Revival in the Square

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TRANSFORMING CITIES

NICK CORBETT

REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE

NICK CORBETT

1 RlBA Enterprises

CONTE NTS

IlWL IN THE SQUARE

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IAPTER THRE

PHYSIC

ul AND ROBUSTh

IAPTER FOU

RENAISSANCE IN BIRMINGHAM

THE STATUE OF CHARLES I

Revivul in the Sguure demonstrates the way in which local leaders have devised strategies guiding investment decisions that have significantly transformed urban areas. The great advantage of this approach is that the experience of creating a major new public space gives local authorities the confidence and exp their public spaces. experience of delive space and the book i s well illustrated with exciting case studies, many of which have been recently completed. A better quality public realm is a key part of delivering any urban renaissance and I welcome the contribution that this book ma

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rn rne Jquare Recause welcome R w i l l give confidence t o people who want t o challenge t h e s t a t u s quo in t h e design and management o f public space. The book Apmonstrates how a strategic approach can eveloped to channel resourcc n t way t o transform t h e ent. It shows how unc public spaces can be :ivic values and commercial veness, and how public space c a n ple together for a positive, shared *irban living. I

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INTRODUCTI 0 N REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE This book provides a new insight into how urban design strategies for new public spaces can transform our cities. It complements the many existing design manuals and publications on urban design theory by showing how ideas can be realised on the ground. It provides a bridge from theory to action. The book is founded upon the premise that the design and management of public space will be a key component of civil renewal. In a recent MORI poll in the UK, 30 per cent of respondents said they did not visit public open spaces because they were afraid of crime.1 Given such statistics, the themes of this book are of urgent significance, not least for dealing with this sense of fear.

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InIwrbookms~ond~4f611114t~na(k8,2JanaJ~~kd~ cmawr3 plrnnino and mwem qurm at finrnddandhwnrncors.Jircobr~~hawthsphyricrlandwrdrlcomponsnttof raua=fuldqlR~,andIwrboalCfhrtpkljrhsd-fblty~olp,has #MdasafOundltknforcumrrtultw~~Inthe~yeaFs,may bodomndaudkrhrvs p r o d w m l t h r t ~ r r p o n J I c o w c r i t i q u oa d ~prctid~dheridmlJthOugr~studieshaw!be€mpr#ishad mdplblicpolicyhrrkenrefhledtorsllaaJanaJocow~msndrtkns, most public space b UnkrtPMngd much of it is pedvedto be unsafe. Time are m a y aamptes ofgood pnaica but the bask mi&rksr #rwlfbd by J a a h mmin

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TRANSfD

5 CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE WTRODUCTION

lhe public maim pn#ntr a compk# managment problem because ofthe sheer n u m b of tepi and prorscdonrl intmsts invdved The dWfemnt gwemmental, professbnal,andanpomeoqanisatbnsimdvedwiththedesign,~and management of public space have traditionally been divided into separate spadalisms, all tackling dmerant prrr ofthe probkm. This h8s resulted in eprtlse daMkQing ina fmgmemdway, and inrivalries and communkatimgaps Mningthe ralatkmship between the main stlkehddem H t h e key players invohradwiththe design and management of public space withdraw into their own 'bawao', the gaps b e t w e e n t h e b a x e s k B V b ~ ~ m ~ ~ m ~ k s e e n a diqum of planrim or engineers, remota pdhicrl dsddon mrlon, ahrtisingcompankr,ordhampamrrrdddentsasw&ima tfthe legitimate stakehoklm in public spacedo notefisahrdy communicate and wopamte with each *,the rswlt on the pund is that neglect and antkodsl activity beginto drip intothe gap!& Most city inhabitantsare hmiliarwiththewlting pmMems of amironmantol crime, w h i i inchde @posting, @hi, I-, Ulepl adwtising, w n g ,odkiting, and dediw A new kind of dacitkn making infrastructureor'wiring'is raquired -the stakehokrsin pu#kspace-this k required to connect, coordinate, and empower the decisbn m a h and other stakehokh. This bookshaws haw the gaps between these g n q s cm be dosad t h q h stleadership, manslpmant,and highquality design - all to assist in the delivery of an urbsn renaissance. The book has two main themes. First, it is about how the dadskn-making i n f m t w r e cm be devdopad to dose the gaps between the key stalwhobrs imdved in the ptovisbn of public rpace, and sacand, it is about the physical design and management requiredto cmte and maintain viable public spaces The story of the ranaicrrmce of Birminghamcity cantre, inthe UK, is a seamthat runsthroughthe book and cuiminateswfth the detailed c m study pmvidad in Chapter Four. be iyto London's Tmfatgar Square am also examinedin detail, Wgether with other aumpkr from ths USA and Europe. City squares are used to focus the dkarsskn in this book because they are the most intensively used public spaces-the kct that them has been a recent rmuqpce intheir design also adds totheir interestlhesesqwresare pu#kploces that k i v e a unique identity from tha buildings, structures, and landscaping that andosh them and give them fonn.lheirk&ntity is ako derived fromthe paopkthat occupy the buildingsand spaces a d the usasthey putthemto. The squaresthat are discussed areofvarkusshapes, sizes, and functkns.They often induda trees and other landscaping, but crucially they are all an integral part ofthe built fotm ofthecity. They perfom an architecturalfunction because they date to sumnding buwdings throughtheir W i n and use.Cminga city square touchesupon may urbsndesign

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TRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE INTRODUCTION

and q p e m t b n issues, andthe condusionsreachedwilloften be applicable to other public space and the built envimnment in general. The squares used as case studies are puMk spaces that embrace a mix of land usm,suchasmsMmws,businesses, andmteminmentuses, and whkh have a high degree of accessfromthe sunwndingdty. By concentratingon public squares, thm wHI be a focus on uwting dynrmk places where there is the crpcldty for cmwck to offlwr and where smds can be sown forthe d e d o p m t ofcommunity. Urban design is aboutcmtingbuildingsand publk spaces that interact with each othar and result in visually stimulating, safe, and sustainable settlammm M a n dedgnem seek to understand the thmdimensionrl qualities that provida people with dear and satisfying images ofthe dty, and which make the city rardr#a and nrvigs#s~#antifying~kec3~l~thatckfi~thecity~nd its publk spaces v a can begin to understand how to create a more legible city environment and how public space becomes an integral part of this urban moQhohW. M a y pdiakbns in all kvds ofgovemment,and fium all pam ofthe p o l i i l spectrum, appearto be ammeclthat the quality of life of city rsskknw is being ~~kJHlt/~l~radenvimnmentalcri~withinpr#krpoca.Thera h an increahg politkal engqpmt with public space due to pempths of 1-withinatwsofthewaldb mostp~osparor#idt&s. Inhetican cit&s,such as New%&, local business and midentsgmups have taken dirsct d o n overthe design and management oftheir pl#kspacesthmugh BusinesslmpmvbmamDistricts(BIDs), andthese are now beginningtooperate inthe UK Through BlDq community groups have taken control of public spaces where tnditiolulfoms ofgovemance had left a power vacuum. This was ckmomtratedin Bryant Park in New Y& which became the haunt of drug dealers until the b l communityredaimedthespace. Aaors the urbanised war#, environmental sustainability is high on the pditkal agenda -this has implicstronsfor urban design. In most large cities, whemverthere h s t m g political leadership attemps are now bejng made to make city centres ttMcthra placesto live in, and to increase the density of new .This serves to q p e m t e derelict industrial Iandsqes, to accommodate W i n g demand, and to ptwent further urban ancmchment upon the open countyside. If peoplecan be ancouqpd to live inthe dty,where there is a highbuildingdensity and a mkdhnd a t h e y are likdy to be ptyskally dosertotheirwork pkca and to a range ofessmtids d c e s , This dmer pmwimity reduces the need to trawl, and so mducescwdepedmmandthemwcbtedtrdlic,uckhts,noise,mdairpollutbn.

.lthvitaJto~in~ina~dty.As~cbndty~sotoo doesthenaadforpr#icoQc#lqace-adtheneadfor~~n.Thecity

TRANSFORMIH6 CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE INTRODUeflW

square a n provide visual rdkf and recreational open space within a densely dedoped area, and it can also setveto promote stanclsrds in public behavbw If people aretobe aware ofthe COmplmdhJ andvar&tydthes&etythaywe a put d, andiftheyareto~notionsofcMc#antityandraspaafor~ttmmurt be a pkca wham thy can occpvknrlly see and expdmce a d i w m ~ ~ o 9 s e c t d bn thatsoc&ty.When people a n adva& partidpate in Ikwithinttmplblkrealm,they learn haw to condllct themdwswithinit. mh is especially hnportsnt foridem rbout dtkenship. By simply ttmndingin a M y pr#k ~qurrrr,wkuediflsrwrt agepupsanddiffemtmem~ofsoc&tyrtagathemdtopther,ttmbarhwed aKparkncathatewAcesapoohhrasmseofpart#petbn.Inuhrsna~whmthmam n o w e I W public spaces,public life and civility bewmesedwsly &lhem is a retreattotheptlvacyandpoumtialbdrtkndhomqwhammedia~wneHtthe i n f h u t b n w e ~ t h ~ t h e t d s l v h b n , ~ ~ a n d R d k . Ifthedesign,hpkmmh,andma~dnewcityor(wrasiswdarakbn t h e a partnership clppmrdr that -with kal paopb, urban chamctwand oodrl Cohsrbn can k s t r a n g h d . City squaresanthan contributsto a ticher mix dfsdlitissthatottrectbathkcsl~andvkitors,sndwnhdpaomPkhacity~ complth/M in attnctingmobik immentwithinthe global mrtkbtpkcs k is hdpcul to U n d m t m d why city rqurrsr haw been dewbped by dwmt communitiesthmugh hhtory, and to m t h e demandsthat thara spaces hrvh beeneqectedtorptisfy. Hktoricrlanalysiscan hdptoartsblishthetnesthat~ hawbeendewbpedtoaddmssthmughthergar,suchasthenaedtopddea populationwith a place for festivals or with a symbdk focal pdnt that reinfcwwsthdt cdkctivo kkntiry. An un9lrrtmdingdthe past can often inform the prasant md indkate how the future might unfold, and so this book m a h some demnceto historicsl urban davakpmmt. Fblitkrlkdets#andthosawho ~ p o m rhaw , ! q # t t t o control rcthritb,wi\hin lay publk spaces and,hrub created new city sqwm and processionrl mutesto symbdisethairpomrandcontml. F o r m inthefimthrlfdthe 20th centuq, Musodini wecl urben des@ to symbolise a link betwen himself and Romh@bus past He atmptedto Qthis by Qmdishingthemedhvrldisttict that hadgmwn ewer the ardent Roman Fonrm and aaahrq a new pmcdtmal rwte OMT it. This route linked the ancient Coliseum with the city squrre ofPknrMezia,wham Mussolini reskkdintheWttorirnoPalace. TO an undamocrptic administration, a city square is a threatening cndk for unconfamkt gatherings and demomtrstknr.Tbnanmm Square in Beijing, Chin4 is known aroundthewodd because ofttm killings ofant@nmment protarrtonthrrein 1990.In honco’s Spain, sttict coMID(swhkh lastedfor chcrdes,wars placed avwtbh usaofpublksqwm.7hararwrgancainthedasiendnewSponhhrqw~~

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TRANSFORMIN6 CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE INTRODUCTION

TRAWSFOORMIIO CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE IN

war# we live in. At ollc M,the increasingfkw ofinformption has rapidly chanpd mayrrspaasofourli~-itinflwnahswlturolandpditicolprkritias,~wharsand hawweIhrs.lheinformotknagehrsinfkrcmcadthewrythatweintsroawithdtks,d the way that wh shrpb them. lhis book examines haw we can design and manage publicSP=inavwythattwfmd--drsnEdnllgcpaart#nc * quttm design,the social and economic forces opemtingupancities can be channdhd to create PttRCtiva, sofa, d y m k , and socially M u s h public pkcaa Such places rdnforce a colkcthra identity and sense of belonging throughout a d k s e urban population. lhe design of public space is especinlly important in bringiqg paqrk togaharand in creatingo shared -ce ofacity.lhemain sqwn isoftendosdy msocktdwiththeunique~ofapartkular~ Foras~wrdtieshQM~,thecitysqwnhssbaanafocusfortheplblkHfa ofthe urban population. Whik many city squares w m neg&ctd duringthe 20th century, often being dominated byand car pdcing, dtks andtheirqbm am now ampethg in a gbbal tnatlwtpke and so the hnellp of indMAwl cities b i~~i~impwtsnt.~arwndthedardopadwol#anancw~qdty ~tow#kwiththeptvsFbaectortoOinurbandesign8nd~ andrwmcitysquaresanprov#ingafoa#rforthiiactMty. gybn~w#icrs~wbsnpqwbtiondtheneedtomrka~~for theirinhs#tmnts,~FslotadtodtydmignanbeaKninga~pol~prkrihJ. 7hs themes ofthis book will thelwfm be of prrtiarbr interest to those who make dacisbmonthewaythrtdtksam~andto~whoWtoinCluancamd pdvisaQdrionmolrwa While urban design principle0 a n often dted as objechs in new dewhpmw inWstivhq the parfolmence ofthe resulting public space often falls dissppointir@y shortofarcpactptlorw. * Realisingurbandesiiobjdvesisdifficultinpmdceduetothe compb#ity of the dewbpmm procaga For example, a dwdopmm pmject will typimlly involva finding the right bcrtbn, assembling land, organising finmca, -the prbritiasof strategic planning, site planninp,and slrhithaunldesign, and maintainingmomantumand potitkalsupport. ~IinstiMknshsvh~lyfoundcommongraundinthecwsaforurban d e s i i and raghnmhon ' In December 1997 the Urban Des@ Alliance (UDAL) was formadintheUKkJthe~~lorpsn~and~withani~inurbon design and mgemmmn ' TMS a l l h has gfuwn and has almdy helped to bmk through the guarded barriers between the different professions. This kind of cooperotknhelpsto unite frogmcnrtrd sourcesofgcpartisa and infocmation-it doses the gaps and i n h t h e national debateon urban issues For urban d d p m t o be *they need to be able to influence the process throuphwhii the built amrironmant is dewlopd. This raguims an understandingofa

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TMWSFQRYIWECITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE lNTROOUClM#

koad range ofdisdplines, indudipolitics, planning, architecture, finance, law, and pmject menagemem lhese issuasare addrrrsgad in Chapter the ofthis boo&,which foarsason the rds ofurbandesign strptaoias in managingthedevdopnentpocess. Whamer the pmfessional bodcgrounds of urban designers, they will need to u m n d an ptyskal structure before cmtingnewprblk spaces for it ChaptmTWo andlhrae oftMS bodcthmforefoarsupon the physical structure ofthe city to help ensure that new squares and public spaces can data well to the r w t a n d i n g u h COMaKt issues rdotingto kcetig access#kgib#i fonn,swb, and use are all discusd. Chapter Four providas a detailedcase study of Birmingham's urban renaissance.

TRANSFORUIWG CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE INTROOUCTION

TRANSFORMIN6 CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE INfROOUCflON

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CHAPTER ONE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE Producingan urban design strategy can assist in creating a vision, which is essential for implementing complex development projects. These strategies, which are sometimes referred to as urban design frameworks, need to be more focused than traditional policy documents or master plans. They need to provide for coordinated action by a partnership to secure implementation of commonly agreed objectives. The objectives of an urban design strategy need to be based on the aspirations of its partners -these partners will be stakeholders from community, private, and public interests. The objectives also need to be based on the constraints and opportunities posed by the study area and by financial realities. An urban design strategy might include the following components, and these help to structure the rest of the chapter: A Wan smment, signed by all partnefs, -with a plan showing the boundarksofthe study area and a set ofagainstwhichthesucasg ofthe -can bejudged. Aprogmmm that explains how the leadership and oqanisational s t w m of the partnership has been created to dwckp and deliwrthe strategy, outlining who k responsible for what. This should also include a mathodology of the workingprscticas and procassasto be followed in d e l i i n g the praject to an qpdtimatsbla.

TRAWSFORWlN6 CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

A conmrtuu/cr~/ysis that describes the character ofthe area and its people and explains the backgroundto the pmllaa. lhis should also illustrate and justiQ the php&alboundrrkschosen for the study area. H An itv@emmttkn stmtqy that addresses funding by identifying where resources are coming from and how t h y will be albcated, and provideb a pc#singstmabgywithatimatobkfordeliveyofthewhola~ H Acommun@p-showing how the kcrl community and other key stakehokh are to be itndwd in devebping, approving, and implemming the strategy and the pmposalswithin it. H A~~pkntorhowhowthevitslityandcommardrlcom~it~of new publk placeswill be maintained owrtime.

Rodudnganurban designstrptsgythmugha partnershipapproach can pmvidea daorurunderstanding of an a m and haw itworlrs. Rodudnga amtextual analysis is assanaEsl for achievingthis- it prov#asthe physiccll and sodel informetknthat will inform decisbn making. By analysing haw the variow, tmponms ofthe built environment fit togatl#r within the study area, the conwlnual analysis will also prov#a a kind ofhealthh f o r t h e builtenvironment,showinghawitsparf#milnca could kimprovad Eoththephydaland humanpogrqhy aspectsofthecomxtual analydswillbe e x p h d inthii and sdquent ChSptaFs. lhe ultimate goal ofthe urban design strategy is to serve wtheMhicktthat brings topther people and raoources to dewlop an area under the banner of an agre8dvision.

CR EAT1NG PARTN E RSHIPS Producing an urban design strategy and developing new buildings and public spaces clearly requires considerable organisational, financial, and professional resources. Different organisations and individuals can contribute different abilities, expertise, and resources. These need to be brought together to form an effective partnership that can produce and implement an urban design strategy and proposalsfor new city squares.

The public sector It is often the role of a city council to facilitate the partnership, bringtogether the different players, and provide the impetus for the vision. The local authority is a partner that is geographically fixed to the study area and should therefore have B strong long-term commitment to it. The local ruthority is also democratically

TRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

eccountable to local citizens. If an urban design strategy is backed by a strong champion from the local authority, ideally an executive mayor with a reasonably long tetm of office, this can add to market confidence and to the certainty that the vhion will be implemented. The public sector can also sometimes provide land, finance, and possibly in-house professional expertise. Furthermore, when an urban design strategy focuses upon land that is derelict or without a registered owner, or when there is a complex pattern of ownership, public-sector planning pawan, are necessary to assemble the different parcels of land in preparation for redevelopment. An urban design strategy will benefit from having the committed support of lnfluentlal loul politicians and officers of the local authority, who will have access to crucial resources. They can also provide advice in satisfying statutory procedures, such as the need to gain planning consents. As with all partners invoked in the production and implementation of the strategy, public-sector figures need to be able to inspire confidence in the partnership and strategy by working in a responsive and innovative way, rather than falling back into a simple mode of regulation.

The private sector The prhnta sector is more expehced in managing the risk involved in finandng development and in providing a dynamic and cost-effective approach to The survival of prhrsthaactor davekpars is dcpanckM upon their ability to manage risk, and as such they are likely to make a dynamic and realistic contributbntowards a y partnership. Rhrota fitunce is usually required to meet the costs of dewloping new city squares or other aspects of a mgmemtion strategy. offaring a share of the development's profits or part ownership of built assets may attract private imwrtmant companies to enter into partnership arrsqpnents. When this is the case,legal contncts are required to clarify responsibilities and to detemine how Wu~~plofits and rasourceswillbe allocated. lt iscommon pmtka for publicgaaor partners to assemblethe dew@mnt sites required for impkmenting a strategy, and for private davaloperstotake overimpkmantstion on the gtwnd from there.

The community sector Loco1communities raprssant pools of kmwkdge on how areas function for those that live mndworf
likely to participate in consultation exerciser, and to devdop a caring sense of ormership of new squares.

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In Europe and the USA, the empowering of local communities through the development of urban regeneration partnerships is often cited as a political objective. This inclusive approach benefitsthe impbentation of strategks in a practical way and such interaction is healthy for democracy [see Ref. U ) .In reality, people living in run-down areas may find it hard to exercise influence within a partnership made up of experienced professionals and politicians, each arriving with their own agenda and beingwell versed in the language of planning and development. Before a community can be 'empowerad' it needs to have ttm confidence, skills, knowledge, and language to understand and influence the rules of the game. Community training in basic skills is themfore necessary in some situations. Strategiesfor engagingwith local communitieswill be discussed in more depth later in this chapter.

Partnerships Partnerships formed between the public, private, and community sectors have become commonplace since the l990s, especially in regeneration areas. A partnmhip between those thrw different 'expert' gmupr public, private, and community -can ensure that urban design objdves are achieved in a realistk way. A partnership appmach h rho mora likely to develop the collective identity ofthe locrl community and to be satisfyingforthose invohrsd inthe davslopnmrt

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It was the publk-private partnershipsdew&@ in North American citiesthat inspired British leaders to devebp them in the UK in the early 1980s. Hornwar, publk-privatra partnerships had already existed in various foms in the UK for war fifty years, having originated in the past-war period. The reconstruction of Britain's blitzed cities was often based on a partnmhip between local authorities, who provided land, and private dovebps, who pravickd capital for development. This was at a time when land markets were weak and commcmkl devekpan thin on the ground, a rituotkn refkted in some rundown inner city areas t&q. tn February 1944, the r8ptwt of the British Government'sAdviroy P a d on the Roconstructknof City Centres, advisingon the robuildingof blitzed city centres, stated that: 'The dwekpmt of a site should properly i n w h a partnership between the ground lessor (the local authority), who p d d e s the capital for land, and the buildingkosee, who provides the capital for the erection of buildings.' In Fskuay 1946,the Central Committee on Estate Davdopmant and Management pmvkkd a vision of how they saw these publk-prhrofa partnership davdopiw*

ArMsonJ

TRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

The contract between the Local Authority arid developers should be strictly defined arid exist ab ~7 background t o their relationship But the spirit tattier than the letter of the contract between them ~ I i o u l dgovern their dealings with each other Their relationship should be that o f partners in a joint undertaking, it should be personal arid it should be human.

Unfortunately, these early agreements tended to benefit the few large developers that existed after the war rather than local communities, especially when local authorities agreed to low long-term ground rents in return for their land. It often took local authorities many years to establish the ground rules that would ensure they received reasonable returns. In the 1960s,two government guidance bulletins were produced - Town Centres: Approach to Renewal [ 1962)19and Town Centres:Cost and Control ofRedevelopment [ 1963I2O-which stated that the best way to accommodate growing car use in city centres was to redevelopthem through public-private partnerships. These guidance notes also sought to establish the use of development briefs and competitive tendering to ensure that private developers did not become too dominant within partnerships. Soon after the publication of these documents, the modernist Bullring shopping centre was developed in Birmingham, which was to serve as a model for other city centre redevelopment schemes across the UK. The Bullringshoppingcentre blighted part of Birmingham’s city centre for several decades, but as we will see in Chapter Four, the Bullring has now been redeveloped through another form of partnership. This time the vision has been supported by an urban design strategy, by a strong elected council leader, and by wider community involvement.

