ISBN 0-333-59748-6
11111111 9 780333 597484
II
90101
Adz/I.Wirl' I,'dillirs: .Joc Bergin and .John Brcl1illy
Secularisation in Western Europe,
Published
1848-1914
EUROPEAN STUDIES SERIES (;tlll'm!I·;dillirs:
(:()lin.Jolll'S and Richard Ovcry
Rohert 1\lci riC I!
Greater France: A Short History of l",'cnch Overseas Expansion
Nigcil\ston
Religion and Rcvolution in F!'ance, 1780-1804
Y\,l's-I\Llril' Berct'
The Birth of Absolutism: A History of Fnlllce, 1598-l(j(j)
.lallinl' (;;llTisSOIl
A History of Sixteenth-Century France, 1483-1598
(;rcgory I Llnloll
Early Modem Italy, 1550-1800
Michael IllIghcs
Early Modem Germany, 1477-1806
Dietl'!' Langc\\'Icscill'
Liberalism in Gennany
Martyn Ixolls
Napoleon Bonaparte and the Legacy of the I"rench Revolution
IllIg'l! I\IcLcoc\
Secul
Palllcia 1\1. Pill)(';I111
Republicanism in Nineteenth-Centm'y l"rance, 1814-1871
Wolf'ralll Si(,llIallll
The German Revolution of 1848-49
Richard Villl'lI
l"rance, 1934-1970
HUGH McLEOD
(0
Hugh McLcod 2000
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9 08
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Printed in China
Published in the United States of America by ST MARTIN'S PRESS, LLC, Scholarly ami Reference DiVision, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 ISBN 0-312---23510-0 (cioth) ISBN 0-312-23511-9 (paper)
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Contents
Us/ oj 'nihil's
\,111
II ('Ii II ml'fl'tlp;I'"/I'1ifs
IX
Mil/iS I 2 :>
FlIglrllitl hlll/l"l', 1870 Till' (;1'/'/1/(/1/ 1"lI/jiil'l', 1871
X
XI XII
Introductioll IK·IK 2 Illst it ut ions :) The Pace-Setters
:11
"
BelieI' Coi Ilf!; to eh u reh (i Identity 7 Rclif!;ioll and Popular Cult lire K I \)1 'I ( ;ollclusion
!J
:)2 K(i 1·17 171
2I(i ~·IK
27!) 2H!> ~D()
NO/I's
Bihliop;mjilly flldl',\'
VII
List
~
:) ,I
(~llhbles
'I h'llds ill 'lh~Il(ls ill '1lTnds ill '1ITIHls in
A chn()"wledgel1zents
1'1'01l'stant religiolls pract icc in (;erlll:Jny (:atholic n~ligiolls practicc in France religiolls practice in England Cat holic religiolls pract ICC ill (;crlllaIlY
VIII
IHO IHI IHI ~()4
or
I wish to thank the School of Historical Studies in the University Birmingham fill' research grants. and the Humanitics Research Board filr linancing a period or research leavc, withollt which completion or this book',.wollld have bcen vcry much more difficlllt, Variolls parts or the book have becn tried out at conkrcnCl's or seminars, I WOllld like to thank Ii)!' their helprlll COllllllcnts all those who participated in the conltTcncc 'The Decline of'Christcndolll ill Western Europe'. held in Paris in April 19~)7. and in the relevant nwctings of'the History of' Religion Selllinars at QlleclI's Univcrsity, Be!filst. and the University of' Birmingham, the Theology Seminar at thc University of Bristol, and the joint. History Seminar or the Universities of' Strathclydc and (;Iasgo\\', lowe a spccial deht to John Brellilly. Mary Heimann. Sarah vVilliams and III)' EltlH'r. T S, McLcod, filr reading and commentillg on dran typescripts. MallY other people havc gcnerously helped by discussing aspects of' the hook or scnding me copies of' their own unpllblished work, and I wOllld like to make particlllar mention of' my debts to Callum Brown. Steve Brllcc, (;t~ranl Cholvy. .Jefl' Cox. Sheridan (;ille)'. Mart in Creschat, ROlsln lIealy, Yves-Marie II ilaire, David Ilcm pton. Lucian Iliilschcr. Hart III lit Lehmann, l'et('1' Marsh. David rVlartin, Stllart Mews. SlIe Morgan. C;eoll' Robson, Michael Snape, Werner Ustorf', Till van Rahdcn and Peter vall Rooden. I would likc to thank SlIC Wright fill' advice on translations fi'om Frcnch alld Harry Buglass lilr drawing [he maps. ;\s always. I am grat cf'lI I to all mcmhers of' my filmil)' filr their varied filrms of' encollragement, and most especially to .Iackie.
IX
XI
I>
Cities
M(II) 2
i\l1I1) I
/
XII
IntToduction
Until about the middle or the nineteenth century 'secularisatioll' reil'rred to the process by which church lands were transf'erred to lay ownership (as happened, f(lr lIlstance, during the Rdi>rlnation or the French Revolution), or whereby priests, monks or nuns abandoned their orders. But then the term began to be llsed in a wider sense. The first to do so secms to havc been the historian W. E. II. Lecky who, in I HG[i, rekrrcd to a 'general secularisation or the European intellect' and specifically to a 'secularisation or politics'.! By this he mcalll. that there had been a long-term tendency lill' reason of state to replace religious considerations in relations between states and decisiolls to go to war. Soon other authors were claiming to detect secularisation in such areas as economics or art. But the hIm or secularisation seems to have been already current hclilre it was given a name. The French pioneer or SOCiology Auguste Comte argued in his highly influential COllI'S de jJ/ii/osojJ/i11' j)()sllirl(? (I H:Hl-42) t hat knowledge passed through three phases, the theological, the mctaphysical and t he posit ivc or scicnt ilic. Now, with the dawning or the scicntific age, religIOn in its traditional fimns was doomed, and Comtc devised a Religioll of Hlimanity, which would perfilrm f(ll' the modern world those necessary functions 0(' providing meaning, ritual and a basis lilr morality, which had oncc been the province or the chllrches.~ The search f(JI' a Religion or I-Iulllanity, which had already hegun during the French Revolution, has remained a central thellle or ninetccnti1- and twenticth-centllry history - though thc search is still no nearer to its goal than it was in COllltC's day.:1 Meanwhile, COlllte's fj'amework or long-term historical change, according to which religion hegins as an all-powerlid l(llTe and then gradllally
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,~H:['L.\RISATI()N
IN II'ESTERN ITROPE, IX'IX-I!!I'I
usually wanted to t.race in much great.er detail t he 'how', as well as the 'what' and the 'why', of'historical change, This concern has be('n rcinf()}n~c1 by modern developments in the writing of' hist.ory, A major thcmc in historical scholarship since the I ~)(jOs has bcen thc ambition to write a 'history f'rom below' One aspect. or this has been the discovery of' 'popular' religion, and the result.ing attempt to write a religious history of' the 'ordinary person', making no assumptions about the rclevance to this history of' the writings of' theologians or scientists, the pronouncements of'an:hbishops or the decrces or monarchs and p,lrliaments, III There arc many possible ways of' 'telling the story' of'religion in Wcstern Europe during the nineteenth and twcntieth ccnuries, All are to somc degret' arbit rary, Each involves a vast process or simpfification, ill ordcr to allow some killd of' overall sense to be made of' evcnts oj' haf'flillg complexit)" Clearly the dominant version oj'the story at present is that which sces the ccnt.ral theme as sccularisation, II (:rucially important herc has been t.hl' ElCt that since the 1~)()()s the churches ill most parts of' Western Europe have suf'kred a severe decline, I~ Anyone writing in Western Europe durll1g the last thirty years or so on Illodel'll religious history has inevitably heen ke(,nly aW;lr(' or this EICI, and the temptation has heen strong to stlldy the nineteenth century Illainly in order to trace the origins or this declinc, While Illany historians have agreed in idcntif)'ing senilarisation as thc ccntral thellle or '-'Vcsterll Ellrope's l110dern religiolls history, they have disagreed radically abollt the extent, callses and timing or this sCClilarisation, 'Ii) begill with timing: most historians have identified a crucial period in which the trend towards seclliarisation became unquestiollably dominant, even ir they accept that other periods llIay also have played a part. In (;erlllany and France, thollgh llIuch less f'requently in England, llIany historians have argued that the tllrning point was the eighteenth-century Enlightenment. and that III spitc of' SOlllC tempor;lr)' intcrrllpt ions in the intervening period, there has becn a proccss or secularisation continllally at work f'rom the eighteenth ccntnr), to the present day,;\ second approach, more favollred by British historians, has been to fiJells Oil the Indllstrial Revoilltion and on the massive shin of' pOPlllation fi'oll1 villages to towns and cities f'rom about 1HOO onwards, ;\ third approach, EIVOIIlTd especially by historians of' ideas and or literatllre, has hecll to highlight variolls developments ill science, philosophy and >
I NTR( 1I)\ ICTI< IN
the study of'religion around the middle of the ninetceenth ccntury, with Darwin IIsllally being identified as the central figure and the pllblication ill I Wi9 of' On the OUP:III o/SjJl'{'il's as the central event. A f(Hlrth approach has been to feleus on the period since about I !)()(), when the decline in religious practice has been milch more rapid, These contrasting chronologies reflect dirkrent views or how and why secularisation has come about. I will group the main approaches to answering these questions under the headings or (I) The march oj'sciencc', (2) 'Mode1'llisation', (3) 'Postmodel'llity', and (4) 'Selling Cocl', The account or secularisation in terms of' 'the march or science' oOen starts with the assumption that the crucial battles were fel\lght out. within the human mind, J:I The basic theme here is the rise or science as the dominant way or Ilnderstanding the world, The ground was prepared by Copernicus and (~,J1ileo, by Newton, and by philosophers, sllch as Descartes, Locke and Hume, But the tll1'lling-point came in t he middle years or t he ninetcent h celltury, Of t he many rcvolutionary developments at this timC', three were or paraIllount importance, Darwin hlld the basis I()r a radically ncw way or looking at humanity, according to which men and WOlllen, rather than being made in the image or (;od, were to be seen simply as a part or natllre, subject to the samc laws as the rest or nature, As a result, age-old concepts sllch as 'the soul' or 'fiTc will' were to be dismissed as meaningless, and the conscience, ir it existed at all, was a pl'Oduct oj' evolut.ion, The Tiibingen School or biblical scholars sllbjected the Scriptures to scientific investigation, ane! writers like St rauB and Renan reintCl'prcted the lik or Christ, ciivcstlllg it of' all supernatural clements, Meanwhile, COIllt.e and Spencer pioneered the scientific study orsociety, and in doing so pl'Ovided explanations fe)r religion as a product or a particular stage or human development. Of'course, all this leaves unresolved the question of'how, and to what extent, these Icleas werc transmitted to the masses or the pcople, But. studies or Imperial (;crmany have shown that materialist science was Elii'll' widely poplliarised, and was adopted by man)' working-class Social Dell10crats - mainly because they saw the churches as allies of' the state, and they thercfe)J'C welcomed anylhmg that might. discredit their theology, II In the French Third Republic, where Illan)' teachers, as well as leading politicians and prollllllent figures in the education sysfCm, were believers in the liberating potential oj'an anti-religious Science, it llIight plausibly he sllggested that such views were propagated through the state school
(j
,~H;[I..\RIS:\TI()N
le
IN II'I/STERN EllROI'E. IXIX-I!)I,I
systelll. , Anothcr line or argument has been to sllggest that howevcr littlc llloSt pcople kncw ahout recent SCient die developments. sCIcntists were successrul during the later nineteenth century in establishing their allthority as the principal carriers or mysterious knowledge. largely sllpplanting pricsts and theologians. who sccmed less ·modern·. Iii The interpretation or sccularisation in terms or 'moderllisatlon' highlights SOCial rather than intellectllal changes. The central (leUS has usually been on the transition !i'om a Illainly rural. agrarian. and \'('1'y hierarchical society. to one that is predoillinantly urhan, industrial. relatively democratic and relatively afl1ucnt. Those historians who have simply seen a dircct link hetween the spread or industry and the decline or religion have had to bce the awkward Elct that Englalld in the lirst hall' or the nineteenth celltury saw a Illassive growt h in the Noncolll()]'Inist churches and a growth ill (,vangelical inI1llCl]('(' in most scctiolls or society. A more subtle versioll of tIll' relat ionship het ween indust rialisat ion and secularisa17 tion has, howcvcr. heen proposed hy Alan Cilhert. \Ie argues that in the short I'lln indllstrialisation actually increased the importance or religion in English society. Religion ol1lTcd a [(mll of' security in the Elce of bewildering social challge. More espeCially. joining a Noncon()J'Jnist chapel was a Illark of' Illdependencc I()r craHsll1cn and small busillessmcn, Ilewly emancipated rrom the rllral social order and subjcction to squire and parson. The indllstrial village, in particlllar, beGlI1IC the 1;IV()\lred site (1I' more intense. emotional and personal types of' religion, sllch as Methodism. This phase reach cd its pe
INTROIHI(TION
7
the details or Gilbert's argulllent while still assuming that the most important sources or seclllarisation lay in the development of the industrial economy. IX For instance. Stephen Yeo, in all inl1ucntial study of' the biscllit-manu[ilc!urillg town or Reading, was OIlC or several Brit.ish historians who have argued that religion and thc churches were central to the lill- or British industrial towns in the period !i'om about the ll'lriOs to the 1l'll'lOs. but that major changes took place bet ween about 1l'l~)O and 1914. These included the decline or paternalism. leading to increasingly impersonal relations between employers and workers, and rrequently to Illore severe class conflict; the increasing role or the state and a corresponding decline in the significance or decisions lllade at thc local level; and a declinc in the importance or voluntary organisations. At the same time. the development or the entertainlllent illdustry took up an IncreaslIlg proportion or people's rrec t imc, orten su pplant i ng older leisure ElCilities provided by the church. and sport became a mattn or passionate concern, especially to young men, and onen t he emotional centre or their lives. I!) Both or these versions agree that the nineteenth century was a crucial phase or secularisation, even if' they disagrec as to why. The account in terms or 'Postl11oe!ern it y' view, however. suggests that the major theme or the nineteenth century and the lirst hall' of the twentieth is the continuing centrality or religion and the churches. and that 'real' secularisation has happened only since ahout 1!lG(l.:!1J This has been proposed in respect or Britain by Callum Bmwn, but many or his points could be applied to other West European countries. According to this argument there had indeed been a considerable decline in church attendance in the nineteenth ane! earlv twentieth centurics, but the great llIajorit), or the population attended Sunday School or went to catechism classes as children, and as adults claillled lllembership of'one orthe Christian churches; most couples continued to llIarry in church and to have their children b;lptised there; and above all the moral IIlfluencc or the c1111n:hes remailled great. They had a crucial influellce on the dclinit ion or ll10ral behaviour, and evell ir many people did not pract ise these standards very st rietly. kw were prepared to challenge them in principle. Especially illlportant here was the mle or women: although there was considerable tellsion between most 1()]"Ins of religlOlI and working-class definitions or masculinity, religioll remailled an important component or kmininity, and women cOlltinucd both to uphold religiously-based 1110ralrulcs. and to pass
SI':CI iURIS,\TION IN \\'I'SrERN El'ROPE, I H,IH-I!) 1,1
INTROlllICTI()N
religious beliefs and practices to the next generation. According to this versioll. the social positioll or the churches only began to crumble fl'om the later I ~)!)Os onwards, with the development oj' a rebellious and hedonistic youth culture. strongly influenced by popular music. and with a revolution in women's self~unclerstand ing, as a result or which older models orkmininity rapidly retreated in the bee or new ideals oj' iudividual "'clf~rul(iiment. Somewhat similar argulllcnts have been advanced by Pcter van Rooden who. in a surveyor long-terlll religious change in The Netherlands, concludes t hat only f1'()Jn t he I !)(i()s Gin one speak of a general trend towards sccularisation. lip to that tjme, any sign or apparent sccularisation in ont' area fc)r instance, the growth in the numbers of those without religious arliliation - had to be counterbalanced by contrary signs in other areas - fClI' instance. the continued dOlllination of Dutch politics by confl'sslonal panics and the tendency towards Illort' tightly knit conft~ssional subcultures. During the period between thc later cighteenth century and the middle of the twcntieth. there were several major changes in patterns or individual religious belier and practice, in the public role or the churches. and in their teachings. but none or thesc can usefully he defined or explained in terms or a trend towards secularisation. 2 ! While propollents or these three thcories differ radically as to whcn, how and why it happened. they arc all agreed that at some point in thc last 2!)() years Western Europe has been secularised. It is no accident that the lllore sceptical "oices have come nlainly fi'o\ll the United States, where religious trends since the !\)(iOs havc been more conrusing and ambigllous than in Europe. 2:! During the 19()()s it did seenl that thc United States were undergoing a rapid secularisation. very similar to that which hit WestcJ'l\ Europe at the same time. Even then. however. there were somc counter-trends. \Vhile most or the 'mainstrcam' churches were losing members and there was a significant growth in the number or declared atheists and those with no religion. somc or the more conservative or 'fundaIIlentalist' evangelical chllrches were growing, and there was also a wave or religious experimentation, reflected especially in growing intcrest ill variolls li)J'Jns or Buddhis\ll and Hinduism. These trcnds bccamc morc clearly defined in the later I \)70s, when conservative Protestants distllrbcd by what they regarded as rampant liberalism, closely connected with variolls symptollls or l1loral decline. began to organise politically, By the llIid-l m~()s cvidcnce or seclilarisation in the United States was not lacking, but the picture seemed lI1uch
more complicated than it had done fifieen years helcH'c. While most of the 'mainstream' denominations were continuing to lose memhers and the number oj' those without any religion had suhstant ially increased. other churches were growing. a wiele range or new fc)rms of'religiosity had emerged. and religIOn had a high public profile. mainly because or the activities of' conservative Protestants. According to public opinion polls. about 90 per cent. or the population claimed t.o believe in God and ahout 40 per cent claimed to have taken part in religious worship during the previous week - figures t hat in both cases were considerably above those reported in most west Ellropean countries.~:\ American historians have therefc)]'c been less willing than their European counterparts to sec secularisation as an inevitable concomitant or 'modernity', or as the overriding theme of modern religious history.~·1 The {(HIrth account or secularisation, which I have called the 'Selling (~od'2') interpretation. highlights the many-sided ness of modern religious history. Its most skillitl exponent. is Jefhey Cox. This version. which accepts that secularisation has happened but dcnies its inevitability. has been E1Voured mainly by American historians. In refilting the assumption that religious decline is an inevitable concomitant or modernity (or postlllodcrnity). they have ofien drawn comparisons between declining cllllrches in Europe and thriving churches in the United States. According to these historians the cemral [H:t or the modern religious situation is competition: competition between churches, compet.ition between religious and secular ideologies. and indeed competition between the claims of religious or political idealism and those of. fc)r instance. sport or ent.ertainment.. I n this environment religious helief~systems and organisations will only sUn'ive ir they actively and intelligently sell themselves. This requires. fc)]' instance, an cnergetic recruitment policy and erlc)J'ts to idemif)! t.he church with the aspirations or large sections of the pcople. Historians in this school argue that the relat ive success or churches in the II nited States arises rrom the Elct that t.hcy have done these things much more effectively than churches in Europe, which have h-cquently been hobhled by COlllplacency-inducing traditions or State-establishment. or by overdose links with unpopular elites.:!(; So historians or many dirlcrent kinds arc agreed that secularisation is the central 'story' or Western Europe's modern religious history, but they ofr(~r quitc dirf(.'rent. and sometillles incompatible, versions of how it actllally happened. I t would, indeed. he possible to draw
OJl
10
elements out or each or thesc stories to make a Ilew synthesis. The rcsult might (,\'ell 1)(' more cOllvillcing than allY 0(" those versions which place overriding emphasis on olle mastcr-ElCtor, be it scicllce, industrialisation. or whatevcr. NOllctheless, it should he recogllised that the result would he a firth 'story", which would he ullacceptable to mall)' or t Ill' tellers or ot her vCl"sions. This is part Iy because there arc mallY scholars filr wholll it is an article 0(" f;lith that one kllld or explanatory bctor, he it soci,t\, illtellectual, political, religious. or whatever, is rUlldamelltal, alld allY narrative which attached equal importance to Elc\ors oi'allother killd would therclilrc Iw ullacceptahle?' I t is part 11' hecause quest ions or chronology arc cent ral to Illany 0(" thcse argulllcllts and any dilution or this chronology would lead to a cOlllpletely dirrerellt kind orillterpretatioll. I Iowcvcr. ill history, as milch as ill sociology, sceptical \'oiccs have heell heard ll10re widely ill t he I !)HOs and I !)!)Os. The groullds fill' this scepticislll vary greatly. But the overall crrcct has been an increasillg warilless alllong historialls or lIloderll religion ahout the use 0(' the tcrlll 'secuiarisatioll' alld its status as the sllpposed key to 1l1O
I NTROIlt I( TI< IN
\I
or the situation, So, f()r IIlstance, Anthon)' Steinhoff in his study or Protestantism in Strasbourg argucs that the most important themc or modern religious history is not t hc decline or Christianity, but its resilience in the bee 0(' drastic socia\, political and illtellectual change.:\1 Cynics might comment that specialists in the history or Christianit.y have a vcstcd interest in emphasising its importallce. ilowcvcr, it is worth noting that rather similar conclusions wcre rcachcd in a study or (;erman child wclElre policies fi'om thc Bismarck era to the age or Adenauer. Onc or the major themes or the hook was 'the sheer stamina orthc Christian churches and Christiall cultllre', reflecting the adaptability and the 'contilluing relcvance (the "llIodcrnity") or Christianity'.:\~ III the light or such points, some scholars havc sllggested that pluralism, rather than secularIsat ion, is the CCllt ral t heme or modern religious history. Th us Kselman in a study or religion in Paris dlll'ing the Third Republic stresses both the continuing importance or Catholicism, the cn1l'rgellce or new religious m()\'('mcllts, such as Spiritism, and the ways in which the FreetllOught and Socialist 1ll00'CllIcnts, rathcr than helllg llIerely irreligious, o('(l'J'ed alternat ive heliefs and rit uals, which had more in commoll with those orthe Catholics than either side would wish to
12
SI·:U'I..\RISAI'ION IN WESTERN EI'ROI'E. IH·IH-I!lI·'
I NTIH lIltl( :TJ()N
decline. Williams's approach depends on enabling historical actors to tell their own story, in language which makes sense to them and which rcllccts t heir own concerns, wit hout the imposit ion by the historian of alien categories. She sees 'secularisation' as an example of' such
I t seems prohable that t here have been m,~jor dirkrences in the chronology and causes or secularisation in dil'lcrent countries and dilk'rent social milieux. It. is also too readily assumed that seclllarisat ion is a coherent 'process', moving in onc direct ion, and impelled by the same force. But. there is no necessary reason why this should be so, and it is equally possible that it alkcted difkrent areas or lik Ii)]' dilkrent reasons and to a greatly varying extent. Since some or the confusion surrounding t.his subject arises li'om dil'lt~rent. understandings both of religion and or secularisation, some explanation of how I will be IlSIllg- these terms is needed. By 'religion' I mean belief in an all-powerlill and benevolent Creator, worship of' whom, and obedience to whose commandments olkrs the only path to individual and collective well-being, together with the practices and the institutions lilllllded on such belief: No doubt other definitions mi~ht be more appropriate to other societ.ies at other points in time. But so Ell' as Western Europe in the nineteenth century is concerned, this seems to me to sUlllmarise the distinct.iveness or the Christian and ./ewish Eliths .,i.HI-1'IS the various other views of the world current at thc time. I shall be using 'seclilarisation' ill three difkrcnt senses. It is essential to my argument that these senses arc dilkrent, and that in asking how 1;11' and why secuiarisation happened during this period, one needs to look at each of these areas separately. The answers may prove to be quite dilkrent. The first two senses arc Elirly obvious, and most writers have concentrated on one or the other. Firstly there is individual religious belief and practice. 'Ie) what extent has t.here been a decline in the proport ion or the populat ion having a rciig-ious vicw of t.he world, belonging to religious organisations or engaging in religious rites? Secondly there is t he role of religion in public inst itutions. Ti) what extent has there been a separation between church and state, or between church and school? The t.hird area is less clearly defined, and perhaps li)r that reason it has been relatively neglected. It is the question or how Ell' religion provided a common language, shared to sOllle extent by t he great majority of t he people, through which a wide rang-c of ideas, demands and needs could be exprcssc
American culture is characterized by the co-existcnce or the secular and t he religious. 1t is the dialcct.ical rclat ionship between these li)J'C(~s Oil which we should lileus, tracing- out. how each involves the other and how the boundary het.ween the secular and the religious is continually neg-ot.iated, ... t.his process or negotiation has heen as much a part or our past. as orour prescnt, occurring, li)r cxample, even in Puritan New Englanel, a t.imc and place when, according to conventional wisdom, religion was all, :Hi 1m port ant.
Assumptions and Methods of the Present Book First, it must he st.ressed that my subject is the sculiarisation of European sOINI)' - not Tltl' SI'(,II/rm:(/Iio/l Ihi? /,'lIroJII:fIlI Mi/ld, as in the t it Ie of' Owen Chadwick's bmous boole There is already a vcry extensive literature on chang-es in religious thoug-ht in the nineteenth cClltury, alld Oil the religious implications of developments in science or philosophy, and I have no desire to add to it. I alll concerned with such developments only in so Ell' as they arkctec! the he lids and practices of' thc mass or t.he people, or the relationship betweell religion and pllhlic institlltions. Second, I sec seclllarisation as a question to be put to the evidence, rather than as a preconceived conclusioll. I think t here is a st rong JJl'i/l/(/ Jill'll' case li)r thinking that West European societies underwent a significant degree or sCClilarisation in the nineteenth century; but, as the SUIllmary given above orrecellt historical scholarship would suggest, the ext.ent, chronology and causes or this secuiarisation remain undear.
or
INTROllll( :TI()N
1·1 neither speak nor act, and without which we do not even think'.::! This reluctant testimoJlY to the ubiquitous social presence of'theistic religioll, whether Catholic, Protestant or.lewish, in Western Europe at the middle of' the nincteenth cCl1tury provides all indication or what I have in Illind. From this point of'view, a secular society might be seen as one in which religious language or practices or instlLlltiollS, rather than being part or the taken-!f)r-grantcd daily reality, which c\'(~ry()l1c is obliged to accept and cOl1le to terms with, whatever their personal belief' or non-lwlier, hecollle one option among several. a result or conscious individual choice. Philippe Boutry arglles that,iust such a changc in the social position or thc Catholic f;lith too\;. place in the departlllcnt of' the Ain in eastern France betwecn I H15 and I HH(): At t he dawn of t he Rest orat ion it was an aspect or 1II1'1I/flli/)', deeply stamped upon the social lik and cultural traditions or the rural parish; hy I HH() it has hecOIne a collect ion or relip:io/ls ollll/iolis. that is to say individually motivated beliefS. ideas and practices, which If)!' t his reason arc subject to gcneral or part icular challcnge within the now disunited parish.:: s I t is likely t hat changes or t his kind will comc about in SOllle areas of' lik, but not in others, or will progrcss more quickly in certain areas than in others. It is therelfllT necessary to cxaminc the qucstion at several dilfcrcnt Ievcls. One or the most important. dillH~nsions was hinted at. by Prolldhon: thc question or how lilr religion Of'(i.TS a comlllOIl point or rckrence. used by those in authority to justil}' their powcr. and by the oppressed to Icgitimate their protest. I\nothcr area lill' investigation is the relationship between rcligion and identity. 'Ii) what extent was religion a f'undalllcntal social category shapillg the sclf~illlage and behaviour or the majorit), or the population. or was it. only important li)r the identity or those who were highly devout? Finally, a good test or t.he degree to which religious Ideas, assulllptions and sYlIlbols \\'cre a Llmiliar katurc of' everyday lik, rather than being limited to a pious subculture, is the place orrciigion in popular culture - the most elusive orallthc areas [ have lIlentioned, but one that is or major importance If)r any assesslllcnt or scclliarisation in my third scnsc. I r secularisat ion is defincd in these broad terlllS, approached in a similarly open-m i nded way, and used flexibly. Illost or till' object ions mcntioned above lose their IfllTC. Invcstigating the extent, nature
and causes or secularisation docs not preclude the rccognit ion that other thellles in modern religious history arc equally central. or even more so, that the Christian churches continued to have a major role in West European societies th],()ughout this period. that popular religion is as signilicant as mOlT institutionalised If)I'Jlls, and t hat understandings or t he 'religious' and t hc secular are cont inually evolving. Nor does it involve any kind 0(' dcterminism. There is one way orunderstanding seclllarisation which I shallI/O/ he usillg. ;\n allegedly 'traditional' li>rlll or Christianity or Judaism has sometimes becn presented as 'the rc;1I thing', and any challge thercfi'olll as a rorm or seclllarisation::~' - In complete disrcgard or thc Elct that thesc religiolls have hccn in continuous evolution, and that there has heen constant interactIon bctwecn Christianity or Judaism and their social and intellectual environment. One or the major themcs in the religious history of'Westcrn Ellrope in the nineteenth century is the response of'helieving Christians and Jews to the threat or secularisat ion: a wide variet y or st rategies, radical, liberal and conscrvative. were devised to counter this danger. ;\11 or thcse deserve to he taken seriously. The attempt hy some historians to dismiss the liberal and radical strategies as 'a limn orsecularisatJon' is as ulljust and uncnli~htening as the attempt hy other scholars to disllliss t hc conservat ive st rategies as llIerely 'react Jonary'. The period choscnlill' this study. the years IH4H-l~)]4, saw many developments that arc very signilicant li)r our theme. Non-religious belicf~syst('ms became generally an:essiblc tot he mass or t he population, rather than heing the preserve or relatively small circlcs or intellectuals or political radicals. (~uestions or the relationship or church and state, and cspecially orthe place orrcligion in the system or mass education, became central political isslles throughout Europe. The advent or mass politics. growing industrial conflict, and the rise or nationalism all had important illlplications li)r religion and the churches. In many parts of'Europe, though hy no means all. this perIod saw a substantial drop in attendance at church services or part icipat ion in cOlllmunion. Ot her perIods arc also or great interest If)r historians cOl1ccrned with secularisation in Europe inc1udin(r If)r instance. the 17~)Os and the I D(iOs. But I think therc ar~~ good rc;:ons If)r seeing the period hetween the revolutions 0(' I H4H and the outhreak or t he First World War as heing 0(' special importancc. Most studies or secularisation have either [flCused on a sin~1c country or re~ion or have adopted a Illuch lIlore global approach. ident ilying t rcnds comlllon to Europe. the \-Vest or the whoic world,
Ifl
17
SF.<:I'L,\RIS;\TI(lN IN II'ESTERN EIIROPF. IH·IH-I!ll·1
I NTROllllCTI< IN
without emphasising local dilferences. In selecting three c10scly related countries. I hope to be able t.o show bot.h what IS cOllllllon t.o all three, and what is distinctive to each. I shall also pay considerable attention to regional and conressional dilfercnces, or class and gender dirferenccs, within countries. Potentially this sccms to me one or the llIost prodllctive ways or approaching the question of whether any general trend towards seclIlarisation can he identilied ill ninct('enth-ccntllry Europe and, ir so, what its causes were. The selection or France as a lInit. I()!' stlldy raises no special problellls, thoug'h two boundary changes need to he noted: the annexation or Savoy and Nice in I H(jO, 1()lIowing the successrul war against l\ustria, and thc loss or Alsace and parts or Lorraine in I H7 I 1()lIowing dekat. by Prussia. However, (;cnnany and England pose bigger problems, and no solution IS going to be entirely satisElctory. In t he case or (;ermany, onc cOllld make a case li)r inclllding the whole or the Lerman Conkderation as it existed in 1H,IH, thus including l\lIstria, or at the other extrelllC, one cOllld limit oneselrto a single state, such as Prllssia, I have taken a middle path, c1dining '(;ermany' as those states which came together to I()rlll the (;crman Empire !i'om IH71 until IDI!), and consequently became subject to hOl1logcnising inlllll'IHTS, inclllding a common consciollsness or belonging to a state dominated by Protestants. It needs to be remell1bered, howcver, t hat church policy remained a matter li)r the individllal states, and in spite of basic similarities betwecn the religiolls constltu t ions or the variolls st at ('s, t here were considerable dilkrcnc('s in the details. III Rat her than isolat ing England, one could make a case I(lr taking thc whole or the United Kingdom on the grounds that it was the statc of which Eng'land was only a part, though the religious situation in nineteenth-century Ireland was so completely difrerent li'om that in Britain that this would not be a vcry' practicable approach .11 One could make a casc I{)]' taking the whole or Britain, though ;1 dirliculty here would he the Elct. that England and \Vales on the one haw I. and Scotland on the other, WCI'C completely separate in cn:lcsiastical matters, and the dil'lt:rCIH:CS betwecn them were much greater than the dil'l<'Tences between the (;el'lnan states. Ie! i\ case could be made I{)!' taking England and Wales as a unit, since throughout this period they had a common Established Church as well as 1lI1111erOUS other comlllon institutions: I :; There were, however, major cultural clint:\,enccs bet ween England and \Vales, l110st notably the mllch greater strength or Protestant Dissent in thc laUer country, and above all the
dilkrcncc of'langllage. This leads on to two decisive practical argumcnts lilr restricting myselr to England. Firstly, I cannot read Welsh, so that Illuch 0(' the relevant literature is inaccessible to me. Secondly, it is a suniciently l(lI'Inidable task to becollle ('ully Elllliliar with the literature on the social history or religion 111 Eng'land. TIllS is by now vcry extensive - comparable in size to the litcrature on France, and much greater than the literature on (;Cl'lllany, where many or the issues discussed here arc only beginning to he explored.
The Situation in the 1840s In all threc countries, church and state were closely linked and the churches had a central role in education and social wC](~lre. England and France had gone through periods or rcvolut ionary upheaval in the scventecnth and late eighteenth centuries respectively, duringwhich the establishcd chllrch was ()\·('I'thrown. In both cases a compromisc was eventually agreed in which the power or the established church was partly restored, but the position or religious minorities was guaranteed. In England t.he Church or England had been restored with the ll10narchy in ](j(jO. Major modilications orits powers were imposed as a result orthe Revolution or ](iHH-H!l. which produced the 'I(llcration Acl, pl'Oviding Ij'cedom or worship Ii)]' Protestant Dissenters. In the later eighteenth century there was a progressive relaxat ion 0(' t he laws prohibit ing Roman Cat holic worship. Finally, the position or the church was lillldamcntally changed by the constitution;ll revolution or I H~H-;\~, and by the Whig rclill'll1S or the 1WlOs. The l{lI'Iner brought about the politicd cmanclpation or Dissenters and ROlllan Catholics, though In the If\;lOs and IH·IOs a series or nwasul'Cs I{)r the elllancipation or .I eli'S, passed by the lown house or Parliamcnt, were reject cd by the upper house. The latter included tile Registration Act or I H;\(i, which greatly cxtcnded the vcry limited possibilities of marrying- in 1I00H'stablished places or worship, and also pnlllitted a purely CIvil cCITllIony. The highly cont roversial Poor Law Amcndment l\ct of I H;\-! ]'('l11ovec\ t he care or t he poor frol1l t he parish, where the clergyman had a c('ntral role, placing it ullder newly lill'llled Poor Law linions, ul1der elected (;uardians. Anglican hishops wcrc nOl1linated by the monarch (on the recommendatiol1 or the Prime Ministcr), and Anglican bishops sat in the
IH
.~FCIL.\RI.'i.\II()N
IN WESTFRN FiiROI'F, IHI};,I!)I·I
House of Lords, The Illonarch was suprelllc governor of' the Church of' England, which was under the ultimate cOlltrol of' Parliamcnt. The clergy were rccruited mainly rrom the gentry and the established middle class (in spite ora significant alld growing clerical proletariat, especially in the nol'lh, where clerical lI1comes tended to be lower):I' They had a powerrul social presence, arising partly li'om their incomes and c10scness to other holders or power, partly f)'OIll their uniqucly Wide contacts with all sections or the population, In particular, the Church or England had a leading position in elcnwlltary education, as a result or the activities or the National Society, lellllldcd in I HII to establish schools fell' the poor, By t he I H-I Os, wit h t he assistance or government grants, it was by Ell' the largest pro\'ider or c1ementary edllcation. Meanwhile, Inany cJcrgYllIcn werc elected as Guardians to the new Poor Law authorities, just as llIany were appointed magistrates, Although, thercI(>n,:, t he ex of'iicio powers or t he clergy were heing cut hack, at least fill' a tillle they relllained f()rlllidably influential fig'llres within the Ilewly emerging pluralistic. rationally organised, and relatively democrat ic socict y,' c, [n France, the Roman Catholic Church had Edlen very swili.ly li'om a position oi' immense wealth and privilege under the (111('/('11 lip:illll' to slli'fer brutal perseclltion IInder the Revoilltion. However the latent strength or French Catholicism was demonstrated by the religious revival oi' the later 17DOs, which persuaded Napoleon to reach an acconllllodation with the church, The result was the Concordat with Pope PillS V II which came into operation in I H02, and which Napoleon unilaterally Illodfied hy the so-called '( )rganic Articles'. This was a deal tilted in El\'our of' the state, bllt one which enabled t he church to reorg',lIlisc after t hc dcvastation oi' the 1790s, The state recognised the (:at holic eh urch as 't he religion or the gTcat majorit), oi' Frenchmen', The state was to pay the salaries oi' the clergy, but no new parishes could be established withollt the state's authorisation, Bishops were to be nominated by the state, sllhjcct to the Pope's consent. The state subsequently recognised the Lutheran, Calvinist and Jewish religions, and intJ'()duced similar provisions Ic)r t he state payment oi' pastors and rabbiS, le)r the ccntralisation oi' religlolls authority, and fill' state control over those exercising this authority, In some respects the position or the French Catholic Church was more bvourahle than that of'the Chlll'ch or England. In particular, the strength or all kinds or religiolls dissent in England cont raster! wit h t he overwhelmingly
I NTR( 1I111( :'1'1< lN
I ~)
Catholic composition of' the French population, Clearly Protestants (abollt 2 pCI' cent or the French population) and Jews (less than I pCI' cent) had an importance out or proportion to their smalllHlmbel'S, Clearly also, the concentration oi' Protestants in certain areas (notably in and around the cities or N'illlcs and Strasbourg, and in Paris), and of.Jews in Paris and Alsace gave them a high local profile. But ll10st part s or the cou n t ry were homogeneously (:at hoi ie. The overwhelming majority or the population had been baptised, catechised and married by the Catholic Church and would be huried there, and in many parts oi' the country the great majority or the klllale population and a large proportion or the male population attended mass Sunday by Sunday, Elementary education was dosely linked with the church, the schoolmaster often being the church organist. Nuns were growing in Ill111lher rapidly and were taking a leading part both in the education or girls and in the care orthe sick. On t.he ot her hand, t he French Cat holic Chlll'ch sufkred (i'om the extent or its dependencc on the state and li'om the legacy oi' the revolutionary years, The state could and did use its power orwithholding salaries in order to put pressure on trouhlesollle clergy, Bishops (whose dioccses generally corresponded with a department. thc main unit or local administration), were closely watched by the prerect. the suprcme civil adl11lnistrator or the department. Their activities were the subject oi' regular reports to the Ministry oi' Religious AIEtirs, and they would conw under pressure i'rom the prc!ixt or the minister ii'they stcpped too Ell' out orline, An annual 8I1d,!!,'I'1 dl's CIIIll's was the chief' determinant of'the resources available to the church, and even governments otherWise sympathetic were naturally reluctant to authorise the fe)rlll
20
SFUI..\RIS,\TI(]N IN InSI'FRN EI1IHlI'F,
IHIH~I(lJ,1
Christian, All recognised in principle 'parity' between the three major Christian con[t:ssions (Llltheran, Rdi)]'Jned and Roman Catholic), thollgh ill practice most states bvollred olle or these conkssions (llsllally SOIllC filrlll or Protcstantism, bllt in the case or Bavaria, the Catholics). In a nllmber or stales the Protestants had limned a United chllrch - IlIOSt notably ill Prussia, where Friedrich Wilhelm III had marked the tcrcentellary or the RcfiJrlnation in lRI7 by f()]'(:ihly Ilniting the Llltheran alld Rcfi)1'Jm~d conkssionsin the Elce or fierce opposit iOIl rrom many Lilt herans. Some refilscd tojoin the ncw chllrch, and becamc the first large body orprotcslant disscnters in (;ermany, where at least Ilntil the I R40s the f()J'Jllation orrree churches was rrallght with legal difficlllties. The great m;l)orit)' or Protestants in bct remained within the variolls I,(IJ11/cs/(ir('hl'll (territorial chllrches); the rlller orthe territory was supreme bishop ortlle Protestant church and reglliated its afbirs throllgh a ministry responsible f()]· religion and edllcation. The close relationship between these two spheres was reflected in the EtCt that althollgh schools were Ilnder state cont rol, t hey had a cOllft:ssional character, and were subject to inspection by the pastor or priest (depending on the denomination or the school), The occupation of'various parts 0(' (;erlllany by French armies lI'mn the 17~)()s onwards had especially dramatic cfkcts in tradilionally Catholic areas. In IR(U Napoleon had imposed the Secularisalion, by which all ecclesiastical states were dissolved and all church propert), confiscated. III Protestant (;ermany the later eighteenth cent my had been a period or rat ionalism in which t radit ional [(mns or piety were under (ire. The church's hymn-hooks were being rewrittcn in the light or the contemporary bias towards the ethical and the socially lIscrul aspeC!s or religion, with its corresponding bias against the dogmatic and the miraculous. In IIIOSt parts or Europe, the period aner I HI!l saw a retul'll towards more conservative (lrmS of' Christianity. IN These were Eivollred hy governments, which tended to S('t' lihcral religion and religious scepticism as major ElCtors in the revolutionary upheavals orthe prel'ious generation. In the intellectual and cultural spheres, this trend was El\'Ollrcd by the rediscovcry or tradition, or the Middle Ages, or the mysteriolls and the non-rational. The many aristocrats who were returning to their ancestral Lllth in the early years or the nineteenth ccntury also threw their powerful weight behind this association or religion with conservatism. In France the ;lllianc(' or throne, altar ,md chateau reached a high poilH under
INTR()!)['CTI(lN
21
(:harles X (J R24-;)(), whose reign was hl'Ought to an abrupt halt by tllCJuly Revolution orthe latter year, pl'Ovoked partly by opposition to his assoclat ion wit h ult ra-conservativc Cat holics. In (;ermany the alliance had a longer innings, notahly in Prussia, where Friedrich \tVilhclm IV (I R40-() I) aimed to bring about a 'Christian State'. In all three countries, the period I HJ !J-4H had seC'n important signs of' religious revival and reconstruction. In France the Revolution had stmek a devastating blow at the church's parochial machincry. Many priest s eit her were killed or abandoned t he priest hood during the 'dechristianisation' of' 17!),1-,1, and (ill' several years the recruitment or new clergy came to a halt. Most religious houses lVert' suppressed. The closure or churches and the lack or priests meant that the long-established practices or attendance at. ll1ass, conf(~ssion, communion, participation in processions, and so on, were interrupted, and man)' children were not baptised, nor wert' couples married in church.I~) The process or reconstruction hq!;an vcry slowly with the relaxation of' rdigiolls persecution in the later 1790s and sOlllewhat more rapidly afier the (:onconlat in I RO:!. However, the Napoleonic years were still a troubled time fill' the church, marked hy increasing con(]icl hetween Napoleon and the Pope, wit h many episcopal sees remaining vacant, rest rict ions on the state's religious hudget, and or course alll10st continuous war. Reconstruction of' the church could he pursued llHlch more vigorously alier the final dcft~at of' Napoleon in I R I;i and thc restoration or t he Bourbons. I n spite or t he in it lally ant i-clericll character or t he .July Monarchy, the renewal continued under Louis Philippe in the I R:lOs and I R40s. i\lier I HI;i there was a massive recruitment orneII' clergy, and the heginnings or a rel'ival or t Ill' religious orders, wh ich continlled until the lR70s. Inlhe short run the most visible aspecl or this n:viv;tl was the re-Cllll'rgcnCl' or the Jesuits, expelled fi'olll France III 17(j,l, ,IS well as or other preaching orders. In the longer rl1n t he most significant developmellt was the growt h or orders f(lr WOllH'n, and the increasingly central part played by nuns in Frellch Catholic lift:."'O The Catholic revival in France was strongly supported by the aristocracy, whose patronage was important not only ill many rural areas but in cities with a strong aristocratic presence, such as 'I(Htlollse.">1 In SOllle parts or France very high lends or (:atholic practice had once again been attained by the I H·Ws. Yves-Marie Hilaire entitles his history or religiollS lik in the diocese or Arras 'A Christendom in the I !)th celltllry?' And in spite or the question
INTR()I)( I( :TI( IN
llIark, the main elllphasis orhis study is on the great strength orthe Catholic Church in this Ilorthern diocese, at least ulltil the cconomic and social uphc;tvals associated with the development or coal111ininO' ill the s('cond halrortlll' centur)' and the political_" rcvolution h resulting rrom the cstahlislllncnt orthe Third Republic."- Ilowcvcr, t he revival \Vas I lI]('v('n , hot h SOCially alld regionally. In some regions or France. in Etct. the church seClllS n('\'('I' fidly to have n';'overed rrOll1 the e\'Cnts or the Rcvolutioll.c,:1 Problems were espccially acute in areas II'here most of' the populatioll had supportcd the Constitutional (:hurch. which hroke wllh the Popc ill 17~)I, and thre\\' ill its lot with the Revolutioll, Although Napoleon had hoped to hring togethcr constitutional and IH>Il~iuring Catholics ill a reullited church where f(l1'Iller divlsiolls would be l()rgottCll. t he hiller i'cuds or t hose years \\'cre not so easily f()rgot tcn. In any case. t he Pope was determined that f()\'IllCr const Itut iOllals should be marginalised under the llew order, A start was made with this under the Napoleonic regime. The work was finished afkr I H I 0. whcn ne\\' bishops were always f()rnHT lloll~jurors, who did their hest to make lik as h;1I'(1 as possible f()r those alllong their clergy who ktd hecn cOllstitutionals.c,1 In areas where the (:onstitutional (:hurch had been dOlllinant, ullhappillcss wit h t he new regime was reflect cd in low rates or Catholic practice. and resistance to thc Illlmerous missiolls staged bv ./esuits, Redemptorists and other orders under the Restoration, III p;lrticuIar. religious practice rClllained low in Illost of' the Paris and Bordeaux regions during the Restoration and the ./uly Monarchy, and there was lillie of'the growth secn in many other parts or the cOllntry. i\ good example of' the situation in the Paris region would he thc diocese ()r()r1{~;lIIs. i\ survey in IWiO showed that there was 110 canton where llIore titan !J per cellt orthe men or more than ~O per cent of' the women received COlllllllll1ion at Easter. There were ten parishes where not a single man receivcd COlllllltll110n, and two where not a single \\'Olllan did so,c,;; More generally. the hourgeoisie. and especially bourgcois mcn, remained relatively detached li'om the church in this period, Intcllectually they were still rooted in the eightecnth-n'lltury Enlightcnl1lent and in the writings or such ligures as Voltaire and Rousseau - indeed 'VoItairiall' was the word typically used to describc the religious outlook of' men of'this class during this period, Politically their allitudes varied, many identif'ying with the .July Monarchy. sOllle harking hack to Napoleon, and others looking f()rward to a f'uture republic. But they were
generally agreed in opposing the Legitlmisl1I supported by 111allY of' t he Catholic clergy. and ill being suspicious of' t he react ionar), political influence cxercised hy the chun:h,'-'(; in England. as in most other predominantly Protestant countries. the years around the end of'the eighteenth and the beginning ofthl' nineteenth century saw a powerl'ttl growth or evangelical religion. c olicn in the f()rm or 'revivals' lIl\'olving mass conversions. ,7 Most sect ions of' t he populat ion were to sOl11e degree affected, though the precise [()rms taken by thc evangelical m()\'ement varied betwecn dirftTcnt social environl11ents. Among the aristoCl'acy and the uppcr Illiddle class the movement was largely contained within the Church of' England. and was olien associated wll h st rongly conservat ive political and social attitudes.ln the middle class it was Illore olien associatcd with the Indepcndent and Baptist churches and with the emergcncc of' jloliticalliberalislll. In the working class in town and count ryside it llIost comlllonly took the f()rm of' Mcthodism. and could equally olien be associated either With f(lI'IllS orradical protest or wit h an apolit ical at t itudc. '1'1'0 ot her religiOUS currents In this period were ill1portant because or their inllucnc(' on the clergy and on the educat ed public. namely t he II igh Chu rch Tractarian movement within the Church or England and the liberals. who in the I H00s came to be known as the 'Bmad Church'. Thus, the f(lI'Il1s or (:hristianity cxisting In mid-nineteenth-century England were very varied - much more so than III France or (;crmany - and there were I(~w members of' the upper and middle classes who werc entirely outside the churchcs.c,i'\ Among the small Illlmber or avowed religiOUS sceptics in the middle class. the most important group were the so-called 'philosophic radicals', guided by Utilitarian principles, who had a considerable influcncc Ol1 the Whig rcl()r1ns or the I H;)()s. The main resistance to the all-pervasive inllucnce or Christ ianit y in England d ll1'illg t he first hall' or the nineteenth century came, however. f'rolll lower down the social scale among sections of' the working class and lower middle class. especially in London alld in the industrial districts or cast Lallcashire and west 'Yorkshire. Here thc biggest influences were Rohert Owen. the pioneer or co-operation and socialism in Hritain. and 'J(1Il1 Paine. whose HlpJlls of M(1I1 (1791), the Bible or popular radicalism. was f()lIowed by Tltt /fgl' of RI'IISIJII (17D,J). the lirst widely read attack on Christianity to be published ill Britain, Painc's works were a principal target or the prosccutions or blasphclllous puhlications which were at their peak in the iHIOs and IH~Os. Ilowcvcr. deists
SH:[ 'I
IR[S,\TI()~ [~
In:STFRN F[ 'ROPF, I HIH-[ !)II
alld atheists were relativelv small in numbers in comparison with the huge numbers ortllOse who /looded Into the Disscnting chapels in these years, It was the Dissenters, Ell' llIore than the Secularists, who poscd the main threat to the (:lIl1rch or England, In IH!lI, worshippers in the Established Chllrch llIade lip !ll pCI' cent. or all those attending church in Ellgland, while Protestant Dissentcrs made lip ,1,1 pcr cent. The thrcat came li'om two directions, In tcrllls or religio[ls and social inllllcnce the (:hllrch or England had by the Illid-ninctcciith ccntllry becol11c a minority chllrch in the largc parts or northern England where Methodism was dominant. III polit Ical tcrlllS, the M IIllicipal RclclI'Ill Act or I H:\!l opened the way to Ilew local clites, llIany orwholll were ncwly nch, and most or whom wcrc LiiJnal in politics and Dissenting ill religion,"!) In (;crmany too thc carly ninetecnth ccntury was a tilTlc or religiolls ';\wakcnillgs' (the 1~'n[ll'd!llllp:shl'lIll'gllllg), but thcir scopc was morc locdiscd t han in England, Their major influencc was on the aristocracy «,specially in Prussia's easte1'll provlnccs), Oil the rural pOplllatioll (nlOst notahly in Westphalia), on slllall town arlisans (especially in Wiirttcmhcrg) and on sOllie industrial distncts (sllch as the Wu ppertal), Man), regions or (;el'lnany were lit t Ie arrected and ill particular the middle and working classes in the towns wcre seldol11 involved, J\S ill Francc, the bourgeoisie, and espccially hourgeois l11en, were more st rongly influenced cit her by religious liheralislll or by scepticisl11, The liheral currents were represented hy the Friends of' Light and the IJl'lIlsrlt/wlho/i1!1'1i (;ermall Catholics), two movements of' the I H40s, the ICll'lnCr initiated hy Protestants and the latter hy Catholics, and hoth cOl11bining delllands ICll' a lllore open and del110cratic society with a liberal and rat ionalist ic limn of' theology, The episode which 1I10re than any other exposed the religious tellsions within (;el'lnan society at this t.ime was t he display hy t.he cat hed ral aut lwrit ies at 'I I'ier in I H"l,1 o('thl'ir Inost prizcd relic, the seamless robe orChrist. This attractcd huge ll111nhcrs ol'pilgrillls, and also provokcd protests, most notably li'om a priest. in Breslau, .lohannes Ronge, whosc ohjcct ion to this piece of' Ultramontane 'superstition' led hilll to separate rrom the Roman Church and to I(H[nd the /)t11lsdi/wl"o/iI!I'II, At the sal11C tilllc another inlhlcntial group within Certnan),'s cducated l11iddle cbss was taking this rejectioll or religious tradition a step f'urthn, At 'Ilibingen University, a group or scholars was sublllit t ing t he text or the New 'I(~stamcllt to scientific illvestigation, the most El1110US rcsult or these rcsearches being the Ufi' O/.II'SII.I' hy D. F StrallB,
INTR( mI'( :TI( IN
Others were subjecting Christianity to philosophical criticism, most notably Llldwig FCllerbach in his I~SSl'lIrl' of' Umsll(lIl.ily (I H4 I), Already in the I H:\os and I H,fOs ideas of' this kind were having a considerable inflllcnce not only on the intellectllal avant-garde and on political radicals, hut on wider sections of' the educat.ed middle class, especially in north (;erlllan Protestant cities such as Berlin and . ," I Iii) Ilamburg, where re I ,IglOUS partICipation was a I n~a( Iyow. While the poor tended to be lllfi'C<jllent chllrch-goCl's, religion remained an important part or the language of' social protest, answering the equally rrequcnt use of' religious langllage hy those in authority, In Eileen Yeo's menlorable phrase, Christianity was 'contested territory,lil - <Jllite literally so in the SllmlllCl' of' I H:)9 when, lirst in Stockport, and then in some thirty other towns, the (:hartists marched in a body to the parish church on Sunday morning, occupied most of'the scats, and asked the clergyman to preach on a text which they presented to hilll, At Stockport the Chartists gave t.he vicar a choice or ICHlr texts, hut. he Ignored thcm aIL preaching instead on 'What. must I do to be saved?', and urging his hearers 'not to struggle fi)r temporal things, but IClr eternal salvationdi~ This was largely the story or the IClllowing weeks, as the Chartists, drawing especially on the Old 'Ibtament p]'()phcts, the gospels and the epistle of' Jamcs drew messages or eqllality, social justice and condelllnation of' t.he rich, while most. or the clergy, drawing rrol11 the epistles or Palll and Peter, appealed Ic)r sllhlllission to Cod-given authority, The Chartists gradually abandoned the attempt to reclaim thc parish chllrches fc)r the people, and tllrned instead to holding their own services, oncn condllcted , C'I by t hosc among t hem who had been Nonconl(lrmist preachers," But speakers at political meetings and writers in their ncwspapers claimed t he support of' eh rist ian it)' Ic)r their dcmands, and eha rt ist hanncrs made (i'c<juent Ilse or biblical texts,lil Christianity and especially the Bible still p]'()vidcd a common language, accessible to all social classcs and those at most points in the political spectrulll, and lilr this reason it was potentially more erkctivc than any more scctional discoursc, The sa11le seems to have becn true in France, where Edward Berenson has analysed sOllie or the songs sung hy worker-pocts to working-class and peasant audiences in the I H,lOs, 'I)cpically thesc songs presented a kind or Christian socialism, hascd on the principles orco-opcration and social equality, together with a llloral critique or the regillle or cut-throat competition and the relllorseless pursuit of'wealth,li',
SH:I'L\RIS,\TJ()~ I~
\\'FSTFRN FI'f{()I'F, IHIH-,I'III
The role or Christ ian symiJols and langllage in the maintcnance iJoth or comlllllnit)' al1ld or systems or amhorit), also remained enormolls. For instance, in France and in Catholic regions or (;ermany allllllal kstivities ill hOllollr or the pat rOll saillt or the parish hrought together the whole poplilation ill ritllals which derived their special quality /i'onl the mixing or sacred alld proEllle. n(; Protestant comlllllnities were Illon~ sparing in the use o/"s)'lllholislll. But here as llll}(:h as in a (:athoJic environll1ellt the parish church ('voked strong clllotions, as an ohject o/" local pride, as a place associated with important events in individllal and Elmily history, as a Jink with past gcllt'!',ltions, as weI/ as heing the place where (;od was lllOSt likel" to he lillln(I.c;7 (>tll' or the llloSt important ["unctions orthe parish church was the provision o/"an appropriate setting and ritual fill' celeiJration or the great turning-points or lift~ alld fill' lllOurning the dead. III France, the Revollltion had decreed that t he only legally recognised llIarriage cercmony was t hat which took place at the t()\\"ll hall, iJut hy the I H'lOs the O\'enl'helllling Illajorit), or,couples fi)l/owed the legal ceremollY with a celTllIoll), hH in church. III England a purely civil cerelllonv was available fi'olll I H;17. hut the proportioll 0[" couples taking this optioll was illitially slllall.l;~1 In llone or the (;erlllall states was' this optioll yet a\'ailable. Mall), li>rlllS or religiolls observallcc, Iwlie/" and lllorality, together wit h ot her reqllirelllcnts or social and civic virtue, were cnf(ll'Ced by powcrrul COllllllllllity pressures, providing the necessary u11derpill'!lings to the authority or the ciergy. The first hall' or the nineteenth cC11tury had scell lllajor changcs both within thc Jewish cOl1l1ll\lnities or Francc, (;el'lllany and Englalld alld ill the social positioll or thcse cOllllllunities. The latter changes W(,llt lilrthest in France, where Napoleon lllade Judaism one oj' the fiHlr of1icially recogllised religions, and where fi'Olll I H;~ I Jewish r,lhhis shared the privileg'e already accorded to Catholic priests and Protestant pastors orlwing paid'by the state. Elllancipatioll callle stcp by step in England and (;erlllallY, but here too there were illlportant ;Idvallces. In (;erlllany, the cnt ;'Y or'/ews into nlany or the 11'1'1'II1I!, which were central institutions or llliddle-class lik scemed to indicate that .Jews could becollle like other (;el'lllallS ill evcrvthing' hIlt their religion. ill ;\t mid-centllry about I per cent or the (';crm;11l populatioll ;l'as.Jewish, as against ()::l per (Tllt in France and 0.2 pCI' cent in England. In SOllle cities, as well as in c(']'tain smaller towns in Prussia's easlern provinces, the proportion was 1;lr higher. In Frankl'll]'t it was H per cent, in Halllllllrg/;\ltona and in
I "TROll! :CI'I( IN
27
Breslau it was 7 per ccnt, though in Berlin, where the great cxpallsion 0[" the .Jewish cOlllll1unity camc later in the century, it was still only 2 per c<'n1. 71 So the .Jewish prescncc was rrOlll every point or view much M OTeater in the (;erlllall states than in France or England, ' . • and developlllents within (:crm
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.Jewish identily "lIlmt crowded out ancestral loyalties', They olicn !'cit sOllle altachment to thc.Jewish cOllllllunity, while having little or 7 llO interest in the .Jcwish religion. :; Similar battles we]'(' being f(lIlght on a Illuch smallcr scale within the English and French cOlllmunities - with Ihe dij'krenee that the COllsislory S),SICIlI introduced by Napoleon in France and the orfice oj' Chief' Rahhi in England led to a conslderablc degree oj' ('cntral control, whereas in (;crman}, there were Illajor differences betwccn the .Jewish COllll1lllllities in din(~rent statc~ and difkrent cities,,1 Thus in England too ;1 rd()rm Illovcment developed, leading to the f(ll'Ination oj' the West London Synagogue in I H42, bnt the Chief' Rabbi (powerfully assisted by the presidcnl of'the Board of' Deputies) was able to cnsure the continuing dOlllinancc or orthodoxv,'C, In France, it was the other currellt of relittious chanu:e that was most cOllspicuous, namely the emergcnce of' a large group or prosperous, highly acculturated, and largely lion-observant .Jews, -r I ) In England, the ./cwish cOlllmunity had always becn overwhellIlinglv urbanised and heavily concentrated in l.ondon. In France and (;ermall), thcre wcrc also significant numbers or rural and small-town.lcws, but thcr(' wcre strong trcnds towards urbanisation and clllbourgcoiscmcnl. By the second half' or the nineteenth century the .Iewish commullities in all three countries were highly urbanised and, at least ulltil the influx of Russian and Polish immig , Tants after about I ~~(), thc\'/ werc 1)I'CdOlllin
.,
IJ
Summary of the Book I agree with I\.scIlllan and CoX 7K thaI pluralism is the key to the religiOlls situ;!lion ill bter nineteenth-century Europe, and that trends towards sccllbrisalion have to be seen ill the context of' intense rcligiolls cOlllpetitioll, whether betwecn rival branches or Christianity or betwccn religious and secular views of' the world. Nineteenth-century pluralism did not necessarily lead to the sceptical rebtivislll/!1 thaI somc writers have suggested: III bet there can have been f('\\' periods of' history in which kr\,ent ideological COIlll1litments of' varying kinds were so widely held. Rather than seeing sccularisat iOll as ;111 impersonal 'process' (t he tcrm most comlllonly used in the sociological and historicallitcrature), it would be hettl'\' to sec it as a 'contest', in which adherents or rival world-views battled it OUI. Certain'" the role of'lllore impersonal f()]'(:es in undermining
religion and the churches nceds to be considered, but insurlicient account has been taken of' t he role or human agency. Secularisat ion happened at least in part bccause there were large nUlllbers of people who werc trying their hardest to hring It aboul. In some parts o(,\'Vcstern Europe these erl()J·ts were very succcssrtti. The E1Ct that in other areas secularisatlon was much more limited was at least partly due 10 Ihe df()rIS ort.hosc who devised strategies (i)]' resisting the trend. Chapter I will hegin the story in the 'crazy year' or the 'holy and tcrrible year', as It was variously namcd, or I H,I H - a year t hat cast shadows across the rest oj' the Illlletcenth ccntury, powerf'ully In!lul'nclng thl' history of' religion, as of' so much else. In France and Cermany, though much less in England, the evcnts of' this year st rengt hcned t he connect Ions between the chu rches and polit Ical conservatism and f'urthered thc tendencies towards secularity on the Len. ThiS leads Oil in Chapter 2 to a consideration orthe role of' religion in public institlltions. This of'rers a contrast between the systematic seClllarisation pursued by Frcnch goverl1lllcnts fi'om the later I H70s Oil wards, the tcndency towrds a very gradual and unsystematic institutlollal seclliarisation in England, and the privileged and powerrul public role which the chllrches continued to excrcise in Cerm'lI1y. The dirft'l'ellt balance or polit ical ()In's in t he I hrce countries hrOlwht ahout \'('r"! di(krent relationshil)s between t'1 church and state. This leads to a recogniton that in the nineteenth centur") there wcre hlwe diVl'l'o'Cnces hetween the I),lttl'l'ns of' rcli. . h h giollS dcvelopml'nt in di(krcnt sections of'soclety. (:hapter ;~ considers which social groups were most supportive of' seculanslllgpolicies, and why. Chapt('J's ,[ and;:' IllOVC away f'rom pllhlic instilllI Ions to ()(,lIS on the t rends in individllal belief and pract ICC. Wit h the pressllres towards religious COllf()J'Illity wcakening and with the aV;lilahility of' an in('l'easlllgly wHIe range or altel'llatlve ()('Iicf~ systems, the trend was dearly towards a greater religious individualism, with belier and practICe hecoming IllllCh llIore a llIatter of personal choice and cOl1lmitment and both taking a considerahle variet\' of' f()I'Ins. However, Chapter;:' also emphasises that the chron'oloO")' and circul1lstances of' thesc chang'es varied greatl)! as h hetween dirkrcnt parts or Europe, and to some cxtellt betwccn nH'1I11wrs oj'dilkrcllt religious conksslons. In Chapters (j and 7, which look at religion as a SOllrce of'identity and at the relationship betwcen religion and popular culture, the elliphasis is Illore Oil continuity. Chapter H hrings the story to an end in the even crazier, L
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Churches in Revolution In t heir early st agcs the revolut ions were accept ed or ('ven welcomed hy thc clergy of the dominant churches. Except in Viel1ll,1 and in Lyon. t hnt' was lilt It, eyidence or the lIlilitant ant i-clericalism which h;1(1 bccn part of'thc I W\() Revolution in Fr'lIlce. 1 In Berlin two ('\'('nts came to sYlllbolise thc religious atll10sphere of' til(' first days or revolution. ()n I~) I\Lirch, aner a night of' fighting in which o\'er t\l'O hUlldred people dicd. the bodies of'solllc oftlw harricadefighters wcre hrought to tlte royal palace, where the king was called to the balcony and told to take off his hat ,IS a lIlark or respect to tite dead, while til(' crowd sang the fUllcral hymn jeslls, 1111'11/1' /.1I111'J'sil'ht'. Three days btcr. most of'the city's Protestant clergy, as wcll as a Catholic priest and a .Jewish rahbi. participated in the filllcral oj' I WI f;tllcn insllrgcnts. The lil)('ral Protestant pas10r Adolr Sydow
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delivered a graveside address wlm:h was ent husiast ically received because or its praise f()]' the heroic sacrifice made by the Etllen and his celehration of the revolution as 'a turning-pOint in the history oj' our Prussian (;crman Elthcdand,.:2 Meanwhile. the rhetol'lc used hy a number of' the leading radicals was notable fill' lis Christian language,:; At this stage a COlllmOIl religlolls idiolll, expressed through bihlical rekrences. Elln iliar phrases. hymns and rituals provided cOlllmon ground hetween the monarch and the com1llon people oj' Berlin. and hetween those at dif'krcnt points in the polit ical spect rU1ll. In the spring or I H·1H the links between chllrch and n:volutlon anclthe religious fla\'our of much revolutionary rhetoric were e\'en Illore conspiclloUS in Francc. Although hy I H·IH the anti-clericalism oj' the Orleanist monarchy had largely dissipated, there was lillie enthusiasm fill' LOllis Philippe among the clergy. Some welcollled the Repuhlic. especially t hose who ident ified I helllsclves wit h their poorer parishioners and wanted social legislat ion as well as dClllocracy, Man), ot hers looked f(lrwarclto a retllrn of' t he Bourbons. the 'legitilllate' rulers or France, Anclthere were also those whose concenlS were Illore exclllsi\'ely ecclesiastical, and who expected Ihat t he new regime would allow the church Illore rreedolll especially in the field or eduCallOiI. All three grollpS hoped that thc revolution might he the first step on their chosen path. This support was symbolised in the hlessing by priests of' 'Liberty 'liTes' which was a characteristic evellL in the carly weeks of'thc revolution. Alllong the leaders of' the nell' regillle there were kr\'cnL Christians such as Buchez. hut e\'ell t hosc who wcre less personally devout helieved that tlte support of' lhe clergy was II1lportant fill' the success of' the revolution, I AlIlong tlte most enthllsiastic supporters or the re\'olutions were memhers or religious minorities. including French Protestants. French and (;erlllan Jews, Protestants ill the Bavarian-ruled Palatinate. Roman Catholics in other (;erman states, and (;crlllan c Dissenters. , Here we need to distinguish hetwccn two kinds of' support f(lr the re\'olutions, In the (;erll1an states. where church and state were closely hound toget her. and all religious act ivit), was closely watched by police and hureaucracy. nearly all religious minorities expected that the revolutions would impro\'e tl_Jeir own position hy hroadcncning the range or n:lig-iolls fiTedoll1." (;\ rare exception wcre the Calvinist dissenters in the vVuppertal, who were I loyal monarchists, totally opposed to the rcvolut ion. ;) On the
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been ill the ascelldallt.~c, [\s nne rather striking example or the t rends. in the I',dat inate. where K2 per cent or clergymen aged :'>ri and over were reckoned in I K,I!) to he Lcfiists. only ;)7 per ccnt or their YOllnger colleagucs shared t hesc s)'nlpat hies. ~I; The major rC,lson ie)r this secnl<'S to ha\'c been the growing inl1uence or Lutheran orthodoxy with its accompanying political conser\'atism or quietism. incilicated in this case through the Theology Faculty or the lini\'(:rsity or Erbnp;CIl.:!7 In Prussia. Protestant pastors contrihuted to the de\'e1opment or conservative politics hy preaching serIllons. writing newspaper articles and joining (or e\,Cll leHlnding) conservativc associations. The lirst national Protcstant congress. thc Wittcnberg !":irclli'll!(/p: ill Novemher I K,IK. was dominated hy theological alld political conservatiw:s. and the speeches included anti-IT\'olutionary diatrihes. as well as the morc constructive contrilllltion or Johann Wiclwrtl. leHmdcr or the Inner Mission. who outlined his proposals ii)r a paternalist programmc or social refill'll1. (:onservat ive potit icians. li)r t heir part. emphasised their c10scncss to the c1crgy. ;111d dcl('ncc or the 'Christian State' was a major plank of' consen'ativc propaganda.:!K In Bavaria. the only (;erlnan state whcrc both the ruling house and the Illajority or the population wcre (:atholics. the church leadership took a similar linc to that or thcir Protcstant countnparts in Prussia. The Catholic bishops rC111aincd strongly wedded to the alliance of' throne and altar,
t he I K·Ws had been. This was also t rue of' French Cat holicis11l, where thc nUl11her or outspokenly radical clergy was 1I1 any case s1llaller. and where bishops were generally quite ready to transl<.:r or sl1spcnd those who stepped too Eu' oul orlinc; if'tlle hishop showed any hesitation he would certainly be prolllpted by the prekct, who kept a close eye on Ihe polillCS or Ihe c1crgy.:;] (;erm
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.~ECII
.. \RIS.\TI()0; IN \I'ESTERN EI'IH)I'E. IH·IH-I'lIl
gllarantees or religious ii'Cedolll lifted Illany or the restrictiolls on Catholic acti\'ity and. in particular. allowed the previously ballncd religious ordcrs to establish thelllselves. and to hold the big missions which were a typical kature or the IK!JOs.: 1H Thc lK!JOs and IK(iOs were a period or expansioll Ic)r the Catholics in I'mssia. marked by increasing Illllnl}('rs or vocations and many Ill'\\' organisatlolls. When in tile I K70s the state tlll'lled agaill to the allad~. the Catholics were well prepared to nHTt t he challcng('.:I~) J n France too, t he I K!JOs were a period or great Catholic prosperit)'. during which Louis Napoleon rewarded the church Ic))' its supporI. The llIost important piece orlegislatiou was the Falloux Law or I K!JO (nanled aner the Minister or Education). which lined restrict ions on t he opening or private secondary schools. I twas 1()lIowcd by a great increase in the number both or prilllary and secondary schools rim by religious orders. State spending on the church increased (albeit modestly). ,1I1d a gencrally aut hontarian govcrnment allowed the church a degree or li'ccdolll that was granted to nobody else. The 11lImbcrs or priests aud nuns increased and many new churches were buill. 10 The civil and military allthorities gave their IHoral support to the church - sometimes in ways that were mOlT revealing than they perhaps intended: the rVlayo\' or ROllcn, laying the l(lIIndation-stonc of'a new church in I Wi7, comparcd it to a ncw prison rec('ntly built ncarby. both being institutions '[e)r the IIloralisation of' the people',11 With similar cOIlsiderations in mind. the bllsiness elite were IIlllch more generous t han ever bd()J'C in gi\'ing mOIH')' to the c1l\1n:h.':! The support g'iven by the Emperor to the Pope in these years was also mudl appreciated by Catholics. Adlllitt('dl)" relatiolls cooled bctween I K!J~) and I KG:I as Napoleon threw his wcight behind the establishment or the Kingdom or Italy. Bllt they impl'O\Td 'lgain in the latn years orthe Second Empire. 1:1 The alliance betwcen the chllrch and the Sccond Empire was widely regarded as a marriage o{'convcnience.'11 A largc proportion of'thc clergy rcmained Legitimists, and saw Napoleon as simply the bcst available option pending the retlll'll or the BOllrhons. Napoleon's view of' the church seems to have been entirely pragmatic. Bllt in (;erlllany, where a similar conscnativc alliancc operated in most states during these years. the cause orthe 'Christian State' W,IS upheld hy a Illll1lhn o(highly devout rlllers and statesmen. I', In particlllar. Friedrich Wilhelm IV oj' Prussia was a convinced Pietist. as were a nllmber o{,his ministers and advisers. Many orthclll were drawn fi'olllthc aristocracy o{'l'russia's eastern provlIlces. where the
IH·IH
41
Protcstant Awakcnings hac! led to the {'ormatioll or 1111mlTOllS aristocrat ic Bible-reading and prayer circles. These Christ ian conservat.ives placed overwhelming stress on human sinrulness, the Ileed Ic)r submission to (;()(I-given authority, and the belief' that the movel1lelH towards democracy generally. and t.he revoillt ions or I K4K-4!) in particlIlar. were prodllcts or hllman pride and rebellion against the divinc order. it; The 'Christ ian State' should combine lirm government (in Prussia the number or executions shot up during the I K!JOS)'17 with an increascd emphasis on religion in schools. and other measures to rc-af'firm the Christian basis or society.IH An important symbol here was 'Sunday rest', which liberals saw as a lI1aller Ic)r li'ce personal choice. whereas conservatives saw its legal enl()]'Ccment as a sign of' a collective submission to Cod's IawS.'I!) Some (;ennan rulers of'f(~red special Eivours to the more conservative wings or their churches, which they saw as less tainted than their liberal counterparts by involvemcnt in revolutionary activity. and more likely to recognise the secular ruler as divinely ordall1cd. The triumph or the Lutheran conrcssionalists in Bavaria and llanovcr and of' the Pietists in vViirllemberg over their rationalist or moderate adversaries owed c a lot to the patronage or the statc. ,()
The Emergence of a Secular Left Meanwhile, the Leli was becoming gradually more secular. A local study or the '];l1'n department in south-west France has shown the importance or the years I K4K-!J! in the evolution or the 'clerical! :lnli-clerical' polarisation which dominated French politics and Illuch or daily lik in the years IK70-1!l1"1. During lK4K and the carly months of' I !i4!) there was still no tracc of' anti-clericalism ill the oratory orrcpublican politicians or in the local republican press. They hoped to win the support of'the pnests by praising the work of' the lower clergy, by promising to remedy some or their grievances, and by giving approving publicit), to the views or those clergy who were already committed to the republican callSC. The elections or May 1K4~) were a turning-point. While right-wing orators andjourrlalists were increasingly making appeals to religion. and the majority of' clergy supported the Right. fi'om late IK·19 the republican paper 1~'I'/I'{fl'lIr rill Thl'll allacked the clergy with increasing f'rcquency, and in I H!JO it began to identil)' 'the clerical party' as a
'I~
,~I':ClI.\RIS,\II():\
10: \\'ESTE"" IT"OI'E, IXIX-lt)11 c
powcrrul and dallg'emus politicall(lI'Ce. >I By I H!i I the of'licial positioll of'the paper was still that therc was a bad clergy who Unl(lI'tullately had too Illuch influence, but that there was also a good clergy, who represcllted true (:atholicisl1l, and who were sympathetic to republicanism, or at Ic,lst politically neutral. But ill practice most. or thc paper's space was cit-voted to attacking the had clergy, sometimes cmploying a ralher wild rhetoric or a kind likely to alienate most (;;lIholic rcach-rs. Thus in I H!i I, championillg the Illoderatc l\rchbishop or Paris ill a dispute wit h Ihe more aggressi\'t~ly clericalist Bishop or Chartres, the paper CO III llICllI ed: 'the Archbishop or Paris will have against him all the ./esuils, all or the clerical party, which pbces the altar oillhe t.hrone, which trarlics in amulels, lllalluElcturcs miracles and would like to bring hack t.he Inquisitloll, he will have on his side the true priest or'/esus Christ, he will have on his side the people, he will have Oil his side the gospel ... '.';~ As El\lr)' sums up: lidl or conccJ'Il and or a certain hope Vis-a-VIS the clergy ,mel (:atholicislll in general in I H/IH-~), the republicalls have COllle, especially alier the hard electoral hattIc or f'vlay I H4!), to a resolutc anI i-clericalism. This allli-clericalism is essentially political; but we observc that oncc Ihcy have elltcred alollg thiS path, the republicalls begin to criticise certain abuses, certalll dangers or religion itself'. ".Ihese attacks will dcvelop much rurthcr In the years to COIlW: al tacks agaillsl t he act ual content or rcligious practlcc and against the anti-scientific characler or religion." ,c):1 Napoleon's ('0111) d'/Ilil of':! Ikcclllber I H!i I lII,u'kcd a fillal break. ()pposition politicians were arrested or wen I inlo exile. i\licr the suppression of' the uprising in the soulh, thollsands or illsurgents II'crc t ransportcd. Man), Cat holic hishops declared I heir explicit support f()!' t he coup, alld thc ,\rchhishop of' Paris held a 'Ii, f)1'1I/1i In Nol re Dame. SOIllC clergy were suspcctcd or havillg bet rayed c participants in thc rising 10 the police. >! In his sllldy of'the diocese or Monlpcllicr, olle or the stl'Ongholcls or the insurrection, Cholvy concludes Ihat: the evcnts or Deccmher I H:J I open a prof(Hlnd hreach tile first since the Rc\'o]ut ion of' 17H~) - bet ween t he Church and the COIIIIllOII pcople ora large part orthe diocese. The Chllrch rallied the p;trty or order. In lurn it can expect that sOllie or thc
IRIX
hourgeoisie will rally to the Church, But it risks loslIlg all hope or winning hack thc souls or those peasants and arlisans or Ithe parts of the diocese close to the Mediterranean coast! '" The allli-clericalislll which will win lllOn' and morc sllpporters ill Frallce during the years I H(iO-HO IIlUSt find III thcse regions c a nat ural st ronghold. ),) Onc priest of' t hc diocese was ill f~\('t alllollg those arrcsted aner the lIprising, and allot her wcnt to Paris to plead (successrully) f()r the livcs or cleven locll lIlell condelllned to dc;tth. I lo\\,(:'vcr, the Illore gellcr;lI souring or rebt iOlls het ween t he clergy and the lIIililant repuhliclIls was refleclcd ill Ihe sit ual Ion III allot her villagc, where thc priest's offer or help to the Eunilics or men who h,1(1 het'll transported, though initially f~lvourahl)' received by some, subsequellt Iy Illct wit h a conccrted reject IOll.,-,1i The Elct that all open rejectioll ortl\(' Catholic Elith was spreadillg alllong convillced republicans in t he I H!iOs was indicated hy the li\('t that 'civic' (i.e. purely sccular) fillleraIs lirst bccame comm~~.n among French political exiles ill Brusscls durillg the I H!iOs.'" In the repressive climate or France In t he I H!iOs and carly I H()Os, direct attacks on the Catholic church or bith were rebtivcly rare, Ihough attacks ora Illore suhtle kind were much mOlT IlUIIHTOUS. Ilowe\'Cr, the political opening or the last years or thc Second Empirc, hetween i H(i7 and I H70, was accompanied hy a large outpouring or anti-clerical sClltiment, which Illade il dear how IiiI' the break with Catholicism had gone ,IllH)]]g those Oil the political Leli.'iX Anliclericalism was not necessarily irreligious. The critics or the church included a small but inlluclltial group or Protestallts anei a Iargcr Illllnl)('r or what were terllled 'spiritualists' - Illostly ex-{ :atholics who rejected the institution and man)' orits doctrines, hilt retained a helier in Cod, onen all at tachlllellt to somc kind or undognlat ic Christianily, and a rejection or materialislli. HowevC!', there was hy now a Iargc c1cment or athcists, agnostics and sceptics on thc LelL c alld thc public Iallguage or thc Lcn was very largely secular. ,!) Under the Third Republic, religioll would constitute the most fundalllcntal line of division het ween Len alld Right, not ollly hccause or the vcry dilI<'?lTnt religious policies 1~lvourcd by the two sides, hut also becausc of a difkrence or language. While the Left just ified lis poliCies in purely secular terms (admit tcdly onen enli\,('IH:,d hy anti-clerical rhetOl'ic), the RighI readily used religious Ianguagc, and,iustiliccI its policies by rckrcncc to the teachings or
,1,1 the church. This laller tendency was at a high point in the era of the 'Moral Order' in the Illid-l H70s, when devoutly Catholic aristocrats were in the je)rcfront of politics. the restoration oflhe Bourbons still seemed to be a possibility. and French dekal in the war against Prussia was widely seen as a divine punishillent le)r national sins.lill But appeals to religion remained a staple of right-wing rhetoric, onen bCC
IRIH
Protestant Liberalism heing especially to the 1()I'e in south-west (:crman)" while secular l(lrmS predominated in North (;ermany. The secular {C)j'I1lS of Liheralism otien directed their attacks primarily at Roman Catholicism. while being more tolerant or Protestantism, at least in its liberall(mlls. Bllt even where not explicitly anti-religiolls, t.he (;erman Liberalism or t his period was predominautly expressed in non-religious terms. and olien combined with a critique of those {C)r111S or religion which were deemed dogmatic, authoritarian or unscientilic. For many (;('r111an Liherals the crucial authoritics. cited with as much revcrenc(' as others quoted the Bihle. were the heroes or (;ennan literat.u re. ahove all (;oet he ami SchillerYI In (;cr111an)', as in most olher parts or Europe, socialislll was strongly inlluenced by liberalism, and socialist attitlldes to religion were partly shaped by the previous history 01' relations betwecn Liherals and t he churches. ;\ typical cast' was t hat or Allgust Bebe!' who was to become the most popular leader of the Cerman Social Democrats in the later nineteenth centllry. I laving earlier helongcd to bot h Protestant and Cat holic workers' associat ions. he lost his Etith after attending classes al the Leipzig Workers' Educational Association, where he kllunder the inllllence oflllaterialist writ('l's. sllch as Biichner and \'Vundt. who were 'scientilic. modern, and artivcly concerned about the ''social question" ,,(ie) Hehel was liercely anti-( :hristian. especially ill the alierlnath of his imprisOlllllCllt between 11'172 and \ H7.ri - later he was more inclined to scc parallels hetween socialism and early Christianity. while remaining resolutely opposed to the dlllrches. Throughout the period li'om t he I H()()s to t he First World War the ct hos or (;cnnan Social Dcmocracy remaincd heavily secular. The main division was hetween thosc.likc,lohann Most in the IH7()s or Karl Liebknccht in the J!)()()s, who regarded attacks on religion and the churches as a high priority and who supported nl()\'CllH'nts of mass resignation from the churchcs and {i'OIIl the ,1ewish COmllllll1ity, and those who insisted that religion was 'a private matter'. and that the part\" should maintain a complctc neutrality on the qucstion of the truth or hlsit), or religion, while continulllg where appropriate to attack the privileges of the churchcs and thc powcr of the c1ergy.li(i Seldom in these ycars did socialist propaganda usc religious argumcnts. or claim the support or religious authorities or association with religious symbols. In the years I H~)()-!).ri a consl(\crahlc number of Protestant pastors, theologians and theology students joined the Evangelical
·Hi
.~F,<:lil..\RIS.\TI()\!
Social Congress, sct lip to discuss social problcms and proposc Protestant sohlliollS. The strong language with which somc ml'mhers of'the COllgress criticised landowners and industrialists caused alarm Oll the part or the Emperor, (:onscrv;lti\,e politicians and the church
47
IH,IK
1,\ IrESTER" ITROPE. IKIH,lqll
thread' through party literature.' In it was articulated both the mentalities of wide sections or the population, and the l11OlH)poly or the Conservatives who claillled their value-system as thclr own. ':Vhile she stresses the pragmatisl11 or the Conservatives in dealing wit h l110st <juest ions or policy, she also provides a revealing cOlllparison betwcell t.he ways in which local papers in Bielekld looked hack on the nineteenth century li'olll the vantage-point or.lanuary I ~)()O, The Conservat ive paper agreed wit II bot h the Liberals and the Social Delllocrats in celebrat ing scient ilic and technological progress and the elllergence of' Cermany as a great powcr, But only the Conservative Pany added a lengthy discussion or llloral and religious developlllents - generally evaluated in a very negat ive wa)'. IlK
Why England was Different
or
In England the political and religious history I K4K and the )'e;lrs imlllediately I()llowlng was quite dilferent. The I K,\Os and I K40s had been one or t he periods or Illost severe social and polit ical conflict in British history. At national level the Whig gove1'll1l1l'nts or I K:Hl-'\·1 and I K,\!)-,II had rcii>rllled Parliament, the Church or England, town governlllent and thc poor law in the EHT or hitter opposition li'om a large part orthe aristocracy and gentry, the urban oligarchies, the Anglican clergy and, in the latter instance, the workingclass. In the towns the rcli>rlll or municipal corporations In IK:Ei cnabled IIOtr{J('(/1I m111' industrialists to supplant old established wealth, while 111ilitallt Nonconl(H'lllists wne I)()werfully challenging thc entrcnched power ol'tl1l' Church or England. Thcn li'Oln I K:IK, Whig and "I()r)" urban and rural clites, Ill'W and old wealth, all EICl'd the challenge orChartism, a Illass 111()\'Cl11ent with its strongholds in the working-class cOlllmunities orthe industrial north, While 'I()J'ies could rely on the support or IIigh (:hurch and Evangelical Anglicans, and the Whigs were supported by most liberal Anglicans and the great majority or Dissenters, relatively kw clergy or an\' denomination WCl'e willing to declare their support li)r the Chartists.';~1 In the years or greatest political excitcl11ent in the later I :-\:\Os and early I K40s the church loyalties or many or the working class were placed under severe strain, Some Chartists retained their links with thcir churches (most commonly some hranch or Methodism) in spite or t he lack or ol'licial support; SOl11e rejccted t he churches,
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!'iO including a spell in prison in the I !)20s when Poplar council refused to pay contributions to the London County Council. LanslJtlry told the alllllOr or this sllrn~)': Religion is not a matter I()r Sunday and Monday but I()r the whole lilt,. Education cannot bc carricd on apart froJll religion. Anything ill industry or politics that conllicts with our Lord's teaching must he IT11l0V(,(1, and mcn and wonH'n must be given opportunity so to liv(, that they express in their daily life the law or love. We Lahour Iwlievl' that It is a dellial or our Lord's teaching that w(' should light each other I()r our daily bread. In I;lcl, wc helicve t hat it is t hat personal st.ruggle to get. above each ot.her which causes l1lost or the cvil in the world and consequently we arc ;d\\"ays working to substitute in place or that. struggle co-opcrat ion. Nor was the Christian rationale f()r Lansbury's socialism a ]Jurely privatc cOIl\·iction. Whcn in I !)22 the Poplar Labour Party publisl}('d a dcl"ellcc or the imprisoned councillors, they began with a qllotation from the Epistle or .lame's, ane! Lanshury himself wrote in I !)2 i l a pamphlet on./eslis ({lid 1~(/h{)lIr. Meanwhile Stanley Baldwin, as leadcr or thc COllscl"\"ativc Party. was offering an equally explicit Christian ,iustilication li)j' his politiCS or patriotism and cbss-rcconci Iia t ion. 7:",
Conclusion So ill England Christianity was still in the I 92()s 'contested territory'. But in FrallCC and (;erlll:lny the political use of the Bihle had fi)r long hecll a conscrv,lIi\"(' mOllopoly. 111 these two countries, the t.wo or threc decades li)llowing J H·IH marked an important stage in the process hy which religion ceased to provide a common language. In puhlic dehate, religious concept s, rhetoric and symbols had hecol1le r
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t hen had heen latCllt and which might not have developed in such a clear-cut way hut I()r the polarisat ion brought ahout by rcvolut Ion ,1I1d counter-revolution. In France bcli)J'c I H,IH ;lI1tl-clericalislll was certainly widespread in the bourgeoisie, bllt various f()]'IliS orChristian radicalism were also widespread. The religious standpoint or the workers and peasants was \Try varied. hut in many areas attachment to the church was still strong. Legitimism was vcry popular among the clergy. espenally in the south and west. but the I H·IOs were a period of experimcntat Ion when a wide range of ncw possihilities wcre also emerging. In (;crmany both the atheism of the Sonal Delllocrats and Illany Leli Liherals and the Christian Conservatism and Ultramontanism that triumphed alier I H·IH withill the churches had their II1tellcctual roots inlhe IH:Hls and IH'IOs. But there was no necessary path li'om the atheisl1l of Marx and Fcuerhach and thc ultra-conservatism or Ilengstcnherg and the (;crlach hrot hers to t he radical separat ion het ween t he world or the ch urch and t he world or the progrcssive hou rgcoisie and socialist worker that was so COJllmon in the years around the end or the century. As thc example or England shows. it was also possible I()r a more Iluid relationship hetwecn religion and politics to dcvelop ill the ninet('('nt h centllry.
I NS'!'ITl 'TI( )NS
2
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Under lite (/1/(/('1/ rrg:illll' , Olle of Ihe foundalions of' west European slales was religious unil),. Even ill counlries where religious minorilies had Ihe righl 10 worship in public, Ihey suff<:red civil disabililies, which were oficll vcry eXlensivc. The parish was Ihe basic unil of' educalion and poor relief', and Ihe regislralion or birlhs, marria~es and dealhs was ,tiS() in Ihe hands of' Ihe c1er~y. BlasphcnlY laws, syslellls of censorship and reslriclions on unaulhorised preaching ofkred f'urlher prolecllon 10 eSlahlished religion. Bul, in Ihe cenlury al'ler 17H!J, Ihe conkssional slalc was largely dismanlied, firsl ill France, and Ihen Illort' gradually in olher paris or weslern Europe. in France Ihe rlllnl, LUlheran and Jcwish - granling )'('ligions ri~hls 10 each, while also imposing considerable slale conlrol over Iheir org,lIlisalion and aClivily. (linlil I H!i9, olher religious groups, such as Baplisls, conlinued 10 be harassed hy Ihe police.) III England, I he mosl imporlanl chan~es came bel ween I H2H and I H·II. including Ihe granling or full polilical righls 10 Dissenlers and Ronl,1ll Cal holies (I hough Ihe Jcws only achieved full eIllancipal ion ill I H!iH), civil regisl ral ion (I hough here couples had I he righl 10 choose helwecn a religious and a civilll1arri,lge ceremony), Ihe placill~ of poor rcli(·f' under Ihe COllI 1'01 of Poor Law linions
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ralher Ihan Ihe parish, and Ihe beginnings or slale involvemenl in educal ion. In Ihe German slales, changes came more gradually, and Ihe pace or change nalur,llly varied in I he dif'(t'l'enI slales, Generally speaking, Ihe (;crman slales were f;lr ahe
After the Confessional State England, France, Germany, and olher wesl European counlries did nol move directly fl'om a confi.:'ssional slale 10 one Ihal was reli~iollSly ncul ral or mililanlly secubr. In I he middle years of' 11](' nineleenl h n~nlllry, considerahle reli~iolls rrecdolll was gcnerally allowed, and Ihe slale was cncroaching on le]Tilory previously dominaled by Ihe eSlablished dlllrch; hUI lite slale was slill regarded by Ihose ill posilions of aUlhorilY as Chrislian, one of' Ihe Chrislian conft~ssions usually slill enjoyed a privileged POSillOll, and Ihe church or churches Slill had a major role in educalioll and social welElre. The close links helwccn church and slale in bOlh France and (;crmallY in Ihe I H!iOs have already hecn descrihed. Ellgland mighl sec III 10 be oul of slep wilh ils conlinenlalneighhours, since Ihe I H!iOs were years of caulious lilwralisalioll, I Including, li)r inslance, I he admission of non-Anglicans 10 sl udy al Oxf()rcl and C:amhrid~c lilllvnsilics (I H!i·I-(i), Ihe appoinlmcnl of' officially
SF.<:II..\RIS.III():-\ IN WESTERN El 'R()PE.
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cOlllmissiolled Catholic army chaplains (1 H!lH),~ admissioll of.lews to the Iiouse or COlll1l10llS (I H!lH) and a MatrilllOnial Causes Act (1 H:17), which ended thc .Jurisdiction or church courts and Illade divorces sOlllewhat casler to ohtain. These were steps in the din~c tioll or a Illore tolcr,lllt society, ill which the existence or a considerahle degree of religious pluralism was recognised by the state, and the many religious lllinorities were gradually accorded the rights that previously were rcscl"\'cd ii)r Anglicans. While man)' or these changes were hitterly opposed hy Iligh Church Anglicans, and sOIlH'times hy most or the episcopatc':l it seems to llle wrong to equate t helll wit h sen darisat iOIl. 1 The rci()rm that provokcd 1l1ost Anglican opposit ion was the (vcry lllodest) liberalisat iOll oi" the divorce law. But this was as much an argumcnt withill the church, as all argulllcllt hetwecn ecclesiastical and secular authority. 'While Hi ... h (:llllrc1l1llclI like Cladstonc condclllned the hill as a dcnial or the'"' Christiall hasis of the cOllntry's laws, tell out oi" fiftcen hishops \'olcd fill' the bill ill the Iiouse or Lords, and the Bishop or LOlldon said that il did not go E1I' cIHlllgh. Much oi"the dehale ill I'arliamell! filcust'd on rival illtcrprctat ions of" t he relevant script 1Iral texts." The Acl, which ITlllained in f()!Te until I ~n7, was 111\1ch more limited in scopc than t he corresponding Iegislal ion in the (;crman states or. arter I HH-!. in France. since it. only allowed fi)r divorce on the grounds oj' adultcry. In any case, it would he a very one-sided view of' church-statc relations in this period that cmphasised these adjustments. whik 11eglecting the strongly Christian (and. orcourse, Protestant) character of" the British state. and the close association Iwtwcen the Church or England and the holders of" power in man)'
INSTITIITI(IN.~
In the first half" or the nineteenth cC11tury religion seems to havc played a limited mle in the British Army. Arter the Crimean War, thc government decided to maintain a permanellt corps or 111ilitary chaplains, includillg Roman Catholics and Presbyterians, as well a's Ang'licans (with Wesleyans later heing' added). The chaplallls were to be officers and alit:!' I HGO they wore unifilnlls. The big military CnGl1nplllcnts built in this period all included a laruc intenlcn()llli, '"' natl<mal chapel. and fi'om I HG4 t he religious alIiliat ion or new recruits was recorded so that they could he issued with Bihles or other religious literaturc or the appropriate kind, and required to attend t he church parades of their dcno111inat ion. Whet her the result was a 'Christ ian Army' is more doubt rul. Olive Andel son argues that the main stron'hrholds or Illilitar)! reliuion in the midb Victorian period were the Artillery and the Engineers, where olIieel'S camc ('rom a more middle-class background than in other sections or the Army, and where large numbers of civilians were cmplo),ed. And Bob Bushaway suggests that reglliar soldiers in the pre-First World War period were generally distinguished by a f;I(;t!is tic mentality and a lack or interest in rcligion. 1o In this it would seem that not much had changcd since the time or the Napoleonic Wars. What is lacking, IIO",evtT, is any evidence or inst it ut ional secularisat ion. I
Patterns of Change after 1870 The major divergences between the threc countries took place with the onset or mass politics. In England this Gill be dated fi'om the Se("()nd Rdi)}"Jn Act in I H(j7, which fi)!' the first time established a relatively broad electorate. and in France fi'om the end or tile Second Empire 111 I H70. At ahout the samc time Germany cntered a transitional stage. With manhood sum'age in c1cctio;ls to the North (;erlllan Reichstag in IH()7 and to the new imperial Reichstag III I H71. (;el"111an), was in this respect ahead or England. On the other hand. the extensive powers retained by the emperor and other (;erman rulers, together with the operation or the discl"lminator), 'three-class' voting system in state and local elections meant that the extcllt or democratisation was really more linlJted than in England or France, and that national institutions continucd to hc shaped largely fi'om above. In all three countries. de1l1ocratisat ion was associated wit h allt i-clericalism, at tacks Oil t he power of'
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collaboration bctwcen public authorities and the Illamly churchbased private charities also cOlltinucd. For instance t.he law of' 19:!2 on the wclElre or youth provided fe)r local Youth Bureaux, III which Iwo-fifihs of' the scats would be reserved f(ll' representatIves of'private charities. The prominent role of'the (;erman churches ill we\(;lre proViSloll continucd after the Secolld World War, and right up to the prescnt day, in the East as II'cll as the West. In the early I !)~)()s it was estilllat.ed that private charities were responsible fClr ()!i pCI' cellt or welElrc provision in (;ermany, and the largest of'these was the Roman Catholic C(fri/(fs.'21l The (;ennan model therdclre tended to prod lice powerf'ul rcligimls institutions, though with relatively high levels of' anti-clericalism, and low levels of' religiolls partiCIpation. The English llIodel prodllced weak instit.utions, with low levels of' anti-clericalism, and Illedillm Ievt~ls of' part icipat ion. The Frcnch llIodel prod lIced a pola risat ion bet ween ext I'emc an t i-c1ericalislll and very low levels or participatIon in somc parts or society, together wit.h a powedid Catholic subculture, which sustained a wide rallge of' alternative illstitlltions, alld was enormously inflllelltial ill certain regions and in some social milieux.
