Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States: Hydrology, Ecology, and Management

Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States Hydrology, Ecology, and Management Riparian Areas of the Southwester...

Author: Malchus B. Baker | Peter F. Ffolliott | Leonard F. DeBano | Daniel G. Neary

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Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States Hydrology, Ecology, and Management

Riparian Areas of the Southwestern United States Hydrology, Ecology, and Management Edited by

Malchus B. Baker, Jr. Peter F. Ffolliott Leonard F. DeBano Daniel G. Neary

LEWIS PUBLISHERS A CRC Press Company Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Malchus B. Baker, Jr. … [et al.]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 1-56670-626-2 (alk. paper) 1. Riparian ecology--Southwestern States. 2. Ecosystem management--Southwestern States. I. Baker, Malchus B., Jr. QH104.5.S6R57 2003 577.68—dc21 2003047548

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microﬁlming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of speciﬁc clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $1.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA. The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is ISBN 1-56670626-2/03/$0.00+$1.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Speciﬁc permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying. Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identiﬁcation and explanation, without intent to infringe.

Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com © 2004 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-626-2 Library of Congress Card Number 2003047548 ISBN 0-203-49775-9

Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-59152-6 (Adobe eReader Format) Copyright protection does not apply to contributions by Malchus B. Baker, Jr., Thomas C. Brown, Warren P. Clary, William H. Kruse, Jonathan Long, Alvin L. Medina, Daniel G. Neary, John N. Rinne, Larry J. Schmidt, Michael L. Scott, Patrick B. Shafroth and James Steed, which were completed while they were employees of the U.S. Government. Cover: Upper Verde River. Photo by Alvin L. Medina, USDA Forest Service. Back cover: Parker Dam on the Colorado River. Photo by Patrick B. Shafroth, U.S. Geological Survey.

Dedication

Malchus B. Baker, Jr.

This book is dedicated to Malchus B. Baker Jr., who died suddenly on September 24, 2002. The contributions that Malchus made to enhancing knowledge of the hydrology, ecology and management of riparian areas in the Southwest will be long remembered. Those of us who worked with him over the years have countless memories — good times and rough times, too. Besides his invaluable professional contributions, we fondly remember Malchus’ quick smile, dry humor, gentle easy-going ways and complete devotion to his family and friends. Malchus is appropriately recognized as the senior technical editor of this book to ensure that this remembrance continues. This is truly the right thing to do.

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United States with the southwestern region highlighted.

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Editors Peter F. Ffolliott, Ph.D. is a professor on the faculties of the School of Renewable Natural Resources and Arid Lands Resource Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona. He holds a B.S. in forest management and an M.F. in forest-wildlife management from the University of Minnesota, and a Ph.D. in watershed management from the University of Arizona. Prior to coming to the University of Arizona in 1970, he was a Research Forester with the USDA Forest Service in Flagstaff, Arizona. Dr. Ffolliott currently teaches and conducts research programs in support of watershed and other natural resources management. He is a Fellow of the Society of American Foresters, the Indian Association of Hydrologists and the Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science and a member of other professional and honorary societies. Dr. Ffolliott has authored, co-authored, or jointly authored 450 publications on the ecology, management and appraisal of natural resources programs and related supporting topics. Leonard F. DeBano, Ph.D. is a professor of Watershed Management in the School of Renewable Natural Resources at the University of Arizona, Tucson. Dr. DeBano received a B.S. in Range Management at Colorado State University, an M.S. in Range Management at Utah State University and a Ph.D. in Soil Physics from the University of California, Berkeley. He was with the USDA Forest Service for 35 years, working as a scientist and a project leader in watershed management for the Paciﬁc Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station at Glendora, California and at the Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station in Tempe, Arizona. A major focus of his personal research was quantifying the effect of ﬁre on physical, chemical and biological properties of soils. He is an internationally recognized authority on water repellency in soils and its relationship to ﬁre. As project leader, he led a research team studying watershed problems in the southwestern United States, including the impact of brush and forest manipulations on runoff, erosion and stream channel processes. He has actively participated in research on Southwest riparian areas, focusing on the relationship between them and the management of the surrounding watersheds. Daniel G. Neary, Ph.D. is Project Leader and Research Soil Scientist, Watershed and Riparian Ecosystems Project, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Flagstaff, Arizona. Dr. Neary has B.S. (Forestry), M.S. (Forest Ecology) and Ph.D. (Forest Soils and Hydrology) degrees from Michigan State University. He is a certiﬁed Professional Soil Scientist through ARCPACS (American Registry of Certiﬁed Professional Agronomists, Crop Scientists and Soil Scientists) and the current Chair of the ARCPACS Soils Certiﬁcation Board. He is a registered Emergency Medical Technician (Arizona and National) and has worked on ﬁre incident teams as a Medical Unit Leader and EMT. He worked for the New Zealand Forest Service, Forest Research Institute at Rotorua, New Zealand, from 1974 to 1978 and, since then, has been with the USDA Forest Service Research in North Carolina (1978 to 1981),

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CHAPTER

1

Introduction Peter F. Ffolliott, Malchus B. Baker, Jr., Leonard F. DeBano and Daniel G. Neary

CONTENTS 1.1 Hydrologic Relationships.................................................................................2 1.2 Ecological Relationships..................................................................................3 1.3 Resource Use....................................................................................................4 1.4 Changing Emphasis of Riparian Management................................................6 1.5 Summary ..........................................................................................................7 References..................................................................................................................8

Riparian areas, situated in the interfaces between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, are located along the banks of rivers and perennial, intermittent and ephemeral streams and around the edges of lakes, ponds, springs, bogs and meadows. Riparian corridors are largely delineated by soil characteristics and by vegetative communities that require free or unbound water. The abruptness and extent of transitions between the terrestrial and aquatic interfaces that delineate the riparian areas are generally site speciﬁc. Transitions across terrestrial, riparian and aquatic ecosystems in the southwestern United States tend to be more abrupt than those in the more humid eastern United States (Figure 1.1). Riparian areas occupy less than 2% of the total land area in the Southwest. However, these ecosystems are often the most productive and valuable of all of these lands. They are found in a wide range of climatic, hydrologic and ecological environments, from high-elevation montane forests through intermediate-elevation woodlands to low-elevation shrublands and desert grasslands (see Plate 1 in color insert following page 174). Major river drainages and tributaries supporting riparian ecosystems include the lower Colorado River from Lee’s Ferry in northern Arizona

1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

1

2

Figure 1.1

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Transition proﬁles across terrestrial, riparian and aquatic ecosystems in (A) the southwestern United States (adapted from Johnson, R.R. and Lowe, C.H., On the development of riparian ecology, in Riparian Ecosystems and Their Management: Reconciling Conﬂicting Uses, Tech. Coords. Johnson, R.R. et al., USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins CO, 1985) and (B) the eastern United States (adapted from Clark, J.R. and Benforado, J., Introduction, in Wetlands of Bottom Hardwood Forests, Clark J.R. and Benforado, J., Eds., Elsevier Scientiﬁc Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1981.)

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3

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INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.2

5

Riparian trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants provide streambank stability. Headwaters of the Black River, Salt-Verde River Basin, Arizona. Photo by Malchus B. Baker, Jr., USDA Forest Service.

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INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.3

7

In an attempt to provide more water for downstream users, land managers replaced salt cedar and other riparian vegetation with high transpiration rates with vegetative types that transpire less water. Photo: Peter F. Ffolliott, University of Arizona.

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CHAPTER

2

Deﬁnitions and Classiﬁcations Leonard F. DeBano and Larry J. Schmidt

CONTENTS 2.1

Deﬁnitions ......................................................................................................12 2.1.1 Riparian ..............................................................................................12 2.1.1.1 Physical and Biological Criteria.........................................12 2.1.1.2 Administrative Deﬁnitions..................................................12 2.1.1.3 Other Deﬁnitions ................................................................13 2.1.2 Wetlands .............................................................................................14 2.2 Classiﬁcations.................................................................................................15 2.2.1 General Approaches ...........................................................................15 2.2.2 Information Needs and Analyses.......................................................16 2.2.3 Southwestern Riparian Ecosystems ...................................................16 2.2.4 Southwest Wetlands ...........................................................................18 2.2.4.1 Mountain Meadows and Montane Wetlands......................19 2.2.4.2 Coastline Wetlands..............................................................19 2.2.4.3 Marshlands..........................................................................20 2.2.4.4 Ciénegas ..............................................................................21 2.2.4.5 Constructed Wetlands .........................................................21 2.3 Summary ........................................................................................................21 References................................................................................................................23 Riparian and wetland ecosystems have been deﬁned and classiﬁed in numerous ways over the past four decades. This chapter presents a general framework of terminology, provides examples that illustrate the evolution of terminology and summarizes various classiﬁcation systems used by different disciplines or objectives. Wetlands are included because of their historical importance and their present-day status as part of the Southwest’s endangered ecosystems. 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

11

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DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

19

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20

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

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DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

21

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2.3 SUMMARY 5LSDULDQDQGZHWODQGHFRV\VWHPVDUHXQLYHUVDOO\UHFRJQL]HGDVFULWLFDODUHDV LQ WKH VRXWKZHVWHUQ 8QLWHG 6WDWHV 1XPHURXV FODVVLÀFDWLRQ V\VWHPV KDYH EHHQ GHYHORSHG LQ DWWHPSWV WR EHWWHU GHVFULEH WKHVH XQLTXH DTXDWLF DQG WHUUHVWULDO UHVRXUFHV7KHVHFODVVLÀFDWLRQV\VWHPVUDQJHLQFRPSOH[LW\IURPVLPSOHGHVFULS WLYH IRUPDWV WR KLJKO\ VRSKLVWLFDWHG VWDWLVWLFDO DQG PDWKHPDWLFDO DQDO\VHV DQG PRGHOV7DEOHSUHVHQWVDVXPPDU\RIVRPHFODVVLÀFDWLRQV\VWHPV&ODVVLÀ FDWLRQRIULSDULDQDQGZHWODQGHFRV\VWHPVLVFRQWLQXDOO\HYROYLQJDVXQGHUVWDQG LQJLPSURYHVDQGSUHVVXUHFRQWLQXHVWRJURZLQUHVSRQVHWRWKHHYHULQFUHDVLQJ KXPDQSRSXODWLRQLQWKH6RXWKZHVW

22

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Table 2.1 Selected Classiﬁcation Systems Developed for Riparian Areas and Wetlands for the Southwest and Elsewhere in the United States Classiﬁcation System

Analytic Tool Used

Location

Riparian ﬂoodplains

Vegetation and ﬂoodplains, aerial photography

Middle Rio Grande—New Mexico

Classiﬁcation of natural rivers

Stream morphology into homogeneous stream types Cluster analysis

United States, Canada, New Zealand Arizona and New Mexico

Wetlands in the Southwest

Digital database

Southwest United States and Mexico

Montane wetlands

Flooding regimes and plant species

Arizona

Southwest woody riparian vegetation

Plant succession and evolution

Southwest Deserts

Riparian vegetation

Vegetation composition and trend

Southeastern Arizona

Riparian areas

Source Mount, J., Vegetation classiﬁcation on the Middle Rio Grande, in Rio Grande Ecosystems: Linking Land, Water, and People, RMRS–P–7, Finch, D.M., et al., Eds., USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins CO, 1999, 135. Rosgen, D.L., A classiﬁcation of natural rivers, Catena, 22, 169, 1994. Szaro, R.C., Riparian forest and scrubland community types of Arizona and New Mexico, Desert Plants, 9, 70, 1989. Minckley, W.L. and Brown, D.E., Part 6. Wetlands, in Biotic Communities of the American Southwest—United States and Mexico, Brown, D.E., Ed., Desert Plants, 4, 223, 1982. Fredrickson, L.H. and Dugger, B.D., Management of Montane Wetlands in Arizona, Rept. Gaylord Mem. Lab., The School of Natur. Resour., Univ. of Missouri-Columbia. Puxico, n.d. Johnson, R.R., Bennett, P.S. and Haight, L.T., Southwestern woody riparian vegetation and succession: An evolutionary approach, in Proc. Riparian Systems Conf. Protection, Management and Restoration, Abell, D.L., Tech. Coord., Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW–110, USDA Forest Service, Paciﬁc Southwest Research Station, Berkeley, 1989, 135. Rucks, M.G., Composition and trend of riparian vegetation on ﬁve perennial streams in southeastern Arizona, in California Riparian Systems: Ecology, Conservation and Productive Management, Warner, R.E. and Hendrix, K.M., Eds., Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1984, 97. (continued)

DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS

23

Table 2.1 Selected Classiﬁcation Systems Developed for Riparian Areas and Wetlands for the Southwest and Elsewhere in the United States (continued) Classiﬁcation System

Analytic Tool Used

Location

Mountain meadow

Floristic composition, cluster analyses

Southern Sierra Nevada Mountains, California

Riparian/wetlan d ecosystems

Phytogeographic regions

Peninsular Baja California, Mexico

Riparian plant communities

Community types

Southeastern Arizona

Large woody debris

Elevation

Hot desert streams of the Southwest

Ciénegas

Elevation

Southwest

Nearctic zones

Genetic hierarchical

North America

Source Ratliff, R.D., A Meadow Site Classiﬁcation for the Sierra Nevada, California, Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW–60, USDA Forest Service, Paciﬁc Southwest Research Station, Berkeley, 1982, 16. Roberts, N.C., Important riparian/wetland systems of Peninsular Baja California: An overview, in California Riparian Systems: Ecology, Conservation and Productive Management, Warner, R.E. and Hendrix, K.M., Eds., University of California Press, Berkeley, 1984, 390. Danzer, S.J., Jemison, R. and Guertin, D.P., Riparian plant communities in the mountains of southeastern Arizona, Southwestern Naturalist, 46, 191, 2001. Minckley, W.L. and Rinne, J.N., Large woody debris in hot desert streams: A historical review, Desert Plants, 7, 142, 1985. Hendrickson, D.A. and Minckley, W.L., Ciénegas—Vanishing climax communities of the American Southwest, Desert Plants, 6, 130, 1984. Maxwell, J.R. et al., A Hierarchical Framework of Aquatic Ecological Units in North America (Nearctic Zone), Gen. Tech. Rep. NC–176, USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station, St. Paul, 1995, 72.

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CHAPTER

3

Setting and History Leonard F. DeBano and Larry J. Schmidt

CONTENTS 3.1

The Setting .....................................................................................................30 3.1.1 Climate ...............................................................................................30 3.1.2 Geology and Physiography................................................................31 3.1.3 Soils ....................................................................................................33 3.1.4 Rivers of the Southwest .....................................................................33 3.1.4.1 Colorado River and Tributaries ..........................................33 3.1.4.2 The Rio Grande and Pecos Rivers .....................................35 3.2 Historical Use of Riparian Areas...................................................................35 3.2.1 Pre-European Exploration (Prior to 1540) ........................................36 3.2.2 Spanish Colonial Period (1540–1820)...............................................38 3.2.3 Period of Mexican Rule (1821–1846) ...............................................38 3.2.4 Transition to United States Rule........................................................39 3.2.5 The 20th Century ...............................................................................39 3.2.5.1 Increased Water Demand....................................................39 3.2.5.2 Increased Environmental Concern......................................40 3.2.5.3 Recognition of Riparian–Watershed Linkages...................41 3.3 Historical Perspectives of Human Activities .................................................41 3.3.1 Fur Trapping.......................................................................................42 3.3.2 Mining ................................................................................................42 3.3.3 Livestock Grazing ..............................................................................43 3.3.4 Tree Harvesting ..................................................................................44 3.3.5 Storage and Redistribution of Water .................................................44 3.3.6 Future Riparian Issues .......................................................................46 3.4 Summary ........................................................................................................47 References................................................................................................................47

1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

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Death Valley

Colorado Plateau

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0

Llano Estacado

Rio Grande Valley

Mogollon Rim

Sonoran Desert

Figure 3.1

De Cristo Mts.

100

Guadalupe Mts.

Basin and Range Chihuahuan Desert

200

300

400

Miles

Physiographic regions in the Southwest (adapted from Hollon, W.E., The Southwest: Old and New, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1975).

32

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

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3.1.3

33

Soils

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Rivers of the Southwest

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ni

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na

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l Divid

o

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Elephant Butte Reservoir

Brantley Lake

TEXAS

Pecos

Red Bluff Lake

NEW MEXICO

Santa Rosa Lake Sumner Lake

Santa Fe Albuquerque

a

Abiquiou Reservoir

Cha m

CHIHUAHUA

Rio Puerco

e

on

edr nP o

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Major river basins, tributaries and some of the larger dams found in the Southwest (adapted from Hollon, W.E., The Southwest: Old and New, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1975).

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n

Gulf of California

a

nt

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ni

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m

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ia

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Colorado River Delta

la

he l

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San Diego

ac

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rand e

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ra d

lo

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a nt Sa aria Bill M Williams

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Lake Mead

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in

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Pacific Ocean

Los

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

Death Valley

NEVADA

o

ad or

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Rio Grande

Los Angeles

Owens Lake

UTAH

34 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

SETTING AND HISTORY

35

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36

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

SINAGUA ANASAZI HAKATAYA

MOGOLLON HOHOKAM

Southwest Prehistoric Cultures

Figure 3.3

0

100

200

300

400

Mi le s

Boundaries of the main prehistoric cultures of the Southwest (from Salzmann, Z. and Salzmann, J.H., Native Americans of the Southwest: The Serious Traveler’s Introduction to Peoples and Places, Westview Press, Boulder, 1997).

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Pre-European Exploration (Prior to 1540)

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SETTING AND HISTORY

Figure 3.4

37

Rio Grande River, one of the largest river systems in the southwestern United States. Photo by Alice Chung, USDA Forest Service.

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CHAPTER

4

Hydrology and Impacts of Disturbances on Hydrologic Function Peter F. Ffolliott, Leonard F. DeBano, Malchus B. Baker, Jr., Daniel G. Neary and Kenneth N. Brooks

CONTENTS 4.1 4.2 4.3

Precipitation Patterns .....................................................................................52 Soil Characteristics ........................................................................................54 Runoff Processes and Streamﬂow .................................................................54 4.3.1 Water Pathways to Stream Channels .................................................54 4.3.2 Factors Affecting Streamﬂow Response............................................55 4.3.3 Impacts of Human Interventions .......................................................57 4.3.4 Flooding .............................................................................................57 4.4 Erosion and Sediment Transport ...................................................................58 4.4.1 Soil Erosion........................................................................................58 4.4.2 Sediment Transport ............................................................................59 4.5 Channel Dynamics and Morphology.............................................................60 4.5.1 Dynamic Equilibrium.........................................................................61 4.5.2 Channel Morphology .........................................................................62 4.6 Large Woody Materials..................................................................................63 4.7 Water Quality .................................................................................................64 4.8 Riparian Buffer Strips ....................................................................................64 4.9 Hyporheic Zone..............................................................................................65 4.10 Riparian–Watershed Linkages .......................................................................65 4.11 Impacts of Land-Use and Management Activities ........................................66 4.11.1 Livestock Grazing ..............................................................................66 4.11.2 Tree Cutting .......................................................................................67 4.11.3 Recreational Activities .......................................................................68 4.11.4 Roads ..................................................................................................68 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

51

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19 7 19 5 7 19 6 7 19 7 7 19 8 7 19 9 8 19 0 8 19 1 8 19 2 8 19 3 8 19 4 8 19 5 8 19 6 8 19 7 8 19 8 8 19 9 9 19 0 9 19 1 9 19 2 9 19 3 9 19 4 9 19 5 9 19 6 9 19 7 9 19 8 9 20 9 00

Annual Precipitation (% of Average)

19 7 19 5 7 19 6 7 19 7 7 19 8 7 19 9 8 19 0 8 19 1 8 19 2 8 19 3 8 19 4 8 19 5 8 19 6 8 19 7 8 19 8 8 19 9 9 19 0 9 19 1 9 19 2 9 19 3 9 19 4 9 19 5 9 19 6 9 19 7 9 19 8 9 20 9 00

Annual Precipitation (% of Average)

19 7 19 5 7 19 6 7 19 7 7 19 8 7 19 9 8 19 0 8 19 1 8 19 2 8 19 3 8 19 4 8 19 5 8 19 6 8 19 7 8 19 8 8 19 9 9 19 0 9 19 1 9 19 2 9 19 3 9 19 4 9 19 5 9 19 6 9 19 7 9 19 8 9 20 9 00

Annual Precipitation (% of Average)

Annual Precipitation (% of Average)

19 7 19 5 7 19 6 7 19 7 7 19 8 7 19 9 8 19 0 8 19 1 8 19 2 8 19 3 8 19 4 8 19 5 8 19 6 8 19 7 8 19 8 8 19 9 9 19 0 9 19 1 9 19 2 9 19 3 9 19 4 9 19 5 9 19 6 9 19 7 9 19 8 9 20 9 00

HYDROLOGY AND IMPACTS OF DISTURBANCES ON HYDROLOGIC FUNCTION

250

200

200

200

160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Figure 4.1

53

Los Angeles, California

150

100

50

0

150

El Paso, Texas

100

50

0

Phoenix, Arizona

150

100

50

0

Albuquerque, New Mexico

Annual precipitation at Los Angeles, El Paso, Phoenix and Albuquerque expressed as a percentage of the average annual precipitation for 1975 to 2000.

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4.3 RUNOFF PROCESSES AND STREAMFLOW 2QO\DERXWWRRIWKHDYHUDJHDQQXDOSUHFLSLWDWLRQLQWKHUHJLRQLVFRQYHUWHG LQWR VWUHDPÁRZ 7DEOH 0RVW SUHFLSLWDWLRQ LV ORVW WKURXJK HYDSRUDWLRQ DQG WUDQVSLUDWLRQ/LPLWHGSUHFLSLWDWLRQDPRXQWVLQÀOWUDWHWKHVRLOVXUIDFHDQGSHUFRODWH GRZQZDUGWKURXJKWKHVRLOSURÀOHWREHFRPHVXEVXUIDFHÁRZWRSHUHQQLDOVWUHDPV RUWRUHFKDUJHJURXQGZDWHUDTXLIHUV0DQDJHPHQWSUDFWLFHVWKDWLQFUHDVHWKHDPRXQW RI DYDLODEOH SUHFLSLWDWLRQ E\ UHGXFLQJ HYDSRWUDQVSLUDWLRQ IURP XSODQG ZDWHUVKHGV KDYHORQJEHHQRILQWHUHVWWRWKHSHRSOHRIWKH6RXWKZHVW 4.3.1

Water Pathways to Stream Channels

3DWKZD\V RI ZDWHU ÁRZ WR VWUHDP FKDQQHOV LQ WKH VRXWKZHVWHUQ 8QLWHG 6WDWHV GLIIHUIURPWKRVHLQWKH(DVWZKHUHVXEVXUIDFHÁRZPRYHVYHUWLFDOO\LQWRWKHVRLO SURÀOH DQG WKHQ ODWHUDOO\ LQWR VWUHDP FKDQQHOV WR EHFRPH WKH PDMRU SDWKZD\ RI VWRUPZDWHU LQWR DQG RXW RI WKH ULSDULDQ HFRV\VWHPV RI WKH ZHOOGUDLQHG IRUHVWHG ZDWHUVKHGV2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLQWKH6RXWKZHVWRYHUODQGÁRZSOD\VDGRPLQDQW

HYDROLOGY AND IMPACTS OF DISTURBANCES ON HYDROLOGIC FUNCTION

55

Table 4.1 Percent of Annual Precipitation Converted into Streamﬂow by Vegetation Type and Elevation Range

Vegetative Type Mixed conifer forests Ponderosa pine forests Pinyon-juniper woodlands Chaparral shrublands Desert shrublands and grasslands

Elevation Range (ft)

Annual Precipitation (in.)

Streamﬂow (percent of annual precipitation)

>7,500

>25

10–15

5,500–8,000

18–30

10–15

4,500–7,500

12–20

10

3,500–5,500

15–25

8–10

<3,500

<12

<5

Sources: Ffolliott, P.F. and Throud, D.B., Water Yield Improvement by Vegetation Management: Focus on Arizona, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service, Washington D.C., 1975, 1135; Conner, R.C., Born, J.D., Green, A.W. and O’Brien. R.A., Forest Resources of Arizona, Resour. Bull. INT-69, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden UT,1990, 92; Van Hooser, D.D., O’Brien, R.A. and Collins, D.C., New Mexico’s Forest Resources, Resour. Bull. INT-79, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden UT, 1993, 110.

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Figure 4.2

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Pathways of water ﬂow in (a) the eastern United States where stormwater inﬁltrates the soil before entering a stream channel and (b) the southwestern United States where excess water moves across the soil surface from upland watersheds into a stream channel. The curved arrows indicate the pathways of water ﬂow. From: Marti, E., Fisher, S.G., Schade, J.D. and Grimm, N.B., Flood frequency and streamriparian linkages in arid lands, in Streams and Ground Water, Jones, J.B. and Mulholland, P.J., Eds., Academic Press, New York, 2000.

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57

Red River, Carson National Forest, Rio Grande Basin, New Mexico. Photo by Alvin L. Medina, USDA Forest Service.

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59

Table 4.2 Annual Production of Total Sediments (Suspended Sediment and Bedload) in Ponderosa Pine Forests and Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands

Vegetation Ponderosa pine forest Pinyon-juniper woodlands 1

Annual Production of Total Sediments High Low (lb/acre) Average <15

12,000

200

540

1

Period of Record

References

400

26

Brown et al.42

240

13

Clary et al.43

Includes total sediment transported in a 100-year storm event in Arizona.

Sources: Thorud, D.B. and Ffolliott, P.F., A Comprehensive Analysis of a Major Storm and Associated Flooding in Arizona, Tech. Bull. 202, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, 1973; Baker, M.B., Jr., Brown, H.E. and Champagne, N.E., Hydrologic performance of the Beaver Creek watersheds during a 100-year storm, American Geophysical Union, San Francisco, 1971.

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RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Table 4.3 Total Sediment (Suspended Sediments and Bedload) Transport after a 100-Year Storm by Vegetation Type and Management Practice

Vegetation and Management

Total (lb/acre)

Sediment Transport Suspended Sediment (percent)

Bedload (percent)

Ponderosa Pine Forests Thinning Clearing Partial clearing and thinning

1800 17,600 2400

60 90 90

40 10 10

80 73

20 27

Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands Herbicidal conversion Mechanical conversion

115 2200

Sources: Thorud, D.B. and Ffolliott, P.F., A Comprehensive Analysis of a Major Storm and Associated Flooding in Arizona, Tech. Bull. 202, Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, 1973; Baker, M.B., Jr., Brown, H.E. and Champagne, N.E., Hydrologic performance of the Beaver Creek watersheds during a 100-year storm, American Geophysical Union, San Francisco, 1971.

