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Shakespearean Entrances
10.1057/9780230287907 - Shakespearean Entrances, Mariko Ichikawa
Also by the same author
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STAGING IN SHAKESPEARE’S THEATRES (with Andrew Gurr)
10.1057/9780230287907 - Shakespearean Entrances, Mariko Ichikawa
Mariko Ichikawa
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Shakespearean Entrances
© Mariko Ichikawa 2002
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted her right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2002 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St. Martin’s Press, LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 0–333–98406–4 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ichikawa, Mariko. Shakespearean entrances/Mariko Ichikawa. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-333-98406-4 1. Shakespeare, William, 1564–1616––Technique. 2. Openings (Rhetoric) 3. Shakespeare, William, 1564–1616––Dramatic production. 4. Drama––Technique. 5. Closure(Rhetoric) 6. Stage directions. I. Title PR2997.O65 I27 2002 822.3’3––dc21 2002066334 10 11
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All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission.
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To my parents Tsuneo and Mitsuyo Ichikawa and To my sister Hisako
10.1057/9780230287907 - Shakespearean Entrances, Mariko Ichikawa
10.1057/9780230287907 - Shakespearean Entrances, Mariko Ichikawa
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List of Figures and Tables
viii
Acknowledgements
ix
Note on Texts and Old Spelling; System of Dating; and List of Abbreviations
xi
1
Studying Entrances and Exits
1
2
Interrupted Exits and Their Implications
21
3
Time Allowed for Exits
33
4
Speeches around Entrances and Exits
44
5
Overlapping Exits and Entrances
56
6
The Use of Stage Doors
73
7
‘Passing over the Stage’
90
8
The Central Opening
102
9
Alternative Possibilities
118
Conclusion: The Meanings of ‘Enter’ and ‘Exit’/‘Exeunt’
133
Appendixes 1 Instances of Each Pattern (A, A+, B, Ca, Cb, Cc) 2 Instances Fulfilling Each Condition (1–6)
138 145
Notes
150
Bibliography
180
Index
193
vii
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Contents
Figures 1.1 9.1
The Captives (British Library, MS. Egerton 1994, fol. 70a) The Second Maiden’s Tragedy (British Library, MS. Lansdowne 807, fol. 51b)
7 130
Tables 3.1 5.1
Number of instances of each pattern Instances fulfilling each condition
viii
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39 67
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List of Figures and Tables
I am grateful to the publishers and editors of the following items for permission to reproduce them. All of them have been thoroughly revised to be incorporated here. ‘Time Allowed for Exits in Shakespeare’s Plays’ in Japanese Studies in Shakespeare and His Contemporaries, edited by Yoshiko Kawachi (Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1998), pp. 25–45; ‘Overlapping Exits and Entrances in Shakespeare’s Plays’ in Hot Questrists after the English Renaissance, edited by Yasunari Takahashi (New York: AMS Press, 2000), pp. 145–65; Andrew Gurr and Mariko Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), Chapters 4–6; ‘Standing Aloof on the Shakespearean Stage: What ‘Enter’ and ‘Exit’/‘Exeunt’ could have meant’, Shakespearean International Yearbook, vol. 3, edited by Graham Bradshaw, Angus Fletcher and John M. Mucciolo (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2002). Most particularly, I wish to thank Andrew Gurr, my co-author of Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres and Frances Whistler of Oxford University Press for their kind permission to use the above-mentioned three chapters of the book, to which Chapters 2–6 and 8–9 of this book are related in varying ways. My debt to libraries and librarians are numerous and profound. I should especially like to thank the staff of the British Library, the Victoria and Albert Museum, National Library and the Folger Shakespeare Library. I am grateful to the British Library for permission to reproduce photographs of manuscripts. Publication of this book has been aided by a grant from the Fukuhara Fund. During the long process of writing and rewriting this manuscript, I have received invaluable counsel and help from many people. First of all, I should like to express my heartfelt thanks to Andrew Gurr for his wonderful guidance, constant encouragement, and unfailing cooperation throughout all the stages of the work. Since I first wrote a letter to him in 1992, asking his opinion about the size of the Globe stage, he has always been willing to answer my questions and offer support. My immense gratitude also goes to Alan C. Dessen, who has generously shared with me his insightful ideas about many stage directions and provided me with valuable comments and criticisms on various portions of this book. Similarly I am deeply grateful to John Orrell, whose meticulous comments on earlier versions of several chapters have ix
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Acknowledgements
helped me to reconsider some important questions including the use of stage doors. I also owe special thanks to Raymond Powell, who graciously read and annotated drafts of some chapters, offering copious comments and suggestions. His careful reading has saved me from a number of errors. For responding to my questions and requests and offering useful advice and assistance, I wish to give my sincere thanks to Graham Bradshaw, Gabriel Egan, David Farley-Hills, Chiaki Hanabusa, William B. Long, Molly Mahood, Yasumasa Okamoto, Kojin Ota, Robert Sanders, Yasuo Tamaizumi, and George Walton Williams. Finally, to Eleanor Birne of Palgrave, her colleagues including Penny Dole, Rebecca Mashayekh and Emily Rosser, and the readers of this manuscript, I am most grateful for the joy of working with them for the birth of this book. The remaining errors and inadequacies are all my own. This book is dedicated to my parents and sister. Their loving support and understanding have always been a source of my energy. MARIKO ICHIKAWA
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x Acknowledgements
Unless otherwise noted, quotations from Shakespeare are taken from Shakespeare’s Plays in Quarto: a Facsimile Edition of Copies Mainly from the Henry E. Huntington Library, edited by Michael J.B. Allen and Kenneth Muir, and The First Folio of Shakespeare: the Norton Facsimile, edited by Charlton Hinman. Act-scene-line references are from William Shakespeare: the Complete Works, edited by Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor. For non-Shakespearean plays, I have mainly relied on facsimiles of the earliest texts, diplomatic editions, and those twentieth-century editions which faithfully reproduce both the wording and placement of the original stage directions. I have retained the original typographical conventions of the use of i, j, u, and v, but have not preserved the long s, or indicated ligatures. System of dating The old-style system of dating, in which the calendar year started on 25 March instead of on 1 January, has been silently adjusted to the modern dating. Editorial abbreviations F(f) Q(q) TLN
Folio(s) Quarto(s) Through Line Number(s)
xi
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Note on Texts and Old Spelling
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1
1 In Julius Caesar, 2.3, after checking his letter to Caesar, Artemidorus says, ‘Heere will I stand, till Caesar passe along, / And as a Sutor will I giue him this’ (F1, TLN 1138–9; 2.3.11–12). But he exits shortly after, and re-enters at the opening of 3.1, probably following the procession of Caesar and his train.1 This is a nice example of how thoroughly players’ entrances and exits were accepted as theatrical conventions. There were no curtains between the stage and the auditorium in Elizabethan theatres.2 Playwrights and players not only routinely handled entrances and exits, but they also used these movements to bring about various effects. ‘Enter’ and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’ are the most fundamental terms in the Elizabethan theatrical vocabulary. They warrant careful study. A survey of stage directions in early English Renaissance plays shows that the use of the English direction ‘Enter’ (presented in the imperative mood3 and used for either one or more characters) along with the Latin direction ‘Exit’/‘Exeunt’ (in the present indicative mood) was not completely established until the early or mid-1590s.4 Some of the earliest surviving play-texts basically employ the convention of massing the names of all the characters who appear in any given scene in one list at its opening, without the word ‘enter’ or its equivalent, in imitation of the printed form of Roman comedy current in the Renaissance.5 Some almost exclusively use the Latin directions: ‘intrat’/‘intrant’ (in the present indicative mood) and either ‘exeat’/‘exeant’ (in the present subjunctive mood) or ‘exit’/‘exeunt’.6 Others normally use vernacular verbs such as ‘come in’ and ‘go out’,7 and ‘enter’ and ‘go out’.8 ‘Entreth[enters]’/‘enter’ (singular/plural) and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’ are usually 1
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Studying Entrances and Exits
used in R. Wever, Lusty Juventus (1550); Lewis Wager, The Life and Repentance of Mary Magdalene (1558); Richard Edwards, Damon and Pythias (1564); Ulpian Fulwell, Like Will to Like (1568); and Thomas Lodge and Robert Greene, A Looking Glass for London and England (1588). George Peele’s The Arraignment of Paris (1581) partly uses the neo-classic convention and partly uses ‘entreth[enters]’/‘enter’ and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’. ‘Enter’ (for either one or more characters) and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’, the forms familiar to us, are normally used in John Phillip, Patient and Meek Grissil (1559); William Wager, Enough Is as Good as a Feast (1560); Thomas Preston, Cambises (1561); Anon. (Preston?), Clyomon and Clamydes (1570); Frances Merbury, A Marriage between Wit and Wisdom (1579); Robert Wilson, The Three Ladies of London (1581); Anon., The Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune (1582); Anthony Munday, Fedele and Fortunio (1584); Christopher Marlowe, Dido, Queen of Carthage (1586); Anon., The Famous Victories of Henry V (1586); Greene, Alphonsus, King of Aragon (1587); and Thomas Kyd, The Spanish Tragedy (1587). John Lyly’s Galathea (1585) partly uses the neoclassic convention and partly uses the familiar usage to us. In Marlowe’s 1 & 2 Tamburlaine the Great (1587, 1588) and Lyly’s Midas (1589), the opening entry stage direction of each scene, with a few exceptions, does not include the word ‘enter’, giving the appearance that these plays used the classical convention of scene-breaks. But midscene entry stage directions beginning with ‘Enter’ are provided. As their use of more than one practice suggests, when early professional playwrights such as Lyly, Peele, Greene and Marlowe began to write their plays for London-based playing companies, the use of the stage directions ‘Enter’ and ‘Exit’/‘Exeunt’ had not yet completely established itself. Later plays also contain various alternative words to these, such as ‘come in’, ‘come out’, ‘appear’, ‘go out’, ‘go in’, and ‘depart’. In some stage directions ‘enter’ is used to indicate an exit and ‘exit’ is used to indicate an entrance: for example, ‘Flourish, and enter the Towne’ (Henry V F1, TLN 1319; 3.3.141); ‘They fight, and all enter the City’ (Coriolanus F1, TLN 568; 1.5.34); ‘They enter’ (Ben Jonson, The Alchemist F1, 3L1v; 5.5); ‘Exit Lamira from the Arras’ (Nathan Field and John Fletcher, The Honest Man’s Fortune F1, 5V3v). In such examples these verbs function in fictional terms, not in theatrical terms.9 Although my concern is mainly with the standard staging and stage practices of the London-based playing companies after the first major commercial playhouses were built in the suburbs of London, we should deal with not only the stage directions ‘Enter’ and ‘Exit’/’Exeunt’ but also their equivalents and special systems of indicating entrances and exits.
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2 Shakespearean Entrances
As Alan C. Dessen emphasizes in his Recovering Shakespeare’s Vocabulary, the theatrical vocabulary shared by Elizabethan playwrights, players, and playgoers is lost today.10 There is much evidence that Elizabethans did not use either ‘enter’ or ‘exit’/‘exeunt’ in the same way that we normally understand these terms. Some examples of their use appear, on the face of it, rather strange to modern eyes. In some cases a character ‘enters’ only after another character already on stage has seen his approach. In other cases a character who has already ‘exited’ is addressed by another character still on stage. An analysis of these and other ‘strange’ cases will reveal some fundamental things about the Elizabethan usage of ‘enter’ and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’. More important than the contemporary meanings of these terms, though of course closely related to this question, are physical matters and features of entering and exiting on Elizabethan stages. I will begin with showing that entrances and exits were moves which had a certain duration, rather than single actions which were completed immediately. The concepts of the time allowed for entrances and exits will help us to reconsider certain entry and exit stage directions that have been thought ‘too early’ or ‘too late’. Some entrances and exits could have been long or complicated moves. Chapters 2–5 mainly focus on questions related to the time and timing of entrances and exits. How Elizabethan playing companies ran the business of performing their plays would have largely influenced the actors’ handling of entrances and exits. London-based companies adopted a repertory system. Henslowe’s Diary shows how demanding this system was:11 the Lord Admiral’s Men played every afternoon, excepting Sundays,12 and performed a different play every day; every two weeks or so they performed a new play; and the average time between final purchase of the manuscript and the first production of the play was little more than twenty days. Pre-rehearsal preparations would include casting the roles, making the ‘plot’, annotating the playbook, getting it licensed by the Master of the Revels, transcribing the actors’ ‘parts’, and getting special costumes and properties ready. The actors had little rehearsal time.13 The situation must have been the same with other London adult companies, although boy companies may have done less hasty work, since they performed only once a week.14 Elizabethan London-based playing companies, both adult and boy, inherited from the earlier itinerant troupes many things, including doubling of roles.15 According to recent studies about casting of the plays of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, it was not uncommon for a minor actor to perform five or more roles in one play.16 However versatile and adaptable Elizabethan
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Studying Entrances and Exits 3
actors might have been, this repertory system could not have worked at all, unless familiar rules of thumb had determined every detail of routine and conventional things such as entrances and exits. With more than one possible point of access, an actor would need to know by which doorway he should enter and exit. How could the Shakespearean player have this knowledge? Classical and academic staging with ‘houses’ on each side of the stage, identified by Alan H. Nelson for Cambridge University plays, solves this problem for those stages.17 But the Globe and similar stages were different. In the absence of any explicit convention or practice, the bald directions ‘Enter’ and ‘Exit’/‘Exeunt’ in the written texts would have given little help to an actor using a stage with two or three doors and other possible entrypoints, such as the one at Shakespeare’s Globe. The use of stage doors was almost always incorporated in entrances and exits, and the stage hangings and even the stage posts were, as discussed later, occasionally involved in entrances and exits. The stage directions in plays by Shakespeare and his contemporaries use a shorthand which we have ceased to be able to understand in full. It would be an enormous gain if we could identify the unspoken but standard rules that lay behind the minimal and conventionalized stage directions. We need to set up some hypothetical rules for these entries and exits, and test them on the plays to see how effectively they work. Chapters 6–8 are used to consider questions about the use of the three openings of the frons scenae, that is, the wall at the back of the platform stage. Chapter 9 deals with alternative possibilities contained in some intriguing examples, and also reconsiders the Elizabethan concept of the stage. In Shakespeare at the Globe: 1599–1609, Bernard Beckerman considers some important questions to do with entering and exiting on the Globe stage. In his posthumous essay he put forward the rule of opposing doors, whereby one door was regularly used for entrances and the opposite door for exits.18 Alan C. Dessen’s above-mentioned book, of course, deals with the two most important theatrical terms. His analysis of entry stage directions including ‘[as] from …’ and ‘[as] in …’ convincingly shows that even the forms without ‘as’, which have been treated as ‘fictional’ directions, actually functioned as ‘theatrical’ directions, indicating certain conventional stage practices. 19 Subsequent to The Shakespearean Stage: 1574–1642,20 Andrew Gurr has continued to investigate the main features of the early staging of Shakespeare and his contemporaries. His discussion of a royal chair, the ‘state’, for example, suggests that we must not forget the presence of this large property, at least when we discuss entrances and exits made in ‘state
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4 Shakespearean Entrances
scenes’.21 My profound debt to these works will be apparent throughout the following pages. Despite these and other valuable works, however, I still feel that we have no basic methods by which we can deal with entrances and exits. We need some framework within which we can discuss each particular entrance or exit. This book is an attempt to seek methods by which to return entrances and exits to the original theatrical context in which they belonged.
2 Apart from a few manuscripts, the early printed texts are almost the sole evidence. These printed texts vary in their origins. Scholars usually try to distinguish among (1) texts printed from authorial manuscripts; (2) texts printed from playhouse manuscripts; (3) texts printed from scribal transcripts of either authorial or theatrical manuscripts; (4) texts based upon reconstructions from memory by actors who had taken part in performances (a controversial category); and (5) texts printed from copies of earlier printed editions that had been collated and corrected against authoritative manuscripts. All these categories can be useful to our purpose, although they are all frustrating in varying degrees, providing insufficient, inaccurate, or inconsistent information about entrances and exits. Texts printed from authors’ manuscripts represent the forms of staging which the authors expected or imagined when they wrote the plays. Even if the expected forms might not have been realized on stage, it is important to know what the authors expected to happen. In the case of resident playwrights such as Shakespeare, since they were thoroughly familiar with the stages of their playhouses, the forms of staging which they expected or imagined when they wrote their plays must have been fit for those stages. Robert Greene, who was a freelance playwright and who worked during the years when the situation of the theatres was uncertain, had to write such a modest stage direction as ‘Exit Venus. Or if you can conueniently, let a chaire come downe from the top of the stage, and draw her vp’ (Alphonsus, King of Aragon, TLN 2109–10).22 By contrast, Shakespeare wrote his plays for the Chamberlain’s–King’s Men throughout his career, except during the early period until 1594. However, his status as a resident playwright, on hand at rehearsals and performances, to our regret, made it possible for him to write very curt stage directions. If Hand D in the manuscript of Sir Thomas More is indeed Shakespeare’s, the three pages of Addition II (fols. 8a–9a) show what Shakespeare’s autograph manuscripts may
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Studying Entrances and Exits 5
have looked like. There is one entry stage direction written by D in the three pages: ‘Enter the L. maier Surrey Shrewsbury’ (Addition II, lines 146–7), which shows his careless omission of the names of More and other entering characters.23 With such ambiguous speech prefixes as ‘other’ (lines 126, 129), ‘oth’ (line 132), and ‘o’ (line 138), the insufficiency of the entry stage direction seems to suggest that what Shakespeare was responsible for was only the dialogue. He could trust the theatre book-keeper to supply necessary stage directions. The same is more or less true of his contemporaries, including most of the freelance playwrights. Official playbooks are, by definition, manuscripts approved by the Master of the Revels. Texts based upon theatre playbooks are most important, although, as discussed below, the full texts were seldom performed. In an extant playhouse manuscript, Believe as You List, which belonged to the King’s Men, the company book-keeper (Edward Knight) rewrites the author’s (Philip Massinger’s) entry stage directions so that they become more prominent and frequently places them earlier than the author’s entry directions. In another extant manuscript playbook, The Captives, the Cockpit book-keeper often draws attention to an entrance by marking a large asterisk opposite it in the left margin, and almost always places the word ‘clere’ (clear) at the ends of scenes [see Fig. 1.1]. However, these two are exceptions among the 18 surviving manuscript playbooks. In the other surviving playbooks book-keepers’ annotations are sparse. The surviving evidence as a whole shows that generally book-keepers seldom marked or changed playwrights’ stage directions. Although they were occasionally concerned with entrances, what they chiefly cared about was the timing of entrances, for fear that the delay of crucial entrances should affect the onstage action, and they did not bother to clarify playwrights’ calls for unspecified numbers of supernumeraries such as ‘attendants’ and ‘others’. They rarely paid attention to exits.24 The most frustrating texts are those which show ‘editing’ for nontheatrical occasions. The F1 texts of The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Merry Wives of Windsor, and The Winter’s Tale, which were printed from transcripts specially prepared for the printers by Ralph Crane,25 employ the ‘massed entry’ technique. Under this system, the names of all the characters who appear in a scene are grouped together in a single entry direction (‘Enter …’) at the head of the scene, and exits within the scene are generally ignored. The use of the ‘massed entry’ technique may have been a misguided attempt to imitate the neo-classical system of scene division.26 Most texts of Ben Jonson’s plays use the neo-
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6 Shakespearean Entrances
Figure 1.1 The Captives (British Library, MS. Egerton 1994, fol. 70a). By permission of the British Library.
classical system.27 When he prepared copy for the printer, his literary pretensions and reverence for the classics must have made him purify his play-texts of entry and exit stage directions so that they might appear like literary works, and not like play-scripts. His ultimate purpose with these texts was not for the theatre but for readers. Texts usually labelled as ‘memorially reconstructed texts’ or ‘bad quartos’ often provide information which is not available in ‘authorita-
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Studying Entrances and Exits 7
tive’ or ‘good’ texts. Romeo and Juliet Q1, for example, has descriptive stage directions such as ‘Enter Iuliet somewhat fast, and embraceth Romeo’ (E4r; 2.5); ‘Enter Nurse hastely’ (G3v; 3.5); ‘Nurse offers to goe in and turnes againe’ (G2r; 3.3); and ‘Paris offers to goe in, and Capolet calles him againe’ (G2v; 3.4). Some modern editors show a dubious attitude towards the fast entrances and interrupted exits which these stage directions indicate. G. Blakemore Evans, for example, rejects the first entry stage direction, thinking that it ‘suggests a wanton quality to Juliet’s entrance that is more suitable to Q1’s version of this scene … than to Shakespeare’s’.28 In the Q1 version the entering Juliet speaks to Romeo, ignoring the Friar, while in the Q2 version she first greets the Friar. Supposing that Q1 is a memorial reconstruction of the play as officially staged in London, the description of Juliet’s entrance might have been incorrect, since the actor-reporter could not reproduce the dialogue around it correctly. When we deal with a specific entrance or exit, evidence from a reported text could not be entirely reliable, because the actor-reporter(s) might have confused that entrance or exit with another that occurs in another scene or another play. But when we assemble actual examples of stage business, reported texts can be valuable. As mentioned above, the status of ‘bad quartos’ is highly controversial today. Paul Werstine has been insisting in a series of essays that the memorial reconstruction theory, which was first advanced in extenso by W.W. Greg only in 1910, is groundless.29 In the case of Romeo and Juliet Q1, a few scholars have argued recently that it is a deliberate abridgement of Shakespeare’s original and not a reported text.30 Whether it is a memorial reconstruction of a version already performed or it represents an abridged version prepared for performance, what the text preserves in some degree of perfectness, or rather, imperfectness is an acting version of the play. However, it has also been argued that the stage directions in Romeo Q1 derive from the printing process rather than the theatre or the author. If, as is suggested, Henry Chettle was involved in the stage directions, the text cannot be regarded as a performance text simply and in its own right.31 In that case, what Q1’s distinctive stage directions inform is how Chettle interpreted the dialogue around them in theatrical terms. The information is still valuable, because he was a dramatist as well as a stationer. The nature and origins of the so-called ‘bad quartos’ are all currently being reconsidered. As for Henry V Q1, it has recently been suggested that the manuscript behind it was based ultimately on the authorial manuscript later printed as the F1 text, but that it was a copy which had been radically revised by the company for the performance
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8 Shakespearean Entrances
at the Globe.32 Each problematic text should be dealt with individually. The form of staging offered by the text may or may not be related to performance.33 Several F1 texts of Shakespeare’s plays are thought to have been printed from earlier Quarto copies that had been collated and corrected against either playhouse manuscripts or transcripts of them. One might assume that changes found in the F1 texts concerning the placement of entry and exit stage directions can be attributed to the book-keeper. However, it is not certain whether those who prepared copies for the F1 compositors were careful about the positioning of stage directions in the manuscripts they consulted, or whether the compositors were faithful to their copies. Every printed text has come down to us via the printer’s mediation. In the surviving manuscript play-texts mid-scene entrances are often marked in the right or left margin without any break in the dialogue, and exits are almost always marked on the right. In printed texts, the placing of stage directions might have been influenced by formatting tradition, whereby compositors centred entries and set exits beside speeches on the right margin. It is likely that compositors occasionally acted as ‘editors’ by moving entry and exit stage directions on their own responsibility.34 With the few exceptions of self-conscious poets like George Chapman and Ben Jonson, Elizabethan dramatists were rarely concerned with the publication of their plays, let alone the supervision of the printing of them. Whenever we deal with a specific entry or exit, we cannot dismiss the possibility of compositorial misplacing or oversight of the stage direction. Such conditions of the surviving texts require us to seek the bases of our arguments not only from the stage directions but also from the dialogue. Although most entrances and exits are accompanied by entry announcements and exit cues, the dialogue is not always informative. There are not a few cases where it is extremely difficult even to determine whether the entrance or exit was actually made or not. Take Macbeth, 5.5 for example. It opens with the entrance of Macbeth, Seyton, and soldiers. Several lines later offstage cry is heard (‘A Cry within of Women’ (F1, TLN 2328; 5.5.7)), about which Macbeth asks two questions: ‘What is that noyse?’ (TLN 2327; 5.5.7); ‘Wherefore was that cry?’ (TLN 2336; 5.5.15). Seyton responds to them: ‘It is the cry of women, my good Lord’ (TLN 2329; 5.5.8); ‘The Queene (my Lord) is dead’ (TLN 2337; 5.5.16). Although the F1 text, which is thought to have been printed from a playhouse manuscript, gives no entry or exit directions around these speeches, it had been a custom for modern editions to mark Seyton’s exit just after his first reply and place his re-
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entrance just before Macbeth’s second question, until Alan C. Dessen offered a possible meaning of Seyton’s remaining on stage.35 While admitting that Dessen’s interpretation is attractive, one might still think of this case as one of those common instances where offstage sound is heard and an attending character exits to investigate it for his master. What is important is that we should not forget the danger of interpreting the dialogue by our modern realistic sense of logic.
3 The surviving texts, whether manuscripts or printed texts, are different in varying degrees from those which were used by the actors at the first performances. The unique copy of the text which was licensed for performance by the Master of the Revels can hardly ever have been given to the printer as their copy to set the play from.36 Sometimes this copy was used to make a manuscript copy, a transcript, for the printer. At other times the printer was given the original draft sold to the company by the author. Such an authorial copy would have included passages subsequently cut by the book-keeper or the Master of the Revels. When the book-keeper prepared the playbook to submit it to the Master, he probably did some preliminary censoring for him.37 The claim of authors such as Jonson and Webster that published versions contain more lines than were performed in the theatre suggests that plays were often cut to reduce the playing time: ‘AS IT WAS FIRST COMPOSED by the AUTHOR B.I. Containing more than hath been Publickely Spoken or Acted’ (Every Man Out Of His Humour Q1, title-page); ‘The perfect and exact Coppy, with diuerse things Printed, that the length of the Play would not beare in the Presentment’ (The Duchess of Malfi Q1, title-page). On the other hand, the licensed playbook was not necessarily the text that would have actually been performed. Contemporary references to the duration of performance give two to three hours: for example, ‘the two houres trafficque of our Stage’ (Romeo and Juliet Q2, A2r; Prologue.12); ‘three howres of mirth’ (Dekker, If This Be Not a Good Play, the Devil Is in It, Epilogue.5).38 But even three hours is too short a playing time for some of those texts which are thought to have been derived from transcripts of playhouse manuscripts, such as Hamlet F1 and Coriolanus F1. This seems to suggest that the authorized playhouse manuscript was normally cut for performance. It contained the fullest text that the company was licensed to play, and they could cut it for performance.39 In the Folio preface, ‘To the great Variety of Readers’, John Heminge and Henry Condell admire Shakespeare’s genius, saying that ‘His mind
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10 Shakespearean Entrances
and hand went together: And what he thought, he vttered with that easinesse, that wee haue scarse receiued from him a blot in his papers.’ However, some texts that are believed to have been printed from Shakespeare’s manuscripts contain what can be regarded as his abandoned first thoughts.40 In Romeo and Juliet Q2, which is agreed to have mostly been set from Shakespeare’s draft, four lines in Romeo’s final speech in 2.1 are repeated, with minor alterations, as the opening lines of the Friar’s soliloquy in 2.2 (D4v). The Q1 text assigns the parallel lines only to the Friar. Scholars take the two versions of the passage in Q2 as Shakespeare’s first thought and his revision of it.41 That Shakespeare revised his plays is currently a prevailing idea. There are significant differences between the Quarto and Folio texts of Hamlet, Troilus and Cressida, Othello, and King Lear. For example, Lear F1 omits nearly 300 lines that are found in Q1 and contains more than a hundred that are not in Q1. Two decades ago a group of scholars proposed that these textual variants represented Shakespeare’s own artistic revisions, and that they were not merely the effects of faulty textual transmission. They argued that the Quarto and Folio versions must be treated as separate plays.42 This two-Lear theory gained supporters and was applied to other two-text plays.43 However, even if it has been shown that the Q-–F variants affect such things as the dramatic roles of certain characters and the dramatic structure of the plays, whether the Folio cuts and additions represent possible Shakespearean revision or they reflect theatrical cutting and adaptation remains uncertain. By now many weaknesses have been found in revisionists’ arguments.44 One important thing that the authorial revision theory has made us recognize is that if Shakespeare persistently revised his plays in the process of writing them or afterward, no Shakespearean texts can provide consistent or crystallized and ‘fixed’ versions, and no form in which the play has come down to us can be a final ‘authoritative’ text. The collapse of the concept of ‘the authoritative text’ is related to the recent revaluation of the status of the so-called ‘bad quartos’. Hamlet Q1 has long been thought a memorially and therefore imperfectly reconstructed text, but various alternative possibilities are now being suggested.45 Steven Urkowitz, for example, suggests the possibility that it represents Shakespeare’s first draft, although his argument is not very convincing. He thinks that there are three Shakespearean Hamlets, representing stages of the playwright’s revising process.46 In her computerassisted systematic investigation of six Shakespearean ‘bad quartos’, including Hamlet Q1, Kathleen O. Irace supports the memorial reconstruction theory, but argues that actor-reporters purposefully adapted
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the texts as they reconstructed them.47 Through the analysis of all 41 suspect texts surviving from Shakespeare’s time, Laurie E. Maguire warns us of the great danger of too readily diagnosing problematic texts as ‘bad’, although she does not deny the concept of ‘memorial reconstruction’. She concludes that ‘misdiagnosis adversely affects the data on which our critical judgements and understanding of Elizabethan/Jacobean theatrical practice are based’.48 As for Hamlet Q1, she has carefully diagnosed it as ‘Possibly MR [memorial reconstruction], but if so, a very good one.’49 What is certain is that whether a suspect text represents an earlier yet-to-be-fully-developed version or a version composed for performance, or reflects a version already performed, it nevertheless does represent a phase of the play’s development in a broader sense. Stephen Orgel argues that the author’s copy was only a working model to be revised by the company. The texts of Renaissance plays are fluid and variable, and what each text represents is a step in the author and his colleagues’ composing and revising process. 50 As long as a play was in the company’s repertoire, it would have continued to receive modifications, occasionally radical changes, to meet the conditions or purpose of its revival. Henslowe’s Diary records a considerable number of payments for additions or alterations to the play-texts that he had in his possession, which include the payments in 1601 and 1602 to Ben Jonson for ‘writtinge of his adicians in geronymo [that is, Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy]’ and ‘new adicyons for Jeronymo’,51 the 1602 payment to William Birde and Samuel Rowley for ‘ther adicyones in docter fostes’,52 and the 1602 payment to Thomas Middleton for ‘a prologe & A epeloge for the playe of bacon [that is, Greene’s Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay] for the corte’.53 The following observation by Gerald Eades Bentley applies in varying degrees to each of the F1 texts of Shakespeare’s plays. As a rough rule of thumb one might say that almost any play first printed more than ten years after composition and known to have been kept in active repertory by the company which owned it is most likely to contain later revisions by the author or, in many cases, by another playwright working for the same company.54 A Midsummer Night’s Dream F1 contains the stage direction, ‘They sleepe all the Act’ (TLN 1507; 3.3.48), which suggests the influence of a later playbook used after the King’s Men had acquired the Blackfriars Theatre and adopted entr’acte music. Macbeth F1 calls for two songs
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from Thomas Middleton’s The Witch (c. 1615), and the Hecate material in the witch scenes was probably added by Middleton. The F1 text of Macbeth represents an adapted version of the play Shakespeare originally wrote. We should not forget the fact that play-texts belonged to the companies which produced them on stage or to the impresarios who ran the performances,55 and that they were not the property of the authors. In a strict sense, there is no genuine Shakespearean play. Fluidity and instability are the essential nature of Elizabethan dramatic texts. This is a very important fact which we should keep in mind when we deal with the entrances and exits, either indicated or implied in these texts.
4 In the days of Shakespeare there were two categories of professional playhouses: public open-air theatres and private indoor theatres. The public playhouses built in this period were the Red Lion (1567); the Theatre (1576); the playhouse at Newington Butts (c. 1576); the Curtain (1577); the Rose (1587, enlarged in 1592); the Swan (c. 1595); the Globe (1599, rebuilt in 1614); the Boar’s Head (an inn converted into a theatre, 1599); the Fortune (1600, rebuilt in 1622); the Red Bull (an inn converted into a theatre, c. 1605); and the Hope (1614). As suggested by the fact that the surviving building contracts for the Fortune and the Hope contain many clauses referring questions of design to the Globe and to the Swan respectively, these and most other public playhouses must have been similar in design.56 Although John Brayne’s Red Lion did not last long, its design appears to have anticipated that of the Theatre, which Brayne built jointly with James Burbage nine years later, and the framework of which was to be reused for the Globe. The stage of the Red Lion, with a turret on or beside it, was 40 feet by 30 feet, and 5 feet high. This large stage had a ‘voyde part’ apparently for a trapdoor.57 On the other hand, the 1989 Rose excavations have revealed that its stage was surprisingly small both in its original form and after the enlargement of the playhouse in 1592: the original stage was 36 feet 9 inches across at the rear, tapering to 26 feet 10 inches at the front, and 16 feet 5 inches deep; the new stage had a depth of 18 feet 4 inches, and it was more rectangular than the first stage but still tapered towards the front.58 According to the building contract for the Fortune, its gallery frame was ‘to be sett square and to conteine ffowerscore foote of lawfull assize everye waie square wthoute and fiftie fiue foote of like assize square everye waie wthin’ and its stage was to ‘con-
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Studying Entrances and Exits 13
teine in length ffortie and Three foote of lawfull assize and in breadth to extende to the middle of the yarde of the … howse’.59 It used to be thought that the stage of the Fortune, which was modelled on the Globe’s, was 43 feet wide and 27 feet 6 inches deep, and that the size of the Globe stage was about the same or more. But this estimate, which is a deduction from the building contract for the Fortune, has been seriously questioned, particularly since the Rose excavations. John Orrell, who has been re-examining old assumptions about Elizabethan playhouses, argues that both stages and tiring-houses were commonly built as separate structures attached to the gallery frame within the yards of arena playhouses, and insists on the likelihood that the Globe stage was wide but comparatively shallow. On the hypothesis that the Globe was a 20-sided polygon about 100 feet across, which he believes to be the likeliest interpretation of the Globe discoveries in 1989, he suggests 53 feet 9 inches wide and 37 feet 5 inches deep at the centre for the stage and tiring-house area.60 It is very unfortunate for us that the precise size and design of the Globe stage have not yet been confirmed, because the depth of the stage is one of the most important factors when we discuss entrances and exits. Analysis of plays that we think may have been written principally for performance at these public playhouses shows that the stages of the Theatre, Globe, Fortune and most other public playhouses had two main entrance doors and a large opening for discoveries between them, a balcony, and a trapdoor.61 For example, Patient Grissil, a Fortune play written by Chettle, Dekker and Haughton, specifies ‘Enter Vrcenze and Onophrio at seuerall doores, and Farnezie in the mid’st’ (3.2.0). The Honest Whore, Part II, another Fortune play by Dekker, provides ‘Enter at one doore Lodouico and Carolo; at another Bots, and Mistris Horsleach; Candido and his wife appeare in the Shop’ (3.3.0). Chettle’s The Tragedy of Hoffman, another Fortune play, has ‘Enter Saxony, Rodorique, Marthias: seuerally’ (TLN 1918), although we cannot completely dismiss the possibility that in this case the three characters enter one after the other from the same door. These plays suggest that the Fortune stage and probably its model, the Globe stage, had three doorways. Globe plays offer no conclusive proof for the existence of a third entry. However, as Bernard Beckerman argues, certain scenes do suggest the use of a middle entrance. In Barnabie Barnes’s The Devil’s Charter, 4.1, Alexander is discovered ‘in his studie’ (Q1, F4v) and then ‘commeth vpon the Stage out of his study with a booke in his hand’ (G1r). He conjures up the Devil and charges him to present the man who has murdered Candy. The Devil descends and sends another devil from
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14 Shakespearean Entrances
under the stage. The newly arrived devil ‘goeth to one doore of the stage, from whence he bringeth the Ghost of Candie gastly haunted by Caesar persuing and stabing it, these vanish in at another doore’ (G2r). At the end of the scene, Alexander exits ‘into the studie’ (G2v). It is simply unlikely that one of the flanking doors would serve as his study.62 It is relevant that Middleton’s A Game at Chess, performed at the second Globe, requires three entries: ‘Enter Bl. Queenes pawne as Conducting the White to a Chamber, then fetching in the Bl. Bishops pawne the Iesuite conuayes him to another puts out the Light and shee followes’ (Trinity manuscript, TLN 1941–7). Some scholars think that in the Rose there may have been only two openings in the tiring-house façade.63 But this view is doubtful, because its angled wall suggests an opening in each of its three faces, and Marlowe’s Rose plays, Doctor Faustus and The Jew of Malta, need a central ‘discovery space’ for Faustus’s study and Barabas’s counting-house, and for the hell and the cauldron to be ‘discovered’ towards the ends of the plays.64 A possible Rose play, Thomas Heywood’s The Four Prentices of London, opens with a triple entrance: ‘Enter three in blacke clokes, at three doores.’ De Witt’s drawing of the Swan shows only two doors. Since a Swan play, Middleton’s A Chaste Maid in Cheapside has a stage direction which reads ‘A Bed thrust out vpon the Stage, Allwits Wife in it …’ (Q1, E4r), conceivably the two doors were large enough to allow a bed to be carried onto the stage through them, although there might have been a third large opening. Another stage direction in A Chaste Maid, ‘Enter Maudline and Moll, a Shop being discouered’ (B1r) might support the central opening theory, although a provisional discovery space could have been made when it was needed. The Travels of the Three English Brothers, a Red Bull play by John Day, William Rowley and George Wilkins, requires three doorways: ‘Enter three seuerall waies the three Brothers’ (Q1, H4v). In some theatres the edge of the stage appears to have been fenced with low rails. W. Smith’s The Hector of Germany, acted at the Red Bull and the Curtain, has a stage direction which reads ‘Sit on the Railes’ (Q1, H3v). The Porter’s speech at the end of Henry VIII, 5.3 is also relevant: ‘You i’th’Chamblet, get vp o’th’raile, / Ile pecke you o’re the pales else’ (F1, TLN 3351–2).65 For any theatre, there is no evidence for access to the stage from the yard. The audience was physically separated by the five-feet-or-so height of the stage. The earliest evidence for a stage roof is Henslowe’s record of payment in 1595 for ‘carpenters worke & mackinge the throne In the heuenes’ at the Rose.66 The 1989 excavations of the Rose site revealed that when the Rose was enlarged in 1592, its stage and tiring-house
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area was demolished and rebuilt with posts at the front of the stage. The Swan sketch shows a stage cover supported by massive posts placed well back from the front. The Fortune contract specifies ‘a shadowe or cover over the … Stadge’, implying that there was a similar structure at the Globe.67 Although there is no secure evidence for a stage cover at the Theatre, the Curtain, or the original Rose, there are some pre-1592 plays that seem to require stage posts: Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy has the stage direction, ‘They binde him to the stake’ (1592 Quarto, TLN 1089); Robert Wilson, The Three Lords and Three Ladies of London has ‘Bind Fraud, blind Simplicity, turne him thrise about, set his face towards the contrarie post, at which he runnes, and all to burnes it, Dis. standing behind Fraud, vnbindes him, and whiles all the rest behold Simp. they two slip away’ (Q1, I3v).68 The letter written by a law student, Philip Gawdy, dated 16 November 1587, reports a disastrous accident at an unnamed playhouse: … My Lord Admyrall his men and players having a devyse in ther playe to tye one of their fellowes to a poste and so to shoote him to deathe, having borrowed their callyvers one of the players handes swerved his peece being charged with bullett missed the fellowe he aymed at and killed a chyld, and a woman great with chyld forthwith, and hurt an other man in the head very soore....69 The Admiral’s Men were possibly playing at the Rose. Even if not, this letter seems to show that there was a venue which had stage posts and therefore a stage cover in the late 1580s, although we cannot dismiss the possibility that the post was specially provided.70 According to John H. Astington, ‘By the 1580s heaven or heavens had already acquired a theatrical sense’, and ‘The deus ex machina was popular enough and the essential machinery that drove it cheap enough for it to have been standard equipment in any permanent playhouse.’71 The Theatre, the Curtain, and the original Rose might have already had a covering roof supported by stage posts and a descent machine. The Boar’s Head and the Red Bull possessed stage roofs.72 As the requirements of plays performed at the Red Bull suggest, its stage cover was equipped with a descent machine and supported by posts: Thomas Heywood, The Silver Age includes several flights (Q1, C3r, F1r, I4v, K1r, L1r);73 J. Cooke, Greene’s Tu Quoque has a stage direction which reads ‘Binde him to the poast’ (Q1, L1v); in Webster’s The White Devil Flamineo is bound to a pillar (‘Bind him to the pillar’ (Q1, M1r)); in Swetnam the Woman-hater, Arraigned by Women the title character is
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bound to a post (‘… take him vp / And bind him to this Post’ (Q1, I3r)).74 It should however be noted that The Virgin Martyr, another Red Bull play by Dekker and Massinger, provides a stage direction which indicates that ‘… a Hangman … sets vp a Pillar in the middle of the stage …’ (4.2.61). The Hope, a dual-purpose house ‘fitt & convenient in all thinges, bothe for players to playe in, and for the game of Beares and Bulls to be bayted in the same’, had a stage roof which was explicitly to be ‘borne or carryed without any postes or supporters to be fixed or sett vppon the … stage’ so that the stage might be removable.75 The hall theatres used in Shakespeare’s time were Paul’s (established in 1575); the first Blackfriars (opened in 1576); the second Blackfriars (built in 1597); the Whitefriars (built c. 1608); the Cockpit in Drury Lane (built in 1616); and the Salisbury Court (built in 1629). There was no yard in hall theatres: the pit was filled with benches. The stages of the hall theatres were markedly smaller than those of the amphitheatres. The stage of the Cockpit in Drury Lane, of which it appears we have Inigo Jones’s drawings, was 24 feet wide by 15 feet deep, and 4 feet high.76 There are reasons for thinking that the second Blackfriars, the Cockpit in Drury Lane, and the Salisbury Court were similar to each other in size and design.77 The much smaller size of the indoor stages and the absence of stage posts suggest that there might have been some difference between entrances and exits at public playhouses and those at private playhouses. It should also be noted that in hall theatres gallants occupying stools on the stage itself reduced the acting space. The title-page vignettes of William Alabaster’s Roxana (printed in 1632) and Nathaneal Richards’s Messallina (printed in 1640), which show railed stages tapering towards the front and hangings across the tiring-house façade, have been thought to be pictures of indoor theatres. Roxana was written for performance at Trinity College, Cambridge, and Messallina was played by the King’s Revels probably at the Salisbury Court. However, as John H. Astington convincingly argues, neither of the pictures is likely to have any independent authority as a depiction of a theatre, real or imagined.78 Stage directions in plays performed at the second Blackfriars suggest that its stage had two doors, a discovery space between them, a balcony, a trap, and a descent machine. Eastward Ho, for example, opens with a triple entrance. Enter Maister Touch-stone, and Quick-siluer at Seuerall dores, Quicksiluer with his hat, pumps, short sword and dagger, and a Racket trussed
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Andrew Gurr thinks that this stage direction suggests the possibility of an arrangement of central double doors flanked by single doorways more or less like the frons scenae in the Inigo Jones drawings.79 Similarly, The Maid’s Metamorphosis, a play for the Children of St Paul’s, provides ‘Enter Ioculo, Frisco, and Mopso, at three seuerall doores’ (Q1, D4v). The English Traveller, a Cockpit play, has ‘Enter at one doore an Vsurer and his Man, at the other, Old Lionell with his seruant: In the midst Reignald’ (Q1, F1v). Except for the smallness of the stages, and the absence of stage posts, the stages of the private theatres appear to have been basically similar to those of the public theatres. Gurr has examined what sorts of play a theatre manager such as Christopher Beeston or a company such as the King’s Men transferred from their large, open-air public playhouses to their intimate, private halls. That plays with large battle scenes and target-fighting did not make the transfer to indoor halls suggests that the difference of the dimensions of the stages largely influenced the choice.80 The question whether play-texts were composed with performance at specific playhouses in mind affects our reading of them. Until 1594, when the Lord Chamberlain and the Lord Admiral set up a pair of playing companies, and the Theatre and the Rose were officially allotted to the two monopolistic companies, no company and no playwright had any reason to expect a play to be staged exclusively at any one playhouse. Up to then the play might have been performed at the city’s inns such as the Bull and the Bell.81 However, some of Shakespeare’s earlier plays, such as the Henry VI trilogy, Titus Andronicus, and Romeo and Juliet, lay down heavy demands for the physical resources of the stage:82 a balcony (2 Henry VI, 1.4, 4.5; 3 Henry VI, 4.8, 5.1, 5.6; Titus, 1.1, 5.2, 5.3; 1 Henry VI, 1.6, 1.8, 2.1, 3.5, 4.2, 5.5; Romeo, 2.1, 3.5); a discovery space or a third entry (2 Henry VI, 3.2, 3.3; 1 Henry VI, 2.1 [for a triple entrance]; Romeo, 4.4, 5.3 [for a tomb?]); a trapdoor (2 Henry VI, 1.4; Titus, 2.3; Romeo, 5.3 [for a tomb?]); the ‘top’83 (1 Henry VI, 3.3); and a descent machine (3 Henry VI, 2.1 [for three suns?: ‘Three sunnes appeare in the aire’ (Octavo, B3v)]). During all the years after his company acquired a guaranteed London venue, his plays made no heavier demands on staging: no special parts were required other than a balcony (Richard II, 3.3; King John, 2.1, 4.3; The Merchant of Venice, 2.6; Henry V, 3.3; Julius Caesar, 5.3; Othello, 1.1; Timon of Athens, 5.5;
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vp vnder his cloake. At the middle dore, Enter Golding discouering a Goldsmiths shoppe, and walking short turns before it. (Q1, A2r)
Coriolanus, 1.4; Antony and Cleopatra, 4.16; Henry VIII, 5.2; The Two Noble Kinsmen, 2.1, 2.2); a discovery space or a third entry (King John, 4.1; The Merchant, 2.7, 2.9, 3.2; 1 Henry IV, 2.5; The Merry Wives of Windsor, 3.3, 4.2; 2 Henry IV, 4.3; Hamlet, 3.4; Othello, 5.2; The Winter’s Tale, 5.3; Cymbeline, 2.2; The Tempest, 5.1; Henry VIII, 2.2; The Two Noble Kinsmen, 1.5 [for a triple exit]); a trapdoor (Hamlet, 5.1; Macbeth, 4.1; The Two Noble Kinsmen, 5.2, 5.3); a space under the stage (Hamlet, 1.5; Antony, 4.3); the ‘top’ (The Tempest, 3.3); and a descent machine (Cymbeline, 5.5; The Tempest, 4.1). After 1594, even though the two monopolistic companies then acquired fixed London playhouses, they continued to tour.84 Possibly both before and after 1594, given the habit of travelling, Shakespeare and his contemporaries wrote their plays in an idealized or optimum form while leaving the actors to use whatever resources were available.