Systematic Secularisation in France When ill I H7!) the French republicalls, who already cOlltrolled the the Challlber of' Dcpllties, WOII a majority in the Senate, the rebtiollship betwecn the Catholic Chllrch and the state Illovcd to the top of'the political agcnda. "fier the llIany years in which cOllservative governments had worked halld in hand with the Catholic clergy, republicans were eager fCll' revenge. And evcn politicialls of' a llIore moderate and conciliat ory disposit iOIl rccogn iscd that the enorlllOllS social influence wielded by the Catholic Church posed a threat to the Republic's sllrviva\. III particlIlar, the thousands of' monks and 11llllS teaching in public schools were suspect cd of' training the yOllng in political cOllservatism. Many repllhlicans thought that it was dillicult, or cvell lI11possibk, fi)!' a practisillg Catholic 10 he a loyal servant or the Republic: allY Catholic who occupied a public position was therc/elre potcntially suspect. There were also questions of' religious li'eedom and civil rights at stake. Tile tics betwecll the church and public authority both at. Ilational and at local level, the presellce of' Catholic symbols in public places,
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the role or laYlllcn on the proposed cOlllmittees would undcrmine Cat.holic hierarchical principles. As Popc he was also obliged to take a global vic\\', and he believed that lwared at the chllrch doors, t he), oneil ;-, /illlnd the \I'a)' halTcd by c)'()wds orangr), parishionCl's, determined that 110 IInhclic\'(~r should lay hands on the sacred vessels or on their saints, Sometillles olliv a tol~cn resistance was orkred. Sometimes it took \'ioicllt li)l'lns. ';\nd sometimes IllOre ingeniolls /i)l'lns or del(~ncc welT devised. III Pyrenean parishes hears wcre chained to the chllrch porch, and in 'olle wcstern parish the demonstrators armed themselves with chamber pots which they emptied over the gendarmes,~'; These conrrontations had lillie practical crkct beyond kll'dening thc Pope's resolve to hc as Ilncollciliatory as possihle. Bllt they dramatically conlirmed the French Catholics' self~i1l1age as an cmbattled millority, lighting a desperate reargllanl action ;l"'ainst the li)l'('('s or evil, and their scnsc or bcing. ill Michel i"'1 q_ Lagrc(~'s words, exiles ill their 0\\'11 cOlllltry.-' For ellemies ortlH' chllrch, incillding man)' Protestants. as well as ant i-clerical Cat holies alld Freet hinkel'S. t he passing or t he law or Separat ion was an act or cleansing, li'oll1 which France cmergcd as a ,'-)
I NS'!'ITI 'TIONS
( );) '"
I'rccr and a nobler nation. The political battle caught the poplliar imaginatioll, to the extent. that it became a sllbject I()r street-singers. i\ song cllrrent in Lyon compared the clergy to snakes and to crows, complained or their line living and thclr constant demands li)r Illoney. and conclllded that il' the state stopped paying the clergy, the mllltitude or 'grey sisters, Illonks and parish priests', 'posing as victims', wOllld rapidly disappear.~H At the local level. zealous mayors olien took the secularising crusade rurther than t.he law required. The most hotly debated issue' here was the religious ncutralit), of' public space. Until IH7~) Catholic svmbols werc everywhere. Thc Catholic Ltith was intenvo\'en with lewT)' aspect or daily lik' and oj' pllblic institutions.:!~J Crosses stood in innumt')'able town squares and beside countless countr" roads. Small statucs or saints stood at street corners. Religious I;roccssiolls had an important place in the calendar or most cOll1lllunities. Celebrations in honour or thc patron salllt or the parish would involve most or the population, includillg those who seldolll wcn t t() ch urch at ot her times. St reet s were namcd alit')' saints. Crucifixes hung on the walls o/' schools, hospitals and courts or law. Most or t his, probably, was generally t.aken li)r granted. In the republican era, much that had previously been takcn li)r O'ranted be(ran to al)l)ear olknsivc, and attacks on these symbols h h or the Catholic past hecamc an elfective means by which local tlauthorit.ies could demonstrate t.heir zeal. For instance, ,n the years IH7!) to IHHI thc Paris city council was carrying through a programmc or secularisation or schools and hospitals in advance ornationallegislation. In IH~):) when conSlTvatiw' proposals t.o resacralise the hospitals were a major issue in the Paris Illllnicipal elections, horror stories abounded in papers hot hoI' Ldi and Right ahout the atrocities committed by nurses or 'thc wrong kind'.:\11 Can:assollne III I HH I was among the lirst councils to order the rell10val or all crosses and statues or saints li'olll public places. Man), local councils stopped some or all religious processions throllgh the streets. When repllblican cOllncils tried to avoid antagonising their Catholic voters, they WlTe kept up to the mark by anticlerical newspapers, which pllblicised cases or laxity, Processions could thus take on the character or political symbols. In Nantes t hey were banned in J HH I, allowed again by a Illore (:at holic council in I HHH, and banned again (this time by the prerect or the department) in 19(J:). On the latter occasion Catholics responded by staging a 'spontaneolls' march through the streets, during- which
()I
the two thousand participants were im'olvcd in lights with hostile onlookcrs.:\ I The necd to preserve public order by averting conllicts oi'this killd providcd a means orcomhinillg anti-Catholic dltTt with an ostellsible rciigious lleutrality. Somc lllllllicipalities took a lllore rrankly allti-Catholic St'IIHT. Streets named after saints were rCllallH'd alier such ant i-clerical heroes as Voltaire. I n Paris, where the erectioll ortlll' Sacr(' Co('ur hasilica durillg the 1~7()s on the top or the Blitte or I\\Olltm,lr(rt' was a striking example of the church's cOlltilluing ahility to stamp its presclHT Oil the modern cityscape. thl' lllullicipal cOlll1cil voted mOlley in I ~)()/I fell' the erection of a statuc of the Chn'alil'r de La Barre opposite the entrance to the hasilica. La Bane had hecn execlited filr sacrilege in 17(i(i and so stood bl'sidc (.~t ielUH' Dole!, excCllted Ie)]' at heism and heresy in I !"l'I(i. as a martyr of' fiTctholight. frequcntly celehrated hy repuhlicm COlliICils.: I :2 Sinct' mall)' (:;11 holics \\'('re known to he host ile to t he Republic. pract ising Cat holics could also f;lce various li)]'lllS of direct or indirect discrilllination by the state. Indirect discrimination included the law of' I~) 1:1 which cxclll(kd I hose who h,ld not been educated Ie)!' at least threc ycars at a state school [i'om ('ntry to the civil service or the of'lic('J' corps ortlll' arm)'. Since devout I\' (:atholic Eunilies tended to sl'lld thcir childrl'll to pri\'ate schools in order to escape the 'irreligious' teaching ill state schools. the cfkct was to make it evell harder fe)r practising (:atholics to cnter state employnlent. Variolls lill'ms of' direct discrimillation w('l'e alreadv in operation. The army had fi'om I !)()() kept reports on thc religiolls activities or ol'ficC]'s. with the result that practisillg Catholics were hcld hack. while Frecmasons had good prospccts of' prolllot iOIl. (;OHTlllIICllt minist ries varied in the degree to \\'bich they excluded Catholics, Imt SOllle particularly important positions. notahly that of' prCltTI, were cfkctivcly closed to practisillg Catholics from thc 1~~()s 1I1ltii the I D4()s. (III EtCt. Larkin feHlIld olle example of' a practising Catholic who was ,I preltTt Il)r scyeral mont hs in I q:\O. ):;:\ While the Third Repllhlic's programme of' scclliarisatioll was many-sided, its (Tilt re-piece was the secularisat ion of' t hc state school system. In I ~7(i-77. :\0 per cent of' the tcachers in state prim,lr)' schools \\'('re melnhers of' religious orders; by 1~)()()-7 the proportion had dropped to less than I per cent. :\1 Meanwhile the number or lay teachers had III 01'(' than douhled, and a large proportion of' them WC1,(, convillccd rcpuhlicans, onclI very hostile to the (:;Itholic (:hllrch. Fj"()m titc later I ~7()s. teacher trailling
I NSTITI 'TI( )NS
()!)
colleges llIultiplied. many of' thcm lIoted fi)!' their strongly repllhlican and anti-clerical ethos. And ('vcn whcre teachers began their career as Catholics or as religiously neutral. thc logic of' their situatioll pllshed them in an alit i-clerical direction. Oliell hitterly opposed hy t hc parish priest and hy his more de\'out parishiollers. they fellllld their keencst sllpporters amollg militant repllhlicans. Whl'l'c there was a Catholic 'private' (repuhlican t(']'minology) or 'I'ree' (Catholic terminology) school, the lay teachcr was in dinTt rivalry with the priest. Certainly in the I K~()s and still, thollgh to a diminishing extent, in suhsequcnt decades, there were teachers who wcre pious Catholics, and there wcre also those who wished to avoid any kind of' conf'rontation. But by the first decade of' the twentieth ccntury the younger gcneration of teachers was \'tTY largely madc up 01' mcn and WOlllell on the new model - to the Lel't ill politics and more or less distanced from the Catholic Church. Clearly a wide spectrum of' rcligious attitudes was rcpresented alllong these teachers. \\Thilc some were militantly ant ireligious, t here were also many who c1aimcd to have a rcligious view of' the world, while rcfilsing af'liliation to any church. But C01l11l10n to hoth groups was a lIeg;ltive \'ie\\, of' Catholicislll. This ckarly afkctcd the ways in which subjects such as history were tallght. The teacher might be of'lici;t1ly neutral in relation to prescnt-day L~vents, hut study of' such episodes as the Inquisition. the Wars of' Religion or the Revocat iOll of' t hc Edict of' Nantes prm'idec! 1c pknty of' opportunitics (ill' criticising the church's past n'cord.: , The 1110st significant
(i7
SECll.,\RISArI(}N IN \\'ESTERN E[!ROI'E, IHIH-I!II,j
INSTITl !TIONS
Illllllher of Ihe manuals approvcd fell' use in slalc schools, Some local aUlhorilies and sOllle IC;Jchers rcg-anlcd il as lllaltcr or principle 10 ig-norc such condclllnalions, and CalilOlic parcnls sOlllclilllCS responded by wilhdr;ming- Iheir children from schools where Ihe nl
teachers of the I !)OS g-eneration liltilld lIlany or thelll claimingthat the seclliar school stood lill' a 'universal morality' which transcended the particularisl1ls or the various rclig-ions.'11
()()
The Catholic Counter-Culture France thus came closer t ha n any ot her coun try in pre-I ~) 1"1 Eu rope to achieving a systelll or primary education that was (to quote the republican watchwords) 'rree, compulsory and secul'lr' and under the lirm control or the stale, There was, however, one weak link in the chain, The compulsioll to attend school did not preclude the choice ora 'private' or 'liTe' school- generally ora strong-I), Catholic character. In I H7H-79, I S per cent or primary school childrell were attellding- private schools; by 191 ~-l:l the proportIon had risen to 19 per cellt.l~ TIlliS the prohlem or 'lcs deux France' or 'lcs deux jeunesses', frequcntly lamentcd by republican orators, The secularisat ion or t he state system had certainly placed the majority or children in an environmellt that was emphatically republican and g-clL'rally non-Catholic. But it had iilrthcr emphasised thc [(:rvcntly Calholic and
/
tJ
SF< :11 ,,\RI.~"II( 1c; Ie; \1'1':,~IT,Rc; FI'Ri 11'1':. IHIH,I'lIl
amollg lis pllpils Ihe children or 'Voliaireans, vcry \\'ell knowll as SllCh', and OIl(' Ellher was reporied as 'caring no ilion' ahout Ihe religious ,Ind polillcal queslioll, whcre Ihe .Jesuil (;lilll'rs arc COllcerned, Ihall h(' 1I'(1ltid have Ihoughl about the orlhodoxy or his dcnt isl in I he case or loot kldH" ,II; But whatcver I he llIol ives wcre Ihal led llIiddle-and upper-class parenls to send Iheir children 10 a Cal holic school, t he religious atlllosplJ('re was i'requcntly catching, Inlhe upper rC;lciws or Frcnch sociely during Ihe second halrorthe nillclc'Cnl h ('('nlllr\" a (;lllliliar (iglllT was 1he dc\'oUI h· Cal holic son a sceptical Elilwr.17 llnder 'Ihe Thll'd Republic Jlhcsc schools tr,lined a rival ('Iile With ils sl]'()ngholds in the arlll)' and navy. The arllled l(lITeS recrllited huge IlIlmhers or graduates or Ihc elite (:alholic schools in Ihe I ~~()s and I ~D()s, and conlinued 10 do so C\Tn alier the [)rnrus ;\Ibir led 10 acutc repuhlican anxici Y ahout IH righi-wing iI111uen('(' in I he al'llll'd ()J'(:CS. ;\s nlon.' anclnlolT posilions oi'orticial authorily passed 10 mililani republicans, C;1I holics hil hack hy hnilding an l'xtensi\'l' network oi' disl inCI i\'l'ly ( :al holic inst ilullons. In ('\'er), sphere where Ihe repuhlicans h;ld ,Ill illlporiant prescnce, Ihe Calholics had a COUllttTorganisalion. 'Bad IH'\\'Spapers' had unquestionably playcd a Illajor part in the dnelopmcnt or ani i-ckricd propag;lllda li'om the 1~()()s and I ~7()s. l'arisi;ln papers like I,{' MIIIIII and rl' .1 011 1'1111/ had a nalional inl1l\('IH,(,. But even 1ll0lT widely rcad were regional papns, like rll [)i;/JPi'lil' til' 'Jim/ollsi', alld the IlIlIltitllde or local papers. Calholics responded 10 the Ihreat hy est,lhiishlllg Iheir own popular papers. 'The lillie is past: dcdarnl the Archbishop or RCllncs in I~)()~, 'l(lr hllilding churches alld decorating altars; the IIrgellt 1l1,Itter 11011' is 10 ('over Ihe coulliry \I'ilh llcwspapers which will leach it the truth Ollce again:I~1 This \I'as the era or the pricsljournalist. Ill' whom the protot ype had beell Fr. Vincent de Paul Baillv, edilor Ill' tite sensationalist alld IIltra-Righlist 1-11 (;)'i!I.\'. Ilis Ino\'(' soher COlll1tcrparls incillded the 'democralic priests' wito \ITote 1(11' IJJiIl'sl-i','rflll)" \I'hich hccame the leading paper ill lite lI'esl France."11 Especiallv rrolll t he I ~!)()s, I here W,IS an ellOrlllOUS groWl h or Calholic youlh clubs, which ClIl\(' 10 playa hig part ill Ihe growlh ororganiscd sport illihe years ()lIowillg. In I ~~lH a Catholic sporlillg (:dcratiol1 was (ell'llled, Ihe NiI/l'lllioll p,:mlll(/slil/III' 1'1 s/io)'IIPI' til'S /JIIlrolllll.!,"'s til' hillin' (F(;SI'F), in opposilion 10 the well-eslahlished {'1II011 tI!'s .\·iIlHI,;s ./iWI(,'I/I.\('S de .1/10)'1 (/lhli;liljlli' (lISFSA), Ihe ethlls or which was SCCII as rqHlhlican. Repllblican sport was mainly
or
or
1c;STITI "1'1 (lc;S
or
organised ill conncctioll with the secular school. Associalions le)rlllcr pupils, known as '1,1'.1 Pel iII's AIiI/CltI!'S', were ()rmcc\,c>I and in many places there was the 1~lIniliar phenomcnon o\' two rival organisaliolls, more or less indistinguishable in what they actually did, bUI onc catcring (e)r Catholics and Ihe olher (ill' those detachec\ rrom the church. The rapid growlh or Calholic sporls c1llhs ill Ihis period call sed SOIllC anxicly to gOHT11IIlcnt ortiCials, who saw IhcllI as a major sourcc or supporl I()r the dlllrch/'~ cven in SOll1C areas where il was othcrwise weak, sllch as the rural regions SlllToulHling I'aris,'-':" Sport ing success enahled Cal holics 10 win symholic victories e\'('n at the nlOlllcnt orrcpuhlican political trillmph. in 1~)()!i, while t he law or Separat ion was in prcparal ion, I he Cat holic soccer challlpions or France, f:toile sportive des Dcux-Lacs, Illet (;allia Club, champions orlhe sccular league. 'The match was played in a climate orpassioll' and whcn Ihc Catholics won ~-I, Ihe victor), was greeted hv Ihe Catholic papCl's as an event or hoth political and spiritu;d c s;'gni(ic
The Slowness of Institutional Secularisation in Germany and England AI lirst sight Ihe attack onlhe Calholic Church pursued hy Bisnlarck hetwe('n I ~71 and 1~7~, the so-called /\'11//11 rlw 1I1f!! , has lIluch in
70
.~ECII.,\RI.~.\TI()N
IN WESTERN HIROI'E. IH·IH-I'Il·1
common with the attack on the Catholic Chllrch by the French repllblicans. no III hoth caSt'S the religiolls orders were a particlllar target. For instance, the Jesuit Law or I H72 (which applied to the whole (;erlllan Empire) expelled all f()reign Jesuits. and placed sllch extensivc restrictions on Ccrman Jesllits as to make most or the Society's work impossihle. In Prussia. the schools were an important hattlegrollnd. with (:atholic and Protestant schools heing f()rced to nlcrge and cleric,\! school inspectors heing replaced hy proressional edllcators. Money was IIsed as a weapon too. with manv Catholic clngy heing denied their salaries. The introdllction or civil registration. with only the civil marriage ceremony being legally valid. placed (;cl'lnan), in line with the long-standing French practice. In SOlllC rcspects Bismarck's methods wcre lllore hrlltal than those or his Frcnch cOllnterparts. For instance, there was the notoriolls casc or thc apparitions or the Virgin Mary at the Saarland village or Marpingen. Within a very short t.imc largc cl'Owds or pilgrims were arriving at the village. This so worried t hc "rllssian go\'(~rnlllcnt that troops were sent to OCCIIPY Marpingcn. and somc twenty villagers. inclllding the priest., wcre pllt on trial.l;1 Morc gcnerally, fivc bishops. as wcll as large nllmbers or priests and lay Catholics were imprisoned. the Catholic press was constantly harassed and Catholics who were state ofIicials fi'elIul'ntl)' suf'f(';Td disl11issal. li :! j\ttacks on the Catholic Church. in (;erlnany as l1luch in France. had the dli.xt or pushing Catholics into organising. dcveloping a stronger I'slml til' (,(II/IS. and often a ghetto Illentality. \:Vhen. however. onl' looks at the objectives of' Bismarck's policy, as opposed to t.he Illethods he used. it hecomes clear that they were 1l1llCh III OJ'(' limited than those or the French republicans in the years f()llml'ing. Bismarck's policies had nlllCh Illore or an ad //11(' character. and t hey were driven largcly hy polit ical concerns, rat her than the much Illore \I'ide-ranging recasting of' society that was proposcd hy French anti-clCl'icals. (Certainly sOllle or the Liheral supporters orthe 1\1I/11lr/:(IIIIIJ/, had ideas nlllch closcr to those orthc French anti-clericals, hllt they never had a determining inflllcnce on policy./;:I For instance, in tilt: crllci;!llllatter orthe role orreligion III educat ion. t herc was nevCl' any suggestion that t he Cat holic Elit h would ccas(' to 1)(' tallght in the schools; and cv('n the policy or setting up illt('l'-conkssional schools proved to he vcry shortIived. I ;1 Nor was there an)' cllllpaign to secularist' hospitals, or pull down crucifixes. 1\nd with the halting of'thc governlllent attack
INSTITI;TI()NS
71
in I H7H, and its abandonlllent in lHH7, the Catholic Church was fiTe to rebuild it.s institutional strength. The biggest battleground between the seculariscrs and the challlpions orthe Christian State in the ninctecnth century was generally education. The solutions adopted in England and in the (;ennan states resembled those scen in France in so Eu' as the state was in Germany. and increasingly hecame in England, t he dominant voice. But they difIcred /i'om France in so Elr as religion relllained an essential ingredient or t.he English and Cerman systellls or publicly filllded educatioll. and the role of' the various religious denominations also remained important. In England the major tuming-point in the evolution or elementary education was the Education Act of' I H70. which institllled the 'Dual System' that has characterised the English school system evcr since.l;c) This consists or the co-existence or religiously ncutral schools, supported largely or entirely from public filllds. and denominational schools. supported partly fi'om public runds. The Dual ~)ystem was a cOlllpromise. which at first was bitterly opposed fi'om a variety or conflicting standpoints by important sections or public opinion. Many Anglicans argued that educat ion neecled to have a consistent religious basis and that it should socialise children into membership or a specific religious community, since religioll could not be practised in isolation. They thcre/(»)'e wanted a COlltinuation or the older systelll whereby most elementary schooling was provided by churches or church-based educational societies. assisted by government grants. Their solution to the prohlem that there were Elr too kw such schools to educate all the nation's childrcn was sim ply to increase t he size or t he grants. In t he I H;iOs and early I K(iOs most Nonconf()]'Inists had been 'VoluntarYIsts', who opposed any fi.)l'll1 of state intervention (wInch. in their view. usually bvourcd t he Anglicans). and argued that t he provision of'schools should be left entirely to voluntary cfI()rts. However. hy the later I HGOs large llllmbers or Nonconf()rmists had cOllie to realise the impracticability or this method. By now there were many Nonconf(ll'll1ists supporting the National Education League. which campaigned f()r a cOlllprehensive system of liTc and lion-sectarian publicly runded schools. Nonconf()]'Inists were. however. divided hetween those who thought that such schools should provide religious teaching or an undenominational character. and those who wanted these schools to be entirely secular. leaving religiolls teaching to the churches. The latter position was naturally also El\'oured
7'2
SEct I,,\RIS.\TI():\ 1,\ \\'I'Sn:RN H'ROI'L, lXIX-I'll I
I NSTITI ''I'I< lNS
by Ihe SCClilarisls, as well as by a seclion or Ihe liberal inlelligclllsia and by Ihe Tradcs Ullioll (:ongrcss, The Educalion :\cl is a good example Or;l compromisc which al lirsilipsel almosl everY0]1e, bill, sillce il orkred somelhing 10 almosl c,,('nOlle, camc in Ihc elld 10 bc gcncrally acceplcd. II llpsel Ihe Anglicalls hy eSlahlishing School Boards, alii horiscd 10 sci lip nonseclarian schools sllpporled li'om local laxalion. II llpsel Nonconli)l"lllisis alld Secillarisis hy sial ing I hal I hese Board Schools wOllld supplemenl, 1';1111('1' I han replan .. I he dcnolll inal ional schools, and Ihal dC]101ninalional schools wOllld conlinlle 10 receive slale granls. II II pSCI Sccularisls and sonH' N oncon rorlllislS by pcrmill ing I hc ncw schools 10 provide religiolls leaching, provided Ihey did nol leach Ihe I<>rlnularics or any specilic denominalion. AI Ihe same lillle il defused crilicism slighlly hy inlrodllcing a 'Conscience (:lallse' permilling parenls 10 wilhdraw Iheir childrcn li'mn religiolls illsl1'llClion. In Ihe I H70s a kw School Boards, such as Ihal in Birmillghall1, Ihe principal slronghold of Ihe Nalional Educalionall ,('ague, did decide Ihal Ihe leaching would be purely secular. Blli Ihis dccision was O\'Crlurncd in I H7!) and was nevcr rcinslaled. Ikliln' long Ihe ()\'('J'wlwlming majorily or School Boards were providillg religious leaching, Ihollgh il varied considerably in scale and conlcnl. '1\1'0 or Ihe largcsi Boards, Ihose or Birmingham and iVIanclH'sler, slood al opposile ('xln'mcs. Birmingham, rrom I H7~) 10 I ~)O(), provided only Bihle-rc;l(ling, wilh no comnlcnls or explanalions hy Ihe leac1wr heing allowed. IVLlI1chcsler provided liliy minulcs a day or religiolls leaching, wilh a syllablls claimed hy one Anglican obSCl'\'cr 10 Iw more dahoralc Ihan I he onc opeLl1 ing in chul'ch schools. lili The compromise posilion, adopled in London and Leeds, was 10 hase Ihe lessons I'ound Ihe reading of' Ihe Bible, supplenlCnlcd by 'sllch explanalions and such inslrllclion Ihel'crrom in Ihc principles Or~lIOl'alil)' and religion as al'e suiled 10 Ihe cap;lcily or I he childrcn',I>! Some hislorians have seen Ihe Educalion Acl as a major Slcp lowards seClilarisaliOiI. For inslance, ,Jcf'rrc)' Cox sees il as Ihe lirsl slage in Ihe direclion or a Wcllill'C Siale, in which Ihe chllrches wOllld he marg-inalised by I he all-embracillg role or cenlral and local go"el'lllllcni as pro"iders or knowledge and heal! h care and relic"ers or po\'Crly,liS For K, D. Wa1<1, Ihe old syslcm or Nallonal and Brilish Schools had played a key role ill socialising childrell inlo a sociel y where dcnom inal ional idenl il y was lillldamcnial. and nearly e"cryonc helonged 10 Ihc chun:h camp or Ihe chapel camp,
which in Ilirn provided an essenlial pari of'lh(' basis Ic)r Ihe conflici helwecn Conscl'\'alive and Liberal. Childrcn growing lip ill Board Schools, according to Wald, had no sllch slrongly defincd denominalional idenlily, and so were ripe lill' inlcgr
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,WCIIIARIS,\TION IN \I'ESTERN Jo:l!IWI'E, IH,JH-l!lIl
by prokssiollal inspcctors wit h a background in edllGI-
lion. Predictahly, he won the cilthusiastic support or Liberal city c{)ll.ncils aJ1(~ pl'Ovokcd lierce Catholic opposition. including mass rallieS orgal1lscd bv the Cellt re Part y. By I H7Ci, however, he was also fi\cing considerahle opposition rrom Protestants. and that was to pl'Ovca decisive hctol' ill the Llilurc or Fan~'s prograllllllc. H!) Conservative Protestallts wcre worried hy the dilution or conkssional conscious}]csS ill mixed schools, especially ill areas where most or the teachers and pllpils werc Catholics. Frolll I H7~) until the 1;111 or the lIlonarchy the J>rtlssian Millistry or Educatioll alld Religioll was gellerally held by ConsCl'vatives orstrongly Protestant background. They wert' all wedded to the principle that e1emcntar\, schooling should have a cOIl/(:ssiollal basis. ,md while they al~l'ays put Protestant illterests lirst, they wcre gencrally more cOllciliato}'\' towards the Catholics th,ln Falk had been. Thc\' insisted on th~~ intcr-collkssiollal school only in I'olish-speakill~ areas, where it was used as an inst l'lll1lcnt or (;ermallisat ion. In t he west. many schools were rcconrcssionaliscd, and there was a considerabl~~ incr~~asc il.1 the. proportion or<:alholic schools which were inspccted by Cathoitc prll'sts. [n 1DOG, D!) per ccnt or Protestant childrcn and 91yer ccnt or Catholic children. though only '27 per cent orJewish dnldrcn, were heIng taught in schools or their own con/('ssion.!)() The teaching prokssion became increasingly highly-organised and \'ocal aller the li)}'Ination in I H71 or a national teachers' union (nelllsch!'1' Ulm:J'1l('l'l'ill), which tcnded to be Lell Liberal ill politics, though by the .ca.rly twentieth ccntury it also included a significant dell1ent 01 SOCialists. The l.iherals also t hOlIQht the c1e},
or
or
I NSTlTIITl< lNS
79
scclll,ir system - bllt OrCOllrSe ulltil alier I~)JH they had no possihility or pllt t ing any or t heir ideas illto pract icc. and t he main Cnt'ct or the growing socialist strength was to pllsh the other pal'lies into closing ranks against them. Meanwhile, Conservativcs (most or whom were Protestant) and members or t he Cat holic Ccnt rc Part y remaincd linnly wedded to the conkssional principle. Both belicvcd that religion must be at the core or the system or popular education. Personal religiOUS cOllviction certainly played a part in this. Conscn'ative politicians and higher state onicials included in their ranks considerable nllmlwrs or Pietists, who believed that education must conlribute to the salvation or the so1l1 as much as to the w('IElre or the state. and that the two kinds of' consideration were quite compatible. Similar convictions inllucnced many memhers or the Centre Party, not least those who wcre priests, though equally impol'lant in inllucncing Catholics was suspicion or the state and a strong sense or cOIl/('ssional identity. Conservatives, lilr their part, regardless or personal religious convictions, believed that religion provided t he best lillll1dat ion Ii)}' the incukat ion or pat riot ism, industry and respect lilr authority. The Emperor Wilhelm II spoke lilr many when, in 1HH~), he declared: The prime object orthe schools will he to lay the liHlndations Ii)}' a sound com prehension or bot h civic and social relat ions by cherishing revcrence lilr (;od and love lilr the Eltherland.,. ,'rhe school must endeavour to create in the young the conviction titat t he teachings or social dell10cracy cont radict not only I he divine commands and Christian morals, but are, moreover. impractical and. in their consequences, destructivc alike to the individual and , q'J the COmmlll1lt)'.·Oil the eve or the First "Vorlel War, the conlt~ssi()nal school still dominated (;erman c1ementary education. Only in Baden and Ilesse-[}armstadt was the inter-c(!I1kssional school wi(icsprca(I.!J:; Admiltedly the criticisms or I.iberals. Social Democrats and the teachers tlH'l11sclves highlighted the enormous gap between lhe views or I hose who governed (;enllany and a conSiderable proportIOn or those whol11 they ruled. In the Weimar Republic the tables would be at least partly tlll'lled. Bllt IIntil then, power in the (;erman states remaincd in the hands or those who regarded consenat ive iilrrns or religion as an essent ial basis lilr the maintenancc or the existing social order.
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IN \\TSTERN El'ROI'E, IR'IH-I'II,I
alicn prcsenccs, howevcr sincercly pat riot ic individual (:atholics 11I1 and .Jews mi)!;ht be. And I(Hlrthl)" or course, Protestant pastors shared a considerable part or t he values and ways or thin king or the educatcd hourgeois milieu li'olll which they callie, and equally they naturally chosc to prcach (:hristianity to their contelllporaries in a languagc which the)' understood and in terms or cOllcepts to which t hey could relate. For all these reasons, religion and nat ionalislll were not always clearly distinguishahle in the (;crmany or the latn nineteenth century. For instance Kuhlcmann notes that a handhook Ii)!' teachers used in cast Westphalia arollnd I !)()O 'spoke or Christi,lIIit)' and the (;('J'llIans (fJi?II/SI'IitIlI/l) in the same breath', and claimed that the Christian duty to love one's neighhour reklTed abovc all to one's duty to love those speaking the same language and belonging to tlte same race. From the I HHOs it was cOlllmon to hang lil(~-size portraits or national heroes on the school walls, and the ligures chosen typically included t hc cmperor, Bismarck, Bliicher, Moltke and Lllthcr.I()~ The other exaillple, which I shall consider more bric/ly, is a quotation, cited hy Ilumphrics, /i'om an interview with Florence l'vlllllcn, a Bristoll;lCtory worker and hOllsewik, horn in I H!l9: The best thing abollt school in them days was that they taught you right li'olll wrollg. They tallght liS we were the best natiol1 in rhe world and ll1ust live up to it.. vVe Illustn't calise allY trouble or o' wrol1 r1 O' bring on the U)\ll1tr)', ( dis[!race •, _ because ir we did an)1thin ,-, wc shollld dis)!;race not just ollrselves hut the nat ion. IIJ:I 'nl interpret this statcment with any conlidence, one wOllld nced to put it in the context or the rest ortlw intervicw, and one might also wallt.to kno", more both abollt the school and abollt the interviewee herself. But what is immediately striking is that patriotism is apparent Iy being IIsed as a Sll pport li)r Illoralit y - rat her as t he I(~ar or God was often IIsed. One might sllggest that this represents a seclllarisation or morality - bllt it might equally he seen as a more religiolls conception or patriotism - the greatness of the nation Iyin)!; not in the eX!ent or its conqucsts hilt in the llloral qllality or its citizens. And what arc tlte origins or the concepts or 'right' and 'wrong' which Florence Mullcn regards as the essence or education? It is unlikely that t hey were derived li'olll cOllsiderat ion or t he empire more probable that they ;mlSC Ollt or sOllie li)rm or religion or hllmanism. In this case it would seem that the rhetoric IS patriotic,
INSTIT1IT[ONS
hut that the primary concern is lI10ral or religious. In Elct these concerns were often so tightly intcrll1eshecl at this time that it is difficult, and possibly misleading, to separatc thel1l. vVltereas in France, the secularisation or the state ran ahead or the secularisation or everyday lire, in England, and evcn lllore in Cennany, the reverse was truC'. The tendency I(lr law to lag 1~lr hehind practice in matters or religion and morality, except where radical politICians arc able to l(lITe the pacc, is well illllstrated 11l by the history or sabbatarian lc)!;islation. ! In nineteenth-century England the )!;reatest symhol or national piety was the 'English Sunday'. Up to ahout the I H!)()s the law was strug)!;ling to keep pace with the rising tide or sabhatarian opinion. But by I H(j(), whcn puhlic support I(lr such legislation was at its highest pOlllt, there was an extensive hody of laws and by-laws on Sunday tradin)!; and entertainment and on the Sunday opcning or pubs, emphasisin)!; thc set-apart ness or 'the Lord's Day', and olfering a st
or
II
I NSTITIITI< INS
It nceds 10 he eillphasised, Ihough, thai puhlic opinion was a long way ;dW,ld of I he law. I'rivale golf courses opened on Sundays long Iwf(l],(' puhlic golr courses. Municipal parks usually halliled Sunday sport at least 1lIllii the I !):!()s, ami in the Nonco!lf(lrlllISI stronghold or Northampton, Ihe council voted overwhelminglv in 19;):Z to rcaflirlll the han. llll ; II was onl" in 19;):Z that Sunday cinema shows w('re legalised t hough in SOIllC areas, such as scaside resorts, the), had fl('cn allowed hI' local councils since hcf(lrC the \Var~ throughout the int('l'-war pcri(;(\' the BIH: had a distinctive pallcrn of radio hroadclsts Oil Sundays wit h rcligious services in t he morning and c\'{~ning and serious'll1l1sic ,uHl'talks in the aficrnoon~ 1117 and or course restrictions on Sunday trading and Sunday opening of puhs \I'nl' only substant iall)' }TIllO\'cd in the 199()s. The English Sunday was one or the mosl polenl symhols or Ihe Viclorian rcligious era and ils decline has heen a very long drall'nout process. It was perhaps Ihe longesl-Iasling example ora f(JI'nl or colleclivc religious ohscrvallce recognised hy mosl or Ihc populalion. The IlClatnlncss or thc legal recognition of its declinc was parllya mattn or illntia~ parlly or the f;l('t that at any given time most icgislators came from the older generation and oficn retained rcligious alliludes and hahits which they had learnl thirty or f()rl), )'e;lrs carlin; parlly or Ihe bet Ihal many pcople liked at leasl the idca ofllll' 'quiCI Sunday', whalevcr Ihey mighl choose 10 do on Ihal dav Ihclllsel\'CS. Bul also very rclevant was the f~lct thai the period /i'(;m Ihe 1HNOs to Ihe 1:):!Os, ~I'll('n sahbalariallism was declining hut laws concerning sahbalh ohserv,lllcc ch'lll).!;ed little, was one whcn Nonconf()l'Illist jlolilical power was at ils height. The growin).!; presellce of NOll('onfi)rmists in Parliamenl, culminaling in Ihe eleclion of some :ZOO in I !)()(i, is well known. Bul cvcn lllOl'C impOl'lanl /i'om this poinl of view, sincc Sunday observance was predominanlly subjeci 10 local regubtion, was Ihe very large numbcr of' NonconI()rmist local councillors. IIlN
Conclusion One or the wcaknesses oj' those accounts of' sentiarisalion which prescnt il as an aspect of' modernisation is the tendcncy 10 sec socielics in the grip or inexorable and impersonal f()ln's, operaling largely Illdcpcndenlly of anyolle's volil ion. Ccrtaillly religious dcvclopnlCnls in the ninclecnth ccntury havc to be relaled to a
changing economic and social conlexl. Bul there was gcnerally more I hall one possible way or respolldillg to Ihese changes, and Ihe choices that pcople made stemllled alleast partly fi'om rcli).!;ious and political ideology, as welL or course, as economic inlcresls. Sccularisal ion did nol just happen: it was welcomed or aci ively prollloled by sOllle social groups, and rcscnled, or evcll rcsisled, by olhers. In expbining Ihe different nalure, cxtenl and pace or sccu brisat ion in difrerent cou nl ries olle needs to consider t he balance of' power between dif'krent social classes, polillCal parlies, or religious cOIlll11unilies. For instance, ill (;el'lnany Ihc separation or church and state, which had becn proposed by Ihe Frankrurl Parliament as long ago as I N,f!), becamc a polilical impossihility in the suhsequenl cra or reaclion, and relllained oul or Ihe queslion unlil the ElII or Ihe lllonarchy. I Jl spite of' a flun)' of' radically secularisl decrees during Ihe revolulion or l!lIN-19, Ihe balance orpowcr in Ihe Weimar Republic ensured Ihat Ihe separation or church and slate enacled in 191!l look a much gentler fill'll] Ihan in Francc. In England the ElCtthat the l1Jain opposilion to the estahlisllCd church came fi'OIll devout Nonconfi)nnisIS, rather than /i'Ol1J Secularisls, ensurcd that public bodies ;1I1d national inslilulions continucd 10 hc strongly influenced by rcligion, c"cn ir it oficn took a llOn-scclari,lIl I()rm. In t he longer tCl'lll, t he Liberal prekrence f()]' llOn-seclana n municipal and stale inslitutions wcakened Ihe public role of' Ihe churchcs, but Ihc inlroduction or such institutions was warmly prollloled by man)' Nonconf(lrmists, and was seldom accol1Jpanicd by Ihe Secularist ideology that was so prol1Jinenl in France. The next chapter willloo\;. al Ihe religious attiludes of'various seclions or the populalion, with a special cmphasis on Ihose groups which were Inosl precociolls in the rejcclion orrcligiolls helierand praclicc, alld in sllpporting sleps towards secularisalion.
TilE I'ACE-SETI'ERS
In all three countries S01lle social groups were precocious in their alicnat ion rrOln religious inst it ut ions, in t heir adopt ion or irreligious ideas or their prolllOtion or secularising tcndellcies in society. Anstocrats were gellerally close to their church, and what.ever thell' personal cOllvictiolls Illight havchecn, seldom supported seCldansing measures. 1 The urhan working cbss were generally th~~ ).!;roup most alienated from the church, though they vaned III their opcnness to irreligious ideas and their attitude to sendarisill).!; policies. The position or other groilps. such as the prol'cssional ,Ind Imslll,csS classes. the lower middle class, the peasantry or the rural worklll).!; class was more varied, both hetween countrics and olicn within count ries, The rest or t his chapter will look ,It those ).!;roups which played a si).!;nificant p,lrt ill ,1<"'al1cing secularisation in one or more or these cOlllltries,
The Socially Marginal III January I));',)) Edward Derrington. a miSSionary attached to Carr's Lane Independent Church. was gOIll).!; door to door In a poor dist rict or cent ral Birmingham. preaching t hc Calvinist ).!;ospcl to anYOlle who would listen. and trying to persuade people to attend a missioll, Ill' recorded in his journal the conversations that ensued, SOllie did listen with interest 'to his lIlessa).!;e. There wcre also a rew who Wl'lT already act in' llH'mbers or anot her church, and (i'icndly discllssions somctillles ensucd. For instance, he had a long- and amicahle talk with a Roman Catholic, 'thc most liberal or that denomination I had evcr met with', Some or the Catholics, and ))()
))7
rather more or those who wcrc ag-ainst all religion. got into arglllIlents with him, abused him or threatened violencc. Ilow('vcr. tW() other kinds or rcsponsc werc more COll1nlOlL SOIlIC pcople welcomed his visit, hut primarily becallsc they ((>It he could he or lise to them in a practical way, by providing ()od tickcts or helping them find work. And there were also Illany whose energies wcre cntirely taken up with thc strug-g-Ie ()r sllrvlvaL As DelTing-ton wrote: 'The anxieties or the prescnt lik so incessantly occupy and (ill the mll](1 that [preaching the g-ospeIl is like puuing more in that which is already lidl'. Another miSSionary ill 1))42 recorded a conversation with 'an elderly kmale wholll I (lIlIId at her washtub in the ('ourt where I was visiting today', When the missionary had spoken to her ahout Christ and salvation, 'she very readily replied that she kllew all these things and did them all. said her prayers every nig-ht regular., Crieved by her self-confidence and delusion, I endeavourcd", to impress Clernal thin).!;s on her unawakcned Illind when. with thc IItmost indi('((~I'Cnce, she intimated she had enough to attend to without trouhlin).!; ahollt these things and no-one had ('vcr heen to the next. world and returncd to t.ellus how things stood therc'.~ There was also a rurther dimension to this indi(krencc horn or poverty. Somc or those wiIo had becn church-g-ocrs in ll10re prosperous times had subsequelltly dropped out. Derrington met one [ulIil)' with (HII' children, a bther who W,IS unemployed and a Illother who was seriously ill. The (~lIhcr had a sitting- in a Wesleyan chapel (n' (ifteen years and had been a teacher there ()r sen'n years. 'bllt was so reduced that he cannot attend', I n a ncighbourin).!; house. the wif<: was a Wesleyan who used to attend class, bllt had been excluded when she could not keep lip her subscript ion, and the hllsband hael helong-eelto a Baptist Adult School. but len when he had to pawn his clothes.:' In a similar case, a man who had been ,I regular church-goer. gave it up becallse 'he did not want his old acquaintances talking of'his povcrty',J So there was also an clemcnt or pride in the absencc orthe poor (i'om church. The), did not want to go ir they could not dress in suitably respectable clothes and be treated as cquals by other mC!llbers or the congregatioll. The liTe scats which most English churches provided 1'01' those who could not af'f()rd a pew-rent were oftell spllrned hy those who would rather not go at all than he visihle recipients or <:haril.y.'-' The stigm'l or charity, and maybe the contamination of' close associatioll with t hose who were constantly dependent on such help. Illay also have discouraged Illany people li'O!ll attending mission chapels. Ii
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TilE m(:E-SETJ'FRS
An allon),lllolis pocm puhlished in a local paper in the (;erman textile town or Elhnfdd in I H!i:i captures this fi.:e1ing rather poignantly:
Catholicism declined as Legitimism disappeared, and as class antagonism became an essential bet of' economic and political lik. The workers seem to have remallled strongly Catholic at least lIntil the I H/IOs, The hold or the church and or Catholic Elith were reflected in the enthusiastic support f(lr the missions held dllring the Restoration and suhsequent deknce of' the mission crosses, which hecame a prime target fill' anti-clericals aficr the revollltion of' IH:Hl; the response to the cholera epidemic or IH:~/l-:i; the POPllIarity or Catholic processions; and the links between the church and sllch trade orgalllsat ions as t he fishermen's corporat iOll, In the 1H40s and 1H:iOs all this began to change, In those two decades the population more than douhlcd as a reslllt or massive immigration, and rates or Catholic practice hegan to drop rapidly. In these Illiddle years or the century there seems to have been a tripartilc division or the city's working class, Local traditions seem to ha\'e survived hest in the older districts, alllOllg workers hol'll in Marseilles, spe;dzing I'rovell(:al and belonging to certain exclusivc lrades where cmployment was orten hereditary, including dockers and fishermcn belonging to thcir own corporations and a variety or port-based artisans, The working-class radicalislll, which first bccame a significant (;lCl()l' between IH'IH and IH:iI, had its basis among artisans, es]>eciallv building workers, horn outside the cit\', rVlcan~vhilc, the many un~killed in;migrants, drawn especially rroJ;l Italy, remained remote both rrom the church and fi'om radicalislll, Isolated hv \;1l1l!U;Hl'C, bv Ion!.!: hours orJahour orten includin!.!: Sunday, by fi'equent moves in search or work, and often hI' se\,CIT po\'erty, they remained in the first generation a group apart. The decline of' Catholic practice in these years afli.:cted all areas of' the city, but it was in the poorest districts that the drop was sharpest. In the long nlll, the old-established local working class was afkctcd too, So all sections or the working class ill Marseilles fiHlnd their rebt ionship wit h t he Cat holic Ch urch placed under st rain in the middle and later years orthe nineteenth century, For SOllle, thollgh by no means all, this was associated with gl'OWillg political radicalism, I shall return to this radicalislll ill a later part or this chapter, 'It) whal ('xtent this lack of'involvement in the church was associated with atheism or agnosticism is harder to say. There is certainly plenlY orcvidence that poverty and deprivation cOllld lead to resentment towards (:od, and a cynICal attitude towards idealists and activists or all kinds, whether religious, political or simply Illlmanitarian,:111 On the olher hand, church charities could pia),
IfII' titlllint tll'lI 1/1'11/('11 MIIIIII /I/s Iimtln lIoC/i III/ (;o/l1'.l11111IS: f)oc/i sr/iliejlt iltr /IIit tin /ii/dllllp; /ill/III (;/1'1111 "(II)}' tin 'Ii'ir iflll 1/I/i'(/1'/' {illS I (11/ I'll ),('11
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[In the house or Cod you still gi\'e the poor man the title or hmther: hut right in li'ollt or the door, with the spell oreducatio]), you shut him out again frolll your spiritual ('om IIII III it y, YOllr guests, your tahles and your celebrations,] The increasingly distant and orten tense relations betwecn workers and hourgeoisie made it dif1icult fill' them to worship together in the salllC church, Since lllelllbers orthe hourgeoisle orten held most of the positions or by leadership,'!.! it was generally the workers who leli - sOllletillles tojoin a difkrent chllrch, hut more olien to give lip chllrch-going altogether, In BradfiJr(1, fi)!' instance, lip to the IH:20s, man\' Nonconfi)!'mist chapels had a socially mixed membership, The'lllixing was placed under strain hy the weavers' strike or IH:2:i, and in the IH:HJs and IH,lOs it hroke down as newly rich husinesslllen came to dOlllinate many or the Baptist and Inclc]>end. "H ent chapels, Ina king t helll st l'Ongholds or the et hos or self~help,-' In Brad filnl t here were st rongl), working-class dellolll inat ions, such as the Primit ilT Met hodists, which could to sOl11e extent provide a haven filr those who kit excluded hy 111 0 l't' prosperous churches, The breach was ofiell llJ1)re sharply defined in France. where there were kw altcl'llativcs to the ROll1an Catholic Church, Marseilles ofkrs an cX;llnplc of' the connections hetween econOlllic, delllographic and political changes and the declinc or poplliar (:atlwiicisnl.:.!!l In the first half' of' the nincteenth centllry the grcat port cit y ,vas a st ronghold or Cat holicislll and Legit imism, hllt in t he second half' of' the cClltll1')' t he working class becamc increasingly alicnated fi'Olll local religiolls and political lraditions, clltting many orits tics with the church and lllo\'ing to the Lefi, Thc strength of'Catholicislll and of' Legitimism had iJeen interconnected and both depended on relationships crossing class lines: poplliar
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SF.(:t'I.:\RIS.\IION IN
II'E.~n:RN
EI'ROI'V, 10IX-I'II·1
Middle-class repuhlicans, whether Protestants, ./ews, anti-clCl'ical Catholics, or Freethinkers, shared a numher or COllll1l0n obJcctions to the contenq)()rary Catholic Church,:\!) It was very hierarchical, whereas rcpnhlicans were. ;It least in principle. comllliued to dClllOcracy and equalit)" The clergy. hishops and Popc were. at every level rrom the global to the most parochial. accused of'havlIlg 'a spirit of' dOlllination'. This was the essellce of' (;alllhetta's EllllOUS speech of' I H77. concluding: 'Clericalislll? That is the ellemy!': (;entlelllcn, if'w(' do not act quickly to resist this spirit orinvasioll. which touches c\'crything and negln:ts nothing - hccause it is fill' this reason that in Ellllilies, in workshops, ill the fields, e\'cry",hne ill Elct. the opillion, the ccrtainty has spread that ultra1ll0llLlIlISIll, clericalism, is all-powerlid to protect the material illterests ortheir clielltele - ir. I say, we do not act quickly to resist this spirit or invasion and or corruption, it will achieve its double goal or cOl}(Jltcring the state alld directing the masses. 10 So, as Camhetta dearly indicated. questions or powcr were crucially involved. The most illlportant objection to the church was that its links with reactionary old clitcs and influencc over thc peopk posed a double threat to the liheral repuhlic. And even those republicans who had somc sympathy with Catholicism ill its liberal or gallican 1()f'IllS wer(' repelled by the dominant ultramontanism or the second hall' or the ninctecnth century, both because or the Syllabus of' Errors and the dog-Illa or Papal InEtllibility, and because ot'the 'insult to the progress orscicncc' cOlltained in the claillls that miracles had takcn place at I.a Salctte and l.ourdcs,11 Though liberal repuhlicans were Etirly mlH:h agreed as to what was wrong with the contemporary (:atholic (:hurch, thcy had widely varying views as to what li)l'llis of'religion or world-view ought to take its place, The Freemasons, f()r instance, included among thcir ranks, as well as Protestants and ./ews, the two main currents or middle-class FreetllOught. the 'materialist' and the 'spiritualist', The materialists rejected all li)l'llls or supernaturalism. The), hoped to suhject all areas of'the world and orhulllan lik to scientilic analysis. In the 1H()()s materialist scientists. with their stronghold in the Paris Medical Faculty. had fillll1d themselves in conflict Oil various occasions with the university authorities or the inlf)crial governlllent. In a (,([11.1'1' d/I)hrl' or 1HGH a thesis suhmitted to the Faculty entitled 'A Medical-Physiological Study or Iluman Free-will' (which concluded
TilE IW:E-SF'ITERS
that therc was no such thing) was rejected by order of' the govcrnment.· I:! With the advent of' the Third Republic many these filrmcr rebels moved into prominent academic positions. The spiritualists. by cont rast, believed in God and the immortalit y or t he soul. Their religion was hot h universal and progressive - they rejected t.he specificities and the allegcd finality or revealed religion, At the same time. in spite or their grcat respect fill' science, they saw III oral regeneration. rather than advanclI1g scientific knowledgc, as the indispensable key to hUlllan progress, And rather than rejecting, as t he materialists did. all t he prophets or previous Elit hs. they tended to clailll thclll all as their own, II' the lIlaterialists had Zola, the spiritualists were able to call on the support oj' an even bigger name that or Victor Ilugo. Spiritualislll merged into the IllOSt liheral end or Protestalllislll where. around the end or the nineteenth century. the passionatc cOll1mitment to li'ce enquiry and liberty of' conscience had led to a drastic pruning or traditional dogma, By t he I HHOs, however, at heism was advancing wit hin the organised Frecthought 1l10Velllent, where spiritualislll was on en regarded as a survival fi'om an earlier era, How Ell' such views retained a hold on the rank and file of' anti-clerical republicans is harder to say. One small pointer to the continuing vitality orboth the Illaterialist and the spiritualist traditions within French sccularislIl is provided hy an enquiry conducted by ./acqucs and Mona ozour in the I \l()Os. They sent questionnaires to t.housands or retired prinlary school teachers, who had started teaching hel()J'(,: 1914 - the sccular proression par excellence in t he heyday or ant i-clcricalislll. When they were asked which authors had influenced thelll. by 1;11' thc 1l10st (j'cqucnt Illcntions were or Anatole France (l~) pCI' cent). Hugo (1 H per cCllt) or Zola (I!) pCI' cent) - all wntcrs noted li)r their anti-clericalism, hut or three very different kinds, Zob heing an atheist, lIugo a deist. and France heing noted Illainly fill' his ironic scepticism. The authors or the study note that the respondents f'requently reported that havlIlg been helievers in their childhood and sceptics in their young adulthood, the), had Illore recently returned to a lund or belieI', though without dogmas or fi)l'lllal practicc. They olien approved or 'religious fix'ling', while heing suspicious of' the church. Thcir views seemed close to those or the ultra-libcral Protestants or the late nlncteenth century. with their stress on the consClcnce, the infinite. and the mystery at the heart or lik,l:1
or
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10; \\'ESTERN EI'I{(lI'E, IHIH-I'lIl
In (;crlllalll" the liheral hourgeolsie cxcn:ised a wide-ranging social and cult'ural inlllH'ncc through the press, through their position in the universities, and through their role in adult cducatlon. Their political infltlclH"(, was Illuch more limited. They were an irnportant j()ln' at the local level, cspecially in city government, which they dOlllinated rrolll the I ~(j()s to the First World War. At the le\'c! Of' til(' states, alHllater ortlle Reich, they W('1"e at their peak ill the l~(i()s and 1~7()s. ;\lllollg their gre;ltest politlcalmonulllents were the 1\111111 r/!Iilllfi/i' , directed against the Catholic Church in Bavaria, Badell ;lIld t hen in Prussia, toget her wit h various nlCaSllITS cnacted aroulld the salllC tin](', designed to providc gTeater equality I)('twcell religious hodics and \\'ider ii'ccdom or religious choice fi)r the individllal. Those (;crman hOllrgcois who were actively invol\"(~d in the churchcs tended to f)(' tlwologically liheral. ll In the I ?-nos and I ~,J()s Protestant libcr,t1s \\';Inted to rree the chllrch fi'om its o"crclose tics with thc statc. The\' wanted elected parish cOllncils, c\cctcd pastors, electecl synods an'd maxlmllm rreedolll ii)r theologians to \\'rite. pastors to preach, and indi\'idllal church-members to helie\'(' as their conscicnccs led them, with a millinlul1l or direction rro II 1 ;Ji)()\'C.i:' In I ~'fH-q ideas orthis kind werc put into practice ill SOllie states, hut in the I ~!)()s tics between chllrch and state werc again close, and in most cases conservat in:s were in cont 1'01. In I H():" the Protestant Association (I)mll's/ollll'lI7 l l'1"l'lIl) was liHIIHlcd, which hecame the chier organisatioll or Protcstant liberals, (';1111paigning fill' the Illaxilllulll or doct rlnal fi'cedolll wit hin t he church anc! autonOI1lY 1(1I' each parish. Unf()rtunately fill' thclll, grcater ' ,]( I vantage. ,Iii (',onSCI"Vatlve .
TIIF 1',\CF·SFTI'FI<S
popular liheral pastors, Karl.latllO and (;ottrried Traub. IS In most areas the liherals wcre lighting an uphill bailie in these years, and thmJO"h thel'; were influential in the universities, the)' had the Sllph port of" a Iarg'c part or the press, and they had local strongholds in Berlin, Brclllcn, Baden, Oldenburg and !hc Thuringian stall's, I!! there IllIISt have bccn a strong tClllptation to givc up the fight, and accept that the church was conscrvativc territory. or course liherals had an evcl1 harder tilllc in the Catholic Church. The sccession or many liherals to join the /)1'lIlsdil!lllliolilil'll in the I RfOs naturally had the effect or strengthcning the hand of" tite ultramontancs who had the support or ROllle, a growing number or clergy, and some illlportant memhers or t he hierarchy. The dogllla or Papal InEtllihilit}', delined hI' the Vatican Council ill I H70, led to the secession or the Old Catholics, who wnc drawn mainly ii'OIIl husiness and the pro/(:ssions, and especially /i'om those who were National Liberals. Even among those middle-class Catholics who relllained loyal to Rome (the great m'lIority), there were mal1\' who were dccply unhappy with what they saw as tite ultramontane c dominance or their clllircil. ,() But WIth the onset or the /\I1III1r/WIlI/J/ (;atholic solidarity bccallle the ()\'('rridillg priority, and Ii)]' many years liheral Catholicism was a private phenomenon that seldolll limnd pllhlic cxpression. In t it is sit uat ion, religious scept icism was widespread. Thcrc was also a phenolllcnoll typical espcclally or Illen, hut also or Illan\' wonH'n in t he prosperous Illiddle class, which docs Ilot qllite Elli into an\' other catcourv what was called lillliil"rh/irh/!I'il. ThiS IS h " variously translated into English as 'irreligiousncss', which is not quite pr'ecise, or as 'unciturchlincss', which is not really an English word. Like its oppositc, /\irrlilirhkl'il, it docs not denote an\' part icular dcgree or dogmat ic helier or religious 1i..'I"vour; rat her, II rcflccts degrees or closeness to, or distance rrOIll, the church as an institution. By contrast with England wh('l"c, In the first half' or the nineteenth n:ntury, regular clllirch-going had cOllle to he secn as ;1 requirclllent or respectahility, f"rcqllent church-gOing camc to he scen in wide sections or the Protcstant bourgeoisie ill north (;crlllan\, as cvidencc or exceptional religlolls I(.'nour, and Inost ()/ien linkcd with hi! III such cllies as Berlin and Ilami>urg, as wcll as in many smaller towns, there was a large section or the educatcd middle class which was emphatically Protestant, reasollahly well I
JO()
Slicr 'I..IRIS,ITI(}N IN \\'ESTERN Et'ROPE. I HIH··I (II·'
vcrsed ill the Bible and in Protestant doctrine and history, strongly comlllitted to Christiall ethics, as they Ilnderstood thcm, bllt dcvoted to the rights or the individllal conscience, and sllspicious or anything overtly 'piolls'. This ('nlcrgcs clearly f'rom {;Ilnilla-Fricckrike Blldde's stlldy or middle-class childhoods ill England and (;ermany in the years I ~!I()-! q ]·1, hased on autobiographies, diaries or intervicws. All of' the ~] I (;ermans were hrollght lip as mClIlhcrs of' a religiolls denoillination 77 pcr cent as Protestants, I;) per cent as Catholics and I () pcr cent as Jews. Bllt while the overwhelming majority or the ElIglish 1llt'1ll()irists 1'ClllClIlhCl'ed their Elmily going to church rq.;ularly in their childhood, this was milch less common among the (;el'lnans. Thne W;IS in Elct a major confl:ssional dilkrencc in (;crmany: ()~ ]ler cent or the Catholics had heen hrollght up in c1l1lrch-going ElIllilies, hilt (:atholics were vcry milch of' a minority within the heavily Protestant Cnman middle class. Amollg the Protestant majorit)" only ~n per cent had heen hrollght c lip in chllrch-going Elmilics. ,:! The great lIlajority or Protestants had heell conlirnlt'd, ;IIHI man)' or thelll had also heen taught pravers or heard the Bihle read at home. However, there was a widespread kcling that religion was a necessary part or childhood that, ;It !e;lst I()}' lIlen, did not extelld into adllithood. In Eunilies where the childrell did go to chllrch - perhaps with their Illother, grandlllOther, older sistcr or a servant - Either would olien be in his st.udy working.":; In accounts or the Illentality or the IIII/(irrhfirh (;el'll1an hourgcois around the end or the ninetecnth c('ntll1'\', one gets the sense that religion was sccn as a sllitable conccrn I(lr WOlllcn, childrcn, aristocrats, and Illellllwrs or the lower c1asscs, who either had tillle on their hands or whose work W;IS or an intellect llally undclllanding kind, whereas t he work or t he bllsinesslllan, proksslOnal man or academic leli no tilllc I()}' lllore frivolous concerns. and cOllld indecci Ill' seen as a highcr I()rm or religion. Note, I()}' instance. the stress on work in Nietzsche's COIl1llH'nts on middle-class religious inciifkrcllcc in I ~~(). He stated that religious indilfere11c(' W;IS typical of t he great lllajorit yoI' (;erll1an Protestants in the lIliddle classes, cSlll'cially in the great inciustriolls centres of trade and C0111lllenT, and or the great majority or industrious scholars and the whole lIniversity population, exccpt lill' the theologians, whose existCllce anci possihilit)' t hcre providcs cvcr li'csh puzzles I()!' the
'1'111-:
I'.\CI-:·Sl-:T IERS
101
psychologists to solve ... , They arc no enemics of religiolls CllStoms; irthcsc arc reqllired, lilr instance by t.he state, they do what is needecl, as one cloes so many things - with a patient. anclmocicst earnestness and withullt Illuch curiosity or unease.,,·1 Max vVdwr, in his Ell1lOllS lecture on 'Science as a Vocation' presentcd argumcnts on somewhat similar lines. Til he a scientist was a high and testing vocation, and one that hy implication had a qllaslreligiolls qllality. How else is one to interprct. t.he almost poet ic language used by the normally soher vVeber to describe the natllre ortlw SCIentist's calling? Yct the way in which he defined the calling was one which excluded any kind or loyalty to a church."" In I ~)()~ Paul Drews, one or the academic theologians whose existence N iet zschc deplored, came to rat her si l1l ilar conclusions in h is invaluable stlldy ur I'rotestantism in Saxon),. Writing on the big cities, Drews stat.ed that: 'First orall the pupulation divides itsclrinto two great ramps: the women as a whole arc devout (jim/llll) and /uI'clilicli, hut the world or men, bllsy wit.h a thousand qllest.iolls or lik, is either completely indirrerent to rcligious qllestions, or allows itself to be as religious as custom scems to require'."I) Til be/i'O//lIIl, howcver, was not necessarily to be kll'l:h/icli. /(il'l'hliclikeil was hound up with all sorts or qllestions conccrning one's vicw or the church as an illstitution, orthe clergy in general and, speeilieally, of the kind or people who made up t he local congregat ion - and indeed one's att.itude to the state. For many stat.e oflicials going to church was seen as part or the .lob, and f(lr many aristocrats it was seen as a matter or dllt.y; in some peasant communities there were social pressllres to attend church. But I()]' thc llrban proJ('ssionai and business classes in (~ermany (unlike England) it was largely a mattn of individllal choice. Apart from the many middle-class men who wcre religiously sccptic;11 or indilfercnl. there were <juite a lot or educated middle-class women who were highly religious, bllt seldolll or ncver wcnt to church. One or t he most powerfill inst ruments (e)r spreading the opinions or the liberal bourgeoisie was the press. With the general processes or liberalisation in t he I ~(iOs t here was a great flowering or the prcss in Cennany, and especially or papers that cOll1bined a liheral approach to politics and religion. As well as nunHTOUS local papers, a nllmber sprang lip in these years, such as the nl'rlillel' T{/p/btill/, Kii/I1I.1'11i1' ZI!I/Iillp:, or FI'IiIlI!/ill'/I'I' ZI'I/i1l1g, which had a much wider readership and assllllled a powerrul role ill the shaping of'
SF<:1 I.,IRI.S,IIIO:'-J IN \\'ESTFI,N EI!ROI'E, IHIH-I')JI
TilE I',\CE-SETITRS
puhlic Opillioll, 'I)'pically the editors or these papers were mcn who had heen ill\'olvcd ill til(' re\'olut iOlls or I HI] H-~), onen sul'fi.Ting suhseqllent pcrsccllt ion. and who were licn:c <Tit ics or the conservativ(' c1elllents in (;cl'lnan society,"! Onc or the Illost widely read or all the ncw jOllrnals to appear at this time was thc Lcipzig-b;lsed [)il' (;({l'il'lll({lIlil', a weekly magazine, lilllnded in I H!),'" ,\t t he height or its popularit y in t he I H70s, it sold ;\7!).OOO copies. and reached a hllge readership with a combination or fictioll. etincatiollal articles. nllnH,],OIlS illustrations, and l1lore discreeth' presented political and religiolls comment. Its stance was typical or man)' or t he papers or t he time, and or t he large clement or middle-class opinion whose views it rellectcd and helped to shape, Its filllndn. Ernst Keil (I HI G-7H), who came rrom a Saxon middlcclass ElIlIily, was a krvellt lil)('ral and an admirer or Heinrich lIeinc. Ann spcnding nlm' Illont hs in prison Ii)!' his sat irical journalism. he concei\'(~d the idea or a paper which would a\'oid direct political or religious COl11nlcnt. hilt would spread liheral and nationalist ideas indircctly. The targets inciwlcd not only t he aristocracy and the military. hut also cons(']'vat ive li)J'lllS or religion. Keil wrote that the (;(11 'il' II III II hI' II'mIld 'cillighten the (;erl11an bourgeoisie in such a way. that it would instil in it an aversion to everv kind or church ortIH;doxy or slllwrstition and. hy edllcatintt I;COI)k fio'ht ;l"'ainst all i"l lilrms or conservat is III and rOlllant icisill', So t he fight against reaction had a religiolls and cuitllrai. as well as a political and social, dilllcnsioll. ,\t least IIntil the I ~7()s the paper was notahle fill' its posit il'e depict iOll 01'.1 eli's -.I ewish elll;\I1cipat ion was represcntat ive or the ('xtension or rreedolll, the sell~m,HIc hllsincssl11an (ofien .Iewish) was til(' ideal citizcn or tOlllorrow, and .Icwish ElIllily and hOl1le lill' was fi'cqll('ntly presented as a model. On thc other hanci. the lInlioglllatic hUIll;lIlitariallislll which they saw as the csscnce or tnit' religion ('xcluded theology, and ll1ade religiolls institutions and hierarchies suspcct. As \Vasserman comments. the sYll1bol or Christianity hCClIlH' the Christmas tree rather than the cross."s E. ;\. Rof.\m;iBler. who wrote on science lilr the (;({r/l'li/(Ilr/}(:, was also a leading nH'lllber or the workers' c\'Cning class Ill()\'ement (,lr/J('iil'l'/Jilt/IIJlP:s(!I,),I'IJ/I') set up hy Illl'mhcrs orthe liberal hourgeoisie in I H00s and I H()()s. I k had beell a deputy ;It the Franklilrt Pariialllent ill I H'fH. ,lIld he helicved that the revolution had Eliled because or superstition and the lack or scicntific knowledge. By eduelting the people, they wOllld lay the fiHlndatiolls or the lil}('ral and democratic societ), or the fillll;'C. Instead or the hymns.
catechisms and stories li'om the Old 'kstament Iean'lt in the public elementary schools, t he), would teach t he people (;elTman history, economics and modern science. This sense or hein ;..,o ' at the cuttinO'i"l edge or 'll1odernity' was c('nt ralto t he sell~il1lage of t he leaders or till' movement. Vcry ofien this 'modernity' was identilied with a specilic intepretation orscicnce as materialist, as incoll1patible with an)' kind or belier in the supernatllrai. and as pr()\'iding the tools fill' the undcrstanding or every aspect or t he universe and or human lik. While some or the leaders or the workers' edllcational mO\'elllcnt and ll1any or the popular writers on s('ience explicitly condell1ned religion. or even claimed that they were ofkring a new and hetter religion, there were also many who avoided any direct attacks, and ('''en suggested that their ideas were quite compatible with more liberal li)l-ms or religion. jjowevlT, they were openly hostile to conservative fimllS orChristianity, and especially to ultramontane Cathc olicism. ,!) The attack on the Roman Catholic Church in Prussia in t he I H70s brollght toget her t hose like Bism,lrck, whos(' mot i\'es were overwhelmingly politICal, and many middle-class Liberals who h;1(1 a Illllch more deep-seated ideological ohjcct ion to Cat holicism. /\nti-Catholicism, which in England was olien closely linked \\'ith evangelical Protestantism. was in (;erlllan), most kr\'cntly preached hy liberal Protestants and religious sceptics - and llsed by thcm as a wcal)on in their battle ;l!!'ainst the conS('I'\'atI\'e win''orthe Protesh ' tant chllrches. The most EllllOUS or all the (;erman anti-Catholics. Rlldoll'Virchow, who dllbbed the fight against the Catholic Chlll'ch the j\lI/illr/((IIIIfi/ (strllggk Ii)!' cuitllre), was a militant unbelievcr. Virchow, a prominent medical SCIentist at the University or Berlin. had beliefS very similar to man)' or his counterparts' in France, incillding a deep confidence in science and its potential to impro\'e the human condition, and bitter hostility to an),thin o . 'm)'stical' or • liC) h non-rational. Within the Protcstant churches, the main stronghold or antiCat holicism, t he Protest ant j .eague (/c'-i'{/1/p:('liscltl'l' nil 1/(1) fi)llnded in I HH(i to continue a struggle in willch the state had lost Illterest, depended on the sllpport or liberal and moderate Protestants. I.iberal Protestants and religious sceptICS shared three Illajor points in their crit ique or Cat ho\icism (and by im plicat ion. conservative limns of Protestantism). Firstly they attached fillldamental importance to the principles or li'Ccdonl and the supremacy or the individllal conscicnce. Luther's 'Here j stand, j can do no otfwr' was quoted lid I/(II/SI'(IIII. and asserted as the rllndamental basis or t rlle
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Protestantism. This meant that church lllerarchics and onicial coufessiolls were cOlldelllned. Secondly Wissel/sdlllji (science) and niMlIl/g (education) were the hasis fe)r all social prog-rcss - and indeed Ihey carried all aur;1 or the sacred. So Catholic claims COIlcerlling- visiolls of' Mary and miraculous healing-s were not only delusions - Ihey were
TilE I',\CE-SETI'ERS
105
pcoples in our century is based on the ()lllldatiol1 or relig-ious, lIloral and intellectual li'eedolll, and li)r that reason upon Protestantism',li:: Similarly, while (;erman literature was generally regarded as one or the 1()IIndations of' (;erman identity and a cornerstone of'Ccrl1lan claims to be rcg-arded as a KlllflllwllI! (people or cultllre), Lllther's Bible was reg-arded as the heginlling- of' (;erIllan literature and Catholic authors were f'requently exclucled (i'om the canon or lllarginalised wilhin it. Some of' the most. influentIal historians of' the /\u/fllrlillili/){ era, such as VOIl 'heitschke and von Sybel, presented the st rug-g-Ie against Rome as a cent ral t heme or (;ennan history, linking otherwise disparate epochs.lil In Eng-land liberalmemhers orthe middle class were as important as they were in France in the fight to rcduce the inflllence or the Established Chllrch and to bring- about a relig-iollsly neutral state. The big dilkrence is that kw or them were rclig-iolls sceptics. Though t he Brit ish Liberal Part y represented a coalit ion of'diverse religiolls 1()]'Ccs, by Ell' the most important of' these was Protestant Dissent. Cong-regationalists, Baptists, Methodists, Unitarians and Quakers - many or them very de\'out - were at the heart or the attack on rciig-ious privilcg-e and the IInion of' chllrch and state. A microcosm of'the interaction het wcen socio-cconomic and poltical-rclig-ious chang-e is of'krcd by Bradl()]'(1, the ccntre or the worsted industry, and said to be the world's Elstest-growing city in the first half' or the ninctecnth ccntury. In the period (j'Oll1 ahout I ~oo to I ~,lO the ruling oligarchy was 'Ii)ry and Anglican, drawn rrolll a combinatioll of local g-entry, prof'essionals and rcntiers descended Ii-om the successrul merchants and manul;H:t urers of' earlier g-enerations. But the I ~,Hls and I ~4()s saw the emergence or a new elite or scll~madc businessmen, who had come f'rom relatively modest lower-middle-class Etmilies, and most or whom had been born outside Bradf()]'(1. They were Liherals, most of' t.hem were Noncon()l'lnists, and many or them had received a rat her st rict religious upbring-ing-, They despised what t hey saw as an crkte and parasitic old elite and they espoused the virtues or sell~help. The most. important Institution associated with thIS new elite was Horton Lane Cong-reg-allonal Chapel, idcntilicd by J(oditschek as 'a cathedral or Nonconl()]'mity', and attended hy f
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SH:II,,\RIS.\TION IN WESTERN EflROI'E. IHIH-I'II·I
TilE I',\CE-SETI'ERS
Edwardian world of'lihcral ref()!']}]. If'a discreet and low-key agnosticisill was the prevailing- tonC', olle of' the rising- stars of' the Liberal Party, C. F, C. Masterman, was an Ang-Io-Catholic who had been strong-Iy interested in ordination. At the locallcvcl, NOllconrormists, often drawn from lowcr down the social scale than their mid-Victorian predccessors, still played a (TlH'ial role ill Liheral politics, and ill f'urtherillg- the expandillg- wle ol'local coullcils. NOllconl()l'lnist Illillisters were still among- the most influential sllpporters of' the Liberal cause. In the south London horollg-h or Lamheth, Ic)]' instance, around the turn of' the c('ntury, the Ieadcrs oftlw Prog-rcssivcs, a coalition or Liberals, Radicals and Labour, included sevcral shopkeepers, a hllilder, an undertaker, a Nonconlc)rmist minister, and SOIllC who were tcachers or local g-overnmcnt cmplo),ees. Man), of' them were Cong-reg-ationalists or Wcslcyans. 'Thesc local polit icians', writes Cox, 'looked upon Lamhet h's chapels as bases li'om which the), strug-g-Ied to promote social and political relclI'lll, to co-ordinate voluntary and govcrnmcnt act ivit y IClr the im provenlellt of' t he condit ion or Cod's su rkringpoor, and to create a more .lust and Codly society in Eng-land.'Ii~)
independellt. profession ane! the view held by many derg-y who saw the teacher as an adjunct of' the priest and responsible to him. But t.he tensions became Illll<:h more acute li'olll I H79 onwards, as repllblican governments made the secular school the key instrument in the inculcation or repuhlican val lies and loyalties. Already in the I H(}()s, when att<:;ndance at chapel was cOlllpulsory, it was said that students at the Fcole NOrlll(t/e SnjJhll'IllP in Paris 'showed a studied disrespect Ii)]' relig-ion, sh~lmbling illto chapel in slippers ' unc Ier arm.' II In the teacher training- instituWit, I I a {:opY 0 f'\'10 ItallT tions (I,'r:oles NOrlll(fles) a strongly anti-clerical ethos seems to havc developed, promoted by professors who were necessarily committed republicans, and who were olien strongly opposed to thc Catholic Church, whether fi'om a Freethinking- or rrom a Protestant point of view. Many fllture teachers seem to have lost their Catholic [;\ith while at the training college, whether under the influence of f'cllow-students, who considered it 'g-ood fC)]'In' to stand hat on head and scarlet flower in but ton-hole while religious processions passed, or of teachers, who preached the 'scientific' ideal and encourag-cd the reading of' Renan, llaeckel and 'Eline. n They olicn wt'nt out into the countryside as missionaries [c)r the republican Llith. In one Norlllan villag-e in 1909 the newly arrivcd ~() year-old teacher fClIInd herself boycotted fClr a year by sixty-onc or the sixty-three children in the village afier she rcf'used to withdraw a history textbook condelllned by the bishops. She was vcr)' proud or the LICt that she 'held up hig-h the secular and repuhlican flag-' throug-hout the year, thus becoming- a hcminc of' the seclliarists of the d<:;partmcnt, and eventually most or the children returned to schooL':; This teacher held a trump can\. since hcrs was the only school in the villag-c, but where there was also a rival (:atholic school the conflict was likely to last Illuch longer. Even where the teachers went to their schools hoping- to keep the religious peace, the local situation ofien made neutrality, let alone any kind of practising Catholicism, diflicult. In the I !)(;Os questlollnaires were sent to thousands or retired primary school teachers who had beglln teaching- hcfcllT l!l I 4. Only II per cent or those replying- to the questionnaire stated that t hey had been praet ising- (:at holies helilre I~) 14 - which was considerably below t.he proport ion in the g-ellcral populatioll. Protestants (4 per cent) were slig-htly over-represented and Freethinkers (:"~ per cent) vastly so. The great majority WCl'e to the Leli politically, with a sig-nilicant clement among them being cOlllmitted
10H
The Expert The rclig-ious radicalism or new clites [i'cquently I;\ckd as they achieved t he social st at liS and a share of' the pl'lvileg-c and power that they soug-hl, and grad lIally lllerged wit holder-established clites. Some enwrg-illg- prof(:ssions, however, [c)IInd themselves In a longer-last illg- rivalry wit h t he clergy, cit her becallsc their lields of' COl1lllCtclH,(, ovcrlappcd, or hecause of'the pretellsions ol'the cIcrg-y to reg-IIbte their activities. III the eycs of' lllallY lihcralrci()],]llCl's of' the tlte nineteenth alld early twcntieth c!.'lltllrics, the place or til(' preacher, appealing- IClr a challg-e of' heart, was to be taken by the expert - the scielltist, the medical pract it iOller, t he teacher, t he social workcr wit h specialised knowledge alld professiollal skills. In I H7,I the English scielltist Francis Caltoll had called 1'01' 'a sort or scientific prlcsthood', which would COIllC to sllperscde th!.' c1erg-y.70 Now such ideas seemed to be COIning- to rrllitlOll. Th!.' c1earcst example of'a 'nt'w priesthood' ill direct conflict \\'Ith t he old is t hat of' t h!.' teaching- prof'ession in France. There had heen a IOIlg--st anding- tCllsion bet wcen t he teachers' s('lI~p('rc(:'pt lOll as an
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SL(TI.,IRIS,ITI():\ 1:\ \\TSTERN H!ROI'I':,
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on the nccd f()j' ilnpro\'(~d sanital'\' Illeasures.;\t the time ortl1l' next majo]' epidemic ill 11E)-I, t he 11;lIlle Secretary, Lord Pallllerstoll, rejected calls fill' a national day or prayer, arguing that prayers \\'ere only appropriate after all Ilecessary medical and sanitary precautions h,](1 been t'lkell.~I:\ I Ie had the support or an illlportant scction or chllrch opinion, among which the most outspoken was the Chrisli,11l Socialist and novelisl Charles Kingslcy. Kingslcy helonged to the liberal 'Broad Church' wing or J\nglicanislll, wlllch was strollgly opposed to all altempls to divide the world illlo sacred and secular spheres, which saw the pursllit or trllth in all its dirkrent 1()\'Ins as a (;()(I-given task, and thcrcl(JI'C saw the scientist, leacher or social rel(>rIller, irlllotivated by Im'C orhulllanit)', as doing what was esscntially religlOlls work, But there were still mallY c1ergYlllell who Illteprelcd such disastcrs as Ihe had harvcsls in I H(iO al1d I H() I and Ihe caltle plague in I H()G ill theological, raliter Ihan naluraL terllls. And while the clergy did show an Incrcasing tel1del1c), to an:cpl l1atllral explanations {()j' such disastCTS, they continll('d 10 believe in the possibililY or divil1e Inlervention in response to pr'l)'er. Partlclliarly fierce coni rovers}' flared in I H71, ()n Stll](lav 10 Decelllher prayers were ordered 10 he said in /\nglical1 churches {i)r the Prince orWaics, Ihel1 seriously ill. Whel1, the {(Illowing Thursday, his condition began to impro\'(:, kading to C\,(,11tU:t1 l'Ccovcr\', this was widely see11 as an a11swer to prayer exc('pl by Ihe ll1edical prof(.'ssio11, which saw il as a triumph or modern medici11c.~) I In Fra11ce, l11cdiclljcalousy was also caused by Calholic prieslsor, Illore o{ie11, pious l
TilE I'ACL,SFTI'ERS
te1lded towards Ihe view t hat prost itul iOI1 was a ncccssary eviL al1d tl~at ils harmrul conseque11ces, such as Ihc spread or venereal
dlscases, could besl be contained by having toleraled brothels with compulsory medical inspeclions. In Englal1d, Ihinki11g or this kind lay hehi11d 1Ill' C011lagious ])iseascs Ads or I H()·I-()~) which rc')'ulaled proslitution i11 lowns with Inajor mililar)' and naval hases, ~l1d which wcrc ficrcely opposed by N011co11{ilrlllisls and k~minisls,% The grou11ds {(Ir opposition included liberaL kminist a11d religious argu111ents, but probably the most widely an:epled or Ihcse was Opposilionto any ki11d orstale recognition orproslilulion. In Fra11ce the i111 rod ucl ion or a11aest het ics caused dispute, heC
I ](j
,~H:I'I..\IU,~,\TI()N
IN WESTERN EIIJHII'E,
ISIS-I~111
the lives or ordiary people, While priests ofkred illusory miracles now or the distant hope or rewards in a lik to come, thc doctor ofkred a hetter lire here and now, The idealised figure or thc doctor as modern saint takes particularly dear shape in the novels or f:llIik Zoi;J, The hero or the 'Three Cities' trilogy, Pierrc Frolllcnt, was a priest who lost his Elith partly under the infltlctlcc or \)1' Chassaigne, The latter was 'a medical llIan or real llIerit, who, with the OIl(' ambition or ctlrlllg discase, modestly confined hilllself' to the role or practitioner', In spite or the Catholic rllral backgrotlnd fl'om which he elll I(' , he 'had not sct his fC)(lt inside a chtlrch during the le)rty years that he had heen living in Paris', The doctor was a fl'iend or Pierre's Eltlwr, a scientist, who had heen killed in :1 Iahoratory cxplosion, Through him, Pierrc rcdiscovcred his Ellher, sceing hilll :IS 'clear and gay, a worker consumed hy a longing Ie)!' lmlh, who had nevcr desircd anylhing htll the lovc and happlllcss or air. Thus 'little hy lit tie, despite himself', the light or science dawlIcd upon him, an ensemhle or proven phcnomcna, which dCl1lolislH'd dogmas and Ieli within him none or the lhings which as :1 priest he should have Iwlicvcd', Al lhe seminary he had hecn IC)},(Td to keep 'the spirit or inquiry, his thirst Ic)!' knO\\'ledgc in chcck', But now ''!'rut h was huhhling lip and overflowing in such an irresistihle strcalll that he realised lhal hc wotlld never sllccecd in lodging error in his hrain again', The associatioll or scicllcc with images or light alld or sprillgs of' pllre water, ,llId with idc,ls orhealth,jo)' and flTcdol1l, was characteristic or the sclclltilic 1;litll, and or COll]'se vcry closely paralleled lllllCh or the imagen associated wilh various Icmlls or religious /;Iith, But evcn IIIOIT signilicant was lhe allcnlpt to trump the religious IwlieHTs' acc t he lives or t he saints by showing t hat secular saints lI'erc possihlc,~I~1 ;\lld ill this en
Till,: I',\<:E,SE'ITERS
117
coulltered by an improvclllent in the trainillg givcn to nllllS, ;\nd in spite or the cxclllsions operated by secularist local authorities, sllch as Paris or Reims, the llulllhcr or lluns practising as nllrses continIH'd to increase llntil the 19:?Os, although proportionately the), sllfkred sonIC dcclinc, Catholic doctors countered the strength or seclliarism in the proression hy IClrming organisations like the So('/(;!!; MMim/1' S! IAI!', which comhined attcmpts to dclinc the Catholic view or various nwdic:t1 issues with pilgrimages, and a job-linding nctwork IClr Catholics within a proresslon where many 1Illltlcntiai figures were Frcelllasons, !\licr :1 slow start, the society h:ld ovcr :?OOO nH'llll)('rs in the I !J:)Os, hy which tillle the traditlollal mcdical antl-c1cricalislll had cOllsidnabl), abated, TillS society, aided part icularl), by the i'vIedic:d Faculty or the Catholic lInivnsity or Lille, played a big part in 1(lrll1uiating a Catholic counter-ideology to the appropriat ion or medicinc Ic))' t he cause or secularism hy propagandists stich as Zola, According 10 this (:atholic view, th~' lloll-religious doctor was likely to he a merc 'technician', whereas the (:atholic doctor was lIloti\'ated h)' Christian charity to kcll(lr the pat iellt as a person, wit h spiritual. t'mot ional and l11aterial, as well as l11edical needs,IOI The grc:lter tcnsiolls between clergy and lIledical proreSSiOll in Frallce than ill Lerman), or England llIay he partly duc to dilkrcnccs in t he social background or t he clergy, In (;erlllan), the Protestant clergy were tlnmistakably part or the educated bourgeoisie, and the great majol'lty or them had a tlniversit)' education, Though thcir st:ltus was in some ways declining in the bter nineteenth century, their social hackground was Similar to th:lt or doctors, and in man)' respects their lVay or lil(, was not vcry dil'fi.Tcnt. ((I~ I n England t he social range or t he Anglican clergy lila), havc been sonH'what greater, moving lip Inlo t hc genl rv, and down inlo the lower middle class, but most were ;In<]u~'stionably 'gentlemen',11I:I The hTnch Catholic c1crgy drew b'om lowcr down the social scale, 'I)'picall)' In the second hall' or lhe ninctecnth century they came fl'om peasant and artisan hackgrounds,lOI They had been cducated at scminary, rather than university, \Vherc a rural ;\nglican clergyman or (;crman Protestant pastor llIight naturally include the local doctor in his social circle, this was milch less likely in the case or lhe French rllral priest. The st rcngt hs and weakncsses or t hc Frcnch Cat holic c1crg'y were very dirkrcnt 11'om those or their Anglican or (;erman Protestanl counterparts,
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I" \\'FSTF..I{N F. I:ROI'F..,
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II'
I Let us make a clean break with the past. Rise lip, YOII crowd or slavcs! The world is going to change its hasis, We have heen nothing, let liS hc e\'Cn'thing"" Therc is no suprcille saviour, Ilcither (;od, nor Caesar, nor any tribunc or thc pcople, ProduClTS, let us be ollr O\\'n saviollrs, let liS legislat.e ii)r our common sal\'ation,I (Eug(~IH' Pottier, J:IIIII'/'I/(/lliJlllllt" I SS7)
or
The IlIlertlllliollllil' owed its unique popularity as the anthcm internat lonal socialism IllOlT to its rousing t UllC t hall to its oli. en lal)()ured text. But it expressed dearly enough the desire of many radicals li)r a dean hreak frolll religion of every kind, Marx in the I S . IOs had cbinll'd that the criticism of religion was the startingpoint li)r thc criticism of society,IOC, Since the most powerflll ideological underpinnings I(»' exist ing social arrangements wcre so olien religious, it is not sllrprising that political radicals were the lllOSt outspoken critics not only or the church, bllt also or religious doctrinc and rituaL In thc I S. IOs, as wc have seen, criticislll of' tIll' cxisting social ordcr was mol'(' oncn t han not expressed in a religious idiom, From t he I W)OS and I SIlOS, n~ligiously based radicalism was in sharp d(,c1ine in Francc and (;erlllany, though It rcmaincd inllucntial Ii»' longer in England, Thc I S()()s saw a major growt h of anti-clericalislll and antireligion in Francc, culminating in the evcnts of 1S7 i, The Paris Conllllllne sCll..cd pricsts as hostages, and shot twenty-lilllr of thclll, including the Archbishop or Paris, rvlgr, Darbo)" ensuring that Illost (:atholics hated the (:Ollllllunc and everything it stood Ii)!', Pope Pius IX rererrcd to the Communanls as 'dcmons escaped from hell'.l()(; The hloody repression or the COllllllune which li)llowed ensured that the Lcl't had a Ltr larger Illlllliler of martyrs, The llIass cxccut ions at the Mur des F('d(~r(~s in P(Te Lachaise
119
Cel1lctery pmvided the French Ldi wit.h its llIoSt sacred site, while thc huilding or SaC1'(~ Cocur Oil the heights of MOlllJllartre, in reparation li)r the crimes or the COmIllUI1l" was a highly Visible provocation li)r those Parisians who cared more I()!' those buricd by the wall than li)r the Illurdered priests,IOI In the decades li)lIowing, French radical cllltllre, whether in its working-class, its pet it bOllrgeois, or its int.ellectual and bohemian f()rms, was saturated with anti-clericalism, often extending to a total rejection or all religiolls bllh,IOK These tendcncies developed very rapidly li'OIn ahout I SSO alllong supporters or the republican g()\'ernment. The chllrch was seen as the principal pillar of political and social conslTvatislll, and it was therd()\'C lIIandatory li)r Radicals and Socialist.s to seck its dest rllct ion, even t hOllgh Socialists c1aillled that religiolls issues should take second place hehind social and economic issues, However, ot.hcr cOllsidcrat ions played a part bcside the purely political. In particular thc Radicals and Socialists of this time WCl'C heirs to long traditions o/'songs andjokes li)cusing Oil the wealth orthe clergy, their love of good li)()(1 and drink and, ill particular, thcir abuse or the COIlIl~sslonal in order to tyrannise and, where possiblc, seduce wOlllen,IO!) In the case or the Socialists, rejection or older religious traditions was partly based Oil the convict ion that Socialislll contained wit hin it all t hat was necessary li)r human salvation, and that anyone who retained older loyalties was trying to serve two masters, and mllst therd()re be less than whollv loyal to the Socialist cause, From the I SHOs French Freethinker~, including lIIany Socialists, were devising lIew rituals, deSigned to cut their memhers ofr li'om the old Catholic world, This t.endcncy went evell rurt.her in Germany where, especially aftcr I S~)(), an elahorate network of Social Democratic illstitlltlons and accompanyillg celebrations and rites developed, desigllcd to embrace every area of t he comrade's lik, Becoming a Social Dcmocrat. was Ilot ollly a mattcr or voting, attcllding lIIeetings, rcadillg party newspapers aile! joining a trade union, It might also inclllde marching through the streets 011 May Day, singing in a workers' choir, pedalling with a workers' cycling club, drinking ill a socialist ,.. ~ ,' I I I 0 anc I I'orm
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11Igh prolile, Even so, t here were man)' radicals in t hc period li'om the iH!)Os to the IHHOs who were also chapel-goers, ,mel in certain branches of trade unionism, notahly agriculture and mining, Nonconl()rmists had a central role, Similarly, both Secularists and NOI1(:onlilrmists were pronllncnt among the growing nlllllhc)' of' converts to socialism li'OI11 thc I HHOs onwards, Ironically the socialist I11O\'l'mcnt wcakencd both Secularism and Nonconl(lrmity: rccruits to the SOCIal Dcmocratic Federation or Indepcndcnt Labour Party olien retained their liJl'lller religious or anti-religious beliefs, but cOllcent rated their encrgies on polit ical act ivit ics, \l'it h t he result thai ' I'ormcr a 1'1 "I" t IIClr I latlon I' apsc( I or J)cC
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indcpendencc a dccisiol1 hy thc workcr to think li)r himself', and to rcjcct cI'Cry li)!'ln or dcl(Tcllce, ;\1?>~.1 cvcry kind or emotional tic to the cxploiters and their minions. _.> For large numlwrs or working-class people, all over Europe, these yc,lI's arollnd the end or the ninetccnth c('ntllry and the bcginnin~ oj' the t\\'enticth 111arked thc dawn oj' a new era of' radical chan~c. For man\" traditiol1al rcli~io11 and thc churches sccmcd at hcst an inc/cvan'cc, and at worst a major obstaclc to thc realisatio11 of' their hopes.I:!1 111 Fral1cc, rejection of' the Calholic Chl1rch was III on' or less mandalory fi)r Socialists in Ihe pre-1914 period. Thcre wcrc Frel1ch Socialisls i11c1udin~ Ihe mosl I;UllOUS or thell1 all, .Ican .Iauri::s.l:!c> as well as many Proteslants - who believed ill Cod: tile problem Iav nol in belief'. hul ill inslitl1lional loyalty, and especially in suhl1lis~ion 10 Ihe haled ('([lolll',I:!n In (;e1'111 a 11)" by contrasl, Ihnc was a significant, albeil small, minorily, of' Ihose who ma11a~cd 10 hc hoi h a loval 111('ml)('r of' chl1rch or synagogl1e and oflhc Parly. Ilo\\,cver, Ihc pressl1re OJl parly members 10 adopt thc whole socialisl \\'orld-vicw, i11c1udin~ atheism, was ~realer than in FraJlcC'. In England, the sill1ation was Iypically conf'used: cvcrv lendenc\' t hat could hc I(Hlnd in French or (;crman socialism c0I1I:1 he olJse;'vcd son1('whert' in England too, bul I here was no prevailing ort hodoxy.
