a number of widely used New World domesticates have not been found at Mayan archaeological sites. Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.), and tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) have all escaped discovery. Wiseman (1983) claimed to have retrieved amaranth pollen from Pulltrouser Swamp, but his identifications were tentative. This is understandable, because the genera in the Amaranthaceae have morphology that is difficult to distinguish. Moreover, the seeds of amaranth, tomato, and tobacco are tiny and may simply have escaped notice by field collectors. Continued searching with the use of fine screens (mesh size < 0.5 mm) to collect flotation material should resolve this problem. Another food source of the ancient Maya that has been discussed for decades is ramón (Brosimum alicastrum Sw.). The concept that the fruit of this tropical forest tree was a staple for the prehistoric Maya was suggested first by Lundell (1938), later embellished by Puleston (1968, 1982), and recently resurrected by Atran (1993). Ramón is edible, and many indigenous people of Mesoamerica continue to consume it (Alcorn 1984; Lentz 1993), but more as a famine food and not as a major foodstuff. The paleoethnobotanical record reflects little use of the plant in the past. Of all the studies represented in Table 1.1, only one seed of ramón has been recorded (from the Cobá site). The seed of ramón is not small nor is it delicate, and it seems that if it were being used in any significant way, substantial evidence would have been uncovered by now. At the Cerén site, where preservation is as favorable as one can expect in Central America, there is no trace of ramón as of 1999. Although the ramón hypothesis
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has been the focus of many stimulating discussions, the paleoethnobotanical record simply does not support the use of ramón as an important food source for the ancient Maya. Environmental Indications Whereas carbonized seeds and fruit rinds can tell us much about the food consumption habits of the prehistoric Maya, the charcoal from ancient hearths and burned buildings of the past help define what wood products the site occupants were extracting from the surrounding environment. Charcoal records from Cuello (Miksicek et al. 1991) and Copán (Lentz 1991a) provide documentation of wood changes through time with an adequate chronological view. At these sites a diachronic shift from primary forest trees to second growth or understory trees has been recorded. This undoubtedly paralleled forest clearance and intensification of agriculture as populations grew in nucleated areas. Furthermore, a surprising trend revealed by the charcoal record is the amount of pine (Pinus spp.) found at sites where the trees are not found today, for example, Cuello (Miksicek et al. 1991), Dos Pilas (Lentz 1994), and Cerén (Lentz et al. 1996). The explanation for these observations includes a longdistance transport hypothesis or one of climate or humaninduced environmental change in which pine trees grew closer to habitation sites in prehistoric times. Continued research will help elucidate this phenomenon more fully. Summary Results of paleoethnobotanical studies in the Maya area clearly indicate that the prehistoric Maya, beginning at least by 1200 B.C., indeed had a maizebased system of food production along with squash, peppers, and several varieties of beans. These results are corroborated by isotopic data derived from ancient Maya bone collagen (Wright and White 1996). Likewise, manioc and probably other root crops, as valuable cultigens, contributed to the Precolumbian diet, although the degree of contribution is still open to question. Annual crops were most likely grown in a shifting cultivation technique with regional adaptations employing terracing, raised fields, check dams, drained fields, and other forms of hydraulic agriculture practiced to enhance productivity in areas where social and physical conditions were conducive to these developments. Perennials and tree crops were combined with the production from annuals to help meet the demands of expanding and increasingly nucleated populations, especially during the Late Classic period. Orchard farming, with tree crop infields grown adjacent to house compounds, was definitely a widespread practice directly observable at Cerén and indirectly at several other sites. Important broadleaf trees included avocado, hogplum, mamey, guava, nance, cacao, cashew, and calabash. Little evidence for ramón, however, has been recovered from archaeological deposits. Several species of palm were exploited by the ancient Maya, probably because of the oil content of the fruits, and at least one species, coyol, seems to have been actively cultivated. Cotton and agave supplied fiber, and cotton seeds, as by products, provided useful oil.
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Forest products used for construction material and fuel extracted from plant communities surrounding each site have been identified from charcoal remains. Results of some of these analyses have indicated that forest degradation accompanied prolonged human occupation. Pine appears at some sites where it does not grow now, suggesting longdistance transport of the wood, perhaps as pine charcoal. Alternatively, pines might have grown closer to the occupation sites in the past than they do today because of human activity or climatic change and therefore could have been harvested more conveniently. What is outlined here is a general pattern of plant use by a large group of diverse peoples that occupied the Maya area over a 3,000year time period, with little allowance for intraregional or diachronic variability. Certainly there were many variations on the themes described, resulting from environmental and cultural differences across the breadth of the Maya realm. Even within a community there can be variations in dietary patterns, as seen among the social status levels at Copán (Lentz 1991a). Nevertheless, the overall patterns portrayed in this account seem to be reflected in the archaeobotanical record at most of the areas studied. Future studies will help flesh out our understanding of ancient Maya subsistence and ecological adaptation through time and across regional and social boundaries. This will be accomplished if currently used techniques, and more advanced ones, are applied universally. The paleoethnobotany of the highlands of the ancient Maya realm remains a mystery, and work in this region should be encouraged. Tikal and other sites that had large, socially stratified populations have been examined archaeologically, yet we know little of how they derived their sustenance and what plant resources they exploited. As with all peoples, plants provided essential raw materials for the survival and growth of the Maya cultural manifestation. Continued study will help reveal how the Maya obtained their necessities and modified the environment in the process. References Cited Alcorn, J. B. (1984) Huastec Mayan Ethnobotany. Austin: University of Texas Press. Atran, S. (1993) Itza Maya tropical agroforestry. Current Anthropology 34:633700. Beach, T., and Dunning, N. P. (1995) Ancient Maya terracing and modern conservation in the Peten rain forest of Guatemala. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 50:138145. Beltrán Frias, L. (1987) Subsistencia y aprovechamiento del medio. In L. Manzanilla (ed.): Coba, Quintana Roo análisis de dos unidades habitacionales Mayas. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma, pp. 213232. Benz, B. F. (1986) ''Taxonomy and Evolution of Mexican Maize." Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Bloom, P. R.; Pohl, M.; Buttleman, C.; Wiseman, F.; Covich, A.; Miksicek, C.; Ball, J.; and Stein, J. (1983) Prehistoric Maya wetland agriculture and the alluvial soils near San Antonio Rio Hondo, Belize. Nature 301:417419. Bohrer, V., and Adams, K. (1977) Ethnobotanical Techniques and Approaches at Salmon Ruin, New Mexico. Contributions in Anthropology, Vol. 8. Portales: Eastern New Mexico University. Bronson, B. (1966) Roots and the subsistence of the ancient Maya. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 22:251279.
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Caballero, J. (1989) Modern Maya homegardens of the Yucatán peninsula. Paper presented at the 54th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, Atlanta. Caldwell, J. R. (1980) Archaeobotanical aspects of the 1980 field season. In T. R. Hester, J. D. Eaton, and H. J. Shafer (eds.): The Colha Project, Second Season, 1980: Interim Report. San Antonio: Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, pp. 257268. Cliff, M. B., and Crane, C. J. (1989) Changing subsistence economy at a Late Preclassic Maya community. In P. A. McAnany and B. L. Isaac (eds.): Prehistoric Maya Economics of Belize. Research in Economic Anthropology, Supplement 4. Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, pp. 295324. Dahlin, B. H. (1979) Cropping cash in the Protoclassic: A cultural impact statement. In N. Hammond and G. R. Willey (eds.): Maya Archaeology and Ethnohistory. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 2137. Dunne, L. J. (1990) Nutrition Almanac. 3d ed. New York: McGrawHill. Folan, W. J.; Fletcher, L. A.; and Kintz, E. R. (1979) Fruit, fiber, bark, and resin: Social organization of a Maya urban center. Science 204:697701. Gepts, P., and Debouck, D. (1991) Origin, domestication, and evolution of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). In A. van Schoonhoven and O. Voysest (eds.): Common Beans: Research for Crop Improvement. Wellingford, U.K.: C.A.B. International, pp.754. GómezPompa, A.; Flores, J. S.; and Fernández, M. A. (1990) The sacred cacao groves of the Maya. Latin American Antiquity 1:247257. GómezPompa, A.; Flores, J. S.; and Sosa, V. (1987) The "Pet Kot": A manmade tropical forest of the Maya. Interciencia 12:1015. Hather, J. G., and Hammond, N. (1994) Ancient Maya subsistence diversity: Root and tuber remains from Cuello, Belize. Antiquity 68:330335. Healy, P. F.; Lambert, J.; Arnason, T.; and Hebda, R. (1983) Caracol, Belize: Evidence of ancient Maya agricultural terraces. Journal of Field Archaeology 10:397410. Hurst,W. J.; Martin, R.A., Jr.; Tarka, S. M., Jr.; and Hall, G. D. (1989) Authentication of cacao in ancient Mayan vessels using HPLC techniques. Journal of Chromatography 466:279289. Kaplan, L. (1973) Ethnobotanical and nutritional factors in the domestication of American beans. In C. Earl Smith, Jr. (ed.): Man and His Food. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, pp. 7585. Krishnamurthi, M. N. (1954) Cottonseed and Its Products. New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Lange, F. W. (1971) Marine resources: A viable subsistence alternative for the prehistoric lowland Maya. American Anthropology 73:619639. Lentz, D. L. (1990) Acrocomia mexicana: Palm of the ancient Mesoamericans. Journal of Ethnobiology 10:183194. Lentz, D. L. (1991a) Maya diets of the rich and poor: Paleoethnobotanical evidence from Copán. Latin American Antiquity 2:269287. Lentz, D. L. (1991b) Archaeobotanical remains from the Naco Valley, Honduras. Ms. on file, New York Botanical Garden Harding Laboratory. Lentz, D. L. (1993) Medicinal and other economic plants of the Paya of Honduras. Economic Botany 47:358370. Lentz, D. L. (1994) Paleoethnobotanical evidence for subsistence practices and other economic activities in the Petexbatun region during the Classic period. Paper presented at the 93d American Anthropological Association Meeting, Atlanta. Lentz, D. L.; BeaudryCorbett, M.; Reyna de Aguilar, M. L.; and Kaplan, L. (1996) Foodstuffs, forests, fields, and shelter: A paleoethnobotanical analysis of vessel contents from the Cerén Site, El Salvador. Latin American Antiquity 7:247262. Lundell, C. L. (1938) Plants probably utilized by the old empire Maya of Peten and adja
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cent lowlands. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters 24:3756. McBryde, F. W. (1947) Cultural and Historical Geography of Southwest Guatemala. Publication No. 4. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution of Social Anthropology. McKillop, H. (1994) Ancient Maya tree cropping, a viable subsistence adaptation for the island Maya. Ancient Mesoamerica 5:129140. Mangelsdorf, P. C., and Lister, R. H. (1956) Archaeological evidence of the evolution of maize in northwestern Mexico. Botanical Museum Leaflet, Harvard University 17:151178. Mangelsdorf, P. C.; MacNeish, R. S.; and Galinat, W. C. (1956) Archaeological evidence on the diffusion and evolution of maize in northeastern Mexico. Botanical Museum Leaflet, Harvard University 17:125150. Matheny, R. T. (1976) Maya Lowland hydraulic systems. Science 193:639646. Miksicek, C. H. (1983) Macrofloral remains of the Pulltrouser area: Settlements and fields. In B. L. Turner II and P. D. Harrison (eds.): Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 94104. Miksicek, C. H. (1986) Paleobotanical identifications. In A. A. Demarest (ed.): The Archaeology of Santa Leticia and the Rise of Maya Civilization. New Orleans: Tulane University Press, pp. 199200. Miksicek, C. H. (1988) Man and environment at Cihuatán. In J. H. Kelly (ed.): Cihuatán, El Salvador: A Study in Intrasite Variability. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, pp. 149155. Miksicek, C. H. (1990) Early wetland agriculture in the Maya lowlands: Clues from preserved plant remains. In M. Pohl (ed.): Ancient Maya Wetland Agriculture: Excavations on Albion Island, Northern Belize. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, pp. 295312. Miksicek, C. H.; Wing, E. S.; and Scudder, S. J. (1991) The ecology and economy of Cuello. In N. Hammond (ed.): Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, pp. 7084. Netting, R. McD. (1977) Maya subsistence: Mythologies, analogies, possibilities. In R. E. W. Adams (ed.): The Origins of Maya Civilization. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 299333. Pearsall, D. M. (1989) Paleoethnobotany: A Handbook of Procedures. San Diego: Academic Press. Pérez Romero, A., and Cobos P., R. (1990) Una nota arqueológica respecto a la presencia de Theobroma cacao en las tierras bajas mayas. Boletín de la Escuela de Ciencias Antropológicas de la Universidad de Yucatán 17:3366. Pohl, M.; Pope, K. O.; Jones, J. G.; Jacob, J. S.; Piperno, D. R.; deFrance, S. D.; Lentz, D. L.; Gifford, J. A.; Danforth, M. E.; and Josserand, J. K. (1996) Early agriculture in the Maya Lowlands. Latin American Antiquity 7(4):355372. Puleston, D. E. (1968) Brosimum alicastrum as Subsistence Alternative for the Classic Maya of the Central Southern Lowlands. Master's thesis, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Puleston, D. E. (1982) The role of ramón in Maya subsistence. In K. V. Flannery (ed.): Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston. New York: Academic Press, pp. 353366. Scarborough, V. L. (1991) Water management adaptations in nonindustrial complex societies: An archaeological perspective. In M. B. Schiffer (ed.): Archaeological Method and Theory. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, pp. 101154. Sheets, P. (1992) The Cerén Site. Boulder: University of Colorado. Sheets, P. (1994) Tropical time capsule. Archaeology 47:3033. Siemens, A. H., and Puleston, E. (1972) Ridged fields and associated features in southern Campeche: New perspectives on the Lowland Maya. American Antiquity 37:228239.