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Table 4.4 Levels of Resolution in Rosgen’s Stream Channel Classiﬁcation System Level

Description of Inventory

Objectives

I

Broad morphological classiﬁcation

Obtain generalized description of major types of streams

II

Morphological description of stream types

III

Stream state or condition

IV

Veriﬁcation

Provide delineation and detailed interpretation of homogeneous stream reaches based on reference reach measurements Determine existing condition or stability of streams; estimate departure from their potential Verify stream conditions, stability and potential as predicted from Levels I, II and III

Information Required Landform, lithology, soils, climate, basin relief, depositional history, valley morphology, stream or river proﬁle morphology and patterns Channel patterns, entrenchment ratio, width-to-depth ratio, sinuosity, channel material, slope

Channel stability index, riparian vegetation, depositional patterns, debris occurrence, bank erosion, conﬁnement features, ﬁsh habitat indices, river size category Streamﬂow, suspended sediment and bedload measurements, bank erosion rates, aggradationdegradation of channel beds, biological data, riparian vegetation measurements, hydraulic geometry

Source: Rosgen, D.L., A classiﬁcation of natural rivers, Catena, 22, 1994.

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Table 4.5 Potential Streamﬂow Increases From Vegetation Management Practices

Vegetative Type

Before Management

Mountain grasslands Mixed conifer forests Ponderosa pine forests Chaparral shrublands Pinyon-juniper woodlands

3 3–5 2–4 1–2 <1

1 2

Streamﬂow, in inches Potential increase 1.5–2.0 3–4 1–3 1–5 <0.5

Adjusted Increase2 1.5 0.55 2.4

Thinning, clearing and conversion of vegetation in varying combinations. Reﬂects other multiple-use considerations.

Source: Hibbert, A.R., Opportunities to increase water yield in the Southwest by vegetation management, in: Interior West Watershed Management, Baumgartner, D.M., Ed., Washington State University Cooperative Extension, Pullman WA,1981.

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CHAPTER

5

Linkages Between Riparian Corridors and Surrounding Watersheds Leonard F. DeBano, Sandra J. DeBano, David E. Wooster and Malchus B. Baker, Jr.

CONTENTS 5.1

Physical Linkages ..........................................................................................78 5.1.1 Streamﬂow..........................................................................................79 5.1.2 Groundwater.......................................................................................79 5.2 Hyporheic Zone..............................................................................................80 5.3 Chemical Linkages.........................................................................................82 5.3.1 Nutrient Cycling.................................................................................82 5.3.2 Pollution .............................................................................................84 5.4 Biological Linkages .......................................................................................85 5.4.1 Large Woody Material .......................................................................85 5.4.2 Faunal Linkages .................................................................................87 5.4.3 Food Webs..........................................................................................87 5.4.4 Biodiversity Relationships .................................................................88 5.4.4.1 Lateral Linkages .................................................................89 5.4.4.2 Longitudinal Linkages ........................................................91 5.5 Role of Linkages in Management .................................................................92 5.6 Summary ........................................................................................................92 References................................................................................................................93

Riparian corridors are an integral and important component of southwestern landscapes because they display diverse assemblages of ﬂora, fauna, streamﬂow, climate, elevation, geology, geomorphology and uses (see Chapter 3). A high level of plant and animal diversity is found in the riparian corridors passing through 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

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Water Surface

[A] Downwelling Upwelling

[B]

Under High Flow Conditions

[C]

Downwelling stream water (High DO, Low nutrients, Low algal mass)

Upwelling hyporheic water (Low DO, High nutrients in reduced form, High algal mass)

Filtration

Transformation

Figure 5.1

The general ﬂow patterns through the hyporheic zone during (A) downwelling and upwelling, (B) lateral movement through the riverbed and adjacent gravel bars and (C) changes in water composition passing through the hyporheic zone. (Boulton, A.J., River ecosystem health down under: Assessing ecological condition in riverine groundwater zones in Australia, Ecosyst. Hlth., 6, 2000.)

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Figure 5.3

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CHAPTER

6

Human Alterations of Riparian Ecosystems Juliet Stromberg, Mark Briggs, Chad Gourley, Michael Scott, Patrick Shafroth and Larry Stevens

CONTENTS 6.1

River Impoundments ....................................................................................101 6.1.1 Impacts on Hydrologic and Ecological Processes ..........................101 6.1.2 Grand Canyon Reach of the Colorado River ..................................101 6.2 Long-Term Effects of River Impoundments ...............................................104 6.2.1 Impacts on Hydrologic and Ecological Processes ..........................104 6.2.2 Bill Williams River of Western Arizona..........................................105 6.3. Restoring Streamﬂow to Regulated Rivers .................................................108 6.3.1 Impacts on Hydrologic and Ecological Processes ..........................108 6.3.2 Truckee River in Western Nevada ...................................................109 6.4 Releases of Water from Reservoirs .............................................................111 6.4.1 Impacts on Functioning ...................................................................111 6.4.2 The Colorado River Delta................................................................111 6.5 Multi-Purpose Riparian Ecosystem Management .......................................113 6.5.1 Considerations ..................................................................................113 6.5.2 Agua Fria River in Central Arizona ................................................113 6.6 Rewatering Dry Rivers.................................................................................115 6.6.1 Considerations ..................................................................................115 6.6.2 Santa Cruz River in Southeastern Arizona......................................116 6.7 Water Conservation ......................................................................................117 6.7.1 Importance and Considerations .......................................................117 6.7.2 San Pedro River in Southeastern Arizona .......................................118 6.8 Summary ......................................................................................................121 References..............................................................................................................121 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

99

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6.1 RIVER IMPOUNDMENTS 6.1.1

Impacts on Hydrologic and Ecological Processes

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Grand Canyon Reach of the Colorado River

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Table 6.1 Zonation, Location and Description of Colorado River Corridor Vegetation in Grand Canyon

Zone

Stage (m3/s)

Inundation frequency

Approximate elevation over base (m)

Canopy species

HRZ

<565

Daily–Annually

0–2

None

LRZ

565–1,275

<3 yr

2–5

MRZ

1,275–3,400

3–30

5–10

URZ

3,400–14,000

30–1,200

Tamarisk, sandbar willow, arrowweed Hackberry, redbud, catclaw, honey mesquite Catclaw, honey mesquite, arrowweed

UPL

>14,000

>1,200

10–20

>20

Catclaw (sparse)

Ground cover species Wetland herbs, grasses Mixed herbs, grasses, shrubs Mixed riparian and upland grasses and shrubs Princes plume, Fremont mustard, Brome grasses Desert shrubs and grasses

Note: Inundation frequency represents the approximate number of ﬂow events that ﬂood a given zone. Baseﬂow elevation (m) is that associated with the 266 m3 s–1 stage and is approximate because reach width controls stage elevation and varies throughout the river. Modiﬁed from Carothers, S.W., Aitchison, S.W. and Johnson, R.R., Natural resources, whitewater recreation and river management alternatives on the Colorado River, Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, in Proc. First Conference on Scientiﬁc Research in the National Parks, vol. 1, 1979; Stevens, L.E. et al., Flow regulation, geomorphology and Colorado River marsh development in the Grand Canyon, Arizona, Ecol. Appl., 5, 1995; and Johnson, R.R., Historic changes in vegetation along the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon, in Colorado River Ecology and Dam Management, National Research Council, Glen Canyon Environmental Studies Review Committee, National Academy Press, Washington D.C., 1991.

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6.2 LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF RIVER IMPOUNDMENTS 6.2.1

Impacts on Hydrologic and Ecological Processes

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(a)

(b) Figure 6.1

Contrast in riparian vegetation density between (a) the lower Bill Williams River, below Alamo Dam and (b) along the Santa Maria River, upstream of Alamo Dam (near Palmerita Ranch). Photos by Patrick B. Shafroth, U.S. Geological Survey.

Proportion of bottomland

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1960 Channel

Figure 6.2

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1990

2000

Dense floodplain vegetation

Change in the proportion of channel area and dense ﬂoodplain vegetation within the Bill Williams River bottomland, 1953–1996. Data are derived from aerial photographs. Error bars indicate standard error associated with variation among nine sampled reaches. Alamo Dam was completed in 1968.

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6.6 REWATERING DRY RIVERS 6.6.1

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6.7 WATER CONSERVATION 6.7.1

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Contrast between (a) a reach of the San Pedro River, Arizona, that retains perennial stream ﬂow and supports dense riparian vegetation including Fremont cottonwood-Goodding willow forests and (b) a reach in which stream ﬂow has become intermittent, ground-water tables have declined and the riparian forests have been replaced by salt cedar shrublands. Photos by Juliet C. Stromberg, Arizona State University.

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CHAPTER

7

Riparian Flora Steven P. McLaughlin

CONTENTS 7.1 Classiﬁcation of Riparian Species ...............................................................128 7.2 Biogeographical Scope ................................................................................129 7.3 Previous Work ..............................................................................................129 7.4 Procedures of this Study ..............................................................................130 7.5 Results and Discussion ................................................................................131 7.6 Summary ......................................................................................................136 References..............................................................................................................137 Appendix 7.1 .........................................................................................................141 Most riparian wetlands possess a ﬂora substantially different from that of the surrounding uplands. The distinction is particularly striking in arid and semiarid lands. Because lack of water limits plant growth, wetlands are often the most favorable plant habitats in the Southwest. Soils of wetlands are saturated for all or part of the year, which results in anaerobic conditions that most xerophytes of the adjacent upland habitats cannot tolerate. Moreover, the frequent ﬂooding of wetlands presents insurmountable challenges to slow-growing xerophytes that can persist through long droughts. Principal riparian habitats in the Southwest include broadleaf gallery forests and marshes or ciénegas along major perennial or near-perennial rivers and streams and mesquite (Prosopis spp.) bosques and giant sacaton (Sporobolus wrightii) ﬂats found on adjacent ﬂoodplains. Ciénegas generally are conﬁned to the headwaters of streams in desert grasslands.1 Gallery forests of major rivers formerly had understory vegetation similar to that of remnant ciénegas.2–4 Dick-Peddie5 also considers closed basin, playa and alkali sink vegetation as riparian communities.

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Table 7.1 Most Common Families of Core Riparian Vascular Plants in 16 Riparian Floras from the Southwestern United States

Family Poaceae Asteraceae Cyperaceae Polygonaceae Salicaceae Scrophulariaceae Juncaceae Fabaceae Apiaceae Ranunculaceae Onagraceae Brassicaceae Lemnaceae

Numbers of Species Native Exotic Total 47 57 71 11 15 22 27 10 14 21 14 12 8

16 5 2 9 0 2 0 3 2 0 0 0 0

63 62 73 20 15 24 27 13 16 21 14 12 8

Total Incidence in 16 Riparian Floras Native Exotic Total 79 129 106 20 53 43 49 14 24 27 23 22 20

70 14 1 44 0 10 0 19 5 0 0 0 0

149 143 107 64 53 53 49 33 29 27 23 22 20

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Table 7.2 Most Widespread Species of Core Riparian Vascular Plants within 16 Riparian Floras from the Southwestern United States Species Polypogon monspeliensis Populus fremontii Rorippa nasturtium–aquaticum Salix gooddingii Xanthium strumarium Aster subulatus Echinochloa crusgalli Baccharis salicifolia Cyperus odoratus Sonchus asper Fraxinus velutina Mimulus guttatus Polypogon viridis Rumex crispus Melilotus alba Scirpus americanus Paspalum distichum Polygonum lapathifolium Celtis laevigata var. reticulata Eleocharis palustris Juncus torreyi Lemna gibba Plantago major Veronica anagallis–aquatica Vitis arizonicus Polygonum aviculare Typha domingensis Zannichellia palustris Berula erecta Chilopsis linearis Centaurium calycosum Distichlis spicata Echinochloa colonum Epilobium ciliatum Gnaphalium stramineum Hymenoclea monogyra Juglans major Sporobolus wrightii

Status

Incidence

Exotic Native Native Native Native Native Exotic Native Native Exotic Native Native Exotic Exotic Exotic Native Native Exotic Native Native Native Native Exotic Exotic Native Exotic Native Native Native Native Native Native Exotic Native Native Native Native Native

15 15 15 14 14 13 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

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Table 7.3 Percentages of Exotic Species in 16 Riparian Floras from the Southwestern United States Flora Eastern Imperial Co. Gila Indian Reservation Hassayampa Reserve Ash Meadows Tucson Mountains Aravaipa Preserve Sonoita Creek SNA Buenos Aires NWR San Bernadino NWR Red Rock State Park Hooker Ciénega Sevilleta NWR Babocomari Ciénega San Rafael State Park Upper Gila River, NM Pinaleño Mountains

Stream Colorado River Gila River Hassayampa River wetlands Santa Cruz River Aravaipa Creek Sonoita Creek Arivaca Ciénega and Creek San Bernadino Ciénega Oak Creek Hooker Ciénega Rio Grande Babocomari Ciénega Santa Cruz River Gila River Wetlands

Elevation (m)

Core Riparian

Facultative Riparian

60 300 610 680 730 1,000 1,100 1,100

21.3 19.7 25.4 14.9 24.2 20.8 12.2 16.3

19.4 34.9 49.1 27.1 26.6 16.5 17.7 13.8

1,140 1,190 1,350 1,360 1,365 1,400 1,500 2,750+

25.0 26.0 10.6 17.1 14.8 15.2 20.3 4.6

14.5 33.9 6.4 19.6 16.9 20.2 11.7 7.4

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Table 7.4 Numbers of Native and Exotic Species for Core Riparian, Facultative Riparian and Upland Categories and Percentages of Exotics for Each Category in Five Local Floras Flora (Riparian area) Eastern Imperial County Number of native species Number of exotic species Percentage of exotic species Tucson Mountains Number of native species Number of exotic species Percentage of exotic species Sonoita Creek State Natural Area Number of native species Number of exotic species Percentage of exotic species San Rafael State Park Number of native species Number of exotic species Percentage of exotic species Pinaleño Mountains Number of native species Number of exotic species Percentage of exotic species

Elevation (m)

Core Riparian

Facultative Riparian

Upland

59 16 21.3

25 6 19.4

196 20 9.3

50 16 24.2

166 60 26.6

364 28 7.1

72 10 12.2

79 17 17.7

376 8 2.1

78 14 15.2

79 20 20.2

250 5 5.7

63 3 4.6

50 4 7.4

137 5 3.5

60

730

1,100

1,400

2,750+

Note: Elevation refers to the average elevation of the major riparian area in each ﬂora.

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136

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Table 7.5 Mean Incidence in the Western United States (Based on 116 Local Floras) of Core Riparian, Facultative Riparian and Upland Species Found in Five Local Floras Flora Eastern Imperial County Native species Exotic species Tucson Mountains Native species Exotic species Sonoita Creek State Natural Area Native species Exotic species San Rafael State Park Native species Exotic species Pinaleño Mountains Native species Exotic species

Core Riparian

Facultative Riparian

Upland

18.3 a 23.8 a

19.4 a 20.7 a

16.1 a 29.7 a

21.1 a 31.6 a

19.4 a 22.2 a

14.9 b 10.3 b

20.5 a 36.6 a

18.3 a 29.4 a

14.3 b 31.3 a

21.8 a 42.7 a

19.8 a 35.2 a

15.6 b 33.2 a

30.5 a 66.7 a

31.0 a 59.0 a

22.6 b 30.8 a

Note: Means within a row not followed by the same letter are signiﬁcantly different (p < .05) based on one-way analysis of variance. Within each ﬂora, differences in mean incidence between native and exotic species are statistically signiﬁcant.

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7.6 SUMMARY 5LSDULDQ DUHDV DQG ZHWODQGV ZKLFK KDYH EHHQ VHYHUHO\ GHJUDGHG LQ PRVW DUHDV FRQVWLWXWHDVPDOOSURSRUWLRQRIWKHVRXWKZHVWHUQODQGVFDSH\HWWKH\SURYLGHKDELWDWV IRUDGLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\ODUJHSHUFHQWDJHRIWKHVSHFLHVLQUHJLRQDODQGORFDOÁRUDV 7KH ÁRUDV RI ULSDULDQ DQG XSODQG KDELWDWV GLIIHU VXEVWDQWLDOO\ LQ PDQ\ IHDWXUHV 6HYHUDO IDPLOLHV VXFK DV &\SHUDFHDH 3RO\JRQDFHDH 6DOLFDFHDH -XQFDFHDH $SL DFHDH5DQXQFXODFHDHDQG2QDJUDFHDHDUHPRUHFRPPRQLQZHWODQGV([RWLFVSH FLHVDUHGLVSURSRUWLRQDWHO\RYHUUHSUHVHQWHGLQULSDULDQKDELWDWV7KHKLJKGHJUHHRI

RIPARIAN FLORA

137

Table 7.6 Percentages of Life Forms among Native Core Riparian, Facultative Riparian and Upland Species in Five Local Floras Flora Life forms Eastern Imperial County Trees Shrubs Herbaceous perennials Annuals Succulents Tucson Mountains Trees Shrubs Herbaceous perennials Annuals Succulents Sonoita Creek SNA Trees Shrubs Herbaceous perennials Annuals Succulents San Rafael State Park Trees Shrubs Herbaceous perennials Annuals Succulents Pinaleño Mountains Trees Shrubs Herbaceous perennials Annuals Succulents

Core Riparian

Facultative Riparian

Upland

8 7 63 22 —

16 52 8 24 —

— 15 29 50 6

18 12 36 34 —

1 12 34 49 3

1 16 36 41 5

17 11 44 28 —

1 8 29 62 —

1 14 47 33 5

13 6 59 22 —

1 4 33 62 —

2 6 56 32 4

3 2 92 3 —

10 10 72 8 —

7 7 77 8 1

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139

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140

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

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APPENDIX 7.1 Core Riparian Plant Species of the Madrean and Sonoran Floristic Provinces of the Southwestern United States 7KLV DSSHQGL[ OLVWV DOO YDVFXODU SODQW VSHFLHV FRQVLGHUHG FRUH ULSDULDQ VSHFLHV ³ WKRVHVSHFLHVRFFXUULQJSULPDULO\LQZHWODQGVDORQJVWUHDPVDQGRQDGMDFHQWÁRRG SODLQV³LQWKH6RXWKZHVW6SHFLHVJHQHUDOO\FRQVLGHUHGIDFXOWDWLYHULSDULDQVSHFLHV WKRVHFRPPRQO\PDLQWDLQLQJVWDEOHSRSXODWLRQVLQGU\VRLOVRIDGMDFHQWXSODQGVLQ DVXEVWDQWLDOSRUWLRQRIWKHLUUDQJHZLWKLQWKH6RXWKZHVWDUHQRWLQFOXGHG1RPHQ FODWXUHZLWKIHZH[FHSWLRQVIROORZV.DUWHV]

141

N N N N N N N N

Azollaceae Azolla mexicana Schlecht. & Cham. ex K. Presl

Equisetaceae Equisetum arvense L. Equisetum v ferrissii Clute Equisetum hyemale L. var. afﬁne (Engelm.) A.A. Eat. Equisetum laevigatum A. Braun

Marsileaceae Marsilea mollis B.L. Robins. & Fern. Marsilea vestita Hook. & Grev.

Ophioglossaceae Ophioglossum engelmannii Prantl x

x x

x x x x

x

x

N N

Aceraceae Acer negundo L.

Aizoaceae Sesuvium verrucosum Raf.

x

x x

x

x x

x

x

Sonoran Floristic Province

MAGNOLIOPHYTA--MAGNOLIOPSIDA

N

PTERIDOPHYTA

Nativity

Adiantaceae Adiantum capillus-veneris L.

Family/Species

Madrean Floristic Province

P

T

P

P P

P P P P

P

P

Habit

5

37

1

1 18

59 * 57 63

13

27

116 Local Floras, Western US

1

3

0

1 4

1 1 3 6

5

2

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

142 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

x x

N N N N N N N N N N

Apocynaceae Apocynum cannabinum L.

Asclepiadaceae Asclepias fascicularis Dcne. Asclepias speciosa Torr.

Asteraceae Ambrosia triﬁda L. Arnica chamissonis Less. Aster lanceolatus Willd. Aster pauciﬂorus Nutt.

x x

x

x

x

x x

x x x x x x x x x

x

E N N N E N N N N N N N N

N

Apiaceae Apium graveolens L. Berula erecta (Huds.) Coville Cicuta douglasii (DC.) Coult. & Rose Conioselinum scopulorum (Gray) Coult. & Rose Conium maculatum L. Eryngium lemmonii Coult. & Rose Eryngium phyteumae Delar. f. Eryngium sparganophyllum Hemsl. Heracleum maximum Bartr. Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L. f. Hydrocotyle umbellata L. Hydrocotyle verticillata Thunb. Lilaeopsis schaffneriana (Schlecht.) Coult. & Rose var. recurva (A. W. Hill) Affolter Osmorhiza occidentalis (Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray) Torr. Oxypolis fendleri (Gray) Heller Perideridia gairdneri (Hook. & Arn.) Mathias

Anacardiaceae Toxicodendron rydbergii (Small ex Rydb.) Greene

x

x x

x x

x

x

x x x x

x

x x x

x

A P P P

P P

P

P P P

A P P P A P P P P P P P P

S

3 29 12 7

20 37

43

23 8 22

13 29 27 11 19 2 0 0 42 4 3 7 1

31

7 0 1 4

1 0

5

0 0 0

2 8 3 1 3 0 0 0 1 4 0 5 2

4

APPENDIX 7.1 143

Nativity N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Family/Species

Aster praealtus Poir. Aster subulatus Michx. var. ligulatus Shinners Baccharis emoryi Gray Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pavon) Pers. Baccharis salicina Torr. & Gray Bidens aurea (Ait.) Sherff Bidens cernua L. Bidens ferulifolia (Jacq.) DC. Bidens frondosa L. Bidens laevis (L.) B.S.P. Bidens pilosa L. Brachyactis frondosa (Nutt.) A.G. Jones Brickellia ﬂoribunda Gray Brickellia squamulosa Gray Centaurea rothrockii Greenm. Chloracantha spinosa (Benth.) Nesom Chrysothamnus albidus (M.E. Jones ex Gray) Greene Cirsium gilense Woot. & Standl. Cirsium grahamii Gray Cirsium Mojavense (Greene) Petrak Cirsium pallidum Woot. & Standl. Cirsium parryi (Gray) Petrak Cirsium wrightii Gray Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Erigeron coulteri Porter Erigeron peregrinus (Banks ex Pursh) Greene x

x x x x

x x

x x x x

x x x x x x x x x x x

Madrean Floristic Province

x

x

x x

x x x x

x

x x x

Sonoran Floristic Province P P S S S P A A A P A A S P A P S P P P P P P A P P

Habit 5 15 11 38 5 3 17 1 8 4 1 7 7 1 3 8 2 0 2 4 2 6 1 5 9 31

116 Local Floras, Western US 1 13 5 12 1 2 1 2 2 4 0 0 4 1 0 5 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 6 0 0

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

144 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Eupatorium maculatum L. Euthamia occidentalis Nutt. Flaveria chlorifolia Gray Flaveria trinervia (Spreng.) C. Mohr Gnaphalium palustre Nutt. Gnaphalium stramineum Kunth Grindelia fraxino-pratensis Reveal & Beatley Helenium autumnale L. Helenium thurberi Gray Helianthus nuttallii Torr. & Gray Hemizonia pungens (Hook. & Arn.) Torr. & Gray Hymenoclea monogyra Torr. & Gray ex Gray Machaeranthera boltoniae (Greene) B.L. Turner & Horne Machaeranthera carnosa (Gray) Nesom Machaeranthera riparia (Kunth) A.G. Jones Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass. Pulicaria paludosa Link Pyrrhopappus pauciﬂorus (D. Don) DC. Pyrrocoma racemosa (Nutt.) Torr. & Gray Rudbeckia laciniata L. Senecio pauperculus Michx. Senecio pseudaureus Rydb. Senecio salignus DC. Simsia lagasciformis DC. Solidago conﬁnis Gray Solidago spectabilis (D.C. Eat.) Gray Sonchus arvensis L. Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Tessaria sericea (Nutt.) Shinners Trimorpha lonchophylla (Hook.) Nesom Xanthium strumarium L.

N N N N N N N N N N E N N N N N E N N N N N N N N N E E N N N x

x x x

x x x x x

x

x x x x x

x x x

x x x x x x

x x x x

x x

x

x

x x

x x x x x x

x x x

P P A A A A P P A P A S A P A P P P P P P P S A P P P A S P A

3 17 0 3 49 34 0 5 3 9 8 12 2 4 0 8 1 4 4 15 7 17 1 0 8 6 12 60 16 16 48

0 0 0 0 0 8 1 0 4 1 1 8 2 1 0 3 1 2 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 12 4 0 14

APPENDIX 7.1 145

Nativity

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Family/Species

Betulaceae Alnus incana (L.) Moench. ssp. tenuifolia (Nutt.) Breitung Alnus oblongifolia Torr. Alnus rhombifolia Nutt. Betula occidentalis Hook.

Bignoniaceae Chilopsis linearis (Cav.) Sweet

Boraginaceae Heliotropium curassavicum L. Mertensia franciscana Heller Plagiobothrys leptocladus (Greene) I.M. Johnston Plagiobothrys parishii I.M. Johnston Plagiobothrys salsus (Brandeg.) I.M. Johnston Plagiobothrys stipitatus (Greene) I.M. Johnston

Brassicaceae Barbarea orthoceras Ledeb. Cardamine cordifolia Gray Hutchinsonia procumbens (L.) Desv. Lepidium dictyotum Gray Rorippa curvisiliqua (Hook.) Bess. ex Britt. Rorippa microtites (B.L. Robins.) Rollins Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (L.) Hayek Rorippa palustris (L.) Bess. Rorippa sinuata (Nutt.) A. S. Hitchc. Rorippa tenerrima Greene x x x x x x

x x

x x

x

x x

Madrean Floristic Province

x x x

x x x

x

x x x x

x

x

x x

Sonoran Floristic Province

P P A A A A P A P P

P P A A A A

T

T T T T

Habit

37 14 13 7 28 0 57 20 8 1

30 24 6 0 1 5

27

28 8 16 32

116 Local Floras, Western US

0 0 1 0 1 1 15 3 0 0

5 1 0 0 0 1

9

1 3 0 0

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

146 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Rorippa truncata (Jepson) R. Stuckey Sibaria virginica (L.) Rollins

Buddleiaceae Buddleja sessiliﬂora Kunth

Callitrichaceae Callitriche heterophylla Pursh Callitriche palustris L.

Campanulaceae Lobelia anatina F. Wimmer Lobelia cardinalis L.

Capparidaceae Cleome multicaulis DC. Cleomella brevipes S. Wats. Cleomella longipes Torr. Cleomella parviﬂora Gray

Caprifoliaceae Sambucus mexicana K. Presl ex DC.

Caryophyllaceae Cerastium arvense L. Sagina saginoides (L.) Karst. Spergularia macrotheca (Hornem.) Heynh. Spergularia salina J. & K. Presl Stellaria longipes Goldie Stellaria umbellata Turcz. ex Kar. & Kir.

Ceratophyllaceae Ceratophyllum demersum L.

x

x x

x x

x

x

x

x x

x

x

x x

x

x x x

x

x

x

x

x x

P

P P P P P P

T

A A A A

P P

P P

P

P A

14

26 30 8 1 48 18

15

0 0 1 5

3 17

14 26

0

2 1

2

0 1 0 1 1 1

7

0 1 0 0

1 6

1 0

1

0 1

APPENDIX 7.1 147

N N E N N N N N N N N N E N N N N

Convolvulaceae Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br. Cressa truxillensis Kunth

Cornaceae Cornus sericea L.