Men 'Womcn are dilkr('nt beings' ('Ie.\' ./i'll/1111'S S01l1 111/11'1'.'1'), the dying Dr Barnis lells his son, Ihe hcro of' R()~('1' Mal'lin dl1 (;(1nl's novc!, I ./1'(111 n(II"111s. '.'.7 In sllccessive ~en('ralions, thc men of the Barois EUllily have bcen engaged in spiritual war/;lI'C with their wivcs, mothers and d;lIIghlcrs, and il is Ihe won1('n who seem 10 be winnin~. \)1' Barois, a lili.:long li'l'clhinkcr, has finally relenled: on his dealh-hed he has said his conf'ession, and he is aboul to invite the EUllily tojoln him in rcceiving C01nmtlllion. Thc same drama was 10 be repealed in Ihe ncxl gcncration . .Ic,m has been hrought up by his devout gr;11ldl11other, and in his youlh he is himself' ,1 practising Catholic and manics a Calholic girl. As a science tcacher in Paris he loscs his Elil h. II is marriage breaks down, since l1eil her he nor his wift.: is willing 10 compj'()mise. ,\licr bcin~ dismissed fi'OIn hisjob in a Calholic school, Barois bccomes the cditor of'a freelhinking.journaL and a Icadin~ Drcyfusard. rVlcanwhilc his dau~htcr is bcing brou~ht
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up as a Catholic in a small cOllnlry town. Whell she is eighlecn, she comcs 10 stay wilh her 1;llher in Paris . .Jean, who has nol seen her since she was a bahy, Etiis under her spell. II emergcs Ihal she wanls 10 be a nun, and Ihal thc limc spcnl with hcr nolorious ElIher is a way of leslin~ her vocation. II e,'cntually appears Ihal il is not lin Etilh hUI 111.1' Ihal is llein~ l1ndennincd. A combinalioll of' Elctors incll1din~, l10t Ieasl, an increasin~ly obsessivc awarcness or his own Illorlality, is pulling Ihe veteran liu:lhinker back lowards Ihe Catholic Church (and towards his wik), and Ihe dual influcnces of' his devoul and undol1blin~ dau~hlcr and of' a sympathelic and doubling priesl pl'Ovidc Ihe decisivc push. In his last m01llhs, Jean too bccomes a Calholic a~ain. Alier his dealh his wif(: and Ihe priesl discover Ihc Icslamcnl. wrillen some years bd()re, in which Barois had declared Ihat any dealh-bed cOI1\'Crsion was 10 be scen ,1S an aberralion and disre~arded - and Ihe novel ('nds with Ihe paper ~()in~ up in flames. The silualion describcd by Marlin du (;ani would have hccn Ellniliar 10 any of his French rcadcrs, and 10 many of' Ihosc in En~land and (;erlllany too. Thcre was gcneral agreelllcni I hal where religion was advancin~ in Ihe nineleenlh century il was W01l1en who led Ihe way, and where il was declining Ihe way W;lS led by men. vVOl1len played a cl'tlcial pari in Ihe reopening of' chun.'hes altcr Ihe Frcnch revolulionary pcrscculions in Ihe 17~)Os, and in inilialil1~ Lunily conversions during "Ihe :\mcrican Second Crcal A\\'akcnin~ 111 t hc I WZOs and I H:)()s. I_H In h;1I1cc Ihe impressive growlh in Ihe lltllnbcr of' male religious vocalions lip 10 I HHO was ovcrshadowed hy Ihe evcn Illore impressive growlh in Ihc number of' f(:111aIc vocations. I:!') Analysis of' Ihe memhership or English Nonconl()rmisl churches, which also were gmwing al Ieasl IInlil Ihe J HHOs, shows Ihal womcn chapcl-~ocrs wtTe more likely than Iheir male colleagues 10 apply f()r 1()]'Inal membership, This cnlitled Ihem 10 parlicipale in Ihe Lord's Supper, and tcndcd 10 rclIect a higher Ievcl ofcol11miln1cnt and probably a more conlidcnl l;lit h. Clive Field, who has analysed rccords of' Bapl isl and Congrc
12(i lhal mCIl were leaving al ;1 lilsler rail' lhan WOlllCIl, alld as a result a slarllillgl\' \\'ide gellder gap Oneil, opelled up. This was mosl spcclandarl), so ill sonIc regiolls or France. Alrc;ld)' ill lhe middle orlhc nillclcclllh cClllury lhen' were many rural parishes whcre 1101 a sillgle lllall rccei\'(:d COlllmllllioll. and lhe Illllllber or such parishes increased considerably durillg I he Ialer years or I hc ccntury, reaching ils highest poilll durillg the lirsl decade or the twenlielh cenlllr".I:\! This plll'nolllcnon dcvcloped lirSI ill lhc J'lIral areas SUlTOlllHlillg Paris. lhollgh Ialcr il would spread to olher arc;ls. mosl 1l01;lhly lhc CrClISc. r\lrc;ldy in ;1 pasloral letler li)r Lelll IHI~, thc Bishop or Chartres was lellillg lhc 1\'OllH'lI or his diocese: 'YOll arc almosl, al leasl ill lhc places where I\T li\'(:.lhc (:hllrch's olll" cOllsolation',J:'~ In IilCl.lhe proporlion of' 1\'OllH'n going 10 lllass or reccil'ing communioll in lhcsc areas W;IS not high eithn bUI lhey complelely oUllllllllbcrcd the Illell. In I HqH, IIH' lirsl year \\'hcn separalc ligures ii)r adults or each sex ;ll'(' al'ailahle, ~ per cenl or llH'1l and I rJ per cenl or \\'OIlH'1l ill lhe Chari res diocese receivcd COmllllll1ioll al Easler. I:,:, In more devolll dioceses 1\'Olllen were always more pracl isillg I han Il1cn. bUI IIIC (I 'Ispro]lort 'lOll was sllla II er. J',I' ' In (;crm;lll)' ;llld Ellgland the illlbalance helwcen Illale and fClllale pr;lClice \\'as Illuch less. ! Il I Hq 1-~)rJ lhe Illcdian proportion OrWOnH'n ;unong lhe cOllllllllnicanls in lhc various I'nllcsl;lnt /.({lId('sfurrh('11 \\,;IS :l:) pcr cellL Ilowcver. lhe proporlion was highesl in 11](' citics or Bt'l'lin «(i2 pcr cenl). [[alldlllrg «(i:'> per cenl) and Frallkrurl (71 per celll).,:::,'!n yin\' orlhe Elct Ihal I'rolcsl,ll1t rcligious praclice ill (;erlll,lIlY was Illuch higher ill rurallhall ill urball art';IS. this would hc consislent I\'ilh lhe pattern seen in France. In 1~)()~-:\, Ii 1 per (Tnl or worshippns al places or worship or all dellolllinatiolls in Ihe Counly or London wcre wonlen. Ihough \\'Ollll'1l I\'('re on I" ;i:\ P(T (Tn'l or lhc populalion aged liliccn and ()\'cr, The gap \\';IS widesl ;llllOng .\nglicans «(i(i per cent wOlllen) and ROlll;1Il (:all]()lics «(i,l per ccnl). but n;lrrowcr in t II(' various Noncolililrnlisl dCllolllinaliolls, For Ills1ancc, (iO pcr cenl or Baplisl worshippers \\Tre 1I'()IlH'n. 57 pcr cent or (:ongregalionalisls alld \Ycslcyans ,ll1d Oilly 5~ per cenl orQu;dzers or Primili\'(' Melhodisls. COll\Trsch', lhe (;erll1an /\'irc/iI'II(1 IIs/J'I//sli{,(l'l'p:1I liP: recruiled lllorc lllen lhan' WOlllcn - lhOlwh thc dit'f<'Tcllti;d was nol sl)('clantlar. ,-, Thus. (i~ per (Till or Ihosc kaving lhe church in Bcrlin in 1:)1;\ wcre 1ll('Il; ;1 sludy in one I'rol cst; III I parish showed lhal while mosl orlhosc le,I\'lllg WCIT Illarried couples rcsigning' logctI]('r. lhose who
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t he bourgeois womcn or Lilk remained dcvout Iy Cat holic, bCGlllSC they lived ill a world dominatcd by the tasks or giving hirth to and brIllging up children, both largely subject to Elctors beyond hUlllan control. Their hushallds, l\()wcv(T, whosc lire was dOlllinated by the highly mcchanised textiic industry, were mostly religiously indii'f<"lTnt.II'1 Silllilarly, sociologists alld historians have Iloted that the social classes closest to the church In nilletecnth-century (;ermallY t he aristocracy, t he peasant ry, and t he lower llIiddle class or craf'tsmcll and small shopkeepers - were thosc least involved in the ll10dem industrial CCOIl 0 Ill)', Their 'pre-industrial' wax or lik has heen suggested as the (,xplanatioll IiiI' their rcligiosity.l:>o Thcse kinds or argulllent stress too oJ1('-sidedly the inl1ucnce or people's work Oil t hcir heliefs. Bcliels could also shape people's IUHlcrstanding or thcir work. Fllrthcl'lnorc, the rclationship hetwecn work and ildicr is not a const,lIlt, hilt is shaped hy the soci.lI, political and religious contcxt. The religious proclivities or particular occup,ltional groups owc lIluch 1lI0re to this situation thall to anything in h('l'l'lI t in their prokssioll. Thus industrialists, who ill the lI1id-nilltecnth century were ortell religiously indirkrcllt ill h'al\('(' or (;('J'mam', \\'ere in England verv likely to he prominently in\'ol\'Cd ill chllrch or chapel. Artisans and shopkecpers, who in Lcrlllan), \Verc olien regarded as the most devout section or the urhall populatioll in the sccond hall' or the ninctcenth Cel1tllry, \\'(,IT ill Frallc(' regarded as thl' grollp most prol1e to lc Illilitallt anti-clericalism. " This poillt has heen dCl110llstrated particlliarly clearly ill ,I history or English and Scottish lishing cOllllllllnities f'rolll the later ninct('cllth CCl1tUI'\' to the prescl1t day. This sh()\\'cd hoth that the religiolls situatiol1 ill dint'rel1t fishing ports vari(,d vcry \\'ide]y - SOIlIC, lill' installce. hcing strongly inl1uenecd hy IVlctho
olicJ) or a highly critical kind. In this. (;el'lll;tny, where StrauB and Feuerbach wcrc major illflucllces in the I ~i;)()s and I H·lOs, was a little ahead of' France. where Comte and Rellan had a hig li)llowillfl," ill the I HriOs and I H()Os, and both WCI'C ahead or England. Thc signilicance or higher educatioll should lIot be cxaggeratcd. since nlOstorthcse authors were soon widely poplliarised. But it. remaills true that middle-class mcn oliell had access to a wider range or Ilew ideas than did thclr wives. As Magra\\' suggests. there was also an important. elelllcnt of' machislllo in male anti-clericalism. I C,:I In both Protestant and (;atholic environll1ents l1Ien who w(,nt to church could be accused orIwing' lmder the thumh ortheir wives, and thus beillg traitors to their sex. So in the "Vuppertal in the I HHOs. the Protestant Workers' Assoclatioll was rekrrcd to as the Selill//li'mlN!'IIi. (SeMI//li'li being a dialect word lilr 'slippers', and a llIall who 'wore slippers' being one who took orders li'olll his wik).lcd In the 'E\1'1l in I H!19 a SOCialist deplored 'the Iamentablc spectacle' of seeing llIen at church because they 'havc been unable to resist their wives'. Priests could be looked dowll upon as not being 'real lJlen' - a 'Elrn republican paper in I H70 ridiculed t helll IiiI' 'dressing like wOllwn' I c,c, - and yet at the samc time regarded with suspicioll and jealousy hecausc or their inlluen('c over, and alleged skills ill scducing wOlllen. In his hook or I H·15 entitled Oil Pri!'sls, WOII/I'I/ (flld IiiI' hllllily, Micl]('!ct had vchelllelltly attacked the clergy lill' subverting the authority or the lI1ale head or the Lunily: 'Your llIother sadly shakes her head, your wik contradicts you, your daughter silently disapproves. They an' 011 Oil(' side or the table, and you Oil the other sidc, alone.' Alld 'sitting opposite you in the middle of' the wOll1en' is 'the invisible 1IIan', t he priest. I c,n Man), ot hel' men o/' all social classes echocd these thoughts. They especially object cd to the con/t'sslollal, both bccause the rcquirelJlent to conkss was seen as a blow to lJlale pride, and hecausc it was seen as a key weapon ill t he priests' hid to cont 1'01 WOIllCI!. Indeed t he object ion to conkssioll was so st rong t hat ill son\(' ot hel'wise dcvout dioccses t herc were lI1an), IlICII who WCllt regulady to mass hut could not receivc cOllllllunioll, as the), lc would IlOt go to conkssioll. " Thc 'E\I'Il Socialist lJlentiolled abovc rekrred to 'our wives, bscin
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t heir passionate idcnt ilicat ion wit h t he calise or t he Republic and equally passion,ltc hostility to the (:atholic Church and to all lcmns or 'dogma' and religious hierarchy (including those embodied in the evangelical wing orthcir own church) led them in a direction or a humanist Elit h in which all spccIljeally Christ ian clements were gradually eroded. The most notahle example was the [c)rmer pastor, Ferdinand Buisson, appointed Director or Primary Education in IH7D, and a principal author orthc Repuhlic's programmc orsecular Illoral cducation. While the dogmatism and clericalism or the (:atI1OIic (:hurch olicn provoked a hitter reaction, endillg in a total rcjcction or the (:hristian Elith and church, lihcral Protestantism potcntially clldangered Christianity allcithc church in the opposite way. By its radical rejection or 'dogma' it opellcd the way to a qul'st ioning or all ort hodoxics, which somct im('s, t hough not neccssarily, led to agnosticism or athcism, and l1lore olien led to a pl1rely personalthcology, which had little relatioll to any previously existing orthodoxy. By its l'qually radical relativisation or the church, it olH'nl'd up thl' possihility that (;od might be working primarily through political and social 1ll0Vl'melHs,I7S and that any involvcl1lent in the church miu:ht be a divcrsiol\ [i'om more urO'ent h tasks. Among those !i'om a liberal Protestant background, a continlling elllotional attachllH.'nt to Christianity was olien combined wit h conSiderable dist ance [i'om most CllI'ist ian inst it ut ions and t radit ions. There was allot her charaClcrist icallv Protestant [c)rlll or secularisation. The reaction against (:atllOli/ doglllatism had its counterpart in t he revolt against Protestant puritanism. In t he period between ai>out I HHO and I~) 1·1 this re\'olt was hittillg English Noncon[c)J')nity with special severity. The chapels which had bcen so Illuch in tllne with the spirit or the times ill the early and middle years or the centllry were no\\' coming to be seen by many or the younger Noncon[c)J')lIist gcnt'l'ation as 'Ilgly', 'dull, dull, IInEllhomabl), and inexpressibly dllll"7!) and lilled with 'cant and rant', Evangelical i\llglicanislll was subjected to many of'the sallie charges. One soilition to these discontents \\'as conversion to Roman ()]. ;\nglican (:at holicisl11, and t he great expansion or AngloCatholicism in the late Victorian years was partly ruelled by the inlltlx or disillusioned (,vangelicals, One early twentieth-century Methodist who beC
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or Christian civilization',lso But the anti-puritan reaction could also lead to agnosticism, to socialism, or to the religion or art alld litnature, which was so [;ulliliar in Ccrmany at this time, but which (cHlnd converts in England too. ISI Jews mainly livcd in three contrasting kinds or environment in England, France and (;('I'lllany during this period, and there WCl'(.' major dint:rcnces between them so Ell' as thc religious situation was cOllcerned, In Alsacc and ill various parts 0(' southern and central Cermany t here had ()r celll.u ries hecn I'll ral Jewish com m 1111 it ies, sometimes placed in entirely Jewish villages, sometimes in religiously-mixed villages or in small towns. Many or them were quite poor, though their inhabitants might include moderately pl'OSpcrous merchants and artisans. Then there were increasing 1lI11l1hers or middlc-dass,lews, above all in Berlin, London and Paris, In all three count I'ies t here were a [t:w extremely weaIt hy J cwish ban kers, as well as large numbers or merchants, lllanuElct urcrs, shopkecpers and (in Cermany) prokssionalmen. And, especially li'om t he I HHOs onwards, there were growing 1lIlillbers or Yiddish-speaking RUSSian and Polish Jews, in flight [i'om persccution and discrimination, llIany or whom sellkd in the working-class districts or London, Manchester, Berlin, and other cities, where a large proportion [cllllld work as tailors, capmakers or shoemakers. There werc distinctively ,Iewish IcmllS or sccularisation, which varied according to these contrasting environlllents. 'Il'aditional (cll'lns or Jewish lik and religious observance cont inued wit h relatively lillie diflicuity in thc rural and slllall-town environment or many parts or Alsace, Baden or \Viirllcmberg, In villages where everyone was a Jew it was taken [c)r granted thaI, [Cll' instance, businesses would close on the sabbath. Rabbis werc highly regarded, and the /C)I'('C or public opinion ensured high rates or religious practice. Such institutions ;IS the ritual bath survived and continued to have a regular clientele. In the mid-I !l20s, when!) I per cent or Jcwish couples malTying in Berlin had a religious ccrelnon)" ~)() per cent or those lIlalTyin o ' in Wiirllcmberg' still did IX') h so. '- Here, as elsewhere, the Christian environll1ent had an influ('nce on patterns of ,Iewish religious observance. In areas or the Rhineland and Westphalia where most of' the population wcre practising Catholics, levels or .Jewish religious observance tended to be high too. In the Weilllar period, when the majority or.Jews in Berlin stayed away li'om the synagogue even on the high !tolidays, those in Westphalia and the Rhincland generally observed the rites I
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either religiollsly sceptical or liheral Protestant. Their 1;lith placed overriding stress on the individllal's relationship with Cod and on 'practical' religion, and it was hostile to ritllal ,lIld dogma, In the light of'such assumptions, traditional synagogue worship seemed crucle and undignilied, and ll1uch or daily Jewish relig'ious practice secmed narrowly Icgalistic.I~11 Ideas or this kind had a hig inflllcncc on the ./cwish reli)l'lll 11I0\'CIl\ent in the early ninetcenth ccntury, and in the bter part or til(' ninetecnt h cent ury t he great majority or (;erlnan city synagoglles wcre liheral.l~l:! But there werc also man)' .Jews whose contacts with thc synagogue were vcry limitcd and who, like their Protestant countcrparts, practised thcir religion in the home or adhered to a purely individual lilrm or Etith, In England, where middle-class church-going was mnch higher than in (;cl'man), and where conservative li)l')ns of rcligion were Illore socially acceptahle, allcndancc at synagogue was also higher, and the synagogucs J'('m;lincnl and Cambridge, intimatc contacts with members or the Anglican rliling class sOllletillles had a corrosivc crkn on their bith and (,()lIl1llunalloyalty.I~11 Both in England and in Ccrmany thcre were those who kit that t heir Ii/(: was narrow and cnclosed and who, cit her by chOice, orjust through the logic or events, liHlll(1 thcmselvcs breaking awav [i'Oln 'dIC ./ewisl; com III I 111 it 1', There were parallels here \\~ith th~~ sitllatlon in latcr ninctcenth-century British Nonconli)1'lnity, where
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t he chapel sOlllct i mcs scemed c1aust rophohl(', and conversion to Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism, or the religion or literature seemed to prolllisc the vision or a widc]' lik, The many writcrs who dccried their Nonconl()1'Jnist origins had their ./ewish cOllntcrpmt in./ulia Frankall, Her novels ofthc IHHOs and IH!l()s rcmorselessly satirised the Illaterialism and philistinisl11 or the prosperolls .Jews in Maida Vale and Bayswatcl'. I ~Ir) In (;el'lnany at \'ariolls points in the nineteenth and carly twentieth centuries there were considerable nlllllbers or./ewish cOl\\'Crsions to Christianity. In England this was I11l1ch less CO 111 III on , hilt there were still ./ews who broke away entirely li'ol11 their cOl11l11unity,l% In sOl11e cases this was linked with a hatred orall things./ewlsh. From the !ater cighteenth centllry. especially in (;el'lnany, there were sOllle Jews who wished I(ll' total assil11ilation, who saw thcir own .Jewislllwss as a burden and who acccpted all the criticisl11s levelled by anti-Semitcs against.Jewish cllltllrc, vailles and personal traits, For instance. in ninetecnt h-Cl'Jlt 111')' (;ermany there was a derogatory verb, Jl/IIIISI'ItI'fIl, which denoted a .Jewish way or speaking, It was used not only hy ant i-Scmltes, but very oneil hI' ./cws,l ~17 Such people ident ilicd thcmselves completely with (;erman cultural achievements, and saw everything specilically .Jewish as inlinitely inkrior, Classic examples were Karl Marx (whose Elthcr had converted to Protestantism) and vValther Ratlwnau, the indllstrialist. who became ForciO'n Minister under \'Vcimar, and was assassinated hy IIltranatio;~,I1ists,I~IH In England, li'om the latn nineteenth century onwards, there were wealthy Jews who aspired to join London socicty or to hecome country gcntlemen, alld who tried to ohscurc cVlTything connectcd with their Jewish origins in ordlT to Licilitate , Ill!) their acceptance, " The variolls limns or sccular Liit h which emerged dllring these ),c
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religious scepticism in stridcnt ter1l1s (f(lr example, Stendh,ll) or more Sllhtlc ter1l1s (I(lr exa1l1ple, Ccorge Eliot), or who gave a pro1l1incnt role in their nOl'Cls to outspoken sccptics (l()r exa1l1ple, Flauhert's IIomais who.
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beneficent power', and Hardy himself' would certainly appear (0 illustrate this tendency." Yet it may be that agnosticism of'this particular kind is a phenomenon typical of' nineteenth-century Britain, but. l(lUnd much less cOlllmonly in France or Ccrmany. The educat.ed middle class, fi'OIll which so mallY of' the celehrated doubters came, was in England the lllost strongly devout section of' the poplliation - En' more so than their counterparts in (;crmany and France and, Ilnlike in France, the men or this class were almost as devout as the WOIllCll. Moreover, the evangelicalism which was the prevailing 1(ll'lH' of religion ill this class laid enormolls clllphasis on the importance or individual conversion and reglliar Bible-reading. It was onen an intcnsely personal Elith, the loss of' which conld be highly traul11atic. h In the educated middle class of Cermany and France, the impact of' new intcllectllal developmcnts in the later nineteenth centllry was less, becamc religious scepticism had fell' long been widespread, especially alllong men. In l;lCt, by the time that agnosticism was hitting England in a major way in the 1HHOs and 1H90s, the Elshion alllong French intellectuals was f(lr the rediscovery of'Catholicislll. 7 It is also likely that the ll]()del of loss of' filitlt prescnted by Robert. Elsmere assllmes a degrec both or intellcctualisation and of' consistency t hat was rebt ivcly rare. S In reality, quest ions of personal and comlllunal loyalty, or custOIll, of sentiment. or of' the need to makc symbolic statements all alkctcd religiolls belonging as llluch as more abst ract intellect Ilal considerat iOlls. Mergcl quotes t hc example Or.lOilallnCS Jansscn. the leading German Catholic historian of the KIl/fllr/alil/l)/' era, admired hy his co-religionists ror his vigorous rebut tal of t he prevailing Protestant version of' t he nat ion's history, and regarded as a 'saint of' scholarship'. Whell in 1H!) I Janssen was dying, he told onc or his closest friends that all the doubts he had expressed in f(lrlller years still applied. He had no (ime lilr dogma of any kind, and Buddha, Ahraham. Moses or Christ were all the saine to him. But he \l'Cpt with el1lotion at the news that a priest was sayillg Illass fe)r him daily.!>
Paths to Salvation While tlie 'Rohert Elsmere' version or tlie spread or religiolls unhelief' in t he second hall' of t he llinetcent h CCllt ury is certainly one part or the story. Illore typical is the sitllatioll whCl'c Christian Elitlt and
150
loyalty to the church was undenlllncd by the attractions or rival fi>rlllS or belier - offering not t he cosmic bereavement endured by '1 'hom as llanly, but the 'ncw lik' promiscd by so many sccular prophets or that era, i\ characteristic figure or this time was the seculal' guru, The first such fig'ure was certainly Voltaire, But the second hall' or the ninetecnth century produced a whole series or scientists, wrilers and other pundits who owed a large part or their Eline and popularit), to the f~lCt that they were seen as champions or secular idcas and values, and thus as orf(~ring hot h inspirat ion and kgit imat ion to l1lore ohscure rebels against religious ort hodoxy, Codwin Peak, t he hero or (;eorge (;issll1g's novel nom 11/ le'Xill' (I W)~) not cd a big demand fill' 'ant i-dogmat ic books written by mcn or !llark', There was 'a growing body or people who, filr whatenT reason, tend to agnosticism, but desire to he convinced that agnosticism is respectable', 'They couldn't cndure to he classed with Bradlaugh, but they rallk themselvcs confidently with , an( I II ux Iey ' , III )arwln " In the second hall' or the nineteenth century non-religious views or the world l)('clllle ;1 possihility fill' the mass or the people, rather than only lilr small elite groups, .lust as much as the older r~liths, these ncwcr world-views olkred a path to salvation- a model or the good lik, dignity and rullilmellt lilr the individual. and a way lilnvani lill' humanity, Five such paths to salvation were widely fClllowed in the later nineteenth century, I shall call thelll the 'religious', the 'political', the 'scientilic', the 'aesthetic' and the 'spiritualist' , The most widely rollowed was still the 'religious', But two more r('('ent Iy discovered pat hs to salvat ion were also being widely IClllowed, one through radical politics, and the otlwr through science, The doctrine o/' 'salvation hy politics alone' had its origins in the French Revolution, and was eagerly preached by republicans, radicals, nationalists and, most importantly in our period, socialists, By the later ninl'lecllth century the belierthat science alone ont~rcd the way to truth, a solution to humanity's problems, and a basis lelr everyday living. was widely held, and advocated by influential politicians, writers and orcoursc scientists, 1\ fiHlrth way to salvatioll was the 'aesthetic', according to which the deepest level or human expericnce and the only path to such truth as humanity is capable or reaching was through art, music and literature, \Vhat I have called the 'spiritualists' were those who were seeking a third way I)('t wccn ort hodox religion and ort hodox science, reject ing any
BEI,II':!'
151
purely rnaterialist interpretation o/' the world, inslstlllg Oil humanity's spiritual nature, arfirming the existence of'sllpernatllral filn:es, hut rejecting many or the doctrines or the churches, Proponents or each or these live paths to salvation were often in conscious opposit ion to olle anot her. But t his was not Ilecessarily so, There were mally people who, fell' instance, linked science and radical politics or religion and radical politics as necessary allies in thc shaping' or the ruture, There were also lllallY peoplc who were nllich mo]'(' eelect ie. Like Protestantism, Catholicism or Judaism, thcse rival filiths could he the cause or passionate commitment, and somet imcs intolerance, 'II onest doubt ers' or the Rohert Elsmerc kind seldom hecame lllilitant anti-Christians, But those who krvcntlv helieved not only that t he old bit h was wrong but that t hey had (illllld the right answer o/'tl'n cOlllmitted themselves to maklllg lik as dil'licult as possible fill' t hose who lllsisted on remaining loyal to t hcold gospel. This is onc reason why political radicalisatioll was a majo], lilCtor in many aspects or secularisat ion, The doct rinc or 'salv;lt ion hy politics alonc' led many political radicals to give up religious commitmcnts which either seemed to conflict with their political loyalties or divcrted them /i'om more important political tasks, Only polit ical loyalt y could shape collect ive ident it ies almost as powerrully as religion did. And political passions gellcrated much of'the cncrgy which powered call1p;ugns against the !'Ole o/'rcligioll in public institutions, This was a pcriod in which collective identIties were vitally important, all age ororganisatlons, or mass meetings, o/' oratorical spell-hinders, or flags and banners, Only political oq2;anisations rivalled the churches in these areas, sometimes working ill harlless, sOllletimes ill oppositioll, Numerous examples could illustrate the 'religious' aspect or milch or the radical politics or this era, I will note thrce examples, all or which show radicals claiming to define the (Titeria by which a persoll's lik might hcjudged, The first is that or one or the earliest secular /'uneraL~ in Paris, held ill !.'iI(i, where the deceased, a man named Ikspierres, was praised in the graveside oration filr his role in the revolution or 1itlO, lilr IllS lik-long COllllllltmellt to the principles or 17H9, and lilr his rCjCctioll or the 'lying words or the priests', The second is li'om the autobiography or a lilrlllerly Cat holic (;crman Elctory worker, who had become a Social Democrat and, ancr a good deal or soul-searching, had adopted the scicntilic-materialist world-vicw: 'I linally callie to thc conclusion
SECl'I..IRIS.ITI()N IN \\'ESTERN EUROPE. IHIH·-I!II·I
BELIEF
that it was impossible to know anything ahout the last things; but it was surficicnt [()r nil' to know that ir there is an arier-lire and a reward, [ cOllld stand bd()I'C Cod with Illy socialism'. I I The third example goes hack to ] tn~), when an cvangclicallllissionary visited a dying lIlan in a poor area or Birlllinghalll:
bittn opposition li'om Labour supporters, led by the Congregationalist, and later Labour MI~ Fred .Jowett. .JolVett declared: 'ir the reverend gent kmen [on t he plat Icmul would persist in opposing the Labour movement there would be ll10re reason than ever to complain 0(' the ahsence or working mcn li'om t heir chapels [loud cheersl, and the lahourers would establish a Labour Church .. _alld t hey would cheer I()!' .Jesus t he working ll1an or Nazaret h [chcers]'. 'l\vo lllontl~s later a Labour Church was set up, with .Jowctt as chairman. I:> In many instances the allitude or the churches towards SOCIalism was openly hostile. So Ell' as Catholics were concerned, Leo X I I I's encyclical or I H~) I, RI'rIl III iVIJ1Illnt III, in which he explicitly condemned socialism, was olien regarded as the final word. There were certainly sOl1le Catholic socialists in Britalll who evaded this condemnat ion by declaring that t he Brit ish 1()J'I11 or socialism was not the kind that had heen condemned by the Pope. Again, (:atholic socialists were rare in (;ermany, and even lIlore so in France. There were dirkrences hetween the Protestant churches and within them. The greatest hostility to socialism was ICHlnd in the (;crman iJI IIdl'S!U rr/wII II' here onicial condell1nat ions or socialism were nunlcrous in the I HDOs, and where it would have been very dirricult I()r a pastor to act nally join the Social Delllocratic Party hclc)I'C I~) I H. Iii . I n England t here were no such orficial condelllnat ions. Clergy, hoth Anglican and NOnCOIlI()J'Inist, could :lIld did join the Independent. Labour Part y (I LJ»), and sOlllet illlcs preached socialist sermons. On the ot her hand, t here were mallY l1lore clerg-Ylllen wilo helonged to the Conservative or Lihcral Party, and church memhers who were known to he activc socialists might well [~Ke opposition rrolll either the minister or lay leaders. Similarly, Non('on IC)J'Il1 iSI Illinisters, who depended I()r their livelihood on their congrcgat ions, could come under st rong linancial pressu re to preach in ways acceptahle to the wealthier mt'lnbers or their congregat ion. 17 Two examples Ii-om t he early history or t he I LP in the I H~)Os illustrate both the signilicant role o\' Nonconlc)J'IllIty and sOllle or the resulting tensions. In the small industrial town or Nelson, in north-cast Lancashire, where the local branch o\' the ILl' grew out. or the Young Men's Mutual Improvelllent Society at Salem Independcnt Methodist church, lIlost or the origillal group or actIvists dropped out or thc chapel, I(~elillg that it was too much identilied with Liberalism. In Crewe one or the original leaders or the ILl' was the town's Unitarian lIlinlster, Rev I larry Bodell Sll1ith.
1!l2
conversing with hilll in the most solcmn manner on the suhject or [;lit h and repentance he said, wit hout anyt hll1g that wOld;1 lead to such an observation. 'Do you think the present ministers will go out?' On my wishing to evade the suhject he said he had becn a Rcf(>r1l1er and really did not think a Tc)ry could be saved and evidently coml()rted himselr with the hope that it would EIre hetter with him in another world becausc he had always voted against the ahuses or government and church rates. I ~
;\1i(T
Radicals thus claimed that political activit), was the highest test or virtue. 1\t times or intense political enthusiasm that orien meant a turnin
I !J·I This led to a period or conflict in the church, culminating- in ~he resiunation or its treasurer, a successrul busll1l'ssl1lan, and leadInglocal Liberal. This proved a pyrrhic victory Ii)!' the socialists, since the departing- trcasurer had been the church's leading- linanci',t1 sllpporter. The church soon lillllHI itselrun
BELIEF
explaining-, and indeed explaining- away, religion. In emphasisingthe importance of' altruism and or the identification of' each individual with the whole of' hUlllanity, he reassured those who kared that t he rejection or relig-ion would mean a descent i nt 0 moral anarchy. In t he I R:l()S and I R()()s his system was adopted by Iarg-e sections orthe IIltellig-cntsia both III Frallce and, to a lesser extent, in Eng-Iand.~() I-lis ideas gained special sig-nilicancc li'olll the influellce which they had on many of' the I(lllnders of' the Third Republic. (;,Il11betta claimed that COl1lte was the g-reatest thinker urthe nllleteenth century. FelTY, who made the study or Comte's works COlllpulsory in state schools, owed to his master the vision of'a humanity 'no longer a (;tIlen race, doollled by orig-inal sin, drag-ging- itselr painf'ully in a valley or tears, but as a ceaseless cavalcade marching(ilrward towards the lig-ht', By seeing hiIllselr as 'an integ-ral part or t.his g-reat Being- which cannot perish, or this humanit), wInch is ceaselessly improving-', Ferry 'hac! conquere,d his liberty cOlllpletely bccause he was liTe (i'om the ['car ordeath',21 Comte also devised a Rclig-ion orHumanity, which admittedly was not to the taste of'allhis admirers. For many orhis French disciples his deliherate adaptation or sllch Catholic observances as saints' days reminded t.hem too much or the hated ()rigillal.~~ In (;ermany and England many or the most poplllar critics or rclig-ion were practising- natural snelll.ists. In (;Cl'mall), the I H!J()s and I H6()s saw the pllblication or numerous w<,~~:ks or popular science, wriuen (i'OlIl a materialist point of' view.-·' In the I R!)()s the major inl1uences were Ludwig- Biichner, Jakob Molcschott and Karl voo·t ". all o('whol1l were Ilolitical radicals who saw the Il()pularisation or materialist science as a means or undermilllng- the reactionary lillTes which had ddl~ated t.he revolllt.ions or I R4H-4~1. In t.he I H(iOs many or the diSCiples of' Biichner eag-erly adopted the ideas or Darwin and his (;Cl'm
IfiG published in the United States in I H74, hecame a matter or widespread puhlic interest and debate in the I H7()s and I HHOs. Charles Darwin was certainly the g-n>atcst symhol or this conflict and the g-reatest hero or th()se who champl(Hlcd an anti-rclig-iolls science. nut he hilllsclrwas not interested ill the role o{'g-Ilru. This was taken llP by T I I. IIllxky in the lield ()r the natural sciences and by Herhert Spencer in the lields or philosophy and sociolog-y. j\S has been shown, there were many working--c1ass radicals who believed that t he alliance or socialism and science was t.he key to the ruture. There were even l1lore middle-class Liberals who believed that science alone held all the answers. Arnold Dodel, whose Mosl's or /)(tntlill? (\ HH~)) was so popular in (;erlllany, spoke li)r many when he conclllded: 'With the overwhelming power oran uncontrollable li)J"(T, the conception or a rl'lllis({h/1' ({lid dl'slmhtl' 1/II1)1J/lII~SS oj" /IU~ II/Ililhilid dllnllg; ollr UFF-TIMI,', 1101 fll'yolld IiiI' g;rm'l', has taken root, spread, and hecomc an intrinsic part or the moral ideal or this ag-e',~") These views liHlnd their most eloquent. exprcssion in the no"e1s or 1:~lllilc Zola, with his scom li)r the myslical and the miraculous, his attempt to understand human behaviour in 'nat uralist' terms as primarily determined by heredity, and his messianic bith in the power or science to translilrln lUI man lik fi)r t.he better. Zola, indeed, saw criticism or science as a li)rlll or blasphemy. I Ie was part iculariy incensed hy t.he claim, at t ributcd to t hc writn Ferdinand Bnllleli(~IT, that science was 'bankrupt', and n11lch space in his novcls was devoted to rchutling this claim. In p({rtS, the scientist Bcrthero), spoke ii)t, the author when he declared 'science alone is t he world's revolut ionar), 1()tTe, t he only li)tTl' which Elr abovc all paltry p()litical incidcnts, the vain agitations or despots, priests, sectarians, and amhitious peopk or all kinds, works filr the benefit orthose who will COlllC aner us, and prepares the triumph ortrulh, justice, and peace. ". ;\h, my dear child, iryou wish to overturn t.he world by stri\'ing- to set a littk Inore happiness in it, you have only to remain in vour bhoratorv here, lill' hllman happiness can only spring rron; the lilrtlacc o{ the scientist'.~(; . In \ H7·\ Francis Galton closed his hook /';lIp;fisl! Mell oj .)1"11'11(,(' by expressing- the hope that scicntilic occupations in the univCl'sities, industr\', sanitation and statistical enquiry would address themschTs to the 'nation's praClic;t1 prohlems, and in return would reCt>i\'(: puhlic financial support. ;\nd TurtleI' comments that 'The spokesmen fi)r t he scient ific professions desired t he social prest ige and recog-nition th;lt had hcen and to a Iarg-e degree still was accorded to
BELIEF
the clerg-y' .~7 Tlte new Elit h received its most decisive impetus from those proressions which saw their own identity and interest.s as bound lip witlt advancing tlte authorJt.y of science, and onen with side-lining ecclesiastical authority. This applied most obviously to research scientists and doctors, hut pot.entially academics and teachers ill other areas could adopt silllilar perspectives, and the sallie happelled with new proressions such as SOCIal work, which fiHlnd themselves entering- t.erritory previously dominated by the derg-y. The other important underpinning or the scientific Elith lay in certain sections or middle-class liberalism and radicalism, where it was hoped that major social improvement.s could be hroug-ht about by educat ion and the applicat ion or science, wit.hout the d rast Ie social re-organisation, let alone the revolutionary violence, which lllany soclalist.s werc demanding. Here a represcntat.ive figure was Rudolr Virchow, both a Berlin medical scientist and a Len. Liberal politician, who declared in I H60 that the sciences had takcn the place orthe church, and in \ HGfi that 'science has Iwcoll1c a religion fi)r us', ~s The scientific Elith was spread more thinly and advanced ll10re slowly than thc [lith in socialism, but it was spread more widely, and it was apparently able to show results. It spread partly through the writings orpojlubr scientific writers; partly through the prestig-e or such scien t ifie herocs as J)a rwin, Past eu rand Liebig-, whosc ach ic"cments seemed to promise an infinite progress In human understanding or and control or the world; partly through appreciation or advances in technology and medicine. Eugen \Nehcr shows hO\\' in the IHHOs and IH90s such ideas were sprcading evcn to the remoter parts or the French coulltryslde. In the swampy Solog-lle. where victims or malaria had lill' long- Illade pilgrimag-es to the shrille or St Viiltre, the availahility or quinine was beginning to provide more e('(xt ive remcdies, alld art ificial krl iliscrs were hoosting crops without the need lil!' supernatural hclp.~~) The doctrine or salvation through art had its origins III (;ennany in the later eighteenth cl'lItury, and its g-reatest prophet was Cocthc. This doctrine could take many different limlls. In part it arose rrom the rejection or over-narrow and too-explicit doctrinal liJrlllulae, and the need fil!' a relig-ion that would reflect Ihe mystery, the beauty and the strangeness or lik~ alld or the divine. In part it was one aspect or the typIcally ninetecllth-century search li)r a Religion or Humanity, which would unite all Orhlllnallkllld through gencrally acceptable Ideals and goals, alld would tlnls escape the
I!lH
SUTI..\RIS,\TION IN WESTERN EtIROI'E, IHIH-I'IJ.I
particularism and the peculiarity or each or the existing- reiig-iol1s. For SOIllC or thosc who had rejected (:hristianity or Judaism. hut without lindinO' all)' c0I111.)Cnsatory. Elilh ill scicllce or radical h politics. art was silllpl)' all that relllained beyolld the Irivialily or everyday lik and the sordidne:~s or individual ambition. On the other hand. I()r lllany in late Victorian and Edwardian Eng-land. art llleant cmancipatioll - it pointed to a lire which would he lived to the rull. rree li'om the constraints imposed hy antiquated creeds and rest rict ive moral CO( les, Throug-hout the nineteenth century these ideas had a Iarg-e I()Ilowing- in (;crmany's educated middle class, In Eng-land. they only hCGllllC widely current ancr abollt I HHO, and ill France they never seem to havc g-aillcd the same deg-ree orinlluence. In (;erlllany the rclio'ion or art literatllre and music al)l)ealcd to the many members ,.., ortlw edllcated middle class who had distanced themselves ii'olll the chllrch. bllt continued to sec thcmslves as 'rclig-ious', It was especially ,lttractive to the women or this class. who were relatively resistallt to the CIlIt or sciellce that appealed so nlllCh to their hush;lllc\s and Elt hers.:\() In Eng-land, the g-rowing- interest in ideas or this kind at the end or the nineteenth century was part or the reaction ag-ainst 'Victorianism' then underway, and the rejectioll or the powerrlll British tradition or puritallism. When. in I q II. the popular bllt hig-hly unorthodox Colog-ne pastor. Karl Jatho, was charged with heresy by the Prussian church authorities, he was alleg-ed to have said that 'Music is the only really adequate cxperience or religion', that 't he "( ;od experience" is fluid, onc can never be sure or being constant to this or that nleans or expresslllg- it'. and that 'copulatioll ". is the hig-hest level or rc\'elation or Cod's love',:11 Clearly none or t.his was dose to the Protestant Church's ollicial (earhing-, and .Iatho was dismissed; but it is not surprising that he was popular - these ideas wert' typical or an important current orCerman middle-class t.hillkin his cssay on Beethoven, claimed that, the in')' at that tilllc. \Va!.!'llCr, 1'"1 \ , composer was 'holy'. 'a tOlle-poet seer' who 'reveals to us the Inexpressible', his 'surrcring' being- his 'penalty I()!' the state of msplratioll', Tr,Hlitional rclig-ion had become 'artificial', but lllusic oricred 't he csscn('(' of' Rclig-ion rree Ii'om all dog-mat ic liet ions', By 't.eachlllgredcmption-starved mankilld a second speech in which the Inlinite can voice itselr'. music would give modern Civilisation a 'sou]'. 'a ncw religion'. ;\s Olwlkevich comments.:I~ Wag-ner himsclr became the ob)('('t or the greatest or lllusical cults, and visits to Bayreuth
.
1\ EI.I EI:
became 'pilgrirnag-cs'. As onc example, in Fontanc's Thl'
I!lD )+iJlIIIIII
lalil'lI ill /Idll//I'/'v (I HH~), the heroinc and her ruture lover recognise
their aninity at their lirst meeting- hecause or a COlnnlon passion I()r - '~\'c belOlJO' vVa')'ner h \""') to that small I)arish whose name and 11lIddic point I do not need to tell yoU',:I:1 Similarly. Nippenle), notes two stag-es or distancing oneselr rrom traditional lilrllls or Chnstlan observance while still recognising- the sacred dimension or lire. to which the Christian kstivals were one pointer, The lirst step was to observe Coocl Friday by g-oing-Io hear Bach's SI Mlllt/I1!(/! HISSIOII; the second was to g-o instead to Wagner's Pal:l'i{a/.: II Music, apart rrom its own inherent power. also had the advantage of' amhig-llity, It could llollrish 1(>rIns or belief' that were totally independent or any kind or traditional relig-ion. Yet it cOllld also he accepted as a reinterpretatioll or older relig-ious themes, Literature oilen lIlarked a mort' explicit and decisive hreak rrom rclig-ious t.radition, (;ermany there was a well-estahlished tradition according to which the revelat iOll to modern Illllllanity came I hrough poet ry and drama, The writ ings of' (;oct he and Schiller, in part icular, SIl perseded all previous revelat ions. providing- t he basis I()]' a religion or li-eedolll. sclf~rulfilment. creativity and belier in humanity, which men and women or all nationalities and religious backgrounds could share, As Iliilscher writes:
"Il
(;oet he's philosophy and poet ry I(mned I()]' hiS admirers an enclosed rclig-ious cosmos; his poems were Iearllt and recited like prayers. and rcceived like binding- religious interpretat ions or the world. (;octhe calendars and breviaries accompanied (and still today accompany) their readers throug-h the year with their maxims, in a similar way to the Christian watchwords; (;oet he's birt hday, Aug-ust ~Ht h, is and was celebrated b}:, _his devotees more or less as a scclliar (,(Hlllterpart to Christmas.":> In November IH!l~) admirers or Schiller marked the ccntenary or his hirth by processillg throllg-h the streets holding- aloil statues or the poet. rather as Catholics might process with a statue or the Virg-in rVlary,:lli In Lut heran Hamburg- t hest' celebrat ions g-ained special piquancy rrom the liKt t.hat the actual date of' Schiller's birth. 10 Novemher, had been desig-llated by the city authorities as the annllal Day or Prayer and Repentance. and the Schiller kstivIties had to be postponed until the days 1()llowing. This caused considerahle resentment. and whcn the birthday celebrations took
I (iO
SU:ILIRIS,\TI()i'J IN \\'ESTERi'J Fi'R()I'E,
1~1~_ltll'l
placc, therc were undertolles or criticism or t.he secular and religious authoritics, Not that Protestantism and the religion or art werc altogcther mutually exclusive: the 'Culture Protestantism' that camc to thc li)J'(~ li'olll the! H()Os, called Ii)!' 'a renewal or the Protestant church in the spirit or evangelical rreedom and in harmony with the gcncr;t\ cultural dCVc\oplllcnt or our timc', Pastors fi'OIIl this wing or the church sOllletimes prcached on texts taken li'olll (;oethe alld Schilln though tcxts from Nietzsche, as used by SOl1le preachers in t he radical st ronghold or Bremell, were Ilot gcncrally appreciated,:;7 The (;erman aest het ic Elit h was not hing ir not reverent. Its English countcrpal'l, COining ,IS it did much later, as part of thc lat.e Victoriall revolt against puritanism, was oltell fiercely Irreverent. Its E1YOurite target was 'cant', in which was included anything unduly serious or hig'h-mindcd, or any resort to high-flown languagc, The Illocking tone Elyoured hy the enemies of' 'cant' took its most strident fi)]'lll in Richard Aldington's novel, D!'lItli 01'11 Hero, puhlished ill I Q2!l, but set. during the First "Vorlel War anel the years iIlll1lediately preceding the war. The novel was an attack on 'the "Victorialls" or all nations' and 'the regime of Cant bcfiJre the War which made the (:ant during the War so damnably possible and {'asy<"~ The novcl's purpose was mainly destructivc. But in his autohiography, Uti'jil}, IJfi''s SlIlil' , Aldington made a more positive statemcnt of' the aesthetic Elith which was his alternati\'e to the relig-ion, the polit ics. and much else, t hat he rejected: In religioll ,lI1d ('ycn in politics I was IllOj'(' or less a (;allio, caring nothing. What I wanted was to cnjoy IIl'lJ lif(~ in 11/)' way", I wanted to know and enjoy the best that had heen thought and kit and knowll through the ages - architecture, paintlllg, sculpture, poetry. literature, fi)(ld alld wine, France alld Italy, WOl\1ell, old towns, I)eautl'1'u I country."';1) This was only a particularly clear and [i'ank expression or a view that had gradllally being gathering streng-th rrom abollt l?i!)(). In 1?iHH, the conflict betwcen older puritan traditions and the 'modern gospel of' the divine right or sc\f:'developmcnt' had bccn vividly prcscntcd in Ho/Jntl,'/slI/l'I'l'. The two malll (('male characters, Catherin(' Lcyllllrtl and her younger Sister, Rose, an' tightly hound in a relationship of'loyc and mlltual resentment. Cathcrine, an oldElshioncd (,\'angelical, suspicious or anything 'worldly', dc\'otcs her
II ELI !iF
I(il
life' to t.he well-heing or the poor in t.he relllote rural parish wherc they li\'e. Rose, a talented violinist, longs to return to the artistiC circle she had known in Manchester - or, even better, to escape to London or Berlin. In Manchester, at the home or her uncle, a husincssman who patronised the arts: she fiHlnd long-haired artists and fiery musicians ahout the placc, who excitcd and cncouraged her Illusical gilt, who sketched her while she played, and talked to the pretty. clever, unfi>rlllcd creature of' London and Paris and Italy, and set her pining fill' that golden 11/1' d!' nO/If)'II!' which she alone apparently orall artists was destined never to know. For she was an artist - she would 1)(' an artist - let Catherine say what she would! She came back f'rolll Manchester restless fill' she knew not what, thirsty fijI' t.hcjoys and emotions or art, determined to he fiTe, reckless, passionate: with Wagner and Brahms in her young hlood", ,Ill What I have called the 'spiritualist' path to salvation IS the hardest orall to define, as well as the one l\1ost f're<]uclltly dismissed, both by sceptical contemporaries and hy historians, as representing SOlne kind of lunatic fi·ingc. Yct it is both a very widespread cUITent in the western Europe of' this time, especially rrom the I H70s onwards, and one which had rcsonance at Illany social levels. Its best known Illanif(~station was the Spiritualist 1\100'ement (or 'Spiritist' as it. is known in France, where 'spiritualislll' has a wider meaning). which was based Oil thc helier that it is possible to make contact with the spirits orthe dead. Originating in the United States this l1lovement got estahlishcd in western Europe in the I Wi()s, and initially won widest support in France: 11 where its leading figure, Allan Kardcc, published the movcment's classic text, The Boo/! oj'SjJl}'its, In j Wit), and fiHlndcd a S/mitist Hl'1lltlll in I H!i?i. Initially, the interest in Spiritislll came mainly from those on the Len, the most notahle example being Victor I-Iugo, and it reflected t hell' search f(}r fi}\'I11S or religion uncontaminated hy the (:at holic Church. But the interest spread l1luch mOlT widely - indeed in I H!i7 the emperor and his Eunily had several sessions with a EU1101lS Scottish mediulll. In England too, the Spirit lIalist pioneers in t he I H!i()s were political radicals, including most notahly Robert Owen, and throughout the Victorian and Edwardian periods Spiritualists were acti\'e in radical. socialist and trade union organisations, as
SVC{'URIS,\TION IN \nSn:RN V{;JWI'V, ISIS-I'll'
HEUE!'
wcll as 111 tcmperance and adult education, The first strongholds oj' the movelllent \\'cre among the working class in the woollen towns or west Yorkshire,'e' Farly recrllits were olieIl Secularists, who had rejected the churches and clergy on political and social groullds, hut \\TrC OpCIl to ne\\' l{lrillS oj' sllpernatural helierespecially ir these ellH'rged rrom indiVidual explorat ion and expcrimcllt. In the lIlid-Victorian ycars the doctrillc or hell probahly caused lllore disquiet thall allY other aspect or Christian orthodoxy: perhaps the most attractive aspect or Spiritualism was that it purported to p]'()ve the I;\('t or immortality, while rejecting hell. Spirit ualislll also related to anot her important aspect or poplliar cliit ure, Spirit Ilalist lIlediums were olieIl keenly interested in IlIlorthodox healing techniqucs, ranging li'oll1 herhal medicines to methods which drcw on the resources or the spint world, Some wcre hcirs to ancient rural traditions, For installce, Joseph Ash mall, a promineIlt Spirit ualist in t he I H70s alld I HHOs, h,ld bcgun his working lik as a Surfillk 1;\1'111 labourer, and had used traditional methods of' curiIlg both humans and horses and cattle. SOllle mediums were heirs to the 'wise men' ,\lid 'wise women' who advised OIl personal problems and the finding or lost ohjects, or lilretold the f'uture. A hook on Berlin spiritualism puhlished in I !)05 gave examples, such as that of the 'consultations' held cvcry alicn]()on by a carpentcr's wife with a reputation as a medium at which she adviscd 'the servant-girls or the neighbourhood, love-lorn shop-girls, moul'l1ing widows, anxious mot hers' ,1:1 By the mid-I H(iOs thl'J'c was a growing interest ill spiritualist phenomena among academics alld SCIentists. Leading ligures in t his group were t he scient ilic polymat h and associate or Darwin, Alli'Cd Russel Walbce, and lIenry Sidgwick, Fellow or 'Il'inity College, Camhridge, and later I'roli,'ssor or Moral Philosophy in the I\niversity. The desire to submit these phenomeIla to scientilic imcstigation led to the lill'lnation in I HH2 or the Society fill' Psychic Research. Mcmhers 01' thiS group had bl'Oken away I'rom Christianity, hut they rejected the claims or science to be the ne\\' religion. They resented the dogmatislll ()I' such leading exponents or scientilic Ol'thodoxy as Huxley and Calton; they were onen st rOllgly con(,('l'ned wit h moral quest ions, which they I'elt science was unahle to allswer; and the\' accused materialist scielltists of' simply ignoring, or dismissin~ as nonsense, those aspects or human experience which were not consonant with their
t.heories. Many of them were particularly concerned to place belie!' in human imlllortality on a scientific basis.'11 But. this is only one aspect or wider tendencies in contemporary thinking, summcd up, as I suggested earlier, by the search lilr a 't hiI'd way' bet ween ort hodox religion and ort hodox science. This led on typically to the idea that there are powers inherent in human beings which, because of the inlluence or rigid dogmas and the increasing distance or modern humanity (i'Olll nature, arc seldom exploited - the ability to cOllllllunicate with spirits I111ght he one such power, but there could also be others, including the ability to see into the I'uturc and to heal. So c10scness to nature, a sense of'tilC lInity o/';dlnature including hUlllanit)" and bclicl' in the possibility or experiencing (;od through nature were all typical parts or this current or thin king, ;\not her was t he rediscovery of' ancient sources or wisdolll, especially via Eastel'l1 religions. A characteristic ligurc was ;\nnie Besant, one orthe British pioneers orbirth control and oj' socialism, and later an associat.e of' Candhi and president or the Indian National Congress. Brought up as an cvangelical, sltl' hecame in her teens an Anglo-Catholic, and then successively a liberal Anglicall, a COllltian, and a leading Secularist, bcl(lre converting in I HW) to Theosophy. As so often, the move away li'om Seclliarism began with an interest in psychic phenomena. As a result of'attending seances and investigating examples or clairvoyance, she became convinced that. 'there was sOllle hidden thing, some hidden power, and resolved to seck until !shclfilllnd', What she f{lIInd was pantheism - 'lie is in everything and everything is in I lim' - and a belier in reincarnation and the law of' karll1a:,r, The 'third way' oltcn involved a challenge to current sexual orthodoxies. Annie Besant in her later years advocated celibacy. ,\ dint:rent kind or challenge came /i'om Edward Carpenter, a limner Anglican clergymen and (:ambridge don, who resigned his orders and went to live in a village ncar Shcllicld, worklllg as an adllh education lecturer. Best known as one or the pioneers or British socialism, he was the author of' 'Iinfl(fI'{l.I' /)(!IIIO(,},({1'\' (I HH:i) and or the popular socialist hymn, 'England Arisc'. He also 'wrote SI'X-[-/)(I(', IIl1d I/S PIII(,(, III II Fi'('(~ SOOI'/." (I H~l4) and fjOIIlO{.!;t'III( IA)'{I!, III ({ 1/1'1'1' SO('II'/)' (I H!l5). Besides advocating sexual, and l'specially hOl1losexual, liheration, Carpenter was a spiritualist with a keen interest in HindlliSlll and other Eastern religions, a vegetarian and teetotaller, a heliever in closeness to nature, and a critic o/' contemporary sciencc.'i(i Nipperdey notes the IIbiqllity in (;erlllan llliddle-c1ass
1()2
I (j,l
circles aroulld I ~)()() of' 'rclig-ion outside the church' or what he calls a 'vagrant rclig-ioll',17 There wcrt' lIlany people who had rejected lirst orthodox (:hristianity and then scientific ratIonalism, and were searching- f()r a vicw of' the world which would he 'spiritual' but without submission to any f(>rInal creed, As a typical example he notes Rudolf' SteilllT, a [e>rllllT disciple of' Haeckel, whosc Anthroposophy, [c)]'Illulatcd in l~) I :1, drew both on Theosophy and on Christiauity. As thc C
Organised Freethought SOllle of t hose who \\'ere Illoving away rrOIll Christ ianit y or J udaislll <joincd secubrist, rreetlwug-ht or humanist 1lI0Velllents. Organised alternatives to Christianity and Judaism had their orig-ins in France alld Engbnd ill the l'Cvolutiollary years or the 17!)()s, and in Eng-land t he 'infidel' t radit ion, wit hits st reng-t h among radical artisalls alld shopkcepers, contillued under the leadership or such lig-urcs as Richard Carlile and (;corge.J aeob I Iolyoake in t he I H20s, I H:lOs alld I H·IOs. Since the keystone of Eng-lish popular Christianity was the Bible, regarded as inspired In all its parts and as the linal
1\E1.1EF
l(i5
authority on every question, English 'infidels' devoted a larg-c part or their energies to exposing inconsistencies and absurdities in the sacred text. Their principal guide was 'linn Paine's Age of H('(!soll (I 7!)4), an attack 011 Christianity written [i'OIn a dcist viewpoint. The ot her, cqually IIII porlant dimcnsion or t he English sccular 11100'ement was practical and political. Frolll Painc, through Ilolyoakc to Charles Bradlaug-h, the leading English Secularist or the later ninetecnth century, the movcment was dominated by political radicals, whost' attacks on relig-ion [ileused as much on the wealth ort.he c\crg-y and the tics bet.ween church and statc as on more ahstract t hcological issues. It was in the later nineteenth and early twentieth century that organised irrelig-ion reached its greatest st.rcngth, In England the most popular anti-religous organisation 1Il this period was the National Secular Society. /iHlnded in I H()(i, which developed out or the London Sccular Society, [eHlnded in I H51, By comparison with its counterpart.s ill France, the National Secular Society remained a relatively small body, with 120 branches and several thousand InCIllhers in the peak year or I HH,), and with a membership drawn mainly li'om the working class and lower middle dass. IH However, in the period li'om about t he I H50s to t he I HHOs it had a considerable inl1ucnce on t.hc politically active and self-educating- sections or the working class. Even ir the lllemhershlJ) or Secular Societies was slllall, Charles Bradlaug-h, who was not only President or the National Secular Socicty, but a leading- c;lInpaig-ner on a variety or other radical issues, could attract hug-e alldiences to his lectures both in his London headquarters, the Hall or Science, and ill the provinces . .J list as Noncon[()rmist chapels lwd 'hearers' who reglllarly attended services withollt becollling members, and who were very onen more nUlllerous than t.he membership, Secularism included a large penumbra of'sympatlllsers, who probably shared Illany of' the mOVClllen t 's principles and goals. II owcver, Royle sugg-ests that even the most generous estimate or the I1lllllber or Secularist adherents in the I H70s and I HHOs would put it no hig-hcr than (jO,()()() - which was tiny by comparison with, I()r instance, the Immber of Methodists, who recnllted within a similar upper workillg class/lower middle class miliell.
l(i()
propagandist role, publishing i'reethought classics and scientific . I"IgHlllS s Iant:r,1) wor.:.s I Wit. JI an 7 societies were limned in the period 1901-14.'>1 Naturally the mO\'cmcnt was well represented in Paris and other big cities. BI;t the l1lost striking cvidence or the widespread diffusion or organised rrecthought was the filnnation or 1IlimermiS branches in mainly rural regions. For instance, the years I HHO-H!i saw the fill'mation or eighteen societies in the '{ollne and sixteen in the Ellre, neither or which contained any large town. Atthe nationallcvclthe leaders or t he movement tended to be lawyers, doctors and Radical or Socialist polit icians. At t he local level, the key figure was very olien a teacher, t hOllgh t here were also nllmerolls mayors who belonged to a fi'eethollght society. Among the rank and file, the largest occllpat ional groups were fitrl1lers and wine-growers, wit h building and llleu~1 workers. innkeepers and small shopkeepers also ,," well representc( I .' In (;crmany an important role was played by the Free Parishes, originally cstablished by (:hristian rationalists. After their hrier heyday in 1H4 H-4!1, and t he repression or the J H!10s, t hey gradually evolved in the direct Ion or a more t horollgh-going rat ionalislll, minimising or dropping altogether all sllpernatllral clemcnts in the Christian creed and arriving in sOllie cases at atheism. By I H!i!) whell they rc-organised under the title Leaglle or (;erman FreeReligious Parishes (81111riji'l'l),I'/igiiisl'I" (;I'IIII'III(/i'll /)l'llisr"'r/lIt/s), many parishes had removed the altar and stopped singing hynll1si.,the prcacher had bccome a 'speaker' and his sermon a 'Iectllre'."" In some areas, including Berlin and Saxony, Illany or the pioneers or socialism Iwlongcd 1.0 the Free Parishes",j and dllring the period or the Anti-Socialist Law in the IHHOs meetings or the Parishes cOllld
BELlEI'
i(;7
provide a li'ont Ii)!' Social Democratic activity. In Germany organised irreligion reached a high point in the period between about I HHO and the First World War, when many new organisations were fiHlnded. Those who thought the Free-Religious were still ioo rcligiousjoined the (;erman Frccthinkers League. set. up in IHHI by fi)lIowers or Ludwig Biichner, one or the most uncompromising exponents or scicntific materialism, and an international rreethinking celebrity. By this time Biidlller's popularity was rivalled by that or Ernst Haeckel. under whose direction the Monist Leaguc was /c>rIllcd in 190(). Jn 190H Social Democrats. who fdt that t he exist ing groups were too much influenced by middle-c1~l~~s Liberals. fi>rlned a separate Proletarian Freethinkers' League."" There were also numerous small fi-ccthinking groups, and in 1909 an umbrella organisation called the Weimar Cartel was set lip. Simon-Rits puts their combined membership on the eve or the First World War at 4:)'()()O, which would be more than the membership or equivalent OTOUI)S in En'hrlancl. but much less than in France.'-'(; h ,
Eclecticism Freethinkers were often as doctrinaire as any religious believer. But t herc was anot her less well-defincd t hough equally important tendency at this time an aversion to 'dogma' or any kind, and an eclectic readilless to mix beliefs drawn fi'olll many dif1l'rent sources. In the early twentieth century, the Bishop or Birmingham, Charles Core (a leading Anglo-Catholic), summarised this latter trend by saying that 'some thirty years ago' 'there was a sort or Protestant religion' 'which filr good or c\'il could he more or less aS~~lIned', but that now 'religious opinions arc in complete chaos'.'" Kselillan presents a simibr picture ill his account of' religious pluralism III French cities in the later years or the nineteenth century. The 'unchurched' were llot necessarily 'irreligious'; many or them 'COllstructed religious systems fi'om a combination or sources that included Catholicism, the occult, socialist ideology, and nationalism'. As onc rather striking installce, he mcntions the veterall repuhlican.iournalist and politician, Claude-Anthime Corbon, who in a serics or books in the I H()Os and I H70s advocated a mixture or Christ ian socialism and belief in reincarnat ion. But he also cites various examples or spiritualist mediums who claimcd to by loyal Catholics and or Catholics with a keen interest in the occult."H
lfiK
BELlEI:
SH:II..\RIS,\TION IN \\'ESTERN FlIROI'F" IH·IH-I!II·I
The dogmatic rejection or 'dogllla' was well illust.rated in a correspondcnce which ran lilr several llIonths in 1~)(}4 in London's [){/d" '1i:ll'p;mjJ/i lilCllscd on the <juesion 'no wc believe?' Several thousand letters were sent to the paper - another illllstration both orthe keen Interest ill qllcstions or Etith and dOllht at the tillle and or the very divided state or pllblic opinion - and a select ion was later pllblished as;1 bool" The cditor orthe paper, W, L Courtney, detected a degree nrconfilsion in Illany orthe letters. Ill' attribllted this to the Etct that science had Illadc people scept ieal or Illany orthodox religious teachings. but that many scientific lindings were hard to accept. and the will to believc in (;od and in a purpose filr hllman life remained IIndilllll1ished. As a reslllt people were 'keeping in separate pigeonholes. as it. were. what they want to satisly their religiolls instincts, and what they want to satisl)· their intelligence and their reason'. 'Dogmatic Christianity' h;lcl decayed. hut 'the 1'0 I' III or Christianity which is most common in ollr own day docs not repose upon dogmas at all'. Indced, 'A hard, definite, logical and systematic religious [lith is almost an impossibility ill the England we kno\l"/1 The letters that lilllowcd included llIany writtcn by dogmatic Christians or dogmatic atheists. But there was also a large gJ'()up li)r whom 'dogma' or 'orthodoxy' of any kind was objectionable. Many prolc.'ssing Christians saw their religion either as essentially practical or as based on I;lith - in either case fi>rlllal creeds tended to be dismissed either as secolldary. or evcn as irrelevant. Some correspondents adopted a pluralist approach to religion. l'ekrl'in~, Ii)!' instance. to 'the basic and rundamcntal truths, whcthn taught bv Buddha. Plato or Christ'.(iO And others w('l'e more sell~cons~:iousl;' constructing a belic!~systcm drawn li'om a variety or sourccs. Thus onc writer called Ielr: belier in a God who lovcs and saves Ilindoos and Buddhists and Mohammedans. as well ,IS ChristIans or a hundred sects. and prepares each. by the experiencc of one or morc earthly lives, lilr t.he next school or training in the gl'cat evolutionary march or embryonic souls /i'om chaos towards that perl(~cted state which can gaze upon the hce or (;od Ililllsclr.()( According to allot her cOl'rcspondent: thollgh Englishmen have lost 1;lith either in the ahsolute trllth or the (;ospel, or in the orlhodox creed orthe Churches. a very large
l(i9
and increasing' number orthelll ding tenaciollsly to the li)lIowing creed. namely - that thnc is a God and a fut.ure lik. and that this world has in the lik orChrist thc ncarest approach to a Diville example to lilllow ever sent dowll among sinrul men. VVllcther Christ was able to work miracles or not docs not concern t helll, though they arc inclined to doubt it. What docs concern them is thclr belief that a great, inscrutable, living liln:e and intelligence is slowly evolving order out or chaos, and bringing about that stat.e or hUlllan perknion which wc call 'Heaven,.(i:! Most participants in t.he /)({i~\) 'INl'p:rrljlh correspondcnce were middle class and many or thelll were highly educated. They came li'olll a social background where. until quite rccently. concertl lell' Christ ian doct rinal ort hodoxy had been widespread. and where there was also a signilicant minority of those whose I;lith in sciencc inclllded an uncompromising resistance to 'heresy'. In workingclass commllnities. as Sarah Williallls has shown. an eclcctic approach to qllestions or belier was long-established and more widely accepted. Working-class Londoners in the early years or this ccntllry li-cqllcntly combined bcliefin Christianity and practice o/'variolls Christian rites with a range or 'I(llk beliefs' ora kind oncn decmed pagan.n:1 In the mid-nineteenth centllry. working-class Methodists o/icn combined their evangelical doctrinal schema with belier in hoggarts and ghosts and the practice or variolls lllckbringing ritllals, while workin~-class Spiritllalists on en combined their lloVel and 'heret ical' ideas wll h a liberal and IIndogmat ic lilrm of' Christianity. At sllccessive seanccs in the I K!i()s. the Christ.ian Spiritllalists oj' Keighley took eclecticism to the length or making commllnication with the spirits lirst o{"lrllll Paine and then or Martin Lllther.(il
Conclusion 'The mixing of Christianity with a variety or other supernatllral beliefs has a vcry long history. and in spite of the objections or the clergy, most people IIsllally saw t his mixing as IInproblemat ie. Bllt in the nincteenth centllry Christianity and Jlldaism were in a direct competition with a variety of rival views oCthe world, whose exponents li'equcnt1y aimed to replan~ the older Eliths. 'I\\'o or these, the 'scicntific' and the 'political'. were particlllarly important bccallse or
170
the evangelical zeal with which they were propagated and becallse or the inflllcnce which they acquircd over wide sections or the edllcated middle class and the working class respectively. Those west Europeans who hrl)kc away fi'olll their ancestral Etith or who joincd scclllarising campaigns in these years did so predolllinantly under the inflnence of' one or bot h of' these new Elit hs. The clllergence of' a significant llIinority of' avowed unbelievers also underllIined the statlls of'rdigion as a 'shared language', providing rites, sYllIbols and concepts, available to thc whole cOlllnlunity at tillles of' celebration or of' llIolirning, drawn lIpon by those in power to legitimate their ;lllthority and hy oppressed groups to vindicate their claims. But if' 011(' looks at how this growing pluralism arlccted the hdiefS of' tIll' majorit y of' pcople, t he prevailing t rend is not the reject ion of' older helids, but a degrce or eclect icism, and or accolllmoda t ion bet ween old a nd new.
5
Going to Church
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there were many parts or Europe where regular church-going or participation in COll1lllunion was legally required - even ir the enf()rcemcnt of' the law could never he totally cfkctive. In England, the Elizabethan statute prescribing weekly attendance at the parish church was repealed only in I H4G, though it hecame a dead letter after the Act or 'I()leration in I ()HD. By removing all penalties fi'om Nonconf(mnist worship the Act also opened the way to those who worshipped nowhere. In most of'the (;erman states, there were laws requiring attendance at church, though these were no longer cnf()rced after ahout the middle or the eighteenth century. In France, church-going was not required by the state, but those biling to receive comllllll1ion at Easter could be barred /i'om marrying or acting as godparents. By the eighteenth century these penalties were seldom rigorously applied, hut participation in Easter Communion contllllied to be very high, at least ill rural areas, until the Revolution.' It is meaningless to compare levels or participation bcf(n'C and aller the lifting of' such requirements. But as increasing degrees or religious /i'eedom became available, patterns or observance began to diverge, and statistics of' the various f(n'ms or religious practice Iwcame the means Elvoured, both hy contemporaries and by historians, of' measuring t.he levels or krvour or alienation in dif'krent regions or social classes.~ There arc certainly many pitEllls awaiting t.hose who do this. Anyone who assumes that a full church means a parish of' devout. Christians might take note of' Samuel Butler's typically sardonic account of' the congregat ion at his f~lI her's Nottinghamshire church around I H40:
171
J7:!
They were chielly brmcrs - Ell, \'Cry well-to-do 1()lk, who had cOllle sollle or them with their \Vi\'(~s and children rrom isolated Emlls two and three miles away; haters of'popery and of'anything which anyone Illight choose to say was popish: good, sensible fellows who detested theory or any kind, whose ideal was the maintenance of'thl' status quo with perhaps a loving rellliniscence of' old war tinles, and a sense or wrong that the weather was not more cOlllpletely ullder their control, who desired higher prices and cheaper wages, but otherwise were lIIost contented whell things were changing least: tolerators, ir not lovers, of' all that was Elllliliar: haters of' all that was unf;lllliliar: they would have becn equally horrified at hearing the Christian religion doubted, and at seeing it practised.: 1 Conversely, sympathetic cOllllllentators on Victorian workingclass lik ohjected to the idea that low levels or church attendance could be taken ,IS cvidence of' irreligion, and such historians as Sarah Williams have developed this point at length." [n France, both contelllporary obserHTs and historians have made a great deal of'what was called 'resj}('rllllill/(f/Il" which meant an unquestioning acceptance of' t he locally prevailing norms of' behaviour.") [n some parts of' nineteenth-ccntury France this led to f'ull churches and in others it led to empty churches. There were many people who kept their beliefs to thcmselves and ()lIowed the local custom. There were also dif'ft:rcnccs betwecn difkrent religious traditiOIlS, and hetween those of' similar traditiolls in difkrent countries, as to the relative importance attached to difkrent rites. For instance, III the ninetcenth ccntury English Protestants attended Sunday church services ill much greater numbers than (;crman Protestants, while Ell' more (;el'lllan Protestants participated in comllllinion at least Ollce ill the year than did those in England. l; And while regular attendance at S1lnday services was generally regarded by nineteenth century Protcstants as being both a religious and a social duty, this could not have quite the f(m:e of' the Catholic teaching, according to which those who lllissed Sunday lllass without good reasoll were ill a state of' lllortal sill. [n gcneral, the Elilure by a Catholic to go to church on Sunday, to reccivc communion at Easter, to marry in church, or to have childrell baptised, was mort' likely than a corresponding Elilure by a Protestant to represent a deliberate defiance of tile church or rejection of'tllC f;lith. Catholic teaching was nllich more explicit and insistent than t hat of'most Protestant
(;()IN(; TO <:111'1<<:11
churches in inculcating these duties and in warning of' the divine punishment awaiting those who neglected thcm.! The great appeal of' religious stat ist ics is, of' course, that t hey allow a degree of' precision that is otherwise impossible. The exact date when church-going began to increase or decline can be identified, alld fluctuations in the size of' congregations can be related to political or economic events, to the publication of' particular books, or the preaching of'a popular evangelist. Statistics of'church attendance or participation in communion provide the hest evidence oj' the extent and distribution of' attachment to the various churches. The), cannot, however, he llsed as evidence fi)r religious belief' or a lack oj' helief [n view of' the dif'f<'Tences between countries and between religious traditions in the significance of' particular rites, it is also more revealing to use the statistics to trace developments within particular coulltries and traditions, rather than to make comparisons bet ween them.
Patterns of Religious Observance c.1850 Patterns of' religious observance in western Europe already varied cnormously at the middle of' the nineteenth century. Around IH!iO the proportion of' the adult population attending church on an English Sunday varied (i'om around 70 per cent in the St [ves district of' I [untingdonshire to ahout 1;\ per cent in Longtown, a remote district ofCumberJand, running along the Scottish border. In France the proportiol1 of' Easter communicants in the population aged thirteen and over varied li'OIn ~() per cent in the diocese of' Nantes to 7 pCI' cent in t he diocese of' Versailles. [f' figurcs f()I' smaller units were a\'ailal>lc, t hey would ckarly show e\Tn nlOre ext remc variations. [n (;ermany in l~(i:! the numberof'l'rotcstant cOlllmunions in relation to the total Protestant population in I ~(i:! varied li'om ~;l per cent in Hesse-Nassau and Schaul1lburg-Lippe to 17 per cent in Berlin. (,Ii) discover what proportion of'adults were comlllunicants, onc would dearly need to deduct children li'om t hc populat ion total and multiple communions f'rom the COl1l111l111ion total. j\ study of' Hanover suggests that t he number of' t Ill' bt tn was small. t hough in some rural areas t hey may have been more fi-cquent.)H linl()rtunatciy, statistics of' Jewish attcndance at synagogue, or other f()rms of'.Jewish religious practice, arc scarce. Rare examples arc the British religious census of' I~!i I and the religious census of'
(;OIN(; TO CIIt'RClI
LOIldoJ) in I ~)():), the /iJrlner counting attendance on an average sabbath. and the latter OJ) the first day of' Passover. These figurcs confinn a n1l1l11ll'r of' points that arc also suggested by other sources: that attendancc at synagogue was mainly an activity or adult males IlO less thall 7i'1 per cent oj' the adults coullted at the London census in I ~)(l:\ were men; that attendance on an average sabbath was relativcly low - Elldellllan estllllatcs that about 10 pCI' ccnt of' British .Jews wcnt to synagogue on the day oj' the census in I i'I!ll; and that attendance was much higher on certain I'cstivals - an cstimated 2!l pCI' ccnt or London .Jews were counted at serviccs in the census or I ~)O:), and there were others attending smaller synagogues omittcd by the ccnslls-takers.!) Throughout the nineteenth century, alld into the carly twentieth century, complaints o/' declining attendance at synagogu{' were rik. We lind thelll In, Ii»' instance, Hamburg. in the early nineteenth century, wherc they provided a major pretext li)r the rc/ill'l11 movement. ill Paris ill the I i'l70s, and in London in the early twentieth century.IO But sinc(' precise ligures arc so seldom available, it appears to be impossible to trace the changes over time. In the remall1deroj.this chapter, thercli)]'e, I shall concentrate on the various branches o/' Christianity, and I shall not attempt to enlarge on the imprcssionistic discllssion or t rends in.J cwish religious pract icc which I provided in chapter :).
Trends in Religious Practice I f' we look at t rends across t he period li'om I i'l4i'1 to I~) 14, we Gin divide t he regions or west.ern Europc into several groups: (I) Those where there had already been a large drop in the level orrcligious practice dlll'ing the period 17!lO-li'I!lO (e.g., Pans and the Paris region, most nol'th (;erman towns). (2) Those where th('l'(' was a substantial drop during the period i'rom the mid-nincteenth century to the First World War (e.g .. England, most towns and industrial regions in France, most predominant I)' Protestant regions or soul hern and n~nt ral Germany). C) Those where the level or reli
17!l
(4) Those where religious practicc increased during this period (e.g., t hose parts oj' Alsace-LolTainc t hat were annexcd by (;ermany III I i'l71 ). There were also some places where religious practice has always been low - or at. least had been low since long beli)re I i'I!lO. This W;IS the case in SOIllC li)rest, marsh, heath or coastal settlements, where IlO church had ever been built, and the people seldom had llIuch tontact either with the clergy or with other figures oj'authority. For instance, the 'wild mcn oj' t he marshes' at CUlnes Ilcar (:alais were said to live 'isolated, without religion, speaking who knows wklt languagc'. Ilcre, as III man)' such areas, the first churches came in the second hal/' oj' t he nineteent h cent ur)" and as II ilaire COl1llllents, Catholicism and 'civilisation' tended to advance together. I I In the Harz mountains in the carll' twentieth ccntury it was claimed that the scattered cOlllmunities oj' mincrs and iron-workers had ncver hecn well provided lill' religiously. and that eh rist ianit y and the church wCl'e regarded as 'fi)reign imports'. Ie! The religious census 01 I i'I:) I showed that the lowest level oj' attendance in England was liHlnd in a belt orrcllIote rural districts in CUlllberland
17()
,~F,<:IL\RIS,\TI()0i
IN \rESTERN 1-:1 ij'OI'E.
IH'I~-I(III
later eighteenth ccntury.11 Figures f(lr church attendance arc less onen available. But it is clear that by the IH40s, and probably at an cady date, the proportion or Protestants attending church on ,111 avcragc Sunday \\'as already Elirl)' low. For Berlin there were estill1ates of' about I () per cent, and fill' llall1burg in the I H20s and Frankf'llrt in the IH,IOs then' arc ('ommcnts on the sparseness of' le congregations, but without an)' precisc figures. , Clearly, the decline of' Protestant religious practice in (;crmany began long Iwl()I'C the onset of' IIldustrialisation, and in somc cases, such as that of' I LlI1over, IwliJrc the period of'rapid urban growth. Iliilschcr explains the decline partly in terms of'social and economic changes. which applied llIainly to larger cities such as Berlin and Ilamllllrg. ,md partly to intellectual and cultural changes willch applied llIore \\'idely. Among the IClI'Iner he notes t he rapid growth and increasing lIlobilit), of' the urban population, and the development of' extensive entertainlllent EICilities. such as theatrcs, c()]]('('rt-halls and bcer-gardens which cOll1llCted stronO"I)' with the I (j . t1 churches. It II1lght he added that In Bedll1, where no nell' Protestant chnrch \\'as built betwecn 17:)~) and I WEi, the shortage of' churches which Ill'came notorious in the later nineteenth ('('ntun' when Bnlin was duhhed 'thc llIost irreligious city in the wodd', wa~ already apparcnt in the latn eightecnt h ccnt ury. 17 Among the intellectual and cultural developments, thc inllucncc of' the Enlightenment both on the educated middle class generally and also on a large part of'the Protestant clcrgy is clearly important. According to I liilsclwr it did not otien lead to an outright rejcction of' (:hristianity; hut it EI\'()\]red a highly individualistic approach to religion in which dogma and cxternal observances were bot h seen as being of'minor importance, while indi\'idual Elith was ali-important. Onc oj' the m;ljor practical consequellces of' this new religious approach "',IS a relaxatioll oj' church discipline. Pastors no longer thought it appropriate to regulate the hehavlour of' their parishioners by naming sinncrs from the pulpit or excluding them f'rom act ing as godparents. I H A part icularly imjlortant dcvelopnlcnt during this jlcriod was the f()J']nation of' nUlllerous voluntarv associations (li'rl'illl'), which took on wldc-r,IIWill"" intellcctu;d • IT,..., h creation,d and sOllletimcs charitable runctiolls, alld fClr some of' their mCllIbers calllc to operate almost as alternative churches. Originally thc province oj' bourgeois mcn, the 11'1'1'1111' expanded cnol'lnously dllring the nineteenth century, otiell drawing in wOlllcn or nH'lllhers oj' other social classes. and bccolllln ,..,o ' a c(,ntral
( ;0 I N ( ; T() <: III i R <: II
177
featllre lirst of' Ilrban lifl~ and then of'rural lire too ill the Germallspeaking world. While these developments went f'urthest in predOI1l i nail t II' Prot cst ant cities, Sch liigl' s research on Aachen. M ii nst er and Cologne suggests that there Illay have been similar trends ill Cat holic cit ies too. I~l In Paris and the sllrrounding rllral areas, as well as in some other parts of' France, including much oj' the Bordeaux region. the turning-point seems to have been the period f'rolll I7H~) to 1HO I. These years saw the Catholic Church split in two, then the persecution of' the non~junng church. filII owed by the terror and liln:cd dechristianisation, and then, even aticr the churches began to reopen, a severe shortage of' priests. and continuing disputes bewtecn constitilt ionals and non~Jurors. There were llIany ways in wl\l(:h the evcnts or these years llIight precipitate an exodus f'rom the churches. In the lirst place, the Revoilltion ol'f(~red an unprect'dent cd degree or fi'cedol11. This was particlllarly wclcomed in the area round La Rochelle, whIch had been a Protestant stronghold in thc seventeenth century. and wherc large 1lI1ll1bers or Jlcople werc (ilrcihly COll\,(']'tcd to Catholicisnl.~() Their descendants were among the first to givc up practising what had generally been a very lukcwarm Catholic f;lith. Sccondly, the opposition to the Revolution or many of' t he clergy and or t he st rongly (:at holic peasantry or t he west hclped to unleash a violent anti-clericalism, which lert a permanent mark in Paris and other strongholds or revolutionary militancy. Thirdly, the church !;lced special problems in the first hall' of' the nineteenth century in regions, like the lie de France, whcre most or the clergy had taken the oath of'loyalty to the constitution in 17~)O. During the dechristianisatiol1 or 17~);)-~)·1, the majority or the nonjuring clergy were already In exile, while the cOllstltutional clergy were still in thcir parishes. MallY thousands of' them succulni>ed to the severe pressures that wcrc put upon thcm and ahdicated their pricst hood. onen marrying as wcll. Evcn artcr t he Concordat or tHOI and the gradual reconstruction or the church, these arcas slllll~red li'om a shortagc of' c1ngv. In I HHi, I [i per ccnt or the parishes in France were vacant, but in parts or thc Paris region, thc , "I centre and the south-west the proportIon was over;)() per cent.- In somc or these areas there was a gencration brought up during thc re\'olut ionary era who had not been catechiscd, had not receivcd thell' First Comllllillion, had not becn married in church, and had never learnt habits or church-going, Even when priests wcre available, prohlems oncn arose rrOIll the LlCt that t hcy were out or
17~)
17~
sympathy with local religious traditions. After the implementation or the (;oncordal in I ~()2. ,md even Illore ancr the restorat ion or the Bourhons In IKI'f-I!i, f(>rIner non~jllrors held most of'the key positions ill the church, and Ihere was ofien a deliberate policy or marginalising or cOlllpletcly exclllding those who had belonged to thc constitutlollal church. Many or these priests retained a poplliar f()lIowIng and became a f()Cus f()!' dissat isElct ion wit h the reslored church and oppOSition to the priests who had supplanted thCIlL~:2
Throughoul the pcriod rrolll the restoration of'the Bourbons in I ~ l!i to the cstablishment or the Second Republic in I ~'l~, indif~ /(TeneC or positive hostility to the church. olien justified by rekrcnce to Voltaire and olher heroes or the Enlightenlllent, was very widespread among bourgeois Illcn in all parts or France, including those regions where the mass or the people and llloSt bourgeois WOlllen were fervcntly (:atholic.~:\ In Paris and the surrounding countryside, however, peasants and workers lended to be as anliclerical as Ihe bourgcoisie, and the proport ion o{' WOlllen going to Illass - though stilllllllch higher than Ihe proportion o{' men doing so - was relatively low. Sometillles the timing or the declinc in church-going call be docunl('nted qllite precisely: in Bayeux, according' to Ilunon, thc Illajority of' the population stopped going to mass somc t illle bet wcen eh rist III as 17~) I and East cr 17!l2.:21 IVlorc ()nCn the precise timillg is Ilot so clear. but by the middle or the nineteenth ccntury there was a broad belt or low religious practice running across central Frallce rrOl1l Paris to Bordeallx. There is a wealth or illlpressionistic evidence, especially in the f()rIn ()r clerical complaints, Ihollgh accurate statistics are not olicll
,
The Importance of the Years 1848 to 1914 Ilowever, there wcre still at the middle or Ihe ninetecnth centllry large areas or western Europc wherc going to church Oil Sunday or going to COl1llllllnion at Easter were things takcn fi)r granted by the majority or til(' population. and Ilot signif)!ing any special degree or piety or religiOUS commitment. By 1914 snch areas were the exception ralher than the rule. By then there wcre SOl1lC areas where those who \\'cnt to church Oil Sun(lay cxposed themselvcs to ridiq( cllk;-' there wcre many morc where chllrch-goers were regarded
as 'religious people', whose piety, whether respected, admired, or merely' tolerated, was the result or a personal choice.~7 All three countries saw an overall decline in chllrch-going during this period, in spite of numerous local variations (see tables 1-:\). The period bet weell the revoillt ions or 1~4 ~ and t he outbreak or t he First World War marks a very important stage in the declinc or church-going in England, France and (;cnnany. T\vo types or general explanation have most commonly beell advanced to explain this Etct: the impact or Darwinism and or other new intellectllal developments, such as hiblical criticism; and the impact of indllstrialisation and urbanisation, and associated processes of 'modernisation'. A variant on the second explanation is the idea that increasll1g prosperity in the later nineteenth century cncollraged thc idea that religion was no longer needed, and thus \cd to indif~ krencc. However, the more closely one looks at the evidence, the harder it becomes to fit it into any sllch overall scheme. In the first place, it nceds to be noted that the patterns orchange in the three countrIes were very dirkrellt. In England the decline in chllrch-going came relatively late - mostly alitT abollt I ~~)O (sec table :\). Bllt when It came, it an(~cted all regiolls and social classes, t hOllgh Cat holies less than Protestants. I lowevcr. with Catholics comprising only abollt !i per cent or the poplliation in this period, they were a mllch less important minority thall in (;ermany. In (;ermany, as already mentioned, there had been a substantial decline in Protestant religiOUS practice in the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centllrles. There was a rurther decline, in most parIS of' Protestant Germany in t he I ~()Os and I ~7()s. Then bel ween about I ~~() and I ~9!i t hc level or practice stabilised, bcf()rc going into another period or less rapid decline bclween I~~)!i and l~lI:):2H (sec table I). In Germany, however. the confl~ssional divide was fill1damental: while Protestant religious practice declined in all social classes and in all regions during the second hall' or the century, Catholic practice remained high, and /()lIowed its own quite dif'fcrent patterns or development. In France, Gibson inlerprets the figures as showing a gradual increase in the first halrorthe century, reaching a hir.;h point around I f)()O, a stabilisation in the I ~(jOs and early 1~70s, and then a steady decline in t he period I ~7!)-1 ~)O!i. f()llowed by a slight recovery in the period up to the First World vVar I.~~) However, regional variations arc so great that generalisatioll is dinicult (see table 2). The polarisation bclwecn the most strongly Catholic and the ll10st
lHI
(;OIN(;TO CllflRCl1
IHO
Eng'land Ihe hig'hly cdlH:aled arc morc likely Ihan Ihose wilh lillie education,:I:!
Table 1 'liTllds ill Proleslalll religiolls pl'acII(,(, ill CCrlllallY (:OlllllllllliOl1s pCI' I ()O 1lI(,IIIIll'l's of' 11](' Proleslalll IJlIl!ll'Slurrlll'lI 1895 18('2 188IJ Old Prllssia ]]all()\'(T (LIIIIH'rall) Ilcss('-Nassall Bavaria Palal illal C Saxon), (Killgdolll) Wi'lrllcllIilcrg Badell llessc-Ibrlllsiadl I\]ccklcllllll rg-Scll \\'('rin Mccklcllllllrg-Slrelil" BrllllS\\'ick Saxe 1I1 \'-\ \'('i ilia I' (Thllrillgia) Oldcllburg Sax(Jlly-I\I('i IlillgCll (TIIIJrll1gia) I Iamlllll'()' ,., I,iiilcck Brelm'lI Berlin
f)~
(i:1
W' 7H
(
12 !) ~)
.)
7:\
7:2
(i!) (il
4D
7()
!)·I
(iD (iD
!)2 !i:1
:\ ~)
I(JI 3
,\D
:10
·IH 112 (iH
17 IIH
r)H
'1:1
4,1 !)I !)4
,\:) ,I ()
!i7 :1,1
·1·1
n
2~)
()" ..:.....,
2:1
30 I ~)
,12
2H
~7
2'1
J,) C"
41
'I ()
:\1
:IS (iO
2'1 ,Hi
21 :IH
I!)
R
\)
:1,1
ID 1,1
IH 1,1
17
1:1
Hi
2H H 1·1 7 1,1
sl rongly ani i-clerical rCg'ions had taken such ext remc li)rms hy the second hall' the nineteenth ccntury Iha( national developments wcre rcccived within hig'hly specific j'('g'ional environmcnts, m;1I1)' or which l'Cnlaincd inllllllnc to the tcndency to declining rciig'iolls praClicc unlil .Incr the Firsl World War I, or eycn until the I ~)()()s,:\() vVIl('n one looks at Ihe various gcneral explanations thai have becn of'krcd, d irticult it's soon bCCOlllC c"iden!' The cx pia nat ion in I crms or the ilnpact or Darwinism and biblical crilicism works besl fiJI' Eng'land, where (hcdeclinc in chllrcil-g'oingbegan in Ihe lalcr nineleenlh cenlury, and where it was inilially Illost rapid among' members orthe upper middle and 11]>]>1'1' c1asscs, who mig'ht be cxpected to be those mosl Elllliliar with nt'w in(ellectual dcvcloplllcnts,:11 However, il should he rt'mclllbercd I hal ('ven ancr Ihis decline was underway, church-going bv Ihc upper III iddlc and upper classes was hig'hcr than thai fi)r other social groups, and that right lip 10 Ihe present day in
he church-g'oers
'l\Tnds ill Cal holic rcliglous praci ice ill France
EaSier COlllnllllHOIlS as p(TCl'nlage of' pOplllalioll aged 1,1 and ()\'(T III variolls dioceses
C() J_
Source: LtiClan Iliilsciwr, 1Ii'ltgl'l'Ii'ht OIIIT Nl'1'ollltlOlI (Slnllg';II'I, II)H(J),IL 11:\,
or
Table 2
10
Ch;llolls (:harl res ( :lerlllonl-FclT
1870: 20 1868: 22 1807-13: ~)7 1830-47: !)/I 1876-8: (i(i 1805-16: ~),I 1839-45: H(i 1852-(;: i D 1841. 'I~) 1883-4: ~),I 1865: 17 1834: 7 185'1: 17
1892: l!i 1909: R 1903-5: (iO 1908: :1 I 1894-6: Ii:) 1877-8: (i'l 18(;3-9: R:I 1865-9: 27 1874: :i7 1899: !):i 1878-80: 1,1 1859-61. I:) 1889: I:)
1911: 12
1904: ,I:I 1899-H)02:R~)
1883: 21 1901-6: !i'l 1908-10: 7 1893-1901: II 1903-8: I H
Source: Ralph (;ihson, .. I So('illl /listo/'\' o/, h"II('h (;lItholiI'lSIII, 17S<J-/<Jf./ (London,
1!lH!)), I'P, 17,1-1;,
Table:3
'I h:nds ill rdigl(llIs praci ict' ill Englalld
Attcndanccs at placcs of'wol'silip of'ali dellominations on Sllnday orn'IlSttS a IH'I'('('lIlagc orlOlal populalioll
;IS
Londoll (Counly) Livcrpool Binllillgham
1851: 29 1851. :]() 1851, ~K
1886-7: 2~) 1881, :1:\ 1892: 2·1
:2R large Iml'ns':'
1851: :17
1881:
H large IO\\'lIs**
1851 : ..I" ,
1902-4: '27
1902-3: 22 1912: 27
:1:,
,:' These \\Tre sprcad across most regUlJlS oi' England ;nHI ranged In Sill' i'J'()nl ahonl :2(),O()O lip to 'iOO,O()(), Thcse \\'('J'c all in Ihl' norlh or norlh midlands, and IIlcillded 1('\\' \'Cl'\' large !OlI'ns, SO/lrce:
:\ I!J,
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:\~:2.
":I11/ill'
CilllJ'l'h
(Lolldoll,
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pp,
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J W)
The explallation ill tcrllls or intellectual devclopmcllts docs not \\"Ork ;It ,III r(ll' Fr,lllce, where the aliellatioll ri'OI11 the Catholic Church or a Iarg(, proportioll or middle-cbss men dated hack to thc time orthc Rnolutiol\ ;lIld was strong-Iy Illfluenced hy political bUors, \\'here Ii\(' )'e;lrs 1:-\'1:-\-:"') 1 had secn the heg'inning-s or a 'rcturn to the c111ll'C'h' hy a signiricant section or the uppcr middle cbss, and \\'I\('\'(' the pcriod alkr ahout I W)O saw ,I relig-iolls revival specilically ;llnong- illtclkctllals, In Fr
nort h-west or Birlllingham. wit h a comhined poplilat ion of' aroulld ;)!iO,OOO. Withill this relatively small area adult church allcllclallcc Oil thc day of the censlls varied, I(>r reasons that arc oftell Elr frolll clear. hetwecll ahout :)() per cellt alld (iO per ccnl. SOllie tOWIlS or villag-es within the area would support the theory that industrialisatioll was associated with a declille in rclig-iolls practice, hut others wOllld 1101. III r;\Cl, the overall\evc\ of'church-o'oiIJO' tll'ln t"'l ;; was , hio'her h ( in the surrounding- rural districts - mainly becallse or the exceptional strcng-th or Methodism amollg- Black Country miners alld nailers. The l110st that one call say is that certain killds of' eC()J]()mic and social chang-e" provided d;c preconditions I()r subsequcnt chang-cs in religioll.'" Antonius Licdheg-ent'r's st.udy of' the Westphalian cities oj' Bochulll and MOnster illustrates the 1;lct that in the salllc ellvironIlIcnt Catholicislll and Protcstantislll could dcvelop ill vcry dirrcrellt ways, III the period rroll1 I :-\,I!i to I !):Hl. the administratl\'C alld commelTial ccntre or l'vliinster g-rcw f'rom 20,000 to 100,000 people, while BOc\llllll with its mines and ElCtorics aclvanced li'OIn !),()()O to :\()(),()OO. During- this time Protestallt coml1lunicant statistics showed thc predicted decline - li'OI11 (i() per cent to :10 per ('ent in Miinstcr and li'olll 4Ti per cent to 20 per cent in BocllUnl. But when one looks more dosely it becol1les more clillicult to explain II\(' declinc simply as an inevitahle consequcnce 01' industrialisation and urban g-rowth. In the lirst place it IS striking- that the course or Protestallt decline r()llows a very similar pattern in the two cities, in spite or the dil'krcllccs ill their eC011l01ll), and the Ltct that thc rate of' cklllographic g-rowth was Illuch g-reater ill Bochulll thall in Miinster. Secondly, periods of' rapid population gl'OlI't h wen' not always marked by a declillc In religious practice: alicr a sharp drop in the years IH:i()-HO. the Protestant COllllllllllic;lIlt rate stabilised ill the I HHOs, althoug'h the population cOlltinucd to grow very EtSI. Above all. these dralllatic ccollonlic and social changes ha:1 little el'kct on the level or rdig-ious practice hy Catholics. III I ~)2!i, Eastcr commullicants were ovcr (iO per cent or the Catholic population in MOnster and ovC!' !iO per cent in Bochulll. Unr()rtunately, we do Ilot havc a l'llll of' rig'ures, hut it is clear that any declinc ll1ust havc been WTy limited, Impressionistic cvidcnn:, sug-gcsts that the Cat.holic Church in BOc\IUIll was relative!y weak in thc I :-\4()s and I H!)()s, but that its hold over its mClllbcrs began to g-row /i'OIll thc I :-\(iOs with the construction or the all-embracinO' Cat holic milieu.::"' co ~
IHI
SH:IL.\RI.~_\TI()N
IN II'ESTERN EliR()PE. IXIX-II)I-I
The theory that the rising standard or living in the later nineteenth ccntury was linked with growing religious apathy has bccn powerrully argued by ,\. I), (;ilberl. lie sees religion as something which people 'turn to', when they ran sec no human solution to their problems. lie stresses the role orlllcdical advances in reducing the nllml)('r or crisis-points in most people's lives.:\(j This thcory seeills at iirst sight vcry plausihle, but it docs not fit the ElctS. In England throughout the ninetccnth ccntllry the social group most actively involved in org;lIliscd religion was also the most prosperOIlS, n;uncly the uppcr middle class. In France during the second hall' or thc nincteenth rentnry religious involvement by the bourgeoisie was incrcasing, while working-class involvement was diminshing. The motivcs fi))' religions invol\'l~ment cannot hc reduced to tilc scarch fi)r help, and there arc plenty or cxalllples or those who saw their prospcrity as a divine reward rather than as sOl1lething which made religion unlH.'C('ssary.:n Rather than th('1'e being anyone master-ElCtor that explains the declinc in church-going during this period, there were a nUllll)('r or ElCtors which potentially contrihuted to this trend, including econolnic and social upheavals associated wit h indust rialisation or urbanisation; the radicllisation or particular sections or the population, as a result or dramatic political evcnts or the intensification or class conflict: the expanding role or thc statc In areas like cduC
Industry, Cities, Class Conllict bcgin wit h t hc first or t he developments ment ioned ahove: indllstrialisation and IIrbanisation in the ninetcenth century ollen wcre associated with the decline or religiolls practice. The relationship is c1e;lrest in (;crmany. Stat ist ics fi)r the variolls (;erman . J()
COl N(; TO CIIt i RC! I
lWi
states and provinces in the years 1H~)]-!i showed a strong positive correlation hetwecn the Protestant COil! III II ilion rate and the proportion or the population living in rural areas, and also a posItivc correlation, though somcwhat weaker, hetwecn the comnllinion rate and the proportion or the economically active employed ill agricllltllre.: IH As already indicated, the low ratcs or religiolls pract icc ill many Germany towns preceded t he rapid growt h or population in the nineteenth century. However, it is evident that the ll1assi\'(~ shifis orpopulation fi'olll countryside to cities and industrial regions in the second hall' or the nineteenth century presented the churches with enormous logistical problellls, as well as other lIlajor challenges. AllIlost every growing city ElCed a shortage or chllrches and clergy at some point In the nineteenth century. In the extrellle case or Berlin, the ratio or Protestant clergy to Protestant population, which had been 1::Hl()() in I HOO, had grown to I :4:100 in I H!iO, and 1:~)!i~l:1 in I H!)(). By the latter date the largest or llIany 'giant parishes', Holy Cross in Luiscnstadt, contained SOIllC 12H,O()O peopic. In IH!)1, when the national avcrage was I pastor fe)r IHH7 Protestants, othcr great cities, while Ellling short or the situation in Berlin, still showed very unf;l\'ourahle ratios, fi)r instance H J()() in Hamburg, !i!)77 in Dresden, !i()()!i in Leipzig, !i:12/1 in Chemnitz and If.14() in BrCnlell.:I~) j\s well as long-tcrm shortages or clergy, churches and parish centres, llIany other f;lctors might contribllte to the dcclinc or religiolls participation in areas with rapidly growing poplliation, whether cities, or newly developing industrial regions. For Instance, illlmigrants to cities or indllstrial regions sOllletimes ITIlI;uncd highly lllobile. and lilllnd it dirficllit to lelrll1 close relations with a part icular pastor or congregat iOll. l() The Elct that 11111Ch rllral rcligion was c10scly linked with the rertility or the land, protecting animals rrom disease or the cult or local saints, and that confi)rJnitv was llI
u·\(; political nIO\'CnH'nts and rival systcms or bclier, o/"lt:rcd nUlllenlllS altcrnativcs to the church. The estahlisllIllcnt of" EH"torics or mines in areas previously dOlllinated by agriculture or dOlllcstic industry could havc similar consequences, including, fill' installcl', a large influx of" population, antagollislll I)('t \\'('cn t h(' IlCWCOlllcrs and the long-sct tied local population, ncw work-rhythms (onen including Sunday work), and the dcn'lopm('nt of" a yout h cult UI'C, as young people earning relativcl)' high wagcs could ,l/"lilnlto igllol'e th(' moral prohibitions illlposed hy the church or hy thcir parents. Thcse ncwly industrialising COlllll1ll1lities frequcntly underwcnt a dcclim: in church-going aile! other fill'lllS of" religious observallce. The tcndenc), in t his period fi)]' chun:h-golllg to he lower III towns than in rural are,IS, and lower ill those sl11alltowns ane! villages that II'Cre industrialiscd th,Ul in thosc dominatcd by agriculture, was most pronounccd in Protestant regions or (;erlllany, But it can also he sc('n to a lesser degree ill England, France, and Catholic regions or (;erlllany. Ilowcver, these tendcllcics should not bc exaggerated. I\lost towns had a vigorous rcligious Iik, illvol\'ing a suhstantial proportiOlI of" the population, cven ir thc proportion involvcd was scldolll as gre;lt as in the Illorc devout rural arcas.le! Nor did rapid urhan growth nccessarily lead to any precipitous rcligious dcclinc. Whcre cst,lhlished churches were able to respond to the needs 01" growing cities by, liJr instance, recruiting clergy, building churchcs, and providing cducational, charitahle and rene;)t ional Llcilit ies, they olien succeeded in at least stahilising the sitllation. llilaire cites the example 01" the textile districts round RouiJaix and 'Iclllrcoing, olle or the kw industrial arcas of" Frallcc where the parochial lletwork kcpt pacc with the growth ill popldatioll. I :1 The (:hurch of" England, which had sldkred considerable losscs in the pcriod 1'.17!)()-1 ii,IO, made great alld at least partly successrul erlclrts ill the period rrom about IH,IO to IH9() to rebuild its position ill the citics and industrial districts. I I An even greater part in the religious lilt, of"Victorian cities was played by the Nonconii>rtllist chapels, 1:-, which were very successlid III recruitillg those alienated f"rom the established church in the lirst hall' or the ccntury and which, in spite orl\llgliclll revil'al in the secolld hall"of" th(' century, continued to maintain their share or the population. During the period I ii!J I and I HH I when the population or man)' English cit ies doubled, the proport ion or ch urch-gocrs remained Illore or less the same. Robin eill who has cxanlincd figures fill'
lii7 twenty-eight large towns, fC)JuHI a slight drop III average allcndance rrom :)7 per ccnt to ;)!J pCI' c('nt in those years -though the average conceals considerable dirl<"l"Cnc('s, including fill' instance, a large dmp in NOlLins-ham, and signilicant increases in Bolton, Bradli)]"(1 and SIll'rlicld. liI I n hot h England and Prussia, the (;,It holic ( :h urch, in spite orthe dirliculties caused by the ponTty of" most (:atllOlics ill the fe>rtller case, and by s1
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that, 111 particular, the miners' strike of I H9H marked a turningpoinl.liti But evell in south \Vales, lllorc recent research suggests that t he decline or working-class part icipalion in t he chapels was more long drawn out and gradual, and thaI relationships Iwt\Veen the chapels and the growing fe)1'Ccs or Labour and socialislll were many-slded.1i? In England it would he very l1Iuch harder to arguc thaI political evcnts played a major rolc in thc decline or churchgoing during the period rrom thc later IHHOs until the First World \Var. In most parts of urhan and industrial England the level of working-class religious involvement \Vas already considerably lower thall ill south Wales, so that the nUllllwr or those whose churchgoing hahits were likely to he challenged hy political radicalisatioll was smaller. Equally important was the 11lghly pluralistic character of English urhan religion, and the very varied response of the English clll1rche.<; to the advances of the labour movement 111 this period. There was certainly an important secularist strand in English lahour and socialist organisations, hut even in London, ortCIl regarded as the st1'Onghoid of working-class secularism, it was Elr fl'om being the only strand. In many parts or the country, the Nonconfe)rmist strand was very importanl. And in certain localities, such as Liverpool. Manchester and the East End of London, Roman Catholics or .Ie\\'s played a major role. If Anglicans tended to be seriollsly llllder-represcntcd, t here were major individual cxccptions to the ruic, including most notably (;corge Lanshury, [i)]- l1lany years the leading Lahour figure in the East End of London, later cditor of the nllil)' I/I'mld, and [inall), leader or the Lahour Party. There wcre also a nllmher or locally influcntial socialist Anglican fiS cl ergy men. While direct rciatiollships between the rise or Labour politics and the decline in church-going were limited, it can lllore plausibly he argued t hat changes in class rclat ionships, which might be SUI1lmarIsed as 'the decline of paternalism' did have an important role. I;') During the period fl'om the I H!iOs to the I HHOs large paternalist employers had exercised a dominant inllucnce on lire in many p,lrts oi'inc\usti'ial England. Olien they were men deeply im'olved in the lives of' the comlllunities where they made their mone)" sitting on the town council, belonging to a local church, patl'Onising cricket clubs and garden shows, and cultivating personal relationships with their workf()rce. By a cOlllbination or carrots, sticks, and sOllletimes personal charisma, they were olien ahle to havc considerahle inllu('nee on the political and religious hehaviour of their work[im:e. By
(;OIN(;TO CIIlIRCII
197
the 1H90s all this was beginning to change. Where the older generat ion of employers had lived dose to t 1](' works and prided t hel1lselves on knowing by name most of (he people who worked therc, the younger generation were buying country houses, adopting the style of' lik of' the wealthier gentry, and detaching- themselves as Illllch as possible fj'Olll the urban smoke. The trend towards more impersonal and 'rational' styles or lllanagement was in any case inevitable as l;u11il), firms were increasingly tra11s[i)rmed into limited liahility companies with their orIices in London. Meanwhile, especially alter the highly publicised strikes in the later I HHOs and early I H90s, trade union organisat ion was spreading to previously unorganiscd sect ions of the Iahou l' [()rce, and the Social Democrat ic Fednalion (I HH'I) and Independent I,abour Part y (I H~):)) were popularising t he socialist crit ique of capitalism. A more Independent-minded work[())'Ce was not necessarily less religious - indeed a striking katurc of the British socialist Jllovement is the EIC! that so many of its pioneers came fl-OI1l a strongly religious background and delivered their socialist message in a language shaped by religion. But the working class or the early twentieth century was much less willing (0 ()lIow the religious or political lead given hy their employers. Britain to some extent developed a Labour sub-culture of the kind which developed llluch more [illly III (;ermany and France. 70 Besides political parties and trade unions, it incillded the co-ops and the "Vomen's Cooperative (;uild, and also Lahollr Churches and Socialist Sllnday Schools. I lowcver, by cOlllparison with, fe)r instance. (;ermany, the British labour sllb-culture was more limited in scale and less exclusive. The Lahour Churchcs (which were [;lding by 191 II) and the Socialist Sunday Schools ofkred onl' option fi)r (hose who had rejected the churches and wanted a [()rlllal alternative. But there was plcnty of scope fe)r socialists either to remain religiously nClltral or to retain links with onc or tile chllrches.