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Smallwood, N. J. (1978) Significance of gland pigment in processing, storage, handling, and utilization of cottonseed oil. In G. Harper (ed.): Glandless Cotton: Its Significance, Status, and Prospects. Beltsville, Md.: Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, pp. 1330. Smith, C. E., Jr. (1967) Plant remains. In D. S. Byers (ed.): The Prehistory of the Tehuacan Valley. Vol. 1. Environment and Subsistence. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 220255. Struever, S. (1968) Flotation techniques for the recovery of smallscale archaeological remains. American Antiquity 33:352353. Telek, L., and Martin, F. W. (1981) Okra seed: A potential source for oil and protein in the humid Lowland tropics. In E. H. Pryde, L. H. Princen, and K. D. Mukherjee (eds.): New Sources of Fats and Oils. Champaign, Ill.: American Oil Chemists Society, pp. 3753. Turner, B. L. II (1974) Prehistoric intensive agriculture in the Mayan Lowlands. Science 185:118124 Turner, B. L. II, and Harrison, P. D. (eds.) (1983) Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize. Austin: University of Texas Press. Turner, B. L. II, and Johnson, W. C. (1979) A Maya dam in the Copán Valley, Honduras. American Antiquity 44:299305. Turner, B. L. II, and Miksicek, C. H. (1984) Economic plant species associated with prehistoric agriculture in the Maya lowlands. Economic Botany 38:179193. Watson, P. J. (1976) In pursuit of prehistoric subsistence: A comparative account of some contemporary flotation techniques. MidContinental Journal of Archaeology 1:77100. Wellhausen, E. J.; Robert, L. M.; and Hernandez, X. E. (1952) Races of Maize in Mexico. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Wellhausen, E. J.; Robert, L. M.; and Hernandez, X. E. (1957) Races of Maize in Central America. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. Wilken, G. C. (1971) Foodproducing systems available to the ancient Maya. American Antiquity 36:432448. Wiseman, F. M. (1978) Agricultural and historical ecology of the Maya Lowlands. In P. D. Harrison and B. L. Turner II (eds.): PreHispanic Maya Agriculture. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 63115. Wiseman, F. M. (1983) Analysis of pollen from the fields at Pulltrouser swamp. In B. L. Turner II and P. D. Harrison (eds.): Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 105119. Wright, L. W., and White, C. D. (1996) Human biology in the Classic Maya Collapse: Evidence from paleopathology and paleodiet. Journal of World Prehistory 10:147198.
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Chapter 2 Classification of Useful Plants by the Northern Petén Maya (Itzaj) Scott Atran and Edilberto Ucan Ek' Kinukuch ch'ib'al kuxlajoo' taanil ti dyoos. "Our great ancestry lived before God." Yun Domingo Chayax Suntecun, Itzaj exorcist and prioste or Aj Nojil K'unaj
This chapter is a digest of how contemporary Itzaj Maya classify and use more than 400 plant species in the tropical forest region of northcentral Petén, Guatemala. The Itzaj are the region's last Lowland Maya with demonstrable historical ties to Precolumbian Lowland Maya civilization (Atran 1993). Itzaj classification of useful plants reveals a stable cognitive structure, a predominance of indigenous species, and a longstanding cultural framework that carries information about the ecological, medicinal, and nutritional dimensions of that ancient past. Given the alarming rate of deforestation and the moribund state of the Itzaj language, these data may also be a timely aid to understanding how the region once supported a population exceeding the currently destructive level by an order of magnitude. Our data base for the Itzaj includes herbaria (on deposit with the Comité BioItza of San José, Petén, and the University of Michigan); an Itzaj grammar and Itzaj/Spanish dictionary of natural history (Lois and Vapnarsky forthcoming); psychological studies on how Itzaj categorize and reason about the natural world (Atran 1999a; Atran et al. 1997; Coley et al. 1997; López et al. 1997); and comparative studies of ecological cognition and agroforestry practice among Itzaj and other Lowland Maya (Yukatek, Lakantun) versus Spanishspeaking Ladinos and Highland Maya (Q'eqchi', Tzeltal) who have immigrated to the Lowlands (Atran 1999b; Atran and Medin 1997; Atran et al. in press). Structural aspects of the classification system presented here reflect a statistical "cultural consensus" of at least twelve Itzaj speakers (six men and six women) based on factor analysis (Medin et al. 1997; Atran 1999a; cf. Romney et al. 1986). The nutritional, medicinal, and cultural contents of the classification represent a synthesis of information elicited from (up to) twenty Itzaj informants for each species. Tables 2.1 to 2.3 provide a summary of the names and functions that Itzaj Maya assign to their principal useful plants (and immediate folkbotanical allies). These tables, which appear at the end of this chapter, are broadly illustra
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tive rather than exhaustive: many useful plants are excluded (because not yet scientifically identified), and many more are named but unused (although they may have had uses in the past). Where possible, the corresponding names are furnished for other Lowland Maya languages since the time of the Conquest.1 Historical Background In Petén, topographic and microclimatic variation allows for a dramatic range of vegetation over relatively small areas, and sustaining both this diversity and people's livelihood over the past two millennia has likely required correspondingly flexible agroforestry regimes.2 The Precolumbian economy of central Petén may have been biointensive, based on systematic management of micro and mesoscale environmental variation in the form of agroforestry (Puleston 1982; C. Earle Smith in Turner and Miksicek 1984). Only recently has evidence come to light at Bajo la Justa (between Yaxha and Nakun) of geointensive production systems in central Petén that involved landscape modification through agroengineering works (Culbert et al. 1995); evidence is more compelling, however, for largescale production at outlying Classic sites in Belize and the Yucatán (Puleston 1978; Siemens 1982; Sluyter 1994). Paleolimnological analysis of sediments in the central lakes region of Petén associates demise of Classic Maya civilization toward the end of the first millennium with geometrically increasing rates of deforestation (Rice 1993). There is evidence of spiraling population growth (Culbert and Rice 1990), unrelenting warfare (Chase and Chase 1989; Demarest 1993), and nutrient deficiency (Santley et al. 1986). Economic infrastructure supporting a population of perhaps 3 million people collapsed. Transport and communication links apparently disintegrated between central Petén cities (e.g., Tikal) and outlying production centers (e.g., Caracol in Belize). Although the central lakes region may have suffered less drastic population loss than neighboring Tikal, resettlement of Petén seems never to have surpassed the few hundred thousand people estimated for the immediate Preconquest era. Dense forest cover reappears during the Late Postclassic period, which precedes a brutal Spanish conquest in 1697 (Wiseman 1978). By and large, this cover endured through the midtwentieth century. Since 1959, when the military government first opened up Petén to "colonization and development," more than half the forest cover of Petén has been destroyed or degraded (AHG/APESA 1992, Anexo 6 and 13). The rate of deforestation, which averaged nearly 300 km2 between 1962 and 1987, increased to more than 500 km2 by 1990, as population rose from barely 20,000 to over 300,000 (Schwartz 1990:11). Most of southern Petén's rainforest has vanished, leaving the bulk of Petén's remaining forest north of 17°10' latitude. In a debtfornature swap engineered by the Agency for International Development (USAID) in 1990, the Guatemalan government set aside most of the area north of this latitude as a United Nationssponsored "Maya Biosphere Reserve." Yet even within the biosphere, forest continues to burn apace ("S.O.S: Se muere biosfera Maya," Prensa Libre, Guatemala daily, 22 April 1998). Because legislation associated with the Maya 1
The spelling of all Petén Maya words (Itzaj and Mopan) follows the conventions of the Academia de las Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala (1988). This also applies to twentieth century terms of the Yukatek (Yucatec) and Lakantun (Lacandon) Maya of Mexico, who along with the Petén Maya think of themselves as "The Maya" (ajmaayajoo(b)'). Morpheme breaks within Maya words are indicated by a hyphen () and compounds with a tilde (~). Other notational conventions presented below reflect the cognitive structure of Itzaj folk taxonomy The etymologies given for Itzaj folk taxa often represent a synthesis of folk etymologies elicited from informants rather than "true" etymologies (see Paso y Troncoso 1988/1886 for a similar approach to etymologies of Nahuatal folkbiological taxa). 2
At the height of the growing season, July rainfall in Flores (site of the Precolumbian Itzaj capital, Tayasal) went from 121 mm in 1993 to 335 mm in 1996, and in nearby Tikal from 58 mm to 137 mm; in May, when crops are planted, there was no rainfall in Tikal in 1993 for 23 days, then 130 mm in 3 days, etc. Guatemala Govt. Institute of Meteorology, INSIVUMEH.
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Biosphere bans or severely restricts felling and burning of trees, loggers, ranchers, and farmers raze more territory than they can currently use in anticipation of harsher measures. The major cause of deforestation, however, remains population pressure from the overcrowded and tired lands of southern Guatemala (cf. Schwartz 1995). There some 9 million people live in an area roughly twice the size of Petén, where nearly twothirds of the land is controlled by about 2 percent of the people. The intense scholarly attention that Preconquest Itzaj attract contrasts markedly with lack of interest in the Postconquest Itzaj. This is curious, since research and speculation about Precolumbian Maya civilization often extrapolates from modern ethnographic sources. The reasons for this studious avoidance may have to do with the sorry state of Petén Maya society today compared with its illustrious past. This contrast in cultural fortunes—perhaps more glaring than elsewhere in Mesoamerica—has been wrongly interpreted as a complete culture gap. For example, Colonel Modesto Méndez, on "discovering" Tikal, wrote in his diary (2 March 1848) that the native Itzaj inhabiting the region, who guided him to the site they called "the place of the wind [spirits]" (tiik'al), could not possibly be of the "race . . . descended from those who wanted to immortalize their names" at Tikal (Soza 1970, 1:246). Similar peremptory claims by influential historians (Means 1917) and archaeologists (Hellmuth 1977) that modern Itzaj knowledge and culture bear no significant relation to that of Precolumbian Petén Maya is supported by no empirical evidence or firsthand knowledge of modern Itzaj language and culture. On 22 March 1697, nine days after the destruction at Lake Petén Itza of the last independent Maya confederacy, the conquistador Don Martin de Ursua y Aresmendi wrote to the king of Spain of the finish to an abhorrent culture—a culture that nevertheless reflected the "ingenious abilities" of its native folk to create "exquisite" statues, temples, and glyphs" wherein much was found to be seen and admired," abilities that boded well for the use of corvée labor to build new Spanish cities (Sevilla, Archivo General de Indias, Audiencia de Guatemala legajo 343, folios 70 recto71 verso):3 When the infidels heard our arms, and experienced the valor of those advancing, they began to flee in such a vile manner, men and women threw themselves into the water and filled it all the way to the mainland. And I do not doubt that many would be imperiled. . . . There were found twentyone sanctuaries full of horrible and deformed idols, and among these the shin bone of a horse which, according to an old Indian woman, was the horse of Don Fernando Cortes, who passed these lands on the way to Honduras. Homes were also found to be full of idols, with whose destruction [my] people were occupied from eight in the morning until five in the afternoon. . . . These miserable waywards of the devil, deprived of the true light, must not have had any other activity than idolatry owing to their not having an economic form of settlement, but rather having all kin live together barbarously in one house. The pleasantness and fertility of the land, the delightful beauty of this lake—the breadth and length of its waters on all sides, its inlets and 3
Relying on Ursua's account, Villagutierre (1701/1985), the Spanish Crown's archivist, who never set foot in the New World, makes it seem as if the Spanish gave the Itzaj every opportunity to honor prior commitments to accept Catholic faith and government. Although Villagutierre cites reports of mass Itzaj suicide as the Spanish made their final assault, he intimates that "the Itza in effect invited the Spaniards to conquer them" (Bricker 1981:24),and this is presumably why "the Itzá gave up with barely a whimper on March 13,1697" (Schele and Freidel 1990:399). But other testimony indicates the Spanish were not so peacefully disposed. Diego de Rivas, a Mercedarian friar accompanying Ursua's expedition, later testified that "de la entrada que hizo el Señor Don Martin de Urzua consta que era tanto el número de los que se le opusieron que habiendo muerto innumerables las balas que dispararon los nuestros parecia isla en la laguna la que se formó con los cuerpos muertos de los indios" ("of the entry made by Don Martin Urzua [I] state that so great was the number of those who opposed it, so innumerably many were those killed by the bullets we shot, it seemed like an island in the lake was formed by the bodies of the dead Indians") (15 noviembre 1698, AGI Guatemala 345, folio 389 recto). In the Spanish census of 1714 the native population of Petén had fallen to 3,000 (Schwartz 1990:11), far from the tens of thousands that the Itzaj chieftain kan~ek' governed on the eve of the Conquest (Avendaño y Loyola 1696/1987:4748; Villagutierre 1701/1985:318). Current opinion is that the Itzaj had resigned themselves
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Page 22 streams, with its continuous waves giving it the appearance of the sea—is extraordinary, as is the highest quality of woven cotton fabrics in delicacy and dye. The land yields two consecutive harvests of produce yearly; at present new maize is being gathered, the ears and kernels are extremely thick, and everywhere very adequate. There are gathered wild fruits, indigo, vanilla, cacao, anotta, cotton, wax, honey and every kind of vegetable and bean from [this] land and from Castile. And although the males seem lazy, because they have small milpas that are expected to yield continual harvests, females to the contrary are known to work from sunup to sundown, without speaking a word.