0 RGAN ISAT10 N A N D LEAD E RSH IP Principal appointments For an urban design strategy to maintain momentum and credibility, it needs to be underpinned by political leadership - a ‘design champion’ who can satisfy community expectationsand ensure that implementationof urban design objectives occurs in a financially feasible way. From an early stage, this champion needs to capture the imagination of all involved in the process by working towards a shared vision for change. This vision

TRANSFORWINE CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

needs to prwide clear goals that different groups can work towards. The vision can then drive the strategg forward and provida the common ground that unite$ all members of a partnershiptqpher. The champion needsto be aware of bask urban W i n o b j e c t i i (which are summarisedin the congxhrc/analysis section later in this chapter], and of basic good practice.lhey also need to be sure that all 0 t h partners are equally infonmd. The key issues for an urban desiin strategy to address will most IikakJ be discussed when the stakehoklsrrJ are brought topther for a meeting at the start of the process. These early meetings are essentialfor establishingthe outline strategy and for undsrstonding what the rasource implkatbns are likely to be. The design championwill ideally serve as the chair ofthe partnershiporganisation, and will have to ensure that members of the partnership and of the professknal team are raspsaad authorities in their respective disdplines. These lead figures need to be team playemwho can discern pubicopinion-thyshould also be abkto provklethe partnership with a convincingimage. The i n d i i a l s who sit on a partnership board are, in effect,the gowmingbody, and thy are ultimately responsible for the strategy and the proposals within it. W h i i form of partnership structure is used,the chairman needs to be well known and respected, and should be capable of providing leadership. The development of the urban design strategy in Birmingham in the UK, and d the strategy dedoped by the city ofToronto in Canadaforthetranoformatbn of Dundas Square (which will be daborstad upon shortly), dGpandad upon well-known city councillors performing a leadership role. In bath cases the leaders rallkd topther key people from the different community and business organisations and successfully dealt with opposition. When public resourcesare beinginvestedto implement the proposalsin an urban design strategy, the partnership chairman needs to make it dear that this investment is to meet the additional costs of creating a highquality urban environment, rather than increasing profit margins. All of the private, public, and community partners, togather with a y other investors and contrsctors, need to agree tothe o b j d i s ofthe strategy. They need to be involved with the produabn ofthestrategyfromthebeginni~toensuretheysharetheurbandesipnvkkn.This can helpto woid weakeningthe vision due to cost cutting. Rimay objechs should be commitment to design excellence and to best value, for example by taking into account whole-life costs and the needs of all final users. Continuity of leadership is important to maintain momentum during the long l i of an urban design strategy. When visionay leaders are in for the long haul, they become stomhomss ofkmwkdge and expariance specific tothe project They build up professional relationships with relevant people and can steer a course through

TRANSFORMING CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

the storms that could otherwise cause the strategy to founder. In Birminghamit was the production ofthe City Centn Design Strategy, published with the backingofa s t m g council leader in 1990,that has enabled coordinated investment for OVCT a decade in a way that has transformed the city. Strong leademhip is required to ensurethat emyone involved inthe davslopmsnt processis aware ofthevisionand of the objectives within the urban design strategy. This includes all of the partnership staksholden,the profassil team, consultants and contractors, local officiils, and thosewho will manage and occupy the completed scheme. To ensure that everyone is maintainingthe vision and that design standards remain high, project management mechanisms that allow for regular reviews of how the procc~wis proceeding need to be in place. viwl feedback from these reviews needs to be given to the partnership to keep them informed and uptodate. While the chairman performs a leadership role, a project director is also usually necessary for organising the production and implementation of an urban design strategy. Both the chairman and the project director need to present a unified front to ensure that both the local community and investors in the outside world are filled with confidence. Tha chairman and the project director need to be constantly engaged in binding the partners together to form an effective team, and both should also be able to speak with authority on behalf of the partnership. ' h y need to provide an effective, streamlined management structure so that executive decisions can be made quickly and in an infonned way. This helps to provide the kind of confdence and certainty that can attract financial investors into an urban area. A pmject dimtor is usually either a paid consultant or a direct employee of the partmrship or they may be 8ccondbd from one of the partner organisations. If a project manager is not appointed there is likely to be a lack of coordination, communication, accountability, and responsibility, and the effectiveness of the partnership will tharafore suffer.The partnership's leaders have a formidable and dynamic task. As we will see in chapter Four, it can take mom than ten years to impkmant an urban design strategy, and over this time key personnel may come and go. When these changes occur, a strong champion needs to be in place to take the helm and keep the vision on cwrse. Atthe~strrtofthe~whsnksystakaholdanrmeettodiscussissuasand obje&m, the project director needs to be focused upon producing an outline strategy. They need to kkmify the people who are goingto be imrolved,what their rqondbilitiusam likely to k,what kind ofresources are goingto be required, and what lines of communicstkn and repu4ting mechanismswill be "acassoy. It is likely them will be m a y diffmnt pmjects b e i n g d e l i i at different times under the umkdla of an urbpn design strategy. These different proiectswill require

TRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

their own d e l i i mechanisms and procuramhnt,but the hidem behind the urban W i n strstagy need to influence the design and davakpmant of all pmjects to ansure they fit within the warall vision. The pmject director forthe urban d e d i strategy may be inthe best poshnto act as a single point ofwntact formanaging the d e s i i procass and for ensuring the partnership retains overall control of all major daMkpments within the study area.

Professional advisers Apartnershipthat has embarked upon W i n g an urban desiin strstagy will need to rely not only on a project director, but also on other skilled professional adhers. Themwill usually needto be pmfesshal inputurbonbignem townplanners

architects cwrvayors

Mlandscapearchiiects U financiers U buikkrs

Uhvyers U artists mateagents.

Rofasoionalsewices are requiredto managethepmjsct help fonnulate the vision oganise public consultation produce the contextual analysis U managetheproductionofthestrategy

pradua*ns U promotethe vision and market investment opportunitii U pduce financial appraisals raisefinances construct buildings and landscaping manage and maintainthe development once it is complete.

The professionals serving a partnershipare often from private-sector consultants empbyed by one ofthe partneraqpnislltions, or by the whole partnership if it is a legal entity -as was the case in the redsvalopmentofthe city centre of Manchester inthe UK fdkwing laqpscale destruction caused by a tanwist bomb.

I\

ITRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKIWG PLACE FROM SPACE

lhe professionalteam will need to indude q w l i a r c h i with procticas and individuals beingcatsfullysekctsd based on experimce and the spsdficdamandsof the prqisct. Acompdtiw procass can be helpful in comparingthe attributes of difiarant a r c h i i r a l practices. However, care is required to ensure that there is community irnrohrsmcmintheproduaii ofthe brkffaray a r c h i i r a l compatition. Given the importance of sekcting the right team, the partnership will probably needto take expert advice in the selection of consultants. Altemativdy, prdessial staff could be from an in-house team from a h l authority or other partner organisation. More probebly, professionaladviserswill be from a mixture of both the puMi and private sactors. Whatever the case,it is essential that the professional advisers perform as a team. They will need to meet regularly togcthar, and some form of team-building exercises can help to quickly integratethem with each ather and with the members of the partnership. Some kind of 'celebration'to mark key stages of the process can assist with this. Takingthis extra level of care can have dramatic results in terms of maintainingtrust and motivation. The inclusion of p r o m and real estate expertise within the professional team will also be essential. When a strategy includes the development of new public spaces and buildings, this specialist advice will be required to research the local property market, ensure that proposals can be realistically implemented, and establish the commarckl viability of different uses. These professional advisers will realise that some assumptions about the value of land are market-sensitive and that makingthem public could affect the values they needto protect. Property experts will assist in producing a financially viable phasing plan for implementation of the strategy. Surveyors will also be required to establish other development costs, such as buildingmaterials and labour.

Partnership structures A real partnership approach between the public, private, and community stakholders requires some kind of legally defined decision-makingorganisation which is financially accountable and capable of entering into development contracts. Government money can usually only be awarded to organisations with a legal entity capable of meeting the liabilitiesthat flow from their conditions of grantingfunds. A'jdnt venture company' can be an effective way of bringing different partners together in a single partnership organisation. This company can then produce an u h n design strategy to regenerate an area, produce a funding strategy, bid for public funding, enter into contracts to access private finance, and let contracts to develop new buildings, public spaces, and other infrastructure.

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TRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

A p i n t venture company was the vahida used to impkmam the urban design and master plan that was producsd for the redeMkpmant of central Manchesterafterthetemdstattack TMscompmy,Manchmer MillenniumLtd, used a partnership -to secure majornewdewbpmm forthecity within awry is Exchange Place, a new city limited time scale. Ashowpkca ofthe squarecreatedfrom arun-darm weathatprevbdy hada main roadcuttingthmugh it. This new square has basn devdopd as a foul point forthe rebuildingofthe city. Joint venture companies are focused and Ipaldmated because the partners have a legal duty to work in the best intaragts ofthe compay. However, this can create a conflict of intcrrests, especially for community raprasantotlva% *whose allegiance has to be giwr~first to the interests ofthe company rather than tothe interms ofthe peopk they raprasant. In effect,the members ofthe partnership are no longer raprasentpthrasbut delegates. Asimpleraltmativetofonningajdntventurecompay istofotman i n d e p d m partnership committee, which can be used to oversee the production of an urban W i n strategy, funding strategy, and impkmantrtion of pmjects As with a y partnership, this committee needs to be raprasentslnive of the private, publk, and community staketddws. The dadvaiy infonnal status of a partnership committee means it is dapanckm onapartnerorganisat/onprwidingstaffandofficaswithestabtishedprocbduresfor accounting for puMi finance and other regulrtanJ quiThis partner usually acts as the legally defined ‘accountable body’. Given their local accountability, local wthoritks often tab on this rdc. With this manogamant structure, care is required to ensure that all partners remain fully imrdved in decision makingon an equal basis, and that the local authority has the resourcesto handle the extra responsibility. lt is helpful if the chainnon of the partnership committee is also the head ofthe accountable body, to ansure that decisions made by the partnership are impkmmted with high priority.

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CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS A conmtual analysis identifies what the existing chatacter of an area is, and begins to indicstehowitcwklbetra~.Eve?(whenissomewhan,andtheanagsiswithin acontaxtualanak3sishdptoasta#ishd.lc~ofkcPld~~thotanbe stmghnedthtwgh newchdopmm Todothiithe regianal characteristics, ;#rWdl as mote local factors need to be identified, in tmns of both physical and human geopphy. This book aims to show how u b n character and idantity can be pomotsd thmghthedavskpnantofpu#ispace,and,assuch,mostofthediscussbshwld hdp to informthe productknof a contextual analysis.

TRANSFORMING CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

lhe procassof producingthe conaxtual anabis can begin with a SWOT analysis to #sntify the factors (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) that could affect the devekpmcmtof a rssponsive publicrealm. A key considarptionto be addmsed by the contaxtual analysis is mov~ment- for example, i d e n t i i i of how mutes can be ckvabped to knii new public spaces into the surrounding area. Ghranthe importance ofmowment and location in the devekpment of city squares, these iswes are covered in detail in ChapterTwqwith case studksfrom London and c o p c # r w * lhe UK 6ovemment's ildvisoy Commission for Architecture and the Built Envimmsnt (CABE), in its document By suggests that the physical du~ofanarsrismrdeupofthefdlowingdesignaspects,whichprovkleuseful headings for the comextual analysis.

II Urban ~ t ~ c t uthe n : framawork of routes and spaces. Urban grain the pattern of Mocks, plots, and buildings. II Landscape: shape, furm, ecdogy,and natural features. II Density and mix: the amount of development and the range of uses. II Scab: height and massing. Appearance: details and materials.

lhroughoutthe productknofthe amtextual analysis it is helpfulto be mindfulofthe ~ofurbandasign.CABE~thefolkwinggemicobjectives.22 Character: a place with its own identii. Continuity and enclosure: a place where public and private spaces are clearly distinguished. II Ouality of the public realm a place with attractiveand sucassful outdoor areas (Le.areas which are valued by peoplewho use them or pass through them). Ease ofmovement: a placethat is easy to getto and move through. Legibility: a place that has a dear image and is easy to understand. II Adaptability: a place that can change easily. II Diversky: a place with variety and choice.

The umtextual analysis can beginto show how city squares can be davelopedto modsl all ofthese objccthns,especially becausethey containintanshra interactions between people, buildings, and spaces M a n desiiners and decision makers need

TRANSFORMIN6 CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

to maintain the ‘big picture’, always considering how lessons learned on model proieas can be applied acms a wider urban region. It may be helpful forthe conclusions in the contextual analysis to make some I.sfarancs to how the study a m fits into this bigger picture. In areas where the existing chamcter is vkwed by local peopk as beingnegative orhatmful,thewickrmgioncan be expbredto idantify posithe models for re-imaging. O t k issuss that needto be addressed inthe wntextual analysis relateto natural features, such as topography and geology, and to enginewing issues, such as provision of sewices and remediationof contPminotad land. Social and eanomic issues to be add& include the prkritias and pdidesofnotionol, regional, and local government. The amtextual analysis will needto be a r i i document, evdving as new piaces of information come to light - for example, after engaging with the local community or following ground-ion works.

User groups Analysis of bcal population characteristics can be a key part of the contaxtual analysis to ensure that provision of public space is in respor#oato local rmdg The section later in this chapter under the headingCommuniry portlarpcrtion stm@g&s shows how the prioritksofthe local community can be establishd. The ancient Roman a r c h i i Vitruvius pdlio was concemed about the visual qualiiies of the public square, and also about its Fobwrtness for practical W. Ha mlised that it was assantial to understand the user requirements ofthe space beforethe space could be proper& designed, and that ifthe space did not accumtely refkct the function it was to serve,the design would not be succedul. Ha stated that the spaawithin the square should not be so largethat it would bedifficultto fill a y events held within the square would then appear unsucchssful. As with a y event,if the m e is only half full, the atmosphmsuffers. The amtextual analyris thmforaneedsto understandthe requirementsofthepeopkwhowillbeusingcha proposed new public spaces. lfthe city square is to be designed as a rokrstspaa, alongthe lines suggested by Viruvius, a prerequisiteinthe desiin pmcesswill be to analyse who the potential users of the spoca are likely to be. Establishing the potential catchment area of a square can help identii its usccs. A study of e h t public spaces in San Franciscointhe USA found that most pwple hodwalked an average distance of275 mto Coopar Marcus and Francis3 statethat the authors of a study in Sydney in Australia reacheda similar conclusion. San Francisco is a relatively hgh-density city and resemblesthe layout and form of many European cities. lhe findings of the Li8bennan study are tharaforr,koody transferable to many similar urban contexts. However, there will be many considerations that affect the catchment area of a new square, including the

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TRANSFORMING CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

of local public transport, the location of any transit stops or public transport intemhanges,the bcation of physical barriers (such as busy roads or a railway line), and the location of other competingpublic open spaces. H t h e Liebennanstudy is used as a guide, a cirdawith a radius ofappximately 275 m drawn around the potemt&l site for a square will generally repmew the catchment area, i.e. the area within m i a m walking distance. Within this ~a~,thssodoaconomkdatPilsofthepopulatknnaedtobecomiidmd. Rdavrnt data should cover both the resident and working populations, and indude their rcg ethnicity, and empkyment. This kind of demographic information should be included in the wntextual analysis part of the urban design strategy. It willhdptobuilda~reofthekindofssrvicasandacthrities~thesquareshwld prov#e.

Connectionswith the past If the contcmtuol analysis inwstigates the historical background of an area, it can infonn the design process by adding meaning and value to a locptkn. This kind of researchcan be undertakenthrough talks with local historians, long-termresidents,

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TRANSFORMIN6 CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

and by studying legal recods and archives covering occupancy, owmship, and use of buMings and knd. The historical analysis can assist in produdng a name for a neww square or forthe buildings around it, or it could result in a histotid theme being adopted for public art within a square. Anothwwaymet historical informdon can be used to promote the identky ofa dtg square is to erect plagues on buildings aswched with famous people or important kcrl ewnts. Fwple are usually fsscinatedwith facts abut the histg( of thdr a m and 80 the contextual analysis should give them as much relevant infomrptknos possible.

FUNDING AND IMPLEMENTATION One ofthe main masuns for creating partnerships is to bringtogethwthe resources requid for m p e d o n . A number of innovative ways h i m been dembped to gatherthese resourcesandto use them to best effect.

Acquisition and control of strategic sites Bitmingham City Council has spent owr ten years impkmtnting its urban design strategy by using a variety of funding approschcs and partnerships. At the start of the process the council detatmined that new and improvsd city squares and interconnected sttwtswereto be daVakped.10 a c h i i t h i s the council acted asa land speculator, buying key sites that would be requid to implsmem the urban design strategy. The council purchased these sites when the market was rdatiwly daprassad, and when the market was more buoyant they were sold, with legally bindingqpmcmts, to privatedwdopars. These ograsmanur required the purchnarto implamantthe objectivesoftheurban designstrategy sofar asthey reasonably dated to their site. Strategk sites with uncoopenthra owners were compulsory purchased. This is how the council secured the davdopmam of Brindky Place, which has become a focal point for the city’s urban renaissance. In devaloping other new squares Birmingham City Council impbmmted the objdves of the urban design 8t1oth8y thtwgh raising finance itself, and through applying for pvemment and Eumpean Union grants. Bitmingham’s urban design stratagy and the vision of its leaders have kept these projects, which are programmadto continue for another ten piirs, rolling forward. The tnnsfonnationof Birminghamcity centre is discussed in moncbtail in Chapter Four. A fonn of partnership was used to develop Dundas Square, a major new public space at the heart of Toronto in Canada, to help promote a new world imople forthe city. Developing this square involved collaboration batwean the city wthorirks,

TRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

darmtown residents, business associations, the local university, and a private dewhper. lhe new square connects with Dundas Street and Yonge Street. Yonge Street is Tonmto's main strwt, and it is also the longest street in the world. Dundas Square has also been dawloped as a flagship project for a regenerationstrategy for part of the Yonp Street corridor, specifically to assist in creating an urban entertainment centre, a rde similar to that of LeicesterSquare in London's West End. lhe relationship betweanYonge Street and Dundas Square will also be similar to that of 42nd Street and Times Square in New York, demonstratingthe enduringtheme of a main processional strwt connecting with a city square. Dundas Square has been designed to providG a world-class space for festiials and major city events, and it is now beingusedto market the city of Toronto around the world. A complex pattern of land ownership around the site for Dundas Square was dealt with by the city authorities, which used public resources to buy out some owners, and usad expmpriation (compulsory purchase orders) when this failed. The use of axpropriatbn has to be legally justified, and in the case of Dundas Square the decision to use it had to be defended at a quasi-judicial tribunal at the Ontario Municipal Board. It was successfully proved that the new square was appropriate and that it was a necessary improvement. One ofthe Icy factors in facilitatingthedevelopment of city squares as part of an urban design strategy is to secure control of strategic sites. When a partnership owns or controls k y sites it can sell them to developers,attaching to them legally binding restriabe covenants to achieve the urban desiin objectii. For example, Oxford City Council in the UK successfully secured the development of Gloucester G m , a mixed-use townsquare with residential accommodationabove commercial space,by producing a development brief for a site that the council already owned. Davdoparswere then invitedto interpret this brief in a commerciallyviable way, and to bid competitiily for the contract to develop the site. Community participatbn is essential in the production of these briefs and in the selection of winning master plans. If a partnershiphas no control over the necessary sites, and if a public-sector partner does not have compulsory purchase or expropriatbn powers, the partnership is in a weak position and more radical solutions have to be sought. In the lSMs,the notion of planning gain gradually became established in the UK planning system. This provkles a way of achieving urban design or planning obiactiwr,through a loom fonn of public-privatepartnership, without the need for public land ownership. Through planning gain, local authorities can require davhkpars to undertake necessary improvement works off-site, or to receive funds for such improvcrmant works, by way of planning conditions or legal agreements Mtrchadto planningconsents. These addiinal requirements have to be reasonably

TRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

relatedto the scheme for w h i i a developerseeks planningconsent. A local authofty couldtherdoraworkinpartnershipto prepare sites around a pmposed new square, and could then askthe davdopsns ofthem sites to pay something towardsthemrcltknofthenewpublicsp~. lhe city ofToronto paid forthe creation ofthe new public space at Dundas Square M f , but raised funds through the use of 'bormsing moclc(~'.This is money paid by devebpers for the privilege of exceeding prescribed building heights or dsnsitks. thvevw, with this approach (at least in theay),some areas ofthe city are suffering sothat other parts can be improved. Another approach is to encourage landownersto enter into a partnership and to provida their land in m m for a share of the pronts. This can pravbnt the tima-consumingand adversarialpmcessof compulsory purchase.

Tax-related funding In Europe, public-seaor grants have been used in depnrssad areas to encourage priwwwmr dedopment, but in the USAthetaxation system is also used in a pml~tiveway to finance urban design and m a l proiects. The pmvision of tax inantiws has become me ofthe most important rqpedontools in the USA, and thy are largely used inmad of gram schemes The rules for 'tax implement financing' (TIF) differ fnrm state to state, but the basic idea is the same. Part ofthe mm revenue gemated by pmpertytaxfrom development within a defined area is usedto pay off bondsthat finance other improMmsntworks.23 Inthe city o f c h i i TIF has been used as an effectii urban mgenamtiontool. Chicago's first NF district was established in 1984,and 44 were in place by 1997. WTIF pmess i n w h s the city WthOrihJ designating a r q p e m t h area and establishing a local partnership urganisath, WMCh than manresources. The propmytaxesinthe raganeratbnarea anfbgd at a lowkvh(toancarregainvsstors toopsro#r inthe a m . Once investment has been made, and the publicmlm hasbeen impnnrsd,propsrtyvaluesam likdy to increosh.Any increasein ProPsrhJtaxespest0 the local partnership, rather than to the city hall. Through this appmach, mmoney stays in the bcal area and the panmhip can rnmulate substantial funds for ninvastmsnt,lhesystsmhasmsultedinacydsofEywvthandhaspotenthltoassist inimpkmantingurban~ignst~thotind~gacitingnawpu#kspocba C h i i ' s city planning department rsportad in July 1998 that an impressive kvarogeratio had been achievedwithin their TIF areas, with six private-seaor ddlars being invested for m y public ddhr spent. (The overall public investment had been USS300 million, which had attracted a private investment ofUSS1.8 billion-the total investment was therefore USS2.1 billion.) Growth has continued, with many thousands of new dwellinp being developed in Chicago's downtown district and

TRANSFORMING CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

ofdownWm, in areas where no private housingmarket had existed. Another way of usingthetax system to regenerate areas with a weak property market is to arrange for investors to receive property taxes directly from the partnership. In effect, these taxes can serve as revenue, providing some guarantee of a financial return. This compensates for the increased uncertainty and rhk that &wlopsn trke on when investing within a regeneration area. Similar to TIF areas, ’trx abatement districts’ (TADs] haw been established within cities in the USA under a 1997 law that allows cities to forgive taxes on a development for up to ten years. Both TIF and TAD initiatives have their critics, and it has been argued that they have been used in areas where the private wctor mnrkl have invested regardless of the tax advantages. Notwithstanding this, the city of Chicago demonstrates that they can be effective and are relatively simple to operate. When TIF districts have been successful, there has usually been a powerful mayor flgure who has provided the vision and leadership required to create partnerships between the public, private, and community g-ps. WMng the knericln model, tb UK l3owmmt has intrnduced ‘business imprmmmt dkricts’ (BIDS), funded by a compulsory impmwmem fund r a i d fromthekcslkwi~community.lhefocusforBlDsisontbman~oftha public realm in commercial centres, to provide fedlkies and sewices above those ~kJlocsl~ThaycwldfrdlitMathalongaFthrmfunding,iredto develop and implement urbrn design strategieswithin commercial centres.

Phasingimplementation Once a regemath partnership’s organisational and management structures have been agmed, a funding plan is in place, and an u h n design strategy has been producsdwithcommunitysupport,cons~ionnasdstobaghrsntotheph~ingof impkmantstion. lhe phasingplan for a major devdopment scheme will probably be ~ontha~~offundsduri~tblifaoftbprq/act-krt~ata~ imporant cons#cwptkne. For example, the phasing plan should aim to create a pstigbw and marketak image wooon as poseibk,to inspire confidence and to dewbpmrdcet interest Thephrsingplan also -to ensure that a prestigious image is maintained on site duringthe life ofthe project. If the main public spaces within a new ckvdopmant are built first, an imprasshra image can k createdfromthebqinniwlhe publicfnmagesthatfhceontothasa sp#cn can then folkw soon after. When site hoardings are decomed with artist’s i ofthe final dm&pmm, they help to inspire conficknce and interest in

the-

lhe phrsingplan needs to conrkler how much nwcommerdrl and ddential

TRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

!