The Role of the State The third and [(HIrth of' the Elctors impinging on changes in religious pract icc betweell I H'( H and I~) 1·(, namely Ihe growing power of the state and the increaslllg influence of the towns on the cOllntryside, will he considered together, since in France the chicI' example or the latter was the increasing presence of the state
I \lK ill the coulltryside, especially alit,], I KK(). In all threc countries the later ninetecnth and early twentieth centllrics saw a decline in Ilrban/rural dirii:rcllccs, ;IS improved commllnicatlons generally, and newspapers and political organisatiolls in particlllar, rendered rural areas illcreasillgly open to urban inlltlt'llcCS. III many cases thc reslllt was that rllral religious practice declined, moving closer to urhall levels. III (;crlllany, wherc a series orexcelicnt stlldics or local Protestalltism \\"cre Ilndertaken in thc early twentieth celltllry, the general cOllclusion \\"as that all bllt the most remote villages had come Ilnder extellsi\"(' urball inl1uences, and that these were gcn(Tally associated With a decline or religious practice." The process has becn studied ill considerable detail in the rural areas illlmediately to the cast or (;iittingen, in what was the kingdom or II:lnm'tT, until its ;lIlncxation by Prussia ill I K()(). This was all arca or abm'C a\'Cr;lgc levels or religious practice, with the great majority or Ill(' pop,t1atloll receivillg communioll at least ollce ill the year 'lIl11 ahout F)'1r attending church Oil an average Sunday at the elHI of' the nilletcenth celltllry. Ilowc\Tr, the Illunher both or comillullicants and or chllrch-goers was declining, and the hard-to-please orthodox Lutheran clergy who predominated in HallO\'('r \\'Cre not imprcssed with the general ll'\'cI of' picty. One or their chief' Imglwars had Ii)!' long been the prcvalence of' Snnday work on the Ll1'IllS. But li'o1ll the I K7()s onwards Illore spccilically urhan inlluenccs entered into their cOlllplaints, From IK7~ onwards the rrequency o['Sllnday dances was a regular theme in their reports, Froln I KK·' they were cOlllpbining about irreligious newsp;qlCrs, ;l11d in I KKK the), were noting the practice or going ['rom village to village on Sundays, seeking out I hose where dances wcre being' held. From I :-;q() the 11'1"1'/111', ;1 characteristic kaLulT or l1rban lil(~ in nineteenth c('ntl1ry (;erlllany, were becoming t'xtensively estahlished ill the villages, and the Social lkmo(Tats were heginning to will large 111ullbers or votes in elections - thol1gh pastors stressed that in their area Social Delllocratic voters still went to chl1rch, and socialist propaganda did not incll1de att;lCks Oil religion. 1100\'('\'('r, in I q()., they reported that anti-religious ideas \\'ere beginning to get a hearing, Abol1t the same time there were fiTfl'lent complaints of' people li'om (;iittingen coming Ollt to the villagcs on Sl1ndays, witl! all that this Illight illlply in terllls or the spre;l(1 of' l1rban m01'es.7~ In France the state had a major role in these processes, as one of' the lllOSt illlportant instrul1lents Ii)]' the hreaking down or rllral
CO I NC TO <:III: Rei I
I ~)~ l
isolat ion was the secular school. Roger TI!abault in an account 0[' his nat iw' village or Mazihes-en-( ;;'\t ine showed how this Illight COl1le about. In Mazit~res the church was still a very powcrf'ulli)rcc at midcent ury, but by t he I KK()s it was declining in"t he Elce or what Thahault descrihes as 'a new religion', the Elith in progress. The new era began ahout I K()() with Ihe inCJ'easing involvemcnt 0[' the popu lat ion in prod uet ion l()!' t he market and consequent 11' grcater access to new ideas, and it progressed rurt her in t he I K7()s wit h the polit ieisat ion of' t he village hy a st rongly ant i-clerical bourgeois landowner who sun:csslidly challenged t he aut horit y of' the seignell r, replacing the latter as 1I1ayor. But the culmination or this phase was the arrival of' a passionately republican school-teacher, who lilled the younger generation wit.h a helidin the possibility ol'a hetter lik, and who succcsslitlly warded ofT a challenge f'ro1l1 t he priest - when the lattn ref'used absolution to those parents who sent their child ren to t he secular school. most ignored the t h real. Apart I'ro1l1 republican politics, patriotism and belief in education, the new Elith in progress was also associatcd with a more rationalistic 11lentality, rellected in the practice or birth control and the declining in[]uence of' 11lagic. 7:; The state's interventions in religious matters cOllld, however, be counter-productive. I shall return to this the1l1e in the latter part or the chapter.
The End of England's Victorian Era As suggcsted earlier, intellect ual and cult lIral changes arc unlike'" to haw' been a major f;lctor in the decline 01' chllrch-going in France and (;ennan), during t he second hall' or the nineteent h ccntmy, but they Illay havc had a role in England. '[iTllds in English church mcmbership and attendancc have been subjected to intensive analysis. From t he I K!i()s to t he later 1KK()s t he overall level remained Elirl)' stable, t hough wit h some variat ions bet wcen areas and deno1l1inations. A 11lodest drop in attendance at churches of'the Church or England and the major Nonconfi)l"Jllist deno1l1inations was largely compensated I()r by the growt h of' attendance in S011le more plebeian Nonconli)J'lnist deno1l1inations, which suggests that attendance Illay have been growing in this periocI in the working d'ISS. Fmm the late I KKOs to the First \:Vorld War, there was a suhstantial drop in church attcndance and a smaller drop in church
20()
membership.71 The higgest drop or allcndance was in the middle alld upper classes. Figures fc)r LOlldon showed that although wealthier areas still had the highest level or attendance, the gap was narrowing. I n I HHG-H7. the wealt hiest dist ricts had an average rate of" attendallce Oll the census Sunday of" :\(j.:) per cent alld the poorest had all average or 20.2 per cent. By I !)02-:) t he averages were 2().:) per cent fi)r the wealthiest districts asnd I H.!i per 7c cent fill' the ]lOOl"CSI. , Anglican congregations were shrinking bstest, though the Nonconfi)]"lllists also slIrkred significant losses. while trends in Roman Catholic attendance arc less clear. The reasons fill' this decline continue to be hotly disputed by historialls alld no consensus has yet becn reached. SOllle or thc f:lctors which especially a{kcted members or the workillg class have already hecn mentioned. The decline or middle and upper class church-goillg can hest he seen as resulting rrom a comhinat lOll of iilctors. inclwlillg the intellectual and cultural. as well as the social. ;\1ll0Ilg t hcst' were the growt h or religious doubt. part Iy hccuasc of n('w sciellt ific dcveloplllents. hut more especially because of" changes in l1Ioral susceptibilities. which made l1Iany aspects or existing Christian orthodoxy harder to accept; the growing preoccupation with Ieisurc, and the associated reaction against 'puritan' taboos and restrictions; and the decline or the social paternalislll of which religious illstitlltions alld ideology had ofien heen an integral parI. Victorian social clites had rrequently gone to church as;\ social duty, lIlorc or less independently of whatcver religious convictions they had. By the carly twentieth century. the church no longer seellled so inl]lortallt to the functioning or society; landowners alI(I indust.rialists wen: less willing to accept that society and Its needs had any chillls on their tillle or money. and a less dcfi.Tcntial working class was in any case not so inclined to fi)lIow whatever lead t.heir 'masters' tried to give. The change was Ileatly sUllInwd up by an Anglican writer in I!)J I, comparing The Old Squire' with The New Squire'. The fi)rlllc!" 'does not ask whether he needs the cOlllii)rts or religion. he is sure that society needs religion, and ir society needs religion he, ;IS one or the first in the social organisation, must he there at his post', The latter lived in the country because it was a pleasant place to live. and he meant to enjo), it; it was IlO COllcerll or his whether the children went to school or their -r parents went to church. ( ) The surveyor church attelldance in Londoll in 1902-:) showed that the largest congregations were still to be f
(;OIN(; TO CIII'RCII
201
suburbs. with large concentrations or the pro/t'ssional allc! business classes. In a group ohvealthy suhurhs the median Ic\rel orattendancc was ;)7 per cent or the adult population. alld a lIIaxilllum or 4;~ per cent. was reached in the very artluent south-easterll district or Blackheath. In these dist.ricts hoth Dissent and the Church or England were vcry strong, 'There had been sOllie decline in church-going in this group since the I HHOs. and Dissent had also surrered /i'om the r\ckction orwealthy bmilies to the Ch\ll"ch or England. But at least IIntil the I HHOs. le\'(~ls or chmch-going in the upper-middle and middle-middle class were vcry high, and in spite or the important political difkrenccs hetween the mainly Conservative Anglicans and t he heavily Liberal Dissenters. t hey were relat ively similar in their religious practices. Even those middle-class bmilics which tried to avoid church-going f
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SECl i l.,\RISSII(0) IN WESTERN Eti!{OI'E.
Table 4
'I lTllds
III
Cal holic religious praCi icc ill (;crlllaIlY
Easler COllllllllllic:lllts as a percentage
( ;crlllallY I'rllssia Ilcssc-[)arlllstadl Badcn PaLuillatc Bavaria 'Vii rt I cllllH'r o...,Saxony ThlirillO-la h Brunswick ()ldcnlJlI roM Bn'llH'1l [ ,iillt'ck Berlin / Braillicnlllirg
.
or all Catholics
19/5
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Source: j\llll(,lllaric Biirgl'l'. /?digio/l,I:IIgl'hiiriglil'il I 'Hi,I). pp, :\C,H-'l,
/11/1/
205
COl N(; TO ell! 'Rell
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pcr cent and ,Hj pCI' (,(,lit; alld In Baden !)7 pcr cent and 47 pel' c('nt. The lIlargin was only narrow in Bavaria (excluding the Palatinate) where it was G,I pCI' cent and (j 1 pCI' cent, and in Hesse where it was DI pCI' cent and 'IHpcr C(,IIt. Somewhat more detailed ligures or Cat holic Easter comlllllllicants are available li)r I ~)~LL when t.he national average was 57 cOllllllllnicants le)r ('very 100 Catholics. Since about a qllarter or the population wen' children too YOllng to he eligible, this wOllld sllgg('SI that as lIlany as three-quarters or Catholics aged 14 and on'!' were doing their Easter duties. II' aCCllrate, this is a remarkable ligllre, The llIaxinH;1ll ligllres tcnded to be ill heavily Catholic rural regions, with intermediate 1c\'(~ls in towns and indllstrial regions, like the Rllbr, where the presence of' (;atholics and Protestants ill Elirly equai nllmbers had lelstered the development ora strollg grollp-consciollsness and all extensive Cat holic sllbcult ure. SOllie Cat holic cit.ies like Cologne had below average-ligures, and the lowest rates were leHind In
Protestant cities and industrial zones, where the Catholic COll1llHIlIity had been eroded hy high rates of' mixed marriages and where the relative weakness of' the Catholic subculture meant that Catholics were susceptible to the pressures of' a mainly socialist or Protestant environment. In cities like Cologne or Munich where a Ill~~jor part or t he bourgeoisie was Cat holic, somet hing or the sall1e working-class alienation frolll the church which was leHlI1d in IIIOSt Protestant areas had taken place, but the Catholic Church in Cologne or Munich retained a much larger working-class Ic)J]owing th;~n did the Protestant Church in, say, Hamburg or Beriin. HI ; It is impossible to say with any degree of' certainty how these generally high levels or Catholic practice in the I D20s compared with the situation lin.y or a hllndred years earlier. However, research by Jonat.han Sperber on the Rhineland and West.phalia suggests that the period between about I H50 and I HHO was a time of' rising religious practice, alier a relatively low period in t.he lirst hall' or the century. Evidence lelr this includes an increase in the proportion or wills containing bequests lelr religious purposes, a rise in the number or people taking part in pilgrimages, and l1Iore bvourablc coml1lents by priests, in their reports to their bishops, on church at tendance and observance or Cat holic moralit y. H7 The solidest evi(\cnce concerns wills. The main statistical stlldy or Catholic piety during t he period 1700-1 H40 shows t hat in t he -West phalian an;t Rhineland cities of' Cologne, Aachen and Miinst.er there was a decline in the use or religious languages in wills, and that there were also other possible signs or st'cularisation, such as a decline in the proportion or books within private libraries which were on religious subjects. HH But a comparison between two lllainly rural districts or Westphalia and the Rhineland shows a clear though unspectacular increase in the proportion orwills including religious bequests or IIsing religious language between the periods I HO I-,l~) and 1H50-72. However, Sperber's chronology has been contested by ./iirgen Henes, using cOllllllunicant statistics li'olll Mainz, as well as !l1ore i!l1I)ITssionist ic evidence li'om Col
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oneil were economically more po",crfid cvell whcre most. or t.he population W,IS (:atholic, alld who aner I H71 dearly dominated t.he newly-established (;erillan Empire [i'om every possible point or vicw.!)!) Whell Catholics and Protestants lived in dose proximity there was a sense ordillC:Tcnce, and onen tension. winch could easily escalate into minor violence. loo In towns like Allgsbllrg. with a longstanding system or 'parity' between the Eliths. Catholics and Protestants had learnt to liv(, in peace, but they had largely contllllled to live scp;lratcly,IOI The redrawing or the map or (;crmany hy the victorious pow(,rs in I Hl!i llIeant that the majorit y 0[' (:at holics were placed uuder Protestant rule, while a much smaller number or Protestants in Franconia and the Palatinate were placed under Catholic Bavaria. The minorit), comlllunit.y was not always hadly treated, but it callie undl'l' periodic onicial attack, in, [()r instance, hot h I'l'IIssia and Bavaria in t he I H:Hls. alld above all in Prussia ill t he I H70s, Wh ill' periodic at tacks hy the stat.e on Cat holic institlltions and upon the leaders or the Catholic comnilinity played a crllcial part in stimulating (:atholic grollp-consciousness, the ridiclile or Catholics and Catholicism in the press and the disdain or those in positions or allthority at a llIore local level provided a constant source or irritation.lo~ In Prllssia, Baden and lIesseDarmstadt the state was in periodic connie! with the Catholic Church rrom the IH:)()s onwards. Events such as the imprisonmcnt or the Archhishop or Cologne in I H:'>7 had an cnOl'lnOIlS impact Oil man)' Catholics. But most Iralllnatic or all was the KII/filr/IIIIIII)/' in Prussia in t he I H7()s. not only Iwcause or t he injust icc or many or t he laws enacted. hut ,!Iso bccl!Isc or the hrutal and arbitrary way in which they wcre cn[()rced, and t he evident contcmpt wit h which nlany Illinisters, politicians and agents or the sUte rcgarded their (:at holic rellow-cit iZ('ns. The i(>rInation ora hig'hly orgalllsed sui>cultllre in the later nincteenth ccntury \I'as not unique either to Catholics (as opposed to other (;CI'Ill:1 Howevcr. t here were kw COUllt ries where it developed as [;11' as in (;erlllany, and in (;crmany only the Social Democrats developed a similarly extensive net.work or organisations held toget her by a silllilarly st rong sense or grou p solidarit y. Th is
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reflected t he sense 0[' exclusion and marglllalisat ion t hat hot h Catholics and Social Democrats experienced in Imperial (;ermany - though it did nothing to bring thelll any closer together, In [~Ict the Catholic and Social Delilocratic sllb-cultures or the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had many important points or comlllon, in spite or their mut lIal antag'onism. The maior di[ference perhaps was that the Catholics were more succcssiid at appealing to women. while the Sonal Democrats appealed nllicil morc strongly to men. Catholics and socialists shared a strongly dualistic pen:eption or the world,lol which providcd a rationale [()r the attempt to provide specifically Catholic or Social Ikmocratic organisations to meet their mcmbers' every need: a militant style. expressed in mass rallies, Illarchcs through the streets. ,md suitably aggressive sermons or spceches: and a rich symbolism and iconography, including' a heavy usc or [lag's and banners, and a tcndency [<)1' cuits to develop aroulld their heroes, martyrs and leaders. Ill:. The leaders themselves had importallt points in COllllllon, in spite orobviollS di[krellces. \Vlwre thc Protestant pastor tended to he sct apart ['rom the mass or his parishioners hy the Elct that. he was a mCllllwr or the cducated bOllrgeoisie, Catholic priests alld socialist leaders typically Glille rrom a lowcr llliddle class or upper workillg class background. They seldolll came hum extreille poverty, bllt typically they were 10calll1en, speaking the local dialect and not too Ell' reilloved socially [i'olll their [()llowers. This certainly docs not Illean that the rebt ionship was problcm-[i'ee. Some degree or tension is inherellt in the relationship Iwtwccn clergy and laity. and the authoritariall style or leadership widel\' adopted by Catholic priests or the second hair or the nineteenth centllry was gllaranteed to hring' abollt periodic cOllrlict both with indi\'iduals and with grollps within the parish, But, as Blaschke shows. the pricst was widely regarded as the sYlllhol or the Catholic comlllllllity. and also as the acceptable EKe or alit hority - a [()]'lllidable [ig'uI'C in some ways, but onc who was trusted ill a sellSC that, i()r instance, a state orticial or a lawyer was nOL I01 ; The ways in which this potential closeness to the people was pllt into practice varied greatly. Blaschke qllotes accollnts or Bavarian peasants and Rhineland workers going to the parish priest to seek advice or cond()rt. Anderson stresses thc role ortl1(' priest as conkssor, and suggests that illtransigent preachers might be milch ll10re llnderstanding in dcaling with individual cases, She also notes examples or priests who were popular becallse or their ability to socialise with their parishioners. 1111
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or nc,rlcctin o " l)Casant interesls bccause or Iheir preoccupalioll wilh h "h " ' " 11:1 " , strengthening Ihe posilion of the church, Meallwllllc, Ihe Catholic Church was experiencing in the working-class suburbs or Munich SOllle or Ihe problems thai the Protestant churches were being, albeit in ilion' acute fill'ln, in the great cities or north (~er many Reports rrom Catholic paslors in the working-class suburbs or Munich inlhe IHHOs and IH~)()s werc 1'1111 orcompiainls or shrinking COil h OT(,O"a Iions ' blasl)hclll)' and unhelier, and imllloralily" - nol to h menlion I'jfll/i'lIsj)()// (sneering al Ihe clergy), a vcry expressive Ccrlllan word which, like Ihe similar lerm P/ill/i'll/ipss!'!" (Iilerally 'prieslealcr'), has no idiomal ic English eqUIvalent. How literally all this should he lakcn is debatable, Prostitules and their clients were highly visible, while f;lInilies who stayed al homc saying Ihe ]"Osary were not; il is highly prohable t hat visible evils, because or t he pain they caused 10 the unwilling observcr, were given a prominence oul or all proportion to Iheir actual significance. Nonetheless il is undcniable I hal Social Democracy, wh ich mosl Cal holic priests regarded as an unmitigated evil, was advancing rapidly. I I I In EICt, durin,r Ihe l)('riod lHqO 10 1~)I2, Ihe Social Dcmocrats usually h 11_ gained o\'(']' hall' the votes cast ill MUllich in Reichstag elections. " IIowevcr, when one comparcs Ihis situation with that in France. or indecd with that in lllany parts or north (~er1llan)', thc lilllits or this anti-clericalism becollle apparent. The orators or Ihc Bavarian Peasants' Leaguc repeatedly stressed Ihat in altacking thc clergy t hey were nol altacking Ihe Cat holic religion, and levels or Cat holic praclice In the Bavarian countryside seelll to have remaincd high. "I 1 t I j(' / I'() pCI' ccnl 0 f'I'',asler G)IllIl1Unlcants ". 00>-1 Ii> was In Munlc III I onl low by the siandards or rural Bavaria, bUI would have seemed impressive in a French cily. Moreovcr, in Munich, SociallknlOcrac), and (:atholicislll were Ell' rrol11 being lllulually exclusive oplions, whatever the clergy and sOllie pari)' mililanls expecled. In olhcr paris or (;ennany il was COll1nlOn fi)r rank-,Illd-lilc party cOlllrades to conlinue to go to church, and in Ihc llIore devoul regions or Ihe country, the parly Iried to sleer clear or religious controversy, in order llot to alienate such supporters. In Munich, Ihe party secrelary was hilllselr a practising Catholic. I 17 (:crtainly sOllie Catholics, bOI h in Baval'i,l and in ot her paris or (~ermany, rejecled the church and the Catholic raith ('nlirely alier .ioining thc Social Del1locrats. Bul this situation was less C0ll11110n in (~crl11any than in France. ;\ cOlllhinal ion or I he powcrrul conf(~ssional ident il)' fdt by llIosl (;erlllan (:at holics and Ihe sl rengl h or I he all-cmbracing Catholic
'milicu' which the clergy built upon this fiHmdation meant that t here were relat ivcly f(~w who broke away enl irely.
Catholic Revival in France In OllC orthe laler scenes fi"om Roger Martin du (;al'd's./l'IIlI nil rois , sci around I~) I 0, Ihe aging hero is harangued by Iwo conserval ive and nal iOllalist Cat holic studcnts. Barois, who has been gradually losing confidence in Ihe republican and fi'l'cthinking principles which he has fi)r mosl or his lif(~ espoused, finds thai his worst suspicions arc confirmcd whcn t hc young men claim that the prcscnt gcneration or studcnts is predominantly Calholic. IIH ABcI' many years or decline, the Catholic Church in France was staging a partial recovcry. The Separation or Church and Slate in I qO!J prcsent cd t he French cln tn:h wit h major fi nancial problems. But the challcnge also had a rc\'italising crfl>ct. The years leading up to the Firsl World War saw a grcal upsurge or nell' Catholic org"'lllisat ions ami nlo\'Clllents. The ycars illll11cdialcly hcfi)J'C the \Var l11ay also havc scen a modesl incrcasc in the IHlll1ber or Cat holics going to mass, Ihough in vicw of' thc draslic regional dirkrcnccs, it is dinicult 10 generalisc. J I!) Therc were thrce aspccls to this Catholic revival. Thc church was in sonic respccts benefiling fi'om Its f'rcedol11 fi'olll slale conlrol. The crisis Elcing the church was stilTing loyal Catholics to he 1II0rt' aCli\'e and puhlic in thc praclice or their fililh and 10 launch ncw fi)l'nls or aposlolale. And thc church W,IS heing l110rc succcssf'td in altracling lIIell - espccially youllg middle-class 111('11. Lilldcr Ihc Concordat lilc crc,llion or a new parish had nccded stale aUlhorisalion, and this was v('I'Y oBcn reruscd. In ils firsl years or il1\'olunlary fi"ccdolll aBn I ~)():j, Ih(' (:;ilholic authoritics seizcd thc opportunity or building man\' ncw churches and fi)rJ11ing man\' nc\\' parishes, and Ihis conlinucd on a bigger scale in Ihe inlcr-war years.I:.!() Calholic consciousness was raised hy Ihc lll;lny Calholic ncwspapns fi)llndcd ill 111IS period, and hy I he congresses hcld in sixt), dioceses hetwecn IQ07 and 1~1l·1, alld atlended hy thc lailY or hoth sexes, as well as hy priests. The period also saw numerous conkrcnces fi)r Ihe sludy or conlemporary social problems, as wcll as a J110re sluggish grOWl h or Cal holic Iradc unions and peasanl organisations. BUI the Elstest growlh was in orgallisations fi)r women and fi)r youlh. Thc higgesl orlhcsc was the Patriotic League
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217
IIlENTIT\,
6
Identity
'Unbelie/' is growing, and Catholicism is growlIlg too. J\nrl it is Catholicism that is worse. The worship o/' idols is worse than unhelief', Thus Aunt ;\delheid in Tlwodor Fontanc's novel lh'J' ,")fl'rMill (I I)!IH). Ev('l' on the look-out I(H' nuanccs or I;\nguage or manner that might betray a lack or Lutheranism, she objects to her ncphew \Vole/elllar using the word 'conkss' (bl'irhil'll) because it is '(;at holic', Aunt AdellH'id is a comic portrait ora pious Lutheran aristocrat or the Illost rigid kind. But she only takes to the level or absurdity a sensit ivit y to con I'cssionally-i nlluenced di Ifen'nces t hat is COllllllon to most ortl1l' characters in Fontallc's novels. Published in the Il)l)Os and 11)!)()s, the books 11Iainl), descrilw everyday lili.~, and especially cOIl\Trsation, in aristocratic and bourgcois circles in Berlin, Brandcnlmrg and PonH,'I'ania. Thc grcat Inaiorit), or the characters arc Protestants (though oneil Elr rrom pious), living in a ll1ainly Protest;lIlt environlllcnt, but they arc well aware or who alllong their acquaintances is or might be a Catholic or a.Jew, and or til(' possible conlt'ssional signilicance o/'tlwir names, the words they usc or their ntltural tastes. When Adelheid's brother, Dubslav von Stechlin, is on his death-bed, he decides not to sec a doctor at all whcn he finds that the old doctOl' with whol1l he is Ellniliar is not availahle: the old man's place has be('n takcn by a yOllng .Jewish doctor, who 'smacks or Social Democracy', holds his cane in a strangc way and wcars a red tic. The heroine or 1,'/lrflllfl'J'() (I I)I):!), on lirst hearing or her rutllre lovcr, Ebenezer Rubehn, has an immediately negative react ion, I)('callse his namc sounds .I ('wish. She has equally negat ivc ItTlings ahollt the paintings or Mllrillo, heGllISe o/'their Catholicism, in which she sees something akin to ",itcheralL I
'Ill be a Christian or a .lew, Catholic or Protestant, Lutheran or RdilrIned, Anglican or Dissenter, Methodist, Baptist. or Quaker, was to share a history, distinctivc customs and rites, symbols and heroes, which continued to shape pcople's view or the world and their own place in it. even irthey gave up practising their 1~lith or belicving in the doct ri nes associated wit h it. In England ;\l'Ound t he middle or the nineteent h ccnt IIry t here would have been somc people, but IlOt vcry many, who rerllsed to claim an)' or these lilrInS or ident it y. And most or those wOllld have claimed some explicitly non-rcligious identity, sllch as that or Positivist, Secularist or Socialist (meaning, in the 11)40s, a lilllower or Robert Owen). In France there were certainly some who would have called themselves Positivists, Socialists or Vo\tairians, but the great majority would have identilied themselves as Catholics, exceptlill' the smallnumhers orl'rotestants and .Jews. In (;e1'l11an), it was dif'licult to disclaim any kind of' religious label. Every citizcn was regarded b), the statc as a mcmber or the religious communit), into which the), had been horn, and of'licial doculllent.s or many kinds recorded this arliliation. 'Ii'anskrs to another religious cOlllmunity had to be liJrlnally registered at the relevant government of'lice, and could be subject to state restrict ions. U nt il the 1H70s It,ll' states allowed lilr t he possibility or a person having no religion at all. When in 11)7;) the option or being wit hout relio'ious al'iiliation (I!olIfi~ssi()l/sI()s) became available in Prush , sia, that choice had to be liJrlnall), registered.The second hall' or the nineteenth ccntury saw two important developments. The lirst was t he emergence or a signilicant minorit), or those whose identIty was cmphatically secular, and who had consciously rejected their Catholic, Protestant or .Jewish inheritance. The second was the increasing importance or nationalism and or membership or political parties as shapers or identity. These two develop111ents to S0111e extent overlapped, since lllcnlhership orthc various socialist parties olien conkrred a strong sense or identity and, at least in Germany and France, and to a lesser extent in England, this identity tended to be strongly secular. Membership ol'the English Secular Socicties, or oCthe Freethought organisations In France and (;cr111any, could also provide the basis lilr a nell' idcntity, which was c111phasised by the introduction or secular rites or passage. These new secular identities developed furthest in France, and by the later nineteenth ccntury the divide bet ween (:at holic and 1(1 ii' was t he deepest in French socict y, eclipsing in 1110St rcgions or the cOllntry older divisions such as <)
IIlEN'lITY
those hctween Catholic and Protcstant. In Germany, the historic divide hetween Prot cst ant and (:atholic rClnained rundamcntal, and newer polit ical and nat ionalist idcnt it ies wcre ofkn st mngly colollred hy conf<"ssional difkrcnccs. In England, the most important rciigious distinction was gcncrally that hetwecn Anglicans and Protestant Dissenters.
Confessional Consciousness Religious identities stamped themselves powcrrully upon thc individual. and could not easily he erased, cxcept hy the somctimcs e"cn stronger countcr-imprint or a political or sccularist idcntity. Fcw pcople were simply neutral. Church and school inculcated ('onkssional consciousness; difkrcnces had developcd over scveral centuries not only f)('twlTn religious huildings and f(mlls or worship, hut also to some extcnt in vocahulary, in reading hahits, in artistic and musical tastes, and in diet. Each conllllllnity had its ntltur,t1 herocs, and an awareness or its collective achievements. Dirkrenccs in ethos, encompassing dif'/<'Tcnt political loyalties or moral valucs also playcd a role.:; (:hristcl Kiihle-Ilczingcr has studied rclations hetween Protestants and (:atilolics in Wi'lrllcmllCrg rrom I HO:l, when the homogeneollsly Llltheran state first acqUired a nllmtTOIlS Catholic population, lip to the I !)70s. At the laller date, most people said that conf<"ssion,t1 conflict was a thing or tIll' past, hilt not vcry Elr hcncat h the su rElce thc sense or dirkrcncc, somct imcs cX;l('crhated hy prcjudices and gric"auccs, was st ill there. Thrce points wcre cspecially noted by Protestants as sUlllllling up the dilkrencc: Catholics Iwell during their worship, which to Protestants sccll1cd undignilied; they vencrated saints, who III Protcstants saw as little better t hall hcat hCll idols; and above all the ccnt ral role or Mary in Catholic Iik emhodied cverything that I'rotestallts regarded as 'sickly-swcet' and 'kitsch', For Catholics, on the other hanc\, their self~pcrcept ion st mllgly cll1phasised pict)' alld devot ion to t hc clllll'ch. The I'rotest;lIlt Church was still seen by thclll as little more than an adjunct or the statc - it could IH.'Vcr inspire thc kind of'af'/<.:ction which they kit f()r their 'Mother' Church. Protestantism was also eqllated with sccubrisation and moral decline, and Protestants wcrc accuscd or IllolH)polising positions or power <[lid usillg thcm to oppress Catholics.'
Schools clearly had an important role, sincc so ll111ch nillctcellthc('ntury schooling was org;lIlised Oil a denonlillational basis, and the inclllcat ion of' conksslollal cOllsciollslless was oncn one or the school's major objcctives. In (;crlllan), the great Illajority orchildrell wcnt to con/(ossional schools throughout this p('J'iod, alld thc great majority also attendcd confirmat ion classes. In France, ant'!' the sccularisation or pllblic educatioll in I HH I, statc schools bccalllc as illlportant in inclllcating loyalty to the republic as Catholic schools were in prollloting loyalty to the church. ,\t the samc tilllc, the great majority or children cO!ltinlled to go to catechislll classcs and to rcceivc First COInnlllllion," so that t hose who had kit t hc illlprint bot h or tIll' clllln:h and or tIll' seclllar school Illight ItTI a connict of' identities. In England up to the IH70s 1l10St clementary schoolillg was organiscd Oil dcnolllinatiollallines, and e"cn ancr the estahlishIllcnt or Ilon-sectarian Board Schools a Iargc proport ion or children continucd to attend Anglican, Catholic or Wesleyan schools. Meallwhile, the overwhelll1ing IlI'lJority or working-class childrcn wcnt to Sunday School. Many or thesc had originally hecn non-denominational, but hy the second hall' or the nineteenth centllry, tltey wcre (rCllCrall" attached to a chl1rch or chal)el. and the recrl1itlllent h J • or f'tlll1re chl1;Th-nH'lllhers was one of' their Illain pl1rposes.!> Middlc-cbss children were l1sllally sent to chllrch scrvices or wenl with thcir parents, and Bl1ddc's ;'Csearch on Illiddle-class autobiographies would suggest that the ()\'CrwlH'lming n~ajority w('l'e hrought up as Illelllhers or a rcligiolls dCI](llninatioll.' 1\11 or this could hc very superficial. hllt it Illcant that IllOSt people had somc {()rlll of' religiolls attachment which might he activated in appropriate ci rCllnl s t ,IIKCS. This happencd IllOSt rcadily to the Illelllbcrs or religiOUS Illinorit It'S, and those livillg ill situations or ficrce intcr-denominationa{ cOlllpetition. French Protestants and English Nonconf(ll'lnists wcre conscious rrom an carly age or their desccnt rrOIll Illartyrs, and in the case or the NOllcon{()rlllists val'lOliS {()l'IllS or disadvantage kept their sellSC orscparate identity alivc through lIlost orthe nineteenth centllry. Alan Bart Ie II 's intervicw 11'11 h a wOlllan born in a Primit IVc Metho~list f~lIllil)' in I ~)27 in a working-class area or south London brings out well the various dimcnsions orthis scparate identity. She Iloted t kit '\'Vc were always aware or helllg NoncOlJfc)rlllists and a cOlllparative Illinoril), grollp as childrcn.' This Illeant having ccrtain strongly defined beliefs, which llIade thcllI di{krent f'rolll the Chllrch or England, which they saw as a superiicial religl
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werc lazy, as well as heing 'primitive heings', Catholic El1'Illcrs complaincd or unl;lir competition li'o!ll Protcstants who worked lion-stop, inclllding Sundays, and accllsed t hem or hemg pagalls, I n Preston Protestants claimed I hat t he local clistom whcrchy Catholics concentrated in particlliar placcs or work applied evcn to the town's hrothels, the prostitutcs heing or course Catholics, which could he told li'om the Elct that they turned Ollt to kncel on t he pavement whcn religiolls processiolls passed down the Manchester Road, Sectarian preconccptions were oncn revealed Illore or less uncollsciously, Thlls a Barrow woman, who had worked as a deaner ill a COIl\'Cnt, was impressed by the ElCt that 'it was spot lessly clean alt hOllgh t hey were Cat holics', and a Prest 011 Catholic Inentioned that his mother always went to 'a Catholic doctor',:'! I or COllrse, ri\',11 versions or history played all ll11p0rlant pan in defining communities, and scparating thelll fi'OIIl other cO!llnllll1itics, In Aisace and Baden 17H~) and I H71 were still hoth' deh;lt cd Iwt ween t hose of' rival con kssions, as well as older cOllt 1'0\'ersies concerning, li)r instance, lhe St Batholonll'w\ Day Massacre or the cOllquests orCustavus i\dolphus. III Lancashire the hitterest divisiolls hetwccil Catholic alld Protestallt SUITOUIHlcd the relatiollship betwcen Ellglalld and Irehind, illclllding sllch isslles as Catholic Illclllories or thc Famine and Protestant memories or Illuniers committed hI' the Fellians.:!:! With tilc great llIigTatioll or the rural poor ill search of' bett(T wages in cities alld indllstrial regions, there was a mixing orpoplllat ions. Pmtestallts 1lI0vcd to Cat holic cit]('s like Cologlle, Cat holics to Protestant cities like Berlin or Frallklin'!. Large IICW ./ewish COIlIIllllnitics \\TIT established ill Manchester alld Leeds. Indllstrial regions like the Rllhrgehiet attracled a I'ast illflllx or inlllllgrallts, speaking Illany dilferellt langllages ;lI1d belollging to mallY dirkrellt religious dellom inat iOIlS, lilt hcsc sit uat iOIlS, com pet it ion ii)r johs helped to kcep conressional consciollsness at a high level. In Lancasillre, alld ill sOllie other parts or England ill the carly twentieth ccntllry, it was CO III Ilion to find cOIHTntratiolls orCatholics, Protestants, or mcmhers or the samc Prolestant denolllillatioll working togct her, whet her becallsc employers gave prekrcllcc to nH'lllhers or their O\\'n church, or because li)rclllen recruitcd workers through a church network, or SOIlH'tIllH'S (in the clse or city elllployees) hecause cOIlllcillors did lill'()urs li)r IlH:mhers or their OWII religious or ethllic group.:!:; Ecollomic Elctors also played all important part in relations between Christialls and Jews, In Badell.lewish
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scrvillldc I() ROllie alld to tnlth and /i·cedol11,.:IH The main victors were Ihe Liberals, who registered a large illcrease in their vote, with middJe-c1ass P]'()testallts bcing especially rcspollsi\'c to their scclariall rhetoric. Oil the Catholic side the appeals to (:atholic loyalty Illet ;1 big rcspollse rrom working-class voters, who had been gTadllallv shining 100\';mls thc Social DCIl]()(TaIS, hut on this occasioll 'showcd:1 st rollg prekrcllcc li)r Ill(' (:elll re. There \\,;IS certainly a signilicant minority or Catholics who ignorcd such appeals, alld who \\'cre suscepliblc 10 appeals on grounds or Ilationalislll or class. (:atholic workcrs, cspecially ill ~uch hig cities as i\lunich and (:Ologllc, showcd a growing illlercst 111 thc SOCial Democrats, while the Catholic Illiddle class incillded a substanlial Lilwr;t1 clement, and Ihe anti-c1crical Bavarian Peasants' Leaguc was a !'Ivai to thc (;cnI1,(, among Bavariall 1;lrl11crs. But m'l'l';tll. the most strikilHE l)oilll is Ihe cOlltil1Uillo' willilJO'ncss or h ,'j'" Catholics 10 I'ote as Catholics. In IH~)O, according 10 Sperber's ligllres, Calholics or all social classes showed a clear prc/(:rcllce li)r IIll' (:cnIIT Part\', whereas Protcslanls dividcd Oil class lincs, middlcclass ProtcSI;1Il1 l'Otl'S being OI'Cl'lvhclmillgly Libcra!' ahout hall' the Protl'slalll working-ciass volcrs choosing Ihe Social lklllocrats, and Prol cst anI ElrIlll'l'S being abollt evenly splil bel ween Liber;ds and Co llSCl'I'a Iives. During Ihe pniod I q();~-I ~ Cat holics or all classcs slill showcd a majoril}' ,'oling li)l'lhe (:enlre, alld Prolcslanl I:trlllcrs WlTC slill splil hl'lwl'cn Liberals and Ihe RiO'hl, hilt wilh the Ri,rlll h h !lOW ill a 1ll,ljoril\', whiic Social IklllOcrals 11011' h;ld a clear (thollgh nol ovcrwlwllllillg) majoril), alllOllg Prolestanl working-class volers. BUI Sperher's mosl sellsational lillding is thaI hall' 0)' Ihl' I'rolcstalll middle-class vole was 11011' going 10 Ihe Social Iklllocrats. Spcrbcr sces Ihis mainly in lerms or Ilw Socialisls' roll' as an urhan parII', challlj>lonlllg thc llrball conSlllncr againsl Ihe rural producer. Bill he also suggcsls I hal Ihe Social Iklllo('l'ats did parI icularly well ill COllstiluCllcics where the Illain opposilioll calllc rrom Ihe Cenlrc Pari),. He snggcsls that Ihis Illight Iw hccause the Social [klllonats werc perceivcd as a 'i'roleslant' party: ir I(lrccd 10 choose, Ihc middle-class Prolcslall1 would )'allwr vole 'red' Ihan 'black',:I!) Religious ElClo)'s clearl\'/ had , a maJ'or influence on French vOlino' h pallcrlls 100. The basis o)'an eicctoral ho'coOTal)hl' which laslcd ri()'hl h i " h Ihrongh the Third and FOlll'th Rcpltl)lics, alld well illlo Ihc Filih, was laid in Iwo li))'JlI,llivc plTiods: Ill(' 17~)Os and Ihl' ycars or Ihe Sccolld Republic (I H'IH-!J I), durillg which Ilw hasic division betwecn a Calholic Righi and an anli-c1crical Len was estahlished. II
IIiENTITY
[n the 19()()s levels or religious pracI icc were sl ill I he hcst predictors or how a persoll would VOIC,IO and in the eleclion or 1!)7·1 the rc,rional pallcl'll or polilicalloyaltics, cSlablished ovcr a celltury 1)l'lim~~ rcmained visible. Ollly in ihl' 1~lHOs did this pattel'l1 EHIe. 11 While rill' impOrlopllialions concerned appears rUndalllelllal'l~ - I hOllgil this sl ill leavcs open olle or Ihe higgcsI problelllS or Illodel'll French hlslory, Ihal orwhy altillldcs 10 Ihe Calholic Church have, al leasl sillce thc 17!)Os, varied so widely 1i'0I11 one part or France 10 anol her. Again, Ihe Iwo lilrlllalivc periods appear 10 he the 17~)()s and Ihe Second Repllhlic. For insl;lIH,(" it was ill Ihe 17~)Os Ihal dccp-roolcd t rad il ions or Cal holic consc!'\'al iSlll were cSlahlished in llIost or BriltallY and Ihc Vendl~c, and in Ihe years I H'IH-!J! Ihal such rllral deparlllll'nlS as I he Crcusc and lilt' Val', and t he working-class suhllrbs or such cilies as Marseilles and '[illtiouse, becallle eSlahlished as radical sll'Ongholds. And Ihis radicalislll well! wilh an increasing alil'nalioll li'olll Ihe church. This alienalion ilad its COlllllcrpart in
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IIiENTITY
C'xtraordillary resentment and hitt('rJlcss with which anti-clerical militallts regarded the church thus arose partly li'om a sense or the effrontcry or the clergy the\' arc doomed, so why won't they admit it? Bllt it also arose li'OIlI a realistic appraisal or the great influence which Catholicislll still had. The ten thousand pilgrillls who were to he hlown lip with the chllrch were one illustration or this. No other institutioll or organisation could bring together sllch hllge crowds inclllding hot h wOl1len and men, yOllng and old, and drawn rrom all social classes. The cult or the Sacred lIeart evoked the tendcl'lless and COlli passion Or./CSIIS, and also his vllinerahility. It was closely associated with Lourdes, the place or miracles, where slllkrers oLdl kinds c1almcd to have f(HIIHI answers to their prayers. In its cOlllhinat ion or splendollr alld mystery, the hasilica had an elllotional pow(']' that it shared With lIIan), other Catholic churcheshringing a link with the distant past, access to the di\'ine, and a bond with hundreds of kllow-worshlppers,IN In England the most signilicant cleavage in the electorate was that betweC'n Anglican and Nonconf()rmist. Antagonisms hetween Protestant alld (:;Itholic lIIay han' 1'1111 deeper, but since (:atholics lIIade up onl)' !J per cent or the poplliation, there were only a f(-w areas, most notahlv Liverpool and some other parts or Lancashire. where Catholics were sl1rticicntly nI1I1H,),OI1S to have a lIIajor infll1(,lice on vot i ng pat tcrns, In t hosc areas the Conservat ivcs were regardcd as the Protestant party and benefited li'olll a large 'Orange' vote hy working-class Protestants, which continued until after the Second World War, while Catholics lIIainly voted Liberal or, later, Labour. I!) j\t least lip to I D I K, the Liherals attracted the votes or religious minorities gennally, illClll
I he opposit ion between conservat ivcs (in Britain the Conservat ive Party and the Liberal Unionists) and progressives (Liberals and Lahour), with Catholicism (ill France) and the Established Churches (in Britain) as the most signilicant tlllif)'ing f(BTl' on the conservativc side and religious dissl'nl on the progressive side, In both countries there were militant socialists who wanted to get away fi'om older religlOlls kllds and to light the class war. Bllt, as elsewhere in Ellmpc, socialism grew Ollt or liheralism, and inherited important aspects orils cultural baggage. In France the Socialists inherited and maintained with varying degrees or cnthusiasm t.he anti-clerical traditions or Frcnch republicanism, and in Britain, the Independent Labour Party was strongly in{luenced by the background orProtestant Dissent li'om which so man)' or its members had come. In Britain sOl1le problems amse fi'om the f;tct that in appealing to the various religious minorities the Liberals brought together groups which were actually vcry different and in some repects scarcely compatihle, including Roman Catholics alld Secularists, as well as Protestant Disscnters.":! Similarly ill France the republican cause brought together atheists, deists, and devout Protestants and ./ews, But since all agreed on hal1lmcring the Catholics, thc !;lCt that thcy did so frolll very din(~rent standpoints seldolll caused major pmhkms, In any case It olien helped that French anti-clericals were inclined to philo-Protestantislll,c,:1 Religious ident it ies were llIost intcllse and least pmblelllat ic wherc thcy were intertwined with ethnicity, as they were f(lI' Irish Catholics, East European./ews or Welsh Nonconf()rmists. For llI;lI1Y people. on the ot her han(\' religious ident it ies were potent ially in competition or eyen contradiction with other identities, sllch as those or class, Nonetheless, there were a 1Ill1ll1wr or f;lCtors which ensured that in Britain, as elsewhere, religious identities relllaincd a
I!lENTITY
cClllllry, with the decline or employer paternalism amI with increasing worker militancv, this sitllation was much kss conllllon thall it had heen in the Illid-Victorian period. Religion was all important parlor the pllblic person;l or Illany candidates Ii)r Pariialllent or local collncils and played a part in volcrs' ability to identiI}' with them. Analysis or the religiolls alIiliations or candidates in the elections or I !)()(), I ~)()(i ;lIld I:) I 0 shows that (i. I per cent or Anglicalls wcre standing as Conservatives or Liberal llnionists, and ~) I pCI' cCllt or NOllconli)\'\nists stood as Liberals or Labollr.:-"-' In sOllle cOllllllunities the illterpellctratioll or religiolls and politicallo),alties was self~lInderstood. This was most clearly t he case in the l1Ian), villages where the dOl1lillant landowner was c10scly linked with the parish chllrch ;lIld the clergyman was an active sllpportcr or the ConservatiH' emse. Ikre religious Dissent was lInl1listakably a deliance ortilc powers that hc, and a natllral prcparation li)r Liberal and later Lai>oll I' polit ics.',(j M orc gencrally, religiolls COl1lmlln it it's often had a ]lrcvailillg cthos which had clear political implications. NOllconl()rlllists S;l\\, tlll'lllsclvcs as dcmocratlc, egalitarian, 1l1orally IIpright, stllrdili" indl'pendent. and tended to regard Liheral or Labollr politics ,IS a natllral cxpression or these vailles, Anglicans, Oil the othcr hand, tcnded to lay lllore stress on thc virtlles or patriotisl1l, loyalty to the Crown, respect I()]' authority, and a COllllllon-sensc, IInpuriLlIlical appro,l(:I~ to l1Iorality, and tilis readily led them in a ConservatiH' direction.'"
Religion and Nationalism The growing importance orllatiollalisln and imperialism in the later nineteenth and early twcntieth century also potclltially diminished t he importance' or religious or conressional bctors: llat ionalism could providc a hridge across the variolls conlt'ssional divides, uniting heliever and unill'licvcr, (:atholic and Protestant: equally, Ii)r the most. I('rvcnt natiollalists, there was a tendency I(lr nationalism to take Oil thc character or a nl'W Elith, replacing oldn I(ll'llls. The latter tendellcy developed rurthest in (;erlnan)", where some nationalists, regarding Christianity ,IS an cmharrassment andJudaism as all abomination, harked hack to the old 'Ii..'utonic gods. Anothcr currcnt or thOllght drew UpOll racialist idcas to give a 'scicll t i lic' hasis t () t he com pet it ion bet wcen peoples, and reject eel ( :h rist i,ll1 it\' a lid Judaism as Iacklllg all)' such scicnt i lic IiHlndat iOll. "s
However, these tendencies should not he overstated. Many I()rlllS or Ilat ionalism contained a st l'Ong religious ingredient, and rival versions or nationalism were orten an aspect or religious conflict. The association Iwtwccn Protestantism and lirst English, and later Brit ish. nat ional ident it y was or very long stand ing. The Rel(Jrlllation, the Spanish ;\rmada, the (;lorious Revolution, the wars ,lgainst Louis XIVand Napoleon were all central events III a national history which was recognised hy Anglican and Dissenter alike, and in which the central thcme was the hattlc I()]' English Protestant rreedom against I()rcign Catholic despotism admittedly, by the time or Napocoll, France had come to he associated in English Protestant minds even more with irreligion than with Catholicism. But 11 was ,I central tenet ornillcteenth-century English Protestantism that Catholicism and irreligion tended to go toge! her as dilfercnt sides or the samc coin, and t hat hot h wcre associat.ed wit h despot ism, wh ik Protestantism \\"ent together hoth with li-cedOln and with genuine piety. With the union or England and Scotland in 1707 and then or Britain and Ireland in IXOI, religion was clearly a centrall;lctor both in t he acceptance or the linion hy most Scots, \'Velsh and Protestant Irish, and in its rejection hy most Catholic Irish.'i~) Five dclinit ions or Brit ish nat ional ident it y occu r cont inllallv throughout the nineteenth century and into the twcntieth: Britain was Christian, Protestant, prosperous, civilised and rree. or course the ImpOl·tance attached to Ihe various points varied over time and varied as Iwtwcen nlcmiJers or dilferent political parties, social classes or religious cOlnl111111ities. Thus in IX[J7, the leader or Manchcster's Rcl(lrlll Synagoguc, in declaring his conviction that the British nation had a 'Divine mission to carry civilii'.ation, liherty and prosperity to the uttermost hounds or the earth', naturally omitted rererence to Christianity.fio But the most striking point is how lllany people hought the whole package, and how many saw these lin' characteristics as inter-related, with Protestantism acting as the linchpin. Britain was more truly Christian than, I()r instance, FralIn' or Italy, the later Bishop or Durham, IlcllSlcy Henson, claimed in a dehate at the (:hurch Congress in IX~)X. TillS was hecause the liTe and rational Protestant Elith was an:eptahlc to the modern agc, whereas the 'extrcme and perverted sacerdotalism or the ROlllan Catholic Church' had led to 'the great and ever waxing alienation rrolll the Church or the best conscience and intellect or the Latin races' That BrItain also owed her c1vilisat ion, rreedOlll and prosperity to her Protestantism was st rongly ilnplied by .I, E. C. \;\felldon, >
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IIlENTITY anti-Catholicism was in gradual decline fi'olll about J H70 onwards. Both theological and social f;lctors played a part in this. TllCological hctors included t he decline or t hc ult ra-cvangc1icalislll that contributed strongly to the great revival or militant anti-Catholicislll in the J H:H)s and J H,IOs. Whereas in (;crl11an), the most virulent anti-Catholics tended to be liberal Protestants and secularists who saw Catholicislll rllls alld was ll1uch Icss n'nt ra1. III spite or the continuing strength or militant anti-Catholicism on lYkrse),side, there was also a gradual proccss in most parts or Ellglalld whereby Catholics camc to be acccpted. however reluctant Iy. as a pel'lllancnt part or English socict y. and ant i-Cat holic agitators came to Ill' seen as ridiculous and potentially dangerous 'Elll'ltics·. The respect cnjoyed by such Catholic leaders as Cardinals Newman and Manning helped in this process. And a linal stage was brought about hy thc First World War. lilllght in the name or Cat.holic Belgiulll. \I'ith the wholehearted support or the Catholic hierarchv. with (;atholic militar), chaplains gailling a reputation li)r bravery and devotion. in I q~(; a bill to lT1I10\'C most or the r('maining (;atl]()lic dis
At t he sallie time wholly or largely secular ideas or Ilat iOllal idclltity were challenging those rooted in Christianity. The two crucial developmellts here in the later nineteenth century were t.he increaSing importance or the Empire within perceptiolls or Britain and the British people. and the influence or racial ideas. The Empire, as already argued, was li'Cqllently.Jllstified as an Inst.rlllIIent fi)r the spread or the gospel; but the definition or Britain as prilllarily an illlperial power could he prescnted as an alternativc to the older definitloll or Britain as a Protcstant. nation. More especially, racial ideas were orten secn by their advocat.es as being in explicit contradiction to religious ideas. Increasingly rrolll the I H(iOs onwards, it. was heing argued by British patriots that supcrior racial inhcritance. rather than true rcligon, was the key to Britain's greatness. and that the Empire sholiid he justilied prilllarily on the grounds that the cOllquered peoples were 'inft:rior races'. Lorllller notes that hy the end or the nineteenth century assulllptlons cOllcerning the dept.h and l'unadalllental nature or racial dil~ It'rences were so nlllcit a cOlltemporary ort hodoxy. that cvell a Liberal like Lord Bryce whcll appealillg in I ~)()~ fell' more hUl1lane and responsible treatment or 'infl~rlor races' took it f()!' ()'ranted that ._ Co they were 'init:rior,.l>' ;\ characteristiC example orthe way ill which explanatiolls or national difkrences bascd on assulllptiollS ahout race had partly replaced tite older explanations hased Oll religion was an editorial in the SI)('c/%}' in I H~)H. on 'Thc Relationship bet wccn Religion and Nat ional Success', where t he editor crrt icised t he views. quoted above. exprcsscd by Bishop Welldoll at the Church Congress:
or
The North or Ireland is III OJ'(' prosperous than the South or Ireland Iwcause tlw North or Ireland is occupied .. or at all events directed. by men or the Scoto-English hreed. who arc restless in povcrty. who love order. and who arc nearly as Industrious as the worst race undcr heavcn, the Chillt'se. Fill Ireland with ultraCatholic Flemings and Ireland would bc filled with a people llIaking moncy cvery day, using her st rcallls. her lIleadows. her lish. and above all hcr l1Iany 1;lCilities fell' llIanuElCtures. Ellglalld is great becausc the blood of her people. their energy. their fi-ecdolll, and their industry. not because ortheir
or
SF.ClI..\RI.~.\TI()N
IN WESTF.RN Et'ROPE. IH·IH-I'lIl
lovc of' liberty Ihal il has or latc years developed, it allows the separate qualilics or any race which adopts it to grow and st rcngt hell to the lidiesl degree of which t he in herellt powers of the race lIlav a
I!lENTITY
everyone everywhere were blockcd by administ rators who needed to retain the support or non-Christian native elites. And a((empts by missionarics to deknd the rights of nativc Christians brought them into conllict with colonial authoritics who placed British political and economic interests lirs!," In Germany the enthusiasm evoked hy the Prussian victory ovcr France in I H70, the estahlishmcnt or the (;erman Empirc in I H71, the subsequcnt acquisition or German colonies in Ali'iel, and the apparently unstoppahle economic and cult ural progress the new state all contrihuted to a mood of exalicd nationalism, which seemcd to take on the character o/" a new religion. Numerous nat ionalist writers idl'nt ilied t he 'nat ion' and t he 'people' as 'holy', They gavc thc individual (;erman a new kind or immortality, because the German people were 'eternal', hinding together the living with countless generations now dead or yct to be horn. The nation had an absollitc claim on its memhers, and to die I()]' the Ellhcrland was the highest limll o/" martyrdonl. 7C! This mt'ss;lge was also clnphasised by the many grandiose war Illelllorials en:cted alicr I H71, on which the standard inscriptioll was "Ii) the Ell1cn in melllory, to the living im recognition, to the !ill.urc generations li)r cmulatioll', Patriotic mOllllmcnts became a ubiquitous part o/" the cnvironment in these years, and such events as t hc Kaiser's Birthday and the k'stivities organised by war vetcrans and othn pat riot ic grou ps hecallle a bmiliar part or t he calelldar. 7:'. Nat ionalist ideas were also heavily Clll phasised in t he schools. By t he I H!)()s proponents or t his nat ionalislll were somct illles consclollsly rcjecting Christianity in the namc o/",/ii//usc" ideas: Christianity wasjust a phase in the long history or the the (;(,}"Illan people, whose greatness lay within the s01l1 or the racc. From this poillt or view, Christianily was olien seen as an artilical source or division wllhin the (;erlllan people. The nced was I()]' a lllore alit hent ically '(:crman' lilith, which wOllld unitc all true (;ermans, and also separate thcm more clearly hoth /i'onl those olltside, and rrom the alien clements within thc (;erlnan nation. Thesc typically included both .JlIdaism and 'Rolllan' Catholicislll, and, according to Altgeld, antiCat holicism was more cent ral to pre-I!) 14 lilt ra-nat ionalislll than anti-Scmitism. They were lllore lukcwanll towards Protestantism, which provoked less host ilit y, hllt was olien regarded wit h lit tIe real enthusiasm. 71 Ilowcver, nat ionalism as a new religion was less typical than nationalislll expressed in terllls drawn from tile old religion, or
or
SEClI..\RIS,\TIOi\ Ii\ IITSn:RN El'ROPF. IH,IH-I'lll
the old religion reinterpreted in the light or nationalism. The (;erman Empirc, estahlisl1l'd in \ H7\, had an unmistakahly Protest.ant character, which posed big pl'Ohlcl11s li)r the large (:atholic minority. l'vlan)' Cat holics had hoped It)r a dirri.~rent. kind or (;ITlllany OIlC dominated hy Catholic Austria, rather than Protestant Prussia. There IITn' also many Bavanan Cat holics who, at least initially, did IlOt wallt a united (;erman state at all, and would have preli:'rrcd their (:at holic kingdom to rctall1 its indcpcndencc. In addition, those Catholics who were Polish or Frcnch nationalists were eqllally host ik to Prussia and to (;crm
or
IDENTITY
Thcre was also a I()rm or seclilar Protestantislll which saw the /Wp:illlllllp: o/' everything worthwhile In (;crll1an history in the ReI(lnllation, hilt which saw Luther's work as cOll1pleted hy the Enlightenlllent and the ROlllantics. The herocs or sccular Protestant iSIll were such ligures as Frederick the (;reat, Lesslllg', (;oet he, Schillcr and von HUlllboldt, IllOSt. o/'wholll were unbcliev~Ts, hilt all or wholl1 were Protestants by hirth. Protcstants hoth or the dcvout and or the more secular kind were inclined to he disl)ar;winO' or I') ;-, Catholic cllltllral achievelllents and, li)r Instance, to exclude Cat.holic aut hors rrom the canon. i7 Eqllally, or COllrse, historical writ ing was a lield or lienT conli.~ssional content iOIl .. J() a large extent Protestant alld Catholic rcaders t.ook t.heir knowledge and ullderstanding or history li'om dirti.'I'ent writers. The IllOSt prestigIOUS chaIrs or Ilistory were occupied by Protestants, Bislllarckworshipping Natiollal Liberals, like Ileinrich von Treitschke and Ilcinnch von Sybcl. whose rolltine dislllissais or Catholicism as a retrograde li)rce cOlldemlled by history were accepted by Illany readers as authoritative statelllents hy the leaders or their pro/(:ssion. Catholic hIstorians, like Johanlles Janssen, did Ilot gaill the same orticial recogllitioll, but it was their viSion or the past which shaped t hat or IllOSt. Cat holics. 7s Meallwhile, Jews tended to prekr a versioll or Cerman history rather similar to that or the mOlT secular lilwral Protestallts. Their startillg'-poillt tended to be the Enlightenlllellt - Ilaturally without the rci<':rellces back to Luther that welT ohligatory Ii)]' Protestallts, however secular. Some eighteenth-n~ntury writers werc very highly regarded by Jews, notably Lessing hecause or his sYlllpathetic preselltation orthe.Jewish hero ill his Nlllllllllllil' Wis!'. But the greatest or all (;erlllans was Schiller, who elllhodied a way or bcing (;erlllall with which .Jews readily idelltified thel11selves. Ilis cult reached rq unprecedent.ed heights aillong llliddle-c1ass .Jl'ws. (:atholics, howevcr, argued th,lI (;erl11any's greatest days wcre those or the Iioly Roman Enl])lIT, bd()J'C the tragic split brought about hy the Rdill'lllat ion. They exalted the virt ues or local and conli.:ssiollal loyalties over agaillst the claims or the all-powerrul Illodern stat.e, or which Prussia was the elllhodimellt. J\S Ilcllllut Walser Smith argues, 'natiollalism is not Simply a ullilied story that people tell ahout themselves, but rather consists orstorics separate, but ovcrlappillg, alld olien in competition - that groups withill the nation tell ahout the natioll to which they helollg. These stories typically appear inclusive even whell they arc not; illdecd, that is a central
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916
REI.I(;I()N ANI) P()P\iI.I\R Ct!lTtJRE
J~eligior/'
7
and jJojniJar Culture
She IiI a candle, and wellt to a second and third bed uncler the wall, where she awoke her youl1g- sisters and hrothers, all of whom occupied the sallie roolll. Pulling- out the washing--stand so thaI she could g-el behind it, she poured sOllie waler frol11 ajug-, and made Ihem kl1eel around, putling- Iheir hal1ds tog-elher with lil1g-ers e);,l('tly verlical. While the children scarcely awake, awestricken al hcr Inanl1t'1', Iheir eyes g-rowing- larg-cr and larg-er, remained in I his position, she look Ihe bahy from her hed ,." Tess Ihcn slood creel wilh the inEulI on her arlll heside Ihe basin, the l1ext sister held the Prayer-Book open Iwli)l'C her, as the clerk at chllrch held it 1x-li)lT the parson: and thus the g-irl set ahout baplizing- Ihe child.,.,
'What's his l1ame g-oing- 10 he?' She had not Ihoug-hl oflhat, bul a l1al11e sllg-g-esled by a phrase in t he hook of (;enesis CIlIH' il110 her head as she proceeded wil h Ihe haptismal sen'icc, and now she pronOll11tTd il: 'SO RROW, I hapl ize Ihec il1 t he name of Ill(' Fat her, al1d of the Son, and of the Iloly (;host.' She sprinkled the water and Ihere was silence. 'Say "Amel1", children.' The lilly voices piped in obedient response 'Amen!' Tess Dllrbcylicld, a young- Dorset Elrlll-workn has g-ivcn hirth to an illeO"itim<1tc' child. 'I~he child was vcry, frail, and within a week or birth he is dving-. When she realises thaI Ihere is no hope, 'I<:ss is plung-cd inlo' fil;,tlwr despair hy Ihe realisation that he has not been ~
baptised. She wants to send fi)r the parson, but her EIther, humiliated by the shame that 'Il..~ss has brought on the household, will have none of it, and when t he parson cloes call. he refuses hllH ent ry. As Tess lies in hed that nig-ht she is terri lied by t.he thoug-ht that her baby will g-o to hell. She accepted that 'if' she should have to burn Ii)]' what she had done, burn she must, and there was an end of it. Like all villag-e g-irls she was well g-rounded in the Holy Scriptures, alld had dutirully studied the histories of Aholah and Aholihah, and knew the inkrellces to be drawn thercfi'om', But she is determined to save her beloved child li'om such a 1;lte. So Ihere and then shc perfil1'lns the rite herself. and when she finished, she 'poured fi)rth rrom t.he bottom of her hearl the thanksg-iving- that fi)lIows, utleringit. boldly and triumphantly','
Rites of Passage The interpenetration or Christianity and the poplliar culture of' nineteent.h-century Europe was seen nowhere more vividly t.han in Ihe hold which the Christian rites of passag-e exercised on the imaginations or so many people. And, in case Hanly's accounl or 'kss's fears and the way she resolved them mig-ht seem EmcifuL it is wOl'lh noting- the words of a Berlin clerg-yman writing- in Il'\l'\() of his experiences in an impoverished working--dass parish. 'In SUlllnlt'r, the numher or emergency baplisms is brg-e. Death knocks on the door of culpable neg-lig-ence and causes terror. Post-hasle they selld lill' Ihe c!crg-yman. lie musl quickly - hut immediately - make g-ood what laziness has spoiled. They demand vehemenlly that, in spite of olher urgent busll1ess, the emergency baptism should be carried out at once',:.! 'Ibs lived in a rural reg-ion of southern Engbnd, where the (:hurch or England was an inescapable part of'daily iik, where most of the people had spent at least part of their childhood at Sunday School and in a church day schooL where a considerable proportion continued to attend church regularly as adults, and where the derg-y were well known to Ihe g-reat majority of the population. It is more remarkable Ihal the emotions surroundingt he rite or hapt ism continued to influcnce larg-e Ilumbers of people ill the g-iant. parishes of' Berlin, where the direct influence or the derg-y and or conli)rmist pressures were I1lllch weaker. In devollt Iy Cat holic COllll1lll11 it ics, sllch Cll1crg-cncy baptisllls were less Ii kcly to
:?!lO be needed, as the great lIIajority or inl:mts were baptised within eight days ol'hirth,:; The Protestant church in Prussia el}('ollraged its llH'll1lwrs to have their children baptised within a lIIonth ol'birth, In 190:) the pastor or ,mot her working-class parish in Berlin noted that /t>WlT than one in tcn or his parishioners had done this, hut the great majority or childcn 1(11'1'!' eventllally baptised,' Many kinds or consideration influenced the people who sat loose to the strict reqllirCllll'nts or their chllrch, hilt did llone the less evcntually hring tlwir childrcn to thc I()llt. Fear I(ll' the Eltc after death or the llllhaptised child was cCl'tainly one such ElCtor, So intcnse could this rear he, that French hahies who had heen hol'll dead, or who died bcf()l'c t hey could he hapt ised, werc SOlnet illles taken to a Marian shrine, There arc several reports between I H:?O and I H~)() or the children heino' llliranIiousl)' resuscitated I(ll' the I(~w seconds ~ llceded in order to per\()l'll1 t he rite," Equally important in the case or childn'n still living, hut taken suddenly ill, was the hope th,lt haptism Illight help thelll to recover, The pastor li'o!1l I HH() to lUI:) ol'onc of the poorest parishes in Berlin notcd the prevalence or this belieL I Ie told the parents that all was in the hands or the Ilt'avenly Either and haptism would not or itselr savc the child: but when the child did get hettt'l' the parents were very gratel'ul to him, There was also a more general l(x~ling that t he child needed t he best possihle start ill lik and that to he unbaptised was to be unlucky,h In the eyes or Catholics, Christian haptisllI, marriage and burial took on a lilrthcr dimension because or the beliel' that it was these rites which set apart human beings, cndowed with immortal souls, rrom t.he heasts that perish, Animal illlagery thereli)J'(_~ readily entered into Catholic accounts or those who ncglected or rejected these ccn'monies, One Frcllch priest in I ~)(l:'> advised those who wcre thinking or a purely civil marriage to deCIde which species they belonged to,7 A secular burial was rclt~rred to as an I'II/i)lllss!'1111'111 (a term normally Ilsed I()}' animals) or l'II!TOII!'III!'1I1 (,throwing in the muck') rathcr than an 1'IIII'ITnll!!lIl, the term used lin' hUlllan beings,S During ont' civic runeral in a small town ncar Orleans, a group or girls belonging to a conrraternity camc to the cemctery and lllade I)jo'-like OTunts durin')' the cerelllOn}',!) \"'"l h h In France First Conlllllinion was generally regarded as an essential threshold to cross on the path to adulthood - as wcll as an incomparable opportunity I(ll' one's daughter to outshine all the neighhours' daughtcrs, Threats to relils(' First Comlllunion were then,lill'e a "CI'Y powerrul weapon I(ll' the clergy in the battles with
REL1{;ION ,\i\IlI'()I'I'\..\R CI'LlTRE
:?!ll
anti-clerical teachers and llIayors in the IHHOs and IH!)Os, During the 'battk or the manuals' in IHH,), parents in the 'Elrn were put under heavy pressure to withdraw their children /i'olll schools where llIanuals deenled ant i-Cat holic wcre in usc, At one "illagc the children reported that 'the priest and his assistant told us that wc would not lllake our solellln cOlllnlllnioll ir we went on reading this h,l(l hook, which ought to be burnt, irwe were not going to grow up into thieves and lllurderers who would he buried like rottinf!,' dogs','O III England one or the cCI'Clllonies wit h st rongest popular resonancc was the churching or lllothers al'ter childbirth, ol'licially an act or thanksgiving, but popularly regarded as a rite or purilicat ion, Whereas the baptislll orinEll1ts was strongly pn)llloted hy the clergy, and those neglectillg the rite could conic under heavy pressure to comply, the churching or the Illother was not insisted upon by the clergy, and it owed its popularity entirely to popular dcmand, Sonic clergymen I(llllld tlIat rel'using to church a motiler who had heen 111arried ill a regist ry orlicc or had never been 11larrled at all was ,I vel'\' erlixtive llleans or expressing disapproval. I , Becausc or the lack or clerical interest, evidell(,(' Oil this rite IS sparse, but two cast London c1ergYlllen illterviewed in t he I HDOs bot h stated that c1l1lrchings were ,It 1c,Ist as IlllnltTOUS as baptisllls in their parishes, I ~ li nt il she had been c1l1lj'{:hed, the lllot her was regarded as unclean, and mallY people would not allow her into their house, A 1()lklorisl, cOlll11lenting in I H()() on ClIStOlllS ClnTellt in the north or England, wrote: As to the lllother's churching, it is vcry UIlGUlllY I(lr her to cnter any house belill't' she goes to church alld she carries ill luck with her, It is believed also that ir she appears out-ol~doors ill these circulllstances and receiving an)' insult or blow I'rolll her neigh1'\ bours she has no rellledy at law, ,-
Religious Symbols in Daily Lire Christian rites were part or the taken-I(lr-grantec! daily experience even or those who did not regard themselves as religious, ./i'()/IIIII, IUl'l'hlirh or dh 'ol, The popular culture ol'west European coulltries in the second hall' or the nineteenth century was saturatcd wnh SYlllhols, rituals, IwliC/s, drawn ultimately rrom Christianity, even il'in
,~E<:l'l,,\RIS,\'II(IN
IN \\'ESTV,RN U!R(II'F,
ISIH-I~II'I
some instanccs the relationship now seemed Elirly tenuous. They coloured the day-to-day habits or pious and impiolls alike, as well as shaping I1lllch or the environlllent within which even the declared ullheliever had to live. For instance, Iwlieis concerning likely sources or good and bad luck drcw hcavih' Oil (:hristianity, even when the purposes I(lr which the luck was Ilceded had little to do with Christianity, or were evCIl positivcly unChristian, III ZoJa's Thl' le'(frllt, set in the 1H(iOs, the wilt- or a small Emller goes IiiI' an abortioll to a witch 111 anot hcr villag-e, who tells her: Well, what ,I Illan had done a man could undo, all he had to do was to h,1\'(' the woman and while having her make the sign orthe cross on her stomach and S,I}' three aves backwards. And then ir there was a bahy it would go aw,IY like wind. I I
i\ sonw\\'hat similar sllggestion comes rrom olle or the characters in i:ilssolllllloir, which is sct at abollt the same time in a working-c1ass/ lower middle-class cnvironl1lent in Paris - 'You swallow a glass or holy water ('very lIight, making three siglls of' the cross with your Ih11l1lh. It goes olT like a bit or !latulcnce', I') Whether or not Zola illvented these particular remedies, there is no doubt tltat he was close to t he spirit or much lillk wisdom. Ralph (;ibson quotes a series or examples 1'1'0111 the I'nigord with a very similar !lavour. If' you cOllld get a 'dry mass', without consecration or the wine, to he said lil!' an (,Ill'IIIY it would cause him or her to 'dry lip', Similar ideast hough wit hout t Ite Illalicious intent - were involved in wOl\lcn requesting priests to bless a wcdding ring laid on an envelope containing a rat's tail. Once the blessing had heell pronounced this would enable a sorcerer to 'tic the knot' 011 thc woman's hushand as a measure or contraception. Iii .lim O/)('Ikevich shows how the rural populatioll ol'ninetccnth-century Lincolnshire l(llInd in everything conlJected with the chllrch 'a vague reservoir or spiritual potency' which could he tapped lilr all sorts or purposes. (;ood Friday was regarded as a particularly good day lil!' planting; Sunday was also a lucky day, but Elilure to wear new clothes Oil Easter Sunday would bring- had IlIck; worms takell f'rom the churchyard at midnight were used in a remedy 1(11' ague; you should cross yourself' alicr seeing a magpic in order to avert had luck; and so on. 17 Vcry silllilar conclusions arc sug-gestcd hy a st udy or superst it ion in Berlin alld the surrounding area puhlished in I HDq. The author
declared, 'Yes, in Berlin and the Province or Brandenhurg too, superstition accolllpanies humanity li'olll the cradle to the grave, and like a luxuriant. c1imhing-plant grows around all lire's rclatlOlIships',IS Many or the examples related in some way, however tenuous, to Christian rit.es or celebrations. Various examples were given or Iwlids connected with baptism, Christmas, Sunday and Friday - the ill-olllellcd reputation or which clearly origin'ltes li'om the 1;ICl that Jesus was killed on that day, though many or those who I<.Jt learhtl on Friday probably did not know why. The way in which 'superstitioll' drew 011 the rcsources or specilic l'l'ligious cultures was illustrated by the Elct that in the I H~)Os one ortlw collect ions or magical rcmedies sold by colporteurs (travelling hook sellers) ill Berlin had a Prot.estant, a Catholic and aJewish vC]'sion. i\ typical remedy was the lilllowing, recoml1lended to Protestants, and to be repeated three timcs: 'TumOllr, tUlllour, tUlllour, I coml1land you in the name olJeslls Christ that. you harm N.N. as little asJesus Christ was harmed by the nails that the .Jews hit into 111m.' Catholics were l'CcOllllllended to stop hleeding by repeating the I(lllowing catchy rhyme nine times: :Jesus Christ triigt sein Kreuz, warum, darum, weil er will. Blut steh still.' ('.Jesus Christ carries his cross. Why? For this reason: becausc he wants to, Blood stand still.') Irthe examples g-iven are typical, the dilTercnces between the Protestant and the Catholic books was not very g-reat. Both they and the.Jewish version rellect the Elmiliarity or religious phraseology and biblical episodes, and the ways in which they could provide all entrance ticket to a world or hidden lore and supernatural power, which could Iw conjured up in any or lire's crises. I!) The presence of' rclig-ious sYllIbols in every area or daily lik was most cvident in a Catholic cultllre, such as that or Francc or milch or southern and western German),. VVaysidc shrines,
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1:\ \\'ESTLR" Fl'lHlPI':, IHIH-Iqll
RLI.ICION ANIl P()Pl '1.,1i{ CIIITI'RL
11'0111 Ihe Bible htlllg' 011 Ihe walls or c011nlless h01l1es,:.!:.! and al leasl IInlil Ihe :lnli-clerical allacks or I H7q and ;din, on Ihose or pllblic building's, stich as schools, hospilals and courl-roo1l1s, According' 10 EUg'en Weiler, I lie picillres sold 10 pl'aSanl ElIl1ilies ily colporleurs in the mid-ninelcenlh (Tntnrv so olicn depicted relig'ious lig'ures or scencs Ihat Ihe\' were kno\\'n as 'sainls', ('ven ir thcv actually portrayed a battle (;r;lIl animaL:'!:; Sllch pictllres \\,(,IT pin'ned or sewn to a hat or c1othcs, nailed to a wall or Iwdboanl or stllck IlP in a stable, /\bo\'c all, il W;IS t hc saints \\'ho cntered into every ;Irea or lilt, in Catholic cOllllllllnitics, The Virg'in i\lary in all her countless manikSi;ltions \\,;IS orcollrse SllprCnll', bill nllllwrous other saints had a brg'c f(lllo\\'illg', whether conCl'ntr;ltcd on a particlliar town, parish or profi'ssional g'l'OlIp', or mOlT widely dispersed, Saints symbolised the idClltilY or a cOllllllllnit\', they provided protection hoth to illdividu;ds and to collect ivit ics, and t Ill'v olkred help in emergencics, 1\1 tile hroadest pllhlic level, saints could act as ligllre-heads lill' a polit ical (';tus(', ;\11([ at t he most inl imalc pcrsonal \en'l they were conlidanls lilr IIieir devOle('s. :\nd or course they could act as ro\cIllodels. So the saints enlered into Ihe liw's or Catholics at Illanv dilkrent ll'\'els. I \\'illlllcntion here three ways in which the popular cllltllre or C,ltiJolic COllllllllllilies was shaped by relations with the saints, Firsl, processions, or other lill'IllS or celebration, in honour or their pat rOll saint wel'(' major ('\'(~nts in the alllllial calendar or 111all), comnllinitics, incillding' not only parishcs, hut, li)r instancc, occupational and reg'ional or nalion,d COllllllllllities, Thus mincrs marked St Bar\)ar
,
Christians',:.!(; Secondly, in times or individual or collective crisis it was normal 10 turn lilr help to the saints. Certain saints were specialists in the cure or particular diseases or in providing help with specific problems. And Mary was omnicompetent. In Ihe ninetecnlh century, SI Roch, a specialist in plag'ues, was parlicularly sOllght alitT during cholera epidemics. Throughout the year there was a constant st ream or t he sick, and or Ihose who were praying li)r them, both to local shrines and 10 the big national shrines like Lourdes In t he French Pyrenees or Altiil ting in Bavaria. During epidcmics, or at othcr timcs or colleclive crisis, huge crowds would process Ihroug'h Ihe streets, olien ending at a local shrine.:.!7 l\nd thirdly, individuals and households maintained a constant devotion to a particul
.~H:I'I.,\RIS,\TI()N
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churches were prolle, and Protestant propagandists attributed henclits of evcry kind to the
suhstantial ones, such as Luther's Hymn, etc. There is lllOSt. exquisit.e harlllony, and not a mere rehearsaL If)r they arc singing daily":lli A century later a south London working-dass housewik sang hymns 'all the timC', the way some people sing pop-songs nowadays' - as her daughter later recalled.: I ! Mell may not. have sung hymns while they worked, but they sang them when the), were drunk. There is an hilarious account oj'such a scC'ne in Tftl' Ra/.!,l!,'1'1/ '/I'oIlSr:I'l'rif1ftiIrIJIIIII"IJjIlSls, which is set in Hast ings, 'Mugsborough'. l'viost of tire characters in the novel work IfH" a huilding Ii I'm called Rushton 8..: Co., and one warm summer's day the lirIn takes its cmployees I(H' the 'Annllal Beallo', a trip into the coulltry lllvolving large amounts oj' eating and drinking. On the journey hack, the bosses travel in the Ii'ont vehicle, and each of the If)lIowing brakes contains a particular clique of workers, If)]" instance, heavy drInkers ill Olle, church-g'Oers in another, and ill the last brake, some who were 'steady workers' and were neither sycophants, nor heavy drinkers, nor church-goers, and so received slight Iy less scat hillg treat ment Ii'om Tressell than t.he ot.hers. As nig-ht Ellis and convCl'sation Hags, one character, described only as 'the religious maniac' starts singing Sankey hymns. Soon the othcr church-gocrsjoin ill the choruses, and though the occupants of the last brake at lirst lind this amusing, they too know at least the choruses, Soon they arc joining in, and the only sounds coming li'OlIl the hrakes arc the strains of 'PlllIl()}' the Shore' and 'Where is my Walldering Boy?':\S The associatioll oj'religioll and lllusic was also represellted in the inlll1l11erab1c choral societ ics, wit h their st rOllgholds In nort hern text ik towns, such as Iluddcrslield, a predominallt Iy upper working cbss and lower middle class nH'lllbcrship, and a prcli.:rcnce If)}' oratorios - above aIL Handel's Ml'ss/(/ft.: I !) According to 'vValvin, 'the crowds drawn hy Handel's Inusic surpassed those at all other If)J'ms of organised leisure' in the I H!JOs and I H()Os.IO Obclkevich, in his stud)" of nineteenth-centllry Lincolnshire, has shown how promincnt a part belids about the Devil played in the mll1d of much of t he rural population. lIe notes varIOUS stOrIes, some of which clearly show the imprint oj'some hranch or Christianity. The ovcrlap with PrImitive Methodism is strongcst. Early Primitivc Methodism had a very strong sense of the pn'scncc and COllstant activity of the Devil, vcry much like that which Ohclkevich indicates among the mass of the local population. For Instance, ()I)('lkevich quotes a story of a tailor who regarded Sunday as no
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different froJl] any other day, and who was mcaSllrIng up a ellStOJl]er one Sunday ll10rning when he noticed that he had a clovcn hoo/'. The tailor hecame a Baptist and never workcd on Sunday again," A somcwhat similar story was told in the Yorkshire industrial village or ('udsey in til(' lirst h,t1f' of' the nincteenth century: one young m'lnjoincd t he Met hodists and hccanle a local preacher alier heingconfronted by an ,Ipparition orhis dead lllothcr while walking hOllle drunk one night. 'This arElir was looked upon both hy the yOllng man himself' and others not only as a direct interposition or Divine Providence, hut as a proor of' the existcncc or apparitions."~
Patterns of Change In the years arollnd I ~)()(), there is evidence hoth or continuities in the relationship hetween religion and popular cllltllre and or significant changcs. On halancc it is thc continllities that seclll most significant dUring the pcriod up to the First World War. III hegin with titc ('Vidence ICl!' changc, this appcars to have come rro II 1 se\'l'ral dircctions: lirst, sOllle aspects or popular clllturc were weakened hy universal education, the spread of' literacy, and attempts hy teachers to incllicale a rationalistic mentality; secolldly, tllclT arc signs that ,,-ithin many or the c1lllrches c1crgy and lay activists \\'cre tcnding to distance thelllselves rroll1 aspects or popular culture; thirdly thcre is the inflllellcc or political radicals, olien strongly cOllllllitted to 'cnlightennwnt'; and Ic)urthly there is the developmcnt towards the cnd of' the ninetccnth ccntury or new ]ilrllls or popular cult lire, spreading Ollt li'O!ll the cities, as a rcsult of' which nnvspapcl's, n()\'Cls, cOlllnH'l'cial entertainlllt'nt, proression,tI sport, etc., tended to take the place or mallY IlH)rC tr,lditional li)}'lllS or allluselllent and SOUI'CCS of' wisdom. (:('rtainl), sOllle COlllclllporar), observers c1aimcd that the popular outlook was changing. Joseph Lawson's Prop;r!'s.' /11 /'/II/SI'Y, written in the 1KHOs, celebrated liliy ycars or llIcntal as well as Illatnial progress, which he credited especially to thc Iwnclicial c['['ccts of' COIllpllisory education. Other Elvourahlc Elctors had Included gaslighting (making people less ready to kar thc presencc of' evil spirits): parks, gardclls and cricket, ,til or which had cont rihllted to a declinc in heavy drinking and ill cruel or vioient sports: pianos, which had cllrichcd hOllle lirc: and the sprcad of' a more liberal
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theology. According to his accounl. superstitions or every kind had allotll1ded in the lirst hall' of' the century, and were closely elllheddcd both in the ale-house culture and in the Methodist chapels which were the Illain alternat ives to the puh. Lawson, who would appear to have heen a Unitariall, arglled that the new popular cult lire was not necessarily less religious, but it was religious in dirl<'Tcnt ways. People still helieve in ProvidcIH,(" hut it is ,I Illore reliable one, Illore rational, onc that can he depended upon - not lickle, variahle, one thing to-day and anothe!' to-morrow, snatching a child here and anothcr there Wllhollt any apparent reason or callse. Providence now is seen to havc lixed llIet hods; so that pcople studying its arrangements and conl(ll'Illing thereto, health, lik and Ila(')piness can' he enjoycd .':1 ' Somewhat silllilar trends "TIT noted, though with more amhivalence, in the diaries or I Ienr)' Winn, a Lincolnshire village shopkeeper and Anglican Sunday School teacher. "'Vinn comlllented that the people among whonl he had grown IIp in the I W20s and I trIOs 'had a nearer apprehension or the spiritllal world' and wcre 'I;\lmore poetical', whereas the people of' thc bt('r nineteenth celltUl'V were more 'practical'. (>/)clke"ich, who draws on \Villn's observations, sees a 'dcpcrsonalisation' or 'sllperstition'. \Vitchcs and wise Illen 1;lded li'om the scene. ,md Iwlicf' ill ghosts declincd, ,Illd 'Sllperstition sllhsided to thc Icvel or Illck, its impersonal lowest COl1llll0n dcnominator', He explains thcse challg-cs in terms not so lllllch of' any spre,ld or rationalism or education as or ch;lllgcs in social rcialions: partlv Ihe dominant inflllcnce of' 'new-stylc' ElrnH'rs who were host ile to sllch 'sllperst it it ions', and part Iy t he change or lllentality associated with the de"elopmellt of' a society marked hy lllore impersonal class relations in place or the nlon' intinl,ltc rural cOllllllllnity or f(lnner vears. 11 Ellgen Weher, in his accollnt or 'The Illodcrn isat ion or rll ral Frallce I K7()- I ~) I .J', gives Illany exa m p it's or t I}(' ways in wh ich this was Ilnderlllining popular (:atholicislll. According to We her, 'phosphates, chellllcal f'ertilisers and schooling had spelled the hcginning orthe end' lilr nlllch orrural religion and the priests tlwlllseives had delivC}'ed the ('ollj) dl' p:riil'l' hy thclr ,It tacks on supcrstitiolls or licentiolls I()rms or devotion - sincc thcse ,t1so tended to he those which were most lilll, and which the pcople regarded as most
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.~I·:ClI..\RIS.\II()N
IN II'ESTERN EI'I(OI'E, IKIK-I!lI·'
within them of' priests, mOllks and the devil, they arc very much in the traditioll or the nineteenth-century Ill'iI/i;I',I',7(; Thcsc examples relate to long-estahlished traditions, surviving the anti-clerical onslaught or the later nineteenth century. But that period also saw the cmergence or new saints, canonised hy the people long hcli)1'l' an)' o rticia I decision hy t he church, and ncw places of' pilgri nlage, widely popular long hclillT any fimn or organisation was imposed, The two most important pilgrimage-sites or twentieth-ccntury h'ance hoth have their origins in the sccond hall' or the nineteenth centur)" and they also illustrate contrasting aspccts or popular Catholicism, Lourdes. which now attracts some livc million visitors anllually, is primarily the greatcst of' the healing shrincs, though at variolls times it has also heen associated with French n;llionalism and/or right-wing politics. Lisicllx. wlllch attracts ahout ont' million visitors annually. owcs its popularity more to the 11I1I11hcr of' admircrs or St ThlT(?sC and of' her fimn of' spirituality," ;\t Aiti)tting, the chief' l\brian shrine in Bavaria. the porter Brothcr Conrad came to he regarded as a saint because orhis gcnc}'()sity to the poor and love orcilildrcn, After his death in IH!H he attracted nllllHTOUS pilgrims in his own right. By the I !)20s miracles were being reported and in 1~n'l he was canonisccL'H Another such modcl'l1 saint was the Dortmund Franciscan. Jordan Mai. who died in 1922, I k was lirst buried ill a city cemetery. but alier devotees had removed most of' the earth covering his grave. his relllaills were transkrred to a Franciscan church, which becanH' a place or pilgrilllage,7!) The Virgin l\'iary first spoke to Bernadette SouiJirous, a fiHlrteenyear-old shepherdess, at the grotto near Lourdes in Fehruary 1Wii). and she appeared agaill on eighteen occasiolls. The first miraculous cures were being c1aillled ill March I H!iH. and ollicial recognition hy the Bishop Or'Elrhes callle in I H()2, Many slllall groups or pilgrillls had already visited the grotto: the lirst ollicial diocesan pilgrimage took place in I H(),I and the opening or the railway ill I H()() was fi)lIowccl by the arl'lval or pilgrims fi'Olll all over France, In the polit ical crisis or the carly and lllid-I H70s t he Nat ional Pilgri mages or IH72 and 1117:) took on the character or royalist demonstrations and subsequent Illajor pilgrimages often included political undertones, But the m;lin thelllc was Illiraculolls healings, An analysis of' over 20()() peopk who claimcd to ha\'e heen cured in the period I H!iH-l !)()i) showed that t he), came {i'OIl! every depart ment in FrallcC'. wit h t he biggest nUllllwrs comillg cit her rrom in and
REI.ICION ,\NIl I'OI'I ' I.AR <:t ilTl'RE
around t he great cit ies or Paris. Lyon and Lille, or li'om SOllt hw(,stern departments, But even the (:rcuse, which was both very poor and very Ell' /i'Ol1l devout, contributed two who had been cured, and some quite distant rural departments produced thirty • HO or ( ort)', The most remarkahle and novcl (i.:?