After conquest many Itzaj were moved around Petén to service cattle ranches. Spanish interest in native agriculture concerned only maize and beans. Because of this, and because until a generation ago Itzaj were punished for speaking their language in public, reports on modern Itzaj subsistence have been limited to farming (cf. Cowgill 1962; Reina 1967). Not that the colonizers were altogether unaware of a dazzling array of local crops, game, and uses of forest resources. But this merely underscored a conviction that absence of great fields and herds in the soilpoor tropical forest was owing to savage sloth (Villagutierre 1701/1985 X, xixii): "Meat, wheat and other things were not raised on the land; not because it wasn't fertile enough to produce them, but because of barbarity, poor upbringing, political and economic insufficiency. . . . These vast lands were quite suitable for Spanish towns . . . among the richest, most productive and advantageous one could imagine. . . .The Indians had everything in their milpas, but little, because they did not cultivate them well." Forest plants with nutritive value comparable to maize and wheat, such as breadnut (ramón) and palmnut (corozo), were supposedly used more "to sustain pack animals and other stock" (VII, xii) than people (cf. Hellmuth 1977:434). Itzaj were forced to overextend maize cropping to sustain Spanish overreliance on cereal. Production often fell short of demand. Spaniards cried "famine," bewailing idle barbarian custom—such as relying on root crops and seeking escape from hunger and exploitation in the fruits, game, and cover of the forest (Schwartz 1990:55): "At times the Spanish and the rest of the population were 'forced' (as the documents put it) to eat such foods as ramón . . . camote (sweet potato), yuca (manioc), ñame and macal (yams), green plantains, and mamey and sapote fruit. Although this list may indicate that the Indians persisted in producing a diversity of crops other than grains despite the Spanish attempt to get them to concentrate on maize and beans . . . the Spanish had culturally defined nutritional standards that hardly made these considerations good news." In fact, Itzaj have survived conquest and colonization with many Precolumbian dietary and medicinal strategies, many of which arguably date to Classic times. Itzaj FolkBiological Taxonomy Itzaj folk biology supports generalizations not only about the characteristic taxonomic structure that delimits the universal cognitive domain of folk biology but also for the profound influence of local ecology and culture. In any (footnote continued from previous page) to conquest because their religion fated that the time had come to selfdestruct (see Puleston 1979). The year of conquest coincided with end of waxak ajaw, the last 20year ka'~tun of the 256year may, or calendrical cycle. That cycle began with the descent (or return) of the Itzaj to Petén from chi'~ch'e'en during the may~apan (Yucatán) civil wars between the Itzaj and Xiw. Over the course of the seventeenth century Franciscan friars negotiated with Itzaj chieftains of the kan~ek' clan for conversion and submission on the basis of Maya prophetic cycles. But the Itzaj themselves evidently used their prophecies as a negotiating ploy to stall the Spanish and to obtain trade. Not only was the Itzaj Sun Priest, kan~ek's kinsman ajk'in kan~ek', in favor of continuing attacks on the Spanish, but kanek' himself was ambivalent. Ursua interrogated his prisoner kanek' a month after the conquest: [Ursua] asking what motive [did kan~ek' have] in sending ambassadors and requesting said fathers, if it was out of fear of the Spanish or some other reason. [Kan~ek'] said that what had motivated him was the necessity of commerce and to have axes and machetes and to ask the fathers to baptize [the Itzaj]. . . . [Ursua] asking how, if he wanted peace, did he have the island fortified with trenches, and on the morning that I came with my men to this Petén, all [Itzaj] were ready for war. [Kan~ek'] said that he had lost the obedience of his Indians. (16 abril 1696, AGI Guatemala 343, folios 331 verso333 recto)
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Plants of the Northern Peten Maya (Itzaj) in Use Since The Spanish Conquest
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Table 2.1 Staple Milpa Crops and Their Close Folkbotanical Allies among Preconquest CholtiLakantun, Yukatek, PresentDay Lakantun, Mopán, Yukatek, Itzaj.
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Table 2.2 Plants Commonly Intercropped in the Milpa (kol, petex), Kitchen Garden (päk'aal~jol~naj) and Orchard ''Plantation" (päk'aal); Trees "Tended" (amb'äl) in the Forest Useful Untended Plants (k'aax), Close Folkbotanical "Companions" (et'~ok), Noxious Plants.
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Table 2.3 Petén Maya Palms (Arecaceae) and Their Close Folkbotanical Allies (Zingiberales).
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culture there may be several different sorts of ''specialpurpose" folkbiological classifications that are organized by particular interests for particular uses (e.g., beneficial versus noxious, domestic versus wild, edible versus inedible). For Itzaj, one widespread specialpurpose classification is based on habitat and edibility: land or water or air animals that are either edible or inedible (Lois 1998). Another is based on wild versus domestic plants and animals (such as the classification most readily expressed in one Itzaj informant's idiolect and presented as "Itzaj Taxonomy" in Hofling 1997:6180). Nevertheless, in every culture there is one kind of recognizable "generalpurpose" taxonomy (Atran 1990; Berlin 1992) which supports systematic reasoning about living kinds and properties of living kinds (López et al. 1997; Atran et al. 1997) and which may be a specific adaptation of hominid evolution (Atran 1998). The relatively "culturefree" organization of folkbiological taxonomy is common not only to all Maya groups but to people across the world. In addition to the spontaneous arrangement of local fauna and flora into specieslike groupings, these basic groupings have "from the most remote period in . . . history . . . been classed in groups under groups. This classification is not arbitrary like the grouping of stars in constellations" (Darwin 1859:431). But this does not mean that folkbiological categories are culturally irrelevant. On the contrary, insofar as they reflect a cognitively biased, phenomenal appreciation of the surrounding environment, they help set the constraints on life that make a forest culture possible. It is little wonder, then, that folkbiological taxonomies tend to be among the most stable, widely distributed, and conservative cognitive structures in any culture. Once set into place, such a structure would likely survive even catastrophic historical upheaval to a recognizable degree. Ancient and contemporary Maya societies would be no exception. Even with the social order and cosmological system sundered, folkbiological structure would persist as a cognitive basis for cultural survival, under two conditions: first, there must be significant biological continuity in the ecological distribution of species; and second, there must be significant linguistic continuity with the dialect that first encoded the knowledge. Tables 2.1 to 2.3 suggest that both conditions have long endured. Across the world, it appears, folkbiological taxonomy is composed of a small number of distinct hierarchical levels, or ranks (Berlin 1992): the levels of folk kingdom (e.g., animal, plant),4 life form (e.g., bug, fish, bird, mammal, tree, grass, bush),5 generic species (e.g., gnat, shark, robin, dog, oak, wheat, holly, toadstool),folk specific (poodle, retriever; white oak, red oak), and folk varietal (hunting poodle, toy poodle; swamp white oak, stunted white oak). Ranking is a cognitive mapping that projects living kind categories onto a structure of absolute levels, that is, fundamentally different levels of reality. Ranks, not taxa, are apparently universal. Generic Species The rank of generic species—the level at which Itzaj classify organisms such as ajb'aatz' (howler monkey) or put (papaya)—is where morphological, behav 4.
It makes no difference if these groups are named. English speakers ambiguously use the term "animal" to refer to at least three distinct classes of living things: nonhuman animals, animals including humans, and mammals (the prototypical animals). The term "beast" seems to pick out nonhuman animals in English but is seldom used today. The term "plant" also refers ambiguously to the plant kingdom or to members of that kingdom that are not trees. 5.
Life forms may differ from culture to culture. For example, cultures such as ancient Hebrew or modern Rangi (Tanzania) include the herpetofauna (reptiles and amphibians) with insects, worms, and other "creeping crawlers" (Kesby 1979). Other cultures, such as Itzaj and most Western folk cultures, include the herpetofauna with mammals as "quadrupeds." Some cultures, like Itzaj, place phenomenally isolated mammals like the bat with birds, just as Rofaifo (New Guinea) place phenomenally isolated birds like the cassowary with mammals (Dwyer 1976). Whatever the content of lifeform groupings, or taxa, the lifeform level, or rank, universally partitions the living world into broadly equivalent divisions.
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ioral, and ecological relationships between organisms maximally covary. By far, the majority of taxa in any folkbiological system belong to this level. In all societies people privilege this level to understand biological discontinuities. When an organism is encountered that is not readily identifiable as belonging to a named generic species, it is still expected to belong to one. The organism is usually assimilated to one of the named taxa it resembles, although at times it is assigned an "empty" genericspecies slot pending further scrutiny (e.g., "suchandsuch a plant is some [genericspecies] kind of tree"; see Berlin 1999). Generic species represent cuts in nature that Maya children first name and form an image of (Stross 1973) and that Maya adults most readily use in speech, recall in memory, and communicate to others about (Berlin et al. 1974; Hunn 1977).6 The genericspecies rank is also that at which Maya are most likely to attribute biological properties. This includes characteristic patterns of inheritance growth and physiological function as well as more "hidden" properties, such as hitherto unknown organic processes, organs, and diseases (Atran et al. 1997). Correspondence of generic species to scientific species or genera is not isomorphic and varies according to patterns of species distribution within biological families and other factors. Still, generic species usually encompass single biological species and usually do not extend beyond biological genera for larger vertebrates and flowering plants. Specifics and Varietals Subdivision of generic species into lowerorder folk categories may also presumptively reflect deep biological relationships among the subordinate taxa. Nevertheless, the phenomenal boundaries delimiting folkspecific taxa (more so for folkvarietal taxa) are often culturally determined and fail to reflect scientifically relevant distinctions (Berlin 1992). Rather, differences in cultural use highlight a contrast among two or more biologically related subordinate taxa (i.e., a contrast set) along some salient phenomenal dimension (color, "sex," habitat, shape, size, analogy with another object, etc.). Differences are customarily marked as a binomial contrast: that is, each subordinate taxon is linguistically denoted by the use of an attributive that modifies the superordinate stem and points to some value of the distinguishing phenomenal dimension (see Table 2.4). Only specifics and varietals that reflect intense, longstanding cultural use tend to be labeled with a single lexeme: for example, ixjoob'oj, k'inim, and other subtypes of the hogplum, 'ab'äl (Spondias spp.). Foreign organisms introduced into a local environment are often initially assimilated to generic species as folkspecifics. For example, Lowland Maya originally called the Spanish pig "village peccary" (k'ek'en[+]kaj) or "Castilian peccary" (k'ek'en[+]kastil).7 The Spanish referred to indigenous pacas and agoutis as "bastard hares," just as they denoted the Maya breadnut tree "Indian fig'' (Beltrán 1742/1859). Subordinate folkspecific and varietal ranks correspond to ranges of perceptible natural variation that humans are most apt to appropriate and manipulate as a function of cultural interests (Tables 2.12.3). 6.
Botanists and ethnobotanists emphasize morphological criteria in identifying the basic folkbiological level with the scientific genus (Bartlett 1940; Berlin 1992), whereas zoologists and ethnozoologists stress behavioral (especially reproductive) criteria and identify with the species (Diamond 1966; Bulmer 1970). We use "generic species," instead of "folk generic" or "folk specieme," because a distinction between biological genus and species is not consistently relevant for folk. Phenomenally salient species for humans (e.g., canopy trees and large vertebrates) often belong to monospecific genera in a locale. Closely related species of a local polytypic genus are often hard to distinguish, because no morphological or ecological "gap" is readily apparent between them. Historically, the distinction did not appear until an influx of newly discovered species from all over the world compelled European naturalists to mnemonically manage them in a worldwide system of genera built around (mainly European) species types (Atran 1990 in press a). 7.
Today the pig is the primary referent of k'ek'en, which can be optionally labeled k'ek'en(+kastil) or k'ek'en(+kaaj). By contrast, the peccary is labeled with the obligatory qualification k'ek'en(+)che' ("forest k'ek'en").
Page 49 Table 2.4. Divisions of Culturally Important Itzaj FolkGeneric Species into Subordinate Taxa. Mono/Poly types
Tree
NonTree
TOTAL
MONOSPECIFICS
146 (73%)
119(72%)
265 (73%)
POLYSPECIFICS
54 (27%)
46 (28%)
100 (28%)
TOTAL GENERIC SPECIES
200
165
365 (representing 437 scientific species & 100 families)
Subordinate Types
Tree
NonTree
TOTAL
FOLK SPECIFICS
126
137
263
FOLK VARIETALS
27
45
72
SUBVARIETALS TOTAL SUBDIVISIONS
2
6
8
155
188
343
Note: Parenthetical numbers indicate dual dimensions: e.g., ixpäpäj[+]p'ak ("sour tomato") = ixpech'ek[+]p'ak = ("flat tomato")
Phenomenal Dimension
FOLK SPECIFICS Tree
Color
NonTree 87 (+3)
Habitat
FOLK VARIETALS Tree
46(+10)
ALL SUBORDINATES
NonTree
TOTAL
% TOTAL
14(+2)
29+(1)
176(+15)
+ 2 subvar.
+ 6 subvar.
+ 8 subvar.
59% (58%)
15 (+2)
18 (+2)
0
0
33 (+4)
11% (11%)
"Sex"
4
16 (+2)
0
4
24 (+2)
8% (8%)
Shape
2 (+1)
8 (+8)
(2)
4 (+2)
14 (+13)
5% (8%)
4
5
2
2(+1)
11 (+1)
4%(4%)
2 (+1)
4 (+15)
(2)
(4)
6 (+22)
2% (8%)
Taste
4
1 (+3)
0
1
6 (+3)
2% (3%)
Texture
1
3
0
1
5
2% (1%)
3 (+1)
9 (+1)
4
0
16 (+2)
5% (5%)
0
2 (+1)
3
0
5
(+1)
Size Analogy
Other analyzable Not analyzable 2% (2%)
Foreign name TOTAL
0
4
1 (+1)
2
7(+1)
2%(2%)
122 (+8/2)
116 (+42/2)
26 (+6/2)
47 (+8/2)
311 (+64/2)
%/of 311
=126
= 137
=29
=51
=343
(% of 343)
Kingdoms and Life Forms Superordinate levels of Itzaj folk taxonomy provide further evidence for a universal cognitive structure in a Maya idiom. There is no common lexical entry for the plant kingdom in Itzaj; however, the numeral classifier teek is used with all and only plants. Plants generally fall under one of four mutually exclusive life forms: che' (trees), pok~che' (herbs, shrubs = undergrowth), ak' (vines), and su'uk (grasses). Each life form conforms to a distinct stem habit. Some intensively cultivated plants are unaffiliated with any of these life forms and are
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simply denoted jun~teek (lit. "one plant," e.g., jun~teek ixi'im = a maize plant). This is also true of many phylogenetically isolated plants, such as the cacti. All informants agree that mushrooms (xikin~che' lit. "treeear") have no pusik'al (lit. "heart'') and are not plants but take life away from the trees that host them. Lichens and bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) are not considered to be plants, to have an essence, or to live. In Itzaj the term for animals (b'a'al~che' = "forestthing") polysemously refers to (1) the animal kingdom as a whole (including invertebrates, birds, and fish); (2) a more restricted grouping of quadrupeds (i.e., b'a'al~che'+kusiit' = amphibians, or "jumping animals"; b'a'al~che'+kujiltik ub'aj = reptiles, or "slithering animals"; or b'a'alche'+kuxi'mal = mammals, or "walking animals"); (3) typically the mammals alone. Birds (ch'iich' including ajsotz' = bats) and fish (käy) exhibit patterns of internal structure similar to the "unnamed" mammal life form as well as the plant life forms (Atran et al. 1997). Mammals and herpetofauna are also joined and embedded under the mutually exclusive category quadruped (i.e., b'a'alche' sense 2), which can be explicitly rendered a'b'a'al~che'yan uyok ("animals having feet") or käntaach uyok ("fourfooted"). More often, käntaach uyok refers exclusively to herpetofauna, much as the old Yukatek terms xaknal or xakatnal were translated as cuadrúpedo but often only denoted herps (Beltrán 1742/1859:228). Snakes are said to have "hidden" feet "only the speechless can see" (chen ch'uch'kucha'antik uyok kan). No overarching ecological or morphobehavioral framework seems to encompass all and only herpetofauna or quadrupeds. Like the invertebrate life form (mejen+b'a'al~che' = "small animal"), herpetofauna seem to form a "residual" life form that lacks a conceptually distinctive role in "the economy of nature." This contrasts with other plant and life forms, which have mutually defined ecological roles: birds and trees in the air (ik') and upper forest tier; mammals and herbs on the ground (lu'um) in the forest understory; vines in the connecting "middle" (tanchumuk) tiers; grasses in open lands (chäk'an); fish in water (ja'). True, boundaries between these "adaptive zones" are permeable by members of other life forms, but each life form has its respective habitat, or "home" (otoch). Thus, because the chicken (ajkax) has its home exclusively on the ground with people and cannot live in the air like other birds, it is not a bird, nor is it included under any other life form.8 Maize (ixi'im), which has no "natural" allies or place in the forest but only a culturally defined existence in the manmade milpa (kol), is unlike other plants and so is also not included under any life form. Intermediate Taxa Intermediate levels also exist between the genericspecies and lifeform levels. Taxa at these levels usually have no explicit common name (e.g., frogs and toads), although sometimes they may (e.g., felines, palms). Such taxa—especially unnamed "covert" ones—tend not to be as clearly delimited as generic species or life forms, nor does any one intermediate level always constitute a fixed taxonomic rank that partitions local fauna and flora into a mutually ex 8
For other Maya, such as Tzeltal, the chicken is the prototypical bird (Hunn 1977).