5 Although there was no typical Elizabethan playhouse, there does appear to have been some basic similarity in the stages of London professional playhouses, and it seems that Elizabethan playwrights were able to have almost consistent expectations from the facilities of the London playhouses. I therefore hope that assembling relevant examples from plays performed in these professional playhouses, whether public or private, will help us to consider assumptions implied in the Elizabethan entry and exit stage directions. I have searched the entire corpus of extant English Renaissance plays. However, when I show statistical evidence, I use only Shakespearean plays for practical reasons: textual studies of Shakespeare’s plays are far more advanced than those of non-Shakespearean plays; and for the basis of counting lines and treating the data statistically texts printed in the same format such as those given in one-volume editions of the complete works should be used. Although what my statistical data can show is Shakespeare’s (and his company’s) treatment of entrances and exits, my purpose is not to suggest that he was special in his careful control of entrances and exits and that his contemporaries were by contrast sloppy writers. However, it is an important likelihood that as a resident playwright he wrote most of his plays to be performed in his own playhouses. My use of examples from Shakespeare is not to suggest that only his plays provide such examples. I have given priority to Shakespeare, because many entrances and exits in his plays have been commented upon by modern editors and literary critics. Some of these comments are useful
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Studying Entrances and Exits 19
to our discussions, and some regrettably show a lack of basic understanding of Elizabethan entrances and exits. Since, as shown above, both the texts themselves and the context in which they should be interpreted have so many uncertain factors, my conclusions cannot be more than hypothetical and speculative. Any progress in textual studies would compel me to modify my treatment of the data, and new discoveries of evidence for the design of Shakespearean stages and regular conventions about entrances and exits might even overthrow my discussions. Some readers might say that entrances and exits were the actors’ job, and that neither playwrights nor book-keepers were concerned with minute things about these movements. It might be dangerous to deduce much about entrances and exits from play-texts. In any two performances of the play no given entrance or exit could have been made in exactly the same manner. The actors would have done whatever was practical or possible at the time and in the venue they were using. But since the surviving play-texts are almost the only evidence, it is worth doing what we can do with them. What I firmly believe and should like to show in this book is that studying entrances and exits is essential to a better understanding of the staging practices of Shakespeare and his contemporaries.
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20 Shakespearean Entrances
Interrupted Exits and Their Implications
1 Hamlet, 2.2, which is a very long scene and contains various events, ends with Hamlet’s soliloquy. Towards the end of the scene, he dismisses all the other onstage characters, that is, Polonius, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, and the players. The Q2 text at this point reads as follows: Ham. … Good my Lord will you see the players well bestowed; doe you heare, let them be well vsed, … Pol. My Lord, I will vse them according to their desert. Ham. Gods bodkin man, much better, vse euery man after his desert, & who shall scape whipping, vse them after your owne honor and dignity, the lesse they deserue the more merrit is in your bounty. Take them in. Pol. Come sirs. Ham. Follow him friends, weele heare a play to morrowe; dost thou heare me old friend, can you play the murther of Gonzago? Play. I my Lord. Ham. Weele hate to morrowe night, you could for neede study a speech of some dosen lines, or sixteene lines, which I would set downe and insert in’t, could you not? Play. I my Lord. Ham. Very well, followe that Lord, & looke you mock him not. My good friends, Ile leaue you tell night, you are welcome to Elsonoure. Exeunt Pol. and Players. Ros. Good my Lord. Exeunt. Ham. I so God buy to you, now I am alone, … (F4r-v; 2.2.524–6, 529–50) 21
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2
In this text Polonius and the players are given a joint departure after Hamlet’s speech beginning with ‘Very well, followe that Lord’. In the F1 text the dialogue is substantially the same, but Polonius is given a solo exit (‘Exit Polon.’ (TLN 1575)) immediately after his ‘Come sirs’ (TLN 1575), and the players are not given any exit. Q1 does the same, sending Corambis [the Q1 name for Polonius] off at his last words, ‘Welcome my good fellowes’ (E4v), and giving no indication of when the players should make their exit. The textual situation in Hamlet is very uncertain. The view currently accepted most widely is that Q2 was printed from the author’s manuscript and F1 was from a transcript of the company’s playbook reflecting Shakespeare’s revised version, and that Q1 is a reported text derived ultimately from the F1 playbook. The New Cambridge Shakespeare1 and the Oxford Complete Works adopt Polonius’s early solo exit and add an exit for the players after ‘Very well, followe that Lord, & looke you mock him not.’ The Cambridge editor thinks of the F1 stage direction for Polonius’s exit as ‘a clear case of the book-keeper beginning to visualize the staging as he transcribed Shakespeare’s MS’.2 The Oxford editors insist on the importance of the independent agreement of Q1 and F1 as a reflection of theatrical practice.3 This may be so. But it is questionable whether the Q2 and F1 texts have really different actions in this passage, that is to say, whether the movements that the actors playing Polonius and the players actually made on the Globe stage did differ from what Shakespeare had originally intended in the manuscript Q2 was printed from. The dialogue includes speeches which serve as cues for the actors’ movements. These are verbal directions built into the dialogue by the author. Whether we use Q2 or F1, the dialogue indicates these movements: Polonius would begin to walk towards a stage door immediately after or while saying ‘Come sirs’; the players would turn their backs and begin to leave in response to Hamlet’s ‘Follow him friends’; Hamlet then interrupts the First Player’s move by saying ‘dost thou heare me old friend’; the other players would stop to wait for their leader to rejoin them, and Polonius would wait too, but closer to the door. When Hamlet tells the players to follow him for the second time, he refers to Polonius as ‘that Lord’, which suggests that the object of his gesture is still in view. Seeing the players now start to follow him, Polonius would resume his exit, and they would shortly disappear from the stage. Hamlet, in the meantime, dismisses Rosencrantz and Guildenstern by saying, ‘My good friends, Ile leaue you tell night, you are welcome to Elsonoure.’ They would probably start to go immedi-
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22 Shakespearean Entrances
ately after Rosencrantz has said ‘Good my Lord’ as his farewell. Hamlet’s second farewell to them (‘I so God buy to you’) would accompany their move towards the tiring-house. So far as the exit of Polonius and the players is concerned, despite the disagreement about the placement of the stage directions, the Q2 and F1 texts provide the same action. We cannot be certain whether in his manuscript Shakespeare set the exit stage direction for Polonius and the players just after ‘you are welcome to Elsonoure’ as it is printed in Q2. It is at least possible that he wrote it to the right of the 3-line speech beginning with ‘Very well, followe that Lord’, using two or three lines of the margin. In any event, since the Q2 dialogue and the F1 dialogue require the movements suggested above, the Q2 exit stage direction for Polonius and the players, originally written by Shakespeare, is printed in the vicinity of the point where they should finally go out of a stage door, whereas the F1 exit stage direction for Polonius, which might be attributed to the bookkeeper, is placed at or around the point where Polonius should begin to lead the players away. Similarly, it is possible that Shakespeare (and the book-keeper) intended Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to start after Hamlet has said ‘I so God buy to you’, for the exit stage direction for the gentlemen may have been written where it is printed simply because the right margin of the short line of Rosencrantz was a convenient point at which to insert it. But in Elizabethan play-texts there are many instances where the exit stage direction is placed between the exiting character’s saying good-bye to the remaining character and that character’s saying good-bye to him.4 Both Q2 and F1 seem to place the exit of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern at the point where they begin to leave. The New Cambridge editor thinks that ‘Polonius cannot be left awkwardly on stage while Hamlet discusses the “dozen or sixteen lines” with the First Player.’5 But this objection ignores the frequency and the varying dramatic effects created by Shakespeare’s use of overlapping and extended exits and entrances. Earlier in the same scene, the King and Queen stole away after Hamlet had made his entry (Q2, F1r / F1, TLN 1203–8; 2.2.168–71), and in the next scene, the King and Polonius depart as Hamlet enters (Q2, G2r / F1, TLN 1707–9; 3.1.57). These overlappings of exits and entrances would add to suspense and dramatic tension. It may be important, in the scene we are considering, that Polonius, Rosencrantz, and Guildenstern are all still on stage when Hamlet expresses his intention of having The Murder of Gonzago performed. The onstage presence of the three spies would contribute to
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Interrupted Exits 23
the suspense of the situation, and reinforce one of the play’s central motifs of plotting and counter-plotting. Whether the spies can hear Hamlet or not is another question. Hamlet’s speech, ‘dost thou heare me old friend’ seems to imply that he speaks to the First Player confidentially. This example has important implications. First, in Shakespeare’s plays, exits could be interrupted. Secondly, Shakespeare, the bookkeeper, and their fellow actors treated exits as moves which had a certain duration – that is, moves to be begun, continued, and completed. Thirdly, the placing of some exit stage directions may mark the beginning of such a process while others may indicate its completion. Lastly, a certain amount of the dialogue may accompany the moves of exiting characters.
2 Other examples give support to the hypothesis that Shakespeare and his contemporaries took account of the time needed for exits on the stages of Elizabethan theatres. Towards the end of King Lear, 3.7, the blinded Gloucester exits, led by a servant. I quote from the F1 text. Glou. O my Follies! then Edgar was abus’d, Kinde Gods, forgiue me that, and prosper him. Reg. Go thrust him out at gates, and let him smell His way to Douer. Exit with Glouster. How is’t my Lord? How looke you? Corn. I haue receiu’d a hurt: Follow me Lady; Turne out that eyelesse Villaine: throw this Slaue Vpon the Dunghill: Regan, I bleed apace, Vntimely comes this hurt. Giue me your arme. Exeunt. (TLN 2168–76; 3.7.89–96) As the first exit stage direction indicates, one of the onstage servants would unbind Gloucester and begin to lead him away immediately after Regan’s command.6 Gloucester would make a slow and stumbling exit as a result of the physical and mental agonies which he was suffering. Therefore he might well be still making such a pitiful exit two lines later, when Cornwall gives the further command to the servant leading him or other onstage servants: ‘Turne out that eyelesse Villaine’. These harsh words would not only reinforce our sense of
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24 Shakespearean Entrances
Cornwall’s cruelty, but would also intensify the painfulness of Gloucester’s departure. Since exiting characters take some time to complete their moves, we need not think the F1 placement of the exit stage direction too early simply because Cornwall repeats his wife’s order two lines later.7 In the finale of Nathan Field’s A Woman is a Weathercock, performed at the Whitefriars, Captain Pouts speaks a 4-line farewell speech, as he is helped out: Cap. Hart, I was neuer sicke before, helpe me now to a Surgeon, or I shall swoon instantly. As 2 leads him he speaks Thou wer’t borne a Roman Citizen, fare thee well, And farewell loue, and weomen, ye diseases, My horse and sword shall be my Mistresses, My Horse Ile court, my sword shall lye with me. Exit (Q1, I2r) In this example, what the exit stage direction indicates is the completion of the move. Admittedly, the injured captain’s departure and Gloucester’s blind exit may be exceptionally slow. But the slow pace of the departures may not be a very important reason why the whole process of the moves is not indicated by the exit directions.8 Much Ado About Nothing Q1 provides an example where the exit stage direction clearly indicates the beginning of the departure, but not the actual exit. Leonato Take their examination your selfe, and bring it me, I am now in great haste, as it may appeare vnto you. Constable It shall be suffigance. exit Leonato Drinke some wine ere you goe: fare you well. Messenger My lord, they stay for you, to giue your daughter to her husband. Leon. Ile wait vpon them, I am ready. (F3r; 3.5.46–53) As the dialogue requires, Leonato must move quickly. He would begin to leave immediately after or while saying ‘fare you well’, and so he would be already in the process of exiting when the messenger enters to summon him. (Although there is no entry direction for the
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Interrupted Exits 25
Messenger, he would enter immediately before his speech.) The exit stage direction, printed with a bracket, is a turnover: the typesetter put it to the right of the constable’s short speech because of the lack of sufficient space to the right of the next line, where the exit direction must have stood in his copy. Although there must have been much space to the right of Leonato’s speech ‘Ile wait vpon them, I am ready’, the exit direction did not stand there. Much Ado Q1, printed from authorial papers, contains many uncorrected first thoughts by Shakespeare,9 but Leonato’s ‘early exit’ is neither an error nor an abandoned but uncorrected first thought. The F1 text of the play, which has been influenced by the theatre playbook, retains the same placing of the exit (TLN 1642).10 An example of double exit can be seen in Dekker and Webster’s Northward Ho, a play for Paul’s Children: Cap. Will you? by all the leekes that are worne on Saint Dauies daie I will buy not only a Coach, with foure wheeles, but also a white Mare and a stone horse too, because they shal traw you, very lustily, as if the diuill were in their arses. Exit. How now, more Tailors— Meetes Phillip. Phi. How sir; Taylors. Dol. O good Captaine, tis my Couzen. Enter Leuerpoole at another dore. Cap. Is he, I will Couzen you then sir too, one day. Phil. I hope sir then to Couzen you too. Cap. By gad I hobe so, fare-well Sidanien. Exit. (Q1, C3v-C4r [sig. C3 is misprinted as D3]) The exiting Captain sees Philip entering and interrupts his exit. The first exit direction indicates the moment when the Captain should begin to leave the stage, and the second exit indicates the moment when he should resume his interrupted move so that he could complete it. There are very few exit stage directions which obviously mark the whole process of beginning and completing an exit. The exit stage directions which clearly indicate the completion of the moves are also relatively few.11 The stage direction ‘Exit’/‘Exeunt’ usually indicates the beginning of a process rather than a single action which is completed immediately.
3 As with the stage direction ‘Exit’/‘Exeunt’, the stage direction ‘Enter’ does not always indicate the moment when the actor should appear
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26 Shakespearean Entrances
from a stage door or another entry-point. There are not a few cases in which an entry stage direction is placed at or around the point where the entering character should join the other characters already on stage. The Merchant of Venice Q1, which is thought to have been printed from Shakespeare’s fair copy or a scribal transcript of it, offers an example where an entry direction is preceded by words spoken to the entering character: Solanio. Let me say amen betimes, least the deuil crosse my praier, for heere he comes in the likenes of a Iewe. How now Shylocke, what newes among the Merchants? Enter Shylocke. Shy. You knew, none so well, none so well as you, of my daughters flight. (E2r; 3.1.19–24) In our modern usage of ‘Enter’, this placing is completely unacceptable. The reason why the entry is printed after Solanio’s speech may have been because the Q1 compositor avoided interrupting the consecutive prose of the speech for the stage direction. We cannot entirely rule out the possibility that in the printer’s copy the entry direction stood to the right of the first or second line of Solanio’s speech so as to indicate that Shylock should appear before he is addressed.12 Hamlet F1, behind which seems to lie a transcript of a playhouse manuscript, provides a similar ‘late’ entry: Polon. Fare you well my Lord. Ham. These tedious old fooles. Polon. You goe to seeke my Lord Hamlet; there hee is. Enter Rosincran and Guildensterne. Rosin. God saue you Sir. Guild. Mine honour’d Lord? Rosin. My most deare Lord? Ham. My excellent good friends? … (TLN 1261–9; 2.2.219–25) In this example, the F1 compositor almost certainly followed the copy in placing the entry direction after Polonius’s speech, ‘You goe to seeke my Lord Hamlet; there hee is’, although centring it must have been his work. Since Polonius notices the two gentlemen’s arrival and speaks to them, the placing of the entry stage direction for them is at least one line too late. Although the Q2 text of the play provides substantially
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Interrupted Exits 27
the same dialogue, it marks the gentlemen’s entrance (‘Enter Guyldersterne, and Rosencraus’) just before Polonius says ‘Fare you well my Lord’ (F1v; 2.2.219) and then begins to leave. It may be that in both versions they were intended to appear at the moment indicated by the Q2 entry direction so that they and the exiting Polonius could meet and pass each other, around the moment indicated by the F1 entry direction. It should be added, however, that there is no reason why in the F1 version the gentlemen should not postpone their entrance until just before Polonius’s speech to them. In such early texts of Shakespeare’s plays, whether printed from his own manuscripts or from playbooks or from transcripts of either authorial or theatrical manuscripts, some entry stage directions are placed just before the entering characters either speak or are spoken to, and some are placed only after the speeches spoken to the entering characters. Others are placed a few lines before the entering characters either speak or are spoken to. This apparent inconsistency suggests that Shakespeare and his colleagues were used to dealing with entrances as moves which took a length of time. A special kind of entrance that we might call ‘interrupted’ or ‘extended’ occurs, when Hamlet and Horatio enter in the graveyard scene of Hamlet. The Q2 and F1 texts are different about the placing of their entrance. Q2 marks ‘Enter Hamlet and Horatio’ (M2v; 5.1.64) immediately before Hamlet’s first speech. On the other hand, F1 places their entrance nine lines earlier: Enter Hamlet and Horatio a farre off. Clo. Cudgell thy braines no more about it; for your dull Asse will not mend his pace with beating; and when you are ask’t this question next, say a Graue-maker: the Houses that he makes, lasts till Doomesday: go, get thee to Yaughan, fetch me a stoupe of Liquor. Sings. In youth when I did loue, did loue, me thought it was very sweete: To contract O the time for a my behoue, O me thought there was nothing meete. Ham. Ha’s this fellow no feeling of his businesse, that he sings at Graue-making? (TLN 3245–57; 5.1.55–66) The dialogue is substantially the same in the two texts. Hamlet’s first remark implies that he and Horatio have been watching and listening
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to the First Gravedigger for some time before he speaks. The positioning of the entry stage direction in Q2 may therefore have been intended to show the point at which they should reach the trap which serves as the grave. The F1 placing, on the other hand, is much less ambiguous. It clearly indicates the moment when they should first appear through a stage door. Its additional adverbial phrase, ‘a farre off’, seems to confirm that Hamlet and Horatio do not walk directly towards the trap after their entrance. This adverbial phrase is a fairly common one in stage directions, though not usually for this kind of interrupted or extended entrance. Most stage directions that include ‘afar off’ are for offstage sound effects. Hamlet F1 provides ‘March afarre off, and shout within’ (TLN 3836; 5.2.301). In relatively few cases is the adverbial phrase used for onstage actions. These few cases seem comparable to the entry stage directions that include ‘aloof’, ‘aloof off’, ‘apart’, ‘at a distance’, and the like. It is likely that such locutions as ‘Enter aloof’, ‘Enter and stand aloof’, and ‘Enter, standing aloof’ are used to indicate the same movement: to enter onto the stage and stand somewhat apart. The F1 text of 3 Henry VI, when Margaret, Edward, and Oxford are requested to ‘stand aside’ (TLN 1845; 3.3.110), has a stage direction reading ‘They stand aloofe’ (TLN 1847; 3.3.111). The distance indicated by ‘afar off’ and ‘aloof’, therefore, may be from centre-stage to the side, rather than from front-stage to back.13 We must bear in mind too the principal reason why entering characters stand at a distance from what is taking place on stage. It is primarily to overhear or eavesdrop. In order to do this, they might well make use of stage posts to hide behind.14 Not all playhouses had stage posts, but where they existed, they would have been an invaluable stage prop for this purpose. The Devil’s Charter, a Globe play, provides ‘he stands behind the post’ (Q1, F3v), although the character (Frescobaldi) has not just entered but has been on stage for a considerable time. In some cases an entering character keeps his distance from the characters already on stage; in other cases a character entering after another character keeps aloof from the character entering first. Typical phrasings for the stage directions for these situations are ‘Enter X aloof’ and ‘Enter X, and Y aloof’. As suggested above, the most common reason why the entering character keeps himself aloof is that he wants to observe unnoticed either the characters already on stage or the character entering before him. ‘Enter listening/ privately/ unseen/ …’, therefore, can be treated as variants of ‘Enter aloof’. 1 Sir John Oldcastle, a 1599 Rose play, provides ‘Enter Cambridge, Scroope, and Gray, as in a chamber,
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Interrupted Exits 29
and set downe at a table, consulting about their treason: King Harry and Suffolke listning at the doore’ (TLN 2086–8). It is almost certain that the traitors entered onto the main stage, although we cannot entirely dismiss the possibility that they were discovered sitting in the curtained space. The table, positioned by stage attendants just before the traitors’ arrival, would have transformed the stage into ‘a chamber’. King Harry entered following the traitors and stood by the door he had entered by to eavesdrop on their conversation. When this play was performed, the Rose’s stage had a covering roof and posts supporting it, but Harry did not conceal himself behind one of the stage posts, which at the second Rose appear to have been positioned at the front edge of the stage. To have done so would have been undignified and demeaning to his regal status. Self-concealment behind a post is more appropriate to intrigue plots of either a low or comic kind. Marston’s The Dutch Courtesan, performed at the (second) Blackfriars, has ‘Enter Master Garnish, and Lionell: Master Mulligrubbe, with a standing cup in his hand, and an Obligation in the other, Cocledemoy stands at the other dore disguised like a French Pedler, and ouer-heares them’ (Q1, E2v).15 Unlike Harry, on the Blackfriars stage which had no posts, Cocledemoy had to stay by his entrance door. In this case, a pillar to hide behind would have been a useful adjunct wholly in keeping with Cocledemoy’s character and purpose. In any event, whether stage posts were available or not, pausing at their entrance and remaining near the entry door allowed entering characters to keep their distance from onstage characters or other entering characters.16 Because the main acting area was front-stage, near the stage doors could be distant enough for eavesdropping on the main action. When Hamlet and Horatio entered in the graveyard scene, on the Globe stage, they could either have remained near their entry door, or moved to a side position, or possibly hidden themselves behind a stage post. But since the situation was not one that required concealment, they would not have needed to hide themselves in this way.
4 The following passage from As You Like It, 1.2 contains what amounts to one entrance and one and a half exits. Ros. Gentleman, Weare this for me: one out of suites with fortune That could giue more, but that her hand lacks meanes.
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30 Shakespearean Entrances
Shall we goe Coze? Cel. I: fare you well faire Gentleman. Orl. Can I not say, I thanke you? My better parts Are all throwne downe, and that which here stands vp Is but a quintine, a meere liuelesse blocke. Ros. He cals vs back: my pride fell with my fortunes, Ile aske him what he would: Did you call Sir? Sir, you haue wrastled well, and ouerthrowne More then your enemies. Cel. Will you goe Coze? Ros. Haue with you: fare you well. Orl. What passion hangs these waights vpõ my toong? I cannot speake to her, yet she vrg’d conference. Enter Le Beu. O poore Orlando! thou art ouerthrowne Or Charles, or something weaker masters thee.
Exit.
(F1, TLN 410–28; 1.2.234–50) It is reasonable to suppose that Rosalind and Celia begin to leave just after Celia has said ‘I: fare you well faire Gentleman’, but that Rosalind stops and restrains Celia from going just before saying ‘He cals vs back’, and approaches Orlando again, probably leaving Celia alone near their exit door.17 Although As You Like It was a very early Globe play, Shakespeare had already had years’ experience of writing plays for the Theatre. Therefore the number of lines Orlando is given to deliver between the beginning of Rosalind and Celia’s exit and its interruption is significant. Shakespeare might have had the habit or tendency to give an exiting character a duration of about three lines in which to complete the exit.18 In most modern productions, the actress performing Rosalind dawdles almost into the wings before stopping suddenly and hurrying back to Orlando.19 This practice is partly determined by the size and design of modern stages. The original players of Rosalind and Celia would not necessarily have been required to dawdle. Although they do not really want to leave Orlando, they may or may not have expressed their internal feeling by moving very slowly. It is almost certain that Rosalind begins to depart again at the point indicated by the exit stage direction. If Rosalind has left Celia where they had stopped, Celia would wait until she rejoined her. Since these characters did not complete their previous exit in the space of three lines, they would probably be visible while Orlando speaks another three
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Interrupted Exits 31
lines. The entry stage direction for Le Beau is placed two lines before his speech. If this stage direction indicates the precise moment when he should appear from a stage door, he is allowed two lines to approach Orlando. Since it seems likely that Le Beau enters while Rosalind and Celia are still making their exit, he presumably uses the opposite door to that towards which the ladies are walking. It seems worth considering Bernard Beckerman’s hypothesis that one door was regularly used for entrances and the opposing door for exits. The Oxford Complete Works, the Oxford single edition of As You Like It, and the New Cambridge Shakespeare all add the stage direction ‘aside’ to the 3-line speech of Orlando (‘Can I not say, I thanke you? …’).20 However, Rosalind and Celia have scarcely turned their backs and started to go, when Orlando begins to speak as if he had been left alone. He is not concerned at all whether the ladies hear him or not.21 Just after Rosalind has begun to depart again, Orlando speaks four lines (‘What passion hangs these waights vpõ my toong? …’), which is very similar to his previous 3-line speech. The Oxford and Cambridge editors, however, do not add ‘aside’ to this speech. Why do they treat the two speeches differently? Do they think that Orlando waits to speak the four lines until Rosalind and Celia have disappeared from the stage? It is true that Orlando describes his inability to speak, but even where a character speaks of his own silence it is by no means certain that the insertion of a pause before he does in fact speak was a contemporary method of reinforcing his inarticulacy. Even if Orlando does not speak until the ladies complete their exit, Le Beau enters while he is speaking. One might suppose that when a character is making his entrance or exit, unless the character shows any special response or attitude to the dialogue of the onstage characters, whether he hears them or not would not have been a relevant question on the Shakespearean stage. The relationship between onstage characters and entering or exiting characters shall be more fully discussed later. The examples dealt with in this chapter raise a number of questions, and suggest a few basic assumptions which can be tested with other examples. One implication of them is that speaking characters did not usually stay by the frons, but stood at the forward edge of the stage, furthest from the entrance doors. The fact that interrupted exits were stock actions in Elizabethan plays suggests that Shakespeare and his contemporaries took into account the distance which actors had to walk when exiting and the time they needed to complete their moves. The next thing we should do is to examine how much time was usually allowed for exits.
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32 Shakespearean Entrances
3
1 It seems most likely that in Elizabethan public playhouses the action usually took place at front-stage to allow the audience positioned on three or four sides of the stage to see and hear best.1 Whether the stage was very deep or comparatively shallow, an actor who made his exit from the front of the stage would need some time to complete his exit and get out of sight through one of the doors in the tiring-house façade. Shakespeare and most of his fellow playwrights, men of the theatre not least in their understanding of the size of the stages their plays were acted on, were fully aware of this fact. Even in those cases where the moves of exiting characters are not clearly built into the accompanying dialogue, a certain amount of time would have been allowed for the actors to complete their exits. The number of lines delivered by other characters while those making their exits were walking towards one of the stage doors give us the basis for calculating the amount of time the exits were expected to take. Some variables are involved in each individual case – such as the rapidity of the exit, the speed at which the accompanying lines are spoken, and whether a pause is inserted in the dialogue between the beginning of the exit and its completion. There are some stage directions indicating that the exiting character should move quickly: for example, ‘Exit Biondello, Tranio and Pedant as fast as may be’ (The Taming of the Shrew F1, TLN 2490; 5.1.102); ‘Exit King running’ (King Lear Q1, I4v; Sc.20.192); ‘exit in hast’ (John Clavell, The Soddered Citizen, TLN 439). There are also some directions suggesting that the exiting character should move slowly: for example, ‘Exit reeling’ (Robert Armin, The Two Maids of More-clacke Q1, D1r); ‘Exit, staggering’ 33
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Time Allowed for Exits
(Eastward Ho Q1, B4r); ‘Exit creep’ (Eastward Ho Q1, F2v). In some cases speeches spoken around the exits imply the pace of the moves: for example, ‘Was that my father that went hence so fast?’ (Romeo and Juliet Q2, B1r; 1.1.159); ‘I am now in great haste, as it may appeare vnto you’ (Much Ado About Nothing Q1, F3r; 3.5.47–8). In extremely rare cases do stage directions specifically indicate the insertion of pauses so as to allow time for exits: for example, ‘Pause a while till he ~ be gon out & the speak tretably’ (John Pickering, The Interlude of Vice Q1, TLN 1121–6); ‘Pause’ (George Wapull, The Tide Tarrieth No Man Q1, F1r). Usually, however, no information is provided about any one of the variables involved in an exit. Leaving these variable factors on one side for the moment, let us seek to determine some general principles about how the exiter’s departure can relate to the lines being spoken.2
2 In a number of cases a mid-scene exit and a mid-scene entrance are correlated, in the sense that the completion of the exit is required for the entrance to be made. In these cases the number of lines spoken between the beginning of the exit and the entrance that relates to it includes at the least all the lines delivered between the beginning and completion of the exit. Examining the instances where the fewest lines are spoken between the beginning of an exit and its related entrance confirms how much time was allowed for exits. These exits and entrances can be divided into the following patterns: A ….. A character exits and re-enters. A+ …. A character exits to fetch something and re-enters with it. B ….. A character exits to summon another character, and the summoned character enters either alone or with the summoner. These patterns include only instances where the exit and its related entrance are both made on the main stage, leaving aside those in which an ascent to the upper playing level by the exiter himself is involved, or those in which the exit is made from the upper playing level. That is to say, pattern A does not include those instances in which (Ca) a character exits below (from the main stage) and re-enters above (on the upper playing level); (Cb) a character exits above and reenters below; or (Cc) a character exits above and re-enters there. Pattern Ca, which includes an exit from the main stage, is not irrelevant to our discussion. To these further patterns we shall return later.
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34 Shakespearean Entrances
Instances of pattern A+ include those in which a character exits to investigate a noise made within, and those in which a character exits to obtain expected information. Although pattern A+ is a variant of pattern A, it could be combined with pattern B, for these patterns share a very important feature: the exit itself leads to the expectation that its related entrance will be made shortly by the same door. In pattern A, when the character re-enters immediately or very soon, he is very likely to use the same door for his exit and re-entrance: he would not make an offstage crossing between the completion of the exit and the re-entrance.3 Using Quarto and Folio texts, I have searched all of Shakespeare’s plays for instances of each pattern. It would be unreasonable to rely very much upon stage directions to determine when characters begin to exit or when they enter through one of the stage doors. I have therefore sought to find the primary basis for deciding on the moments of the beginnings of exits and entrances from the speeches themselves. In most cases an exit is explicitly denoted in the dialogue – through a statement of intention to depart spoken by the exiter himself, an instruction or request from another character telling or asking the exiter to go, or something similar. Since such words serve as cues for the actor to begin to exit, I have placed the beginnings of exits just after these ‘exit cues’. Where a stage direction indicates a different moment of exit, I have accepted that point as an alternative possibility, unless it is unreasonable to assume that the exiter begins to leave at this point. Some cases have neither kind of starting-point, but an exit is required by the fact that the same character re-enters later. Even in such cases there is usually some sort of cue, such as a noise made within or a speech delivered by or spoken to the character, as it is with the beginning of Bardolph’s exit at 2 Henry IV, 2.4.371, and Seyton’s in Macbeth at 5.5.8.4 An entrance is usually announced through a speech spoken by or to the enterer, or a speech referring to his approach. In these cases the actor would have to appear before such an ‘entry announcement’. With most entrances, entry directions are positioned just before such speeches. This is true not only of the text based upon Shakespeare’s manuscripts or scribal copies, but also of the texts printed from theatre playbooks or transcripts of playbooks. Macbeth, printed in the First Folio from a playhouse manuscript, has 44 mid-scene entry stage directions, 37 of them immediately preceding ‘entry announcements’.5 Some of the extant non-Shakespearean playhouse manuscripts show that occasionally the book-keeper marked entrances some lines before
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Time Allowed for Exits 35
such points. It is assumed that in such cases the intention was to allow the enterer enough time to join onstage characters before he speaks or is addressed.6 In the manuscript of Massinger’s Believe as You List, the book-keeper marks at least 28 stage directions for mid-scene entrances onto the main stage, of which 21, or possibly 22, are early directions. Nineteen of these 21 or 22 are placed about two or three lines before the speeches spoken by, or to, the enterers or the speeches referring to their approaches. If the book-keeper’s intention was to allow the actors time to walk the distance between a stage door and the centre or front part of the stage, these observations can also support the conclusions reached in this chapter.7 As mentioned above, this manuscript playbook, so thoroughly marked by the book-keeper, is an exception among the surviving playhouse manuscripts. In Fredson Bowers’s view, in any printed (or manuscript) text, it is a convention that a character’s entrance is marked just before he speaks, whereas in performance his entrance must have been made slightly earlier.8 If so, there must be a considerable number of instances in which we should place the entrance some lines before the enterer first speaks or is addressed, in spite of the position of the entry stage direction. In practice, it is impossible to judge how many lines earlier the entrance should be placed in each particular case. Accordingly, I have generally placed entrances just before ‘entry announcements’, and where there is an entry stage direction indicating an earlier point, I have accepted that point as an alternative possibility, unless it is clear that the stage direction is misplaced. Such speeches as ‘Here he comes’ and ‘Who comes here?’ can be classified under speeches referring to enterers’ approaches. The fact that even in texts based upon theatre playbooks or scribal transcripts of them, there are a considerable number of entry stage directions which are preceded by such speeches may possibly imply that entrances were not always made before them.9 But I have placed all entrances accompanied by ‘Here he comes’ and its equivalents just before them, and where there are entry stage directions after these speeches, as well as where there are entry stage directions a few lines before them, I have treated the moment of entry signalled by the position of the stage directions as alternative possibilities. Twelfth Night offers a specimen: Ol. I haue sent after him, he sayes hee’l come: How shall I feast him? What bestow of him? For youth is bought more oft, then begg’d, and borrow’d. I speake too loud: Where’s Maluolio, he is sad, and ciuill,
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36 Shakespearean Entrances
And suites well for a seruant with my fortunes, Where is Maluolio? Mar. He’s comming Madame: But in very strange manner. He is sure possest Madam. Ol. Why what’s the matter, does he raue? Mar. No Madam he does nothing but smile: … Ol. Go call him hither. Enter Maluolio. I am as madde as hee, If sad and merry madnesse equall bee. How now Maluolio? Mal. Sweet Lady, ho, ho. (F1, TLN 1522–31, 1534–9; 3.4.1–11, 14–16) The only authoritative text for Twelfth Night is the one in the First Folio, which is thought to have been printed from some sort of literary transcript. It is almost certain that Maria begins to exit in response to Olivia’s instruction in the middle of 3.4.14 (immediately after ‘Go call him hither’), although no stage direction is given for her exit. The summoned character, Malvolio is first addressed at 3.4.16 (‘How now Maluolio?’), but the stage direction for his entrance is placed in the middle of 3.4.14, just after Olivia’s order to the summoner, Maria. As most modern editions do, placing Maria’s re-entrance with Malvolio at the end of 3.4.15 (just before Olivia’s first speech to Malvolio) surely makes sense. But the stage direction for Malvolio’s entrance may have worked well in its original position. 10 It may imply Maria’s immediate re-entrance with Malvolio. Such a hasty action might be somewhat awkward but was certainly possible. Since Olivia has been speaking to herself about ‘Cesario’ before asking Maria about Malvolio, Maria might have been keeping her distance from Olivia by standing near a stage door. A third possibility is that since, as Maria says, Malvolio was approaching, he may enter before Maria has completed her exit.11 Antony and Cleopatra, 1.2 provides such an example, where Enobarbus has scarcely begun to exit to find Antony when he enters with a Roman messenger (F1, TLN 167–70; 1.2.79–80). If Maria did not complete the exit, the omission of an exit stage direction for her might have been deliberate. I have therefore tentatively concluded that Maria begins to exit in the middle of 3.4.14 and re-enters with Malvolio at 3.4.15, while conceding the above-mentioned two alternative possibilities. This instance is referred to as ‘Twelfth Night, 3.4.14m-15[14m]’
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Time Allowed for Exits 37
38 Shakespearean Entrances
3 The text I have used for the investigation of each play is the one chosen as the basic control-text for the play in the Oxford Complete Works.13 For several plays there are two or three authoritative or substantive texts. For these multi-text plays, I have also consulted the other text(s). The Quarto and Folio texts of Shakespeare’s plays depend on manuscript copy of various kinds. The examples of the three patterns mentioned above may in part reflect the nature of the particular text which provides them. Judging from the comparison of the substantive texts of each multi-text play, the influence of the text on the data concerning the play is not crucial, whether it is based on Shakespeare’s copy or a scribal transcript of it or based on the playbook or a scribal transcript of it, and whether the text may represent possible Shakespearean revision or not. The intertextual comparison has also shown that the so-called ‘bad quartos’ lack not a few examples including those important ones in which the number of lines between the beginnings of the exits and their related entrances is very small. As mentioned below, certain omissions and changes may reflect stage practices. With the exception of Pericles, we are fortunate enough not to be forced to rely exclusively on a problematic text for any play. I have counted all the examples found in Shakespeare’s plays, including Pericles, and have only excluded those instances in which a sound or an action fills the gap between the beginning of the exit and the entrance. (I have included those instances where a sound is heard or an action is made somewhere between the beginning of the exit and the entrance.) Therefore such examples as King Lear, 5.2.4-4 (Edgar’s exit and reentrance) and Hamlet, 3.2.129-129 (the Player Queen’s and Player Lucianus’s exits and re-entrances) are not counted as instances of no lines. Where two or more instances share the same exit or entrance, I have counted the one in which the number of lines is smallest. For example, the instance in which Charmian exits and brings in a messenger (Antony and Cleopatra, 2.5.81–84m (B=2.5)) has been included, but not the instance in which the messenger exits and re-enters with her (Antony and Cleopatra, 2.5.74–84m (A=9.5)). Lastly, I have included doubtful examples in which it is not certain whether the exit and entrance are really correlated, or whether the exit and entrance both actually occur. It should be
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and counted as a possible but doubtful instance of pattern B in which the number of lines spoken between the beginning of the exit and its related entrance is one and a half or none (‘B=1.5[0]?’).12
Time Allowed for Exits 39 Table 3.1
Number of instances of each pattern
Pattern A A+ B Total
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 2 9 11
0 3 5 8
0 2 14 16
4 4 11 19
8 3 13 24
2 4 10 16
7 5 4 16
5 3 4 12
8 3 7 18
3 2 9 14
4 1 1 6
Note: In this table, extra part-lines are counted as full lines.
sufficient to show the number of instances of each pattern in which the number of lines is between nought and ten. For the instances themselves, see Appendix 1.
4 There is a total of eleven no-line cases, but, as can be seen in Appendix 1, the majority of these are doubtful or controversial examples. In only a few indisputable instances is the number of lines none or one. In the great majority of cases the number is two or more. It can safely be concluded that in Shakespeare’s plays characters are generally allowed at least about two lines to complete their exits. Pattern A has a few instances where the number is three and several where the number is four. All the exiters in the instances of three lines, namely, Whitmore (2 Henry VI, 4.1.140–143), the First Murderer (Richard III, 1.4.265–268), Catesby (Richard III, 3.7.91–94[192]), and Bardolph (2 Henry IV, 2.4.385–388), are subordinate or minor characters, while some exiters who are given four lines, namely, Titus (Titus Andronicus, 5.2.160–164), Mistress Ford (The Merry Wives of Windsor, 4.2.93[91]–97), Othello (Othello, 1.2.49m–53m), and Lear (King Lear, 1.4.269–273), are major characters. Significantly, Whitmore and the First Murderer do not exit alone but with major characters, Suffolk and Clarence. In neither case does the text provide anything to suggest from what part of the stage the exiter begins to leave, but since they take major characters off the stage, it is unlikely that they have been standing apart by the frons scenae. Whitmore is supposed to have time to kill Suffolk and cut his head off between the completion of his exit and re-entrance. He would have remained off stage for some length of time in order to make his imaginary offstage action convincing, in which case offstage cries and noises might have filled the time.14
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Number of lines
Interestingly, in the Q1 text of 2 Henry VI, Water Whickmore [the Q1 name for Walter Whitmore] takes Suffolk off stage to kill him there, and does not return to the stage (F2v). Supposing that Q1 represents an acting text derived from essentially the same text as that printed in the First Folio, it may possibly be that Whitmore’s re-entrance with Suffolk’s body had already been omitted before the play was first performed.15 The First Murderer of Richard III, on the other hand, would have made an immediate re-entrance. The exiters in all the four-line cases of pattern A could have re-entered almost immediately after completing their exits, without disturbing the audience’s belief in their offstage activities. These observations indicate that characters with speaking parts were usually allowed about four lines, and occasionally about three lines, to move off the stage from the main acting area, that is, front-stage. There is no important difference between the distribution of instances of pattern A+ and that of pattern B. In the case of pattern A+, as Appendix 1 shows, while there are no reliable zeros, and only one reliable one-line case, there are a few in which the number of lines is two. In the case of pattern B, there are several reliable instances where the number is none or one and many in which the number of lines is two. (No great difference can be seen between the distribution of instances in which summoners re-enter with summoned characters and that of instances in which summoners do not re-enter.) Generally, exits involved in patterns A+ and B are dramatically unimportant: they are usually subordinate moves to their related entrances. This is probably related to the shorter time allowed for these exits. Not surprisingly, where both patterns have a number of lines between nought and two, the majority of the exiters are minor characters, such as servants and attendants. In most of these cases the entrances would naturally have been made almost immediately after the completion of the exits, although delay might have occurred in some cases. In King Lear, 1.4, for example, the knight (King Lear, 1.4.46–47 (A+=1)) is required to find Oswald and tell him to come back, but receives instead his refusal and the additional news that Regan is unwell. If the knight did not return immediately, but stayed off stage for all of this realistically to take place, a pause would have been inserted.16 The frequent involvement of minor characters in one- and two-line cases suggests the link between their usual acting area and the shorter time given for their exits. The reason why minor characters are often allowed no more than two lines, and occasionally only one line or less, to complete their exits must be that their acting area was ordinarily the rear of the stage, and they were usually expected to move off very quickly.
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40 Shakespearean Entrances
These figures clearly indicate that exiters who were allowed only one line or less were expected to begin their exits from positions in the extreme rear of the stage, near the doors. Characters who neither speak nor are addressed until they are told to pursue offstage business, such as the knight (King Lear, 1.4.46–47 (A+=1)) and the attendant (2 Henry VI, 5.1.145–145 (B=0)), were possibly meant to stand near the stage doors while on stage. Those who enter only to announce that other characters are waiting off stage to make their entrances and who exit to summon them immediately, such as the Hostess (1 Henry IV, 2.5.511–511 (B=0)) and Dennis (As You Like It, 1.1.89–90 (B=1)), quite naturally would stand by the doors through which they have entered during their very short presence on the stage. Each of the doubtful instances, examined with that idea in mind, gives it good support. In the case of All’s Well That Ends Well, 2.1.90–91 (B=1), in particular, it is unlikely that Lafew would begin his exit from an extreme rear position, for he exchanges speeches for some thirty lines with the King of France, the central character of the scene, before he begins to move. Because All’s Well, 2.1 is a ceremonial scene, it is likely that the King sits on the chair of state. The chair must have occupied centre stage.17 Lafew would stand beside or behind the royal chair. It seems reasonable to conclude that he does not really leave the stage, but only walks a few paces towards a stage door, and beckons the newcomer Helena to enter once he can see through it.
5 Before concluding this chapter, we have to give some consideration to the instances of patterns Ca and Cb. In pattern Ca, characters not only make exits but also ascend to the upper playing level by the tiringhouse stairs before they re-enter onto the stage balcony. As Appendix 1 shows, there is one reliable instance of this pattern where a character re-enters two and a half lines after he has begun to exit (Julius Caesar, 5.3.22–25m (Pindarus)). The actor could have stood near the frons scenae while on stage (5.3.8–22), and could have begun to exit from near a stage door. In pattern Cb, characters exit from the stage balcony and descend to the stage level. As can be seen in Appendix 1, there is one reliable example where no line is allowed for such a movement (Romeo and Juliet, 3.5.67–67 (Juliet)), and there are three two-line cases (The Taming of the Shrew, 5.1.53–55 (the Pedant); Richard II, 3.3.182–184 (Richard and his party); Julius Caesar, 5.3.33–35 (Pindarus)). The actors could have disappeared from the stage balcony
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Time Allowed for Exits 41
almost immediately, because this area was part of the upper level of the tiring-house façade. From these observations, it can be concluded that with the exception of Juliet, Shakespearean characters are allowed at least two lines to make an offstage ascent or descent.18 It is not irrelevant to note that in Ford’s ’Tis Pity She’s a Whore, a Cockpit play, Giovanni is allowed three and a half lines to make a movement of pattern Ca (Q1, E4r; 3.2.14m–17) and two lines to make a movement of pattern Cb (F4r; 3.2.64–66). Whether an actor could have completed an offstage ascent or descent in the space of two lines is an important question. Concerning Pindarus’s ascent and descent, Bernard Beckerman concludes that ‘we must suppose that either Cassius spoke very slowly or Pindarus moved very quickly’.19 Unfortunately the only direct architectural evidence seems to be the Jones and Webb drawings of the two Cockpits. At the Cockpit in Drury Lane the backstage staircase was constructed behind the central bay some 15 feet away from the plane of the frons (measured to the newel). An actor proceeding to the stage balcony after exiting by a stage door walked the distance from the stage door to the foot of the stairs, climbed them, and then walked the distance from the head of the stairs to the balcony. Webb’s plan of the Cockpit-inCourt at Whitehall shows that in this theatre, which was designed for use by professional players, an offstage movement from a stage door to the stage balcony was much more complicated.20 It is unlikely that the situation at the two Cockpits was exceptionally inconvenient. In Elizabethan theatres, unless we assume the possibility that some provisional staircase was used, two lines must have been far from sufficient for an offstage ascent or descent. Richard Hosley suggests that in those cases where dialogue is insufficient, ‘stage business by players remaining on the stage was employed to help cover descents’ and that ‘a Flourish of trumpets was also, where appropriate, occasionally used for this purpose’.21 In Titus Andronicus, 1.1, Saturninus and Bassianus leave the stage and immediately re-enter onto the balcony,22 and they later exit from there with others and immediately re-enter below. Only the F1 text, which appears to contain stage directions derived from a playbook, has trumpet sounds to cover their ascent to and descent from the balcony: ‘Flourish. They go vp into the Senat house’ (TLN 75; 1.1.63); ‘A long Flourish till they come downe’ (TLN 264; 1.1.233). In the Q1 text, which is agreed to derive from the author’s manuscript, no sound is given to cover either the ascent or the descent.23 We should accept Hosley’s suggestion. In Romeo and Juliet, 3.5, while Juliet was descending, Lady
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42 Shakespearean Entrances
Capulet might have made a gesture of looking for her, possibly calling her name. In Richard II, 3.3, a trumpet fanfare might have been used to cover the descent of Richard and his friends. Taken all together, Shakespearean examples of patterns A, A+, B, Ca, and Cb include a very small number of cases where sufficient time for the exit and the required offstage business or movement is not built into the accompanying dialogue. In such cases, a pause might have been inserted, or an offstage sound might have filled the necessary time. Elizabethan players were versatile, and Elizabethan plays were adaptable. After reacquiring the Blackfriars Theatre, Shakespeare’s plays were performed on its small stage as well as on the Globe’s large stage. But it is still an undeniable fact that Shakespeare virtually always provided time for actors’ exits and offstage ascents and descents. Although he was confident of his fellow actors’ versatility, his careful control of their entrances and exits was far from a ‘do-it-yourself’ attitude. In conclusion, in Shakespeare’s plays, speaking characters are usually allowed about four lines to complete their exits from the main acting area, that is, the front part of the stage. Minor characters, whose acting area is ordinarily the rear of the stage, are often expected to complete their exits in about two lines. These conclusions create a framework within which we can discuss each exit individually.