~--,-
271
SH:lLlRISAII():-; 1:-; \\'ESTEI,N ITR()I'I':, IHIH,I'lJl
REI.J(;ION :\NIl I'Ol't'I.,\R Ct'J:I't!RE
less, Lawson's list orI)('ndicial changes includes two areas where the religious dilllensions oj' poplilar clilt lire continued to he conspicuotiS. One oj' these \\'as Illusic. In particular, the pianos, or small organs. lI,hich ('ntcred thc p
accepted part or the popular cultllre or the day, It was equally rcl1ccted in the comment or a Illan brought lip in a Liverpool working-class liu11il1' about the sallle time, that they included hymns in their Sunday cvcning singsongs 'even though we werc heat hens' ,H(; Lawson's eulogy or cricket points to an area III which religion and popular cult u re had actually come closcr togethcr d u ri ng the lat er part orthe nincteenth century. In the earlier part orthe century, the intense supernaturalism or much popular culturc provided COlllInon ground with at least the lllore popular hranches or contenlporary religion. such as Methodism; on the other hand. rccreation was one or the areas or most hitter dispute. Any l(lI'm or sport that was associated with drunkenness. gambling or violence to human beings or animals was billerly attacked hy a large pari or the religious world. and especially t he various f(mns or popular evangelicalism. which tellded to he the religious groups most active ill workingclass comlllunities. H7 AfitT every sport that fdl into one 01' other or these categories had been eliminated, there was not I1lIl(:h lef't. Recreat ion was thus a major site f()]" conflict bet ween religious groups and a signilicant section of'the male population, including many members both or the working' class and the aristocracy. The spread or cricket in the second hall' or the nineteenth century was onc example or a more general spread of' 'rational' I()nns or recreation, which did not normally involve gambling, were not necessarily sited at public houses. did not involve cruelty to animals, and the rules orwhich minimised or strictly regulated body-contact between the players. Beside cricket. the most important examples were I()()tball, rugby, athletics. cycling and boxing. though numerous other I()rllls or sport emerg'cd in t heir modern f()]'m ahout this t Imc, Boxing at first sight seems t he odd man out. bccause violence was or its very essence. Howevcr. it was regarded by its advocat.es as heing primarily a test or skill, with gloves and limited lllimbers or rounds minimising the damage dont'. and thus <juitt' dilfcrcnl. /'rom the oldcr and distinctly non-'rational' sport or prize-lighting, Churches and chapels played a m
270
Wcllme Lltllt'r llsed to try and keep the Sahhath as the Sabhath, And we always lillished up at night with this organ on Sunday you know, and evcryhody singing. and thell they had to do all individual tllrll you kno\\,. and you'd always get to tell yonI' dac! what you'd learnt at Sllnday School and what you'd becn talking ahout - and that. They sang 'hyml1s and all sorts'. his Lither's Ei\'ouritc being Thc Rllgged Cross', and tears ran down his check as the), sang it. The 'all sorts' no douht included more secular songs, such as those li'om the music-halls. amI it was this unscll~conscious mixing or sacred and pmLlIw which indicated that hymns had bccollle a generally
SU:I'LARISAIION IN WESTERN U'ROI'E. IHIH-I'III
life-alIirllling, and in which the church was required to care f(lr 'the whole man', body, as well as mind and soul. HH In the IOl1gn tcrlll sport onen became a rival to religion and the churches competing 1(lr time and energy, and inspiring similar degrees or passion,lIe Ulmillit men!. In t he shorter term religion and sport were rrequently allies, cnabling religion to cstablish a strong f(lOting in areas or popular culture that had previously beell alien. I n Liverpool man y or t 11(' pioneers or I()()t hall were clergymen, and in I HH!J, twent.y-live out or ll2 teams in the city were attached to a church. In Birmingham, where the game advanced Illore rapidly, churches and chapels played an equally conspicuous part, with eighty-three out or:~/I'I clubs in I HHO having a religious aniliatioll. wl There were similar developments at. a slight Iy lat.er date in (;erl1lany and especially in \<'i'ance, where some Catholics saw sport as offering a unique opportunity to re-establish the church's popular basc.~)(1 The most detailed account or changes in popular religion during the early twentieth century is a study hy Sarah Williams or Southwark, a working-class district in south London, hased primarily on interviews with residcnts horn in the period I H!)2-1921, She concludes thaI 'adaptation and continuity were the predominant characterist ics or t his period rat her than dislocat ion li'OI11 earlier patterIls or helier', and that 'a distinct pattenl or urban popular religion was consolidated at thc end or the nineteenth century in tandcm with the stabilisation or urban popular culture',~11 As ~Vil Iiams noles, this popular religion has olien heen defined, whether by Victorian clergy or by modern historians, in terllls or what it did nol include -notably regular attendance at church services. It would be Elr more illulllinating, she suggests, to see it as a f()nll or religion in its own right, and to lilCllS on what it did Include, Major aspects, she suggests, were the 'intermingling or f(llk and orthodox religious idiollls', including both extensivc usc or charllls, f()lk rellledies and spells, and widespread practice or certain church-based ritnals; identilication wilh local religious huildings and personnel; prayer and hymn-sing'ing; and belier in 'practical Christianiti.~I~ j\ vcry similar picturc elllcrges rrom Richard Sykes's rccent study or the Black Country betwecn 1~)I,1 and 1~)(i!J, Sykes took more account than Williams or denominational distinctions (mainly bet wcell Anglicalls and Met hodists) and dist inct ions bet ween those working-class people (relatively IlIlmeHHIS in the Black Country) who contillll<,:d to attend church as adults, and those who largely gave up when they leli Sunday School. But he concluded
that, at least until the 1D!JOs and 19()Os these distinctions were not reflected in widely different beliefs about. the supcrnatllral. Nonchurch-gocrs prayed, sang hymns, wert' churched, insisted on their children heing christened, and regarded Ilelghbourly help as a religious duty.~J:\ In a scene reminiscent or Yorkshire in the I H:Hls, onc or Sykes's inf()J'Jl1ants descrihed the women in Dudley tailoring lilctorics in the I ~r)()s and I ~)40s singing hymns as they workcd. Thc hymns were sometimes mixed with contemporary popular Elvourites - 'But a lot or the timc it used to be mostly hymns because e\'eryhody secmed 10 know more hYlllns.'~ll Both churchgocrs and non-dllln:h-goers carried lucky charms, consulted l(lrtune-tellers and believed in ghosts. Emphasising that the overwhelllling majority or working-class childrcn attended Sunday School at least up to the I ~r)()s, and that church-gocrs and nonchurch-goers alike had access to an orally transmitted culture or f(llktales and 'superstitions', he highlighted the large areas or common belicls and practices shared hy most working-class Ellnilies regardless or their religious aniliation or non-aniliatioll.~F'
Conclusion \;Vhile Williams identilies certain areas or change during the pcriod I HHO-I ~n~), she suggests that these were 'complex and amorphous and cannot simply be identified with "decline" '.% She argues that the hig'gcst changes have COIllC since t he Second World War. Sykes, who cxplored t he extent and causes or t his decline mOlT rully, reached the sanle conclusiOlI.~17 linl(lrtunately, IlO similarly detailed studies havc I)('('n undertaken in othcr parts or western Europe f()J' the period. But the weight or the availahle evidence suggests lhat Willialns is right to put the lIIain stress on continuity, cven though she may hc overstating her case. She elllphasises the role OrWOIlICn in passing on the various I(mns or popular helieI', both 'f(lll;,' and 'church-related' to lhe next gelleration, and the l;lct that man)' men, wit hout contest ing such helids regarded t hem as helonging to the i(.'lIIale spl1<.'re. QH 'livo-thirds orher interviewecs were women, which probahly accentuates the hias orher evidence towards the clements or continuity. Sources or change would seem to include the promot ion or rat ionalisnl and the nllt or science hot h hI' schools and by radical political parties; the availability or technological solutions to problems previously add ressed through religion or magic; and the
declining- authority of' the c1crg-y, tog-ether with diminishing- kno\\,lerlg-c or Christian doctrines, rit.uals and literature. Yet in all these cases, chang-e came only vcry g-radually, and in particular t.he inllucncc of' rationalist modes or thinking- must not be cxag-g-erat.cd. Doctors may have cOllle to be llIuch llIore widely used, but. the Illllllber or pilg-rilllag-es to Lourdes has also increased. Faith in the ability or the Party to sol\"l~ econolllic and political problellls does not preclude calling- on fc)rtunc-tellers or saints to help with lllOlT intilllate and personal needs. Alld the alternative to belief' in (;od is not necessarily a helier in science - it may equally be astrology, , or SllllP ' I Y III(' I;'."')') mag-Ie
8
1914
()n ~H .luly I~) 14 Aust ria-Ilullg-ary declared war Oil Serbia. Whell Serbia's Rllssian allies lllobilised, (;ermany declared war lirst on Russia on I Aug-ust, then two days later on Russia's ally, France. The quickest way to France was throug-h Bclg-iulll, so a few hours later (;crlllany invaded Belgium. On the evcning- or 4 Aug-ust Britain joined t he war in defence or France and Belg-iulll. 1\nd so beg-an the ere,lt War, which was to kave sOllie eig-ht million people dead, and which would becollle in the llIelllorics or subsequent g-encrations the supreille example of' the horror and rutility or war. In (;ermany, the Emperor lost no tillle in claiming- (;od's support Ic»' the national cause, and the ckrg-y, both Protestant and (:atlio\ic, were almost unanimous in g-iving- their blessing-, On SUIH!;I)', ~ J\ug-ust, Wilhelm II told the crowd g-athl'red outside the royal palace: '(;0 to church and pray to (;od that he will g-rant victory to the (;erman army and the (;erman cause.' As King- or l'russia and suprcme bishop or the l'russian church, he ,ulllOllnn~d that !J Aug-ust would he a day or prayer when all Protestant churches would he open ICll' spccial scrvices. In many other parts oU;crlllany the ()llowing Sunday was also declared a day or prayer. I The bitter divisions betweclI liberals and conservatives in the (;erman l'rotestallL c1lllrchcs were ICll' the time beillg pushed to olle side. as preachers and thcolog-ians /i'om both parties united to declare that Cod was with the (;ermans ill their fig'hl, and that sell~sacrilice in the Ilational cause was a rclig-ious dUl);.~ The Catholic clerg-y, ir less conspicuous as pat riot ie preachers, were none t.he less unequivocal in their sllpport.: 1 France entered the war with a government or a totally dirlt:rent complexion. The Socialist Viviani headed a predominantly Radical
,~H :lL\IU,~,\TI()N
IN II'ESTERN
El 'I{( )1'E.
IHIH-I'HI
Cahinct manv or whonl wcre militant ant i-clericals. There could he no di)'(:::t c;!1I~ by the French Ilcad or State Ii))' divine assistance. None the less, President Raymond l'oincar<: declared a 'sacred union', in which anti-clericals and Catholics would unite to repel the im'ader, all France's internal wars being suspcndcd Ii))' t hc duration or the Crcat \\'ar. Thc reality nc\'er quite ll1atched the rhetoric sincc thc mon' militant Catholics Iwlic\'ed that the war W;IS a di\'inc pllnisllll)('nt Ii))' French nat ional apostasy, and the 1110rc militant allt i-clericals responded t h,lt t he Cat holics INII/led FrallCC to hc im'aded,' BllL li)r the 1110st part, the kr\'cnt patriotism and hatn·d or the in\'adcr that was shared hy thosc at all points In Fr:ll)(T'S rcligiolls and polit icd spect rllm did provide COllllllOll (rroul)(1 Ii))' helie\'cr alld lllll)(']ic\'cr, Catholic, Protcstant and .Iew, :.., and ill man\' inst,lllccS led to a real i111prm'l'ment in relations betwecn n)(,I~]IJl'rs or thesc dilferent groups." The clngy were as willing as thcir counterparts il] (;crmany to declare that thc national callSC was (;od's callse, and, in ,I more limitcd way, the war cnahled Catholics to rctul'll to pllhlic positions - though it was not until October I q l!l that a practising Catholic was incillded in the cahinet.(i In Christian (;ermany, the clergy were excluded from hearing arms 111uch to t hc disgust and disappoint ment or many among them. In sccularist France, pricsts, pastors and rahbis wc)'(: liahle t~) conscription, and hy the end ortl](' war "lblB Catholic priests, lllonks and seminarians, as wdl as ninety-one Protestant pastors and theology students, had heen killed.' I kre perhaps was t he most elfect i\'e rcrut,]t ion or t he charges or lack or pat riot ism le\'elled bv rCIHlhlicans auainst Catholics, and the most I)()\\'erlitl arglllllt'nt agaillst t he persistent Illarginalisat ion of Cat holics. In vic\\' or the llleagre 11IImlwr or chaplains provided by the I"n'nch state, combatant priests also I(Hlllel themselves supplenl<'nting their militar\' duties hy providing spiritllal s(T\'ices to their Idlowsoldiers. x In pluralist England the relationship bctwcell church and state was less dearly deli ned t han in (;crlllan), or France. A Conservat ive go\,ernment would have had little hesitation in calling on the support oftlw Church of England. The Liberal goverllmcnt, which had been ill power sincc I DO!), had some or its greatest strongholds in Presbyterian Scotland and Nonconii)rmist 'Vaics, and incillded several ag'nostics, as well as SOlllC .Jews, alllong its leading lllembersY There could bc no question or the governlllent itself de(Tceillg a nat ional day of prayer, as had last happencd dllring t he Indian I
,..,
1 )1,1 '
277
Mlltiny - though in 1mB King (;corgc V would designate SlInday, (i .Janllar), as a day or prayer and thanksgiving throllghout his dominions. Neither was there allY of the religious warfare that continued beneath the suriilCe or the 'Sacred Union' in France. Moral support I()]' the national cause was grateflllly rcccived li'om whatever quartcr it might come, and din<':rcnt members of t he government specialised in winning the support of dil'krcnt constituencies. Particularly signilicant hcre was David Lloyd Ceorge, the Welsh Nonconli)]'lllist Chancellor of the Exchequer, who, likc many of his co-religionists, had opposed t he Boer War, and who was uniqllely qualified to drull1 lip Nonconl()rmist support I()]' the war ag;llnst (;(')'many.IO In England, too. priests, pastors and rabbis generally gavc thcir support to the war, and there werc m,1I1Y whojoined the Anglican Bishop or London, Winnington-Ingram, in declaring that it was a 'holy war' and that those who died in it were 'martyrs', II The position was, howe\'er, cOlllplicated by the existence of a 1lI1mbel' of smaller NOlKOni()nnist dcnolllinations, most notahly the Qllakers, who werc comlllitted to pacilisll1, I:! and by traditions of anti-militarism within Illany or the larger Nonconl()J')llist churches. On Sllnday 2 Allgust there wC]'e still nUlllerous Nonconl()J')nist preachers who declared that Britain cOllld ane! shollid stay Ollt or the war. I :1 Adlllittedly, two days later the invasion of Belgillm had COlllpletely changed the sitllation, and the li)lIowing Sunday most or thelll were insisting that Britain had a llloral ohligation to come to 'Little' Belgilllll's aid. But, in the eyes of l1lany super-patriots, sermons in support or the war wcre olien less wllOleheartcd alld Ilnqllalilicd than they should have been. 11 The iclentilicatioll het wcell Christ ianit y and t he nat ional cause was mort' alllhiguous t hall in Cennany. In England n:liglOus Elctors playcd a major part in the admittedly vcry limited opposition to the war, and sllpport I()r t he war was llIorc onen based on purely secular arguments. While govcrnlllcnts difkrcd in the ways in which they drcw upon religious support, thcrc scelll to ha\'c been considerable similarities in the ways in which the people in the three coulltries responded religiously to the olltbreak of war. Reports ofa 'return to the altars' were llIoSt widespread ill France. Bllt llIany similar reports Gmlt' li'om Ccrmany in the later months of 1~)]4, and some li'olll England, though herc the evidencc is less clear. In Berlin the Protestant chllrch authorities noted in Septclllher 1~)14 that the war had 'united all classes and social strata orour people.,., Even in thosc circles that WC1'C 1()J')llcrly inclilltTent or hostile to the chllrch, and
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IN WESTERN EIII(OI'E.
IHIH··I~ll'l
period preceding the war, in which Protest.ant pastors orten played an active part.:!1 Nationalism was equally c('ntral to the thinking or large IllIl11hers or French (:atholics in the lat.er nineteenth and early t went iet h cellt llries, ;1I1d the f;lct t hat the French were actually deknding their soil rrom lilreign invasion meallt that douhts ahout the llIorality or war were cven less likely than elsewhere to receive a serious hearing.~'i In Ellgland, however, the churches had becll 1l1lH:h morc divided in their attitude to qllestiolls or war and peace, as had heen showlI by the Boer \·Var. A substantiallllinority or Nonconlilrmist ministers, and a smaller minority or Anglican clergy, had opposed the warY fi While this opposition was primarily due to douhts hoth ahout the justicc or the British causc and ahout the treatment orArrikaner civilians by the British li)}'(:cs, it also rdlected a more generalised critique or militarism and orthe role orlHlsiness interests in profiting rrom war. ThiS critique was li'equcntly heard in the Nonconf(lnnist chapels, and sOl1letimes extended to a more gcneralised p,\cilism, usually justilied by rcf(TCnCe to a mixturc or the New 'I(~stamcnt and radical or socialist politics.:!! It may be that long years or hearing sermons about peace had left man)' people with r,lthcr llIixed kclings ahout the role or the churches in wartillle. They may themselves have relt that they had a duty to light; yet at the same time they saw the incongrllity in a Christian minister justii)'ing killing. This certainly was the position orthc poet Wilfi-ed Owen:!H and or the Liheral politicllI Charles Masterman, who was British Director or Propaganda, yet Idt that the only two Christ.ian leaders or iJodies t.o cnICrgc wit h credit li'OIl! t he war were t he Pope and the Sneiet y or Friends. ~~l In Britain there was a small, hilt nonetheless vocal, opposition to the war, which had two llIajor concentrations or sllpport in the Independel1t LaiJollr Part), and the Society or Friends, as well as more scattered support among liberal intellectuals, socialists generally, and members or non-pacilist churches.:;!) The critiqlle took three main filrllls, liberal, socialist and Christian, thollgh these categories were by no IlIcans mutllall), exclusive. The liberal erit iqlle, represented in the Union or Democratic Cont rol, lilCused on the dangers or sccret diplomacy, and on the need lilr parliamentary control o\'cr I()]'('ign policy. Rather than advocating a rcl'usal to light. mcmhers or the II DC coneent rated on t he search lilr
1'11,1
2Hl
Quaker input, the Fellowship or Reconciliation, an inter-denominational body or Christian pacilists limned in lkccmber I ~1l4, or t.he Society or Friends itseiL Though SOl11e or these protesters were imprisoned, and some - including several Nonconlilrmist ministers lost their jobs, they remained Elirly much in the background IIl1til 1~)] G, when the introdllctlon or conscription gave thelll their chance to lIIake a public stand lilr their beliefs, and also presented t.hem with the probability or prison and t.he possibility o!,death: 11 irthey rerused to cOlllpromisc with authority. All analysis or the religious aniliations or one group or several thousand Conscielltiolls Ol~jectors showed that 9:i per cent or t.hose whose aniliation was known were Prot.estant Disscntcrs, though there were also considerahle nlllllhers whose objections were pnmarily polit iGtI.:I~ The boom in church-going in t.he early months or the war seems to have rellected partly specific needs, partly a Illore generalised search Ii)!' st rengt hand reassu ranee, part Iy an indent i(icat ion or the national calise with the cause or Cod . .lust as personal crisis would olien lead t.o the reawakening or a part Iy dormant rciigiosIt)', it seems that collective crisis Illay have had the same erkct. Bllt in France, t here were also lllallY reports or conversions or unbelievers at the {i·ont. It is well known t.hat such trallmatic experiences as war, irnprisonlllent, serious illness or bereavelllent orten lead to a drastic reconsideration or views or the world, olien incillding discovery or rcliglolls Elith by those who had heen unbelievers or loss or Elith by those who had belicved. j\ British report, Tltl' (Irlll\' (Ilid Htlip;iO)} , published at the end or the war, noted that the same incident could have precisely the opposite en(~ct on the religious helids or two dilkrent IndiViduals. As one chaplain said: 'The \,Var an(~cts lnen in many contradictory ways. I have had more t han one case or officers prcviollsly religious who ha\'t~ chucked religion altogether', the main reason apparently being the I<.'eling that God should not have allowed the war to happen. What is striking ahout the French experience during the First v\'orld vVar is the degree to which conversions or sceptics to Catholicism secm to have olltnulllbered rejections or CatholicIslll by t hose who had previously believcd.: I:1 So hr as intellectuals arc concerned, this probably was a continuation or the rediscovery or Cat.holicism which had been going on IClI' several years bdc)J'(. ~ the war.:\1 The st.rongly nat ionalist Ilavour or the Cat.holicislll or the tillie, alld the sense that Catholicism embodied the celltral defilling
1'111
t radit ion in Frellch ctllt tire, was an important aspect or its appeal, and was clearlv rUrlher enhanccd alter the outbreak orwar.: I ', Accordilw t;) Annette Becker. CatholicislII was to the ordinary h 'H' soldier abovc all the religion or the lIIiraclllolls" 'Olle stich lIIiracle ill lIIallY French eyes was their victory at the battle or the Marne. fiHlght at a tillle when the French gOVCrIllllcllt had already withdrawn to Bordeallx in til(' EI(,(' or t he possible Edl or Paris. Cat holies attrilJllted special significance to the f;\Ct that victory came on the day or t he f('ast or t he birt h or tile Virgin Mary, and they saw t his as rurther (,,"Idcllel' that she was fighting on their side. Btlt the war was also 1'1111 or llIinor llliracies . .It1st as the disasters or August 1~)J·l prepared the way [i)r the extraordinary gratitllde with which the French ex perienccd t he successes or Septelllber, t he appalling carllage ,111 around enhanced the relier or t hose who had escaped, and the lleed [I)]' thelll to lllake appropriate cxpressions orthallHlllncss. As Becker writes: remain at the rront, to live in the middle ordeath, the soldiers had need ormultiplc means or assurance. Those provided by the a[kctioll or their E1mily, by the Ettherlalld, by religious Elith, and by superstition. Far [i'om cancelling onc another out, they reinli)rccd one another in the horror or the conflict. Families in any case had recourse to everything in their power that might. give spiritual help to the soldiers at the rront. They would even baptise durin'" h the war children who had not been _ baptised at birth III order to preserve their EIther at the rrollt.:'!
'i()
So the soldiers and their Ellllilics drew Ilpon a wide repertoire or sources or strength. reassllrance and protection, some or which were explicitly Christian. SOlllC or which Ilscd Christian symbols in a way that lllany Christians regarded as 'sllperstitiolls' and SOllle or which drew Oil [i>rIllS or helier larg'cl), or wholly independent or Christianity. Thus British soldiers WtTe said to pray befe)]T battlc and to give thanks to Cod afterwards, and French soldiers wOllld write to their parish priest asking (i)]' his prayers. English soldiers 'who never received communion at other times wOllld do so while at the rrolll. - a chaplain cOlllmentcd: 'In SOllle it means everything that we would wish it to lllean; in others it is indllbitably a superstitious [(?cling. They helieve that having taken COllllllUlllOll they will be sak,<,:-l French soldiers wOllld visit Marian shrines close to the rront. sometillles leaving lllessages (i)r the Virgin.:\~1 In
Bavaria the tradition was maintained in wartime or bringing to the Marian shrille a painting depicting the kind or protectioll that was sought and at the end or the war, paintings or soldiers returIl.ing to their village were presellted in thanksgiving. II) Catholic soldIers carried Illcdalliolls or the Sacred Heart and Protestant soldiers carried Bibles; both Catholics and Protestants carried crucifixes. English soldiers also carried rabbits' ket and lucky coins. And grIeving parents and wives [iHllld [i-csil hope through Spiritualism. which gained many Ilew [i)lIowers durillg the war. This eclecticism led one observer or t he Brit ish Arm)' to COlllllH'nt. 'The soldier has got . , , "II religion. I am not so sure that he I1,lS got ( 'I,lrIstla11lty.
Conclusion The upsurge orreligiolls activity in the early part ortlle war led one French observer to comment that 'the dechristianisation or the peasant soul, even in those villages where the church seelllS to be abandoned, is extremely superficial'.'~ The sallle kind or COnllll('nt could also be made or(;erman), or oran overwhelmingly urbanised England. By 1914 a signi[icallt minority or the populatioll had become converts to a new world-view, h,lsed most commonly on sclcntislll. sOClalislll. or a cOlllhination or the two. But [i)r the milch larger I1lllllber or those whose Iwlids were Illore fluid and eclectic, Christianity generally relllained a significant influcncc on their understanding or the world, and Olle that came to the [illT in tillles or crisis. Therc were large nllll1bers or people who were suspiciolls or the church and clergy. seldom went to church. and had relatively little knowledge or (:hristian doctrinc. but who helievl'{1 in (;od, regarded t Iwmselvcs as Christians, and were EUlliliar with a wide range or Christian ideas and symhols. which might remain largely dorlllant in 'norlllal' times but were readily drawn upon in times or criSIS. As regards the various dilllensions o['seculansatlon discussed earlier, th(~ response to the outbreak or war suggests that religion or various kinds remained deeply embedded ill poplliar culture. lllOSt especially in a Catholic environment. as in France or Bavaria, where processions, pilgrimages. Visits to shrines, and the cult. o[ the salllts generally, related closely to basic human needs [e)r protection. assurancc and the search [i)r miracles. In matters or religious practice. the increase, at least in the early parI orthe war (certainly in France and
SECII..\RISAI'ION IN WESTERN EI'l{OI'E. 1:-i,IN-I!)I·1
(;crmany. and Illore queslionably in England), indicaled Ihal belw('en Ihe slrongly comlllilled church-goers and Ihe decided l1on-c1l11rch-go('rs Iherc was a considerable nUI11I)('r or I hosc whose religious praclicc was Illon' conlingcn!. II should be nOled, however, Ihal inlhe case of'Prolesl:1I11 norlh (;CrIlIan vI church-g'oin(r remaincd VC1'Y llluch a Illinorily aClivil)" evcn al Ihe height or Ihe war-limc boon!. In lerms of'lhc scndarisalion of'rcligious helieL Ihe e{'fixls or Ihe war seelll amhiguous, Ccrlainly il raised in a parI icularly aculc way Ihc agc-old qucsl ions of' Ihe rclal ionsh ip hel ween Cod a nd evil. II raiscd equally pressing queslions aboul Ihe re:lIism or Ihc widespread asslllllplion Ihal humanil), was aboul 10 enloy an era orcon1II1IIOUS progress Ihrough Ihc applicalion or scicnce and polilical aCllon. II pl:tced hugc numbers of' people in silualions or despcralc nccd where queslions conccrning (;od, Ihe soul and immorlalily acqul1'(~d an urgcncy which Ihcy mighl nol have had bcfill'C, OuesI ions of' religious idenl il y, on Ihc 01 hcr ha nd, may havc losl sOl~e or I heir imporlance during Ihe war, as mililary unils broughl logel her mcn orwidcly dirkring rcligious beliefs and af'filialions, unile'd on I" on I hc basis or comlllon nal ionalil y, and religious difrcrc'nce~'i hel \\'('('n ,I he combal:lIll nal ions wcre or vcry marginal relcv:lllce 10 Ihc confllc!. Therc was, in Llcl, a slrand or French Calholic palriolic I'llClol'lc which blamed (;erman national sins on Ihe inflllcncc or 1 Llll her:lll ism l: (illSI as sOllle Engl ish preachers accllsed I he (;el'l1l:lIlS of'bei ng 1',11 ionalisl sand al heisl s ral her I han real 1'1'01 esl anI s). ·11 B III il was an esscnlial parI orlhe rhcloric of'lhe {illioll ,(l({('n;/" accepled by mosl Calholics, Ihal Prolcsl:lllIS, Jcws, Frcclhinkers and Calholics \I'('n' all pal'l of'lhc on(' greal French nalio11 and wcre all fighling as Ol1e 10 defend Ihe sa(']'ed soil orlhe f:1I1H'rland: SOIllC nl:llliftoslalions or Ihis llnil)' I)('c:llnc part or nalional fillklore, mosl nolably an inCldenl where, inlhc abscnce of':lIlY priesl, a rabhi had held Ih~' rialcly deal! \\'ilh al Ihe beginning of'a book on Ihe rcligiolls hislory orlllC Iwenlic!ll cenlllry, 1';111]('1' Ihan al Ihe end of'a hook on I he religiolls hislOl'Y of' Ihe ninelecnl h cenlury, (1""
Conclusion
Six aspecls of' the social role or religion, a11d six possible areas or seCltlarisation, have been considered in Ihis hoolc individllal belief': limll:!1 religiolls pracl ices; I he place of' religion in public insl itul iOlls; ils parI in public debale; ils significance as an aspecl of'idcnlity; and ils relalionship wilh popular cllhllre. The c1earesl evidence orsecularisalion during Ihis period is in Ihc first Iwo areas. In all three cOllnlrics, Ihere was a subslanlial decline in Ihe proporlion or Ihe poplliation allending chllrch services or parlicipaling in co III nil III ion - Ihough the pallern of'decline \Vas very llneven. There was also a rise in the proporlio11 o/' prokss('(1 unbelievers, and a rangc of' alternalivc syslems or belief' hCC:lll](, widely available, challenging Ihe dominanl influence or Ihe \'arious religions. In Ihe Ihird and f(Hlrth areas Ihe resul!s or Ihe changes in Ihesc years were more mixed. By Ihe early Iwenlielh cenlury Ihere WCIT l1lajor difkrcnccs belwecn Ihe pariS played hy religion in Ihe [>ublic insl ilul ions or I he I h rec counlries. These dif'ft'l'enccs were I110lT significanl Ihan any cOll1mon tcndcncy, The clearest c\'idencc of' sCCltlarisalion was in France. Bul while Ihe slalc was bcing SC(,]Ilarised, Calholics were sClling up a range or counler-inslilulions. Thesc were onen quill' successf'ul. In England, Ihe slrenglh or Ihc Nonconfilrmisls, wil h their agenda of' 'religious fi'ccdom', as well as the 'Nell' Liheral' programme or expanding Ihe nalional and local slale, led 10 a creeping secularisaliol1, bUI withoul a supporling secularist ideology. And in (;ermany Ihe role or religion and Ihc churches in I hc fields or educal ion and wei EIre relllained very extensive. Furlhermore, Ihe introduclion or church laxes blld Ih~' hasis fill' Ihe continuing inslilutional slrenglh or the churches in Ihe
2Wi
C()NCl.l'SION
t\\'clltieth c('ntury olil'll contrasting- with the slllallness or SUllday cong-reg-atiolls. The dirl(:rent b,dancc or political linn's in thc three countries kd to vcr\" dill'erent relationships hetween church and state. III ptlhlic de!Jat'c t here is clear cvidencc or secularisat ion, in as 1111lch as n'lig-ion no longer pnl\'idcd a coml1lon Ianguag-c. At least ill France ;1I1d (;Cl'ln,ul)" it hecame part or the ideolog-ical weaponry or p,lrtictlbr partics, 'pr()\'iding- an cssential link between these parties and their supporters. btlt cutting- thelll oil' rrolll other sections or the clectorate. So the role or relig-ion in public debate certainly n,tlTOII"('d. Btlt it remaincd ccntral Ie)!' certain political g-rotlps. mainly on t he Right. In the linh and sixth areas, the cvidcnCl' le)r secularisation is llltlch less. Relig-iotls identities were sometimes supplanted by. Ie)!' instance. nationalist or socialist identities, and they continucd to hc modilinl by. li)r instance. social class. But the beliefS, experienccs, symhols. )"('~lationships derivcd rrom relig-ion rcmained uniquely potent as shapers or idcntity. especially since the majorit)" or the population continued to 1)(' stlhject to religious inlltlcnccs li'OIl! an carly ag-e. I\Iort'()\'cr, newer SOlIlH'S or ident it y orten had a religiolls COmpOIH'llt. In particular, nationalism and rclig-ion, thollgh potentially riyals, rreqllently intcrming-kd, producing nationalist rcIig-ions and relig-iously shaped nat ion;disllls. As Ii)!' popular culture: the weakcning- or the relationships betwccn l'rotestantlslll alld popular culture has heen Olle or the most importallt aspects or twentiethccnt ury sccubrisat ion in England and (;ermany - and one oj" t h(' big-gcsi points ordill'ercnce li'om the linited States. But this process had not g-one very Eu' hy IDI·l, and the lil1ks l)('twc(,11 C;ltholicism and popular CllltlllT remaincd close.
Returning- to the discllssioll in the Introductioll or the various possihle ways or 'telling- the story' or relig-ion ill modern western Europe: I 1)('liC\T that onc orthc ways oj"tclling- this story must be in terms or sccularisation. But, rather than one simple story-linC', we Ileed a narrative in which a variety or plots and suh-plots arc intertwined. One or thesc plots would tUl'n 011 the cmcrg-cncc or ncw 'Religions of llulllanity', and their dli)rts to devise new ritllals and mor,t1 principles and to sell t hcm to a mass Jlublic. ]\not her wOllld li)ClIS on thc rt'sponsc or Christians and .Jews to the secularist chalICllge, and t he hat tic wit h in ch urch and synagog-Ill' hct wcen modernisers and tr;l(litionalists.
2H7
I (" one 0(" these storics is to be given pride of' place it should be not secularisation, but pluralism. One or the Illost sigllificant turning-points in Europe's religious history was the Illtroductioll or a degree or toleration li'ol1! thc later seventcenth century onwards. As the religious controls werc g-radually lilted, an increasingly wide rangc or possibilities opened up, including- deism, scepticism and atheism, as well as many alternative I(mns or Christial1lty and Judaism. In the eig-htecnth celltury, revealed religion EKed powerful intcllcctllal challcnges. But the secularisation of society only hecame a realistic possihility li'om the 17~)Os onwards, as liberal and radical polit ical movements mobilised wide sect ions or the population to attack the (1II{'/1'1I lip;III1!'. Liberal. radical. and later socialist political 1ll00'cments were bitterly opposed to established churches, which they saw as major strongholds of the old order: 1()lIowers or these movcments oficn had a profiHll1d, in some respects 'rclig-ious', Etith in the possibility or achining Elr-reachingand benefiCial social changes thmugh political actIOll. By the middle of the nincteenth century, established rcIig-ion also EKed a powcrhtl challcng-c fi'om the growillg influence of scientists. many or lI'hom made immensc claims fe)r the authority and potential of sclellce. In the second hall' of the ccntury, west European societies were the scencs or fierce ideological competition. It was not simply a matter or 'religiOUS' versus 'secular', but ofnval {(lUllS orrclig-ion and rival li)rms or secularity, each battling on several rronts. There were several salicnt aspects or this plllralism. In the first place, both radical politics and thc Cllit of science had a very po\\'erhd attraction, at least f<)r certain sections or till' poplliation. Where pcople were g-Iving up going- to church or s)'nag-ogllc, or abandoning their beliefin (;()(I, it was not only because or 'douht' or 'apathy", More oneil it was hecallsc or the attractIon ofr!val systellls or belieI'. Sccondly, church alld synagog-uc werc not passive ill the Elcc or t.hese attacks. They f
;)I[lU() SIU:1ll11110,) \.I;)[1I1H F)lI11Il:S 01 .I')!I.lI:;) p.).I.l.)p.1
I
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.tiU!I!EI\;).ld ;)1[1 p.)I(bJJE ;),\Eq kH[I ;1.)[IJE,ld (llll! 1I0ISS').I0.l(j SllOl.ti~)~). () Ibid .. pp. ~)(}-111. >L For (:Ollltc and his (,Olltcillporarics, sec I). (;. (:l1arlto11. ,')('(1(/0)' Re/ip)olls III 1"1'1111(,(', 1815-1870 (Oxlemi, I ~)(i:\); T R. Wright, rill' RI'Ii,!!,1II11 of 1lllillllilill' ( :ambridgc. 1~)i-l(i). .1. 'lschalllH'n, op. cit .. pp. II ~)-:\(i; W. S. E Pickcring, nllddll'III1:, SOl'lo{o'!!'Y of IMip;/il1I (London, I~)i-l\), pp. ·\·\:")-·7 :}. Dietrich BOllhodfl'l', 1,1'1/1'1',1 lilli/ PII/}(,I'S jimll 1'1'i.11I/1 (I':nglish trallslatioll, I,olltion. I !l:}!l), p. !l I. n. Thoillas 1.1Icklnann, nos l'm"'l'lll til'/' Rl'lip;1Ii1l in dN IlIlii/nlll'lI (;l'sl'l/sr/lllfi (Frcihmg, I %:\) (English translation pllblislll'd in I ~)(i7 as Till' IlmlsiNI' I1l'lip;iIlIl); Bryan Wilson, Rl'lip;1Ii1l iii S{,{,IIIIII' SOI'lI'l\' (London, I ~)(i(i) and (;ollll'lII/ml'lln hOIlS/ll/'il/oIIOIIS of Nl'lip;iOII ( lxlemi, I ~)7(i); Petcr Bergcr, '/'III' SiIITI'" Co II o/n' (N('II' York, 1%7) (plll>lislll'd in thc UK ill Im:\ as 'I1t1' Soriol I?l'iIlily o/IMip;IIiIl).
7
E.g., Rodncy Stark and Willialll Sims Bainbridgc, rill' f
R. Iannacone, 'TlIe (:OIlSCljlll'nCt' or Religious i\larkct Structu\'(': (\dalll SllIith and tlIl' ECOIlOlllics or Religion', Hllilollit/il\' filii/ Sotid)" :1 (I DDI), pp. I :)(j,-77: Roger Finkc, ';\Il l illscClllar ;\Ill('ric;', III Stne i~n,Cl' (cd.), Hl'fi,!.!,'ioll Iliid 1\/odl'l'IlI:llllI!lI: Sorll!/ogls/.I IIlId Ilislo/'lililS IJeIIilII' IIII' S!'m/lln:lI111111 nli'.w (Oxfe)l'(l, I ~)q~), pp. ],I:")-(i~l.
i-l. This I take to he the positioll or [)avid Mart ill, ill his iI (;1'1/1'1'11/ nll'ili'\' of Sl'm/lln:lllioll (OxleJl'(1. I~)7i-l), which assullles the th('o!,\" hut lries t;} prcscnt it in a IllOlT Iluallced Elshiou, with llIore sellsitivity to Ilational alld cOllkssiollal dilfcrcllccs, as wcll as III t hose works where he lIas 1>('('11 lI10re directly critical or the thcory, such as 'Iiillglli's 0(' Fir!': rill' F,/J/IISIIIII o/' 1'1'1111'.1/111111.111/ fit 1,111111 "I'IIITlm (OxleJl'(!. I DDO). J\ sllllilar stallce is adoptcd by (:race Davie, H!'figlllil III Iinllllil SIIIrt' liN); lit/in/lllp: lUilltolll flt/ollgfltg (Oxl(Jl'(1. I D~H); Michael Ilol'llsiJv-SllIith, 'R('ccnt 'li'ansfeJl'lllations in English (:atiiolicislll: Evidellce of: Sendaril.atll)n:', in Bruce (ed,), op, cil., pp. I I i-l-,I·I; .lose Casanova, ['IIh1ir HI'fig/olis III Iltl' Morll'l'lI !!filM (ClIicago, I L, I ~)D·I). D. Sec Bruce's own contributlollS to BnICC (ed.), op. cit., pp. i-l-:IO, 17()-~)·\, alld f()}' the rullcst staH'lllelll oj' his positioll, Stevc Brucc, H!'fip;ioll ill 1111' Morlnll World: hOIll {,'illltl'rlm/s 10 (;11/1.1 (OxlcJl'(!. I DD!i). 10. As .lallles O])('lk('vich wrote, III olle oj' the llIost influential or such studies: 'Popular Christianity ill soutll l.lI1dsev was no lI1('l'e dl'l'ivativc or dehased \'('l'SIOIl oj' thc dencal blith. Its lihrctto was llot writtcll hI' hishops or hy Fellows or ()ricl or hI' Rcglus Po«-ssors oj' \)Ivilllty. Wh;;t villagers nlldcrstood by Christianity was \H'vcr preached fi'OlIl a pulpit or laught 111 SUllday School, and what they took li'olll tlIe clcrgy th\'\' took on Ihelr own terIns' (Hl'fip:ioll Iliid Hili'll/ SOti!'I\': SOIlIIt Ijlldsl')', 1825-1875 (OxfcJl'(l, I ~)7(j), p. ~7!»). Thc tcndency Illorc recclltly has hcell 10 lI1ake Icss sharp distinctions hel\\'t'l'n olIicial and popular religion, alld to place 1ll00T elllphasis on thc influcncc or the c1l'l'g\'. According 10 Philippc Boutr)', I'rarl's 1'1/}({I'II/ssl's 1111 /}(n's rill ell/'{; d':frs (Paris, I!)N(i), p. ·1:)·1: 'In the cOIlntr\,side oj' thc AII1 durillg thIS ccntun' blltii IS defincd ahove all bv the observation oj'the nIlcs and rites orthc chnrch: ne\'er perhaps was the conleJl'lllity oj' religions practl(TS to thc mjnnctions oj' the dcrgy so cOlllplctc or illlllH'diate. 'Ii) go in search or a "popnlar religion" secn as alltononlons, cven as in nq}tnn' with til(' tcaching or thc clergy, wonld he to nnrlcrestilllate or to igllorc til(' illlprint ortlw chnrch Oil thc o\Trall rcligl(Hls heha\'lour orthe Ellthl'til. and t he deep at taciullcllt or Ihe rnral populat lOllS to (:at lIolic rites alld dognlas. , , ,The sc\'('n sacralllcnts feJl'lll t hc basis and t hc pOlnl or re((-rcnce oj' rnral Christlanit\' in the I ~ltii ('('ntnr),: which dot'S Ilot exclude (i'OIll t hc P01l11 or VIC\\' or til(' Elit hl'til Cit hcr incolllprcll('nsions or conflicts.' While Boutr), IS III 0 \'(' sceptical orthe COIH'('pt or 'popular religion', the COIH'('l'n with uIHlersl;uHling- 'thc ITligion oj' Ihe peopl(" rell1ains cent ral. II. line I all1 borrowing thc terlllinology of' .ldftTV Cox, especially as pr('scllted III 'i\laster Narratives or Religious Challge', a pap('\' presellted at the conll'l'el](,(' 'Thc Ikclinc of' Christclldolll in \Vest('\'1l Ellrope c. 17:)O-~O()()' (Pans, I ~)~)7) wilicii ackllowledges the pO\I'('r or til(' scnilansatioll 'story', while also idelltij'ving SOlllt' oj' Its wcakncsscs,
NOTES
12, 1:1.
1·1. IS. I (i.
17,
1i'l.
and lIlore lel1lalively proposing an alicrnalive. Some orlile same pOlnls arc nlade Imell), ill.ldfre), Cox, 'Religion al1d ImperialPowcr in Ninelecnlh-( :cnillry Brilaill'. Richard llellllsiadier (cd.), /'i'1'I'IIOIII 111111 Hl'li,!!,'IOII III/hI! Nilll'iI'l'li/ft (,'I'/I/lln' (Slanlem!, 1!)D7), pp. :1:\!)-42. For a Slllllman scc II1Igil I\lcLcod, RI'Ii,!!,"II11I IIlId /lil' I'm/ill' or IfIr'S/l'm 1~'lImIJl" !7SI)-llJ8IJ (Oxlem!. H)!J7), pp. 1:1!i-!)·1, AccollnlS which place Ill(' Illain slress on inlcllecillal Elclors, while also laking a('('olll1l or olilns, a\'(' ()wcn (:hadwick, rhl' Sl'l'IIllm:lI/ioli or 1/)(' 1','lImlmlll Milld III Iftl' Nilll'll'l'lIlli CI'IIII1I'\' (CcIII'('('n urhanisat ion and sendansat lOll. While denying I hat t here was any lH'Ccssary relationship 1)('lwC('n the Iwo, he snggcst('(\ that thl'!'c was a link during thc phase which sct in around the cnd or thc nlllct('('nih century. Scc his articles 'Did lirhanizatlon Sccularize Britain?' {I rl!llI I lJis/ory Ji'll ri}()o/i, I !)i'li'l. pp. I 1·1, and 'Thc Mcchanism or Rcligious Crowth in llrhan Socielies: British Cities slncc the Eighteenlh Ccn-
NOTES
I!).
20.
:11
22.
~:l.
24.
2:'. :1(i.
tllry', in Hugh McLeod (cd.), J';lImlmlll Hl'lip,'loll ill Ihl' .-Ige 0/ (;l'l'tll Cilil's (London, I D!J!i), pp. 2:\!)-()2. llclcn Mclin, J,e/SIII,(,llIlrilhl' Chllll,!'.:ill,!!; Cil\', IN70-11J1·' (London, I!J7()), chs i'l-9; JalJlcs Walvin, I.I'ISI/I'I' IIlId SOUI'!)', ISW-IIJ'j() (London, 197i'l), eh 7, Callulll (;. Brown, 'The S('cularisation ])ecadc: Thc Hacmorrhage or the Bntish churches in thc 1!)(iOs', a paper prescnted at the COnllT('nCe 'The ])ecline or Christendolll in Western Europe, I 750-20()O' (Pans. I !)!)7). Sec also (:allulll (;. Brown, Hl'ligioll IlIlrI ,'l'ol'ith' III Sm/frlllri .111/1'1' 1707 (Edinburgh, I !J!J7), pp, I !ii'l-207. PetlT v:In Roodcn, 'Secularizatioll, Ikchristianization and Rcchristialllzation in The Nelherlands', in llartillul Lehmann (cd.), Sri/wllmSII'I'IIIIP;, lJ(,l'/m.l1 111111.1/1' 1'1111/,;. /{l'{'lmsIIIIIIISII'I'IIII,!!; i III 1I1'I/ZI'illil'heli F /I mlm ( ;iit t i ngcn, I !)!)7), pp. J;\ I-!i:l. See, e.g .. Wack (:Iark Roor and William McKinlley, (III/aimll i\lllIl/lilll' Rl'lip;lol/ (New Brtlnswick, NJ, I !)i'l7); Robert vVutlJllo\v, '1111' /{I's/mr/II 1'IlIP; O/:IIIII'nrrtll HI'II~I!;1011 (1'I'Incctoll, NJ, I Di'li'l). \\'uthnow, op. cit., pp. i(i7, :\00. For SOIlII' wesl Europcan statistics, s('(' McLeod, Hl'lip;1011 III/d 1111: I'mlill', p. 177, I havc discllssed SOIll(' 0(' these points morc (,ully In Ilugh McLl'od, 'Ikchristianizatloll and Rechrisliallil.ation: the Case or (:reat Brilain', l,iJ'f'/tfil'llI' /1'I1,!!;l'.Il'hil'ltil', II (I !l!Ji'l) , pp. 21-:12. Following R. Laurcnce Moore, Sl'llillp; Lllri: :11111'1'11'1111 Ill'fi,!!,'Ioli III/hI' i\llll'lil'ljilll(f' 11/(;111/111'1' (Ncw York, 1!1!J.\). Jeffrey Cox, I';lIp;li.lh (;hlll'(/Il'S III II ,'11'1"111111' Sool'h' (Oxl()]'(I, I !Ji'l2). i\ nHIlT extreme versioll or this argument IS pn'scnlcd 111 the work or SOllle i\nllTlcln SOCIologists, see e.g. Roger Finke and Rodlley Stark, rill' Chllli'lllll,!!,' O/AIIII'I'I((/, I 776-/IJ1)(): Will/II'J:\ IlIIdl.IlSi'J:\ III 11111' Rl'li,!!,'101I.1 1';(OIiOlln' (Ncw Hrtlnsl\'lCk, NJ I !1!l:1): Rodncy Slark and Laurcncc R.
1:1I1llaConc, ';\ SupplY-Silk Reinterpretation or the Secularization or Europe', JIIIII'IIIII/ill' Ihl' SOl'lllijil S/lIlil' ojl?l'/ip;lOl/, :\:\ (I D!),!), pp. 2:HJ;12. Similar ideas, though in highly Illl:ll1ccd le)J'\]], appcar In David I klllpton, Rl'lip;101/ a 1111 I'olillm/ CIII/II/'(' III nn/IIIII IIl/d Irl'lllIIrI (Calllbridge, I !J!)(i), which stresses thc significance oJ" the difkrcntlal ahilit\' or Hntlsh and Irish dlurchcs to 'rc/lect and propagate tite social. political and cultural aspirations or their IIlCIllI>l'!'S' (p. 17i'l). Another 'supplY-Side' int(Tprctation is Rohin (;ill. 'J'III' /\holh lit" Ihl' r;lII/il)' C/II/I'rh (London, I !)!J:\). 27 E.g .. Bruce, I?l'fi,!!,"III1I iI/ Ihl' Modl'l'II II'IIIM, pp. :17-i'l takes it as axiolllatlC that the explanation lell' secularisallon must he SOCIological, while Owen Chadwick, Salllllnwllllll, p. 1,1, insists that 'without the IIltelke/ual cllquiry the social enquiry IS I;lted to crash', 2i'l. 'j"pical o('l1luch orthe work puhlished in I !)(iOs and I !)70s would be the ClassIC sCl'les or tl'xtl>ooks Oll Illodern European 11Isiory by Eric IloiJs-
i\( )'ITS
~D.
:\().
:,/.
:\~.
:n. :,./.
:\!).
c\(). ;\7,
hamll. In '/'lII' :lgI' of NI'
N(rn:s
:IH. BOlltr),. Pl'firl's 1'1 /lIII'IIISS!'S. p. (i·I!l. :\!l. Cr. Bl'lIce. RI'liglOll ill Ihl' Mor/I'm J.f!orirl. pp. ;;S-7. ·10. Emst Rlldolr IllIhcr. /)l'IIls(hl' If'l'/iISs I IIlg:l.!!,'I'sr/lirli I!' .lei! 1789.·1 vols (St lit tgart, 1!):i7-()!l). IV. pp. (icJ(i-7. ,II Ilcmpton, Hdigiollllllrl Po/i!iml (;11/1111'1' is a pionecring attcmpt to trcat the religious history or the Brttish Isles as a wholc. lIowevcr. hc deals wHh Irish Calholic nationalism and with LJlsttT Protestantism in two COlllpletely separatc chapters. 'I~. Sheridan Cillcy and W. .J. Sheils (cds), ,·1 Hislon' 01 HI'liglllll ill Ii I'ilill II: 1'1'111'111'1' Iliid Iil'lil'(/i'lllll I'I'I'-/?Olllllli Tillll'S III Ihi' Pl'l'sl'IIl (Oxf(lnl. I D!l4). which COVl'l'S the whole of' Britain. gcnerally treats England. Scotland and \Vales in scparale chapters - thollgh SOl1lC or the chapters which claim to he ahollt Britain are largely or clltirely abolll England, ,1:,. As is donc by Michael R. Watts. 'fhl' /)'SSl'lIll'1's. Vol. ~: Thl' 1',\'jJlIII.lillll 0/ Flll1l1gtdim/ No II rll lI/ill'lllli1' (Oxiilnl, I!)!)!). ,1,1. Alan Ilaig, Thl' Virlo 1'1111 I (;/l'Ig1' (Ikcken ham. H}H·I), pp. I !}~-~()4. ,I!). Overviews arc provided hy Owen (:hadll'lck. nil' l'i(11I1'II1I1 (;/IIII'(h. ~ I'ols (Lolldon. I !)(i(j): (;erald Parsons 1'1111. (cds). HI'/igilill III J'idllnllil Ii 1'1111111 , S I'ols (Manchestcr. I!)HH-!)(i): !-'t'ancc's Knight, Tlil' Nilll'it'I'IIIIi-(;I'IIII1I'Y C/IIII'I'h 1I1II11~'II'!!Jish SIII'II'I\' (Camhridgc. I ~)9rl). ·I(i. C(Tard Cholv), and Yvcs-Mal'\(' Ililaire. IIi.1 10 11'1' I'I'/igll'lIsl' dl' III hlllll'l' (ollll'lll/Hlmilil'. :l vols C1
NOTES
Gti. (;iiJson, OJ>. cil., pp. I DG-~). G7. W. R. Ward, 11rIip, 1011 111111 SOUl'/\' ill I'; IIp;/11IIr/. 17lJO-18')() (London, 1!l7:!); [),l\'id I kmpton, Tltt Hl'iip;wlI 01 litt' I'to/llt': Ml'litor/islIl IIlId /'o/JIIlllr RI'/ip,{()II, I'. I 75()-/i)()11 (London, I ~)~)(i). GB. {;lInilla-Frederike Blidde, :1111 dtlll II'!',!!' illS lliilgl'J'/t'/JI'1I (;iittingen, I D~).I). pp. :17B-,IOO; Da\'idolLllld lIall, hllllil)' hl/'itIlIl'S, :I~). Edward Royle. I'irlol'lllli Ili/idtls (Manchester, 197,/); Watts, op. cit., pp. ,170-B; II1Igh I\lcl.eod, Rt'lip;wlI IIlId Soritl\' III 1~'lIp;l({//lI, /850-llJf.I (I.ondon, IDD()), p. :!:I:I; (:ilhl'l't, l1t'lip;iolllllld SOI'lI'I\', ch. :i. (iO. Ilope, op, cit., ch 1:1; SchnaheL op, cit., p, G(iB. ;\ good o\'cr\'iew in English is R. 1\1. Bigler, '1'111' l'olilll'S or (;I'J'IIIIIII l'm/l'sllIIlliSIII (I.os Angeles, I D7:Z), Therc is a growing bod\, or literatllre on the disscnting mO\'cllll'nts ('Illcrgmg 111 this pcriod. Sec fill' instancc, Jiinl Brcdcriow, '!,lrlil/i'I'II/IIII" IIl1d'/int' (;I'IIII'lIldl'lI' (M lillich, I ~)7(i); Fricdrich Wilhelm (; ra 1', nil' l)oliIISil'l'IIlIp; r/f'S rl'lip:liisl'li 1l1'1l'II/JlsI'lIls (Stllttgart, I D7B); Syl\'ia l'alctscill'k, 1"1'11111'11 II/III Ihs.II'IIS ( :iit t illgell, I ~HlO). The '11'1('1' pilgri III age is the sllhject or consid('1'ahle debate. For opposing int('1'pretations, sce Wolf).?;ang Schi('der, 'I\.irclw lind Rc\'oilitioll. Zlir SOZialgesdllchte del' Tn('l'er WallElhrl \'on IB,I·I', :11'I'/IIl'jih S02111/p;t'.1 r/1I1'1I It , 1·1 (Im·1). pp. ·IID-:II; Rlidolf·l.ill, 'Kirclll' lind Rl'Yollitioll', ilml., IB (1mB), pp. G(iG7'.). For all ()\'(T\'i('1\' orthe growth or scepticislll and alienatloll rrolll the chllrch among the middle class, scc. LliClall Iliilschcr, 'Dic ReliglOll des Bi'Il'glTS: Biirgcriichc Friinlllligkcit lind protcstantische I\.irch{' illl I ~). .I ahrllllndcrt', !lislorisl'lIl' ZI'l/lrliri(i, :!:IO (I !l90), pp. G!l'.)-(i:IO; N ippcrdey, /)1'11/.11'111' (;1'.lC!lIrlllt', pp. ·1,10-'.) I. (il. Eilecn Yco, 'Christianity in Chartist stl'llgglc, IB:IB-·I:!', 1)1111 & 1'1'1'.11'111, !)! (I~)BI), p. !OD. (i:!. Ihid" pp. I :I:I-,\. n:\. Ihid" p. I :l~). (i". Ihid .. pp. II:Z-I:\. (i!l. Edward Ikn'lISon, I'o/Jlllisl Ht'lipJoll 1I11t! l,e/i-IVill,l2.· Polilll'S 11/ hlllll'l', /8'30-1852 (Prin('eton, NJ IDB,I), pp. G:Z-·1. (i(). Gl:rarcl Choiv}" '1'~xpressIolls et ('\'oillt iOIl dll sent lillellt rcligi('lIx pOplllain: dans la Fral1(,c dll XI X" sii::c1c au temps de la restaurat Ion ('at holiqlle (I BOO-OO)', 1.11 Ilil:ll: I}()/m/III/'(' til' IfJ/!) Ii III!S/IIIII'.I (Paris, I D7(i), pp. :zm-B. (i7. Knight. oj>. ('it" pp. (il-:!; BOlltry, op. ('it., pp. 1:!'1-7, (iH. (;ibsol1, ojl. cit., p. I (i:). (iD. ()Ii\'c Anderson, "I'he II1('idel1('e or (:i\,il Marriage in Victorian England and \Vales', 1'11.11 & 1''''SI!III, 6D (I m5), p. 5:). 70. David Sorkil1, 'J'IIC hllllS/llI'IlIlIlllIll III (;1'1'1111111 ./1'71'1:1' (Cambridge, I ~)B7), pp. 11:1, I:!:!-:\. 71, Stcli .Iersch-Wellzcl. 'Poplliat ion Shifts and ()c(,lIpat ional St rllet lIrc', in Mi('hael A. Meyer (ed.), (;l'nllllll)l'1J1islt Ilisllln' III Motil'l'II 'I'iIllI'S, vol. :Z: 1';lIIll11ril!lllioll 111/11 :1(('1111111'11111111, 178{}-1871 (New York, I !)~)7), p. ti7,
NOTES
n.
Michael A. M evcr,:I cwish (:ol11mllllit ics in'lj';msit Ion', ibid., pp. I ()()-I (1:\. Modenl/l.1': ,·1 lJis!tJlY II/,!ltl' Re{!1I'I1I MOl II' 1111'11 I 1II./lldlli.11II (Iktmit, MI, ID95), pp. G,\-(il, IO()-I:Z, I:ZL Allbrey Ncwlllan, 'The onicc or Chid Rabbi: a VcrI' English Instltlltion', in Nig'cl Aston (cd.), 1?1'/~I2.·iolls Cltllll,!!'I' ill I~'II/'O/il', lo5()-llJU (Ox/()J'(1, I ~)D7), pp. :!B!)-:\()B; Michael R. Manlls, '1'111' Polilll'" or :1.\.11111illlllllll: :1 SllId." lilt hl'lll'lt ./1'1J1ls11 COlli III 1111/1.1' III IIII' Tillll' III' lilt IJrI'Y/ils 1If1illr (Ox IiII'd, I D71), pp. (iB-7I (;colfrc), Aiderlllan, Modt'1'II !Julislt ./I'1(1n' (Oxii)J'(1, I D!l:!) , pp. :IB-GO. (:t:rard Cholv), and Yvcs-Manc IliLlIrc, flisllJlJ'1' J'l'liP;II'IISI' til' /11 hlllll'l' 1'111111'111/)(1/'111111', 18{}()-188IJ (:Znd edn, 'IIJIIlollSC, I ~)!)O) pp. :z I (i-19. Shlliamit Volkov, 'Die Verbiirgedicilllllg del' .llldcll in Iklltscldand', in .Iiirgcn Kocka (cd.), liiilP;1'I'111I1I 1111 Ii), ./lIltrltlllltil'J'l: /)clIlsrft/llllti 1111 1'111'11/1(ilsr/i1'11 J !'Ip;/I'II'/i, :1 \'Ols (M un ieh, I ~)BB), \'01. ll, pp. :14 :1-71; Aldcl'lna n, op. cit., p. 10:1; Marrlls, op. cit" p. :IG. Scc abovc, pp. ~)-I I. Bnger, SOUII/ Heo/ily or HI'/Ii!''{() II , p. 1:\ I
7:\. Michacl A. Meyer, RI'S/IIIIISI' 10 7,1.
or
7G. 7f). 77.
7B. 7~J.
Notes to Chapter 1
1848
I, .Jonathall SpcriJer, '1'111' 1';III'1l/iI'llII NI'lJollllioIlS, 18-18-18')1 ( :allliJridge, I !l~).l), pp. I :Z,1-4; Rogel' Magraw, The Conflict In the Villagcs: Poplilar Anti-Clericalislll in the ISi:TC', in Thcodorc Zeldin (cd.), COIl/lirls ill ht'lIl'/t SOI'lI'I.1' (London, I ~)70), pp. :z I B-1 ~l. :Z. Bemt Sat loll', 'Die RcvoiJltion von IRIB. Die Kirche lind die sOl.ialc Fragc', in Ciilltcr Wirth (cd.), IiI't1rti:I2.'(' WI' !Jl'I'lilll'I' l\il'r/tI'II,I.!,·I'sl'liir/tIt' (Berlin, I ~)H7), pp. 177-B. ,\. Riidigcr Ilaclitmann, "'(,111 gl'rl'chtcs (;el'lcht (;ottl's": Ikr I'rotl'stantiSlllllS lind dic Rcvoilition VOII I B·IB das Berliller Bl'isplcl'. :1I'rlll7'Ji'il' SlIwtigl'sl'/lIrlill', ,\(i (I !)~)(i), p. :Z:Z,I. ,\. .lean Fallr)" Ohlm/iSI/II' 1'1 1111 Ildhll'll/is 1111' dOllS II' 'fill'll (,lllIIloIlS(" I!lBO)' pp. :Z:I-·I, :\,1-7: (:{Tanl (:holvy, Rl'ligllJlIl'l s(im;l/ 1111 XIX" sihll': 1,1' dilll'hl' til' MOIII/II'I/il'/', :z \'Ols (Lillc, 197:\), \'01. L pp. (i,Hi-'.):1. G. Thollgh thl' degrc(' or sll('h sllpport l1Iay \'ary rrol1l area to area: lill' instan(,c I lachtl1lann (op. cit" pp. :!:H-~») stresses the prolllinl'n('c oj' .Jl'ws in thc d('11I0cratlc movclllent in Ikrlill, while Spedlcr plays down the extcnt or radicalislll ;lInollg .Jcws in thc Rhincland. Scc Jonathan Sperber, Rlillll'irllld NI/dim/s: Tltl' /)1'111111'1'11111' i\l1I1'1'1//1'lIll/lId IIII' RI"{II1/1I111J1I o!18'/8-18-llJ (Prin('cton, N.J, l~lDl). (i. Ihid., pp. n(i-~J. 7 Andreas Iloll.elll, l\irclll'III'I'/11I'I1I IlIltI Sl'hil'llsli/illllg: /)1'11 Isrh/wI/IIJ/i/!I'II , HI'/!II'III/!allio/i/!I'li 111111 UIII'I/lIIOII!tIlII' 1/111 {)/iI'I'I'lil'lIl, 18II-1866 (l'adcrIJol'l1, I !)!)(i), pp. :1,H-(i, ·IO(i-:Z I.
N(J'n:s
NOTES
H. Ihid. !l. Ihid .. SY"'ia Palctsclll'k. 'Frauen unci Siiklllarisiemng Mitte des I!). .Iahrhundnts·, in Wol/gang Sehicder (cd.), Hl'lig:101I IlIIri (;l'sl'llschll/i 1111 I C), ./lIll1illlllrinl (Stultgart. I DD:I), p. :10:1. 10. Ihid., p. :\oH. Set' also (:al hcrinc l'rclillger, (;hllnly, (;IIIIIII'II,!!:I' IIl1d (;hllllg"f': Iidig/olls nlllll' 11.1 10 II .I ofthl' Miri-Nilll'li'I'lIlh-(;"IIII1n' 1+(11111'11 's Mo1'l'1111'11/111 (;eflllllll\' (Ncll' Yo d;, , I !)H7); Daglllar I krl.og, IlIlilll(/('\' !llId I',\-c/II.11011: Relig/olls l'olilll'S III l'rl'-I'I'l'olllliolllln' Hllril'll (PrInceton, NJ, I !l!Hi) IIll' laller Ilcing ilIorc (Tilleal oflhc rolc of I)issellt: II. Stdilll Dlctrich, (;/ms/I'II/IIIII IIlId Hn'oIIlIIOIl: nil' r/irisllirhl'lI /(irrhl'lI III ,,'iirlli'lIIiJl'lp:, ISIS-IS52 (Padcri>orll, 1!l!Hi), pp. ·I(Hi-11 I~. I\lartin (;reschat, 'Dic Rt'volution von IH·IH-!l 1I1ld die Kirchcn', III I klilllli Bain (cd.), I(inhl' III SIII({1 IlIlrI (;l'Sl'llsrllll/i Ilil II), ./({llIhlllldl'l'l (Nt'llsladt a.d. ,\isch, I !)!)~), pp. 7:i-7 1:1. DielrIch. op. Cit., pp. 2HO-!l·1. 1·1. Sperher. Ilhille/rllld II({riimls, p. 2H2. l:l . .Ionat hall SperbtT, l'o/I11I!11' (;({lholiuslII III Nilll'Ii'I'IIII'-(;I'IIIIIn' (;1'/'1111/11\' (Prillcetoll, NJ I!)H·I), pp. !)!l-I02. Ifi. llachtlll, ~2. Ikrillalln RiiekldH'll, 'Tll('ologlsc!lt'r Ratiollalisllllls IIlld kirchlieher Prot cst in Badcll i H·I:"-4!)', l'il'liSll/liS IIl1d N!'w:!'il, !) (I !)7D), pp, 77-H:I; Dietrich, op, cit., pp, ·11~-I·1. ~:\, SpcrhtT, /lililll'/I/Ild lIoriiw/s, p, ~H:\, ~.1. Ilaclttlllallll, op, cit., pp, ~:I·I-~): WolI;l\';lIlg Schll'clltker, l(ollsl'n'!lliT'l' r i'l'('/III' 11111/ Ilello/lliioll III l'I'!'II(iI'1I IiU8//() (Diisseldorl', I DHH), pp, ~ I (i-I!l. 2;), Sec, e,g" (;lThanl SchiillT, 'Die cvangrlischc Kirclll' in Wii1'llclllil(']'g lind die Rl'l'olut ion I H,I H/~)', l'il'IISI/IIIS IlIld NI'W:I'II, !) (I D7!», pp, :\!l-(i!), 2(i, Sperber, H"illl'/llIIr/ III/diw/s, p, 2H:1. ':27. Sec \Verncr Blessing. Slo(t! Ilnd /\irf'he III rlPf (;(ls(llls('IJ(~/i (~i)tling(,ll, J !)H~), pp, 100-/1.
~~l. Blessillg, oJ>, cit., pp, I :IH-·I!), :\0. lislorr, op, cit" p. 7H; llachtillann, op, cit., p, ~,I!), note I r;~); K,Scilinaitz, l(irr/tI'lIp/'srilirille Ml'rh/I'II/!llIgs, :\ \'ols (Schwcrill alld Bnlin, 1!r\:l-ri~), III, pp, :1!)!l-(i7, :1 I Magra\\', 'Collflict in the Villages', pp, 21 D-~·1. :\~, IloII.CIll, l":il'rhl'lIl'l'/iJrlIl, pp, ,1~~-,1. :~:1. Ihid., p. ·I:~~: John Brcl1illy. /.ohollr ({lid /,i/w)'({lislII in lViJlfJ/t(!}}/h-(;flllur\, I~'II/'O/)(' (Mallchcster, I D!)2). p, ~ I 2, :1,1. llachllllanll, op. cit., pp, 2,1 D-!)!) , :I!), Iloll.l'Ill, l(il'rill'III'I'/iJrlIl, p, ,12~), :Hi, Lllciall Iliilscher, Wl'il,!!,'I'l'ir/tIIir/1'I' Iln'o/IlIIOII (St lit tgart, 1DH!»), pp, 171-:\; Paldscllek, 'Fl'allcllulld Siikularisierullg', p, :11:>. :\7, .Iakoh Pl'tucholl'ski, 'Frankrlln .Il'wry: a I\Iodl'l ol"li'ansitloll to Modernity', li'or/wllk II/,Ihl' 1.1'0 nl/I'rk 111.11111111', ~!) (I!)H'I), pp. ·110-11: RoiJl'l't Liherll's, 'The So-( :alled Quiet Years or (;crl11all .Icwry, I H4!)-1 H(i!): ,\ Recollsideratioll', li'ol'/Joo/i II/, 1,1'0 /II/nk IIISllflill', ,II (I !)!)(i), pp. ();i-7·1, :IH, I\largaret Lavlllia ,\nderson, 'Pict)' and Politics: Recellt \Vork on (;1'1'l11all (:atholicislll',./IIIII'IIIt/ O/i\loril'l'lI /fislol')" (i:\ (I!JDI), pp, (jHI-71(i, :I!), Sperher, l'OIJll/III' (;III/to/il'/s/II, p, D!i; Reilindc I\oieiwl's, 'Rcligiositiit und l\riJeit als l,l'lH'llsl()J'Ill rC11' kat holische Frallell kOllgregat iOllcll 1111 I!L Jahrllllndcrt', in Il'Intralid (;iitl. \'on Olcnhiiselll't al. (cds), 1'1'11111'11 111111'1' tll'/l/ I'lIlrillrr/1II1 r/I'I' A'irrlil'lI: 1(lIlliolikll/lIl'11 Ill1ri l'm/I'sllllllilllll'l/ III I C). 11111/ 2(}, jll/IIIIIII/r/I'I'I, (Stllttgart. I D!J!)), pp, (j!J-HH. ,10, Claude Lallglois, 'Pl'l'IllaIlCIlCc, RCIlOU\TaU ct ,\lfrontl'lllt'llts', in Frall(,'OIS l.chl'lln (cd,), lfis!ril/'{' dl's ('((lito/if/ill'S I'll hlll/l'l' ('IcllIlollsc, I DHO). pp, :\'Hi-7; Cholvy and Ililairl', Hisloil'l' J'1'/iP:II'IISI', \'!II. I: IS(}()-ISS(), pp, ~~ I 7; Famy, op, ('It" pp, (i:l-(i, ,II, .Ican-Picrrc Chalinc, I,I'S /ill/llp,'I'OI,1 rll' ROIli'II: {IIII' I;lill' IIf/Ii/II/I' 1111 :\/,,\,, sii'r/I' (Paris, I !)H~), p, 2(iH. 'I~, Colin Ill'ywood, 'Thc Catholic Chllrch and the BIISIIH'SS <:omnlilnitv in Nillctl'ellth <:l'llllll'\' Frallc(", III Frallk '1;llIl'lI alld Nicholas ,\lki;l (cds), Ildi/!,'/(iI/, Sool'lv ({III/ I'olillrs III hll/II'I' ,1'11/1'1' 17Sc) (l.ondoll, I !)!) I), pp, 7H-H:1. ,I:\' TilliS Fall1'\', op. cit., pp, ·17-(i:\, with rcgard to the 'Ell'll. llow('\'('l' Philippc BOllt 1')', I'/'{;Irl's !'/ /JII/'OI,I'SI'S 1111 /'II\'S rill (;111'1; ri'/In (Pans, I DH(i) Pt>, :1:i7-H, Sl'CS IH(jO as the tllrllillg-poillt ill the I\ill, a!'ttT wlllch there was a seriolls d('t('l'ioratloll III rl'latiolls bct\I'('('n till' clergy and Civil alit 110rit y. ;],1. Fallr\', op, cit .. pp. '17-:>7. For tile cxtrl'me case ortlH' Lcgitimist bishop Pic or PoitlCrs, illitially a IlIkl'-warm sllpporter or the Empin~, bllt soon ill cOllstanl conflict with rcpresclltati\'cs orthc statc, SCl' Austill (;ollgh, 'Thc Connict ill Politics', ill Zeldill (l'd,)' COIl/fir/s, pp, !J.I-lliH, 11:" \y, (), Shallahall, (;{'I'IIIIIIII'mll'sirlllls N/('(, lit I' Silrill/ (LIII'sllIJlI (Noll'C IbnH', IN, 1%·I),ch, :\,
2H. Sci1\\'cnklcr. np. cit.. pp. I H. 21 'I-~:).
:)()O
NOTES
·In. Ihid .. pp. ~'I--rd. ·17. Richard J Evalls. Hi/llIIls or l!l'lrillllllOlI: Cli/lillil 1'11111.1111111'111 /1/ (;I'rlllllll\'. I (,()()-I 0S7 (~Ild cdll. London. I !l~)7). p. D I H. ·IH. Emst (:hrislian I klnllTich. Nl'li,!!:lOlls l~tllI((/1101I III (;1'1'1111111 Stllf)ols (Camhridge, i\1:\, I ~):,~)). pp. ·II-(i. ·ID. E Lisco. /'111' /'inltl'll.!!,'i'stlllth!I' 1!1'I1ills (Berlin. I W,7). pp. ~H(j-7: Shanahan, oJ>. cil., pp. ~(i(i·-7. !i(). Blessillg. op. ('II.. pp. I ()O-·I: Sch;iI(.'r, op. cil.. p. (i~: Rain('1' Marhach. Sli'/wlllfiSIITIIII.!!,·lIlItI s02lfil('f II'tflltll'l 1111 1(),.Il1ltrllllllfll'l'l «;iittingcn. 1!l7H),
NOTES
(i(i. See .lochclI-Christoph Kaiscr. 'SOI.ialdemokratic und "praktischc" Religionskrit ik: ])as Beispiel del' Kirchellaust rillslwwcgullg. I H7H-I DI·I·. /lrchl1 l ./i'ir Sowtlgl'schichit" ~~ (I 9H2). pp. 2fi:\-DH. I~. E. Pollmanll. IJIlIstfl'slil'l'I1ichl's /\'ire/II'III'I'glllll'lll IIl1tf sozillil' hagl' (Bcr· 1111, 197:1): II. (;rote. ,)OZililtfI'IIIOlmllll' IlIItI NI'Ii"'IOIl ('llibil]O'en h h ' I <)(',H)' . ( • IllIgh McLeoci. 'Religion III the British alld (;ernlall Labollr Move· lllCllIs: a (:olllparisoll', RIII/I'IIII oftlll' ,',ocitly/ilr lit I' SIIIt/\' III /,llbOllr Ilisio/')'. 50 (I \)H(i), pp. ~!i-3(i. . . -
pp.~I-~.
:) I !l~. [l~L
!l't. !l:). !iii. !)7
r,H. r)~).
(iO. (il.
(,2. (i:l.
(J.t.
('!i.
Famy, oJ'. cil., pp. ~:\-·I!i. Ihid., p. :\7 Ihid .. p. :~H. Jacqueline Lliouettc, IJI lilm' jll'IISI;I' I'll h(lllu'. !t'NS-I()·/() (Paris. I !l~)7). p. :\0: (:holvy. Rl'ligioll 1'1 sO('lf;I/. vol. !. p. 7:\0. Ihid .. p. 7:\~. Ihid .. p. 7:11. Lalollctte, op. cit.. pp. :) I, :):tL ilwl.. pp. :IH-D; Magraw. 'Conflict in thc Villages'. pp. ~~!l-7: Faury. op. cit .. pp. 7~-H:\' Edward Bercllson, I 'ojJII 1i.11 Rl'ligioll 111/11 IA:/i-Will,!!; Poli/i1'S III hllllCl'. ISW-IS'i2 (Princcion. N.J. I~)H·I). pp. ~n-:IH. Thomas Ksehnan, i\limr/I's (1I1d I'mjlltl'(,/{'s III Nilll'it'I'IIIII'(;f'IIllIn' h(llll'l' (New Brunswick. N.J. l~lH:I). pp. I~I-:IL (;{Tard Cholvy and Yvcs-Maric Ililairc, !Iislom' rdi,!!,'II'IISI' dl' III h(lIll'1' to II it'lIIjlO)'{/1I1 1', ISS(}-I()() Cli)\t\ollsc. I ~)H(i). pp. ](i-:\>I: Oscar Ama!' :llIIlil1'lIll'lIl :llIilllll'l': rill' {,'lIllwlit (;11111'1'11 1I11t1 lit I' :Itlioll hllll('fIlSI'. IS0()1(),0 (Pillshurgh. 1~)H!l), pp. J7-1H. Ilachtmann. op. cit .. pp. 2·1!i-H. Kelly, op. cil., pp. 17-2:1; Andreas 1);11I1ll. 'Natllrwissl'nschalicn lind ()rkntlichkcit in del' dClltschcn (;csellschali: Zu dCIl Anliingen cineI' PopuWrwisscllschali nach del' Rcvolutioll von I H·IH·, lIislofiSr/II' /'I'ilstlili/i. ~G7 (ID!lH), pp. !i7-!Hl. For the religious attitlldes of' Cerlllall Liberals, sec ROlsln Ill'al". 'The .lesllit as EIlCIlIY: Alltl-.lesllitism alld the Protest alit BOllrgcolsl'c or Imperial (;crl1laIlY. I H!)O-I D IT (;corget()\\'ll U lIil'('l'sit Y Ph D thesis, I DD!)), For bOllrgcois religioll llIore gencrally, 1,lIciall Iliilscher. 'Biirgcriiche RcligiosiUit illl protcstalltlScill'1I DClItschland des I D. ./ahrhullc!erts', ill Wollgallg Schicdcr (cd.), IMig1ll1l IIl1tf (;l'sl'l/scha/i (Stllttgart. 1\)\):1). pp. 1\11-21(i. For the Schiller cult. sec .lohn Brcllilly. 'The Schiller Ccntcnary or I H!iD ill Ilamlmrg' (unpllhlisllt'd paper). V. L Lidtlze. 'Allgust Ikhcl and (;('\'lI1an Social Democracy's Relatioll to tIte Christian Chl\l'chcs' .jOIll'lllti Oftltl' !lisilln' 01 Itfms. ~7 (I ~)(i(i). p. 2·1~).
(iD. 70. 71.
7!l.
Ursula Krey. 'Mit (;otl iiiI' Kiinig IIlId Vaterland: KO\lservativc Lcithilder illl iistlichc\l Westblen 11111 I !)()()', in ./oachilll MCYlleri. .Jose! i\,iOOS(T and Volker Rodekamp (cds). 111111'1' Picl{('111 1111 iii' 1111(1 '/,\,lill. tll'l" nils lis/lie/II' WI'.II/it/I'II 1111 /'nlalll'r tfl'S lViI/willi is III 11.1, INSS-II)f., (B·iele. kid. I!lD I), pp. ~:\!i-!iH. II. U. Fallikner. Ch1lr11S11I Illid Ihl' (;/1111'1-/11'.1 (New York, I~)IH). Michacl R., Watts. The /)ISSI'IIII'I:>. voL 2: 'I'llI' 1~.\j}(lIlsioll oll';7'Il1I,!!,'l'iil'lll NOllcolI/ol'llllly (Oxf()l'(I, 19!)!i) p. !i~(l. Ibid., pp. !iii I-~: scc also Edward Royle, "iclo/'/{1I1 Ili//tlds (Mallchcstn. I !l7·1) Watts. op. cit .. pp. 52:1-:), :)(i I. Brellilly, op. cil., pp. ~OH-!). 2!i2-5: J I~ PalT),. nl'1II01TI/I'\' 11I1t! IMig/llll: (;IIlt!slolll' allli IIII' IJhl'rtll I'arl),. 18h7·-75 (Cambridge, I !)H(i), pp. 'I !)H~O I; McLeod, 'Religion in Labour i\iovcl1lcnts'. pp. 2!i-fi. Ellgcnio F. Biagini, IJllI'rly. Rl'lrl'lle/IIIlI'111 I/lld HI'/Imll: I'ojm/llr l.illl' I'll lis III III Iltl' ilgl' of (;llItlslolIl'. ISMI-ISSIJ (Camhridge. 1!)!)2): Nigel Scotland, t\11'lhot/islll 1I11t! Ihl' RI'l l oll oilltl' !-'il'ld ( ;IOllcester. I!lH I). p. KD. E Lllldell. SOZ/II lis III /IS 1I11t! I?t/igioll (Leipzig, I ~):\~). pp. 110-11, Cillian Rose. 'Locality, Politics and Culture: Poplar ill the I ~)~()s· (University or Londoll Ph]) thesis, I !lH~)), pp. 2:17-H, 27H-~): Philip Willialnson. 'The ])oClrinaIPolil!csof'Stallln Baldwill', ill Michael Belltley (cd.). 1'lIhiic 1I1/{/I'I'l(lff11' /)111'11'1111' (Call1hndge, I !l~l:\). PI'. I HI-~OH.
Notes to Chapter 2
Institutions
1. For an m'l'\'view. scc G. I. T Machin. I'olillcs (lilt! lit!' (;II/Ire/il's III (;/'1'Il1 linlrllll. IS32 10 18MI (Oxf()l'(1, 1977). 1Ie sces III t he I H!iOs 'tlte increase or State ncutl'ality in religion'; 'tlte advances llIade by ecclesiastical 1lI0VCllIcnts \I'l'\'e not spectacular. cOllt roversial cpisodcs were perhaps less fi'C<jllellt' (p. ~52).
2. (:alhoiic priests had since IK~~() heen paid to 111inistcr to (:at holic soldiers, hut only in I H!iH welT then' Catholic prokssional chaplains, appolllied hy tlte War OiIicc, alld Oll all cqual I()otillg with AlIglicalls and l'reshytnlallS. Kelllletit E. Helldrickson III, MII/OIIg .";111111.1: /(I'ligioll IIl1d Iltl' I'II/;Ii( 11I1Il,!!:1' o/lhl' liniisit /11'111.1', /S09-ISS5 ( :l'anhmy. N.I. I ~)~)H). p. (i:\.
N(rn:s
:1. .f.
:i.
Ii.
7, H.
D,
10. II.
12.
I :\.
I,f. I:l. Iii,
17
Frallces Kllight. 'The Bishops (Englalld ;\1111 Wales)', 1'IIr/iflllll'llllIl'\' I'rl/JI'I'S (I H:i2r):1) \'01. HD, p. ch'iii. Chadwick, op. eil., \'Of. I. pp, 2:IH-,I!): \'Of. II, pp. :12H-,12. Olin' Anderson, 'The (;\,(lII'llI of' elmst Ian Mililarism ill Mid-Victorian Brilaln·. 1';lIgfisli (!i.l/ol"I({f/ Hi'J'/{',fI, H() (I ~l7I). pp, ·l(i-72. Sec also I klldnckson. op. cil., which identifics a similar long-Ierm Ircnd, hili sccs ils origIns In Ihe IH·IOs. Boh Bllsh,ma\', 'Pop"lar Iklid' on lite Wesle\'ll Fronl', semillar paper, llni\'l'\'sily of' Birnllngham, H I\by I!lD7. Peler "an Rooden, 'Sentiarizatioll, Ikclmsliallizatlon and Rcchrislialll/,aliol1 in The NellH'r!allc!s', ill Ilarlnl\ll Lcfllllann (cd.), Siilill/OI"lSII'f'IIlIg, /)I'rh I"Islirl II 1.1 II Til IIg, Rl'rh I'Isl10 II Isil'f'II IIg 1111 1I1'IIZI'II/irlll'lI /c'lIm/iII «;iilllllgcn, I !)~)7), pp. 1,17-:11; J II. Whyle, C/llinh olld Siolt' III 1r1'11I1II1, 1()2,-11)7() (2nd eI-7Ii. For Ihe Civic (;ospel. ad"ocalcd hI' Binlllngham Nonconlil1'lllisl preach{'\'s of'lhe IHliOs and IH70s, snch as (;corg-c Dawsoll and R. \v. Dale, scc E. l~ ! Icnl\ock, Fil 1/1111 I'm/II'!' PI'/'SOIlS (London, I ~)7:\); David Thompson, 'R, W. Dale and the "Ci"ic Cospel" '. in Abul Sell (cd.), l'mll'slfllll NOII!'oli/imlllly 1I11r1lltl' lI'hl Mirl/lll1ds oj 1,'lIg/II/1(1 (Kecle, 1~)!Hi), pp. !l~)-IIH. For Ihe (;I'/I/I'illril' syslcm as applicd 10 (;crman.lcws, sec i\rlhnr Ruppin, So:lo/u,f!;1I' ril'r/l/dl'lI. 2 \'Ols (Bcrlin, I!):\(l-I), vol. II, pp. I!ll-H. For Ihc inlroduclion of' Ihe church lax ('rom I H:12 onwards in Ihe "arious (;erman slales, sec Nicholas Ilope, (;1'1'11/1/11 Ill1ri Srtlllrillllll'lllIl l'mlt'sltlllllslI/.
NOTES
17{)() 10 11)18 (Oxl()\'(1, 1!J!J5), p. 'iH(i; John E. Groh, Nilll'll'l'lIlh-C't'lIll1l'1' f>mll'slfllllislII: TIll' (;f1l1!'!'1t liS (I Sunil I Moril'l (Washinglon, D(:, I ~)H2), pp, :IH!)-'f(l2; Emst C:hnsiian llclmrcich, Tltl' (;I'I'II/fill (,'/IiI/'(ltl'S IllIril'!' lIilll'l" n(ll'l!gmllllll, SII'II,!},gft' IlIld I'.'jli/oglll' (Dcl roil, M I, I ~l7!»), pp . (;I'!'III(1I1
~~7-H.
IH. Edward Ross Dickinson,
nil'
/'ofillf'S of (;I'I'II/(fll Child
H'I'I/ill'l' /Iml/ Ihl'
1,'I11/i/II' 10 lite f
I !l, DanIel R. Borg, TIll' ()ld-I'l'IIss/{/1i r:/I11/'{'1t IIl1dlhl' 1V1'1I1/(f!, NI'/iII/Jli!' (llanNIL IDH/I). pp. H:I-~l7, I I (i-22. 1\lso slressing conlinuilies betwccn Empirc
21. 2:1. 21i. 27,
:\0 .
:1 I.
i\ good O\'('\'view is providcd by John Mcl\oJanncrs. e/lll!'!''' 111111 SIIIII' III I'hll I f'!', lr'170-I()f.I (London, 1m2). C. 'L Mel nt ire, 'Changing ReligIOUS ESlablishmenls and Religious I.ihel'l)' In 1"1'<1 11 C(; , 17H7-1 ~)()K', in Richard Ildmsladl('\' (cd.), hl'l'r/o/IJ lll1ri IMigiol1 1I11f11' Nilll'll'l'lIllt (,'1'1111/1')' (Slanl()}'(1, C\, I~JD7), pp. 27:I-!l!). Mal\1'ice Larkin, C1111!'!'h IIl1d SIIIIt'II/ier Iltl' /)/'1:\'/11.1 :II/ill!' (London, 197·1), Pi>. 102-:\. Ihid" p, 12!l. Ibid., pp. 21·1-1:). Ibid., pp. I ~):l-'f. Michel LagI'd., 'Exilt:s dalls 1('1\\' pal \'\c (I HHO-I ~)2())', In Fran('ois \.ehI'IIn (cd,), flisloir(' df'.1 wllllllilflll'S I'll !-iWlf'I' CI(llIiollse, I !)HO), I')P' :lli!lcili. lie heg-ins by noting-Ihe 'kind oi'cxilc, Ihe Illel'lenccd by (:alholics al Ihis lillle, and adds Ihat Ihev crealed 'a cOllnl('\'sOClcly, cicsig-nl'd 10 rl'sisl the allacks 0(' tl1l' lillie', ' ./acqucs Ozoul', Nllwles Illflllrl'.1 d'/roll' (Paris, I D7:1), pp. 20~)-11 Scc Philippe Martin, 'Chrislianisalion? J){:chnslialllsatlon? Rccitrisllanisalion? La qllcstion dc la sacralisalion de l't'span: dans 1;1 Francc cal h~)liqlle (X I XC-XX" sit'ck's)" 1\'lrl'ltlirill' i'.1'llgl'.\(ltrl'llll', I I (I !l!lH), pp. 5 l-hH, lor a good O\'('\'\'ICW WIth many specilic exalllpies. ./acqllciille Lalollelle, 1,1/ film' /iI'IISI'!' I'll h(II/I'I', 18-18-11)-111 (Paris. I !l~)7), pp. :!H:I-9:\. Michel Lagr{'(', Ill'ligwII.I 1'1 1'1I111I!'l's I'll nrl'!l/gIII', 18511-11)51J (Paris, I !)!l2). pp. 1'I:i-(1. \.alollctlc, op. nl., pp. 2!)(i-H, Malll'ice Larkin, Nl'fi,!!;toll. 1'lIlilil's olld I'rl'/iorJJlI'1I1 ill hllllf'!' .Iill(,(' Iltl' 18911.1: !J:,;~elfr' /'fJIIIfIlI' olld lis 1,I'P;Of'\' (Calllbridge, I :)!):1), pp. II :l-(i, 101. I G:I-·I, IH". Mona ()wul', t:I~'I'()fr', t:I;'gli,,(' ('I/o IU/JII/Jfillll(, (Paris, I :)(i:1) , p. 27:1.
NOTES
i'\OTES
'I[i . .Ie(1 Maq..;·andant, 'Primal')' Schools and YOllth (;\,(lllpS in Prc-war Pans: Les "Petites ;\"s" ',.l0l/mlll OJ'COI/II')II/}()I'IIn' Ilislor)', 1:\ (I D7H), pp. :\~'I-:\(i. !l:2. Richard Iiolt, .'1/1(1)'1 ()JIII SOI'II'/." it! Motil'l'JI hili I 1'1' (London, I!)K I), pp. I !)()-:! I I. !l:\' LagrlT, f?l'lip;io))s 1'1 1'1111111'1'.1. pp, ·11·1-1 rJ. ;i'l. Alrred ·Wahl./.l',1 lI)'rlii,'l's till./i)olhllll: S/)())'II'/,Ioci!'It> I'll 1-1'11111'1', !880-flJ8IJ (Paris, I!)K!l) , pp. ~)!)-I 00, !lrJ. Ibid .. pp. !ll-~: I.agr['c, !Mip;JOII,I 1'1 1'111111 rl's , pp. ·11:1-14. !l(i. Wahl, op. cit., pp. IOO-;i. ;i7. Lagrl'e, 'Exil{:S dans 1('(11' patrie', p. :\!)J. ;iK. Cholvy and Hilaire, op. cit., pp. I [i:\_.1. !l!l. (mile Zola, !.ollrr!1'S (I K~J.I) IJrillg's out \'ery well the many-sided attractions or the pilgrimage, I lis Illaill emphasis is on the slllIi.'rings or the sick, tlte triumph or thosc who arc cllred, thc despair or SOllle alld the st oicism or ot lwrs lil!' whom no m iracIe comes, alld the dcvot ion shown hy nuns, relati\'es and oth(T carns. Hilt he brings Ollt mallY other dimt'nsions liJr illstallce. l.ollrdes as a political symhol. a marnage
(in.
(i I.
(i·!. (i!l. (Hi,
(i7.
(iH, (i!L 7(). 71 .
market, a placc to go Oil outings and meet rriends or IO\'(Ts, or simply a mcmorable ('xpcriellcc. ;\ good o\'crview is ROllaldJ. Ross, Tlil' !'"illll'l' O/,n'S))/llrl'lI'" 1l.lllll1rl!lIl/lp( (.'lIlllIJfil's ()1Ir! SI()II' l'owl'r ill !))//}('rilll (;(,),))/11)))" !S7!-fS87 (vVashington, DC, I !)~17). Scc David Blackbourtl, M()rj)IJ)p;t'II: il/lj)(lnliolls or IiiI' J'i)/!,w Mlli'\' )11 li),1))/()1'I1wIII (;(')')JII/ll\' (Oxlilrd, I !J9:\). ROllald J. Ross, 'The Kllltllrkalllpr: Restrictions alld Controls Oll the Practicc of' ReligIon in Bismarck's (;cl'lnany', in Richard I Icllllstadtcr (cd.), hl'l'do))/ (/J/(I f?l'ligioJl ill Iltt Nilll'it'I')111i {:I'IIIIIJ'\, (Stanliml. (:A, I ~)!)7), pp, 17;i-K·1. Sec the essay on 'Progress and Piety' in David BIackhourll, l'oj!ll/isls IIIld /'ilincil/IIS: 1';sSIl1'S it! Model'Jl (;(,),))/111) lIislon' (LOlldoll, I !)K7), pp. I ·1:1-(i7. Marjorie l.;ul1l)('rti. SI()it', SOc/l'h' 111111 Iltl' 1';1(')/11'111111), Sl'ltool III !))//)('wtf {;(')')/I(/)/I' (Ncll' York, I DKD), pp. !J:\-7. For an ovcrviell', see Marjorie Crllickshank, (,'/II/),I'lt (/1111,\)/1111' ill /';lIp;lisll l','r/'{I'IIIIIJII: !N70 10 flil' 1'))'.11'111 DIl\' (Londoll, I !)(i:\). IbId .. pp. 4'1-[i; N. J. Richan/s, 'Religious Controvcrsy and the School Boards, I K70-1 !)()~'. lirilisli .llIl/nllll oj l~'dlll'lll)Olllti SIIIr/il's, I K (I !)7()), p. I !l:\' Richards, op. eit.,,!. E. B. MUllsoll, 'The London School Board Electioll or I K~)·I: a Stlldy in Victol'lan Religious Contrm'Crsy'. liniisli .lolIl'JI(/1 oj !:'r/IIl'llIIO))()1 SIIIr/il's, ~:\ (197[i), p. K. Cox, op, cit., pp, I H(i-!lO, :27:\-·1. K. n. Wald, (.'m,ISI'S Oil Iltl' Nlliiol (Pl'llH'Ctoll, N.I, I !)H:\), pp. n~-'I·I. Cox, op. cit .. p. I H7, .1. S. IIurt, ml'))/('llllIry SI'/woli))p;III/r/litl' Jl!orklJlg (;I()sl's, 18(,()-!iJ!S (I.olldOll, I ~)7!)); Richard Sykes, 'Popular Religion in Dudlc)' and the (;01'nais. c. I!) 1·1-1 !)(;[i' (li nl\Trsity Wol\'erhalllpton I'h \) t hcsis, I ~)!l!l), p. I ~(). <:1'. Wald, p. ~:I:2. Sec also Jon Lawrencc, S/mll!/lI,!!,)/J/' IiiI' !'(,II/JII': !'II)'I\', 1,II))g)(II,!!,'!' !/lid !'o/mlll)' I'ofilln))) 1~))glllJld, fS67-! I) /-I (CambrIdge, I !)!)K). p, 10:2, llOt ing t hc prcdomnlallcc or Anglicall schools in SOllle st l'Ongly Radical areas or til(' Black COllnt!')'. .J. R. de S. Hone)" '!i)}11 UnJ1t'I/\ [ll/h'NSI': 'JIll' i'ii'/orill)) PI/hlit .'11'1111111 (Lolldoll, 1977), pp. 7, ~K'I-rJ, Ibid., pp. :IOH-D: 1\, (;, L. I Lllg, 'The Church, the li ni\'crsit ies and Leal'lling in later Victorian England', l1islo}'/((/I.lOIII·)lItf,~!l (I!lH(i), pp. I K7-~() I. Deslllond Bow('n, Tltl' iiii'll IIftltl' I 'iclo f'l(1I I Clillrtli (Montreal, I !)(iK), pp.
0"
7~.
7:1. 7,1.
7!l.
\'II-VIII.
7(). I (onc)" op, cit" pp, 7,
~K·I-r),
:\()!)-I:I. See also Adrian I iaStillgS, ,I
Hisl()}} oj f:'))glisli (.'Imslllllllly, fiJ2IJ-!iJS5 (London, I DH(i). p. 7·1.
77
Roald Dahl. UO\' (1IartlllllHlsworth, I!)K(i), pp. I·j.\-(i.
NOTES
NOTES
Chadwick. l'il'/lIflllIl (;/1111'1'''. vol. II. pp. '1'1,1. ,I·I!!. 7!!. Ilaig. '<:hnrch. 1Ill1vcrsilies. Leaming'. p. I!)()' HO, V. I L I L (;n·cn. Hl'lip:llill III OX/1m/ IIl1d Clllllhrirlgl' (Londo1l, 1!)(i4). p, :I:I!L HI. (:hadwick. l'irlol'lllll Chllrr". vol. I I. pp. ·150-2. ·l(iO-2; D. W. BcbbingIon. J';'I'IIII,I!:l'lim/islIl ill Mlldefll liul(III1::1 Ilisllln'jiwlI Ihl' I nos III IIII' II)S(}s (Lolldon. I!lH!)). p, IH(i; lIasllllgs. op, eiL. p. 117. H2. (;recn, op, ciL. pp, :122-·1. H:L Till' nniquely lugh pro/ill' of Ihc Churcll of England in OxleJl'(1 and (:alllbridge in lilc 1\ITnticlh ('(·nlllr)'. and Ihe growing presclHT ofoillcr denolllinalions. is lloled by Ilastings. op, eiL, pp, (i5-(i. 117, 1,1(). H·I. Field. op, eiL. pp, '11-2, W), Emst Chrislian 1ll'llllrcich. NI'Ii,l!:IIIIIS I';dlltlllllllllli (;I'UIIIIII .')thools. (Camilridgc. MA. I !);iD). P(l, '17-!1, H(i, Ihid .. (lP, ,15-(i; 1.;ll1lilcrll. o(l. ciL. pp. 211-17 H7, Frank-Michael Knhlcl1lann. 'Zwlschcn 'Il'aditioll I1nd I'viodernil;il: \!olksschnle I1l1d \!olksschnllehrcr illl wilhclllliscllcn OslweslEllcn', in joachilll I\lcyn<:rl . .loser Mo()scr and Volkcr Rodckall1p (cds), (jllll'!'
100. licinllil Walser Smilh. (;1'1'1111111 Nil 1111 II II lis III 1I11r1 Nl'lip:iolls COIl/7irl: {,'1I11111'1'. IrIl'olop'Y. l'olilin. IS7IJ-IIJJ./ (Prill('Clon. NJ. I !)!)5). pp, 22-;)!L lO! Wolfgang Altgcld, 1\lIlholi~/SIIIIIS. l'mll'sllIlIlislllllS, Jlldl'llllllll: til}('r rl'lip;iiis
l'irltl'lhllll/1I' 1I11r1 /ylillrll'i" nilS Osl/ir/l1~ Wl'sl/idell 1111 /I'lia/II'!' rll'sWilhl'llIIis-
(Biclek-Id. 1!)!1I), p, :1:17. Lallllwrii. o\>. eiL. pp. 20-1 I hid" pp. 7G-H I Ihid" pp, !J:\-7 Ihid" pp, 2()(i-!), Ilcllmclcll, li('lip;iIlIlS l~dll((Jlioll, p. 71. LamiJl'I'li. op. ciL. pp. 211 17. J 1\, Mangan. 'Social Darwinislll and lipper-class Edl1cation III Late Viclorian and I':dwardian England'. J ;\. Mangan and .I,nlll's Wall'lIl (cds), Mil II Ii II 1'.1.1 1111(1 Momlil.": Middll' CllIss MIlsnililll/]' ill DullIlIl 1111(1 /11111'1'11'(1. 18()()-I').fO (1\I;tnchcsler. I DH7). pp, I :15-5!!' D:), Slcphcn Ilnmphnes. '''llulTah lell' England": Schooling and Ihe Working Class in Bnslol. IH70-1!)II', SOlllhl'lll/lislor)', I (1m!))' pp, IH2-·1. DG. Werner Blessing. SIIIIII 1I11r1 KirchI' III rll'!' (;l'.Il'lIsr/w/) (:iililngcn, I!lH2). IIIIIS. 188S-·ll)lf
HH, H!l. \lO. \11, D2, !J:\, D·L
p,
2~:L
D7, Ihid" pp, I !l!)-200, !)H, (:hrislcl Kiihlc-IICl.lI1gcr. J~'-IlllIlp;l'lisrh-I\lIlll11lisrh: I ill II'rsJI(/III11P:1'II
ZII !;Oll-
./i'SSiOIll:1I1'1II hil'lll'll'il 111111 I\IIII/liltl 1111 II). IIl1d 2IJ, Jllhrlllllllll'!'l "lIfIIl'hllllirh 1/111 Iil'isIJlI'/II'iirlll'llllil'lp:s (Tiihillgell, I !)7(i). pp, 2H7-!HL !l!L Ilarlnnti Lehmalln. ' "(;()(I Our Old l\lIy": IIle Chosell pl'oplc Thcmc in I,ale Ninclcclll h- and Early' I\vcnlil'l h·( :Cllt lIry (:lTman Nal iOllaliSIIl', ill William R, IllIlclllson and Ilarlllllll Lehll1anll (cds), Milln' :11'1' CllIIsl'II: nlllilll' I'Jnllolllllld 111r'sll'm NlIllI1l1ali.11I1 (Minncapolis. MN, 1!)D4), pp. W)-i07,
lil'P,TIIIIIII'II' (;l'p,'I'lIsiilzl' 1I11r1 IIl1liollllirl'lipJiisl' Idl'l'II III rll'J' (;I'sr/iirhli' dl's
(Maim,. I !1!l2), pp, :\-<1. 102. Kuhlcnlann, op, CiL, pp, :I;\(i-,IO, IO:L 1I1IIIlpltncs op, eiL, p, I H,1. 10'1. SCl' J Wigky. nil' HisI' 1I11r1 Nill o/Ihl' I'itlol'lllll SlIlIrlll)' (Mancllcsl('\'. I!lHO), 10:), Ibid" 1)(/.1.11111; IllIgh McLeod, {;/IISS 111111 Rl'lip:1I111 III Ihl' IJIIi' I'iriorillli Cily (London. I !)74). pp, I :l!l-I:\, ~20-2. 2:\1-7 IO(i, Ihid" pp, 2:l!'i. 2(i7-H; John Lowersoll. SIJllrl allrl Ihl' FII,!!,1ish Mitltlll' (;/11.1.11'.1 (Manchesler. 1!)!l:I). pp, 27'1-:): 'Ihn)' Mason. 'Foolball'. idl'll1, (ed.), SIJllrl ill 81'11(1111: A Sorllll !lisilln' (C'lI11hridge. I !lH!l). p, 1,1!1; Cynlhia Brown. NorllulIlIllllIlI. IS'J'i-/I)S5: Shol' 'lilll'lI. Nn(l 'lim'" (CIIIc!tesler. I !)!)(l). p. 12!); Jack 'vVilliallls. (;ril'/'-I'I allll 1,'lIgllllld: :1 Clllillml 1I11r1 SlIolll !lislol'\' 0/1111' 11I11'J'-lI'lIr li'lIJ'S (Lolldoll. I !l!)!J). pp, 1:):\-·1. 107, (;,1. T Machin. 'Brilish Clllll'Ciles alld Ihe Cillcma ill Ihe 1!):I()s·. ill Dialla Wood (cd.). 'I'hl' (;/1111'1''' allrl 1"1' //1'1.1. Siudics ill Chlll'ch Ilisiory 2H (Ox/em\. I !lD2), p, ,IH,\; Paddy Scallnl'lI and DaVid Cardiff. /1,\01'1111 llislon' of/Jl'Illsh 8mlll/mslillp,', \'Ill. I: /922-/ I) >1) ( h(im\. I !)!) I). p. 2:12, /OH, For LOlldoll. sel' Cox. op. ciL. pp, l(i:I-,I; fi)\' Norlhall1plon, BrowlI. op. cil.. p. 12!1: le)\' Norwich. sce BaITY M. Doyle. 'Urhan Lil)('ralisll1 and thl' "Lost (:clIl'ralioll": PolillCS and Middle Class Culture III Norwich, I !)()O-I D:15·. /li.llllrll'llllllllfllal. :IH (I !l!)5). p, (i;!(), dl'lIlsrhl'lI Nil I iii II a lis 11111.1
Notes to Chapter 3
The Pace-Setters
(;(Tard eholvy and YlIcs-Maric Hilaire. l1islllll'l' rl'li,l!;il'IISI' dl' la 1-/'11111'1' vol. I: lSIJ()-/SSIJ (](ntlouse, l!l!)(l). pp, 1!l!l-20]; YvesMane Ililail·c. lilll' I'lirt'iil'lli/ 1111 XIX" sil~r/I'P 1.0 l l il' n'lipJI'IISI' rll'S IJII/lllla· lilillS rill diorh'I' rI·,·lrms. 2 vols (Lille. 1977). vol. 11. pp, 55:1-(i{i: Ilans Rl'i(~ 111'sl/i'ilisdll'r ;IIM ( ;iillingcll. I !)79); R, IV!. Big-Ier, nil' Polillrs of (;1'1'111(111 I'mll'.I/rllllislII (Los Angeles, CA. I !)72), clL ·f; II lIgh Mc Lcod. (;fIlSS 111111 Hl'lip:1IJ1I III IIJI' /,1111' I 'i(/o 1'1111 I Cily (London. I D7'1), pp. 200-1 . ,> Diary or Edward Derringlon. enlry fill' ~(i janllary 1H:IH. (:arrs Lanl' MSS. vol. (il (Binllingham Cenlral RckrcllCc Library); (;colhey Roil· SOil. 'Religion and Irrciigion in Birll1ingham and Ihe Black Counlry' (li nil'lTsil y or Birmingham Ph \) Ihesls. l!)!17). p. 217, Sec also (;e()l~ liTy Robson. 'The Failllres of SlIccess: Working-class Evallgelisls III Early Victonan Binningham', in Derek Baker (cd,). HI'Ii,l!,'IOIIS MolrulI' lillll: BlIJp:mlJlllml a 1Ir1 SO(,IIJ/II,!!,'iml Proh/I'IIIS jiJl' 1111' (,'/111 rrli II islorlllll. SI lI' dies ill Church Ilislor)" 15 (Ox(e)l'{\. 1!)7H). pp, ,IHI-!lL (/I11i'IIIIJlJlWIII'.