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clusive and virtually exhaustive set of broadly equivalent taxa. Those having names usually take on the name of a prototypical generic species: for example, in Itzaj, b'alum (large felines, and the jaguar in particular) and xa'an (palm trees, and guano in particular). Intermediate taxa, whether named or unnamed, are often composed of biological groups limited to local families or orders (Atran 1990). Like many biological families and orders, they may cut across life forms. Table 2.3 provides an example with the intermediate Itzaj category of palms and their folkbotanical allies, the broadleaf zingiberales. Although there is a significant statistical correlation between folk and scientific taxonomies, there is also significant divergence. This divergence, however, does not tend to be culturally driven by specialpurpose interests. The folk taxa seem to be constituted by a more generalpurpose concern for comprehending ecological relationships relative to human perception. With palms, for example, the morphology of the stem and leaf appear to be paramount (Atran 1999a). Aspects of this morphological standpoint correspond to evolutionary relationships that exist independently of cognitive biases in human perception; others, such as relative size, are crucial to everyday human understanding of the surrounding natural environment but of only secondary importance to the more minute and extensive "cosmic" vantage of science (Hunn 1999). Maya Nomenclature and Notation Reliance on nomenclature alone to indicate taxonomic status can be misleading. For example, the systematic qualification of folkbiological categories by attributives often points to binomial folkspecific taxa of cultural importance, but not always. To better understand the cognitive distinctions between superficially similar expressions, a set of nomenclatural marks is introduced. These notations represent "hidden" cognitive features of folk categorization which are not apparent from spoken linguistic forms and which help in the appreciation of the cognitive structure and content of Tables 2.12.3. Terms that express taxonomic ranking are composite expressions rather than compounds or descriptive phrases (cf. Conklin 1962). Composites consist of a qualifier plus a stem. The stem designates a category immediately superordinate to the category in question. The relationship between stem and qualifier is indicated by a plus sign, "+." In Table 2.3, for example, ajb'on(+)xa'an ("the cabbagepalm guano") refers exclusively to the generic species Sabal mexicana, which is the closest taxonomic ally of S. mauriitiformis. A minority of informants consider the composite stem optional and simply refer to ajb'on or b'on. But for all other generic species of the intermediate palm category, xa'an, inclusion of the composite stem is always optional: for example, ajkuum (+xa'an) = Crysophilia staurocauta), tuk'(+xa'an) = Acrocomia mexicana, and so on. Terms that are intermediatelevel composite expressions are indicated by a plus sign in parentheses,"(+).'' Optional composite expressions are indicated by enclosing a plus sign within parentheses together with the stem or qualifier. By contrast, the relationship between terms in a descriptive phrase is
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indicated by a blank space between terms. For example, jach xa'an ("true guano") describes the protypical status of Sabal mauriitiformis among the intermediate category of (usually) taller palms, xa'an. On occasion it can describe a specific kind of S. mauriitiformis as the prototypical folkspecific, ajb'äyäl[+]xa'an. Most folkspecifics are composites of a genericspecies stem plus a qualifier. This relationship is indicated by a plus sign in brackets,"[+]."9 Varietals are nearly always composites whose superordinate specific is itself a composite. The embedded composite relationship is marked by a plus sign in double brackets, "[[+]]." The introduced ixya'ax[[+]]kab'al[+]kookoj ("the green dwarf coconut'') is thus subordinate to the folkspecific ixkab'al[+]kookoj ("the dwarf coconut"). Cognitive appreciation of such prized Postconquest plants differs little from appreciation of such "traditional" subordinate taxa as ixnoj[[+]]ch'uuk[+]'ik ("the big sweet chile") and ixch'uuk[+]'ik ("the sweet chile"). A compound—as opposed to a composite or description—is formed by uniting two terms whose different meanings may or may not be related, in order to form a single new meaning. The relationship between compounded terms is indicated by a tilde, "~." For example, pok~che' ("burnt tree") is a compound that denotes the life form herbaceous (under)growth. Although the constituent morphemes give a descriptive meaning that is etymologically related to the nature of the life form, they are fused into a new meaning to denote the life form. Now let us consider some representative folkbiological expressions from Tables 2.1 to 2.3 to see how the notation helps clarify their cognitive status (for further details, see Lois 1998). 1. ixchäkä~ja'as = "reddish plantain." This expression refers exclusively to the red mamey tree (Pouteria mammosa), which has no folktaxonomic relationship nowadays with plantains and bananas. Historically, however, the native mamey was originally labeled ja'as (Roys 1931:228). It was initially perceived as related to the introduced plantains and bananas in much the way that the tapir and horse were perceived to be related. When the Spanish introduced the horse (a perissodactyl), the Maya classified it as a specific kind of tapir (the only native perissodactyl). Over time the importance of the horse in the Maya vision of "the economy of nature" came to outweigh the tapir's. The original unmarked term for tapir, tzimin, was passed on to the horse, and the tapir acquired the obligatory marking tzimin(+)che' ("forest tzimin"). Still, the intermediatelevel taxonomic connection persists among the Itzaj and other Yukatekan Maya (Lakantun, Mopán, Yukatek), indicating awareness of a significant biological relationship between the tapir and horse. By contrast, Maya ultimately recognized the initial morphological analogy between the native mamey fruit and the introduced plantains and bananas to be biologically superficial and thus taxonomically insignificant. 2. chäkäl~te' = "reddish tree" (but possibly from chäk~k'ul~te' = "red god tree," a companion of tropical cedar; see next example). This compound expression refers exclusively to the mahogany tree (Swietania macrophylla). The morpheme te', which is Southern Mayan for "tree/forest/wood," often func 9
Contrast this with b'äyäl(+ak') = "basket whist vine" (Desmoncus spp.). These spiny palm climbers belong to the lifeform category ak' (VINE) and optionally include the life form stem when referring to the generic species. In some contexts, Itzaj use this composite form to distinguish basket whist from the prototypical guano folkspecific, ajb'äyäl[+] xa'an. Generic species that include the lifeform stem may be considered composites, rather than compounds, if the stem is strictly optional.
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tions linguistically like the Northern Maya morpheme che'. In such cases, the morpheme functions as a productive meaningconstituent of a compound rather than as a lifeform stem that indicates taxonomic partitioning. Nor is the qualifier used simply to describe a salient morphological aspect of the mahogany tree (i.e., its reddish wood). 3. k'u~che' = "god tree." This compound refers exclusively to the generic species tropical cedar (Cedrela mexicana). The morpheme che' in this case has a semantic role equivalent to that of te'. Traditionally, tropical cedar was a sacred tree, and the etymological significance of the compound name is thus apparent on inspection. But few presentday Itzaj are spontaneously aware of the constituent meanings; no more, say, than most Americans automatically think of the compound term "eggplant" as, first of all, describing an eggy plant. 4. ajsäk[+]k'u~che' = "white god tree." This composite refers to one of the two specifics of k'u~che'; the other is ajchäk[+]k'u~che' ("red god tree"). Although Itzaj use color qualifiers to refer to the character of the wood, as often as not the differences signaled reflect distinctions in woodgrain rather than color per se. Frequently, when there is a specific contrast between chäk and säk, the specific qualified by chäk is considered the "true" (jach) type of the generic species. The majority of subordinate Itzaj folk taxa reflect color contrast, and the most habitual contrast is that between chäk and säk (see Table 2.5). This is true despite the fact that distinctions involving "green," "yellow,'' or "black" may be no less obvious to the naked eye. Use of contrasting color specifics, which are generally restricted to the five primary colors, is perhaps related to the overriding importance of these colors in Maya cosmology (see Bruce 1968 for Lakantun; Barrera Marín et al. 1976 for Yukatek). This cosmology traditionally associates red with the true wind of the East, which brings rain and bounty, and white with the false wind of the North, which brings drizzle and deception. This does not deny that color contrasts signal perceptible distinctions among folkspecifics. It suggests only that color perception alone may underdetermine whether, say, "red" versus "white" is really more apparent in a given case than "black" versus "yellow."10 Cultural Survival The most abundant tree in the northern Petén forest is breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum, Sp = ramón, M = 'oox), followed by chicle (Manilkara achras, Sp = chicozapote, M = ya') (AHG/APESA 1992). Breadnut (89 percent of tree total) and chicle (67 percent) belong to the middle tree tier and dominate the vegetative associations that Bartlett (1936) and Lundell (1937) referred to by their local Spanish names, "ramonal" (M = uk'aaxil 'oox) and "zapotal" (M = uk'aaxil ya'). For Itzaj, 'oox is "the animal milpa" (ukolil b'a'al~che'), whose fruits and foliage sustain multiple species of deer, peccary, monkey, procyonid, large rodent, gallinaceous bird, tinamou, parrot, and toucan. It is nature's frame and complement to a Maya garden (Atran 1993:684). In ecologically degraded areas, where overburning by immigrants has reduced forest cover to the point that birds hesitate to fly over, the fireresistant fruit kernel (M = jab'en~tun) of 10
Contrast this with säk(+)k'u~che' = "white god tree." This composite refers to the cedrillo trees (Guarea excelsa, Trichilia hirta), which are considered distant relatives of the tropical cedar. The three meliaceous generic species—k'u~che', chäkäl~te', and säk(+)k'u~che'—comprise an unnamed intermediatelevel folk category. Intermediatelevel groupings are often recognized as "companions" (et'~ok, lit. "together~foot") of the same "lineage" (ch'ib'al).