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Time Allowed for Exits 43
Speeches around Entrances and Exits
1 Recognition that Shakespeare allowed roughly four lines to an actor to walk the distance from the front-line of the stage in the centre of the playhouse back to the tiring-house suggests that the same time was needed for an enterer to move in the opposite direction. Shakespeare and his fellow playwrights made full use of entry and exit times. Each entrance or exit, of course, involves some variables – such as the rapidity of the enterer’s or the exiter’s walking, the actual distance covered, and the speed at which the accompanying lines are spoken. Using a four-line length as the standard, this chapter considers how Elizabethan entrances and exits could be related to the accompanying lines. My purpose is, as always, to suggest possible forms of original staging that we easily fail to notice when reading plays. The opening scene of Antony and Cleopatra begins and ends with the Roman soldiers, Philo and Demetrius. This is the only scene in which they make their appearance. Since neither of them is named in the dialogue, they are essentially nameless to the audience. As presenters or commentators on the scene, they provide the framework in which the lovers make their first appearance and speak of their love.1 Antony and Cleopatra enter with her train as Philo is talking of Antony’s ‘dotage’ (F1, TLN 4; 1.1.1). After perceiving their arrival, probably while drawing Demetrius off to a side position, Philo speaks three and a half lines more: Flourish. Enter Anthony, Cleopatra her Ladies, the Traine, with Eunuchs fanning her. Looke where they come: Take but good note, and you shall see in him 44
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4
Speeches around Entrances and Exits 45
(The triple Pillar of the world) transform’d Into a Strumpets Foole. Behold and see.
Since this entrance is spectacular, the actors might move slowly. Philo’s additional three and a half lines would fill the time or part of the time it takes for the hero and heroine to walk forward from their entrance door so that they could deliver their important speeches at the front of the stage. 2 Philo also draws the audience’s attention to their entrance and invites the audience to view Antony’s state from his Roman point of view, although Antony and Cleopatra themselves, through their words and their behaviour to each other, show that there is another point of view from which their love can be seen. Antony rejects the Roman Empire for love, and leaves the stage with Cleopatra and her train. Ant. … Come my Queene, Last night you did desire it. Speake not to vs. Exeunt with the Traine. Dem. Is Caesar with Anthonius priz’d so slight? Philo. Sir sometimes when he is not Anthony, He comes too short of that great Property Which still should go with Anthony. (TLN 67–73; 1.1.56–61) It is theoretically possible but hardly reasonable to assume that there might be a pause of four or so lines in length between Antony’s and Demetrius’s speeches. Suppose therefore that the moment Antony and Cleopatra begin to leave the stage, the soldiers resume their conversation, and the four or so lines of dialogue take place while the lovers are making their exit. Since the audience is likely to be more interested in looking at the two protagonists, the accompanying lines would effectively serve as a critical comment on Antony’s decision to ignore the messenger from Caesar in favour of Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatra are utterly unaware of the dialogue between Philo and Demetrius. Indeed, the soldiers clearly have no fear that their criticisms may be heard by the lovers, and the audience is not expected to worry about them being overheard either. The stately entrance and exit of the protagonists must catch the audience’s eye while their ears are
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(TLN 15–20; 1.1.10–13)
attuned to the soldiers. The public faces are shown in movement together with the private contempt that undercuts their extravagance during the four-or-so-line space of the lovers’ entrance and exit. A similar use of four or so lines of dialogue to express criticism or contempt of a character who is entering or leaving can be seen in Webster’s The White Devil. Flamineo offers to Bracciano to act as bawd between him and his sister Vittoria, and to this end he seeks to keep her husband away from her bed. On hearing Camillo’s approach Flamineo urges Bracciano to leave, and the succeeding four lines are delivered to the audience to cover the time needed for Bracciano’s departure through one door and the arrival of the prospective cuckold through another.3 FLA. ... away away my Lord,
[Exit Brachiano.]4 Enter Camillo.
See here he comes, this fellow by his apparell Some men would iudge a pollititian, But call his wit in question you shall find it Merely an Asse in’s foot cloath, How now brother what trauailing to bed to your kind wife? (Q1, B2v)
The four lines, spoken while Camillo is approaching Flamineo, indicate the contempt in which Flameneo holds his brother-in-law. These lines make the audience expect that the entering man will be easily handled by their speaker. Having been convinced by Flamineo that he should stay away from his wife in order to make her desire him more, Camillo is sent on his way with genial contempt: CAM. Didst thou not make the ieast of the silke-worme? good night in faith I will vse this tricke often, FLA. Do, do, do. Exit Camillo. So now you are safe. Ha ha ha, thou intanglest thy selfe in thine owne worke like a silke-worme Enter Brachiano. Come sister, darkenesse hides your blush, women are like curst dogges, ciuilitie keepes them tyed all day time, but they are let loose at midnight, then they do most good or most mischeefe, my Lord, my Lord (B4v)
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46 Shakespearean Entrances
The repeated ‘Do, do, do’ may suggest that Flamineo is physically bundling Camillo off stage as he speaks, with the result that Camillo needs not four lines but only two additional lines to accompany the final few paces of crossing the stage.5 It is also possible that while Camillo is still exiting, Flamineo turns to Vittoria and speaks two or so lines more, suggesting the beginning of her sexual relationship with the entering Bracciano. In any event, the three lines Flamineo speaks to Vittoria allow Bracciano time to join them. Both Shakespearean and non-Shakespearean plays contain many speeches whose meanings and effects cannot be fully appreciated unless the audience hear them as they pay attention to the entrances and exits which are made while they are being spoken. It is important to relate the text to the staging, particularly when we deal with speeches around entrances and exits.
2 The Q2 text of Romeo and Juliet provides a well-known example of an ‘early’ entry stage direction. Fri. ... For nought so vile, that on the earth doth liue, But to the earth some speciall good doth giue: Nor ought so good but straind from that faire vse, Reuolts from true birth, stumbling on abuse. Vertue it selfe turnes vice being misapplied, And vice sometime by action dignified. Enter Romeo. Within the infant rinde of this weake flower Poyson hath residence, and medicine power: For this being smelt with that part, cheares each part, Being tasted, staies all sences with the hart. Two such opposed Kings encamp them still, In man as well as hearbes, grace and rude will: And where the worser is predominant, Full soone the Canker death eates vp that Plant. Ro. Goodmorrow father. Fri. Benedicitie.... (E1r; 2.2.17–31) The positioning of Romeo’s entry eight lines before he speaks is unusually distinctive. Pope and some later editors repositioned it in the more
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Speeches around Entrances and Exits 47
standard position, just before Romeo’s speech.6 Recent editions generally retain the entry in its original position.7 Shakespeare’s plays provide some other examples where a character enters eight or so lines before he speaks or is spoken to. In Measure for Measure, 2.3, for example, Juliet enters eight lines before she is addressed (F1, TLN 962–71; 2.3.9–18), though her entry is followed by the Provost’s words, ‘Looke here comes one: a Gentlewoman of mine, …’ (TLN 963: 2.3.10). In All’s Well That Ends Well, 1.3, Helena enters nine lines before she speaks (F1, TLN 450–60; 1.3.123–33). Although her entry is followed by the Countess’s comment on her situation, it is eight lines later that the first words clearly referring to her presence are spoken (TLN 459; 1.3.32). The meaning of Romeo’s early entrance is worth considering. If the placement of the entry in Q2 is correct, and if it indicates the moment when the actor should appear from a stage door, the eight lines that remain of the Friar’s speech must have been meant to be spoken while Romeo is approaching him. The actor might spend his travel-time of eight lines making a very slow or interrupted entrance.8 Alternatively, he might rush in and wait to break in on the musing Friar. Romeo had concluded the previous scene by saying, ‘Hence will I to my ghostly Friers close cell, / His helpe to craue, and my deare hap to tell’ (D4v; 2.1.233–4). These lines would have prepared the audience to identify the Friar as the character whom Romeo was shortly to visit. The Friar’s entrance is intended to establish the atmosphere or mood in which Romeo is received. The theme of his scene-opening speech is the ambivalence of things such as plants, herbs and stones. He concludes it, after Romeo has arrived, by referring to the parallelism between herbs and man, that is to say, the ambivalence of the nature of man. Thus the eight lines in question can serve as a comment on the situation in which Romeo now finds himself, implying that Romeo’s ‘dear hap’ may possibly turn out to be his mishap.9 It is the Friar’s task to introduce a tragic viewpoint into the play, since up until this scene the comic mood has been predominant, and to suggest that the hero has actually begun to follow the tragic course of which the Chorus spoke in the Prologue. In a sense the Friar has taken over the Chorus’s function.10 The effect of his speech is more like direct comment than ironic circumlocution. Alan C. Dessen suggests that ‘a Romeo who hears the friar talking about the presence of both poison and medicine within the same flower may be more likely to think of such poison (and the apothecary) in 5.1’.11 I think it at least questionable whether the fact that Romeo
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48 Shakespearean Entrances
arrives in the middle of the Friar’s speech means that he overhears him. It may be relevant that when in All’s Well, 1.3 the Countess speaks the nine-line speech beginning with ‘Euen so it was with me when I was yong’ (F1, TLN 451; 1.3.124), she does not care if the entering Helena overhears her.12 What the audience is expected to do while hearing her nine lines is to observe Helena’s melancholy entrance from the Countess’s sympathetic point of view, and not to be concerned whether she overhears the Countess or not. A similar situation occurs in Measure, 2.3, where the Provost and the Duke notice the arrival of Juliet, and they then exchange a further eight lines of dialogue about her unhappy state (F1, TLN 963–70; 2.3.10–17) before addressing her directly. As in All’s Well, 1.3, it is by no means clear that Juliet overhears the Provost’s kindly and sympathetic words. What is very certain is that whether the entering Romeo hears the Friar or not, his early entrance has its relevant effects.13
3 Some entrances are previously announced. It is worth examining what kinds of speech are delivered between the prior notice of entrances and the entrances themselves. When a character exits to summon another character, the summoner’s exit itself presages the entrance of the summoned character, so the lines between the beginning of the summoner’s exit and the entrance of the summoned character are delivered while the audience anticipates the entrance of the summoned character. In the opening scene of Richard II, Bullingbrook and Mowbray are summoned to the presence of Richard. King. Then call them to our presence [Exit an Attendant.] face to face, And frowning brow to brow our selues will heare, The accuser and the accused freely speake: High stomackt are they both and full of ire, In rage, deafe as the sea, hastie as fire. Enter Bullingbrooke and Mowbray. Bulling. Manie yeares of happie daies befall, My gratious soueraigne my most louing liege. (Q1, A2r; 1.1.15–21) Supposing that an attendant immediately begins to depart in response to the king’s order ‘Then call them to our presence’, he would com-
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Speeches around Entrances and Exits 49
plete his exit in one or two lines. The four and a bit lines spoken between the point at which the attendant begins to exit and the point at which Bullingbrook and Mowbray enter prepare the audience to hear the battle of words between the newcomers. The King speaks the prologue, as it were, to the verbal battle which is to be performed by Bullingbrook and Mowbray.14 Towards the end of King Lear, after a gentleman or an officer has rushed off to try to save Lear and Cordelia, Edmund reveals, for the first time, what he ordered when he gave a note to a captain earlier in the same scene. Edg. Hast thee for thy life. [Exit a Gentleman.] Bast. He hath Commission from thy Wife and me, To hang Cordelia in the prison, and To lay the blame vpon her owne dispaire, That she for-did her selfe. Alb. The Gods defend her, beare him hence awhile. [The Bastard is borne off.] Enter Lear with Cordelia in his armes. Lear. Howle, howle, howle: O you are men of stones, … (F1, TLN 3210–17; 5.3.226–32) Edmund’s speech makes the audience concerned chiefly about Cordelia’s life. While praying with Albany for her safety, the audience would prepare themselves to receive the worst news about her. As Edmund is carried out through one door, Lear enters through another with his great cry. Although Lear’s entrance holding Cordelia’s body is extremely shocking, the moment has been prepared for by the mixture of apprehension alternating with hope generated by Edmund’s lastminute repentance, and the intensity of these conflicting emotions is wrought to an ever greater pitch in the five lines between the gentleman’s departure and the arrival of Lear with the dead Cordelia in his arms.15 The manuscript playbook of Sir Thomas More provides another example:
<
Enter a seruant my> Lord, there are new lighted at the gate, the Earles of Surrie of Shrewesburie, and they expect you in the inner Courte.
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Speeches around Entrances and Exits 51
Entreate their Lordships come into the hall. [Exit the servant.]
ady Oh God, what newes with them? Moore. why how now wife? They are but come to visite their olde freend. Lady. Oh God, I feare, I feare. Moore. what shouldst thou feare fond woman? Iustum si fractus illabatur orbis inpauidum ferient ruinae. Heere let me liue estraungde from great mens lookes, they are like golden fflyes on leaden hookes. Enter the Earles, Downes with his Mace, and attendants. Shrew. Good morrowe good Sr. Thomas. (TLN 1517–31)
More’s order, ‘Entreate their Lordships come into the hall’ is the cue for the servant to exit. Waiting for the Earls of Surrey and Shrewsbury, More’s wife is full of anxiety, while More for his part maintains his usual composed self. By quoting the Latin passage meaning ‘The upright man, if heaven should collapse and disintegrate, will face its ruins fearlessly’,16 he expresses his readiness to receive fatal news. Through these speeches, the audience would anticipate the possibility that some dreadful news will be brought by the approaching earls and that More will react to it resolutely and calmly.
4 There are further examples of speeches spoken just after the beginnings of exits which invite comments. In the opening scene of Richard III, for instance, Richard meets Clarence, who is being sent to the Tower because of the plots that Richard has secretly laid against him. Richard promises him his help, and Clarence is escorted off stage. The moment he begins to exit, Richard changes the tone of his speech. Cla. I must perforce: Farewell. Rich. Go treade the path that thou shalt ne’re return: Simple plaine Clarence, I do loue thee so, That I will shortly send thy Soule to Heauen, If Heauen will take the present at our hands....
Exit Clar.
(F1, TLN 123–7; 1.1.117–21)
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Moore.
The four lines Richard speaks while seeing Clarence off express both Richard’s malevolence and a characteristic vein of sardonic pleasure at the duping of his brother. The cumulative effect is of the overwhelming power and advantage which Richard exercises over Clarence.17 In A Woman Killed with Kindness Wendoll’s arrival at Frankford’s house is a fatal event leading to the tragedy. The scene begins with Frankford soliloquizing about his happiness because of his ‘faire, … chast, and louing wife’ (Q1, B4r). In this domestic tragedy, such a soliloquy might well suggest that something that could destroy his happiness is approaching.18 There is a proleptic irony in the fact that while waiting for Wendoll to enter, Frankford speaks of his good qualities. After conversing with Wendoll, Frankford and Anne lead him off the stage, at which point Frankford’s servant Nick stays behind and speaks to himself of his impression of the newly arrived guest: Frank. To dinner, come sir, from this present day, Welcome to me for euer: come away. [Exeunt Frankford, Anne, and Wendoll.] Nick. I do not like this fellow by no means, I neuer see him but my hart stil earnes, Zounds I could fight with him, yet know not why, The Deuil and he are al one in my eie. (C1v) It could well be that Nick speaks his four lines while Frankford, Anne, and Wendoll are making their joint exit. The four lines would serve as a comment on the man whom Frankford and Anne are leading out to entertain as their welcome guest. Nick is right when he compares Wendoll to the devil, because he is to tempt Anne and destroy Frankford’s domestic happiness. Although Nick’s impression of Wendoll is entirely different from Frankford’s comment on his qualities, the audience would feel that this servant’s intuition is reliable. Both George Walton Williams and Alan C. Dessen have independently suggested that, in certain instances, despite the stage direction ‘Exeunt (omnes)’, the exiters may leave separately and a few lines apart.19 The closing ‘Exeunt’ of Julius Caesar, 2.2 is a likely example. Caes. Bid them prepare within: I am too blame to be thus waited for. Now Cynna, now Metellus: what Trebonius,
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52 Shakespearean Entrances
I haue an houres talke in store for you: Remember that you call on me to day: Be neere me, that I may remember you. Treb. Caesar I will: and so neere will I be, That your best Friends shall wish I had beene further. Caes. Good Friends go in, and taste some wine with me And we (like Friends) will straight way go together. Bru. That euery like is not the same, O Caesar, The heart of Brutus earnes to thinke vpon.
Exeunt
(F1, TLN 1117–28; 2.2.118–29) The dialogue suggests that Caesar begins to leave with others just before Brutus’s scene-closing speech. The concluding two lines are intended to be spoken while Caesar is leading his ‘friends’ off the stage. These lines not only indicate that unlike the other conspirators, Brutus is in deep grief over Caesar’s tragic fortune, but also serve as a comment on Caesar’s exit, telling the audience that Caesar is moving towards his death because of the confidence he magnanimously has in his ‘friends’. It looks as if Brutus is not concerned whether the exiting Caesar hears him or not. Unlike Trebonius’s words, ‘and so neere will I be, / That your best Friends shall wish I had beene further’, Brutus’s speech is more a soliloquy than an aside.20
5 I do not, of course, wish to suggest that every speech delivered around an entrance or exit serves as a comment upon that entrance or exit. What I should like to emphasize is that speeches around entrances and exits are more often than not highly theatrical, and that they therefore rarely lend themselves to ‘realistic’ interpretation. In his stimulating article, ‘Re-enter the Stage Direction: Shakespeare and Some Contemporaries’, E.A.J. Honigmann observes that modern editors of Shakespeare and his contemporaries add the stage direction ‘aside’ too liberally.21 Questionable or ambiguous cases frequently occur around entrances and exits. I agree with Honigmann’s suggestion that if the situation includes an impudent speaker or an inattentive listener the case for an aside is weakened. An entering character can easily give the impression of not being ready to become involved in the dialogue, whereas an exiting character has stopped playing a part in the dialogue. Romeo and Juliet, 3.5 provides an interesting
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Speeches around Entrances and Exits 53
54 Shakespearean Entrances
example. I quote from Q1, which is widely regarded as a performance text.
She lookes after Nurse. Iul: Auncient damnation, O most cursed fiend. Is it more sinne to wish me thus forsworne, Or to dispraise him with the selfe same tongue That thou hast praisde him with aboue compare So many thousand times? Goe Counsellor, Thou and my bosom henceforth shalbe twaine. Ile to the Fryer to know his remedy, If all faile els, I haue the power to dye. Exit. (H2r; 3.5.234–42) In this passage, the Q1 dialogue is substantially the same as the Q2 dialogue. The Q1 stage direction, ‘She lookes after Nurse’ provides valuable information about the contemporary stage practice.22 Juliet directed her harsh words to the back of the Nurse who was leaving. It is even possible that Shakespeare intended the Nurse to be still visible on stage six lines later when Juliet says, ‘Goe Counsellor, / Thou and my bosom henceforth shalbe twaine.’ The Nurse is old, possibly arthritic (‘Fie how my bones ake’ / ‘Lord how my bones ake’ (Q2, F1r / Q1, E3v; 2.4.26)), certainly slow-moving, and there would therefore have been a telling theatrical contrast between her ponderous and complacent exit (‘this is wisely done’) and the rapidity of Juliet’s furious words directed at her departing back. But regardless of how long she took to leave the stage, it is highly unlikely that Juliet’s speech would have left the Elizabethan audience wondering if the Nurse heard her. On the Shakespearean stage, an entering character would normally walk towards front-stage, and an exiting character’s normal procedure would be to walk towards one of the flanking doors of the tiring-house façade. When a character made an entrance or exit in an ordinary manner, despite the fact that he approached onstage characters or was still on stage, the audience was not invited to be concerned whether he heard them or not. Presumably some convention operated on the Shakespearean stage concerning the relationship between onstage characters and entering or exiting characters. Shakespearean audiences knew that when a character turns his back and begins to move towards
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Nur: I will, and this is wisely done.
the tiring-house, the character is assumed to move out of earshot. On the other hand, since an entering character normally faced front-stage, the question may be more complicated. It is my view that, unless the entering character makes a direct response to the onstage characters’ dialogue, the Elizabethan audience would not have cared whether he hears them while he is walking towards the speaking characters.
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5
1 When he is tricking his father about his brother’s alleged treachery, in King Lear, 2.1, Edmund calls towards the tiring-house façade. It then takes Gloucester and his servants three and a half lines to arrive after Edgar has begun to make his exit. Bast. ... Yeeld, come before my Father, light hoa, here, Fly Brother, Torches, Torches, so farewell. Exit Edgar. Some blood drawne on me, would beget opinion Of my more fierce endeauour. I haue seene drunkards Do more than this in sport; Father, Father, Stop, stop, no helpe? Enter Gloster, and Seruants with Torches. Glo. Now Edmund, where’s the villaine? (F1, TLN 963–71; 2.1.31–6)
Presumably, Gloucester and his servants enter from the door opposite the one used by Edgar. This three-and-a-half-line gap ensures that their entrance does not overlap with Edgar’s exit, though he probably does not need all three and a half lines, since he exits running. Neither Edgar’s exit nor Gloucester’s entrance could be cloaked in darkness, since no stage lighting was used in Elizabethan public playhouses and players acted in broad daylight.1 Under such stage conditions, the overlapping of the exit of a character who runs away and the entrance of a character in pursuit of him would have added to the suspense of the 56
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Overlapping Exits and Entrances
scene, even if the audience understood that it was a night scene and that Gloucester did not see Edgar. However, Shakespeare instead chose to separate Edgar’s exit and Gloucester’s entrance by inserting their deceiver’s three-and-a-half-line speech, which is accompanied by the action of deliberately cutting his arm. This tactic emphasizes the Bastard’s cunning and the vulnerability of both the exiting brother and the entering father. Elizabethan plays supply many instances where no sooner has a character begun to exit than another character enters. It can be assumed that in such instances the overlapping of exits and entrances is intended or at least permitted. In most cases, though, whether the exits and entrances overlap or not may be of no consequence, because exiting characters rarely attract the audience’s attention. However, there are some cases in which the overlapping of exits and entrances can be meaningful. This chapter considers what kinds of effect Shakespeare and his fellow playwrights achieve by overlapping exits and entrances.
2 When in The Jew of Malta the Governor of Malta has seized Barabas’s house and converted it into a nunnery, Barabas makes his daughter Abigail become a false nun so that she can enter the nunnery and retrieve his gold. Scarcely has Abigail begun to follow the friars, abbess and nun who are on their way to the nunnery, when Barabas stops her and gives necessary instructions, while pretending to be angry with her. Bar. Blind, Fryer, I wrecke not thy perswasions. The boord is marked thus † that couers it, For I had rather dye, than see her thus. Wilt thou forsake mee too in my distresse, Seduced Daughter, Goe forget not. aside to her. Becomes it Iewes to be so credulous, To morrow early Il’e be at the doore. aside to her. No come not at me, if thou wilt be damn’d, Forget me, see me not, and so be gone. Farewell, remember to morrow morning. aside. Out, out thou wretch. [Exeunt.] Enter Mathias. Math. Whose this? Faire Abigall the rich Iewes daughter Become a Nun, her fathers sudden fall
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Overlapping Exits and Entrances 57
58 Shakespearean Entrances
Has humbled her and brought her downe to this:
Barabas’s final words ‘Out, out thou wretch’ serve as a cue for Abigail, the friars, the abbess, and the nun to resume their move towards a door of the tiring-house façade. Barabas would also begin to exit, naturally towards another door. Then, while these characters are still making their exits, Mathias enters, perhaps by a third door.2 By overlapping Mathias’s entrance with the departures of the conspiring father and daughter, Marlowe deftly introduces to the audience someone who is destined to be another of Barabas’s victims. The F1 text of The Merry Wives of Windsor, which was printed from a transcript prepared by Ralph Crane, employs the ‘massed entry’ technique and provides no mid-scene entry or exit directions, except for ‘Enter Fairies’ (TLN 2518; 5.5.35). In 3.3, as the dialogue suggests, the servants have scarcely begun to exit when Ford enters with others, probably through the door towards which the servants are making their exit.3 M. Ford. ... Carry them to the Landresse in Datchet mead: quickly, come. [Servants begin to exit.]4 [Enter Ford, Page, Caius, and Evans.] Ford. ’Pray you come nere: if I suspect without cause, Why then make sport at me, then let me be your iest, I deserue it: How now? Whether beare you this? Ser. To the Landresse forsooth? M. Ford. Why, what haue you to doe whether they beare it? You were best meddle with buck-washing. (TLN 1480–7; 3.3.141–9) The servants cannot walk quickly, because they are carrying the basket in which the fat knight, Falstaff, is hiding. After speaking two and a bit lines while walking towards front-stage, Ford interrupts the servants’ move and questions them about the move itself. Watching the basket and Ford, the audience could well imagine the poor knight holding his breath and shrinking under the dirty linen, wishing that the servants would move more quickly and praying that Ford would not search the basket. The humour of the situation, which the audience shares with Mistress Ford and Mistress Page, is clearly based on this image of Falstaff created in the audience’s mind.
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(Q1, D1r-v)
Overlapping Exits and Entrances 59
Cleo. Seeke him, and bring him hither: [Enobarbus begins to exit.] wher’s Alexias? Alex. Heere at your seruice. My Lord approaches. Enter Anthony, with a Messenger. Cleo. We will not looke vpon him: Go with vs. Exeunt [Cleopatra, Enobarbus, and Train]. Messen. Fuluia thy Wife, First came into the Field. Ant. Against my Brother Lucius? (F1, TLN 167–75; 1.2.79–83) On the other hand, Antony, who in only the previous scene made the forthright pronouncement, ‘Let Rome in Tyber melt’ (TLN 44; 1.1.35), walks forwards, listening attentively to the messenger from Rome, and does not even perceive the Egyptian party leaving. Their manner of exiting and entering signifies that Rome is everything to Antony now and that Cleopatra instinctively feels that, at least for the moment, it would be vain to compete with Rome. The Q2 text of Hamlet supplies another example. At the beginning of 4.4, Fortinbras and his army march in through a stage door and make a brief stop probably at front-stage centre. After dispatching a captain to the King of Denmark, Fortinbras orders the rest of the army to march onwards. Enter Fortinbrasse with his Army ouer the stage. Fortin. Goe Captaine, from me greet the Danish King, … Cap. I will doo’t my Lord. [Begins to exit.] For. Goe softly on. [Exit with his army.] Enter Hamlet, Rosencraus, &c. Ham. Good sir whose powers are these? Cap. They are of Norway sir. Ham. How purposd sir I pray you? Cap. Against some part of Poland. Ham. Who commaunds them sir?
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Similarly, in Antony and Cleopatra, 1.2, although Cleopatra has been seeking Antony, she impulsively begins to exit the moment she recognizes his entrance, taking her train with her. She would naturally go towards the door opposite the one from which Antony has entered.
60 Shakespearean Entrances
Cap. The Nephew to old Norway, Fortenbrasse. ..... Cap. God buy you sir.
[Exit.]
This example requires somewhat complicated use of the stage doors. Since Fortinbras and his army are marching over the stage, they should exit from the door opposite the one from which they have entered.5 It is not certain whether the captain should also go towards this door or back towards the door through which he has entered with the rest of the army. It is possible to think that since the captain and the rest of the army are both going towards Elsinore, the captain should exit from the same door as the rest of the army. But if he does so, he would be passed by the army while he is talking with Hamlet. One would rather think that the captain, who has separated from Fortinbras and others, should go towards the door opposite the one they use for their exit.6 Whichever it may be, Hamlet enters through the door towards which the captain is going. He interrupts the captain’s exit and questions him about the exit which Fortinbras and his army are now making. In this way Shakespeare makes Hamlet see Fortinbras only from a distance. This encounter is highly significant, because in the final moments of the tragedy the dying Hamlet gives his vote for Fortinbras and entrusts the future of Denmark to him. However, it is omitted from the F1 text, which is thought to have been printed from a transcript of a playhouse manuscript. It seems that Shakespeare and his colleagues eventually chose to allow only the audience, and not Hamlet, to meet Fortinbras at this stage. The complicated use of the stage doors required in the Q2 version might have caused some problem in a rehearsal.7 Still, it is interesting that Shakespeare originally intended Hamlet to see Fortinbras by overlapping Hamlet’s entrance with Fortinbras’s exit, for in both versions they are destined not to meet each other. At the end of the play, a ‘warlike noise/noyse’ (Q2, O1v / F1, TLN 3837; 5.2.301) from Fortinbras’s army and Hamlet’s ‘dying voyce’ (Q2, O1v / F1, TLN 3845; 5.2.308) merely overlap, and Fortinbras’s entrance is too late to be received by Hamlet. In act 3, scene 2 of The Duchess of Malfi the Duchess’s clandestine marriage is finally revealed and Ferdinand’s revenge on her is to begin. This scene, which takes place in the Duchess’s bedchamber, begins with the Duchess, Antonio and Cariola talking to each other in a relaxed mood. Seeing the Duchess glancing at herself in the lookingglass, he and Cariola steal away from the stage.
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(K3r; 4.4.0-1, 8-)
Ant. ’Pray-thee (Cariola) let’s steale forth the roome, And let her talke to her selfe: I haue diuers times Seru’d her the like, when she hath chafde extreamely: I loue to see her angry: softly Cariola. Exeunt. Duch. Doth not the colour of my haire ’gin to change? When I waxe gray, I shall haue all the Court Powder their haire, with Arras, to be like me: You haue cause to loue me, I entred you into my heart Before you would vouchsafe to call for the keyes. We shall one day haue my brothers take you napping: Me thinkes his Presence (being now in Court) Should make you keepe your owne Bed: but you’ll say Loue mixt with feare, is sweetest: I’ll assure you You shall get no more children till my brothers Consent to be your Ghossips: haue you lost your tongue? ’tis welcome For know whether I am doomb’d to liue, or die, I can doe both like a Prince. Ferdinand giues Ferd. Die then, quicklie: her a ponyard. Vertue, where art thou hid? what hideous thing Is it, that doth ecclipze thee? (Q1, F4r) The Q1 text, which was printed from a transcription probably prepared by Ralph Crane, uses the ‘massed entry’ technique, and does not mark the moment when Ferdinand makes his entrance. What is certain is that he enters somewhere between the point at which Antonio and Cariola begin to exit and the point at which the Duchess notices his presence and says to him ‘’tis welcome …’. We can be reasonably sure that when the Duchess makes her first complacent reference to ‘my brothers’, Webster would have intended that the threatening presence of one of the brothers was already there behind her. We can perhaps refine the speculation a little further. The dramatic effect would be even greater if Ferdinand were to appear two lines earlier at the moment when (as she thinks) she starts to address Antonio, ‘You haue cause to loue me …’. The words, ‘I entred you into my heart / Before you would vouchsafe to call for the keyes’ might have been intended to be spoken when the unwelcome guest has intruded into the Duchess’s bedchamber with the ‘false key’ mentioned in the previous scene (F2v).8 The immediate irony would be that those words of love
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Overlapping Exits and Entrances 61
are heard not by their intended recipient but by someone else. The deeper irony relates to the fact that it is, specifically, Ferdinand who overhears them. According to the frequently asserted incest theory, these are the very words that, at the level of his deepest longings, Ferdinand would most want to hear addressed to himself.9 If we accept as plausible speculation that Ferdinand does indeed enter at this point, Antonio and Cariola could well be still making their exit, since their stratagem would require them to move slowly and carefully. The overlapping of their exit and Ferdinand’s entrance would thus strengthen the dramatic intensity of the moment. Later in the same scene, there are three more moments when an exit and an entrance overlap: first, as Ferdinand exits, Antonio enters with a pistol (G1v); then as Antonio exits, Bosola enters (G1v); and finally, as Bosola exits, Antonio enters (G2r). In none of these cases, is Antonio seen by either Ferdinand or Bosola. At the end of the scene, however, tricked by Bosola, the Duchess finally tells him that Antonio is her husband. As I have already mentioned, I do not think that the overlapping of exits and entrances is always so effective or meaningful. There are relatively few instances in which such an effect or meaning can be attributed with complete confidence, and the result is often therefore both subtle and uncertain. But no matter how nuanced the overlapping of an exit and an entrance may seem, we should not ignore it, if it was an element in the experience of the original audiences of Shakespeare and his contemporaries.
3 Shakespearean scenes generally conclude with the exit of all the onstage characters, the new scene opening with the entrance of new characters. It would have made sense for the final exit and the new entrance to be made through different doors, to keep the identities separate. Such moves could easily have been allowed to overlap, in the interests of speed and the need to hold the audience’s attention. But opposing this view, Bernard Beckerman argues that the overlapping of exits and entrances was not a habit of the Globe company and that separation and pause was the more likely method. He gives five reasons. (i) Actors or stage attendants, on occasion, had to bring out props. (ii) In theatrical plots, a line was drawn across the page to separate one scene from another. It had the effect of fixing scene divisions firmly in the actor’s mind. (iii) Together with the rhyming couplet
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62 Shakespearean Entrances
which concluded so many scenes, the line may have encouraged the insertion of a slight pause between scenes. (iv) Exit lines stressed the conclusion of the scene, and they bridged moves across the large platform stage. (v) There are instances where characters enter through different doors at the beginning of a scene, and there are also instances where characters depart through different doors at the end of a scene.10 The occurrence of split entrances and exits (v) is a sufficient reason for suggesting that the closing exit of one scene and the opening entrance of the next did not always overlap, because where both flanking doors were simultaneously used for the exit or the entrance, the entrance cannot be made until the exit is completed. But, as for (i), the actors or stage attendants played characters, such as servants or attendants, by bringing on [and carrying off]11 props. Exceptions to this would be where they carried on [and off] something that is seldom carried about in ordinary life, such as a bed, a tree, or a tomb.12 Although (ii), (iii), and (iv) are sufficient reasons for assuming a pause between the concluding speech of one scene and the opening speech of the next, they are not adequate reasons for insisting that actors not make the opening entrance of a new scene while other actors were still making the closing exit of the previous scene. Beckerman is most likely correct when he says that characters would have walked to the centre or front of the stage before speaking at the beginning of a new scene, and that this would have created enough of a hiatus to mark it as a new scene.13 That would provide amply for a pause between the last speech of the old scene and the first of the new. Scenes can change very frequently in Shakespeare, however, and many run for no more than ten or a dozen lines. It seems very unlikely that since it took four lines to complete an exit and a further two to four lines for a new enterer to reach centre- or front-stage, there was a pause amounting to six to eight lines at every scene-break. In the extant manuscript of Thomas Heywood’s The Captives, the book-keeper almost regularly places the word ‘clere’ at the ends of scenes.14 This is weighty evidence, even taking into account the fact that it comes from the Cockpit company, not the Globe. However, it is questionable whether the book-keeper’s purpose of inserting the word was to indicate that the enterers should not appear until the exiters have completely disappeared from the stage. The following passage occurs around the break between the Induction and the Prologue to Antonio and Mellida, a play for Paul’s Children:
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Overlapping Exits and Entrances 63
64 Shakespearean Entrances
Feli. Peace, here comes the Prologue, cleare the Stage. Exeunt.
(TLN 153–7) It is surely unlikely that the Prologue’s entrance takes place only after Feliche and others have disappeared through a stage door. Feliche’s last speech referring to the Prologue’s entrance serves as a bridge between the Induction and the Prologue. The exit of Feliche and others and the entrance of the Prologue overlap. Since, in this instance, ‘cleare the Stage’ means ‘let us all leave the stage’, it may be that the Cockpit book-keeper also used ‘clere’ only to indicate that all the onstage characters should exit.15 Ghismonda, an anonymous play surviving in a manuscript probably written around 1623, contains a stage direction indicating the overlapping of an exit and an entrance: Guisc: … He’s dull that stayes when such an Angell Calls ~ and doth inuite him wth so faire a sum ons lett me be cald pigritia’s son & heire if I be slow in following this affaire Exit Guiscardo interim Enter pasquino at an other dore Pasq: Well no more to the Kinge= Enter Tancred, Glausamond, & Gabriello =But new gone out an’t please your Maiesty Tanc: I wonder at it, his care vsed to be greater (British Library, MS. Additional 34312, fol. 166b) This play may have been written only for a private performance, but the author may have been influenced by the contemporary playhouse practice. Either he continues the scene by overlapping the exit of Guiscardo, who has been alone on stage, with the two successive entrances of Pasquino and Tancred, Glausamond, and Gabriello, or he bridges the gap between two scenes by overlapping the exit and the two entrances. Measure for Measure and Cymbeline supply similar instances:
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The Prologue. THE wreath of pleasure, and delicious sweetes, …
Bawd. What’s to doe heere, Thomas Tapster? let’s withdraw? Clo. Here comes Signior Claudio, led by the Prouost to prison: and there’s Madam Iuliet. Exeunt. Scena Tertia. Enter Prouost, Claudio, Iuliet, Officers, Lucio, & 2.Gent. Cla. Fellow, why do’st thou show me thus to th’world? … (Measure for Measure F1, TLN 201–7; 1.2.104–8) 1 We must forbeare. Heere comes the Gentleman, The Queene, and Princesse. Scena Secunda. Enter the Queene, Posthumus, and Imogen. Qu. No, be assur’d you shall not finde me (Daughter) …
Exeunt
(Cymbeline F1, TLN 80–4; 1.1.69–71) In each case, if there really is a scene change where the new scene is indicated, these passages can be treated as instances of overlapping exits and entrances at scene-breaks. However, if the scene divisions are merely scribal in origin and have nothing to do with theatrical practice (for the F1 texts of Measure and Cymbeline were printed from literary transcripts by Ralph Crane), then in each case Shakespeare continues the scene by overlapping the exit and the entrance.16 Romeo and Juliet has an example where the end of one scene flows into the opening of the next. Ro. …But he that hath the stirrage of my course, Direct my sute, on lustie Gentlemen. Ben. Strike drum. They march about the Stage, and Seruingmen come forth with Napkins. Enter Romeo. Ser. Wheres Potpan that he helpes not to take away? He shift a trencher, he scrape a trencher? (Q2, C2v; 1.4.113–15, 1.5.1–2) At the end of 1.4, Romeo and his friends do not leave the stage altogether but only move aside, so the Q2 stage direction indicating Romeo’s entrance at the beginning of 1.5 is an error. While the masquers are moving to a side position, the servingmen enter. But the continuity of staging is never intended to imply that the two groups of
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Overlapping Exits and Entrances 65
characters are in the same location. It is, as it were, a theatrical convention which shortens the running time of the play. Despite the presence of Romeo and others on stage, the entrance of the servingmen establishes the new locality, ‘a hall in Capulet’s house’ and opens the new scene. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream the lovers do not exit but remain asleep at the end of act 3 (Q1, F2v).17 It is obvious that in Shakespeare’s plays one scene is not always separated definitely from the next.18 It is not unreasonable therefore to assume the possibility that concluding exits and opening entrances overlap at scene-breaks. There are a great number of instances in Shakespeare’s plays in which a character exits at or around the end of a scene and re-enters at or around the beginning of the succeeding scene. In these instances, if scene-breaks did not provide the time necessary for the actors to complete their exits and also move across off stage to the opposite door, the necessary time had to be built into the dialogue. Using the Quarto and Folio texts of Shakespeare’s plays, I have collected all the instances where a character appears in two consecutive scenes, and in each case counted the number of lines delivered between the point at which the character begins to exit and the point at which he re-enters. The fundamental principles of this investigation are the same as those of the search for instances of patterns A, A+, and B in Chapter 3. Here I have restricted myself to those instances in which the exit and the entrance are both made on the main stage, leaving aside those in which the exit or the entrance is made on the upper playing level.19 The instances can be divided into the following six kinds, according to the conditions found between the exits and the entrances, mainly at the ends of the preceding scenes or at the beginnings of the succeeding scenes. (1) Excursion – an excursion, military marching, or the like takes place. (2) Action – another kind of action is made.20 (3) Last – the character enters last after several other characters have entered.21 (4) Sound – an offstage sound or music is heard. (5) Split – the closing exit or the opening entrance is [probably] split. (6) None – none of the above five conditions is fulfilled. It is only the distribution of instances of the last category that can reveal how many lines are allowed for characters to exit and walk to the opposite door. But it is also important to grasp the difference between the distribution of instances fulfilling any of the first five con-
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Overlapping Exits and Entrances 67 Table 5.1
Instances fulfilling each condition
Condition
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Excursion Action Last Sound Split None
17 3 5 11 0 5
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 1
1 0 0 4 0 2
0 0 0 0 1 3
1 0 0 2 0 7
0 2 0 0 1 6
1 0 0 1 0 4
0 0 0 2 1 12
0 0 0 3 2 4
Notes: a In this table, extra part-lines are counted as full lines. b Where an instance fulfils two or more conditions, I have chosen only one condition, giving priority to one over the others according to the order indicated in the table. c When characters who have exited at the same time enter at different times, or vice versa, I have counted the instance in which the number of lines is smallest.
ditions and that of instances of ‘None’. It should be sufficient for the present purposes to show the number of instances fulfilling each condition in which the number of lines is between nought and ten. For the instances themselves, see Appendix 2. While there are numerous instances fulfilling any of the five conditions (1–5) in which the number of lines is zero, there are only a few instances of ‘None’ in which the number is below six. Furthermore, The Tempest, 4.1.264–5.1.0 (Prospero and Ariel) and Titus Andronicus, 3.2.84–4.1.0 (Young Lucius and Lavinia) need not be counted as instances of ‘None’ with no lines. This is because the Blackfriars, for which The Tempest was written, used act-intervals, and Young Lucius and Lavinia’s immediate re-entrance, which occurs only in the F1 text, appears to reflect later staging after the practice of act-intervals was adopted by the public playhouses (c. 1607–10).22 The collected instances include those in which the actor has to change costumes off stage between his exit and re-entrance. But, in these instances, whenever none of the five conditions is fulfilled, the number of lines is always more than sixteen.23 As our calculations have shown, in Shakespeare’s plays characters are usually allowed about four lines to walk from front-stage to a stage door. It can therefore be concluded that in almost all the cases where no action is made or no sound is heard, a sufficient number of lines are spoken to fill not only the time for the characters to complete their exits but also at least part of the necessary time for them to move across off stage to the opposite door.24
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Number of lines
I am inclined to believe that it was usual, at least at the Theatre and the Globe, for actors to enter and open a new scene while other actors were still making their exit at the end of the previous scene, except where both stage doors were simultaneously used for the closing exit or the opening entrance. This may not apply to the staging at the Rose and the Blackfriars, since the stages of these playhouses were considerably smaller.
4 What would happen if exits and entrances overlapped at scene-breaks? Take for example the scene-break between 3.3 and 3.4 of Henry V, a Globe play: King. Open your Gates: Come Vnckle Exeter, Goe you and enter Harflew; there remaine, And fortifie it strongly ’gainst the French: Vse mercy to them all for vs, deare Vnckle. … To night in Harflew will we be your Guest, To morrow for the March are we addrest. Flourish, and enter the Towne. Enter Katherine and an old Gentlewoman. Kathe. Alice, tu as este en Angleterre, & tu bien parlas le Language. (F1, TLN 1311–14, 1317–22; 3.3.134–7, 140–1, 3.4.0–2) The exit of the English army25 and the entrance of the French ladies, even if they overlap, establish a scene-break, which the audience cannot fail to notice. This scene-break is reinforced also by the shift in dramatic register from the English king triumphantly marching away with his army to the French princess entering in a relaxed manner with her lady-in-waiting. But seeing the two characters on stage together, even if momentarily, has a further effect. As Gary Taylor argues, the English lesson scene is structurally important in that it makes the audience anticipate the final wooing scene.26 The two scenes are further linked through their use of the comedy of linguistic misunderstanding. The overlapping of Katherine’s entrance with Henry’s exit creates the symbolic impression that her English lesson is, at some level, motivated by her longing for the valiant man, whose magnanimity to her fellow-countrymen has also just been established (‘Vse mercy to them all for vs’).27
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68 Shakespearean Entrances
Overlapping Exits and Entrances 69
Rich. ... For then, Ile marry Warwickes yongest daughter. What though I kill’d her Husband, and her Father, … But yet I run before my horse to Market: Clarence still breathes, Edward still liues and raignes, When they are gone, then must I count my gaines. Scena Secunda. Enter the Coarse of Henrie the sixt with Halberds to guard it, Lady Anne being the Mourner. Anne. Set downe, set downe your honourable load, If Honor may be shrowded in a Herse; Whil’st I a-while obsequiously lament Th’vntimely fall of Vertuous Lancaster.
Exit
(F1, TLN 162–3, 169–78; 1.1.153–4, 160–2, 1.2.0–4) The overlapping of the exit of the man who has talked about his plans to kill those who stand in his way with the entrance of the funeral procession of one of his victims would be a graphic reminder of his ruthlessness and despatch. The overlap would also reinforce the contrast between Richard’s energy and drive and the wretchedness and passive misery of his victim, a contrast reflected also in the shift in register from the colloquial vivacity of Richard’s final words to the ponderous sadness of Lady Anne’s opening.28 In these examples, even if the exits of Henry and Richard did not overlap with the entrances, respectively, of Katherine and the funeral procession of Henry VI, the juxtaposition of the scenes would bring about almost the same effects anyway. What I should like to note is the possibility that on large stages such as the Theatre’s and the Globe’s the overlapping of the closing exit of one scene and the opening entrance of the next made the juxtaposition of the two scenes obvious and intensified the effect of that juxtaposition.
5 The exit of all characters normally indicates the end of a scene. It seems, however, that a general exit is not always a crucial factor in dis-
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At the end of the opening scene of Richard III, probably written for the Theatre, Richard departs after telling the audience his strategies for his accession to the throne: the execution of Clarence and marriage to Lady Anne. The next scene, 1.2 begins with the arrival of a funeral procession.
70 Shakespearean Entrances
Bel. Murder, murder, helpe Hieronimo helpe. Lor. Come stop her mouth away with her. Enter Hieronimo in his shirt. &c. Hiero. What outcries pluck me from my naked bed, And chill my throbbing hart with trembling feare, Which neuer danger yet could daunt before. Who calls Hieronimo? …
Exeunt.