Crassulaceae Crassula aquatica (L.) Schoenl.

Datiscaceae Datisca glomerata (K. Presl) Baill.

Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus angustifolia L.

Elatinaceae Bergia texana (Hook.) Seub. ex Walp. Elatine brachysperma Gray Elatine rubella Rydb. Elatine triandra Schkuhr

Nativity

Chenopodiaceae Allenrolfea occidentalis (S. Wats.) Kuntze Atriplex lentiforimis (Torr.) S. Wats. Bassia hyssopifolia (Pallas) Kuntze Nitrophila occidentalis (Moq.) S. Wats. Sarcocornia utahensis (Tidestrom) A. J. Scott Suaeda calceliformis (Hook.) Moq. Suaeda suffrutescens S. Wats.

Family/Species

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x x x x x

x

Madrean Floristic Province

x x x

x

x

x

x x

x x x x x x

Sonoran Floristic Province

A A A A

T

P

A

S

P P

S S A P P A P

Habit

4 9 2 3

19

12

10

65

1 11

13 14 24 4 3 12 3

116 Local Floras, Western US

0 1 0 0

2

0

0

0

0 3

2 2 4 2 0 2 1

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

148 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

N N N N N N N N E N E E N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Euphorbiaceae Chamaesyce vermiculata (Raf.) House Croton texensis (Klotzsch) Muell.-Arg. Phyllanthus polygonoides Nutt. ex Spreng.

Fabaceae Amorpha fruticosa L. Astragalus agrestis Dougl. ex G. Don Astragalus phoenix Barneby Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh Lotus alamosanus (Rose) Gentry Lotus corniculatus L. Lotus oblongifolius (Benth.) Greene Melilotus albus Medik. Melilotus ofﬁcinalis (L.) Lam. Prosopis pubescens Benth. Sesbania exaltata (Raf.) Rydb. ex A.W. Hill Trifolium amabile Kunth Trifolium neurophyllum Greene

Frankeniaceae Frankenia salina (Molina) I.M. Johnston

Gentianaceae Centaurium calycosum (Buckl.) Fern. Centaurium exaltatum (Griseb.) W. Wight ex Piper Centaurium nanophilum Reveal, Broome & Beatley Centaurium nudicaule (Engelm.) B.L. Robins. Eustoma exaltatum (L.) Salisb. ex G. Don Eustoma russellianum (Hook.) G. Don Gentiana algida Pallas Gentianopsis detonsa (Rottb.) Ma Gentianopsis thermalis (Kuntze) Iltis x x x x

x

x

x x

x x x

x x x

x x

x x x

x x x x x

x

x x x x x x

x x

x

A A A A P P P A A

S

S P P P P P P A A T A P P

A A P

17 12 1 1 5 1 8 3 7

6

14 18 0 24 0 15 16 59 52 14 1 1 0

3 6 4

8 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 1

0

4 0 1 2 0 3 0 10 6 5 2 0 0

2 6 1

APPENDIX 7.1 149

N N E N E N N N N N N N N N E

Grossulariaceae Ribes aureum Pursh

Haloragaceae Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc. Myriophyllum sibiricum Komarov Myriophyllum spicatum L.

Hippocastanaceae Aesculus californica (Spach) Nutt.

Hydrophyllaceae Hydrophyllum occidentale (S. Wats.) Gray

Hypericaceae Hypericum anagalloides Cham. & Schlecht. Hypericum scouleri Hook.

Juglandaceae Juglans major (Torr.) Heller Juglans microcarpa Berl.

Lamiaceae Lycopus americanus Muhl. ex W. Bart. Lycopus asper Greene Mentha canadensis L. Mentha spicata L.

Nativity

Geraniaceae Geranium carolinianum L.

Family/Species

x x x x

x x

x x

x

x x

x

x

Madrean Floristic Province

x x

x

x

x x

x

x

Sonoran Floristic Province

P P P P

T T

P P

P

T

P P P

S

A

Habit

7 6 50 23

16 4

24 43

16

9

2 17 1

40

19

116 Local Floras, Western US

1 2 4 4

8 0

1 3

1

0

1 3 0

3

0

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

150 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N E E E E N N

Scutellaria lateriﬂora L. Stachys albens Gray Stachys coccinea Jacq. Stachys palustris L. Teucrium canadense L. Teucrium cubense Jacq.

Lentibulariaceae Utricularia macrorhiza Le Conte

Lythraceae Ammannia auriculata Willd. Ammannia coccinea Rottb. Ammannia robusta Heer & Regel Lythrum californicum Torr. & Gray Rotala ramosior (L.) Koehne

Malvaceae Iliamna grandiﬂora (Rydb.) Wiggins Malvella leprosa (Ortega) Krapov. Sidalcea neomexicana Gray

Molluginaceae Glinus lotoides L. Glinus radiatus (Ruiz & Pavon) Rohrb.

Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea mexicana Zucc. Nymphaea odorata Ait.

Oleaceae Forestiera pubescens Nutt. Fraxinus velutina Torr. x x

x x

x

x x x

x x x x x

x

x x x x

x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x x

x

x x

x x

S T

P P

A A

P P P

A A A P P

P

P P P P P A

26 27

1 3

1 2

2 15 20

0 5 0 22 0

15

2 7 8 11 2 3

3 11

1 3

0 1

0 3 2

1 1 1 7 2

0

1 0 4 0 1 2

APPENDIX 7.1 151

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N E N N N

Phytolaccaceae Phytolacca americana L.

Plantaginaceae Plantago major L.

Platanaceae Platanus racemosa Nutt. Platanus wrightii S. Wats.

Plumbaginaceae Limonium limbatum Small

Nativity

Onagraceae Epilobium canum (Greene) Raven Epilobium ciliatum Raf. Epilobium halleanum Hausskn. Epilobium hornemannii Reichenb. Epilobium saximontanum Hausskn. Epilobium torreyi (S. Wats.) P. Hoch & Raven Ludwigia palustris (L.) Ell. Ludwigia peploides (Kunth) Raven Ludwigia repens J. R. Forst. Oenothera elata Kunth Oenothera ﬂava (A. Nels.) Garrett Oenothera kunthiana (Spach) Munz Oenothera longissima Rydb. Oenothera rosea L'Her. ex Ait.

Family/Species

x

x

x

x

x

x x x

x

x x x x x

Madrean Floristic Province

x x

x

x x x

x x x

x

x x

Sonoran Floristic Province

P

T T

P

P

P P P P P A P P P P P P P P

Habit

1

12 8

60

1

31 78 13 25 11 12 5 7 3 44 15 3 8 3

116 Local Floras, Western US

1

0 4

9

0

1 8 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 7 0 0 0 4

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

152 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

N N N E E N E N E N E N N E E N E N E N N N N N N N

Polemoniaceae Allophyllum gilioides (Benth.) A. & V. Grant Polemonium pauciﬂorum S. Wats.

Polygonaceae Polygonum amphibium L. Polygonum arenastrum Jord. ex Boreau Polygonum argyrocoleon Steud. ex Kunze Polygonum fusiforme Greene Polygonum hydropiper L. Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. Polygonum lapathifolium L. Polygonum pensylvanicum L. Polygonum persicaria L. Polygonum punctatum Ell. Rumex aquaticus L. var. fenestratus (Greene) Dorn Rumex conglomeratus Murr. Rumex crispus L. Rumex densiﬂorus Osterhout Rumex dentatus L. Rumex maritimus L. Rumex obtusifolius L. Rumex orthoneurus Rech. f. Rumex salicifolius Weinm. Rumex violascens Rech. f.

Portulacaceae Claytonia perfoliata Donn ex Willd. Montia chamissoi (Ledeb. ex Spreng.) Greene

Primulaceae Anagallis minima (L.) Krause Dodecatheon dentatum Hook.

x x

x

x x x x x

x x

x x x x x x x x x x x

x x

x

x x

x x

x x x

x x x x x

x x

x x x x

x

A P

A P

P P A P A P A A A P P P P P A A P P P A

A P

5 3

55 27

21 67 14 1 6 3 33 4 22 11 16 15 81 4 0 13 9 3 60 0

14 1

2 1

1 0

1 9 4 2 0 0 10 6 5 5 0 3 11 0 1 1 1 1 1 3

2 0

APPENDIX 7.1 153

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Ranunculaceae Aconitum columbianum Nutt. Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd. ssp. arguta (Nutt.) Hulten Aquilegia chrysantha Gray Caltha leptosepala DC. Delphinium andesicola Ewan Myosurus aristatus Benth. Myosurus cupulatus S. Wats. Myosurus minimus L. Ranunculus aquatilis L. Ranunculus cardiophyllus Hook. Ranunculus cymbalaria Pursh Ranunculus ﬂammula L. Ranunculus hydrocharoides Gray Ranunculus inamoenus Greene Ranunculus longirostris Godr. Ranunculus macauleyi Gray Ranunculus macounii Britt. Ranunculus macranthus Scheele Ranunculus pensylvanicus L. f. Ranunculus scleratus L. var. multiﬁdus Nutt. Ranunculus uncinatus D. Don ex G. Don

Nativity

Dodecatheon pulchellum (Raf.) Merr. Dodecatheon redollens (Hall) H.J. Thompson Lysimachia hybrida Michx. Samolus ebracteatus Kunth Samolus vagans Greene Samolus valerandi L. ssp. parviﬂorus (Raf.) Hulten

Family/Species

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

x x x x

x

Madrean Floristic Province

x

x

x

x x

x

x

x x

Sonoran Floristic Province

P P P P P A A A P P P P P P P P P P P A P

P A P P P P

Habit

44 42 14 29 2 13 14 25 11 6 53 20 5 19 2 4 17 2 2 16 25

31 4 0 2 2 6

116 Local Floras, Western US

0 1 2 1 0 0 6 5 3 0 2 0 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 1 0

2 0 0 0 1 3

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

154 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

x x x x x x x

N N N N N N N

x x x

N N

Rubiaceae Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Galium triﬁdum L.

x x x x x x x x x x x x

x

N N

N N N N N N N N N N N E E

Rosaceae Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr. Agrimonia striata Michx. Argentina anserina (L.) Rydb. Crataegus wootoniana Egglest. Geum macrophyllum Willd. Pentaphylloides ﬂoribunda (Pursh) A. Love Potentilla diversifolia Lehm. Potentilla glandulosa Lindl. Potentilla paradoxa Nutt. Potentilla rivalis Nutt. Potentilla thurberi Gray Rubus discolor Weihe & Nees Sanguisorba minor Scop.

Salicaceae Populus angustifolia James Populus balsamifera L. ssp. trichocarpa (Torr. & Gray ex Hook.) Brayshaw Populus fremontii S. Wats. Salix amygdaloides Anderss. Salix bebbiana Sarg. Salix bonplandiana Kunth Salix drummondiana Barratt ex Hook. Salix exigua Nutt. Salix gooddingii Ball

N

Rhamnaceae Sageretia wrightii S. Wats.

x x

x

x

x x

x

x

x

x

T S T T S T T

T T

S P

P P P S P S P P P A P P P

S

48 15 22 7 20 74 35

38 40

5 34

5 9 23 1 46 31 27 53 2 9 11 11 9

1

15 3 0 3 0 7 14

1 0

1 0

0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0

2

APPENDIX 7.1 155

N N E N N N N N N N N N

Saxifragaceae Parnassia parviﬂora DC.

Scrophulariaceae Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Bacopa rotundifolia (Michx.) Wettst. Buchnera arizonica (Gray) Pennell Castilleja exilis A. Nels. Castilleja minor (Gray) Gray Cordylanthus tecopensis Munz & Roos Limosella acaulis Sesse & Moc. Limosella aquatica L. Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell Mecardonia procumbens (P. Mill.) Small

N

Sapinadaceae Sapindus saponnaria L. var. drummondii (Hook. & Arn.) L. Benson

Saururaceae Anemopsis californica (Nutt.) Hook. & Arn.

N N N N N N

Nativity

irrorata Anderss. laevigata Bebb lasiolepis Benth. lucida Muhl. ssp. lasiandra (Benth.) E. Murr. lutea Nutt. taxifolia Kunth

Salix Salix Salix Salix Salix Salix

Family/Species

x x x x

x

x x

x

x

x

x x x x x x

Madrean Floristic Province

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x x x x

Sonoran Floristic Province

P P P A A A P P A P

P

P

T

S T T T S T

Habit

1 1 1 12 9 0 4 18 0 3

9

21

17

10 18 40 49 23 8

116 Local Floras, Western US

1 2 0 0 3 1 0 1 1 1

0

7

7

2 0 3 0 0 5

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

156 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

N N N N N N N N N N N E N N N E E E E N N N N N

Mimetanthe pilosa (Benth.) Greene Mimulus androsaceus Curran ex Greene Mimulus breweri (Greene) Coville Mimulus cardinalis Dougl. ex Benth. Mimulus dentilobus B. L. Robins. & Fern. Mimulus ﬂoribundus Lindl. Mimulus glabratus Kunth Mimulus guttatus DC. Mimulus parishii Greene Stemodia durantifolia (L.) Sw. Veronica americana Schwein. ex Benth. Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. Veronica peregrina L. ssp. xalapensis (Kunth) Pennell Veronica serpyllifolia L. ssp. humifusa (Dickson) Syme

Solanaceae Calibrachoa parviﬂora (Juss.) D'Arcy

Tamaricaceae Tamarix chinensis Lour. Tamarix gallica L. Tamarix parviﬂora DC. Tamarix ramosissima Ledeb.

Ulmaceae Celtis laevigata Willd. var. reticulata (Torr.) L. Benson

Urticaceae Urtica dioica L. Urtica gracilenta Greene

Verbenaceae Phyla cuneifolia (Torr.) Greene Phyla lanceolata (Michx.) Greene

x x

x x

x

x

x x

x

x x x x x

x x x x x

x

x

x

x

x x x x

x

x x x x x x x x

x x x x

P P

P A

T

T T T T

A

A A A P P A P P A P P P A P

2 2

61 6

34

24 5 5 24

13

27 2 20 21 0 37 2 97 5 4 65 27 58 41

1 0

1 1

10

4 0 0 7

6

1 0 0 2 0 1 3 11 0 2 6 9 7 1

APPENDIX 7.1 157

N N N

x x

x

N N N N N N N N E E E

Alismataceae Alisma triviale Pursh Echinodorus berteroi (Spreng.) Fassett Sagittaria calycina Engelm. Sagittaria cuneata Sheldon Sagittaria graminea Michx. Sagittaria greggii J. G. Sm. Sagittaria latifolia Willd. Sagittaria longiloba Engelm. ex J. G. Sm.

Araceae Pistia stratioides L.

Arecaceae Phoenix dactylifera L.

Cymodoceaceae Halodule beaudettei (den Hartog) den Hartog

x

x

x

x

x

x

x

x x x

x

x

x x x

x

Sonoran Floristic Province

MAGNOLIOPHYTA--LILIOPSIDA

N

Vitaceae Cissus trifoliata (L.) L. Vitis arizonica Engelm. Vitis girdiana Munson

Nativity

Violaceae Viola nephrophylla Greene

Family/Species

Madrean Floristic Province

P

T

P

P P P P P P P P

P S S

P

Habit

0

1

1

17 5 1 14 0 0 1 0

1 27 4

37

116 Local Floras, Western US

0

1

1

1 1 0 2 1 0 0 2

0 9 0

1

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

158 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Cyperaceae Carex alma Bailey Carex amplectens Mackenzie Carex aquatilis Wahlenb. Carex athrostachya Olney Carex aurea Nutt. Carex canescens L. Carex chihuahensis Mackenzie Carex dudleyi Mackenzie Carex hassei Bailey Carex hystericina Muhl. ex Willd. Carex interior Bailey Carex lanuginosa Michx. Carex lenticularis Michx. Carex leptopoda Mackenzie Carex leucodonta Holm Carex meadii Dewey Carex microdonta Torr. & Hook. Carex microptera Mackenzie Carex nebrascensis Dewey Carex occidentalis Bailey Carex praegracilis W. Boott Carex rostrata Stokes Carex senta Boott Carex stipata Muhl. ex Willd. Carex ultra Bailey Carex viridula Michx. Carex vulpinoidea Michx. Cladium californicum (S. Wats.) O'Neill Cladium mariscus (L.) Pohl ssp. jamaicense (Crantz) Kukenth. Cyperus acuminatus Torr. & Hook. ex Torr. x

N

x x x x x x x x

x x x x x x x x x

x x

x

x x x x

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N x

x x x x

x x

x x

x

x

A

P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 2

9 1 27 31 34 19 5 2 8 8 11 30 5 9 3 3 2 50 36 28 37 34 7 17 2 6 4 5 2 1

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 5 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

APPENDIX 7.1 159

E N N E N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Cyperus difformis L. Cyperus erythrorhizos Muhl. Cyperus ﬂavicomis Michx. Cyperus involucratus Rottb. Cyperus laevigatus L. Cyperus niger Ruiz & Pavon Cyperus odoratus L. Cyperus parishii Britt. Cyperus strigosus L. Cyperus squarrosus L. Eleocharis acicularis (L.) Roemer & J.A. Schultes Eleocharis atropurpurea (Retz.) J. & K. Presl Eleocharis bella (Piper) Svens. Eleocharis cancellata S. Wats. Eleocharis engelmannii Steud. Eleocharis geniculata (L.) Roemer & J.A. Schultes Eleocharis montana (Kunth) Roemer & J.A. Schultes Eleocharis montevidensis Kunth Eleocharis palustris (L.) Roemer & Schultes Eleocharis parishii Britt. Eleocharis parvula (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) Link ex Bluff, Nees & Schauer Eleocharis quinqueﬂora (F.X. Hartmann) Schwarz Eleocharis radicans (A. Dietr.) Kunth Eleocharis rostellata (Torr.) Torr. Fimbristylis annua (All.) Roemer & J.A. Schultes Fimbristylis thermalis S. Wats. N N N N N

Nativity

Family/Species

x x x x

x x x x x

x x x

x x x x x x x

x

x

Madrean Floristic Province

x x x

x x x x

x

x x

x x x x x x x x x

Sonoran Floristic Province

P P P A P

A A A P P P A P P A P P A A A A P P P P P

Habit

28 2 20 2 3

3 8 2 5 6 15 6 5 3 30 27 1 6 0 6 5 0 12 71 23 3

116 Local Floras, Western US

0 0 1 1 1

0 2 1 1 1 4 12 1 0 4 0 0 2 0 0 3 1 5 9 4 2

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

160 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

N N N N N

Iridaceae Sisyrinchium Sisyrinchium Sisyrinchium Sisyrinchium Sisyrinchium

Juncaceae Juncus acuminatus Michx. Juncus acutus L. Juncus articulatus L. Juncus balticus Willd. N N N N

E E

Hydrocharitaceae Egeria densa Planch. Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle

demissum Greene funereum Bickn. halophilum Greene idahoense Bickn. longipes (Bickn.) Kearney & Peebles

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Fimbristylis vahlii (Lam.) Link Fuierna simplex Vahl Lipocarpha aristulata (Coville) G. Tucker Lipocarpha drummondii (Nees) G. Tucker Lipocarpha micrantha (Vahl) G. Tucker Schoenus nigricans L. Scirpus acutus Muhl. ex Bigelow Scirpus americanus Pers. Scirpus californicus (C. A. Mey.) Steud. Scirpus cernuus Vahl Scirpus maritimus L. Scirpus microcarpus J. & K. Presl Scirpus nevadensis S. Wats. Scirpus pallidus (Britt.) Fern. Scirpus pungens Vahl Scirpus robustus Pursh Scirpus tabernaemontani K.C. Gmel.

x

x

x x

x

x

x

x

x

x x x

x

x

x x x

x x x

x

x x x

x x x x x x x x x x x

x

P P P P

P P P P P

P P

A P A A A P P P P P P P P P P P P

4 9 9 81

15 1 6 24 2

1 0

2 1 1 1 5 3 36 37 8 7 13 47 3 4 8 6 16

0 1 2 6

3 1 0 0 1

0 0

1 0 0 0 1 1 7 10 2 0 2 3 0 0 0 2 3

APPENDIX 7.1 161

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Juncaginaceae Triglochium concinnum Burtt-Davy Triglochin maritimum L.

Nativity

Juncus bufonius L. Juncus cooperi Engelm. Juncus drummondii E. Mey. Juncus dubius Engelm. Juncus dudleyi Wieg. Juncus effusus L. Juncus ensifolius Wikstr. Juncus interior Wieg. Juncus longistylis Torr. Juncus macrophyllus Coville Juncus marginatus Rostk. Juncus mertensianus Bong. Juncus mexicanus Willd. ex J.A. & J.H. Schultes Juncus nevadensis S. Wats. Juncus nodosus L. Juncus orthophyllus Coville Juncus rugulosus Engelm. Juncus saximontanus A. Nels. Juncus tenuis Willd. Juncus textilis Buch. Juncus torreyi Coville Juncus xiphioides E. Mey. Luzula multiﬂora (Ehrh.) Lej.

Family/Species

x x x

x x

x x x x

x x x x x

x

x

Madrean Floristic Province

x x

x x x x

x x x

x

x x

x x

x

x x

Sonoran Floristic Province

P P

A P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P

Habit

5 24

61 2 30 3 11 27 32 19 39 8 5 29 30 21 8 14 3 40 19 5 27 28 8

116 Local Floras, Western US

0 2

4 1 0 1 2 0 1 3 2 1 0 1 5 0 1 0 0 4 2 0 9 2 1

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

162 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Lemnaceae Lemna aequinoctialis Welw. Lemna gibba L. Lemna minor L. Lemna minuta Kunth Lemna turionifera Landolt Lemna valdiviana Phil. Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid. Spirodela punctata (G.F.W. Mey.) C.H. Thompson

Liliaceae Hypoxis mexicana J.A. & J.H. Schultes Lilium parryi S. Wats. Polygonatum cobrense (Woot. & Standl.) R.R. Gates Veratrum californicum Dur.

Najadaceae Najas guadalupensis (Spreng.) Magnus Najas marina L.

Orchidaceae Epipactis gigantea Dougl. ex Hook. Listera convallarioides (Sw.) Nutt. ex Ell. Platanthera dilatata (Pursh) Lindl. ex Beck Platanthera hyperborea (L.) Lindl. Platanthera leucostachys Lindl. Platanthera limosa Lindl. Platanthera sparsiﬂora (S. Wats.) Schlechter Platanthera stricta Lindl. Spiranthes delitescens Sheviak Spiranthes romanzofﬁana Cham. x x x x x

x

x x

x

x x x x

x x

x x x x

x

x

x

x

x

x x

x x x x x x x x

P P P P P P P P P P

A A

P P P P

P P P P P P P P

33 19 41 19 1 3 25 13 0 30

6 3

1 4 2 33

0 8 24 13 1 4 6 1

0 1 1 1 2

1 0 0 0

0 3

0 0 0 1

0 9 6 2 0 2 0 1

APPENDIX 7.1 163

Poaceae Agrostis exarata Trin. Agrostis scabra Willd. Agrostis stolonifera L. Alopecurus aequalis Sobol. Alopecurus carolinianus Walt. Alopecurus geniculatus L. Andropogon glomeratus (Walt.) B.S.P. Arundo donax L. Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv. Deschampsia cespitosa (L.) Beauv. Deschampsia danthonioides (Trin.) Munro Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel. Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene Echinochloa colona (L.) Link Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. Echinochloa cruspavonis (Kunth) J. A. Schultes Elymus canadensis L. Eragrostis obtusiﬂora (Fourn.) Scribn. Eriochloa acuminata (J. Presl) Kunth Eriochloa aristata Vasey Festuca arundinacea Schreb. Festuca pratensis Huds. Glyceria borealis (Nash) Batchelder Glyceria elata (Nash ex Rydb.) M.E. Jones Glyceria grandis S. Wats. Glyceria striata (Lam.) A.S. Hitchc.

Family/Species

N N E N N N N E N N N E N E E E N N N N E E N N N N

Nativity

x x x x x x x x x x

x x x x

x x x x x x x x x x

Madrean Floristic Province

x

x x x

x x x x

x x

x x

x x x x

Sonoran Floristic Province

P P P P A P P P P P A A P A A A P P A A P P P P P P

Habit

59 47 40 24 8 8 5 8 32 43 34 3 48 15 50 4 31 0 16 3 18 22 14 33 10 36

116 Local Floras, Western US

2 1 2 0 1 0 0 5 1 1 0 2 8 8 13 0 4 0 3 1 0 4 0 2 0 0

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

164 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Hierochloe odorata (L.) Beauv. Holcus lanatus L. Hordeum arizonicum Covas Hordeum depressum (Scribn. & J.G. Sm.) Rydb. Hordeum jubatum L. Leersia oryzoides (L.) Sw. Leptochloa fascicularis (Lam.) Gray Leptochloa mucronata (Michx.) Kunth Leptochloa uninervia (J. Presl) A.S. Hitchc. & Chase Monanthochloe littoralis Engelm. Muhlenbergia andina (Nutt.) A. S. Hitchc. Muhlenbergia mexicana (L.) Trin. Muhlenbergia pectinata C.O. Goodding Muhlenbergia racemosa (Michx.) B.S.P. Muhlenbergia rigens (Benth.) A.S. Hitchc. Muhlenbergia utilis (Torr.) A.S. Hitchc. Paspalum dilatatum Poir. Paspalum distichum L. Phalaris angusta Nees ex Trin. Phalaris arundinacea L. Phalaris caroliniana Walt. Phleum alpinum L. Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. Poa arida Vasey Poa palustris L. Polypogon elongatus Kunth Polypogon interruptus Kunth Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. Polypogon viridis (Gouan) Breistr. Puccinellia parishii A.S. Hitchc. Puccinellia simplex Scribn. Saccharum ravennae (L.) L.

N E N N N N N N N N N N N N N N E N N N N N N N N E E E E N N E x x x x x

x x x

x x x x x x x x

x x x x x

x x

x x x x x x

x x

x

x x x x x

x x x x x x x x x x

P P A A P P A A A P P P A P P P P P A P A P P P P P P A P A A P

13 21 2 4 46 5 15 10 10 3 17 3 0 10 27 1 10 17 1 20 1 40 32 9 29 0 16 67 35 0 1 0

0 1 0 0 3 4 1 5 4 0 0 0 0 0 6 1 6 10 0 1 3 1 4 0 0 0 2 15 11 0 0 0

APPENDIX 7.1 165

N N N N E N N E N N N N N N N N N

Pontederiaceae Heteranthera dubia (Jacq.) MacM. Heteranthera limosa (Sw.) Willd.

Potamogetonaceae Potamogeton crispus L. Potamogeton diversifolius Raf. Potamogeton foliosus Raf. Potamogeton illinoensis Morong Potamogeton latifolius (J.W. Robbins) Morong Potamogeton nodosus Poir. Potamogeton pectinatus L. Potamogeton pusillus L.

Ruppiaceae Ruppia maritima L.

Sparganiaceae Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. ex Gray

Nativity

Spartina gracilis Trin. Sphenopholis intermedia (Rydb.) Rydb. Sphenopholis obtusata (Michx.) Scribn. Sporobolus wrightii Munro ex Scribn. Vulpia myuros (L.) K. C. Gmel.