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COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION STRATEGIES lhe #sntihJ of rn area is mostvrlurMy characterisedby its people, and as such the d e ofthecommunity it particuladyimportpnt inprodudngan urbandesignstrategy. lhe support ofkcrl residem 8nd business people b 8boesaenthl ifthecnr8tegy is to mliw itsfull potantial.Thmugh working dosely with local people dby rqprding them 8s kcrl -the local community mry beglnto adopt the strategy as its own.Thii could provida additionalpoliticalswort, m m , and mothrrtkn,all of which will assist in.-i An inclusiw rpprorch will also-i the likelihood ofthe community being concemd about the maintenance and u p w of

TRANSFORMING CITIES REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKIN6 PLACE FROM SPACE

thesquareomaithashdsvakpad. lhsra will be m a y social, economic, pditkal, financial, and design reasons for condckring altsmrtiva kcrtkrw for new city squares and other flagship pmjects. When the publk and pdvatesectorsworlcin partnershipwith the bcalcommunityto pduw an urbandesignstrategy,this will helpto increaseunderstandingabout the hknrchy ofmowment patterns and publk spaces, and thereby ensure that investment b ma&whem it will have the biggest impact The design and management of publk space should, as far as is practkally posslb&,be ademcmtk process. lkvdopingapartnershiprppropchwiththebcal community will fadlitate this and will pmbably increase the resoums available to impbment the swategy. When applying for funding frwn go~mmentor other soums, avidsnc4 of b l puMi support forthe proiea is likely to be required. For example,the UK Govsmment expacts b than r e p e d o n fundsto be spent thtwgh local partnershim which are required to ' m w active imrohremem from all relevant interem in the pfivate and puMk and in local voluntoy and community organisotknr'. One way of dewdoping an urban design stlptsgythM is rasponrrhratocommunity d a m a d i s t o f ~ a" a~diclllprpcecw of'inquiy by design'." his qproach has bmn used effecW& in conwltanq work at oxford Bmdrcnr U n h i t ~ Baforc . ~ this pmcesscanbegin,the managementstructureoftheorganisation needsto be in place - be it ajaint venture company, partnershipcommittee, or some other form of partnershipThe muitidiodplinay profaesbnalteam also needs to be in place with dearly M n e d indMdual rasponslbilit&s. With these key des established the procsrr starts with the professional team undertaking a public partidpation dse,toest&lMwhotthe local issws are.

Preliminary consultationexercises One way to initiate an snthwwrtic * public rasponsa is to start with a compktbkJ blank page a d ask people to produca wish lists, although care is mquired not to raise c#pectptkns unrealistidy (with a twsulting loss of cndibility). Altetnatively, peopk may preferto hiwe somethingto respondto. The outline summary of issues and objdves as discumed at the initial partnership meetings can serve to structure the debate. Through networking with local schools, residents, and business groups, ewnts can be o%pnisedto motivate people into participating in the processofdewdoplng an urbrn design strategy. PuMk participation techniques h m been dewdopdtoe$tablish wisrdemads, and a koad selection of media can be usod to mch people, indudingpublk meetings, community forums, intehws, -nUPw%and dk, ,m r r p a f t , public exhi#tbnq and plct#pM#y vwkdwpa k will probe#y be opproprieta to usa

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TRANSFORMIN6 CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

different techniques to reach different groups of people at various stages in the production ofthe strategy. At participatory workshops, a simple technique to establish how people pemive the study area is to ask them to draw ‘mental maps’ of it, includingall the s t m buildings, public places, and landmarks that they a n ramamber. This will pIovick an indication of how kgibla the area is to them,and will indicate whkh areas haw a positive image and which areas require improvamant. Local people will know the area well, and through an approach that regards them as local experts an effacti working dationship can be fotmed. Atthe~rtofthe~itisimportsnttoreachcommonogrsamantonthe~ urban design aims and o4jectii. This is crucial because the strategy and designs will be built to satiSry these objmiws and they will help to ensure that people will not have to go back to first ptindpks further down the line. At the end ofthe initial public consultationexercise it should be clear what local people perceive to be the main weaknessas and strengths of their area, and what steps they consider appropriate to impnwa its identity. After the exercise tha profsssional design team should produce sketch proposals that address the issues raised by the local community. Public spaces are so integral to urban character that they are very likely to be raised as a key issue. Roposalsto create new and improved publk spaces and interconnectedstreets may becomaone part of a broader strategy proposed by the professionals to regemrate the area.

Presentation of preliminay design proposals and second consultation exercise Once the proposals h m been sketched up and simple models made to illustmte ideas, a second public consultatii exwcise follows. This next stage begins with prasantlltion ofthe design ‘ideas and an explanation of how they d a t e to the issues raised during the first public conawltatkn axsnisa. The second public cocwultltkn exercise also pmvides the community with the opportunity to respond to these desilylproposals,pmvkJingwluPbkfeedbackforthedesigners. A focusad approach is required, and members of the public are often keener to respond to ideas or options that are visually displayed in a way that can be easily understood. Three-dimensional drawings or models can be crucial to aid understanding of how two-dimensional plans will appear in reality. Presenting ideas in a three-dimensional form is particularly helpful when communicating ideas to people who are not design professionals. Computer technology a n assist in presentingdevelopment proposals in an open and accessible way, and can help to generate public interest and involvement in the production of an

TRAIISFORYINC CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PUCE FROM SPACE

urban design strategy and in the development of new city squares. Computer podusgas are available that allow an occurate three-dimensional computacmodd ofa site or context to be genermd from architectural drswings, wrified sith survey infomdon, and controlled photographic information. People using such compnsr qstams can then manipulate viewpoints to see how a dembpmtwwld appear from diffemt parspaahras. Onca~awnpu#rrmoddsareinpl~,~isfaasiblathatmambarsofthe~ic will be rbk to tab a virtual-reality walk through pmposed new environmentsfrom the awnfort oftheir own homesoroffkes. Computertsrminalscan also be provided at public comwltatbn CrVsntR, with assistance on hand. People expect threed i m 1 wmputerraptasantationsto be occurate, and thefare some form of Mlifkrtkn of accuracy needs to be developed. To avoid misrepresentation and potential litigation, it is important that it is made clear how accurate the qmmmiom of reality are. Traditknally constructed wpodan or plastic models are also effectb tools for illustrating design ideas, especially when they are prodwed in a robust way that a l b peopk to intcw9ct with them.They are especially useful for wdienceswho do mt W m t t o u s a ~ . Rough pempective &etches are also helpful for demonstrating ideas. It can become tempting for dasiprs to dabome plans and drawings until they become pradouswwks of art inbut these bscoma inflexibk and often do not prov#e enough information about how the final ptoduct will look in a threedimarwitmal form. Simile$, it may be tempting to produce gbssy promotional material, but this can look as if decisions haw alrerdy been made, or as if designers are tying to sell their own vision rather than being open to community faadback This kind of material is best produced at the end of the process, when all stakeho#srs are satisfii with the proposals. The presentation of design proposals is followed by a second round of public consultation. The aim of the second round is to establish the response of the partnership and the local community to the sketch proposals.

Final design proposals and presentation Afterthe second public consultation stage, design ideas are workad up in a way that realietkrrlly d k t s user demands. The final strategy, with all of its design proporrh,can then be pmentd to the partnership, the local community, and city ruthoritkr for rppmvrl. If some of the ideas of the community proved to be unrealistic, it b important t o d d y communicate the masonswhythey cannot be imphmted. tfthe procarw collapses due to lack of public support, further cyclesof

TRANSFORMIN6 CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

consultation and design response may haveto be undertaken. lhe strategy cwld encompass savarpl different urbsn design and raganarotion PFOieas, with new public spaces meeting may ofthe strategy’s objectks. When the strategy includes several dsvakpmant proposrls it is helpful to packagethem into a single vision, perhapswith an easily kkntMebk lop, catch phrosa, or mission statement, which can be easily understood and marketed. lhe fact that the o b j e c t i i within a strategy are commonly a p e d by a partnership board and thmgh public partidpath will ghm the strategy the rudrorihJ of the community and so prwkla a powerful a# to impknmtation. This will also help to secure a moother rida for plrnniq rpplkations a d other m@toy procsduresthat cwld othendserssuhin lengthy delays, incremecosts, andjeopardisethewhokpmject. Local residents and business people can become major stakehddem in the impkmantstbn of an urbsn design strategy -in the creationof new public spaces.

PUBLIC SPACE MANAGEMENT Once a newsquare has been constnrctad,the management ofthe space within it will be instmmentPl to its success City squares have always containad festivals and sewed as a colkaii ~ n g p l r c a . T o d r r y , t h e e ~ o f manrgamant ay strategyttut invdvesspeci81~ M Mandfesthnkwill I~ depend on cooparetknfr#n the orman of buildings and space around a square. if than are may iw@en&nt units locatedamund a quam, skilled n q p t i a hwill be requiredto gain the support of business and pmperty managers Bringingwptherdiffsrantormanandinterest gmups inthis way can help to stmgthen community idanthy.

Public space managers Organising events that genemte activity within a squrre requim a skilled public space managerwho can be potowltQ#atoa board mpmsentingthe people that Iiw and work in the area around a square. This m a n g r a n then h o m e a key figure, reqonsibh for providinga c o q m h m h m a q p n m t strategy and maintenance programmefor a city square, and for fund raising. lhe rok ofa manager will be more effbctiw ifthy haw been invdvsd with the design and devebpm ofthe sqwrs;theywfllthen be more likely to knaw about its capadtytoPceam~va~functknrlhylhsyneedto~howmaypeople canbasrfdyrccommodetadwithinthesquare,howkudapu#icadd~syrtaman be before it intrucke upon surroudiqnridsnto and officaworlwr, and howmudr lordthaprvingwithintherqurnanbear(thekttw~ningtheWbEgCltUmitfOC brlhmy trucks andthewdght ofa stapthrn a n be buih upon the square). A city square’s manager can m a h t the quam as a venue for major events,and

TRAWSFORYIIS CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

through this SaMhJ will be marlwtingthe city itself. lhe managershoukl adopt a c o o r d i ~ r o bW , p a n r i S i n g l W for stm eltteminars, Mndors, cteanars, and general meintcmonce. My need to ensure that there is easy access to the square for ewyone, induding the disabled, and that a perception of safety is maintained through crime pwemtion measures. Tha manager also needs to ensure that empty p n m b are filkd quickly by liaising with proparty managers and

rsaikrs. AmanrprrmantpknislikakJtobseaekrtoimpkmsntwhanthe~~within

a square is owned by a single oqpnisatbn. A m m o n scenario is when a city ruthority is the landowner, and thay rppdnt a manager with spadfk responsibilii for plcwnting rafvity within its city squares. This is the case in Birmingham, UK, w h w the dty councilemploys a town centre manqprwithgeneralresponsibility for the maintenance of the squam This manager help to coodinate teams w h i i oqpnim annual arts festivals that are held within the city squares.

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TIANSFORMINC CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

between the artssothat paopk are encoutqpdto attend d w e v e n t s , ranging from dauiwlballet to mockm bhangrs music.The dty squares r e t u d intoandtheconnectingrorQarecbsedtoHhkkrtohdprccammodatetheaandr. Similar festivals are organised within ctty squares around the'world to promath local idantihJ and sods1 indush. In the USA, SeattWs Out To Lundr pmpmme providas music, dance, and theatn every day between June and Septembet in fourteen diffmnt squares and pads in the city centre. Th0 avant has bean supportad financial& by the City of Seattle, cityantre businesses, the federal administration, and the American Fededon of Musicians. A survey at four diffiwmt events in diffemnt locorkns m k d that 87 per cent of people there had been int-to a space that t h y had not been in befcwe.26 IIW event also attracts many thousands of visitors every year. savw~lksson~ have been h n e d by WWSOU~ ToLUndrfasthnlogonisers. To ~re~~andrudkn~donoti~padartrianfkm,l~fo#i chsirsareusadforwd~withthefirstrowofdrsirsal~inplocoto~nethe pratdlTad distance batwean the spemtom and the -knplifkatbn should not betoo bud becausethe audiencewill stand toohraway fromthe kwinglessspace OVsiWfora cmwd.To ensure a high attendance, events should be timed to coincidewithworks' lunchbreaks,typicallyfrom 12.00to 2.00 p.m., and food should be pdded. Highly visib& and welldedgnd signs are important for publickingthefestival eventswell in advance. The Meyorof London marked the compknion ofthe refurbishment of Tnfrlgar Square in 2003 by introdudngSummarinthasqucrrrS, a threemonth programmeof avantsthat showcase the vast ormy of cultural acdvity to be found in London, the UK, and around the world. ChapterTwo ofthis book describes how obstdes to padartrian~aroundTnfslgarSquarehrvabeen~howthe~ skle ofthe square, in front ofthe Nathal Gallery, has been padastrianised,snd how a new grand staircase has been centrally positioned to ~ccommodatepedestrian desire lines [seethe case study-stm(rgyfor WSqwtw]. Newtoiktr, a cafe, and dirrrbkd lift access have also helpedto create a useful and enjoyrbh place out of a space that pravkusly send as a traffic idand.Vishtothe square wn now expect to see s k e - s p d k choreography, which is used to animate the new staircase. Ihem h alto amet theatre and live musk, as well as public talks on the history ofthe square and the sumnding monumentsand itwthths.

Food and vending Inhisstudy of open spaces in Manhattan,William Whyte observedthat a square with a food kkskor outdoor cafe is mudl more likely to attract people, and that this has a mukipiier m .4succe~sf~~ street vendors know where the most connected and

TRAWSFORMIWG CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

I

rocbbk places are -their lhralihoods depend upon them batingthare.Good Mndors hiam a part to pky in gemrating actMty within a s u q s w -the food and drink t h y sell attncts people. Other basic atcsntirlrr, such as seats, bins, and public convenbnces, should also be near to prime

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hMndonsdl specialist itemsthat are not found in wrrwnding shops they c m p h e n t the retail provision around a quam. A well-bcatedcity square will be busy at lunchtime and vendors can offer a useful service to office and shop workers. lbse

workersmaymthawthetimeoremqytopo around hrp stares at lunchtime, when they are most likely to want to relax in a square. Vendors are also often welcomed by people wattingatpublitnrrsportstops. Care is required when vendors are direqly competing with the permanent traders shop traders will have higher overhead costs and are therefore likely to resent any unfair competition. The goodwill of the permanent business people is required for the effective management of the square. Vendors should usually sell items such as flowam, fruit, and vagatob, which pdd colour and fragrance, as well as hot snacks and newspapars. The business activities and quality of vendors needs to be kept under the dose control of a city square manager. This can be achieved through the issuing of licences, which provide controls over the location of vending pitches and can influence the

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TRANSFORMING CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE CHAPTER ONE

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appearance of wnding units, products, and service quality. Vending pitches can be positioned to generate activity within any underused areas of a square, or in spaces that require greater surveillance. Locatingwndors in trouble spots,for instance where drug dealing has become a problem, has been an effective way of reclaiming space from criminals. Clearrly, though, pitchse for wndon must be located where potential customers will use them and will feel safe, and as such they need to be within dinct sight of pedestrian flows.

Old buildings Where existing old buildings stand around a square, consideration should be given to retaining them so t h y can be put to viable uses that will generate activity. Owners of such buildings are more likely to have paid off their capital inwstment and can therefore accept lower rents than can owners of newer buildings. If a buildingrequires improvements, the rent could be even lower. This presents an opportunity for accommodating businesses and organisations that could not normally afford a location within a main city square but which may

TRANSFORMIN6 CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE MAKING PLACE FROM SPACE

provkle unique attractions. These could include theatres or community halls, featum that can promote local identity and satisfy local needs.

Monitoringperformance The success of a square’s design and management strategy can be monitored and measured in tetms of ’vitality’ and ‘viability’. For example, counts of the pedestrian flows within the square and of the yields of buildings around the square can be taken as business performance indicators. Where these figures have been recorded in the area around the square prior to its development or improvement, the square manager can compile statistics and make comparisons to see how the square has affected the locality. Analysis of these statistics will indicatewhether or not the square has been a business success. Statistics need to be compiled on at least an annual basis to monitor the longer-term performance of the square. A paper produced by the Oxford Institute referred to ‘footfall’ as ‘a direct indicator of the vitality of shopping streets’.27 Footfall, or counts of pedestrian flows, can also be used to assess the vitality of the city square. Any increase in pedestrian flows is likely to be reflectedin an increase in retail property values. The yield of prime commercial property indicates how attractive an area is to investors. YieM is the ratio of rental income to capital value, and is expressed in terms ofthe open markat rents of a property as a percentage ofthe capital value. The higher the yield, the lower the rental income is valued, and vice versa. A high yield will be of concern to investors, indicatingthat rental income will be a poor return, and as a result of this the area may suffer from a lack of investment. Vacancy rates are also much used in assessing an area’s economic health. If a new city square is successful and local businesses are trading well, the yield value of property in the area will be kept low and confidence high. There is a danger that if rents rise too hight h y will restrict the kind of uses that can afford to locate around the square. Uses that can afford the highest rents, such as banks, insurance and real estate offices, often generate the least activity. The report vital and vkble T i n Centres, produced by the Urban and Economic Development Group for the then Department of the Environment (UK), provides a comprehensive analysis for assessingthe economic health of a local centre.28 Ths kind of uses that can generate a great deal of community activity, such as cafes, restaurants, meeting halls, and theatres, often cannot afford high rents. One way to managethis problem is to Include a specific policy in a statutoy plan for the area that limits the planningconsents that will be given for uses that do not generate community activity within a city square. This has the effect of restricting markat rants and creates a more accommodating environment for

I:

TRANSFORMIN6 CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER ONE

vitality generating uses. This kind of market intervention requires research and monitoringto ensure that it is effective and will not have negative or unforeseen consequences. The city square manager needs to maintain regular discussions with traders, business people, residents, and visitors to assess if their perceptions of the square have altered, or to establish whether the spatial requirementsofdmrent groups are likely to change. Valuable partnerships can be formed between city authorities and local universities to monitor the long-term success of city squares and other city centre improvaments. Thasa are of educational value and can be cost effective when compared with consultants’ fees. University departments are also likely to participate in longer-term analyses. In CopenhPgan in Denmark, the programme of improvements to streets and squares has since 1968 been subject to detailed survey work by researchers from the city’s School of Architecture at the Royal Academy of Arts. This work has included extensive interviews with the city centre’s users, and shows how improvement works have influencedbehaviour patterns. The survey rewks have indicated how imprwsmants to city squares have had positive benefitsfor local people, businesses, and visitors. These findings have helped to provide the authoritieswith the motivation to press on with a strategy to imprwa the city.

PERFORMANCE CHECKS: M

ING PLACE FROM SPACE

een establishedthat ha

to potentialuser requirements?

Has'acommunity consultationstrategy been producedto engage local peop

commercially competitive? ble to 10~41interests

1

11b ' a

CHAPTER TWO LOCATION AND MOVEMENT '1: I II Some of the elements at the disposal of the designer are rhythmic arrangements of streets, the creation of a strong centre, and the disposition of open spaces. spiro Kostof, T h e C i t y ~ ~ Z 9

Movement through the city is a crucial issue for any urban design strategy to understand. This is because the most urban activity, the highest densitii of buildinp, and the most prestigious city uses, tend to focus arwnd the highest pedestrianflowr. These am all essential ingredients for a city square. This chapter is concerned with principles for locatingcity squares in strategic locations, where they will knit with the surrwnding urban area and be clOS0 to the hub of the mov~nantnetwork Rindples of access, legibility, movement, and sewicing will also be addressed at a more site-specific level. The way in which movement pattemsinfluence the city square and affect the wklar urban area will be explored by focusing on a strategy to create WOrM Squares' in London. This example, which focuses on Traklgrr Square, illustrateshow a strategic urban design initiativecan be used to adapt highway and transportation infrastructure in order to improve public space. The chapter will also show how the city authorities in Copenhagen, Denmark, have since 1962 been implementing a strategy within Copenhagen's streets and squares to i m p m the city by promoting walking. This example shows that

TRANSFORMINS CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER TWO

when people move at a pedestrian pace they are more aware of the intrinsic qualities of their environment, and are therefore more concerned about the quality of the public realm. Increasingpedestrian freedom and improving the image of city squares has boosted tourism and economic confidence in Copenhagen’s city centre. After experiencing the benefits associated with walking, many people have supported the further extention of controls on cars within the central area. Understanding how people travel within an area is essential if a new public space is to be located effectively. Questions to be addressed include to what extent do people walk, cycle, drive, or use public transport? H what is the preferred mode of transport for different groups within the study area? If the layout of the block structure or the design of the street network within a study area does not facilitate walking, or any other preferred mode of sustainable transport, consideration needs to be given to removing barriers and, possibly, to providing new routes and connections. As such, an urban design strategy needs to be closely integrated with highway and transportationpolicy. A guiding principle for transportation within a study area is that different modas of transport are accommodated as long as they do not unreasonably prejudke the interests of other users of the public realm. Freedom of choke should be maintained for effective movement around an urban area, but with a Was towards sustainable means of transport in particular, it is important to ensure that walking is an attractive and viable option. For several decades highway design and maintenance has been undertaken in the UK in aclccordance with centrally determined ~ l e and s regulations, with liik regard to the contextual qualities of soecific streets and squares. As a result, unsightly signs, poor junction designs, overlarge lamp columns, and complicated staggad pedestrian crossings surrounded by lines of guard rails blight m a y public spaces. Even where schemes based upon local interpretation have been implemented, there has often been a confusing and random application of materials, with little evidence of a clear design rationale. Principles for the design of highway and traffic management systems are therefore touched on later in the chapter. The way that public transport interchanges can be incorporated into urban design strategies for better public spaces will also be discussed to show how they can enhance the image of the city and improve the efficiency of transportation.

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gmtest infkmceon movemat patterns inthecity. square is a krcatbn at the jun A primary ngulmnt for a pdestrbn Ikm-rwrdl-conm location canthen ertawrage a lively mbcof uses. Howwr,the pu#kopen spaceswithin may -influenced by modrmirt pknninf a d architecture are devoid of lib bec8use dwy are POorllJ located, and became ths zoning of separate land uses results in ringbum -be it houdngwoffkes. These dngbum areas contain buildings that are unocnr~M forlrrps putt ofthe day wnight-office areas, for example, are kft emptywhen wWcm go horns in the evening. This often mutts in a lack of natural surveillance wrd praMamr, with crime. [SeeJam Jambs' Ths Dwth and LyafqtawtArnerkon& e S 2 ] Research plwcHltad bq Hillier and H a m in thdr book Ths sockr Logk of -30 -IS that ths influence ofthe urbanstructure, emerttialh~the streets and the blocks cwtnrrran them, has a fundamental influence upon patterns of mowmmt. They daim that the layout ofthe urban structure b the most importrnt haor in planningpedestrkn mwment, and as such this needs to be addnrsad before consideringissues of building density or use

I

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The way that a new city square connects to surrounding districts, and to the citg as a whole, will be muclaltoits sucwss. The structureofthewidar urban area can k analgsed from a p o d base map (Ordnance Survey in the UK), a unrll scale of about 1:1,250 is ideal. This will revealthe bkck structure and patternof voids in-between, which togethw define the locrtbn and shape ofthe streets and open spaces. The Mocks, streets, and open opeces control the p~ttarnof people moving thmugh the urban area. An appmprk site for a city square will k wdlconnected, and accessible to many people. The degree of movment within any square is dgndmt upon how well connected its site is to the surrounding urban area. For exampk, a square that is main streets and to other public spaces that physically connected to stbringpropk in tothe city ftum its various partswill be highly accessible in the context ofthe settlement as a whole. Fora new square to realise the status ofthe main publkopen space within the city, a location with a high degree of access is r s q U i d - it be at the centre ofthe City% IlWWmSnt natwork. The typical spatial order within m a y traditional European cities is based on a 'deformed' grid patternof perimeter blocks. This block structure is often good for legi#lity and for a dear visual structuringofthe urban area because it results in a continuous chain of open spaces, through streets, and squares. When travelling through this chain of open spaces, sight lines are sometimes restricted and at other times extended due to the irregular arrangement ofthe buildingblocks and mopen rpaw, and building lines. There will be wider and narrower ~ i o of shorter and longer peqective views dawn streets. These views are more irregular than with a precise geometric grid, and often provide pedestrknr with memorable glimpses of squares, buildings, and puMk work, of art. When axial sight lines are drawn on a base map along open stretches of streets and public spaces, they indicate the extent of open vision and demonstrate how visually pemable the area is. They show how vidbk a square wwld be for a pedestrian approaching from the sumnding streets. This visibility phys an important part in determining how accessible a square is. Hillier and Hanson refer to this process as 'axklhy' and it forms part of their 'space syntax'thsory32. The space syntax theory dewloped by Hillier and Hanson in the late 1970s enables the physical permeability of the urban layout to be objactivaly racwdad, and once this has been done the accessibility of a given site can be calculated numaricaliy. This infonnation can be used to give a precise value of relative 'depth' or 'shallowness' for any location beingconrideredfor a new square. This h a complex but useful mathematicaltod, which can help to ensure that a site for a new city square is well-connected and accessible.