(The Spanish Tragedy (1592), TLN 933–9) Some modern editions provide a scene-break between the exit and the entrance, but, as the entering Hieronimo’s speech suggests, there is no gap in time or place between them.29 The murderers and Hieronimo presumably use different doors. When this play was performed at the Rose, the exit of the murderers and Bel-imperia might have overlapped with the entrance of Hieronimo, or else there might have been a moment for which only the corpse of the hanged Horatio occupied the stage. Either form of staging would have been shocking to the audience in its own way. In any event, this is an example where a scene clearly continues despite the exit of all the onstage characters. The second battlements scene of Hamlet is usually treated as two scenes. Ham. …By Heau’n, Ile make a Ghost of him that lets me: I say away, goe on, Ile follow thee. Exeunt Ghost & Hamlet. Hor. He waxes desperate with imagination. Mar. Let’s follow; ’tis not fit thus to obey him. Hor. Haue after, to what issue will this come? Mar. Something is rotten in the State of Denmarke. Hor. Heauen will direct it. Mar. Nay, let’s follow him. Exeunt. Enter Ghost and Hamlet. Ham. Where wilt thou lead me? speak; Ile go no further. (F1, TLN 672–82; 1.4.62–8, 1.5.0–1)
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tinguishing one scene from another. In the arbour scene of The Spanish Tragedy, Lorenzo, Balthazar, Cerberine, and Pedringano surprise Horatio and Bel-imperia, hang and stab Horatio, and exit, carrying Belimperia out. Then Hieronimo rushes in.
There is no break in the action between the two scenes now numbered 1.4 and 1.5, though Hamlet’s first speech after his re-entrance suggests some change of location. Let us suppose that while Horatio and Marcellus are still moving towards the door from which the Ghost and Hamlet have made their exit, the Ghost and Hamlet enter through the opposite door. The audience would never be aware of any scene change. The F1 text provides scene divisions in acts 1 and 2, though the scenes now generally known as 1.3, 1.4 and 1.5 are combined and designated as ‘Scena Tertia’ (TLN 460). However, whereas there is blank space between 1.3 and 1.4 (TLN 602–3), there is no space between 1.4 and 1.5 (TLN 680–1). Do these spacings accurately reflect the printer’s copy? If so, does that signify that 1.4 and 1.5 may have been treated as a single scene? Unfortunately we cannot answer these questions, but it is not absolutely necessary to introduce a scene-break at 1.4.68, and at least from the viewpoint of the original staging of Shakespeare’s plays or the original audience’s experience, the division seems improper.30 In the Oxford Complete Works, the traditional 3.2 of A Midsummer Night’s Dream is broken into two scenes. Lys. I will be with thee straight. Rob. Follow me then to plainer ground. [Exit Lysander.] Enter Demetrius. Deme. Lysander, speake againe. Thou runaway, thou coward, art thou fled? Speake in some bush. Where doest thou hide thy head? Rob. Thou coward art thou bragging, to the starres, Telling the bushes that thou look’st for warres, And wilt not come? Come recreant, come thou childe, Ile whippe thee with a rodde. He is defil’d, That drawes a sword on thee. De. Yea, art thou there? ~ Ro. Follow my voice: weele try manhood here. Exeut. [Enter Lysander.] Lys. He goes before me, and still dares me on: When I come where he calles, then he is gon…. (Q1, F2r; 3.2.404–13, 3.3.0–2) Gary Taylor notes that ‘Although the action of Robin’s abuse of the men clearly continues, the cleared stage can suggest a gap in time and place, which usefully contributes to the ease with which an audience
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Overlapping Exits and Entrances 71
accepts the subsequent wearied surrender of Lysander and Demetrius.’31 But although it is clearly possible to stage the scene in this way, I think one can make an equally convincing case that there is no change of place nor lapse of time between the exit of Robin and Demetrius and the entrance of Lysander. It is highly amusing that, when the two lovers are running after each other, bewitched by Robin, the one enters as the other exits, neither noticing each other’s arrival or departure. Their joint entry and departure takes place as often as twice in the space of only about ten lines. This would also make their wearied surrender understandable and acceptable. The Oxford editors seem to observe the general principle concerning the exit of all characters somewhat too strictly.32 If they had taken into account the time necessary for characters to exit, and allowed the possibility of overlapping in certain exits and entrances, their attitude towards the exit of all characters would have been different.
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6
1 As we have discussed in Chapter 1, it is almost certain that the stages of most Elizabethan playhouses had three entryways, that is, two flanking doors and a central doorway or aperture. In the preceding chapters we have considered, in an ad hoc way, particular examples of the use of stage doors, but we have postponed a discussion of the conventions and ideas that governed their use. The question now needs to be addressed. Most entrances and exits were made through the flanking doors, and the central opening was used for special occasions. In addition to the question of how the actors would have known which door to use, and how they could have registered the aptness of any particular door for a particular entry or exit, the likely choreography of the moves to or from the doors raises a number of intriguing possibilities for the original staging. First we should deal with the use of the flanking doors. A Shakespearean scene generally concludes with the departure of all characters and the new scene opens with the entrance of other characters. We may assume that the closing exit of a scene and the opening entrance of the next scene are made through different doors, to keep the identities separate. (I should like to call this Postulate A.) The only exception to this would be where both flanking doors were simultaneously used for the closing exit or the opening entrance. As discussed in Chapter 5, there are several reasons for believing that it may have been usual at the Theatre and the Globe for actors to enter and open a new scene while other actors were still making their exit at the end of the previous scene. Even if the closing exit of one scene and the opening entrance of the next did not overlap, it is certain that the enterers had 73
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The Use of Stage Doors
to be in position behind the opposite door to that used by the exiters, before they complete their exit. If the enterers failed to do so, the scene changes would not flow smoothly. Within scenes, there are many instances where a character has just begun to exit when another character enters. In these cases, the exit of a character ends the flow of dialogue which has been going on and the entrance of another character begins a new flow of dialogue. It is true that in cases where the departing character does not intentionally avoid meeting the one entering, they may use the same door.1 However, it is much more reasonable to suppose that the two characters would use different doors, because they usually do not exchange speeches. In the finale of King Lear, for example, as Edmund, who no longer matters, is carried out, Lear enters with Cordelia’s body in his arms. They would never use the same door. Where an exit and an entrance occur simultaneously or overlap, it is essential to the smooth flow of the action that the exiter and the enterer use different doors. (This I should like to call Postulate B.)2 Postulate B implies that before the exiter begins to leave, the enterer has to be ready behind the opposite door. Whether at scene-breaks or within scenes, the way in which an exit and an entrance occur simultaneously or successively seems, indirectly but strongly, to confirm Bernard Beckerman’s view that there was some convention that governed the use of the stage doors. He has found it noteworthy that the extant Elizabethan theatrical plots indicate entrances without identifying which door is to be used, and suggested the hypothesis that ‘entrances were made at one conventionally designated door and exits at the other unless the actor was specifically instructed otherwise’.3 This theory takes account of Postulates A and B, and it can also solve the practical problems these postulates entail, such as whether the enterers could easily decide which door they had to stand ready to use. This simple rule would have been of particularly practical value to minor actors doubling several roles. We may wish to accept provisionally Beckerman’s hypothesis as a general principle concerning entrances and exits on the Elizabethan stage. One door was normally used for entrances, and the opposite door for exits. However, several patterns of entrances and exits violate this general principle that one of the flanking doors normally served as the ‘entrance door’ and the other as the ‘exit door’. By looking at some detailed examples, I should like to question whether it could in fact have been used as a rule of thumb by Shakespearean players.
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74 Shakespearean Entrances
The Use of Stage Doors 75
There are four combinations of entrance and exit where the general principle has to be violated. They are an entrance and another entrance, an entrance and an exit, an exit and an entrance, and an exit and another exit. The following are patterns of entrances and exits in which either enterers must use the ‘exit door’ or exiters must use the ‘entrance door’. Pattern a: arrivals from different directions In those cases where two enterers meet on the stage, the two flanking doors represent different directions, and one of the two enterers has to use the ‘exit door’. The great majority of these cases occur at the beginnings of scenes. Most entry stage directions including ‘severally’, ‘at several doors’, ‘at one door … at another [at the other]’ and the like are scene-opening stage directions.4 Where one enterer greets the other at the opening of a scene, and where one asks the other who he is, where he is going, or where he has come from, at the beginning of a scene, even if the scene-opening stage direction does not explicitly indicate the use of different doors, it is most likely that the two enterers make a split entrance by opposing doors. In the opening stage direction of A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 2.1, a nameless minor character is mentioned first, despite the fact that he speaks second. Enter a Fairie at one doore, and Robin goodfellow at another. Robin. How now spirit, whither wander you? Fa. Ouer hill, ouer dale, … (Q1, B3r; 2.1.0–2) This example might suggest the possibility that in the cases of simultaneous entrances, the character who is mentioned first in the entry stage direction generally used the ‘entrance door’. It may not always be the case that two enterers had to use different doors simply because such a greeting or question is offered at the beginning of a scene. In some cases such speeches might be meant only to imply that the enterers met just before their arrival. In other cases, the enterers might be intended to enter one after the other from the same door. Barnabe Barnes’s The Devil’s Charter, a Globe play, has ‘Enter Gismond di Visselli, and after him Barbarossa’ (Q1, B1r), which is the opening stage direction of 1.3. As is suggested in the title-page
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2
(‘… But more exactly renewed, corrected, and augmented since by the Author, for the more pleasure and profit of the Reader’), some less than practical stage directions may be included in the Q1 text of this play. But this scene-opening direction clearly describes the entrance as it was made. Although Barbarossa asks Gismond where he is going, and Gismond is pleased to have encountered Barbarossa, they do not make a simultaneous entrance, and therefore must use the same door. The use of the same door for successive entrances was clearly more desirable for fluent scene changes. The opening stage direction of Julius Caesar, 1.3 reads ‘Thunder, and Lightning. Enter Caska, and Cicero’ (F1, TLN 431–2). The comma between ‘Caska’ and ‘and’ may be significant, for it is possibly an indication that Caska and Cicero enter separately and successively from the same door. It may be useful to cite some similar entry directions including the names of characters who should enter a few lines later: ‘Enter King of Fairies, and Robin goodfellow’ (A Midsummer Night’s Dream Q1, D4r; 3.2.0); ‘Enter Leantio, and a Page’ (Women Beware Women Octavo, N1r; 4.2). In the example of Julius Caesar, as in the example from The Devil’s Charter, the character whom the entry stage direction mentions second opens the dialogue. The second enterer would also appear from the ‘entrance door’ while the first enterer is still walking towards the front of the stage. Entering simultaneously from different doors and entering separately one after the other from the same door were alternative ways of two enterers’ meeting on the stage. Certain scenes, though, are so structured that there can be no doubt that they require the use of different doors for successive entrances, as can be seen in the following example: Enter the Clowne alone. Clowne. Certainly, my conscience will serue me to runne from this Iewe my Maister: … Enter old Gobbo with a basket. Gobbo. Maister young-man, you I pray you, which is the way to Maister Iewes? (The Merchant of Venice Q1, C1r-v; 2.2.0–2, 29–31) Lancelot is in the process of running away from Shylock, while Old Gobbo is on his way to the Jew’s house. In those scenes which show such clear directionality, the characters who are supposed to have arrived from opposite directions would naturally use opposing doors, even if they do not enter simultaneously.
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76 Shakespearean Entrances
The Use of Stage Doors 77
When two characters separate to depart in different directions, one or the other must exit from the ‘entrance door’. The early texts of Elizabethan plays provide relatively few exit stage directions explicitly indicating that the exiters should use different doors.5 This paucity might suggest that the characters who bid farewell to each other were expected to depart through opposing doors. However, instances where two characters bid farewell to each other at the end of a scene are very common, and some of these cases do not necessarily require the two exiters to use different doors. While on the face of it, there may seem no obvious reason why exiters should not depart simultaneously from opposing doors, in practice there is one very practical reason why such a procedure would have been undesirable. Frequent occurrence of split exits at the ends of scenes would delay the opening entrances of the succeeding scenes. At the end of The Merchant of Venice, 3.1, for example, Shylock and Tubal do not need to exit from different doors, for Shylock’s speech does not necessarily imply that they start moving in opposite directions. Shy. Nay, that’s true, that’s very true, goe Tuball see me an Officer, bespeake him a fortnight before, I will haue the hart of him if he forfeite, for were he out of Venice I can make what merchandize I will: goe Tuball, and meete me at our Sinagogue, goe good Tuball, at our Sinagogue Tuball. Exeunt. (Q1, E3r-v; 3.1.116–21) It is certainly possible in some instances for two exiters to go together towards the same door just after or while bidding farewell to each other. As mentioned in Chapter 4, in certain instances, despite the stage direction ‘Exeunt (omnes)’, the exiters are likely to leave separately, a few lines apart. This may apply to the closing ‘Exeunt’ of The Merchant, 3.1; it may be that Tubal starts to go, stops, and restarts while Shylock is speaking and that Shylock does not begin to exit until he finishes speaking. Many instances of apparently simultaneous exits may have been either joint departures or successive exits from the same door. It is an interesting fact that large group scenes often end with solo exits. Titus Andronicus, 3.1, which is a very long scene that opens with a procession, provides one such example. Before Titus makes the
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Pattern b: departures in different directions
penultimate exit of the scene, attended by Marcus and Lavinia, he says to Lucius, ‘As for thee boy, goe get thee from my sight, / Thou art an Exile, and thou must not stay, / Hie to the Gothes and raise an armie there, …’ (Q1, F3r-v; 3.1.282–4). When Lucius makes his exit at the end of the scene, as the dialogue suggests, he would use the door opposite to the one used by Titus and others. In this way long scenes often begin to show clear directionality towards their ends, and characters who are supposed to depart in different directions more often than not make their exits in succession.6 There was clearly a tendency to avoid the simultaneous use of both flanking doors at the ends of scenes. Pattern c: entrances and exits of two opposing characters or groups When two opposing characters or groups make entrances or exits simultaneously or successively, they very likely use different doors. Such symmetrical entrances or exits would emphasize the opposition between the two characters or groups.7 In Doctor Faustus, the Good Angel and the Evil Angel would always enter and exit by opposing doors, although only the B-text contains one stage direction specifying their use of different doors: ‘Enter the good Angell, and the bad Angell at seuerall doores’ (TLN 1995–6).8 In A Midsummer Night’s Dream, the stage direction for Oberon and Titania’s first entrance explicitly indicates that they use different doors: ‘Enter the King of Fairies, at one doore, with his traine; and the Queene, at another, with hers’ (Q1, B3v; 2.1.59). Their difference and division are symbolically shown by their split entrance. Middleton’s A Game at Chess has ‘Enter from the Black-house, the Bl. Queens pawne, from the whitehouse the white Qs: pawne’ (Trinity manuscript, TLN 99–101). In this political satire, the two flanking doors represent the Black and White Houses, though not consistently throughout the play.9 Clearly, the stage directions, ‘Enter both houses’ (TLN 855) and ‘Enter Bl.Bishop and both the houses’ (TLN 1230–1) are used to indicate the simultaneous use of both flanking doors.10 In the Q1 text of Titus Andronicus, the opening stage direction reads, ‘Enter the Tribunes and Senatours aloft: And then enter Saturninus and his followers at one dore, and Bassianus and his followers, with Drums and Trumpets’ (A3r; 1.1.0). It is most likely that Bassianus and his followers enter through the door opposite to the one from which Saturninus and party enter, though the expected words ‘at the other’ are omitted for some reason.11 However, we cannot entirely dismiss the possibility that the two factions enter separately one after another by the same door. It is possible that the opposite door was kept shut and unused until
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78 Shakespearean Entrances
Saturninus and Bassianus say, respectively, ‘Open the gates and let me in’ (A4r; 1.1.62) and ‘Tribunes and me a poore Competitor’ (A4r; 1.1.63), and then exit through it into the Senate House. The reason might have been that there were only two stage doors in the Rose, for if the central doorway was available, this doorway would have served effectively as the gates to the Senate House. It should also be noted that even if there was a central opening, the tomb of the Andronici might have been represented by this opening. In any event, it is quite certain that the most desirable form of the first entrance of the rival brothers is a split and symmetrical entrance through opposing doors. The F1 text, which probably reflects a later revival at the Globe or the Blackfriars, adds the words ‘at the other’ (TLN 4–5). An ‘excursion’ sometimes involves fighting between two armies. In King John, 2.1, excursions occur just after the French–Austrian and the English armies exit from different doors. Their use of opposing doors for the exit is suggested by the exit speeches of the English and French kings: ‘Vp higher to the plaine, where we’l set forth / In best appointment all our Regiments’ (F1, TLN 603–4; 2.1.295–6); ‘It shall be so, and at the other hill / Command the rest to stand, God and our right’ (TLN 606–7; 2.1.298–9). In such cases as this, in excursions, the two armies would naturally make a split entrance, fight, and make a split exit. However, this was not the standard way of making an excursion. As discussed in the next chapter, it appears to have been usual that, in excursions involving two armies, one army pursued the other, both entering from the same door, moving across the stage, and exiting by the opposite door. Pattern d: entering character meets exiting character In Chettle, Dekker and Haughton’s Patient Grissil, 2.2, as Grissil exits, Mario and Lepido ‘Enter at the same doore’ (2.2.122). The dialogue requires the exiter and the enterers to pass each other. There are some other stage directions indicating that an entering character meets an exiting character, or vice versa: for example, ‘Enter Dalauill meeting Young Garaldine going out’ (Heywood, The English Traveller Q1, K3r); ‘Enter Clem meeting Ioffer’ (Heywood, 2 The Fair Maid of the West Q1, B2r); ‘Exit. / Meetes Phillip’ (Northward Ho Q1, C3v [sig. C3 is misprinted as D3]). It is almost certain that what these stage directions indicate is the use of the same door by the enterer and the exiter.12 Shakespeare’s plays provide no instances where an entering character and an exiting character must use the same door, although the following stage directions, found in a text derived from a performance, may possibly imply that the exiters and the enterers used the same door:
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The Use of Stage Doors 79
80 Shakespearean Entrances
Enter M. Ford, Page, Priest, Shallow, the two men carries the basket, and Ford meets it. (F2r; 4.2) In The Merchant of Venice, 2.2 an entering character, Gratiano exchanges words with an exiting character, Leonardo (Q1, C3v; 2.2.168), and in Hamlet, 2.2, Polonius, as he leaves the stage, addresses two entering characters, Rozencrantz and Guildenstern (F1, TLN 1263–4; 2.2.221). In these and other similar cases, the enterers and exiters might use the same door. Pattern e: entrance and immediate exit Where a character enters and immediately exits, unless the dialogue implies that the character is going somewhere,13 it may be more natural for him to exit from the door through which he has just entered. In Fletcher’s The Loyal Subject, 3.3, Putskie makes an immediate exit after his entrance with Alinda. The stage direction for their entrance, ‘Enter Alinda, and Putskie at doore’ (F1, 3E2v), indicates that Putskie does not come forward with Alinda but stands by their entry door. It is therefore very certain that he uses the same door for his immediate exit.14 This rule of exiting from the same door applies particularly well to those instances where a character is dismissed as soon as he has entered,15 and those where a character enters only to announce that another character is waiting off stage and exits to summon him immediately.16 In the following example, a servingman is dismissed as soon as he has entered. Iu. The clocke strooke nine when I did send the Nurse, … Enter Nurse [and Peter]. O God she comes, ô hony Nurse what newes? Hast thou met with him? send thy man away. Nur. Peter stay at the gate. [Exit Peter.] Iu. Now good sweete Nurse, O Lord, why lookest thou sad? … (Romeo and Juliet Q2, E4v-F1r; 2.4.1, 17–21) Since Peter’s manner of leaving is of no significance at all, he could use the opposite door to that through which he has entered with the
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Sir Iohn goes into the basket, they put cloathes ouer him, the two men carries it away: Foord meetes it, and all the rest, Page, Doctor, Priest, Slender, Shallow. (The Merry Wives of Windsor Q1, E1v; 3.3)
The Use of Stage Doors 81
Nurse. From the viewpoint of practical staging, however, it seems more likely that Peter exits from the door through which he has just entered, for he probably stands by it during his very short presence on stage.
Elizabethan play-texts provide some stage directions like ‘Ex. at one dore: Enter presently at the other’ (Dekker and Ford, The Spanish Gypsy Q1, I3r) and ‘Ex. at one door & enter at the other’ (Middleton and Rowley, The Changeling Q1, D3v). These stage directions occur at scene-breaks. What they indicate is the same characters’ immediate re-entrances from the opposite door, which was a device to signal a scene change. In each case, the actors’ offstage crossing and the momentary clearance of the stage contribute to the audience’s awareness of the change of location and the lapse of time.17 An immediate re-entrance within a scene was normally made from the same door. When in The Spanish Tragedy, 3.11 the mad Hieronimo ‘goeth in at one doore and comes out at another’ (The Spanish Tragedy (1592), TLN 1831), this queer action is an indication of his state of mind and not, as in other examples, of a change of location. The Changeling has also ‘Ex. Enter presently’ (Q1, D4v), which tacitly indicates that the intra-scene exit and re-entrance should be made from the same door. Where a character absents himself from the stage for a very short time, unless his offstage crossing is implied in the dialogue, his exit and re-entrance are intended to be made through the same door. Towards the end of Richard III, 1.4, the First Murderer carries Clarence’s body away. 1 Take that, and that, if all this will not do, Stabs him. Ile drowne you in the Malmesey-But within. Exit. 2 A bloody deed, and desperately dispatcht: How faine (like Pilate) would I wash my hands Of this most greeuous murther. Enter Murtherer 1 How now? what mean’st thou that thou help’st me not? By Heauen the Duke shall know how slacke you haue beene. (F1, TLN 1103–10; 1.4.264–70) Since he returns immediately to tell the Second Murderer to stop shirking and help him, it is natural for him to re-enter through the door from which he has exited. Indeed he cannot avoid using the same door, for there are only three lines between the point at which he begins to exit and the point at which he enters again, and three lines
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Pattern f: exit and immediate re-entrance
do not provide enough time for an actor to complete an exit and also cross off stage to the opposite door. When the First Murderer exits, his parting words do not foretell his immediate re-entrance, which is caused by the Second Murderer’s delay. In such an instance, it is very natural for the exiter to make his exit and then re-enter and ‘re-exit’ from the ‘exit door’.18 However, where the brevity of the character’s absence is implied beforehand, the exit may be made by the ‘entrance door’. Pattern g: exiting to fetch something and re-enter with it There are instances in which a character exits to fetch something and re-enters with it, and there are also those in which a character exits to obtain information and re-enters with it. In these cases, the exit itself leads to the expectation that the exiting character will re-enter through the same door. Lord. ... Sirrah, go see what Trumpet ’tis that sounds, Belike some Noble Gentleman that meanes (Trauelling some iourney) to repose him heere. Enter Seruingman. How now? who is it? Ser. An’t please your Honor, Players That offer seruice to your Lordship.
Sound trumpets. [Exit Servingman.]
(The Taming of the Shrew F1, TLN 78–85; Induction.1.71–6) In this example, since the servingman’s report on the sound of trumpets serves as a pre-announcement of the players’ entrance, they would enter by the door through which the servingman has himself left and re-entered. Instances where a character exits to investigate an offstage sound and re-enters with news about a newcomer’s arrival are quite common. There are also many instances in which a servant is summoned by his master, and ordered to bring something. In these instances, the servant enters, immediately exits and re-enters. In Julius Caesar, 2.1, for example, Lucius must repeat the action of this pattern several times. Pattern g is very often expanded to include an additional earlier or later entrance. Where a character exits to pursue some offstage business, he normally uses the ‘entrance door’, behind which the necessary property is ready. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 2.1, Puck exits to fetch the magic flower for Oberon at line 176, but does not re-enter until line 246
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(Q1, C1v–C2v). During his relatively long absence, Demetrius and Helena’s arrival and departure take place. Puck’s exit is a long-distance journey as well as a temporary absence: his exit speech reads ‘Ile put a ~ girdle, roud about the earth, in forty minutes’ (Q1, C1v; 2.1.175–6). It may be that for this event he exits from the ‘exit door’ and returns through the ‘entrance door’, for whether Puck returns from the same door after such a long interim may be a matter not needing the kind of consistency that briefer gaps between exit and re-entry demand. Moreover, an offstage crossing might contribute to the impression that he has made a long-distance journey. Pattern h: summoner’s exit and summoned character’s entrance Where a character exits to summon another character and the summoned character enters either alone or with the summoner, the summoned character would naturally enter through the door from which the summoner has exited. As with pattern g, this pattern is very often related to another entrance; there are many cases in which a character enters only to announce that another character is waiting off stage and exits to summon him immediately. This is one such instance: Oli. ... holla Dennis. Enter Dennis. Den. Calls your worship? Oli. Was not Charles the Dukes Wrastler heere to speake with me? Den. So please you, he is heere at the doore, and importunes accesse to you. Oli. Call him in: [Exit Dennis.] ’twill be a good way: and to morrow the wrastling is. Enter Charles. Cha. Good morrow to your worship. (As You Like It F1, TLN 87–97; 1.1.83–91) It is clear that the door that Dennis uses for his exit is the one through which he has entered and by which Charles is to enter, that is, the ‘entrance door’. In pattern h, the exit is no more than a subordinate move to the entrance. It is very likely that, in instances of this pattern, the summoner generally exits by the ‘entrance door’, behind which the summoned character waits. In the last scene of The Taming of the Shrew, Biondello’s two exits and re-entrances as a messenger to Bianca and the Widow, Grumio’s exit to
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The Use of Stage Doors 83
summon Katherine and her entrance, and Katherine’s exit to summon the other wives and her re-entrance with them are presumably all made through the same door. However, whether this door should be the same one from which the three wives have exited earlier in this scene is not certain, because there is a 33-line gap between their exit (F1, TLN 2591; 5.2.50) and Biondello’s first exit (TLN 2624; 5.2.83). In The Tempest, 5.1, Ariel exits to fetch the Ship-master and Boatswain at line 105 (F1, TLN 2060), and returns with them at line 218 (TLN 2200–1). This example is very similar to Puck’s exit to fetch the magic flower. For the same reasons, I think it possible that Ariel departs by the ‘exit door’ and re-enters with the mariners from the ‘entrance door’. Pattern i: summoner’s entrance and summoned character’s exit Where a character enters to summon an onstage character to go off, and the onstage character obeys the summons, it is natural that they should exit through the door from which the summoner has entered. Enter Seruing. Ser. Madam the guests are come, supper seru’d vp, you cald, my young Lady askt for, the Nurse curst in the Pantrie, and euerie thing in extremitie: I must hence to wait, I beseech you follow straight. Mo. We follow thee, Iuliet the Countie staies. Nur. Go gyrle, seeke happie nights to happie dayes: Exeunt. (Romeo and Juliet Q2, C1r; 1.3.101–7) In such instances as this, the entrance is nothing more than a preparatory move made for the exit, and the majority of these instances occur at the ends of scenes. It is therefore very likely that in this pattern the summoner enters from the ‘exit door’. If he does so, the opening entrance of the next scene can be made from the ‘entrance door’, in accordance with Postulate A set out at the beginning of this chapter. Pattern j: entrance and exit by a door representing the entrance to a particular place The Comedy of Errors is unique among Shakespeare’s plays in that the action of the whole play, in the fashion of Roman comedy, takes place on a street in the city of Ephesus. The one text we have for this play contains a series of stage directions suggesting that the author had in
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84 Shakespearean Entrances
mind three doors representing houses and two additional entries leading to offstage localities: ‘Enter Antipholus Ephes. Dromio from the Courtizans’ (F1, TLN 995; 4.1.13); ‘Enter Dromio Sira. from the Bay’ (TLN 1073; 4.1.84); ‘Exeunt to the Priorie’ (TLN 1503; 5.1.37); ‘Exit one to the Abbesse’ (TLN 1761; 5.1.282). This play was performed in the 1594 Christmas revels at Gray’s Inn. T.S. Dorsch thinks that the arcaded screen of five arches at the west end of the Great Hall would have offered an ideal set for the performance. He says that the three inner doors of the Gray’s Inn hall screen would have served as the entrances to the Phoenix, the Porpentine, and the Priory, and the outer doors could well have been left open to represent the ways leading to the port and the city.19 However, as M.M. Mahood observes, the Gray’s Inn hall screen has only two doors. The doors are only in the second and fourth arches, and the carving in the other three arches shows no sign of having ever been split into double doors.20 There is a great possibility that, as has been suggested by other scholars, the conventionalized arcade setting of academic drama, with which educated gentlemen of the Inns of Court were familiar, was provided for the 1594 performance of The Comedy of Errors at Gray’s Inn.21 Assuming that this play was performed in a public playhouse, it is not certain whether the three houses might have been represented by the same doors throughout the performance, for not only the entrances to the three houses but also the standard entryways had to be represented by the three entries of the tiring-house wall. Dorsch suggests the possibility that three small houses were set on the stage.22 No scene of the play requires the use of more than one house. It does seem most likely that the entrance to each house was represented by the same door throughout the scene in which one of the three locations was in use. In other plays there are instances where a stage door temporarily represents the entrance to a particular place. In such cases, the entrances and exits related to the place are made from that door. Conversely, those unrelated to the place cannot be made through such a door until it becomes simply a neutral stage door again. Macbeth, 2.3 begins with the Porter’s entrance (F1, TLN 742). Responding to offstage knockings, he pretends to be the porter of hell-gate for nearly twenty lines. When he finally admits Macduff and Lennox (TLN 763; 2.3.20), he probably opens the door opposite the one by which he has entered, treating it as the castle gate. While the Porter is talking to Macduff and Lennox, neither door is used in fictional terms. So, when Macbeth enters (TLN 784; 2.3.40), he could use either door. But he might choose to use the one opposite to the door by which Macduff and Lennox have entered,
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86 Shakespearean Entrances
Macd. Is the King stirring, worthy Thane? Macb. Not yet. Macd. He did command me to call timely on him, I haue almost slipt the houre. Macb. Ile bring you to him. Macd. I know this is a ioyfull trouble to you: But yet ’tis one. Macb. The labour we delight in, Physicks paine: This is the Doore. Macd. Ile make so bold to call, for ’tis my limitted seruice. Exit Macduffe. (TLN 789–99; 2.3.44–51) Macduff’s exit to wake Duncan (TLN 799; 2.3.51), his re-entrance (TLN 815; 2.3.62), Macbeth and Lennox’s exit to view Duncan’s body (TLN 828; 2.3.73), and their re-entrance with Ross (TLN 851; 2.3.89)24 would naturally be made through this door. When Lady Macbeth, Banquo, and Malcolm and Donalbaine enter successively (TLN 836, 844, 858; 2.3.80, 85, 95), none of them would use this door, even if it is the ‘entrance door’. Neither Lady Macbeth’s exit (TLN 894; 3.2.124) nor the succeeding exit of Macbeth and other thanes (TLN 906; 3.2.133) nor the scene-ending exit of Malcolm and Donalbaine (TLN 922; 3.2.145) would be made through this specifically identified door, even if it is the ‘exit door’. The important point to note here is that the door in question is merely a neutral stage door until Macbeth transforms it into ‘the door leading to Duncan’s bedchamber’ by saying ‘This is the Doore’, while leading Macduff to it.25 The opening stage direction of Richard III, 3.2, ‘Enter a Messenger to the Doore of Hastings’ (F1, TLN 1794) indicates that the messenger enters from one flanking door and crosses the stage to the other.26 By crossing to and knocking at the opposite door, he transforms it into ‘the Doore of Hastings’. Since most instances of this pattern occur at the beginnings of scenes, we may assume that the visitor normally enters by the ‘entrance door’ and the visited character enters from the
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because Macduff is afraid that their knocking may have awoken Macbeth (TLN 786; 2.3.42). The door Macbeth identifies as the door leading to Duncan’s bedchamber would not be the door by which he has entered, but it would probably be the one opposite to his entry door, or possibly the central doorway.23
‘exit door’. In the case of Richard III, 3.2, how long does this door remain the entrance to Hastings’s house after he has entered from it? If it should remain so throughout the scene, all the succeeding entrances and exits should be made through the door which the messenger has just used.27 Thereafter in this scene, however, there are three instances of simultaneous or overlapping exit and entrance (TLN 1831–2, 1896–8, 1911–12; 3.2.31, 90–1, 103). In each case, bearing in mind Postulate B, it would be very awkward for the exiter(s) and the enterer to use the same door. When Lord Hastings addresses an entering pursuivant, saying ‘How now, Sirrha? how goes the World with thee?’ (TLN 1899; 3.2.92), the location seems to have already become very ambiguous. The words could be spoken to a passer-by in a street. In my view, when the ‘exit door’ and the ‘entrance door’ were simultaneously used for the messenger’s exit and Catesby’s entrance (TLN 1831–2; 3.2.31), the ‘exit door’ completely regained its normal neutrality.28 I entirely agree with Peter Thomson, when he argues that the flow of the action is dependent on the smoothness of entrances and exits, and that the normal neutrality of the stage doors is vital to the smooth conduct of a story.29 Some entrances are given special names in stage directions. Such stage directions as ‘Enter Rafe like a Grocer in’s shop …’ (Beaumont, The Knight of the Burning Pestle Q1, C1v) and ‘Exit Alexander into the studie’ (The Devil’s Charter Q1, G2v) seem to suggest the use of the central opening. It seems clear that the entrance of certain kinds of place would have been represented by the central opening, not the flanking doors.
3 The patterns listed above are by no means fixed; indeed, much of the evidence adduced here could be given different interpretations. It is certainly possible to think, as Beckerman does, that since the stage is no more than a stage, the players might have preferred the convention of entering by one flanking door and exiting by the other. Even in the instances where the same door should be used for the entrance and the exit, the idea of one being the ‘entrance door’ and the other the ‘exit door’ might have been helpful for the actors to decide which door to use. But this seems altogether too simple. The patterns I have described, inferred mainly from the dialogue, are based on what are clearly three modes of dramatic logic. There are simultaneous or successive moves in different directions (patterns a–d); moves making up a
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continuous action (patterns e–i); and moves related to particular places (pattern j). The Shakespearean dialogue seems, therefore, to require uses of the stage doors that are both more varied and more dramatically logical than those entailed by Beckerman’s mechanical principle. We are forced to conclude that the use of stage doors was not a matter of convention alone. Beckerman’s proposition that entrances are usually made by one flanking door and exits made by the other would not have represented the players’ standard practice. We have to look for another principle. Tim Fitzpatrick, a champion of the two-door stage theory, argues that the Shakespearean stage represents an intermediate place and that one door leads ‘inwards’ and the other ‘outwards’. He calls this the ‘triangulation’ theory. In Macbeth, 1.5, he believes that the stage represents some sort of unspecified ante-chamber in the castle, one door leading to another part of the castle, and the other, to the outer parts of the castle. At the opening of the scene Lady Macbeth would enter from ‘inwards’; then the messenger would bring news to her from ‘outwards’ and withdraw to ‘outwards’; and then Macbeth would make an arrival to her from ‘outwards’; and finally he and his lady would make a joint departure to ‘inwards’.30 In this way, the ‘triangulation’ theory works quite well in those scenes where one character visits another.31 However, it would have been very difficult for players to find a ‘triangulation’ for every scene. Presumably, the rule governing the use of stage doors must have been more theatrically practical and must also have been fit to a certain extent for fictionally logical comings and goings. John Orrell’s hypothesis offers such a rule: ‘Actors normally re-enter through the door by which they last left the stage.’ He calls this the ‘S Rule’ (Samedoor Rule). For departures from the stage, Orrell thinks, the dialogue regularly provides information whether the actors should go to the opposite door or return to the same door.32 This ‘S Rule’ works almost perfectly with re-entrances made within the same scenes, because of the logic of the intra-scene narratives.33 It contains our patterns e–h and j. However, it does not work so well with re-entrances involving scene changes and the like. Take Cymbeline, 2.4–2.5 for example. Although the action is continuous in the F1 text, most modern editions introduce a scene-break between TLN 1336 (2.4.152) and TLN 1337 (2.5.0) and suggest some change of location.34 The outraged Posthumus exits at TLN 1331 (2.4.149) from a stage door, and Philario and Iachimo follow him at TLN 1336. Posthumus would never use the same door when he re-enters at TLN 1337: such an action would suggest that as he returned, he passed Philario and Iachimo.35 The
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soliloquy Posthumus delivers after his re-entrance includes no exit line, let alone any information whether he should go forward to the opposite door or return to his entry door. Soliloquizers are rarely given exit lines.36 For smooth scene changes the rule of opposing doors would have been more useful. It may be relevant that characters who appear in two consecutive scenes are mostly given enough time to move across off stage to the opposite door.37 It might be too much for one general pattern or template to be imposed upon dramatic material that is too multifarious. It would seem, therefore, that finding whatever rules might have governed the use of stage doors is still a great challenge.
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7
1 In his article, ‘Passing over the Stage’, Allardyce Nicoll concluded that to ‘pass over the stage’ meant to enter the yard, ascend and cross the platform, and then return to, and exit from, the yard.1 This essay still seems to exert some influence despite a practical difficulty.2 Plays performed at private playhouses as well as those performed at public playhouses provide entry stage directions that include ‘passing over the stage’ or the like. It would not have been easy for actors to use the indoor theatres’ pit, with its seated audience, in the same way that they could have used the yard in the amphitheatres. There is no evidence that either of these sorts of theatre had any access up to the stage from the yard or the pit, while it seems likely that in some theatres the edge of the stage was fenced with low rails. At least three plays, including one performed at a public playhouse, provide stage directions which imply that the actors used stage doors when they passed ‘over the stage’. Enter Lightfoote a country gentleman passing ouer the stage and knocks at the other dore. (Robert Tailor, The Hog Hath Lost His Pearl, TLN 2-3)3 Enter at one dore, Castilio and Forobosco, with halberts: foure Pages with torches: Luceo bare: Piero, Maria and Alberto, talking: … all these goe softly ouer the Stage, whilst at the other doore enters the ghost of Andrugio, who passeth by them, tossing his torch about his heade in triumph. (Marston, Antonio’s Revenge, TLN 1820–9) 90
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Sound a Signate and passe ouer the stage. Enter at one dore The king of Spaine, Duke of Castile, Duke medina, Lorenzo, and Rogero: at another doore, Andrea, Horatio, and Ieronimo, …
These stage directions are important, since the entire corpus of extant English Renaissance plays supplies no stage direction implying that the actors used the yard or the pit when they passed ‘over the stage’. It would be more reasonable to think that the stage direction ‘Enter X [passing/ marching/ running/ …] over the stage’ indicates that the character should enter through one door, cross to the opposite door, and exit through that door. Evert Sprinchorn has argued recently that ‘passing over the stage’ meant the use of a rear platform raised above the main stage, although this view has received almost no acceptance.5 He says that ‘pass over’ relates to the rear of the stage, and that extended action on the forward stage was indicated by terms such as ‘pass round’, ‘pass by’, ‘march about’, ‘pass on’, or ‘march round’. Even if one finds the ‘raised rear stage’ theory unacceptable, he or she might still wish to consider the possibility that ‘over’ refers to the rear part of the stage. As mentioned below, there are numerous cases where the characters directed to ‘pass over the stage’ should stop and deliver speeches. It is unlikely that all these characters had to occupy the rear of the stage. As we shall see later, there is an example in which 20 lines of dialogue take place while a procession is passing over the stage. I think that, whether an interruption is involved or not, ‘passing over the stage’ could be either a move across the frons scenae or a sweep using the full breadth of the stage. In this chapter, I should like to take the convention of ‘passing over the stage’ as a particular example of the most complex use of entry and exit doors.
2 As Nicoll suggests, most instances of ‘passing over the stage’ can be divided into the following two kinds: (1) a stately procession or military march; (2) walking across by one or more passers-by.6 Since processions and marches as well as passers-by are sometimes directed to ‘pass by [the stage]’, there can have been no clear difference between ‘passing over the stage’ and ‘passing by the stage’. In either category, there are instances where the characters pass without stopping, and instances where they halt and speak.
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(Kyd, 1 Jeronimo Q1, A2r)4
In Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy, 1.2, when the general says to the king, ‘your graces men of warre, / … Come marching on towards your royall seate, / To show themselues before your Maiestie’ (The Spanish Tragedy (1592), TLN 202, 204–5), the stage direction for the marchers reads ‘They enter and passe by’ (TLN 213). They would march without stopping. The king is pleased at the sight, and orders that they should ‘march once more about these walles’ (TLN 224). His words seem to suggest that the soldiers were intended to walk in a curve. On the second pass, although Balthazar, Lorenzo, and Horatio withdraw from the march and remain on stage, ‘The rest martch on’ (TLN 232) according to the king’s order. A similar action probably happened in Dekker’s The Shoemaker’s Holiday, where a stage direction reads ‘Enter King and his traine ouer the stage’ (5.3.0). In the midst of this movement, the procession stops and the king and a nobleman exchange speeches. The dialogue ends with the king’s ‘Set forward’ (5.3.16) and the accompanying characters’ ‘On afore’ (5.3.17). Similarly in the opening scene of Beaumont and Fletcher’s The Maid’s Tragedy, Aspatia enters, ‘passing with attendance’ (Q1, B2r) [‘passing by’ (Q2, A3r: in Q2 sig. A3 is misprinted as B3)]. Perceiving Aspatia’s entrance, Melantius, who has been on stage, speaks to her: ‘Haile Maide and Wife. / Thou faire Aspatia, …’ (B2r). Aspatia and her attendant would have stopped when she said, ‘My hard fortunes / Deserue not scorne, for I was neuer proud / When they were good’ (B2r). By contrast, when in the next scene Melantius leads a lady in and leads her off stage from the opposite door almost immediately, their action is not treated as passing by; the Q1 stage directions for their entrance and exit read ‘Enter Melantius and a Lady’ (B3v) and ‘Exit Melantius Lady other dore’ (B4r).7 Here they are conducted to the exit door by the door-keeper who has admitted them. In short, when characters ‘pass over’ or ‘pass by’ the stage, their movement should not always be taken to be literally continuous. But even if they stop for a considerable length of time, it is only a temporary interruption of progress. This would be visibly shown by the symmetry of the two halves of the movement: if they moved in a curve from one door to the front of the stage, they would move in a curve again towards the opposite door; if their movement was across the frons, they would resume the same movement. As for the pace of movement, the first and second halves would not be different. Since a slow, patterned move could have given the impression of formality and dignity, it is likely that the standard move of ceremonial processions was to walk slowly in a large curve. On the other hand,
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the normal move of passers-by was probably to walk straight across the stage or to make a very modest curve. Needless to say, the question of how great a sweep the actors could have made would depend on the depth of the stage. When The Spanish Tragedy was performed at the Rose, its shallow stage would not have allowed the army to make a great sweep in 1.2. The same thing can be said of the movement which the king and his train make in The Shoemaker’s Holiday, 5.3. In hall theatres with their small stages, moving in a curve and moving across the frons would not in reality have been very different. If the Globe stage was wide but comparatively shallow, to ‘pass over [by] the stage’ in the Globe might have involved a long horizontal movement. Whether in a great curve or straight across the frons, passing over the stage was a patterned way of entering and exiting, following a recognizable path from door to door. Different versions of this way of entering and exiting in the plays of Shakespeare and his contemporaries offer some insight into their use of this convention.
3 A passage over the stage is sometimes used as a shorthand for an event. It is, as it were, the simplest form of dumb show. Battles and dinners are events for which characters often pass over the stage, and weddings and funerals are often shown in the form of a procession over the stage. 8 Even though the stage directions do not explicitly indicate passing over the stage, most marches and processions would have done so. In the 5.2–5.3 sequence of King Lear, two military marches take place: Alarum within. Enter the Drumme and Colours, Lear, Cordelia, and Souldiers, ouer the Stage, and Exeunt. … Alarum and Retreat within. Enter Edgar. Edgar. Away old man, giue me thy hand, away: King Lear hath lost, he and his Daughter tane, … Enter in conquest with Drum and Colours, Edmund, Lear, and Cordelia, as prisoners, Souldiers, Captaine. (F1, TLN 2918–19, 2926–9, 2938–9; 5.2.0, 4–6, 5.3.0) The combat itself is not presented at all, although offstage sounds signifying a battle are heard. What is shown on stage is the march fore-
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telling the fighting and its result. The contrast between Lear and Cordelia’s marching towards the combat and their returning from it is pitiful. They might have made the two moves in different manners, first marching briskly, and then returning sluggishly. An ‘excursion’ is the simplest way of simulating a battle. Some examples involve fighting between two armies, as is illustrated in the following stage directions: Alarums, excursions, a great fight, and a retreate. (Edward II, TLN 1577) Alarum: Excursions, wherein Talbots Sonne is hemm’d about, and Talbot rescues him. (1 Henry VI F1, TLN 2169–71; 4.6.0) As mentioned in Chapter 6, in King John, 2.1 excursions almost certainly involve two armies’ split entrance, fighting, and split exit. However, such examples are rare. There are several examples in which excursions involve pursuits: Sound alarum: excursions. Mumford must chase Cambria away: then cease. (The True Chronicle History of King Leir Q1, I4r) Alarme, excursions, of al: The fiue Kings driuen ouer the Stage, Crassinius chiefely pursuing: At the dore enter againe the fiue Kings. The battell continued within. (Chapman, Caesar and Pompey Q1, F4v) A Battell presented, Excursion, the one halfe driue out the other, then enter with heads on their swords. (The Travels of the Three English Brothers Q1, A3v)9 It appears to have been the custom that, in excursions involving two armies, one army pursued the other, both entering from one door, fighting on the stage, and exiting by the opposite door. It is not certain, however, whether an excursion usually involved two armies. It may be that the bald direction ‘Excursions’ merely indicates that an army rushes in through one door, runs across the stage, and rushes off through the other door towards an offstage battle. Whether involving two armies or
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only one, soldiers’ hasty move across the stage could give the audience the impression of a fierce battle currently taking place off stage. At the end of Macbeth, 1.6, Lady Macbeth leads the royal guest and his train away into the castle. The opening stage direction of the next scene reads: ‘Ho-boyes. Torches. Enter a Sewer, and diuers Seruants with Dishes and Seruice ouer the Stage. Then enter Macbeth’ (F1, TLN 472–4; 1.7.0). Lady Macbeth enters shortly after and tells her husband that Duncan ‘has almost supt’ (TLN 504; 1.7.29). If the servants carried the dishes slowly in a careful manner, their move would have suggested how gorgeous was the dinner their master and mistress had arranged for their guest, with heavy irony. A comparable though fuller use of the breadth of the stage appeared in ceremonial events, such as weddings and funerals, which are often shown in the form of a passage over the stage. The actual ceremony seldom took place on stage. Instead, the movement to or from the ceremony suggested the formal performance of the ceremony off stage.10 In Henry VIII, 4.1 a coronation procession for Anne Bullen takes place. The F1 text gives ‘The Order of the Coronation’ (TLN 2420; 4.1.36), which ends with ‘Exeunt, first passing ouer the Stage in Order and State, and then, A great Flourish of Trumpets’ (TLN 2444–5). Although in this case ‘passing over the stage’ was included in the exit stage direction, the wedding procession must have entered in the same manner as other processions. 11 She does not appear in the play again, but the news of the birth of her baby is delivered in 5.1. In 4.1, two gentlemen enter first and comment on the procession as it moves across the stage. The comments continue for 20 lines (TLN 2446–71; 4.1.37–56). On the Globe stage, these gentlemen would probably have stood by a stage post, since the second gentleman says when announcing the entry of the procession: ‘The Trumpets sound: Stand close, / The Queene is comming’ (TLN 2418–19; 4.1.36). Regardless of where these characters actually stood, the procession itself would have moved slowly, making as great a majestical sweep as it could, which might well have taken 20 lines. Clearly the convention of ‘passing over the stage’ was not only a useful means for shortening the running time of performance by the ‘dumb show’ device, but the movement itself could also have been very evocative. The pace and greatness of the movement could well influence the audience’s impression of it. Walking slowly, using the full breadth of the stage must have been a grand movement. In contrast, as some stage directions suggest, moves in a quick pace across the frons scenae must have been far from a dignified action, if not absolutely the mark of a lowly or disgraced character: for example, ‘Enter two or three running ouer the Stage, from the Murther of Duke Humfrey’ (2 Henry VI F1,
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TLN 1690–1; 3.2.0); ‘Enter Temperance stealing along the stage’ (Chapman, May Day Q1, G2r). As suggested later, certain formal processions might have suffered the humiliation of moving in a modest curve. On the other hand, in some cases, such as when in Volpone, 5.8, Mosca, wearing Volpone’s dress of clarissimo, passes by Corbaccio and Corvino and returns to walk by them again, ordinary passers-by might have used the grand mode of passing over the stage.