N()TES
NOTES
:l. Carrs Lanc i\ISS. \'()1. (i I. cntrics li)r 1H. 2(i alld :\1 Jalluary 1H:lH. ,I. 11)1(1. . , !i. Eilecn Yeo. 'Christianity in Chartist Stl'llggle, IH:IH-·12', 1'lIsl & Prl'.II'}}I. ~) I (I ~JH I) p. 1:12, notc (i:l. (i. ;\Ian l'.cllllctt Bartletl, The Chmchcs ill BcrIllOlH/sCY I HHO-I D:\!)' n IniITrsity or Birnllllgham PhD thcsis, I !JH7), pp. 1:17-!). 7. i\lclcod. op. cit., p. :10·1. H. Ilugh i\l::l.cod. 'Class, (:olllnllllliIY and Region: The Religious (;eographY 01 NlnCi('Clllh-centul')' Ellglalld'. ill Michael Ilill (ed.), SOl'loloo'}('(!1 li'llllwo/'- oj IMi,l!;iOU II} finllllll, (i (I !J7:1). pp. ·1!)-:")2. .... D. I I ugh Mel .cod, I'il'lr 111111 l'I))Il'rlr: Wor/uu,I!: Closs Nl'fi,l!;iO}} III lierfill. IJludoll ,(Iud NI'lI' lil/k. /871J·/lJl·1 (Nc\\' York, I!)!)(i), p. II. I oy'( :hoi\'y alld II il;lirc, op. Cil., p. I !JH. II. Fcrlland Charpin, I'mlllllll' rl'fi,l!,'II'usI' urhll}ul' 1'1 lill'lllilijoll d'IIIII' (J'mudl' llif/f (MIl/sI'iffl' /S()(,-19'iS) (Paris, 1%·1). pp. 2!i4-:"). 2HH-!l2, 2!)(i-7, 2!J!J. 12. I.uciall Iliilsdl('r, 'Siiklllarisil'l'lIllgsprozessc', III Iblls~Jllrgell Piihlc
and Pamela
20. 21. 22. 2:1. 24. 2!i.
2(i. 27.
(cd,). /iiilp,'I'r II} ill'I' (;I'II'fIII/1il11 dl'l I\'I'II?('(I (;iillingcll. I!)!JI) pp. 21:1-!J. Lllnall Iliilsci!('r, 'Stallstls( 1)(' Erlasslln ;-,o klrchli( iter Bmdllllo"Il' ,,'" , III Kaspar Elm and llalls-()ielnch Loock (cds), Srrlsll/p,'!' 111111 /J1II/m}lIl': fil'lll'Ii:!!,'I' :11111 I ('r/lli'llIIiS 1'011 I\'irl'hl' lIud Crofis/fIIl/ 1111 II), IIlId hl'()'lIl1ll'lIdl'll 20 . ./1I/1I/1I1111/t'l/ (Berlin. I !)!J()). pp. '12-:1. . .... (:hcster diocesall \,isil;IIIOIl Rellirns. 177H ( :hcshirc (:ounty Rccord Onicc. Chcsln). For similar commenls scc Alan (;ill)('rl, RI'Ii,J'lOu 111111 SOl'il'/)'
III
11II/lIs/rillll';lIglllur/: Chll!'ch. Chll/}('/lIl1d SOCIil/ Chili/O'I' I /fll-.I I} /.1
(London, I ~J7(i), pp. 10-11. Oi\'(: Field, '!\ Co(lIy Pcol;le? Asp('CIS or Rcliglolls Pracllce II1lhc Dlocesc orOxli))'(1, 17:1H-I!J:Hi', SOIl/hl'mllis/o!')" II (I ~J!)2), pp. (i:)-(i.
l!i. Sergl', Bonlll'l, '\'crners et hllch(')'ons d'/\rgolllH", F. Ik'darida and J Mailroll (cds). (;fms/illlll.llll!' 1'/lIIollifl' ollllril'/' (Paris. 197:;). p. 2:12. I G. Sl:C DonaIci 1\1. l,ell'ls, /'/gh/I'II /hl'ir /)1Ir/IIII'.I.1: nil' 1~"{I(lIlg!'Ii(({/ i\liS.l1ll1l /0 H Or/UII,!!,' ('/11.1'.1 /,O}IIIIJII. 182S-ISfJ() (London. I ~)H(j). 17. Sec, e.g., B. l. Coleman. 'The Church ExtenSion iVlo\'cml'nt 111 London c.IHOO-IH(iO' (lJnil'lTsily orCamhndg-c PhD thesis. HHiH); lIilairc, {illl' (/m;/II'IIIi'?, \'01. II. pp. :"),19-:,):1; i\larlin (;rcschal, 'Dlc BerlinlT Sladlllllssion', in Eltn and Loock (cds). op. cil., pp. ·1:) 1-7:"). IH. D .. B. i\Icllhiney. '/\ (;cllllcinan ill l'V(,),), Slum: Church or Englalld MISSions III the East Elld or London. I H:17-1!J I ,I' (Pnllcelon UninTsiol r Ph J) t hcsis, I !J77), pp. I 2H-:l I I !J. (;Iclln lIolTidgc, nil' SII/HI/ioll ,·Inll.\': Origllls IIl1d I'({}-!\< /)11\'.1, IS65-llJ()() ( ;odaill1ing. I !J!J:l). For discussioll or SOIllC or the . wa\'~ Salval ionists rdaled 10 Ihe nillllrc or working-class Ilcighhourlioo;ls, scc Pamda J ·Walker. ';\ Chaste and Fcrvid Eloquence: Calhcrinc Booth and the i\lillislry or WomclI ill Ihc Salvalion /\nn)", in Bc\'erlv Mayne Ki('llzle
J
Walker (ecls), WOIIII'U i'rl'lll'hl'I:\' IIlId i'ro/Jhl?/.1 //lJ'(mgh 'fi(lo (A 1!J9H), pp. 2HH-'\02. McLcod, Pil'/Y IIl1d Pmll'/'/y, ch. G. Palll Thompson, ,";ow£!i.ll.l. Uhl'l'IIls IIl1d /,lIhollr: Thl' S/m,!.',gll' .fin' 1,0//(1011. ISS5-191·' (London, 1!)(i7). p. 2:19. McLcod. l'il'/.1' IIlId /'tm'r/.\', pp. !)-ID, -12. Ibid., p. 21; C. Willard. 'Not rc Dame de rUsinc'. ill B{'dariela and Maill'Oll (cds), oj). cit., pp. 2·1!'i-!l1. Ilartnllil Zwahr, lllr KOIIS/dll/II'I'111I,!!,' dl'.1 Pm/ellI!'ill/.1 111.1 Klo.lSl' (Berlin, 197H). Theodorc Kodilschck, (;/11.1.1' NiI'Il/lI/{() II II lid Urhllll-Illdlls/riol SOOI'/.\': lil'lldjill'll, 175()-IS50 (Cambridgc, I!)~)I), p. I!J!). WolIg-ang Kiillmann, ,)'ozlIIlgl'.Idlil'h/1' dl'/' S/ild/ 8(11'1111'11 CIIihillgen, I !)(iO), p. 1!'i7. Sce McLeod, Pie/v ({}Id I'm l er/v f()r data on lay leadership in Berlin Proll'slanl parishes, The ('U II cst im'cst Igal iOIlS or t his topic halT hecll fi)r Presbyterian cOllgregat iOlls in Scott ish cit ies: sec i\. A. McLarclI, Hl'lig/olI IIl1d Sow£! (,'111.1'.1: rhl' /)i.ml/J/{()II li'lIl'S III "Ihnt/I'I'II (London, I !J7·1); Peter I lillis, 'Presbyterianism and SOCIal Class in Mid-ninClel'nth Centnry (;lasgow: a Siudy or Nille Chnrches'. j01l1'll1l1 oj 1~l'r/r.II.\lI.I/I(({1 lIis/oJ')', :12 (I!JH I), pp. ·17-(i,1. Ohelkevich. IMig101I 111111 HilmI Soril'l\': SOIl/h I,II/dst\', 1825-/S75, (Oxfi))'(l, I !JI(i), pp. 19:").2:19, aniyses the social colliPosition or Ihe Wesleyan and PrillIilivc Melhodist lay leadership in Lincoillshire, but no silllilarly syst cllIal ic st ndy or English u rhan congregat ions has been made. Sec. however, Simon (;unn, 'The Minislry, Ihe Middle Class and the "civilizlIlg missioll" ill Manchest('l', I H!iO-HO', Socilll His/o})', 21 (19~Hj). pp. 2!i-(i, which is more implTssiolllslic, alld Clyde Binfield, Pos/OI'S 111111 I'l'o/JII' (Covcnlry, I DHcl). pp. (i()-I, all illtensive sludy ora Baptisl church in (:O\'l'nll·Y. Kodilschek, ofl. cit., eh. I D. Scc Charpin. op. cil., W. Se\\'dl. 'Social Change and Ihe Rise orWorking Class Polilics in NinetcC'nth-Centnry Marscilles·. 1'11.1'/ & l'rl'sl'll/, (ir; (HJ7·1). pp. 7!i-1 D9;.J. M. Plw),cr, ,)'(',y}((£! IJ!WI'II/1011 IIlId Hl'figlOll ill Nilll'li'I'II/h-(,'nl/lln' I~II/'()I)(' (London, I D77). McLeod. I'id), IIlId I'mlf'r/y. ch. (i. Ellen Ross, 'IInngry Children: Iiouscwivcs and London Charity', in Peler Mandler (l'd.), TIll' (iSI'S O/' r:/Illri/.\': Fhl' I'oor Oil /(I'lil'/, 11/ /hl' Nilll'll'I'II/h-(,'I'II/IIn' MI'/m/)()lis (Philadelphia, PA, I !J!)()) , pp. I (i!)-7 I, F, K. Prochaska, 'Body and Soul: Bihle Nurses and the Poor in Victonan London', l1is/o!'iml RI',I·I'(II·rh. (iO (1 !)H7), pp. ;l:Hi-·IH; L. Strul1lhinger, . ";\ has les pri':t res! A bas lcs couvellts!" The Church and the Workl'l's ill Nint'lcclllh-Ceninry Lvon·,./oll},}!II1 O/' ,';o('}({/ Jlis/IJI)" II (197H), pp. :'>-1 (j-7 , Mil/(,IIUill oj (:hri.l/illII i/y (BnkcJey,
2H. 29.
:W. ;1 I.
NOTES
N()TE.~
:12. For PI":I),(')". Sl'(' I\kLeod, l'il'/r IlIld I'o'{ll'/'Iy, pp. I D2-·1. Philip Nord, rhl' NI'II//h/il'llll i\/Oll/I'III: Sll'//i~i!,11'.\ jill' Iklllocmn' ill Nil/l'1I'I'lIlh-CI'IIIIIIT /-i '1111 n' (Calllhridge, I\L\, IDD:i), p. 4H. :11. Ihid. :F). Ralph (;ihson,.1 Socillillisio/T oj hl'wh CIlIIIOI/USI/I, 1789-191·1 (London, I ~)Hq), pp. I ~J:i-212. :I(,. Nord, op. l'Il., chs 2, :\ and (i. :17. Ihld .. chs·1 and :i; (:holvy and Iliiaire, llisloll'l' I'l'lip,'II'IISI', ISS()-19]O, pp. :Hi, :it). :IK. Nord, op. cil., ch. I, Maurice I.arkin, RI'I/P;IIIII, I'olillcs 111111 I '1'I'ji'I'IIII' II I ill hll//(I' .IiIII'I' Ihl' ISC)(}s: IJI Iil'lll' I;'!J/I!jl/{' IIlId lis 1.l'll,'!I!'." ( :allllmdge, I D~J:)l, pp. II ~J-27 :ID. Ralph (;ibson, 'Why Republicans and Catholics Couldn't Stand Each Other in till' Ninctcel1th CCl1tur(, III Frank 'Edlett al1d Nicholas At kill (cds), Nl'lip;/IIII, Socil'l\' IIlIti l'olillt'S III hlllln'SII{(,{' 17iN (Lol1dol1, I !)~J I), pp. 11:1. ·10. Rel1l; Rl;lllOnd, L'IIIIII-IN)'{(({/iSIIII' I'll hlllin': /)1' 18 f ') tI 1I0S/01ll:\" C!nd cdl1, Paris, I ~JD2), p. I H:i. ·11. (;ihsol1, 'RcpuhlicallS and Catholics', p. 11:'), citing all article in 1.1'
S2. CUllilla-Fril'derikc Budde, All/, dl'/// !!Ir'g /1/.1' liiilgl'l1l'hl'll: I\illlllll'li IlIld Fl'wd/////g III dl'llisr/II'II II/Id I'llg/isrlil'll 15iilgl'ljil/l/ilil'lI 18-10-11) J.I (;iittlllgCII, ID~J·I), p. :IKO. r)~,t Ihid., p. :')HI :).1. ./1'11.11'1/.1 '(lOll (;111 II lid !iiisl' (IRHG), III E Nietzsche, !flrT/(I', :1 vols (Mllllich. IDS:i), vol. II, pp. GlH-ID. Sf). II. II. (;ert II and (:. Wright Mills (cds), hom Mllx HIt:"I'r (Londoll, I ~J·I Hl, pp. 1:II-H, 1·12-:1. 1S:I-(). Sll. Paul DrclVs, /)11.1 /urridiritl' 1,1'111'11 til'/' 1~'llll/lgI'IiSl'it-I,lIlitl'/'isrhl'" IJlIlIll's/ul'ritl' dl's A'iil/igrnrhs .'-;lIdISI'1I (ll'thingen, I !)02), p. :HiS. :i7 \VolIg'allg Rihbe (cd.), (;I'schirhll' /il'riil/s, 2 vols (Mllnich. I!J(7), vol. II. pp. (iHO-:1. :iK. lIenry Wassermallll, :Jews and .Judaism ill the (;aI'lClllaulw', }i'llI'/iooli 01 litl' I.to Ihll:ril Il/sllllIft', 2:1 (I D7H), p. :i I, . :)!). Alli-cd Kelly, Tlw /)('.1('('111 o/' /)1I1'1t1111: TIll' l'Ollllllll'lZlllllJ1I O/' /)1I1'1t1il/is/// /1/ (;1'/'///11/1)', IS60-11JJ.I (ChapelllilL 19HI) pp. 1:i-2H; Karl Birkel', [}fl' IiI'III.II'II!'1I /lriJI'II!'riJiltltlll,ll,S(lI'/'I'/I/I', 18-1IJ-187IJ (Bedin. 1!J7:1), pp. !'iR, I ;i:l'I,IK:I-(i. (iO. David BlackbourIl, /H(II'I)illp;l'II: ,'ljJjmn//lllls o/,Ilil' ! 'ilg/l/ Mlln' /1/ nISl/llirr/(iall (;I'/,//IIIII.\' (Oxlem!. I~)~n), pp. 2KH-!lI . GI. Norhert Scltlof.\macller, 'Ikr Deutsche Ven~ill II'tr die RhcllIprovinz', in Olaf' Blaschke alld Frank-Michael Kuhlcmanl1 (cds), 1?1'1iglll// 1/11 1\(//.I·I?ITI'ICit: Mil/I'IIS Ml'llllIlillift'lI - l\risl'lI (;iUersloh, I !l!)(i), p. ·17!J. Lalollette, op. cil., pp. 2-'1:i-K; R{'mol1d, op. cil.. pp. I !)O-I; SlIIith. (;1'/,//11//1 NallOllalis/// IIlId Nl'l/gIIIlIs Co lilliI'I (I'nllceton, N.J, IDDS), PI'. 2(i-:17. (i:l. Smith, (;1'/'11/1//1 Nal/llIlIlIi.II/I, p. 22. (i'l. Ihid., pp. ~n-:17. (is. Koditscitek, op. cil., Pl" I:\S-20,1, 2!i7, li(i. SilllOIl (;lIl1n, The Ministry, the Middll' Class and the "Civilizing Mission"', pp. 2:i, ,10. (i7 E. E 11c1l110ck, Fil IIlId 1'1'01)1'1' 1'1'1'.101/.1 (Lol1dol1, 197:1), pp. (i 1-7~), I :i·I-(iD; Peter T Marsh, JosI'!)h (:IIIIII/III'r/IIIII: r:lllmlm'I/I'lIr III l'olilll'S (New llaven, CL I !)~J·I), PI'. ,I L 2·10, 27:1. (;. l. T Macllln, I'ol/II(S IllIti Ihl' (;///Il'rhl's III (;1'1'111 8U/rI/II, IS,)2--18(,S (Oxie)l'(l. I Dl7) p. I (i2. (iD. Cox, 1':lIglish Chlll'rhl's III II ,1;erlllllr Sorid.\', pp. I (i 1-2. 70. Frank M. '!llrller, Co II ItsllII,l.!,· Clllillmi ,'llIlltonl)': 1':.1'.1'111'.1' ill Virloll/l 11111'1Il'rillllll.iji' (Camhridge, I !)!l:I), p. 170. 7\. Nord, op. cil., p. :17, 1_. OzouL UI:jJ II hlilj I/{' til'S IIIsllllllelll'S, pp. I H:I-H. Ibid., pp. I ~)7-K. 7·1. Iilid .. pp. 172-4, Al1nex :1.
:n.
./011 mill til'
/10111'11.
·12. Jacquelinc LdOlll'tte, IJI !.ilm' 1'1'11.1'1:1'1'11 hillin', IS·18-19.J{) (Paris, I~JD7), pp. lIiO-1 ·1:1. Jacqucs al1d Nora Owuf', 1.11 dlJllhliqll1' dl's illSlilllft'lIl's (Pans, 1DD2) pp. 210-1 1. '1·1. E,g .. in Berlin in the 1RIOs. the court and aristocracy Elvourcd the Pietist clergy, while the city council support cd the iilll'rais sec Waltcr Wendland, Sil'hl'lI/IIII/I/I'I'I./lIhl'l' l\irrhl'II,!l,'f'sc/llf'lill' !ll'rlills (Bedil1, 1D:IO),
PI'· :\()()-:I. ·E'). Lucian 1 Wlschcr. ' Kirchlichc Iklllokrat ie lind Friill1llligkeit skultl1l'
>I(i.
-'17. 4R. ,19. SO. :i I.
illl dcutsclll'n l'rotcstantislnus', in Martin (;reschat and Jochcn-Christoph Kaiser (cds), (;fmsll'lIlIIlII IlIld DI'II/ohmlll' (Stuttgart, I D!)2), pp. I!JI-:i. (;angolrI liihingn, 'Kuiturprotestantislllus, Bi'lrgedurche und lihcraler Rcvisionisillus illl willwllllinischen Deutschland')n Wolig-ang Sc\ueder (cd.), IMigioll 111/1/ Cl'sl'l/sc/lllji /II It). Jllhritlllllll'/'l (Stuttgal'l. 1!)~J:I), pp. 27:1-·1; Iliilschcr, , Kirchliclll' Iklllokratie', pp. 200-:1. McLcod, l'il'ly 1II11II'rri'l'I'ly, p. 2:1. Arnold Ilomll'itz, 'Prnssian State alld I'rot.estant Chllrch ill the Reigll of' Wilhellll II' (Yale University PhD thesis, I ~J7(i), pp. 21 G-:12. Ihid., pp. S:I-K; Iliihingcr, op. cit., pp. 2!J:i-~J. Sec Thomas MergeL /.;(lI.\(hl'lI 1\'/11.1'.11' IIl1d KOllli-ss/IIlI: 1':lIlholischl's IJiilp,'I'I'111/1/ 1/1/ mll'l 11111 lid, I 71N-·191-1 (;iittingen, I~)~).I). E. RollE, J)IIS liil'ritlirhl' IAIt'II dl'r l"i'IIII,!l,'l'lisrhl'll 1\'il'l'hl'lI 1/1 Nit'dl'l'SlIrhsl'lI (Ilihingell. l!l 17), PI'. (iOO-1.
J
~')
N(rn:s
7ri. On the widc-ranglllg role or the yillage school teacher. sec Bartlett Singer. l'il/up:1' NO/I/li/I's III Nilll'li'I'II/h-rl'll/III)' hI/lire: !'I·il's/s. Ml/wJrs aI/(/ SrlllluIJJll/s/l'/'S (Alhan\'. NY. I ~)rn). p. I :!(i and /)(/ssiJJl. 7G. N . .J. Richards, 'Religiolls Controversy and the School Boards, lil70I DO:!', nri/ish jOllrl/l/! or I~'dlll'll/iolil// S/lidies, I il (i D70). pp. I il:\-·I. 77. IIl1gh l\lcL('oci. 'White-Collar Valllt's and thc Role or Religion', in (;eoUi-cy Crossick (cd.), Thl' I.Ollll'r Midd/I' (;fass III nn/alll. IS70-11}f.{ (I.ondoll, I ~)77), p. ilO. SOllle Anglican-dominated Boards insisted on teachers heing Anglicans. Scc Richards, op. cit .. p. I ~)'I. 7il. Cox, 1~'II,I!,1ish (;/I/Ire/II'S III 1/ SI'I'II!ar Socit:ly. p. lilil. 7~1. Marjorie Cl'\licksilank, Chllrrh I/Ild ,';/ali' III /<;lIp;lish I~'dllm/ioll: IS70 /0 /he 1'1'1'.11'11/ f)I/Y (London, I ~)(i:\). ilO . .J. E. B. M'Hnson, 'The London School Board Election or I il\).J: a StHdy in Victorian Religiolls Contrm'Crsy', Ihl/t.lh jOllrl/O/ or I,'dllm/iullal .'1/11dil'S, :!:\ (lD75), pp. II-I:!. ill. Ernst (:hristian Ildmrcich, Hl'fip;iOIl.l/,'rilll'll/1011 III (;t:/'II/all Se/lOols (Camhridge. IVIA. I ~F)D), eh. 5; Jonathan Sperher. Hhllll'/llIId /fadim/s (I'rinccton. NJ, H)DI) pp. il5-11. :!il7-!l. il:!. \Verner Blessing. Shill/ IIl1d Ki)'{'hl' ill da (;!'sellse/l11/i (;iillingcn, I Dil:!). pp. 17r). :!:! I-Ii: Ian Farr, 'From Anti-Catholicism to Anticicricalislll: Cat holic Polit ics and t he Peasant ry ill Bavaria, I illiO-1 ~)OO'. Fllm/II'11i1 S/Ilt/il's Hnlll'!I', I:\ (lmtl), pp. :!(jl-5. il:\. i kllllreiciJ, pp. !)G-7; (;eolhcy (;. Field, 'Religion in the (;erman Yolkssrllllk lil~)O-ID:!W. li'l/r!Jollh II/ /It!' 1.1'0 nlll'l'h IIIS/I/II/1' , :!ri (19ilO), pp. ·lil-5:!. ill!. Johanncs Tell'S, IJ('/"filll'r I.l'hrn (Beriin, I !l(7), pp. 7Ii-7: see also i\ld.cod, !'i!,fy I/lld I'm/n/y, p. H. il5. l\Iessing, ojl. cil., pp. :!17. :I:)·!, note :):!. il(i. Nord, ojl. cil., pp. :15-·11. In Rennes, where levcls or piety were gCll(Tally high around the middle or the ninetecnth centllry, the Illajor exccpt ions wcre studellts in 1llcdicine alld law: see IVI ichel LagrlT, MI'II/II/ill;s, rl'fip;ioll 1'/ IIiS/III}'I' I'll /I1111/1'-Iirl'/lIglIi' 1111 XIX" sihll' (P;ms, I !)77), pp. :\:!7-'\il. il7. Pierre (;uillaulllc, MMI'I'III.I, I~'glise l'/jllI (n.p., I !l!)O). pp. I05-il. ilil. Thcodore Zeldin, hlllll'e. IS·18-1I}·I 5. :! vols (Ox[i))'(l, I !l7,1-7), vol. I, p. :!:1. il!l. 1.1lCian Iliilschcr, 'I)ie Religion des Hiirgers: Bi'irgeriiche Friinlllllgkell und protestantisclH' Kirche IIll I!). Jahrhundert', His/o}'iselie ZI'I/sehri/i, 2riO (ID~)O), pp. (ill I:!: Blackhollrn, MI{)'jilllgl'lI, pp. lil·I-ri. !)O. A Preston workillg man, II1t('l'vic\l'ed by an oral historian In the I D70s, descrihed the typical members or the congrcgatlOn at t he Anglican church to which he had helonged 111 thc I !):!Os as 'the doctors'. Ilugh I\lcLeod, 'New Perspectives on Yictonan Working Class Religion: the Oral Evidcncc", ()m/ II/I/on' .lOll rl/II/, 1·1 (I !)il(i), p. :\!l. HowcvC!', by
NOTES
Dl. D:!. !);l. !l4. Dr). \l(J.
97. Dil. !l9.
100. 101. IO:!.
10:1. 104. 105. I ()(1 .
t 07
I Oil. IO!l. 110. I] i. II:!.
cOll1panson wit h t he relatively detailed in [ill'mat ion t hat we have on working-class religious act Ivit y in Victorian/Edwanlian England, In[()l'Jnation onthc various sections orthe Iniddle class is more lillllted. Catherine .1. Klidlick, C/lOlem III Pos/-HI'l/O!II//IJIlIlr\' Pans: II CIII/llm! lIi.l/ol), (Ikrkcll')', CA, I !)!)(j), pp. I'I·I-li. Ibid .. pp. I (j'I-75. R . .J. Morris, C/{()/em IS ..'2 (London, ID7G), pp. :!o;l-'I, :!H. Frank M. 'liJrnn, COII/I'II/iIlP: CIII/llmllill/hon/)" pp. I (j'I-7. (;uillaull1c, op. ciL, pp. :!(j-il. Sec Judith R. Walkowitz, ProS/IlII/IOIi IIlId ['ie/o}'ilill SOI'll'/), (Cambridgc, I !)ilO); Paul McHugh, Pms/i/II/ioll IllId I"ie/o}'ilill Social RI'/imll (l.ondon, I9ilO). Bauh{rot, op. ('iI., pp. ,\0,\-.1. l.aloucttc, op. cil., pp. n(i-il:!. f:ll1ile I,ola, l.olI}'d!'s (English translation, Stroud, 19D:\), llirst published lil!)·IJ, pp. n-il, IO:!. In Zola's Doc/o}' Pllsm/ (lilD:\) the doctor as secular saint is the cClltral charactcr. Louis Pt'rouas, He/ils d'IIIIi' rl'lig/l)//, rl'ligloll d'I{)/ re/ils I'll l.ill/OIlSIlI J'III'III. /SS(}-fI}-f() (Pans, I ~m5), pp. 1(1:\-5. (;uillaull1c, op. cil.. pp. ilO-il. Olivier Jam, 'Zwischen Bi'irgcrlichkeit lind kirchlichell1 Milicu: ZlInl Selbstvcrsliindnis und s()ziall'n Vcrhalten del' cvangclischcn l'[ilrrer ill I'rcuBcn in del' zWcItCIl I·Wlfi(' des 19 . .Jahrhllnderts·, in Hlaschke and Kllhlcmalln (cds), op. cil., pp. :)ilil-9, gives mallY examples or the contacts or clergy wit h doctors and t hose or sim ilar standing t hOllgh his main t'Ol1cern is to indicate a growing distancl' het weell clergy alld hOll rgcoisic. Alan I laig, 'rill' I'il'/ol'lllll (,'ll'Ip,y (Heckellhalll, 19i14), pp. ,I:!, '\ri-·jil. (;ibsOll, op. cil., pp. (jil-7Ij. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, UII IMip;101i (Moscow, 1%7), p. :17 .Judson Mather. 'The i\sslllllptiollist Response to Seculal'ization, I il7019()O', In Rohert IkZllcha (cd.), MildI'm 1,'lIl'1Jjll'lllI Somti llis/on' (Lexington, IVL\, I !)71), p. (JO. Sec the contrilmtions by Madeleinc Rebt:nollx on i.e mill' des H:d{:d's (I, pp. !l:15-riil) and hy FralH.;ois l.oy('\' Oil San{-(;oell!' (I II, pp. ;!:!5:170) to Pierre Nora (cd.), 1./:.1 1i!'lIx dl' 1II/lIIoir!', ,\ vols (:!nd c
NOTES
I 1:1. 11,1. 11!i. II (i.
I 17 I I H. II !).
120.
121. 122. 12:1.
12,1. 12!i. 12(i.
127. 12H.
I ~D. 1:10.
N()'n:s
.I oehcll
Loreek. I l'il' 1I11111/dililT Sowildl'llIo/mll 10111'111' (Bonll. I !l77). pp. I,I:;-!i(i, \\'ollg'allg Ellnllcrieh (c(L).l'm/l'ltll'l,v/u' 1,1'/lI'lis/tili/i'. 2 yols (Rcinbck hci Ilalllhnrg. I ~)7'1). \'()i. I. pp. 2H,J-!i. I\lckod. l'il'/r 11/11/ l'm1nl\,. pp. In:I-!J. Kari-llcillrIch Poh!. 'K:lIholiscile Sozialdclllokratcn odeI' sozialdeIlHlkratisciH' Katholikcll ill lVli'nlClH'll: Fin Identitiitskollflikt'. ill Blaschke alld Klddclllanll (cds). op. cll .. pp. 2:U-!i:I; Kad Ditt. I IIdliSI I'Il1lis/(' 1'1/ II,!!:, ,'II'/Jl'ilnsr/lil/i IlIld ill'/JI'III'I'/JI'II'I',!!:IIII,!!; III /lil'/i'/i'/d. 18 'j()/\if.{ (\)ortllllllld. 1~)H2). J>. 2:lD; LOl'eck. op. cit.. p. l!i!i. E. Rolf'ls. f)IIS /ul'l'/ilir/II' 1.1'111'11 dn l'IIIIllP:l'lisl'lil'll l":il'rlil'lI III Nil'ril'l:l'IIrlisl'li CIlihillgcll. 1!)17). pp. ,1,17, ['):1:1-7 E (;Ialll·. /)IIS /ul'c/ilirlil' 1,1'/11'11 dl'l' 1'1 11111,1.!,·l'lischl'lI /(il'rlil'll III ThiinllP:1'1i nl'lillllgcll. I!) I 0). p. :l(i(i; Drews. oJ>. cit .. p. :1!J/1. Edward Royle. Ullllif'll/s. SI'I'II/lIl'Isls IIlId Hl'jlll/Jlitlllls: 1'0/111/111' hl'l'lflllllght llilil'i/IIIII. 18MI-/IJ/'j (Manchestl'l'. I!)HO). pp. 2:12-!); Leonard Smith. HI'/ig/IJII 11/11/ IiiI' HISI' II/ 1,II/JOIII' (Kede. I !)!l:I). pp. I :IO-H. For Chartist critiqncs of' till' estahlishcd chnrch. sec if. 1I. Falllkllcr. (;lilll'lIslli lilli/IiiI' Olll),l'lil's (Ncw VOl'k, l!lIH). pp. :II-!J. I()H-!); I()!' Sendarist vic\\'s. Rovlc. HIII/if'll/s. p. 2D!J. Royle. /l1II/if'll/s. p. 12!l. Nl'lI' SIIIIt'slIIllIl 11/11/ Sootly, :10 Scptclllher I D!),I. RolH'rt 'liTssell. Tlil' Rllggl'rI '/i'oIlSI'I'f'(/ I'hi/rllillirojllsis (Londoll. I D!i!J) Ilirst pnhlisllt'd I!)J ,II. pp. 17G-HH. ,ID 1-2. E S. A.s (Pleasallt Snllday Af'tl'l'lloolls) \\'CIT special scrvices I()r working III('n providcd hy Illan\' NOIlconl())'Illists chapcls c. I !)(l(). SCl' I':ric Ilohsh:mm's cssay. 'Religioll alld t hc Rise of' Socialism' ill IllS collcction IIJI/'lt/s II/ LII/JIIIII' (London, I !)H·I), pp. :I:I-/IH. Zeldill, op. cit .. \'OL I. p. 7(H. Thc 1'11/111/1' (a priest's skllll-cap) calllc to hc nsed ill ninctccnth-cclltnr" Frallcc as all ahnsive tcrlll I(lr the clergy. People declllcd too li'll'lldly to the clergy were duhhed ((1/01111.1'. There was ('VCIl :I\l allti-clcrtcd jOIII'll:d callcd 1.1/ CII/olIl'. Sec R{>lIlOnd. op. cit., p. 21·1. Row'r I\/artill On Carel. ./1'111/ nllm/s (Paris. 1!)21) Ilirst pnhlishcd H)I:II, p. (i/. I\Iary Rvan. ''\ WOlllan's Awakcning: Evangelical Rcligion and t hc Families or litica, Ncw York. IHOO-IH40', in .Ianct Wilson .lalllcs (ed.), 11'111111'11 ill ,IIIII'I'/WII Nl'liglllll (Philadelphia. PA. l!lHO). pp. DO-I: Olwl'n Ilunon, 'The Remllst ruct ion or a Church 17~)(i-1 HO I', in (;wynnc I .('wis and (:olin I ,ucas (cds). lin'lIlli/ IiiI' '!iTml" I~'s,\(/)'s III hl'lII'li NegwlIlI/lIlII/ SlIf'IIiI I lislllr), /7'),/-/815 ( :amhridge. I !)H:I), pp. :I!)-,II, Claude Langlois, 1-1' I'IIlliolioSIIII' 111/ FIIIIIIIII (Paris, I !JH'I), pp. :1 I 0-1 I. Oil'l' Fid(1. 'I\dalll alld E\T: (;clldcr in the Ellglish Frec (:hlll'ch Const it 11l'1lC).' . ./1111/'1/11/ 11/ Ftc/I'slllsllm/ !lislo!,\" ·11 (I !m:I). pp. (i:I-7!1.
1:1 I 1:12.
1:1:1. 1:\.1. I :1[').
Thc hest statistical study ort!le gcnder composition or Nonconf())'Inist cOllgregaliolls ill the later nillel'Cllth ('('ntu!'y is Roselllary ChadWick. 'Church alld Pcople III Bradl(ml alld District IHHO-I!)I·I' (lillivl'I'Sily or O:d(JI'lI I)Phil thesis. HlH(i). (;ihson. op. cit., p. I HI. (;cnevii've (;adh(lIs. '''Vous (·tes presquc la seulc cOllsolation de 1'I::glisc"', in .lean Ikhnlleau (cd.). I,ll religlOli dl' 11111 IIIhl' (Paris. I ~)D2), p. :121. (;ihson, op. nt., p. 17·1. 11)1(1.. p. I HI. I~ Piepn. A'il'thl'lIsllIllslih /)I'liisth/lillr/.\ (Frcihlll'g im Breisgall, I H~)D), p. ~:t).
I :\(i. Mel .cod. 1'11'/.1' IIl1d 1'lIl'l'I'ly, pp. 2!J-(i, I :i!)-(iO. 1:17 Ro"fl'. Rlldil'll/s. p. 1:10; Lalouctte. op. Cit .. p. D:1. I:IH. i'vld ,cod, I'ie/y IIlId l'mll'lly. pp. J(iO. I (i:l; Rickie B milia II , '''She lookcth \\'cll to t he ways or her household": the (:hanging Roic or Jcwish lI'OI1lCn in Religions Lilt· t.IHHO-I!):\(r, III (;ail Mallllgl'lTII (cd.), 1?1'1igllJlI 11/ IiiI' 1)1 11'.1 11/ 1~'lIglis/IliIOIlII'II, I7MJ-I'))O (Bcckcnhal1l. I !)H(i), pp. 2:\.I-!J7: Marion Kaplan. '!'III' t\lllkillg o/llil'./I'1f1isli t\liddft, (;/11.1'.1': 11111111'11. hllllih' 11111/ Itll'"llly III IlIIjil'rlll/ (;I'I'IIIIIIl)' (Ncw York, I ~)~)f), pp. (i·I-H·1. I :I!l. RlChard./. Eva ns. 1\'III'1/JI'II,I.!,'l'sjJliitlil' 1111 /\·lIi.\l'lTl'icli (1Iamhlll'g. I DH~»), pp. 171-2; Lalollctte, op. cit.. pp. :1:1-1-·1:;; Mary I !artman, I'itllll'lllli Mllrdl'I'I'ssl's (Ncw York. I !)7(i). pp. ~O(), 2:1!1. 1·10. I !ulion, 'Rcconstl'llctloll', p. ~2. notl'S that while open conflict hctwc('n dcvollt \\'OIlH'1l alld irreligious IlH'1I took place I()r thc first time durtllg the Rl'\'olution. clear dilft'rcnCl's ill Ien'ls orplCty wcrc al!'eady apparcnt. For Instance, ill one village Ileal' Paris in 17HO all widows and spillstcrs alld IIcarly all married WOIIIl'1l rcccived EaSln COllllllnlllOl1. hut oilly ai>oul ·I!J per (,(,Ill of' adult IIIcn did so. 1·11 . .lules Michelet, /)11 1'1'1;11'1', til' /11 hlllli//i', til' /'!~'g/isl' (Paris. I H,lf»), pp. V-\'I. 1·12. Gihson, op. cit. p. IH2; Lalouette, o\>. cil., pp. :1:1!i-7. 1,1:1. 11IIhkc Behnkcn and Pia Schlllid. 'Religioll in 'Elgehiiciwl'll \'011 Frauell zIVci Fallstudicn', in Kralll and Luth (cds), op. Cit.. pp. (j:I-77. 1'1,1. Eherhard Ikt hge. Ihl'l r/I'li /iollfIlW/./i'l' (English t ranslat iOIl, London. I DlO). pp. 20-1. I ·!!'i. Kaplan, op. cit., pp. 7:1-·1. J.i(i. Monika RlCharz,piriivlil's 1,l'hl'lIlII f)l'IIlsrh/IIIII/.:\ vols (Stllttgart, I !l7!l). \'OL I!, pp. 2~)H-!). 1'17. IIJ1(!.. II, pp. :1(iO-2. 1·1 H. Ellcll Ross. 'Survival Net works: Women's N eig-hlJolirhood Sharillg In LOlldon bd(lI't' World War 1', /lislo/'\' WOl'klflO/J./OIII'IIIl/, I!J (I!JH:I), pp. ·1-~7, elll phasies the sepa ral ion bet wccn I he worlds or WOlllell and or mCII . 1·19. Sinith, 1,llrlil'S oftli!' 1,!'islIl'l' (,'/11.1'.1', cil. !J.
N()TES
I !iO. This is stated most explicitly in Luckmann, oJ>. cil., p. 'W. I !i I. 11I1gh M cl.(·O( I, Ri'/ip;/o1I II lid Ihl' I'l'ojJ/I' oj !J'l'sll'm 1,'11 rotJl', 17S9-/9S9 (Oxlin'd, ID!l7), pp. 101-10. ! !i:!. l'al1l Thompson, with 'limy Waile), and Trcvor l.llmlnis, Ulll1l,!!; Ihl' Fishlll,!!; (l.ondon, I mn). I !i:l. Roger I\lagr,l\\", 'I'oplliar Anti-clericalism in Ninl'tccnth-Ccntllry Rllral France', In .Jailles Olwlkcvich, l.yndal Ropcr and Raphacl SallnICI (cds), Ih\i'ijililll's oj hillh (London, I !)H7), p. :Hi I I !i. I. Iln\\"art Vorliin
NOTI':S
J I()!)' 170. 171, 172. 17:1. 17·1. 17!i.
'Elylor. 'Stories or Power, Powerful Stories' (pp, I n:I-H4); Eliot, op. nl., p. 27!i; Obclkevich, Nl'figlilll IlIld NIII'III So('(I'/.\', pp. 277-H. Boutry and Cin<]llin. op. cil., pp, (il, (i'i; McLeod, l'il'ly {(I((I l'Olwrl\,. p. I!)!). (.:lIIile Zola. Thl' 1"lIrlh (English translation, Ilarillonclsworth. I DHO) Ilirst published I HH7J. pp. '1:17-H. lIol1try, Pfi;/fi'S !'/jlll/'(}ISSI'S, pp. :HiO-! 11)1(1., p. 'I!'i!l. Ibid .. p. 'W2. Lalouclle, op. cil.. pp. 2·i!'i-!iO; Fallry, op. cil., pp. 4:1:)-(); RCl11oncl. oJ>. cll .. p. I DO. D, E SunllnlTs, 'The Lahour Church and Allied Movemcnts orthe late 19th and carly :!()th Ccnturles' (liniv('\'sity or Edinilmgh PilD. I %H) summarises (pp. (iH7-90) thc varying and llIutually incompatible theological tendelKles within the mO\'enlcnl. The l\shton. lImningham and Bradl()J'(1 hranches w('\'c among thosc scriously divided hy thcse rival tendencies, and tile (;Iasgow branch rramcd a constitution dcsigncd to avoid religious contl'Ovcrsy (pp. ,12!i-7, ,\:10-'10, ,Hi7-D,
'I\)!». 17G. Stephen Yco. 'Thc Religion or Socialisnl', lIislon' Wo/'ks/lilj' .11111 flllIl, ·1 (1977) p. ,Hi. 177, Nord. op. cil., cli.!'i. 17H. This was a constant tileille or John ·Ih'vor. 1(H1nder oj' thc British LahOlll' Churches. SUllllllers. op. cil.. p. !i. 17!l. Jcrrrey Cox, 1,'lIgfish (.'/I/I/'I'hl's ill II S(,(,IIIi1/, SOl'i!'/), (Oxliml. I 9H2), p. 2:12. I HO. Ihid .. p. :!:I!i. IHI Ibid" pp. 2:1:\-!i; McLcod. CI{(ss IIIld IMiglilll. pp. 2!i:!-!i. I H2. Arnold RlIpplll, op. cil.. II. pp. 17G-7; Paula Hyman. 'Thc SOCIal COlltcxtS or ;\ssimilatlon: Village .Jews and City .Jcws III l\lsacc', in lonathan Frankcl and Stcven I. Zipperstelll (cds). :issilllilllllOIl IIlId ·C;Ollllllllllil.\': nil' Ji'lt'S III Nill!'ft'I'I;IIt-('('II/II!'V I~urojll' (Cambridge, I !l!l2), pp. II (i-:!O. IH:I . .Iacob BortH and Oded Heilbronner, 'Leavillg the Walls OrAIIOll1alollS ;\clivity: the Catholic and JeWish Rural BOllrgeoisie in (;('rillany'. III (;Olllj)((I'11/171(' Slur/ii'S ill Sotit'/v 1I1II/lIisllI!'\,. ·10 (I!lDH). pp. -1!l-1-7 I H·I. Michael R. Manlls, Tit!' I'llfilirs 11/: iss 1111 illlllO II (Oxl()I'(1, I !)71) pp. !i·I-!i; ;\lIl1e J Kershl'1I and .1 ollat h;;n /\. ROlllainc, hllr/ illllll 1I1Ir/ (;ltllllgt': /1 lIisftllY III' Re/imll jUr/{(ISIiI III Uri/lilli, IS·I(}-/995 (Londoll. l!)!l!i), pp. 71-!l; Bill Williams, nil' MlllUII,!!; of' MII/II'Itt'sl!'!' ./1'1I'/,\" n·IO-IS7') (Manclil'ster, I 97(i), pp. !):!-'I. I W). Rickie Bllrillall '''She looketll lI'ellto the ways ol'her household": The changillg role or .IeWish womell III rcligious lire, t. IHHO-I D:IO', ill Malmgrel'1I (cd.), op. cil., pp. :!:I!)-(i; Volkov, 'V('J'hi'irgcrlichung', pp. ,1!'iH-!),
-------------------;---------
N(rn:s I il(;' (;colfrcy l\ldcrlllan, MorllTll IIn/lsit jl'lI'r\, ( )xf(m!, 19q~), pp. il(i, 11~-0
I.
IH7, I.I()ydl~ (;arller, TlII'jl'll'isit 1111 III ip, 1'11111 III Iin/lllll. 187(J--ICJ!-/ (~nd {'rln, London, I ~)7:',). pp. I ~)~-7 I ilil. Bll1'Inan, oJl. cil .. pp. ~,fil-0~. I ilq. David Sorkin, ritl' h({lIs/imIlIlIIOIi or (;l'I'llIfllI jl'll'/"\, ( )Xf()I'(!, I ~)il7), pp.
In-:I. I DO. Volkov, 'VcriJi'lrgerlichllllg', pp. :\!';'I-il; .Jamh Kalz, '(;erl1lan CIlItIll'C and Ihe .Jews', in .Jehllda Reinharz alld Waitl'!' Schalzherg (cds), TIll' jl'i/Ilsit Hl's/JI!IISI' 10 (;1'1'1111111 (:1111111'1' (lIall()\'l'!', Nil, 1!)il0), pp. ilH-~); (;eriJanl Iksier, RI'Ii,!!,'IIIII, i\'({lill II , 1\'1111111': /)il' (;I'sellleitll' tilT rlmsllieitl'll I,'irritl'll ill rll'II ,!l,'I'sl'l/sr/lII/iliritl'll 1.'lIIhriiritl'lI til'S /1), j({itrlllllldl'l'ls (Nellkircll('lI-VIII\,1I I !)!l~), pp. (i~--:\. l~) I. VolkO\', 'V('I'iliirgeriiciJllng', pp. :F)!)-(i 1, p. :Hiri. I !)~. Michael A. Meyer (cd.), (;I'I'IIIIIII)l'1l'isit lIislolT III Model'll '!'ill/I'S (Ncw York, I !)D!) vol. ~, p. :\~:\. Iq:\. '1()(ld 1\1. I':ndellllan, Hlldiml ('-'SIIIIi/({11II1I illl';II,Il,-!i.lhll'lI'ISit Ilislor\" /())()/1)/5 (Blooillinglon, IN, I!)!JO), p. ill 1!J.l, Ihid .. pp. !)I--II:1. 1%. Ihid" pp. I ~H--,IO, I !)(i. 'I(Hld 1\1. Elldclman, 'TIll' Social and Polilical COlileXI of' Conv('}'sIoli in (;('I'lllan), alld Englalld, lil70-1~1l,1', ill idcm (ed.),jl'll'isit ;I/ml/flsy III litl'Modl'1I Ili!llr/ (New York, I !JH7), p. Wi. I D! Kalz, op. cil .. p. ~)il, I !)H. I\lichacl A. I\iey('l', ./I'il'isit Idi'llllh' III Ihl' Moril'l'lI World (Seal tie, I \)!)O), pp. :\!)-IO; Elidellllall, 'COII\'('I'sioll', pp. il0-(i, I!l!l. Elldcllllan, Rililiml //sSlIlIillllioll, pp, Dil-II:1. ~()(), Sel', l'.g" W, j. Fishmall, FlIsII:'lIdjI'1I.ish I\lIIlim/s, Uj/5--/ 1Jl-l (London, Ill70). ~o I. f);l\,id Fddlll:llI, '1llIllligralils and Workers, Eliglishmcn allti ./ews: JeWish Inlilligranis III I he Easl Elld orl ,ondoll I ilHO-I !lO(i' (l11ll\'Crsll \' orCalllbridW' PhD Ihesis, 1!l:-l0), pp,:\ f(i-~,1. ~O~. Palll Weilldlillg, :le\I'S in Ihe I\kdical Proll'sslon ill Bnlain and (;erll1any', Michael Bn'llIll'l' ('I
Notes to Chapter 4
Belief
1- Friedrich SaL\' Her/ill 11/ ,11'1111'/' 111'111'.1/1'11 1.1'11 Iliitl 1:'1I/1I'Irh/lIl1,!l,' (Berlin, 1!lH:\) Ilirst puhlished lil,Uil, pp. III-I~, () For discussiolls or thc lill'l'alulT or religious doubl, sec .Ioseph N. I\loody, 'I'lil' (;/lIIrrh liS 1:'111'111\': :llIlirll'nmlisllIlIl Nilll'/l'I'lIlh (:I'IIII1n' hl'llrh
N(rn:s l,ill'I'IIII1I'1' (Washing'lon, 1)(:, I ~)(iil); Roberl Lee WoliL (;1/11/.1 oIliIIAiSSI'S: NlIllf'ls or 1'llIlh 111111 DilliN ill I'irlol'lllll 1:'lIglrlllll (New York, 1977). '\. Basil Willey, Mol'l' I'icllll'lllli SllItlil's: /1 (;mll/' 01' 1111111'.11 /)ollhll'/'s (London,
I !l0(i); .IallIcs R. Moore, 'The Crisis or Failh: Rcf(>rlnalion Versus Revolulion', in (;erald Parsons, .IallIes R. Moore and John WolI'Il' (cds), HI'Ii,!!,'ilill ill l'icllll'lOII lJrillllll, !i \'ols (Manchesler, I !)Hil-!)(i), vol. II, pp. ~2()-:17 'I. Timolhy Ilands, 'f'hollllls IIIII'I/)': Ihsll'llcll'tI i'1I'achl'r? (l.ondon, I ~lH!l). 0, Thoma~ liard)" 'Ii'ss of'!hl' I/'l!;'/Jm.illl's (l.ondon, l!ll~) I firsl puhlished I ilDII, p. 10:1. (i. Frank 1\1. 'Ihrncr, 'The Viclorian Crisis or Faith and Ihe Failh Ihal was IOSI', III Richard.J. Ildmsladler and Bernard I.lghlman (cds), I'ir/Ol'lllli !-IlIlh 11/ (;1'1.11.1: /0;.1.111.1'.1 Oil (,'11111111111/)' al/d Chllllgl' 11/ Nilil'/l'I'lIlh-(,'I'lIll1rv IMigilills Iil'lil'( (Basmg-sloke, J !l~)()), pp. !)-'\H. 7, (;{~rar<1 Cholvj' and Yues-Marie Ilil:lIrc, !lis/rllrl' rl'lip,'II' 11,11' til' III h'fllll'l' ((11111'1II/){)mmll', vol. II: 1880-/I)JO (l(ll!loUSl', I!lH(i), pp. l'I~-00.
il, Sec Bernal'll Lighlman, 'Roherl FlsnH'!'l' and I hc {\gnosl ic (:risis or Failh', in 1lt-I111sladler and l.ighlman (cds), op. cil., pp. ~H:\-:\ II, !l. Thomas I\krgcl, I.l(I/schl'lI 1(111.1.11' Iliitl I(Ollji?sSIOIl ( ;iill ingcn, I ~)~)'I) pp, ~HI-~.
10. Moorc, op. cII., pp. ~~H-,\~; (;corge (;issing, !Jill'll III I';xill' (Londoll, Hl70) I firsl pllhlishcd I H!)~ I, p. II D. II. Thomas Ksclman, Omlli Ollti IiiI' A/ii'l'liji 11/ Nilll'it'fllili CI'IIII1n' />1'11111'1' (I'l'llHTIOn, N.I, I !l~U), p. I H~; \vollgang Fnllllerich (cd.), Pm/l'llIl'I,v/u' IA'III'IIS/iill/i', ~ \'ols (Relnlll'k 1)('1 llalllhlll'g, I !)7,1) vol. l, p. ~H0. I~. Ccolfrey Robson, 'Working Class E\';lllgelisis in Early Viclon:lll Birmingham,' in Dnek Baker (cd.), Rl'li,l!,'llJIIS MIl/rUIlIIOII: nlO,1!,Ta/'/lImllllll/ SOl'lologil'llll'mhll'lII,l/iJl' Iii I' (,'/llIrrh !lisiomlll, Siudies in Chllrch Ilisiory, 10 ( )X1(m!, I !)7H), p. '\!)O. 1:1. Alrred Kelly, '/'III' /)1'.11'1'111 or /)llI'l(lll/: '/'III' I'll/ill 11/1'/:11 1111 1/ III' /)ilIWIIIISIII 11/ (;1'1'1111111\" 18W-I!Jf{ (Chapclllili. NC, IDill), pp. 1~:I-'1. 1,1. The hesl discllssion or Ihis Ihcnl(' IS Slephen Yeo, 'The Relig-ioll or Socialism', l/islol'\' 1!'lIrks/IO/' ./11111'11111, ·1 (I !l77), pp. ri-:i(i, I r). Lconard Smilh, l!l'liglOll IlIlrllhl' RI,II' IIfl,lIhollr (Kccic, I D!U), p. ,II, I (i. SlIcridan (;ill(')', 'Cal holics alld SOCialists 111 (;lasgo\\', I !)()(i-I D I~', ill KCllnclh l.lInn (cd.), !losls, 1IIlIIIIgmilis IIlId Millon/les (FolkcSloll(" I ~)H()), p. I H(i; IllIgh Mcl.cod, 'Religioll in Ihc BrilIsh
N()TE,~
G. Charllon, S(,f'II(lI1' IMI~I}.;iolls ill hllll('l', /8/'J-/87() (Oxle)J'(l, I !Hi:l), pp, '17-ii:\. g7-%: T !(, Wrig-hl, nil' Rdl~f!:ioll or HIIIIIIII/li)' «;amilridg-e). 21. Theodore Zeldin, hllll(,(' 18,18-/1),/5 (Oxfe)J'(l, 107:1-7), vol. I, pp, G21-Ti, 22, Charilon. op. cil .. pp, g7-0:). 2>L ()\\,Cll Chadwick. '/'/il' S[lCUlfln:tllioll (~r/hf' ";lIfO/"'ttll J\Jind ill/h" tViJu'/()('lllh Cmllln' (Camhndg-e, 1!)7ii). ch. 7: Kelly. op. cil.. pp. 21-g. 2·1. Kelly. op. cil., pp. :Hi-ii(i: lIug-h J\kLcod. l'il'l\' 11111/ l'oll!'I'h' (New York. I!)%) p. 27, ' . 2:>. I~cll)', op. cil.. p. 1:12. 2(i. Enliic Zola. 1'111'1.1 (Eng-lish Iranslation. Stroud I DD:I) Ifirsl published I g!)g I. pp. 'I.'!r)-(i. For Zola's 'revercncc Ie)]' sCIence', see F, \-\'. I. II emllIing-s. 1~'lIIi/1' ~olll (2nd ecln. Oxfelrc\, I !)(iii), pp. 20-21. iiii. .. '27 'rurllcr. op. cil.. p. 170. 2K. Thoillas Nippcrdcy. /)l'IIlsl'hl' (;I'.\chichll'. 18()()-1866 (Munich. 199:I), p,I%. 2!1. Eug-cn Wel)('r. 1'('11.\1111/.1 illio h'l'l1l1/1111'11 (London, 1977), pp. :lii'I-(i. :HJ. Tholll;IS Nippndcy, IMip:IIII1 1111 {flll/mith (M unich, I !)g7). p. 142. :1 I. ;\rnold lIorowilz, 'Pl'Ilssian Siale and Protestanl Church in the Reig-n of' Wilhelm I r (Yalc linivcrsily PhD Ihcsis, I !J7(i). p. 21 g. :12 . .lames OI)('lknich. 'The Relig-ion of' Music', IJ1 Jamcs Ohelkevich, Lyndal Roper and Raphael Samuel (cds), Ihsril}/iIlI'S or Nllih (London. I !)g7). p. iiG2. :\:\. TIll'Oclor Font;ull'. 1~',Ir/lIlll'J'rI (I gg2). eh. 7 :11. Nippcrdey. Rl'lip,/IIlI, p. I,ll. :Iii. LUCian Iliilscllt'r. 'Biirg-crlichc Relig-iosiUil 1m protestantischen Ikutschland des 19 . .Iahrhunderts', in Wolfgang- Schicc\er (cd.). RI'Iip;/IIII 11111/ (;1',ld/srllll/i 1111 II), jlllllllllllrlni (Sluttg-aI'l. ID!l:I), pp, 20g-I:I. The cilit of'(;()etlH' and Schiller caused considt'rable misg-i\'ing-s amongconstTvativc Pmlt'stanls. Sec (;i1ristcl I\iilde-Ilczing-er. 1""'IIII.I!,'!'lisI'III\ol/wfisrll (Tiiblllgcn, I D7(i). p. 2gg. ,IIi. Johll Brellil"'. The Schiller Cenlenal'\' of' I gii!l in Halllbllrg' (unpub'Iished papn). I am very gralef'ul loJ:lhn Brcuilly lelr allowing- lilt' 10 read Ihis paper. :17. (;angolf' IIi'iiling-n, 'Kullurproicstanlisllllls. Biirg-crkirchc unci libcraler RcvisionislIlus il1l WillH'llIIinischcn Ikulschland', ill Schiedcr (cd.). op, cil., p. 2g0. :lg. Richard ;\Iding-Ioll. /)1'11111 01 II 111'1'0. 1llI('xpttrg-atcd edition (London. I !)(iii), p. 222. :m Richard Aiding-Ion. 14;' jil), U/;,.., SII/!!' (London, I !l()g) Ilirsl published I D'I J I. p. 7g, '10. Mrs HUlllphr)' Ward. Uo/J!')'I m,IIIII'I'!' (Londoll. 1!l:)2) Ilirsl published I ggK I. pp, ~)()-I , 20.
I).
NOTES
., I, Ksdman. /)1'11111 1!lId Iltl' A/il'rfi/i'. pp. I iiO-!l. ,12. Logic Barrow. IlIdl'/II'lIdml S/nnls: S/n)'illili/islll 111111 1,'lIp;/isli Pfto{}l'illll,l. 185()-ll)lO (Londoll. 199(;), pp, 4-2\). 'I:I. Frallk ·Illrner. /Il'lwet'li SI'II'III'I' IIl1d Ht:lip:lOlI: Till' HNlI'IIOIl 10 SI'II'lIli/11' Nlllllmfislll III 1~1I11' Vil'lol'IIlll 1~lIp;/olid (New Ilaven. (;'1; I !J7,'). pp, IOgII; BarmlV, op, cit.. pp. ! 2G-7. 21 :1-17: I!. Freimark. Modl'nll' (;I'i.I/I'I'/JI'.Ir1IlJliil'l')' IIl1d 1i'lilllIr 1'1/.1.1 11th I'i'. (;roLlstadt-J)okulllenIC :IK (Berlin. Il.d,). p. ii I, See also S. C. Williams. Hl'fip:IOIiS /I1'1i!'r IIl1d Po/mill), (,'11(111)'1' ill SOIlI/llflll)'h. 1', 188()-II))l) (Oxfem\' I!)!)!), p. g2. For Ihc role of' wise l1Jen in ninetcenth-celliury rural Eng-land, sec Ohclkevicil, o]l, cil.. pp. 2g7-\l I, :HlD-1 n. ,j,1. ·limler. op. cil. ,Iii. Mark Bevir. 'Annl(, Iksant's Quest lilr 'Ii'uth: Christianity. Sccularislll and New Ag-c Thought', jOllnlll/ or />.'l'rll'sillsIICII/ lIislol'\'. iiO (I !l!J!). pp, H:)-7, ,I(i. Chushichi 'lslIwki. r;dwIII'II Co r/JI'I I 11'1; 18II-11)21): Prophl'l 01 11111111111 h'l/mL'S/III} (Callibridg-e, I !)gO). ,17, Nipperdey, Ul'fip;ioll p. ILI:I: scc also Andreas Dalllll, 'Natllrwissellschaf~ len und {)f(i:ntlichkeit in del' dcutsclH'n (;esellschafi: ZlI den ;\nliing-cn ('iner PopuBirwissenschafi nach der Rcvolul ion VOIl I g'l g', Hislorisrhl' ~I'IISl'hi/i, 2m (I !l!lg), pp. gii-(i. which nolcs a tendency among- (;\Tman popillar-scicntific wrilers '10 sacralisc nalure ilselL and 10 givc natun'worship t he character of' a sllhst it utc religion', ,Ig. Edward Royle. RIIi/irllls. S(,(,II/III'I.lls IIl1d HI'/m/JIiCillis (Manchcster. I !)gO) pp,I:12-(i, '19. Ihid .. p. 1:1:1. iiO. Sec Susan Budd. 1/111'11'111'.1 oj' [ill/lI'lil'r (London. I !l77), ii I Jacqueline Lalollellt'. LII/i/II'!' jll'lIsll' I'll />1'0110', 18,18-11)·/0 (Paris. 1!l!l7). pp. 2ii-4'1. !J~. Ihid., pp. DD-IO:L ii:\. Frank Silllon-Rits. '!\.ultun'lIe Model'llisicrung- lind Krise dcr I'elig-iiisen IkwllLlts('ins'. ill Olaf' Blaschk(' and Frank-Michael Kuhicillann (cds). IMip;1II11 1111 1(lIlsl'I'I'I'll'h (Ciit('rsloh. I !)~)(i) pp. ,I(i()- L ii't. Ihid., pp. ,l(i:I-:): LlIcian Iliilsciwr. 1I't'IIP:l'I'iI'III or/I'!' NI',IO/1I111111 (Stllttg-arl. I Dg!), pp. I ()!l-7:\. iiii . .l0c!Jcn-( :hristoph Kaiser. 'SozlaldclllOkrali(' und "pl'aktischc" Rclig-iollshitik',;1 rrlllr/i'ir SO:III~[!,'I',\'(111I'hll'. ~2 (I !)g2), p. 2g4. ii(i. Silllon-Rils, op, cit.. p. 'IGg. ii7 C. V C, Masterman, The COIllIiIIIlII 1I/I';I1,!';/IIIII/ (London, I !lO!l). pp. gg-\l. iig, Thomas Ksclman. 'The Vari('1 ics of' Rclig-ious Experienc(' in 1I rhan Franc(". in lIugh McLeoil (cd.), 1,'III'1l/II'11I1 Hl'iip:1II11 III IIII' ;lgI' 01 (;1'1'111 Cilil's (London. 19!)ii), pp. 17ii-!1. iiD. W. I.. Courtn('y (cd.). f)o H'I' RI'linl('~ (London. I\lOii), pp. 2-1:1. (iO, Ibid .. pp. !l(i-7, >
N()TES
N()TI':S
I. Ibid., pp. J :Hi-7, Ibid .. p. ~,J0. (i:l. Williallls, op. eil., pp. Ii:')-(j and /111.1.11111. (jl. Michael Walls, rill' /)i.l,II'II/I'I'.I. vol. ~: Till' r;xjHII/.I1011 or 1';'{lIIII,!!:l'fil'llf NOlI(oll/ill'llli/l'. 17 1)f-18)l) (Oxfi)J'(l, H)!J;'»), pp. 10:1-10: BaITo\\', op. cil .. p. I~.
Lllcian lliilsciJ. 0:\-(i 1: Michael R. M,uTus, '1111' f'o/i/II'S or (I,mll/ifll/ioll ( hli)J'(1, I !i71), p. 07: Elail1e R. Smilh, ]c\\'s and Polilics Il1lh(' Easl End or Lonc\on', in David Cesarani (ed.), rill' MIl/UIlP: 0/ Morfl'l'II :11I,!!;lo)nul'\' (Oxf()J'(1, I ~)~)O), pp.
(j
(j~.
Notes to Chapter 5
~.
~).
.1.
0.
(l.
7,
Ii.
Going to Church
Lucia II 1Iiii sci H'l', 'Die Religioll des Biirgel's', l1i.l/lir/.II'/II' I.l'i/sl'liri(i, ~!l() (J ~)D()) pp. 0~l7-(i():I: R. (;ihsoll, .1 ,)'01'/111 I liS/lin' or 1-1-1'111''' CIi//lOlie/slIl, 17/-1IJ-11)f) (Lolldon, J DIi~) pp. I-~; .lean Ikltlllleall, 1,1' m/itlllioSIIII' I'II/n' 1.11/"1'1' 1'/ I iii/IIiI'!' (Paris, I !)71), pp. :101i-Hi: (;. v. BCllllel!' 'Thc COlllliel III Ihe Chlll'ch', ill (;col'li-c)' IInlllles (cd.), r;lIg/rlllll II/il'/' /lil' (;lol'IIllls Hnllllll/IOIl (LOlldoll, I !)()~»), pp. J ;"i7-(j0. I.lIciall IliilsclH'r, 'i\liiglichkcilell IIlld (;rellI.CIl del' sialisilschell ErEISsUllg kirchlichcr Billrillllgcn', ill Kaspar Elm alld Ilalls-Dicll'ich Loock (cds), SI'l'lsl!lp:1' 111111 /)/IIkll/lll': nl'i/liip:I' ZIIIII Ii'duil/llis 11011 J\irrltl' IIlId (;l'IIjIs/lid/1111 IC), IlIlrfll(',!.!,illlll'lldl'lI 2(} . ./lIllrllllllrfl'!'/ (Berlill, I ~mO), pp. :l!)-!l~). Satllllcl BIltler, '1'hl' If'fly (~r A/I F{{'sll (l.ondon. I~)()()) Ifirst published. i DO:\ I, p. DI. Thomas Wrighl, ,/,"1' (;1'1'11/ {iI/1(1l1sllI'Il (LOlldoll, I Ii(ili), as <jllolcd in (;(Tald PaI'SOIlS, .I a Illes R. I\lool'C and John WolI'f'e (cds), Nl'liglllll ill J'ir/OI'IIIII lin/II/II,:) vols (1\Iancilcsl('\', J~)lili-~)(i), :1, pp. :\~1-2: Sarah C. Williallls, I?l'ligiolls lielil'/lllId I'olmllll' (;111/111'1' III SOIl/IIlI'II!''', r.IS80-1'))1) (Oxl()]'( I, J D~)D). F.g .. Roger I\lag-ra\\" 'Pop"lar Allliciericalislll ill NiIlCll'enlh-( :cnlllrv Rural Franc(", in.l'lIllCS OI)('lkcvicll, l.yndal Roper and Raphael Sol III 11(:1 (cds), /)is(/jJlilll's 0/ hll/It (! ,()ndoll, I D~7), p. :I(i I, For disClIssioll orrc
JI~-1.
II I~.
1:1. 1,1.
l!l.
I (i. 17
I Ii. 19. ~O.
Yves-Marie Hilaire, {fill' I'lid//I'/I/I; 111/ XIX" .Iil~I'/I'? (Lillc, Im)7) ii, p. :,7:). E. Rolf IS, /)1/.1 IUfI'IIlir/1I' IAwll dl'l' f'lIIIlIP:I'Ii.lI-/II'1I A'il"l'lil'lI III Nil'rflT.lllrli.ll'll (I1ihillgen, H) 17), pp. 0(i7-li. Alall D. (;ilh('rl, NI'Ii,!!:101l IIlId SOOI'/\' 11/ IlId/l.l/l'lliI 1';I1,!!,1ll1ld (London, I ~)7(i), pp. !lli-I(J:\. \Iiilschn, /VI'I/p:I'I'II'Ii/, p. l'lli: idem .. 'Sentlar Cullurc and ReligIous Comlllunit)' in Ihe <:il)': ILlIIIIO\'Cr III Ihc I~lth C:cl1lur)", lIis/1I1I1I11 SIII'I'II, ·I~ (I~)D()), p. ·107; idelll., 'S;ikularisICl'llllgsprozesse', ill Iialls.llll'gcl1 Pi'Ihle (cd.). l5iilp,'I'r III dl'!' (;l'sl'l/srilil/i dl'!' NI'II:;l'i/ (;iillillgCIl, I ~)~)J), p. ~·I'1. Jiirgcl1 Boeckh, 'I'rcdigl ill Berlin'. III Elm and Loock (cds), oJ>. cII., p. :)(~: Franz Scllllahd, /)1'11/.11'''1' (;l'srllll'''/1' 1111 /1) . ./llitr"llIldl'l'/, vol. ,I: nil' Hl'lip:liiSI'II A'/'li/if' (Frcihlll'g illl Brclsgau, J D:17), PJl. 07()-1, lliilscher, 'S;iJ.~ularisien IIlgsprOl.csse', pp. ~·I :l-~l. Wolf'gang- Rihhe, 'ZUI' l':nlwicklung- lind Funkliol1 dcr Pf;lrrgelllcinricll III del' cvangclischcll KirclIc Ikrlills hIS Will Endc dn Monarchic', III EIIll and Lo()ck (cds), op. ('II., pp. ~:\:\-():I. Iliilscher, 'SiikulanSICl'llllgsprOl.csse', pp. ~·11-0~. Rll(lolf' SchliigL (;IIIII!JI' IIlId Hl'lip;illll III dl'r ,'id!lIIll1nSII'I'II11!!,' (MUllich, I ~)~) 0 ). During litc Revolutioll, Ihl' area rollnd La Rochelle was said 10 he ill(' lirsl in Francc where SOIllC parcnls ga\'(o lip haplislllg Ihelr childrcll, and d uri ng' Ihe Sccond Em pIn' I he propOl'1 iOIl or adolcscl'nlS IllISSIIlgIheir Firsl COllllllllnioll alld of' couples it,\\'illg all exclusively civilllTddillg. appcars 10 havc hccll alllong' thc higllesl ill Frallcc. E Bouiard, 111/rorfllr/101l /11 HI'lip,'Iolis Sliriolll,!!,)' (Ellglish Irallsialloll, London, ! ~)(iO), pp. ~!l-:\ J; (;tTard Cholvy and Yvcs-Maric lIilairc, Ilis/IIII'I' rl'lip,'II'II.\(' rfl' III 1-1-11111'1' ('oll/I'II/III!I'{/)'/III', vol. I: 18()()-1880 (Iilldouse, I~)DO), pp. 2~)0-(i.
NOTES
NOTES
:! I. (:1101\,)' and I I ilaire, ibid., pp. :!7-H. :!:!. (;i:l',\I'(1 Cho/\'\', Rf'figilill 1'1 sliri/II; 1111 XIX" Sihlf': lA' diociSl' dl' MIIIIIIleIIiN, (Lille, I!J7:1) i, p. 1:I(i: iVlichcl Lagd'c, All'llllllii/I. rl'figlllil elhilillirl' I'll l/rlllll' lirl'l((,!!,'//1' 1111 XIX" sihll' (Paris, 1977), pp. 7D-H:I. :!:I. (;iiJsoll. SlInll/ Ilisllln' IIr hl'l/I'lt CIlI/II!linslI/, pp. I !FJ-!l. :!.l. Olwcn I IlIftOIl. !iIlW'II.\' ill lit I' /,1111: Figltll'l'lIllt CI'IIIIIn' (Lolldon, I !)(i7), pp. IDI-:!. :!:i. Cholvy and Ililalrc, op. cil.. pp. :!7·/-H. :!(i. Sec. e.g, McLcod, PII'h' IlIld POl I(' rly, pp. I (j./-!l, citing exalllpies rrolll workillg-class ,liT, IS of Bcrlin. :!7 Philippe BOlltr)" l'lhrl's 1'1 I}((miss(s 11/1 IHlys dll Clld d',>/rs (Pans. I DHli), pp. (i!D-!l1 :!H. I Iii/scher, IIHlgl'nrlil. p. H:l. :!!l. (;ibson, Somtl llisilln' 11/ helll'lt Cllllllllios/ll. pp. :!:!7-3:!. ,10. Scc the contrasting regiollal profiles ill Chol,,}, alld Hilairc, l1islo/l'l' rl'lipy' 11.1 1', 18SII-IC))II, pp. I H!"J-:!IH. :\ I. lIugh McLeod. Rl'ligll!lI IlIld ,ljol'll:lv illl'·lIp;/llIlIl. IS5IJ-IIJI·' (Basingstokc, I !l!J(i), pp. I (i!)-%. :\:!. IIlIgh McLcod, C/IISS IIlId Hl'figioli ill lite 1.1111' l'il'llirillll Cily (London, 1!)7·1). pp. :!:i-H. More scattercd cvidcllc(' sllg'gests that religiolls 1)('lief alld practicc havc contillllcd to correlate positively with higher levels or educalioll and social status. Mass Observatloll, PII::':/I'd Pl'lIllll' (Londoll, I !),17), pp. :!H-!l. reported that III a sample of' :JOO intcnic\\'Cd in I,()lIdoll. (i(i per cCllt of'those with secondary educatloll, alld ,·11 pCI' CC1I1 oj' those wilh ollly elelllcntary education, helieved ill so Ill(' (i))'lll oj' alierlik. f\ r('c(,lIt clHlulr)' IIlio the beliefs or Ml's (iHlIld that r)·1 pl'!' C(,lIt oj'(:ollservativ(' lVII's alld :\H per CCllt oj'l.abour Ml's cl;lilllCd to be practising a religioll, which is considcrahlv Itighn thall the ligllre (iJr the adllit poplliation as a whole (Nl'w SIIIII's1111111 IIlId Sonl'l\,. :10 Scplt'lIll)('r and 7 (ktober I !l!H). ,\ survcy or lIlass at tendann' hy Cat holics ill Ellgland alld Wal('s in 1!)(iH, suggested I hat Iile rate was highest (Ii:! pCI' ccnt) I()r the (ll'Okssional and managerial lIliddle class and lowcst CHi pCI' ccnt) It)!· the IInskillcd alld sClIli-skilled working class (h'
;17. For the religious attitudes ornincteenth-ccntury businessmen, sec, c.g., (;ihson, SOl'io/ IlisIIJlY or /<)'l'lII'h (,'11 1IIOlins 11/ , pp. I D!)-:! I (); Colin Heywood, 'The Catholic Church and the Business COll1munity ill Ninctecnth-Ccntury France', in Frank 'Ldlctt and Nicholas Atkcn (cds), Rl'liglOlI, SOl'il'l), (11/1/ I'o/illts III hlllll'l' .Iilll'l' I7S9 (London, I!J!l I), pp. (i7-HH; .Ianc Carnett, 'Evangclicalislll and Busincss in Mid-Victorian Britain', in John WoIlfc (cd.), I,'llllllgdiml foililh (llIri PIINil' ',1.1'11/: I,'llllllgl'/iritis 1I1Ir/ Sot/I'ly III Ihlllllll, 17SIJ-/9S0 (I ,ondon, I !J!)!l), pp. !l!)-HO; David Jercmy (cd.), IlIISilll'ss 111/1/ Fll'ligloll ill Ihilrllll (i\ldcrshot, I DHH); J),md Jeremy (cd.), Rl'liglllll, 8I1Silll'.IS IIlId HI'II/Ih III Modem IJnllllll (London, ID9H). ,Ill. H ugh McLeod, 'Protestant ism and t he Working (:Iass in I Illpcrial (;crlllany', 1';lImlll?llll SllIdil's Fle-UII'lII, I:! (I DH:!), p. :I:!!l. 3D. Paul ])rcws, f)lIs lurrhlil'hl' IAII'II dl'J' 1,'1I11I1gI'IiSl'h-/~III!tI'nsl'hl'lI 1.(/11 dl's/u rl'h I' des I\'iilllgrl'll'lts ')lIl'hsl'lI Cilihingen, I !H):!), I~ :!:!; E Pieper, l\.ir(hl'll.llllllslill f)1'lIlsIMollr/S (Frciburg im Brelsgau, IH9!)), pp. I!lO-!l·I; Hugh McLeod, 'Introduction', in idem. (cd.), 1,'lIrolll'llIl Rl'ligllJlI ill lite Ilge 0((;1'1'111 (:illl'.\ (London, I 99!l), p. I I. 'Ill. Anthony Stcinhorr. 'Protcstants in Strasbourg, IH70-I!l14' (Univcrsity or Clucago Ph [) thesis, 19!Hi), pp. 7(iO-:I, 7DO-·1. 'II. FCl'lland Charpin, I'mlif/III! rl'ligll'lI.l1' IIrli(/llli? I'l/im//olioll d'lIlle grr/lld!' '"ill!' (MIII'S!'illl' UNJ6-1 1)5S) (Paris, I!Hi'I); Mary Nolan, SOl'llti f)ell/oITo(\' I/Ild ,'iol'il'll': WOr/lIlIg (;/11.1.1 RIIr/imlislI/ III /)iisSI'/r/III/ IS9()-/92() (Camhridgc, I !lH7); p.;J I; RaY'"old SIIII, '''Bd(JI'C the Ellemy is withll1 our Walls": a Social, ClIltural alld Political I listory of Catholic Workers III (:ologne, I H!l!l-I !l I:!' (johns Ilopkins Ulliversity PhD, ID!)I), pp. :!!l!l-(iL ,I:!. Sec, f(JI' installcc. the ()\'erview in [)avld Ilelllptoll, Ri'ligllJII ((111/ I'olilltlll CIIIIIII'I'III Ihlill/lllllld 1rl'IIIIId (CamiJridge. I mHi), ch. (i, alld the illtensiv(' focal study of Protestantlslll in StrasiJollrg in St('lnhoff, op. cil. ·I:\. Yn:s-Marw Hilaire. 'Lcs ollvricrs de la d:gloll du Nord devant r":glise catholiqlle (XIX" et XX" sii:cles)', ill E Bi'danda alld J Maitroll (cds), CltrlslllIIlISlllI' !'I1//lllIdf' OIl1 J'1('I' (Pans. 1975), pp. :!:\o-:I. ' '1·1. (;ilhcrt. op. cil.. pp. I:!:J-'IH. Howevcr, his claim (p. 1:10) that 'a highn proport Ion of t he English populat iOIl pract iscd j\nglicall is III in I!J 1·1 than III 1H30' (p. 13H) IS !lot a 'fiIC\', hllt a gllcss bascd Oil what mllst bc fiurly tcntative cstlmates (sec pp. :!H, :!:!:!). ·IS. IIclllptoll, op. cil., pp. I :!H-'I:!. ,IIi. Rohlll (;ill, TI,l' Mylh II/Iltl' I"/I/jih' Chllrclt (Londoll, Imn), pp. ];Hi-7, 'IO!l. ·17. Scc, e.g .. the chaptl'rs hI' (;erard COllllolly, Sheridall (;illcy and Raphael Samuel ill Roger Swifi and Shcndall (;ill('), (cds), Thl' Inslt III Ihl' Viciorillll Cil)' (Londoll, I !JH!l); StevCII Fieldillg, C/((SS (/lir/ 1':I/lIIil'ill': Irish Clllhillil'.\ III I': IIp;/1l II d, 18S()-/9')1) (Bnckingham, 1!l!l:I). chs ,1-,1; Licdhcgell('r, op. cil.
NOTI-:S
NOTES
I lilaire. {IIII' rlin;lil'lIli:!, vol. I I. pp. (i~!)-(i I. Ililairt'. 'I,cs ou\'ricrs du Nord', pp. ~:I:\-il. Roher! l\Ioore. l'il-lIIl'11. l'rl'llrltlTs ({IIril'oliliCS (Londoll. I !)74). This slalcl11l'lIl IS lellialil,(,. iJeclilse Ihe issue is igllored hy IIlosl or Ihe litcratlllT. Its pott'utial IIltert'st and significancc ,u·c Indicatcd III a piont'('I'ing essay h)' Krista (;OWlllall. "\\le intelld to show what ()ur Lord has dOlle fil!' \l'OIIl('n", The LI\,lTpool Church League fi)r WOllIl'n's SufElgC. I!)I:I-lil·. ill R. N. Swallsoll (cd.). (;l'IIril'r ({lilt Iltl' (;111'1.1111111 Nl'lip:llill. Stlldies ill (:hurch I liston' :\.1 (Woodhridgc. I !l!)il). pp. 17:")-il(i. :)~. (;ihson. Sori({l f lislor)' oj hl'lIclt CllllllllirlSlll. cll. (i; noulard and R{:IIIY. op. cit.. showcd t hat in t he I D:iOs and I !)()()s the differcnccs bl'lll l l'I'11 lowns III len'ls or j'('ligiolls practice had dilllll1lshed. 11Ilt that the differcnccs 1II/1ltlli towns hctwc('n the praclice orthose helonging to diCrcrent social classcs rcmained large. [i:I. LOlliS Pl'l'Ollas. NI'/ils rI'llIll' rdip;toll (Paris. I Dil[i), pp. [iO-I. !i!)-(i!), (i7-7H. I :IO-(). I !l:\-il. rd . .Iean-Pi('l'rt' (:halinc. 1.1'.1' bOlllp,FOIS ril' NOIII'II: {IIII' I;lill' IIrb(/lIIl' II/I XIX" sihll' (Paris. I qH~). eh. H. [if!. Ibid .. p. ~(i:). !i(i. Cr. Rohnt ;\1I
(i7, Cyril (;\I'),tll('r. 'Sidelights Oil Religion and Politics in the Rllolldda Valley. IDO(j-~(i', !.III/ill'. :1 (I!JHO), pp. :I(i-·I:I; Stllal'l IVlacintyre, IAlfl' J\losf'mflS (Lolldoll. I !)HO); Kennctl! O. Morgan. Rl'lilrllt 01'11 NIlIIOII: WII/I'S IS,..,O-/9,..,O (OxliJl'(I I!ml), pp. 19:1-!l. (jH. McLcod. Pieh' Iliid Pll'Ul'J'll'. JIp. I I I. II :). 14:\-[i, I !)(i; A. Ainswol'lh. 'Religion in Ihe Working Class COlllmlllllty and the Evoilltion or SOCIalism In Latcr Nineleenth Centllry Lallcashire'. llisloil'l' SOf'ill/I', 10 (I !J77), pp. :1[i'I-HO; Ibn Wcinbrcn. 'Biliiding (;onlnllll1it ies, (:onst ructing Idelltities: the Risc orthe Labour Pal'l), ill London·.I,olldoll./ollllillf. ~:\ (I !)!)H). pp. 'IH-D; (;eolfre)' Alderman. T/tI,./t:lPlsIi (,'Olllll/lIIlIh' III Brillsll Pofillf's (Oxford. l!lH:l). pp. IO[i-7, 11[i; 011 the COlllpleX relationship hetwcell Catholics and the lahour Inll\'Clllelll in Manchcsler sec Fidding. op. cit .. ehs !i-Ii. ()!J. For a brier ov('rVICW see Patnck .Joycc. Wor/!. SOf'il'il' Iliitl I'olilics (Brightoll. I !JHO). JIp. :;;11-·12; lin' an extcnded diSCUSSion. StcphclI Yco. RI'IipJoJl IIlId lii/l1l1llln' (JJgfllIlSIIIIllIlS III (:1'1.1'1.1' (Lolldon, I !l7(i). 70. Stcl;lIl Berger. Thl' Nnlislt 1.lIhollr /'III'Iy Illld lit/' (;1'1'111((11 Somri f)1'll/ormls (Oxfi)l'(1, I 9!J·1). pp. 1:\:\-172. 71, Drcws. op. cil., p. H!l; I~ Wurster. f)((S IUI'I'lific/t1' IAII'II dl'l' l"UllIlgFfisrill'll 1.llIldl's/urf'ltl' /1/ Wiirlll'lI/{JI'I/!: Cliibingcn. 1!J1 !l), pp. 7H-HH. 72. Rainer Marhach, Siilml((l'I.wnlllg 1/1111 sowrfl'J' II'IIIIIM 1111 19, ./lIllIlilllldl'l'l (Ciittillgcll ImH). pp. 1~:-;-7. UI-'lil. J(iO. 7:\. Roger Thaballit. MOil vil/lIg!' (Paris. ID·I:»). p. l!l:1 and/lIIsslllI. 74. McLeod, Nl'ligloll 1I1It! Sotil'ly. pp. 17()-!J. 7:-;. McLt'od, Pil'/I' 1I1It! !'tml'l'ly. p. ,1,1. 7(i. W. Cascoyne-(;ecil, 'Thc Old Squire and the Ncw'. in W. K. Lowther(:I;II'kc (cd.). NII'III/!: IiiI' I-ilcls: nil' 1';lIp/islllllllll '" NI'f/~IJ,'1Ii1l (Lolldon. I!) II), JIp. ,I :I-!i'l. 77, M('Leod. CfllSs IIl1d Rl'liglOlI. pp. ~~()-~. 2:lr)-(i :\0,1; (;lIlIilla-Frt'derike Blldde. /11I/t!1'1II JIIl'g 111.1' lIiill!,'I'I1I'hl'lI (C('itllllg"hl, I !)~H). p. :IH(i. Set' also McLcod. Hl'ligllilllllld ,'iOI'll'I)'. p. (i!i. which slIggcsts levels ornJl(ldlc-class chlllTh-golng arollnd the end of' the III1l('tccnth CClIlllr), which are slill vcry high. thollgh not as high as III Budde's sample: Paul Tholllpson and Thea Vigne intcrviewed SOllie [iOO 111('11 and womclI born III Britaill iJetwccll I H72 and 1909. or those hrollght lip In English middle-class 1;lIl1ilics, 7!i per ccnt stated that thclr lIIothlT had bcen a reglilar (,hurch-gocr in their childhood. alld (iO per cCllt that thcir blher had been (sce McLeod. Nl'ligllill 111111 SOI'l!'I)'. liJr rull details). 7il. McLeod. ClIISS IIlId Hl'figioll. rh. H; Idelll .. 1!l'fip,'/Ollllllti SOI'l!'ly. ch. 'I. 7!J. Chadwick. I'icilmllil (.'/lIIrcit. vol. II. p. ~·I!); Robert (;lIrl'lc. Alan (;i1hlTt and Lee Horsley. (;{lIlrtlies IIl1d (;{lIIrrligol'l's (Oxli)l'(1, l!l77). pp.
,lit -:I!l. [iO. [i I.
m
~O:\-I~.
HO. Alall Benllctt Bartlett, 'The Churchcs 111 Berlllondc),. I ilHO-I ~l:I!), (linivcrsny of' Birmingham PhI) thesis. 19H7). p. 17H; J N. Morns.
N()TES
NOTES
RI'/igioll 1/111/ lIrhllll CIIIIII,I!,'I': (;I'OW/OII, 18CJO-1 CJ f.I (Woodhridg-c, 19!)2),
in eincr i\rbeitergemcinde, I H72-1 H,l,\', (:. II uck (cd.), Sozia{geSf'lIirlllt'
pp. I K2-:\.
dl'l' hmnl (Wupperla!, 19HO), pp. 21 1-1,1, 221.
HI. McLeod, C/I/SI IIl1d IMip,lIIl1, pp. 2,\!)-42, 2fj4-fj. H2. (;iilson. SO(((i/ /lislo/T o! I'i'l'llell (;IIIIIO/in.llll, p. 2:)7, K;\. Caroline !'onl, (;rtallllg Ihl' Nlllioll ill PI'I)'uille;ll/ hilI/a: I?l'lig/llll lind l'o/ilim/ldl'lllliv III !irillllll\' (I'rIIICeIOn, N J, 19!1:l), pp. 7:1, I :Ifj-()!J, 0.1. AlIl1Clllarle g;lrO't'!' RI'/i;riOIlSZIIo"('lIiirl"'/!l?fl 1I/1r1 .IoZIIIII'.1 l't'litl//II'II (;iillino h' ....... h ..... ' g-cn, 1%,1), pp. :I:)()-D. Hfj. Johallnes SchalllI', /)11.1 ll'lIlIh'I'r/III/II'1I dl'!' rltlll.lelll'lI A'llllio/i/iI'll (Mainz, l!l7fj) Ilirsl pllhlished I!J2KI, pp. 1:17-,11. H(>' Scc Wnncr Blessing-. SloIII IlIIrI /\.;1'1'/11' III dl'/' (;I'.II'//.Ir/I11/1 (Ciilling-en, I !lK2). pp. I D2-fj; SlIn, op. eil., p. 2(j I, ;j()(i. K7 Jonalhan Spniler. 'Roman Calholic Relig-iolls Idenlily 111 RhinelandWeSI phalia, I K()()-7()', SOl'lltilI i.llo)'\', 7 ( I !JH2) pp. :\W)-I H; idell1., /lO/iII/lI), Cl/lholieislII, pp. (i4-7:\' WI-5, D I-H. HH. Schliig-I, op. ell., pp. HO-I ()!), 17!J-!l!l. H!J. Spel'illT, 'Romal1 (:alilolic Relig-iolls Idel1lily': Jiirg-cn llenl's, Sliirlli.ll'hl' (;1'.11'//.11'/111/1 II 1Ir1 /;III/IO/i.lrlll' 111'1'1'1111' 1111 f{/II'I II hll 11/, /8.f()-/1\'70 (Koblenz. ID!Hj). DO. Thomas Merge!' /1I'I.lrhl'lI A'/I/I.l1' IInri /\.oll/i'ISIOI/ ;iill Ingen, I !)!J·I), pp. I (iD-70. DI. Thomas Merge!, 'Die sllhlile MachI del' Liehe: Ccsrhlerhl. Erzlehung lind Friinlillig-kell In kalholiscil('n rheinischcn Biirg-er!illllilien', in 11'111trawl (;iilz von Olenhllsl'n el al. (cds), />i'alll'lI IIIIII'!' rll'lII Piliriarellol dl'/' /\.irclll'lI (Stuttg-arl, I D!Jrl) , pp. 2D-:\O. !l2. Sperher, PO/JII/II), (;III/IIJ/inllll, p. (i··1. D:\. I bid., p. 25G. !H. Nolan, op. cit., p. 17!). !J5. Jonal han Spnhcr, 'I'llI' I\aise),'s 1't111'1:I (Camhridge, I !m7). pp. ,l(i 1-:1. Many historians have sllg-g-csled hig-her eSIImales or thc proportioll or Catholics vOling- Ccntre ill I H7·1, and a sllhstalllial suhseqlll'nl declille. This overlooks the Etcl Ihat a br higher pmporllon or Cal holies than Proteslants votcd in IH7·1, so Ihat the ['xtellt orCatholic sllpporl fill' Ihe Centre canJlot be deduced by Simply cOJllparlllg- Ihe PC1Tl'lIlag-l' or volers choosing Ihl' Celltre with Ihe percl'nlage or Catholics III Ihl' electorale (ibid., p. 170). !)(i. Josef Mooser, 'Das Ralholischl' MiliclI ill dcr biirg-erlichell (;cscllschaf'l: /,!llll Vcrl'inswl'sclI des Kal holizlslllus llll spiill'n Kaisl'rreich', in olar Blaschke and Frank-Michael Kuhll'llIalln (cds), l?1'/igIlJJI /III /\f//SI'ITI'II'II (( ;iilcrsloh, I H%), p. 75. !)7 . .loscf'rviooscr, 'Katholisclll' Volksrciig-ioll, Klcrtls und Biirg-crtulll in del' I.\\'eill'n I liilfiedcs I !J..lahrhllndnts.TIll'scn', In WoifgallgSchieder(l'd.), l?eliglolllllid (;I'.II'//.Il'hll/1 1111 /1J . ./allrlllllldl'J'l (SllIttg-arl, I~J!),I), pp. 1:>1-2; I Ialls-.l ii rg-cll Brand, 'Kirchlicllcs VcrcInswcscnuud Freizeitgest alt !lng-en
!lH. Marg-arel Lavinia J\nderson, 'The Limits or Secularization: On the Prohlem or Ihl' Catholic Revival in Nincteenth-celllury Germany', l/;sl(J/'/ml./o/l/'llo/,:lH (I~J~J3), p. ():>l. !J!J. Christel Kiihle-I kzing-er, I';, 1(1II{!,'idisrll-/(alli o/isdl: lilllerlJll'lIll1lgl'll Z/{ /(oll/i'sSIIJIII'/I1'1II Jlom rleilll lid /(oll/7ikl /11/ 19. II lid 20 . ./(tlllll1l1l1/erl ,'Imldlii/liell (1111 NeISjJll'/ Hliirlll'lII/mp:s (Tiihlllg-cn, 19f(i) pp, 104, 12H, J:Hi, 2(i5-
100. 101. 102.
«
](n.
104.
IO!). l()(i. 107
10K. 10D.