Page 54 Table 2.5. Contrasting Divisions of Itzaj Plant Generic Species. Number of Divisions in each Contrast Set
FOLK SPECIFIC
FOLK VARIETAL
TOTAL Contrast Sets
% TOTAL Contrast Sets
NonTree
2
42
28
7 (+1 subvarietal)
8 (+3 subvarietal)
89
67%
3
10
10
1
7
28
21%
4
3
3
1
2
9
7%
6
0
2
1
0
3
2%
7
0
1
0
0
1
1%
9
0
1
0
0
1
1%
11
0
1
0
0
1
TOTAL Sets and Subordinate Taxa
55 sets =125 taxa
46 sets =137 taxa
11 sets =29 taxa
20 sets = 51 taxa
132 sets =343 taxa
Color Contrasts
chäk/säk
Tree
Tree
FOLK SPECIFIC
Tree
NonTree
FOLK VARIETAL
NonTree
Tree
19 (+5)
16
chäk/b'ox
3
1 (+1)
0
0
chäk/k'än
4 (+3)
3
2(+1 subvarietal)
7(+1 subvarietal)
chäk/ya'ax
TOTAL of 121 Basic Color Contrast Sets
NonTree 0
1%
6 (+1 subvarietal)
47 = 39% 5 = 4% 21 = 17%
1
0
0
0
1 = 1%
säk/b'ox
7 (+2)
2 (+2)
0
0
13 = 11%
säk/k'än
5 (+2)
2(+1)
1
3
14 = 11%
säk/ya'ax
1
2
0
0
3 = 2%
b'ox/k'än
3 (+2)
(2)
0
0
7 =6%
b'ox/ya'ax
0
0
1
1
2 = 2%
k'än/ya'ax
4
1
2
1(+1 subvarietal)
9 = 7%
the corozo palm (tutz) leads to a "dominant corozal" (M = uk'aaxil tutz). The degree to which human intervention has favored the characteristic forest associations remains moot (Lundell 1938; Puleston 1982; Lambert and Arnason 1982). Before the Conquest, breadnut, chicle, and palms—such as corozo and cocoyol (tuk')—had a history of value to the Maya. Early Spaniards reported use of palms' hearts, fruits, oil, and thatch leaves, of chicle wood and fruit, and of breadnut: "tasty figs they call Ox" (Landa 1566/1985:174; Avendaño y Loyola 1696/1987:61). As late as the 1940s, Itzaj report that the margin of survival often depended on consumption of the fruits of 'oox, ya', tutz, and tuk'. Today, newer marketdriven economic values, such as 'oox foliage for cattle fodder and ya' sap for chicle gum (cha'), have largely supplanted the old ones related to subsistence and religion. But vestiges of older values persist in memories of the recent past. Although there may be debate about whether oox was a garden tree in Classic Petén, modern Itzaj have no doubt that their ancestors,
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whom they believe inhabited Tikal, tended the tree in the forest as some Itzaj still do: making drinks and cooked dishes from it, offering it to religious functionaries, and storing it against famine. Indeed, until the arux, or wood fairies, were recently scared off by tourists and the introduction of noise from radio and television, they protected the forest by healing the ya' after it was tapped and guarding the 'oox of Tikal. The grandson of Na' Ix Justa Chayax, the last monolingual Itzaj speaker, relates what she told him about breadnut at Tikal: Te'lo'ti tiik'al kutz'ikoo' ujanaloo' nukuch winikoo' uchij There at Tikal they guarded their food great men (ancestors) in the past mentikej ujol chaltunej layti'b'in uyotoch aruxej. that's why the hole of the chaltun (it is said) is the home of the arux. B'aylo'ej mak ma'tanuman uch'e'ma'te'ulaak'jol yok'l ucha'ik maak saakil Like that nobody goes spying into another hole so as to leave a person scared men kutz'ikoo' uchijej kulik'sikoo'uyich'oox because they put it in the past to guard breadnut men uyich'ooxej ma'tulakalk'in yan. because breadnut not every day there is. Mentikej layti'oo'ej kumolikoo'kutasikoo'b'aylo'ej yan ujanaloo', That's why they collected it brought it like that they had their food men uchi'ej chen uyich 'oox ujanaloo' nukuch maakoo'. because in the past only breadnut was the food of the great people. Concern with breadnut is also evident from psychological experiments aimed at eliciting mental models of folk ecology. Of all plant species, breadnut is seen by the Itzaj as interrelating most with animals of the forest and as most deserving respect and protection (Atran 1999b; Atran et al. forthcoming). Breadnut is just one of many examples of Itzaj survival within the Precolumbian folkbiological framework of PeténMaya forest culture, despite SpanishCreole preoccupation with cattle and corn. This is reflected in the tables: there are 437 biological species distributed among 100 scientific families (Tables 2.1 to 2.3). These represent 365 folkgeneric species and 343 subordinate taxa (see Table 2.4). Twothirds of these generic species (247) are edible or medicinal, of which the overwhelming majority (209) are native species (i.e., excluding also Precolumbian introductions, such as manioc = tz'iim). Conclusions The idea that modern Itzaj exhibit a measure of continuity with their Precolumbian forebears in knowledge and use of Petén plants (and animals) seems plausible for three reasons. First, the general higherorder structure of the local folk taxonomy appears to have universal aspects which any predecessors would also likely have and which other contemporary Maya groups certainly do have (Berlin et al. 1974; Barrera Marín et al. 1976; Hunn 1977). Second, the majority of local generic species that serve as the empirical basis for this generalpurpose folk taxonomy were almost surely present before the
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Conquest: archives and reports indicate that most were being used shortly after the Spanish arrived, and paleobotanical evidence shows that at least some were in use in ancient times (e.g., Turner and Miksicek 1984; Lentz 1991, this volume). Third, ethnographic, ethnohistorical, and ethnolinguistic analyses suggest that many of the names, referents, and uses of culturally specific subordinate taxa are the same, at least since historical records began. This is not to say that there is a timeless underlying nature to Lowland Maya culture or that contemporary Petén Maya natural history directly mirrors Precolumbian knowledge and use of the forest. Demise of Maya commerce and ritual has led to extinction of cultural knowledge and, in some cases, awareness of plants for which Itzaj were once renowned: for example, Amaranthus spp. (ixtes), Vanilla fragrans (siis~b'ik), and Indigofera anil (ch'oj). Even the Petén Maya word for "moon" ('uj) is all but forgotten. Nevertheless, evidence suggests that the Itzaj present and two millennia of the Maya past continue to be mutually and profoundly informative. Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (Contrat 92C0758) and the National Science Foundation (Grant SBR 94 22587). We wish to thank Ximena Lois (CREAEcole Polytechnique, Paris) for help with linguistic analyses, José María Aguilar (Escuela Nacional Central de Agricultura, Guatemala City) for help with species identifications, and David Taylor (Department of Biology, University of Michigan) for help with botanical collections. References Cited Academia de las Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala (1988) Lenguas Mayas de Guatemala: Documento de referencia para la pronunciación de los nuevos alfabetos oficiales. Documento No. 1. Guatemala City: Instituto Indigenista Nacional. AHG/APESA (1992) Plan de desarollo integrado de Petén: Inventario forestal del Departamento del Petén (Convenio Gobiernos Alemania Guatemala). Santa Elena, Petén: AGRARUN HYDROTECHNIK GMBH and Asesoría y Promoción Económica. Atran, S. (1990) Cognitive Foundations of Natural History. New York: Cambridge University Press. Atran, S. (1993) Itza Maya tropical agroforestry. Current Anthropology 34:633700. Atran, S. (1998) Folkbiology and the anthropology of science: Cognitive universals and cultural particulars. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21:547568,593609. Atran, S. (1999a) Itzaj Maya folkbiological taxonomy. In D. Medin and S. Atran (eds.): Folkbiology. Cambridge: MIT Press, pp. 119203. Atran, S. (1999b) Managing the Maya commons: The value of local knowledge. In V. Sandoval (ed.): Ethnoecology: Situated Knowledge/Located Lives. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, pp. 190214. Atran, S.; Estin, P.; Coley, J.; and Medin, D. (1997) Generic species and basic levels: Essence and appearance in folk biology. Journal of Ethnobiology 17:2245. Atran, S., and Medin, D. (1997) Knowledge and action: Cultural models of nature and resource management in Mesoamerica. In M. Bazerman, D. Messick, A.Tinbrunsel,
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Romney, A. K.; Weller, S.; and Batchelder, W. (1986) Culture as consensus: A theory of culture and informant accuracy. American Anthropologist 88:313338. Roys, R. (1931) Ethnobotany of the Maya. Middle America Research Institution Publication No. 2. New Orleans: Tulane University Press. Santley, R.; Killion, T.; and Lycett, M. (1986) On the Maya collapse. Journal of Anthropological Research 42:123159. Schele, L., and Freidel, D. (1990) A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya. New York: William Morrow. Schwartz, N. (1990) Forest Society: A Social History of Petén, Guatemala. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Schwartz, N. (1995) Colonization, development, and deforestation in Petén, northern Guatemala. In M. Painter and W. Durham (eds.): The Social Causes of Environmental Destruction in Latin America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 101130. Siemens, A. (1982) Prehispanic agricultural use of the wetlands of northern Belize. In K. Flannery (ed.): Maya Subsistence: Studies in Memory of Dennis E. Puleston. New York: Academic Press, pp. 205225. Sluyter, A. (1994) Intensive wetland agriculture in Mesoamerica: Space, time, and form. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 84:557584. Sosa, V., Salvador Flores, J., RicoGray, V., Lira, R., and Ortiz, J. (1985) Etnoflora Yucatense, fascículo 1: Lista florística y sinónima Maya. Xalapa, Mexico: Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Bioticos. Soza, J. M. (1970) Monografía del Departamento de El Petén. 2 vols. Guatemala: Editorial José de Pineda Ibarra. Standley, P., and Steyermark, J. (194677) Flora of Guatemala. Vol. 24, Parts 113. Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History. Stross, B. (1973) Acquisition of botanical terminology by Tzeltal children. In M. Edmonson (ed.): Meaning in Mayan Languages. The Hague: Mouton, pp. 109 141. Turner, B., and Miksicek, C. (1984) Economic plant species associated with prehistoric agriculture in the Maya Lowlands. Economic Botany 38:179193. Villagutierre SotoMayor, Juan de (1701/1985) Historia de la conquista de Itzá. Ed. J. García Añoveros. Crónicas de America, No. 13. Madrid: Historia 16. Wiseman, F. (1978) Agricultural and historical archaeology of the Maya Lowlands. In P. Harrison and B. Turner (eds.): Prehispanic Maya Agriculture. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 63115.
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Chapter 3 Continuity and Variability in Postclassic and Colonial Animal Use at Lamanai and Tipu, Belize Kitty F. Emery Spanish arrival in the Americas precipitated dramatic changes in the political, economic, and ceremonial lives of many indigenous populations and often irrevocably altered even fundamental patterns of animal, plant, and other resource use (e.g., Reitz and Cumbaa 1983; Ruhl 1990). Recent evidence from the southern Maya Lowlands, however, suggests that in this region the Spanish faced a considerable and highly successful opposition. Here the Postclassic period was a time of great intellectual, political, and commercial activity, and initial reaction to the Spanish presence was not one of immediate submission or wholehearted acceptance. Although Spanish religious beliefs and economic and political authority were eventually accepted in the Maya Lowlands, commercial and missionizing contacts were initially brief, and the Maya retained political control for much longer than in the fully administered northern regions (Graham 1991; Jones 1989; Pendergast 1986a). To what extent was the conflict between acceptance of and resistance to the Spanish presence reflected in basic patterns of resource use in this frontier zone of resistance? A zooarchaeological investigation of animal bone assemblages from Postclassic and early Colonial archaeological deposits at the sites of Lamanai and Tipu, Belize, provides an analysis of the effects of early Spanish contact, a dramatic source of change in other regions, on fundamental patterns of animal use at these two politically and economically important southern lowland centers. A high degree of chronological contemporaneity and environmental similarity between the two sites, as well as contextual and preservational similarity between the archaeological deposits examined, allows a direct comparison of patterns of change in the consumption of animal species and the use of ecosystems in the region. The results provide a valuable opportunity to expand on a limited body of literature discussing the effects of Spanish contact on indigenous Postclassic resource use in the southern Maya Lowlands. These two important sites have been the focus of extensive archaeological and ethnohistoric research (Graham 1987, 1991; Graham et al. 1985; Jones 1985, 1989; Pendergast 1986a, 1986b, 1990, 1991) that documents not only extraordinarily long occupation histories (Preclassic to Colonial) but also the effects of initial contact between Maya and Spanish peoples at these sites. Both centers were active participants in Postclassic mercantile spheres and as such were powerful entities in
Page 62
the political scenario of the period. Evidence from ethnohistoric Spanish documents often conflicts with the archaeological records of these sites, revealing an intriguing complexity of acceptance and rejection of both religious and secular Spanish norms. Analyses of the faunal remains from Postclassic and Colonial deposits at Lamanai and Tipu were undertaken to answer three basic questions. Does chronological variation exist in patterns of animal use during these periods of extreme internal and external cultural stress? Are patterns of dietary continuity and/or change comparable at the two sites and can they be used to suggest any panregional adaptation in animal use practices at the time of Spanish contact? And if variability exists, is it representative of a continuation of Postclassic Maya practices, or are the changes wholly without historical precedent and thereby attributable to the effects of Spanish contact? Ecological analyses of animal community diversity reflected in faunal assemblages from the sites of Lamanai and Tipu were combined with traditional zooarchaeological analyses of chronological change in species and ecosystem utilization at each site to provide evidence for both regional and chronological patterning.1 Ecological community statistics are most commonly used to quantify the distribution of, and the relationships between, living taxa in a natural ecosystem. As analytical tools, they are valuable additions to the techniques of faunal analysis, as they provide more detailed information on changing temporal and spatial patterns of resource use than is generally available through the simple analysis of taxa recovery frequencies and discussions of emic values of utilized species. The use of these combined measures on comparable zooarchaeological assemblages from Lamanai and Tipu allows the documentation of the variability of responses to the stresses of cultural change through the description of two successful strategies of animal use during the important transition from the Postclassic to early Colonial period. The results of these analyses point strongly to several conclusions. Patterns of animal use at both Lamanai and Tipu changed both during the period between the Middle and Late Postclassic and during the transition to the Colonial period. There is little evidence for any relationship between the patterns seen at the two sites, and the temporal variations are more pronounced at Lamanai. Despite the regional and temporal discontinuity, however, the changes seen in the Colonial period appear to have strong roots in the Postclassic period patterns at each site. There is no appearance of a strictly Colonial animal use pattern at either Lamanai or Tipu. Methods The Zooarchaeological Samples The Lamanai sample, a total of 5,737 analyzed zooarchaeological remains, is derived from four midden lots originating from Postclassic and Colonial period settlements and spanning collectively the dates from A.D. 1150 to A.D. post1641 (Table 3.1). The four middens are securely dated and are directly associated 1
Full community descriptions are available in tabular form in Emery 1990a.