Family/Species

x x x

x x x

x x

x x x x

Madrean Floristic Province

x

x

x x x x x x

x

x

x x x

x

Sonoran Floristic Province

P

P

P P P P P P P P

P P

P P P P A

Habit

6

8

5 4 23 6 0 9 19 15

1 3

7 4 22 11 26

116 Local Floras, Western US

0

1

1 0 3 0 0 3 3 2

2 3

1 0 3 8 1

16 Riparian Floras, Southwestern US

166 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

N N N N

Typhaceae Typha angustifolia L. Typha domingensis Pers. Typha latifolia L.

Zannichelliaceae Zannichellia palustris L. x

x x x

x x x

x

P

P P P

P

24

17 24 51

8

9

2 9 3

1

Note: The sixth and seventh columns give the incidence of each species in a sample of 116 local ﬂoras from the entire western United States and in a sample of 16 riparian ﬂoras from the Southwest, respectively.

Legend: nativity: N = native, E = exotic; habitat: T = tree, S = shrub, P = herbaceous perennial and A= annual.

N

Sparganium nutans L.

APPENDIX 7.1 167

CHAPTER

8

Mammals, Avifauna and Herpetofauna Peter F. Ffolliott, Carlton M. Jones and Wendy D. Jones

CONTENTS 8.1

Common Species..........................................................................................170 8.1.1 Spruce-Fir and Mixed Conifer Forests ............................................171 8.1.1.1 General Description ..........................................................171 8.1.1.2 Mammals...........................................................................171 8.1.1.3 Avifauna ............................................................................171 8.1.1.4 Herpetofauna.....................................................................172 8.1.2 Ponderosa Pine Forests ....................................................................173 8.1.2.1 General Description ..........................................................173 8.1.2.2 Mammals...........................................................................173 8.1.2.3 Avifauna ............................................................................173 8.1.2.4 Herpetofauna.....................................................................174 8.1.3 Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands ..............................................................174 8.1.3.1 General Description ..........................................................174 8.1.3.2 Mammals...........................................................................174 8.1.3.3 Avifauna ............................................................................174 8.1.3.4 Herpetofauna.....................................................................175 8.1.4 Oak Woodlands ................................................................................175 8.1.4.1 General Description ..........................................................175 8.1.4.2 Mammals...........................................................................176 8.1.4.3 Avifauna ............................................................................176 8.1.4.4 Herpetofauna.....................................................................176 8.1.5 Sclerophyllous Shrublands...............................................................176 8.1.5.1 General Description ..........................................................176 8.1.5.2 Mammals...........................................................................177

1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

169

170

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

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8.1.1

171

Spruce-Fir and Mixed Conifer Forests

8.1.1.1 General Description Spruce-ﬁr and mixed conifer forests occupy the highest mountains of the southwestern United States. At elevations from 8000 to 11,500 ft, these dominantly coniferous forests occur in intermixtures with quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) forests and mountain grasslands. Precipitation ranges from 30 to 45 in. annually, with snowfalls stored on the ground throughout the winter until the spring, when streams become swollen from snowmelt runoff waters. Coniferous species composing the subalpine forests of the southern Sierra Nevada include mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana), western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) and a variety of white pine. At elevations between these forests and the ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) forests are red ﬁr (Abies magniﬁca), lodgepole (Pinus contorta) and Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi), Douglas-ﬁr (Pseudotsuga menziessii) and sugar pine (P. lambertiana) in varying mixtures. Not necessarily in order of abundance, the more commonly encountered coniferous species in the spruce-ﬁr and mixed conifer forests of Arizona and New Mexico include, but are not limited to, intermixtures of Engelmann (Picea engelmanni) and blue (P. pungens) spruce, white (Abies concolor) and corkbark (A. lasiocarpa) ﬁr, Douglas-ﬁr and ponderosa pine. These forests commonly have little or no herbaceous vegetation beneath the dense overstories. 8.1.1.2 Mammals Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus elaphus) use spruce-ﬁr and mixed conifer forests with the intermingled quaking aspen communities and meadows for fawning and summer habitats. Red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) and mountain Nuttall’s cottontail (Sylvilagus nuttallii) also inhabit these subalpine ecosystems. Other small mammals include the least chipmunk (Tamias minimus), golden-mantled ground squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis), deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), bushy-tailed wood rat (Neotoma cinerea), Gapper’s redbacked mouse (Clethrionomys gapperi), marten (Martes americana), vagrant (Sorex vagrans) and dwarf (S. nanus) shrews. 8.1.1.3 Avifauna A variety of waterfowl inhabits streams, rivers, lakes and other open water bodies in the spruce-ﬁr and mixed conifer forests and other ecosystems throughout the Southwest. Species in the swan, goose and duck family (Anatidae) that are encountered on either a rare, casual or transient basis include the tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus); Canada goose (Branta canadensis); mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), blue-wing (Anas discors), green-winged (Anas crecca), cinnamon teal (Anas cyanoptera), canvasback (Aythya valisineria), redhead (Aythya americana) and wood duck (Aix sponsa); and common (Mergus merganser) and red-breasted merganser (M. serrator). Some of these species are residents of the region, while others are transient (Figure 8.1).

172

Figure 8.1

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Wood ducks travel in small ﬂocks of fewer than a dozen birds in moving between roosting, feeding and loaﬁng areas in the Southwest. Most of the bird’s activities are conﬁned to areas of dense cover. Photography by Carlton M. Jones, University of Arizona.

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8.1.2

173

Ponderosa Pine Forests

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174

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

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Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands

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Figure 8.2

175

Contrary to popular belief, the collared peccary, a frequent inhabitant of low elevation ecosystems in the Southwest, is not a pig. Photograph by Carlton M. Jones, University of Arizona.

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Oak Woodlands

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Sclerophyllous Shrublands

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Figure 8.3

177

The twin-spotted rattlesnake is protected through its entire range in the Southwest. Photograph by Carlton M. Jones, University of Arizona.

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wrens (Thryonmanes bewicki), orange-crowned warblers (Vermivora celata), bushtits, rufous-sided (Pipilo erythropthalmus) and brown towhees (P. fuscus), blackchinned (Spizella atrigularis) and rufous-crowned sparrows (Aimophila ruﬁceps). The canyon wren (Catherpes mexicanus) and crissal thrasher (Toxostoma crissale) are additional nesting birds that are generally restricted to interior chaparral habitats. 8.1.5.4 Herpetofauna Few reptiles inhabit only the chaparral shrublands. However, the San Diego alligator (Gerrhonotus multicarinatus webbi), granite night lizard (Xantusia henshawi) and striped racer (Masticophis lateralis) are conﬁned to Californian chaparral communities. The eastern fence (Sceloporus undulatus) and western fence lizards (S. occidentalis) are well represented in interior chaparral, with the latter also widespread in Californian chaparral. Whipsnakes (Masticophis bilineatus and M. taeniatus) are interior chaparral equivalents to the striped racer.

8.1.6

Desert Shrublands

8.1.6.1 General Description Vegetative communities of these ecosystems are representative of ﬂora in the Mojave Desert of southern California and western Arizona, the Sonoran Desert of central Arizona and the Chihuahuan Desert of eastern Arizona, New Mexico and western Texas. These communities are situated on low-elevation mountain slopes and intervening valleys below 5000 ft. Annual precipitation, which is seasonally variable, is less than 15 in. Among the plants of the Mojave Desert are the Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia), creosotebush (Larrea tridentata), shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia), saltbush (Atriplex spp.) and blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima). Dominant plants in the Sonoran Desert include creosotebush, tarbush (Flourensia cernua), paloverde (Cereidium spp.), mesquite (Prosopis spp.), ocotillo (Flourensia splendens), saltbrush and a variety of cacti. Creosotebush, mesquite, tarbush, ocotillo, saltbush and a variety of cacti are a few of the more common plants in the Chihuahuan Desert. A diversity of grasses and forbs are also found in the desert shrublands, although the occurrence of high-valued forage species is often limited. 8.1.6.2 Mammals Because of the sparse vegetation, large mammals are few in the desert shrublands and are represented principally by mule deer and desert bighorn sheep. Pronghorn (Antilocarpa americana) antelope inhabit the desert’s edge. Coyotes, ring-tailed cats (Bassariscus astutus), black-tailed jackrabbits and desert cottontails are common inhabitants. Several bats, including the California leaf-nosed bat (Microtus californicus), are found in this ecosystem. Small, less wide-ranging rodents abound, including kangaroo rats (Dipodomys merriami); desert white-throated woodrats; desert kangaroo rats (Dipodomys deserti); desert shrews (Notiosorex crawfordi); desert

MAMMALS, AVIFAUNA AND HERPETOFAUNA

179

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Grasslands

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Appendix 8.1 Order Marsupialia Insectivora

Chiroptera

Lagomorpha

Rodentia

Mammals of Southwestern Riparian Areas Scientiﬁc Name Didelphis virginiana Sorex arizonae Sorex monticolus Sorex nanus Sorex palustris Sorex vagrans Notiosorex crawfordi Macrotus californicus Myotis auriculus Myotis evotis Myotis volans Myotis occultus Myotis velifer Myotis yumanensis Pipistrellus hesperus Lasiurus borealis Lasiurus cinereus Euderma maculatum Eptesicus fuscus Tadarida brasiliensis Eumops underwoodi Sylvilagus audubonii Sylvilagus bachmani Sylvilagus ﬂoridanus Sylvilagus nuttallii Lepus americanus Lepus californicus Castor canadensis Tamias minimus Tamias quadrivittatus Tamias cinereicollis Tamias canipes Tamias umbrinus Tamias dorsalis Tamias merriami Spermophilus lateralis Spermophilus spilosoma Spermophilus tridecemlineatus Cynomys ludovicianus Sciurus aberti Sciurus arizonensis Sciurus nayaritensis Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Perognathus baileyi Perognathus californicus Perognathus penicillatus Peromyscus boylii Peromyscus californicus Peromyscus crinitus

Common Name Opossum Arizona shrew Dusky shrew Dwarf shrew Water shrew Vagrant shrew Desert shrew California leaf-nosed bat Southwestern myotis Long-eared myotis Long-legged myotis Arizona myotis Cave myotis Yuma myotis Western pipistrelle Red bat Hoary bat Spotted bat Big brown bat Free-tailed bat Underwood’s mastiff bat Desert cottontail Brush rabbit Eastern cottontail Mountain cottontail Snowshoe hare Black-tailed jackrabbit Beaver Least chipmunk Colorado chipmunk Collared chipmunk Gray-footed chipmunk Uninta chipmunk Cliff chipmunk Merriam’s chipmunk Golden-mantled ground squirrel Spotted ground squirrel Thirteen-lined ground squirrel Black-tailed prairie dog Abert’s squirrel Arizona gray squirrel Mexican fox squirrel Red squirrel Bailey’s pocket mouse California pocket mouse Desert pocket mouse Brush mouse California mouse Canyon mouse (continued)

MAMMALS, AVIFAUNA AND HERPETOFAUNA

Appendix 8.1 Order Rodentia

Carnivora

Artiodactyla

185

Mammals of Southwestern Riparian Areas (continued) Scientiﬁc Name Peromyscus eremicus Peromyscus leucopus Peromyscus maniculatus Peromyscus merriami Peromyscus truei Sigmodon arizonae Sigmodon hispidus Sigmodon ochrognathus Neotoma albigula Neotoma cinerea Neotoma fuscipes Neotoma lepida Neotoma mexicana Clethrionomys gapperi Reithrodontomys megalotis Microtus californicus Microtus longicaudus Microtus mexicanus Microtus montanus Ondatra zibethicus Zapus hudsonius Zapus princeps Dipodomys deserti Dipodomys merriami Dipodomys ordii Dipodomys spectabilis Thomomys bottae Thomomys umbrinus Geomys bursarius Erethizon dorsatum Canis latrans Vulpes velox Urocyon cinereoargenteus Ursus americanus Bassariscus astutus Procyon lotor Nasua narica Martes americana Mustela vison Spilogale gracilis Mephitis macroura Mephitis mephitis Lutra canadensis Felis pardalis Felis yagouaroundi Tayassu tajacu Cervus elaphus Odocoileus hemionus Odocoileus virginianus

Common Name Cactus mouse White-footed mouse Deer mouse Mesquite mouse Pinyon mouse Arizona cotton rat Hispid cotton rat Yellow-nosed cotton rat White-throated woodrat Bushy-tailed woodrat Dusky-footed woodrat Desert woodrat Mexican woodrat Southern red-backed vole Western harvest mouse California vole Long-tailed vole Mexican vole Montane vole Muskrat Meadow jumping mouse Western jumping mouse Desert kangaroo rat Merriam’s kangaroo rat Ord’s kangaroo rat Banner-tailed kangaroo rat Botta’s pocket gopher Southern pocket gopher Plains pocket gopher Porcupine Coyote Kit fox Gray fox Black bear Ringtail Raccoon Coati American marten Mink Spotted skunk Hooded skunk Striped skunk River otter Ocelot Jaguarundi Collared peccary Elk Mule deer White-tailed deer (continued)

186

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Appendix 8.1

Mammals of Southwestern Riparian Areas (continued)

Order

Scientiﬁc Name

Artiodactyla

Odocoileus virginianus couesi Antilocapra americana Ovis canadensis mexicana

Common Name Coues’ deer Pronghorn Desert bighorn sheep

Sources: Lawlor, T.E., Handbook to the Orders and Families of Living Mammals, Mad River Press Inc., Eureka, CA, 1979; Cockrum, E.L., Mammals of the Southwest, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1982; Hoffmeister, D.F., Mammals of Arizona, University of Arizona Press and Arizona Game and Fish Department, Tucson, 1986; Krausmann, P.R. and Smith, N.S., Eds., Managing Wildlife in the Southwest, Arizona Chapter, Wildlife Society, Tucson, 1990; Crawford, C.S., Ellis, L.M., Shaw, D. and Umbreit, N.E., Restoration and monitoring in the middle Rio Grande bosque: Current status of ﬂood pulse related efforts, in Rio Grande Ecosystems: Linking Land, Water and People, Proceedings RMRS-P-7, Finch, D.M., Whitney, J.C., Kelley, J.F. and Loftin, S.R., Tech. Coords., USDA Forest Service, 1993.

Appendix 8.2

Avifauna of Southwestern Riparian Ecosystem

Order Podicipediformes

Pelecaniformes Ciconiiformes

Anseriformes

Falconiformes

Scientiﬁc Name Podilymbus podiceps Podiceps nigricollis Aechmophorus occidentalis Aechmophorus clarkii Phalacrocorax auritus Phalacrocorax brasilianus Botaurus lentiginosus Ixobrychus exilis Ardea herodias Ardea alba Egretta thula Butorides virescens Nycticorax nycticorax Plegadis chihi Dendrocygna autumnalis Aix sponsa Anas strepera Anas americana Anas platyrhynchos Anas discors Anas cyanoptera Anas clypeata Anas acuta Anas crecca Aythya americana Mergus merganser Oxyura jamaicensis Pandion haliaetus Ictinia mississippiensis Haliaeetus leucocephalus Accipiter cooperii

Common Name Pied-billed grebe Eared grebe Western grebe Clark’s grebe Double-crested cormorant Neotropic cormorant American bittern Least bittern Great blue heron Great egret Snowy egret Green heron Black-crowned night heron White-faced ibis Black-bellied whistling duck Wood duck Gadwall American widgeon Mallard Blue-winged teal Cinnamon teal Northern shoveler Northern pintail Green-winged teal Redhead Common merganser Ruddy duck Osprey Mississippi kite Bald eagle Cooper’s hawk (continued)

MAMMALS, AVIFAUNA AND HERPETOFAUNA

Appendix 8.2 Order Falconiformes (continued)

Galliformes

Charadriiformes

Columbiformes

Cuculiformes Strigiformes

Apodiformes

Trogoniformes Coraciiformes Piciformes

187

Avifauna of Southwestern Riparian Ecosystem (continued) Scientiﬁc Name Asturina nitida Buteogallus anthracinus Buteo albonotatus Falco peregrinus Falco spariverus Callipepla gambelii Callipepla squamata Oreortyx pictus Cyrtonyx montezumae Meleagris gallopavo Laterallus jamaicensis Rallus longirostris Rallus limicola Porzana carolina Gallinula chloropus Fulica americana Charadrius alexandrinus Charadrius vociferus Himantopus mexicanus Recurvirostra americana Actitis macularia Sterna antillarum Zenaida asiatica Zenaida macroura Columbina passerina Coccyzus americanus Geococcyx californianus Tyto alba Otus kennicottii Otus trichopsis Bubo virginianus Glaucidium brasilianum Micrathene whitneyi Strix occidientalis Aegolius acadicus Cynanthus latirostris Amazilia violiceps Lampornis clemenciae Archilochus alexandri Selasphorus platycercus Trogon elegans Ceryle alcyon Melanerpes erythrocephalus Melanerpes uropygialis Colaptes auratus Picoides scalaris Picoides tridactlyus Picoides arizonae Sphyrapicus thyroideus Picoides pubescens

Common Name Gray hawk Common black hawk Zone-tailed hawk Peregrine falcon American kestrel Gambel’s quail Scaled quail Mountain quail Montezuma quail Wild turkey Black rail Clapper rail Virginia rail Sora Common moorhen American coot Snowy plover Killdeer Black-necked stilt American avocet Spotted sandpiper Least tern White-winged dove Mourning dove Common ground-dove Yellow-bellied cuckoo Greater roadrunner Barn owl Western screech owl Whiskered screech owl Great horned owl Ferruginous pygmy-owl Elf owl Spotted owl Northern saw-whet owl Broad-billed hummingbird Violet-crowned hummingbird Blue-throated hummingbird Black-chinned hummingbird Broad-tailed hummingbird Elegant trogon Belted kingﬁsher Red-headed woodpecker Gila woodpecker Northern ﬂicker Ladder-backed woodpecker Three-toed woodpecker Arizona woodpecker Williamson’s sapsucker Downy woodpecker (continued)

188

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Appendix 8.2 Order Passeriformes

Avifauna of Southwestern Riparian Ecosystem (continued) Scientiﬁc Name

Common Name

Camptostoma imberbe Contopus sordidulus Contopus cooperi Empidonax traillii Empidonax hammondi Empidonax difﬁcilis Empidonax wrightii Empidonax fulvifrons Empidonax oberholseri Sayornis nigricans Pyrocephalus rubinus Myiarchus cinerascens Myiarchus tyrannulus Tyrannus melancholicus Tyrannus vociferans Tyrannus crassirostris Tyrannus verticalis Pachyramphus aglaiae Vireo bellii Vireo gilvus Vireo vicinior Vireo solitarius Vireo huttoni Stelgidopteryx serripennis Riparia riparia Petrochelidon pyrrhonota Tachycinea thalassina Perisoreus canadensis Nucifraga columbiana Cyanocitta sterreri Aphelocoma ultramarina Aphelocoma coerulescens Corvus cryptoleucus Auriparus ﬂaviceps Poecile atricapillus Poecile gambeli Baeolophus wollweberi Certhia americana Sitta carolinensis Sitta canadensis Sitta pygmaea Thryomanes bewickii Cistothorus palustris Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus Catherpes mexicanus Polioptila melanura Catharus fuscescens Turdus migratorius Dumetella carolinensis Mimus polyglottos Toxostoma crissale Sturnus vulgaris

Northern beardless-tyrannulet Western wood-pewee Olive-sided ﬂycatcher Willow ﬂycatcher Hammond’s ﬂycatcher Paciﬁc-slope ﬂycatcher Gray ﬂycatcher Buff-breasted ﬂycatcher Dusky ﬂycatcher Black phoebe Vermillion ﬂycatcher Ash-throated ﬂycatcher Brown-crested ﬂycatcher Tropical kingbird Cassin’s kingbird Thick-billed kingbird Western kingbird Rose-throated becard Bell’s vireo Warbling vireo Gray vireo Blue-headed vireo Hutton’s vireo Northern rough-winged swallow Bank swallow Cliff swallow Violet-green swallow Gray jay Clark’s nutcracker Steller’s jay Mexican jay Florida scrub-jay Chihuahuan raven Verdin Black-capped chickadee Mountain chickadee Bridled titmouse Brown creeper White-breasted nuthatch Red breasted nuthatch Pygmy nuthatch Bewick’s wren Marsh wren Cactus wren Canyon wren Black-tailed gnatcatcher Veery American robin Gray catbird Northern mockingbird Crissal thrasher European starling (continued)

MAMMALS, AVIFAUNA AND HERPETOFAUNA

Appendix 8.2 Order Passeriformes (continued)

189

Avifauna of Southwestern Riparian Ecosystem (continued) Scientiﬁc Name Dendroica coronata Dendroica nigrescens Vermivora celata Vermivora luciae Dendroica petechia Oporornis tolmiei Geothlypis trichas Myioborus pictus Icteria virens Piranga rubra Melospiza melodia Melospiza lincolnii Pipilo maculatus Pipilo fuscus Pipilo aberti Pipilo erythropthalmus Pipilo fuscus Calamospiza melanocorys Aimophila ruﬁceps Amphispiza bilineata Spizella passerina Spizella atrigularis Cardinalis cardinalis Cardinalis sinuatus Pheucticus melanocephalus Guiraca caerulea Passerina amoena Passerina cyanea Passerina ciris Agelaius phoeniceus Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus Molothrus aeneus Molothrus ater Icterus cucullatus Icterus bullockii Icterus parisorum Sturnella magna Sturnella neglecta Carpodacus cassinii Loxia curvirostra Carpodacus mexicanus Carduelis psaltria Carduelis pinus Pinicola enucleator Coccothraustes vespertinus

Common Name Yellow-rumped warbler Black-throated gray warbler Orange-crowned warbler Lucy’s warbler Yellow warbler MacGillivray’s warbler Common yellowthroat Painted redstart Yellow-breasted chat Summer tanager Song sparrow Lincoln’s sparrow Spotted towhee Canyon towhee Abert’s towhee Eastern towhee Canyon towhee Lark bunting Rufous-crowned sparrow Black-throated sparrow Chipping sparrow Black-chinned sparrow Northern cardinal Pyrrhuloxia Black-headed grosbeak Blue grosbeak Lazuli bunting Indigo bunting Painted bunting Red-winged blackbird Yellow-headed blackbird Bronzed cowbird Brown-headed cowbird Hooded oriole Bullock’s oriole Scott’s oriole Eastern meadowlark Western meadowlark Cassin’s ﬁnch Red crossbill House ﬁnch Lesser goldenﬁnch Pine siskin Pine grosbeak Evening grosbeak

Sources: Phillips, A.R., Marshall, J. and Monson, G., The Birds of Arizona, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1964; Johnson, R.R., Haight, L.T. and Simpson, J.M., Endangered habitats versus endangered species: A management challenge, West. Birds, 18(7), 1987; Rosenberg, K.V., Ohmart, R.D., Hunter, W.C. and Anderson. B.W., Birds of the Lower Colorado River Valley, University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1991; American Ornithologist’s Union, Check-list of North American Birds, American Ornithologist’s Union, Washington D.C., 1998; Sibley, D.A. National Audubon Society: The Sibley Guide to Birds, Chanticleer Press, Inc., New York, 2000.

190

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Appendix 8.3

Herpetofauna of Southwestern Riparian Ecosystems

Order Urodela Anura

Chelonia

Squamata

Scientiﬁc Name Ambystoma tigrinum Plethodon neomexicanus Scaphiopus couchii Bufo alvaris Bufo boreas Bufo cognatus Bufo debilis Bufo microscaphus Bufo punctatus Bufo woodhousii Acris crepitans Hyla arenicolor Hyla eximia Pseudacris triseriata Rana berlandieri Rana blairi Rana catesbeiana Rana chiricahuensis Rana pipens Rana yavapaiensis Gopherus agassizi Chelydra serpentina Chrysemys picta Pseudemys concinna Pseudemys gorzugi Pseudemys scripta Trachemys gaigeae Trachemys scripta Kinosternon ﬂavescens Kinosternon sonoriense Trionyx muticus Trionyx spiniferus Dipsosaurus dorsalis Sauromalus obesus Crotaphytus collaris Gambelia wislizenii Callisaurus draconoides Cophosaurus texanus Phrynosoma platyrhinos Phrynosoma solare Sceloporus clarkii Sceloporus magister Sceloporus undulatus Urosaurus graciosus Urosaurus ornatus Uta stansburiana Coleonyx variegatus Cnemidophorus burti Cnemidophorus ﬂagellicaudus

Common Name Tiger Salamander Jemex Mountain salamander Couch’s spadefoot Colorado River toad Western toad Great Plains toad Western green toad Arizona toad Red spotted toad Woodhouse’s toad Northern cricket frog Canyon treefrog Mountain treefrog Western chorus frog Rio Grande leopard frog Plains leopard frog Bullfrog Chiricahua leopard frog Leopard frog Lowland leopard frog Desert tortoise Snapping turtle Painted turtle River cooter Western River cooter Pond slider Big Bend slider Slider Yellow mud turtle Sonoran mud turtle Smooth softshell Spiny softshell Desert iguana Chuckwalla Collared lizard Leopard lizard Zebratail lizard Greater earless lizard Desert horned lizard Regal horned lizard Clark’s spiny lizard Desert spiny lizard Prairie lizard Long-tailed brush lizard Tree lizard Side-blotched lizard Banded gecko Canyon spotted whiptail Gila spotted whiptail (continued)

MAMMALS, AVIFAUNA AND HERPETOFAUNA

Appendix 8.3

Herpetofauna of Southwestern Riparian Ecosystems (continued)

Order Squamata (continued)

191

Scientiﬁc Name Cnemidophorus sonorae Cnemidophorus tigris Cnemidophorus velox Eumeces gilberti Eumeces multivirgatus Elgaria kingii Heloderma suspectum Leptotyphlops humilis Lichanura trivirgata Arizona elegans Chilomeniscus cinctus Chionactis occipitalis Diadophis punctatus Elaphe guttata Hypsiglena torquata Lampropeltis getula Lampropeltis pyromelana Liochlorophis vernalis Masticophus bilineatus Masticophus ﬂagellum Masticophus taeniatus Nerodia erythrogaster Phyllorhyncus decurtatus Pituophis melanoleucus Rhinocheilus leconti Salvadora hexalepis Senticolis triaspis Sonora semiannulata Tantilla hobartsmithi Tantilla yaquia Thamnophis cyrtopsis Thamnophis elegans Thamnophis eques Thamnophis marcianus Thamnophis proximus Thamnophis radix Thamnophis ruﬁpunctatus Thamnophis sirtalis Trimorphodon biscutatus Tropidoclonion lineatum Micruroides euryxanthus Crotalus atrox Crotalus Crotalus Crotalus Crotalus Crotalus

cerastes mitchelli molossus scutulatus viridis

Common Name Sonoran spotted whiptail Western whiptail Plateau whiptail Gilbert’s skink Many-lined skink Arizona alligator lizard Gila monster Western blind snake Rosy boa Glossy snake Banded sand snake Western shovel-nosed snake Ringneck snake Corn snake Night snake Desert kingsnake Arizona mountain kingsnake Smooth green snake Sonoran whipsnake Coachwhip Desert striped whipsnake Plainbelly water snake Spotted leaf-nosed snake Great Basin gopher snake Western longnose snake Western patch-nosed snake Green rat snake Ground snake Black-headed snake Yaqui black-headed snake Blackneck garter snake Western terrestrial garter snake Mexican garter snake Checkered garter snake Western ribbon snake Plains garter snake Narrowhead garter snake Common garter snake Lyre snake Lined snake Arizona coral snake Western diamondback rattlesnake Sidewinder Speckled rattlesnake Blacktail rattlesnake Mojave rattlesnake Prairie rattlesnake (continued)

192

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Sources: Jones, K.B., Effects of grazing on lizard abundance and diversity in western Arizona, Southwest. Natural., 26, 1981; Jones, K.B. and Glinski. P.C., Microhabitats of lizards in a southwestern riparian community, in Riparian Ecosystems and Their Management: Reconciling Conﬂicting Uses, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-120, Johnson, R.R., Ziebel, C.D. Patton, D.R., Ffolliott, P.F. and Hamre, R.H., Eds., USDA Forest Service, Fort Collins CO, 1985; Lowe, C.H., Amphibians and reptiles in southwest riparian ecosystems, in Riparian Ecosystems and Their Management: Reconciling Conﬂicting Uses, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-120, Johnson, R.R., Ziebel, C.D., Patton, D.R., Ffolliott, P.F. and Hamre, R.H., Eds., USDA Forest Service, Fort Collins CO, 1985; Stebbins, R.C., A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians, Houghton Mifﬂin, New York, 1985; Jones, K.B., Distribution and habitat associations of herpetofauna in Arizona: Comparisons by habitat type, in Management Of Amphibians, Reptiles and Small Mammals In North America, Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-166, Szaro, R.C., Severson, K.E. and Patton, D.R., Tech. Coords., USDA Forest Service, Fort Collins CO, 1988; Degenhardt, W.G., Painter, C.W. and Price, A.H., Amphibians and Reptiles of New Mexico, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1996.