7H, ,179, and /HISSIIII, discusses Ihe minority-consciousness alld Ihl' scnse of Protcstant 'dominance' alllong- Catholics in \Viirltclllherg, which was rik Ihroughout the ninctccnth cenlury, and still to sOll1e extent pcrsisled at the till1e or her research III Ihc carly I !J7()s. Scc, l'.g-., Sperber, RIIIIII'/(I1I1/ Rmlim/s, pp. 7H-~). I1sc Fischer, /lIdIlSll'ia/islI'l'IIlIg, sozia/!'/' KOIl/li/;1 IlIld /1O/iIISdll' IVil/nlshi/dllllg III r/!'I' SI{/{{lgI'Illl'lllrll' (Allg-slmrg, 1977), p. 22fj. Kiihlc-IIczinger, op. cit., pp. J:I/I-,I(i; DaVid Blackbolll'll, M(lIjlillgl'll: ;1/lf!al'lIIOIIS of'tlll' Vilglll MIII:\' ill /){SIII(ll'l'liiall (;1'1'111(111), (Oxfi>r<], I ~)9,1), p. 295; I kim Blankenhcrg-, Polilisl'lt!'/' KOt/lOli:islIIlIl III hOIlIi/ill'l (1111 Maill, ICJ/8-)) (Malllz, 19H1), pp. 1:1-1·1; Mary Lee 'lil\\'nselld, NII'/I/dr/I'/I /,(lIlglt!('/' (Ann Arbor ]"11, I !192), pp. J:l!)-iIH; Ronald .J. Ross, Till' hlillllT of BislIIlI)'r/('s /\.IIIII1),/;(III1N (Washing-ton, DC, 199H), pp. 2!)-(i. 111lg-h McLcod, 'Building- the "Catholic (;hetto": Catholic Org-anisatiOllS I H70-1 ~J1.1', in \-\T. J Sheils and Diana Wood (cds), I/O/II lila),)' H.I'!iglllll, Studies in Chllrch History 2:\ (Oxlcml, 19H(i), pp. ,111-·1'1. Olaf' Blaschke, 'Die KolonialisieJ'llng- der Lail'nwelt: 'I'riestcr als Miliclllllanag-cr Ilnd die Kanak klerikaler Kllratcl', in Blaschke and KlIhIemann (cds), op. cit., p. !)(i; McLcod, Rl'lip;1II1I 01111 IIII' PI'Ojl/r', pp. 51-:1. i"kLeod, "'Calholic (;hetto"', pp. ,12·1-7; Vernon I.. Lidtke, Till' ii/I!'/'IIlltll l l' (;11/111)'1' (New York, 19H5), pp. I 12-1 ,I. Blaschke, 'Priesler als Milil'lllll'lllag-l'r', pp. ~JH-IOL Ihid.; Andcrson, 'L1I111ts of' Seclliarization', pp. (i5(i-(i:\' Anderson's article is partly a critHJlll' of' Woifg:lIlg Schicder and historians influenced by hIlll. Schil'der inlum has cOllnter-allacked, emphaslsing-lile distance bet Wl'l'll priests and people, t he Iighlnl'ss of' episcopal cont rol over the clergy, and Ihe deg-ree to which mosl iniliatives within (;l'rlllan Calholicism calllc 'f'mlll abovc'. See his paper 'Konfcsslonl'lIl' ErllCllerIlng in dell christlichl'n l'arallelkiJ'chen lkulschlands illl 19. ,1ahrhunclert', in Hartllllll Lehmanll (l'd.), Sii/w/OI'IIIl'I'IIII{!,', f)f'('/mslloII ISII'mIIg, Rl'e/msIIIIIIISII'I'IIII,!!: 111/ II I'll z('tI/ieli I'll /~'III'II/)(, (;iittillg-l'll, l!Hl7). pp.22:I-H. E. n, Brosc, '(;Il1'lstian Labor and the Polilics of'Frustration in Impcrial (;crInany' (Ohio State University Ph J) Ihl'sls, I ~)7H), pp. ,15-52. Klaus Michael Mailm
N()TFS
Saarrcl'icr des l~l..Iahrllll\ldtTts', ill Wollg'ang Schieder (cd.), l'o/kl,},I'dl'l' 1I1()(/l'ml'lI .)'02111/p,'l',lI'/lIrhil' « ;iillingcn. I mHi). pp. J(j7-77 Merge!. 'Die sllhtiic i\lacht', pp. ~~-:I; Blessing op. cit.. pp. 1!)~-!i. Malllllanil. oJl. cit.; \V. \'Oll IlippcL '11l. cil .. pp. H)'I-!i. Karl-I kinl'lch Polt!, 'Katholischc SOl.laldclllokratell orin sozialdell1o\zralisclll' Kalholik('1l ill i\li'lnchen: Eill IdelltlUilskonllikt'. ill Blaschkc alld KlIclH'llIallll, op. {·it., p. ~:I!i. Blessillg, op. cit .. p. 2,19, notc :H!l. PohL oJ>. cit., p. ~:\(i. Rog'('I' IVlarlin
I I (). I I l. 112.
11:\.
11(;. 117. I I:). I Hl. I ~().
121,
12~.
I ~:I.
12·1.
Notes to Chapter 6
Identity
I. Tltcoclor FOlltalll', HOIIIIIIII' IIlId (;l'iIirhil' (Mullich, n.d.), pp. H7;\, !H;:), I ()~~. !lI-~, 101. Ronald J Ross, /le/I'II,!!,'II 1'1 '('(I '!ii1t'I'I" 'I'hl' lJifl'lIl1l1ll 0/ Poli/il'll! Cli/liolialllllli li'iflll'llII III I' (;1'1'1111111.1' (Notre Damt', IN, 1~)7(j), p. I 2, EmSI RlIdoU' 111I1)('r. lJm/S!'III' l'i'f/ilsslIlI,I!.'S,!!,'I',I('h/rhil' SI't! 17,W, ,I I'Ols (Stllttgal'l, Iqr)7-ti~)). vol. IV, pp. 71'i-I!). gi\'es details orlhc Pl'lIssian
N()TES
or
law or I :)7;\. For broader discllssIon Ihe extent or and reasons I()r lea\'ing Ihe chllrch. sce Horsl l'~rmd. nil' A'irchl'lIl1lls/nllshl'lt'I',!!,'III1,!!,' 1111 f)1'1I/.Itlffll Ill'irh 11)()()-f./ (dissl'rlation, Cologllc Universily 1~)71); .I oellt'n-Christoph Kaiser, 'SOi~ialdclllok ral Ie lind "prakl ische" Religionskrit ik: Das Beispiel dn Kirchenallsl rit tsl)('\\,cgllng I H7H-I~) 1·1', "Irtlll}' Fir SO:lIIlp:I',lrflll'hil', ~~ (I ~):)~).
:1. 'Ii\,o IIsc['1I1 discllsslons ol'tite ways in which dislinctive I()rms ol'worship and devotioll helped to shape sharply defined rciigiolls idcntities arc Ant hony Siein holL 'Proteslanls in SII'asiJollrg, I :)70-1~) 1,1' (U nivnsllY or Chicago PhD Ihesis. l!l!)(j), pp. ·1(il-7 and /IIISSIIII; Norbert Blisch, 'Friilllllllgkeil als Faktor des katholischell MiliclIs: Ikr Kliit Zlllll Ilnzell-.lcsll', in Olal' Blaschke and Frallk-Michael KlIhlcll1alln (cds), HI'Ii,!!,'1011 1111 I((II.\I'I'I'I'/rh « ;iitnsloh, I !)Dti), pp. I !Hi-ti!i. ,I. Christel Kiihle-I kl.lllger, 1"l'III1,!!,'I'/isrh-I\II/holisl'Ii: lill/I'ISIII'I/lIII/!,'!'1I :11 hOIlji'.ISIIIIII'//1'1II I (!I'III'Ii'if IIl1dl\OIl/lih/ illl It) IIl1d2{} . ./II!lIl/lllldl'l'/l'oI'llI'IIIIIIII111 11111 Ikis/lIl'/ lViirlll'lllhl'lg.l (TCtbingcll, I ~)7ti), pp. !l!l-I 10. !i. (;ibson, Souill lIis/olY 0/ hl'lIth CIi/ho/ir/slII, pp. Iti!i-ti. Ii. See Tholllas Waltl,], l,aqllclIr, I!l'li,!!,'101i Iliid I!l's/lI'r/lihili/y: SlIlIIlm SrllOols IIl1d I+(!lhill,!!,' (;fllsS CIlI/II},I', 178{)-185{} (New Haven, C'I: I !)7(j); IllIgh McLeod, Hl'lig'ioll IllId Socil'i)' III 1';lIp;flllld, 1850-li)f.I (London, I!)!)(j),
pp.
7:)-:)~.
7 ClIllilla-Frednikc BlIdde, 1111/ dl'lll IIIl'g illS liiilgl'l'll'fil'll «;iittillg('II, I !)~)I), pp. :IHO, :1!l7-:). Ii. (iligh McLeod, 'Nc\\' l't'l'scpcti\'cs on Victoriall Workillg- Class Rcligioll: t he Oral E\'id('nc(", 01'111 /Iis/ol'\' ./011 mill, 1··1 (I !)Hti), p .. 1:\, citillg illl('l'\'I(,\\' 110, !) hy ,\Iall Bartlett ill the Bartlell Oral Ilistory Collectioll . ill SOlllllll'ad:. Local II isto!'\' Library. !) . .lames M lInSOll, rhl' NOllrllll/imIlIS/S (Lolldoll, I !)~1I), pp. ~07-:), ~:>O, ~ti:\-7ti,
Itl. 1111gb McLeod, 'Whilc-Collar Vallles alld the Role or ReliglOll', ill (;('ofIi'l'Y Crossick (ed.), Till' /'1171 If' I' Illidilll' (,'fIiSS III UI'I/IIIII. 187{}-1911 (LOlldOIl, I !177), p. 7:>. Cilillg- illt(T\'lell' no, ~:)(), p. :)0, III Patd ThompSOil alld Tilea Vigllc, 'Inl<'I'Vll'\I'S 011 Family Lik alld Work Experiellce helcm' I D I:)'. lJ Illversil), or Essex ()ral History Archive. II. M;trloll Kaplan, TIll' t\Il1frlllP: o(llll'./I'll'ish t\Jiddl' Clllss: IVOIlIn!, Joillllil\' 111111 liIl'li/I/V III 1111/)('1'1111 (;1' 1'111111 l\' (New York, I !)!) I) pp. tiD-7D. I~. 'Ic)dd IVI. Elldclman. Hoilil'lll IIS.\IIlIifll/1011 ill 1';lIglish/l'll'/sli lIis/III'\', I(,)()lin) (Bloolllington, I N, I D!)O), pp. 207-:). 1:1. Michael R. Marrtls. rill' Hililirs 1I/,/s.llIlIiflllioll: .. I ,','/lId." IIfth!' hellr"./!'i!'!.lh {;Olllllllllli/\, 11//111' ,/,illll' ofthl' /)l'l'y/ils 'Illilir (Oxl(ml, I !)71). PJ>. ,II-!i. 1!1. Peler Iliiltlgmallll, /)11' :111.1/1'1111' 1111.1 dl'l'./iiilisrhl'lI (;l'1l1l'illlll' /lrr/ill, 187,19,[ I (Franklilrt am Maill, I!):):)). p. IO!l. l!i. 1\lInemarie B mgcr. Rrfig/olls::II,1.!,'I'hiil'lj!,lll'l/ 11111/ sO:lIIlrs I (,r/II/I/I'II « ;iit t illgell, 1%,1), p. :1'1:1.
NOTES
NOTF,~
I G. Elldcllllan, Hllllimi /I SSlIliilil/iril/ , pp. HG-!)2, !lH-11 :\. 17. Monika Richarz,jiiriisc/i('s IA'hcll III J)r'lI/srh{(lIId, :\ vols (Stllttgart. I 97!!), vol. II, p. :10. Similarly, Andrea Ilopp, 'VOII del' "heiligell Gemcindc" ZlIr ViclEtlt del' ct hllisch-rcligiiiscn Mindcrheit: Diejiidische Gemeinde ill Frallklin·t alll Main', in Blaschke and Kllhlcmanll (cds), op. cil., pp. ·100-1, cites exalllpies rrOIll the later nil1t,tcenth alld early twentIeth cClltllries or nOIl-ohservallt Jewish bllsillesslllcn in Frankrurt who rcjected haptislll as 'dishonollrable' and 'deserting the flag', I H, Alrred Wahl, '( ;onl'cssioll l'I conl)(lrtclllcnt dans les campagnes d'AIsan: et dc Bade', 2 vols (t J niY('J'sit y or l\ktz doctoralt hesis, I !lHO) vol. II, p. 7H·J. ID. Mcl.eod, 'New Perspcctivcs', p. ·I:\; Elizabeth Rohcrts, A IJ!O/llflll\ Plllc(': ,III ()ml lIis/Oll' or Ililllllllg CIlIss WO/l/r'lI, 18CJO-ICJ.f() (Oxl(ll'{l, I !lH·I), pp. 7:1-1. 20, Kiildc-Ilc/.illgcr, op, cit .. p, 1:).1, 21 Mcl.cod, 'Ncw Perspectives', p. 42; Wahl, 'Conlession', I, pp, :IH5-7, (ill-;>. 22. \VaIlL '( ;ollfcssiol1', I. pp. () 1H-21: Raphael Sal11uel, "rile ROlnan Catholic Chlll'ch and the Irish Poor', in Roger Swifi and Sheridan (;illey (cds), '!'l,C Il'Is/i /1/ /lic l'ic/ol'i(1/1 Cil\' (l.ondon, H)H;» pp. 21\:1-'1. 2:1. Mcl.cod, 'New Perspcctivcs', pp, :IH, ·12; Hugh Mcl.eod, Pic/v IIl1d I'Ol'l'll\' (New York, I !H)(i) pp. 14:1-·1. 2·1. Wahl, 'COil f('ssion', vol. I, pp. 5, 1(i-7, 25. Uric! 'I;d, r:llrIs//(lIIs (/I/11/l'lfl,1 11/ (;1'1'1111111)': H.tfip:lIIl1, i'olilir.\' (l1/(/ldcolo,!!,), III //i(' Sl'rollri Ul'il'/i, 187()--11JJ.! (English translalloll, Ithaca, NY, 1\)70), pp.2·12-:I. ~2() . .J onat hall Spnhcr, T/il' 1\(lIsl'),'" I'(l/I'I'S (Cambridge, I !JD7), p. 21 :\. 27 E.-D. Broch, 1\1I/!wli,It!/I' .. 1r/JI'i/I!I'lI('I'I'illl' ill til'/' S/ilr// J(iilll, /i)l}()-II)OI (1Iamhurg, ]!)77), pp. !lH-I ()2. 2H. Illlgh l\'Jcl~l'()d. "'Bllilding Ihe <:ath()Iic (;heuo"'j in SIICils and \Voo(l (eds), I (!lilli/fir\' l?tIip:foll, Studies in Chlll'ch Ilistory 2:1 (Oxl()J'(I, I !)H()), pp. '12,1-(j. 2D. Shllla1l1it Volkov, 'Antisemitism as a cultllral code: RdkclIons on the history and historiography oLlI1tisemitislll in Imperial (;ermany', l'1'I/1'boo/{ of//il' 1,1'0 /iol'l'li 111.1/1111/1', 2,\ (1!)7H) pp, 2ii-,1(i. :10. (;Ont('r Brakclmalln, Martin (;reschat and Wt']'I1t']' .lochmann, Pm/I's/r1ll/ISII//(S /(lIti Poli/il!, Hi,r/! Ill1ri Wir/wllg' fldoll ,";/ol'rlit/:, (Ilambllrg, I !lH2), pp. '11-5, !)()-I. !)(i-I 0,1, shows that f(l!' Stoccker the greatest enem), was liberalislll, and tilat his anti-Semitic agitation mitlall), stenllned li'Olll his helier that the libcral press was run hy Jews. For t'he IISC or.lews and .Jlldaism in inter-Protcstant polcnl1c see the reports in the conservative 1\l'l'/(zZI'Ii/(lIg, on the Berlin chllrch el('ctions III IH!H and IHDii, and in the liheral e/il'OlIili r/I'/' e/ms/lirhl'lI WI'// on the elections in 1!)12. At a Illeetlng in the 1kilig-Krelll. parish (J(I'I'IIZZI'Ii/(lIg, 2() Septemher I H!H) a
,I I. :\2.
:1:1.
;)'1.
:1;>.
:\(i.
:17 :IH.
:m 40. 'II, ·12. -1:1. ,1·1. ·15. 4(j.
47, ·IH.
cOllservative speaker was accllsed by the libcrals or heing an antiSemitc, and the paper reported (1:1 October I Wl4) that cOllservatives were using the election slogan "'lie will not vote ftlr any ,lcws', In I!)] 2 leaflets distribllted in Immallllel parish were said to rekr to liberals as :Jewish Protestants' (C/imllih r/I'I' Chris/lir/iI'1I IVI'I/, :1 April l!ll :1). R6isin lIealy, 'Religion and Civil Society: Catholics, Jesllits and Prot('Stants in Imperial (;ermany', in Frank 'Ih:ntlllann (cd.), Pflmdo.\'I's Ci·"i/ Soril'/.\': NI'l!' 1'l'l'SjJI'I'/l'IIl's Oil Mor/I'I'II IJri/llill fllld (;1'1'/11(1/1\' (Oxl()nl. 19!1!l), . Scc the article on 'Konrcssion' in E, Ilofflllan-Krayer (cd.), HfllldIl'iil'/l'riJllrh til'S de/(/sr/il'" ;lbl'lp;/ll/(hl'IIS, D vols (Berlin, I !l27-:IH). Kiihlc-llezingcr, op. cil., pp. !l!)-10;1; Helmllt 'Walser Smit h, (;"1'111(111 NfI/wlI(dis/I/ (lIId /?I'lip:/O/(s COIl/lir/: C"//,, 1'(', Id('olop,y. Poli/ir", 1870-ICJI.f (Princeton, N.J, I !l!)5), pp. 22-,17; (;;mgolr lliihinger, 'Klllturprotestantismlls, Biirgerkirche llne! liberater Rcvisionis1l1lls im willwllllinischen Dcutschland' in Wollgang Schiedcr (cd.), IMipJolI IIllrl (;l'sl'l/srhfl/i /III II), .!{//ir/lll11da/ (Stullgarl, I !l\),I), pp. 2HO-L Tholllas Nipperdey, IMip;ioll IIJI {//l/iJl'llc/i (I'vlunich I !m7), pp. 15:1, 105. There is an extcnsivc literature on English anti-Catholicism in the nineteenth centllry. Sec especially .John Vlol!k, '!'III' I'ro/i's/tlll/ Cl'IIs(lIll' III (;1'1'11/ UI'I/{/ill, 1821J-18{J() (Oxf()J'(1, 1!J9I); D. G, Paz, i'1I/JIIII/I' :III/iC(I/llo/i(ls/l/ ill Mid-I"ir/ol'/tlll 1~'IIP:ll/llri (Stanf(ll'{l, CA 1992). Sec 1I ugh McLeod, 'Protestant iSIll and Brit ish Nat ional Identity, I Htr'lI !l-10', in Peter van der Vcer and IlartnllIl Lehmann (cds), N(I/ioll (11111 1l1'1i,!!,'llJII: 1'1'1'S/Jt'C/I1II'S Oil /~'II/'1)I)(' (I11r1 :Isi(l (Princeton, NJ, I !JD!l), pp. 4·1-7(), Sperber. I\II/SI'I'\ 1'1)/1'1:" p. 2H I, Ihid .. pp. 24!l-(). Ihid., pp. 5H-!1. E. Aver <'t aI., 'Pratique religieuse et comportclllent electorale', ,,11'r/1I1 11'S ril'S Sm'III'1'S SO(l(l/I'S dl' /(1 Rl'iip:WII, 2!1 (I !l7()), pp. 27-:)2. .lean-LOllis Ormi{~I'Cs, 'Les l'OlIges et les blancs', in Pierre Nora (cd.), 1,,'.1 1i1'1!.' dl' IIIhIlOIl'l', :\ vols (2nd cdn, Paris, I !)!l7), vol. ! l, pp. 2·120-:1. Ibid., p. 2·11 H. Claude Langlois, 'La dl~chi1'llI'c', in Timothy '1]IckCII (cd.), 1,(1 Ilh'olll/11)//, 1;1~!!:liSi', 1(1 J-i"(lIlrl': 1,(' SI'/'IIII'II/ rll' 171)1 (Paris, I DH(i), pp. :1 I !J-:17 Michel Lag1'cc. RI'/ip:wlI 1'/ rlil/ul'I's - BI'I'/(Ig'III', 1850-11)50 (Paris, 1!l!12), pp. (i5-H5. Clallde Langlois, 'Catiloliqucs et la'ics', in Nora (cd.), op. cil., II, pp. 2:127-!1. Jacqlles and Mona Owuf'. 1~(1 Rl/JII/JIi'1 II I' dl's iIlS/IlII/l'ul'S (Paris, I !)!12), p. 2()5 . (':milc Zola, P(ll'is (English translation, Stl'Oucl, I !J!):I) , p. '15:1. For the Clllt of' the Sacred Heart gcnerally, sec Busch, op. cil.; fill' the cOlltroversies SlllTolllHiing the construction orthc hasilica In Montlllar-
or
NOTES
'I!l. !iO,
!i I,
!i:!.
!i:L !i'1.
trc. sec lilt' ()\'('ITicll' In' Fran~'ois Loyer, 'Le Sacrt:-Cn'lIr de MOlltmartrc', in Nora (cd,), op, CIt" \'o!' III pp, ·1:!:I:\-(iD. alld the f'1I11-scale disclIsslon hy Jacqll('s Bcnois\, 1.1' ,'illl'li-C(['lIr dl' MOil 111111 I'll"!' (Pans, I!m:!), I' J Waller, /)1'I110ITIII), IlIld Sl'rllirilllllsllI: "I I'olilmtf IIlId Sonlll !lislllf\' III I)-ul'l/JI)ol, 181>c','-)lJ)i) (LI\'crpool, I!)H I), lintil I H/:! opcn votlllg lIleallt that it lI'as possible to kllow how individuals \'otcd, Johll Villccnt, I'ollhoohs: IllIiI' ! 'iclortllllS I (111'd (Callllmdge, I !}(i7), shows the v('l'Y st rong tendenc), of' Anglican d('l'gy and chllrch ('mplo\'e('s to vote (:oIlS('l'Vatl\,(" and IiII' NonCOlllilrl1l1st Illinisters and ROIIl<1Il (:at Iwlic priests to vote Whig, Radical or Liberal. K. Il, \\'ald, (:rossl'S Oil IIII' Iht/lol (l'rinu'tOlI. NJ, I DH:I), TillS IS not nccessarily illcoillpatible with vicws sllch as that of' Peter F. (:Iarkc. 'FI('ctm,1i Sociology of' i\iodcnJ Britam', !lisllln" !i7 (I !)/:!), pp, ,I!)-:,:L who datcs t Iw transit ion li'OIn a rcligiolls-hased to a cIass-bas(,d pattnn of' votlllg li'olll I!) I 0, sillcc Wald's ligllrcs relate to the wilol(' of' Bntaill. while Clarke liH'lIsCS on London and LallcasllllT, which hc s('('s as pion('t'l'llIg trends that IITIT not yet f'1I11)' ('stablisllt'd c1sewh('l'c. E.g. ill Northaillptoll, a town wh(')'c hoth Nonconli)}'Jnit)' and SC('lilarISIII IITrc strong, Liberals W(')'c bittcrly dil'lded hI' thc pariialllcntary candidan' of' thc Secularist leader, Charles Bradlallgh, who was ddt',lted ill I H7·1, but elccted in I HHO and sllhse<]lIcnily, C\,ntilla ("rown, No 1'11111111/110 II 18'3)-llJ85: SIlO!' 'fim'lI, NI'lI' 'lim'" «:Iucllt'ster, I !)!)O), pp. (i'I-(i. Philip Nord, Till' R!'/m/Jlimll MII/lII'III: Slm,l!.p:fI's jin' /)1'111 OC I'll n' III Nilll'1I'I'lIlh-cl'lIllIl)' 1-'1'1111((' (CalllIJridge, MA, 1!)!Fl), Jlp. IOD-lO. Patnck Joycc, /Vork, SO(f!'I." 111/11 I'olillrs (Brighton, I!)HO), chs (i-7; McLcod, 'NclI' Perspcctives', pp. :,H-40; Hem), I'elling, Somt/ (;('ogl'(I/,h)' III' linllsl, Ul'rliolts, 1885-/lJllI (l.olldon, l!)(i7) glvcs IIIIIIJ(TOUS examples ol'tllC cxercise of' 'ill 111 ICII(,(", Sec, C.g" IllS COllllllcnts on thc Illlpact Oil til(' soutiI i\lidLtllds or the SWitch I'rom LiiJeralislll to UnlonlSlll of' lI1any landlords (p. I:!:!),
G[). \Vald. op. cit .. p. 1n7
>
['i(i. Alan ]), (;ill)('rt, 'The Land and the Church', In (;. E, Mingay (cd.), nil' Virlol'f(lII LOlllllnsldl', :! \'Ols (London, I!)H I), vol. I, pp, ,1()-!iO, !i7, Mcl.cod, Hefig/()It I/lid Soc;l'ly, pp. ~).I-I 00. See also the diSCUSSion in Wald, op. cil., clL 7, !iH. 'bl. op. cit" pp, :!ri!)-/D. ['i!). See Linda Colle)" UrilIlIlS: Ni/:e:IJI,!!; Ihl' NIIIIOII, 1707-IS)? (:!nd cdn, l.ondon, 1~)!)'I), no, Bill Williams, Thl' Mlililll,!!; or i\Il11lclll'sII'I'JI'lI'I')', /7-/()-1875 (Mallchester, I !)/(i), p, ~!iD. The lilllowing scction is hased on i\kl.eod, 'ProtcstantiSIll alld British National Idcntity',
NOTES
(i I, S/)('(III 10 1', I, H, ~:! ()etober I HDH. ():!. See J 1\, Mangan, lli!tfl?/II'/Slll Illtd Ihl' l'iclol'f(lIl IIIld /,'t/wllrt/illli I'lIli1ic Srhool: Thl' /,'lJ)l'Igl'Il(I' IIl11l COlIsolidl/llll1t or 1111 I';dll('IJIIOI/{{1 Idl'olo,!!,), « :alllImdgc I DH I), alld idCIll" nil' (;11111(',1 1';lhir IlIld 11II/)(?I'IIt/islII (1Iarlllondsworth, 19H(i), which discllss such lig\ll'es as II. II. AllIlond, headillaster of' Loretto, a muscular Christian. sports enthusiast, and ardent IInpel'lalisl. (i:\. v. L Chanccllm, /lislonji,r 1111'11' Masit'!'s (Bath, I D70), p. II:!. (i,1. Susan Thomc, 'Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of' Imperialislu: British Congrcgat lonalist sand t he London Missionary Socict y, I 7!)!'1-1 !):!!i' (UnIversity or Michigan PhD tllt'S'is, I D!)O), pp. :!~)]-:). (i!i, John M. MacKcnzie, 'Ilcroic Myths of' ElIlplrc', In idclIl, (cd,).Po/JIIllir I III/WI'III fis III II lid Ihl' Mifiitll)', 185!J-/()5() (Manchcstcr, I!)~):!), Jlp. IO!J-:IH: on Ilaw'lock and (;o)'(lon as (:hristlan national hcroes, see also KellIlcth E. Hcndricksoll, Mlllllltg SllIlIls: Rl'figllllt (Illd Ihl' I'lIhfir "illigI' or 1111' Ul'Illsh 111'111.1', 18()!)-1885 (Cranbury, NJ I ~)9H), chs H-](J. ' (i(l. McLeod, 'Protcstantislll and natIonal identity', Scc also discussions or the dcclinc of' anti-Catholicism In Wolf'l(-, op: ClI.; Paz, op. cil.; Waltcr L Amstclll, I'mil'sllllil l'i'rslls Clliholic III Ilild-1 'iriorillli I~II,!!;llIlId (Columbia, MO, I DH:!); Christophcr Ford, 'Pastors and Polcillicists: the Character of' Popular Anglicanism III South-cast l,allcasiIirc, I H'17-1 D14' (lilliversity ol'Lccds PhD thesis, I!)!)I), (i7, Douglas A. LOrliller, 'Racc, Sciellce and Cltlture: Historical (:olltinuitics and Discontinuities, IH!i()-I~)]'I', in Shearer West (cd.), l'iclor;IIIIS IlIId Nllf'(' (,\Idcrshot, I !)!)(i). Jlp. I :!-:I'\. (iH. S/)('rllllor, :!D ()etoiler I H!)H. (i!l. Christine Bolt, !'ielol'lllli Ilillllldl'S 10 NIII'I' (I ,ondon, I D71), pp. 7-!), :!(i-H: DaVid Fcldlll,lIl, i';lIgfisllIlIl'll IlIIdJl'll's: SO('f(d Nl'llIliolls IIltd Polill('IJl LIIIIII/'{', I,'I.IIJ-I!)f.! (New lIavcn, (;,1: 1!)!14), pp, H:!-II!i. 70. Bolt, op, cit., pp. I 1:\-7 71, Karen Fields, '( :hristian MiSSionaries as l\lItl-colollial Militants', '!'f,l'{)!'\' 11I1t! SO('fl'l\" :! (19H:!). lip. !);i-I OH: Thorlle, oJ!. cit" pp, 17,/-H'1. 7:!. Nipperdcy, Rl'ligl{)1I 1111 Ulllhl'l/cl" pp, I :IH-!l; Peter Walkellhorst, 'NatlonalislllllS als "politische Religioll"?' III Blaschkc alld Kllhlcl1lalln (cds), op. cit., pp. !i()!l-I:1. 7:1. Walkcllhorst, 'NationalislllllS als "politisclH' Religion"?', pp, !i H-I (i. 7,1. Ihid., pp. !i:! 1-4: Wollgang Altgcld, l\'lIllll1liz/SIIIIIS, l'mll'sitIlIIISIIIIIS,JIIIII,It11/111 (MaillZ, I!)!):!), pp. 1-,1. /:1. Spcr!J(T, 11.11;,11'1",\ Voll'J's, p, DD. 7(i. SlIltlh, (;1'1'111(111 NIIIIlI/llt1;slIl, pp, !i()-!); llartlllllt Lehlllanll, '''(;od, 0111' old ally"', III Willialll R, I (IItchisOIl and Hartlllltl Lehillalln (cds), MIlIll' If}'(' Cliosl'lI (Minneapolis, I!)!).!) p. !)()-I, !J.I, 107; Sperl WI', l'o/JIIlar (;111/lOlir;slll, pp, :!:!;,-7: W('I'I)(,), Blessing, SllIallllld Kirrlil' III dl'r (;l'sl'llsclill/i « ;iit t IngClI, I !)H:!) p. I ~)O.
NOTFS
NOTES
77, Smith, (;1'1'1111/11 Naliolllllislll, pp. 2:1-(i. 7H, [Ielmllt Walser Snllth. 'Catholics. the Nation and Nationalism In Nincteellt h-c(,lItllr)' (;crmally', paper read al cOIlf'crencc 'Religion and Nat lOllalism'. lInlv('\'sit)' of' Amsterdalll, I !lD!'i; idem., (;ITIIIIIII Nlllwlllt/iSI/I. pp. 2Ii-:\7, 7!1. For JCWlsh conccplions of' modcrll German history, scc David Sorkill, 'Thc Impact of' EnlallCipalioll on German jewry', in jonathan Frallkel and Ste\'Cn .J. Zippcrslein (cds), :Issilllilalioll IlIld COl/lll1l1ll1i1': Tltl' ./nfls /II Nilll'll'I'IIIIt-(('IlIIln' /<;II ro/II' (Cambridge, I !l!J2), pp. I HG-9; Ie)!' Schilll'l'. sec Peter Freimark, 'KnggcI nnd I.ocksehen in Hambnrg. Ein Beilrag I.IIr jiidischcn Schiller-Rezcplion im I D. jailrhllnder(', ill Peter Freimark, Inas Lorellz and (;iinter Marwedcl (eds),./IIt1l'lIlol'l', l(iip,p:l'l. SIt'IIN/WIIII'II: UlIll'/'s/{{'ltllllgl'll :111' (;I'srfl/I'ltll' til'/' tll'lIlsl'ltl'll ./lIdl'lI til/ 111I1IIh11lP:1'I' NI/IIIII (Halllhnrg, I !)H:I), pp. I (i!)-220; lelr Illore general discllssioll of' (;(,l'Il1an jcwish idcnlity, Michael A. Meyer (cd.). (;1'/'1II1111~/l'lflislt Hislon' /II Modl'/'II Tillll's (New York,
"'Oml'll/lt/il'lt
ImJ7). HO. H I. H2. H:I. H·1.
H!l.
Hli.
H7. HH. H!l . !lO.
DI.
Snlllh, 'Calholics, the Nalion, and Nalionalism', p. 27. Walkenhorst, op. cil., pp. fi I (i-20; Altgcld. op. cil., pp. 9-24. Michel Winock, :leallile d'Arc', ill NI)],;I (cd.), op. cil., vol. III, p. ;J·I·!!)' 11m\., pp. '1·I:i(i-7, (;erd KI'IIIIICich, :Jeallne . cil., p. ·I~J:\.
Notes to Chapter 7
Religion and Popular Culture
Thomas lIardy, '/i~ss Of'i/II' tI'[1l'hl'l11iffl's (London, J H9I), ch. H. 2. Ellgen Balllllann, /)a I!l'rfilll'l' 11rJlf!sl'ltllmf'iI'1' III til'!' Sel'lsolp:!? (Berlin, 1HHO), p. () I. See also Hllgh McLeod, /'i1'1I' IIl1d 1'1I1 11'l'h' (New York, I !l!)()) pp. 179-H2, and Ihe collllllenis hy Lincolnshire villagers In I H·I!l qlloted by Frances Knighl, Tltl' Nilll'iI'I'IIIIt-CI'IIII1n' Cltlll'l'lt (flld le'lIglisll So{'/('Iy (C'lInbridg'l'. I !)~)!l), p. :12. :1. GtTard Cholv), and Yves-Marie Hilaire, lIisloil'!' l'idig'll'IISI' til' III hlllll'l' 1'00111'1II/II!I'IIIIIS, vol. It: 188()-1<)3I) (,1(HdoIISe, I!lHG). p. 20(i. .1. McLeod, Pil'ly IIlIti 1'0111'1'1)" p. I HO. r> . .Il1dilh \)evlin, Tltl' ')1I/ll'nIIIIIlIlS Milltl: l'I'I'Ildll'l'I/sllIIls (flltl Iltl' SII/JI'I'I/IlI/{1'II1 1111111' Nill!'11'1'1I11t (,'1'1I1/{n' (New Havcn, (;,1: ]!JH7). pp. li·I-(i. (i. (;I'Sr/lIl'ftlt' til'/' SI PIlIIIs-(;I'llIl'illtl!' ZIl 1!!'l'fill N (Berlin, I D:lli). p. fi(); rvlcLcod, l'il'l\' Illltl 1'1Il1('1'/\" pp. 17!)-H2. For discussion of' IIlcallings given 10 hapiisill by working-class Londollers in Ihe early Iwenlielh cellillry, sec j\lan Bcnnctt Bartlet t, 'The Churches in Bcrillondscy, IHHO-I!J:\!), (University of' Birillingham Ph\) thesis. I!)H7), pp. IH2-H; Sarah C. Williallls, Rl'fip;IOIIS I!l'fillllllti ['II/JIIIIlI' C/{II II I'!' III SOlllltll l ol'k I' 188()-19']9 (Oxl()l'(l, I !l!19) , pp. H7-H, !J:\-'f, 10,\-·1. 7, LOllis l't']'ollas, Rl'fils tI 'II III' I'l'fip,'iOIl, I'l'fip:1II11 d'llIl fl'/ilS I'll 1,II/IIII1Sill 1'111'111. 188(}-N/{} (Paris, I !lH!l), p. 12H. H. .lacqueline Lalollclte, LII lilm' /JI'IIS/I' I'll 1'1'11111'1'. IgI8-I I)./() (Paris, I!)!17), pp. ;)·l(i-7 9. Ibid., p. %. 10 . .lean Fallry, (,'!I;/'IC11fi.\//II' 1'1' 1IIIIil'l//'ICilfisl//I' dlllls II' '/ill'll (,Elulollse, 19HO). pp. 1-17-H. II. Knight, op. cil .. p. !II 12. McLcod, l'il'ly IlIlti l'o'{lI'/'{\" p. 24:\, lIole :\H. I,\. Sarah Williams, Hl'fip;iOIiS lil'lie/" p. ~) I. 1'1. (.:Illiil' Zola. TIll' 1';lIrllt (English t ranslal ion. Ilal'lnonr
NOTES
NOTES
:21, Ihid" PI)' 70-in. :2:2. Sc(' I Iclena Waddy i.cpovitz, 'The Industrializatioll or Popular Art in Bavaria'. 1'1/11 & 1'11'.11'111, !JD (I !JH,I), p. IO!J, li)r a photograph or a Nl'np,'o/l.lloillftl'l, with its crucilix and paintings or the Illadonna and child. a lypicalll'alulT or nlll('I('('nlh-ccnlury Bavarian peasanl homes. :2:L [':ugen Weiler, l'I'I/.If11I/.1 11110 hl'lldlllll'lI (London, 1977), pp, ·J!lli-7, :2.1. I lilaire, {jill' rhdlll'III/1. vol. I l. p, li'I:I. :2!l. y\'(~s LamiJnl. nil'll dlllllP,'1' I'll nrl'llIp:"I': 1.11 rl'fip;!11I1 II Ij'IlI'rzl'l dl' I!)(}(} II lIo.ljolin (Paris, I !)H!l), p. :Hi. :2(i. Ililam', I fill' clil'l;lu'IIII;1 vol. l, pp. HO-I, :27. (;{'I'ard Chok)" 'Expressions el cI'olullon du senlilllcni religieux populain' dans la France dll XIX" sit'de au lelllps de la reslanralion C<1I1toliqlll' (IHOI-IH(iO)', ill I,ll IJ/{;/i; Imllllfill/'{' dl' lof() rI III1.1jOIIl'S (Pans, I !)71;), pp. :2!):I-:lO:l: Titolllas Ksellllal1, Mimr/I'.1 IIlId 1'1'1111111'1'11'.\ III Nilll'11'1'1I11i-(,'I'IIII1n' hlllll'l' (Ncw Brullswick, N.J, 19H:I), pp, :2!l-!l!J. 2:1. Lanlhcrt. oj>. cil., pp. iJq_;')(). :2!J. ()Iwlkl'l'icit, I1l'fip,'1Ii1l IIlId HilmI Sori!'I)" pp. :2 ():)-7I , :lO. Mel ,cod, l'll'il' 111111 I'iJ'ill'rly, pp. IH7-H: Idelll., I1l'lip;1Ii1l IIl1d SOCll'ly, pp. 100-:). :1 I Ihid., pp. I ()(i-D: Er!llard Ikrcnson, PolJIIlisl lft>fip;1I1/I 1/1111 I,I'/i-Willp: Polillcs III hlllll'l', fSW-18'i2 (Princclc))l, NJ, I!lH4), p. 70; I~ Wllrsler, !Jos IUI'IMil'lil' IAII'II dl'l' 1'·(IIIII,I.!,'i'li.lclil'll IJllldl'slurrhl' III JIIiir/lel/t!II'lg Cllihingen, I!) I!»), pp. :2:2li-H. Wllrsler SllggcSIS, itowev('r, lital I he Bible was olicn mainly Ii))' sitow, and lital prayn-hooks wcre llIore widely read. I 1),lnn-hooks also played a hig pari ill (;nll1an Prolcsianlislll, in litc hOllle as wdl as in Ihe church, and wcre a lIIajor li)etls or conilici IWIII'C'l'lI supporlns or nval churcit partics. Sec Anliton), Sieinhol'r. 'Prolcslallis in Sirasl)()urg, IH70-1!) 1·1' (lJniv('\'sil), or Clncago Ph () Ihcsis, I!J%), pp. !l·II-!l!l. :1:2. Chol\'\' alld lIilaire, /li.lloll'l' I'l'fi.l!,'II'II.1I', 18()()-18S(), pp. I/I'I-(i: Tholllas W:til('l' Laqlll'ur, fll'figlllil (llId HI'SIH'I'II/hilil\': SlIlIdln' Srhools (11111 [Hi/lullg (;[l/ls(;lIlllIl'l', I7SiJ-185() (Nell' 1I:IVl'll, (;,1; Imli),pp. I Hi, IIH-D, IliO-1. :1:1. F. Linden, Sowdi.llllliS 111/(1 IMig1i1/l (i.eipzig. I !):I:2), p. /(;:1. :1·1. Lholv)" 'Exprcssions l'l (ovoituion', pp. :11!l-I(i. .):). Wllrslcr, op. cil., pp. :2SH-(i I. :If). Joscph LII\'son, 1,1'111'/'1 III 1111' liJllllg 011 l'mgl'l'.Is III Plldll',l' dllmlp; Iltl' 1(1.11 Sixly li'l//'S (Slanllillgic)" IHH7), pp. ,1:1-·1. :17. IIl1gh Mcl.eod, 'Ncw PcrspcCIII,(,S on Viclorian Workillg CIass Religion', ()mllli.llnl'vJoli/'llIJ!, 1·1 (IDH(i), p. ,IS, qllolillg- BartlclI, IlIlen'lcw no !), p. IH7, :IH. Rol )('1'1 'I h'sscll. 'J'III' Nllggl'd '/)'ollsl'I'l'd Pltilll 1I1111'11111S/1 (London, 19S:)), p. -El:I. 'ID. Jalllcs OiJelkcvich, TIl(' Religion or Mllsic', In Obelkevich, Roper and Salllll('l (cds), [)1.\('/lililll'S IIr /
,10 . .Iall\('S Walvill, 1,l'lslI/'1' IlIId Snril'ly, 187{)--llJ5() (Londoll, I !J7H), pp. !lH, I()~. ·11, OIll'lkevlCh, I?l'lip;iOIi IIl1d RIII'III .'lotiI'll', pp. ~7G-7. For Ihe role oj' 'sup('\'stilion' in carly I'rilllilll,(, l\lclhodislll, sec Michael R. Walls, 'J'III' nISII'II/I'I'S vol. :2: 'J'III' 1';XjJIIIISIOII or 1';"(llIgl'fil'lll !YOIICIlII/il/'ll/ily (Oxl/ml, ID!F»), pp. IO(i-7, -1:2. LawsolI, op. cil., p. !lO. .1:1. Ihid., p. :).1. ,ILl. OiJelkevich, Neliglil/l 11/ Rllml SlItid)" pp. :1 I 0-1:2, ,1:1 L ·I!l. Weh('\', op. cil., p. ·170. ·Hi. 11)1(1., pp. :1!l·I-li. -17, For which, sce, e.g., (;ihsOIl, op. cil., p. 171 ·IH. Sce, e.g .. I\l iehel Lagn':'e, 'Ex i!{'s dalls leur pal ric'. in Fral1(:ois Lebrl1l1 (cd.). Hilloirl' dl's 1'llIIIIIlil(II1's I'll hlllll'l' (,1(Hdollse, I !lHO), pp. :IH:I-97 ·ID. Cholvy, 'Exprcssiolls el l:vollllion,' pp. :2!HJ-:lO:L !lO. LOUIS P{onHlas, 1,l's 1.lIIIOIISIIIS, Il'lIrs .III/Ills, 1I'II1's IIIHrl's, dll XI "'1111 XX" sihll' (Pans, I 9HH), p. I !)~. !l L 1I)1(\., pp. I !J7-:20!l; (;{'I'anl Cholv)" IMigill1l 1'1 SOI'll;/i; (III XIX" sihll': 1.1' dio('(~sl' dl' MIIIIIIII'f/il'l', II (Lille, I !J7:\j, pp. ] :i:IH-·/(J. !l:2. lIilairc, iiIII' cit dl il' II It; 1 , II, pp. 7D!l-HO]: Cholv), and lIilairc, /lisllllrl' mligll'lIsl', 188()-I!)'](), p. IHO. !l:L Fran(,'OIs-Andrt' Isalllherl, e/msllllIIlSIIII' 1'1 I'll/Soil' IIl1'ul'ihl' C1(llll'llai, I !Hi I), p. 7·1. !l.1. ;\vn('l' Bcn-J\llIoS, 'Les I'lIl1t'l'aillcs de Viuor Ilugo', in Pierrc Nora (cd.), lA'S I,/I'IIX dl' 1111;1111111'1', :1 vols (:2l1d edn, Paris, 19D7), vol. I, pp. ·1 :2!l-(i.1. !'i:). P{'rollas, RI'/ils d'llIll' rl'liglllll, pp. I (i!)-HS. !lli. Edllard BCl'IIslcin, IJtI' (;{'stllltltll' dl'/' Iltrlilll'l' :lr/Jl'tll'I'-IiI''{(II',I.!,·III1,I!,·, :\ vols (Berlin, I !)()7-1 0), \'01. I, p. :1!l:I. !l7, Jalllcs R. Moore, 'Frcctllollghl. ScclllarisllI, [)arwlllislll: The Case oj' (:harles Darwin', 111 (;erald Parsolls, .Ialllcs R. Moore and .Iohn WOIrll' (ecls), Hl'liglil/l 11/ ! 'itillrillli finlrl/II, !l vols (Manclll'SllT, I DHH-!Hi), vol. I, p. :11:1. !lH. Lalollcllc, op. eil., p. :HO . !l!J. Pcrouas, RI'/ils d'II/II' I'l'ligllJlI, lo!'. cil. liO. l.alollellc, op. cil., pp. :In-,1. (i I. Pcrouas, /le/ifs d'llIlI' rl'ligioll, pp. I
N()Ti':.~
(iEi. O\l'ell Chadwick, Thl' "iellimnl (;hlll'eh, J I (London, I !)70), pp. 221-2: hlels IIl1d Fip;lIl'l's IIhOllllhl' (;hllreh iiI' 1~'lIp;lllllll, :1 (I.olldon, I !)(i!l), p. !l.1. (i(i. Bartlett, op. cit., pp. I H:\-H. li'lIfS, U?85-/ 1J/2 (Cambridge, ID!ll), pp. :\HO-!' On the day \l'hen Lall'rence first lIIet his ruture \l'il(' Frieda, he spcnt the cvcnlllg slllging hymns 'with gusto' with his f()rIlll'r lovC\', ./essie Chamhers, and her ilrot hers alld sist cr. H!l. D. II. I .all'rcnc(', SI'ltrll'r! i'1II'lIIs (1larmondslI'ort h, 1972), p. 21. H(i. Thompson and Vigne int('\'vicws (Univcrsity or Essex Oral History Archive), no. IOH, pp. 12, 14: no. :I:I!), pp. 2H, :1:1, 4!l. H7 Briall Ilarrison. 'Religion and Rccrcation in Ninctcenth-Celltury England', 1'11.\( & 1'1'1'.11'111, :IH (I !)(i7), PI'. !lH-12!l.
NOTES
HH. Walvin, o]l. cit., ch. 7: .lohll Lowerson, ')'1I1J!'1 111/11 Ihe 1';lIp;!ish Mir!t//I' (,'/IIS.II'S (Manchester, 199,1): Norman Vance, Thl' Silll'1{IS oj Ihl' Slill'I/ « :ambridgc, j !lH!l). H!). Wah'in, op. cit.. p. H7. DO . .lack Williams, 'Churches, Sport and Identities in the North, I !JOOI !l:I!)" Jeff Hill and .lack Williams (cds), SIJlJrl IIl1d 1rI1'"Ii1y III 1111' Norlh ()f!~'lIg111I1d (Keele, I !l%). pp. I \:1-%: Willi Schll'allk,l\il'{'hl'~lIId SjJI!rllll /)wlsrh/llliri '(lOll UNS Iils /92IJ (I IochhclIll-am-Malll, 19/!)): MIChel LagrtT, 'Sport ct sociabilit{: eatholiqnc en France au ddlllt du XX'" sit:cle', in l~ Arnaud and./. (:am), (cds), 1.11 IIII1SSIIIII'I' r/II !HOIIPI'IIII'1I1 SIJOrll/ AS.lowllir 1'1/ hllllt:l' (l.yon, I !JH(i), pp. :127-:1!l. !) I, Sarah (:. Williams, 'Religious lklier and Popular Cnlt me: a St udy or t he South London Borough of' SOllthwad, r.JHHO-I!):I!l' (lIl11versity or Oxf()!'(1 DPhil thesis, I !l!l:I), p. :\()!l. 92. Ibid., PI'. vi, 220-:1, ~91-2, 2!F). 9:1. Richard Sykes, 'J'opular Religion in Dudley and the (;orllals e.I!) 1,1I!)(i!l' (University or Woln:rhamptoll PhD thesis, I!)!)!)), pp. J Hi-I!), 12H-:IH, 17!l-H·1, ~2(i-;1!1. !H. 11)1(1., p. UIH. !l!l. Ibid., pp. IH!l-207, :1!lH-(i2. !)(i. vViliiams, 'Religious BelieI' alld Popular Cult me: a Stlldy of' the Smith LOlldon Borough of' Southwark', pp. :1 I (i-17. !)7. Sykes, op. cit., eh 7. !iH. Williams, 'Religious Belief' and Popular Cuitlll'c: a Study oj' the South I.Olldoll Borough or Sout Il\vark', pp. I (i()-~. !l!l. Studies of' popular belief' in the post-l !).'f!l perio(,1 which stress the continuillo' n illll)ortance of' the Iloll-ratiollal include Emile Pin, I'mlllJlIl' I'l'li0'1/'11.,/'1'1 rllI.lSI'S sowr/I's (Paris, I !l!l(i), pp. iIO()-I; (;coHi'Cy (;orer, 1';Xjl/OI'llI,l!; '/';lIghsh Chl/melt'r (Londoll, I D!l!l), p. 2(i!l: N. Ailercrombie et aI., 'Snpcrstiiion and Religioll: the (;od of't11t' Caps', in David Martin and Michael IJili (cds). /f So('{ologlral li'IIr1}()O/, oj Rl'ligillll ill lll'lillill, vol. :1 (London, 1!l70), pp. 9:1-12D: Stcphell Wilson, 'Cults of' Saints in the <:hlll'ch in CelltraIParis', in idem. (cd.), ,';IIIIIISI/Ild Ihl'II'C/llis (Cambridge, I !lH:\), pp. 2:1:\-(iO. Yves LamblTt, wito has conducted various sllrveys orrciigiolls ilclief'(especlally among yOllng pcople) in contemporary France, argiles that the declinc of'( :at holic belieLllld pract ICC has been associated wit h a rapid growt h of' 'altcmat In:' f(mlls or religiosit y. SCl' Yves Lambert, 'Vcrs line t'l'l' post-chr{·ticnnc?', fo/l/lIl'ihll's, 200 (I !l!l!l), pp. W,-III
Notes to Chapter 8
1914
loachlm Rohde, 'Streillichter ails der Berlincr Kirchengcschichtc von 'I!)OO his 1!lIW, in (;iinthl'r Wirth (cd.), /l1'llriigl' :111' llnlilll'l' l\i),l'hl'lI-
--~-
NOTES
NOTES
SI'Sr/lII'lill' (Berlin, I ~)K7), p. ~:lO; Nicholas Ilopc, (;1'1"1111111 IIIld S(({lIrlill(/"ilill I 'mll's/illl lis 1111 , <)
A.
J.
17011 101<)18 (Oxf()J"(i, I !)9!i) , p.
!i~H.
I (oover, Flil' (;0.1/11'1 O/' Nlllwlllt/islII: (;/'1"1111111 I'li/nolll" l'rl'lll"lilllp;./i"(JI1I
NII/III/I'OII 10 IIT.lll i//l's (Stllttgart, I DK(i).
:\. (I.~J.Sclll'idgcn, n{'lIlsl"lIl' lilsl"liii/i- 1111 I~rs/i'll If'l'flhil'i!; (Colognc, I D!) I). 'I. 1\lInl'lte Bccker. IJI ,!.!;II e 1"1"1' /'1 fll .fiJI: /)1' /11 I//orl (I fll IIIhIlOIl"t', I<)/·I-/I)"]() (Paris, I ~)D·I), pp. :\~-:\. !i. Ibid., pp. ·f~-!i. (i. Maurice Larkin, Rl'fip;lIIlI, I'ofilil"s 1I111/l'rl'ji,ntll'lIll1l hllllt!' Silll"l' IiiI' /8<)()s: I,a nelll' I','jloqlll' lilli/lis 1,I'gll(\' (Camhridge, I D9:»), pp. :l~), 14K-!iO. 7. (;{'ranl Cholvy and YI'('s-l\laric Ilibirc, /lis/otrl, I'l'fiP;II'IISI' de fll Fmll("(' (;ollll'llllu)}"{III1S, vol. II: /8811-/I))(} CI(lllious(', I ~)K(i), p. ~!i7 K. Jacqucs Fontana, 1,1'.1 mlliofiqlll'sjiwl("llIs /mllflllli fll (;mllrll' (;111'1"1"1' (Paris, I ~)~)()), pp, ~%-:\()(). ~). On the religIOUS tcndencies or Asquith's govcrnment, sec C. 1. T Machin, I'ofilirs IIl1d 1111' {,'I//Irr/tl's III (;rl'lll Ii n/lllli , /869-/92/ (Oxf())"(1, I ~)K7), pp. 2/·I-!,); Adrian Ilastings, ,·1 fli.l/on' O/' 1';lIg-!is/t Clmsllllllily, /<)211-11)85 (LOlldoll, 1~)K(i), pp. !i'I-:>. For the \)a)" orPrayl'l", sec 1\lan Wilkinsoll. rill' Cfllll'l"li O/' 1~'II,1';llIlIrl IIlId IiiI' Finl 1111I1r! 1I(Ir (London,
2:1.
2fL
2:).
~(i,
'27,
I ~)7K), p. (i I. 10. Alan Wilklllson, Ihssl'lIl or (;olljimll? JIIIII; I'(,({I"I' IlIlIf Iltl' /-,'IIp,-!iS/t (;hll)'(hl's, /<)()()~·l<)f'j (London, 1~)K(i), pp. ~(i-K. II. Wilkinson, (;I/II)'(1t o/' 1-: "P:!I/IIrl , pp. ~ 17-1 K, ~!i 1-'1. I~. J\ good discussioll thc Quakcr rcsponse to the lI'ar is Thomas C. K('nnc(I\', 'The Quakcr Renaissance and the Ongllls or the Modcl"ll British Peace l\IOl'('nH'nt, IK!)!i-I~)~O' . • If/Jioll, I(i (19K·I), pp. ~4:\-n. 1:1. Wilkillson, /)issl'lIior (;olljimll?, pp. ~:\, ~!i, :\0-1 1·1. Stuart Palti Mcws, 'Religion and English Sociely in the First World \Val" (I inivcrsily oj C;unhridge Ph!) thesis, I !)7:\), pp. !i~)-(i:\' l!i. Ilugh l\lcLcod, IJil'/\' IlIld l'm'I'r/\' (Nell' York, I ~)~)(;), p. I ~lK. I Ii. Ilopc. op. cit., p. !i~) I. 17 I bid., p. !i!)7, IK. Michel Lagrt't', 'Exil{'s dans leur pat ric', in FralJ(;ois Lchrun (cd.), Hislo/"ll' dl's mi/to/iqllr's I'll hallo' ("l(lIllonse, I~)K()), pp. :100-1: Fontana, op. cit. pp, ~:"i-K. I ~). Bcckl'1', ilp. cit., p. (i·!. ~O. Mcws. op. cit., p. r)o; [\lcl ,cod, Pil'/v (llId 1'1)"(11'/"/)" pp. I !)9-~()O. ~ I. Rohert Currie. Alan (;ilhtTt and Lce Horsley, C/tllrr/tl's (1I1d (;/1/(/"i"/tp;OI'/"S (Oxfi)]"(i, 1D/7), pp. I~~, I·I:!, Ir)O, 1!i7 ~~. KCllllcdy, 0jl, cit., pp. ~·l(i-7 It SCUllS likely that the big drop snffered IJv thc Qnakers 111 191·1-1:) was dill' to the departure orthosc Friends who rejcctcd the SOCH'ty's anll-war stancc, and that the smalluHTeasc 111 I~) I !i·-I (i W;IS duc to till' accession of" pacifists fi'om ot hl'1' churches. For the rcmainder or the war lllemlH'rship stabilised. !)uring the Second
or
~K. ~~).
World \Var, by which time the Quaker anti-war position was dearly defined and wdl known, membcrshq) increased, tlliHIg-h again l110st other churches suf'kred losses. 1\1c\vs op. cit., p. [),-1. I Iartl11ut Lehmann, '''(;od our old aily" " in Wiliam R. Ilutchlson and llartl11ut Lehmann (eds), Mi/lly ({rl' (;/tOS('II: lJirJI/II' 1~'/l'rIIOIl ({lid Wl'sit'l"II N({iwlI(tfislII (Minncapolis, 1!J!l'I): von Reeken, oJ>. cit., p. :\I!i. Fontana, oJ>. cit., PJ>. (i4-70. Sec ibid .. pp. I ()~)-~~ I, lell' the resistance, and rrequcntly opcn hostility, or French Catholics to the Pope's peaceIllaking initiatives (and the delighted derision or French rreethinkers). Stephen Koss, '1itl' /'ro-8(1I'1"S (Chicago. I ~J7:\), pp. ;1:", ~~:)-(i, ~;)()-1. l\'iargaret Blunden, 'The Anglican Church During the War', in Peter WarWick (cd.), rill' SOIlIIt ilJi'/i"i1ll H(I/": rill' ,lllp:!o-IiI}(T Will: /8<)IJ-II)()2 (llarlow, I !lKO), pp. ~7!l-KO. Though I\nglican !Titlcs or the war werc reII', they included some or the most proml11cnt figures in the church, such as bishop Percival or Hercf()]"(1, the latcr bishops, (:harlcs (;orc and I':dward Hicks, and Hcnry Scott Hoiland, Canon or St Paul's and later Regllls i'rokssor at Oxl()rd. For pacilism and anti-militarisl11 in the Nonconf(ll"lnist chapels, sec Wilkulsou, 11ISS('1I1 (}r (;olljimll( pp. I ~-I :\, ~ 1-;\, 4K-!i:\. Wilkll1sou, (,'/lIIrl"/t (}(I~'lIp;lilllil, pp. II'I-I!i. Lucy Masterman, C. MIISItTIIIIIII: .. I llio,I!,"I"II/J/I\' (London, I ~):\!)).
r: (;.
p,
~!lO.
:\(). John W. (;ralla111 , ClllISITijJlioll 111/(1 Co IISril'lI ("(': If /liS/lin', IIJI(J-/IJ/<) (London, I !l~~), pp. I !ir)-~ I I. :\ I, .John Rae, COIISCII'IIU' IIlId /'ofilin (London, I ~)70), p. I:):"), i\ mOlT I'il'id and avowedly part isan accoullt or the treat 111Clll of' the lirst cohort of' ConscientIOUS Ohjcctors is provided III (;raiJal11, op. cit., ch.·1. None of' the death sentences lI11posed Oil tlllrty-two l11el11iJns of'thls group was carricd out. Ilowevn, a f(l1"111er CO told Ine that wl1cn he first ref'used to he conscnpted he did so assul11l11g that II would lead to IllS iJel11g executed, alld he had a clear picture or thIS event in his milld. III thc (,I'('nt, hc spent l110st orthc latter part or the war 111 prison, aud was still alivc selTnty-slx years latn. Intnl'lel\' \\"Ith Waitn (:rifIin at IllS Blr111l1lghalll home, !') Ikc(,111iJer I ~)~)~ (tapc in 111)" possession). :\~. Rae, op. cit., pp. ~!iO-I, (;raham, oJ>. cit., p. :F)~. Felicity (;oodall. .. I (LlI!'silllll oj"CIIIIS!"II'II("(': (;OIlS!"II'Ii/IOIIS O!J/i'tilOll III i/II' '/ioo 1+llIld !Va I"S (St I'OlId, 1~)~)7), p. +1, qllotes an estimate that three-quarters orthe IO()() COs in Dart moor Wl'1"e ohjecting Jl1"llnarily on political gl'Ounds, and a quarter primarily on religious grounds though, as she indicates, thne wer(' many who objected on hoth grounds, and others whose oiJjectlons were lllOlT strictly on the gnlllllds orindil'iduall11oral conviction. cU. David (:airns (cd.), rll!',II"III1'lIl1d IMip;11I1I (London, I!)I~)), pp. K, ~(i-:\(): Bccker, oJ>. cit., pp. ·I(i-!i:),
:~'I ,I
NOTES
:\.1, ./ohn McManlitTs, (;111/1'('11 IIl1d S/lIle ill /<'1'11111'1', IS70-1c)J.I (London, Im~), pp. 11~-17; Cholvy and lIilairc, Hisloirl' rl'lip;II'lI.w:, ISS()-IC),(), pp. I·I~-,(i. :1:';. S('c, c.g., Frcdnic (;lIgclot, 'I lenri (;hcon: Ou l'histoirc d'lIne flllle cn gllcrrc'. in Nadin('~loscttt' (:halinc, (:lIIi/II'IIS dllllS {II I'mlllihl' (;111'1'1'1' i\!ol/(lill{1' (Pans, I D!J:I), \\'11Icil analyst's the wartillle COn\'(TSIOn of' thc writcr llenri (;hl'on, which St'CIllS to have had Its t\\'o-i()ld roots in his discovery, in t he pre-war ycars, of' nationalislll and of' t hc art of' (;iot to and Fra ,\ngelico. For a III 0 rt' gcncral disclIssion of' \\'al'l illlc COnV(Tslons s('c Ikc\ztT, op. cit., pp. ,l(i-!'i!'i and j}({ss/III. '\(i. Ibid., pp. ,IH, (i~J.
:)7 Ihid., p. ~)~. :IH. Cairns, oJ>. cit .. p. 172. :\~l. Becker, op. cit .. pp. (iO-·I, ·10. Waddy, 'St Anthony's Bread', p. :FiO. ,II, Ikckel', op. cit., p. ~)~; WilkInson, Firsl Worfd !1ft/I', J>. I ~F); J. M.Wint('1', 'Spiritllalislll and the First \Vorld War', In R. W. Davis and R. J. i-Icllllstadtt'l' (cds), NI'Iip,101i IIlId /rrl'fi,!!,IOI/ III Vil'/omlll Soul'h' (London, I !lD~). pp. I H!'i-~()(); Cairns, op, cit .. p. !J. 'I~. Bccker, oJ>. cit., p. ~)!J. ,1:1. Fontana, op, cit., pp. !'i~-:\' ,1,1. :\. J. Hoover, Cod, (;1'1'1111111\', !lJ/({ /lril!lill III Ilu' Crtal WI{/" il SI/uf!, ill (;{/,/,/!'!" NIlIIOIiI/Ii,11II (Nc\\' York, I !JH!J), pp. :\!i-7, 'I !'i. Bcckn, op. cit .. pp. ,1~-:1.
Bibliogrraphy
Alw]'cl'Olllhic, N. ct aI., 'Supcrstitioll and Religioll: the (;od of'thc Caps', III David Martin and Michael Ilill (cds), /1 So{'/olop;lm{ li'(III)()oh or Rl'fip;/o1I ill /lril!lill, vol. :1 (l,ondon, I ~)70). pp. ~l:\-l ~!J. Ains\\'ol'lh, r\., 'Religioll III the Working-Class COllllllllnity and tile h'o\tlt ion of' Socialism in Latn N int'tt'cnt h-Cent 111')' Lancashire', !lislom' Sonll{l', 10 (I !J77), pp. :I:)'I-HO. ;\Idcl'lnan, Ccolhey, 'f'lll' ./1'TtlISIt COlllllllllllh' III 81'111sIt l'o{illl'S (Oxl()!'(L I ~)H:I). - - , II/odl'l'lI /5rilisli ./1'(111'\' (Oxl()\'({, I ~)~)~). Aldington, Richard, /)CII/It % I/('J'(), IIIJ('xplll'gatl'd edition (London, I ~)(i!'i). lj{i'jilJ' Ufi"s SakI' (London, I ~)(iH; 1st cdn I D'II). Altgeld, Woligang. l\olltofizisIIIIIS, 1'1'0/1'.1'11/1111.1'11111.1', ./l/dl'lIlll/lI: (iii!'!' !'I'/i,!!:tiis lil'/l,TlI/II{I'II'
(;c/!:l'lI.l'IiI:I'
I/Ild
1/IlII1iIIIlil'l'fi,!!,'Iiisl'
fdl'I'1I
III
di'J' (;csrlllr/III'
dl's
(Maim:, I D~)~). Aminzadc, Rolalld, 'Brcaking t he Chains of' lkpcn
II III I ,I< )( :R:\I'IIY
1\1l\1J()( :RAI'IIY
I\rnstein, Waltn 1,.. 1'1'1111'.1'/11111 'UI'I'SIIS CIlI/w/il' ill Mid-Viciorillll ";lIg/llIIrI (Columhia. 1\(0, I DH~). - - , 'Qllecn Vicloria and RdigHm', III Mallllgreen (cd.), l?I'IiP;IIJllllllltl' UUI'S of'l';lIpJislt 11111111'11, pp, HH-I~H, Avcr, E. 1'1 It! .. 'Praliquc rdigicuse et comporlelllcnt dectoralc', ;11'1'/1/'/11:.1 dr's .\'(/1'111'1',1 .\'of'l(tle,1 dl' /1/ NI'/ip;lIllI. ~~) (I D70). pp. ~7-!l~, Badonc, Ellell (cd.), Hl'lip;IOIIS Ol'lltor/oxy 11I1r/ l'o/m/1I1' hI/lit ill 1,'III'11/mlll Socil'ly (Pn 1lCt'i 011 , NJ. I DDO). Badone. Ellen, 'Brelon Folklore orAnti-Clericalisnl', in idem (cd.), Nl'li,!!;foll.l OI'I/IOr/ox\', pp. 1,1 ()-(j~. Barro\\', Logl(', IlIdl'/mllll'lll S/)/I'ils: S/)/l'Ill1lllislII 111/11 ";lIp;fislt I'll'bl'/lIIls, /850II){O (London, IDH(i), Barilell, ,\Ian Bellilett, Thc Churches in Ikrmondsey, I HHO-I D:I~), (U nivnsily or Binningham PhD thesis, I DH7), .lean BauhtTot, 1.11 Illomll' Illiillll' mlllre /'Ol'r/I'I' 1110/'(// (Paris, I D!)7). Ballmallll, Ellg'ell, /JI'I' /Jl'I'lilll'l' I iJ/hsr//li/'(/cll'l' III del' SI'I'ISIIIP;I' (Berlin, ! flHO) Ikhhingtoll, I). W.. ",'l'IIII,!!,'l'iil'llfislII /11 Modem Ilnllllll: ,I flislon'./i'Olll lite 17}UI 10 lit I' 1%'0.1 (l.ondon, I !JHD). Becker, l\nllette, 1.11 P;III'I,/,I' 1'1 /0/111: /)1' 11111101'1 111111111;111011'1' jl)f.f-/I))() (Paris, I !)!).J). Ikdarida, E, and I\lait1'011, J (cds), ChrisllIlIl/SIIII' 1'1 IIIOI/r/1' O/{'Ur!I'l' (Paris, I!J7!l). Behnkcn, Il1Il>k(', and Schmid, Pia, 'Religion in 'lilgehiichl'1'n VOIl Frall('n zwei FallsllI (London, !91:1). Bt'nlH'tt, (;, V., 'The Conlliet in the Chlll'ch', in (;colli't'y lIolmes (cd.), r;/lglrlllrl II/il'/' lite (;Io/,/olls HI"i'olllllO/I (Londoll, I !)(j!J), pp, I !l!l-7!l, Belloist, Jacqucs, 1,1' .)'11(/'1;-(;11'111' rll' MOIIIII/III'lrl' (Paris, I D!)~). Bercnson, Edward, I'o/Jllfisl Rl'lig'/O/I 111/(1 I,e/i-Will,!!; I'ofilll',\ III 1'1'11111'1', 18')()1852 (Princeton. NJ I!)H,I). Berger, I'eter, '/'//(' .\'01'/111 I?l'IIlily oj Rl'lip;io/l (llarmonciswol'th I !J7~). Bergcr, SteEII1, Tltl' firilislt I,II/iollr I'lIl'h' lI/1d II/(, (;1'1'1111111 SOl'/al lJl'llIocmls (Oxl())'(1, I !NI), Bernstcill, Eduard, nil' (;I'sr/I/I'hll' df'1' fil'/'lilll'l' 1!r/mll'l'-f)l'll'I',i!,'IIIIP;, \'ols (Berlill,I!J07-IO). Besicr, (;crll
Biagini, Ellgcllio E, /j/il'l'ly, Hl'lmllcltllll'lIl (/lid NI:/iJl'lIl: Po/mllll' Ulwl'llfislli III Ihl' /Igl' oj'e/lldslolII', 18(,(}-1880 (Camhridgc, I !)D~), Bigler, R. M" TIll' Polilil's oj (;I:rtll(l/I Pmll'slllIIllslII (Los Angeles, I !)7~). Binlicld, Clyde, Pllslors IIl1d 1'('0/)/1' (Co\,cntry, I!JH:I). Birkcl'. Karl, /)il' delllschl'lI .·lrlil'lll'rlii/dllllg.I7'I'I'I'III1', /8-1IJ-1870 (Berlin, 197:\). Blackhourn, !),I\'id, I'o/m/isls IIl1d PIII/'/I'/(IIIS: r;ssms ill Moriall (;l'I'lIlall I lislol')' (London, 19H7). . ,
,I
Mlllj)illg'l'll: /If!I}(/rililills
oj' Ihl'
Vilgill
Mar\'
iii
fi/.lIIlI/l'l'hi(iIi
Cl'ntl(l/lI'
(Oxfi)\'(1, I D!l,\), '/'/11' f«1/11111111 flisloll' oj (;I'I'II/{I/IY, I 78()-11)18: nil? I.OII/!; Nilll'li'I'lIlh (;1'111111)'
(London, I D!l7). BlankclliJerg, Ilcin!., l'olillschl'l' l\111/lOlizISIlIIlS III hallli/ill'! (1111 Mllill, 11)1,)'-33 (Maim, IDS I), Blaschke, Olar. 'Die Kolonialisierung del' Lucnwc1t: Priester als MilicllIllanagcr und die Kanalc klcrikaler Kuratel', in Blaschke and Kuhlemann (cds), /1.1'!igioll illl KIl/sI'ITI'lch, pp. !):\-I :\H, Blaschke, Olal: and Knhiemallll, Frallk-Michael (cds), Rd(I!;101I 1111 A'll/sl'r1'I'11'1t: Mi/il'lIs - Ml'lIlaliliili'lI 1\'riSI'II (;iiltTsloh, 19!)(j). Blessing, Werner, SllIlllllIld Kirtltl' III dl'l' (;I',II>fi.1'I1w/i (;iittingcn, I!JH~). Blundcn, Margarel, 'The Anglican Church Dllring the War', in Pcter Warwick (cd.), Thl' SOIlIIt Aji'imll Will': Thl' /Illg/o-Blwr 1+'111; J,
pp.
:\()7-~H,
Bolt, Christine, I/il'lorillll Allllllr/I'S 10 1?({('1' (I.ondon, 1971). BonhocrflT, Dietrich, 1.1'111'1'.1 IIl1d PII/!I'I'.I .limll I'risoll (English translation, London, I !l!l!)). Bonnt'i, SCI'gC, 'VelTiers ct Illkhcrons d';\rg'Onnc', ill B6dal'ida and Maitmn (cds), e/I/'ISIIIII 11.1 1111' I'IIIIOIIr/I' Olll'r!I'I' (Pans, I !J7!l), pp, I H7-~~~, Borg, Daniel R., Tltl' OId-I'm,lsillll Chlll'r/l IlIldlltl' 1+'1'1111111' /{I'/m/J/il' (llanov('\', NIl, I!JHI). Bon It , Jacob. and Ilt'ilhronncr, Oded, 'Leaving Ihe Walls Anomalous Activily' The Calholic and .Icwish Rllral BOllrgeOlsie in (;crmany', (;0111/)(/1'111111(' SIIir/il's /II SOl'il'l." 1/lldllisIIIIY, (IDDH), pp. ,17!l-!lO~, BOlllard, F.. IlIlmr/1I1'1101I 10 /{l'figll!lIs ,<"'ol'iolo,!!,:" (English Iranslatlon, London, I!HiO). BOlllanl, F" and Rbn)" .1 .. 1'l'IIlllflll' rl'figll'lIsl' IIr/Jllilll' 1'1 /,(;,!';/lil/ol 1'1111111'1'1/1'.1 (Paris, I !)(iH), Boutr)', Philippe, l'rrll'l'.1 1'1/}{(rOlSSI's 1111 /)Il\'S rill 011'1; d',lrs (Pans, I !JHG). BOlllr)" Philippe, and (:inljuin, Michel, DI'IlX /)8hlllll,!';I'S (III XIX" sihll': :11'.1 1'1 I'II/'(l\'-II'-!Ho/lilll (Paris, I DHO). Bowcn, Iksl1lond, Tltl' lriea of'!ltl' I'irlol'lllli r:llIIl'c/t (Montreal, I !)(iH). Bradley, lan, iI/mil' willt Me: TIll' IHIIlri oj J'iclol'lllli IImlll.\' (London, 19!J7),
0"
BIIII.IO( ;I,,\I'IIY
1I111J.1()(;IL\I'IIY
Brakdm
(;ClIlltT,
(;rcschal,
Marlill,
and
.l0chllwlln,
\'VCI'll C1',
l'mll',l/llIllislIllIS IlIld I'olilik: lJ.hli IIl1d Wirlillllg (Idol/ ,';lo{'rlol'l'S (IIallliJlll'g, IqH~),
Brand. Ilans~liirgcn, 'KirchliciH's Vcrcins\\'cscll lind Freizeilgeslaltullgell Jl1 CII}(T ;\rhCllt'rgcllleindc, I H7~-1 D:I:I', in {;. iIllCk (cd.), Sozla/p;I'Sc/llc/it(' tll'I' hl'l:!'11 (WupptTlal. I !)HO), pp. ~07-n. Bred
Busch, Norill'rl. 'Friill1111igkeil als Faklor des kalholiscilcll Milieus: Ikr Kult Will Ilt'l'zcn~Jcsu', ill Blaschke alld Kuldcmallll (cds), Rdip;tIlJI 1111 I{II/SNI'I'II'/;, pp. J :\1 i-·(i!) ,
Bushaway, Boh. 'Popular Belief' Oil Ihc Western Front', semi liar paper. UllivCl'SilY or Birmingham. H May I !)!)7. Butler, Samuel. Till' WII)' 0/1111 Fil'sll (London, I!)(ili) Ilirsl published. I DO:\I. Cairns, David (cd.), Till' ill'lll\' IIlId I?l'lip;ioll (London. I!Jl !»). (:asanova . .lose, I'lIiJlir HI'/igl;)JIs III IIII' Morll'l'lI IJlor/d (Chicago, I D!J.l). Chadwick, Owen. '/IIi? ,'irlol'llill (,'/lIIl'cll, ~ vols (Londoll, I !)(ili-70). Till' SI'I'II/rII'l:lIlioll O/' 1111' Fllm/iI'llIl Milld ill IIII' Nilll'll'l'lIl/; CI'IIII1n' (Calllbridge, I m!i). Chadwick, Rosemary, 'Chul'Ch and People in Bradleml and Dislricl, I HHO191·1' (Ulllvcrsily of'OxfimIDPhillilcsis. 19H1i). (:haline, Jcall-Pierre. 1.1'.1 /lIIllIgeois de RIIIII'II: I ill I' I;lill' IIl'bllllll' 1111 XIX" sihll' (Paris. I !JH~). Chancellor, V. L, fIislol'''./!)1' 1/11'11' MIlsll'I's (Balh. I mO). Charlton, D. (:., SI'I'II/III' HI'/igwlIs III F/'IIIICI'. IS15-IS70 (Oxl()}'(l, I!H):I). Charpin, Fernand, I'millfile 1'I'ligll'IISI' IIl'hllilll' 1'1 ji!l'lllll I II! II d'lIl1e p;mlldl' 'Iilll' (MIll'Sl'illt" ISIJ(,-11J5S) (Paris, 1%4). <:l1olv)" (;l'l'ard, Hl'ligi!1II 1'1 SO(/('It; III! XIX" sihlt,: lA' diOllll' dl' MOIII/wiliel'. ~ vols (Lille. 197:1). --'Expressions cl {!volullon dll senlimcnl reliegicux poplllaire dans la Francc du XIX" sit!cic Illilelllps dc la rcslauralioll calholiqlll' (IHOI-liO)', 1Il/.({ /)/{;II; /m/mlllli'!' rll' 1(,/0 Ii II0S/01lI'S (Paris, 197G). pp. ~HD-:\~O. _ _ 'La France conlemporaillc (XI X-d{:bul XX" sil!rles)', in B. I'lollgel'lln (cd.), IAI I'l'lip;i01l /mjill/rIlI'I' I'll 0('('{r/1'1I1 r/idlll'lI (Paris, I !)7i'11I1CI' ('{) II I;' III/Jil 1'111111'. :\ \'ols CJ()lJiollse. 1!)H:I-H), vol. I: 1800-ISSO; vo\. ~: 1880--{())O;
\'01. :\:
{C)3()-·11J85,
Clarke, Peler F.. 'EIeCioral Sociology or Model'll Brilalll', lIisllll'\,.!)7 (I D7~), pp. ·1 ~)-!i:\' Coleman, B. I., 'Thc Chllrch EXlellsion M()\'C'lllelll ill London 1'.1 HOO-I HliO' (lJlllvcrsily oj' Camhridge PhD thesis, I !HiH). Colley. Linda, Unlolls: hllglll,!!,' I/;I' Nillillll, 1707-18'37 (~nd cdn. LOlldoll. I!)!)·I), COlll'lncy. \V. L. (cd.). /)0 Hit' ntli(,(II'? (LOlldoll, I DO!i). (:owman, Krlsla, "'We Illiend to show whal 0111' Lord has done lill' Womcn": The Liverpool (:hllrch League lill' WOlllen's Suffrage. I!) I :\Iil', in R. N. S\\'anson (cd.), (;l'lIrll'l' IIl1rllhl' elmsllllll Hl'liglllll, Siudies In Church Hislory:1-I (\Voodhridgc ID!)H), pp. ·17!i-HIi. (:ox, Ilarvl'Y, Thl' .)1'1'111111' eil." (New York. I !Hi!i). Cox, .Jd'li'ey, f~lIg/i.l/; (;/lIIl'r/;{'.1 III II Snllllll' Sort!'l." (OxliJl'(1, I DH~). . 'ReligIOn and Imperial Power III Nim!ICCnlh-Cclltury Bril'llll'. III Richard I IellllSladlcr (cd.), hl'!'r/ollllllld Rl'liglllll. pp. :1:l!)-7~. _ _ 'MaSler Narral i\'t!S oj' Religious (:hallgc'. paper read 10 cOllf<.:n!lltT Oil 'The Declillc oj' (:hristcndom ill WeSlel'll Europe' (Paris. I DD7).
1\ I BU()( :R,\I'IIY
CruicksiJank, Marjoric, Olllnlt IIl1d ,""/rlll' III 1~'lIp;lislt 1~'dll('({lioll: 187() 10 IiiI' Prt',II'111 f)IIY (London, I !)(i:l), Currie, Robl'rl, Ml'lltodi,llI/ f)illllll'd (London, I !)(iH). Currie, Roberl, (;illlCrl, Alan, and Horsley, Lcc, C/lllrdll's ((lid C/lllrrltgol'l's (Oxl(ml, I !)77). Dahl, Roald, no)' (IlaJ'lllolldsworlh, I !lHG). Danlll, Alldreas, 'Nalnrwlssellschalicll und c>nl~llilichkeit ill dn dentsclll'll (;escllsciJali: Zu den Anllillgell einer PopnHirwisscnschali nach dcr Rcvolut ion \'on I H·I H', Ilislo 1'I.1('1tI' /.1'llsrhrili, :!(i7 (]!)9H), pp. !i7-!)O, Davidorr. Leonore and Ilali. Catherine, 1'llIlIih' hi/'IIIIII'S: !Hi'll ((lid IVOIIII'II oj' Ihl' 1';II,!!,Iislt Middll' CIIISS, 178()-185() (l.ondon, I !lH7). Davic, (;race. Nl'li,!!,'IolI III 81'110111 sill 1'1' 11)·/5,' lidil"iIIlIP: WIIIIIJIII 81'lolI,!!:III,!!: (Oxl(ml, I !)!l·I). Davies. E. T, NI'/iglllli III Iltl' IlIrllIs/rilll Unlolli//oll III SOlllh H'((/I's (Cardirr. I !)()!)). Iklulllc,nl, .lean, lA' mlltolil'l.11I/1' I'I//rl' 1,lIlhl'l' 1'/ 1111/1111'1: (Paris, 1971). lkvlin.Judith, 'I'hl' SII/lI'rs/i/iolis Milld: hl'lIrh PI'IISIIII/S 11I1r! /hl' SII/JI'I"IIIlllIml ill Ihl' Nilll'li'I'II/h (;I'IIIIIn' (Ncll' Ila\'(~n (;'1: 1!lH7). Dickinson, Edward Ross, Tltl' l'olilll'S oj' (;1'1'11/1111 Child H'I'llilreli'Olll Ihl' I~'III/lirl' 10 Ihl' h'dl'ml RI'/Jllhlir (Calllbridgc, l'vlA, I D!)(i). Dictrich, Ste(;lIl, Chrisll'll/1I111 IIlId RI'1IIillI//OII: /)11' rlms/lirm'lI !":irrhi?ll III H'iirll(,)lIhl'lp:, 18·18-1852 (l'aderiJo1'll, 1!l!)(i). Dill, Kad, IlIrllI.l/mdi.lIl,/,llIlg', ;lrhl'lll'rsrllllli 111111 ,lrllI'ill'l'hl'll'l',!!:IIIIP; ill 1iIl'll'ldd, 185()-IIJI·I (DortIllUIHI, 1!lH:!). Dowc, ])ietcr, 'The Wod,ingmcn's Choral Movemcnt ill (;crmany iJciCll'l' the First World War', ./ollmlll oj' COIlIi'III/JOIln' lIis/of\', 1:1 (1!l7H). pp. :!Ii!l-D(i. Dowling, Matthcw ,I., 'The Evolntion or a Modern Pilgrilllagc: l.isl('ux, I H97·-1 D:l!l' (Yale linivcrsity PhD tilcsis, I !lD:'). Doyle, Barry M., 'Urban Liileralism aile! the "Losl (;cncration", Politics and Middlc Class Cultll1'c in Norwich, I!lOO-I!l:I!)', lIislonl'lll./olll'lllll, :\H (19%), pp. liI7-:H. Drews, Paul, f)IIS /lIr(/tliclll' IAiI'Il da 1~"{llIlIll:l'lisrh-I,III/tl'ris('/tI'1I /,IIII1II'shir(/t1' des l(iilll,!!,Tl'i(/ts SIII'/tSI'II (Tiihingcn, I!lO:!). Eliot, Gcorge, ')(I'III',I./i'Olll (,'11'1'11'111 l.ifi' (llarmondsworth, I !)7:I) Jlirst puhlished I H!)H ,. Elm, Kaspar, and I ,(lock, llalls-Dictrich (cds), SI'!'/sOIgl' IIl1d /)III/Wllil': 8eilrri:!!,'I' ,:11111 Ver/tiil/ilis '1'1111 l(irl'''l' Iliitl (;ml!l/lId/ 1111 11),111111 hl'gilllll'lIdl'lI 2() . ./lIllIitllll-
tlN/ (Berlin, I !lDO).
Emlllerich, Woligang (cd.), l'mlellll'/.lI'Itr' IAwlIsliillli-, :! vols (RcinllCk hel IlanJilllrg-, Im·I), Elle!c1man, 'Icldd M" Rlldil'lll ,ISSlIlIi/rI/1011 ill 1';lIglishjl'll'ish lIislof\" 1656-11)·/5 (Bloomington, IN, IDDO).
B I ilL! ()( :R.\I'I tY
- - 'The Social and Political Context or Convcrsion in (;erlll(11'.1/11.1111'1/1 Hislof\', ,II (I !l!),\), pp. li:I-7!1. Field, C;co/frey (; .. 'Religion in the German Volksschulc, 1H!lO-1 !l:!H', I'm/,hoo/{ oj'!llI: 1,1'0 BlIl't/{ IIISlilllit', :!!i (I !lHO), pp. '11-71, Fielding, Stcvcn, (;111.1.1 IIlIrf /~'/I/I/lti/y: 11'1.111 C(l/llOlil's III 1~lIg/rlllrf, 188()-II))l) (Buckingham, I !)!):I). Fields, Karen, 'Christian Missionarics as Anti-cololllal Militants', TlII'on' IIl1d SOl'le!)', :! (I !)H:!), pp. !l!)-I OH. Finke, i{Og(T, 'An Ililsendar Amcrica', in Bruce (cd.), Hl'ligWllllllrf !Hodl'l'll/ZlIlilJII, pp. 14!i-6!l. Finke, Roger and Stark, Rodncy, Till' CIIII/,I'IIlIIg oj'illIIl'I'im, 177()-/I)l)(): Willilers IIl1rf /,IISI'I'S ill 0111' HI'IigI/JIIS /o:I'OIlOIllY (Ncw Brunswick, N.J, I!)!):!). Fischer, lise, IlIdIlS/l'lltlislI'l'IIlIg, so::.illll'/' /(olllli/{1 IlIId j)()lilisl'III' Willl'llshifdllllg /1/ rfI'l'S/lIrf/gl'lIIl'lIldl' (Allgsbllrg, I !)77). Fislllllan, w',I., 1"11.1'/ 1~'lIrf./t:l(lisli HI/dimls, /875-/1)1-1 (London, 1!l7!i). Fon t a na,.J aC<Jllcs, 1,1'.1 (1/IIIOfiqlll'sliml(,lIls jJl:lldlllll III (;1'111111t, (;III'/'I'I? (Pa ris, I !)!)(»). Fontanc, Thcodor, 1:/1 dill/nil (I HH~), In Ideill .. HOII/IIIII? IlIId (;I'dil'hil' (Munich,I1.
II III I.I()( :R.\l't Ii'
Ford, (:hristoplwr, 'Pastors and Polell1icists: thl' Character or Popular /\nglicanislll in South-cast I.ancaslllre, lil,17-I!lI,1' (University or Leeds PhD thesis, I !)!) I), Frankel.jollathall, alld Zippl'!'stein, Stcven J (cds), Asslllli/II/lOlllllld (,'011111111lilly: Thl'./l'!l's III Nilll'iI'I'II/h-(;I'II/IIn' 1':111'11/11' (Cambndge, I!)!)~), Freimark, I L, 1\/lIdl'/'Ill' (;l'is/I'I'/il'sl'/IlJliil'l'J' IIl1d /V({hr/II'I/SSlIl'hl'I', (;rollstadt!)okllllll'nte :\il (Berlin, ILd,), Frcimadz, Petl'!', 'KlIggcl lind I.ockschen III Ilaml)!lrg, Ein Beitrag zlIr jiidischcn Schillcr-Re!.eptlOn im I D, Jahrhllndcrt', "' Peter Frell11ark, Inas Lorenz and (;Onter Marll'l'del (cdS),./lIdl'II/01't:, f\iip,p:I'/, S/I'III'r/WII/I'II: 111l/I'I'S/II'//11I1P:1'Il
:111'
(;I'SI'hil'h/1' dl'l' dl'II/SI'hl'lI ./lIdl'lI "O/'IlI'/I1I1/ilh
1111
[[({III/I/IlP:1'I'
(1lamiJllrg, I !)il:\), pp, I (i!)-~~O, Cahricl, llans~liirgcn, '1m Nalllcn des l':\'angeliullls gq';l'n dcn FortschntL Zur Rolle del' "Evangelischcn Kirchenzcit ung" InlllT E. W, IlcngstcniJl'!'g von lit\() his Ii).!!)', in Wirth (cd,), 1i1'1/fiiP:I', pp, 1:/'1-7(;' (;adhois, (;elll'vii:ve, '''VOIIS t'tes prcsqllc la s(,lIle conso\at IOn de ]']::glisc" " IIl.lean Ikh'"H';lll (cd,), L(f I'l'lip:ioll dl' 11111 IIIhl' (Pans, I !)!)~), pp, :10 I-~(;' (;arnett, Janc, 'Evangelicalism and Busincss in Mid-Victorian Bntall1', "' John Wollfc (cd,), [':'(lIIII,!!:l'lim/['lli/h IIl1d I'lIbiil' ZI'II/: 1,'llllll,!!,'I'IiI'll/s IIl1d Sool'/y ill Ii I'i/II ill , 178()-II)811 (I.ondon, 1!)9£l), pp, £l!)-ilO, Cart ncr, Lloyd I~, Fht ./1'I[1ISh 1lIlIlIigmll/ ill IJl'iirllll, 187IJ-1 1)f.I (~nd cdn, I.olldon, I !l7:\), (;ascovnc-Cccil. \\,,, 'The Old Sqllin' and the NclI", in W. K, LowthlTClarke (ed,), 1'llIillg Ihl' NII'/s: Thl' 1,'lIglis/III1II1I's Hl'lip,'IIJII (Londoll, I!) I I), pp, ,! :\-:1'1. (;l'I'th, II. II., and Mills, C. Wright (cds), hOIll Mil.\' WI'/il'/' (London, I !Hil). (;l'slhilh/1' tilT ,)'/ ['({II/S-(;I'IIII'IIIIII' ZIt Ill'rlill N. (Berlin, I !):\£l), (;ihson, R:llph. "I SOI'llt! /lis/on' 0/ nl'lIl'h C({//WIiOSIII, 178 1).-llJf.I (Londoll, I!)il!», --'Why RcpuhliC:lllS and Catholics Couldn't Stand Each Other In the Ninl'le('nth (:cntlll'I", in 'Edlctt and Atkin (cds), HI'/igioll III /
I 07-~O. (;illwrt. 1\lan D., III'/igilllllllll/ Soril'ly III IlItill.l/rillll';lIg/III11/: 01/11'1'11. Chll/il'/I1I11/ Slirill/ CllIlIIgl', I7.fO-I I)f.{ (London, 1!)7(i), Thl' MII/lillg 11/1'11.1/-(;/11'1.1'/11111 111'1/11111: lillis/on' Mot/nil Sone/y (I,ondon, I !)ilO),
0/ /hl'
SI'(I{/III'I:II/ilill 11/
'The Land and the Chlll'ch', in (;. E. Mingay (cd.), Till' J'ir/orillli (;IIIII//nsull', ~ \'Ills (London, I!)ill), vo\. I, ,1:\-:17, (;ill, Rohin, 'J'/II' My/II 0//111' /~'III/i/)' (;//IInli (Lolldon, I !)!J:l).
Cilley, Shnidan, 'Cat holics and Socialists in (;lasgo\\" 1!)()(i-I!)}~', in Kcnneth 1.11111' (cd.), 1111.1/.1, 1lIlIllIgmll/s IlIld Millon/II'.1 (Folkestonc, J!)ilO) pp. I (iO-~O(), (;illcy, Shcnd:lll, ant! Sheils, W. J (cds), II lIi.l/lin 11/ [MI/l:illll III Ii nlill II: 1'1'111'/11'1' 111111 lil'/iljji'Olll 1'1'1'-11111111111 Tillll'.I/0 /hl' ['11'.1'1'11/ (Oxl()l'(1, I !lD'I),
(;issing, (;corgc, Iio/'ll III I~xi/I' (London, 1!)70) Ilirst pllhlished I il!l~I, Claw', I~, nilS lurrhtirill' 1,l'iJl'II til'/' I'l l llllgl'/isrlll'lI l,inhl'lI III Thiil'/IIgl'lI Cllihingcn, I!) I 0). (;oodall. Felicity, II (l}II'.I/ioll of COIISl'II'IIO': (,'11I1.\('il'lI/illll.l ()/i11'1'1i01l III /111' '/iJlo Wllrld Will'S (Strolld, 1!)!l7). (;orer, (;(,olfrey, I':x/i/orlll,!!: /':lIg/ish Chllmrir'l' (London, I !)!'iri). (;iit z von Olcnllllscn, I rmt ralld ct a\. (cds), FI'II/II'II 1111/1'/' dl'lII 1'1I/l'IIll'rhll/ til'/' "'irrhl'll: ['II//lI/lihllllll'lIl1l1r! Pmit'S/IIII//l/III'1I illl II). 1I111/20,jllllrll//lII/I'1'/ (Stllttgart,l!lDri). (;ollgh, Allst In, 'The Con lIiet in Polit ics', m Zeldin (cd.), COII/7il'/s, pp. !H-I (iil. (;rar. Fril'llnch Wilhelm, /)il' I'oti/isil'rllllp; r!f'S I'l'ligliisl'II 81'101l1i/.Il'ills (St lit t gart, I !)7il). (;raham, John \V., COIISITI/I/II/II 1I1Ir! COlIsril'lIl'1': lIllis/lilY, /i)/(,-li)Ii) (LondOll, I !l~2). (;rcen, S. J. I)., Ul'liglllll III /111' Agl' of f)1'riilll': ()}P:IIIIISil/101I 1/111/ I':X/II'IH II 1'1' III IlIdlls/l'llt! liJrhslllrl', 1r'170-I I)2IJ (Camllridgc, I !)!)(i), (;re('n, V. I L II., 1?1'1i'!!;foll II/ ()x/iml 11111/ (,'1II11/mdgl' (London, I !)(i4). (;rcschat, Mart in, J)IIS ChriS/i'll/II/II 110/'(/1'1' Modl'/'III' (St llttgart, 1!)HO), --'\)IC Berlincr Stadt mIssion', nl Elm and Loock (cds), SI'I'/SllIgl' 111111 1>lII/WIIII', pp. 4:1 1-7ri. 'Dic Rcvollltion \'on I il4H-Dllnd die Kirchen', in Ildlllllt galel' (cd.), I\irrhl' /1/ S/IlII/ I/lid (;I'SI'/ISrilil/i 1111 Ii). jllllril/l1l1ll'/'/ (Nellstadt a. d. Aisch, I !l!)~), pp. (i7-ill, (;rirliths, H.\('hard, Thl' Htllr/IOIIlln' 1?1"{lo/lI/ioll: Till' CII/holir RI"uitlll/ /1/ /<1'1'111'11 1.i/l'm/III'1', 187{}-/l)f.I (Ncw York, l!)(i:I). (;roh,John E., Nilll'll'I'II/h-(,'I'/I/lln (;1'1'1111111 ['m/l's/llIl/islII: Thl' C//11l'rll liS II SlImt! ModI'/ (Washington, DC, I !)il~). (;rote, II., SO:III/dl'lIIo/ml/II' 111111 HI'/iglOll CIlibingen, 1!)(iil). (;ugelot, Fd:deric, 'Henri (;hl'on: Oll I'histoire d'llne fllm: en gllerrc', III Nadine-Josettc Chalinc, (,'/11'1;/11'11.1' tillll.l/(f 1'l'l'IlIiirl' (;III'ITI' MOl/dill/I' (I'ans, 19!):I), pp. (i(i-D,I, (;lIil\alllllC, l'inTl', Mr'tiI'(11IS, 1:'g/isl'l'l/ill (n,p .. I !)!)O). (;lllln, Silllon, 'Thc Ministq', thc 1'Vliddlc Class alld thl' "CivilizlIlg MiSSIon" in Mallchester, 1il£lO-ilO'; Somt/ HiS/illY, ~ I (I D%), pp. ~~-:lli. (;lI'yt her, Cyril, 'Sidelights on Religioll and l'olit ics In t h(' Rhondda Vallcy, I !)()(i-~()" /JII/ill', :l (I !lilO), pp. ,Hi-, I,I. Ibchtlllann, Riidigcr,' "ein gerechtcs (;ericht (;OIlCS": Ikr Protestantisllllls und dic Rcvolution 1'011 I il/lil - das Berlim'!' BClspiel', /11'1'hi'u/i'ir Sowt!gl'srhirh/i', :Hi (I !)!)(i), pp. ~()£l-:)ri. IIaig, Alan, '/'hl' Vir/omlll C/ng\' (Bcckenhanl, I !)il'!). --'Thc Church, the Universities and Lcarnlllg in later Victorian England', flis/oI'lW/./OIII'IIIl/,~!) (I!)il(i), pp. lil7-~()1 llall, David I)., 'Religion and Secularization in Al11crica: a Culimal Approach', in Lehmann (cd.), Sii/w/II/'ISIITIIII,!!;' pp. II il-'\o.