Page 63 Table 3.1. Chronological Listing of Zooarchaeological Assemblages. Date
Period
Lamanai
Tipu
A.D. 1520+
Colonial
N1118
H126,7,8,12,13,14
A.D. 14001520
Late Postclassic
N113
H126,8,12,13
A.D. 11501400
Middle Postclassic
N109
H1214
with three different structures, N109, N113, and N1118. All these structures were most likely the residences of elite members of the Lamanai community, and there is no evidence for a permanent Spanish residency at the site despite the association of several European objects with the Colonial period structure (Pendergast, personal communication 1989). The larger Tipu faunal assemblage consists of 24,590 analyzed specimens from excavations at seven separate structures in and around the main ceremonial complex of the site. Included in the sample are remains from undisturbed Middle and Late Postclassic period deposits sealed beneath later Colonial residences (structures H126, H1212, H1214), and Colonial period deposits from both these Colonial period constructions as well as Colonial residences unassociated with earlier structures (structures H128, H1213). Although disturbance of stratified occupation levels is common at Tipu, zooarchaeological samples for this analysis were selected only from unmixed deposits. European artifactual material and ethnohistoric records suggest that two of the Colonial residences may have been used on a temporary basis by members of the Spanish religious order (Graham, personal communication 1986). As Tipu was a small rural community at all times, its architectural emphasis was on domestic structures. The location of the sampled structures within the site core, however, argues for the relatively high status and wealth of their inhabitants. Assuming Sample Comparability Basic to this analysis of variability in animal use patterns is the assumption that the sites of Lamanai and Tipu are characterized by a high degree of cultural and environmental similarity. That these sites were occupied simultaneously and were affected by the same cultural trends during the Postclassic and Colonial periods has been established through extensive archaeological analysis by Pendergast and Graham (Graham 1991; Graham et al. 1985,1989; Pendergast 1986a, 1986b, 1991). The sites differ in their community layout, and as discussed above, in the distribution of architecture representing elite residences or ceremonial buildings. Nevertheless, the deposits examined are comparable in terms of both function and status. Although the excavated samples from Lamanai and Tipu are generally comparable, investigation at both sites was oriented toward Postclassic and Colonial structures which have some architectural complexity and which reflect the activities of the upper echelon of these periods. The faunal assemblages are not, therefore, representative of all time periods or of all members of the ancient population. The sample bias affects both assemblages,
Page 64
however, and although it does not affect these analyses, it affects comparisons with other sites. The sites are also ecologically comparable, located in the subtropical moist life zone dominated by highcanopy broadleaf forest (Hartshorn et al. 1984), and are characterized by the same general conditions of geology and climate. Both sites are also located on strategic freshwater tributaries, Lamanai on the northwest shore of the New River Lagoon, and Tipu on the west bank of the Macal River.2 Terrestrial associations at both sites would have included the built environment of human habitation, cultivated lands, secondary growth or high bush, and undisturbed pristine canopy forest. Swampy, lowlying bajo environments were within easy reach of Maya hunters at both sites (closer at Lamanai than at Tipu), as was the pine ridge zone of the Maya Mountains. Because of the similar availability and diversity of resources, differences observed between patterns of animal exploitation cannot be explained by any difference in ecological parameters. Finally, any analysis of variability in patterns of animal use may be confounded by biases introduced through the effects of variability in archaeological sampling strategies, taphonomy, or zooarchaeological sample sizes. Archaeological and zooarchaeological sampling strategies were identical at the two sites, although at both Lamanai and Tipu recovery methods differed between deposit types, as features, middens, and occupation surfaces were more frequently screened (1/4'') or water screened (1/16") than other deposits (Pendergast, personal communication 1988; Graham, personal communication 1987). Analysis of the taphonomic conditions of the Lamanai and Tipu samples (Emery 1990) indicate that bone preservation did not vary significantly between deposits or sites. And although the Tipu zooarchaeological assemblage is considerably larger than the Lamanai sample, regression analyses (Emery 1990) also show that the ecological trends and measures derived here do not result from sample size variability. These analyses are more fully described in Emery 1990 and 1990, where the effects of intra and intersite variability in sample composition and size were evaluated and shown to be negligible or easily circumvented by simple analytical manipulation. Zooarchaeological Analysis and Community Statistics The following statistical analyses are based on minimum number of individual (MNI) estimations, as the independence of this measure from discrepancies in both natural and introduced skeletal part frequencies, and its independence from the degree of fragmentation of skeletal parts, ensures a high degree of comparability between samples (CruzUribe 1988). Frequencies were derived from original identification lists produced by various researchers following standardized procedures that mitigated researcher variability during initial identification.3 MNI calculations for both the Lamanai and Tipu assemblages were based on provenience units defined by the excavators as chronologically associated occupation levels within structures (Emery 1990). Although the use of singlestructure assemblages may obscure the effects of food sharing be 2
The New River Lagoon system differs ecologically from the smaller, more riverine Macal. Located 70 kilometers inland from Chetumal Bay on the Caribbean coast, the lagoon is a primarily estuarine system in which certain peripheral and brackishwater species occur that are not found close to Tipu (Lovisek, personal communication 1986). 3.
Original identifications by P. Baker, C. Cathcart, K. Emery, C. Neill, and C. Yasui are on file at the University of Toronto Faunal ArchaeoOsteology Laboratory.
Page 65
tween larger residential units, it does not bias the analysis by assuming habitation associations where none have been proven. MNI frequencies for the provenience units were grouped into three chronologically defined zooarchaeological communities at each site for the purposes of statistical description and comparison (Table 3.1). For each temporal zooarchaeological community, relative species MNI frequencies were calculated and larger taxonomic and community associations were used to describe ecosystem resource utilization patterns. The accurate analysis of ecosystem use is based on the degree to which each animal species is associated with, or fidelic to, one or more ecological zones. To reduce the effects of natural variability in species fidelity to any single biotic community, the archaeological taxa were each allocated a percentage fidelity value for one or more of eight ecosystem associations on the basis of current knowledge of habitat preferences.4 These modified counts (termed eMNI here) were then used to determine proportionate representation of the various ecosystems in the zooarchaeological assemblage. A combination of measures was used to quantify the diversity of each zooarchaeological community. These included species heterogeneity, richness, evenness, and dominance. The ecological community statistic known as diversity or heterogeneity cannot be accurately derived without reference to its two distinct components: species richness or the number of taxa present in a collection containing a specified number of individuals; and species evenness, calculated as the similarity in abundance of several taxa in a sample. The distinctions between these measures allow consideration of the different properties of the structure of the ecological community. There has been considerable debate as to the effectiveness of the various measures of diversity in archaeological studies (CruzUribe 1988; Leonard and Jones 1989). An earlier study evaluated the potential of the variously proposed heterogeneity, richness, and evenness measures with respect to the Lamanai and Tipu zooarchaeological samples (Emery 1990b) and provided evidence for a lack of sample size dependency with the use of Simpson's index of heterogeneity and Odum's richness measure. Indices of general heterogeneity and richness were therefore derived using these measures. An index of species evenness was calculated using simple variance based on relative frequencies of species for each community as recommended by Bobrowsky and Ball (1989). Finally, the relative dominance of the primary (most frequently occurring) species in each community was defined as the difference between relative frequencies of occurrence of these species within the community. Once described, the taxonomic similarities between the zooarchaeological communities were quantified using Spearman's correlation coefficient tests of sample correlation based on unranked relative species frequencies for each chronological and spatial community to provide an analysis of locational variability and changing animal use over time. A chronological analysis of change over time was made for each of the descriptives derived for the zooarchaeological communities, and changes in community diversity, species frequencies, and ecosystem resource use were all evaluated. In all cases where the 4
A detailed discussion of the derivation of ecosystem fidelity measures and the numeric equivalents used in this and other analyses can be found in Emery 1990a and 1997. Species habitat fidelities are derived from various zoological sources (e.g., Emmons 1990; Leopold 1959).
Page 66
communities are compared, analyses are based on relative as opposed to absolute frequencies in order to negate the effects of sample size variability. Results Regional Disjunction—Chronological Continuity Analyses of community similarity (Table 3.2), taxonomic characteristics (Tables 3.3 and 3.4), ecological community statistics (Table 3.5), and environmental use patterns (Table 3.6) combine to provide information on both diachronic and synchronic patterning in animal use at Lamanai and Tipu. Spearman's tests of zooarchaeological community correlation, used to compare the Lamanai and Tipu chronological assemblages, reveal variability in species distributions between all the samples examined (Table 3.2). More important, however, the results indicate a significantly greater degree of variability between the sites of Lamanai and Tipu, both overall and during any one time period, than exists between the chronological communities at either site. The differences between overall patterns of animal use at these two sites are greater than the internal or temporal differences at either site. The most closely correlated communities are found at Lamanai, where the highest degree of relatedness is found between the Middle and Late Postclassic assemblages. The Tipu communities are almost equally well internally correlated overall, and the relationship between the Postclassic and Colonial communities here is also strong. The greatest divergences are found between any of the Tipu time periods and the Lamanai Colonial period, where both correlation and significance are minimal. Overall, the Spearman's tests reveal an intersite variability that is surprisingly high considering the cultural and environmental similarities between the two sites. As well, despite evidence for variability between dietary patterns over time at both Lamanai and Tipu, these results suggest a high degree of internal consistency at each site. Analysis of the changing patterns of animal and ecosystem resource use seen over the three periods surveyed suggests that despite obvious chronological variability, there are several significant overlying trends of continuity at each site. There is evidence for a generalized stability over time at Tipu in terms of not only specific species (Figures 3.1 and 3.2) but also overall diversity of species used (Figure 3.3). This is not the rule at Lamanai, where changes in heterogeneity (Figure 3.4), community associations (Figure 3.5), and species used (Figures 3.1 and 3.2) are more dramatic while remaining directionally consistent over time. There is some evidence for a similarity of changes occurring at the two sites during the transition from Middle to Late Postclassic, and there is considerable evidence that the more dramatic changes seen at both sites during the Colonial period are direct reflections of earlier Postclassic patterns. At both Lamanai and Tipu the Middle Postclassic period is characterized by very similar animal use patterns. High heterogeneity levels, the comparability of which is offset only partially by a lower species richness at Lamanai, are accompanied by a concentration on large mammals as well as secondary and
Page 67 Table 3.2. Spearman Correlation Coefficients for Lamanai and Tipu Assemblages.
Lamanai Middle Postclassic
Lamanai
0.7902
**
Colonial
0.6301
**
Tipu
Late Postclassic
Middle Postclassic Late Postclassic Colonial
Late Postclassic
0.6906
**
0.4660
**
0.4220
**
0.4874
**
Tipu Middle Postclassic
Colonial
Late Postclassic
0.4519
**
0.2343
0.4558
**
0.0797
0.4853
**
*
0.1603
0.5267
**
0.4963
**
0.5826**
*
Significance level .05.
**
Significance level .01 Table 3.3. Taxonomic Distribution of Lamanai Fauna.
Middle Postclassic
Lamanai Carcharhinidae
MNI
Late Postclassic
%
MNI
Colonial
%
MNI
Total %
MNI
%
—
—
—
—
1.00
0.50
1.00
0.32
Osteichthyes (5 spp.)
2.00
11.76
6.00
6.59
114.00
57.00
122.00
39.61
Crocodylus moreleti
1.00
5.88
1.00
1.10
2.00
1.00
4.00
1.30
Dermatemydidae
1.00
5.88
1.00
1.10
2.00
1.00
4.00
1.30
—
—
—
—
3.00
1.50
3.00
0.97
Crax rubra
1.00
5.88
8.00
8.79
8.00
4.00
17.00
5.52
Phasianidae
—
—
—
—
6.00
3.00
6.00
1.95
Meleagris spp.
—
—
13.00
14.29
38.00
19.00
51.00
16.56
Dasypus novemcinctus
1.00
5.88
2.00
2.20
2.00
1.00
5.00
1.62
Canis familiaris
1.00
5.88
7.00
7.69
1.00
0.50
9.00
2.92
Felis concolor
1.00
5.88
2.00
2.20
1.00
0.50
4.00
1.30
Anatidae
Panthera onca
—
—
2.00
2.20
—
—
2.00
0.65
Tapirus bairdii
1.00
5.88
1.00
1.10
—
—
2.00
0.65
Tayassuidae
1.00
5.88
5.00
5.49
5.00
2.50
11.00
3.57
Mazama americana
3.00
17.65
13.00
14.29
9.00
4.50
25.00
8.12
Odocoileus virginianus
2.00
11.76
27.00
29.67
8.00
4.00
37.00
12.01
Agouti paca
1.00
5.88
3.00
3.30
—
—
4.00
1.30
Dasyprocta punctata
1.00
5.88
—
—
—
—
1.00
0.32
17.00
100.00
91.00
100.00
200.00
100.00
308.00
100.00
TOTAL
Note: MNI values for families have been proportionately divided into species categories where these already exist, to reduce the effects of diversity inflation.
cultivated ecosystem resources, the result in part of the importance of brocket deer at both sites and a tertiary importance of reptiles, birds, and fishes. The two sites differ only in the secondary concentration on armadillo in addition to brocket deer at Tipu and the greater importance of pristine canopy forest species here than at Lamanai. Overall, the pattern is reminiscent of that found at many other Maya lowland sites, particularly during the Terminal and Postclassic periods (Hamblin 1984; Masson 1995; Pohl 1990,1994; Scott 1982).
Page 68 Table 3.4. Taxonomic Distribution of Tipu Fauna.
Middle Postclassic
Tipu
MNI
Rajiformes Lamnidae Carcharhinidae
—
Late Postclassic
%
MNI
—
Colonial
%
MNI
Total %
MNI
%
—
—
2.00
0.59
2.00
0.30
1.00
0.75
1.00
0.30
2.75
0.41
—
—
—
—
1.00
0.30
1.00
0.15
1.00
2.13
1.00
0.75
6.00
1.78
10.88
1.61
—
—
—
—
1.00
0.30
1.00
0.15
1.00
2.13
2.00
1.50
3.00
0.89
9.63
1.42
Petenia splendida
—
—
1.00
0.75
3.00
0.89
4.75
0.70
Cyprinodontiformes
—
—
—
—
1.00
0.30
1.00
0.15
Carangidae
1.00
2.13
—
—
—
—
3.13
0.46
Sparisomatinae
1.00
2.13
—
—
1.00
0.30
4.13
0.61
Scaridae
Siluriformes Ictaluridae Cichlidae
1.00
2.13
1.00
0.75
2.00
0.59
6.88
1.02
cf. Serpentes
—
—
—
—
1.00
0.30
1.00
0.15
Ctenosaura similis
—
—
1.50
1.13
4.66
1.38
6.16
0.91
Iguana iguana
2.00
4.26
1.50
1.13
2.33
0.69
5.83
0.86
Crocodylus moreleti
1.00
2.13
1.00
0.75
5.00
1.48
9.88
1.46
Dermatemys mawii
2.00
4.26
2.00
1.50
13.20
3.92
17.20
2.54
—
—
2.00
1.50
9.90
2.94
11.90
1.76
Emydidae (3 spp.)
2.00
4.26
5.00
3.76
8.78
2.61
23.80
3.52
Chelydra serpentina
1.00
2.13
—
—
—
—
3.13
0.46
Galliformes
—
—
1.00
0.75
3.00
0.89
4.75
0.70
Crax rubra
2.00
4.26
5.45
4.10
8.00
2.37
15.45
2.28
Penelope purpuracens
—
—
1.09
0.82
—
—
1.09
0.16
Ortalis vetula
—
—
1.09
0.82
—
—
1.09
0.16
Meleagris sp.
2.00
4.26
4.36
3.28
16.00
4.75
22.36
3.30
Rallidae
—
—
1.00
0.75
—
—
1.75
0.26
Psittacidae
—
—
1.00
0.75
1.00
0.30
2.75
0.41
1.00
2.13
5.00
3.76
8.00
2.37
19.89
2.94
Kinosternidae (2 spp.)