4 How great a movement could the actors make on the Elizabethan stage? In Jack Shepherd’s 1998 production of The Honest Whore at the reconstructed Globe, the opening funeral procession moved first to one corner of the front-stage, then turned around the stage post there and moved to the other corner of the front-stage, and then turned around the other stage post to return to the tiring-house. When Part I was originally performed on the Fortune stage, which was very similar to the Globe’s, did the actors ever make such a movement? When we consider the possibility of such a use of the stage, those cases where onstage characters observe and comment on the movement of passing over the stage suggest the way it would have been done. Even where the movement was meant to be very spectacular, the greatness of the movement would largely have depended upon factors such as the presence of other characters on stage, and which part of the stage those characters occupied. In scene 6 of Pericles, for example, six knights including Pericles enter separately at intervals of five or six lines. The first Knight paßes by. King. Who is the first, that doth preferre himselfe? Thai. A Knight of Sparta (my renowned father) And the deuice he beares vpon his Shield, Is a blacke Ethyope reaching at the Sunne: The word: Lux tua vita mihi. King. He loues you well, that holdes his life of you. The second Knight. Who is the second, that presents himselfe? (Q1, C4r; Sc.6.16–23) Since this is a ceremonial scene, it is very likely that King Simonedes and Thaisa would sit on thrones centre-stage. Each knight would walk
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in a curve in front of these observers. Before one knight completed his movement, the next knight would appear. In Troilus and Cressida, 1.2, Trojan commanders enter and exit one after another. Although Q1, which is the sole authority for 1.1.0–1.2.231, does not specifically indicate that the commanders should pass over the stage, Pandarus says to Cressida as follows: ‘Harke they are comming from the field, shall we stand vp here and see them as they passe toward Ilion’ (Q1, B1v; 1.2.173–4); ‘ile tell you them all by their names, as they passe by’ (B1v; 1.2.178–9). When he says ‘shall we stand vp here …’, he might possibly suggest that Cressida and he view the passers-by from the upper playing level. Although they are allowed no time to ascend to it, the trumpet sound signifying the return of the troops (‘Sound a retreate’ (B1v; 1.2.170)) could have been repeated during their offstage ascent.12 The observers use the word ‘yonder’ several times (B2r; 1.2.201, 208, 209, 223, 224), pointing to some of the passers-by. If they used the balcony, the commanders would have used the main part of the stage, walking in a curve. However, if they stood front-stage, facing the frons, the warriors might have walked straight across the frons. When a procession arrives, the characters already on stage sometimes move aside to observe the procession, as in the coronation procession scene of Henry VIII (4.1). Henry VIII, 2.1 also provides such an example; when Buckingham and his train enter ‘from his Arraignment’ (F1, TLN 889; 2.1.54), the two gentlemen who have been on stage ‘stand close and behold him’ (TLN 895; 2.1.56). At the opening of The Revenger’s Tragedy, Vindice enters first and comments as the royal procession passes over the stage. Enter Vendici, the Duke, Dutchesse, Lusurioso her sonne, Spurio the bastard, with a traine, passe ouer the Stage with Torch-light. Vindi. Dvke: royall letcher; goe, gray hayrde adultery, And thou his sonne, as impious steept as hee: And thou his bastard true-begott in euill: And thou his Dutchesse that will doe with Diuill, Foure exlent Characters … (Q1, A2r) In such as these cases, on the stages where posts were available, such as the Globe’s and Fortune’s, the observing characters would naturally have stood by a post. Since they move to a side position, giving up the main acting area for the processions to pass over, the processions could
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not have used peripheral parts of the stage such as the areas outside the stage posts. It is not irrelevant in this connection to note that eavesdroppers sometimes take side positions. Whether observing characters were on stage or not, processions must have occupied the dominant section of the stage. 13 (In the reconstructed Globe, the position of its stage posts seems to have invited the actors to make the funeral procession in the above-mentioned manner; presumably in the original Globe its stage posts were more distant from each other, whether placed at the front edge of the stage as in the enlarged Rose, or well back from the front as can be seen in De Witt’s Swan sketch.)14
5 When passing over the stage was an established way of entering and exiting, any deviation from the expected move could have been meaningful. There are quite a few examples of interaction between characters passing over the stage and those who try to stop them. Titus Andronicus, 3.1 opens with a procession: ‘Enter the Iudges and Senatours with Titus two sonnes bound, passing on the Stage to the place of execution, and Titus going before pleading’ (Q1, E3r). Titus, as if he were trying to push the procession back, comes in front of it. While he is pleading with the judges and senators for the lives of his two sons, the procession passes him by. Q1 marks ‘Andronicus lieth downe, and the Judges passe by him’ at line 11 (E3r). F1 retains this stage direction (TLN 1146) but also adds ‘Exeunt’ at line 16 (TLN 1151). In the printer’s copy for F1 this exit stage direction might have been written at the end of line 15, where Titus stops pleading with the tribunes; certainly it is possible that a lack of sufficient space for the stage direction at the end of line 15 (TLN 1150) made the F1 compositor put the direction one line below.15 Although the F1 exit stage direction may not be printed exactly where it should belong, clearly it is used to indicate the point where the last person in the procession exits by the door opposite to the one used for the procession’s entry. Since the procession takes fifteen or sixteen lines, its progress must be very slow. When the Q1 version was performed on the Rose’s shallow stage, its progress must have been extremely slow, if the timing of the completion of the movement was the same as in the F1 version. On any stage the slow continuous movement contributes to the expression of stern and merciless authority. This would make the pleading Titus appear all the more pitiful.
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A coronation procession takes place in the final scene of 2 Henry IV. In the Q1 text, which was almost certainly printed from Shakespeare’s manuscript, ‘the King, and his traine passe ouer the stage’ immediately before the arrival of Falstaff and his companions (K4r; 5.5.4), and return later (K4v; 5.5.40). But the F1 text, which is thought to have been printed from a literary transcript of a playhouse manuscript, does not make the procession enter until line 40. F1’s omission of the procession’s first entry probably reflects staging practice. Although neither the Q1 nor F1 stage direction for the arrival of the procession at line 40 contains the phrase ‘pass over the stage’, the newly crowned king and his train must have crossed the stage, making a great sweep. Unlike the judicial characters in Titus Andronicus, Hal stops in response to Falstaff’s welcome. But after denying and rejecting the old man he orders the procession to continue. This shows that Falstaff has lost all influence with Hal. The procession might still be visible when he vainly says to Shallow, ‘looke you, hee must seeme thus to the world’ / ‘Looke you, he must seeme thus to the world’ (Q1, L1r / F1, TLN 3289–90; 5.5.76–7). At the beginning of Women Beware Women, 4.3, the Lord Cardinal enters to prevent a wedding procession while it is proceeding: ‘Enter in great state the Duke and Brancha, richly attir’d, with Lords, Cardinals, Ladies, and other Attendants, they pass solemnly over: Enter L Cardinal in a rage, seeming to break off the Ceremony’ (Octavo, N4v). Although the procession stops during the dispute over the wedding, it marches away as if nothing had happened. Duke. I kiss thee for that spirit; thou hast prais’d thy wit A modest way: On, on there. Hoboys. L. Card. Lust is bold, And will have veng’ance speak, er’t be controld. Exeunt. (Octavo, N5v–N6r) Despite the scene-closing ‘Exeunt’, the procession would restart towards its exit door immediately after the Duke’s command ‘On, on there.’ As the remaining Cardinal comments on it, the procession’s resumption symbolizes the boldness of the lustful couple. There is one instance where despite the direction specifically indicating a passage over the stage, the movement is interrupted halfway and
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is not resumed. The opening stage direction of Julius Caesar reads: ‘Enter Flauius, Murellus, and certaine Commoners ouer the Stage’ (F1, TLN 2–3). Since Flavius stops the commoners by saying ‘Hence: home you idle Creatures, get you home’ (TLN 5; 1.1.1), the commoners must be walking across the stage. According to Marvin Spevack’s comment on this entry stage direction, ‘Although the persons are named, according to convention, in descending order of rank, it is obvious that the Commoners enter first.’16 It is also possible that the tribunes and the commoners enter by opposing doors.17 Judging from the fact that Julius Caesar F1 has entry stage directions specifically indicating the order of appearance,18 it is most likely that the tribunes enter first and take a front-stage position so that they may observe the commoners ‘enter over the stage’. The commoners might walk in a great curve to express their cheerfulness. In any event, after being questioned by the tribunes, the commoners ‘vanish tongue-tyed in their guiltinesse’ (TLN 70; 1.1.62). It may be that they are turned back and exit by the door through which they have entered. Even if they use the opposite door for their exit, they do not leave the same way as they entered. The depressive mood in which they finally sneak away contrasts sharply with the festive mood in which they entered. Richard III, 1.2 begins with a simple funeral procession: ‘Enter the Coarse of Henrie the sixt with Halberds to guard it, Lady Anne being the Mourner’ (F1, TLN 173–4). It is likely that the procession enters solemnly passing over the stage, although the curve it makes may be a modest one.19 Lady Anne stops the procession and laments the death of her father-in-law, cursing his murderer, Richard Gloucester. The moment she asks the bearers of the coffin to restart, Richard enters and prevents them from resuming their movement. When, after the intervening wooing episode, the coffin is finally carried away, Anne has already left the stage at Richard’s request. The mood in which the coffin is carried away would be different from the solemn way in which it was carried in. Richard’s great influence over Anne is symbolically shown by this interruption of solemnity. The opening scene of 1 Henry VI provides a similar example. The funeral procession of Henry V would enter from a flanking door and pass over the stage to the sombre music of a ‘Dead March’ (F1, TLN 2; 1.1.0) until it stops at front-stage. The unified laments of the attending lords turn to a note of discord. In response to Bedford’s speech, ‘Cease, cease these Iarres, & rest your minds in peace: / Let’s to the Altar: Heralds wayt on vs’ (TLN 53–4; 1.1.44–5), the funeral procession would begin to move towards the opposite door or the central opening.20 But
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before the lords begin to follow the hearse, messengers arrive one after another with news of successive disasters. The remaining lords, that is, Bedford, Gloucester, Exeter, and Winchester, do not make a joint exit, let alone a processional one; they depart separately and a few lines apart. This interrupted funeral procession prefigures the period of wars and disorders shown in the play.21 Another similar example is found in The Two Noble Kinsmen. The spectacular opening wedding procession is interrupted by the three queens in black, who would enter by the door opposite to the one used for the entrance of the procession. They plead with Theseus to help them to regain the corpses of their husbands from Creon. Although Theseus tries to continue the procession by saying ‘Forward to’th Temple’ (Q1, B3r; 1.1.130), the queens do not give up pleading. He finally accepts their request: Thes. Pray stand up. I am entreating of my selfe to doe That which you kneele to have me; Pyrithous Leade on the Bride; … since that our Theame is haste I stamp this kisse upon thy currant lippe, Sweete keepe it as my Token; Set you forward For I will see you gone. Exeunt towards the Temple. Farewell my beauteous Sister; Pyrithous Keepe the feast full, bate not an howre on’t. (B4r-v; 1.1.204–7, 214–19) It may be that the central opening represented the temple. Whether towards the opposite door or towards the central opening, the wedding procession moves forward at last, but without the bridegroom. In this way the play begins with a wedding broken for three funerals, and ends with a wedding cancelled because of the death of the bridegroom. There is a possibility that 1 Henry VI, 1.1 was not written by Shakespeare.22 On the other hand, act 1 of The Two Noble Kinsmen is likely to have been Shakespeare’s work.23 What is certain is that Shakespeare and his fellow playwrights knew that interaction between characters passing over the stage and those who try to stop them could bring about very meaningful effects, whether the movement continued, or was stopped and then resumed, or stopped never to be resumed.
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‘Passing over the Stage’ 101
8
1 It is almost certain that there were three openings in the tiring-house façade of most Elizabethan playhouses including Shakespeare’s Globe: that is, two flanking doors and an opening of some sort between them. Unfortunately, details of the design of the central opening are not known with any certainty. The central opening served as the discovery space which is required in Shakespearean and non-Shakespearean plays. Therefore its physical features and conditions must have been fit for ‘discoveries’. (1) Presumably, there was a recess behind it. (2) It could be covered with hangings. (3) It was larger than the other two openings in the frons scenae, and might be closed with double doors. (4) Most importantly, unlike the flanking doorways, it was a special entryway because of its central locality. In addition to ‘discoveries’, several other kinds of situation might have benefited from the use of this special entryway. My purpose here is to suggest some kinds of situation where characters might have made arrivals and departures through the central opening. The Quarto text of Thomas Nabbes’s Covent Garden is unique in that its entry and exit stage directions repeatedly specify ‘by the right Scoene’, ‘by the left Scoene’, ‘by the middle Scoene’, and ‘in/from the Balcone’. According to T.J. King, the 1632 performance of this play at the Phoenix was one of the first productions by an English professional acting company to use a stage façade as a representational setting.1 In the early play-texts, excepting Covent Garden Q1, there are relatively few entry and exit stage directions indicating or implying the use of the central opening, if we exclude special stage directions for discoveries, such as ‘Enter Faustus in his Study’ (Doctor Faustus QA, TLN 30, 436; 102
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The Central Opening
The Central Opening 103
Enter Ioculo in the midst singing. (The Maid’s Metamorphosis Q1, C3v) Enter in the middest, Pembrooke, Ferdinand, and Philip. (The Trial of Chivalry Q1, I4r) Enter seuerall wayes, Bastard, Alanson, Reignier, halfe ready, and halfe vnready. (1 Henry VI F1, TLN 720–2; 2.1.39) Enter three mayds, at severall doors. (The Woman’s Prize F1, 5O1v)3 Exeunt severally. (The Two Noble Kinsmen Q1, D1r; 1.5.16) Exeunt three wayes Ceres, Theseus, Philoctetes, and Hercules dragging Cerberus one way: Pluto, hels Iudges, the Fates and Furies downe to hell: Iupiter, the Gods and Planets ascend to heauen. (The Silver Age Q1, L1r) The example from The Two Noble Kinsmen is for the exit of the three queens who have entered with the hearses of their husbands. Since the dialogue also requires their departure in different directions, it is almost certain that the exit stage direction indicates their simultaneous use of the three openings of the tiring-house wall, rather than their successive departures from the same door. As for the example from The Silver Age, it is difficult to be certain that this exit stage direction really implies the use of the central opening, because in The Golden Age Heywood requires four actors to enter from different parts of the stage, in a way which almost certainly does not involve the central opening: ‘Enter at 4 seuerall corners the 4 winds’ (Q1, K2v). Timon of Athens has ‘Embrace and part seuerall wayes’ (F1, TLN 1579; 4.2.29), which indicates the exit of four or more servants. It may be that these servants depart from the flanking doors separately one after another without using the central opening, although there is no reason in principle why the
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QB, TLN 389, 569).2 The examples we have are mostly for triple or multiple entrances and exits, though there are a few that specifically indicate the use of the centre:
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2 Recessed places The following stage directions are taken from Shakespeare’s Globe plays: ‘Enter Timon from his Caue’ (Timon of Athens F1, TLN 2233; 5.1.29); ‘Enter Timon out of his Caue’ (Timon F1, TLN 2360; 5.2.15); ‘Enter Belarius, Guiderius, Aruiragus, and Imogen from the Caue’ (Cymbeline F1, TLN 2244-5; 4.2.0). It may be that ‘from his Caue’ / ‘out of his Caue’ are shortened forms for ‘as [if] from his Caue’ / ‘as [if] out of his Caue’ and that they are used to indicate some special manner or costume in which the characters should enter.5 However, it seems more likely that what they indicate is the location from which the enterers should appear. Clearly, the central opening would have most fittingly represented the entrance to a recessed place, such as a cave. The largest opening in the frons must have been a better choice of entry-point for such events than the only obvious alternative, the stage trap.6 After he has discarded human society, Timon might possibly make all his entrances and exits by the central opening. When a soldier seeks Timon in 5.4, the soldier would naturally direct his speech towards the central opening, and he might discover Timon’s tomb, possibly by drawing back the hangings. Although Timon, 5.4 is an outdoor scene, the use of the curtains seems possible.7 In King Lear, 3.4, the central opening may well represent the hovel of Poor Tom (‘Houell’/‘Houel’(F1, TLN 1715, 1726, 1733, 1955; 3.2.61, 71, 78, 3.4.163)), into which the Fool goes, and out of which he comes almost immediately.8 In The Tempest, 5.1, Prospero ‘discouers Ferdinand and Miranda, playing at Chesse’ (F1, TLN 2141–2; 5.1.173), saying, ‘This Cell’s my Court: … pray you looke in’ (TLN 2135–6; 5.1.168–9). Clearly, in this scene, the central opening serves as Prospero’s cell.9 Some time later, towards the end of the play, Prospero first tells Caliban to take Stefano and Trinculo to his cell (TLN 2288–9; 5.1.295–6), and then invites Alonso and his train there (TLN 2298–9; 5.1.304–5). We can be reasonably sure that the final exits of Caliban and his companions, Prospero’s guests and Ferdinand
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central doorway could not be used. 4 What the extant English Renaissance play-texts provide is a very limited amount of positive evidence for discussing the use of the central opening as an entryway. Therefore speculation and conjecture are unavoidable in this chapter.
and Miranda, and Prospero himself were all made through the central opening. As for Ariel’s final exit, since Prospero gives him his last task and bids him farewell (TLN 2316–18; 5.1.320–2), he would leave the stage through a different exit. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Titania falls asleep in 2.2 and awakes in 3.1. As Stanley Wells notes, it is not necessary for her to be visible to the audience all this time. He suggests the possibility that ‘on the Elizabethan stage she occupied a recess that could be curtained off at the end of Oberon’s spell, and that the curtain was drawn to reveal her during the first verse of Bottom’s song’.10 R.A. Foakes thinks it equally possible that Oberon left the stage without drawing the curtain and that Titania remained in full view of the audience, but unnoticed by the lovers or mechanicals.11 As he says, this might fit in with the play’s concern with illusion and theatricality, but, if Oberon closed the curtains, as he went off, another effective use of the central opening would have been possible. At the beginning of 3.1, when Quince suggests to his fellow mechanicals that they use the ‘hauthorne brake’ as their ‘tyring house’ (Q1, D1r; 3.1.4), he would point to one of the three openings of the tiring-house wall. Bottom’s retiring into the ‘brake’ is indicated by an exit stage direction in both Q1 (D2r; 3.1.81) and F1 (TLN 900; 3.1.81), though only the F1’s probably misplaced stage direction (TLN 927; 3.1.106) indicates his re-entrance. 12 No doubt he disappears from the stage at line 81 so that he can return with his ass head at line 97. The ‘brake’ may have been represented by the hangings concealing the central opening. The transformed Bottom’s re-entrance through the curtains would have been the most impressive way of exhibiting him in his new guise. Exiting behind the hangings Hiding behind the stage hangings is a stock action in Elizabethan plays. As some examples suggest, when an onstage character goes behind the hangings, his action may sometimes have been treated as an exit by Shakespeare and his colleagues. An example of this occurs towards the end of the first Eastcheap tavern scene in 1 Henry IV, at the point where Bardolph and the Hostess break in with the news that the sheriff and the watch are at the door searching for the Gadshill robbers. The F1 text, behind which appears to lie a copy of Q6(=Q5) annotated perhaps from a transcript of a playbook, adds an exit stage direction at the point where Falstaff should go behind the arras.
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106 Shakespearean Entrances
(TLN 1462–7; 2.5.506–11) Q2(=Q1), which appears to derive from a scribal transcript of authorial papers, supplies no exit here. The F1 exit direction, which probably derives from the playbook, seems to refer to Falstaff’s action. It is possible that the exit stage direction refers, however, not to Falstaff but to the other thieves. They, at least, do depart: Falstaff, strictly speaking, does not, because he remains behind the arras. But the use of ‘Exit’, rather than ‘Exeunt’, suggests that it is a single person, Falstaff, who is referred to. The matter remains ambiguous. The following example is perhaps more revealing: Enter Queene and Corambis. Cor. Madame, I heare yong Hamlet comming, I’le shrowde my selfe behinde the Arras. Queene Do so my Lord.
exit Cor.
(Hamlet Q1, G2r; 3.4) In this example what the exit stage direction indicates is clearly Corambis’s action of going behind the arras. Neither the Q2 nor F1 text of Hamlet provides any stage direction for Polonius’s hiding in this scene. Whether the Q1 text was derived from performance or not, it is certain that the writer of the Q1 exit direction regarded Polonius’s (Corambis’s) action as an exit. In act 2 of Philaster, a King’s Men play by Beaumont and Fletcher, Gallatea hides to eavesdrop on the conversation between Pharamond and Megra, and later reappears. The Q2 text of this play gives the following exit and entry stage directions for her actions: ‘Exit Gall behind the hangings’ (D2v [sig. D2 is misprinted as D3]); ‘Enter Gallatea from behind the hangings’ (D3v).13 In The Noble Gentleman, another play written by Fletcher for the King’s Men, an exit stage direction (Exeunt) is given after Madam Marine’s speech, ‘Wee’le stand behind the Arras and hear all’ (3.4.92). In King John, 4.1, the executioners are told to ‘stand / Within the Arras’ (F1, TLN 1571–2; 4.1.1–2) and they are later ordered to ‘Come forth’ (TLN 1648; 4.1.71) from there. Although the F1 text does not provide any stage directions for their actions, Capell’s ‘Exeunt’
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Prince. Goe hide thee behinde the Arras, the rest walk vp aboue. Now my Masters, for a true Face and good Conscience. Falst. Both which I haue had: but their date is out, and therefore Ile hide me. Exit. Prince. Call in the Sherife.
and ‘Re-enter’ are adopted by some modern editors.14 However, it is not obvious whether these editors think of the use of the central opening or one of the flanking doors. These examples raise the important question whether the three doorways were all routinely curtained off, or whether the flanking doors were normally free of curtaining. It seems reasonable to assume that in those scenes where an onstage character hides behind the arras in order to avoid meeting someone entering from one of the flanking doors, only the central opening was covered with hangings and neither the door used by the enterer nor the one opposite was curtained off. It is, therefore, most likely that in these and similar scenes the ‘exiters’ go behind the curtain concealing the central doorway.15 Hamlet, 3.1 and 3.4 involve examples of eavesdropping. If hiding behind the arras could be treated as an exit, we should reconsider these scenes. Pol. I heare him comming, let’s withdraw my Lord. Exeunt. Enter Hamlet. Ham. To be, or not to be, that is the Question: Whether ’tis Nobler in the minde to suffer The Slings and Arrowes of outragious Fortune, Or to take Armes against a Sea of troubles, And by opposing end them: … (F1, TLN 1707–14; 3.1.57–62)16 Here the F1 text provides an exit stage direction for the King and Polonius. However, Polonius’s plan was that the King and he hide ‘behinde an Arras’ (TLN 1197; 2.2.164) and eavesdrop on Hamlet’s conversation with Ophelia. They might therefore ‘exit behind the arras’, instead of departing through a side door.17 Either way, they are absent from the stage during Hamlet’s conversation with Ophelia, but the two ways of exiting differ in the extent to which the audience is conscious of the presence of the eavesdroppers. If they hide behind the arras, the suspense that the audience experiences during the dialogue between Hamlet and Ophelia becomes much keener, especially when Hamlet abruptly asks Ophelia, ‘Where’s your Father?’ (TLN 1785; 3.1.132), and adds the savage comment, ‘Those that are married already, all but one shall liue’ (TLN 1803–4; 3.1.150–1). The most notorious example in all Shakespeare of hiding behind an arras is, of course, the occasion in 3.4 which leads to Polonius’s death. If this is indeed the second time of his ‘exiting behind the arras’, Hamlet’s violent action becomes that much more understandable.
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Gates In the earlier Elizabethan plays, siege scenes where defenders appear above on the ‘walls’ to parley with besiegers standing below before the ‘gates’ are common.18 Although it is not certain whether the ‘gates’ were always represented by the central opening, clearly the use of the largest doorway would have brought about some effect that could not have been expected from the use of a flanking door.19 Edmond Ironside, a surviving manuscript playbook, has one such scene (TLN 862–964). At the scene’s opening, Canutus enters with his army and commands the herald-at-arms to go to ‘the Cytie gates’ (TLN 866). ‘The Herrold departeth from the kinge to the walls soundinge his trumpit’ (TLN 872–3), and ‘The Balifes appeare aboue’ (TLN 873). The bailiffs resolutely refuse to let the Danes enter the city. When at the end of the scene Edmond arrives with his soldiers and ‘drives Canutus offe the stage’ (TLN 962–3), he and his army would exit from the door opposite the one by which they have entered. Their use of both flanking doors suggests that the city gates should be represented by the central opening. Although the playhouse at which this play was first performed is unknown, the author seems to have assumed the existence of three doorways in the tiring-house façade. Shakespeare uses several siege scenes.20 King John, 2.1 takes place before the gates of Angiers. The Kings of France and England separately demand that the gates be open to them, but neither is admitted. The two opposing groups, that is, the French–Austrian and the English armies, exit from different doors, and after excursions, they enter again from different doors (‘Enter the two Kings with their powers, at seuerall doores’ (F1, TLN 646–7; 2.1.333)). Their ways of entering and exiting suggest that the central opening was used as the city gates. The two kings accept the citizen’s suggestion about the conjunction between the Dauphin and Lady Blanche so that they can be admitted to the city. When the two armies finally march off through the gates, after making their entrances and exits by different side doors, this joint departure through the central opening would become the symbol of the peace now established between England and France, though the Bastard’s delayed exit reveals the fragile quality of the truce. Evidently, the highlight of a siege scene is the moment when the besieged characters descend from the ‘walls’ and open the ‘gates’ to the besiegers. The defenders’ descent from the upper playing level and their appearance through the finally opened central doorway symbolically express their formal, unconditional surrender. By contrast, the besiegers when they march in through the wide open central doorway
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are visibly showing their triumph. In the Flint Castle scene of Richard II, Richard comes down to the ‘base court’ ( Q1, G2r; 3.3.175, 179, 181). There is no mention of gates in this scene. Whether Richard appears on the stage below the balcony from the central opening or from a flanking door is a decisive factor in the visual effect of his descent.21 In Elizabethan playhouses, there were no external stairs between the upper playing level and the main stage, and so only the beginning and completion of the descent were visible. Using the central opening for Richard’s arrival on stage would give an exact symbolic form to Richard’s downfall and surrender.22 When in Henry V Henry besieges Harfleur, the F1 stage direction reads: ‘Enter the King and all his Traine before the Gates’ (TLN 1259; 3.3.83).23 They would have entered through a flanking door and occupied the centre of the stage, facing the central opening representing the town gates. Although the Chorus repeatedly refers to the poor condition of the English army and requests the audience to use their imagination, the army is, at this point, intended to look as powerful as possible. Presenting the English army on stage would have used all the available players. The F1 stage direction for the scene-closing exit reads: ‘Flourish, and enter the Towne’ (TLN 1319). When the central doorway finally opened and they marched off through it, the King and his army would have looked much more powerful than when they had entered from a flanking door.24 Spectacular events It appears that a cave and the like were more often than not represented by the central opening. It is therefore noteworthy that some masques and shows in the plays involve a cave or something similar. These are such cases: Dumb shew. A caue suddenly breakes open, and out of it comes Falshood, (attir’d as Truth is) her face spotted, shee stickes vp her banner on the top of the Caue; … (Dekker, The Whore of Babylon, 4.1.0) Enter Eolus out of a Rock. (The Maid’s Tragedy Q1, C2r)25 George Peele’s The Battle of Alcazar, which may possibly have been performed on the early Rose stage, is represented by both its printed text and its theatrical ‘plot’. If, as David Bradley concludes, the Quarto text
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represents with reasonable accuracy the copy as it left Peele’s hands,26 it can be inferred from a comparison between the Q text and the plot that it was the book-keeper who decided that the three Furies should lie ‘behind the Curtaines’ in the dumb show presented during the second chorus. The book-keeper’s decision of the location must have been related to the Presenter’s description of the Furies in the Q text: ‘they lie, / In caue as darke as hell, and beds of steele’ (TLN 324–5). In the plot, their properties are mentioned not only in the text but also in the margin: ‘one wth a whipp: a nother wth a lody tor: & the 3d wth a Chopkni’; ‘a whippe brand & Chopping knife’. These instructions correspond to the Presenter’s speech: ‘Alecto with her brand and bloudie torch, / Megaera with her whip and snakie haire, / Tisiphone with her fatall murthering yron’ (Q, TLN 334–6). Since the book-keeper arranged for their properties, it is fairly certain that the three Furies actually showed their fearful appearances from behind the hangings. Where the entrance or exit itself is meant to be spectacular, the case for the use of the central opening is a strong one.27 Macbeth has ‘A shew of eight Kings, and Banquo last, with a glasse in his hand’ (F1, TLN 1657–8; 4.1.127). It is likely that the show of kings entered through the central opening, marched round, and then departed by the centre, though it is also possible that the show crossed the stage from one flanking door to the other. In Henry VIII, 4.2, spirits appear in Queen Katherine’s vision: ‘Enter solemnely tripping one after another, sixe Personages, clad in white Robes, wearing on their heades Garlands of Bayes, and golden Vizards on their faces, Branches of Bayes or Palme in their hands. They first Conge vnto her, then Dance …’ (F1, TLN 2643–7; 4.2.82). The dance is a kind of masque. These spirits would have used the central opening for their entrance and exit. In the final scene of As You Like It, Hymen enters with Rosalind and Celia. The god presents Rosalind to Duke Senior, saying, ‘Good Duke receiue thy daughter, / Hymen from Heauen brought her, …’ (F1, TLN 2686–7; 5.4.109–10). Although the Globe may have been furnished with a descent machine from the start, Shakespeare did not make this god fly.28 Since Rosalind has previously said that she is a ‘Magitian’ (TLN 2479; 5.2.68), possibly the audience should understand that a lord is playing Hymen at Rosalind’s request. The text itself provides nothing to suggest that Hymen is anything other than a god.29 From either view point it is unlikely that such a magical figure would make an entrance from one of the flanking doors. The central opening is more appropriate for this special entrance made by the god of marriage accompanied by the two brides.30
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Antonio’s Revenge Q1 has the stage direction reading ‘Maria draweth the courtaine: and the ghost of Andrugio is displayed, sitting on the bed’ (TLN 1280–1). Whether the curtain is a bed curtain or a stage curtain depends on whether the bed was pushed out onto the main stage or merely ‘discovered’.31 This example seems to suggest the possibility that ghosts as well as deities sometimes entered through the stage hangings.32 The relationship between Antonio’s Revenge and Hamlet has been much discussed. Marston’s indebtedness to Shakespeare seems possible, although there is another possibility that he imitated Ur-Hamlet, not Shakespeare’s Hamlet.33 In Hamlet, 3.4, the ghost of Hamlet’s father makes his last appearance. Describing his exit, Hamlet says: ‘Looke where he goes euen now out at the Portall’ (F1, TLN 2519; 3.4.127). Since the word ‘Portall’ means a grand doorway, larger than the ordinary side doors, this word may imply the Ghost’s use of the central opening. In this scene, as Q1 reports, the Ghost appeared ‘in his night gowne’ (G2v). His affectionate attitude to Gertrude indirectly confirms her innocence. In addition to his domestic costume, his arrival and departure by the entryway which can be associated with Gertrude’s bedchamber would have emphasized his intimacy with her. The central opening seems most appropriate in this scene for the entrance and exit of the Ghost who was once a loving husband.34 Choruses are different from other characters in that they speak from outside the play.35 They generally appear on the stage at the opening of the play, between acts, and at the end of the play. These figures might also use the central opening for their entrances and exits, unless there is a particular reason why they cannot use it.36 For example, in scenes 18 and 22 of Pericles, the curtained space might represent the monument of Marina and the temple of Diana, and so Gower might not use it for his entrances and exits in these scenes. As discussed below, in the finale of Henry V, if the central opening is used for the general exit, the Chorus would enter from a side door in order to speak the Epilogue. (In this case, a small pause would permit the Chorus to use the central opening. However, I think it more likely that the closing exit of the play and the Epilogue’s entrance are made from different doors.) 37 Apart from these entrances and exits, it seems at least possible that all other entrances and exits of Shakespearean choric figures are made through the central opening. In the Prologue to Romeo and Juliet, the Chorus delivers a conventional, formal speech which is written in the form of a sonnet. After his departure, the characters belonging to the ‘Two households both alike in dignitie’ (Q2, A2r; Prologue 1) enter successively from opposing side doors. In the
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choruses of scenes 5, 10 and 18 of Pericles, Gower introduces and explains dumb shows, in which two groups of characters make a split entrance, make gestures, and make a split exit.38 In The Winter’s Tale, 4.1, Time, the Chorus, presumably a bald old man with wings and an hour glass,39 enters to bridge the 16-year gap between the tragic and comic halves of the play. It is particularly tempting to speculate that these figures use the central opening for their entrances and exits. Such entrances and exits would contribute to the formality and symmetry of these scenes. (However, as mentioned above, in scene 18 of Pericles, how Marina’s tomb is revealed is an important factor.) At the end of Twelfth Night, Feste remains on the stage to act as an Epilogue by singing a song. He, as the clown, would very likely use the central opening for his exit.40 Royal processions Since the centre is easily associated with authority and formality, it would seem appropriate for certain royal processions to be made from the central opening.41 This does not apply to processions passing over the stage, such as the processional pomp in Julius Caesar, 1.2 and the coronation procession in Henry VIII, 4.1. Likely examples are royal entries in scenes which would require the chair of state, such as Richard II, 1.1 and 1.3, Hamlet, 1.2, and King Lear, 1.1. In these scenes, the kings are likely to make their ceremonial entrances through the central opening and take their royal chairs. The spectacular entrances they make are a manifestation of their power and authority, which Richard and Lear are to lose shortly,42 and which Claudius has recently acquired because of the death of the king whose ghost appeared in the previous scene. Some histories and most tragedies end with funeral processions. These processions might also have made their exits through the central opening. If, for example, Richard II’s coffin and the dead bodies of Hamlet and Lear are carried away through the central opening, Richard and Lear would symbolically reacquire, by this act, the royal status which they had earlier lost, and in Hamlet’s case it would be visual confirmation of Fortinbras’s words that ‘had he beene put on / [he would] haue prou’d most royally’ (Hamlet F1, TLN 3897–8; 5.2.351–2). The Q2 and F1 texts of Hamlet differ about the number of the bodies Fortinbras orders his soldiers to carry away at the end of the play: ‘Take vp the bodies’ (Q2, O2r [sig. O2 is misprinted as G2]); ‘Take vp the body’ (F1, TLN 3902; 5.2.355). The difference may possibly imply that, for practical reasons, Shakespeare finally ought to have expected the
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dead bodies of Claudius, Gertrude and Laertes to stand up and leave the stage after the end of the play. When the dead body of Hamlet was treated with regal dignity, the contrast of leaving the dead body of Claudius on the stage would have been even more effective. In The Tempest, after the opening storm scene, Prospero makes his first appearance with Miranda. To judge from the fact that he later tells her to ‘Lend [her] hand / And plucke [his] Magick garment from [him]’ (F1, TLN 109–10; 1.2.23–4), he enters in his magic cloak, and presumably with a magic staff. The central opening, rather than one of the flanking doors, may be appropriate for the entrance which the ruler of the island first makes just after he has used his magic. However, later in the same scene, when Prospero calls Caliban, from which entryway does the servant make his first appearance? Pro. … What hoa: slaue: Caliban: Thou Earth, thou: speake. Cal. within. There’s wood enough within. Pro. Come forth I say, there’s other business for thee: Come thou Tortoys, when? Enter Ariel like a water-Nymph. Fine apparision: my queint Ariel, Harke in thine eare. Ar. My Lord, it shall be done. Exit. Pro. Thou poysonous slaue, got by ye diuell himselfe Vpon thy wicked Dam; come forth. Enter Caliban. Cal. As wicked dewe, as ere my mother brush’d With Rauens feather from vnwholesome Fen Drop on you both: A Southwest blow on yee, And blister you all ore. (TLN 449–62; 1.2.316–27) Caliban enters either just after Ariel exits from one of the side doors or while he is going to that door. If Caliban appears from the opposite side door, the visual contrast between the airy spirit and the earthy monster would be symmetrically intensified. However, Caliban’s complaint about being kept ‘In this hard Rocke’ (TLN 482; 1.2.346) seems to suggest the entry-point which is fitter to represent a recessed place, that is, either the central opening43 or the trap. Which one he uses is a crucial question. One is associated with authority, whereas the other is associated with the underworld. Interestingly, Caliban is entitled to use both entryways. The question, then, is which interpretation of Caliban – the rightful owner of the island or a bastard by the devil – is empha-
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sized by his entrance. The central opening seems likelier than the trap, because Caliban speaks within before his entrance. John H. Astington, however, argues that ‘within’ did not always mean ‘within the tiringhouse’ and that Caliban’s first entrance would have been made through the trap.44 As he says, some stage directions suggest that ‘within’ could refer to anywhere behind the tiring-house façade, whether at the stage level or at the upper level: for example, ‘Enter Talbot and Burgonie without: within, Pucell, Charles, Bastard, and Reigneir on the Walls’ (1 Henry VI F1, TLN 1471–2; 3.5.0); ‘Fedele and Pedante speake out at a windowe within’ (Fedele and Fortunio, TLN 1622–3). But there is no evidence showing that the term could be used for the space beneath the stage. It would be more reasonable to think that Caliban makes his first appearance through the central opening. His use of the central doorway would suggest the validity of his claim to the island and, therefore, the ambiguity of Prospero’s authority. The entryways that Prospero and Caliban use for their first appearances contribute to the establishment of their status and character and hence, by extension, to our interpretation of the play as a whole. Harmonious closures Most comedies and some history plays end with the joint departure of the two groups of characters who have achieved a harmonious relationship. Because of its centrality, the central opening would be appropriate for such happy endings. My final suggestion is that, whether regal or not, the general exits at the ends of these plays were made through the central opening. The last scene of Henry V begins with a split entrance: ‘Enter at one doore, King Henry, Exeter, Bedford, Warwicke, and other Lords. At another, Queene Isabel, the King, the Duke of Bourgongne, and other French’ (F1, TLN 2984–7; 5.2.0). In this scene, Henry’s conquest of France and the peace between England and France are established through the marriage contract between Henry and Katherine. It seems almost certain that the central opening was then used for the final general exit as a signal of the harmony achieved. Similarly, Edmond Ironside, which has the subtitle ‘War Hath Made All Friends’, ends with Edmond and Canutus’s joint departure with their ~ lords: ‘They goe hande in hand out off th<> <> Edricus leadeinge the Drume’ (TLN 2062–3). Although Edricus’s closing speech is ominous, the English and the Danes would celebrate the harmonious ending by using the central opening. As mentioned in Chapter 6, The Comedy of Errors is exceptional among Shakespeare’s plays in that it seems to make use of the conven-
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tionalized arcade setting of academic drama. In his discussion of the staging for the 1594 performance at Gray’s Inn, T.S. Dorsch suggests that the Priory was in the centre between the Phoenix and the Porpentine.45 Although the entrance to the Priory is used only in the last act, I entirely agree with his view about the centrality of the Priory. Because the Abbess invites to her Priory all the characters who have been involved in a series of errors, and their joint exit to the Priory provides a form for the happy ending of this play, the Priory is the most important of the three houses. Assuming that this play was performed in a public playhouse, it is not certain whether the three houses might have been represented by the same doors throughout the performance. What seems certain is that when the Abbess invites the other onstage characters to her Priory, she would have identified the central opening as its gates. No doubt the joint departures of the two pairs of identical twin brothers form an ideal happy ending. In particular, it is most desirable that the Dromios should be visible until they complete their exit. S.Dro. Wee’l draw Cuts for the Signior, till then, lead thou first. E.Dro. Nay then thus: We came into the world like brother and brother: And now let’s go hand in hand, not one before another. Exeunt. (F1, TLN 1914–19; 5.1.426–30) At this point, for both practical and symbolic reasons, the central opening would have been most appropriate. Similarly, in the finale of The Merchant of Venice, when Portia suggests going into her house to the other onstage characters, she would lead them to the central opening. As in the finales of The Two Gentlemen of Verona and The Merry Wives of Windsor, even where the general exit is made as a return journey, the central opening might be used for the exit. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream, after the newly married couples depart to consummate their marriages, fairies enter to make the finale spectacular. It is likely that the lovers, or at least Theseus and Hippolyta, used the central opening for their exit. Puck, the forerunner, would then enter from one of the side doors, and Oberon and Titania and their train would enter from the same door. Oberon and Titania would exit from the central opening, because they intend to bless the bed of Theseus and Hippolyta. The division
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between Oberon and Titania shown initially by their split entrance would surely require their final exit together through the central opening. One cannot be certain whether other fairies follow their king and queen, or depart separately from the side doors. This might depend on whether the young couples made their exit through the central doorway, following Theseus and Oberon. In any event, Puck would use the central opening for his exit after delivering the Epilogue. These are harmonious, unified closures. By contrast, at the end of Love’s Labour’s Lost, where ‘Iacke hath not Gill’ (Q1, K1v; 5.2.862), the king and three lords of Navarre and the queen and three ladies of France would probably exit by opposing doors, each group followed by either the characters who have sung the song of spring or those who have sung the song of winter. Another possibility is that since the king and three lords have offered to escort the queen and three ladies on their way home (K1v; 5.2.860), these four pairs of lovers might exit together through the central opening, while the characters of spring and winter exit separately through the side doors.46 I have already mentioned the strong likelihood that the central opening is used for the general exit at the end of The Tempest, 5.1. This is mainly because the central opening would most fittingly represent the entrance to Prospero’s cell, but also because the centre would be appropriate for an exit signifying reunion and reconciliation. However, despite the F1 stage direction ‘Exeunt omnes’ (TLN 2319; 5.1.322), Prospero might not take part in the general harmonization. Saying to the royal party, ‘please you draw neere’ (TLN 2318; 5.1.322), he would probably begin to lead them off, but might interrupt his move and remain on stage for the Epilogue.47 As mentioned above and as discussed more fully in the next chapter, just before the court party exits through the central opening, Ariel departs from a different exit. Caliban was dismissed some twenty lines earlier. The harmony expressed through the final general exit of The Tempest does not seem perfect.48 Although there are variants such as these, it is still very likely that, except for the cases where the central opening cannot be used, at the ends of comedies characters usually made their exits through the harmonious central space.49
3 I have suggested several tactics that the physical features and conditions of the central opening would have encouraged Elizabethan playwrights and players to use. (1) The central opening would appro-
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priately have represented the entrance to a recessed place such as a cave or a cell. (2) The action of hiding behind the stage hangings could have been regarded as an exit. This form of exit would have contributed to the suspense of the scene. (3) The largest doorway would have served as the gates of a fortress. (4) The central opening would have been effectively used for spectacular entrances and exits. It might occasionally have been used by special figures, such as supernatural beings and Choruses. (5) The centre, which was associated with authority, would have been most appropriate for royal processions. (6) The harmonious centre would have served a symbolic function at the ends of romantic comedies. I must admit that there are very few instances where we can claim with total confidence that the central opening was used for an entrance or exit. In the above-mentioned instances, it is not absolutely necessary for any entrance or exit to be made through the central opening. If we took a minimalist attitude, we should have to abandon these speculations as unproven. However, since the central opening was available as a third entryway, it seems reasonable to speculate that it would have been used for special entrances and exits.
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9
1 As a way of estimating the time allowed for exits, and as a means of identifying the overlapping of exits and entrances at scene-breaks, I have examined all the entrances and exits in Shakespeare’s plays. In some cases, however, whether the entrances and exits really do occur or not is almost impossible to establish. I have coped with this problem by including the likely and the less likely instances in the discussions. A more serious problem is that, in many cases, it is extremely difficult to determine the precise timing of the entrances and exits. Quite often I have had to make a choice between the different possibilities on the basis of my own inferred principles, while admitting that each of these possibilities not only makes sense but is also attractive in its own way. Making these choices made me more aware of how important the timing of entrances and exits is. Hamlet, 3.2 offers one such example. I quote from the Q2 text:
Ham. O good Horatio, Ile take the Ghosts word for a thousand pound. Did’st perceiue? Hora. Very well my Lord. Ham. Vpon the talke of the poysning. Hor. I did very well note him. Ham. Ah ha, come some musique, come the Recorders, For if the King like not the Comedie, Why then belike he likes it not perdy. Come, some musique. Enter Rosencraus and Guyldensterne. 118
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Guyl. Good my Lord, voutsafe me a word with you.