Hillier and Hanson refer to the width of any open void space between the building Mocks as 'q - a two-dlmensionrlextension off an axial line of vision. lhe dlfhwent uses a d human rctMty that can be seen along these udrl and convex sight lines determine how inmesting a d safe the stnatr are pamivedtokonipprorch.

LEG IB ILlTY M a y modemcities hweinto an amorphowuhansprawl a w e no bngw wcpoct to see ttuB dear defining f.rtunr,such as city walr, ptes, or pmcwaional w that helped to structure the whole city. KnrSn Lynch's Ilw Image offhe City ISusefulfor defining urban legibility,Intmms of paths, nodes, landmarks, views, vistu, edges,md districts, 8s discussed In the lntroduakn (also see Appendix I). Them ekmmts help to structure the buitt srmimnrmt in a meaningfulway. While it is difficult to ph@ally daflnethe boundariesof a vast madam city, by mating a @i#e centre with a strong identity, urban design principles are established which can then be meddled in Isstcrr centres and along routes across the city. An appropriate site for a city square is w that is within an urban structure that offers a choice of router, one that is bah physically and visually pennerbk. Urban layout is the primary c o m k b a t h In undsntrndlq mowment p~ttsms

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and In creating approprkts sites for dty spans, but archltaaunl design a d puMk an can also be used to emphasise the location of a square and to ensure them are Iegik links to it from the wrmunding city. Blll Hillier, who was jointly re~rblQfOTttuB~~qJRtU[thaorr3,artarrthatlpodspnkldar~f#adhJ quam means at least three thingaM

a good square has to relate well to pattarns ofmovemant it has positions within it with muttidimtknal strategic views, in proportionto the scab of the square and along llnes of potential movement into and through the square the provision of facilities has to take into rccount the above two factors, by creating places to stop from which people could see,cbse to, but not on,the lines of mwhment. lfboththe layout of streets and the amngementoflandmrrkfaatures lead people to a main square, an urban area will horn a clear focel point that can be used to stmgthen Its identity. lhk kind of urbanform can be swn dmmatkallginsundving Eumpeanfortifiedtowns, for example intlw Tuscsn MU town oflodii *the mrin square, the Piazza del popdo, mnrins w p ~ the n site of an rncknt Roman fonnn.

inemto~itlO<(medieval towns are relatively small and are densely developed

- thay can often be men in their totality when they are located on huher ground (for defence reasons). In Todi's Piazza del Popolo, towers rise to give architectural defhhbn to the comers of the square, and principal buildings rise up to an etevated kwl where they appear dominant and solid. The mayor's palace, located at the southem end ofthe square, raprarantsthe power of state, whib the cathedral stands opposite and dominates the whole square and town. Gnnd flights of stairs take the design to a different kwl, them is excitement in their rrcant as they sfford new perspectivesand open vlaws. Useful urban design principles can be taken from these surviving mediial and ea@ fbnahunce settlements.The tallest buildiqp in Italiancitiks from this periodusually mark the location ofthe main square, while lesser towers mark the smaller neighbourhood squares. This hierarchy of interconnected squares resuk in an organic kind of urban st~cture. The Piazza San Marco in Venice prwidas the clearest example of a city square with dominant architectural elements, such as towers that are echoed at a diminished scak hi the smaller public spaces throughout the city. This hierarchy of towers provwaS a design unity through the city as a whole. Bacon states 'The m a y church towem and spires recall but never dominate the Campanile of San Marwp'35.

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ld the GrmdLanai in renice wncrions as a processional route whlch enters the Plrus San Marto

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ROAD SPACE lmwdve prblk spaw impmment schemes in London, wch 8s at Trafalgar se#n and Kensingm High%nrt,have shownthat pdmtrian and MMculrr tmnmmtc~llboth k accmm&W in a way that b safe, wnvenht for all ulylc Wdvkudly m. In borh #IyI, 8 m ( h t " d p#tnsnhip and ~ ~ ~ v p p o r c h ~ d o p c l d , ~ ~ aamirhgthervidanca#rthe~nd ratherthan s h v i s h 4 ~ Nk a book A guklbtg principle for street improvemm along Kensiqpn High Street has km'krrk~'-foraumpk,rrimpkpa~ofthrh~qwlitym~h ~MSIHI UWI.~M -1 &orough o f ~ m and ~~thafoilowing smement from Willkm W s to underpin its phikeophkal rpprorch: 'Have mMng hn your hougse which you do not know to be useful or belbw to be kwtlfur.The Council insists that everything placed on its streets must add to

hr #moundings serving an essential purpose or by adding beauty. Its knracqn guide, published in 2004, includes the following main principles

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iQrgoodstrwtsc8pe: nducingduttrw

use of a simple palette of high-quality materials D mqmcting and enhancing h l chanaar D use of simplesdean designs coordfnatlngdesignandcolour mintainlng the existing and improved smrironment preserving hirrork paving and stmet furniture.

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TRANSFORMING CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE LOWUIW AW MCIVEYEWT

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I~~thisr#worchatKensi~High~h8skdtoIh,~

of strwt duttor uwtad by uncoordinated street furniture, varying pavtrmaterials, comoluaad p d m r b n crossing points and junction designs, U, highway signs. All unnrcsrury pedestrian guard railinghas bmn mnoved.long

tlw M$tStruet mdthe standard plastic highway signs have been mpbcedwlth lawlevel stainless rtad hmp signs.

The graceful lines of Kensington High streetk 1930s department Stores pmvided the cue forthe choke ofthe ww street furniture. Tho nmrtrinless ~kmQCORHMY)fOnnanimporUntarch~nlfrrturedths~.~ odwrimns, such as traffic lights and littarbim, are phpkally machad tothrnr in a visually integrated way. Tho lamps provide whk whkh allam ml at night, a d am d 8 8 W to wdd lkht p d h l t b n . A w col8ws to k footway kmp is induded, which better relates to the scale o f a pedmrian urd indudsr 8 mfterwhlte light. PlWnnMt alongKensington HighStreet have beenwided and are mlirpml to conform to building lines. This has resulted in a trhr and more attracthe pedestrian Snvrronmsnt. Fbdestrbn crossings have been redesigned in an innovrthn way that avoids all unnecessary dutter. Mestrbns now have the opportuniqto crossthe mad in a single movmem, nttwthan king p o n d in betwm guard railing on islands in the middle of the mrdqeway. hopk in wheelchain no longer hrw their view of on-coming traffic obscured by pedestrian guwd rafling. potrntkl conflict between pedestrbrts and w h i c h has been overcome by C O o F d i ~ t h etiming of tnffk signal lights along the whok High Street to ansum that VbMdS (kw, mow smoothly but do not h M tim to build up -speed. The kstonekrmed from KensingtonHigh street are now king rpplkd acms all ofthepublic spaces within the Royal Borough.

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WALKING A modern bo travels a hundred miles with less sense of liberation an pilgrimage and adventure than his grandfather got from travelling ten. C. S.Lewis, Surprised by Joy.37

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The benefits of providing pedestrians with more road space include reduced air pollution and noise and less danger from fast movingvehicles. These all improve the quality of public space and increase pedestrian freedom to mow ~ c r o o sit. The bmefits are often multipliedwhen there is a widerpedestrian network linking squares and streets that attract large numbers of people. When busy roads boundthree or four sidesofa square, it becomesdifficult to cre8te a puMkspece wir)l a pedestrian character. This is because the roads ~ cas t phydcrl b a n k s against pedestrhns entering ttm square, a d muit in ndse and pollution. Such spaces are often landscaped and become attmtive tnffic islands, but rarely successfulcity squares. Given the large areas of open space taken up by roads and vehicles, special considention needsto be given tothe destgn of public open space when a n are taken away from it. Particularcare is requiredto ensure that streets and quam do not appear empty or dwoid of lb.Some caution is themfore requiredwkhtotrl pedestrianisation beawe if pedmtrhn fkwr are kw, public space may be pemivd I being unsafe and can then require expensive security measures. TO pmmtthhfram occuming,thederign ofmuaswithin and aroundthe city#(urn needtofwdofftheexistingpedestrianflows. M i l e motorvohkbwithin a city centre can cause a hostile d r o n m e n t for pedestrians, people within vehkks a n represent activity and provide a senae of surveillance owr the public realm. Cars and trucks also allow for bulk cklhmko, which a n keep down tramport costs and, consequently, the price of good% Careful planning is therefore required to ensure that a stntegy for pedestrianisationwill d d h more benefkhl effects than harmful ones. The effects of pedestrianisationon the servicing of businesses also needs to be anfully considered. M h pedesttbn fkm are essentkl for business, but wailers may object to pbchstrianiutlon schemes if they marn that p d n g tnde from people In un Is lost. Pedestrian flows also need to k high enough throughout day and m i n g to piwide activity and sumillmm to enwre that pedestrianised streets a d squares are perceived to be safe. If the use of motor vehicles is to be restricted in an area, effecdw planning is required to ensure that adequate alternative means of transport are available. For example, effective public transport is required, together with direct pedestrian and cycle routes that are separated from any fast moving vehicles. Secure cycle parking located at main destination points is necessary, and employers need to pmvida shower facilities if workers are to cycle to work. k city squares are essentially for people, rather than motor vehicles, the management or redirection of traffic may be necessary to create a pedestrian character. As already explained, it is CNC&I for the vitality of a square that it is

accmibb to hi@ pedestrian fbm within the wnounding area. However, the Rumkrdtripr made by mlkiq has continued to decrease in m a y modem dtkt,just 8s car tntRc has continued to increase, with a resulting neptive &at upcm t#tepuefte mlm. A research rsport wmpkted in 1998 by Carmen Hm-KJau for the UK 6awmwmt.38 m k d that the pmemage of trips made by w a l k i ~has g a n d l y drrdirwrd ovbl ratant pars, both in the UK and in mainland Europa. In tbUKthemwrr a 7 percent drop inwalkiwwithinthe major urban motrapdltm a m 8 between 1985/6 md 1993/5. By 1995 only 29 per cent ofjou)ourmyrworn bdng~onfaotlhersport~~thanhas~atanckncyto~ mlking . Ia mclonr of transport with car trips, rather than using a mon efwim~lly~in8bleamathn. Anurnkrofmuwys hrw been undertaken in h a y and Awttia, befum and after podestrbnkrtion of stmts and squares. The pubtrian counts were taken OWI many years and revealed significmt increases in the number of walkers in ~ r i a n l w d mas.3 Within Groningen city centre in the Nsthrwkndr,a rwtrkthm transport poky has incn;llMdthe percemp o f t r i p madebywaNing,cgcling, md public t r a m attheexpmseofthocar. In W6, 35 percent of all tripwere mda by car, and by 1965this had bwn mlucsd to 22 prrclmt.Thsnwm a 1percent increase in we ofprblk transport, a 5 per increase incyding, and a 7 per cent i m m e in waiWw with an improved, peopbfdmdiy, envir~nmemfor weyone in the city centm.39 In Goubarg in Swedm,a pedestrianbation scheme reduced- overall mean carbon dioxide lend from 30 ppm to 5 ppma In Copenhagen in Denmark, the main streets and city squares have been graddly pedestrianised since 1962 this city provides an examplo of the bendits of creating a pskrtrian-MsndkJ city centre. Befora 1962 all of the nmetsdpubksqurmincopen~bcitycentrewereregUkdycoqpted with vdria~lartnffic,and all ofthct hiotoric squares wore used as car parks. lhe first street to bhpedestrbnitcldwrrthom r k c o m m l ~ , s t r o g e t , w h k h ktho molttconnectad city stf#t.ksoon trstn(lst k c r n w f m o f t n f f k , it bqan to serve a new role as a street for promenading and for street enwminmont. In the summer months the 11 m wide street kcrmc, filkd to erprdtywithpeople.Stnqatlinkttmrimportlntdtyrqurm,~Mytorvto du oast, whkh serves as the major public transport node, and R&huspWm to tho WWt, whkh h the cantd town hall lu(uW8, and 8bo 8s a pu#k trrrrrportnodemd major events space. W in $962, the propoul to pedestrianise Copenhagen’s main street met with great hortility, especially from a sceptical press, who thought that

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pedestrian squares were only appropriate in wnny southern climates. However, the city council has continued to implement a programme of selective psdastrianisatbn. The bask network of pedestrian streets was established by 1973, by which time the five most important pedestrian links within the city centre were either totally free oftraffic, or had pedestrian priority on the c a m a y and pavemmt. Once the main pedestrian linkswere in place, Copenm's ctty councilspent the folkwing wars pedestrianisingthe city's central squares. In every p a r between 1962 and 1996 some r d d i t k ~pedestrian l space was created in the city. During this period there was I sixfold increase in the area of pedestrianised space. By 1996 therewere 96,000 m2of pedestrian ouadoor public space inthe city centre, and 67 per cent of this was within 18 city quam. ~frctthrtthrprckrtrknhrtkn~rammehn~nca~lly~ovsr many yean has helped to limit apposition. paopk have been able to experbm the benefits of creating people places, and thy h m qyorted applying the same principles in other parts ofthe city. The outdoor cafes in the city q u a m are now wall used, even during the cdd winuw months when blankets l pmided to keep cu~toman warm! (See Raf. 7).

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Pedestrian circulation When a site is already used by the public, their movement through the space and bah.viour within it will provide valuable clues about how the circulation eprca should be designed. lhe design of circulation space for pedestrian mowment within a quare should be based on analysis of the shortest routes I#tmsnW square's access points, including access to important public buildiw Special attention neods to be g i m to a y major attraction or drop-ofl point, and especially for a public tramport stop or intarchrqp. Most well-connected city $quare8 will have to accommodate not only peak tush hour pedestrian fkwa but also people who will be p8ssing through the rprcs YI a more leisurely p8ce.lherewill also be people accessingthe uses and sewices within the square, wch as shops, banks, museums, cafes,seating, or viawing areas, ete. Accommodating these different movement patterns and walking paces will have a significant influenceon the design of the square, and b &spaces [see ako Chapter Three, a d Cooper Maraur and Francis, p w

303). When considerin# how people will access a city square, and how they will circulate around the space within it, it is helpfulto first consider where the arrival points into the square are, or where they could be created. To maximise raMry and urban vitality, there needto be severalwell-connected anival points that link

the square with the surroundingpedestrian flows. The arrival points into a square u n be m a M on a base plan and ranked accordingto their depth or shallownass and acwding to their rates of pedestrian flow. The links that have the highest number of pedestrkn connectknr, will pmbably be the most strongly connected to the surrwnding urban area. (For an effective methodology, see Rasiponsive Environmanro by h t k y et U/., page 16'2.) Circulation routes can then be designed through the square to link these arrival points, and any other major access points into buildinpt. If peopte are to be encouraged to enter a city square, there needs to be clear visual continuity from the streets that feed into it. There is a discussion on the design of the transkionfrom street to square, and on creating legible gateways, in QIIptsrlhna. Them k a tendency for pedestrian flows to remain in the middle of the space allocated to it, whether o

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within a quare is the major attraction and so the edges of the pedestrianflow0 become excellent places for people watching. These edges should thenfore ba designed for sittingand observing. Pedestrianscankguuidadthmughthesquarebyphyskaldesigntechniquas, for example throughthe positioningof walls and planters, strongtexture changes [includingthe use of cobbler), or through a change of levels the use of colour abne is not likely to be effective in directing people. A very dmpk paktt, of mrtarkls is usually more successful than an assortof prving types. Wherwer possible, it is best to accommodMa netunl pedestriandesire lines. Steps are often proporedto p d d e access into pans ofa site where there is a significant change in levels. While steps can provide an appealingvertical depth and climbing them to obsarvs the panorama of activity within the square can be a delight, they can also act as barriers to natural pedestrian flows if they are inconveniently located. Climbing steps takes longer than walking along a gradient, therefore steps can be an obstade to pedestrianflows. Steps also pose a particular problem for people in wheelchairs, parents with buggies, the old, the very young, and the visually impaired, all of who are entitled to unrestricted ccess into the city sqw-

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One solut&n in Ckrlin@hdWfmnt gmd&nts isto imaginably shapethe earth and thereby provida access for all without the naadfor steps or ramps. Hit isdecided thrtrtsps~be~,dtharforpncnicrlor~rcsrrwrqnmpedwsre m be camfuWy braslprtsd intu a design of step. This requirsr, the input o f a ewysd designer, eqmdal& as raqstake up toseuun times more space than steps. An affectiw way to ensure that steps can be clearly seen is to destgn the treads with an ovahang, so that they project out 20 m m beyond the riser. Thb creates a disththm shadowing effect on the riwr, whib the tread remains lit. lhisvhual distinction isespechUy helpful whenthe tread and the rise 8re ofthe same dour and material. Lighting can also be included on the riser to ensure indMdwl steps are clearly visib. Slippery ourfaces are obviously dangerws andnwdtokwoiekd.

WAPTER TWO

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re8t, or to do business. These people can represent the SdaFk for urban regemation as they generate tha activity that cm mutt in dynamic new city squares. In France, the drvakpm8nt oftha T6V railwayswas orlgintlly eeen Na catalyst for urban mgenemtion, although in reality it has h d mixed ntul# due tothalockofacoordinMadst~Howavar,,thsFnnchnilwrycompany,SNCF, recently recognised the commardrl potentialof railway statkm, and they have W i 45 stations that could become the focal points of mdwdqmm initiatives. It has been realisedthat property around a railway station has a worth directly proportional to the success of the transport nodsu In the city of N m t in Frame, new T6V conhave been intqptadwith proposalsfor a new dty square and with other forms of public transport to mate a transport interchange and an impressive sense of ar~ival Ifa railway stationis deslgmdtoopen on to a city square, it adds dmmatkally to thestatusofthe space. h becomes a placefwmetinp,exhibitiuns, and a diversity ofusesthatsay 'wekumetothiscit$.lhe squamcan pnwidatrrvdkrewitheaq accessto all ofthe smkesthey need in a quality urban environn#ntThQsquan dnmpsopb out ofthe r#tkn rothey can directly exprima the city and add to its vi#Nly.while many ctrirr have bnpmdve pr#k:spaces at their mdn railway stadons (asin Copenhagen, hstmdwn, and Toronto), 0tharm;ljarnHWry aocknr provide access into a nomanbland oftraffkjunctkr# ond pachrthn stdwags In iondon,there is great powntbland needfor an urban design stmtegy to hpmw the tnfiic-r#rkn noties amund its spknd# Vlctorbn railway rtrtknq and~iimprovhthe~~thitliRk~rtrtbnswlththa~urmundlngdql.

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SERVl CI NG , $ 'T To reduce the number of vehicles on or amunda square, buildin Id ideally be sewiced from their rears -this will also reduce the visibility of loading bays a d sewice doors. Where the layout of the urban structure is made up of paritneterMocks, the most rationaluse of space may be to arrange service areas within the inner parts of these Mocks. All buildings within the block can then be servked from this single area. It helps to maintain the continuity of frontages onto a quare if the service area is entered from an adjacent street rather than being directly off the square itself. If an entry point must be off the square, it should be as discrete as possible, perhaps with a wall-dssigned whicular gateway that is framed within a buildingfrontage. r.-L'

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Rohibiting service w h W from a public square improves the square's image and pedestrian freedom. Many urban centres have time restrictionson whicular servicing arrangements, although these are sometimes poorly enforced. Restrictingthe size of service whides may be a further step in creatinga peoplefriendly environment. In Venice in Italy good use is mode of the canals for d a l i n g heavy goods, and when streets and squares are located away from a canal, hand-pushedtrolley carts are used to deliver heavy goods. These trolleys cause little nuisance and ham potentialto be used in other locations, especially when short distances have to be covered across busy pedestrian spaces.

CASE STUDY

STRATEGY FOR WORLD SQUARES

Lm. The view from London's Nltlonal 68Ilety looking southto Nehon'a Column and to the clock tower of Bin 8.n bryond The clock t m r closer the vista down the pmcsrslanal mute O f WhlMhdl.

g-i+w War veterans march alongthe procnrional route

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. $&$&Rehail, which l@kr Trahfpar Spars wim Parliamrnt 7 Square, at the politicd heat7 of London

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Whitehall to the design of lnigo Jones. The Banqueting House is especially important in urban design terms because it provided the impetus for King Jomes Ito oFdhf an ambitious plan for the rebuildingof Whitehall to reflect the grandeur of thi$ new gtona building. The Banqueting House also helped Inigo hnes to secum a commission from the Earl of Bradford to design the Covant Garden Piazza. lhis was built between I631 and 1638, on the garden of a convent that had been confiscated by Henry VIII, and became England's first formal square Covant Gaden continues to be one of London's most successful public spaces. Whiiehall itself is o symbdic street, whkh functions as a well-connected processional way linking Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square. The prOminsm0of these spaces within the hierarchy of London's streets is reflected in the status of the buildings around them.Parliament Square is surrwnded by the most pstigious buildings in London, from which the nation's secular and spirtlarol life$ are governed. k wlt about two hundred years after lnigo Jones designed the Banqueting Howr that John Nash, still inspired by the principles of Rhnaissance design, dmdoped his vision to fmtructun a large part of the West End of London. His uk&n WBUld indude a new square 3t the heart of the capital city. NilshL

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proposals also indudad a monunmrtol new m e , Regent's Stmet now one of London's principal shoppir streets to connect Repnt's Park md Sroan Pwk He ptoporsd a direct link off Regent's Street to a m o n u d mw public space, Trefalgar Square, which would be connectedto London's W gritnary r w e s and The taskwas eMHmOWl asthe whole a m was atready denmlg held by a variety of different landowners. Nmh'r vidon was eventwllg imphentd - almost completelg.It remMinTrafalgar Square beingk.IuI inthe 182O0, and It soon became a symbdk heart forthe city, the n#kn, and the British Empire. lhe she of Trafalgar Sgurm has excellsnt contmctbna wlth Its sumndings, standing at the junction of Londonp mast connected meets, including Charring Crass, Whitohall, and the Strand. The square is located at a node In the centre ofi.ondsn's mad rwtwwk Thlr centrality is marked bg the fact that all UK traffic road signs gMnq the distance to tondon a n mbcrsured to thr centre of Trafalgar Square. Trafalgar Square plays a prominat part in the life of the nation primarig because of its location and size. It provides a focal point where n a t b a l demonstrations are held, and it also contains some of the nurkn'r mast important statues and monuments. As such it may be rqpded as a 'state'-

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Improvingpedestrian movement Until recently, the legibility of Tmfalgar Square and its surroundings was marred by vehicular tmf#c in effect it was one of Landon’s busiest traffic islands. This traffic was a serious barrier to pedestrian flows and Londoners tandad nat to cross the square, but would rather go on lengthy detours omnd it. Tourists and visitors to London were usually the only people with the determination to cmss the four l a m of trpffic required to enter the square, and t h y would congregate within certain parts ofthe square in large n u m b . The UKand the Mtyor of London have recognised the patanti01of T ~ s q w r S t o p r a v i d s aposkiwimqefor London, andragourcashavebeen alkce#dforonombitkusprojectmarketedasWorldSquams’.ThishasfoCUghdon the pmcemhd mute of Whitehall and on Parliament Square, as well as TrphtlpH Squrre.An M a l prtnarshipwas fonnedto produce a strategy and mamrplrnto guide the hnQkmantotkn ofthe project This includedeight organisatkms, and the lead, whkh was initially taken by the local wthority, Westminster aty Council, passed to the new Mayor of London. The other partnars include relevant (pvsmmsnt offices, English kitage, a d publictnnSpOrt companies. The British a r c h i i Sir Norman Foster was appointed as consultant for the proiact, and his multidisciplinary team coordinated production of a master plan for the partnership. This master plan performs as an urban design and transport stto aid impkmantstknof the project. BilI Hillier (who was jointly responsiblefor the spice syntax theory earlier in this chapter) made the observation that Trafalgar Square wa almost adusivu4y by tourists and that Londoners walked around the the squrn.He observed that the tourists were required to msswide to incur longdelays at pedestriancrossings, or to cross dangerously and illegally. Most successful city squares facilitate natural pedestrian movement across space, but this was not the case with Trafalgar Square. There were several reaowuI for the failings of the square. Removing all ‘ofthe existing vehicular traffic was considered not to be a hbte option - as Bill Hillier stated: ‘Removing the traffic would not in itself lead to the square ”working” for all its potential constituencies’. A deeper analysis of the location and movement was required. To remedy the problems of the site, and to facilitate an appropriat enhanscheme, Bill Hillier‘s team recommended that Trafa must k used for normal paepktostopandrest sunounding area need to arafigdsy l i i .