Didelphidae Tamandua sp.
—
—
1.00
0.75
1.00
0.30
2.75
0.41
6.00
12.77
12.00
9.02
46.00
13.66
85.79
12.68
Alouatta villosa
—
—
1.50
1.13
9.00
2.67
10.50
1.55
Ateles geoffroyi
—
—
1.50
1.13
—
—
1.50
0.22
Canis familiaris
1.00
2.13
3.00
2.26
7.00
2.08
15.38
2.27
Dasypus novemcinctus
cf. Canis latrans
—
—
1.00
0.75
1.00
0.30
2.75
0.41
Urcyon cineoargentus
—
—
1.00
0.75
5.00
1.48
6.75
1.00
cf. Felis concolor
—
—
2.00
1.50
3.50
1.04
5.50
0.81
cf. Panthera onca
—
—
3.00
2.26
1.50
0.45
4.50
0.67
cf. Felis pardalis
—
—
3.00
2.26
6.00
1.78
11.26
1.66
Felis wiedii
—
—
1.00
0.75
—
—
1.75
0.26
Felis yagouaroundi
—
—
1.00
0.75
—
—
1.75
0.26
Mustelidae
—
—
—
—
1.00
0.30
1.00
0.15
Procyon lotor
0.50
1.06
1.00
0.75
3.00
0.89
4.50
0.67
Nasua narica
0.50
1.06
—
—
3.00
0.89
3.50
0.52
Tapirus bairdii
1.00
2.13
2.00
1.50
9.00
2.67
15.63
2.31
—
—
2.00
1.50
26.00
7.72
29.50
4.36
Tayassu tajacu
3.00
6.38
4.00
3.01
—
—
16.39
2.42
Tayassu pecari
1.00
2.13
6.00
4.51
1.00
0.30
14.64
2.16
Mazama americana
7.00
14.89
10.00
7.52
31.00
9.20
70.41
10.41
Odocoileus virginianus
4.00
8.51
9.00
6.77
24.00
7.12
52.28
7.73
Tayassuidae
(table continued on next page)
Page 69
(table continued from previous page) Table 3.4 (continued) Taxonomic Distribution of Tipu Fauna.
Middle Postclassic
Late Postclassic
Colonial
Total
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
MNI
%
Sciuridae
—
—
1.00
0.75
2.00
0.59
3.75
0.55
Geomyidae (2 spp.)
—
—
3.00
2.25
8.00
2.37
13.25
1.96
Heteromyidae (2 spp.)
—
—
1.00
0.75
1.00
0.30
2.75
0.41
Cricetidae (5 spp.)
—
—
6.00
4.50
9.00
2.67
19.50
2.89
Coendou mexicana
—
—
1.00
0.75
—
—
1.75
0.26
Agouti paca
4.00
8.51
11.00
8.27
24.00
7.12
55.78
8.24
Dasyprocta punctata
1.00
2.13
6.00
4.51
11.00
3.27
24.64
3.64
Sylilagus brasiliensis
—
—
—
—
2.00
0.59
2.00
0.30
47.00
100.00
132.99
100.00
336.87
100.00
676.66
100.00
TOTAL
Note: MNI values for families have been proportionately divided into species categories where these already exist, to reduce the effects of diversity inflation. Table 3.5. Ecological Community Statistics for the Lamanai and Tipu Assemblages.
Middle Postclassic
Lamanai
Late Postclassic
Colonial
Total
N specimens
16.00
94.00
192.00
300
No. taxa
13.00
17.00
17.00
21.00
Heterogeneity (Simpson's)
30.00
7.50
4.55
6.89
Evenness (1/variance*100)
12.94
49.28
96.90
53.81
Richness (s—l/log N)
13.64
14.78
16.81
20.82
6.25
14.89
22.11
12.33
Dominance (species a—species b)
Tipu
N specimens
47.00
132.99
336.87
516.86
No. taxa
24.00
49.00
49.00
64.00
Heterogeneity (Simpson's)
19.39
29.55
19.10
21.19
*
Evenness (1/variance 100)
12.54
4.22
7.09
5.22
Richness (s—1/log N)
23.40
48.53
48.60
63.63
2.12
0.75
4.46
3.09
Dominance (species a—species b)
The Late Postclassic period shows an increasing disparity between the two sites in terms of both diversity of species represented and actual resources used. During the two hundred years between the Middle Postclassic period and the Late Postclassic, overall species heterogeneity at Lamanai drops dramatically as the result of a decreasing evenness of species representation and increasing species dominance as whitetailed deer becomes the most commonly used species at this site. Although mammals continue to dominate the sample, there is a slight reduction in their prominence and a generalized shift away from all smaller mammals with the exception of the domestic dog. Replacing the small mammals in importance are the avians, and in particular the turkey5 and curassow. The fishes also rise in importance, as do the turtles and riverine 5
The accurate identification of the ocellated (Meleagris ocellata) and common (Meleagris gallopavo) turkey is difficult and often possible only through detailed osteometric analysis. For this reason, all turkeys have been identified here as Meleagris spp.
Page 70 Table 3.6. Ecosystem Use Distributions at Lamanai and Tipu.
Middle Postclassic
eMNI
Lamanai
Late Postclassic
%
eMNI
Colonial %
eMNI
Total %
eMNI
%
Canopy forest
0.50
3.85
25.00
23.72
10.50
5.22
36.00
11.27
Riverine
1.50
11.54
9.50
9.01
116.00
57.71
127.00
39.76
Shoreline
2.00
15.38
2.00
1.90
6.00
2.99
10.00
3.13
High bush
3.40
26.15
25.40
24.10
11.50
5.72
40.30
12.62
Cultivated land
1.90
14.62
26.30
24.95
51.00
25.37
79.20
24.80
Habitation
1.00
7.69
7.00
6.64
1.50
0.75
9.50
2.97
Pine ridge
2.20
16.92
9.70
9.20
4.50
2.24
16.40
5.13
Bajo
0.50
3.85
0.50
0.47
0.00
0.00
1.00
0.31
Tipu Canopy forest
8.00
16.67
Riverine
6.00
12.50
Shoreline
9.40
19.58
High bush
40.00
29.01
74.00
21.96
122.00
9.00
6.53
18.00
13.05
23.33
32.00
9.50
47.00
8.99
41.80
12.40
69.20
13.23
11.00
22.92
24.80
17.98
73.00
21.66
108.80
20.81
Cultivated land
7.60
15.83
22.60
16.39
52.30
15.52
82.50
15.78
Habitation
0.50
1.04
10.60
7.69
22.00
6.53
33.10
6.33
Pine ridge
4.50
9.38
11.90
8.63
35.40
10.50
51.80
9.91
Bajo
1.00
2.08
1.00
0.73
6.50
1.93
8.50
1.6/3
Figure 3.1 Frequency distribution of mammalian remains at Lamanai and Tipu (percentage of total MNI).
molluscs.6 Species with a high fidelity for secondary forest, cultivated land, and canopy forests occur with much greater frequency during the Late Postclassic at Lamanai, while resources from other ecosystems almost disappear. In contrast, at the site of Tipu, overall species heterogeneity, richness, and evenness all rise to peak levels, while primary species dominance drops sharply. The brocket deer is replaced in dominance by a quartet of species—the armadillo, agouti, brocket, and whitetailed deer—and the prominence of agoutis and pacas suggests a much greater dependency on small mammals. As at Lamanai, there is a rise in species with high fidelity for secondary forest, cul 6
As a result of sporadic collection and inclusion (Pendergast, personal communication 1988), neither turtle carapace nor molluscan shell has been analyzed here, but large quantities of both turtle and Pomocea flagellata remains have been reported from Late Postclassic deposits at Lamanai (Pendergast 1986a; Emery 1990a), and undoubtedly their numerical inclusion in the analysis would provide evidence of a higher on riverine resources than is reflected.
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Figure 3.2 Frequency distribution of nonmammalian remains at Lamanai and Tipu (percentage of total MNI).
Figure 3.3 Tipu ecological community statistics of heterogeneity.
Figure 3.4 Lamanai ecological community statistics of heterogeneity.
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Figure 3.5 Ecosystem community associations at Lamanai and Tipu.
tivated land, and canopy forests; in contrast to the pattern at Lamanai, at Tipu the use of these resources does not indicate the exclusion of resources from other ecosystems. During the Colonial period the faunal assemblages at Lamanai and Tipu reflect even more divergent subsistence patterns. At Lamanai the Postclassic trend of lowered diversity continues as heterogeneity and species evenness continue to fall. At the same time, species richness continues to rise despite the increasing dominance of a small number of species. Directly reminiscent of their Postclassic abundance, fish rise to an overwhelming dominance during the Colonial period. This rise is accompanied by a simultaneous increase in the importance of birds, again foreshadowed by their Postclassic frequency. Turkeys and curassows are more frequent, and several avian species appear for the first time. As a result of these two changes, riverine resources are overwhelmingly abundant while cultivated land is the only other ecosystem used to any extent. Animal use at Tipu during the Colonial period is reminiscent of the earliest Postclassic pattern of generalized resource use. Heterogeneity and species evenness fall as the armadillo becomes the focus of a clear concentration. Species richness, however, is higher than at any other time. Reflecting patterns from the Middle Postclassic, turtles rise in importance again, although this is not the case for other reptiles whose abundance dropped during the Late Postclassic. In an interesting parallel to Lamanai, turkeys rise to become the dominant avian species. At Tipu all the ecosystems are still used to a similar extent as in previous periods, and there is evidence for a rebound to a Middle Postclassic distribution in the use of species with high fidelity for secondary growth, riverine, and canopy forest ecosystems. Trends in patterns of animal use over time at Lamanai and Tipu indicate that despite comparable heterogeneity at the two sites during the early phases of the Postclassic period, the diversity of utilized faunal species at Tipu remained high over time, whereas diversity at Lamanai dropped significantly during the Late Postclassic and continued to do so into the Colonial period. Stability over time at Tipu is reflected most prominently by the continuity in frequency of appearance of both avian species and the large mammals, particularly the peccaries and whitetailed deer, through time. However, an analysis of change in species richness and evenness over time shows that variation,
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though slight, does occur at Tipu. In combination with an overall increase in both species richness and evenness, shifts in species dominance are obvious. The slight Middle Postclassic dominance of the armadillo and brocket deer shifts during the Late Postclassic to a lower primary species dominance as represented by a concentration on four codominant species. During the Colonial period there is a clear return, though, to the Middle Postclassic concentration on the armadillo as a dominant species. For the most part, during the Colonial period the Tipuans seem to have returned to an earlier pattern of concentration on a wide diversity of species, emphasizing small mammals and reptiles and, to a limited extent, fish. Abundances remain relatively stable over time at Tipu, but they change quickly at Lamanai. The most dramatic differences in animal use appear in the Colonial period, characterized by a very high level of primary species dominance and a concentration on fish and birds. However, all the changes seen in the Colonial period at Lamanai are reflected by similar trends during the transition from the Middle to Late Postclassic period. Despite the fact that the overwhelming use of fish and the reduction in the use of large mammals at Lamanai seems to be a phenomenon of the Colonial period, this trend is also evident during the transition from the Middle to Late Postclassic period. Although the frequency of fish is much higher in the Colonial period, it has already begun to rise in the Late Postclassic period. As well, the increase in use of birds and decrease in use of reptiles and small mammals at Lamanai has its roots in the Postclassic period. Although the turkeys are much more frequent in the Colonial period than in any other period, both the turkeys and the curassow first appear at Lamanai in the Late Postclassic period. An examination of the trends of change in the use of ecosystem resources over time emphasizes the lack of change at Tipu in most aspects, compared with the more dramatic nature of the shifts occurring at Lamanai. At Lamanai the use of resources from cultivated land and from the rivers increases over time, while the use of every other type of ecosystem decreases in frequency of occurrence in the archaeological record. The Lamanaians began to use the river systems and cultivated land resources to the virtual exclusion of all other resources. This is not the case at Tipu, where the use of the majority of resources does not change significantly and generalization of ecosystem use remains the rule. Discussion Patterns of both change and continuity are apparent in the Postclassic and Colonial period faunal assemblages from Lamanai and Tipu. Although there is chronological variability in the patterns of species and ecosystem use at both sites, there is clear evidence for continuity of animal use practices between the Postclassic and Colonial periods. The observed changes apparently are not the result of direct Spanish contact but are instead related to Postclassic patterns. Furthermore, although Lamanai and Tipu are environmentally similar, chronologically contemporaneous, and located within easy access of each other, the
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faunal assemblages from the sites do not exhibit any similarity of diachronic variation. Tipu is characterized by a marked heterogeneity of animal species use in combination with a highly generalized use of available ecosystems in all time periods. The frequent use of the most abundant species of the Tipu faunal assemblages (armadillo, deer, agouti, and paca), in combination with high species richness and a consistently low level of primary species dominance, is reminiscent of most lowland Mesoamerican sites. The patterns of species use are significantly different at Lamanai, where a steady decrease in heterogeneity of species use over time and a dramatic increase in primary species dominance are observed. During the Late Postclassic period at this site the primary species is the whitetailed deer, but this shifts to a clear concentration on fish and turkeys during the Colonial period. Changes in animal and plant products use during times of societal stress have received relatively little theoretical consideration in Mesoamerican studies. Although these patterns are often analyzed with respect to the nutritional benefits and ecological adaptive value of varying strategies of the use of these products, their importance in the maintenance of external relationships through trade and tribute, and as a method of defining internal social relationships, cannot be ignored. The explanation for the chronological changes and regional variability seen in the Lamanai and Tipu zooarchaeological assemblages lies in an understanding of both the dietary and the social importance of the animal use strategies in each time period. The Postclassic period saw the dramatic increase in Classic period patterns of maritime trade (Andrews 1990) and, coincident with it, a shift in Postclassic settlement focus toward coastal, riverine, and lacustrine shorelines throughout the southern Mesoamerican lowlands (Chase and Chase 1985). Considerable archaeological and ethnohistoric evidence shows that Lamanai and Tipu were active players in the increasing commercialism of the Postclassic period as a whole, and particularly the Late Postclassic. Both Lamanai and Tipu were also affected by the Postclassic population movements caused first by the Itza expansion and then by its eventual collapse, and both had been the recipients of large groups of Yucatecan Maya refugees during the Middle Postclassic and in the later half of the sixteenth century during the period of first Spanish contact in the northern peninsula (Graham 1991). These groups perhaps carried ideas and goods that had a major impact on the Postclassic economies of Lamanai and Tipu, causing changes in animal use practices during the transition between the Middle and Late Postclassic periods. The appearance in Postclassic Lamanai deposits of trade goods from the Yucatán, Mayapanstyle vessels, Tulumstyle architectural constructions, and a new lithic technology characterized by small, sidenotched arrowheads (Pendergast 1990) suggests the movement of both goods and ideas from the north. Although a secure identification of the Lamanai turkeys as wild or domestic was not possible, their frequency in the Late Postclassic deposits at Tipu and Lamanai and their later rise to dominance at Lamanai suggests that their presence may be the effect either of direct importation of the animals or of the idea of their importance by Yucatecan peoples.