CHAPTER

9

Native and Introduced Fishes: Their Status, Threats and Conservation John N. Rinne

CONTENTS 9.1

Fish Fauna ....................................................................................................194 9.1.1 Native Species ..................................................................................194 9.1.2 Introduced Species ...........................................................................196 9.2 Threats to Existence.....................................................................................197 9.2.1 Biological Effects.............................................................................197 9.2.1.1 Hybridization ....................................................................197 9.2.1.2 Competition.......................................................................198 9.2.1.3 Predation ...........................................................................198 9.2.2 Hydrologic Alterations.....................................................................200 9.2.2.1 Salt and Verde Rivers .......................................................200 9.2.2.2 Gila River..........................................................................200 9.2.2.3 Lower Colorado River ......................................................201 9.2.2.4 Rio Grande........................................................................201 9.3 Conservation Strategies................................................................................202 9.3.1 Early Efforts .....................................................................................202 9.3.2 Future Efforts ...................................................................................203 9.4 Summary ......................................................................................................203 References..............................................................................................................193 Appendix 9.1 .........................................................................................................210 Appendix 9.2 .........................................................................................................211 Appendix 9.3 .........................................................................................................212

1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

193

194

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Figure 9.1

Theodore Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River altered the natural hydrologic regime of the river. Other mainstream dams have completely changed the riparian-stream habitats in the Southwest. Photo courtesy of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

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9.1 FISH FAUNA 9.1.1

Native Species

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Figure 9.2

195

Hoover Dam, originally constructed in 1935, initiated hydrologic control of the lower Colorado River. Photo courtesy of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation.

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Appendix 9.1

Federal and State Species Status of Native Fishes Occurring in Arizona and New Mexico: Sensitive Species List

Scientiﬁc Name Oncorhynchus apache Oncorhynchus gilae Oncorhynchus clarki virginalis Moxostoma congestum Catostomus discobolus Xyrauchen texanus Catostomus bernardini Phoxinus erythrogaster Rhinichthys osculus Hybognathus amarus Phenacobius mirabilis Rhinichthys osculus Notropis girardi Notropis simus Notropis formosus mearnsi Gila elegans Gila nigrescens Gila intermedia Gila cypha Gila robusta Gila ditaenia Hybopsis aestivalis tetranemus Gila purpurea Meda fulgida Lepidomeda vittata Ptychocheilus lucius Campostoma ornatum pricei Plagopterus argentissimus Percina macrolepida Cyprinodon macularius Poeciliopsis o. occidentalis Poeciliopsis o. sonoriensis Astyanax texanus Ictalurus pricei Ictalurus lupus

Common Name Apache trout Gila trout Rio Grande Cutthroat trout Gray redhorse Bluehead sucker Razorback sucker Yaqui sucker Southern redbelly dace Speckled dace Rio Grande silvery minnow Suckermouth minnow Loach minnow Arkansas River shiner Rio Grande bluntnose shiner Yaqui shiner Bonytail chub Chihuahua chub Gila chub Humpback chub Roundtail chub Sonora chub Speckled chub Yaqui chub Spikedace Little Colorado spinedace Colorado squawﬁsh Mexican stoneroller Woundﬁn Bigscale logperch Desert pupﬁsh Gila topminnow Yaqui topminnow Mexican tetra Yaqui catﬁsh Headwater catﬁsh

Status FT FE FSS NMSE ACS FT ASE NMSE FSS NMSE NMSE FT NMSE NMSE FT FE FT AST, NMSE* FE NMSE, AST FT NMSE FE FT FT FE ASE FE NMSE FE FE FE NMSE FT FSS

* Candidate species for listing as federally endangered, 2002. Legend: ACS, Arizona candidate species; ASE, Arizona state endangered; AST, Arizona state threatened; FSS, Forest Service sensitive; FT, Federally threatened; FE, Federally endangered; and NMSE, New Mexico State endangered.

NATIVE AND INTRODUCED FISHES: THEIR STATUS, THREATS, AND CONSERVATION

Appendix 9.2

Native Fish Dispersion Across Riparian Stream Habitats in the Southwest

Species Apache trout Gila trout Rio Grande Cut Speckled dace Longnose dace Blacknose dace Rio Grande sucker Rio Grande chub Desert sucker Sonora sucker Zuni sucker Little Colo. sucker Yaqui sucker Bluehead sucker Flannelmouth sucker Razorback sucker Little Colorado spinedace Virgin spinedace Beautiful shiner Quitobaquito pupﬁsh Desert pupﬁsh Gila topminnow Sonora topminnow Monkey Springs pupﬁsh Machete Mullet Gila chub Sonora chub Yaqui chub Roundtail chub Monkey Springs chub Virgin chub Bonytail chub Humpback chub Colorado squawﬁsh Loach minnow Spikedace * Extinct.

211

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Appendix 9.3

Introduced Fishes of Arizona and the Lower Colorado River, 1881–1991, Listed by the Primary Reason for Their Introduction

Common Name

Scientiﬁc Name

Year Introduced

Introduction for Sport White sturgeon Coho salmon Sockeye salmon Cutthroat trout* Rainbow trout* Golden trout Brown trout* Brook trout* Grayling* Northern pike* Muskellunge Striped bass* White bass* Yellow bass* Smallmouth bass* Largemouth bass* Rock bass Warmouth* Redear* Green sunﬁsh* Pumpkinseed* White crappie* Black crappie* Yellow Perch* Walleye* Sargo Bairdella Orangemouth corvina Mozambique tilapia*

Acipenser transmontanus Oncorhynchus kisutch Oncorhynchus nerka Oncorhynchus clarki Oncorhynchus mykiss Oncorhynchus aguabonita Salmo trutta Salvelinus fontinalis Thymallus articus Esox lucius Esox masquinongy Morone saxatilis Morone chrysops Morone mississippiensis Micropterus dolomieui Micropterus salmoides Ambloplites ruprestris Lepomis gulosus Lepomis microlophus Lepomis cynellus Lepomis gibbosus Pomoxis annularis Pomoxis nigromaculatus Perca ﬂavescens Stizostedian vitreum Anisotremus davidsoni Bairdella icistia Cynoscion xanthalus Tilapia mossambica

1967 1967 1957 ca. 1900 ca. 1900 1971 1924 1920 1943 1967 1970s 1969 1960 1929–32 1942 1935 1960 1950s 1947 before 1926 1950 before 1924 1930s 1930s 1960s 1960s 1960s 1960s 1960s

Introduction by Accident Gizzard shad American eel Mexican tetra* Goldﬁsh* Silver carp* Utah chub* Leatherside chub Redside shiner Sand shiner Beautiful shiner Smallmouth buffalo* Black buffalo* Mountain sucker Rio Grande sucker Walking catﬁsh

Dorosoma cepedianum Anguilla rostrata Astanax mexicanus Carassius auratus Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Gila atraria Gila copei Richardsonius balteatus Notropis stramineus Cyprinella formosus Ictiobus bubalus Ictiobus niger Catostomus platyrhynchus Catostomus plebius Clarias batrachus

1998 unknown 1950 1930s 1972 1940s 1940s 1960s 1938 1971 1918 1918 1940s 1940s 1969 (continued)

NATIVE AND INTRODUCED FISHES: THEIR STATUS, THREATS, AND CONSERVATION

Appendix 9.3

Introduced Fishes of Arizona and the Lower Colorado River, 1881–1991, Listed by the Primary Reason for Their Introduction (continued)

Common Name

Scientiﬁc Name

Year Introduced

Introduction by Accident (continued) Plains killiﬁsh Guppy* Mexican molly* Variable platyﬁsh* Green swordtail* Convict cichlid* Firemouth cichlid* Rio Grande cichlid Mottled sculpin Longjaw mudsucker*

Fundulus zebrinus Poecilia reticulata Poecilia mexicana Xiphophorus variatus Xiphophorus helleri Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum Cichlasoma meeki Cichlasoma cyanogutatum Cottus bairdi Gillichthys mirabilis

1930s 1960s 1960s 1960s 1960s 1969 1968 1969 1940s 1940s

Introduction Related to Forage Threadﬁn shad* Red shiner* Fathead minnow* Bluegill*

Dorosoma petenense Cyprinella lutrensis Pimephales promelas Lepomis macrochirus

1953 1953 1950s 1936

Note: The list is not exhaustive, but demonstrates the extensive introduction of nonnative species into the waters of Arizona. * Those species currently established.

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CHAPTER

10

Insects and Other Invertebrates: Ecological Roles and Indicators of Riparian and Stream Health Sandra J. DeBano and David E. Wooster

CONTENTS 10.1 Invertebrate Communities ............................................................................216 10.1.1Terrestrial Invertebrates ...............................................................................216 10.1.2 Aquatic Invertebrates .......................................................................217 10.2 Role of Invertebrates in Riparian Food Webs .............................................218 10.2.1 Aquatic Food Webs ..........................................................................218 10.2.2 Terrestrial Food Webs ......................................................................221 10.3 Other Ecological Roles of Riparian Invertebrates.......................................222 10.4 Effects of Disturbance on Riparian Invertebrates .......................................223 10.4.1 Flooding and Water Regulation .......................................................224 10.4.1.1 Impacts on Aquatic Invertebrates ......................................224 10.4.1.2 Impacts on Terrestrial Invertebrates .................................224 10.4.2 Livestock Grazing ............................................................................225 10.4.3 Invasive Species ...............................................................................226 10.4.4 Mining Activities..............................................................................227 10.4.5 Fire ...................................................................................................227 10.5 Indicators of Stream and Riparian Health...................................................227 10.5.1 Invertebrate Indicators of Stream Health ........................................228 10.5.2 Invertebrate Indicators of Riparian Health ......................................228 10.6 Management Considerations........................................................................232 References..............................................................................................................232

1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

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Figure 10.1

219

Riparian food webs involving invertebrates often span both terrestrial and aquatic environments. This schematic of a simpliﬁed food web shows terrestrial riparian inputs (leaf matter and terrestrial invertebrates) subsidizing aquatic food webs and, conversely, aquatic inputs (emerging insects) subsidizing terrestrial riparian food webs.

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220

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Table 10.1 Aquatic Invertebrate Functional Feeding Groups Feeding Group

Description

Shredders

These invertebrates feed on coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) including leaves shed from riparian vegetation. They reach their highest densities and greatest species richness in small streams with dense canopies. They transform large quantities of CPOM to ﬁne particulate organic matter (FPOM), which is a food resource for collectors. Important shredders in southwestern streams include some stoneﬂies and caddisﬂies. These invertebrates consume FPOM by ﬁltering it out of the water column. Density and species richness of this functional feeding group increase with increasing stream size as FPOM increases in abundance. Filtering mechanisms include specialized fan-like mouthparts such as those found in blackﬂy larvae and nets constructed from silk glands by caddisﬂy larvae. These invertebrates also consume FPOM but they collect matter deposited on the streambed. The density and species richness of this group follows that of collector-ﬁlterers. Examples of collectorgatherers include crane ﬂies and some mayﬂies. These invertebrates have specialized mouthparts for scraping algae and associated material from the substrate. Their density and species richness are highest in mid-elevation streams. Examples include some caddisﬂies and beetles. These invertebrates are found throughout a watershed; however, species composition can change as stream size increases. Examples of predatory invertebrates include dragonﬂy larvae and some stoneﬂies.

Collector-ﬁlterers

Collector-gatherers

Scrapers

Predators

Source: Cummins, K.W. and Merritt, R.W., Ecology and distribution of aquatic insects, in An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America, Merritt, R.W. and Cummins, K.W., Eds., 3rd ed., Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, IA, 1996.

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Figure 10.2

Some organisms that are Involved

Outcome

Ecosystem Functions and Processes

millipedes, springtails, mites, worms

cycles nutrients

Decomposition

soil microarthropods

enhances nutrient uptake, some stimulation by soil fauna

Mycorrhizal Activity

lichens, ferns, mosses, higher plants

provides cover and diversity, contributes to water cycling

Photosynthesis

ants, birds, mammals

wasps, flies, ants – nectaries mites – domatia beetles, reptiles

limits pests, enhances plant and animal diversity

Predation/ Other Species Parasitism Interactions (Mutualists, symbionts, competition)

beetles, wasps, flies, caterpillars birds

Propagule Dispersal

limits pests, enhances animal diversity

Pollination

limits enables enables excessive reproduction dispersion growth, of plants of plants enhances plant diversity

Herbivory

Restored riparian areas are expected to regain some major ecosystem functions and processes. Invertebrates are commonly associated with these functions and processes and the outcomes they produce (from Majer, J.D., Invertebrates assist the restoration process: An Australian perspective, in Restoration Ecology and Sustainable Development, Urbanska, K.M., Webb, N.R. and Edwards, P.J., Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1997. With permission.)

ants, termites, worms

improves soil

Pedogenesis

230 RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

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Invertebrate Indices To Assess or Monitor Terrestrial Riparian Areas and Riparian Restoration Efforts

Index (source) Butterﬂies

75

Indicates Effectiveness of revegetation

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Ecological quality, habitat heterogeneity and hydrologic dynamics

Prey items of endangered or threatened species77 Functional or trophic groups, such as pollinators, herbivores, predators, parasites and detritivores62,77

Habitat suitability for endangered or threatened species Functioning of major ecosystem processes

Springtails and ants62,70

Restoration success and the presence of nearby sources for colonization and immigration of native plant and animal species

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CHAPTER

11

Livestock Grazing in Riparian Areas: Environmental Impacts, Management Practices and Management Implications Warren P. Clary and William H. Kruse

CONTENTS 11.1 Uniqueness of Areas ....................................................................................239 11.1.1 Abiotic Features ...............................................................................239 11.1.2 Biotic Features .................................................................................240 11.2 Responses to Livestock Grazing..................................................................240 11.3 Residual Herbaceous Vegetation..................................................................242 11.3.1 Streambank Trampling and Breakdown ..........................................242 11.3.2 Forage Plants, Streambank Protection and Sediment Entrapment .......................................................................................243 11.3.3 Browsing of Shrubs..........................................................................245 11.3.4 Livestock Gains................................................................................245 11.3.5 Recommendations ............................................................................246 11.4 Management Practices .................................................................................249 11.4.1 Management Principles....................................................................249 11.4.2 Site-Speciﬁc Considerations ............................................................250 11.4.2.1 Forage Utilization and Residual Vegetation.....................250 11.4.2.2 Season of Use ...................................................................250 11.4.2.3 Distribution of Livestock..................................................252 11.4.2.4 Riparian Pastures ..............................................................252 11.5 Management Implications............................................................................252 References..............................................................................................................253

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A

Uncontrolled grazing by livestock often results in loss of native herbaceous and woody plants, streambank sloughing by erosion and bank breakdown by hoof action, widening or encisement of stream channels, lowering of floodplain water tables and loss of fish and wildlife habitats.

B

Protection or careful grazing management can allow streambanks to rebuild as residual vegetation stabilizes sediments deposited by high flows.

C

Figure 11.1

241

As the natural channel form redevelops, the higher floodplain water table supports the return of hydrophilic herbaceous and woody plants. Productive fish and wildlife habitats can then coexist with carefully managed livestock grazing programs.

Responses to livestock grazing (adapted from Clary, W.P. and Webster, B.F., Riparian grazing guidelines for the Intermountain Region, Rangelands, 12, 1990).

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Figure 11.2

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Vigorous stand of deergrass (Muhlenbergia rigens) protects the streambank, provides shade for aquatic habitat and contributes to a healthy stream ecosystem. Photo courtesy of USDA Forest Service, Tonto National Forest.

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Change in root biomass (g/soil core)

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1 a

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a

0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 b

-2 No grazing

Early summer, moderate use

Midsummer, moderate use

Summer-long, heavy use

Simulated grazing treatment Figure 11.3

Livestock grazing can inﬂuence the amount of root biomass present in a streambank and its susceptibility to breakdown and erosion. Defoliation, trampling and return of animal wastes were used in a simulated cattle-grazing study. Heavy summer-long use resulted in substantial loss of root biomass in just 2 years, whereas moderate seasonal use had little effect (adapted from Clary, W.P. and Kinney, J.W., Streambank and vegetation response to simulated cattle grazing, Wetlands, 22, 2002.).

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(A) Figure 11.4

Willow (Salix gooddingii) recovery behind an exclosure fence, (A) April 1996, (B) September 1996 and (C) August 1997. Grazing systems involving substantial rest, deferment, or rotation can complement forage species phenology and development to beneﬁt desirable plant communities. Photos courtesy of USDA Forest Service, Tonto National Forest.

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(C) Figure 11.4 (continued)

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Table 11.1

Some Direct and Surrogate Factors Used As Bases for the Mountain Meadow 4-in. Residual Forage Height Criterion

Factor or Consideration Maintain herbaceous plant biomass production

Reduce browsing of willows

Entrap and retain sediment under conditions of inundated ﬂow Reduce streambank trampling

Maintain forage intake and cattle gains

Treatment

Response

References

4 in. residual forage height (simulated grazing including trampling impacts and return of animal wastes) 4 to 6 in. residual forage height (cattle grazing) 4 to 5.5 in. residual forage height (cattle grazing) 6 in. residual forage height in spring, 8 in. in fall (cattle grazing) 0.5 to 6 in. forage heights of ﬂexible vegetation (artiﬁcial defoliation) 4 to 5.5 in. residual forage height (cattle grazing)

0 to 20% reduction in plant growth (where soil proﬁle was stable)

47, 61

Late season willow use begins

72

Willow cover increased over 10-year period

63

Residual forage heights less than 4 in. (artiﬁcial defoliation and cattle grazing)

Reduced willow consumption compared to shorter residual heights Stabilized 200–700% more sediment than occurred with no vegetation Most streambank variables moved closer to that beneﬁcial to salmonid ﬁsheries Cattle intake and, therefore, cattle gains are generally reduced because diminished tongue sweep lessens grazing efﬁciency

73 62, 78

63

52, 74, 77

Note: The criterion was considered the best compromise, considering various riparian values and functions, for sites supporting or that could potentially support sod-forming hydrophilic vegetation.

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CHAPTER

12

Wildlife Population and Habitat Management Practices Peter F. Ffolliott, Carlton M. Jones and Wendy D. Jones CONTENTS 12.1 Wildlife Values .............................................................................................260 12.2 Wildlife Management Practices ...................................................................260 12.3 Population Management Practices...............................................................261 12.3.1 Hunting Regulations ........................................................................259 12.3.2 Land Reservations............................................................................259 12.3.3 Artiﬁcial Replenishment ..................................................................260 12.3.3.1 Introductions .....................................................................260 12.3.3.2 Reintroductions .................................................................260 12.3.3.3 Restocking.........................................................................261 12.4 Habitat Management Practices ....................................................................263 12.4.1 Principles ..........................................................................................261 12.4.2 Montane Forests ...............................................................................261 12.4.2.1 Mammals...........................................................................262 12.4.2.2 Avifauna ............................................................................263 12.4.3 Woodland Ecosystems .....................................................................264 12.4.3.1 Mammals...........................................................................264 12.4.3.2 Avifauna ............................................................................266 12.4.4 Chaparral Shrubland Ecosystems ....................................................266 12.4.4.1 Mammals...........................................................................266 12.4.4.2 Avifauna ............................................................................267 12.4.5 Desert Ecosystems ...........................................................................267 12.5 Prescribed Burns ..........................................................................................270 12.6 Endangered and Threatened Species ...........................................................270 12.7 Summary ......................................................................................................271 References..............................................................................................................271 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

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Openings in forest overstories beneﬁt a variety of wildlife species by increasing available food while the surrounding trees provide protective cover. (Photo by Peter F. Ffolliott, University of Arizona.)

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Large conversions of pinyon-juniper woodlands to herbaceous plant covers is a past practice in the southwestern United States. (Photo by Peter F. Ffolliott, University of Arizona.)

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Openings in chaparral shrublands attract deer, collared peccary, black bear, cottontail, other mammals and a variety of birds. (Photo by Peter F. Ffolliott, University of Arizona.)

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CHAPTER

13

Fish Habitats: Conservation and Management Implications John N. Rinne

CONTENTS 13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................278 13.2 Aquatic Habitats in Riparian Areas .............................................................278 13.2.1 Riparian-Stream Areas .....................................................................278 13.2.2 Changes in Riparian-Stream Habitats..............................................280 13.3 Fish Habitat Components.............................................................................281 13.3.1 Water ................................................................................................281 13.3.2 Vegetation.........................................................................................283 13.3.3 Large Woody Material .....................................................................283 13.3.4 Near Stream and Instream Components..........................................285 13.3.4.1 Streambanks and Channel Morphology ...........................283 13.3.4.2 Stream Substrate ...............................................................283 13.3.4.3 Velocity of Flowing Water................................................284 13.3.4.4 Biological Habitats ...........................................................285 13.4 Relationship of Fishes to Speciﬁc Habitats.................................................287 13.4.1 Water Flow Regimes........................................................................288 13.4.2 Geomorphology................................................................................288 13.4.3 Aquatic Macrohabitats .....................................................................290 13.5 Conservation and Management Practices....................................................290 13.5.1 Conservation and Management Approach ......................................290 13.5.2 Sustaining Fish Assemblages...........................................................290 13.5.3 Sustaining Natural Conditions .........................................................291 13.6 Summary ......................................................................................................291 References..............................................................................................................292

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(B) Figure 13.1

Flood waters in (A) Verde River at Camp Verde and (B) a tributary stream, Fossil Creek, central Arizona, March 1995. Photos by John N. Rinne, USDA Forest Service.

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Bedrock dikes are important geomorphological structures that affect perennial surface ﬂow refugia for native ﬁshes in times of low drought ﬂows. Photo by John N. Rinne, USDA Forest Service.

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Herbaceous wetland vegetation (A) is a vital component of southwestern riparian-stream functioning and (B) provides habitat in the form of cover and resting areas for ﬁshes. Photos by John N. Rinne, USDA Forest Service.

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Accumulations of large woody material provide habitat for ﬁshes, structure to stream channels and nutrients to food sources (macroinvertebrates) for ﬁshes. Photo by John N. Rinne, USDA Forest Service.

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Estimates of ﬁsh populations in unnatural disturbance areas such as this continually disturbed low-water road crossing on Mangus Creek in New Mexico suggests that southwestern native ﬁshes are probably “disturbance species.” Photo by John N. Rinne, USDA Forest Service.

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(B) (A) Canyon-bound reaches compared with (B) broad alluvial valleys are important geomorphic determinants of southwestern ﬁsh assemblages. Photos by John N. Rinne, USDA Forest Service.

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9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 1994 Figure 13.7

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

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Dramatic changes in total numbers (light bars) and native ﬁshes (dark bars) in the Verde River, 1994–2002. The changes occurred following ﬂooding in 1993 and 1995, base or drought ﬂows since 1996 and changes in grazing management in 1997.

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CHAPTER

14

Water Availability and Recreational Opportunities Thomas C. Brown CONTENTS 14.1 Streamﬂow-Dependent Recreation ..............................................................300 14.1.1 Boating .............................................................................................300 14.1.2 Wading and Swimming....................................................................304 14.1.3 Fishing ..............................................................................................305 14.2 Streamﬂow-Enhanced Recreation................................................................305 14.2.1 Hiking...............................................................................................306 14.2.2 Aesthetics .........................................................................................307 14.3 Multiple Objectives of Managed Flows ......................................................308 14.3.1 Issues Confronted.............................................................................308 14.3.2 Rio Chama Study .............................................................................309 14.3.2.1 Methodologies...................................................................309 14.3.2.2 Results...............................................................................310 14.4 Summary ......................................................................................................312 References..............................................................................................................313 Recreation helps maintain physical and emotional health and enhances the quality of life. Much of the nation’s recreation activity occurs out of doors.1 The Southwest’s bounteous forests, woodlands and deserts provide ample outdoor recreation opportunities, a reason for the region’s rapidly expanding population. Outdoor recreation is important to city dwellers, many of whom crave temporary escape from their urban surroundings, and to rural inhabitants, some of whom choose to live away from the city partly to be close to outdoor recreation opportunities. Riparian areas act as magnets for outdoor recreationists, particularly in the arid Southwest. People ﬂock to riparian areas for active pursuits such as boating, ﬁshing, hiking and camping and also simply to see and be close to the water and its 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

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Average annual flow (ft /s) Figure 14.1

Minimum ﬂow requirements for canoeing (from Corbett5).Note: Two of the rivers were assessed at two points each, yielding a total of 46 data points for the 44 rivers, 19 points from ﬂatwater streams and 27 from whitewater streams.

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satisfactory

5

Mean rating

4

neutral

3

canoe small raft large raft kayak

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1 0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

Flow (ft3/s) Figure 14.2

Overall ﬂow evaluations for different craft, Dolores River, Colorado. (Shelby, B., Whittaker, D. and Hansen, W.R., Streamﬂow effects on hiking in Zion National Park, Utah, Rivers, 6 (2), 1997. Reprinted with permission from S.E.L. and Associates.)