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irafalgar Square consins of two main levels the upper one fronting the National Art Gallery to the north, and the lower level to the south, beside the processional route of Whitehall. M m were two flights of steps between the two levels, positioned at the eastern and western corners of the square. The location of these steps was inappropriate because they did not accommodate any natural pedestrian movement desire lines. The result was that the sharp change in levels, and the inappropriately positioned steps, restrictedpedestrian movement betweenthe upper and lower sides of the square. AJthough there are spectacular views down Whitehall from the upper Id,this part of the square was little used. This is because it was separated from the National Gallery by four lanes of traffic and from the main body of the square by the drop in level. To create better connections between the busy lower area to the south, and the empty higher area to the north, it was realised that new, centrally positioned steps were required to facilitate movement between the two.With pedestrianisation of the street in front of the National Gallery and provision of a new grand staircase, centrally positioned to accommodate pedestrian desire lines, the Notional Gallery is now properly connected to the square, as originally intended. The northern part of the square, with its exceptional views, is now easily accessible to pedestrians gathering at the National Galley. The improvements also facilitate pedestrian mmt along desire lines from Whitehall to the south of the square and to Soh0 and West End theatres located to the north. The master plan for the World Squares initiative was produced following eighteen months of extensive public consultation, which included exhibitions and media coverage. Over 80 per cent of people who responded to the consultation exercise were in favour of the proposed changes within the study area.

Improving legibility

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Prior to the recent improvements, the axial sight lines and the impressive views out of Trafalgar Square were largely unappreciated. This was because pedestrian movement patterns did not correspond with the sight lines. The areas with the best views were not available to pedestrians because of the vehicular traffic. The site of the square was originally chosen because of its strategic position, where the most important streets and vistas in London converge. The layout had

to be amended 90 that the sight lines and the m o w ~lines ~ ~could t correspond with erch ether as originally intended. Rkr ta the world $quamproject, to see the impressive stmtegk views from WitMn TmWgarSquare raquimdstandingin the road or on a tiny traffic island, the KingQIIlkrtrefficisbnd, offthe main part ofthe squrreto the south. From thb Nnk traffic idand ahml views along The Mall to Buckingham Rlace, along Wh~ltothr~ofPlr(kmsnt,andalo~NorthumberlandIwa~~etowr~ tha HUry(rrf0rBBridge at the Rhm Thames. This traffic island has served as one d t b most qmWk spots in Lmnden because it contains the oldest structure in Tnfrllpr Squm, a Portlrnd stone p t i i and bronze statue of King Charks I, which hasbum podtbmd there since 1675. The statue of Charles I h a s dawn whitdull md dimcdg towordr, In@ Jonar' Banqueting House, whan the king WOI emcmd fbr hb u-~ionrl behaviour (see Appendix It). fhl, Khg QIHkt rutus has r\ow bean incorporated into a larger public space offthe mrirr square, and althoughthis qmce still serves as a traffic islandto the suuth ofthe main stpare, it h now connected to the main public space and to wrruundi~ struets by surface level pedestrian crossings. The space is now part 0fthreverydqrout~Wby pedestrians and hrs become a str(Zingp0st from, wMch people a n plan their onwadsjourneys. F m the statue, pedestrians can lodr dimctly along the stmets thq are likely to want to progress down, such as WhitebH, Nart)nrmMand h u e , aml The Mall. As a staging post, the area around t)rcr statue & qpmpdate for visitor signage and other facilities, although dborly t h e need to be arefully desigmd and sensitively positioned to ensure thq do n o t m t h e m n gofthe statue. T b K i q chukr rahre visually directs the pedestrian onwards to g sights. The wnfgknng of Id e s ofviews inthis way reflectswhat Gordon Cullen nhnwlto I ) 'serial vision', and what L'Enhnt, the master planner of Washingto OC, *to as 'reciprocity o f s i w . 4 This appruachwas deve~op~d by the italia rmster, B r u d M i , Wtro rfguoblystartedthe architecturalRenaissancein 142 after COnrtrUaingthe dema of the cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Flo Bnuwlkedri's woflc in Florence demamrates how creating a ptogressron views within the built environment promtes legibility. it is worth he dwebpedthh in Florence in order to appreciate howthe same

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When BnrnslkscMhad cmpleted the famous dome of Florence C mkrkBu(#n mrhdngthe classical concept of relating streets to didthhbgwwwctingtworqwreswkh a new street. One of the square ex&&, it was the mdn cathedral quare, but the second square BNnrlbrchf the new square, the Piazza Delta Santissima A

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as a dassicalcoonpoeition around the church of the Servite monks who served at the cathedral. This new piece of urban design became part of a Aorentine traditionthat W e s the pedestrian with an unfoldingvisualexperience as they ptoonsr through intrrtconnectedstreets and squares. Similarly, in Trafalgar Square the statue of Charles i leads the eye to the 6amptaring Hause, and down Whitehall to Parliament, and to the clock tower of Bk h.Thr naw rnogtar plan for Trafalgar Square realised that the King Charles mffk:idand affords strategic views of some of London's most important vistas, and propossd that it should be better related to the main public space and wumwmding streets. This was required to ensure that the square realises its visual potential. The subsequent improvement works increased visual accessibility and legibility by connecting pedestrian movement lines so they corresfmndwith the rxki sightlines into and out of the square. Mile Norman Foster's proposed master plan did not include pedestrianisation to the southem and of Trafalgar Square, the pedestrian areas were increased in s b at the expense of road space. This provided pedestrianswith greater priority - cmming points are now shorter, safer, and easier to use. RIU HHkr identified the proposals within the master plan as being the minimm necessary to create a Wotld Square. Trafalgar Square is now properly inWgmtedwlth the movemm patterns and urban design of the surrounding city. Trofrkrr !%parewill continue to act as state space and to attract large numbers

dan,WMtehail to Rrtiamem.

vhu fmm $he King Ch& tram Idandloom through Admiralty Arch 8nd down Ru Maii toward# BucklnghrmRkce.

of tourists, but its new pedestrian connections and facilities, such as a carefully designed cafe and public toilets, will ensure that it is also used by ordinary Londoners. As well as servingas a symbol of national power it can now also bring people together and strengthen the collective identity of those who liv, in the city. The Mayor of London has introduced Summer in the Sguclrc, an entertainment and arts programme lasting for three months within Trafalgar Square. The objective for this is to showcase the vast array of cultural activity to be found in London, the UK, and around the world. Given the strategic nature of the roads and the massive number ofvehkks being driven around Trafalgar Square, dmii interventions affecting traffk have had to ba carefully planned. Altering the traffic flow around Trafalgar Square would have serious rspercussions for vehicular movement pattems elsewhere in the city. An imamigah was themfore required into the effects of closingthem t h side ofthe square to traffic and h i n g t h e widths of roads in other areas. The transport study had to be produced concurrently with the master plan to alhy fears of gridlock. lhe Mayor of Londonput in place traffk managementpolkihethat include prwisionof an effective public transport alternative to the car - this is partly funded by charging drivers for bringingv e h i i into the core area of central London. The popular support received for the World Squares initiative has helped the Mayor of Londonto extend the vision for squares from the central area to the whole of London. Through the Mayor's 100 Public Spaces Programme, all 33 London Boroughs should have new public space projects. Trafalgar Square demonstrates how a high profile public space project can be used to modal the principles and n~-=that can then be applii across a large urban region. I I

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CHA E PHYSICAL FORM AND ROBUSTNESS 7 \

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SOUARES AND PROCESSIONAL ROUTES Th~thahisuKyof~dtrd,aracurrinlltC#mr,ita~~oquris that is connected to a principal pathwry. This pathwag often connected t h ~ wwkk world tothe dty square throqh 8 monumentai gatway within thew walk. The pathway leading fmm the mrin ckg gates to the central squan b Wlythemort accedbkmutein and#rtddm,mdwrrdbrn ghnq(mbdic signifkmce Ua pmwuhnalmute. An illustration of this theme h ttw work of the Mcknt Masopawmhn Nbr W t u c h a d m a r II, a mw~mentaltownplanner in the 6th wntury who a W d

~ificllnt~tothr~kofBrklkn.~of~~striktnllfrrtu in Brbylon during his mign was the khtu Gm, the main gatewq WitMn the mrrthro c i q wails. This gateway pmvided accessto the processionalway, wMch was one of the defining features of the city. The fahr gateway was hqp md indudad turreted towers to either side. The main gates wre probrblr m r 6 of ~woodrmrkld~prnrdrofkorro,or~eMtlbrdbkrrIk#d~ dephlqsgmbdkrnknrhrQmdtherVueklnwourdh*(prrtdthe structure can be seen in the krgamon Muswm In Berlin, Gcrmay). The importance afthe processionalway to BabyIonian culture is retkted in the wry that k was lidwlthmlk finished in blue glazed brkks, q o n whkh were dopkted animrls inbright cdowo [mne a f M a n br, meninthe BrwI)I Muswm in London). -the fotmMomdthemmllswars decorated to a level af 18 m bekw p u n d kvd h r g yew major mlabrations in national life pmcmded along the pmcemhwl way. The way cut through to Babylon'a rymbdkheart,whenm o p m ~ r e c o n t r i n a d a I n 8 S d w z ~ r 8 t d t 8 m ~ Thr ~ r a t w o atall a p p d d 4 t w sttructwr,probrbsy dgk rtorkr m - a n impmdve landmarkthat WuM hw drawn the ego of ryprro enteringthrorrgCl the city gates. The site ofthe ziggurat endured as a q)mbolic place forthe Babyknians for thousands of years [seeRef. 45 for an rctwnt of town planning of hbylon).when tkbuchdnsrrrrhddhJmithpeapkcapthin Babyh in thB 6th cIRIua( ~ r ) w ~ k P c k M n d h k ~ W l Y @ & k8ndtha 8 ~ 8 C~ @ , walk of Jerusalem, whkh were all d e s mwith dlmowkms that were ofgreat r e l wsignificance. The main square in a city of andsnt &wce or Roma was often located at the interucth of ttm settlementl two main streets. These streets were often primary axes runniq rorth-wuth and --west on a grid street pItarm Although larger than the ancient Mesopotamian walled dtkt,these settlements usually containedprincipal pathwaysthat lead through monumsn#i gateways or triumphal arches and OMO the main city square.

?W@nNWlI(QCrmu :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE PQWStULF0lt)r

Within the ancity of Athens, the Babylonlan concept of a proassional ruute that connects with the main quare was further dewlopd. Here, the main pmcedmal r o w wasthe pln+thsMicWay, and this wwthe most connected routeinthe city. ft parfonnada similrr functionto bbykm's andent processional wry, a d once every par it contained the most important festival procession. This bstival was a major went in the collective civic life ofAthen8, and the Plrmhenaic Wag was far mora than an ancient straat: k s e n d both as a sacredmy and ~ISO U the main street in ~ t t m s ' . 3 5~ hdowdy h interconnected rdttknrhip betwwn the main proca#knal route and the design of the main square was rkvhkpsd at a scale that was g m t enough to help to physically ddbw the settlement, as mll as beingof symbolic rignifkance. The grid stmet Iryout, as seen in major dtks in the USA, was probobh3 dmdopd bgtho andent 6mkarchitect and town planner Hippodamuswhen he ~tbdl)vdopttw new kn&n city of M W i in 479 ~ tlhe . OM city had beon destqed In a W s b n attack in 494 E. Hippodomus embarked on Fabuilding MSbtus as athora@y modam city to rival Athans.Thestreet layout was b a d on a gridiron plan system, being straight and crossing at right angles. These I...

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streets were of a uniform width and the city blocks between them were also of fairly uniform d i m . This rogular geometric layout created a strong rhythm and a sense of enclosure along the streets, which resulted in the open space of the city square appearing all the more dramatic. The main city square at M i h , the agofa, was a large centrally located rectangular public space occupying several empty blocks within the street layout. This square was an important business centre and, for practical economic reasons, it was located close to the waterfrom for easy access to the port, warehoums, and incoming ships. lt was also a place for leisure and had direct access to the theatre, gymnasium, and stadium. Miletus became a proopsmur capital and sent out coknhts to found 70 urban settlements, always seekingto reproduce the urban conditions ofthe mother city. Hippodamus' agon at Miletus included a wall of shops on at least three sidss, onto which were rtwlchad colonnades, known as 'stoas'. The colonnades at Mibtus were one and two stories high, resultingin an interestingmix of encbsed and semi-enclosed space around the square. They protected people from the weather and pfwidedspace for shop displays. Tha Milesion practice of layingout a whole new town as a single unit, folkwing the gridiron plan system, became commonplace. It provided a simple and equitable method for dvidiq the land, defined the public and private realms affacthnly, facilitated an accessible city square, and was effective in defining naw districts and neighbourhoods within a settlement. lt resulted in a legible environment in which Greek colonists and foreign trodare could easily and safely find their way around. A negative factor was that the layout often paid little m p c t to natural topography or other locally distinctive naturalfeatures. The Mikrrkn plan has tubrsqusntly been usad all -the world, for both temporary and permanentsettlements. More than 2,000 yean later, the Mileshn grid has h e n usecl in cit&s acmm the USA, IncludingPwtknd, Phildelphk, Naw H m , and New York In Manhattan, Fifth Avenue is the mott accessible street within the grid layout, and this connects to the lively Washington Square through a triumphs1 archway. Rfth Avenue functions as a processional route, and the Saint PatricKs Day Parade marches along it, unitingmany New Yorkers every year in timeless fashion. In a similar fashion to the Milesian grid, the 'ideal' cities designed in Europe duringthe Renaissance period often included streets crossing at right angles, or with other geometric arrangements, with the main square at the centre. The Renaissance approach to design was also based on the study of perspective and an appreciation of depth in space. New city designs were more focused on the mathematical rules of geometry. Movement through space

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FifthlvrnuewkhWnMnpmnSquaroin Manhattan, Hew York, ~ f k c t i n g a ~ uhan t~k~ design princlpkr. Wt. The Saint Rcrldt's Day Parade alongtha

pmcessional muto of Flfthhenur in Manhattan, Narvyark.

became a preoccupationas ptnvwful members of society wanted to get to places, and quickly. Many r u h of the l7th century were considad to have absolute power by divine right, and in urban design terms this is reflected thrwgh an smphrds on the straight line, order, the recedingplane, and the kngvista, which lpve an impnrsdlon of limitless space. While the new wrtc~uasand squares dniqnsd by B r u n d k h i in the early 15th csntuy and by Miangalo in the early l6th cantuy WITW relatively modest interventions within existing historic c i t k a much grander scale was to follow. In the l7th century, the vkws out of stpm kcrmo a h s t vhually limitless, endiq onkJ with follies, such as an obslhk or an arch, or a single building.The clossd vista, which had been a W u r e of m a y medievalsquares, was no tonger considered appropriate.

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\ -? proposals for the USA's new capital city, states that he 'made the distribution regularwith streets at right angles Rorth-rrwth and east-west.' Over this basic pkn fomr he opened dramatic dfagonal avenues from the principal points within the d9, such as the clpitd, the pident's house, and Uncdn Park. These diagowk were to 'connect each part ofthe dtg with mora eff'itrcy by... making the reddistmca W. fmnty.f#lr open squares and drdes ware included in LZdmtb m#t#plan, to mark the i mofthorwghfares and to function Ut h fbed pakrtr rot IWW ndghbm~moork.CEnfant daimd that 'Each square wouldbltwirRin*ofth,mKt~andprocihdof~.~ Ak?wu#~dbulyMnedWm u t u m n indudrd in andent dtb(Ud rmah in p b n d dtkr, ruch as vyll)ringlton E),unscrmc#ing the most connected 8bswlcMn the ttna Mzworlrofmrny modem dtkrmn be mora

difficult. However, as explained in the previous chapter, identifying such accessible sitat is a prerequisite to finding an appmprb locationfora new city square. (For further infomrrtkn on the histork dedqmmt of struets and ~ ~ U W W - to~nondsgwra,4~wizudrar,foa"rym~~AccOrdingt0ktiaic ~.incipkr by CamiIb lkrign ofby ~dmundBacon,% and r)ts Uty in Hbtosy by Lewh Murnfords)

TRANSITION FROM STREET TO SOUARE Squares that can be easily seen from the street by passem-4 are dearlg more likely to be used thanthat arevisually obacurad.Whik a square needs@be

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pedvedas beinga distinct place, it also needstobevisibk and easily accessible tothose on the street if it is to be well usd.lhe more that psopk in the street fed that the square is an extensionofthe space they am ifithe more liladythy areto fed invited to -.An extension ofthe activity and the design damenrofound within the square into the connectingstreets a n help to hdlitatethis. On entering the square, the immediate impression should be o(# of arrhnl, with a view of an animated m.The most dominant elemmts in the view are likely to be notked first, mdthe dosign should help to ensure that attenth b drawn to the moot importrnt buiktings, such 8s those containing publk uses Buildingbight, scale, denshy, materials, aa d d o u r can all be usedto mphdse ~ a m ~

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the most imporant buildings and uses around a square. Sunny areas and bright colours are spotted before dull areas, and the position of the sun will haw a crucial effect upon how spaces are pwcahrad at differenttimes of the day. Major changes of W between the street and a square can have a harmful effect upon the use of puMk space. If a square is either significantly higher or bwewthanthe wnnecdngstreets it runs the riskofappearing&tached fnwn street activity. Such a change of levd can act as a barrier, whkhwill reduce the numkrofpeopk and amount of activity within a square. Researchin Manhrt#n has shown th.t public spaces with below average use ganarrrlly have signWicrm differanm in height, architectural barriers, or an absence of seating.a As explained in the pravkuo chapter, the street contains the people that are the lifcdhd of the square and it is crucial to keep direct visual contact between the pedestrian flows along connecting streets and with p e w in the square. Wlwn pavements or sidewalks are very busy with high pedestrian flows, as they oftan are in major cities, it can be an advantage to slightly raise the square, to prwide some r d i i from the human traffic. Partly raised squares can still be wcceuful if tltey manage to retain visual contact with pedestrian flow0 on connecting streets and if thy haw dearly defined entry points into the square. It can fed satisfying to get abow the noise and pollution of the street, but if steps how to be climbed to access the square, there must be something at the top ofthe stepsto make the effort worthwhile and to keep peoplethars.

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A drop in tne level trom tne street to tne square can reduce natural surveillance if the paopla in the square are below the eye level of people on the street. This has occurred in m a y of the public squares developad inthe -war period. An eye-catching feature may draw people into a sunken area but the I further down it is, the greater the attractionwill have to be, and the more likely it h to become an area with a crime problem due to a lack of natural surveillance. Conddantion should also be given to existing or potential views inbatwacm streets and squares, and to how v&ws will be pmtectd and enhanced. The ehmmcteristksof a view can change throughout tha day and the seasons, and 80 their special qualities must be fully understood and recorded to ensure that future development projects do not have a negative impact on them.

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SIZE AND SHAPE

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The ancient Roman architect VEtruvius Pollio stated that the width of a square should be two-thirds that of its length, because this results in a robust and uversatile l h shape for accommodating both an audience and the spectack thy come to watch. This clearly results in a rectangular plan form. He staterg The dimensions of the Forum ought to be adjusted to the audience, lest the space be cramped for use, or else,

breadth. For so the plan will be oblong, will be adapted to the purpose of spectacles.

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Vitruvius was concerned about the visual qualities of the Roman forum, and also about its robustness for practical use. He realised that it was essential to undarotsnd the wars' requirements and that these should inform the W i n process. The Meas of Viruvius have been far-reaching and they haw had a signifbnt influence on other civilisations. Many of the settlements in the snuthem and western USA were modelled by the Spanish in accordance with thair design code,the Lavs of* I n d k . This code was produced in 1573 under the direction of the Spanish king, Philip the Second, to plan their new towns in the Amsricas. The laws were based on the classical treatise of Vitruvius Pdlia.

the Sprnhh hdstudied when deve&ping their military towns (‘brrtides’) when fightbtg the Moon. A suwiving example of a Spanish bastido town is Same h near Gnnrdr, founded in l492.4 O d h M C e 113 ofthe Lawroft/Ie lndkr states that the size ofthe dty square should be PropOrtbMl to the number of inhabitants, and should take into eonddmtkntha p w t h ofthetown. Thy planned forthe future, hopingthat a town%gmwth would Wfy the size of its square.s lhe Spanish towns in the Indiosmn emh contred 011 a main square, which served much like the Roman forum. The quare rctad as mrdce@l8ce, meting place, and as an arena for fiestas, including bull fighting and other tournaments. It was typically sumouckd by an arcadad street containing the town’s main buildings, such as the church, town hall, and shops. Todry, this kind of square survivsr in Califombn cities such as Santa Fe. The Laws sftfis /na#so Ordinance l l 2 stated that, for a square, a rectangular sh8pa was best for m x w n m o d r t i n g ~especially , if honarwere bdngwad, and a minimum size was set forthe main square of 162 m by 244 m -which would have resulted in an enotwws open space. Kevin Lynch recommendsthat the limit foreither the length or width ofa square should k 25 m if it is to resuit in a pkr#nthumantcrk.alhis rdectsthe maximum distance at which people 8m rbk t0 We OthW PWpkb fbdd Cart et U/. dordy support Qnch’s tigures, and state that the most luccrr+ful spaces are under 22 m in or width.& TMSISa -ion of the more intimatety ensquares found in Europeanmedievalt m . lbwew, 6ehl considersthat l a w maximum ditmrnkm can be amddemd, between 70 m and 100 m, as this is the maximum dIst8nctforbeingabletometheeventsthatpeople are engaged in.a CIlnilk Sitte advised that the a v m p dimenskms for the squares in ancient dtbarerppmximam& ffl m by 60 m. Howevar,he also states that exact rules Inthis matter are of little worth because the actual effect will depend largely on tho positbn ofthe obsewer. bndtheandingthis, he states that there are few dty squares that are actually squam in shape, and that those few are u m n c t t u , as he hvoun a more irregular and organic layout. He also claims thrt rrpurnrwith a hngthth8t is more than three times the breadth’have a curcrty better appeanncd.~Cultural and climatic factors are also

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am consiaerauons i n determining a square's fonn. There will often be practical and aesthetic reasons for why the shape of the square should be irregular - for example, to open an important vkw - and such squares can w i n a m a l dignity enclosure. Camillo Sitte daimed that: When we begin to examine ... past e ochs we see that irregular squares can be more readi y adorned with statues and monuments for they do not lack suitable places for them.

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When consking the shape of a new square, and the arrangement of the buildings that will endcm it, it is helpful to remember that, in practice, the eye will often not appmcim what appaan to be perfect on the plan. lhadom, caution is required when folkwhg any rigidly symmetrical plans. Sitte advised that: 46

Whoever studies a map of his own city can be convinced that violent irregularities shown on the map, do not in the least seem to be striking irregularitieswhen seen on the ground.