The Q2 text, which is agreed to have been printed from an authorial manuscript, places the entry stage direction for Rosencrantz and Guildenstern just before their first speech. On the other hand, the F1 text, which appears to derive from a transcript of a theatrical manuscript, places the same entry stage direction four lines earlier. In this passage, the two texts provide substantially the same dialogue. F1’s placing of the entry direction is therefore likely to reflect the bookkeeper’s work, rather than possible authorial revision. The bookkeeper’s intention must have been to make Rosencrantz and Guildenstern enter at the moment indicated by the F1 stage direction so that they might join Hamlet by the moment indicated by the Q2 stage direction. But this timing of their arrival may not necessarily have been what Shakespeare had originally intended. Suppose that in the manuscript Q2 was printed from, Shakespeare used the entry direction to indicate the moment when Rosencrantz and Guildenstern should enter through a stage door. In that case, what Hamlet means by speaking the preceding four-line speech would have nothing to do with their entrance. The dialogue would indicate that Hamlet is so glad of Horatio’s endorsement of the Ghost’s words that he calls for music and parodies lines from The Spanish Tragedy.1 Just 20 lines before, when the play was interrupted, and the panic-stricken King and other characters went out, Hamlet first used a four-line stanza, possibly from a popular song or ballad, as his comment on the exiting King: ‘Why let the strooken Deere goe weepe, / The Hart vngauled play, / For some must watch while some must sleepe, / Thus runnes the world away’ (H3r; 3.2.259–62). Then he cheerfully delivered another four-line stanza beginning with ‘For thou doost know oh Damon deere’ (H3r; 3.2.269), probably alluding to the story of Damon and Pythias. So this might well be the third instance when he quotes familiar lines as an expression of the great satisfaction he has got from the success of The Mousetrap. The four lines in question, conveying his great excitement, would serve quite well as the conclusion to the dialogue between Hamlet and Horatio, and therefore to the Mousetrap episode. I think that this is an acceptable interpretation of what the Q2 dialogue offers, though it does not entirely explain why Hamlet utters the interjection ‘Ah ha’.2 On the other hand, in the F1 version, Hamlet deliberately ignores the arrival of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern.3 In
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(H3r-v; 3.2.274–84)
this version, Hamlet clearly shows a challenging attitude towards the King’s spies by parodying the lines from The Spanish Tragedy and inventing the couplet about the King’s dislike of the play. Although Hamlet’s speech is substantially the same in both versions, the alteration of the timing of the entrance of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern changes his meaning quite markedly. For another example take Gloucester’s blind exit in King Lear Q1: Glost. O my follies, then Edgar was abus’d, Kinde Gods forgiue me that, and prosper him. Reg. Goe thrust him out at gates, and let him smell his way to Douer, how ist my Lord? how looke you? Corn. I haue receiu’d a hurt, follow me Ladie, Turne out that eyles villaine, throw this slaue vpon The dungell Regan, I bleed apace, vntimely Comes this hurt, giue me your arme. Exit. Seruant. Ile neuer care what wickednes I doe, If this man come to good. 2 Seruant. If she liue long, & in the end meet the old course of death, women will all turne monsters. 1 Ser. Lets follow the old Earle, and get the bedlom To lead him where he would, his rogish madnes Allows it selfe to any thing. 2 Ser. Goe thou, ile fetch some flaxe and whites of egges to apply to his bleeding face, now heauen helpe him. Exit. (H2r; Sc.14.89–105) The Q1 text, which appears to derive from Shakespeare’s draft, gives no stage direction for Gloucester’s exit. On the other hand, the F1 text, which is thought to have been printed from a copy of Q1 or Q2 annotated against some kind of playhouse manuscript, adds an exit direction for a servant and Gloucester immediately after Regan’s command. Since the F1 dialogue around the stage direction is substantially the same as the Q1 version, it may be most reasonable to suppose that both versions have the same action: one of the onstage servants does the task of mutely unbinding Gloucester and leading him away in response to Regan’s command. However, the dialogue of the remaining servants is given only in the Q1 version. F1’s placing of Gloucester’s exit may be connected with its omission of the dialogue. For practical reasons, the delay of Gloucester’s exit might well have been avoided
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towards the end of the scene in the F1 version, especially if an actinterval was inserted into the later version of the play after the departure of Cornwall, Regan, and others.4 It may be that, in the Q1 version, when Cornwall repeats Regan’s command two lines later, the servant is still untying Gloucester. It is also possible that the servants are so shocked and intimidated by what they have seen that none of them can even begin to unbind Gloucester until Cornwall gives the same order a second time.5 Although in the Q1 version we cannot be sure at which moment the servant and Gloucester should begin to depart,6 the servant’s delay in obeying Regan’s command would emphasize the inhumanity of Regan and Cornwall. It may be that the Q1 version was designed to give Cornwall’s servants three kinds of critical attitude towards their master and mistress – that is, opposition to Cornwall’s attempt to put out the other eye of Gloucester, delay in obeying Regan’s command, and comment on the moral degeneracy of Cornwall and Regan. These critical attitudes, based on their sympathy for Gloucester, emphasize the beastliness of Regan and Cornwall and also provide some relief within the scene. Whether Gloucester and the servant begin to depart just after Regan’s command or, alternatively, do not begin to move until after Cornwall’s command, is not a trivial question. The effect of the one form of their exiting is quite different from the other form. Since Regan and Cornwall misuse and maim Gloucester as a substitute for Lear, the agony which Gloucester suffers is a part of Lear’s tragedy. Whether the F1 text represents Shakespeare’s own revision of the play as it appears in Q1 is not certain. But the F1 version certainly makes this portion of the play much darker by cutting the servants’ remarks about the inhumanity of their master and mistress and their good wishes for Gloucester.7 This instance, like the one from Hamlet, shows how the timing of entrances and exits can influence the larger theatrical significance of the entrances and exits themselves and the meanings of the speeches around them.
2 Elizabethan play-texts supply a fair number of examples of what might be called duplicated stage directions, and these are more often than not treated as errors or carelessness. The F1 text of A Midsummer Night’s Dream contains some such examples. It is widely accepted that F1 was printed from an exemplar of Q2 annotated from a theatre playbook and that Q2 is a reprint edition of Q1, behind which lies authorial papers. One example of apparent carelessness occurs in 3.1, where F1
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adds ‘Enter Pucke’ at TLN 865 (3.1.49), but also retains Q2’s ‘Enter Robin’ at TLN 888 (3.1.70). A second example is in 4.1, where F1 provides a similar double entrance for Oberon: ‘Enter Queene of Fairies, and Clowne, and Fairies, and the King behinde them’ (TLN 1509–10; 4.1.0); ‘Enter Robin goodfellow and Oberon’ (TLN 1560; 4.1.44). In this example, F1 retains Q2’s earlier entry for Oberon, and yet also gives him a later entry. It is usually assumed that the added F1 entrances derive from the playhouse manuscript and that F1’s retention both of Q2’s later entry for Robin and of the earlier entry for Oberon are passive errors in the transmission process on the part of either the collator or compositor.8 But it is also possible that both double entrances are in fact correct. It could well be that in 3.1 Robin enters at the earlier point and that, regardless of his invisibility to humans, of which the audience has already been made aware, he chooses not to approach the mechanicals immediately but to watch them from near the frons or from a side position. Eventually he moves forward, at the point indicated by the retained Q2 entry direction, to take part in their rehearsal. In 4.1, Oberon might well make a similar movement, that is to say, enter unobserved at the scene’s opening and note from a distance the behaviour of Titania and Bottom until they sleep and Robin arrives at line 44. In short, so far from being errors, both sets of double entrances may be entirely correct, the first one indicating the arrival of each character and the second indicating his action in coming forward.9 The surviving manuscript of Sir Thomas More offers another example of double entry. Annotating Hand D’s work in Addition II (fols. 8a–9a; ascribed to Shakespeare), Hand C (a professional theatre scribe) gave a sergeant-of-arms a scene-opening entry with John Lincoln and other commons: ‘Enter Lincoln. Doll. Clown. Giorgio betts williamson others And A sergaunt at armes’ (at the bottom of fol. 7b; Addition II, lines 121–2), and also wrote ‘Enter’ immediately before the sergeant’s first speech (line 139). Peter W.M. Blayney argues that the absence of an opening entry direction at the top of fol. 8a shows that this was not the beginning of a scene. He has postulated the existence of a now lost fol. Z, also in Hand D, which preceded fol. 8a. Hand C, Blayney speculates, tore out fol. Z and provided a substitute scene-opening stage direction at the foot of fol. 7b, ‘Enter Lincoln. Doll. Clown. Giorgio betts williamson others’; he then added ‘Enter’ before the speech prefix ‘Seriant’; but he thought it inadequate and returned to the bottom of fol. 7b to add a second line, ‘And A sergaunt at armes’.10 Giorgio Melchiori, on the other hand, suggests that the changes and additions made by C in D’s revision were not based on C’s knowledge of the original version of the
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same scene. He argues that Munday’s original scene-opening entry direction included the names of More, Palmer, Cholmeley, and the sergeant-of-armes, and that D did not bother to copy the same direction in his work, but that because the original version was not available to C, he misinterpreted D’s intention.11 Both Blayney and Melchiori use the duplication of the entry direction for the sergeant as part of the evidence showing C’s uncertainty or confusion. It is true that the work made by C in D’s revision was far from perfect: he failed to add the names of such important entering characters as More, Palmer, and Cholmeley, whether they should enter at the beginning of the scene or later with the Lord Mayor, Surrey, and Shrewsbury. The duplication of the entry for the sergeant, however, can be treated as a parallel case to the examples from A Midsummer Night’s Dream F1. ‘And A sergaunt at armes’, written after the names of the other entering characters at the bottom of fol. 7b, may not have been an afterthought. The way in which the entering characters are listed in the opening direction may suggest the sergeant’s delayed entrance and his aloof position from the rest. The stage action that Hand C visualized as he wrote the opening entry direction might have been as follows: first the commons enter; then, while they are walking towards the front part of the stage, the sergeant arrives and keeps his distance from them. If this was the case, C would have marked the second entry for the sergeant to indicate that he should come forward and confront the rabble. The way the sergeant enters following the commons and the way he observes them from a distant position would have made the audience anticipate the commons’ submission to authority from the start.12 The existence of entry stage directions for characters possibly already onstage has an important implication about the Elizabethan concept of the stage, to which we shall return later. As suggested in the previous chapter, in King Lear, 3.4, the central opening may well represent the hovel of Poor Tom, into which the Fool goes, and out of which he almost immediately emerges. When the Fool re-enters at line 36, according to the F1 text, Edgar enters with him (‘Enter Edgar, and Foole’ (TLN 1818)), although Kent subsequently bids Edgar to ‘Come forth’ at line 43 (TLN 1826). F1 gives Edgar one line to be spoken immediately after his entrance: ‘Fathom, and halfe, Fathom and halfe; poore Tom’ (TLN 1819; 3.4.37). In Q1, on the other hand, the entry stage direction for the Fool and Edgar is omitted, and Edgar does not speak until he is told to ‘come forth’ (G1v; Sc.11.39). It may be that, at least in the F1 version, Edgar was revealed when the Fool reappears, but that he did not come out of the discovery space
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until after line 43. In other words, he made an incomplete entrance first, and then made a move to complete it. The opening stage direction of Julius Caesar, 3.3, ‘Enter Cinna the Poet, and after him the Plebeians’ (F1, TLN 1813) is very similar to the entry stage direction at the opening of A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 4.1. Did the plebeians remain near their entry door until they began to speak to Cinna, or did they follow at his heels while he speaks his four-line ‘soliloquy’, unaware of them? It is also possible to think that the plebeians were intended to enter at line 4.13 These different forms of entrance would procure entirely different effects. Some entry stage directions include the name of a character who is possibly intended to keep a distance from the other entering characters. For instance, The White Devil has ‘Enter Francisco, Lodouico, and Hortensio’ (Q1, L2r). The dialogue requires that Hortensio stand apart from the other two entering characters and eavesdrop on their conversation. King Lear begins with the dialogue between Kent and Gloucester. Gloucester talks humorously to Kent about Edmond’s illegitimacy, but his son, who is also on stage, makes no response to it. This fact raises the possibility that, although the opening stage direction, ‘Enter Kent, Gloucester, and Edmond’ (F1, TLN 2) does not include the word ‘aloof’ or its equivalent, the Bastard entered after Kent and Gloucester and kept his distance from them until he was addressed.14 If he did so, his manner of entering might have made the audience suspect that he was eavesdropping on their conversation. Alternatively, he might have stayed ‘aloof’ at a distance out of respect for the two earls, his seniors. Such a modest form of body language might also have a bearing later, since neither Q1 nor F1 gives any indication when Edmond leaves in this scene. Most modern editions make him leave with his father when Lear enters and instructs Gloucester to fetch France and Burgundy. But there is no necessity for his move. Michael J. Warren finds a meaningful effect of Edmond’s remaining on stage: Edmund’s experience of Lear’s mistreatment of the daughters – something that Gloucester does not witness – can be an important aspect of an actor’s performance of Edmund and, particularly, can color for an interpreter the perception of Edmund’s behavior in the second scene.15 His delayed entrance and stance ‘aloof’ as an observer might be a justification for his remaining on stage until the departure of Lear and others at line 266 (F1, TLN 291).
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Different entry-points give different meanings to an entrance or exit. In The Tempest, 1.2, as discussed in the previous chapter, the choice of entryway that Prospero and Caliban use for their first appearances – a flanking door, the central opening, or the trap? – would have made a positive contribution to the establishment of their status and character. In 3.3 Prospero makes a very special entrance. The stage direction merely says, ‘Solemne and strange Musicke: and Prospero on the top (inuisible:) …’ (F1, TLN 1535–6; 3.3.17). John C. Adams believes that portions of the third-level façade in his reconstruction of the Globe opened to form a music gallery, and that Prospero appeared in front of or between the music curtains.16 Stephen Orgel asserts that ‘top’ was ‘a technical term for the level above the upper stage gallery, within which the musicians sat.’17 An early Shakespearean play has another example that involves the use of the ‘top’: ‘Enter Pucell on the top, thrusting out a Torch burning’ (1 Henry VI F1, TLN 1451–2; 3.3.8). Michael Hattaway suggests the possibility that the Pucell appeared in the hut above the heavens.18 Such a high place might have been an appropriate entrypoint for characters with supernatural power when their powers were being used: for the Pucell to give a signal to the characters below, and for Prospero to oversee the action on the stage beneath him. But whether the ‘top’ was the stage balcony or elsewhere is uncertain. Alan C. Dessen and Leslie Thomson’s Dictionary of Stage Directions glosses this word as follows: used seldom for a location where one figure appears above the main platform and possibly above the upper playing level, as when having breached the walls of Rouen, Pucell enters ‘on the top’ (1 Henry VI, 1451, 3.2.25) or ‘in yonder turret’, then appears ‘on the walls’, which perhaps differentiates the two locations; … 19 I am sceptical about a special place for the ‘top’. Robert Greene’s Alphonsus, King of Aragon contains stage directions which read ‘After you haue sounded thrise, let Venus be let downe from the top of the Stage, and when she is downe, say’ (TLN 2–3) and ‘Exit Venus. Or if you can conveniently, let a chaire come downe from the top of the stage, and draw her up’ (TLN 2109–10). In these directions, ‘the top of the stage’ is clearly the trapdoor in the heavens. Conceivably, Prospero in his invisible suit showed himself through the heavens’ trap. But the preposition ‘on’ suggests that he was standing. Although Greene was not a resident
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3
playwright but a freelance one, and therefore may not have been familiar with the standard playhouse terminology, his stage directions may suggest that ‘top’ was not a term for a particular part of the stage or the playhouse, but a reference to a general locality. Whether The Tempest was written specifically for the Blackfriars or not, the musicians were occupying the balcony in the Globe when The Tempest was performed there. I think that Prospero appeared on the balcony among or in front of the musicians. He does not speak until about twenty lines after his entrance (TLN 1559; 3.3.34). If he appears on the balcony, the music provided there would draw the audience’s attention to Prospero’s presence. If the musicians were behind the curtains and needed signals for music and sound, as Adams convincingly argues, Prospero could give them such signals there.20 It may be significant that the stage direction does not include the word ‘enter’. Assuming that the balcony was furnished with curtains, behind which the musicians played, Prospero could have been discovered. Similarly, Ariel’s final exit calls for some comment. At the end of The Tempest, 5.1, Prospero invites Alonso and his train to his cell, and also gives Ariel his final task: Pro. I’le deliuer all, And promise you calme Seas, auspicious gales, And saile, so expeditious, that shall catch Your Royall fleete farre off: My Ariel; chicke That is thy charge: Then to the Elements Be free, and fare thou well: please you draw neere. Exeunt omnes. (F1, TLN 2313–19; 5.1.317–22) Despite the stage direction ‘Exeunt omnes’, Ariel would not exit together with the royal party through the central opening representing Prospero’s cell. Instead, he would begin to depart in response to Prospero’s farewell to him, and disappear through a different exit. Since the F1 text, which contains several detailed stage directions, provides no special stage direction for his departure, he is likely to use an ordinary exit, that is, one of the flanking doors. Here Ariel is not given any exit speech. His silent exit might imply that he is obeying his master’s order, or else it might suggest his unwillingness to obey him. It would depend largely upon his manner of exiting.21 Another possibility, though a small one, is his use of the trap in the heavens.
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His ascent to the heavens by the descent machine could be an indication that the airy spirit has already begun to perform his final task of providing ‘calme Seas’ and ‘auspicious gales’. In the Epilogue, Prospero admits his powerless and vulnerable state: ‘Now I want / Spirits to enforce: Art to inchant, …’ (TLN 2334–5; Epilogue.13–14). How Ariel makes his final departure would affect the audience’s understanding of the Epilogue. While hearing his Epilogue, the audience might see the actor who has suddenly been returned to his unpowerful ordinary state because of the completion of the play’s action, or else they might see the Prospero who has lost all his magical powers.22 My goal here is not to choose the one and only ‘authentic’ form of each particular entrance or exit, but rather to suggest how greatly the timing, manner, and entry-point could have influenced the audience’s perception of the entrance or exit.
4 Lastly let us consider the question we have kept to one side so far – the Elizabethan concept of the stage. Elizabethans could not vary their lighting effects. But the uniformity of lighting did not necessarily mean the homogeneity of the stage as an acting space.23 The evidence from some stage directions suggests that they treated central and marginal areas differently. In Dekker and Massinger’s The Virgin Martyr, a Red Bull play, when Sapritius, Macrinus, and physicians withdraw to observe Antonius and Dorothea, the stage direction for their movement reads ‘Exeunt aside’ (4.1.84). Sapritius says to the other eavesdroppers, ‘Come, and vnseene, be witnesse to this battry, / How the coy strumpet yeelds’ (4.1.79–80), and while eavesdropping on the conversation between Antonius and Dorothea he makes comments on their words. Sapritius and the others would therefore not have left the stage altogether, but would have hidden behind a stage post. In The Fair Maid of the Exchange, when Frank withdraws after saying ‘But stay; here comes my mellancholly brothers both, / Ile step aside, and heare their conference’ (TLN 942–3), he is directed to ‘Exit aside’ (TLN 943), and later he is to ‘Enter’ again (TLN 1020). Stepping aside but remaining on stage in these instances seems to be a form of quasi-exit. In Coriolanus, 2.1, Brutus and Sicinius withdraw to a side position as Volumnia, Virgilia and Valeria enter to welcome Coriolanus’s triumphal procession, and after the procession’s departure the tribunes come forward. F1’s stage directions for their moves read: ‘Bru. and Scic. Aside’ (TLN 992; 2.1.94); ‘Enter Brutus and Scicinius’ (TLN 1122; 2.1.201). In A
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Midsummer Night’s Dream F1, Oberon and Puck ‘Stand aside’ at TLN 1140 (3.2.116), watch the lovers’ quarrel, and ‘Enter’ at TLN 1385 (3.2.345). A similar example can be seen in The Famous Victories of Henry V, where an entry stage direction is given for Prince Henry, who has been standing aside: ‘Enters the Prince with a dagger in his hand’ (Q1, C2v). These examples seem to show that forms of exit and reentrance could have been made to and from the sides of the stage. In discussing the main features of the Queen’s Men’s staging, Scott McMillin and Sally-Beth MacLean use the example from The Famous Victories and describe that scene as simultaneous scene-setting. In The Famous Victories of Henry V, the scene of Prince Hal’s visit to his father divides the stage into a royal chamber and an ante-room where Hal and his reprobate companions draw aside (line 507). Thus, although Hal is already onstage, he is given a separate entrance direction when he approaches his father – that is, when he moves from the ante-room to the royal chamber where his father awaits him.24 The location of this scene is ambiguous and fluid, changing from the street, to outside the court, to the king’s inner chamber. We might also conclude that in Elizabethan theatres certain parts of the stage could count as almost ‘offstage’, and in The Famous Victories Hal temporarily retired to such a position. As other examples suggest, this way of thinking about the stage prevailed among contemporary playwrights, players, and playgoers. The stage posts might have served as boundaries between the main and subordinate acting areas. 1 Henry IV contains two likely cases of quasi-exit. In the Gadshill robbery scene Prince Henry and Poins ‘stand close’ (Q2(=Q1), C4r; 2.2.73) and later re-enter (C4r; 2.3.0). They could make their reentrance from the side or the rear of the stage. In the Eastcheap tavern scene Prince Henry makes Poins ‘step aside’ (D2r; 2.5.32) and call Francis from there. Although Q2 marks Poins’s re-entrance later (D3r; 2.5.87), he may simply retire to the side or the rear of the stage.25 In Coriolanus, 4.5, two servingmen re-enter as Coriolanus and Aufidius exit together (F1, TLN 2807–8; 4.5.148). The servingmen talk of the ‘strange alteration’ (TLN 2809; 4.5.149) which they have witnessed. If they refer to the whole conversation between Coriolanus and Aufidius, as well as to their joint departure, the servingmen might not really have exited, because they could re-enter from an aloof position on the stage.26 Another possible example is in the last scene of Romeo and
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Juliet. There, Romeo has hardly arrived with Balthasar when he orders the boy to leave him. Balthasar obediently parts from him, but hides himself at a distance. He would have concealed himself behind a stage post, if it was available at the Theatre.27 If not, he might have retired to a position near the stage door through which he had entered with Romeo. When Friar Laurence enters and orders him to go with him to the vault, the boy does not obey the instruction. The Friar says to him, ‘Stay then ile go alone, …’ (Q2, L3v; 5.3.135) and moves forward to the tomb. The boy stays behind and speaks about his ‘dream’ of Romeo killing Paris: ‘As I did sleepe vnder this yong tree heere, / I dreampt my maister and another fought, / And that my maister slew him’ (L3v; 5.3.137–9). Q2 marks him as entering some forty lines later (‘Enter Romeos man’ (L4r; 5.3.180)), and Q1 indicates a watchman’s entrance with Balthasar (‘Enter one with Romeos Man’ (K3r)). But when did he exit? He might have left the stage immediately after speaking about his ‘dream’. It seems equally likely that he remained on stage throughout, hiding behind the stage post or near the stage door until he was finally found and brought forward by the watchman.28 There are some cases which we might call quasi-entrances. In Nathan Field and John Fletcher’s The Honest Man’s Fortune, act 3, an entering character, not an onstage character, hides behind the arras and later comes forth from there. The 1647 Beaumont and Fletcher Folio gives the following stage directions for the character’s actions: ‘Enter Lamira behinde the Arras’ (F1, 5V3v); ‘Exit Lamira from the Arras’ (5V3v). Interestingly, in the surviving manuscript playbook the corresponding stage direction to the second reads, ‘Ent: Lamyra: from the Aras’ (Victoria and Albert Museum, MS. D.25.F.9, fol. 22a). As for the first stage direction, since the audience needs to know that Lamira is hiding behind the arras, it may have been written as a shorthand way of indicating that she enters by a side door and then conceals herself behind the arras. If this is the case, the entry stage direction can be treated as comparable to the locution ‘Enter aloof off’, in that it is short for ‘Enter and stand behind the arras.’ In the manuscript playbook, however, the corresponding stage direction, which is placed nine lines earlier than the F1 entry stage direction, reads ‘Lamyra showes hir selfe at the Arras’ (fol. 21b). It is therefore more likely that Lamira does not make a real entrance but instead peeps through the hangings to show herself there. The Second Maiden’s Tragedy provides ‘Enter Votarius to the doore wthin’ (British Library, MS. Lansdowne 807, fol. 51b) [see Fig. 9.1]. The dialogue around the stage direction suggests that Votarius shows himself through the door but does not really enter onto the stage. Leonella,
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Figure 9.1 The Second Maiden’s Tragedy (British Library, MS. Lansdowne 807, fol. 51b). By permission of the British Library.
who has been watching the door for her lady, stops him from coming forward. Similar examples can be found in Fletcher’s Bonduca: ‘Enter: younger Daughter: & an Attendant: she shewes her selfe but at ye Doore’ (MS, TLN 1046–9); ‘Enter Iudas: & his Company (peeping at the Doore:)’ (TLN 1850–2); ‘Enter: Drusus: Regulus: (stopping the Soldiers. At the Doore.)’ (TLN 2108).29 In these cases the younger daughter, Judas’s followers, and the soldiers would stand on or behind the threshold. The soldiers’ first speech is specified to be spoken ‘wthin’ (fol. 21b). These are incomplete and barely visible entrances. Samuel Rowley’s When You See Me, You Know Me has ‘Enter king within’ (TLN 576). This stage direction is followed by another direction for the king, ‘Call within’ (TLN 577). When an onstage character goes in to answer the king’s call, an exit direction is used for his movement (TLN 584).
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Presumably the king stands behind the frons and calls from there. In Romeo and Juliet Q2 a similar pseudo-entrance is indicated by the stage direction, ‘Enter Nurse, and knocke’ (G4v; 3.3.70). Another direction for the Nurse’s entrance, ‘Enter Nurse’ (G4v; 3.3.78), is printed eight lines later, just before her and the Friar’s speeches: ‘Let me come in, and you shal know my errant: / I come from Lady Iuliet’ (G4v; 3.3.79–80); ‘Welcome then’ (G4v; 3.3.80) – two lines too early, if the direction indicates her actual entrance. But it may merely mean that she is to speak. It is also possible that the Friar opens the door partway, making her partially visible at the moment indicated by the entry direction.30 Marlowe’s The Massacre at Paris has ‘Enter the Guise and knocketh’ (TLN 1166) and ‘The Guise comes to the King’ (TLN 1209), which indicate a pseudo-entrance and an actual entrance. Elizabethan actors could make even entirely invisible entrances by standing behind the stage hangings or the stage doors and making a noise from behind them. Entrances marked before the entering characters’ calling from within are not uncommon. Enter Isabella. Isab. What hoa? Peace heere; Grace, and good companie. Pro. Who’s there? Come in, the wish deserues a welcome. (Measure for Measure F1, TLN 1248–52; 3.1.43–5) Enter Embassad: and Giouanni. ENG.E. This way, this way, breake ope the doores, this way. LOD. Ha, are wee betraid; … (The White Devil Q1, M2r)31 In these examples, despite the placing of the entry directions, the entering characters were clearly intended to appear after calling or shouting from within. They would have ‘entered within’. The Comedy of Errors F1 marks ‘Enter Luce’ (TLN 679; 3.1.47) and ‘Enter Adriana’ (TLN 706; 3.1.61), when the characters probably stand behind the door representing the entrance to the Phoenix.32 In Macbeth, 2.2, Macbeth ‘enters’ at line 8 (F1, TLN 657), but Lady Macbeth does not see him until line 13 (TLN 664). This delay has been much discussed. Alan C. Dessen’s discussion of the effect of Macbeth’s early entrance is useful.33 But the fact that the entering Macbeth only calls, ‘Who’s there? what hoa?’ (TLN 658; 2.2.8), as the entering Isabella does in Measure, 3.1, may suggest the possibility that he first ‘entered within’ and then made a real entrance.34
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The intriguing cases examined above suggest that marginal positions such as behind stage posts, near the stage doors, and even the space behind the frons scenae were sometimes treated as ‘onstage’ and sometimes as ‘offstage’. In other words, the stage as a whole was not always treated as ‘onstage’ nor was the space behind the tiring-house façade always treated as ‘offstage’. Because the concepts of ‘onstage’ and ‘offstage’ were by no means fixed or absolute, ‘enter’ and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’ could therefore be used as terms for staging that related to the main stage action in varying ways. The principal focus had always to be on the main action, but not always as rigorously or as consistently as modern editors assume. A view of ‘entrances’ and ‘exits’ focused on the main action on stage, together with the three-dimensional nature of these movements, lies behind the presence of several kinds of entrances and exits that appear strange to modern eyes – such as early entrances, early exits, late entrances, duplicated entrances, pseudoentrances, and quasi-exits.
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I began this book by questioning the Elizabethan theatrical meanings of ‘enter’ and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’. The entries in Alan C. Dessen and Leslie Thomson’s Dictionary of Stage Directions, of course, include these most frequently used stage directions, and the explanations of their usages are enlightening, illustrating several types of common locutions attached to ‘enter’ or ‘exit’/‘exeunt’.1 But, regrettably, the Dictionary does not define the meanings of these terms themselves. I should like to close this book by giving a brief summary of what we have found about the basic meanings and matters of ‘enter’ and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’. Consider the following: Enter Basic meaning: to appear from a stage door and move towards the main acting area, that is, the front part of the stage. Entrances were moves which had a certain duration – that is to say, moves to be begun, continued, and completed. An entering character, while making the entrance in an ordinary manner, was thought to be in the process of getting himself ready to become involved in the dialogue. Therefore the Elizabethan audience would not have cared whether an entering character hears onstage characters or not, unless he makes any response to the onstage characters’ dialogue. There were several types of variants: for example, slow and long entrances; fast entrances; interrupted or extended entrances via aloof or side positions such as near the entry door and behind a stage post. Actors could also make almost or entirely invisible entrances by peeping through the stage doors or the stage hangings or making a noise from behind the frons scenae. 133
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Conclusion The Meanings of ‘Enter’ and ‘Exit’/‘Exeunt’
The central opening between the flanking doors was a special entry-point of privileged status. Ceremonial and spectacular entrances such as royal entrances and supernatural entrances would have been made through it. The stage trap and the trap in the heavens also served as entry-points, and were occasionally used by supernatural beings. Entrances onto the upper playing level involved offstage ascents by the tiring-house stairs. Even the hut above the heavens might have been used for certain entrances. The chosen entry-point could greatly influence the audience’s perception of the entrance. In the manuscripts and early printed texts, an entry direction is sometimes placed around the beginning of the move, sometimes placed around the completion, and occasionally placed around the resumption of the interrupted move. Exit, Exeunt Basic meaning: to depart the acting area and disappear through a stage door. Exits were moves which had a certain duration – that is, moves to be begun, continued, and completed. A character exiting in an ordinary manner, despite his physical presence on stage, was thought to have stopped playing a part in the dialogue. The audience knew that when a character turns his back and begins to move towards the tiring-house, the character is assumed to move out of earshot. Special types of departure include slow and long exits, fast exits, and interrupted exits. Withdrawing from the main acting area and retiring to a marginal position (such as behind a stage post, behind the stage hangings, or near the stage doors) could have been treated as an exit. Special entry-points were appropriately used for special exits. Formal and symbolic exits such as funeral processions at the ends of tragedies and harmonious general departures at the ends of romantic comedies would have been made through the central opening. The stage trap and the heavens’ trap and also the central opening were occasionally used for supernatural exits. Exits from the upper playing level, which involved offstage descents, were effectively used in siege scenes of history plays. In the manuscripts and early printed texts, an exit direction is generally placed around the beginning of the move, though sometimes placed around the completion, and occasionally placed around the resumption of the interrupted exit.
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The meanings of ‘enter’ and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’ were closely related to the concepts of ‘acting’ and ‘acting space’. Studies of Elizabethan cultural uses of theatrical space such as Robert Weimann’s are highly relevant. Weimann has shed new light on the continuity of tradition and convention between medieval religious cycles and Elizabethan drama, and identified the Shakespearean distinction between the front-stage platea and the back-stage locus. In explaining the variability of the platform stage, even as it was modified by humanist and Renaissance influences, it is best to recur to the traditional interplay between platea and locus, between neutral, undifferentiated ‘place’ and symbolic location. Such an interplay accommodates action that is both nonillusionistic and near the audience (corresponding to the ‘place’) and a more illusionistic, localized action sometimes taking place in a discovery space, scaffold, tent, or other loci (corresponding to the medieval sedes). Between these extremes lay the broad and very flexible range of dramatic possibilities so skillfully developed by the popular Renaissance dramatist.2 His observations about the differentiated use of acting space and the interplay between locus and platea modes of acting basically agree with our findings about the division of the stage into central and marginal areas and the variable role/actor balance which lies behind the relationship between onstage characters and entering or exiting characters. However, our view of the Elizabethan stage’s geography is somewhat different from Weimann’s. Elizabethans usefully employed the distance from centre-stage to the side as well as the distance from frontstage to back. Front-stage was the most important playing area, not only for doing audience-conscious acting but also for playing roles within the represented play-world.3 The use of the stage could, to a certain extent, be explained in relation to the nature of the stage itself. In her book, Space in Performance: Making Meaning in the Theatre, Gay McAuley insightfully remarks: In any particular theatre the stage space will have its own physical characteristics, width, depth, its degree of separation from or integration with the auditorium, the number and position of its exits, the nature of the back wall or other division between on- and off
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136 Shakespearean Entrances
The Shakespearean stage was surrounded on three or four sides by spectators, and the action usually took place at the front part of the stage. The important front-stage area was the centre of the whole theatre space. In large group scenes, speaking characters usually occupied front-stage positions, while mute characters such as attendants and soldiers ordinarily stood near the frons scenae. Mute characters, in both physical and metaphysical senses, remained in the background. As in eavesdropping scenes, the action is sometimes divided into active performers and onstage observers. In such scenes, the focus was on the active performance presented on the main acting area, and the characters observing from a distant position were literally marginalized.5 Such ways of dividing the stage space must have been related to the size of Elizabethan stages, that is, their depth and width. On the other hand, the demarcation between the stage and the auditorium was not very conspicuous. The stage projected into the auditorium. Although the five-feet-or-so height of the stage, whether railed off or not, physically separated itself from the audience, actors and spectators shared the same continuous light. Shakespearean actors took full advantage of such actor–audience spatial relationship. By using direct addresses to the audience and making references to the audience in the dialogue, Elizabethans continued the medieval tradition of extending the acting space into the auditorium.6 Regarding the effects of the architectural features of the frons scenae on players’ use and playgoers’ experience of the acting space, Ros King’s finding at the reconstructed Globe is suggestive: The process of designing the decorative scheme for the stage and frons scenae at the Globe reconstruction has had an entirely unexpected effect on thinking about the conceptual extent of the playing space. A decision to incorporate the ceiling of the musicians’ gallery and Lords’ rooms in the tiring house, into the scheme for the heavens, in order to unite the gallery and its playing space visually with the stage, had the added advantage of rendering the total playing area almost a square within the circle of the theatre, thus better conforming to Renaissance principles of design. It also drew attention to the immediate backstage area behind the frons at stage
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stage. While some of these features can be modified by the set or usage made of the space, the basic architectural features of the building provide a physical grounding for the performance that is a crucial part of its meaning.4
Meanings of ‘Enter’ and ‘Exit’ 137
A similar observation might have been possible at the original Globe. One unmistakable feature of the frons was the doors. In Elizabethan plays, exiting characters often specify the events or places for which they are leaving the stage. As the occurrence of entry directions including ‘[as] from …’ suggests, entrances were occasionally made in such a manner as could make the audience imagine a recently completed offstage action or event.8 Certain patterned ways of entering and exiting, such as ‘passing over the stage’ and two entering characters’ meeting on the stage, require the audience to assume that opposing stage doors represent different directions. There are not a few scenes in which a stage door represents an entrance to a particular place. Clearly, the doors of the frons scenae and actors’ comings and goings through them greatly contributed to the audience’s consciousness that the fictional world extends behind them. By frequently using offstage speeches and noises, Elizabethans actively extended the playing space behind the frons. It is an important fact that offstage calls and noises are mainly made as pre-announcements of entrances. When he makes his preentry shout, the entering actor has already crossed the threshold from ‘offstage’ to ‘onstage’. In Elizabethan playhouses, the stage space could be divided into ‘onstage’ and ‘offstage’, whereas the playing space could extend above, below, beyond, and even behind the stage. Either on the stage itself or within the whole theatre space, the boundaries between reality and fiction were by no means fixed. It was in such theatres that the meanings of ‘enter’ and ‘exit’/‘exeunt’ were so flexible.
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level. Half-way through the season, it was decided to paint the stage floor, continuing the colour backstage correspondingly with the gallery above. The total playing space conceptually, now includes those areas hidden to the audience but which might be thought of as containing any characters speaking ‘within’.7
Key: The abbreviations of titles of plays are those used in C.T. Onions, A Shakespeare Glossary, rev. by Robert D. Eagleson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986). ‘m’ added to a line number indicates the middle of the line. ? in the third column indicates that it is not certain whether the exit and entrance are really correlated or not, or that it is doubtful whether the exit and entrance are both really made or not. * in the third column indicates that a sound is heard or an action is made between the beginning of the exit and the entrance. In the list of instances of pattern B, the equal sign(=)between the names of the summoner and the summoned characters indicates that the summoner reenters together with the summoned character; the minus sign(-)indicates that the summoned character enters alone.
A=3: 1. 2H6 4.1.140–143 2. R3 1.4.265–268 3. R3 3.7.91–94[192] 4. 2H4 2.4.385–388 i) 2H4 2.4.371[369]–372 ii) TMP 1.1.32–36[35m]
Whitmore 1.Murderer Catesby Bardolph Bardolph Sebastian, Antonio, Gonzalo
A=3[101] ? A+=1[A=3]* A=4[2.5]*
A=4: 1. TIT 5.2.160–164 2. WIV 1.4.33–37 3. WIV 4.2.93[91]–97 4. 2H4 2.4.207–212 5. OTH 1.2.49m–53m 6. LR 1.4.269–273 7. COR 4.5.2–6 8. TMP 1.1.32–36[35m] i) TIM 3.7.98m[100]–104
Titus Rugby Mrs Ford Bardolph Othello Lear 1.Servingman Sebastian, Antonio, Gonzalo Senators, Lords
? A=4[6]
A=4[2.5]* A=6.5[4]
A=5: 1. ROM 5.3.177–182 2. LR 5.3.226–231
Watchmen Gentleman
A=6: 1. 2H6 3.2.231–237 2. MND 3.1.100–106
Suffolk, Warwick Bottom 138
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?
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Appendix 1: Instances of Each Pattern (A, A+, B, Ca, Cb, Cc)
Appendix 1 139 Mariana, Isabella Edgar Dolabella 2.Servingman Boatswain Mrs Ford
A=5.5 A=5.5*? *
A=4[6]
Benvolio Douglas Lafew Senators, Lords Lady Macbeth Gloucester
A=6.5[4] A=6.5* A=7.5[7]
A=7: 1. ROM 3.1.108–115 2. 1H4 5.2.33–40 3. AWW 2.3.232–239 4. TIM 3.7.98m[100]–104 5. MAC 2.2.55m–61 i) LR 2.2.459–467m[466]
A=8: 1. SHR 4.1.164–172[173] 2. TIT 1.1.387–395 3. MND 3.1.100–108 4. ROM 5.3.172–180 5. WIV 1.1.180–188 6. OTH 2.3.129–137 7. LR 2.2.459–467m[466] 8. WT 2.3.18m–26m
Petruchio Lucius, Quintus, Martius Snout Watchmen Shallow, Evans Roderigo Gloucester Servant
A=8[9] *?
A=7.5[7] ?
Patroclus Troilus Fool Petruchio
? A=8.5[9.5]* A=9[10.5] A=8[9]
Panthino One Flavius 1.Servingman Troilus
A=8.5[9.5]*
Attendant (Ursula) Bardolph
? A+=0[A=158]
A=9: 1. TRO 2.3.23–32 2. TRO 5.6.12[11]–21m 3. LR 3.4.27[26m]–36 i) SHR 4.1.164–172[173]
A=10: 1. TGV 1.3.77–87 2. 2H6 4.7.116–147 3. TIM 1.2.165–175 4. COR 4.5.8–18 i) TRO 5.6.12[11]–21m
A+=0: 1. TGV 4.4.115–115 2. 1H4 2.5.486[328]–486
A+=1: 1. 2H4 2.4.371[369]–372 Bardolph 2. HAM 5.2.301m[264]–301 Osric 3. LR 1.4.46–47 Knight
A+=1[A=3] A+=0.5[A=37]
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3. MM 4.1.57–63m 4. LR 4.5.278–284m 5. ANT 5.2.186–192 6. COR 4.5.4–10 7. TMP 1.1.26–32 i) WIV 4.2.93[91]–97
140 Appendix 1
A+=2: Servingman Biondello Biondello
A+=2.5[2]
A+=3: 1. SHR 4.1.125–128 2. SHR 5.2.92–95m[94] 3. TIM 1.2.162–165 4. H8 1.4.51m–53
Servants Biondello Flavius Servant
A+=2.5[2] A+=2.5
A+=4: 1. 1H4 2.5.486[401]–490 2. TRO 5.2.61–65 3. MM 4.2.86–90 i) 2H4 4.1.318–323[322]
Hostess Cressida Provost Westmorland
A+=4[A=89] *? A+=5[4]
A+=5: 1. 2H4 4.1.318–323[322] 2. 2H4 4.1.322–327m 3. JC 4.2.285m–290m 4. PER Sc.12.79–84
Westmorland Hastings Lucius Philemon
A+=5[4] A+=4.5
Lucius, Marcus Gentleman Antony One (Messenger) Ariel
* A+=5.5
A+=6: 1. TIT 3.1.184–190 2. OTH 2.1.60–66m 3. ANT 4.13.3m–9m 4. CYM 3.5.35m–41m 5. TMP 4.1.187–193m
A+=5.5
A+=7: 1. R2 4.1.258–265 2. MAC 5.5.8–15m 3. TNK 5.5.72m–78
Officer Seyton Servant
A+=6.5 A+=6.5*
A+=8: 1. 2H6 3.2.18–26 2. MND 3.2.101–109 3. 2H4 5.3.72–80
Suffolk Robin Davy
A+=9: 1. JC 2.1.60–69 2. MM 4.3.88[87]–97
Lucius Provost
A+=9[10]
Cloten
A+=10[10.5]
A+=10: 1. CYM 3.5.55[55m]–65
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1. SHR Induction.1.72–74 2. SHR 5.2.83–85 i) SHR 5.2.92–95m[94]
Appendix 1 141 i) MM 4.3.88[87]–97
Provost
A+=9[10]
B=0: ? ? ? ? ? ? ? B=1.5[0]? B=1.5[0] B=1[0]
B=1: 1. AYL 1.1.89–90 2. OTH 3.1.38[38m]–39 3. AWW 2.1.90–91 4. ANT 4.2.9m–10m[9] 5. H8 2.2.116[117]–117
Dennis – Charles Iago – Emilia Lafew = Helena One – Servitors Wolsey = Gardiner
B=1[1.5] ? B=1[0.5]? B=1[0]
B=2: 1. SHR 5.2.101–103 Grumio – Katherine 2. JN 1.1.47–49m Sheriff = Falcon., Bastard 3. HAM 4.6.3–5 Attendant – Sailor 4. TN 1.5.158–160 Malvolio – Viola 5. TN 3.4.14m–15[14m] Maria = Malvolio 6. TRO 4.7.41m–42 Aeneas = Troilus 7. MM 4.2.58[57]–60 Pompey – Claudio 8. AWW 5.3.154–156m[154] Attendant = Bertram 9. TIM 1.2.125–127 Cupid = Masque 10. ANT 1.2.109–111m 2.Messenger – 3.Messenger 11. PER Sc.4.80–82 Lord = Pericles 12. WT 2.2.2m–4m Gentleman = Jailer 13. WT 2.2.21–23m Jailer = Emilia 14. H8 5.1.83–85 Denny = Cranmer i) WIV 2.2.146m[147]–149 Bardolph = Ford ii) OTH 3.1.38[38m]–39 Iago – Emilia
B=1.5
B=1.5[0]? B=1.5? B=2[3] B=1.5[0] * B=1.5
B=1.5 B=3.5[2] B=1[1.5]
B=3: 1. R3 3.7.214m–216 2. LLL 3.1.63–66[67] 3. HAM 3.2.144–147 4. MM 2.2.22–25m 5. OTH 4.2.109–112 6. TIM 1.1.246–249
Catesby – Buckingham, etc. Moth = Costard Prologue – P.King, P.Queen Servant – Isabella Emilia = Iago Servants – Alcibiades
B=2.5 B=3[4] B=2.5
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1. SHR 5.1.84–84 Servant – Officer 2. 2H6 5.1.145–145 Attendant – Salisbury, Warwick 3. R2 4.1.1–2 Lord = Bagot 4. 1H4 2.5.511–511 Hostess – Sheriff 5. TRO 4.2.60–60 Pandarus – Troilus 6. TIM 1.2.118–118 Servant – Cupid 7. PER Sc.21.8–8 Gentlemen = Lysimachus 8. WT 4.4.340–340 Servant – 12 Satyrs 9. H8 4.2.109m–109m Griffith = Caputius i) TN 3.4.14m–15[14m] Maria = Malvolio ii) AWW 5.3.154–156m[154] Attendant = Bertram iii) H8 2.2.116[117]–117 Wolsey = Gardiner
142 Appendix 1 Charmian = Messenger Gentlewoman = Valeria Servant – Autolycus Ariel = Caliban, Ste., Trin. L.Chamberlain = King, etc. Pompey – Claudio
B=2.5
B=2.5 * B=2[3]
B=4: 1. 1H6 1.3.39m–42 2. 1H6 5.1.24m–27 3. R2 4.1.148–152 4. WIV 2.2.146m[147]–149 5. H5 1.2.2–6 6. JC 3.1.143–147 7. HAM 4.5.16–20 8. MM 2.2.2m–6m 9. OTH 4.2.20–24 10. LR 3.7.22–26m 11. MAC 3.2.5–9 12. ANT 5.2.319–323 13. H8 3.1.19m–23m i) LLL 3.1.63–66[67] ii) HAM 2.2.53–58m[57] iii) AWW 5.3.27–32[31]
Bastard = Joan Attendant – Ambassadors York = Richard Bardolph = Ford Attendant – Canterbury, Ely Servant – Antony Horatio = Ophelia Servant – Angelo Emilia = Desdemona Servants = Gloucester Servant – Macbeth Guardsman – Dolabella Griffith = Wolsey, Campeius Moth = Costard Polonius = Voltemand, Cor. Attendant – Bertram
B=3.5 B=3.5 B=3.5[2] ?