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Percent

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20

0 1-5

5-9

9-16

16-32

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Flow (1,000 ft3/s) Figure 14.3

Percent of respondents who think accidents are more likely to happen at constant ﬂow level, Colorado River in Grand Canyon National Park (Shelby, B., Whittaker, D. and Hansen, W.R., Streamﬂow effects on hiking in Zion National Park, Utah, Rivers, 6 (2), 1997. Reprinted with permission from S.E.L. and Associates.)

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WATER AVAILABILITY AND RECREATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES

acceptable

5

Mean rating

307

4

Challenge is important High skill level

marginal

3

Challenge is not important Low to intermediate skill

2

unacceptable

1 0

50

100

150

200

250

Flow (ft3 /s) Figure 14.4

Flow evaluation curves for two types of hikers, the Narrows, Zion National Park (Shelby, B., Whittaker, D. and Hansen, W.R., Streamﬂow effects on hiking in Zion National Park, Utah, Rivers, 6 (2), 1997. Reprinted with permission from S.E.L. and Associates.)

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Table 14.1

Flow Regime Necessary To Support Designated Recreational Resources in the Rio Chama in Northern New Mexico

Resource Fish habitat (brown trout)

Macroinvertebrates Scenic/aesthetic Whitewater boating Scenic boating Fishing Riparian (maintenance ﬂow) Riparian (regeneration ﬂow) Bald eagles

311

Flow Magnitude and Timing 3

150–700 ft /s, October 15 to March 31 (400 ft3/s optimum) 150–300 ft3/s, April 1 to August 31 (200 ft3/s optimum) 75–300 ft3/s, September 1 to October 14 (200 ft3/s optimum) 185 ft3/s minimum 40 ft3/s minimum 800–1,000 ft3/s 500–600 ft3/s 150–300 ft3/s 185 ft3/s, April 1 to September 30 5,000 ft3/s at least one day every 5–10 years, between May 15 and June 15 150–250 ft3/s, December 1 to March 1

Source: Fogg, J.L., Hanson, B.L., Mottl, H.T., Muller, D.P., Eaton, R.C. and Swanson, S., Rio Chama Instream Flow Assessment, USDI Bureau of Land Management, Denver, 1992.

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Figure 14.5

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Alternative ﬂow regimes for the Rio Chama emphasizing resource protection and recreation opportunities (from Fogg, J.L., Hanson, B.L., Mottl, H.T., Muller, D.P., Eaton, R.C. and Swanson, S., Rio Chama Instream Flow Assessment, USDI Bureau of Land Management, Denver, 1992).

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CHAPTER

15

Riparian Ecosystem Assessments Juliet Stromberg, Mark Briggs, Mike Scott and Patrick Shafroth

CONTENTS 15.1 Physical Indicators and Functions ...............................................................316 15.1.1 Physical Indicators of Biotic Changes ............................................316 15.1.2 Physical Functions ...........................................................................318 15.2 Biotic Maintenance and Biotic Indicators ...................................................318 15.2.1 Plant Species Diversity ....................................................................318 15.2.2 Plant Species Composition ..............................................................319 15.2.3 Vegetation Dynamics .......................................................................320 15.2.4 Plant Productivity and Trophic Support ..........................................320 15.2.5 Vegetation Biomass Structure and Wildlife Habitat........................321 15.2.6 Animal Species Composition...........................................................321 15.3 Landscape Factors........................................................................................322 15.4 Land- and Water-Use Indicators ..................................................................322 15.5 Functional Assessments ...............................................................................323 15.6 Particular Stressors.......................................................................................324 15.7 Self Sustainability ........................................................................................325 15.8 Caveats .........................................................................................................325 15.8.1 Temporal and Spatial Variability .....................................................325 15.8.2 Testing and Validation......................................................................326 References..............................................................................................................327

Effective management of riparian ecosystems hinges on knowing the purpose of management and developing assessments that quantify the extent to which desired ecological functions and conditions are maintained or restored. Our objectives in this chapter are to review methods used to assess the condition and functional capacity of riparian ecosystems in the southwestern United States and other arid 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

315

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15.1 PHYSICAL INDICATORS AND FUNCTIONS 15.1.1

Physical Indicators of Biotic Changes

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RIPARIAN ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENTS

317

Fauna Secondary productivity, abundance Trophic complexity Species diversity Species/guild composition • Indicator species • Sensitive & rare species

Herbivory, Pollination, Seed dispersal

Water uptake, Slowing of floodwaters, Capture of pollutants

Provision of water, Nutrient transport, Seed dispersal, Physical disturbance

Hydrology Groundwater depth Surface water permanence Flood timing, magnitude, frequency Water quality

Figure 15.1

Secondary production, Cover/habitat provision, Microclimate moderation

Riparian Vegetation Biomass, productivity Structural complexity Species diversity Species composition Population age structure, reproduction Physiologic stress, vigor Resilience

OM production, nutrient inputs, Sediment capture

Formation of recruitment surfaces

Nutrients cycling Moisture retention

Floodplain Soils Texture Organic matter content Nutrient content Salinity, conductivity Moisture Microbial communities Mycorrhizal associates

Bank stabilization, Sediment trapping

Geomorphology Sediment texture Floodplain morphology Channel morphology

Functional relationships between key abiotic and biotic components of riparian ecosystems. Elements listed within boxes are variables that can be measured as indicators of functional change.

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CHAPTER

16

Restoration of Riparian Ecosystems Jonathan W. Long, Alvin L. Medina and James E. Steed

CONTENTS 16.1 Introduction and Setting...............................................................................334 16.1.1 History of Restoration Efforts .........................................................334 16.1.2 Shared History of Desert and Mountain Systems...........................334 16.1.3 Action, Reaction and Synthesis .......................................................335 16.1.4 Current Challenges of Restoration ..................................................336 16.1.5 Landscape Setting ............................................................................336 16.2 Conceptual Foundations for Restoration .....................................................337 16.2.1 Factors Controlling Riparian Development.....................................337 16.2.2 Establishing Reference Conditions..................................................339 16.3 Evaluating Condition and Restoration Capability.......................................340 16.3.1 Watershed-Level Factors..................................................................340 16.3.2 Site-Level Factors ............................................................................340 16.4 Restoring Functional Processes ...................................................................341 16.4.1 Passive and Active Restoration........................................................341 16.4.2 Managing Vegetative Processes at the Site Level ...........................342 16.4.2.1 Adding Vegetation ............................................................342 16.4.2.2 Removing Vegetation........................................................342 16.4.2.3 Managing Biotic Conditions with Disturbance................343 16.4.3 Managing Abiotic Processes at the Site Level ................................345 16.4.3.1 Using Rifﬂe Formations To Restore Function in Degraded Wet Meadows...............................................344 16.4.4 Managing Processes at the Watershed Level...................................346 16.5 Addressing Community Concerns ...............................................................347 16.5.1 Perspectives on Recovery ................................................................348 16.5.2 Communicating with the Community .............................................348

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Figure 16.1

Hierarchical framework for evaluating riparian wetlands, showing major elements that inﬂuence their condition along gradients representing the scale of change and the relative degree of biotic inﬂuence. Long, J.W., Evaluating recovery of riparian wetlands on the White Mountain Apache Reservation, Ph.D. dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 2002.

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Reach on the Centerﬁre Creek, where thickets of alder promote a wide channel due to formation of debris jams. Photo by Alvin L. Medina, USDA Forest Service.

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Habitat Preferences

Channel Characteristics

Rooting Characteristics Beneﬁts for Restoration

Drawbacks for Restoration

Restoration Uses

Common Means of Artiﬁcial Establishment

16.4.2.1

Woody Species (e.g., Salix, Populus, Alnus)

Herbaceous Species (e.g., Carex, Juncus, Schoenoplectus)

Coarse substrates, deeper water tables and frequent disturbance Typically wider and shallower with point bars

Fine-textured, anaerobic soils with shallow groundwater tables Narrower, deeper channels with vegetated overhanging banks Shallower, with higher ﬁne root densities. Sediment entrapment and retention, protection from streambank erosion, formation of undercut banks Less effective at dissipating streamﬂow energies; lower structural diversity

Deeper, with lower ﬁne root densities Stream shading, providing structural diversity, dissipation of high streamﬂow energies Can induce turbulence and local erosion during high ﬂows; can preclude understory plant establishment resulting in unprotected bare soils Most appropriate for sites dominated by coarse substrates, deeper groundwater tables, steeper channel gradients and steeper streambanks, or for sites that are not immediately adjacent to the stream channel Commonly established from cuttings and poles, containerized seedlings, bareroot transplants and seed

Most appropriate for sites dominated by ﬁne-textured soils, shallow groundwater tables and shallow channel gradients. Herbaceous plants are preferred for locations immediately adjacent to the stream channel. Commonly established from plugs, sprigs, rhizome sections, sod and seed

Adding Vegetation

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Combining passive restoration with sedimentation from a wildﬁre stimulated Carrizo Creek on the White Mountain Apache Reservation in Arizona to rapidly develop wetland vegetation and a narrower channel. Photos by Jonathan Long, courtesy of the White Mountain Apache Tribe.

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Fully functional system Basic processes intact; Higher order properties intact

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Nonfunctional system Basic processes and higher order properties both compromised

Figure 16.4

Diagram representing cyclical process of degradation and recovery, illustrating that changes are not likely to follow a linear path and that recovery of basic functional processes may not coincide with higher order properties such as animal populations. Long, J.W., Evaluating recovery of riparian wetlands on the White Mountain Apache Reservation, Ph.D. dissertation, Northern Arizona University, 2002.

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White Springs (a) before (October 1996) and (b) after (June 2000) treatments by the local community to stabilize the channel and promote growth of aquatic plants. Photos by Alvin L. Medina and Jonathan W. Long, courtesy of White Mountain Apache Tribe.

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CHAPTER

17

Institutional Limitations to Management and Use of Riparian Resources Peter F. Ffolliott and Hans M. Gregersen CONTENTS 17.1 Legal and Regulatory Requirements ...........................................................360 17.1.1 Water Rights.....................................................................................360 17.1.1.1 Prior Appropriation...........................................................360 17.1.1.2 Riparian Law ....................................................................361 17.1.1.3 Groundwater Rights..........................................................361 17.1.1.4 Instream Flow Rights .......................................................362 17.1.2 Federal Legislation...........................................................................362 17.1.2.1 Clean Water Act of 1972 ..................................................363 17.1.2.2 The Clean Water Initiative of 1998..................................364 17.1.2.3 Other Federal Laws and Regulations ...............................364 17.1.3 State Laws and Regulations.............................................................365 17.2 Informal Social Guidelines ..........................................................................365 17.2.1 A Recognition of Privileges.............................................................365 17.2.2 A Land Ethic....................................................................................367 17.2.3 Social Acceptability .........................................................................367 17.3 Economic Values ..........................................................................................367 17.3.1 Use Values ........................................................................................368 17.3.2 Non-Use Values................................................................................368 17.3.3 Sustaining the Flows of Resources..................................................369 17.4 Policies .........................................................................................................369 17.4.1 Policy Formulation...........................................................................369 17.4.2 Implementing Policies......................................................................370 17.5 Locally Led Initiatives .................................................................................370 17.5.1 Nature of the Initiatives ...................................................................371 17.5.2 Measures of Success ........................................................................371 17.6 Summary ......................................................................................................372 References..............................................................................................................372 1-56670-626-2/04/$0.00+$1.50 © 2004 by CRC Press LLC

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Prior Appropriation

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Riparian Law

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Groundwater Rights

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Table 17.1 Comparison of Prior Appropriation and Riparian Laws Prior Appropriation Law

Riparian Law

Nature of right:

Beneﬁcial use On- or off-site Owners have unequal rights

Rights established by: Restrictions on kind of use: Subject to priority of use:

Permit issued by state No Yes

Exclusive use: Loss of rights:

Yes By failure to use beneﬁcially

Transfer of rights:

Variable — with or without land transfer

Reasonable use On-site Rights only in common with other owners Ownership of riparian land Yes No — except for natural domestic use right predominant Some types of use By elimination of access to shoreline Only with transfer of riparian land

Source: Satterlund, D.R., Wildland Watershed Management, The Ronald Press Co., New York, 1972.

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Instream Flow Rights

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Figure 17.1

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Maintaining the ﬂow of water through riparian corridors is crucial to sustaining wildlife and ﬁsh populations, water-based recreational opportunities and aesthetic values. Photo by Daniel G. Neary, USDA Forest Service.

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Figure 17.2

Excessive or improper livestock grazing practices in the past have resulted in a loss of vegetative cover, a reduction in streambank stability and increased streambed erosion of many riparian corridors. Upper Verde River, Prescott National Forest, Salt-Verde River Basin, Arizona. Photo by John N. Rinne, USDA Forest Service.

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Index A

geniculatus L., 164 Alpha diversity, 89 Ambrosia triﬁda L., 143 Ambystoma tigrinum, 174 Ammannia auriculata Willd., 151 coccinea Rottb., 151 robusta Heer & Regel, 151 Ammodramus savannarum, 180 Ammotragus lervia, 262 Amorpha fruticosa L., 149 Amphispiza bilineata, 179 Anagallis minima (L.) Krause, 153 Anagrus epos, 90 Anas discors, 171 platyrhynchos, 171 Anasazi, 37 Andropogon glomeratus (Walt.) B.S.P., 164 Aneides hardii, 174 Anemopsis californica (Nutt.) Hook. & Arn., 156 Animal species composition, 321 Antilocarpa americana, 178 Aphelocoma coerulescens, 177 ultramarina, 176 Apium graveolens L., 143 Apocynum cannabinum L., 143 Aquatic invertebrates, 216, 217, 220 Aquifers, alluvial, 376 Aquilegia chrysantha Gray, 154 Arctostaphylos pringlei, 177 Argentina anserina (L.) Rydb., 155 Arizona Heritage Fund, 47 Arizona Riparian Council, 41 Arizona Water Protection Fund, 351 Army Corps of Engineers, 309 Arnica chamissonis Less., 143 Artemisia californica, 176 Arundo donax, 20, 164 Asclepias fascicularis Dcne., 143

Abies concolor, 171 magniﬁca, 171 Acer glabrum, 18 negundo, 4, 18, 142 Aconitum columbianum Nutt., 154 Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd. ssp. arguta (Nutt.) Hulten, 154 Active restoration, 342 Adiantum capillus-veneris L., 142 Aegolius acadicus, 173 Aesculus californica (Spach) Nutt., 150 Agrimonia gryposepala Wallr., 155 striata Michx. N, 155 Agrostis exarata Trin., 164 scabra Willd., 164 stolonifera, 164, 244 Agua Fria River, 100, 113, 114 Aimophila ruﬁceps, 178 Aix sponsa, 171 Alamo Dam, 105 Alisma triviale Pursh, 158 All-American Canal, 46 Allenrolfea occidentalis (S. Wats.) Kuntze, 148 Allophyllum gilioides (Benth.) A. & V. Grant, 153 Alluvial aquifers, 376 Alnus incana (L.) Moench. ssp. tenuifolia (Nutt.) Breitung, 146 incana ssp. tenuifolia, 341 oblongifolia Torr., 146 rhombifolia Nutt., 146 tenuifolia, 20 Alopecurus aequalis Sobol., 164 carolinianus Walt., 164

385

386

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speciosa Torr., 143 Aster lanceolatus Willd., 143 pauciﬂorus Nutt., 143 praealtus Poir., 144 subulatus, 133 subulatus Michx. var. ligulatus Shinners, 144 Astragalus agrestis Dougl. ex G. Don, 149 phoenix Barneby, 149 Aswan Dam, 79 Atriplex confertifolia, 178 lentiforimis (Torr.) S. Wats., 148 spp., 108 Audubon Society, 117 Auqatic habitats, sediment-enriched, 347 Avifauna, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 179, 180, 186–189, 265, 269, see also Mammals, avifauna and herpetofauna Accipiter cooperii, 186 Actitis macularia, 187 Aechmophorus clarkii, 186 occidentalis, 186 Aegolius acadicus, 187 Agelaius phoeniceus, 189 Aimophila ruﬁceps, 189 Aix sponsa, 186 Amazilia violiceps, 187 Amphispiza bilineata, 189 Anas acuta, 186 americana, 186 clypeata, 186 crecca, 186 cyanoptera, 186 discors, 186 platyrhynchos, 186 strepera, 186 Aphelocoma coerulescens, 188 ultramarina, 188 Archilochus alexandri, 187 Ardea alba, 186 herodias, 186 Asturina nitida, 187 Auriparus ﬂaviceps, 188 Aythya americana, 186 Baeolophus wollweberi, 188 Botaurus lentiginosus, 186 Bubo virginianus, 187 Buteo albonotatus, 187

Buteogallus anthracinus, 187 Butorides virescens, 186 Calamospiza melanocorys, 189 Callipepla gambelii, 187 squamata, 187 Camptostoma imberbe, 188 Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus, 188 Cardinalis cardinalis, 189 sinuatus, 189 Carduelis pinus, 189 psaltria, 189 Carpodacus cassinii, 189 mexicanus, 189 Catharus fuscescens, 188 Catherpes mexicanus, 188 Certhia americana, 188 Ceryle alcyon, 187 Charadrius alexandrinus, 187 vociferus, 187 Cistothorus palustris, 188 Coccothraustes vespertinus, 189 Coccyzus americanus, 187 Colaptes auratus, 187 Columbina passerina, 187 Contopus cooperi, 188 sordidulus, 188 Corvus cryptoleucus, 188 Cyanocitta sterreri, 188 Cynanthus latirostris, 187 Cyrtonyx montezumae, 187 Dendrocygna autumnalis, 186 Dendroica coronata, 189 nigrescens, 189 petechia, 189 Dumetella carolinensis, 188 Egretta thula, 186 Empidonax difﬁcilis, 188 fulvifrons, 188 hammondi, 188 oberholseri, 188 traillii, 188 wrightii, 188 Falco peregrinus, 187 spariverus, 187 Fulica americana, 187 Gallinula chloropus, 187

INDEX

Geococcyx californianus, 187 Geothlypis trichas, 189 Glaucidium brasilianum, 187 Guiraca caerulea, 189 Haliaeetus leucocephalus, 186 Himantopus mexicanus, 187 Icteria virens, 189 Ictinia mississippiensis, 186 Ixobrychus exilis, 186 Lampornis clemenciae, 187 Laterallus jamaicensis, 187 Loxia curvirostra, 189 Melanerpes erythrocephalus, 187 uropygialis, 187 Meleagris gallopavo, 187 Melospiza lincolnii, 189 melodia, 189 Mergus merganser, 186 Micrathene whitneyi, 187 Mimus polyglottos, 188 Molothrus aeneus, 189 ater, 189 Myiarchus cinerascens, 188 tyrannulus, 188 Myioborus pictus, 189 Nucifraga columbiana, 188 Nycticorax nycticorax, 186 Oporornis tolmiei, 189 Oreortyx pictus, 187 Otus kennicottii, 187 trichopsis, 187 Oxyura jamaicensis, 186 Pachyramphus aglaiae, 188 Pandion haliaetus, 186 Passerina amoena, 189 ciris, 189 cyanea, 189 Perisoreus canadensis, 188 Petrochelidon pyrrhonota, 188 Phalacrocorax auritus, 186 brasilianus, 186 Pheucticus melanocephalus, 189 Picoides arizonae, 187 pubescens, 187 scalaris, 187 tridactlyus, 187 Pinicola enucleator, 189

387

Pipilo aberti, 189 erythropthalmus, 189 fuscus, 189 maculatus, 189 Piranga rubra, 189 Plegadis chihi, 186 Podiceps nigricollis, 186 Podilymbus podiceps, 186 Poecile atricapillus, 188 gambeli, 188 Polioptila melanura, 188 Porzana carolina, 187 Pyrocephalus rubinus, 188 Rallus limicola, 187 longirostris, 187 Recurvirostra americana, 187 Riparia riparia, 188 Sayornis nigricans, 188 Selasphorus platycercus, 187 Sitta canadensis, 188 carolinensis, 188 pygmaea, 188 Sphyrapicus thyroideus, 187 Spizella atrigularis, 189 passerina, 189 Stelgidopteryx serripennis, 188 Sterna antillarum, 187 Strix occidientalis, 187 Sturnella magna, 189 neglecta, 189 Sturnus vulgaris, 188 Tachycinea thalassina, 188 Thryomanes bewickii, 188 Toxostoma crissale, 188 Trogon elegans, 187 Turdus migratorius, 188 Tyrannus crassirostris, 188 melancholicus, 188 verticalis, 188 vociferans, 188 Tyto alba, 187 Vermivora celata, 189 luciae, 189 Vireo bellii, 188 gilvus, 188 huttoni, 188

388

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

solitarius, 188 vicinior, 188 Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus, 189 Zenaida asiatica, 187 macroura, 187 Aythya valisineria, 171 Azolla mexicana Schlecht. & Cham. ex K. Presl, 142

B Baccharis emoryi Gray, 144 salicifolia, 20, 133 salicifolia (Ruiz & Pavon) Pers., 144 salicina Torr. & Gray, 144 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell, 156 rotundifolia (Michx.) Wettst., 156 Baeolophus wollweberi, 176 Bank overﬂows, 62, 79 stability classes, 318 stabilization, 326 Barbarea orthoceras Ledeb., 146 Bassariscus astutus, 178 Bassia hyssopifolia (Pallas) Kuntze, 148 Beaver populations, elimination of, 128 Bebbia juncea, 133 Bergia texana (Hook.) Seub. ex Walp., 148 Berula erecta, 133 erecta (Huds.) Coville, 143 Best Management Practices (BMPs), 381 Beta diversity, 89 Betula occidentalis Hook., 146 Bidens aurea (Ait.) Sherff, 144 cernua L.., 144 ferulifolia (Jacq.) DC., 144 frondosa L., 144 laevis (L.) B.S.P., 144 pilosa L., 144 Big game, 265 Bill Williams River, 105 Biodiversity relationships, 88 string of lights, 89 Biotic changes, physical indicators of, 316 Bird watching, preferred sites for, 68 BMPs, see Best Management Practices Boating, 300 Bosque de Apache Wildlife Refuge, 201

Brachyactis frondosa (Nutt.) A.G. Jones, 144 Branta canadensis, 171 Brickellia ﬂoribunda, 144 squamulosa, 144 Broadleaf gallery forests, 127 Buchnera arizonica (Gray) Pennell, 156 Buddleja sessiliﬂora Kunth, 147 Bufo debilis insidior, 181 Bureau of Indian Affairs, 364 Bureau of Land Management, 13, 309, 364 Bureau of Reclamation, 309 Burns prescribed, 270 riparian development and, 346 Buteo swainsoni, 180 Butterﬂy riparian quality indices, 231

C Cache la Poudre River, 308 Calamagrostis canadensis (Michx.) Beauv. N, 164 Calamospiza melanocorys, 180 Calibrachoa parviﬂora (Juss.) D'Arcy, 157 Callipepla gambelii, 179 squamata, 179 Callitriche heterophylla Pursh, 147 palustris L., 147 Caltha leptosepala DC., 154 Calypte costae, 179 Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br., 148 Camping, preferred sites for, 68 Campylorhynchus brunneicapillas, 179, 180 Canis latrans, 173 lupus baileyi, 262 Canoeing zero ﬂow, 301 Canopy dieback, 320 Canyon streams, 32 CAP, see Central Arizona Project Cardamine cordifolia Gray, 146 Carduelis pinus, 172 Carex, 130 alma Bailey, 159 amplectens Mackenzie, 159 aquatilis Wahlenb., 159 athrostachya Olney, 159 aurea Nutt., 159 canescens L., 159 chihuahensis Mackenzie, 159 dudleyi Mackenzie, 159

INDEX

hassei Bailey, 159 hystericina Muhl. ex Willd., 159 interior Bailey, 159 lanuginosa Michx., 159 lenticularis Michx., 159 leptopoda Mackenzie, 159 leucodonta Holm, 159 meadii Dewey, 159 microdonta Torr. & Hook., 159 microptera Mackenzie, 159 nebrascensis, 19, 243 nebrascensis Dewey, 159 occidentalis Bailey, 159 praegracilis W. Boott N, 159 rostrata, 19 rostrata Stokes, 159 senta Boott, 159 stipata Muhl. ex Willd., 159 ultra Bailey, 159 viridula Michx., 159 vulpinoidea Michx., 159 Carodacus mexicanus, 180 Carpodacus cassinii, 172 Castilleja exilis A. Nels., 156 minor (Gray) Gray, 156 Castor canadensis, 335 Catharus guttatus, 172 Celtis laevigata var. reticulata, 133 laevigata Willd. var. reticulata (Torr.) L. Benson, 157 Centaurea rothrockii Greenm., 144 Centaurium calycosum, 133 calycosum (Buckl.) Fern., 149 exaltatum (Griseb.) W. Wight ex Piper, 149 nanophilum Reveal, Broome & Beatley N, 149 nudicaule (Engelm.) B.L. Robins., 149 Central Arizona Project (CAP), 46, 113, 116 Cephalanthus occidentalis L., 155 Cerastium arvense L., 147 Ceratophyllum demersum L.., 147 Certhia americana, 172 Cervus elaphus, 242 Chamaea fasciata, 177 Chamaesyce vermiculata (Raf.) House, 149 Channel dynamics, 3, 59 erosion, 66 migration, downstream rates of lateral, 101 morphology, 59, 62, 285 roughness, 58 Chaparral shrublands, 268

389

Charadrius montana, 180 Chasmistes cujus, 109 Chihuahuan Desert, 32 Chilopsis linearis, 133 linearis (Cav.) Sweet, 146 Chloracantha spinosa (Benth.) Nesom, 144 Chondestes grammacus, 180 Chordeiles acutipennis, 179 Chrysothamnus albidus (M.E. Jones ex Gray) Greene, 144 Cicuta douglasii (DC.) Coult. & Rose, 143 Ciénegas, 21, 23, 117, 127, 279 Cirsium gilense Woot. & Standl., 144 grahamii Gray, 144 Mojavense (Greene) Petrak, 144 pallidum Woot. & Standl., 144 parryi (Gray) Petrak, 144 wrightii Gray, 144 Cissus trifoliata (L.) L., 158 Civilian Conservation Corps, 335 Cladium californicum (S. Wats.) O'Neill, 159 mariscus (L.) Pohl ssp. jamaicense (Crantz) Kukenth., 159 Claytonia perfoliata Donn ex Willd., 153 Clean Water Act, 13, 40, 349, 363, 364 Cleomella brevipes S. Wats., 147 longipes Torr., 147 parviﬂora Gray, 147 Cleome multicaulis DC., 147 Clethrionomys gapperi, 171 Climate, variety of, 30 Cnemidophorus sexlineatus virdis, 181 tigris tigris, 179 velox, 175 Coarse woody debris (CWD), 85 Coccothraustes vespertina, 174 Colaptes auratus, 172, 179 Coleogyne ramosissima, 178 Coleonyx variegatus, 179 Colinus virginianus ridgwayi, 181 Colorado River, 33, 100, 101, 105, 111, 199 Conioselinum scopulorum (Gray) Coult. & Rose, 143 Conium maculatum L., 143 Constructed wetlands, 21 Continental Divide, 31 Contopus cooperi, 172 Cordylanthus tecopensis Munz & Roos, 156 Core riparian, 129 Cornus sericea L., 148