Even fairly major irregularities in the shapes of squares are w a l l y only seen in plan form. Such irrqpleritkr can help to conceal the gaps caused by the streets that enter the square, which could otherwise harm the sense of enclosure. [See Rob Krkr's urban Space for a morphobgical study of the shapes of squares.51) It may be difficult to justify developing a city square with dimensions law enough to accmmocklo special events that occur only occasionally, especially as large areas ofthe square are then Uat other times, but well-desiined subspaces within the main sqwre can SWKJ way to remedying this. (lhe design of subspaces will be discussed in preater detail later in this chapter.) Some events may only occur once or twice a year, but they may be important for the collective b n t l t y of the urban community and it is therefore essential that spaces exist to accommodate them. Other events, such as a market, may occur more frequently, and when such uses have finished, the space allocated to them

IS 8dirbla for OhWrCthritkr. Should be dsrred tom As we tuve already seen, large city squares, such as London’s Tnhtpr Square, serve a nscsrsrry rdr in drmocmic life, not temt bbcruwthq can r c c o m m o d r t , ~ ~ y P omf ~, . W hrvs 8hoWWtm prkt to the world Sqwrw p@ect b h @ r Squ8re did not function in a my th8t enmuragesthe kind of daily human interaction is assdami wych to my hbtodc lEuropernsquares. If a square is to realiw its potenthl as a focal point for h u m activkg, ithcrudrlthatthere are wrffkknt people to animate its space. WM& ancient dvilizrtiom could sometimes build squ8ms law enough to accommdata the W urban ppulatbn,todry this is impossibk unless large tracts of the city an cleared to create spaces such as Bdjing’s Tiinanmen Square,whwhkh is soovrrt that any sense of urban place is lost. The size and shape ofthesquoreshou# reflect its likely use and date tothe numbersofpeoplethat are Htolyto use it. lfa consensus can be dmwn from the opinbns ofthe other commmtatmmentionedit is that a rectangularshape is most robust fora range ofrctMtbrandevmts,andforpractkalandaesthetkeffectthewidthtoknEfh nrk should nomully be between 1:2 and 13. k a rough guide, a public space mrr#lrhvg50mby70mcanuruallyrccommodrumwnoftha~a~~ with city squrm, and will be of a size that enan individual to see and compdmd the total space and the activity within it. The perfotmance of a rqurre can be evaluated in terms of how well its shape and size is fit for Its purpose for example, most city squares will be expected to accommodate 8dub and childrenwho are walking, sitting, watching, eating, trading, meeting,

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SPATIAL ENCLOSURE AND VISUAL COHESION Successful dty squares are defined by coherent anhkectunl compltions that result in a pkrunt sense ofenndosure. Thara qurlitks are dqmdent uponthe lengthand width of a square, and upon the rcrk, height, and proportions of surroundin# buildings and other architectunl features. Rjor to the Renaissance period, squares could ba much smlktthanthey often needto be todry to make a visual impact.Thh is because streets were narrower and carried much lesstraffic, and so a smaller open space wrrrufficknttocontnawithtilem.

Sense of enclosure 7)w Grrmm uchbct m

n n W e n s calculatedthat a person’s range of clear vbbn k at an angle of about 27 degrees. This tnmlrtat to a ratb of 1:2. So, to

wew a hikllng ckarty and easitg, the viewer needs to stand away hwn the building, at a distance that is twice the building's hd@. If the viewer stands 8 w q from the building at a distance thrt h three times greater than the building is high, at a ntb of 1 3 (18 degmes], the Vianmwill get a sharpdtvbw ofthe building8@tSt h8 rwrWndingl, 8 d at 1:4 -1, the O b t ' W r will S W the buildingmpan ofthewkkrtowmcq and a n rppradrraits corrtriknknto the skyline although the sense of endowre will be weak at this distance [see

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sKoaof,nIechyAswunbbd6). To m a t e 8 brbncrd sense of andosure, the buildirqs around a city square need to be seen clo#to,without being so dose that t h y excessively dominate the square or createtoo a m g r wnse ofhndorure (which may result in a sense of claustrophobk). Convmely, the surrounding buildings should not rppasr too far away - as if they are floatingin the distance -which is the kind o f q r i e n c e prwided by the vast communist squares, such as Tiananmen Square in Beijingin

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China. When the whole elevation of surroundingbuildings can be seen from within the square, their individual archiiectural Wins can be appreciated, a mwith the way they interrelate to form a townscape composition around the square. To be rblatoviewthis effect, the ratio between the rim ofthe square and the height of the buildings needs to be about 1:2. Camillo sitta advises that 1:2 should be the maximum ratio between building height 8nd the dimensions of the square U n h the farm, p U m 8nd dW@l of the bulldim will W w gm8tW dimensions. Furthermore, he considers that neither the length nor width of the square should be less than the height of its principal building. When measuring building heights for this purpse, it is the massing of the building that h important, indudingthemain body ofthe building and its roof. Lesserstructums, such as towers and domes, can w a l l y be disregardad. When the buildings around a square are four or five stories high (and Pwwrmhgen average nnge forfborto ceilingheights and fora pitched roof), a comfortable sense of enclosure results if the dimensions ofthe open square are between35 and 75 m. This comqmds to a relationrhipbetween building height and the length orwidth ofthe square, as a ratio, of between 1:2 and 1:4. These panmetersfor the dimensions of the open space within a square fsllwithin thosa recommandad by W n Lynch. The traditional medieval squares of Eumpe, favoured by bmillo Sitte, also usually retlect these proportions. A city square should be a showpiem ofthe built environment, and as such it is vital that it reflects basic ~ l a of s architectural proportion. In assessing how a p~oposedsquare is likely to perfm, one of the key considerations is the drtiorwhip between the size of the square and the height of the sumnmnding

buildings. If the surrounding buildings are too low the sense of enclosure will be weak, and the open area of the square will appear too large and if the surrounding buildings are too high they will appear excessively dominant, and the square, too small. Achieving an appropriate sense of enclosure is therefore a vital consideration. The Renaissance architect Alberti claimed:52

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However, such ratios cannot be applied ad infinitum-there are limits. If these limits are exceeded there will be no increase in either robustness or visual quality. Camilb Sitte provider a good analogy46

A has betn observed that the

more singers ceases to improve it. (This point is reached with 400 singes.] I

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When there is an existingprincipalbuilding, around which a new square is to be developed, the scale of the principalbuilding will be a crucial considemt&n in determining the dimensions of the open space within the square. This was the case for Wchelangelo’s Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome, where the senatorial palace w11the principal building. Michelangalo was a master of applying new architectural principles to existing medieval structuras. At the Capitoline Hill in in 1536, he took an amorphow space defined by an irregular group of thnr medieval buildings and created the masterpiece of the Piazza del c9mpido#o trOm it. The site woo at the heart of Rome and beside the ancient im(Hlislfonrm.

Composition The naw design order and unity of MichdangeWsCampklorrlio in l6h century Rorm m l t e d from his restructuring of three misting medieval buildings into a new eymmarical compositbn. The senatorial palace, which serves as Rsmh's town hall, was mntnlly placed in tb group as the prindpal building. Mchelangdo fwnoddkd the frontage ofthe palace so that its towar,which was pnvkurly off. centre, become a centrally pitionad focal point. The d e s e uds from the tower sent a farce out across the sqwn a d into m e d h l Rome. This axis was to affect the future arrangement of roads and buildings within the growing city. Tha use of a tower as an 8xis of a square, wound which 8 new architectunl umpositkn wwld be formad, nFkttod the rpprorch ofthe andem Romans, who made similar use of clrrdclhpedimentsupon principal buildirqakvrtkns. M M e b q p b added smrll axtsnrkm a d new dasskally rtykd hcrdbr onta the three ruristing buildings 8t the Pkur rid clmpkb#&, buttsw wigins1 hkit c ~ c b l3HIbe mentodry ifthe brdu of tb buildings am inspected. This rmmlellng of the extsdng bui#iwntlrsrthrn complak, r&wbpum was a SUrtdWle W r y af UViBon cI1ouTcab. Mkhcbngeb's surfece treatment ofthe public space at the Piazza del Carnp#d@ka b Plrys a critkd rule in unifyingthe des@. Bwxw,

drimth.t: One of the greatest attributes of the Campido fio composition is the modulation of the land. ithout the shape of the oval, and its two-dimensionalstar-shapedpaving pattern, as well as its three dimensional projection in the subtl designed steps that surround it, the unitu an4 lcoherence of the desien would not be azhieved

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Thh modular approach was effective in creating a wherent md mwkd ddgn. In rpplyhgsuch a module, a grid is mapped w w a planofthe site. This grid frcilPtnas a mathematicalrelathship inthe p"rtkning of all of the design components within the quam. It

ensures that each design mqment, including buildings, steps, and statues, can be locotQd with a mathematical relationship with each other, and with the sqwm as a whole. This appruach can be as relevantfor the design of public space todry as it was in the Sthcentury. It was duringthe later haissance, especially the period characterised by the Brrmque, that the design of statues, fountains, and other ornamental street furniture becam important in organising the space within a square, and for dating all ~bmponantswithin a square into a formal architectural composition. R4nairsmcs archhctura was based on the dossical orders, as interpreted from rubuildings and ancient books such as those produced by Vitruvius. Ancient Greece and Rome provided the aesthstic of column, entablature, pediment, and architectural detailing, which was established and standardised rccordingto the Tumn, Doric, lonic, Corinthian, and Composite orders. lhe earlbr medieval ehitiins had often Included a random fenestration arrangement, with ktqe areas of solid masonry and occasional small windows forrsseonr of defence. As a result of more stable and powwhl government, archimss began to explore more creative relationships batwhen solid mass and the void of spece, as promotad by Alberti. They began to arrange structural eIements and fenestration patterns to create new rlythms and d e r , prwiding richly d d t e d ekvations on the buildings around public squares. lhe Piazza San Marco in Venice provides an exceiksnt exampfe. It was much visited by the grand tourists from Northern Europe, especially during the early

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l8th century. The V m h n artist Canaletto produced many paintin@ of Mice for this burponing tourirt marknt, and these paintings nfh ~ ~ M ~ f o r I d . r l M r F c h i t . c r t t u n l ~ ~ 5 ~ Canaletto often fuses multiple, and sometimes invented, viewpoints. Some of the views are from angles blocked by buildings that his imaginationwould simply remove, openingup the scene like a staple set. He alters the proportions and shapes of individual buildings and sometimes includes buildings that are not there.

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Tlwlwollwwc CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE PHYSICAL FOAM ANQ ROWSTIJE5S

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lfthe plot depth of an individualbuildingmeawes lessthan 15mfmn front to back, thiscan ako prwnota a robust a n d a n v i ~ l l sustainablefomrofdedgn.lhhis y because at such a depth the buildingcan r e u h natural light and w d a t b n both to the fnmt and tothe mar, which 81yb6 on air condiabningand the use oforrifiddli@s [%e a b chapter hrofRbsp#lsha by Bentky au/.Q) Consideration also needs to be given to hbw the buildings around a square are defined alangthe horizontal plane, and to how they pmgress from the ground to the sky. Classical buildings are usually arranged to include a base, or 'plinth', which appears relativeb stmq and solid, even though several storks can be

accommodated within it. Above the plinth is the main body of the building, which contains most of the accommodation and the principal stories.Above this is the 'attic' level, where architectural elements appear lighter and are often of a diminished scale. When the buildings around a square rethese hierarchies, visual cohesion is likely to be strong. The heights and proportions of buildings around city squares often vary significantly and in a random way, but can still result in dynamic architectural compositions. This can be seen in some of the squares and parks of New York, but even here the skyscrapers reflect a hiearchy and progression from the ground to the sky.

Continuous frontages The streetsthat access into the square will cause breakages in its frontage. When these streets are more than a few metres wide they can damage the design cohesion and the sense of enclosure. Camillo Sitte states that this problem can be reduced by making streets enter the square from different directions and at differem angles, following the form of turbine arms. This arrangemsnt can mean that from a y single spot within a squrre only one 8ccess point can be seen and that, apart from this one break, the buildingfrontage will appear to be continuous. This is because all of the other entry points are positioned out of the line of sight. Sitte claims that this reflects the approach used since the Middle Ages by joiners and masons to hide joints in wood and stone. Including colonnades or arcades around a square can add to its visual cohesion and provide protection from the weather, as demonstrated by the ancient Greek agora and Roman forum. Brunelkhi's Piazza Della Santissima Annunziata in Florence also includes colonnades around the Renaissance square, which help to define the formal architecturalcomposition.

Skyline In the same way that careful consideration is required for the design of the transition from the street to the square, and from the inside of buildings to the

square, it must also be given to the transition from the buildingrtothe sky. The skyline created by the buildings wound a square is an important factor in the creatbn of visual cohesion. Building elements, such 8s roofs,chimneys, domes, and towers, should create an krtsnrting silhowtte that can be saen from within the square and connectings t m .(See Chapter Four of public pkchs - Urban SlpcFCas by -in, Oc and TkodslI* for analysis on the design of the skyline.)

Corner buildings When the buildings that stand on the corner of the I access points into a square are designed in an a r c h i i r a l b distinctive way, the access points remain dearly defined. Another way ofreducingthe impact of access paints on the sense of enckswn within a square is to include an architectural portal over a street where it enters into the square. This results in a bridge effect, enabling traffic to access the square whila continuing the architectural frontage around the square and providing accommodationabovotheentrypdnt.Aportcll~ can promote a sense ofmdomrewithin the square and can help to screen unsightJy viewsfromwithinit, butthere is a *that it could reduce legibility ofthe view into the Square from the swrounding streets and themby reduce itsvhiUlry to ptentkl users. One way around this problem is to design the portal as a landmark feature in itself. Inthis way it can have a positive effect upon legibility and perform a similar design function to the Roman triumphal arch, mncouragingpeople to pass under it and to enter the

c#tnw buildings around a square are particularly importrns as they usually stand at the meetirq d at k#t twe visual p h e s and are at the junction of pedestriano l fw a mMnethe access poim iMo thesquare and play a key role in creatinga sense of

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resources and environment for individuals and communities to improw hmdves. The City ofTwont0 in Canada provieks an example -the coundlb davaopmem of 0Square on the mainhqe Smut is to anhaw the city’s world imrlp and pmvida an improved publk presence forthe U n m at victork and Dundss. In Rxkham, south London, southwrrk Coundl has dmhped a new town square with a dramatk new publk library and Usura centre. lhe entrance to the library is through a r~Ickur lobby, which opens directly off the square. Within the kwy is a one-mp-shop dealing with all rwts of local qwrks. Above the bbby is a multimedia centre that plovidar adult teaming, wmputermining, a d access to the internet. All of these activhs mate a sense of8ctMty. which spills out into the square and adds to its vitality. Modem conrtruakntechniques allow for large voids within curtain walls, which can facilitate a greater Visual connection between t h interior of buildings and the public realm - this is especially important for public buildings around city squares. While publk buildings are espechlly important, commerc&l retail uses also have a clear d e to piay in city squares. They needto be bcated alongthe groundflow frontages, besidepedestriantlowswhrethey will (laneme rrctMty and add visual interest.

RES1DENT COM MUNIT1ES If security gwds or closed-circuit television are required within a square, other than during major events,something has gone wrong and the KtMhJ gonerated within it is insufficientto provide adequate natural suweilknca. In such crrar,a greater mix of land uses could be considered, w possibly increamd building density and intensity of uses around the square. One ofthe most e f f e c t i i wry0 of ensuringthata city square has activity and natural surveillance throughout the day and evening is through establishing a resklent community within the surroundingbuildings. When people live around a square they are likely to dewlop a caring sense of ownanhip for it as they will haw a stake in its well-being. fbople who spend part of their working day in the square, or who only occasionally visit, are less likely to share the commitment to the upkeep of a square than would a settled residential community. The residential areas around a square are historically located in the storks above grwnd-floor level, where floor space is cheaper and quieter. Prwision of large windows, balconies, and terraces will enable res.Mnts to see and enjoy life within the square, while they themselvesprovide a sense of activity and valuable surveillance. As residents watch over the public realm, the square becomas ralf-

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Vestibules, halls, and other places of public reception in houses ought to be like squares and other open places in cities, not in a remote private corner, but in the centre and most public place ... moreover, the house should not have above one entrance, to the intent that nobody may come in nor anything be carried out, without the knowledge of the porter.

These enty points are often intstasting design features in thmxhs, but thy need to be mmtwbly mrmw to leave OQ much space 8s possible for Wmmarrirlw W h i C h w m a r S Succasrrful Widsntirl V8ftmentS 8bOW gfOUnd-flOOr W d l y hrve illcCsrth#n(I c#nmUlbd cirmktkn Sp8Cethrt h8S 8 Stm-kVel entf8nce. b y seldom haw their prknrry entrance from within gmt~nd-ftoorunits. Research has

shownthrtin~mr/wttyofclras~thmbnotr~amte~~ to the upper rtorkr,the space in thew amas h laft empty,underused, or in a

poor condition.55 Not mrking effective UN of the upper stories is an envimnmentally umurtoinllbk waste of resources as it increases pressure to develop new land. lhe communal stairwells that provide access to units h v e ground-ftoor level ore often designed as service zones, containingall essential facilities, wch 8s

8 88Wke pipe& -ccJdtS, and roof8Cce8sh8tdm. In lift& effect, the servke zones are 'hard' areas, whkh m a i n M,while the spaces inbetween them are 'soft' and cm be adapted to suit the requirements of diffemt occupants -time. This is a rokwt qnd sustainable way to build. h pmvlbn fora degree of flexibility that helps to -re that efktive use can aka98 be m& of the building. This flexibility maximises the return from the initial investmm of money and natural resources tha went into the bulldingb (seeReqtumk E t w i t m m by M k y a al.,* p a p s$.) Intelligmt hrtl#ior planniq should lwuh in bathrooms and kitchem being located in dow pro#inrity to arch other thqhout a building. This will nduca the imartnrmt required in plumbing a d other services, and hdpto avoid unsightly drainage pipes trswning buildingelevations.

VISUAL RICHNESS AND HUMAN SCALE

The square and its endosingbuildings will be m a y times larger than a human figure, but it is the way that space and building davatkns are arranged and detailed that can reflect a human scale. For example, by regularly spacing and grouping W i n elements across a large surface area, the surface can apparr to have more familiar and comprehensible dimensions. Threedimensional features also have a crucial role to play in defining space, as will be discussed in the section on public art. While human WMty is of prime importance, the way that people pmdve the city square will also be influenced by the visual richnaor that it offers. Visual richness depends on the number of design dememts that are on view, and howt h y relateto each other. If the number of design elements visible on a s t ~ c t u r enumber between five and nine, it will probably provide enough visual interest to appear stimuIating.u Wlthin a city square, the design elements seen in a y one view could indude a r c h i i n l fwtures such as windows or balconies.

Whenowh~arearrqedinacompositknthat~wd~the~ limit of nine damarrlo, the dedp can become ovarly repetitive and may be percebd as beingless stimulatingbecausethare are too m a y design ehnents, In effect, thy begin to appear as one suparslsmant rather than individual elements that interrelatewlth each other. Conversely, when there are fewer than five e h m t s within a design composition, there h a risk of a bland appaarance. The dfmthws of this approach will be influenced by v M n g angles, viewing distances, and the orientation of surfsces a subject that was thmqhly inwstigatdby John Ruskinon his visits to Vsnke. The main viewing areas within a city square will be from the pedwtrbn flom, and especially from wall-uwd seating areas beside these flows. Visual richness k themfom best applied to the areas that can be men from these lowtknr, [we Rssponrivs &iwtmnmts ty ~ant~y et d.,U plrlccsr 89-W). The intemity of detail a d anhhactural decomth should be fim in those m m that are darart to POWtIdd VbWrS. lhe fUl'thW W q th8 vkwaro 8 , tha k+s fine the dbtrilim needsto be, although shapes and forms become m m important with i m a s e d distance.

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0 ESlGN ING SUBSPACES A city square will w a l l y have to (~xommodatediffemt tgps of rctMty at di~t~ForImtrmb,ronwlnopbmrywHItto~qukkllladdi~~ rcrorrtt(bsquareadsobokkolrfwdr#r~~pmvidsroutsr~~k others may want W r i t nextto pedembnflows so thy cm watch the world go by, end athm may seek a qukt rprca rmy fr#n the hurtk and bustle. lhwefom tha design ofthe square ShOuJd prov#a scme 8rtkulttiocl ofthe open rprca to accommodate different users. The creation of subqmms can be achieved thfwgh dective changes in lwalr or through the arrangement of buildings, plmting, smdrtg, or art WOIICS. This kind of subdivision also helps to mrkr thecity rqurra kokfulktwhanthere are few people about,which can be essenthl for wry large spaces. Creating subspwm can help to create a visually stimulatingcity square, a d will offar pater opportunitg for people to find the kind of space that they are for. The wrthl depth resultingfrom a change o f h l a n often appear to be krtrmting,e8pecblly if the uppsr lwd pmvides an elevated viewing place, ideal forpeqlewatdhgand for feeling above it all. Tha steps betweenh l s can act 8s ready-made seats, a d wider decks can be used as a stage for entertainers, ahhorrllh, as predously mentioned, care is required not to visually segregate the

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TRAWSFORMIWC CITIES : REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE CHAPTER THREE

square fram the pedestrian flows that faed into it. k b important also to remsmber that all areas of the square q u i r e natural wweillance t6pmvkh a formof~~idngtoraducathechancasofcrimlnolrctMhJoccurring. To rupport the Viwrl cohesion and idemkg ofthe square m a whole, the design needs- prov#e dear connactionsfrom subspaces tothe main body of the square, and to pedwtrian flows that are essential for a feeling of security. Subspaces should be designed to be open, affable, a d beckonin&65 so they remain clearly public rather than private endaver. If the demarcation of subspaces is subtle, people are unlikely to feel that they have been s e p g a t d from actMty, or may feel that they are invading another's personal space. Equally, subspaces should not be so large that people fed intimidated by the b

CREATING A PLEASANT MICROCLIMATE h cm be useful to know something rbwt how climatic factors influence the mlcmdmrtato ensure that pkrtrnt conditions exist within a city quare. The dqlsquam nwdstobe designedto meet its usm'demands at different times of the day and night, and throughout the seasons of the year. To do this, the a m o q h i c corrdttiomthrt affect the square and its surroundings need to be mdemood, includinghow the sunlight and areas of shadow change, and what thr l'8infrll p8ttelll and tMnpantUre n w 8re l i k l y to be. Tha W r y that tha

dimate influences urban design is a major subject in W,and so is only touchad upon in this study. (For mora information sw &B@I with Uhate by viaor

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Any local peculiarities or outstandingcharacmMcs of the dimate within a study area need to be recoded within the contextual analysis produd as part of an urban design strategy. Lbcrl people and city ruthoritiesshouldbe ableto provide some details about h l conditions, and the recods of the reg&nal meteamlogicaloffica can also be useful. %e conditions need to be thorwghly understood because the topooraphy and drainage conditions ofthe site and its sunuundings will affect the landscapingdesign and microdimate within a city square. A city square's microclimate Will be the result of the movement and mbdng of heat, water vapour, airborne impurities, light, and sound. Thii cocktail of natural elements, pollutants, and mergg, is influancad by the different eurfaces and obstdes that it s n c o u m A crucial facm influencingthe mictodimate is the heat level that results from an intardrrnge betwwn the sun and the earth, a d this can change markedly through the day and the seasons. lhe choice of materials within a dty square will hrefom have a significant effect upon its microclimate.