B=3.5
B=3[4] B=4.5[4] B=5[4]
B=5: 1. 2H6 2.1.144–149 2. R2 1.1.15m–19 3. WIV 3.3.33–38 4. HAM 2.2.53–58m[57] 5. TRO 3.2.32–37 6. MM 5.1.161–166m 7. AWW 2.3.47–52 8. AWW 5.3.27–32[31] 9. ANT 5.2.232m–237m 10. WT 3.2.117–122
Townsman – Beadle Attendant – Bolin., Mowb. Robin – Falstaff Polonius = Voltemand, Cor. Pandarus = Cressida Friar Peter = Mariana Attendant – Lords Attendant – Bertram Guardsman = Clown Officer = Cleomenes, Dion
B=4.5 B=4.5[4] B=4.5 B=5[4]
B=6: 1. 2H6 5.1.114–120 2. LR 2.2.291–297 3. ANT 3.13.39–45m 4. PER Sc.19.40–46 i) TRO 4.5.100–108[106]
Buckingham – Clifford Gloucester = Regan, Cornwall Servant – Thidias Pander = Marina Paris = Aeneas, etc.
B=8[6]
Maria = Toby Alexas – Antony
B=7[8] ?
B=5.5
B=7: 1. TN 4.2.3–10[11] 2. ANT 1.3.5–12
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7. ANT 2.5.81–84m 8. COR 1.3.46–49 9. WT 4.4.215–218 10. TMP 5.1.256m–258 11. H8 1.4.61–64 i) MM 4.2.58[57]–60
Appendix 1 143 3. COR 3.1.176m–182 4. CYM 1.5.75m[74]–82m i) MM 5.1.268–277[275]
Aedile = Plebeians Pisanio = Ladies Officer – Isabella
B=6.5 B=7[7.5] B=9[7]
1. MV 4.1.109–117 2. 2H4 2.4.98–106 3. H5 2.4.67–75m 4. TN 5.1.140m–148m 5. TRO 4.5.100–108[106] 6. MM 5.1.468–476 7. WT 5.1.114m–122m[122] i) TN 4.2.3–10[11] ii) CYM 1.5.75m[74]–82m
Salerio = Nerissa Drawer – Pistol, etc. Messenger – Exeter Attendant – Priest Paris = Aeneas, etc. Provost = Barnardine, Claudio Cleomenes = Florizel, Perdita Maria = Toby Pisanio = Ladies
B=7.5 B=8[6] B=8[8.5] B=7[8] B=7[7.5]
B=9: 1. ADO 3.1.14–23m[23/25] 2. JC 2.1.76–85 3. MM 1.1.15–24m 4. MM 5.1.268–277[275] 5. AWW 5.3.297m–306m 6. ANT 2.3.29–38m 7. ANT 4.9.2m–11m 8. PER Sc.6.7–16 9. TMP 4.1.50–59 i) WT 5.1.114m–122m[122]
Margaret – Beatrice Lucius – Cassius, etc. Lord – Angelo Officer – Isabella Widow = Helena Soothsayer – Ventidius Soldier – Cleopatra Attendant – 1.Knight Ariel – Iris Cleomenes = Florizel, Perdita
B=8.5[9/11] B=8.5 B=9[7] B=8.5 ? * B=8[8.5]
B=10: 1. 2H6 5.1.109–119
Attendant – Edward, Richard
Ca=2: 1. 2H6 1.4.52–54
Stafford
?
Hume Brutus Pindarus
? Ca=2.5? Ca=2.5
Saturninus, Tamora, etc.
Ca=4[7]*
Antony
?
Ca=3: 1. 2H6 1.4.10–13 2. JC 3.2.8m–10 3. JC 5.3.22–25m
Ca=4: 1. TIT 1.1.287–291[294]
Ca=5: 1. JC 3.2.66–71
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B=8:
144 Appendix 1
Ca=7: i) TIT 1.1.287–291[294]
Saturninus, Tamora, etc.
Ca=4[7]*
Butts
Ca=9.5
Juliet Senators
Cb=0[20.5]
1. H8 5.2.9m–18
Cb=0: 1. ROM 3.5.67–67 2. TIM 5.5.65–65[86m]
Cb=2: 1. SHR 5.1.53–55 2. R2 3.3.182–184 3. JC 5.3.33–35
Pedant Richard, Carlisle, Aumerle, etc. Pindarus
Cb=3: 1. JC 3.2.162m–164
Antony
Cb=2.5?
Mayor, Aldermen King
Cb=4.5[113]
Cb=5: 1. 3H6 4.8.29–34 2. H8 5.2.143m[34]–147
Cb=7: 1. MV 2.6.50–57
Jessica
Cb=10: 1. TIT 5.2.69–79
Titus
Cc=3: 1. ROM 2.1.180–183 2. ROM 2.1.199–202
Juliet Juliet
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Ca=10:
Key: ‘m’ added to a line number indicates the middle of the line. ‘?’ in the third column indicates that it is not certain whether the exit and entrance actually occur or not. ‘sb?’ in the third column indicates that it is doubtful whether there really is a scene-break between the exit and the entrance.
Excursion=0: 1. 2H6 4.2.189–4.3.0 2. 2H6 4.6.15–4.7.0 3. 3H6 2.2.177–2.3.0 4. 3H6 2.3.56–2.4.0 5. 3H6 5.1.116–5.2.0 6. 3H6 5.4.82–5.5.0 7. 1H6 1.2.21–1.3.0 8. 1H6 3.4.5–3.5.0 9. 1H6 4.5.55–4.6.0 10. 1H6 4.6.57–4.7.0 11. 1H6 5.2.21–5.3.0 12. 1H6 5.3.29–5.4.0 13. R3 5.6.81–5.7.0 14. JN 3.2.10–3.3.0 15. 1H4 5.2.100–5.3.0 16. ANT 3.9.4–3.10.0 17. COR 1.4.29–1.5.0
Cade, etc. Cade, etc. Warwick Richard Edward Edward, etc. Charles, Alanson, Reignier Joan Talbot, John Talbot Talbot Joan Joan Catesby John, Arthur, Hubert Douglas Enobarbus Martius
(Sound) (Sound) (Sound; Split) (Split) (Sound) (Sound) (Sound) (Sound) (Sound) (Sound) (Sound) (Sound) (Sound; Split) (Sound) (Sound) (Sound)
Martius, Lartius John
(Sound) (Sound; Split)
John
(Sound; Split)
Prince Henry
(Sound)
Bastard
(Sound; Split)
Excursion=3: 1. COR 1.5.33–1.6.3 i) JN 3.1.273–3.2.4[3]
Excursion=4: 1. JN 3.1.273–3.2.4[3]
Excursion=6: 1. 1H4 5.3.55–5.4.0
Excursion=8: 1. JN 3.1.265–3.2.0
145
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Appendix 2: Instances Fulfilling Each Condition (1-6)
146 Appendix 2
1. SHR 5.1.141–5.2.01 2. TIM 1.1.286–1.2.0 3. PER Sc.6.62–Sc.7.0
Petruchio, Katherine, Grumio Lords Simonides, Thaisa
? (Sound) (Sound)
1.Murderer L. Chamberlain, Sands, Lovell
(Sound; Split)
Action=7: 1. MAC 3.3.23–3.4.7 2. H8 1.3.67–1.4.7m
Last=0: 1. 2H6 2.2.82–2.3.0 2. JC 1.1.75–1.2.0 3. WT 1.1.46–1.2.0 4. CYM 5.1.33–5.2.0 5. CYM 5.5.94–5.5.942
York, Salisbury, Warwick Flavius, Murellus Camillo Posthumus Posthumus, Captains
(Sound) (Split) (Split) ?; sb?
Sound=0: 1. 2H6 5.1.214–5.3.0 2. 3H6 4.3.27–4.4.0 3. TIT 1.1.491–2.1.0 4. 1H6 1.6.89–1.7.0 5. 1H6 2.5.129–3.1.0 6. R3 2.4.72–3.1.0 7. R3 5.7.13–5.8.0 8. JC 5.1.126–5.2.0 9. JC 5.3.109–5.4.0 10. AWW 5.2.54–5.3.0 11. ANT 4.8.13–4.9.0
Warwick Warwick Aaron Talbot Richard Plantagenet Cardinal Richard Brutus Brutus, etc. Lafew Antony
(Split) in F1 only
(Split)
Sound=2: 1. COR 1.9.13–1.10.0
Martius
(Split)
Prince Henry, Lancaster Young Siward Antony, Eros Coriolanus
? (Split)
Sound=4: 1. 1H4 5.4.158–5.5.0 2. MAC 5.6.10–5.7.4 3. ANT 4.4.34–4.5.0 4. COR 4.4.26–4.5.4
Sound=6: 1. 2H6 4.7.224–4.8.6 2. R2 1.2.74–1.3.6
Buckingham, Clifford Gaunt
(Split)
Soothsayer
(Last?; Split)
Sound=8: 1. JC 2.4.40–3.1.0
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Action=0:
Appendix 2 147
Sound=9: 1. 2H6 4.2.180–4.3.0 2. H8 1.1.227–1.2.9
Staffords Norfolk
(Split)
Chiron, Demetrius Lady Macbeth Ross
(Split)
Henry
?; sb?
1. TIT 2.1.136–2.2.10 2. MAC 1.5.72–1.6.10m 3. MAC 2.4.42–3.1.10
Split=1: 1. 3H6 4.9.31–4.10.0
Split=5: 1. ROM 4.2.47–4.3.5
Lady Capulet
Split=7: 1. TIT 4.1.121–4.2.0
Young Lucius
Split=9: 1. TIM 2.1.34–2.2.9
Caphis
Split=10: 1. 1H6 2.2.60–2.3.10 2. ROM 4.2.37–4.3.0
Talbot, Messenger Juliet, Nurse
None=0: 1. SHR 3.2.127–3.3.0 2. TIT 3.2.84–4.1.0 3. R3 3.3.24–3.4.0 4. CYM 5.5.94–5.5.943 5. TMP 4.1.264–5.1.0
Lucentio Young Lucius, Lavinia Ratcliffe Posthumus, Jailers Prospero, Ariel
?; sb? in F1 only in F1 only ?; sb? act–interval
None=3: 1. TIM 3.4.96–3.5.0
Timon
None=4: 1. SHR 4.4.67[66]–4.5.0 2. CYM 2.4.149m–2.5.0
Biondello Posthumus
?; sb? sb?
Falstaff, etc. Ghost, Hamlet Thersites Biondello
sb? sb?
None=5: 1. 1H4 2.2.89–2.3.5 2. HAM 1.4.63–1.5.0 3. TRO 5.1.95–5.2.5[8] i) SHR 4.4.67[66]–4.5.0
?; sb?
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Sound=10:
148 Appendix 2
1. SHR 3.1.84–3.2.0 2. H5 1.1.99–1.2.6 3. HAM 5.1.291–5.2.0 4. TRO 5.5.43–5.6.0 5. TRO 5.5.44–5.6.1 6. MM 3.1.538–4.1.6 7. ANT 4.15.138–4.16.6m
Bianca Canterbury, Ely Horatio Ajax Diomedes Duke Diomedes
None=7: 1. ERR 3.2.184–4.1.0 2. MV 4.1.451–4.2.4 3. AYL 3.4.54–3.5.7 4. HAM 4.1.36–4.2.3m[3] 5. ANT 1.1.57–1.2.0 6. COR 4.1.58–4.2.7[8]
Angelo Gratiano Rosalind, Celia, Corin Rosencrantz, Guildenstern Charmian, Iras, Mardian Volumnia, Virgilia, Menenius
None=8: 1. ERR 4.4.159–5.1.8[9] S. Antipholus, S. Dromio 2. MND 3.2.413–3.3.8 Robin, Demetrius sb? 3. ADO 3.5.53–4.1.0 Leonato 4. COR 3.3.139–4.1.0 Coriolanus, Menenius, Cominius, etc. i) COR 4.1.58–4.2.7[8] Volumnia, Virgilia, Menenius ii) MAC 2.1.64–2.2.13m[8m] Macbeth
None=9: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11 12. i) ii)
SHR 4.6.77–5.1.6 TIT 2.2.26–2.3.9 1H6 4.3.53–4.4.9 MND 3.2.405m–3.3.0 MV 4.1.445–4.2.0 WIV 4.1.80–4.2.9 HAM 3.3.96–3.4.7 AWW 3.5.93–3.6.0 MAC 1.7.82–2.1.9m MAC 3.1.143–3.2.9 PER Sc.2.129–Sc.3.9[10] CYM 1.5.87–1.6.9m[9] ERR 4.4.159–5.1.8[9] TRO 4.4.12–4.5.10[9]
Petruchio, Katherine Tamora Lucy Lysander Portia, Nerissa Mrs Page Hamlet Bertram Macbeth Macbeth Helicanus Pisanio S. Antipholus, S. Dromio Troilus
?; sb? sb?
None=10: 1. R2 1.1.195–1.2.0 2. TRO 4.4.12–4.5.10[9] 3. TRO 5.4.23–5.5.0 4. TIM 3.7.104–4.1.0 i) PER Sc.2.129–Sc.3.9[10]
Gaunt Troilus Diomedes Timon Helicanus
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None=6:
Appendix 2 149
1. There is some problem with The Taming of the Shrew, 5.1.141–5.2.0. The opening stage direction of 5.2 (F1, TLN 2534–7) mentions Tranio twice, but unaccountably makes no reference to Petruchio and Katherine. Although this stage direction indicates that Tranio and other servingmen bring in a banquet after the entrance of Baptista, Vincentio, Gremio, the Pedant, Lucentio and Bianca, it seems equally likely that the banquet is carried in first. This is because the listing of the characters may be in order of seniority rather than practical appearance. (In English Renaissance plays, there are a great number of banquet scenes. In these scenes, it is usual for the banquet to be brought in just before the guests enter.) In either case, Petruchio and Katherine probably enter after the six characters mentioned above. 2. The Second Captain’s ‘bring him to’th’King’ (Cymbeline F1, TLN 3028; 5.5.94) implies that the Captains and soldiers lead Posthumus off the stage. Although the F1 text inserts a scene–break at TLN 3032, it seems more likely that a new scene opens at TLN 3029 with the entrance of Cymbeline, Belarius, Guiderius, Arviragus, Pisanio, and Roman captives, and that the Captains return with Posthumus after the entrance of Cymbeline and the others. See Irwin Smith, ‘Their Exits and Reentrances’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 18 (1967), 13–14. 3. This example involves the problem with the F1 text described in note 2 above.
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Notes:
1
Studying Entrances and Exits
1. There are some other possible interpretations of the opening stage direction of 3.1, which reads: ‘Flourish. Enter Caesar, Brutus, Cassius, Caska, Decius, Metellus, Trebonius, Cynna, Antony, Lepidus, Artimedorus, Publius, and the Soothsayer’ (F1, TLN 1200–3). Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor (gen. eds), William Shakespeare: the Complete Works (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986) suggest the possibility that the Soothsayer and Artemidorus enter by one door while Caesar and his train enter by another. Arthur Humphreys thinks that the Soothsayer and Artemidorus could precede the procession. See Humphreys (ed.), Julius Caesar (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 157 n. 2. I use E.K. Chambers’s old term ‘Elizabethan’ here, not because the Queen had any special place any more than her two successors, up to the closure of the theatres in 1642, but because it seems the most neutral word for the business of London theatres which ran from the 1570s until 1642. See Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, 4 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1923). 3. See The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edn, 20 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989). However, as Linda McJannet observes, the mood of the direction ‘Enter’ is ambiguous. See The Voice of Elizabethan Stage Directions: the Evolution of a Theatrical Code (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1999) p. 146. After my investigation of the wording for entry and exit stage directions was completed, McJannet’s book was published, and through her book I have learnt of T.H. Howard-Hill, ‘The Evolution of the Form of Plays in English during the Renaissance’, Renaissance Quarterly, 43 (1990), 112–45. They both deal usefully with the evolution of the wording for Elizabethan entry and exit directions, but since my own survey is complementary to theirs, I have retained my findings. 4. For the dates of plays, I have relied upon Alfred Harbage, Annals of English Drama: 975–1700, 3rd edn, rev. by Sylvia Stoler Wagonheim (London: Routledge, 1989). However, since most plays survive in printed texts, we should take into consideration the possibility that the printed texts contain later changes including editing for the reader. 5. For example: Nicholas Udall, Ralph Roister Doister (1552); William Stevenson?, Gammer Gurton’s Needle* (1553); Anon., July and Julian* (1560); Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville, Gorboduc* (1562); Anon., The Marriage of Wit and Science (1568); Nathaniel Woodes, The Conflict of Conscience (1572); George Whetstone, 1 Promos and Cassandra (1578); John Lyly, Alexander and Campaspe (1583); John Lyly, Sappho and Phao (1583); Thomas Hughes et al., The Misfortunes of Arthur (1588). Those marked with asterisks employ the neo-classical system properly, and do not mark exits. The others do, using ‘exeat’/‘exeant’ or ‘exit’/‘exeunt’.
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Notes
6. For example: Henry Medwall, 1 & 2 Fulgens and Lucrece (1497); John Bale, Three Laws of Nature, Moses, and Christ, Corrupted by the Sodomites, Pharisees, and Papists (1538). 7. For example: Henry Medwall, 1 & 2 Nature (1496); John Bale, 1 & 2 King Johan (1538); Thomas Ingelend, The Disobedient Child (1560); Thomas Lupton, All for Money (1577). The surviving manuscript of 1 & 2 King Johan is a composite one, an earlier scribal copy (A-text) having been revised and expanded by Bale (B-revision). (See John Henry Pyle Pafford (ed.), King Johan (Malone Society Reprints, 1931), pp. vi–xvii.) In this manuscript, ‘enter’ and ‘exeu~t’ occur together with ‘cu~ in’ and ‘go owt’, although ‘exeu~t’ is found only in the B-revision (1558–62?). 8. For example: John Heywood, The Play of the Weather (1528); John Heywood, A Play of Love (1534); William Wager, The Longer Thou Livest the More Fool Thou Art (1559); Thomas Garter, The Most Virtuous and Godly Susanna (1569). In The Play of the Weather, where ‘entreth’ and ‘goeth out’ are mainly used, ‘commeth in’ (several times) and ‘exeat’ (once) occur. 9. For ‘theatrical’ and ‘fictional’ stage directions, see Richard Hosley, ‘The Gallery over the Stage in the Public Playhouse of Shakespeare’s Time’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 8 (1957), 16–17. 10. Alan C. Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Vocabulary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). See also Dessen, Elizabethan Stage Conventions and Modern Interpreters (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 11. R.A. Foakes and R.T. Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961). 12. As a fair number of records of Sunday performances suggest, Privy Council orders forbidding Sunday playing such as the one in 1600 were sometimes violated. See Roslyn Lander Knutson, The Repertory of Shakespeare’s Company: 1594–1613 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1991), p. 28. 13. See Bernard Beckerman, Shakespeare at the Globe: 1599–1609 (New York: Macmillan, 1962), pp. 1–23; Andrew Gurr, The Shakespearian Playing Companies (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), pp. 100–2. 14. See Andrew Gurr, Playgoing in Shakespeare’s London, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 171. 15. David Bevington observes that doubling would be foreign to the nature of an amateur academic undertaking. See From Mankind to Marlowe: Growth of Structure in the Popular Drama of Tudor England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962), p. 34. 16. See T. J. King, Casting Shakespeare’s Plays: London Actors and Their Roles, 1590–1642 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); David Bradley, From Text to Performance in the Elizabethan Theatre: Preparing the Play for the Stage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 17. See Alan H. Nelson, Early Cambridge Theatres: College, University, and Town Stages, 1464–1720 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Nelson, ‘The Universities: Early Staging in Cambridge’, in A New History of Early English Drama, ed. by John D. Cox and David Scott Kastan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), pp. 59–67. 18. See Bernard Beckerman, ‘Theatrical Plots and Elizabethan Stage Practice’, in Shakespeare and Dramatic Tradition, ed. by W.R. Elton and William B. Long
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Notes 151
19. 20. 21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26. 27.
28. 29.
(Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1989), pp. 109–24. See also Beckerman, Shakespeare at the Globe, p. 73. See Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Vocabulary, pp. 127–49. Andrew Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage: 1574–1642, 3rd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). See Andrew Gurr, ‘The “State” of Shakespeare’s Audiences’, in Shakespeare and the Sense of Performance, ed. by Marvin and Ruth Thompson (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1989), pp. 162–79. The opening stage direction of Alphonsus reads, ‘After you haue sounded thrise, let Venus be let downe from the top of the Stage, and when she is downe, say’ (TLN 2–3). It may be that this direction should include the phrase, ‘if you can conueniently’. It is also possible that although Greene knew that the descent machine was available, he was not certain that the actor could go back to the heavens. For a similar comment, see Christine Eccles, The Rose Theatre (London: Nick Hern Books, 1990), p. 28. It should also be noted that even playhouse manuscripts contain similarly permissive directions: for example, ‘The fourth out of a tree, if possible it may be’ (Anthony Munday, John a Kent and John a Cumber, TLN 836). Although the three pages include no other stage directions, the sceneopening stage direction added by Hand C (that of a professional theatre scribe) at the bottom of the previous page (fol. 7b) may possibly suggest that some of D’s writing was cut by C. For a relevant discussion, see Chapter 9. See William B. Long, ‘Stage-Directions: a Misinterpreted Factor in Determining Textual Provenance’, TEXT, 2 (1985), 121–37; Long, ‘“A bed / for woodstock”: a Warning for the Unwary’, Medieval Renaissance Drama in England, 2 (1985), 91–118; Long, ‘John a Kent and John a Cumber: an Elizabethan Playbook and Its Implications’, in Shakespeare and Dramatic Tradition, pp. 125–43; Long, ‘Bookkeepers and Playhouse Manuscripts: a Peek at the Evidence’, Shakespeare Newsletter, 44 (1994), 3. For the nature of Quarto and Folio texts of Shakespeare’s plays, I have mainly relied upon Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor with John Jowett and William Montgomery, William Shakespeare: a Textual Companion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987), while also consulting relevant books, editions, and articles published later. The texts which have traditionally been known as 1 Henry IV Qq0–7 are, therefore, referred to as Qq1–8. See G. Blakemore Evans, (gen. ed.), The Riverside Shakespeare, 2nd edn (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), p. 205. Exceptions are Every Man In His Humour Q1, Every Man Out Of His Humour Q1, and The Case Is Altered Q1. Although Cynthia’s Revels Q1 and Poetaster Q1 mark exits, these texts basically use the neo-classical format. For a detailed discussion of Jonson’s treatment of entrances and exits, see Peter M. Wright, ‘Jonson’s Revision of the Stage Directions for the 1616 Folio Workes’, Medieval & Renaissance Drama in England, 5 (1990), 257–85. G. Blakemore Evans (ed.), Romeo and Juliet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 119 n. See Paul Werstine, ‘Narratives about Printed Shakespeare Texts: “Foul Papers” and “Bad” Quartos’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 41 (1990), 65–86; Werstine, ‘Touring and the Construction of Shakespeare Textual Criticism’,
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152 Notes
30.
31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.
37. 38.
39. 40.
41.
42.
in Textual Formations and Reformations, ed. by Laurie E. Maguire and Thomas L. Berger (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1998), pp. 45–66; Werstine, ‘A Century of “Bad” Shakespeare Quartos’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 50 (1999), 310–33. See Jay L. Halio, ‘Handy-Dandy: Q1/Q2 Romeo and Juliet’ in Shakespeare’s ‘Romeo and Juliet’: Texts, Contexts, and Interpretation, ed. by Jay L. Halio (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1995), pp. 123–50; David FarleyHills, ‘The “Bad” Quarto of Romeo and Juliet’, Shakespeare Survey, 49 (1996), 27–44. See John Jowett, ‘Henry Chettle and the First Quarto of Romeo and Juliet’, Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America, 92 (1998), 53–74. See Andrew Gurr (ed.), The First Quarto of King Henry V (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 9. For a relevant discussion, see Janette Dillon, ‘Is There a Performance in this Text?’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 45 (1994), 74–86. See Eleanor Prosser, Shakespeare’s Anonymous Editors: Scribe and Compositor in the Folio Text of ‘2 Henry IV’ (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1981). See Dessen, Elizabethan Stage Conventions and Modern Interpreters, pp. 5–7; Recovering Shakespeare’s Theatrical Vocabulary, pp. 93–4. According to William B. Long, we cannot entirely rule out the possibility that setting from playbooks might have occurred, even when they were still valuable to a playing company. See ‘Perspective on Provenance: the Context of Varying Speech-heads’, in Shakespeare’s Speech Headings: Speaking the Speech in Shakespeare’s Plays, ed. by George Walton Williams (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1997), pp. 32, 42. It should also be noted that the licensed manuscript was not always marked up for performance. See Paul Werstine, ‘Plays in Manuscript’, in A New History of Early Drama, p. 496. See Gerald Eades Bentley, The Profession of Player in Shakespeare’s Time, 1590–1642 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), pp. 83–4. For a discussion of contemporary references to the duration of performance, see David Klein, ‘Time Allotted for an Elizabethan Performance’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 18 (1967), 434–8; Gurr, Playgoing in Shakespeare’s London, pp. 81–3. See Andrew Gurr, ‘Maximal and minimal texts: Shakespeare v. the Globe’, Shakespeare Survey, 52 (1999), 68–87. For the existence of unrevised first thoughts in texts printed from authorial drafts, see E.A.J. Honigmann, The Stability of Shakespeare’s Text (London: Edward Arnold, 1965), pp. 129–32; Stanley Wells, ‘Editorial Treatment of Foul-paper Texts: Much Ado about Nothing as Test Case’, Review of English Studies, 31 (1980), 1–16. See, for example, Honigmann, The Stability of Shakespeare’s Text, pp. 130–2; Evans (ed.), Romeo and Juliet, pp. 210–11. Brian Gibbons, however, thinks Romeo’s four lines superior to the Friar’s. See Gibbons (ed.), Romeo and Juliet (London: Methuen, 1980), p. 136 n. See Michael Warren, ‘Quarto and Folio King Lear and the Interpretation of Albany and Edgar’ in Shakespeare: Pattern of Excelling Nature, ed. by David Bevington and Jay L. Halio (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1978), pp. 95–107; Steven Urkowitz, Shakespeare’s Revision of ‘King Lear’ (Princeton:
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Notes 153
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48. 49. 50. 51.
52.
Princeton University Press, 1980); Gary Taylor and Michael Warren (eds), The Division of the Kingdoms: Shakespeare’s Two Versions of ‘King Lear’ (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983); Wells and Taylor, Textual Companion, pp. 529–32. See, for example, G.R. Hibbard (ed.), Hamlet (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 104–30; Wells and Taylor, Textual Companion, pp. 400–2, 425–6, 476–8; Paul Werstine, ‘The Textual Mystery of Hamlet’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 39 (1988), 1–26; Grace Ioppolo, Revising Shakespeare (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991). It should be added that E.A.J. Honigmann’s The Stability of Shakespeare’s Text appeared as long ago as 1965. In that innovative book, he investigated the possibilities of Shakespeare’s ‘second thoughts’ introduced in authorial ‘fair copies’. See also his recent book, The Texts of ‘Othello’ and Shakespearian Revision (London: Routledge, 1996). See, for example, Richard Knowles, ‘The Case for Two Lears’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 36 (1985), 115–20; Marion Trousdale, ‘A Trip Through the Divided Kingdoms’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 37 (1986), 218–23; Robert Clare, ‘“Who Is It That Can Tell Me Who I Am?”: the Theory of Authorial Revision between the Quarto and Folio Texts of King Lear’, The Library, VI, 17 (1995), 34–59; Richard Knowles, ‘Revision Awry in Folio Lear 3.1’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 46 (1995), 32–46; Eric Rasmussen, ‘The Revision of Scripts’ in A New History of Early Drama, pp. 441–60; Richard Knowles, ‘Merging the Kingdoms: King Lear’, Shakespearean International Yearbook, 1 (1999), 266–86. See Thomas Clayton (ed.), The ‘Hamlet’ First Published (Q1, 1603): Origins, Form, Intertextualities (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1992). For a useful account of the textural situation of Hamlet, see Leah S. Marcus, Unediting the Renaissance: Shakespeare, Marlowe, Milton (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 132–76. See Steven Urkowitz, ‘Back to Basics: Thinking about the Hamlet First Quarto’, in The ‘Hamlet’ First Published, pp. 257–91. See also Urkowitz, ‘“Well-sayd olde Mole”: Burying Three Hamlets in Modern Editions’, in Shakespeare Study Today, ed. by Georgianna Ziegler (New York: AMS Press, 1986), pp. 37–70; Urkowitz, ‘Good News about “Bad” Quartos’, in “Bad” Shakespeare: Revaluations of the Shakespeare Canon, ed. by Maurice Charney (Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses, 1988), pp. 189–206. See Kathleen O. Irace, Reforming the “Bad” Quartos: Performance and Provenance of Six Shakespearean First Editions (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1994). See also Irace, ‘Origins and Agents of Q1 Hamlet’, in The ‘Hamlet’ First Published, pp. 90–122. Laurie E. Maguire, Shakespearean Suspect Texts: the ‘Bad’ Quartos and Their Contexts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 338. Maguire, Shakespearean Suspect Texts, p. 256. See Stephen Orgel, ‘What is a Text?’, Research Opportunities in Renaissance Drama, 24 (1981), 3–6. Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, pp. 182, 203. The title-page of the 1602 Quarto of The Spanish Tragedy declares that it is ‘Newly corrected, amended, and enlarged with new additions of the Painters part, and others, as it hath of late been diuers times acted.’ Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, p. 206.
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154 Notes
53 Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, p. 207. 54. Gerald Eades Bentley, The Profession of Dramatist in Shakespeare’s Time, 1590–1642 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 263. 55. Sometime in his career, Philip Henslowe, who started as a theatre owner and ended as an impresario, seems to have learnt how to protect his capital by sequestering or impounding costumes and playbooks as security for outstanding loans. By his death he might have had a considerable stock of playbooks which he had accepted as settlement for various playhouse debts. See Neil Carson, A Companion to Henslowe’s Diary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 32. See also Andrew Gurr, ‘The Rose Repertory: What the Plays might Tell Us about the Stage’ in New Issues in the Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Theatre, ed. by Franklin J. Hildy (New York: Peter Lang, 1990), pp. 121–2; Gurr, The Shakespearian Playing Companies, pp. 77, 95–6. 56. For reproductions of the Fortune and the Hope contracts, see Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, pp. 306–10; and Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, IV, 466–8. 57. See John Orrell, The Human Stage: English Theatre Design, 1567–1640 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 22. 58. See Julian M.C. Bowsher and Simon Blatherwick, ‘The Structure of the Rose’ in New Issues in the Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Theatre, pp. 63–4, 70. 59. Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, pp. 307–8. 60. See John Orrell, ‘Beyond the Rose: Design Problems for the Globe Reconstruction’, in New Issues in the Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Theatre, pp. 111–16. See also Franklin J. Hildy, ‘Reconstructing Shakespeare’s Theatre’, in New Issues in the Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Theatre, pp. 13–17. 61. For the playhouses where plays were acted, I have relied upon Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, pp. 232–43. 62. See Bernard Beckerman, ‘The Use and Management of the Elizabethan Stage’ in The Third Globe, ed. by C. Walter Hodges, S. Schoenbaum and Leonard Leone (Detroit: Wayne State University, 1981), pp. 161–2. See also Andrew Gurr, ‘Doors at the Globe: the Gulf between Page and Stage’, Theatre Notebook, 55 (2001), 59–71. 63. See, for example, Alan Hughes (ed.), Titus Andronicus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 158. 64. Doctor Faustus survives in two versions, that is, the A (1604) and B (1616) texts. Only in the B-text, ‘Hell is discouered’ (TLN 2017). It seems likely that the A-text is closer to Marlowe’s original intention and that the B-text contains the 1602 revisions by William Birde and Samuel Rowley. Although the A-text has been discredited as a ‘bad quarto’, its status is currently being reconsidered. See, for example, Eric Rasmussen, ‘Rehabilitating the A-text of Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus’, Studies in Bibliography, 46 (1993), 221–38; Marcus, Unediting the Renaissance, pp. 38–67. The Jew of Malta, on the other hand, was first published in 1633 with the prologues and epilogues written by Thomas Heywood for performances at court and at the Cockpit. As Glynne Wickham warns us, neither play should be used as evidence for stage conditions in the late 1580s or early 1590s. See Wickham, ‘Exeunt to the Cave: Notes on the Staging of Marlowe’s Plays’, Tulane Drama Review, 8 (1964),
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Notes 155
65. 66. 67. 68.
69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82.
187, 189. However, since ‘j cauderm for the Jewe’ is included in the list of properties that Henslowe compiled in March 1598, the cauldron may have been ‘discovered’ in the performance of The Jew of Malta at the enlarged Rose. The same list includes ‘j Hell mought’, but since the portion of the B-text containing the stage direction, ‘Hell is discouered’ is thought a 1602 addition by Rowley, whether the hell mouth was used for Doctor Faustus at the second Rose is not certain. See Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, pp. 319–21. See Glynne Wickham, Early English Stages: 1300 to 1660, 5 vols (London: Routledge, 1959–), II, part 2, 177–8. Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, p. 7. Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, p. 308. See Richard Southern, The Staging of Plays before Shakespeare (London: Faber and Faber, 1973), pp. 560–1; Glynne Wickham, ‘“Heavens”, Machinery, and Pillars in the Theatre and Other Early Playhouses’ in The First Public Playhouse: the Theatre in Shoreditch 1576–1598, ed. by Herbert Berry (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1979), pp. 1–15; Andrew Gurr, ‘The Rose Repertory’, pp. 126–7. For further discussions of the possibility of a stage roof in the original Rose, see Eccles, The Rose Theatre, pp. 125–6; Jean Wilson, The Archaeology of Shakespeare: the Material Legacy of Shakespeare’s Theatre (Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1995), pp. 171–2. Carol Chillington Rutter (ed.), Documents of the Rose Playhouse (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), p. 42. See Eccles, The Rose Theatre, pp. 19–20. See John H. Astington, ‘Descent Machinery in the Playhouses’, Medieval & Renaissance Drama in England, 2 (1985), 121, 131. See Herbert Berry, The Boar’s Head Playhouse (Washington: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1986), p. 111; Orrell, The Human Stage, pp. 64–5. See Orrell, The Human Stage, pp. 65, 267. See Alexander Leggatt, Jacobean Public Theatre (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 50. See Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, IV, 466–7. See Orrell, The Human Stage, p. 173. See Orrell, The Human Stage, pp. 188–90. See John H. Astington, ‘The Origins of the Roxana and Messallina Illustrations’, Shakespeare Survey, 43 (1991), 149–69. See Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, pp. 159–60. See Andrew Gurr, ‘Playing in Amphitheatres and Playing in Hall Theatres’, Elizabethan Theatres, 13 (1989), 47–62. See Gurr, The Shakespearian Playing Companies, p. 25. 2 Henry VI (first published in 1594), 3 Henry VI (first published in 1595), and Titus Andronicus (first published in 1594) are especially important. Since the earliest text of 1 Henry VI is the one in the First Folio (1623), it may reflect later staging. 1 Henry VI is known to have been performed in 1592 at the Rose playhouse. (See Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, p. 16.) However, the triple entrance which occurs in 1 Henry VI F1 (TLN 720–2; 2.1.39) does not necessarily support the theory that the Rose stage had three entries. For a detailed discussion of the date of Romeo and Juliet, see Andrew Gurr, ‘The Date and the Expected Venue of Romeo and Juliet’, Shakespeare Survey, 49 (1996), 15–25.
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156 Notes
Notes 157
2 1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7.
8.
9. 10.
11.
Interrupted Exits and Their Implications Philip Edwards (ed.), Hamlet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). Edwards (ed.), Hamlet, p. 140 n. See Wells and Taylor, Textual Companion, p. 406. For some Shakespearean examples, see Love’s Labour’s Lost Q1, B4v (2.1.35); The Merchant of Venice Q1, B4v (1.3.176); Hamlet, Q2, E2r / F1, TLN 967 (2.1.74). When in Chapman’s The Gentleman Usher, act 3 Bassiolo exits and immediately returns only to exit at once, the stage directions for his two successive exits are both placed between his bidding farewell to Vincentio and Vincentio’s bidding farewell to him (Q1, D4v). See Edwards (ed.), Hamlet, p. 22. The Q1 text gives no stage direction for Gloucester’s exit. For some possible forms of his exit in the Q1 version, see Chapter 9. I cannot fully understand what Jay L. Halio really means when he says, ‘Although Cornwall repeats Regan’s command two lines later, F is probably right in placing the SD here; Cornwall’s repetition is for emphasis.’ See Halio (ed.), The Tragedy of King Lear (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 202 n. For a comment on the slow departure that Lance makes with his dog in The Two Gentlemen of Verona, 4.4, see Andrew Gurr and Mariko Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres (Oxford: Oxford University Press), p. 75. See Wells, ‘Editorial Treatment of Foul-paper Texts’. The Merchant of Venice Q1 provides a similar example. For a discussion of Leonardo’s ‘early exit’ (C3v; 2.2.167), see Mariko Ichikawa, ‘Time Allowed for Exits in Shakespeare’s Plays’, in Japanese Studies in Shakespeare and His Contemporaries, ed. by Yoshiko Kawachi (Delaware: University of Delaware Press, 1998), pp. 25–6; Gurr and Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres, pp. 75–6. Hamlet Q2 places the Ghost’s first exit in 1.1 immediately before ‘Tis gone and will not answere’ (B2r; 1.1.50), and places the Ghost’s exit in 3.4 immediately after ‘Looke where he goes, euen now out at the portall’ (I4r; 3.4.127). F1 uses the same placing of the two exits as Q2, and supplies a stage direction for the Ghost’s second exit in 1.1 immediately after ‘’Tis gone’ (TLN 141; 1.1.123). These Q2 and F1 directions seem to indicate the completion of the exits. Interestingly, Q1 places the Ghost’s first exit immediately before ‘See, it stalkes away’ (B1v; 1.1.48), and places his second exit after ‘stay and speake, speake, stoppe it Marcellus’ and ‘Tis heere’ (B2v; 1.1.122). The Q1 stage direction for the Ghost’s first exit seems to indicate the beginning of the exit. For an important discussion of the relationship between supernatural departures and onstage observers’ comments on them, see Alan C. Dessen, ‘Recovering Elizabethan Staging: a Reconsideration of the Evidence’, in Textual and Theatrical Shakespeare: Questions of Evidence, ed. by Edward Pechter (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1996), pp. 51–3.
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83. The term ‘top’ might have meant the hut. For a discussion of this question, see Chapter 9. 84. See Gurr, The Shakespearian Playing Companies, pp. 254–5, 303–5.
12. It is not absolutely certain that Shylock is intended to appear before Solanio says ‘for heere he comes in the likenes of a Iewe’. As outlined in Chapter 3, the relationship between entrances and such speeches as ‘Here he comes’ is not a simple question. 13. There is a stage direction which suggests that the required distance could also be from one side of the stage to the other: ‘En. 2. Citizens at both dores, saluting afar off’ (Fletcher and Massinger, The Double Marriage F1, 5D4v). I am indebted to Alan C. Dessen for this stage direction. 14. See Paul Nelsen, ‘Positing Pillars at the Globe’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 48 (1997), 324–35. 15. This example is atypical in that the character entering second to eavesdrop uses the opposite door. The locution ‘Enter X, [and] Y following’ is common, and it sometimes includes ‘aloof’ or its variants: for example, ‘Enter the Earle of Chester in his night gowne, and Shrimpe following aloofe of, some seruants wth him’ (Munday, John a Kent and John a Cumber, TLN 604–5); ‘Enter La Fin, Byron following vnseene’ (Chapman, The Conspiracy of Byron Q1, E1r); ‘Enter Byron Dau following vnseene’ (The Conspiracy of Byron Q1, H2r). Greene’s James IV has ‘Enter the King of England, the King of Scots, Dorithe his Queen, the Countesse, Lady Ida, with other Lords. And Ateukin with them aloofe’ (TLN 117–19). These examples suggest that the second character usually used the same door as the first character. Fletcher’s The Woman’s Prize provides another atypical example: ‘Enter Livia at one doore, and Moroso at another harkning’ (F1, 5N4r). In this example, Rowland, who is on stage, refers to the entrance as follows: ‘here she comes, / And yonder walkes the Stallion to discover’ (5N4r). In the surviving manuscript of this play the corresponding stage direction reads ‘Enter Liuia and Moroso (as vnseene by her)’, although Rowland’s speech referring to the entrance is substantially the same (Folger Shakespeare Library, MS. J.b.3, fol. 83a). I am indebted to Alan C. Dessen for drawing my attention to the difference between the two texts of The Woman’s Prize. 16. William Lower’s The Phoenix in Her Flames, which might have been unacted, has ‘Enter Rapinus listning before at the dore’ (Q1, G2r). 17. This kind of interrupted exit is a stock action in Elizabethan plays. Such stage directions as ‘offers to go’, ‘going’, and ‘exiturus’ would be fit to indicate the movement Rosalind makes. 18. Later Shakespearean Globe plays also provide similar examples. In Othello, 4.1, Othello calls back Desdemona, who has begun to depart two lines before (F1, TLN 2643–6; 4.1.247–50). In the trial scene of Henry VIII, generally considered Shakespeare’s share, Katherine ‘offers to depart’ (F1, TLN 1481; 2.4.119) and is called back by a crier three and a half lines after. In 3.1 of A Fair Quarrel, a Red Bull play written by Middleton and Rowley, the Colonel ‘Offers to go away’ and is called back by Captain Ager two and a half lines after (Q1, E4v). In the finale of The Maid’s Tragedy, a play for the King’s Men by Beaumont and Fletcher, Amintor ‘leaues her [Evadne]’, but stops probably three lines after and speaks a two-line speech, and then ‘Returnes’ to her (Q1, L2v). 19. See Alan Brissenden (ed.), As You Like It (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 116 n.
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158 Notes
20. Brissenden (ed.), As You Like It; Michael Hattaway (ed.), As You Like It (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 21. A similar thing can be seen in Hamlet, 3.1, where Hamlet begins to leave and interrupts his move twice. In each case, the line which Ophelia speaks between the beginning of Hamlet’s move and its interruption is almost soliloquy: ‘O helpe him, you sweet Heauens’ (F1, TLN 1789; 3.1.136); ‘O heauenly Powers, restore him’ (TLN 1797; 3.1.144).
3
Time Allowed for Exits
1. See, for example, Fredson Bowers, ‘Authority, Copy, and Transmission in Shakespeare’s Texts’, in Shakespeare Study Today, p. 19. 2. We need some economical and exact terms to describe those characters making entrances and those making exits. I should like to use ‘enterers’ and ‘exiters’ as the most explicit denotations for the characters entering and those exiting. Warren D. Smith uses ‘enterer’ and ‘exiter’ regularly in Shakespeare’s Stagecraft: as Denoted by the Dialogue in the Critical Printings of his Texts (doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1947) and Shakespeare’s Playhouse Practice (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1975). 3. See Chapter 6, ‘patterns f–h’. 4. As mentioned in Chapter 1, Alan C. Dessen’s discussion of the possibility that Seyton does not leave the stage is attractive. But I have chosen to include possible examples of patterns A, A+, and B. 5. F1 provides act and scene divisions throughout the play. The final sequence designated as 5.7 (‘Scena Septima’ (TLN 2394)) involves some breaks. For my counting of mid-scene entrances, I have used the scene divisions in the Oxford Complete Works (5.7–5.11). 6. See W.W. Greg, Dramatic Documents from the Elizabethan Playhouses, 2 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1931), I, 216–17. 7. I have used the edition of Tudor Facsimile Texts, because the edition of Malone Society Reprints does not very exactly reproduce the lines which the book-keeper drew to indicate the positions where his stage directions belong. In some cases, however, it is extremely difficult to decide the precise placing which the drawn line indicates. 8. See Bowers, ‘Authority, Copy, and Transmission in Shakespeare’s Texts’, pp. 19–20. 9. See E.A.J. Honigmann, ‘Re-enter the Stage Direction: Shakespeare and Some Contemporaries’, Shakespeare Survey, 29 (1976), 117–18; Mariko Ichikawa, ‘A Note on Shakespeare’s Stage Direction’, Shakespeare Studies, 22 (1985), 31–56; Ichikawa, Entrances and Exits on the Shakespearean Stage: the Translation of Printed Evidence (Ph.D. thesis: University of Reading, 1999), Appendix 6. 10. See Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Theatrical Vocabulary, p. 238. 11. For a similar view, see Roger Warren and Stanley Wells (eds), Twelfth Night (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 169 n. 12. For another specimen from The Taming of the Shrew (5.2.92–95m[94]), see Gurr and Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres, pp. 80–2.
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Notes 159
13. For a summary of control-texts, see Wells and Taylor, Textual Companion, pp. 145–7. 14. I am indebted to John Orrell for raising with me the important question of the time taken while exiters are actually offstage. 15. It should be noted that some critics think that Q1 and F1 represent different versions. See Steven Urkowitz, ‘“If I Mistake in Those Foundations Which I Build Upon”: Peter Alexander’s Textual Analysis of Henry VI Parts 2 and 3’, English Literary Renaissance, 18 (1988), 230–56; Barbara Kreps, ‘Bad Memories of Margaret?: Memorial Reconstruction versus Revision in The First Part of the Contention and 2 Henry VI’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 51 (2000), 154–80. 16. Biondello’s exit and re-entrance with his message from the Widow (The Taming of the Shrew, 5.2.92–95m[94]) is a similar case. I am indebted to John Orrell for calling my attention to the necessity of a pause in such examples. 17. See Gurr, ‘The “State” of Shakespeare’s Audience’, p. 177. 18. The Q1 text of Romeo and Juliet provides Juliet at least two lines to reenter below, though it gives no lines for the Nurse’s descent (G3v-G4r). Richard Hosley suggests the possibility that Q1 reflects a theatrical adaptation. See ‘The Use of the Upper Stage in Romeo and Juliet’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 5 (1954), 371–9. See also Irace, Reforming the ‘Bad’ Quartos, p. 87. 19. Beckerman, Shakespeare at the Globe, p. 230. 20. I am indebted to John Orrell for sharing with me his interpretations of the backstage arrangements shown in the Jones and Webb drawings of the two Cockpits. 21. Richard Hosley, ‘Shakespeare’s Use of a Gallery over the Stage’, Shakespeare Survey, 10 (1957), 78. 22. Although the action does not require their presence on the balcony until line 169, the stage direction, ‘They goe vp into the Senate house’ / ‘They go vp into the Senat house’ (Q1, A4r / F1, TLN 75; 1.1.63) clearly indicates their exit and ascent. 23. It is almost certain that the final scene of Titus involves Lucius and Marcus’s ascent to the balcony (5.3.65–65) and their descent to the main stage (5.3.144–144), although neither Q1 nor F1 provides any stage directions for the moves. As the dialogue suggests, the ‘vprores’ (Q1, K3r / F1, TLN 2572; 5.3.67) caused by Lucius’s killing of the emperor would have covered their ascent, and a trumpet sound and the onstage characters’ voice hailing Lucius (Q1, K4r / F1, TLN 2650; 5.3.145) would have covered their descent. See Jonathan Bate (ed.), Titus Andronicus (London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 268 n, 274 n. When in Fletcher and Massinger’s The Sea Voyage, Albert and Aminta ascend to the upper level, there is no dialogue to cover their move: ‘Exit. and Enter above’ (F1, 5A3r). ‘Hornes within’ (5A3r), which prompts them to make the ascent, would have been repeated, while they were making their exit and offstage ascent. Similarly, Dekker and Webster’s Westward Ho provides ‘Exit Bird. and enter aboue’ (Q1, F1r). In this example, Tenterhook and Luce, who have been on the upper level, and Wafer, who remains on the main stage, would make some gesture in order to fill the time needed for Birdlime’s offstage ascent.