390

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Corvus cryptoleucus, 179 Crassula aquatica (L.) Schoenl., 148 Crataegus wootoniana Egglest., 155 Cressa truxillensis Kunth, 148 Crotalus atrox, 179 viridis, 174 Croton texensis (Klotzsch) Muell.-Arg., 149 CWD, see Coarse woody debris Cygnus columbianus, 171 Cynodon dactylon, 334 Cynomys ludovicianus, 180 Cyperus, 130 acuminatus Torr. & Hook. ex Torr., 159 difformis L., 160 erythrorhizos Muhl., 160 ﬂavicomis Michx., 160 involucratus Rottb., 160 laevigatus L. N, 160 niger Ruiz & Pavon N, 160 odoratus, 133, 160 parishii Britt., 160 squarrosus L. N, 160 strigosus L., 160 Cyrtonyx montezumae, 176

D Dam(s) hydrologic dysfunction caused by, 101 management, 108 Datisca glomerata (K. Presl) Baill., 148 Decision-making power, 371 Defenders of Wildlife, 203 Deﬁnitions and classiﬁcations, 11–27 classiﬁcations, 15–21 general approaches, 15 information needs and analyses, 16 southwestern riparian ecosystems, 16–18 southwest wetlands, 18–21 deﬁnitions, 12–15 riparian, 12–14 wetlands, 14–15 Delphinium andesicola Ewan, 154 Dendragapus obscurus, 172 Dendroica coronata, 172 nigrescens, 174 Deschampsia caespitosa, 343 cespitosa (L.) Beauv., 164 danthonioides (Trin.) Munro, 164 Desert ecosystems, 269

grasslands, 170, 179 shrublands, 178 Desert Fishes Council, 202 Dewatering, 115, 376 Diadophis punctatus, 174 Dicotyles tajacu, 174 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koel., 164 Dipodomys deserti, 178 merriami, 178 ordii, 180 Dipsosaurus dorsalis, 179 Disease-vectoring insects, 223 Distichlis spicata, 20, 133 spicata (L.) Greene, 164 Dodecatheon dentatum Hook., 153 pulchellum (Raf.) Merr., 154 redollens (Hall) H.J. Thompson, 154 Dog heartworm, 90 Droughts, 120, 279, 334 Dry rivers, rewatering of, 115

E Eaeagnus angustifolia, 40 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link, 164 olonum, 133 rusgalli, 133 rusgalli (L.) Beauv., 164 ruspavonis (Kunth) J. A. Schultes, 164 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., 144 Ecological relationships, 3–4 Ecological restoration, 334, 336 Ecosystem(s) classiﬁcation of, 15 desert, 269 dynamics, ﬂoodﬂows of, 20 Egeria densa Planch., 161 transition proﬁles across, 2 woodland, 266 Elaeagnus angustifolia, 18, 148, 334 Elaphe guttata, 181 triapsis, 176 Elatine brachysperma Gray, 148 rubella Rydb., 148 triandra Schkuhr, 148 Element mineralization, 70 Eleocharis, 130 acicularis (L.) Roemer & J.A. Schultes, 160

INDEX

atropurpurea (Retz.) J. & K. Presl, 160 bella (Piper) Svens., 160 cancellata S. Wats., 160 engelmannii Steud., 160 geniculata (L.) Roemer & J.A. Schultes, 160 montana (Kunth) Roemer & J.A. Schultes, 160 montevidensis Kunth, 160 palustris, 133 palustris (L.) Roemer & Schultes, 160 parishii Britt., 160 parvula (Roemer & J.A. Schultes) Link ex Bluff, Nees & Schauer, 160 quinqueﬂora (F.X. Hartmann) Schwarz, 160 radicans (A. Dietr.) Kunth, 160 rostellata (Torr.) Torr., 160 Elymus canadensis L., 164 Empidonax fulvifrons, 176 hammondii, 172 oberholseri, 177 traillii extimus, 102, 181 wrightii, 174 Encelia californica, 176 Endangered Species Act, 40, 111, 181, 202, 270, 349 Energy movement of, 78 terrestrial, 218 transfer, 222 Epilobium canum (Greene) Raven, 152 ciliatum, 133 ciliatum Raf., 152 halleanum Hausskn., 152 hornemannii Reichenb., 152 saximontanum Hausskn., 152 torreyi (S. Wats.) P. Hoch & Raven, 152 Epipactis gigantea Dougl. ex Hook., 163 Eptesicus fuscus, 173 Equisetum × ferrissii Clute, 142 hyemale L. var. afﬁne (Engelm.) A.A. Eat., 142 laevigatum A. Braun, 142 Eragrostis obtusiﬂora (Fourn.) Scribn., 164 Erigeron coulteri Porter, 144 peregrinus (Banks ex Pursh) Greene, 144 Eriochloa acuminata (J. Presl) Kunth, 164 aristata Vasey, 164 Eriogonum fasciculatum, 176 Erosion, 58, 79 Eryngium lemmonii Coult. & Rose, 143

391

phyteumae Delar. f., 143 sparganophyllum Hemsl., 143 Erythroneura elegantuala, 90 Eumeces callicephalus, 174 Eupatorium maculatum L., 145 Eustoma exaltatum (L.) Salisb. ex G. Don, 149 russellianum (Hook.) G. Don, 149 Euthamia occidentalis Nutt., 145 Evaporation, precipitation and, 54 Exotic species, 91

F Facultative riparian species, 128 Falco sparverius, 180 Farmland irrigation, 117 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), 305 Federal Water Pollution Control Act, 363 FERC, see Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Fertilizers, irrigation water containing, 64 Festuca arundinacea Schreb., 164 pratensis Huds., 164 Fimbristylis annua (All.) Roemer & J.A. Schultes, 160 thermalis S. Wats., 160 vahlii (Lam.) Link, 161 Fire, 227 disturbance, perpetuation of, 108 high-severity, 70 Fish(es) assemblages, sustaining of, 290 fauna, 194–197 introduced species, 196–197 native species, 194–196 predation and, 198 specialized, detriment to, 198 Fishes, native and introduced, 193–213 conservation strategies, 202–203 early efforts, 202–203 future efforts, 203 ﬁsh fauna, 194–197 introduced species, 196–197 native species, 194–196 introduced ﬁshes of Colorado River, 212–213 native ﬁsh dispersion across riparian stream habitats, 211 native ﬁshes, sensitive species list, 210 threats to existence, 197–201 biological effects, 197–200 hydrologic alterations, 200–201 Fish habitats, 277–297

392

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

aquatic habitats in riparian areas, 278–281 changes in riparian-stream habitats, 280–281 riparian-stream areas, 278–279 components, 281–287 large woody material, 283–284 near stream and instream components, 285–287 vegetation, 283 water, 281–283 conservation and management practices, 290–291 conservation and management approach, 290 sustaining ﬁsh assemblages, 290–291 sustaining natural conditions, 291 relationship of ﬁshes to speciﬁc habitats, 287–290 aquatic macrohabitats, 290 geomorphology, 288–289 water ﬂow regimes, 288 Flaveria chlorifolia Gray, 145 trinervia (Spreng.) C. Mohr, 145 Flood(s), 279 control, 368 events, 288 Flooding, 3, 57, 91, 224 Floodplain(s) farming and irrigation, 6 naturally occurring, 65 post-entrenchment, 119 soils on, 4 width measurement, 318 Floodplain Executive Order, 13 Floodwalls, construction of, 69 Flora, riparian, 128–167 biogeographical scope, 129 classiﬁcation of riparian species, 128–129 core riparian plant species of Madrean and Sonoran ﬂoristic provinces of southwestern United States, 141–167 previous work, 129–130 procedures of study, 130–131 results and discussion, 131–136 Floristic quality assessments, 319 Flourensia cernua, 178 splendens, 178 Flowing water, occurrence of, 3 Food sources, loss of suitable, 378 webs, 87 carbon cycling through, 82

role of insects in, 378 role of invertebrates in, 218 terrestrial, 221 Forage plants, 243 utilization, 250 Forest(s) broadleaf gallery, 127 future of riparian, 108 mixed-conifer, 347 montane, 262 recruitment event, large-scale, 110 Forestiera pubescens Nutt., 151 Forest Management Act, 13 Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act, 40, 369 Four Corners, 31 Frankenia salina (Molina) I.M. Johnston, 149 Fraxinus pennsylvanica, 40 pennsylvanica var. velutina, 18 velutina, 133 velutina Torr., 151 Fuierna simplex Vahl, 161 Fungus-induced diseases, 217 Fur trapping, 42 Future themes and recommendations, 375–383 ecology, 377–378 ﬁsh, 378 invertebrates, 378 terrestrial wildlife, 377–378 vegetation, 377 hydrology, 376–377 ﬂows of water, 376 other pollutants, 377 sediment, 376–377 integrated management, 380–382 Best Management Practices, 381 cumulative impacts, 381–382 desired future conditions, 380–381 monitoring, 382 restoration, 382 management considerations, 378–380 ﬁsh, 380 people, 380 terrestrial wildlife, 379 vegetation, 379 water resources, 378–379

G Galium triﬁdum L., 155 GAWS, see General Aquatic Wildlife system General Aquatic Wildlife system (GAWS), 287

INDEX

Gentiana algida Pallas, 149 Gentianopsis detonsa (Rottb.), 149 thermalis (Kuntze) Iltis, 149 Geococcyx californianus, 180 californus, 179 Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 16 Geomorphology, 15, 288 Geomys bursarius, 180 Geranium carolinianum L., 150 Gerrhonotus kingii, 174 multicarinatus webbi, 178 Geum macrophyllum Willd., 155 Gila cypha, 102 Gila River, 33, 35, 38, 42, 100, 117, 200 GIS, see Geographic Information Systems Glaucidium gnoma, 173 Glinus lotoides L., 151 radiatus (Ruiz & Pavon) Rohrb., 151 Glyceria borealis (Nash) Batchelder, 164 elata (Nash ex Rydb.) M.E. Jones, 164 grandis S. Wats., 164 striata (Lam.) A.S. Hitchc., 164 Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh, 149 Gnaphalium palustre Nutt., 145 stramineum, 133, 145 Gopherus agassizi, 179 Grand Canyon, 201, 306 Granite Reef Dam, 115 Grasslands, 170 desert, 179 general descriptions, 179 Gravel excavations, 379 Grazing fall, 251 management principles, 249–250 -sensitive bird species, 322 spring, 251 summer, 251 systems, 249 winter, 251 Great Basin, 109 Grindelia fraxino-pratensis Reveal & Beatley, 145 Groundwater aquifers, 64 excessive pumping of, 43 ﬂow(s) linkages between surface water and, 378 nutrients delivered by, 79

393

precipitation and, 55 levels, changes in, 17 pumping, 6, 57, 116, 316 recharge, multiple goals of, 114 rights, 361 Gully stabilization treatments, 346 Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus, 174

H Habitat Conservation Plans, 270 Habitat management, 262 Hakataya culture, 38 Halaeetes leucocephalus, 102 Halodule beaudettei (den Hartog) den Hartog, 158 Harrisina brillians, 90 Hassayampa River, 100 Helenium autumnale L., 145 thurberi Gray, 145 Heleocharis palustris, 19 Helianthus nuttallii Torr. & Gray, 145 Heliotropium curassavicum L., 146 Hemizonia pungens (Hook. & Arn.) Torr. & Gray, 145 Heracleum maximum Bartr., 143 Herbaceous perennials, 136 Herpetofauna, 172, 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 190–192, see also Mammals, avifauna and herpetofauna Acris crepitans, 190 Ambystoma tigrinum, 190 Arizona elegans, 191 Bufo alvaris, 190 boreas, 190 cognatus, 190 debilis, 190 microscaphus, 190 punctatus, 190 woodhousii, 190 Callisaurus draconoides, 190 Chelydra serpentina, 190 Chilomeniscus cinctus, 191 Chionactis occipitalis, 191 Chrysemys picta, 190 Cnemidophorus burti, 190 ﬂagellicaudus, 190 sonorae, 191 tigris, 191 velox, 191 Coleonyx variegatus, 190

394

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Cophosaurus texanus, 190 Crotalus atrox, 191 cerastes, 191 mitchelli, 191 molossus, 191 scutulatus, 191 viridis, 191 Crotaphytus collaris, 190 Diadophis punctatus, 191 Dipsosaurus dorsalis, 190 Elaphe guttata, 191 Elgaria kingii, 191 Eumeces gilberti, 191 multivirgatus, 191 Gambelia wislizenii, 190 Gopherus agassizi, 190 Heloderma suspectum, 191 Hyla arenicolor, 190 eximia, 190 Hypsiglena torquata, 191 Kinosternon ﬂavescens, 190 sonoriense, 190 Lampropeltis getula, 191 pyromelana, 191 Leptotyphlops humilis, 191 Lichanura trivirgata, 191 Liochlorophis vernalis, 191 Masticophus bilineatus, 191 ﬂagellum, 191 taeniatus, 191 Micruroides euryxanthus, 191 Nerodia erythrogaster, 191 Phrynosoma platyrhinos, 190 solare, 190 Phyllorhyncus decurtatus, 191 Pituophis melanoleucus, 191 Plethodon neomexicanus, 190 Pseudacris triseriata, 190 Pseudemys concinna, 190 gorzugi, 190 scripta, 190 Rana berlandieri, 190 blairi, 190 catesbeiana, 190 chiricahuensis, 190 pipens, 190

yavapaiensis, 190 Rhinocheilus leconti, 191 Salvadora hexalepis, 191 Sauromalus obesus, 190 Scaphiopus couchii, 190 Sceloporus clarkii, 190 magister, 190 undulatus, 190 Senticolis triaspis, 191 Sonora semiannulata, 191 Tantilla hobartsmithi, 191 yaquia, 191 Thamnophis cyrtopsis, 191 elegans, 191 eques, 191 marcianus, 191 proximus, 191 radix, 191 ruﬁpunctatus, 191 sirtalis, 191 Trachemys gaigeae, 190 scripta, 190 Trimorphodon biscutatus, 191 Trionyx muticus, 190 spiniferus, 190 Tropidoclonion lineatum, 191 Urosaurus graciosus, 190 ornatus, 190 Uta stansburiana, 190 Heteranthera dubia (Jacq.) MacM., 166 limosa (Sw.) Willd., 166 Heterodon nasicus kennerlyi, 181 Hierochloe odorata (L.) Beauv., 165 Hiking, 68, 306 Hohokam culture, 37 Holbrookia maculata, 181 Holcus lanatus L., 165 Hoover Dam, 45 Hordeum arizonicum Covas, 165 depressum (Scribn. & J.G. Sm.) Rydb., 165 jubatum L., 165 Human alterations of riparian ecosystems, 99–126 long-term effects of river impoundments, 104–108 Bill Williams River of western Arizona, 105–108

INDEX

impacts on hydrologic and ecological processes, 104–105 multi-purpose riparian ecosystem management, 113–115 Agua Fria River in central Arizona, 113–115 considerations, 113 releases of water from reservoirs, 111–112 Colorado River Delta, 111–111 impacts in functioning, 111 restoring streamﬂow to regulated rivers, 108–111 impacts on hydrologic and ecological processes, 108–109 Truckee River in western Nevada, 109–111 rewatering dry rivers, 115–117 considerations, 115 Santa Cruz River in southeastern Arizona, 116–117 river impoundments, 101–104 Grand Canyon reach of Colorado River, 101–104 impacts on hydrologic and ecological processes, 101 water conservation, 117–120 importance and considerations, 117 San Pedro River in southeastern Arizona, 117–120 Hunting regulations, 261 value of wildlife in, 260 Hutchinsonia procumbens (L.) Desv., 146 Hybognathus amarus, 201, 287 Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle, 161 Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L. f., 143 umbellata L., 143 verticillata Thunb., 143 Hydrologic function, hydrology and impacts of disturbances on, 51–76 channel dynamics and morphology, 60–63 channel morphology, 62–63 dynamic equilibrium, 61–62 erosion and sediment transport, 58–60 sediment transport, 59–60 soil erosion, 58–59 hyporheic zone, 65 impacts of land-use and management activities, 66–69 livestock grazing, 66–67 recreational activities, 68 roads, 68 tree cutting, 67–68 urbanization, 68–69

395

large woody materials, 63 natural disturbances, 69–70 excessive storm precipitation, 69 wildﬁre, 69–70 precipitation patterns, 52–53 riparian buffer strips, 64 riparian–watershed linkages, 65–66 runoff processes and streamﬂow, 54–58 factors affecting streamﬂow response, 55–57 ﬂooding, 57–58 impacts of human interventions, 57 water pathways to stream channels, 54–55 soil characteristics, 54 water quality, 64 Hydrologic relationships, 2–3 Hydrology engineer, 223 Hydrophyllum occidentale (S. Wats.) Gray N, 150 Hylactophyrne augusti, 176 Hyla eximia, 180 Hymenoclea monogyra, 113, 133 monogyra Torr. & Gray ex Gray, 145 Hypericum anagalloides, 19 anagalloides Cham. & Schlecht., 150 pauciﬂora, 19 scouleri Hook., 150 Hyporheic zone, 65 metabolism in, 82 subsystems of, 80 water emerging from, 376 Hypoxis mexicana J.A. & J.H. Schultes, 163

I IBI, see Index of Biotic Integrity Icterus parisorum, 174 Iliamna grandiﬂora (Rydb.) Wiggins, 151 Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI), 324 Insects disease-vectoring, 223 roles of, in food webs, 378 terrestrial, 88 Insects and other invertebrates, 215–236 effects of disturbance on riparian invertebrates, 223–227 ﬁre, 227 ﬂooding and water regulation, 224–225 invasive species, 226 livestock grazing, 225–226 mining activities, 227 indicators of stream and riparian health, 227–232

396

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

riparian health, 228–232 stream health, 228 invertebrate communities, 216–218 aquatic invertebrates, 217–218 terrestrial invertebrates, 216–217 management considerations, 232 other ecological roles of riparian invertebrates, 222–223 role of invertebrates in riparian food webs, 218–222 aquatic food webs, 218–221 terrestrial food webs, 221–222 Institutional limitations to management and use of riparian resources, 359–374 economic values, 367–369 non-use values, 368 sustaining ﬂows of resources, 369 use values, 368 informal social guidelines, 365–367 land ethic, 367 recognition of privileges, 365–366 social acceptability, 367 legal and regulatory requirements, 360–365 federal legislation, 362–365 state laws and regulations, 365 water rights, 360–362 locally led initiatives, 370–371 measures of success, 371 nature of initiatives, 371 policies, 369–370 implementing policies, 370 policy formulation, 369–370 Instream ﬂow, 5, 362 Internet access, 371 Introduced ﬁshes, 212–213 Acipenser transmontanus, 212 Ambloplites ruprestris, 212 Anguilla rostrata, 212 Anisotremus davidsoni, 212 Astanax mexicanus, 212 Bairdella icistia, 212 Carassius auratus, 212 Catostomus platyrhynchus, 212 plebius, 212 Cichlasoma cyanogutatum, 213 meeki, 213 nigrofasciatum, 213 Clarias batrachus, 212 Cottus bairdi, 213 Cynoscion xanthalus, 212 Cyprinella formosus, 212 lutrensis, 213

Dorosoma cepedianum, 212 petenense, 213 Esox lucius, 212 masquinongy, 212 Fundulus zebrinus, 213 Gila atraria, 212 copei, 212 Gillichthys mirabilis, 213 Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, 212 Ictiobus bubalus, 212 niger, 212 Lepomis cynellus, 212 gibbosus, 212 gulosus, 212 macrochirus, 213 microlophus, 212 Micropterus dolomieui, 212 salmoides, 212 Morone chrysops, 212 mississippiensis, 212 saxatilis, 212 Notropis stramineus, 212 Oncorhynchus aguabonita, 212 clarki, 212 kisutch, 212 mykiss, 212 nerka, 212 Perca ﬂavescens, 212 Pimephales promelas, 213 Poecilia mexicana, 213 reticulata, 213 Pomoxi annularis before, 212 nigromaculatus, 212 Richardsonius balteatus, 212 Salmo trutta, 212 Salvelinus fontinalis, 212 Stizostedian vitreum, 212 Thymallus articus, 212 Tilapia mossambica, 212 Xiphophorus helleri, 213 variatus, 213 Invasive species, 226 Invertebrates, see Insects and other invertebrates Irrigation, 42

INDEX

397

farmland, 117 groundwater pumping for, 57 large dams and, 104 water, 44 diversions built for, 57 fertilizers in, 64

J Juglans major, 4, 18, 40, 133 major (Torr.) Heller, 150 microcarpa Berl., 150 Junco spp., 172 Juncus, 130 acuminatus Michx., 161 acutus L., 161 articulatus L., 161 balticus, 243 balticus Willd., 161 bufonius L., 162 cooperi Engelm., 162 drummondii E. Mey., 162 dubius Engelm., 162 dudleyi Wieg., 162 effusus L., 162 ensifolius Wikstr., 162 interior Wieg., 162 longistylis Torr., 162 macrophyllus Coville, 162 marginatus Rostk., 162 mertensianus Bong., 162 mexicanus Willd. ex J.A. & J.H. Schultes, 162 nevadensis S. Wats., 162 nodosus L., 162 orthophyllus Coville, 162 rugulosus Engelm., 162 saximontanus A. Nels., 162 tenuis Willd., 162 textilis Buch., 162 torreyi, 133 torreyi Coville, 162 xiphioides E. Mey., 162 Juniperus deppeana, 173 monosperma, 173 occidentalis, 171 scopulorum, 173

L Lake Mead, 111 Large woody debris (LWD), 85 Large woody material (LWM), 63, 85, 86, 93, 283

Larrea tridentata, 178 Last Great Places, Nature Conservancy designation of, 117 Leersia oryzoides (L.) Sw., 165 Lemna aequinoctialis Welw., 163 gibba, 133, 163 minor L., 163 minuta Kunth, 163 turionifera Landolt, 163 valdiviana Phil., 163 Lepidium dictyotum Gray, 146 Lepidomeda vittata vittata, 287 Leptochloa fascicularis (Lam.) Gray, 165 mucronata (Michx.) Kunth, 165 uninervia (J. Presl) A.S. Hitchc. & Chase, 165 Leptonycteris curasoae yerbabuenae, 181 Lepus californicus, 174 Levees, construction of, 69 Lilaeopsis schaffneriana (Schlecht.) Coult. & Rose var. recurva (A. W. Hill) Affolter, 143 Lilium parryi S. Wats., 163 Limonium limbatum Small, 152 Limosella acaulis Sesse & Moc., 156 aquatica L. N, 156 Lindernia dubia (L.) Pennell, 156 Linepithema humile, 91 Lipocarpha aristulata (Coville) G. Tucker, 161 drummondii (Nees) G. Tucker, 161 micrantha (Vahl) G. Tucker, 161 Listera convallarioides (Sw.) Nutt. ex Ell., 163 Livestock distribution, 252 gains, 245 Livestock grazing, 4, 43, 17, 225, 237–258, 270, 291 excessive, 66 management implications, 252–253 management practices, 249–252 management principles, 249–250 site-speciﬁc considerations, 250–252 reducing, 67 residual herbaceous vegetation, 242–248 browsing of shrubs, 245 forage plants, streambank protection and sediment entrapment, 243–245 livestock gains, 245–246 recommendations, 246–248 streambank trampling and breakdown, 242–243 responses to, 240–242

398

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

uniqueness of areas, 239–240 abiotic features, 239–240 biotic features, 240 Lobelia anatina F. Wimmer, 147 cardinalis L., 147 Lotus alamosanus (Rose) Gentry, 149 corniculatus L., 149 oblongifolius (Benth.) Greene, 149 Loxia curvirostra, 172, 174 Ludwigia palustris (L.) Ell., 152 peploides (Kunth) Raven, 152 repens J. R. Forst., 152 Luzula multiﬂora (Ehrh.) Lej., 162 LWD, see Large woody debris LWM, see Large woody material Lycopus americanus Muhl. ex W. Bart., 150 asper Greene, 150 Lysimachia hybrida Michx., 154 Lythrum californicum Torr. & Gray, 151

M Machaeranthera boltoniae (Greene) B.L. Turner & Horne, 145 carnosa (Gray) Nesom, 145 riparia (Kunth) A.G. Jones, 145 Madrean ﬂoristic province, 132 Malaria, 90 Malvella leprosa (Ortega) Krapov., 151 Mammals, 171, 173, 174, 176, 177, 178, 180, 184–186, 264, 266, 268 Bassariscus astutus, 185 Canis latrans, 185 Castor canadensis, 184 Cervus elaphus, 185 Clethrionomys gapperi, 185 Cynomys ludovicianus, 184 Didelphis virginiana, 184 Dipodomys deserti, 185 merriami, 185 ordii, 185 spectabilis, 185 Eptesicus fuscus, 184 Erethizon dorsatum, 185 Euderma maculatum, 184 Eumops underwoodi, 184 Felis pardalis, 185 yagouaroundi, 185

Geomys bursarius, 185 Lasiurus borealis, 184 cinereus, 184 Lepus americanus, 184 californicus, 184 Lutra canadensis, 185 Macrotus californicus, 184 Martes americana, 185 Mephitis macroura, 185 mephitis, 185 Microtus californicus, 185 longicaudus, 185 mexicanus, 185 montanus, 185 Mustela vison, 185 Myotis auriculus, 184 evotis, 184 occultus, 184 velifer, 184 volans, 184 yumanensis, 184 Nasua narica, 185 Neotoma albigula, 185 cinerea, 185 fuscipes, 185 lepida, 185 mexicana, 185 Notiosorex crawfordi, 184 Odocoileus hemionus, 185 virginianus, 185 Ondatra zibethicus, 185 Perognathus baileyi, 184 californicus, 184 penicillatus, 184 Peromyscus boylii, 184 californicus, 184 crinitus, 184 eremicus, 185 leucopus, 185 maniculatus, 185 merriami, 185 truei, 185 Pipistrellus hesperus, 184 Procyon lotor, 185 Reithrodontomys megalotis, 185 Sciurus

INDEX

aberti, 184 arizonensis, 184 nayaritensis, 184 Sigmodon arizonae, 185 hispidus, 185 ochrognathus, 185 Sorex arizonae, 184 monticolus, 184 nanus, 184 palustris, 184 vagrans, 184 Spermophilus lateralis, 184 spilosoma, 184 tridecemlineatus, 184 Spilogale gracilis, 185 Sylvilagus audubonii, 184 bachmani, 184 ﬂoridanus, 184 nuttallii, 184 Tadarida brasiliensis, 184 Tamias canipes, 184 cinereicollis, 184 dorsalis, 184 merriami, 184 minimus, 184 quadrivittatus, 184 umbrinus, 184 Tayassu tajacu, 185 Thomomys bottae, 185 umbrinus, 185 Urocyon cinereoargenteus, 185 Ursus americanus, 185 Vulpes velox, 185 Zapus hudsonius, 185 princeps, 185 Mammals, avifauna and herpetofauna, 169–183 avifauna of southwestern riparian ecosystems, 186–189 common species, 170–181 desert shrublands, 178–179 grasslands, 179–181 oak woodlands, 175–176 pinyon-juniper woodlands, 174–175 ponderosa pine forests, 173–174 sclerophyllous shrublands, 176–178 spruce-ﬁr and mixed conifer forests, 171–172 endangered and threatened species, 181