Sunlight and ventilation As tho sun's anac~ly passes through the earth's atmosphere, it loses more strength the further it has to travel. This means that sites bcated at latitudes away from the equator will receive less ofthe sun's energy than those closer to thecrqurtor.Aboutons-thirdofthosun's~isnfbasdbrclrinto~, especially by the surface of do&, while the rest is rbrorkd, heatingtho land, oceans, and atmosphere. The heated earth radiates infrared energy back into space, but on the way some of it is absothd and retainad by gases in the atmosphere, especially carbon dioxlde. Large quantities of carbon d W are relea& by the burningof fossil fuels, and due to the activities of humans there is too much of it to be used up by the earth's forests and oceans. As a result, carbon dioxide accumulates in the earth's atmosphere, along with other 'greenhouse gases', prewntingsome ofthe radiated heat from the earth escaping back into space. These g m perfonn a similar function to the glass in a greenhouse they let heat in but prevent it from escaping. This process is believedto be resultingin global warming. To reduce global warming, consumption of fossil fuels needs to be redud, and effedve alternative sources of energy need to be explored. Buildings and public spaces can be designed for 'passive solar gain', whereby they make use of

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the energy directly available from the sun in the form of solar heat, daylight, and wind. Buildings and spaces designed for passive solar gain are likaly to require less heating, lighting, ventilation, and coding by attifkial means, and thereby mdtnxtthedemandsforenergy. Urbrn designers, a r c h i i and planners all have rolar to play in W i n g global warming through the design ofthe built tmvhmont. Dwelopingnew or improved public spaces and buildings proviekr a hfgh-profile opponunkg to impbent pudvewlargain techniques, whkh canthen be exphinedto users and vklton (hm/ttgfor PbEsiVs sdor Dwignw by Tmnce O'hrke pic is a usefulguide for planners). Considentkn needs to be given to the way that squares, and the spaces within surrounding buildings, are odented to the sun and prevailingwinds. The ancient Roman architect Vltruviw went to c 0 n r W kngths to etsun that space was designed to interact with climatic conditions in a way that suppomd its intended use and maximised the comfort of its occupants. His approach m a i n s valid today. When buildings around a city square are designed for passive solar interaction, they are likely to include features such as glazed walls, clemtoy windows, and, if them is a deep plan form, atriums. Large areas of glass o r h t d tothe sun raquire external Minds or louvrestoprsvent interiorsfrom 0Ml)lSrting on bright w n y days. These elememts can be designad as architectural features in their own right, rather than being extraneous additions. When a square and the buildingsaround it have been designed to optimisa the use of natural Mntilation, heat, and light, thy med to be protected from new devdopmnt that could overshadow them, obstruct k n e f i i l air flows, or remove valuable shelter. Particular a n is required to analyse the shadowing effect of tall buildings, which can inflwnce an open spsca even when located some distance away. Building cut& angles can be established and formally adopted as a planning control tool to ensure that new tall buildings are not allowad to overshadow city squares. When consWng a site for a new public space the seasonal mowment of the sun needs to be charted across- site,#kingaccwnt of existingand proposed buildings. A w n path diagram will alkw shadow projections to be made for d~timaoofthedsyandrcrollsthe~~s,rccordingtothelatkudaof~ site. This analysis will reveal which areas receive direct sunshine at different mna.Ikcrcnkr22 times, and so help to rlbcate different uses to their optimum locations. In most climates, the main open space within the city square should receiw direct sunlight duringthe times of peak use, espedally when wurkmi are out to lunch. Intempeme dimates, far from the equator, it is essential that city squares

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receive as much direct sunlight Upossible, while shelter from the rain and wind should also be readily available. In hotaar and sunnier dimprovision of sh& and cool placeswithin the city square will be more imporant- colonnades are traditionally pmvickd around the edges of squares to meet this d.In the andent Roman fwum in Nlmes in routhem France, proviskn was made for cool promenading amas in s e m i - s u q vaulted arcades around the edges ofthe square (which have survived intact today). If coknnodar are not I viobla option, providinginnav~tivacProW~ignraroundasquare-pamopsincr~orlElrrr -could help topwide a unique identity and pmvick shelterhomthewasthar.

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snrdkr in Manhattan and Copenhagen revealad that when the temperature is above about 13% there is a considerable increase in the pleasure derived from walking, standing, or sitting in squares. However, when summer temperatures reach about 241:some people will find the heat uncomfortable and will seek arwsofrhehsr.~59 Designers rho need to be aware of local temperature ranges to ensure that the open space and the buildings around it take account ofthese varianws. Tho rate of heatingand codingofthe surface materials around the city square will be the main factor determining the tempemure of the air within the publk spa. The choice of surface materials within the quare and on the buildings around it rhou#~bgu~bytha~iveofrvoldingaxt~ofmkrodimrtr. Motrwirle need to quickly absorb and store excess heat, and quickly robmetho heat again when tempemurn fall. This will be dotemined by their physical structure, cdour, and surface texture. Materials such as mirrored glass haw a high albedo, i.e. they are high4 nfkcthn. Thy redirect the sun's energy into the mkrodimate, resuMng in tempermm risingquickly within the sumnding area on a warm day, a d may also wuse dalingglm. Such a microdimate won becomes uncomfombk and peoplewill rvokl it. To create a pleasant microdimate, reflectivematerials should tharebm be gmrally avoided, whib COmaterials, such 8s rough stone, are more suitable because theg rvokl sharp changes in temperature [seesita pknnhga by Lynch and Hack, page 65). An expanse of paving will significantly i n m m the refbctbn of the sun's energy, resulting in higher summer tempemures. Tho choke of surface stone should hemfore b directly influenced by the climatic conditions. Natural vegembn is very effective at reducing this albedo and in balanciq the temperature, and themfon soft landscaping, especially trees, should be comrin design proposals for public space to a m e l i t e the microclimate.

Wind Knowingabout wind speed is important because it influencestempemtun dM, if too stmng, can render a public space unusable. A fairly u n i h building height is much kru likely to c a m adverse wind speeds compared with an irregular one, and high-dse buildings can be partkuladg probtematic. This is because very tall buildings tarid to deflect wind downwards, multiplying its force and making cundMom at gramd level uncomfortable. Estimatingthe effects of wind on the mkrodinute within a city quare is more difficult and uncertain than for sunshine. Ifthem is a rhk of inrppropriStewind conditii, a wind tunnel model anbewcnitoexpedmmwlth posdbkodutbns.

LANDSCAPING Landmpinghas an important &to play in the design ofa city square. It ern be used to enhance the comfort of users - for example, through the cre8tbn of suntraps, areas of shade, wind breaks, a d by helping to filter out uwantd ndw and unsightly vkwa Itcan ako be used to stimulatethe senseswith dour and pleasant scema Landrctpingern ako play an important role in emphrsblng axial sight lines rkngpsdcrtrhn paths within and out ofthe square, While orre is raquindto mwrethattheheight and rn8uingofplantingdoesnot -the

legibility of the square, plantingcan be structuredto appear stimulating to people passingthrough the public space. The design of ladmped areas needs to ensure that people do not take short cuts through planted areas, or attempt to climb over planters that are inrpproprittdy positioned. A measure of the success of the landscaping scheme will be whether remediil measureshave to be taken to protect plantingfrom the square's users at a later date. Close attention to landsapingthe subspaces is required to ensure that they stimulate the senses of paople who stay in the square for longer periods of time. When prodwing a planting programme for a city square, species should kkrlly be indigenwsto the area as these are best adapted to the kcpl dimate and can support biodiversity - for example, by attracting insects a d birds. Indigenous plant species have the greatest balancing effect on the microclimate and will require the least maintenance. Sekxtlng indigenws specjes also help to promote local identiy and distinctiveness. When considering which trees to select for different parts of the square, consideration needs to be given to their shapes, rates of growth, potentialheights, a d pollution resistance. Special care is requiredwhen plantingclose to building elevationsthat have been designed for passive solar interaction. ~ i d u o u trees s are best located close to these buildings because in the summer, when they are in leaf, they offer welcome shade, and in the winter their bare brancheswill kt the sunlight filter through. A planting programme that includes fast-growing t m s to creatte an early impact, abngwith slower growers that will live longer, can hdp to maintain a population oftall and healthy trees within a square. The trees that grow at the quickest rate will generally be the first to dk. Where p s i b k , trees should be wrrwnckd by soft material, such as earth, grass, or mulches, whkh will enhance thoir growingenvironment. Ifthey are surrounded by paving or other hard surfaces, tree pits m8y be required. The rate of growth a d potential height ofthe tree will be depe&nt upon the size of these pits. Clearty, trees should not be planted where thoir roots could damage the foundrtionr of buildings, or where their eventual spread could restrict the light into a y principal rooms within buildings facing onto the public space. As a guide, most

iorest trees have root systemsthat are up to 200 per cent largerthantha spread of the branches and 90 por cent ofthe roots will be within the top metre ofthe S0il.H

The layering of planting requires careful consideration. For example, dense planting dose to the ground can attract litter and vermin, and planting that d s a height of 750 mm u n provide hiding places for criminal activity. Raised beds or individual planters can ba used to effectively display planting at the height of shrubs. Although the plants within planters require greater maintenance, especially when there is either too much or too little rainwater, the planters can be designed to double as seats. These features can be effective in enlining and softening Hank buildingwalls, and can be usedto bringcdwr and pleasant scentsto areas where people are sitting. Planting can be 4as a useful behaviounl prop - for example, smelling or observing flowers provides something that pmvides a legitimate reason to be there for people who are simply hanging around in a square for a while. When them are spectamlar flonl dirplrlp to look at, peopk will wngmpte arwnd them, and t h y become a major attraction within public space. Havingsomething to kok at, or to phyeicrllg interact with, appears to be especially important for those who visit a square on their own.

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h a r e a s are usefulwhen they can be informally used, especially because it is m m cocnfartrbktonkxon soft grass on wny days. However, ifa square is to retain its urban kkMlgl and avoid bacomiqa padc,the limn areasshould not ktoompansh U n b it h a vwy fine day forwnbtthing,peupbtendto avoid bqp apam8s ofIha fncludm oftm,and other areas of natural pfantlng, as swn In moat ofl#wknf nribntklsquares, supporrs s m r i r o n ~ l sustsinaMlity withln the city. Anrrs of planting produce life-sustainiq oocygan fromcarbondk#idc,pov#aanaturalhr#trt,andmkrobpdknkn (rrthe rough h or born hdd #I to dust particles). Areas of pknting alkw ninwrtsr to rorkkrrothardl,a~thrt~i~therdlw~andh~lforlifa. Wd surface a m d 4 direct rainmar straight into drains, from whm it k takm directly to rivers and eventually the sea.

Urban soils OM of- mast serious problem for urban roils is the compsaion thy suffbr from tha rctivlpkr of people, whidar, and buildings This unnpaction reduces the pore space in the soil, which contains the 1i-q water and aygen. Thedore, if buildings h8ve pfwiowg ocalp&d a *,the condltbn afthe rdl, especially its texture, must be carefully corwbred and soil tests will be -ry. Theriteselectdfor a new city square will often be a r d e w h p d 'kormfiekl' sfte, 8 d the problsm o f d compactbn will need to be addressed before any Imndsmphgschemeiscmsidmd. Onesolutknhtu kingin soil fromdsewhere, white another costly option is to i n w the existing soil with compmed air. lhm M a number of other, m m sustainable, ways of improving compsctsd urban sails, although them are to take conskkrobla time to work For example, some plants, such as birch and river alder, have adapted to survive in aMer0bk ditknr,whik ottmspecbs hnrr strongtaptwtsthatcreate new pore spaces - t h y penetratethasdl in search o f m l m h . Muldm and worms can also ba applied to urban rolls to tadtle the comprction and add nutrients. If salt spny has entomd the soil from neighbouring roads, this will have to be flushed out seaweed oc gypsum extract can assist with this.

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Fountains The d&t and sound ofctrcrdingwater is a great attmtkn. The sound of water can bs ddi%ltM, 8nd hdpstodmwn out undesirable sounds, such as traffic noise. Water cfwtes a -1 kind of calming ambiance, which can bring wctcomo relbfto the stresses of urban Ilk.

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When lihtstrikeswaterat a low angle, it causes light and heat tu be directed at waterside objects, which can haw significant design implications. For example, glass buildings at the watmide may heat up quickly, resulting in an uncomfortak ewir0nmant.a tf there are tall buildings around the square that create strong down winds,a fountain could be impreaicoldue to uncontrollable spray. Before undertaking m0 detailed design of a fountain, the visual effect and fundonal qualities that it will offer need to be estMished. A fine spray has a larger evaporative surface are4 which resutts in a mist and a gentle hum with a pleasant cooling effect. A low-pressure arching jet of water will sparkle in the sunlight and has a pleasant i-kr splattering sound. A fountain combined with sculpture can appear particularly dramatic. A fine example can be seen in Willhm's Square in Los Colinas, Dallas-Fort Worth (Texas), which includes a pool with large b m z e wild horses runningthrough it. At the hooves of the horses are fwntains, which splash water and emphasise the feeling of movement. The horse is ymbolic of the Texas region, and the whole effect of the fountain and sculpture is vigorously dynamic and transforms an otherwise undistinguished square.44 Children find water irresistibleand safety is therefore an issue, but their joy of interacting with water can be accommodated in4 My safe way. High '

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SEATING PROVISION wiltim wtyte's study of squares in Manhattan@condudad, after three months ofextmdve research, that there wwe m a y haon that M a significant

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bnring on whore people are most likely to sit in a public space the mlcroclim8te and the SwilrMlity of food, for example. But the most overriding factor was that people are most likdy to sit where places have bwn pmvided for themtosit! M a y features in a square$such as ttrtuae and planters, a n bedwiped for sitting on. tfw a n to k well used thay need to be ohtated for people watching, but there should also k a raw of seating provisbn. For example, wm should be designed to accommodttd individuals who want some private space, as well as for groups ofpeople who want to enjoy intmctingwitheach

other. In designing the seating arrangements within a square it is useful to undantrnd peopk's spatial rdatbnshlps. Intrusion on an individual's personal spme may inhibit thdt fmdam to behaveinarehxedmy.Theextentofsamebdy'spemonal space within 8 PUtJic pkcr b lHoly to dopend an hetwr

wchwthdrpanondlih~cuhun,qp,gmdrr, andehkity, mndwh8thert)wY analone or wein r ~ r o u p lfthry am within a -their pemmalap8cewiW depend on the taal number of paopk and on how mll thq know and like e8ch 0thar.a

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Ttum ahoqpeanto be acorrdotion betweenthe intensity ofthe pedestrian fiow a d ths distance that pmple, but especially women, will sit wag from it. When the psQIItrkn flows in a square are kworsattmd, few men and very few wmenwlll &there at all, andthowthatdo sit stag c b tothe pedestrian flow. bmhndy, when there are hi@ pedestrian fbws, m a y more peuple 8re prepad to* adumy sit further rwry from the fkw. sitters 8ttmt mom skters, md as 8uch there rplnrntoka human muttiplierdfect. Men pnsnlly dominato intho tp-fmnt batknr in Bimingham's squares, and when women sit they am obmrved to be nearly rlw898 within close proximity and within direct dght and sound of the main pedestrian tkm. Wkhin Blrmingh8m's squares, wornon could only be seen in retreat locations dwntheywere in y m g m b a d couples, and occrrknalgroup,ofthmeormore lpuq wollwn [especially teenagers) wouM sit up to 15 m may from a pe&danfkw.huhga het lunch h k , w h e n many sunbathem filledtheopen Lmn a m in Sdnt Phi@%CathedralSquare, individual women seeined to dt further from the pedestrian flow, but they would still remain lass than 5 m from another group ofsittem, which neady always includedat kast one woman. k is predominantly only older men who appear to sit in 'retreat' bcrtkm,momthan 15or20 m owy(fr0mthe main pedmtrianflom. mdiffhtt behavbur pttem8ofm and women and ofdgrwpS

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prblk spaces. To e n t o u social ~ inclusion there should be a varktcJ of seating provhkn to cater for all legitimate users, whethew they visit the quam alone or in smallgmups. tt hespocblly hnportrnt to indude seatingnextto busy pedestrian fiambocmlmthe ma)oritu of men and wwlldn will W8nt to sit there. it is also helpful ~proviba-i~~w~lyforIpuwpaoph*-thY dimb up to diffemt levdstofind a perchthey help to erem an animated scene. kddpdto-& mWeIWnt8d morboth.A$Wep change of kvrk in Birmingham's Chamberlain Square hrr been arranged into a cremmt of steps, which reumbks an amphitheatre. lhem steps swcesdully acmwmdm both m ~ e ~ and ~ nrest t and result in an animated scene at diffemt levels.lhe dimedons ofthe steps appearto be a critkal factor, and in Chamberlain Square ths treads mmure 380 mm in width and the risers are US mm in height.- combinrtbnafthew m n w m m t s means that anyone betweamfiw and six feet tall cm sit on one step and rest thdrfeet on a lower step,

whhkrmesmmfarWyinfmntofthebody.lhestepsin Chamberlain Square are prrticuhrkl ClFhctiVs for accommodating speakers and W r audiences, and the cmcmtlqput dnforcesthis.The perfomwun use both the base ofthe square and the rcbprthmdve8,whik the audience sits on the steps around them.

llwllp81mlW CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE

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PUBLIC ART pu#ic art strategies that are well planned and produced through engaging with

local people can reflea the objectives and aspirations of the city and assist with urban regemration. City squares are ideal places for displayingthe kinds of art that reflect the collectiw identity of the urban area, or the wider region. The herd of wild horses that appears to be charging through the fountain in the middle of the William's Square in Dallas-Fort Worth, Tmcas, achieves this dramatically. Public art can be used as a key component in the development of an urban design strategy. For example, art can be used to engage with local people in community participation workshops to encourage them to express how they prceive their area. Arts themes can then be developed to become engines for regeneration. This has happened in North Shields, a redundant fishing port in the north-east of England, where the FreefonnArts group has engaged with local peopk through arts workshops, resultingin a new theme for regeneration based on the salmon returningto the river Tyne. This has strengthened the town's ties with the fishing industry in a positive way, and has influencedthe creation of new works of art, street furniture, a new arts centre, and a new annual festival the Fish Quay Pageant. s such as this help visitors to structure a mental picture of what the about, and what its social characteristicsand values are. It shows how art can be used to reflect regeneration objectives and to present the identity of the area positively. artists produce designs that invite controversy because this provides h publicity, but public art within a city square needs to reflect public e. It can be used to promote contact and communication between people. Care is therefore required to ensure that public art speaks to a large percentage of the population. There should at least be public consuttation regarding new works of art within the public realm, to provide the art with the stamp of approval from the people that will live with it. Given that city squares are democratic places that promote social inclusion, public art should not be so formally placed as to suggest that the square was designed purely as a backdropfor it.Autocratic dictators developed such squares around statues of themselws! Art provides an opportunity to explore history and the deeper concerns that are not generally discussed in rushad urban encounters. It can stir the imagination perhaps drawingon local legend or myth. lhe meaning of art for children is worth exploring because If they find it interesting, adults probably will too.

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I w w ~ ~ CITIES H 6 :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CHAPTER TMREE

Wow. Thls nrndlng ttoM in Jrprn urrkr inscriptions and porms to guldr

pwp4 tmrlling rtong l rndrm muto. ( t o w m y of W McDonald.]

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Public art needs to be highly visible a d is best bwted MrrtOthe8n#ofhlOh~rirntkw.~rrtworkcm be seen from streets connecting with a square, it will help to m,couq viritwr to enter the squ8n to see whtt is sdng on. Public art can play a part in demonstrating that the space within 8 public square is symbolic rnd represenmiveofthecollectiwvriuesofmurbrn~. Even before the existence of8 settled urban so&y,thewr must have been a human desire for actiw public space for a symbolic place to gather, where people cwld be wokomed on common ground. From early wadlthic tkrm tathe prmnt by, pilgrimage tothe sacred kcrtbr#of ~mdrymbdkevmshavebeenaneswnd8Iprrt

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of libfar many communlrkc PUgdtvqa is still pnctbrd in Afphmimn, whm the kirrrr' k Ismall, oftan andent, building that cekhtes the hdy site at ths pilgrim's drrtinmbn. k is decmted with brUli8ntly cobwed k n r m r t o b M y t h e spot for

p%ltrimrwlthinthevrrt,b&dcwntysk.Toby,Afidhilln m h N e In t 8 8n b8Wd On the tr8ditkn81 h S h l l form, where dwsllinlp hca 8 w q from the street into prime COwIt 8 d high W8ll8hcathe 888WbllytO p W t wmen from pWk vbw. wharavar such a village has gmvn around an rncknt zirnt, them is a markedcontrast kcmcm the zisrrt and the rest ofthe settlement k has kmmid d the Z h t that 'it8 toddilk!j k 8 dw8l fk to thatnvdk8nd 8 pu#ic dcXmlNJnw. In Brhinthe 8nctent wyridr cmws were erected on S b S Of+rt& m8rk ItoMI, Whkh Waca p l d 8t loortknr #rodoudWith W n J hsr0aS 8 d kdet'8. Somo d these sites msumed importance for pilgrims, kcrme Romrn rkrq opan-oir courts, places of wanhip, or sites forthe crowning of suron Kings, 88 demonantad by the coronrtbn stone 8t Kbypton UponTh8mes.~ lha caronrtkrn Saw can still be seen at Klngston upon Thrmes, Edwridthe E W w # crowned upon it on 8 June inthe year 900. The carved stone itself appears to be much o&&f 8 d its qlmbolk significance to errliar communiths

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lWISF0ItI)I)IcCITES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE CwMhft-

The location of monuments on the axes of monumental buildings or richly adorned portals should be avoided for it conceals worthwhile architecture from the eyes, and reciprocally, an excessively rich and ornate background is not appropriate for a monument. The ancient E yptians understoodthis principle ... for the obelisks and t e statues of the pharaohs are aligned beside the temple doors.

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CITIES 8 REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE PHYSKAL MI#lAl#l -#E59

The ancient 6rwks and Romans erected their works of art to the sides of city squares, where the number of statues could increase without obstructing the circulation of traffic, and each statue would have a building to provide an 8ppprkeCwdrground.The Roman architect Wtruviusstatedthatthe centre of a publk place is destined not for statues,but forgladktors! CImilb Shte identified an effective and simple method for siting publk art based, surprisingly, on the kKItkn of sawman. To begin with, imagine a city square in winter, cowred in snow. Pathways will hove been beaten across the sqwn in ttm with establhhed pedestrian f b s . Between these pathways m i n large #ado of undisturbed MOW. h, the snowmen are built, 'for that is where the substance ofw h i i thy are made is found'.& This methodo~ogy~ p to explainwhg statues are tmlitknally arranged differently in diffmnt squares. The arrangement and siting of statues should reflect the patterns of movement that occur throughthe space. To summarise, the edges of public squares are often the most rppropdate placesforartworkrbecausetheworluwillhaw suitable backgmunds, be out of the prthr oftraffic, leave rokrst spaces in the middle ofthe quare for other activities and events, and, by being close to pedestrian flows and building entmnces, be guaranteed an audience. CIUtion is required if a symtnetrkal or posithing of puWk art is king conridsrad as ihe i r t work can become an obstacle, and the formal layout k often only appcimd from a single m i d dewpoint. lhe importanceof bdmviour props has already been mentioned, and pu#k art should k something for people to attachthemselvesto to sit on or lean against. Public art contributes to activity within the square when it provbs peopk with a legitimate reawn to be tltere and to linger for a whik. A time-lapse study of 6,000 users in ten Vancouver squam found that kss than one per cent of people carried out any activMm qmn,qfFonr a y phipiwl amfacts or pmps (& as

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While lighting equipment needs to k designed and posit&ned to mist vmndalkm, thdt, and conoriOn,it is an integralpart ofthe street furniturewithin the city square and therefore needs to be of a highquality design. Discrete spot lightingttrrtures attach4 d i m l y onto buildings can help to reduce clutter and krvrmbustqmcewithinthrsquare. 'sky glow' is a vitwlly intrusivefarm of lightpohtim, which w s s m ekctrkity, money, andthr earth's fhrb e n q y rcwources.whobgmedons hsw grown up in dtkswlthaut svrrseeingthe vMdspkndour of brightstars against a dark night sky, and yet this could be easily ramdied by a mwe-wnsw opprorch to Ughting des@. Sky glow can be w i l y cwowsd by directing llght domnnords ~ ~ b k , t o i U u m ~ i t s w ~ ~ ~ n t h e n ~ s k y , o r k J ~ r i q thpt li@ fitrings llca ohhlckdto prevent I ht spilling above the horiuwrtrl, and kieallywithin 70 degrees from thevmkal. lhmugh cmting a contrast inthe intensity of light, and by illuminatingrpclcial features within the city, diffemt areas bewmevisually distinct. This can assist wag-finding and orkntitbn at night-time. To create a stimulating nigttt-time i~~tlwcitil~n,unifonnityofilkuninrtknrhouldkrw#rd. 6h#n tb si@fkance of night-time illumination, I lighting strategy should form an lntegmlpart of an urtmn design s t q and thisrhwld be produoadby qualified lighting ckrlglmr in lbseon with u h n &signem A lightin# pian has been pmduad md imphmted in Trafalgar Square, where the night-time chmcter has beem trantfonnad and important buildings are shown to best efbaw g h mhas km d u w d and the night sky owrtlm square remains ugclr Btr-#es been ploducad fordtkr, with $rrablrt aweem kr L t p In h a ,where at night the dty spaddes like a w-in-

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CASE STUDY THE PLACA REIAL IN BARCELONA: A CASE STUDY The Pfics Reial in Ekrrwlona, Spain, was built in the 1844s a d dwmWaW8 an dmost complete sense of endowre, with six of its seven entq points liaing located behind colonnades. The colonnades minimise the breakage in the krikung line mund the square and rainfctm a strong rrchiactwrlCQFllPQdtkll. The principaJ accesspoint into the Placa Ml nprstrnuthoonlg k r r k in the built fmnuge around the square. This opening is pwvkkd with arrdritrcnurl emphasis to reinforcethe sense of a visual gatway onto the pmxmlonrl mute ofLaRambla. $;iF$$Apart from the b m k caused by this visual gateway, the colonnrdss run ~'~@+'minuaw around ~ ttm square. w space under the cor~nn~dar measures appmaimotsly 5 m in width and 8 m in height.This semi~cmcloseda m pmvides I shebred and loft9 subspace in between the e n c W shops and the opm quam. The space fills with cafe tables a d is an Meal placa for PQOpk watching. Curtains are pulled down between ttm cdumnswhenit is too hot or mining.

ly..Providing access poimInto the Place Roiai fmm underneath buildlnga nd from behind colonnadeshelps to crwm Iuntfonn rmm of mclownwithin the SpuaN.