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Hands, Tilllothy, 'j'hOIllIlS IIll1'1f)': nl.llme/I'd I'r('{/I'hl'f? (London. I DHD). Ilardy. Tholllas, 'Ii'ss oj Ihl' d'l/rhl'l"ui/ll's (London, I~) 12) Ifirst published I HDII. Ilarns,.!os{'.I'rlllllli' I./·ul's. f'"hfil' S/ilnl: /1 SOl'ill/ 1'lislllIY ofBnlalll, 1870-llJf.{ ()xf(Jr(1. I DD:I), Harris. Rnt h. I,ollrr/I's: !lod)' 1II1r/ Slilnl ill a SI'I'II/ar /fgl' (London, I!)D~)), I larrison, Bnan. 'Religion and Recreation in Nincteenth Century England'. I'asl 8: 1'1'1'.11'11/, ,IS (I ~)()7). pp, ~)H-12S, Ilartman, Mary, I'ie/orillll M"rdl'I'I'ssl'S (Ncw York. 1~J7n). Ilastings. Adrian. /f lIislor), oj 1"lIp;/ish ClmslllIIlII)" 1!)20-1lJ.'!5 (London. 1DH(i). - - 'j'III' COlIslml'llOII oj Niliioll/wor/: 1';1/111101.1'. RI'11~C:1011 11I1r/ NlIlIIJllllfislII ( :ambridge. I Dm). I kaly, ROlsJn, 'The .!esnit as Enemy: Anti~lcsuitism and the Protestant Bouq~e()lslc or Inl!lt'rial (;crmany, IH!JO-I~)IT (;eorgetown lJnivcrsily Ph J) thesis. I!)!)!)). Ileal)" R{)isJn. 'Religion and Civil Socicty: Catholics . .!esnits and Protestants in Imperial (;cnnany', in Frank 'Ii'cntlll
I Icrzog, Dagmar, JIII/lIIIII~" ol/If F.vfIlSioll: Nl'fip;IIII1S Po/illl'S III I'rr'-rI'1 Iofliliolllln' Illldl'll (I'nncctoll. NJ, I !)~)(i). Heywood, Colin, 'The Catholic Church alld thc Business COllllllunity III Ninctcenth-Ccntury France', in 'EIIlelt and Aikin (eds), Rtlip;1II11 ill hlllll'I', pp. G7-HH. Ililaire. Yves-Marie. [1111' (lidlll'lIll; 1111 XIX'> sihft" 1,111 111' rl'flj!,'I('IISI' dI'S/){)/lI/fllIIIIIIS dll dio('(;sl' d';lrms, UUO-!!)!·! (Lillc, 1977). --'Lcs ouvricrs de Ia rl'gioll du Nord devant 1'J.:glisc calholiquc (XIX" ct XX" sit~c1es)'. III B(darida and Maitron (cds), ChrislilllllSIIII' 1'1111011111' IJll11ril'l', pp.222-4:1. --'Obscrvations sur la pratiquc rcligicuse urbaine en France pendant Ia prel11it'l't, l11oiti{~ du XX" sit,c1c', /lislHlIl/O .'IIII'm. :12 (l!)!lO), pp. :1!)7-(i7, Ilillis. Peter. 'Presbyterianism and Social Class in Mid-ninetcenth Century (;lasgow: 1\ Study oj' Ninc (:llllrches',.Iolll'lllll oj' 1~'l'dl'slslIslimf lIislllIY, ,\~ (1!)H I ), pp, ·17 -().1. Ilippcl, W. VOIl, 'Industriellcr Wandel il11 Wndlichcn Rauill', /lrl'li", ji'ir SOZiIlI,C:I'srliil'lill'. l!l (I ~)7!)), pp .. , :\-122. Ilo!JshawllI. Eric, Till' :Igl' oj'Rl'lIofllllllll. 1789-18-18 (London. 1!)(i2). --'1111' II,!!,'I' oj'Clljiilll/. 18-18-1875 (Londoll, 1!)7S). - - lJiorfds oj' f,lIholir (I .ondon, I !)S4). lIo!Iinan-Kraycr. E, (cd.), 1l11ll1f1[1iirll'l'fJIII'Ii dl's dl'lIlsl'lil'll .. Ihl'lp;fllllhl'lls. !l yols (Bcrlin. 1\)27-:IH), Hiilschcr, Lucian, Wl'flp;I'ril'lil odl'l' NI'11011111011 (Stuttgart, I 9H~)). 'Secular Culture and Religious COllll11ullity ill Ilic City: "annovcr in the I !Jth Centtu-y', 1lislJlIIIIII SlIl'm. ·12 (I !)!J()). pp. ,IO:l-11. --'Die Religion des Biirgcrs: BiirgerliclIt, Friillulligkcit und protestantische Kirchc illl 19. j;thrhundcrt', Ilislonsl'm' I,I,tlsl'liri/i. 2!)O (I !l!lO), pp.
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--'I'vliiglichkeilen und (;rt'nzclI del' Statlstischcn Eri;lssllng kirchliclH'r Bindungen'. ill Elin alld Loock (cds). SI'I'/IO)P;I' IIlId f)/II/(()III1'. pp. :\!l-(i~. 'S;iJ.~ulansitTungsprm.esse', III I Ialls~lurgl'll Piihle (cd.), 8iilp:1'/' 1/1 rfl'/' (;I'st!fscflllji rfl'l' NI'lIzl'll (;iit ting-en. I !)~) I), pp. 2:IH-SH. 'KircliliciIe Ikl110kratie und Friinllnigkcilskultur illl dClitsclIell I'rott'Stantislllus', in Martlll (;reschat alld.lochclI-Christoph KaistT (eds), (;flr/S11'11111111 IIlId /)l'IlIo/mllil' (Stuttgart. l!l!l~). pp. IS7-~or), 'Biirgerlichc ReligiosiUit illl protestantischell Ikutschland des I ~l. .lahrhundlTts', 111 Schieder (cd.), NI'Ii,!!:ioll. pp, 191-21S, 'Secularization alld lirhanlzation III the Nineteellth Century: an Interprctative Model', ill McLcod (cd.), ,1,~'I' 0((;1'1'1/1 (;illl'S. pp, 2n'I-HH. - - ' "Weihlichc ReligiosiUit"? Dc'I' Ein/lul.1 von Religiollulld Kirchc aurdie RcligiosiUit von Frauell illl 19 . .lahrlIundcr!', in Kraul and Lnth (cds), /,·r:ll'llIIlIg. pp. 4S-(i2. LUCIan Iliilscher alld Ursnla M;inllich-l'oIcnz. 'Die Sozialstrnktur del' Kirchcngcll1eindcn IIanIlO\'t'1'S IIll I ~l. .Iahrhundcrt. Einc statistisclIc
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(Det roit, 1\11. I D/D). I IclmstadttT. Richard (cd.), hl'l'dolll 11I1r/ Rl'fip;1011 ill Ihl' Nilll'll'l'IIIII (;1'1I1111,\, (Stall/eml, CA. I !)\)7). Hcllllst.adtcr, Richard J. alld Lightlllall, Bcmard (cds), Viriorillll Nlillt III Crisis (Basingstokc, I !l~)(l). I lemmings. E W. J. I~'I/Ii/I' 1,0111 (~Ild edn. Oxflm!. I D(jS). llelllpton, David, Utlip,1011 IlIld f'ofi!tm/ CII/lllrl' ill ilnlalll IlIld Irl'/i/lirl (Calllhridge, 1!)~)(i), TIll' NI'!t~I!;ilill oj IiiI' l'l'olill': MI'I/WlfislII IlIld I'o/ill/llr Nl'1ip;/lJ1I r.175()-Il)()() (Londoll, I D~)(i), Ilcndrickson, KCllllcth E. Ill, Milltillp: SlIlIIls: NI'1i,I!;/lJ1I I/lid IiiI' I'lIhfil' IlIIlIg!' oj' llie Iinlish flrlll\,. 18()l)-·1885 (Cranhll1'Y N.J. I !l!JH) , Ilcllllock, E, 1'., Fillilld I'm/wI' I'I'I'SOIlS (Lolldon. I D7,1), IIcncs. Jiirg-en. Sliidlm}/(' (;esl'f/sr/lII/i IIlId hltlhotisl'lil' li'r!'illl' /III Rlll'llIflll/d. I <').to-1870 (KohIcIll, I !)~)(i).
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~'1:I-72. 1/1 l'ic/o),{{111 Hl'llnlllli,111I (London. ID7i1), KersItcn. ;\nneJ. and Romainc.Jonathan A.. hlldil/OI/ IlIld Cflllllgl': A llisloJ'\' or RI'/iJl'JII./ltdlllSlII III 8/'1111111. 18·/()-llJCJ5 (Londoll, I !)!l:)). Knil'lka. Virg, Dils /(il'clificlil' IAwlI III Unfil/-()s/ III dl'/' Milll' dl'l' Z1(I11I/ZiP;!?/' ./lIhre (dissertation, Westllilische Wilhclms-Universitiit. Miinst('l', I !l71). Knight. Frances, 'IiiI' Nilll'll'I'I/IIi-CI'II/III'\' (,'ltltrrh IIlId 1~'lIglish SOI'll'h' (Calllbridge, 1DD!J).
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Lill RlIdolr, 'Kirclic lind Rcvoilltion', Ilr('IIil'ji"ir SO:/lIlp;l'sl'/I/I''''I', 1:1 (197:1), pp. iiOii-7ii. Linden, r., Sowdislll/lS Iliit/ Rl'lip;/lJ1I (Lcqll.lg, I !):\~). Lisco, 1<:, /',lIr !\'ir('lil'll,ll,'l'sc/I/('IIII' Unlills (Berlin. 1:1!l7). Lorcck, .J ocilcn, lI'il' 1111111 (iiilwr .)o:illiril'lliolmil lflll rril' (Bonn, 1977). Lorcllz, Walter, 'Personal Social Services', ill .Jochcll ClasclI and Richard Frel'lll;nl (cds), Soolll I'olin III (;!'rlllilln' (llclllci 1!cmpstead, I ~)~J.!), pp. I ·1:1-(j~). Lorimcr. Donglas :\" 'Race, S('ICIH,(, alld ClIltllre: Historical Continllities and Dis('()ntinllitlcs, 1:1!l()-I!lI·I', in Shearer Wcst (cd.), l'i('loriIiIiS IIlId HIII'C (;\Idcrshot, 19%), pp. I ~-:I:\. Lowcrson, John, Sj}{/rl 111111 IIII' 1"lIp;lish Aliriri/t: e/IISSI'S (Manchestcr, I ~)D:\). Loyer, Fr;nl(;ois, 'Le Sacr('-CI~'nr de Montmartre', In Nora (cd.), !jl'll.\' rll' 1II/iI/OIl'I', \'o!' II L pp. 'I~ii:\-(i~l. LlIckmalln, Tholllas, nil' 1lIl'lsih/1' Rl'lip;1II11 (English translatioll, Londoll, 1%7). Machin, C. I. T, {'o/illl'S 111111 llie Chllr('hes ill (;relll Uril((lIl, 1832 10 1868 ( )XII)\'(!, 1977). - - {'olilln llIIri Ihl' (;hllrI'II('.\ III (;rl'lll Urillilll, 18(1)-/I}21 (Oxll)\'(l, 19:17). 'British Chnrches and thl' Cinl'ma in thc Hl:IOs', in Diana Wood (cd.), nil' (:/lIIrl'h Ill1rillil' Ilrls, Stlldil's ill Church History~:1 ()XIIJl'(i, I !l!)~), pp. ·177-:1:1. Mcllll):;h. Palll, I'roslillliioll liliri I 'iI'IOI'II1l1 Soolll Uljiml/ (London, I !l:10). Mclihilll')" I). B" ';\ CCllticman ill Evcry SllIm: Ch\ll'ch or EII):;land Missions in the East End orLolldon, 1:1:17-191·1' (Princcton Unlvcrsity PhD thesis, I ~)77). McIntire, C.·I:, 'Changin):; Religiolls Establishml'nts and Rcligiolls Liberty in France, 17H7-IDOI)', in licimstadtcr (cd.), hefdolll 111111 UI'IiP:IOII, pp. ~:I:I-:\() I , l\Iacint)'l'c, Stllart, !.illll' i\loS(,01I'S (I,ondon, I !)HO). MacKcnzie, John f\l., 'I Icroic Myths or Emplrc', in idcm. (CI\.), l'o/JIIlllr 11II/lI'rililislII ((/III Ihl' Mililllr)', 185()-11)5IJ (Manchestcr, I !)~)~), pp. I ()!)-:\:1. McLarcn, ;\. A., Rl'lip:ulII 111111 .)00111 (;fIlSS: Till' f),.ml/II/lJ1I li'((rs III ,lbl'ldl'l'Il (London, 197·1). McLeod, Illlgh, 'Class, COll1mllnity and Region: tile Religiolls (;eography or Ninctccllth-('('nturv England', in Micilaeillill (cd.), SOl'/olop:mt/ li'lIl'!Jook o/I?tIigioli ill Ihilolll, (i (I !l7:\), pp. ~D-n. - - C/II.IS lillil Religioll III IIII' IAIII' l'il'lol'illll Cil\' (London, I ~)7·1). --'Whitc-collar VaItlcs and litc Role or RcliglOlI', ill (;col'l'rcy Crossick (cd.), The lAHUl,/, M iddll' CIliss III 8/'/111111, 1870- I lJ J.I (LOlldoll, I !l77), pp. () I-HH. 'Protestanlism alld tite Working Class in IlIIperial CCl'lllany', 1';((1'0/11'1111 SI((t/il's /(1"I'U'1l', I ~ (I ~)H~), pp. :\~;\-·Iii.
1\ III 1.1 O( ;1(,\ I'IIY
'Ncw Pcrspectives on Victorian vVorklll):; Class Religion: Ihe Oral Evidence', Omlllislon'.Io((/'IIid, 14 (i~)H(i), pp. :ll-'E). 'Rcli):;ion in the British alld (;Cl'llIall Labollr IV!ovclllcnts: a COlllparison', n((l/l'llII or IIII' SOl'/eh' .fin' Ihl' SI((lh' 0/ 1,1t/Jl)((1' lIislol')" !lO (I DH(j), pp. ~:)-:\(j.
'Bllilding thc "Catholic Chetto": Calholic Or):;allisatiolls, IH70-J91·1', vV. .J. Sheils and Diana Wood (cds), lirll((lIlr/l'\' /(l'lip:lOlI, Studies In Chllrch liislory ~:\ (OxlcmL I !lH(i), pp. -111-·1··1. - - (cd.), I,'((m/II'IIII /{1'liP,'lOIi ill Ihl' /lgl' of (;1'1'111 Cilll'S (Londoll, I !)!l!l). l'il'l)' IIlId I'ml('l'ly: WOl'hill,l!; C/liss Rl'lip:/o1i ill /leriill, IAJlldoll ({lid Nl'w link 1870-llJf.! (Nell' York, H)~)(i). /fl'lip;ioll lI((d Socil'ly III FlIglflllll, 1850-llJf.! (Basillgstokc, I D~)(il. - - Rl'lip:1I!1l 1111111111' 1'1'0/111' or JIIl'slNIi 1','((1'11/11', 1781)-11)81) (Oxl(mi, I ~)!l7). 'lkchnstianization and Rechrislianization: Ihc Casc or Creat Brit;lIn'. l';'il'l'lilil'/I I' /.eIIP:I'Sf'IIi('IIII', II (I !)~)H), pp. ~ I-:\~. 'Protestantislll and British Nalionalldentity, IHI!l-J!)4!)" in Petcr van dl'\' Vecr and llartlllllt Lehmann (cds), Nillioll IlIld Rl'lip;ioll: l'I'/'S/Il;1'11l1I'S 011 i','((m/II' 111111 /Isw (Princeton, Nj, J9!)~)), pp. ·1·1-70. McManncrs, John, C/llirrh IIl1d Sill II' ill hrllll'l', 1870-19 J.I (London, I !)7~). McMillan, jallles F., 'Wolllcn in Social Catholicism in Late Ninctecnth- and Early Twcntleth Century Fra1lce', in W. .J. Sheils and Diana Wood (cds), WOIIII'Il III IIII' CllIIl'l'h, Studies in (:hllrch Ilistol'Y 27 (Oxl(ml, I !l!lO), pp. 4()7-:10. --'Reclaiming a Martyr: French Catholics and thc Cull ol'joan or ;\rc, IH!l()-I!)~O', III Diana Wood (cd.), MIII'I.\'1'.1 IIlId MlIl'lymlop;il's, Studics In Church Ilistory :lO ( hll)\'(i, I !l~):\), pp. :lii!l-70. IVlagraw, Roger, Thc C01l1lin in t hc Villages: Popular Ant i-Clericalism III Ihc IStTC', in Zeldin (cd.), COIi/lirls, pp. j(i~)-2~7. 'Poplliar Anti-c1cncalislll in Ninctccnth-ccntury RlIral Frallce', In ()belkevich, RoptT and Sallluel (cds), IJisl'//llilll's 0/ I'(I/Ih, pp. ,Iii 1-70. l\1allmann, Klalls Michacl, ''':\lIS dcs '\;lgCS Last lIIachell sic ('in Kreuz des IiclTn., ."? BtT):;arbcIler, Religloll lind soziaicr Prot cst illl Saarrcvil'\' dcs l!l.jahdllllldcrts', in Schlcdcr (cd.), /',iI!tsl'l'lip:/OSlliil, pp. 1!l~-:1·1. Malmgrccn, Cail (cd.), Rl'Iip:101l III 1111' Ul'I'S of 1"lIp;lisII JliOIlIl'II, !7()()-II))O (Bcckcnhalll, I !lH(j). Man):;an,.J. A., ,1I11/r>tmslII 111111 Ihl' f'il'lol'IIlll IlIlrt Frtll'I/I'I/i11l1 I'llb/il' SI'!tool: Till' I,' IIII'1P;t'1 I ('I' IlIld (,'olisolidlllilill 111'1111 1,'duml(()11111 Idl'olll,l!,Y (Cambridge, 19H I). Tit!' (;IIII1I'S HlIIII' IIlIdllll/lI'/'/olis/II (Ilal'llllllH{sll'orth, I D:1(i). - - 'Social DarWlllism and 1I ppcr-Class Edllcat Ion ill Late ViC'loriall alld Edwardian En):;land', III J 1\. l"lan):;an and .Jamcs Wah'in (cds), MlllllillfSS III
1I1It! MIIl'lllii\l: Middll' C/IIss iHlIs(,lllillilv III
8 1'1111 ill
!IIld
(lVianchester, I !)H7), pp. I :)!l-!l~l. MariJach, Raillcr, Siil(/(Ia 1'1.1'1('/'111 I,I!: IlIld sO~/ldl'l' Wrll/t!1'1 (;iittlllgcn, I ~)7:1).
,·IIII!'I'II'II,
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1\larcilhac)" (:hrislialle. lA' riill({'SI' d'Or/I:(IIIS SOliS /'1;/)iSCOIJIII ril' Mp;r /)1I1){{lIloll/) (Paris, I <)(i~). ---1.1' riio(h'l' "'(hkilIiS 1111 lIIilil'lI rill XIX" sihll' (Pans, 1~)(i'I), l\largalldalll. 'Ihl. 'Primary Schools alld YOUI h (;roups III Pre-war Paris: !.('S "l'elil<'S /\'s"', jOllntill 0/ COIIII'IIII){}mn lIislol)" J:\ (I !J7H), pp, :\2:\-:Hi. Marl'lls, Mich:1('1 R" nil' I'olilin 0/ ,Issillli/IIIIIIII: ,I SllIdv 0/ IIII' hl'lIcli jl'1I'Ish COIIIIIIIIIIII\' ill 1111' Tillll' 0/1/11' /)rl'y/ils ill/ilir ( hl(JI'(I, I D71). Marsh, Peter T. nil' l'i(lomlll (,'IIlIrcli III /)I'clilll' (LOlldoll, 1~)(iD). --josl'l}II (;/lIl1l1iJI'I1Ilill: 1';lIlrl'lm'III'lir ill Polillcs (Nc\\' Ilavcll, (:'1; I ~)~).l). Mart Ill, I la\'ld, :1 (;l'IIl'ml Th 1'0 f)' oj S{,(lIlllri~lIllol1 « hl()J'(1. I D7H). - - 'lhll,!!,'IIl's oj Fil'l',' nil' I~'x/JIIISIOII of I'mil'silIIIIISIII III 1.111111 ;llIIl'ri(11 (Oxf(JI'(1. I ~)~)()).
Ml'Yl1crt, Joachilll, MooseI', Joscr alld Rodl'kalll), Volkl'1' (cds), {illll'r I'ich-
Martill. Philippe, '( :hrisliallisalioll( [){'chnstiallisalioll( Rcclmsli:lllisalioll? La qucslioll de la sacralisalloll de I'cspace dalls la Frallce calholique (XIX"-XX" siiTles),.I<.'irrhli(hl' /'tllp;tsrIIlChll', II (I~)DH), pp. !'i1-(iH. [\Iarlill J)u (;a)'(1. Roger, .11'1111 Ii III 'illS (Paris, 1!)~I) Ifirsl published I !Jl:l I. Marx. Karl, alld Ellg('ls. Friednch, ()II Ul'lip:1II11 (Mosco\\', I ~):)7), Masoll, 'li)ll)' (cd,), S/){}rllli Iin/llill::1 Socli/Illislof\' ( :all1hridge, I ~lH!»), Mass Observatloll, 1'112:11''' I'('{)/)II' (l,olldOIl, I D·17), Maslerlllall, C. F. (;" Thl' (;0 II riillll II 0/ 1~'I1,1!,lllllll (LOlldoll, I ~)()D), Maslerlllall, LlIC)" (,'. fo; (;, MllsINIIIIIII::1 filllp,nljill\' (LOlldOIl, Un!)), Malher. JlIdsOIl. 'The ,\SSlllllpIIOIlISI Rcspollse 10 Se('ldarizatloll, IH70I ~)()()', ill Rohert Ikwcha (cd.). ModlTII ";lIm/H'1I11 Somil llislof\' (l,exll1gtOil. [\10\, 1!lI1). pp. r)!J-H!), Mei\\'cs, Reilillde, 'Rdigiositiit ulld Arheil als !.ebcIlSI(l1'IlI !til' kalholisciH' Fr:lIH'llkollgregatlol1l'll illl ID, Jahrhullderl', ill (;iilz \'011 Olcllhllsell ct aI., hlllli'lI, pp. (i!J-HH. Mcller, Ilclell, 1.1'1,1111'1' Ill1rillli' ClIIIIIP/II,Il,' Cil\" 1870-llJJ.! (LOlldoll, ID7(i). Mergel, Tholllas, /'1I'ls(hl'lI Klilssl' 111111 I\(lli/i'ssillll: 1"III/IO/ivhl's liiilPJ'rllllll 1111 N111'1 II itlllrl, 17IJI-II)I) (;iitlillgell I~)D'I). --'Die sui>lile Machi dn 1.1('1)(': (;eschlccill, ErZlcllllllg Ulld Friilllllligkell ill katholischclI rhelnischell Biirger!;llllilicll', ill (;iitz VOII OICIIIIlISCII ct aI., hll/II'II, pp. 22-,17, 'l1llralllolll:lllislll. I.il)('ralislll, Moderalioll: Polilical Melltalilies alld Polil ieal Ikh:I\'ior or Ihc (;erlllall Cal holic Ilii Igl'!'llI III, I H, IH-I D1-1', CI'lIlml 1~'lIrol}I'lllIllislllr\', 2!) (I~)!)(i). pp. 1!'i1-7·1, Mcll's, Stuarl I'alli. 'Rdigl
- - (eel.), (;l'mlilll~:ji'1l'lsh lIislof\' ill Mlldl'nt Tillll's, /Ic{l{/Illmiloll, 1781!-1871 (New York, I !)!)7).
\'01.
2: 1~'l1ll1l1ci/}{/1101i 111111
I'ff1!l1l1Ji' IIl1d Xvlilldl'!': /)IIS iisllichl' 11~'sl/ldl'll 1111 /'i'lltdln dl's lJIi1/II'fIlIlSIIIIIS, 1""88-1 1)f{ (Biclddd, I!)~)f),
l\liehelct, Jules, /)11 I'I'{;I 1'1: , /)1' 1i1 Nllllilll'. /)1' rl,l2;/isl' (Pans, I Hoi:»). Moody, Joseph N" Thl' Chllrch liS 1~'lIi'1I1V: :11I11I11'nmlislil III Nilll'll'l'lIlh-CI'IIII1n' hl'wh 1",ll'mllll'l' (Washington, !)(:, I !)(iH). Moorl', lailles R" 'Frc{'thoughl, Secuiansill. Dar\\'illlslll: The Casc or Charl;'s ])arwill', in Parsons, Moore and Wollk (cds), Rl'ligioli III I'iclomlll flnillili. vol. i, pp. 2/,1-:\ I!), 'The (:risis or Failh: RcI(JrIl1alIOIl Versus Rc\'oluliOIl', ill Parsolls, Moorc and Wo In l: (cds), Rl'fip:lIJ11 III ,'icllll'lllll Ii nlil ill , vol. I I. pp. 220-:\7 Moore, Robert, 1'11-1111'11,1'1'1'111'/11'1:1' IlIld I'olilics (London, I !)7·1). Moorc, R. Laurence, Sl'lIill,!!: (;od: :llIIl'nmll RI'1i,!!,'Ioli ill Ihi' Alllrhl'ljiltli'l' of CII/lllrl' (Nc\\' York, I!)!H). MoosC!', .loscr. ';\ri>ciler, Biirgl'1' ulld Pncslcr in dCII konf<"ssloIH:llcll ArlwiIC1'\,(,ITincn 1111 dcutschclI KaiselTcich, I HHO-I !) 1·1', III .I ii rgell Kocka (cd.), :1 rfJi'l II' I' 111111 liiilgn 1111 /lJ,jilhrlIlIl1i1nl (Munich, I DHiirgcrlichell (;csclischafi: ZUIll VercinsWCSCII des Katholizisll1l1S jill sp;itcll K:lIscrn:icil', III Blaschke and KilldcIllalln (cds), Rl'lip,'I01i 1111 1"IIISI'ITI'ICh, pp. r)D-!)~. Morgall, Kenllci h 0 .. Rl'1J1rlh 11/ II NIlIIOII: II,idl's, /880-llJ80 (Oxl()i'(1, I !)H I). Morris,,!. N., Ul'lipJOIIIIII" Urbllll Chilll,!!;I': Croyrloll, ISlJ()-liJf.! (Woodlmdgc,
I D!J~). Morris, R.,!., CflO11'm 18,}2 (LOlldoll, I !)7(i). . Motzkm, (;ai>ricl, 'S;ikularisil'1'lIng, Biirgerlulll und IlItcllckluclie III Frallkrcich 1I11d [)cutschlalld', III Kocka (cd.), Ilii 'PJ'rl II III , voL II i. pp. 1,11-71. Miillel', Karl J"lillS, /IfJi'lp,lllllbl' IlIId ()cl'llllisIIIIIS III 8nlill IIl1d dn Pl'lrl'lII: flmlldl'lIbIIlP,' (Berlin, I H!)D). MlIIISOII, I, L H., 'The Londoll School Board Eleclioll or I HD·I: a Siudy III Victori;11l RcliglOus (;Ollt ],()"Cl'sy', Ihilisit .lOll nlil1 1~'dllmllOlIlll .'II II dil'S , 2:\ ( I !)7:i), pp. 7-2:1. - - '1'111' NOII({)II/iJl'llllsls (I "olldoll, I !)!J I). Ncwlllall, ;\lIbr;'y, 'The OlIice ol'CllIt:1' Rabbi: a Vny ElIglish IIISlillltjOll', ill Nigel Astoll (cd.), IMig/olis Citllllgl' III 1';lIm/w, 1{J50-llJU (Oxl()1'(l, 1!)!)7), pp. 2H!)-;lOH. Nietzsche, Friedrich, jl'llsl'Ils l'OIi (;111 111111 Biisl' (I HH(i). Nippcrdcy, Tholl1<1s,'/)I'IIIStitl' (;I'sr/llcitll', 180()-18M (Mullich, IDH;\). - - /{1'lio'lOlI 1111 U1Il1J1'1ldl (1\'1 ullich, I DH7). Nolall, ~Iar)', Siltli/1 nl'IIIOITIII)' Illld Suol'l.\': 1JI0rhlllg-Cfl/Ss HIII1im1isIII III /)iissl'ldOl/: /8lJ{)-/lJ20 (Cambridge, I DH7).
or
1IIIlU()(;R:\I'IIY
Nora. Pierre (cd.). 1,1'.1 lil'llx rtl' 1111;11/011'1'. :1 vols Cc!nd edn. Paris. 19!17). Nord, Philip, FIiI' /(1'/JII/JIimll MOIIII'III: Slmgp,lf's jill' /)UI/O()'III}' III Nilll'lr'l'lIlli(;1'1111If\' /
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Thorne, Susan, 'Protestant Ethics and the Spiril Imperialism: British (;ongregat ionaiists and Ihe I,ondoll M isslollary SOCict y, I 7!l!i-1 92!i' (lin iversity or Michigan PhD thcsis, I ~)~)()). '1i)\\'lIscnd. Mary Lee. /'iI/1m/deli IJIII,!!,llllT (Ann Arbor, MI, I ~)~J:!). 'Ih'ssdl, Roller!. Tltl' HII,!.',ged 'f)-ollsl'I'I'd Pftil(IIIIIIro/!I.Ils (London, I~)!i!i) lIst pllblishcd I!J I;t I, Tschanlll'n, Olivier, I'{'s IMortl's de Ifl sl;nt/llrisfllioll ((;encva. I D~)2). 'lslIZIIki, Chllshichi, I';dwlml Cllrl}('III!'I; 18-1-I-llJ2lJ; l'mjllll'llIr 11111111111 !-i'lIo7l'.11111) (Camlll'ldgc. ]!)HO). ·lllt'llCr. Frank M., I$!?IUII'I'II ,'''(It'IIO' II lid Hdi,!!,'III1I (Nell' lIavcn, C'L 1!J7·1). --'Thc Victorian Crisis or Faith and the hllth that was Lost', In I Iclmstatiter and Lightlllan (cds), f/ir/Ortflll 1-111111. pp. ~)-:\H. --ColIll'slill,!!,' Cllllllml 1llIllwrllv: Fssll\'s III ,'ir/OIHIII IlIld/l'cllllll Uji' ( :amIlridgc, I !)~):I). U rdan k. ,\lbion, Religioll II Jlft Sotll'ly III II COISlPolt! fill/I': Nil ilsl!Io 1'111 , (;lo//(l'sllT.11111'1', /7S0-18(j5 (Ikrkclcy, CA, I !)!)O). llstorL Wcrner, Tlll'ologil' 1111 rl'l lolllllOllIirl'lI /i1'l'1II1'1I: /)il' Akll{({liliil Rlldol/!II /)111011.1 (BOIlIl, I !)!)2). Vance. Norman, Till' Silll'lPs o/Ille S/nl"ll (Camhridge. I DH!i). van Rooden, Peter. 'Seclilarizatioll. Ikcilristianization and Rccilristlallization in The Netherlands', III l.ehmann (cd.), ,)'iiIUllllrlSII'rtlllg, pp. I :\l-!i:\. Vinccllt. JOhll, PolI/wokl.' Ifoll' l'iclolHlllS I illl'd ( ;allliJridge, I !)(i7). Volkov, Shlilanlit. 'l\lltlselllitisln as a ClIitliral Code: Reflectiolls Oil the lIislory and Historiography oj' AlltiSClllitisll1 ill Imperial (;erlllan)", li'lIrhoo/; oj'I/11' 1,1'0 /illn/{ IIISllllIlf'. 2:\ (I !)7H) pp. ~!i-,f(i. --'Die Verhiirgerlichung dcr .Il1dell ill Delltschland'. III Kocka (cd.). fhiri':a/IIIII, vol. II. pp. :\4:1-7 L Vorliinc!er, IIcrll'art, blllllgl'liscltl' I':irchl' IlIlrI sozillll' hagl' 1/1 dn wadl'l/rlm IlIdll.llul'grolillarll mhl'l./i'ld (IHisselc!orr, I \)():\). "Vaddy, IIdella. 'St Alit hOlly's Bread: The rV\odernized Religious Clllturc of' (;el'l11an Calholics III the Early 'Iil'enticth Ccntury', JOllmal or ,\;111'1111 llislory, :11 (19!JH), pp, :H7-70. Wahl, Alrred, 'Confl~sslon ct cOlllportellH'nt dalls les campagnes d';\lsace et de Bade', 2 vols (University or Metz doctorallhesls. I DHO). --1.1'.1 a rrh 17 1('.1 du/iwll)({lI: Sjiorll'l som;lt' 1'1/ hIIllCI'. fSS()-lt)S() (Paris, 19HD). Wald. K. I)" Cmssl's olllhl' Ballol (Princeton, N.J, IDH:\), Walkenhorst, Peter. 'NatlOnalisllllls als "politische Religion"?' In Blaschke and Kllhlelllann (cds), /(!'liglol/ 1111 1\III.I('/TI'ICIi. pp. !iO:\-:!~). Walker, PanICla,l., '1\ Chastc and Fervid Eloqllcnce: Catherinc Booth and the Ministry of'Womcn in the Salvatioll /\rm)", in Beverly MaYlle Kienzl(' and Pamda ,I. Walker (cds), WOIIII'II I'rl'llthl'l's 1//1(1 I'mlJhl'ls Ihrollgh 'lilill Mille/III/II or Chrlsllllllll" (Berkeley. CA. I ~mH), pp. :!HH-;\O:!. Walkoll'itz, .I;Hlith R" P;'lIsllllIllOl1 ({lIrI !'ir/OIHIII SlIol'IV (Camhridge. I ~)H()).
- - '1 'It I' 1\'llIsn's I ()INS ( ;amiJric!ge. I ~lD7).
Stark. Rodncy. and Bainhridge, Willialll Sillls, rite I'ililln' or R!'Iip,'IfIII: Sl'tIIIltnZ((lioll. Unlll'lll ((lid (:1I1i /'i))'J/IfiliOIl (Bcrkelcy. (;A, 19H!i). Stark, Roclncy. and lannaconc. Laurence R,. 'A Supply-Side Reinterpretation or the Sccularization or Enropc', Jllllm((l jill' tit I' S(I('lIli/ir SllIdv or NI'Iip,illll. :1:1 (I D!H). pp. :!:IO-:>:!. Steinhon~ Ant hony. 'I'mt cstants in St raslJourg. I H70-1 !) 1:1: ReligIOn and Socicty in late Ninctecnth-(;cntury Europe' (llnivcrsity or Chicago PhD t hcsis. 19%). St rik IYerda, (:arl. :1 111111.1'1' nnw/l'd: (:((Iltolies. ,';omt/isis IlIId Fll'llIislt N((llOlI((lisls ill nl'lp,'I11I1I (Lanham. i\(D, I !J!)7). Stnullhingn. 1... "'A has Ics pri'·tres! 1\ bas Ics COll\'CllIS!" The Church and the Workers 111 Nineteenth-Century Lyon.' JOllm((tlir Somil lIislor\', I I (I !)7H). pp. :>Ui-:>:I. Slnnlll(TS, Il. I':. 'The Labollr Chllrch and Allied Movelllents or the late I!Jth and carly :!Oth (;cntnries' (University or Edinhurgh PhD. 19!iH). Sun. RaYlIlond. '''lkl<)}T the EnclIlY is within our Walls'" a Social. Cultural and I'olitic;t! I listory or(;atholic Workers in (;olognc. IH!)!i-I!JI2' (.Johns Ilopkins llni\'lTsity Ph)), ID!JI). Swift. Roger and (;illcy. Sheridan (cds). TIll' Irlslt ill Iltl' Ilirtorilill (;ilv (London.I!JH!i). . Sykes, Richarcl. 'Popular Religion in J)ndley and the (;ornals, r. I!) 14-1 !)():). (U IlIvnsit y or WolvlTilalll pton Ph \) thesis, I !l~)D). ·l:t!. Uriel. Cltrislilllls IlIId/l'{tIS ill (;I'I"IIIIIIl\'.· Rdl~I.':II!/I. Polillrs IlIld Idl'lllop'y 1/1 Iltl' Sl'rolld Ul'irlt. IS70-lt)f.1 (English translation. Ithaca. NY. 1!l7!i). 'I:dletl. Frank. and Atkin. Nicholas (cds), /l.l'!ip,-iOIl, So(lt'I\'IIJ1fIPolilirs ill hllll((' SIWI' I7SI) (London, I ~)!)J). 'ntllctl. I,'rank. 'I)cchl'istiallizing France: the YeaI'll and the Revolutionary Expcricncc'. in 'I:tllell and AIkin (cds). Hl'lip,'/I11I III ha 1If'!' , pp. 1-2H. ' 'lhylor, Lawrence J. 'Stories or l'oW(T. 1'0 wl'r I'll I Stories', in Badone (cd.), Rl'lip:iolls Oriliodox)', PI" I (j:\-H·I. 'Ihl's, Johanncs, lil'llillf'l' 1,l'lirn (Berlin. 19(7). Thabaliit. Rogel'. MOil i lillfl,!.',P (Paris, H)·I:». Thoillpson. David. 'R. W. Dale and Ihc "Civic (;ospel"', in Alan Scll (cd.), l'mll'slfIJll NOllclllljimllily IIJ1f/ lit!' 11'1'.11 Midlflllds IIr 1,,'lIp,1fllld (Kcele. I ~E)(j), pp, !J~)-I I H, Tholllpsoll. I'all!. SlIrtlllisls. f.illi'm/.I fllld IJlhllltr' Thl' SlrtI,!.',p,1e jill' IJllldoll, 18S5-llJf.I (Lolldoll, 1!)(i7). Thompson. Pall!. with '1()Il)' Waile), and 'IiTvor LlIlllmis, Ullill,!.',·I//(' f-I'sllil/p; (London, I !JH:I).
or
BIIII.J()(;IUI'IIY
IIIIII.I()(;RAI'IIY
Waller, I~,I.,
/)1'1II(){Tlln' IIlId ,<;1'('1111"111111.1111: ,I I'olilim/llllli SO(,/1I111islon' o/' Lh'I'I'j}()ol, 18M,-11) 11) (l.l\'('rpool, 1DS I).
Wah-in, jallles, If/Sill"!' 111111 SOUI'/)" IS)()-11)5(} (l.ondon, I !)7S), Ward, I\lrs 111I1Ilphry, l!ol!(,I'II~'l\llIl'l'I' (London, 19!i2) Ilirst published I SSSI. Ward, W. R .. NI'Ii,!!,101i IlIld SOI'lI'h' III 1~'I1,1!,llllld, 17lJ()-185() (l.ondon, I D72). \\'ass(,rlllallll, llenry, :Jcws and JlIdaislll III the (;artelilaulJt", li'IIr/)()oh O{'lltl' 1,1'0 lillnh IIiSlilllll', 2:; (I mS), pp. ·17-(iO. Watts, I\lichacl R.. rill' lJtS,II'IIIt'l'S, vol. 2: rill' 1~·.\'j)({IISillll O/' 1~'1'11I1,!!;t'1i('({1 iVlIlI('oll/imlli/)' (O:.;/()J'(1. I !)!F». W('her, I':ugcn, 1'1'11.111111.1' 11110 hl'lIrilllll'lI (l.ondon, I D77). Welnhrcn, Ibn, 'Buileling COllllllunities, ConstrtlCtlng Identities: the Rlsc or t he I.ahour Part v in I.ondon', 1.011111111 jOllmlt!, 2:1 (I !)!)S), pp. ·11-tiO. Weindling, Paul. :lnl's In the Medical l'rol(:ssion in Britain and (;erl1lan)", in Bn'nlll'l', l.iedtke and Rerhtcr (cds), '/ioo NIlIIOIIS, pp. :1!J:I-·IO!i. Wendland \\'alter, Sil'lJ(' II/II I IIdlTljlllt I't' l":'ir('ltl'llp;I'S(,/II('1t11' Nl'dilis (Berlin, I !J:lO). Whyte, ,I. II., Cltllnlt 111111 SIIIII' III Irl'/IIIIII, IlJ2J-I IJ71) (2nd nln, Dublin, I !)SO). Wigky,,I., Tltl' Nisl'lIlIIl hi/! o/,Iltl' l'i('11I1'II1I1 SlIlIdll." (Manchester, I!)SO). Wilkinson, ,\Ian, ri'l' r:/1II1'('1t O/' 1~'II,1!:!({lIIllIlIIllhl' Firsl Ill!/1d Will' (London, I !J7S). --[)issl'lIl III' CIIII/ill'lll? I I ill; 1'1'11('1' IlIld Ihl' /';I1,!!:!ish (;/1111'('/11'.1. I I)()()-I 1)·1 5 (l.ondon, I !)S(i). Willard, (: .. 'Notrc Dallle d(' I'llsinc', in Bl'danda and Maitron (cds), (;/11'1,11111111.11111' 1'1 11/1111111' 0111'1"11'1', pp. 2,1 !i-!i!i. Willey, Basil, Mol'l' h('lorilili SllIIlil's: .·1 (;rolll) II/, 110111'.1'1 J)IIIIIiIITS (I,ondon, I !F)(i). Williallls, Bill. rill' Mllhlll,l!,' o/' Mllllrhl'sll'l' jl'lI'I)'. 17·/{}-1875 (Manchcst('l', Im(,). Willi<J Ills'.1 ark. '( :11lI rrhes, Sport ani I I dcnt it les ill the Nort h, I D()O-I D:I!)', in Jeff Ilill and .Jack Williams (cels), SI}()rlllllllldmlt/." ill Ihl' Nllrlh II/, 1';lIp:!lIl1d (Kccle, I D!)(i), pp. II :I-:Hi. (;1'1('/;1'1 IIlId 1~'lIp:!lIl11l: ,I (.'1111111'111 (/1111 ,"ioriIiIIEislon' IIrlhl' 11111'1'-,1'111' li'lln (l,ont\on, I !)q!)). Williallls, Sarah C., 'Religious BelieI' alld Popular Clliture: a Study or the South LOll dOli Bo}'()ugh or SOlltllll'ark r.ISSO-I!l:I!), (University or Oxl()}'(1 IWhil thesis I !)D:I). . --Rl'lip;IIII1S lil'litllllltll'oj!lllllr (,'1111111'1' /11 SOlllhu'l/r!!, r.188IJ-II)'JI) (Oxl()J'(1, I!)D!). Williamsoll, Philip, 'The Doctrinal Politics or Stanlcy Baldwin', in Michael BClltley (cd.), Pllhiil' IlIltiPrim/1' f)or/rllll' ( :allllmdgc, I !)D:I), pp. IS 1-20S. Wilsoll, BI'yan, Rl'lig;1I!1I III Sl'l'IIllIr ,';111'11'1." (Lolldoll. I !)(i(,). ---- (.'olllrlllj)()l'IIn hliIlS/iIl'lI/IIIIIIIIS III Hl'lip;ioll ( hl()J'(1, I D7(i). Wilsoll, StepiJcn, 'Saints alld their (:ults in the (:hurciH's orCelltrall'aris', ill Idem. (ed.), SllIlIls 1IIIIIIhl'lr (:1111.1 ( :amlmdgc, I !)S:I), pp. 2:1:\-(iO.
Willock, Michel, :Ieannc d'Arc', in Nor:) (cd.), 1.11'11.': til' 1I/1'l/lIiirt', vol. III. pp. '1'ln-7:\. Wintcr,,I. M., 'Spiritualism and the First World War', in R. W. DaVIS alld R. .J. IlclmstadtlT (cds), Rl'lig;loll 111111 lrrrlip;1I!1I III "irlol'llill SOl'll'h' (Lolldoll. I !)!)2), pp. I S!i-200. Wirth, (;('1I11er (cd.), Hl'ilrti',!!;!' WI' HI'r/illl'r l":'irrhl'lIp;l'sr/llrhll' (Bcrlin, IQS7). Wolrl', Robert l.ce, (;11111.1 ({lid 1.IiSSI'S: Nmlf'/s 01 Nllih 111111 f)olllil III l'irloWIlI Fllp;lllild (Nell' York, I m7). Wol/h', .Johll, nil' Pmlt',1 III II I (.'msllt!1' III (;1'1'111 !il'lltllll, 1821)-/8('() (Oxl()rd, I q!)f). (;ot! Ilild (;1'1'1111'1' nl'lillill, 18F5-11)·/5 (Londol\, 1!l!)·I). Worthen, .Iohll, n. II. 1.1111'1'1'111'1': nil' I';III/v li'lIrs. 1885-11)/2 (Cambridgc, I !!!ll ). Wng-ht, T R., '/'III' HI'Ii,!.!,'ioll O/' 111111111111/1' (Calllbridge, I qH(i). Wurster, 1'., nilS /urrhlir/II' IA}('II dl'/' l'l'IIII,!!,'!'lisrltl'lI 1.11 I1111'S!! i rrlt I' ill lViil'lll'lIIling (Tiilliligell,IDI!)), Wuthnow, Rollert, rltl' UI'sll'IIl'llIl'IlI,!!,' 0( :11111'1'11'1111 RI'/ip;illil (Princeton, N.J. I!)SS). Yco, Eileen, 'Christianity In Chartist Struggle, I S:IS-,12', 1'11.11 & 1'1'1'.11'111, D I (l!lH I), Pt>. IO!!-:I!l. Yeo, Stephen, Rl'ligll!lI 1I11t! Illlllllilln' ()lglillislililillS III (,'n.\I.\ (l.ondol\, I !)7(i). - - 'The RcIigHln or Socialism', Ilislon' 111111.-.1/1111) jllil 1'11111, ·1 (1977), pp. !i-
iiI;. Zeldin, Theodore (cd.), COIl/lirts ill hl'llrh SIII'II'/y (London, I D70), --hlllll'l' IS·IS··11)·/5, 2 \'Ols (Oxl()}'(1. 1!)7:1-7). (':milc Zola, I:.. !sso III 11/11 I I' (English t ranslat ion, LOlldon, I D!)!i) Ilirst published IS77I· '/'III' 1';lIl'lh (English translation, llanllondsworth, I !!SO) Ilirst published ISS71, norlol' 1'11.11'111 (English translation. Stl'Oud IDS!) lIst published IS!!:II. --IAIIII'III's (English t ranslat iOIl. St rolld I !)!):I) Ilirst puhlishcd I S!)·II. --1'111'1.1 (Ellglish t rallslatloll, St mud I D!);\) Ilirst puhlished I S!)S I. Z\\'ahr, Ilartmut, /.111' 1":'0 11.1111 II III'I'IIII,!!,' dts I'mll'itll'lliis Ills 1":'/11.1.11' (Ikdill, I !)7S).
INDEX
i\llgshurg, :20H ;\lIslria, Hi, :1:2, :24:! Bach,), S., I!)!l BadcI;, I D, 3:2, :17, !'i:l, 77,70. !li'l, ml, 1"1', 1' 1;\, Ii'lO, :204. :207, :20i'l. :211 Badonc, E.. :!(i7 Bailly, V. de P.. (ii'l BaldWin, S., !)O hapl ism. 7, 19, !)). I:! I, I 27-i'l, In. :2:2:2, :24H-!)O, :!:>I, :2(i:2-' 1, :27:1,
Index
2H2 Aachell, 177, :2().'), :21 () aIJorllon, :!f!:2 AdellalllT, 1\., II aglloslics. ·1:1, 7(i, /~)7--i'l, I/O_I. 117, 1/!)-f!O, :!7() Aln, 1·1 A/x, :!(i(i /\11)('1'1. PrlJl('e, f!.! AIIJI'('chl, Killg, 1:2:! Aldingloll, R., I (iO ;\/saCl', I (i, I D, !):i, III, I /;'i, :2():I, ~~~-:~, ~,j2,
2,,1·1, 2/lf,
A/igdd. W.. :2·11 1\llolla, :2(i I\ndersoll, 1\1. 1.., :207, :20D 1\llglicans, I (i, 17-1 i'l, :!:I-ti, '17-i'l, :i:I-1, :i7, IOf!-(i, 117, I :!:l, I r,:I, Hi:!, 171-:2, I i'lii, 1HH, I !)·I, IDD-:20:!, :2 1D-:20, :!:27, :!:H, :!:If!-(i, :2:Ii'l-!), :!I!l, :!f! I, :2:i!), :!(il-:i, :271, :!7:!, :!7ii-7, :27!l-i'lO ('\'
anti-clericalism, f!f!, I:\li-9, :21 ,I In rc\'ohllions, :21, :I:!, !):I and Frl'lIch polil ics, '11-:\, f! I , f!9-(iO, !)·1-7, II i'l-I 9, I:! I, l!ll, I!l!), :2:11-:2, :2:\:1, :!(i(j-7 ' :!7(i III Ellgland, 7.'), 1:2:1, 19.1-.') alld Frl'lIch stall', :1:1, (JI-7 ill (;el'lllall)" ·I·J-.'), 111-1:2, I:!!. :!11-1:2 alld pro/l~ssions, 7f!, 111-1:2, II f! and Illasndinily, I :!i'l, 1:1:1-.1 alld press, ·II-:!, iii'l, H) I imcClil'l', %, II!), 1:2·1, l:li'l-9 allll-p"ril;lIlISIll, I.'IH, 1·10-1. lIiO-I, :200-:!, :2:11 allli-sellllllslll, 1·l.'I, 1·1.'), :2 IIi, :2:20-1. :2:2f!,:233, :2·11, :2·I~, :2i'lH ,\rch,,/., I !)!'i ;ll'ISlocrac)" :!O, :21, :2:1, '10-1, ·1,1, (i7, 7:1, HIi, 91. !)·I, 101. I !n, :200, :! I 0, :211, :2 Hi, :2:!9, :2(i I. :2(i7 arillies, :i·I-!'i, (i·l, HI, II.'), I !):I, :2.1" Chapll'r i'llmss/II/ ,\l'Ilold, T., 7·1 Arras 1!J7, I i'li'l, :!.'):I /\rs, 1:I:i, 1:17 ,\s/lIl1all,,/., Hi:2 allieisls, H, :2:1-1, :2f!, ·1:1,:, I, (i·1, !)7, I :20-1, I:! I, IlO, 117, :!i'l7, :2i'l!)
Baplisls, :2:1, 4i'l, .'):2, i'l7, 9:2, 10!), 107, 1:2!), I:!(i, :!17, :!5i'l, :21!) Barmcn, 19,\ Barrow in Flll'lless, :!:2:1 Barlleli,;\., :! I D Ballbt'l'ol, .I., (i(i Bavana, I!), :20, :17, gH, 3!), ,I I , HO-I , !)i'l, I I I, I HO, :!(H, :207, :!OD, :2n:2H:\ Bavanan Peasallts' Leagnl',:!1 I-I:!,
22H Bayellx, 17i'l Ha)'l'cIIIII,I!)H Behel, A., ·I!'i I\ecker, A., :2H:2 BcetlIovell, L. vall, I.')H Belgilllll, :!:I!J-·IO, :!7!), :277 Belley,I:Ii'l B('l'(,IIS01l, E., :2:, Bergcr, I~, :! HerklIcilll, :2 I 0-11 Berlin, :!!'i, '27, ;1'2-:1, :Hi, ,II. ~)O, ~)i'l, !JD-IOO, 1'20, 1:2(i. I:2H, I:\(), 1·11, 14:i, 1-17, I!)el, ](;1, lii:2, ](i(i, 17:1, 17!'i-(i, IHO, IH.'), 1!J:l, :!Ool-:), '2 I (i, :2:!:I, '24!)-!)O. :2:,;1, :!(;.I, :2I7-H Bert,!'., I :I!) lIesa II t. A.. I 1i:1 lIiarrilz, :!():2 Bible, ·I!'i, :2:IH, :2.') !'i-(i , :2i'lH
all
Cal holic, J H- I D, 'I:!, (j 1-:2, 70, !)(i, IIH, IH7-H, [91, :!II, '2()1 Bislllarck, O. VOIl, (i!)-70, HI, H:!, IO:\, 1:10, :2.1:\ Black COli III ry, 7:\, I H:2-,I, :2n-:1 Black Foresl, :21 J Blaschke, 0., :!OD BlesSlllg, \V., HO Blollllicld, Bishop, I 1:1- I·J Blucher, H:2 Blull1, R., :\·1 Blulllhanlt, c., lUi I\OChlllll, I H:I Biilsdl(', W., l!'i!) Boli 011, I i'l7 BOllhocf/l'l', D., :2, 1:10 BOil II , :!()(j, :! I I BOllllel, S., HD Borclcallx, 177, 17H, :!H:2 IImg, D., !)i'l Horsig, I n'l BOllIaI'd, F., :2(iO Bourllevillc, Dr, J l:i BOlltr)" E, 14 Ihadl()!'(l, !J:2, IO!'i-(i, I "1:2, I !'i:2-:\, IH7
t NIlEX
Bradlangh. (: .. 1~~, 1:-)(), I (i!i Bran
m
Bro\\,lI, (: .. 7 Bruce, S., :\ Bl'llllctii'l'e, E, I !i(i, ~ 1·1 Bl'lllls\\'ick, i HO, ~O·I Brycc, l.ord, 2:\~) BucllCz, :":1 Biiehnl'l', L..I:>, l!i:i, l(i7 Hndde, C.-E, I 00, ~ I~) Buddha, Buddhislll, H, I .(~), 1(iH BllIsson, F., (i(i Bnshawal', 1', .. :):i Butler, S .. 171-~, ~HH Calvinists, I H, ~O, :\:1. H(i-7, I :I~, I ~):\-1. ~(i(i SI'I'II/SII Baptists: (:ollgregat iOllalists: Protestants (:arcassolllH', n:{, ~7H Carlile, R., I (i,1 Caq)enter, E., lIi:I-·l CastcilllaITall, ~:\H-!) catechism, 7, I~), 77.1:1·1. 177, ~I!), ~W)
(:at holic Workers' Associat ions, ~~·I ( :at holics, ~HG, ~HH in England, 17, :i~, !i.!. 71. H(;, HH, I ~(i. I :Hi, 1:17, 17~), I H(i, I H~), I ~)(i, ~()O, ~ I ~), ~:\~-:I III Francc, II, IH-I~), ~I-~, ~(i, :\~),I(l. :>~, HD, ~)2-:\, ~)1-7, III. II(i-17, IIH-ID, 12·/-(i, I ~H-D, I:\~-~), l(i7, 171, 17t), ! 77-H, I H2, I HG-H, H)O-~, I DH-9, 20,1, 21 :\-I!i, 217,
t NllEX ~2()-7f 22K-:t~, 2/1<1-7, 2:)O-:i, ~!iD-():I, 2(i(i-!), 27(i, 27H, ~HO, ~HI-I ill (;crman\', 20, :1:1-:), :IH, :1!)-40, !iii, !iH-~), (i9-71, 7(i-~), H I-~, ~lH, 100, I ~O-2, I :10, I :Hi, 1·10, I:il-~, 171-:>, 171i-7, 17!), I H:I, I H(i, 20;"-1 :1, 21 (i, ~ I H, 22:1, ~~7-H, ~4 1-:1, ~·f(i, 2!):~, ~7;)
liileral. ~)!) ultraillontane, !) I, ~)(i, !J!J, 10:1. 2(iO (:atholic organisations, ,I!), 110, IHH, ~O!i, 207, ~()!), 21:"-11. 22·1,2,12,2Hf> .11'1' II/SII alltl-Catholicism: anticlericalism; clergy; orders; papacy: ntes or passage; saints; schools; shrincs cemcteries, (iO, 2!iO CClltrc Part)" 7!), I·I~, 2(Hi-7, 210, 211.227,21~
Chad\\'lck, 0 .. I ~ Chaline, ,I.-I~, I ~)~ Ch;llolls, I H I Chamilcri;un,j., I()(i, 110 chaplaills arlll\', :)·I-!i, 2:"H, 27(j, ~H2 hospital, I I:i prison, 1:\·1 school. 7·1 IlIlIVl'l'SltICS alld collegcs, 7(i, 211 Charcot, ,I.-M" ~m charit)" H7, ~)I, 11:1, 192, ~O~ Charles X, ~() Chart ists, 2!), ·17-H (:hartres, 12(i, I:IH, IHI (:hcmllltz,IH:) childrell, childhood, 71-!i, 7(i-H, H2, 100, ]~I, I~·I-:), 127, l;lO, 1:11-:), 21~)-21, ~~2, 2:17, 2·IH-!i(), 2(jH, 2H(i
SI'I' II/SO schools Cholvy, (;" II 12, ·12, 2(iO-1 Ch rist iall Democrats, 20:\ chlll'ch-imiidillg, 40, H!)-DO, 17(i, I H(), I HH church buildings, ~(i, (i I-~, IO(i, 22:>, 2:1 I-~, 2(i!i 1"Inglllg or bells, 2(i(i-7 church-going, 9, I I, I!), 21, 2:i, H(i-~H, ~)D-IOO, 121-2, I~!i-(i, 12H, I :I!), (:haptcr !i j)([SSIIIl, 27~-:I, 277-D, 2H!i, 2HD chllrch-Illellllwrshq), (i-7, I ~!), I !)!)-200, 27~) church tax ( ;l'I'lllany), !)H, 2H!) churching, 2!i I, ~7:1 (:ivie (;ospel, IO(i class mnllict, 7, ,\(j, !)]-:I, I,ll, IH4, I 1l7-~), I D,I-,I, I D:i-7 class and religiolls practic(" HH, I H2, I ~)O-:I, 200, ~O I, 210, ,12'/ (:1elllCIlC("lll, (;., I 12 clergy, 1%-7, l:i7, 27·1. 2H1l Anglican, IH, 2:>, ,17, 74, DO, 110, 117,1:1·1, l(i:l, I~)·I-!i, 1%, 202, ~·I~), ~(i:i, 277 Catholic (England), 110,1:\7,
~77
Catholic (France), I H-I ~), ~ 1-2, :1:1, :Hi, ·10,/1-:1, !i I, :'i~)-(iO, (il-:I, (i!i,!Hi, IOH-IO, 114, 117, I IH-I!), 12,1-:>, 1:1:1. 1,17-D, 177-H, I ~)!), 2,lO-1, 2·17, ~(jO, 2(j~, 2m-H, 27(i (:at holic ( ;crlllany), ~O, ,I~, :1:), :1~)-'IO, 70, 7~), I I I, 20:i, 27!) NonmnlcJrlllist (England), 2!l, ·17. ] ()(i, liD, 12:1, I~)!i, 202, 277 Protestant (France), I H, 1·10, 27(i Protestallt (;crlllany), 20, :I~-:I, :\!l-H, ·/·I-(i, H()-~, II 1,117. 1:1·1, 17G, I W), 20!)- I (), 2,/~)-r)o, 27!i, ~HO SI'I' II/SO lay preachers; nUlls
(:Icrlllont-Fcrrand, I H I Cologlle, I :)H, 177, I H!), ~(H-(i, 20H, 21 I, 22:", 22H mlpmtellrs, ~:):I, 2!)·1 COlllhes, E., (i I, I 12 COllllllllllioll, ~I, 22,12·1, 12(i, 171. 172-:", 17!)-(i, 177, IWI, ~():"-!l, ~:'H), ~7H. 279. 2H2. 2H!) First COlllnlllllioll, 21 ~), 2!iO-1, 2(i(i Comt{', 1\.,1-2, r), 1,1:1 (:ollconlat or I HO I, I H, ~ I , !)2, (i(), (ii, 177, ~I:" (,()Ilrcssion, 21, I:I:I, 1:"7, ~()D, 22(i (,()1I1(~sslollal identity, 72-:1, 7H, Chapter (i j}({SSIIII, 21l,1, 2H(i con](-ssiollal sllh-ndtllrcs, H, 20·i-r), 22·/-!i, 2,\0-1 lllutlial stereotYJllng, ~ I !)-20, 221/222-:) religlOll and I"otillg, 2()(j-7, 2~(i-:H
allti-Catholicislll; ant i-Sclll it iSIll ('()nlirll1
2HH (:olls(,],l"atl\'Cs ( ;Cl'lll;lI1Y), "I (i-7, !i I , 7H-!), 10·1, 227-H COllstitlltiollal Chllrch, 22, 177-H contraceptioll, ~!)2 COIlI'CrSlon or 1)('lievcrs to llilbelier, ,IH, I I (i, 12·1, I~O-l, I:ID, 1·IH-!iO, l(i:I-I, ~HI evangelical, ~:I, 2·1, 12:) or.lcws to Christiallity, 142, 1·lr), ~2]
orprotcstallts to (:aliwlicislll, I,I!), 177
I NIlEX
COll\'crsion ((,011/,) of'unilelil'V(,],s 10 bclid', 'Ii'l, 121-0, 12~), I~)L 211, 2i'l1, ,I,ll Cooper, '1:, ,Ii'l CoperniClls,0 CoriJOn, C"I\., Hi7 COIIOII, C., 7·1 COllrllH'\', W, 1,., Hii'l Cox, "., 2-,\ Cox, J" D, 2i'l, 07, 72-,\, IOi'l Crcllst', II ii, 12ii. I ~)()-l. 22~). 2ii:\. 2ii~)
Crewe, 10:1-,1 Crolll'nlll'rg, Fr. 210 cl'llcilixcs. ii:l, (iii. 70, II ;;, 20:1-1, 2i'l:1,2i'l1 (:ull1IJcrland. 17,1. 17[") Dahl. R., 71-;; Dall', R. W., IOii DariJoy, Archhishop. II i'l Darwin. C., ,I. 120. 100. 1;;·1, I [",0-(i. 1;;7. I ii2. 2(i2 Darwinism, 107. 102. 179. I i'lO. I i'l2. Ii'll Dawson, C., IO(i I )ccrness Valle)" I i'li-l-!) IklTinglon, E., i'l1i-7 lkscarles, R., 0 lkspielTl's. 101 1J1'1l/sr"k"//lIIlikl'll • .11'(' Dissenlt'1's \)id;t'ns, C., 1·17. 1,·Ii-l I)isracii, II., ·I!) Dissenll'l's ( ;erlllany). 2(), 2·1, :I:\. ,1:1-0, :17, :I!), DO, ~)D. I :I~), I (i(i-7, 2ii:\ divorce, 0·1, iiO Dodel. A., 121, I :,ii Dolel, E., ii4 Dorsel. 2·1 i-l-!) DorlllluIHI,21ii-l Dostovt'vsky, E. 1,17 Dresden. 170, I i-l0
INDEX
Drews, 1'.,101 Dreylils Art;lir. (i I, (ii-l, 12'1-0, 21·1, 2·i(i rln cra. 17,2:1,/17, :,2 Charlisl pcriod. 20. -17-H Chrislian and i'roleslanl charaCicr or lllid,Viclorian slate, '/IH-~),
!):)-£J,
2:~r)-7
'creeping s('cularisallon', 0(i-H. 71-(i, H:I-I, I !l~)-202. 2:17-10 pluralism, 27(i-7 .1'1'1' allo Anglicans; Calholics; clergy; Freclhinkcrs; .I eli's; N 011('()! I I(lrm iSI s Elllightclllllelll, 4, 22, i-ll, !H, 17(i, 17i-l Erl.gehirgc, 122 ESSCll, 2 I 0 Eilllcal Socielies. Hi0
Eurc, I G(i Evangelical Social (:ongrcss, ·10-(i cxecul ions, :14, ,II, I I i-l-19, 1,14, :\·1:1 Falk, 1\., 77-i-l FalTar, E, 74 "aury,,I., 42, 2'1(i Fcnayrou lllllrder I rial, 12H Ferry,.I., (i(i, 1!i0 kSlivals Chrislian, 10!), 20,\, 204-0 Jcwish, 1,]1-2,17'1, 220-1 palrioli(',242 Repuhlicall, 2:;·1 Socialisl, I l!l FCllcrbach, L., 2, 20, 01, 1,1:1 Field, C., 120, 190 Fillcs du SI Espril, 20:1 Finisl(~l'C, 20:1 Fisher, Archbishop, 70 fishing COl11l111111111eS, D3, 1:12 FbuhtTI, (;., I'IH I(llklalcs, I !)O, 207-H, 2(i7-i'l, 27:1 Fonlanc, T, I 0D, 21 (i Francc Revollllioll of' 17i-l!), I, 1H, 2(i, 120, 12!), 22i'l-9 Reslorallon, 1,1, !J:I, 12~), 17i-l, 191-2 RevollllIOIl of' I H:\(), 21, 101, 190. 191 .Iuly Monarchy, 22, :rl, 12!) Revollliion of' I H,Ii-l, :1 I, :l:I, I DO .Ill ne Days, :Hi, 1!J2 Sccond Rcpublic, :1 I, D:I, 17H,
1H2,
22H-~)
Sccond Empll,(" :\1, '10, ,1:1, !H-0, 12D, I (Hi, 192, 229 Moral Order, 114, 9·1-0, ](i(i Third Rcpublic, !i-Ii, 11,22, 'J:I, ;,)9-(i9, !H-7, IO!l-IO, 112, II :l, 12(), 22i'l. 2,\(), 2·1,1-7, 2(i2,2H0
Cal holics; clergy; Freclhillkcrs; .Iews: I'rolcslanls France, 1\., !17 Franconia, i-lO, 20i-l Frallkall,J,I-10 Frcderick ill(' Gn'a!, 2-1:1 Frcelllasons, 90, 117, 12D. I DI, 24(i Frec Parishes, .11'1' Dlss{'!licrs Frcclhinkcrs ill England, 107, I (i'I-(i ill France, II,G2,(i4,!Hi-7, IOD, 112, 110, 11i-l, 12(i, 12!l, I:lD-·IO, 100, ](ili, 190,217, 227, 2(i2-,\, 2H4 in (;crman)" I (i(i-7, 217 .1('1' 11/.111 aglloslics; alheists: Sccularisls Friedrich Wilhell1l III. 2(), ,Hi Fricdrich Wilhelm I V, 20, ,11-2, :I(i, :ID, I I I I'tmcrals, 19, 2(i, ,12-,1,4,1, I 27-H, IH7, 200, 201,2GI-0, 27i-l FUlcall, i'l9 .11'1' 11/.10
(;alileo, ;') (;;Iil()}l, F., IOi-l, 10(i, I (j2 Gamhella, 1,., 94, ~)(i, 100 (;11 1'/1'111(/11 hI' , 102-:\ (;cigcr, ;\., 27 Geiscn kirchcn, 207 gCllder, 7-H, 10,22,24, :\<1-0, 101, II D, 121, 12·1-'\(i, 142, 10i'l, 174, 17(i, 17H, 1!1I-2, 1!)0,2(Hi, 21:1-10,271 (;corge V, 27 (i (;criach hrol hers, 0 I ( ;crm any liJl'llliir:(, I !)-21, 2'1-0, 2(i-i'l, ,10, 00-1, 77, !)~) Rcvollliions of' I i-l4H-!), 2!l,:\ 1-'11, ,1·1,00-1, 77, i-l0, !JH, 102, I I 1. 100, Hi(i-7, 2()(i
I NIlVX
INIlE"
(;(Tmall), ((,0111,) 'Era oI'Rea('lioll·. :I!)-,II, ,1,1, :iO-I, 77, DK. I O~ 'Ncll' Era'. ,11-:). 77-K. DK. IO!' I(U
/"lIlsl'lTticli, ,1:)-7, :i:;, :i!i-(i, :iK. (i~)-7I. 77-K~,
DK-D. 10:1-1.
III-~. ~~7-K. ~II-I, ~7:i.
2H[,) Rnolt II iOIl 01' I~) I K, :)(i. 77. K!i Weimar Rl'jlllhlic. :iK-~). 7~), K:i. III, ll!i, ~KI .11'1' II[S(} (:al holics; clergy: Fn'l'lhillkns; .Jell's; Proieslallis (;h{'oll. II., ~(i(i (;iiJsoll. R .. 17D, ~:)~ (;ilherl. A, 0 .. (j--7, I KI (;ill. R .. I K(j-7
(;issillg. C" I:iO (;ladslolle. \y, E .. I~), :,1. :iii, 14K (;Iasgoll'. KD (;Iouceslershirc, I ~)'I (;oeilw,,I. \V. , ·I:i. KO. I~O, 1:i7, I!iD-(iO, ~I:I (;iil1re, P.I(i (;onlol1. (;CIH'I'<1I, ~:\7 (;orc. Bishop, l(i7 (;iilllllgl'l1. I ~)K (;UIlI1, S .. IO(i Ilachllllal1n, R .. ·1·/ llacckcl, E,. IOD, I ~ I. I :i:), I (il, I ()7
I \ali,
n.,
I~
lIamllllrg, I D, ~r" ~(i, ~7. :I~), :,:1, ~)~)-I O(). I I~. I ~O. I ~(i, I ~K, I :i~)-(i(), 17·1, 17:i--(i, I KO, I K:). ~O:,. ~7K
[Iandel, (;, F.. ~!i7 Ilano"t'I', I ~), ·11. DD, 17:i-G. I KO, IDS lIard)" T, 1!7-~). I :iO. ~·IK-~) llarlman, 1\1., I ~S Ilan MOllnlaim, 17:-)
llaslings CMngshol'OlIgh'), I~:\, ~r)7
Ilaule-Vicnlll', ~(i(i Ilan'lock. (;elleral. ~:17 iIealih ('holna cpidemics, ~)O, ~):I, I I :1-11. ~:i!i. ~(i(i doclors, 10:\, 11~-17. I~~), 1:i7. I (i(i, ~ I (i, ~~:I, ~(iD, n! hospilals. (i:\. 70, I l:i illEuli dcal hs, ~,·IK-!iO miraculous healillgs, (i~). ~)(i, II (i, 1:)7. ~:)(), ~(iK-D n\1\'ses, I D, I I:), 117 ullorihodox mcdicinc, 11 :\, 11·1. I()~
Ilcine, II .. I O~ llellgslellilcrg. E, W .. ;l!i-(i. !i I Ilcnsoll, Bishop, ~:I:i-(i Ilcrres,,I., ~O!i-(i Ilcss(' 1·1 :\, ~(H Ilcssc-J)armsladl, I!), 7!), I SO Ilcsse-Nassall. 17:1, I SO I[ilaire, \,-1\1., ~J-~. 17:i, IS(i, IKK, ~!i·1
II illdus, K, i(iK lIiller, /\., !iK, III Ilii\s('hn, 1.., II. \~, I:)!), 17(i [Io\yoa\;.e, «I" ·IS, I~~, l(i··I-:-; I [()\H')', ,I .. 7:\ Il1Idderslicld, In, ~:i7 111I1ioll, 0" 17S IllIgo, V.. ~)7, )(il, ~·I!i Ill1mholdl.:\, \'011, ~,I:\ 111l1l1e, I) .. !i, l~O llllmphrics, S" KO, K~ IllIngar)'. :I~ 11111'1,./-,7:1 Ilmley. T Ii., I :iO, I :i(i. I(i~ hymns (:hrisilan. :1~,J(i, 77, I:\(), 1(i(i, ~:,(i-7. ~(i:\' ~70-1, ~7~-:1,
:1··10 Repuhlican.
Socialisl. I I S, I (i:I, ~(i:1 hymn-hooks, ~O. :I:\S Ihsen. II.. 1,17 Franc(', ! 77 im pcrialism, ~~7, ~:I:\' ~:I(i-7. ~:I!l-·II , ~'I:) In(it-peIH\cnl l.al)()\1\' I'arl)" ·ID, I~:\. IK!J, 1m. ~:\:I, ~KO Indepcndellls, Stl' (:ongrcgal i()\ lal iSI s indusl nalisal iOIl, (i-7. D I-~, IO:i-(i, 17D, I S~-!)7, ~07, ~ I 0-1, ~~:I-·I Ircland, :i(i. ~~~, ~~:\. ~:\:i, ~:\7 Islam. I (iK Iialy, :\~, '10. I (i I 1\'1')'. ~(i:1
lie de
J IIP;l'IIiflll('ilil'.
~(j:I-'1
Kaplall, 1\1 .. 1:10 Kar
Janss('n, J .. I,I~), ~·I:\ }II ho, K .. ~)D .Jam('s,J, I~·!. I~D Jesuils, ~ l. ~~, 'I~, ()7-S. 70. 10·1. ~O(i. ~ II. ~~:i Jesus, :), ~,1. ·I~, ·IS, :iO. K7, II~, 1:10. I·ID. j(i!), I!)J, ~:\~. ~:\S, ~:"i,\ Jews III
i':lIgland, ~(i-K, 7-1. 7:), In, I·II-(i, 17:1-,1, I ~)(i. ~~ I, ~~:\. ~:I~
III France, I !), ~)(i,
~(i-S, :i~,
I :ID, 171.
~
17,
(i I. !):i. I, ~:I,\,
~~
~J(j. ~7(i, ~S·I
III (;enn
~(i-S,
:1,1. :\7, :)K, 1:\0-1, I,II-(i. j(i, ~~ I, ~~:I-1. ~II.
77-K.I~(),
17·1,
~
~.J:\. ~:i:l, ~~)7
dOIlll'SI ie religion. In. I :\()-l, 1·1:1, ~~()-I emancipalioll. 17. :)~-:\, !i.!, I ()~ Lihcral, ,I!), 1·1·1 Orlhodox. ~7. ~K. :ID, 14~, 1·1,1 rahhis, I K, ~7-K. :I~, 1·11, n(i, ~77, ~K'I
~(i:1
sahhath. ~7, 1~7, I,\(), 141-4.17·1 sccular, ~7-S, 14:)-(i synagogucs. I ~7. 1:1 I. 1,11-'1, 17:\-·1 .\'1'/' (([.I'll ;1Il11-SCIll il ism; cOllvcrsion; resllvals; dies or passage JOWl'll, E, Ir,;\
Rd()\'\II,
~7-S,
:19. H·I,
~:\:i
Knil'fka,.l" ~(i,1 Kiihlc-lkzlIlger, C,' ~ I S KiilligshlTg, I~) Kse\lllall, '1:, II, ~S, l(i7. ~'I:) Krcy.lJ.,·l(i KlIlIIclll
INDEX
INIlEX
Lallsbllry, (;., ., D-flO, I ~)(i La Rochelle, 177 Larkin, lVI., (i·1 Lalin America, (i:! Lawrencc, D. II., ~70 I ,awson,.I .. 2:")H-D, ~(i!l-70 lay preachers, ~fl, I HH, I Df), ~!lH Leck\" w., I Leeds, n, ~2:\ Legil ilnisls, ~:I, 3:1, fll , 9~-:1, \)·1 I ,eicesl er, I ~7 Leipzig, :1,1, ·Ifl, 9 I, I o~, I Hfl ll'isllrc, 7, 17(i, 19:1. l!lH, ~OI-2, ~:~(), ~:-'7, ~.GH
sporl Lc rVlans, I H I Leo XIII. 1:);1, IHH Lessing, (; .. 2·1:1 Lilll'rais (England), ·IH, -I~l, 7:", IOfl-H, I fl~-I, I H!l, 191, :!O L ~27, ~:1:!-4, :!:17, 27(i-7, 2Hfl Liberals (;cl'lnany), :19, 'I-I-fl, ,17, fll, 7(i, 77-9, !lH-I()fl, 111-12, I·I:!, Ifl7. I!J:I, 211. ~~:), ~~7-H, SI'I' ({/SI)
~I:I
Liheral ion Socict y, I ()(i-7 Liebig, J, 1:)7 Lichknecill, K., ·Ifl Liedhegcner, A, I H:I Up,'III~ /)(11/'/0111/111' d('s hllll(II/S('S, ~
1:1-1·1 Lille, 1:12, ~()~l Limoges, I!ll I ,illlousin, ~(j I Lincolnshire, I Df),
2fl~,
:!flfl,
~fl7-H,
~fl!l
IiIcra III re n'ligiolls I hl'IlH's in, I :!:I--I, 1~4-fl, 1·17-flO, Ifl(i, I:")!l, HiO-I, 17~, 21:1,2 I(i, ~:I I-~, 21 H-!l, ~fl:!, :!()(i, :!t;!l,
,10-1-:) religion orart and lill'l'alllre, I-II, I fl7-(i I
religions inflncllcc of'writers, I !lO, Ifl!l-(iO, ~I·I-Ifl Li E., I :!9, 2(j~ l,ivcrpool, HH, I HI, l!lti, 2:12, 27~ Livingstone, \) .. ~:17 Lloyd (;COl'gc, D., ~7(; Lockc,.J., fl London, ~:I, 4!l-flO, fl7, 72, H,I, HH, !)(l, IOH, 1~2, I~(;, 127, 1:17, I'II-(i, 14H, 1(jI. l(jfl, 17:1-4, IHI, I \Hi, 197, 2()()-1. ~1!)-2(),
lire ,
2!J I,
~!J7
Longtown, 17:\ LOI'imCl', D .. 2:\9 LOI'rainc, Hi, 9fl, I7fl, ~o:l, 2-1·1. 2,1:) LOllis Philippe, 21, :1 I, :1:1 l,iilll'ck, I D, ~O-I
luck.
2!)~.
i.1I(:0 II,
2·1~,
2!>D, 272, 2H:{
I HI
Luther, lVI., ,IG, HI, H2, 1(1:\, 122, I(;!), 212-:\. 2fl(j, 2fl7 LIII hcrans, I H, 20, 21 H LIIlhcran Ol'lhodoxy, :lfl, :IH, "II, HI. I !IH .11'1' ({/so j,lIlId('slii/'('hl'lI; Protcstants Lyoll, :\2, 1, I I H, 12(), I :\9, 1,1:"), I fl2, Ifll MassiI' (;C111 ral, 2:")(i I\laslerlllan, (:., IOH, 2HO Mallrras, C .. ,1·1
MazitTCS-CIl-Gtllinc, I !)9 MeckeIlHlrg-Slrclilz, IHO Mecklenburg-Schwerin, ,I!l, I HO Mergcl, T, I'I!), 20(i MClh()disIS,(),~,I,'17, 10fl, 12\), 1,12, I:\(i, J.l0, l'lfl, Iflfl, 16\), 17!l, I H:~, I HH-~l, 217. 220, 2flH-!1, ~7~
I ncicpcndenl, I fl,1 Primilive, D2, IH!l, IDfl, ~I!)-~O, 2fl7. ~7!l Wesleyan, flfl, H7, 107, IOH, I ~(), 21!1,27!) Meyer, M., 27 Miall, E., IOti-7 Michelcl,j., 12!1, 1,~:I, 2·14 middle class, 22, 2,1, 2'1-!l, 2H, '10, '17, fll, fl!l, H2, !)(l, !)J -2, ~H-117, 12!), 1,10, 1,11-2, U:), 141-(i, 17ti-7, 17H, 1!1l-2, 214, 2 Hi, 22H, 2(i\), 2HH lower middle class, 23, H(i, 10fl, 117, liD, 122, 132, I (ifl-() , 210,270-1 lIpper middle class, 7,\, Hti, !14, I HO, I H2, I H:\, I ~l,I-'!, l!)(i-7, ~OO-I
I1l1ssiollS, m issiollaries overseas, 2:\7, 2'IO-i. 2'lfl, 2H7 milan, Hfi-7, H!l, Ifl2 Molcscholl, I flfl Mohkc, H~ Monle Cario, :!O~ Montgclas, 211 MOIlI pcllicr, cI2-:~ Mooscl',.I .. 207 Mosl, J, 4fl Moulins,IHI MUllich, 122, 20fl, 212, 22H Miinstcr, 177, IH'\. 20fl M millo, 2 Hi M u manc, Fr, 177 music, H, HI, H9, 1'1 ,\, I flH-9, ](j I, I G·!, 2:\H, ~fl7, 270
hands, 22'1 choirs, II D, 1!l4, ~2fl, 2!l7 songs, (i,l, I 19 SI'1' II/SO hymns Nantes, (i3-'1. 17:1, IHI Napolcon I, I H, 20, ~ I, 22, 26, 2H, I!ll, 2,lfl, 279 Napoleon Ill, ,\ I, :Hi, '10, !l!l, 11'1, I,\H, I(i I Naqucl, A., 112 nal ionalism, I fl, HO-,I, 102, I I I, l(i7, 21,), 21fl, 22fl, 2:1'1-4(i, ~(iH, 27!l-HO, 2H I-~, 2H4, ~Hli Nelson, I fl:l Nellwriands, H, fl(i, 20H, 22'1 Newman, Cardinal. 2,IH Nell'lon, I., fl Nicc, I (j Nielzschc, E, 100-1, HiO, 2H!l Nlmes, I!) Nippc]'(icy, T, I fl!l, I (j'~-'1. 22fl-ti Nonmnl(>rInisls (England), (i, I Ii, 17, 2:\-4, '17-9, fl2, flli-H, 71-:1, 74, 7fl, 7f), H·I, Hfl, 92, IOfl-H, I~:l, I~fl, I,~!), 140-1, 144-:), Ifl2-'I, 171, IHH-D, I!H-li, 200, 21!)-20, 2,12-4, 2tifl-ti, 276-7, 2HO, 2HI, 2Hfl, 2H7 .11'1' II/oil) Baplisls; (;ongrcgat ionalisls; Melhodists, Pn'sllylcrians; Quakers; Salva I iOIl Army; Unitarians Nord,2lil Nor!()lk, l!lfl Normandy, I O~) Norl hamplon, H,I NOl'lhumberiand, 17fl Noll ingham, I H7 NOllinghamshirc, J 71-2, ~70 Iluns, I!), 21, fl!)-(iO, 6:\, IH, II fl, 117, 12fl, I,\(i, 22:\, 2HH Nlln'mhcrg. 17fl
1i'iIlE:\
li'illL:\
OIll'lkcvieh,.J .. I !lH-D, ~!l~, ~:):), 2:')7. 2:)~) Old Cal holies, ~1!1 Oldcnil!!rg, ;jH, ~1~1, I HO, ~Ol O'NeilL ,\.,IH (}rrhard, \\'., nD ordcrs, (iI, (i7. (iD-70, IHH SI'I' IIlso IlllnS Ol'lnii')'('s, ,I.-L., ~~D (}wen, W.. ~HO Oxf()I'{1 diocese, I ~1·1-!l (}zolll',,I. and i\L, D7 Padcri)()1'11 diocese, ~07 Painc, '1:, ~:;, I (i:), I (iD Palaliliale, :I~, :1:1, :17, IHO, ~O·l, ~OH Palillcrslon, Lord, 11·1 papacy :1 I. :I~, !Hi, ~)q, 10;,), I :IH, ~~L 22f)-(1,
~2H.
2·12
Paris, I D. ·I~, (i:l, (i7-H. HH, I I :1, I I!), I 17. I ~:), I ~(i, I ~H, I,ll, I:d. IIi I, I 71, I 77 -H, I Hl. I ~ 10, ~:) 1-2. 2()D, 27H. 2H2 COlllllilllH', IIH-ID, 1:11. IDO Pas-de-CaLlis, I ~~1, 17:), I H7-H, ~ 1·1, ~ii'l, ~(il
Paslc!ll', L., I ii7 palcl'llalisl1l, !) I. I HH, I ~)(i-7, ~O(), ~O~, 2:1:1-1 pcasanls, H(i, ~).!, 10 I. I 17, I :\~, lIi(i, lH7. 210, ~!ll, 2H:\ Pl~glly, C., ~ ].I-I ii PlTigord, ~ii~ Pl:rigllt'lIx, I H I IY'rollas, L., I!) I pilgrimage 7(), ~1·1, I :Iii, 1!l7, I !lH-~l, ~()(i, ~ II, ~:\l-~, ~r)o, 2ii;j, ~(iO, ~()7, ~(iH-~), 271, 27H, 2H:I S('(' II/SO SailllS; shrincs PilisVII,IH PillS IX, :I~, :Hi, ·10. II H PillS X, Ii 1-2 Plalo, I (iH Poincare, R., 27(i
polil ics alld rcligion rcligious language ill polilics, ~!l, :12-:1, ·1:\-7, 4H-ii I. I ~~, 2H(i salvalioll by polilics alonc, I I H-2:1. 1·1 ii--(i, I !lO, I ri I-I, I ~1()-1, 2:11, ~H7 S('(, iI/SII cOlll('ssionalldt'lllily; nallonalisln; soclalisnl; slalc and church; and lIndcr nalllcs or polil ical parllcs Pomerallla, ~ I (i popular religion, .1, II. 1·1, I :), ~!), 7:\, lIiD, ChapltT 7 jJII.mlll, ~H(i, 2~1 I S('(,II/SI1 Bible; hcalih; hylllns; 11Ick; pilgrullage; riles or passagc; saillls; shrincs Poriligal. (i~ PosillVislll, 12~1, l;j·I-!l, 11i:1, ~I·I-lii, 217, 2{)2. 2HH prayn, ·11 , (jO, D·I, 100, II :1-1·1, J:lO, 1:1 I, 20~, 272-:\, ~7!i, nH, 2H2, 2HD PrcsiJyll'l'ians, H~) prcss, ·17, 1:1·1, lIiH-D, 20H, 2(}(), 27D anll-clnical. ·11-2 Caillolic. (iH, 70, 210, 21:1 'irreligious', (iH, I DH Lihcral,!lH-D, 101-2, IO:"i, 1!11, 20 I , 227-H "rolcslanl, :\;"i SOCialisl, II~), 1:'),1, 1!Hi Yiddish, I·l(i Pn'sloll, 22:1 proccssions, ~ I. (i:I-·I, !):\, IOD. I !iD, IDI. 2:d, ~(iO, 2(i2, 2(i(i-7. 2H:I Progressivcs (England), !i7, IOH proslillillon, II'I-I!!, 212, 22:1 Prolt'Slanl i\ssocialion (I'roi('sirl/lil'mll:rt'ill), ~)H-!), I ()cI-!i Prolcslanl I ,('ague (Fl111/Ip;l'fisc/II'f nlllld), I (J:\-·I
Proleslanl Workcrs' Associalions, /:1:1
Proieslailis in England, SI'I' Allglicans; Nonconl()]-l1lisIS; and 1I1lder Ihe nalllCS or each dt'l J( >Illllial iOIl III Francc, IH-I~), II:\, !i2, (il, (i2, (i~), D!i-7, IO!), 12·1, i:I~)-IO, 177,21'1,217, 21D, 2HI in (;el'lnany, 20, ~)H-I O!i, I I~, 120-2, 1,\0, I.J:I, J 72, 17!i-7, 17D, 21 (i, 22:1, 22:)-(i, 227-H, 2,11-:1, 2,l(i, 2!i:1, ~7(i, 27!l-HO; SI'(' II/SO C:i1vinisls; Disselilcrs; 1,lIllIll'SllIfr/II'II; 1,1IIhcralis COIlScrV;tlivc, H-~), ~)H-~), 107 evangelical, H, 2:1, 2·1, 7(i, H:I, HH, 149, 22(i, 2:1H, 2HH liberal, !l7-~), 1(>:\-;j, 107, I 12, J:\~l-·IO, 1·1·1, HiO, 22:)-(i, 2:H~. 2:')7-H plClist, ,10, 7~), H I. I !l:l, 222 secular, 2,1:1 Proudhon, I~, 1:1-1·1 Prussia, l!i, I !)-20, 2·1, 27, :11-2, :1:\, :1,1, :I~), ·10-1, ,I (i, ii:\, 77 -H, DH-~), 10:;, 121, I·I:\, IHO, IDH, 2(>:\,20'1,212 Psicha 1'1, E., 2 1,1 Plidsey, 2!l(i, 2!iH-~1, 2(i~)-70 Quakers, IO:j, 12(i, 217,277, 2HO-1
27~1,
race, 2:1·1, 2:\(i, 2:ID-·II, 2·f(i Radicals (Frallce), (i I, (i(i, 1:Hi, I (i(i, 227, 2()2, 27 r)-() Ralhcllau, W., ].I:i Readillg,7 Rcdelllptorisls, 22, 20(i RcilllS, I 17 Religion or Ilumanily, I, :1·1, 1!i!i, I !i7-H, 2H(i RCIl:lII, E., !i, IO!), 1:\:1, 21,1
Rt'nnes, IHI Rcpuhlicans (Francc), :)!l-(i!l, H!l, D'I-7, IO!), I(i(i, 1m, I!lD, 2:10-1,2:1:1, 24·1-7, 2m Rhinclalld, I ~), 14 I, 20!i-(i, 207, 20~), 211. 222, 2·10 Riley, ,\., I I I riles or passage Chnsltall. 2·IH-!i I, 2(i I-G, 2HD Jewish, 221 sCCltiar, 2(i I-(i, 2HD .11'(' IIlso bapllsm; c1IlIlTiting; cOlilil'lnalioll: lilllcrals; weddings RoiJSOII, (;., I H2-:\ Rogel, II., 112 ROIllC, :12, ,IIi ROllgc,.I-, 2·' Ro 1.\ m:if.llc 1', E., 102-:1 Rouhaix, I H(i, I HH ROUCII,·IO, 1~)1-2 Rousscau,.J.,I., 22 Royle, E., Iii:) Ruhr. 12!1, 2D,1, 22:1 rmal areas, H(i, HD, I O~), 117, 122, 12:1, 12(j, 1/11-2, 1(;2,171. 17ii, 177, I H!)-(j, I ~1()-1. I D'l-!i, 1~17-~), 200, 20·1, 211-12, 22H, 22~)-:1 I, 2:1-1, 24H-!), 2!i~, 2:'):\-1, 2!i!i, 2!i(i, 2!iD-(i I S:larlalld, 70, 210-1 I dl' MOllilllll/hl', G4, II D, 2:1 I Sacred licari, Cllh or, 2:12, 24!i, 2(i() SI In's, 17,1 sainls, 2(i, (i:\-·I, 9·1, I I:), J:1!i, I H7, 211,222, 2:i:\-!i, 2(jO-I, 2(i7-!l. 27H, 2H>~, 2HH Barbara, 2!i4 Ikl'lladcllc, 2(iH-~) BI:IISC, ~(i I BrollH'r (;ollrad, 2(iH 1':101, 2!i:1
SIIITI' COl'lIf
IN[)EX
INIlEX
saints, (col/I.) lIilail'c,2(il .Io
IIlsl! pilgl'll1lages: shl'Incs
Salvat Ion AI'I1IY' !)O, 2(i!) San kcy, I., 2!J7 SaU E, 1,17
S,l\'( »" I (i S
school tC
impaci or, ·I-!J, 10, 12, 47, 27:1-·1 presligc or sCIenllsls, (i, IOH, I !J7, 2119 rivalry bClwcen sCIcntlsls and c1cl'gy, I 12-17, I !J(j-7, 21l!) scicillilic malcl'lalism, +I-!J, !)(i-7. 10:1, 120-1 criliclsm or scicnlilic l1Ialcl'Ialislll, I!JO-J. 1!J1l, \G2-:1, l(i·l, 21!J l'acialisl1I as sClcncc, 2:1·1, 2·10 Scolland, ](i, !J(i, I :12, I :ID, 2:1!J Scolland, N., I!H-!J scclarianislll, .11'1' confl'ssional idenlily scculal'isalion, cOIKepl or, I-I!J, 2H-:IO, 1l··I-!J definilion, J. 1:1-1:) hislol'Iogl'aphy, :1-12 origins, I 'scndal'isallon I hcsis', :1 sociologv, 2-:1, !J, 10 Scculal'isls (England), 2·1, illl, 72, 1l!J, 122-1, 12(j, ](i2, Ui:l, Hi·I-(i, 1!)!J,217 Scdan Dav, 2·12 Sl'l'lllons, 2!J, 27. :12-:1, :IH, 7·1. Hi(i, I !)2, 2i(i, 27!)-IlO Severing, (:., 122 scxualily, 1:1:1, 1:17, l
LisICIlX, 2(iH-!) Loul'dcs, (i!), 9(i, 114,2:\2, 2·1!), 2:,!J, 2(ill, 27·1, nH, :I<j.!-!J Marpingen, 70 M ur des F(:d{·r(·s, I I H-I !) Sidgwick, II .. I G2 Siell1ens, J 04 Sill1on-Rils, F.. I ()7 Smil h, n., 1:11-2 Smilh, Revel II. B .. 1!J:\-4 Smllh, II. W., 2·1:\ Social Darwllllsm, 240 Social I kmocral ie Federal Ion (England), ·ID, 12:1, 1!)7 Social Democrals (;('nllany), !J, :19, ,I;), ,IG, ·17,!J I, 77-!l, 10·1, IID-22, 12·1, I,\(i, 1!J1-2, l(i7, IH2, ID:I, 201l-9, 211-1:\, 2Hi, 221, 227-1l, 2(i2, 2(i:1 socialism, !)(), II H-24, I ·10, I !JO-,I, I (i I, I (j:I, 20 l. 227, 2117 Socialisls (France), II, (iO, (i I. 110, I J(i, I Ill-I!!, 12·1, 1,1:1, I:l
Sunday, ·11, !JO, (iO, WI-·I, 12:1, 172, I Il(i, I!)H, 201, 21 O-\. 22:\, 2!J:I, 2!J:), 2!J7-1l, 270 Sunday Schools, 7. 7:1, I:lil-!J, 21 ~), ~:\7 ~:JD. ~70, 27:). 2H9 Sybcl, Ii. von, I (H, 2,1:1 Sydow, i\" :12-:1 Sykes, R., 272-:\ Sle1l1l101'I', 1\., I I Siockport, 2!J Sioecker, A., 22!J Sirasl)()urg, I D, 2·12 slrikcs, 92, IH7. IHD, ID:I, 1!Hi, 211 Swilzcrland, 202, 20H j
'Eline, IL IO!) 'ElI'Il, '11-2, 1:1:\, 24G-7 . ElII'ncy, R. II., 12:1 Thabauli, R" I!)!) Thompson, 1'., !)O Thunngla, D~), 120, 122, I IlO, 20·1 Tilkin, Rabbi, 27 'ICHliOlISl', 21. 22~) 'I()llrming, I Ilti, I Hil .Iradc Ilntons, lID, 122, J:ll. 1·ln, I !J·I, I HIl-D, I !)'I-!J, 1!l7. 21 () Trauh, C .. ~)~) Trcilschkc, II. I'on, I O!J, 2·1:\ TrcssclL R" 12:1-·1, 2!J7 Tril'l',211 'Ih»),cs, III I 'Iimlt'r, F., I:)(i '1 ),Il('slde, 220 (Illioll SI/I'dl', 27G, 277, 2114
Ilnllarialls, 10:" 107. I:\!), 1·12, I !J:\-I, 2!J!) Ilniled Siales, 1l-9, :\Il, 12!J, 1·1 ~), I !J(i, 20H, 21l
INllFX
INIlEX
universit i('s (1'11111.) studcnts. 7!'i-li, I O~), II~. H:I, ~I:\. ~II, ~7(i
Berlin, 10:1, 1m Birmingham, 70 Cambridgc, 0:L 7:;-(i, 11·1. I(i~. I(i:\ ))urkllll, 70 Erlangcll, :Hj ./clla, 100 Lillc, 117 LI\'Crp()ol, 70 LOlldoll. 70 O:dc,rd. :,:1, 7:,-(), 1·11. I·I~) Paris. ~)0, ~)(i-7. I I ~ Ti'dllllg('ll, 0. ~·I urbanisatloll,·1, (i. m-:\, 100-7. I·II-(i. 17(i-7, IS~-7, ~I~. ~~:I, ~n-I
Valelltin, (;" 1:\0 Vall Roodcll, I~, S Val', ~~~) VClld{c, (i7. ~~~) Vnsaillcs, 17:\, I S I Viallilcy. J,-i\I.-B" 1:10, 1:17 Victoria, <'21IC(,I1, :,·1 Viel1lla, :I~, so Villccnt, \)1', I Iti Virci1ow, R., 10:1, 10·1, 1:;7 Vivialli, R" ~7:, Volkov, S., ~~:; I ;i1kl'llf')'l'lIIji'ir rillS hlll/w/isl'hl' /)I'IIISI'h/IlIlr/, ~·I~
Voltair(', E 1\1. !\, dc, ~~, IiI. IO!), I r,o Voitairialls, ~~, (is, ~),I, I Dl, I D~, ~ 17
Ward, M. (Mrs IllImphry), 147-~), I (iO-1 wars oj' Liheratioll, ~7D (:rilllcan, :i!l Frallco-Pl'lIssian .. 1"1, S I, ~()!,i. ~'II, ~·I~,
n!)
First \\'orld War, l:i, :10, 0:" HiO, ~:IS, ~I·I, ~70-S'1
o)lposit Ion to war, ~79-S I, :1,1:1 .11'1' 11/.111 armies Wassermallll, II., I O~ Weiler, L, 107, ~0·1, ~!i~)-(}O. ~(i(i Wcher, I\L ~, 101 weddings, I D, ~(i, :i~-:I, (Hi, 171, 17~, 177, ~~~, ~:;O, ~Ii~ 'mixed' marriag-cs, :1·1, ~~ I-~ wclElrc systems, I!, 17, I S, :i~-:I, :>7-H,2H!) .11'1' Ii/SO charity: health vVclldoll, Bishop, ~:l0-(j, ~:;!) Wcsthollghton, S~) West phalia, ~·I, -Hi-7, S~, I ~~, ].I I , I S:I, ~()!i, ~()7 Wici1el'll, j., :IS Wilhelm II, 7!), S~, ~7:, Williams, S" I I-I~, HiD, I 7~, ~7~-:1 Wilson, B., ~, :1 Winn, I L, ~0D Winnington-Ingram, Bishop. 7·1, ~7(i
Willock, 1\1., ~'I·I wisc mell/womcll, ~:iD, ~(i I Wittenherg /\-irl'hl'lllllp:, :IS WOlllcn's (:o-opcrativc (;uilrl, I !)7 Workcrs' Ed ucat ional Associat ions (:lrliI'Ill'I'/Ji/dIlIl,!!,:I,{II'I'I'IIII'), 40, ~JS, I O~-:I, I ()·I
Wagller. R., 1·1:1, I:,S-D, IS·I Wald. K" 7~-:\ Wales, Hi-17, 0(i, I ~)0--(i, ~:\:\, ~:F" ~(i(i, ~7(i
Wallace, 1\. R., I (i~ Wah·in . ./-, ~07
working class. I 0, ~:\, 7:1, S(i-D'I, IIS-~'I, HI-:l, 14:;-li, 1:i'I, I (i:,-(i, I (iD, 17~, I S~-:I, I S:i-D, 1D:I-:" ~00, ~ I O-~, ~~S, ~~!), ~I!)-r,(), ~:;li-7, ~(il, ~(j~-!i,
nO-I, ~7~-4, ~77-S, ~SS
WlIlldt, W" 40 Wuppertal, ~'I, :1:\, I :\:1, I !n-·I Wiirttcml)('rg, I!), ~,I, :\-1, ,17, ·11, 1·11, ISO, ~O:I-(!, ~IO-l1, ~IS.
Yco, S" 7 \'onllc, 1:I!), I (iii Yorkshirc, ~:I, ,IS, 1~~. 1(i~ youIh, S, :-,7, :,!), liS-D, l:\!'i, Pili I:ola, E" !)7, I Hi, 117, I :\S, 1·", I :i(i, ~:\ I, ~0~, ~(i(i, ~(i!), :HJ.!-!i