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A more significant arrival, though, is the bow and arrow technology, probably introduced at Lamanai in the Late Postclassic period, possibly in association with the arrival of Yucatecan refugees in the last half of the sixteenth century (Graham 1991). An interesting study of Lacandon Indian bow and arrow use indicates that several arrow types are specifically designed to shoot fish underwater and to kill birds in the tallcanopy forest (Nations and Clark 1983). The arrival of a new and more effective technology for the hunting of fishes and birds would certainly have affected the frequency of their appearance in the archaeological record. In contrast to the situation at Lamanai, the introduction of the bow and arrow seems to have been a Colonial phenomenon at Tipu (Graham 1991), and therefore the lack of a similar emphasis on these species at Tipu is not surprising. That Lamanai was not just the passive receptacle for the diffusion of Postclassic northern traditions is emphasized by several important technological innovations at the site. Evidence for copper manufacturing and working (Pendergast 1990) and for the in situ development of new ceramic traditions (Graham 1987; Pendergast 1986a) suggests that Lamanai may have offered valuable commodities of its own to its trading partners. The Late Postclassic rise in fish suggests that this may have been another of those commodities. In many cases the Postclassic settlement shift toward coast and shorelines was accompanied by a corresponding subsistence focus on aquatic resources as indicated by the presence of both aquatic faunal remains (e.g., Carr 1986; Pohl 1994; Scott 1982) and probable net weights in many archaeological deposits (e.g., Chase and Chase 1985). Several authors have suggested the importance of aquatic products as the primary protein source in the Late Postclassic period (Lange 1971; Wing 1977), and at the site of Lamanai, analyses of human bone isotope chemistry by Coyston et al. (this volume) indicate that fish were indeed an important resource during the Late Postclassic and Colonial periods. In association with their importance as subsistence resources during the Late Postclassic, the possibility of trade of piscine resources both out of sites (Hamblin 1984; Miller 1977; Mock 1997) and into them (Pollock and Ray 1957) has also been suggested by many authors. Located on the banks of an estuarine inland waterway teeming with freshwater and peripheral species, Lamanai would have been ideally situated for maximum access to both resources and trading systems. The rising frequency of fish in the archaeological record, in combination with the appearance in the Postclassic period of large numbers of standardized, firedclay, ball net sinkers replacing the Classic period notched, reused pottery sherds (Pendergast, personal communication 1990), supports the probability of a change in the importance of fishing technologies at Lamanai during the Late Postclassic period. Certainly, the combination of human dietary studies (Coyston et al., this volume) and zooarchaeological evidence suggests that fish began to play a more significant subsistence role during this period. It has also been suggested that one of the main foci of Postclassic commerce was an increasing demand for certain animal species for tribute and use as sacrificial victims (Pohl and Feldman 1982; White and Schwarcz 1989). Among these species are the turkey, cervids, turtles, and domestic dog. The evidence
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for increasing frequencies of these species at Lamanai during the Late Postclassic period suggests they may have been traded as well, either out of or perhaps into Lamanai. Interestingly, there is no correlative evidence of rising frequencies of any of these possible tribute species at Tipu (Emery 1990a). At the site of Lamanai, archaeological evidence for strong trade links with the politically vibrant northern Yucatán combines with evidence for increasing frequencies of animal species potentially valuable for subsistence and trade to suggest an active participation in the commercial network of the period that was dependent in part on these animals. At Tipu, where dietary heterogeneity seems to rise in the Late Postclassic, there is no evidence for any increase in the frequency of either fishes or the deer, dog, turkey, and turtles potentially important as trade items. At the same time, there is evidence at the site for a generalized reduction in all exotic species during the Late Postclassic period (Emery 1990a), indicating a reduction in contact with external, and particularly coastal, sources. The residents of Tipu were not participating in the trade of animal resources to the same extent as those at Lamanai. Possibly because of their stronger ties with the inland southern lowland polity, the residents of Tipu were not as active participants in the Yucatánbased trading systems; in fact, they reduced their trading circle to the extent that exotic resources were limited, relying instead on a continuing and even increasing diversity of local resources. Both Lamanai and Tipu were occupied well into the period of Colonial Spanish contact. The first physical evidence for contact at Lamanai was the demolition in 1544 of a small Late Postclassic temple and the construction of a Christian church in its place (Pendergast 1986b, 1991). It was also at this time that Lamanai was brought under encomienda control (Jones 1985). A similar church was built at Tipu some 20 to 25 years later (Graham, personal communication 1987). The later construction at Lamanai of a second church on a much more European plan suggests an increase in both population (Pendergast 1986b) and Spanish presence at the site, which is supported by the ethnohistoric evidence for an increased use of the site for reducciones during this period (Pendergast 1991). At both sites, however, the Spanish presence probably did not exceed the periodic visitations characteristic of the Spanish visita (circuit riding) system. The strong affiliation of the Lamanai and Tipu dietary practices with earlier Postclassic practices and the corresponding lack of discontinuity associated with the Colonial period are supported by isotopic (White and Schwarcz 1989), paleopathological (White et al. 1994), and archaeological evidence from the sites, suggesting that none of the basic patterns of existence at Lamanai or Tipu were significantly affected by the Spanish presence. Patterns of community organization (Pendergast 1986b), architectural construction, refuse handling, and ceramic and lithic production remained similar to earlier Postclassic patterns at Lamanai (Pendergast 1991). The ethnohistoric record defines an early and relatively peaceful incorporation of Christianity into the Tipu belief system, and this is supported by evidence for relatively strict Spanish control over community layout at this site (Graham 1991) as well as an incorporation of
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Christian burial practices into the local system. Nevertheless, the considerable archaeological evidence for continuity with Postclassic patterns of building construction and local pottery and lithic production and use suggest that basic lifeways were relatively unaffected by the Spanish presence (Graham 1987). The lack of any zooarchaeological remains from European animals at either site is also consistent with the relative dearth of European goods in any Colonial deposits (Pendergast 1991). Despite ethnohistoric evidence suggesting the strict censuring and manipulation of traditional foods and eating habits with the arrival of the Spanish missionaries (Landa 1941), there is no evidence for a discontinuity in animal use patterns at either site. In total, the zooarchaeological evidence argues that direct Spanish influences on diet and other animal product use were transitory or nonexistent. Changes in patterns of animal utilization occurred at both sites, however, and are particularly apparent at Lamanai. Zooarchaeological evidence from this site indicates a dependency on species with a high fidelity for riverine and cultivated land ecozones and the lack of the expected diversity of animal resources. These trends may be better understood with reference to the specifics of Colonial Tipu and Lamanai than as the result of direct Spanish intervention. Lamanai, located close to the Spanish center of control at Bacalar, functioned as a center for reducciones throughout its colonial history (Pendergast 1991) and was probably subject to the stresses of both population changes and unanticipated growth during this time. Zooarchaeological evidence from Lamanai indicating an expanded use of animal resources from agricultural land coincides well with the image of a population stretched to the limits of its resource availability, particularly in view of the limited experience of the newcomers in the manipulation of the Lamanai environment. The availability of both bow and arrow and fish netting technology, introduced during the Postclassic period, would have made the availability of the lagoon fishes an even more attractive dietary possibility. Finally, evidence from studies of skeletal health at Lamanai (White et al. 1994) indicating a decrease in overall health of the population during the Colonial period also supports the suggestion of Colonial period stress. There is considerable evidence that the arrival of the Spanish signaled a disruption of the coastal trading systems so important during the Postclassic (Graham 1991), both as an effect of simple presence and through active attempts to disrupt the contacts between the Yucatán and the inland Itza peoples (Graham et al. 1985; Jones 1989). Lamanai, maintaining its vitality and rising in importance as a dominant center in the Chetumal province (Pendergast 1986b), undoubtedly remained active in the trade of important resources. It is during this period that fish remains are most abundant in the deposits at Lamanai. The inland location of Lamanai, well protected from the disruptive influence of the Spanish presence, and its continued access to peripheral fish species, left its residents ideally situated for the continuation and intensification of Postclassic patterns of fish use as a dietary species as well as in trade. Tipu, always the more remote site, and one with less active Yucatán contacts even during the Postclassic period, remained a relatively stable community into which reducción populations were only infrequently introduced and at
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which the patterns of life remained relatively uninterrupted (Graham 1991). The relative dietary stability at Tipu is reflected in studies of the Tipu skeletal population that indicate the maintenance of a high level of health even in the Colonial period at this site (Cohen et al. 1994). Finally, some authors have suggested that choice of foods consumed may be less a passive response to external change than an active response to perceived societal changes (Kalcik 1984). Under Colonial conditions responses may be mediated by the extent to which prestige or even survival is attached either to the adoption of new ethnic or societal markers or to the conservation of old ones. The process of religious conversion in a missionizing situation is implicitly tied to changes in basic patterns of life involved in the maintenance of social cohesion, such as sexual practices, eating habits, and even village construction. Village pattern was often manipulated to conform to Spanish ideals, family affiliations were undermined through the outlawing of extended family residences and multiple marriages, and food and eating habits were strictly censured in many ways (Landa 1941). Kalcik's (1984) suggestion that food preferences are an active signifier of cultural and social identity is applicable to any situation in which that identity is threatened. Contact with missionizing Spaniards was a situation that severely threatened the Maya identity. The maintenance of Late Postclassic traditions of animal use at Lamanai, and the apparent return to earlier Postclassic subsistence patterns at Tipu, may signify a conscious return to traditional Maya foodways and identity. Conclusions The survival of both Lamanai and Tipu well into the Colonial period and the maintenance of their cultural integrity is evidence for the success of their very different strategies of animal utilization in the face of the extreme cultural stress of both the Postclassic and the Colonial periods in the southern Mesoamerican lowlands. The benefits of dietary stability at Tipu and of variation in patterns of animal use at Lamanai may well have outweighed the costs accrued by the maintenance of these strategies. Seagraves (1974) has emphasized the advantages of environmental generalization for the preservation of cultural stability in times of external stress. At Tipu, where the diversity of species use is high at all times, the benefits of maintaining this stability in the face of several periods of dramatic cultural stress are clear. At Lamanai economic benefits may have been the prime consideration. Maintaining and increasing a position of commercial strength provides a measure of safety during periods of cultural change, population movements, and resource stress. Cultural instability and flexibility may have been the rule throughout the Postclassic at Lamanai. This is indicated by the shifting use of both species and ecosystems, by the dramatic drop in overall heterogeneity of animal species used, and by the increasing reliance on primary dominant species. Seagraves (1974) would suggest that, in a situation of conflict with another culture, Lamanai would bear the losses. However, perhaps a position of
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economic and possibly political strength would have counterbalanced the lack of resource generalization and buffered the effects of confrontation. As well, control of one of the most important routes of access between the coast and the inland jungles would have provided the Lamanaians with a strong bargaining position. In terms of cost, economic strength may have been a more effective adaptive strategy for the inhabitants of Lamanai than cultural stability through resource generalization. Acknowledgments This research is based on a master's thesis completed at the University of Toronto (Emery 1990a) and financially supported by that institution, an Ontario Graduate Scholarship, and various grants in the names of David Pendergast and Elizabeth Graham. A large proportion of the preliminary Tipu identifications were generously provided by Cathy Yasui and Polydora Baker. My thanks go to David Pendergast and Elizabeth Graham, who provided excavation opportunities at the sites of Lamanai and Tipu, access to the zooarchaeological samples, and most important, guidance and enthusiasm throughout the years of this research. Thanks also go to the three anonymous reviewers and Christine White, who provided both constructive criticism and editorial assistance. References Cited Andrews, A. P. (1990) The role of trading ports in Maya civilization. In F S. Clancy and P. D. Harrison (eds.): Vision and Revision in Maya Studies. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 159167. Bobrowksy, P. T., and Ball, B. F. (1989) The theory and mechanics of ecological diversity in archaeology. In R. D. Leonard and G. T. Jones (eds.): Quantifying Diversity in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Carr, H. S. (1986) Faunal Utilization in a Late Preclassic Maya Community at Cerros, Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University. Chase, A. F., and Chase, D. Z. (1985) Postclassic temporal and spatial frames for the Lowland Maya: A background. In A. F. Chase and P. M. Rice (eds.): The Lowland Maya Postclassic. Austin: University of Texas Press, pp. 122. Cohen, M. N.; O'Connor, K.; Danforth, M.; Jacobi, K.; and Armstrong, C. (1994) Health and death at Tipu. In C. S. Larsen and G. R. Milner (eds.): In the Wake of Contact: Biological Responses to Conquest. New York: WileyLiss, pp. 121133. CruzUribe, K. (1988) The use and meaning of species diversity and richness in archaeological faunas. Journal of Archaeological Science 15(2):179196. Emery, K. F. (1990a) Postclassic and Colonial Period Subsistence Strategies in the Southern Maya Lowlands: Faunal Analyses from Lamanai and Tipu, Belize. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Toronto. Emery, K. F. (1990b) Manipulation of resource diversity: Strategy choices in the development of tropical urbanism. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological Association, New Orleans, December. Emery, K. F. (1997) The Maya Collapse: A Zooarchaeological Investigation. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell University. Emmons, L. H. (1990) Neotropical Rainforest Mammals: A Field Guide. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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