~invltingshopfronta 8nd cafes amund the PIlkhl P d I I8 M U Of suneiilrnce underneath the colonnades,but mtWl b.hnrkuroecunrrh.n security roller shuttan m u h in blind mlh.

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In~toratrlna~ofsurvaillrncaundsrthecolon~~the~~ thrtthashopfronttare dedgnd windorm antatha publk realm. In parts of the P k a Mal, security roller shutters are pulled down over shop windows when the cafes shut, and in these areas the colonntnies ooon attract rntimckl rctlvitg. it wou.ld be better if internal shutters wre used, especklly if they wore perforated to mndn visually tmnsparcmt to at least provids a perceptionof sumillancl, frm within. Abwethe coknndes are regularly spaced balconiesat first- and second-floor H S . bakoniab m b l i s h horkonul rhythm8 8l'OUnd 8 d provide a sense of activity and wnraillance. The flnt-floot kwl is pmvkkl with mhitectunl emphslsis and sanm 8s the ajano noblts, with 8 diminishing sak in the stories rbova. The top of the building is finished with a swang dentilled comics and stone balustrading th8t grwts the sky [except where 8 few unfortunate roof extenSiam meet the 8 4 in a clumsy and irregular way]. The plrcr Rdril is a Iaqe square, measuring approximately U10 m by 70 m, and tha~ofmdoruracrwrtadth~h~uniformltyofirtfivcb-rtorsybuildi~ is sdsfging. The grwnd-fbor colonnades serve 8s an rrc)litectunlplinth or base for them buildings. Above the cdonn-, the double height Corinthkn pilastsrs define the main bodu of the buildings. O r a Cbwd,it k*l

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The ground surface within the Placa Reial is finished with a simple stone paving, and most of the lighting is fixed to the surrounding buildings to leave a fabust open space. There are several decorative lamp standards, which were specially designed by Antoni Gaudi and are features in their own right. There are also several palm trees within the square, which pleasantly contrast with the formal lines of the architecture, and a centrally positioned founuin serves as a focal point and a natural meeting place. The open space within the square accommodates a range of uses, includinga market, and the occasional unofficial football match, which many k a l people are often keen to participate in. The square serves as a gathering place and focal point for the local community, much like a village green. The Placa Reial benefits from the fact that most of its connecting streets run straight and narrow, with tall buildings on either side. This provides a spatial contrast and makes the open space of the square appear all the more dramatic. This effect is exploited through providing architecturalemphasis in the design of corner buildings, especially to reinforce the sense of a visual gateway into the square from the connecting processional route of La RamMa. The design and uses of the buildings around the square play a crucial rok in creating activity. Building density is relatively high and accommodates large numbers of people, who assist in generating activity and surveillance. The upper floors of the buildings around the Placa Reial are in residential use - the apartments are accessed from communal mimrslls that include welldesigned ground-floor entrances that open directly onto tha square. Buflding density has to he balanced with creating an appropriate sense of enclosure and preventing overdevelopment. When buildings are betow six storeys in height, as in the Placa Reial, they are of a particularly robust form becausethey can often operate without elevators, which is one measure towards creating an environmentally sustainable buildingform.

Bl RMl NGHAM The city of Birmingham is centrally located at the heart of England, where it serves as the regional capital for the West Midlands. It is the second largest city in the UK, with a populationof over one million within its administrative boundary, and it sits within an urban conurbation of over five million people. Birmingham provides an example of how effective leadership and a successful urban design strategy can focus investment to create new and improved city squares and interconnected streets that can transform a city and its region. In the 19th century, Birmingham had benefited from a visionary mayor, Joseph Chamberlain, who was elected to the Council in 1869 and went on to implement municipal improvements on a grand scale. Much of the city had been in a squalid condition prior to his administration. Chamberlain himself said that before his time Birmingham was I... badly lighted, imperfectly guarded, and only partially drained; there were few public buildings and few important streets... But now great public edifices not unworthy of the importance of a Midland metropolis have risen on every side. Rookeries and squalid courts have given way to fine streets and open places. The roads are well paved, well kept, well lighted, and well cleansed ...Free libraries and museums of art are open to all the inhabitants'. Chamberlain also said 'I have an abiding faith in municipal institutions an abiding sense of the value and importance of local self-

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was blighted by high uncmpkyment, into an attmctive place where tourism, sducotkn,intsmotknelconfwnces,the arts, and high-techology indust- are thrivfmg alongside stated-the-art shopping and city m t r e housing. The change in the city‘s fortunes indicates the importance of urban design for rqpmdon. Thestmalfilhrssaltosham haw urban squamcan be usedto marketacity, and to fncteru bstmdingwhin the international marketplace. While rccommodatingthemotorcar hadbeenthe principal goal of city planning in Birmingham in the l96Os,thirty years later it was realised that while roads were mummy, they must not b e a m bmimsto pedestrian m o l ~ c ? m ( ~nor t barrierstoknpwtrntvbm.Thmughdfidngp&strian pammbM~and the legibilityofthe built amlronm to the car, Birminghamcould not fully realise its potmtbl as ths second city ofthe UK, or as a major European destinat.bn for rho#riwbusiness,tourism, and the arts. It became clear to the dty council that the phl)ricrlstructureofthe city centre mwld have to be imprwed if Birmingham were to be wccesdul in changing its image.

CITY CENTRE DESIGN STRATEGY In Bkmingham City Council and its consultants organised an international design symposium, the ‘Highbuy Initkthre’, to oddress the city’s probbms. This kougtrt topther k l interests and international expertise, and it was egnad that the dty should define a new rola for itself as an international city. Flagship projects for accommodating major events were proposed, including the lntsmotlon ’ al Convention Centre and the National Indoor Arena, and there were plans for major new and improved city squares, including Victoria Square, Centenay Square, and Brlndley place, all of which provide a sequential urban design apedenca. These pmposals fonnad part of a single vision, contained within a amphemm ’ s t w called the ‘City Centre Design Stmtew’. The

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st~documbntwos~forthecitybyconsukntsTibbeids,Colboume, I(mki,Wliemr and was prblihedin 1990.70 The strategy d p e d the idea that the central part ofthe city contains distinct ‘quarters’, whkh are of a homogemnrs ur potentially clmracm.Thearategy a o t s s t h r t t h h c h a r a c t e r ~ f n w n ~ u r wheight, r, realradbu1kofbuildingr;cdouqm~bandtaxhlrss;topognp)ry;~~ protikr;lalandmarks; and so on’.An hnpartont section ofthe strategy idmtifbthe orlknc chamcWst&s oftheso areas rothair uniqumm can be anhmced In nswdtwqmmt propcwrsls.This&ofthesnotcgy has helped tofOcUSckvebpmr#rt#wrtFolpawlsnrpFoperty.

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Fw public squares have been created or improved alongthe new strategic link between the New Street railway station and Brindley Place and the intarconwing streets have been pedestrianised. These improvements p d e pedestrians with a sequential experience of interconnected public spaces. The carefully considered landscaping and public art within the squares help to populate the scene with large numbers of people at different levels, and the viewer is cominually led omards to new delights. After leaving New Street railway station and turningwest, New Street provides a direct axial route to the first square in tha sequence, Victoria Square. There is a dramatic sense of arrival when the pedestrian leaves New Street and arrives in this irregularly shaped public space. Rior to the improvement works, Victoria Square was little more than a traffic island, with traffic congestion on three sides. This was considered inappropriate for a civic space defined by splendid Victorian buildings, including the grade I listed Council House (in the style of a Venation palace), a town hall that rises like the ancient Greek Parthenon, and a former post office in the style of a French chateau. Victor& Square demonstrates how local authorities can design and develop squares when there is clear leadership, vision, and cross-departmentalworking practkes. Inspired by the principles in the City Centre Design Strategy, the tnmformation of Victoria Square began with a brief produced by the council's City

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MCITIES I 8 ~REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE CHAPiEl? Foup

Clay pavbursare laid acrussthe subspam in a herringbone pattem,whkh is stmngenoughtotake the heay v e h i i Wingnucessayto accommodatemajor ewnts. Street fumitum, lnduding lighting, seating, bins, etc., has been specially dedgned forthe square and is canfully positioned for maximum usage without ~frl~nguPon-Fsp-. second public space in the sequence is the steeply sloping Chamberlain Squr~,whidr~withthenorth-wastamcomarofVictoriaSquare.Uthough thh square haa not received anything like the impvemmts to Victoria Square, it nondmbs pmvides an important and unusual link Charnhhin Square is another irregularly shaped public space, and it measuresrppmPdrnately75 mby 75m,withfwrstmetsconnectingtoit.Tha square hdefhed by the dasskaltownhalhthe side ofthe Council House, and the dty museurn and aR gallery; as well as ty a modemii city litway and the Rmlh Forum rstril mall. The gradient rise from the south tothe north is about 6 m, and this has been designed to includeboth steps and a shaped slope. Similar to Waoria Square, the shaped slopc m s a fast moving pedestrian channel that continues the route from the railway station to Brindky Place.

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Inrhr1930r,m~~urbsn~~rc~~w~oproposadrthea~am

oQ#lpkd bg Centenrq Square,with drwricrlly inspired Portland stone buildings of a rmlA#m rcrkthrt better dated to a dvic square. Athough a fow ofthe buildings ~kr~~mrcakrHt,akdrof~krtknandhm~andthaimprct ofthe Secondwar# War, qpeatto have ruined the vision forthe project. h#n Cen€enargSqurre, the pedestrian route continwe through another semi. pl#imall, the lntemrtkmal Convantion Centre-which internalises activity in an unfortunate way - and then it continues out across a canal to the new Broad Strwt Ouarter, which contains Brindly Place. While the City Centre Design

1 TRANSFORWS CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE ItfWSSNCh #I WWHWAM

Strategy providbd the vision and set the principles for the new Broad Stm Ouarter, lmy hdl and Co. Architects pmduced a detailed master plan for the am, M u d i q the focrl point of Brindley Place. Once the city council had assembled md prdtogsd the redundant industrial sites within the quarter, a prhmte company, MndkypJace pk, was establiihad to dewlop the sites on a COmmQfjrl bask A dynamic new quarter has now been dewbped within the BroadStreet -Area. Aldmghthis area has taken about ten yearsto build,the City Centre Design Stmtegy rnaqedto help boost confidence in this put of Birmhgham scum after its publication in 1990. There are two new publk squares within the Broad Street Ouartcw,with cafes, offices, and Mwre facilities around them. Them is also a new housing dewbpmt nearby. Tha mile-bng stretch of canal side that runs through the quarter has also been exploited and enhanced. Tha m u squares form an impOrtrMpart ofthechor8CtUfoftheq W m 8 d hWeSnhonCedbJthbwbiky and kcrl identity. There are some recurring problems within Birmingham's new squares, especially in the Broad Street Ouarter. For example, atthough them is a new sttntrrgk pedestrian link from the city centre, the squares still rely on being destinrtkn points in their own rights, ratherthan being well integmtd within sumnding pedestrian movemm patterns. This is partly due to the severance -- caused by past transport planning mistakar. (Feasibility studies are now being rI@pnpamd to see i f s new u-nd train with strtkm,at IUY public spaces, should be providbd to a d d m this hue.) To a certain extent, squares such as Brindly plrcb succeed in creatfngthe feel of lively people-places for a large part of the day this is because of the major visitor attractkns and -Wkcrtsd8mndthl. Brindby Place was dewbped with an objecth of providing over one million quare feet ofoffke rprcs forcoqmmte hedquarters, and so,as a result ofthis, office space dominatesthe square. When these offices are dosed,the square is cxmphowly quiet and quires surveillance by security guards and video cameras. A l t h q h new squares such as Brindlay Place were advertised as being mimd-use the U0 resMenti01 units that form part ofthe project are hmted in a separate gated ckvakpmsnt,offthe square and on the other side ofrcmol.~~ofarasidantklcommunitywithinthebuildi~anwrndthe rqwro~~~inaIrdcofnotunlsuunraillanceand~-pdkingofthepublic mlm. It a b results in an absence ofthe natural vitality and sense of community ownership assodated with traditional European squares, where buildings ilccommodate bath employment and residential uses and are thereby occupied dryadnight. 7

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quarter rrarnd Brindby Place hosted the 68 summit of the W s wealthiest indurtrbl~~.Wor#~induding~~oftheUSA,mcldarrsa dttm mtrunntr,bars, and khum fsdlides, arwnd Birmingham’s new squares as well as the mw conference halls. The m F dfor swwssfully managingthis event was 8 world rnsrlcaingopptunity,whichthe city owndl embraced to the full. In the y n r after this went, Birmingham attroctftd 42 per cent ofthe entire UK ~ m r I w t b u s i n e s ~ . attractm4txi-l ~To events,it h a s h ementhl far Birmingham to prcwide a#woprkro facilities witMn a welldesigned p)Hpi#l environment a haor of increasing importance as dties bid against e8ch*to hddpmtigious intemabnalaMmS Pmduchg an urban ddgn strategy that indudes the vision for city squares

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TMMFORMW UTI65 2 REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE CHAPTER foull

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TMNSFORMIW6 CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE RENMSSANCE IN BIRWNWAM

occup&d by the Univerdty ofA5ton, the histork but wlected Digbeth area, and h

~ ~ ~ o f w ~ c r r p a ~ ~ ~ a n d ~ t n m ~ s w t ~ . Tha themesforthe new quarters in Eastside ore based upon learning, c u h d heritqe, tehobgy, and sme-of-the-art retailing. Birmingham City Council has again wuflced in partnership with the private sectof to deveJop these rraraThe council isone ofthe main landownersin the a m , but it has also wed b tompultong purch&m powan to mate development rites. various conrortbofpriv8tei~and~formadtockvakp~~ sites. Tha city coundl is now strivingto make Ewuida an example of howtomate an urbm renaissance in a way that reflects currant urban design thinking (as dkussed inthe report ofthe UrbanTask hwca, chaired by Lord R O g a r ~ ) . ~ lhe urban design frsis propored to unfdd with new quarters that contain -wound new publk squares, intareonstreets, and a major IWW city p a k Existingtraffic nodes, which stand close to the bounday of thecity’rcoream andEwtskk,have bean tramformed into new clty squares at gmnd kvdto create impredve pedestrian gatewags into Eastside. New imeequares, public spaces, vistas, and malls have been mated in the flagship Bullring development. This has replaced a 1960s shopping centm to the east of the city centre that stood upon an island site, wrrwnded by sever81 lanes of traffic. Pedestrians could only reach the old Wlllrlngcantreth~amuhoffortriWiqsubwysShoppingst~withinthe city centre, which p d d e access to the Bullring arm, were pedestrianid in earlier enhanwment schemes, and more recently the madjunctions appnmhing the Bullringmre tmnsfotmed by removal ofwbwoya, widening of pwsments, ~ . ~ ~ * ~ * * I w k n ( l r u J m d l h r and provhkn 0fground-M pedestrian cnwshrga lhe key difference between the old 196th Bullringshoppingcantre and the site as mdwebpd bthat it now wwt0-0~1 indudes public spaas that are interconnected with the p m existing pedestrian routes, and views of existing and new up-the Bu1lri-b bWn m&e hndmrkbhbe^^ abgiblepartofthecity centre. .5. , lhe new department store by architects Future Sgmnns, which h Covsne in 15,000 spun-aluminium discs, is a brash and dram& new landmark wlthin tho Bullringmdm&pmt lhe new lrndmarkbuildingisno bigger in scale than other new buildings In the but a shape #Id Bwtlipcg Ntsrbb make it very dktincth. The buMng hr, @OiWd #8PdhIlWtbdngtod forthew, but b F 6 8 u b d in some probkmr atstrwt bvd, especially where it presmts blindwaustothr,pnr?msnt.

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The city council provided the vision forthe new Bullring to fully expbit the pountM ofwdsting Lilrndmarkt thma king the modem kon buiidiq afthe Rotundo and ttrs parish church of Saint Martin’s. The visual Impact of thase krildiqp has been maximised by mating a MW sqwm around Saint Martin’s church and by providing a rmnwide street that confrom this square to the Rotunda lhe Rotundo stands upon the maln shopping area &New Stmt, and a new public space hrs been wbsoad at ita b. A new b#ud sculpture ofa bull, symbdloingthe cattle market that gave the a m its name, has bmn bwWt?din this rpm. Tha Rotunda stands on ground that is sigmHkmntly higherthan the ground kval around Saint Martin’sc)wrdr,Aswch,if you rund on the new public space at the base ofthe Rotunda and Wdownthe newudlllroutetoSaint Martin’schurch,the view ofthechurchand the city beyond is dramatic.Thisview existed inthe historic street lrlput that was destqed in the U6Orto make way forthe mdamist Bulking. Today,,inthe newdavdopmsnn, the openvkw betwoanthespire ofhint Martin’s church and the Rotunda is all the mwe po#rapful as the two landmarks apprrrto b ~ be incmvmathwtth each other (whkhis miniscent ofthewaythat NrlS0n”sColumn in London’s Tnfrlgar Square is visually aligned with the route of Whitehall to cannet3 with Big Rem at the Palace ofwestminster). Along the axial line that connects the landmarks of Saint Martin’s church a d the~nQ,ahistoricsculptureoflardNalsonhas~~prldoofpkerr.The m~rettadbem~ignorad~gmrsbecausenospproprioabkcMiancou~ be found for it. lhe statue was originally erected by public wbmiptkn by

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TW(SMRMIW6 CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE RENAISSANCE IN MRMIMEHAM

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Birmingham’s citiis in the 19th centuy, prior to the erection of Nelson’s Column in Trafalgar Square. Not only does the statue connect present citiiens with the values of the city‘spast inhabitants, but it also connects them with a major event in the histoy of their nation. lhe landmark of Saint Martin’s church has been renovated as part of the new Wlllringandtwoddesofthednrrchweonprimeviewfromitsnewsquan-The~tch hoofush~mgagedwith its adventurous new surroundiw. It has an ‘opendoor’pdky, with community ewnts, historic infamation, and a popular jazz Cafe. It is now regularly teamingwith a bmd cms sect&mof Birmingham’scitizens and visitors. In a~theparishchurcho#lartstohavebeandeMtedtocathedralstatus. The hlldngcla&pmt was realisedthruugh a publk-private partnership. The three private companies that came topher to farm the BirminghamAlliance were

TRANSFORMING CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SQUARE RENAISSANCE IN BIRMINGHAM

TRANSFORMIN6 CITIES :REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE C W E f f

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New spaces... Newplaces... New faces...

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CONCLUSIONS The urban design s t r a t q h developad for Walsall and Cwtmy am in part a testimony to the success of #lmhtgtt&s chy centre Design strategy. They rhaw how madd pmjocts dedoped in a regiondcapkal m n serw as atmaamfarsuccms.Bi~m's~opprarctrte urban imprwrrmnts and the quality of its new puMk rprars, hmteJIvld as rmoddforothsrhrit&tiuw3 I#w#) dw @, whkh all build up momentum for an urban mrrissame. Birmingham is now recognised by the UK GammMnt m beingan 'mergingworld city' and its urban hprovments are being offlcklly championed at 25 &sQpatd urban growth centres across the West Midlands

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A key chaJlenge for Birmingham and other urban areas is howto *the best practice developed in &ngpu#ic space in the city centre to the suburban centres and ordinary ttreets and spaces that make up the modem city.

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R EFER ENC ES/ FURTHER READING 1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8 9

lo 11

WAC tw THE SOUARE RfFERENCEYFURTHER READIU6 I

1 I

'2

13 14

15 16 17

U 19 20

21

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B.ntky, I., Aleodr, A., Mumin, P., McGlynn, S.md With, 6, R.rponrivr Envkonrrpmtr:ALknwlforh~,London,-R.#(l985). Lynch,Id, lho knsp ofthe Cky.MtT R.# (l876). A k n ~ ~ C o r u 8 L m d o D P u , ~ ~ ~ , L o n d m , ~ TuFord rublhhiy[2002). Lkwelyn-Drvles, me Urban De8ign C m p n d k m , for Eylhh Rrtnmhips and the Housing Corporation [2000). slct.,C., W M qfBu##/ng clcks,Rdnhdd kMishln# Corpomkn (lW5) (ad@nl#upMimhodiD89,nowwtotprint). At#Mon, R. SHlcswwr of h m m h l p and E m In Conamrponry Brltiah Urban Rqmembd, W u n Studb, W. 36,No. 1,1999,pp lO7-10. Wad, S.V., Fubltc-pdwtoprcmmhlps, In Culh#wmh, B.(d.), BtWsh rroomkrl, SO barn ofurban and Regional Iwiey,Athlone Rrrr, London (1999). MlnhsryOffHwrkrtmdLoerllkrVrmAlrnt~ofdlhmportRmR ~ * q # w r # r l , c a ~ ~ ~ w o i . b n k n , H l l s o ( i o o z ) . Minh?yof Housing 8nd h i 6ovommont and MlnhtrlJ of lhnsport, Tom, c W m : c m and Eontrd of&ev&pm, hnning Buu.ain No. 3,London,

HMSO (1963). c A B v M T s L q ( ~ : ~ h I n t J k ~ ~ ~ ~

22

~.Londen*Thonrcl.klfordPu#hMnl(2000). Lieberman, E., Peopfe'r needs andpruferences as the bcrrh ofSan h n c k & cdowntown open space plan. Paper presented 8t the 8th conhnco of thr Intmn;ltkndk#odrtlon~thO~Of~mdmdrMy,krl

23 24

Jun#md~,IkrNn,Juiy19(s4. Andnm, J. H., 'Tho T l h CO On', pknning (N), Vol. 65,No. 1,h u y l l 9 9 9 . &id J.,, Inquiry by Design: Toohfir Envfmmnt &hwbw Rnrarch, Cam-, Cambridge University Press [ 1984).

25

26 27 28 29 30

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Fk.r tooo,produd bg thoJoint Contra for Urban h i g n , O x b d Brookr, unUnpUblkM (l998). Cor FuMk f l w m Inc., Ch8-eManhocaan pkw Studg, 1915,mimoo (la84),p. 28. oxlord InrticuCr of Retall Mony.cnm, Ih.N.elclr oftha W/ghStmt, OXIRM ReaouchPapor, ODQRM, hrlorrl(l986).

+

URBED8HadandHa#,-~MndnQ*~*London,HMSO(Wl. Kortof, S., 7h.Ury Shaped: urkrn clpmrnr and MMnlng l h q h Hismy, London, Thames md Hudson (1991). HiHkr, B. and b s o n , J, l h sod01 rogk ofspace, Cambride. CImbrklp U n h n h y Pms. (ie84.

~ M ~ ~ W R cNm Ws I REVIVAL IN THE SOUARE REFERENCWFURTHERREMW

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

41 42 43 44

45 46

47 48 49

50 51 52 53

51 55

57 58 59 60 81 62 83 64

85 , '.

66 67 68 ca

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n FURTHER RUD1CS6 Adams, D., Buying M d o Easy', Mnning lssuo 1323 (1999). Alrundor, C.,A N o w Ih.ory ofUrban Design, Oxford Uninrsity Pross (1987).

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N DESIGN INOLOGY I

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The Lord will guide you always; he will satisfy y w r needs in a rrun-scorchedland and will strengthen your frame. You will be like a well-watered garden, like a spring whose waters never fail. Your people will rebuild the ancient ruins and will raise up the age-old foundations; you will be called Repainr of Broken Walls, Restorer of Streets with Dwellings Isdoh 58 vll-1

TRANSFORMING CITIES

REVIVALIN THE SQUARE

NICK CORBETT

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