399

herpetofauna of southwestern riparian ecosystems, 190–192 mammals of southwestern riparian areas, 184–186 Market values, 368 Marsilea mollis B.L. Robins. & Fern., 142 vestita Hook. & Grev., 142 Masticophis bilineatus, 178 ﬂagellum, 179, 181 lateralis, 178 Mecardonia procumbens (P. Mill.) Small, 156 Melanerpes uropygialis, 179 Meleagris gallopavo mexicana, 173 Melilotus alba, 133 albus Medik., 149 ofﬁcinalis (L.) Lam., 149 Melting snow, ﬂooding caused by, 91 Mentha canadensis L., 150 spicata L., 150 Mergus merganser, 171 Mertensia franciscana Heller, 146 Mexican rule, period of, 38 Microtus californicus, 178 longicaudus, 173 mexicanus, 173 montanus, 173 Mimetanthe pilosa (Benth.) Greene, 157 Mimulus androsaceus Curran ex Greene, 157 breweri (Greene) Coville, 157 cardinalis Dougl. ex Benth., 157 dentilobus B. L. Robins. & Fern., 157 ﬂoribundus Lindl., 157 glabratus Kunth N, 157 guttatus, 133, 157 parishii Greene, 157 Mimus polyglottos, 180 Mineral weathering, 70 Mining, 42, 227 Mixed-conifer forest, 347 Mojave Desert, 32 Monanthochloe littoralis Engelm., 165 Montane forests, 262 Montia chamissoi (Ledeb. ex Spreng.) Greene, 153 Morelos Dam, 112 Mountain grasslands, 170 meadow, 23 Muhlenbergia

400

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

andina (Nutt.) A. S. Hitchc., 165 mexicana (L.) Trin., 165 pectinata C.O. Goodding, 165 racemosa (Michx.) B.S.P., 165 rigens (Benth.) A.S. Hitchc., 165 utilis (Torr.) A.S. Hitchc., 165 Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960, 365 Municipal efﬂuent, 115 Myadestes townsendi, 172 Myiarchus cinerascens, 180 Myosurus aristatus Benth., 154 cupulatus S. Wats., 154 minimus L., 154 Myotis auriculus, 173 evotus, 173 volans, 173 Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell.) Verdc., 150 sibiricum Komarov, 150 spicatum L., 150

N Najas guadalupensis (Spreng.) Magnus, 163 marina L., 163 Nasua narica, 176 National Environmental Policy Act, 40, 270, 349 National Forest Management Act, 40, 365, 369 National Industrial Recovery Act, 335 National Park Service, 101, 102 National Plants Database, 344 Native ﬁshes Astyanax texanus, 210 Campostoma ornatum pricei, 210 Catostomu bernardini, 210 discobolus, 210 Cyprinodon macularius, 210 Gila cypha, 210 ditaenia, 210 elegans, 210 intermedia, 210 nigrescens, 210 purpurea, 210 robusta, 210 Hybognathus amarus, 210 Hybopsis aestivalis tetranemus, 210 Ictalurus lupus, 210 pricei, 210

Lepidomeda vittata, 210 Meda fulgida, 210 Moxostoma congestum, 210 Notropis formosus mearnsi, 210 girardi A, 210 simus, 210 Oncorhynchus apache, 210 clarki virginalis, 210 gilae, 210 Percina macrolepida, 210 Phenacobius mirabilis, 210 Phoxinus erythrogaster, 210 Plagopterus argentissimus, 210 Poeciliopsis o. occidentalis, 210 o. sonoriensis, 210 Ptychocheilus lucius, 210 Rhinichthys osculus, 210 Xyrauchen texanus, 210 Natural disturbances, 69 Natural systems, classiﬁcation of, 15 Nature Conservancy, 117 Nearctic zones, 23 Near-surface water, 2 Neotoma albigula, 174 cinerea arizonae, 174 fuscipes, 177 Nitrogen availability, streamﬂow dynamics and, 83 cycle, 223 ﬁxation, 84 transformations, 83 Nitrophila occidentalis (Moq.) S. Wats., 148 Non-riparian species, 217 Non-use values, 368 Notiosorex crawfordi, 178 Notropis jemezanus, 201 Numenius americanus, 180 Nutrient(s) chemical linkages and, 82 cycling, 82, 84, 260 groundwater ﬂow, 79 Nymphaea mexicana Zucc., 151 odorata Ait., 151

O Obligate-facultative-upland classiﬁcation, 129 Odocoileus hemionus, 171

INDEX

401

virginianus, 173 virginianus var. couesi, 176 Oenothera elata Kunth, 152 ﬂava (A. Nels.) Garrett, 152 kunthiana (Spach) Munz, 152 longissima Rydb., 152 rosea L'Her. ex Ait., 152 Onchorhynchus gilae, 283 Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi, 109 Ophioglossum engelmannii Prantl, 142 Oreotyx pictus, 177 Osmorhiza occidentalis (Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray) Torr., 143 Otus ﬂammeolus, 173 trichopsis, 176 Overgrazing, 43, 84, 334 Overland ﬂow, 3, 61 Ovis canadensis mexicana, 174, 262 Owens River, 46 Oxyloma haydeni kanabensis, 102 Oxypolis fendleri (Gray) Heller, 143

P Paired-watershed studies, 67 Parker Dam, 46 Parnassia parviﬂora DC., 156 Paspalum dilatatum Poir., 165 distichum, 133, 165 Passive restoration, 342 Pastures, 252 Pecos River, 35 Pentaphylloides ﬂoribunda (Pursh) A. Love, 155 Perideridia gairdneri (Hook. & Arn.) Mathias, 143 Perisoreus canadensis, 172 Perognathus baileyi, 176 californicus, 177 penicillatus, 179 Peromyscus californicus, 177 leucopus, 177 maniculatus, 171 truei, 174 Perpetual succession model, 102 PFC, see Proper functioning condition Phalaris angusta Nees ex Trin., 165 arundinacea L., 165 caroliniana Walt., 165

Phleum alpinum L., 165 Phoenix dactylifera L., 158 Phragmites australis, 20 australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud., 165 Phreatophytes, 128 Phrynosoma douglassii, 174 platyrhinos calidiarum, 179 Phyla cuneifolia (Torr.) Greene, 157 lanceolata (Michx.) Greene, 157 Phyllanthus polygonoides Nutt. ex Spreng., 149 Phyllorhynchus decurtatus perkins, 179 Phytolacca americana L., 152 Picnicking, preferred sites for, 68 Picoides arizonae, 176 scalaris, 180 Pierce’s disease, 90 Pinicola enucleator, 172 Pinus cembroides, 173 contorta, 171 edulis, 173 monophylla, 173 ponderosa, 171 Pipilo erythropthalmus, 178 Piranga ludoviciana, 174 Pistia stratioides L., 158 Pituophis melanoleucus, 174, 181 Plagiobothrys leptocladus (Greene) I.M. Johnston, 146 parishii I.M. Johnston, 146 salsus (Brandeg.) I.M. Johnston N, 146 stipitatus (Greene) I.M. Johnston, 146 Plains grasslands, 170 Plant(s) classiﬁcation of, 319 composition, 4 cover, loss of, 3 forage, 243 species core, 141–167 diversity, 318 richness, 319 water-loving, 12 Plantago major, 133, 152 Platanthera dilatata (Pursh) Lindl. ex Beck, 163 hyperborea (L.) Lindl., 163 leucostachys Lindl., 163 limosa Lindl., 163 sparsiﬂora (S. Wats.) Schlechter, 163 stricta Lindl., 163

402

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Platanus racemosa Nutt., 152 wrightii, 17, 40 wrightii S. Wats., 152 Platte River, 104 Plethodon neomexicanus, 172 Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass., 145 sericea, 102 Poa arida, 165 palustris L., 165 pratensis, 335 Poecile gambeli, 172 Point source pollution, production of, 85 Polemonium pauciﬂorum S. Wats., 153 Polioptila melanura, 179, 180 Pollutants, 318 ﬁlters of, 82 trapped, 377 Pollution causes of, 84 nonpoint-source, 84, 93 point source, 84, 85, 93 Polygonatum cobrense (Woot. & Standl.) R.R. Gates, 163 Polygonum amphibium L., 153 arenastrum Jord. ex Boreau, 153 argyrocoleon Steud. ex Kunze, 153 aviculare, 133 bistortoides, 19 fusiforme Greene, 153 hydropiper L., 153 hydropiperoides Michx., 153 lapathifolium L., 153 pensylvanicum L., 153 persicaria L., 153 punctatum Ell., 153 Polypogon elongatus Kunth, 165 interruptus Kunth, 165 monspeliensis, 133 monspeliensis (L.) Desf., 165 viridis, 133 viridis (Gouan) Breistr., 165 Pool-type habitat conditions, 289 Populus angustifolia James, 155 balsamifera L. ssp. trichocarpa (Torr. & Gray ex Hook.) Brayshaw, 155 fremontii, 17, 102, 133 fremontii S. Wats., 155 spp., 4 tremuloides, 171

Potamogeton crispus L., 166 diversifolius Raf., 166 foliosus Raf., 166 illinoensis Morong, 166 latifolius (J.W. Robbins) Morong, 166 nodosus Poir., 166 pectinatus L., 166 pusillus L., 166 Potential natural community, 324 Potentilla diversifolia Lehm., 155 glandulosa Lindl., 155 paradoxa Nutt., 155 rivalis Nutt., 155 thurberi Gray N, 155 Powerboats, 300 Precipitation evaporation and, 54 groundwater ﬂows and, 55 patterns, 52 Predisturbance conditions, 337, 345 Prehistoric cultures boundaries of, 36 traditions, 37 Prescribed burns, beneﬁcial effects of, 270 Proper functioning condition (PFC), 324 Prosopis juliﬂora, 40 pubescens Benth., 149 spp., 4, 17, 127 Prunus virens, 18 Psaltriparus minimus, 176 Pseudacris triseriata, 180 Pseudotsuga menziessii, 171 Puccinellia parishii A.S. Hitchc., 165 simplex Scribn., 165 Puerco River, 33 Pulicaria paludosa Link, 145 Pyrrhopappus pauciﬂorus (D. Don) DC., 145 Pyrrocoma racemosa (Nutt.) Torr. & Gray, 145

Q Quasihistoric aquatic habitat conditions, restoration of, 290 Quercus agrifolia, 175 arizonica, 175 chrysolepis, 175 dunnii, 176 englemannii, 175 grisea, 175

INDEX

403

hypoleucoides, 175 kelloggi, 175 oblongifolia, 175 turbinella, 176

R Rana pipens, 180 tarahumarae, 176 Ranunculus aquatilis L., 154 cardiophyllus Hook., 154 cymbalaria Pursh, 154 ﬂammula L., 154 hydrocharoides Gray, 154 inamoenus Greene, 154 longirostris Godr., 154 macauleyi Gray, 154 macounii Britt., 154 macranthus Scheele, 154 pensylvanicus L. f., 154 scleratus L. var. multiﬁdus Nutt., 154 uncinatus D. Don ex G. Don, 154 Rattus novegicus, 90 rattus, 90 Recreation effects of streamﬂows on, 300 streamﬂow-enhanced, 305 Red River, 57 Reference conditions, establishment of, 339 Regulus satrapa, 172 Reservoir releases, managing riparian vegetation through control of, 107 Resource Conservation Act of 1985, 365 Response guilds, species classiﬁed within, 322 Revegetation, 343 Ribes aureum Pursh, 150 spp., 20 Rio Chama study, 309 Rio Grande River, 35, 37, 201, 287 Rio Mayo River, 100 Rio Salado River, 100 Rio Yaqui River, 100 Riparian areas, uniqueness of, 239 Riparian buffer strips, 64 Riparian deﬁnitions, 12–14 administrative deﬁnitions, 12–13 other deﬁnitions, 13–14 physical and biological criteria, 12 Riparian ecosystem assessments, 315–331

biotic maintenance and biotic indicators, 318–322 animal species composition, 321–322 plant productivity and trophic support, 320–321 plant species composition, 319 plant species diversity, 318–319 vegetation biomass structure and wildlife habitat, 321 vegetation dynamics, 320 caveats, 325–327 temporal and spatial variability, 325–326 testing and validation, 326–327 functional assessments, 323–324 landscape factors, 322 land- and water-use indicators, 322–323 particular stressors, 324 physical indicators and functions, 316–318 physical functions, 318 physical indicators of biotic changes, 316–318 self sustainability, 325 Riparian ecosystems, restoration of, 333–357 addressing community concerns, 347–352 communicating with community, 348–350 evaluation, 352 monitoring, 351 perspectives on recovery, 348 priority setting, 351 restoration economics, 351 conceptual foundations for restoration, 337–339 establishing reference conditions, 339 factors controlling riparian development, 337–339 evaluating condition and restoration capability, 340–341 site-level factors, 340–341 watershed-level factors, 340 restoring functional processes, 341–347 managing abiotic processes at site level, 345–346 managing processes at watershed level, 346–347 managing vegetative processes at site level, 342–345 passive and active restoration, 341–342 setting, 334–337 action, reaction and synthesis, 335 current challenges of restoration, 336 history of restoration efforts, 334 landscape setting, 336–337 shared history of desert and mountain systems, 334–335 Riparian law, 361

404

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Riparian management, changing emphasis of, 6–7 Riparian opportunists, 217 Riparian specialists, 217 Riparian species, classiﬁcation of, 128 Riparian–watershed linkages, 41, 65, 66 River(s) damming, 316 dry, rewatering of, 115 ﬂow-controlled, 109 health, 41 impoundment, 101, 104 Road(s) -building activities, 379 improperly aligned, 68 Rorippa curvisiliqua (Hook.) Bess. ex Britt., 146 microtites (B.L. Robins.) Rollins, 146 nasturtium–aquaticum, 20, 133, 134, 146 palustris (L.) Bess., 146 sinuata (Nutt.) A. S. Hitchc., 146 tenerrima Greene, 146 truncata (Jepson) R. Stuckey, 147 Rosgen’s Stream Channel Classiﬁcation System, 62, 63 Rotala ramosior (L.) Koehne, 151 Rubus discolor Weihe & Nees, 155 spp., 90 Rudbeckia laciniata L., 145 Rumex aquaticus L. var. fenestratus (Greene) Dorn, 153 conglomeratus Murr., 153 crispus, 133, 153 densiﬂorus Osterhout, 153 dentatus L., 153 maritimus L., 153 obtusifolius L., 153 orthoneurus Rech. f., 153 salicifolius Weinm., 153 violascens Rech. f., 153 Ruppia maritima L., 166

S Saccharum ravennae (L.) L., 165 Sageretia wrightii S. Wats., 155 Sagina saginoides (L.) Karst., 147 Sagittaria calycina Engelm., 158 cuneata Sheldon, 158 graminea Michx., 158 greggii J. G. Sm., 158 latifolia Willd., 158

longiloba Engelm. ex J. G. Sm., 158 Salix amygdaloides Anderss., 155 bebbiana, 20, 155 bonplandiana Kunth, 155 drummondiana Barratt ex Hook., 155 exigua, 20, 102, 155 gooddingii, 20, 102, 133, 155 irrorata Anderss., 156 laevigata Bebb, 156 lasiolepis, 20, 156 lucida Muhl. ssp. lasiandra (Benth.) E. Murr., 156 lutea Nutt., 156 scoulerana, 20 spp., 4, 17 taxifolia Kunth, 156 Salt River, 115 Salvelinus fontinalis, 197 Salvia leucophylla, 176 Sambucus mexicana K. Presl ex DC., 147 Samolus ebracteatus Kunth, 154 vagans Greene, 154 valerandi L. ssp. parviﬂorus (Raf.) Hulten, 154 San Carlo River, 100 Sanguisorba minor Scop., 155 San Juan River, 33 San Pedro River, 35, 100, 117, 118 San Simon River, 44 Santa Cruz River, 100, 116, 199 Santa Rita Experimental Range, 238 Sapindus saponnaria L. var. drummondii (Hook. & Arn.) L. Benson, 156 Sarcocornia utahensis (Tidestrom) A. J. Scott, 148 Sceloporus graciosus, 172 undulatus, 178, 181 Schoenus nigricans L., 161 Scirpus acutus Muhl. ex Bigelow, 161 americanus, 133, 161 californicus, 20, 161 cernuus Vahl, 161 maritimus L., 161 microcarpus J. & K. Presl, 161 nevadensis S. Wats., 161 pallidus (Britt.) Fern., 161 pungens Vahl, 161 robustus Pursh, 161 tabernaemontani K.C. Gmel., 161 Sciurus aberti, 173

INDEX

apache, 176 arizonensis, 176 nayaritensis, 176 Scutellaria lateriﬂora L., 151 Sediment(s) entrapment, 243, 244 movement of, 3 transport, 58, 59 Seed-bank studies, 114 Selasphorus platycercus, 173 Senecio pauperculus Michx., 145 pseudaureus Rydb., 145 salignus DC., 145 Sesbania exaltata (Raf.) Rydb. ex A.W. Hill, 149 Sesuvium verrucosum Raf., 142 Setting and history, 29–50 historical perspectives of human activities, 41–47 fur trapping, 42 future riparian issues, 46–47 livestock grazing, 43–44 mining, 42–43 storage and redistribution of water, 44–46 tree harvesting, 44 historical use of riparian areas, 35–41 period of Mexican rule, 38–39 pre-European exploration, 36–38 Spanish colonial period, 38 transition to United States rule, 39 20th century, 39–41 setting, 30–35 climate, 30–31 geology and physiology, 31–32 rivers of Southwest, 33–35 soils, 33 Shrublands chaparral, 268 desert, 178 Shrubs browsing of, 245 drought-tolerant, 100 Sialia currucoides, 172 mexiana, 173 Sibaria virginica (L.) Rollins, 147 Sidalcea neomexicana Gray, 151 Sightseeing, 305 Sigmodon ochrognathus, 176 Simsia lagasciformis DC., 145 Sisyrinchium demissum Greene, 161 funereum Bickn., 161 halophilum Greene, 161 idahoense Bickn., 161

405

longipes (Bickn.) Kearney & Peebles, 161 Sitta canadensis, 172 Society of Range Management, 13 Soil(s) amendments, 344 availability of nutrients in, 54 compaction, 54 conditioning, 216 depths, 33 erosion rates, 69 ﬂoodplain, 4 formation, 338 loss, 58 mantle, protection of macropore structure within, 377 moisture regimes, 54 near-surface, 223 organic matter deposited onto, 54 salinity, 112 structure, improvement of, 86 texture, 341 Solidago conﬁnis Gray, 145 spectabilis (D.C. Eat.) Gray, 145 Sonchus asper, 133, 145 Sonoran Desert, 32, 217 Sonoran ﬂoristic province, 132 Sonora semiannulata, 179 Sorex merriami, 173 vagrans, 171 Sorghum halepense, 128 Southern Paciﬁc Railroad, 46 Spanish colonial period, 38 Sparganium eurycarpum Engelm. ex Gray, 166 nutans L., 167 Spartina gracilis Trin., 166 Species animal, composition, 321 bird, grazing-sensitive, 322 classiﬁcation, 128 database, 130 endangered and threatened, 181, 270 exotic, 134, 135, 334 incidence, 131 invasive, 226 mean incidence, 135, 136 non-riparian, 217 percentages of life forms among, 137 plant, 141–167, 318 presence, inventories of, 320 reintroduction, 262 response guilds, 322 upland, 136

406

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Spergularia macrotheca (Hornem.) Heynh., 147 salina J. & K., 147 Spermophilus lateralis, 171 spilosoma, 180 tridecemlineatus, 180 Sphenopholis intermedia (Rydb.) Rydb., 166 obtusata (Michx.) Scribn., 166 Sphyrapicus thyroideus, 172 Spiranthes delitescens Sheviak N, 163 romanzofﬁana Cham., 163 Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid., 163 punctata (G.F.W. Mey.) C.H. Thompson, 163 Spizella atrigularis, 178 passerina, 174 Sporobolus wrightii, 119, 133, 166 Stachys albens Gray, 151 coccinea Jacq., 151 palustris L., 151 Stellaria longipes Goldie N, 147 umbellata Turcz. ex Kar. & Kir., 147 Stemodia durantifolia (L.) Sw., 157 Stephanomeria pauciﬂora, 113 Stormﬂows, 70 Stream(s) aesthetics of, 307 canyon, 32 channel(s) characteristics, alteration of, 70 inventory information, 62 Rosgen’s system of, 62, 63 water pathways to, 54 ephemeral, 2, 3 –ﬂoodplain connectivity, 318 health, indicators of, 227 intermittent, 2, 3 perennial, 2 regulation, 17 respiration, 81 stabilization efforts, 57 substrate, 285 Streambanks, 285 erosion, 67, 242 protection, 243 recharging of dry, 55 recovery, 244 unstable, 58 Streamﬂow(s)

data analysis, 316 dynamics, nitrogen availability and, 83 effects of on recreation, 300 forces, dynamic equilibrium between, 61 -generation mechanisms, 377 groundwater contributions to, 79 response, factors affecting, 55 temperature, 304 variability of, 30 Strix occidentalis, 173, 181 Sturnella magna, 180 Suaeda calceliformis (Hook.) Moq. N, 148 suffrutescens S. Wats., 148 Swimming, 304 Sylvilagus audubonii, 174 bachmani, 177 ﬂoridanus, 176

T Tamarix chinensis, 40, 87, 157 gallica L., 157 parviﬂora DC., 157 ramosissima Ledeb., 157 spp., 6, 17, 128 Tamias canipes, 173 cinereocollis, 173 dorsalis, 174 merriami, 177 minimus, 171 umbrinus, 173 Terrestrial energy, 218 Terrestrial food webs, 221 Terrestrial insects, 88 Terrestrial invertebrates, 216 Terrestrial wildlife, 377 Tessaria sericea (Nutt.) Shinners, 145 Teucrium canadense L., 151 cubense Jacq., 151 Thamnophis elegans, 180 Theodore Roosevelt Dam, 194, 200, 281 Thomomys bottae, 180 Thryonmanes bewicki, 178 Timber-harvest activities, 44 Tohono O’Odham Nation, 116 Toxicodendron rydbergii (Small ex Rydb.) Greene, 143 Toxostoma crissale, 178

INDEX

407

curvirostre, 180 redivivum, 177 Transition Zone, 31 Tree cutting, 67 death, 85 harvesting, 44 Trifolium amabile Kunth, 149 neurophyllum Greene, 149 Triglochium concinnum Burtt-Davy, 162 Trimorpha lonchophylla (Hook.) Nesom, 145 Truckee River, 109 Tsuga mertensiana, 171 Turdus migratorius, 172 Typha angustifolia L., 167 domingensis, 20, 112, 133, 167 latifolia L., 167 Tyrannus verticalis, 180

U Upland species, 128, 136 watersheds, degradation of, 128 Urbanization, 68 Urban watersheds, paving of, 69 Urocyon cinereoargenteus, 177 Ursus horribilis, 176 Urtica dioica L., 157 gracilenta Greene, 157 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 105 U.S. Bureau of Land Management, 203, 238, 324 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 45, 101, 102, 120, 200 U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, 13, 225, 239, 309, 324, 364 Natural Resources Conservation Service, 238, 323 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 364 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 110 U.S. Geological Explorations of the 40th Parallel, 110 U.S. Geological Survey, 102, 309 Utricularia macrorhiza Le Conte, 151

V Vascular plants common families of, 132 widespread species of, 133 Vector diseases, 90

Vegetation, 283 biomass structure, 321 classiﬁcation of, 17 density, indicies of, 320 development, boom and bust cycles of, 326 removal of, 344 reservoir releases and, 107 Vegetative cover, loss of, 66 Veratrum californicum Dur., 163 Verde River, 42, 100 Vermivora celata, 178 Veronica americana Schwein. ex Benth., 157 anagallis–aquatica, 133, 157 peregrina L. ssp. xalapensis (Kunth) Pennell, 157 serpyllifolia L. ssp. humifusa (Dickson) Syme, 157 Vineyards, 90 Viola nephrophylla Greene, 158 spp., 19 Vireo bellii pusillus, 232 gilvus, 172 solitaire, 173 vicinior, 174 Vitis arizonica Engelm., 158 girdiana Munson, 158 Vulpes velox, 180 Vulpia myuros (L.) K. C. Gmel., 166

W Wastewater, return of treated, 64 Water -banking projects, 114 -budget analyses, 67 demand, increased, 39 ﬂow(s) altered, 6 management of, 308 patterns, 318 irrigation, 44 -loving plants, 40 puriﬁcation, 318 quality, 12, 64 regulations, 224 rights, 39, 360 sources, recycled, 115 subsurface, 65 supply, dammed rivers managed for, 108 velocity of ﬂowing, 286

408

RIPARIAN AREAS OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES

Water availability and recreational opportunities, 299–314 streamﬂow-dependent recreation, 300–305 boating, 300–304 ﬁshing, 305 wading and swimming, 304–305 streamﬂow-enhanced recreation, 305–308 issues confronted, 308–309 Rio Chama study, 309–312 Watershed(s) burned, 70 conditions, patchy, 340 degradation of upland, 128 forested, 54 high-elevation, 56 -integrated management plans, 323 land-use history, 325 linkages between riparian corridors and, 78 nutrient cycling in, 84 spread of wildﬁre from surrounding, 69 urban, 69 Watersheds, linkages between riparian corridors and surrounding, 77–97 biological linkages, 85–91 biodiversity relationships, 88–91 faunal linkages, 87 food webs, 87–88 large woody material, 85–87 chemical linkages, 82–85 nutrient cycling, 82–84 pollution, 84–85 hyporheic zone, 80–82 physical linkages, 78–80 groundwater, 79–80 streamﬂow, 79 role of linkages in management, 92 Western equine encephalitis, 90 WET, see Wetland Evaluation Technique Wetland Evaluation Technique (WET), 323 Wetlands coastal, 19 constructed, 21 deﬁnition of, 14 marshy, 20 montane, 22 role of in use of wild lands, 18 White Mountain Apache Reservation, restoration treatments on, 349 Wildﬁre, 3 effects of on streamﬂows, 70

spread of, 69 Wildlife habitat(s) changing, 260 creation, 326 management practices, 260 migratory, 379 nutrient cycling and, 260 restocking, 262 species artiﬁcal replenishment, 262 threatened, 181 terrestrail, 377 values, 260 Wildlife population and habitat management practices, 259–276 endangered and threatened species, 270 habitat management practices, 263–269 chaparral shrubland ecosystems, 268–269 desert ecosystems, 269 montane forests, 263–266 principles, 263 woodland ecosystems, 266–268 population management practices, 261–261 artiﬁcial replenishment, 262–263 hunting regulations, 261 land reservations, 261–262 Woodland ecosystems, 266

X Xanthium strumarium, 133, 145 Xantusia henshawi, 178 vigilis, 179 Xerophytes, 127 Xyrauchen texanus, 102

Y Yucca brevifolia, 178

Z Zannichellia palustris, 133, 167 Zenaida macroura, 179 Zuñi River, 33