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160 Notes
Notes 161
Speeches around Entrances and Exits
1. See Mark Rose, Shakespearean Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972), pp. 163–4. 2. I do not agree with J.L. Styan about the back-stage position of the hero and heroine, when he says, ‘Antony and Cleopatra must play out their first love scene, … framed upstage between the pillars’. See ‘The Actor at the Foot of Shakespeare’s Platform’, Shakespeare Survey, 12 (1959), 59. See also Styan, ‘Stage Space and the Shakespeare Experience’, in Shakespeare and the Sense of Performance, p. 206. 3. The overlapping of the exit and the entry brings about an ironic effect. Chapter 5 fully discusses overlapping exits and entrances. 4. Stage directions in square brackets are my additions. 5. I am indebted to Raymond Powell for calling my attention to the possibility. 6. See Horace Howard Furness (ed.), Romeo and Juliet: a New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1871), p. 114. 7. Exceptionally, T.J.B. Spencer (ed.), Romeo and Juliet (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1967) has adopted the late positioning. For his comment on the Q2 placement, see pp. 211–12. 8. Similarly, in Measure, 2.3 and All’s Well, 1.3, Juliet and Helena would make very slow or interrupted entrances. Either manner of entrance seems fit to express their states of mind. In Measure, 1.2, Mistress Overdone enters 13 lines before she is addressed (TLN 137–51; 1.2.42–56). Her entrance is heralded by ‘Behold, behold, where Madam Mitigation comes’ (TLN 138; 1.2.43). For a comment on her very slow entrance, see Andrew Gurr, ‘Staging at the Globe’, in Shakespeare’s Globe Rebuilt, ed. by J.R. Mulryne and Margaret Shewring (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 160. 9. For a similar comment, see Joan Ozark Holmer, ‘“Draw, if you be men”: Saviolo’s Significance for Romeo and Juliet’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 45 (1994), 180. 10. There is the speculative possibility that the roles of Chorus and Friar were actually doubled in the original performance. For the Q2 version, T.J. King assigns these two roles to the same actor. See Casting Shakespeare’s Plays, p. 174. 11. Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Theatrical Vocabulary, pp. 65–6. See also Dessen, ‘“Taint Not Thy Mind …”: Problems and Pitfalls in Staging Plays at the New Globe’, in New Issues in the Reconstruction of Shakespeare’s Theatre, p. 146. 12. I do not think that the nine-line speech should be spoken as an aside. For some comments on Helena’s early entrance, see Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch and John Dover Wilson (eds), All’s Well That Ends Well (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929), p. 130; Susan Snyder (ed.), All’s Well That Ends Well (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 100 n. 13. Alan C. Dessen suggests some interesting interpretations of Romeo’s early entrance. See ‘“Taint Not Thy Mind …”’, p. 146; Recovering Shakespeare’s Theatrical Vocabulary, pp. 65–6. 14. For a similar example in Hamlet, see Gurr and Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres, p. 87.
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4
15. This sorrowful image is often regarded as an inverted pietà. It may well be that Lear made this shocking entry through the central opening in the tiring-house wall. Chapter 8 deals with the use of the central opening for special entrances and exits. 16. See Vittorio Gabrieli and Giorgio Melchiori (eds), Sir Thomas More (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), p. 181 n. 17. For a similar example in King Lear, see Gurr and Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres, pp. 87–8. 18. The Q1 stage direction for Frankford’s entrance reads ‘Enter Maister Franckeford in a studdie’ (B4r). The New Mermaid’s editor notes that ‘in a study’ means ‘deep in thought’. See Brian Scobie (ed.), A Woman Killed with Kindness (London: A & C Black, 1985), p. 19 n. John Gough’s The Strange Discovery provides the stage direction, ‘The king raiseth himselfe from his throne, And sits downe againe in a studie’ (Q1, L3r), supporting Scobie’s interpretation of ‘in a study’. If Frankford speaks about his happiness in a pensive mood, the dramatic irony of his speaking about his domestic happiness might be emphasized. It is also possible that Frankford is discovered or that he enters with a book as if in his study. See Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Vocabulary, p. 161. 19. See George Walton Williams, ‘“Time for such a Word”: Verbal Echoing in Macbeth’, Shakespeare Survey, 47 (1994), 159; Williams, ‘Early Exits: an Open Letter to Editors’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 51 (2000), 205–10; Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Theatrical Vocabulary, pp. 48–9. 20. For another example of such scene-closing ‘Exeunt’ in Women Beware Women, see Chapter 7. 21. See Honigmann, ‘Re-enter the Stage Direction’, pp. 119–20. 22. It may well be, as John Jowett suggests, that Henry Chettle was involved in the stage directions for Q1. The fact that he was a dramatist as well as a stationer leads additional weight to the view that some stage directions, such as ‘She lookes after Nurse’, reflected theatrical practice. See ‘Henry Chettle and the First Quarto of Romeo and Juliet’.
5
Overlapping Exits and Entrances
1. Alan C. Dessen stresses this point and discusses effects resulting from the overlapping and juxtapositions of several kinds of elements. See ‘’Taint Not Thy Mind …’, pp. 135–58. 2. This example seems to require three doorways. It may well be that Abigail, the friars, the abbess, and the nun use the central doorway and that Barabas and Mathias use the flanking doors. Although this play, first published in 1633, should not be used as evidence for stage conditions in the late 1580s or early 1590s, this example is still suggestive when we consider the number of stage doors in the Rose. 3. See Chapter 6, ‘pattern d’. 4. In those cases where the exit is interrupted, I have added the stage direction ‘begin[s] to exit’. 5. For a full discussion of ‘passing over the stage’, see Chapter 7.
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162 Notes
6. A similar situation can be observed in The Two Noble Kinsmen, 1.5, where three queens make a processional entry from the same door and ‘Exeunt severally’ (Q1, D1r; 1.5.16). It is almost certain that the exit direction indicates the queens’ use of different doors. (See Chapter 8.) Although they are all on their way home, one of them has to exit by the door from which she has entered with the others. 7. In the F1 version, the captain and the rest of the army are likely to use the same door for their exits. For one thing, the split exit at the end of the scene would have been undesirable as it would have disrupted the smoothness of the scene change. For another, a short march scene ordinarily consists of a general entrance through one door and a general exit through the opposite door. The captain would leave the stage first while the others are still marching. The same thing can be said of Antony and Cleopatra, 3.8. I do not agree with the Oxford editors, when they suggest that at the end of this scene Caesar and his army exit by one door and Towrus by another. See the Oxford Complete Works and Michael Neill (ed.), Antony and Cleopatra (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994). 8. It may be relevant that Q4 (1708) prints Ferdinand’s entry after ‘You haue cause to loue me, I entred you into my heart’. See John Russell Brown (ed.), The Duchess of Malfi (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1974), p. 77. 9. I am indebted to Raymond Powell for calling my attention to the irony. 10. See Beckerman, Shakespeare at the Globe, pp. 176–8. 11. In certain cases, the props used in one scene may have been left on stage during the next. See Dessen, ‘’Taint Not Thy Mind …’, pp. 148–53. 12. These items are included in the list of properties that Henslowe compiled in March 1598. See Foakes and Rickert (eds), Henslowe’s Diary, pp. 319–21. 13. See Beckerman, Shakespeare at the Globe, p. 179. 14. In a copy of the fourth edition of Thomas Lodge and Robert Greene’s A Looking-Glass for London and England, which was used as a playbook sometime in the first half of the seventeenth century, the book-keeper regularly adds the word ‘clear’ at the ends of scenes. See W.W. Greg (ed.), A LookingGlass for London and England (Malone Society Reprints, 1932), pp. xxviii–xxxiii. ‘Exeunt cleere’ appears twice in the Qq2–6 and F2 versions of Beaumont and Fletcher’s A King and No King. See Fredson Bowers (gen. ed.), The Dramatic Works in the Beaumont and Fletcher Canon, 10 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966–96), II, 311–12. I am indebted to Alan C. Dessen for letting me know these facts. In the case of A Looking-Glass for London and England, Oseas is on the balcony and acts as a chorus from the beginning of scene ii until the end of scene xv. It would be very difficult to think that in each scene the book-keeper intended Oseas not to speak until all characters have disappeared from the main stage. 15. Evidently he emphasizes scene-breaks by inserting the word. However, in the two cases where he indicates that the sound of ‘Storme’ or ‘Tempeste’/‘Thunder’ should bridge two consecutive scenes (TLN 651, 901–3), he does not mark ‘clere’ at the scene-breaks. From these exceptional cases, it can be inferred that the Cockpit book-keeper may have thought of scenes in terms of fictional time and place. See Bradley, From Text to Performance, pp. 30–1.
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Notes 163
16. Gary Taylor and John Jowett discuss the changes made in Measure, 1.2 after Shakespeare’s death. According to their view, in the original form of the passage quoted above, only the Provost and Claudio entered as the Bawd and the Clown exited. See Shakespeare Reshaped: 1616–1623 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), pp. 151–71, 239–41. 17. Here F1, which reflects later staging, adds the stage direction ‘They sleepe all the Act’ (TLN 1507). For useful discussions of the meaning of this stage direction, see R.A. Foakes (ed.), A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 104 n; Peter Holland (ed.), A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 212 n. 18. In King Lear, 2.2, while Kent is sleeping on stage, Edgar enters, soliloquizes, and exits. Although the F1 text provides act-scene divisions, it does not mark a new scene at Edgar’s arrival (TLN 1251; 2.2.164). However, as Bernard Beckerman says, whether Edgar was supposed to be in the same part of the castle yard does not much matter. See Shakespeare at the Globe, p. 159. 19. The examples where the upper playing level is used include, for instance, The Taming of the Shrew, Induction.1.136–Induction.2.0 (Lord); 3 Henry VI, 5.6.94–5.7.0 (Richard); 1 Henry VI, 3.2.16–3.3.8 (Joan). In the case of 1 Henry VI, 3.2.16–3.3.8, however, it is uncertain whether there is a scene-break between the departure of Joan and soldiers (F1, TLN 1441; 3.2.16) and the arrival of Charles, the Bastard, and others (TLN 1442; 3.3.0). It is noteworthy that the Bastard’s speech, ‘Here entred Pucell, and her Practisants’ (TLN 1445; 3.3.3) suggests that the exit and the entrance overlap. In addition to this, there is a possibility that Joan ascends to the hut, not to the balcony. For a discussion of this point, see Chapter 9. 20. There are several instances in which a banquet is prepared. In all the instances of ‘Action’ counted in Table 5.1 the preparation of a banquet is found at the beginning of the scene. 21. For example, Julius Caesar F1 has a scene-opening stage direction which specifically indicates a delayed entrance of the characters who exited at the end of the previous scene: ‘Enter Caesar, Antony for the Course, Calphurnia, Portia, Decius, Cicero, Brutus, Cassius, Caska, a Soothsayer: after them Murellus and Flauius’ (TLN 84–6; 1.2.0). 22. See Wilfred T. Jewkes, Act Division in Elizabethan and Jacobean Plays: 1583–1616 (1958; repr. New York: AMS Press, 1972); Taylor and Jowett, Shakespeare Reshaped, pp. 3–50; Andrew Gurr, ‘The Tempest’s Tempest at Blackfriars’, Shakespeare Survey, 41 (1989), 91–102. 23. The following are the instances with costume changes in which the number of lines spoken between a character’s exit and his re-entrance does not run to more than 25. 1. Cymbeline, 5.1.33–5.2.0 (Last; Split=0). Posthumus dresses himself like a poor soldier. 2. King Lear, 3.7.92m–4.1.9m (None=13) [act-interval]. Gloucester changes clothes and puts plasters on his eyes. 3. Pericles, Sc.9.113–Sc.10.14 (Action; Split=14). Thaisa dresses herself like a woman with child. 4. 1 Henry IV, 2.2.73–2.3.0 (Action=16). Prince Henry and Poins disguise themselves in buckram. In this example, it is doubtful whether there really is a scene-break between the exit and the entrance.
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164 Notes
24.
25. 26. 27.
28. 29. 30. 31. 32.
6
5. Pericles, Sc.21.248–Sc.22.16 (None=16). Pericles takes off the wig and false beard he has been wearing. This costume change is very simple. 6. Titus Andronicus, 5.2.204–5.3.25 (Sound=25). Titus dresses himself like a cook and Lavinia veils her face. There are two other examples, in which entrances onto the upper playing level are involved. i) The Taming of the Shrew, Induction.1.136–Induction.2.0 (Last=0). The Lord dresses himself like a servant. ii) The Merchant of Venice, 2.5.56–2.6.25 (None=25). Jessica dresses herself like a boy. Irwin Smith also concludes that Shakespeare provides characters with sufficient time to move backstage from one of the side doors to the other, even in those instances where the so-called ‘Law of Re-entry’ seems to be violated. See ‘Their Exits and Reentrances’, pp. 7–16. For the possible use of the central opening for this exit, see Chapter 8. See Gary Taylor, To Analyze Delight: a Hedonist Criticism of Shakespeare (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1985), pp. 124–5. Sally Beauman’s comment on the overlapping of their moves in a RSC’s production is quoted by Gary Taylor in his To Analyze Delight: ‘the presence of both characters on stage at this moment lends weight to her desire to learn English’ (p. 118). For a similar example in Richard II, see Gurr and Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres, p. 95. For a comment on the continuity of the scene, see Philip Edwards (ed.), The Spanish Tragedy (London: Methuen, 1959), p. 41 n. Mark Rose treats 1.4 and 1.5 as a single scene and shows the design of the whole scene. See Shakespearean Design, pp. 103–6. Wells and Taylor, Textual Companion, p. 280. For some other examples, see 1 Henry VI, 3.2.16–3.3.0; 1 Henry IV, 2.2.89–2.3.0; King Lear, 2.2.164–164, 184–185.
The Use of Stage Doors
1. For examples where a character exits to avoid meeting an entering character, see The Taming of the Shrew F1, TLN 1819–21 (4.1.173); Love’s Labour’s Lost Q1, H1v–H2r (5.2.309–10); Hamlet F1, TLN 1203–8 (2.2.169–71); Hamlet F1, TLN 1707–9 (3.1.57); Twelfth Night F1, TLN 1036–8 (2.5.20–1). 2. In Dekker and Webster’s Northward Ho, after Captain Jenkins has begun to exit, Philip and Leverpool make successive entrances. The Captain ‘Meetes Phillip’ (Q1, C3v [sig. C3 is misprinted as D3]) and exchanges speeches with him, but completes his exit without noticing Leverpool’s arrival. The stage direction for Leverpool’s entry specifically indicates that he should use a different door: ‘Enter Leuerpoole at another dore’ (C3v). Middleton’s A Mad World, My Masters provides ‘Exeunt at one doore. At the other, enter in hast a footman’ (Q1, B3r). 3. Beckerman, ‘Theatrical Plots and Elizabethan Stage Practice’, p. 115. See also Long, ‘John a Kent and John a Cumber’, pp. 136–7. According to David Bradley, however, the purpose of making plots was ‘not, as Greg supposed,
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Notes 165
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
to direct performances, but to count the actors, to construct a framework for the correct making-out of their acting scrolls, to create a mutual accommodation between the cast and the text, and to direct rehearsals in the absence of the Book’ (From Text to Performance, p. 126). ‘Enter severally’ may sometimes indicate the characters’ separate entrances through the same door. There are examples which involve more than three characters: for example, ‘Enter 3 or 4 Citizens severally’ (Fletcher, The Island Princess F1, 3N3v); ‘Enter Albert, Aminta, Raymond, Lamure, Morrillat, Franvile, severally’ (Fletcher and Massinger, The Sea Voyage F1, 5C1r). In such cases either one or both of the flanking doors would be used for the characters’ separate arrivals, although there is no reason in principle why the central doorway could not be used. Shakespearean examples are ‘Embrace and part seuerall wayes’ (Timon of Athens F1, TLN 1579; 4.2.29); ‘Dombe shew. … Exit Pericles at one dore, and Cleon at an other’ (Pericles Q1, C1v; Sc.5.16); and ‘Exeunt severally’ (The Two Noble Kinsmen Q1, D1r; 1.5.16). These three are very special cases: the first example is for the departure of four or more servants; the second is for an exit made in a dumb show; and the last indicates a triple exit. For some other examples, see 1 Henry VI, 1.1 and Hamlet, 1.2. For a similar observation, see John Orrell, ‘The Polarity of the Globe’s Stage’, a paper delivered at the first ISGC conference held at the Globe Education Centre in April 1995, p. 2 See Orrell, ‘The Polarity of the Globe’s Stage’, p. 2; Franklin J. Hildy, ‘Oppositional Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatre’, Theatre Symposium, 4 (1996), 101–8. It should be added that in the penultimate scene of the B-version, where is found the stage direction indicating the two Angels’ split entrance, they make their final exits through special entry-points. First ‘the Throne descends’ from the heavens (TLN 2006), and as the Good Angel exits through the trapdoor in the heavens, ‘Hell is discouered’ (TLN 2017). The Bad Angel would then exit either behind the stage hangings, drawing them so as to conceal the ‘Hell’, or through the stage trap. There are some moments when the two doors do not represent the two Houses: for example, ‘Enter Bl.Kts pawne meeting the Black Bs pawne richlie accoultred’ (TLN 1604–5); ‘Enter Bl. Queenes pawne as Conducting the White to a Chamber, then fetching in the Bl. Bishops pawne the Iesuite conuayes him to another puts out the Light and shee followes’ (TLN 1941–7). When in the Induction to the play ‘the full Number of the Game’ (TLN 71) is introduced, the Q3 text adds ‘Enter seuerally in order of Game, the White and Blacke-Houses’ (A4r). J.W. Harper notes on this direction as follows: ‘The White House would presumably be on stage-right and the Black House, appropriately, on the “sinister side”.’ See Harper (ed.), A Game at Chess (London: Ernest Benn, 1966), p. 8 n. At the opening of 4.2, the Q1 entry stage direction uses the phrase ‘at one doore … at the other doore’ (G1v), while the F1 entry stage direction uses ‘at one dore … at another dore’ (TLN 1678–9). The F1 stage direction for the play’s opening entry uses ‘at one doore … at the other’ (TLN 3–5). As F1’s use of both phrases suggests, it would be dangerous to infer the number of doors from the occurrence of one or the other of these phrases.
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166 Notes
12. A Senecan Tragedy, Robert Wilmot’s Tancred and Gismund, which was performed at the Inner Temple, has ‘Megaera entreth into the pallace, and meeteth with Tancred comming out of Gismunds chamber with Renuchio and Iulia, vpon whom she throweth her Snake’ (TLN 909–12). In this example, since Tancred’s Palace and Gismund’s Chamber are represented by different entrances throughout the play, the meeting of the enterer and the exiter does not mean their use of the same door. 13. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 2.2, for example, Demetrius enters, followed by Helena, and exits only four lines later, leaving her (Q1, C4r; 2.2.89–93). Since he is running away from her, it is reasonable to suppose that he exits through the door opposite the one through which he has entered. In 2 Henry VI, 3.2, the Queen’s speech to the entering Vaux, ‘Whether goes Vaux so fast? What newes I prethee?’ (F1, TLN 2083–4; 3.2.371) and his reply to this question suggest that he must exit from the opposite door. Dekker’s 1 The Honest Whore has a stage direction which reads ‘Enter Candido, and Exit presently’ (4.3.25). Since Candido’s wife and his journeyman describe his movement by using the phrases, ‘passde by’ (4.3.31) and ‘past along’ (4.3.35), Candido would make his immediate exit from the opposite door. 14. Fletcher’s plays provide some more similar stage directions: for example, ‘Enter La-writ, and a Gentleman at the dore’ (The Little French Lawyer, 3.2.40); ‘Enter a Servant and R. Bax, and Stremon at the doore’ (The Mad Lover F1, C3v). 15. Shakespearean examples include The Two Gentlemen of Verona F1, TLN 1068–71 (3.1.0–2); 1 Henry IV Q2(=Q1), F4r (3.2.0–3); Hamlet F1, TLN 2851–7 (4.5.109–14); Macbeth F1, TLN 1064–6 (3.1.73–4). For some examples in non-Shakespearean plays, see Greene, 1 Selimus, TLN 1–6; 1 The Honest Whore, 4.4.0–1; Jonson, Sejanus, act 2, lines 162–4; Beaumont and Fletcher, A King and No King, 4.4.0–3. 16. See, for example, Timon of Athens F1, TLN 526–9 (1.2.172–5); Antony and Cleopatra F1, TLN 2194–8 (3.13.36–9); Henry VIII F1, TLN 1632–9 (3.1.14–19). 17. The Second Maiden’s Tragedy, which is usually ascribed to Middleton, has another example: ‘Enter the Tirant agen at a farder dore, which opened, bringes hym to the Toombe wher the Lady lies buried …’ (TLN 1724–5). Ann Lancashire, the Revels editor of the play, thinks that ‘a farder dore’ either is a door situated at a distance from the tomb or, alternatively, it is at a distance from the door through which he exited at the end of the previous scene. See Lancashire (ed.), The Second Maiden’s Tragedy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1978), p. 55. In my view, this stage direction indicates that the tyrant (and the soldiers) should make an immediate reentrance from the opposite door to that from which they have exited, so that their offstage crossing could contribute to the change of the location into the vault. 18. For similar examples, see 2 Henry IV Q1, E3v (2.4.385–8) and King Lear F1, TLN 2731–9 (4.5.278–84). When in act 3 of The Gentleman Usher Bassiolo exits and immediately returns only to exit at once, the stage direction for his re-exit reads ‘Exit instant’ (Q1, D4v). Act 5 of Sejanus provides another example, where Regulus’s movement is indicated by the following three stage directions: ‘The Consul goes out’ (line 116); ‘Returnes’ (line 121); ‘Goes out againe’ (line 126).
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Notes 167
19. See T.S. Dorsch (ed.), The Comedy of Errors (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 23–4. 20. See M.M. Mahood, ‘Shakespeare’s Sense of Direction’, in Shakespeare Performed: Essays in Honor of R.A. Foakes, ed. by Grace Ioppolo (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2000), p. 55. I am indebted to M.M. Mahood for sharing with me her observations of the Gray’s Inn screen. I have also made a visit to Gray’s Inn and checked the number of the doors in the hall screen. 21. See, for example, R.A. Foakes (ed.), The Comedy of Errors (London: Methuen, 1962), p. xxxv. 22. See Dorsch (ed.), The Comedy of Errors, p. 24. 23. The central opening might appropriately have represented the special door behind which the king’s dead body lies. For the use of the central opening by kingly characters, see Chapter 8. 24. F1 unaccountably makes Ross enter here with Macbeth and Lennox. For some comments on this question, see Nicholas Brooke (ed.), Macbeth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 135 n; A.R. Braunmuller (ed.), Macbeth (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 241–2. 25. For a similar example in Romeo and Juliet, see Gurr and Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres, p. 103. 26. In the Q1 text of the play, the opening direction of 3.2 reads, ‘Enter a Messenger to Lo: Hastings’ (F3r), indicating the same stage action as the F1 direction. Romeo and Juliet provides ‘Enter Frier Iohn to Frier Lawrence’ (Q2, L1r; 5.2.0). Michael Hattaway is right when he says that the stage direction, ‘Enter and knock’ suggests an entrance through one door and a cross to knock at another. See Elizabethan Popular Theatre: Plays in Performance (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), pp. 25–6. However, as discussed in Chapter 9, there are some exceptional cases where ‘Enter and knock’ is used to indicate that the ‘enterer’ stands behind a stage door and knocks at it. 27. See Julie Hankey (ed.), Richard III: Plays in Performance (London: Junction Books, 1981), p. 200. 28. The Q3 text of the play, which shows some light editing, adds ‘to L. Hastings’ after ‘Enter Catesby’ (F3r; 3.2.31). Unlike the scene’s opening direction, ‘Enter a Messenger to Lord Hastings’ (Q3, F2v), this mid-scene entry direction, ‘Enter Catesby to L. Hastings’ does not indicate the entering character’s cross to the opposite door, but indicates the enterer’s approach to the character who is already onstage. The reason why the writer of the stage direction felt the necessity of adding the adverbial phrase is not clear. 29. See Peter Thomson, Shakespeare’s Theatre (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1983), pp. 45–6. 30. See Tim Fitzpatrick, ‘Shakespeare’s Exploitation of a Two-Door Stage: Macbeth’, Theatre Research International, 20 (1995), 207–30. See also Mahood, ‘Shakespeare’s Sense of Direction’, pp. 33–55. 31. David Bevington argues that such dual imagined presence of inner and outer worlds lying beyond the stage façade is common in Shakespeare’s establishment of indoor scenes. See Action Is Eloquence: Shakespeare’s Language of Gesture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp. 130–3.
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168 Notes
32. I am indebted to John Orrell for sharing his research into these questions with me. 33. See Bradley, From Text to Performance, p. 32. 34. For an argument against the insertion of a scene-break, see Roger Warren (ed.), Cymbeline (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 150 n. 35. The same thing can be said of Hamlet and the Ghost’s exit and their reentrance in the 1.4–1.5 sequence in Hamlet. Act 2 of The Revenger’s Tragedy provides another similar example, where Lussurioso and Vindice exit, followed by Hippolito, and ‘Enter againe’ (Q1, D4v). 36. Julius Caesar, 2.3 provides another soliloquizer’s exit: Artemidorus’s departure contradicts his words, ‘Heere will I stand, till Caesar passe along’ (F1, TLN 1138; 2.3.11), whether he goes to the opposite door or returns to the same door. But he must exit by one of them. 37. The F1 text of Richard II, which appears to contain stage directions from a playbook, adds ‘Exit Gaunt’ (TLN 205; 1.1.195) ten lines before the general exit at the end of 1.1, although the dialogue provides no cue for John of Gaunt’s exit there. He had to exit earlier than the other characters so that he could start the next scene. I think that he and the other characters used the same door for their exits, and that he reappeared with the Duchess of Gloucester from the opposite door. His offstage crossing would have contributed to the audience’s awareness of the scene change.
7
‘Passing over the Stage’
1. Allardyce Nicoll, ‘Passing over the Stage’, Shakespeare Survey, 12 (1959), 47–55. 2. See, for example, Hattaway, Elizabethan Popular Theatre, pp. 25, 117–18; David Daniell (ed.), Julius Caesar (Walton-on-Thames: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1998), p. 155 n. 3. The title-page of The Hog Hath Lost His Pearl Q1 claims that this comedy was ‘DIVERS TIMES Publikely acted, by certaine LONDON Prentices.’ Nicoll says that this example from a non-professional play cannot outweigh the many other examples that support his theory. See ‘Passing over the Stage’, p. 55. 4. Besides these three plays, Chapman’s Caesar and Pompey, possibly unacted, also provides such a stage direction: ‘Alarme, excursions, of al: The fiue Kings driuen ouer the Stage, Crassinius chiefely pursuing: At the dore enter againe the fiue Kings. The battell continued within’ (Q1, F4v). However, this direction’s inclusion of the word ‘door’ may possibly be related to the fact that it is for an excursion. The use of the yard or the pit for excursions would have been very dangerous. 5. See Evert Sprinchorn, ‘An Intermediate Stage Level in the Elizabethan Theatre’, Theatre Notebook, 46 (1992), 73–94. 6. See Nicoll, ‘Passing over the Stage’, p. 48. 7. In this case, the reason why the door used is specified may be related to the fact that at least around the characters’ entrance and exit, the two flanking doors temporarily represent doors in fictional terms. This scene shows preparations to seat the audience for a masque, so the doors have a special function.
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Notes 169
8. Alan C. Dessen deals with stage directions indicating entrances as from offstage events. He points out that battles, dinners, and weddings are events which characters often enter as from. See Recovering Shakespeare’s Theatrical Vocabulary, pp. 134–9. 9. There are some cases in which it is not certain whether the excursion involves the pursuit or the pursuit takes place as a separate action: for example, ‘Excursions. The Bastard pursues Austria, and kills him’ (1 The Troublesome Reign of King John Q1, E2r); ‘Alarum within: Excursions ouer thee Stage. The Lackies running, Maillard following them’ (The Revenge of Bussy D’Ambois Q1, G1r). See Alan C. Dessen and Leslie Thomson, A Dictionary of Stage Directions in English Drama, 1581–1642 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 85. 10. See Bevington, Action Is Eloquence, pp. 139–47. 11. One really atypical example is in 1 Sir John Oldcastle. There, Lady Powis, who is already on stage, is directed to speak to Oldcastle and his wife ‘as she passeth ouer the stage by the~’ (TLN 2601–2) and ‘exit’ (TLN 2608). Lady Powis’s ‘passing over the stage’ is linked only with her exit, and not directly linked with the entrance which she made with other characters 25 lines before (TLN 2573–5). 12. Kenneth Muir suggests ‘upstage’ and ‘a raised place on the stage’ as alternative possibilities. See Muir (ed.), Troilus and Cressida (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 63 n. The Oxford Complete Works suggests the possibility that Cressida enters above at the opening of the scene and Pandarus joins her there at line 36. But it is highly unlikely that the main stage was vacant for as many as 180 lines until the first passer-by entered below. For a similar comment, see Leslie Thomson, ‘Broken Brackets and ‘Mended Texts: Stage Directions in the Oxford Shakespeare’, Renaissance Drama, 19 (1988), 190. 13. For a discussion of the central and peripheral parts of the stage, see Chapter 9. 14. For the reasons why the present positioning of the stage posts was adopted, see Jon Greenfield, ‘Design as Reconstruction: Reconstruction as Design’ in Shakespeare’s Globe Rebuilt, pp. 94–6. 15. See Bate (ed.), Titus Andronicus, p. 191 n. 16. Marvin Spevack (ed.), Julius Caesar (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 52 n. See also Norman Sanders (ed.), Julius Caesar (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1967), p. 150. 17. At the opening of Dekker’s 1 The Honest Whore, the procession and the character who tries to stop it enter simultaneously by different doors: ‘Enter at one doore a Funerall, … at an other doore. Enter Hipolito in discontented apparance: …’ (1.1.0). The Q1 punctuation is clearly wrong. The adverbial phrase ‘at an other doore’ must modify the clause ‘Enter Hipolito …’. It is relevant to note that the opening stage direction of 2 The Honest Whore Q1 reads ‘Enter at one doore Beraldo, Carolo, Fontinell, Astolfo, … ; at another doore enter Lodouico, meeting them.’ 18. ‘Enter Caesar, Antony for the Course, Calphurnia, Portia, Decius, Cicero, Brutus, Cassius, Caska, a Soothsayer: after them Murellus and Flauius’ (TLN 84–6; 1.2.0); ‘Enter Cinna the Poet, and after him the Plebeians’ (TLN 1813; 3.3.0). 19. Michael Neill describes this simple funeral as ‘a ritual display of humiliation … which announces an already shattered frame of order’. See ‘‘‘Exeunt with
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170 Notes
20. 21.
22. 23.
8
a Dead March’’: Funeral Pageantry on the Shakespearean Stage’, in Pageantry in the Shakespearean Theater, ed. by David M. Bergeron (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1985), p. 171. See Michael Hattaway (ed.), 1 Henry VI (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 69 n. David Bevington points out that the Shakespearean funeral procession is almost always interrupted or otherwise maimed. See Action Is Eloquence, pp. 146–7. See also Neill, ‘Exeunt with a Dead March’, pp. 170–1. See Wells and Taylor, Textual Companion, p. 217. See Eugene M. Waith (ed.), The Two Noble Kinsmen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), p. 22.
The Central Opening
1. See T.J. King, ‘Thomas Nabbes’s Covent Garden (1638) and Inigo Jones’s Drawings for the Phoenix or Cockpit in Drury Lane’, in The Development of Shakespeare’s Theater, ed. by John H. Astington (New York: AMS Press, 1992), pp. 185–202. 2. It is not certain whether this kind of entry stage direction always calls for a discovery. See Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Theatrical Vocabulary, pp. 155–64. 3. Several other examples of triple entrance are mentioned in Chapter 1. 4. The opening stage direction of Timon of Athens F1 reads ‘Enter Poet, Painter, Ieweller, Merchant, and Mercer, at seuerall doores’ (TLN 2–3). Since the Mercer neither speaks nor is spoken to or about, he is probably a textual ghost. The dialogue suggests two alternative ways of using the flanking doors. It may be that the Poet and the Painter enter from one side door, while the Jeweler and the Merchant enter from the other. It is also possible that the Poet and the Painter’s split entrance is followed by the Jeweler and the Merchant’s split entrance. 5. See Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Theatrical Vocabulary, pp. 127–49. 6. At the beginning of Hoffman, a Fortune play, the titular character ‘strikes ope a curtaine where appeares a body’ (TLN 8–10). Later in the same scene, when he orders Lorrique to ‘enter the caue’ (TLN 150), he probably refers to the curtained space. It is likely that not only Lorrique’s exit and re-entrance but also Hoffman’s scene-opening entrance, mid-scene exit and re-entrance, and scene-closing exit with Lorrique and Otho’s body are all made through the central opening. However, when in 5.1 Lucibella identifies Hoffman’s ‘caue’ (TLN 1972, 1978), the stage trap must have been used. Then she says, ‘Here, looke, looke here, here is a way goes downe’ (TLN 1975). The trap, which was associated with hell, would have most appropriately represented ‘The way to death and black destruction’ (TLN 1982). See Andrew Gurr, ‘Experimenting with the New Globe’, Archiv, 232 (1995), 282–3. There are a few stage directions that imply the use of the trap as a cave: for example, ‘An Angel ascends from the cave, singing’ (Henry Shirley, The Martyred Soldier Q1, H3v); ‘Victoria rises out of the cave white’ (The Martyred Soldier Q1, I1r). 7. See Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, III, 132–3. In The Merchant of Venice, from 2.6 until 3.3, outdoor and indoor scenes take place almost alternately.
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Notes 171
8. 9.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
15.
16.
17.
After Venetian characters exit by one side door at the end of 2.6, Portia, Morocco and their trains enter by the other side door at the beginning of 2.7. The opening speech delivered by Portia reads, ‘Goe, draw aside the curtaines and discouer / the seuerall caskets to this noble Prince’ (Q1, D2v; 2.7.1–2). This speech suggests that the central opening was covered by curtains in the previous scene, which took place on the street in front of Shylock’s house. 2.7 ends with Portia’s speech: ‘A gentle riddance, draw the curtaines, go, / Let all of his complexion choose me so’ (D3v; 2.7.78–9). Throughout 2.8, which takes place outdoors, probably in a Venice street, the central opening is covered by curtains. The repetition of the opening and closing of the curtains seems to suggest that, whether in outdoor or indoor scenes, the central opening was normally covered by hangings. Jay L. Halio suggests that either the trap or the central opening represents the entrance to the hovel. See Halio (ed.), King Lear, p. 183 n. I think that Stephen Orgel misunderstands Prospero’s speech, when he says, ‘If the discovery place is Prospero’s cell – into which the Neapolitans have just been invited to look – Ferdinand and Miranda must be concealed elsewhere, possibly in a small portable pavilion placed on stage only for this scene.’ (Orgel (ed.), The Tempest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 196 n.) It is clear that Prospero attracts the Neapolitans’, and the audience’s, attention so that he may present the discovered tableau effectively. David Bevington discusses the discovery of Ferdinand and Miranda as the culmination of Shakespeare’s growing interest in the curtained recess as a place of concealment and then revelation. See Action Is Eloquence, p. 117. Stanley Wells (ed.), A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1967), p. 138. See Foakes (ed.), A Midsummer Night’s Dream, p. 73 n. For a discussion of the F1 placement of the entry stage direction, see Foakes (ed.), A Midsummer Night’s Dream, p. 83 n. In Q1, a problematic text, the corresponding stage directions read: ‘She slips behind the Orras’ (D1r); ‘Enter GALLATEA, from behind the Orras’ (D2v). See H.H. Furness (ed.), King John: a New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, 1919), p. 280; A.R. Braunmuller (ed.), King John (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 204, 208. In Philaster, act 2, Gallatea re-enters from behind the hangings, immediately after Pharamond and Megra have said good-bye to each other and left the stage. Although the speeches spoken by the exiting couple are substantially the same in the Q1, Q2 and F2 texts, the three texts provide different stage directions for their exit: ‘Exit ambo’ (Q1, D2v); ‘Exeunt’ (Q2, D3v); ‘Ex. several ways’ (F2, E1v). If, as the F2 direction specifically indicates, Pharamond and Megra made a split exit, Gallatea would certainly have reappeared from behind the hangings concealing the central opening. One cannot be certain whether this example might show that ‘Exeunt ambo’ does not necessarily indicate two characters’ joint departure from the same door. For the possibility that the King and Polonius’s departure overlapped with Hamlet’s arrival, see Gurr and Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres, p. 91. For a similar conclusion, see Beckerman, Shakespeare at the Globe, pp. 193–5. See also Hibbard (ed.), Hamlet, p. 239 n.
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172 Notes
18. See Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, III, 54. 19. See Gary Taylor (ed.), Henry V (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), p. 170 n. Irwin Smith suggests that property gates were used in siege scenes. See ‘‘‘Gates’’ on Shakespeare’s Stage’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 7 (1956), 159–76. 20. 3 Henry VI, 4.8, 5.1; 1 Henry VI, 4.2, 5.5; Richard II, 3.3; King John, 2.1; Henry V, 3.3; Timon of Athens, 5.5; Coriolanus, 1.4. 21. De Witt shows no central opening in the tiring-house wall at the Swan. There is some possibility that Richard II was actually performed there in the autumn of 1596. See Andrew Gurr (ed.), Richard II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 35. 22. It should be noted that there is a possibility that the chair of state stood centre stage before the central opening throughout the performance of Richard II. The existence of a vacant throne would be visually significant, because this play deals with the change of the throne’s occupant. In the Flint Castle scene, if the throne stood centre stage, Richard might have appeared through one of the side doors after descending from the walls, and the effect of this would be more demeaning to his regal dignity than if he had entered through the central opening. See Gurr, ‘The “State” of Shakespeare’s Audiences’; Gurr (ed.), Richard II, pp. 39–41. 23. I think that there is a scene-break between TLN 1258 (3.3.83) and TLN 1259 (3.3.84). For a similar view, see Andrew Gurr (ed.), Henry V (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 125 n. 24. If the gates of a town or city were normally represented by the central opening, the following exit stage directions should be treated as directions specifically indicating the use of the central opening. ‘A short Alarum: then enter the Towne with Souldiers’ (1 Henry VI F1, TLN 608–9; 1.7.14); ‘Flourish, and enter the Towne’ (Henry V F1, TLN 1319; 3.3.141); ‘Enter the Gati’ (Coriolanus F1, TLN 543; 1.5.16); ‘They fight, and all enter the City’ (Coriolanus F1, TLN 568; 1.5.33). Gates scenes seem to suggest that the central opening was provided with doors which opened inwards (towards the tiring-house). 25. I am indebted to Andrew Gurr for this example. 26. See Bradley, From Text to Performance, p. 171. 27. When we consider this question, what part of the auditorium provided the best seats is a very important factor. Derek Peat suggests that the best seats were behind the stage in the lords’ room. However, as he himself admits, discoveries seem to contradict his suggestion. See ‘Looking Back to Front: the View from the Lords’ Room’, in Shakespeare and the Sense of Performance, pp. 180–94. Gabriel Egan argues that the likeliest location of the lords’ room is the extreme end of the lowest auditorium gallery nearest the stage. See ‘The Situation of the “Lords Room”: a Revaluation’, Review of English Studies, 48 (1997), 297–309. 28. In act 3 of Chapman’s The Widow’s Tears, which was performed at the Blackfriars and the Whitefriars, ‘Hymen descends’ from the heavens (Q1, G2v). 29. For a discussion of the nature of Hymen, see, for example, Brissenden (ed.), As You Like It, pp. 19–20. 30. The Oxford Complete Works suggests the possibility that in Pericles Diana descends from the heavens (Q1, I1v; Sc.21.224). If Diana did not fly, she would have used the central opening for her entrance and exit.
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Notes 173
31. For the two ways of staging a bed, see Richard Hosley, ‘The Staging of Desdemona’s Bed’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 14 (1963), 57–65; Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, p. 188. 32. The stage directions for the final entrance and exit of the ghost of Andrugio read: ‘While the measure is dauncing, Andrugios ghost is placed betwixt the musick houses’ (TLN 2023–4); ‘The curtaines being drawne, Exit Andrugio’ (TLN 2104). In private theatres, the music room was probably above the stage. In Antonio’s Revenge, the ghost’s final arrival and departure must have been made at the central part of the balcony through the hangings there. 33. See, for example, Jenkins (ed.), Hamlet, pp. 7–13; G.K. Hunter (ed.), Antonio’s Revenge: the Second Part of Antonio and Mellida (London: Edward Arnold, 1966), pp. xviii–xxi. 34. In Julius Caesar, 4.2, the ghost of Caesar might have used the central opening for his appearance and disappearance. In Richard III, 5.5, the ghosts of the characters murdered by Richard appear one after another. It seems more likely that each ghost enters from the side door closer to Richard’s tent, curses him, crosses to Richmond’s tent, blesses him, and exits from the side door closer to his tent. For a similar view, see Antony Hammond (ed.), Richard III (London: Methuen, 1981), p. 315 n. 35. Some Shakespearean characters speak their epilogues on the threshold between the inside and outside of the play: that is, Puck (A Midsummer Night’s Dream); Rosalind (As You Like It); the King (All’s Well That Ends Well); Prospero (The Tempest). For a relevant discussion, see Robert Weimann, Author’s Pen and Actor’s Voice: Playing and Writing in Shakespeare’s Theatre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 220–6. 36. It may not be irrelevant to note that Epicoene has a speech reading ‘you two shall be the chorus behind the arras, and whip out between the acts, and speak’ (4.5.29–30). 37. In A Game at Chess the White and Black Houses are represented by the flanking doors. It might therefore have been appropriate for the speaker of the Prologue to use the central door for his entrance and exit. However, the Prologue is succeeded by the Induction which begins with a discovery: ‘Ignatius Loyola appearing, Error at his foote as asleepe’ (Trinity manuscript, TLN 13–14). The speaker of the Prologue would probably have avoided using the centre, so that Loyola and Error could have been in position behind the central curtains while he is delivering the Prologue. The Epilogue of this play is spoken by the White Queen’s Pawn. Since she says ‘My Mistris the white Queene hath sent mee forth’ (TLN 2251), she would have used the door representing the White House for her entrance and exit. 38. A similar thing can be observed in Edmond Ironside. Just after the English army has chased the Danish army off the stage, the Chorus ‘attired in blacke’ makes his entrance (TLN 964). Battles are shown in dumb shows, and the Chorus explains the actions. The battles involve pursuits and a confrontation, that is, entrances and exits of the English and Danish kings and armies by the flanking doors. The Chorus would use the central opening for his entrance and exit. 39. See J.H.P. Pafford (ed.), The Winter’s Tale (London: Methuen, 1966), p. 168. 40. It may be relevant to note that clowns usually made their presence known first by sticking their heads through the hangings. See Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, pp. 146–7.
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174 Notes
41. See Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, pp. 146–7. According to David Bevington, a Biblical play, Godly Queen Hester, which bears evidence of production in the royal chapel, calls for the use of a ‘travers’, from which King Assuerus emerges and through which he departs, unlike the rest of the actors who seemingly enter and exit by regular means. See From Mankind to Marlowe, p. 30. 42. Andrew Gurr argues that ‘if Richard II first appeared through the discovery space’s hangings at the beginning of the play, all his subsequent noncentral entries would be less ceremonial and more human’, and that ‘if Bullingbrook entered through the central opening for Act 4, the transfer of power would be visually signalled even before the courtiers arranged themselves in a replication of the play’s opening scene’. See Gurr, ‘Experimenting with the New Globe’, p. 282. 43. See Orgel (ed.), The Tempest, p. 118 n. 44. See John H. Astington, ‘Malvolio and the Dark House’, Shakespeare Survey, 41 (1988), 61–2. 45. See Dorsch (ed.), The Comedy of Errors, pp. 22–3. 46. The F1 text, which was printed from a copy of Q1 compared with a theatrical manuscript of some kind, adds the final line, ‘You that way; we this way’ (TLN 2899; 5.2.915) and assigns it to the Braggart. For some interpretations of this line, see John Kerrigan (ed.), Love’s Labour’s Lost (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1982), p. 240; G.R. Hibbard (ed.), Love’s Labour’s Lost (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 235 n. 47. For some other theatrical possibilities of the words ‘please you draw neere’, see Philip C. McGuire, Speechless Dialect: Shakespeare’s Open Silences (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985), pp. 44–7, 55. See also Virginia Mason Vaughan and Alden T. Vaughan (eds), The Tempest (Waltonon-Thames: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1999), p. 285 n. 48. Among Ben Jonson’s comedies, Every Man In His Humour, performed by the Lord Chamberlain’s–King’s Men first at the Curtain and then at the Globe, has a comparatively harmonious ending. At the end of the play, Clement makes all the onstage characters friends and invites them to supper: ‘… and now to make our euening happinesse more full: this night you shall be all my guestes’ (Q1, M3r). The final general exit might well have been made through the central opening. However, the unnecessarily severe sentence which Clement gave to Bobadilla and Matheo when he dismissed them a short time earlier would have influenced the audience’s experience of the play’s happy ending. 49. If, in the finale of Pericles, a prop altar was placed in the curtained space, the general exit would have been made by a flanking door. In the finale of The Winter’s Tale, the curtained space was used to reveal Hermione’s statue. However, since Hermione comes forth from the discovery space, and the statue’s plinth could have been removed by stage keepers, the central opening might have been used for the general exit.
9
Alternative Possibilities
1. ‘And if the world like not this tragedie, / Hard is the hap of olde Hieronimo’ (The Spanish Tragedy (1592), TLN 2605–6). See Hibbard (ed.), Hamlet, p. 265 n.
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Notes 175
2. For example, Alfred Harbage (gen. ed.), William Shakespeare: the Complete Works (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1969), T.J.B. Spencer (ed.), Hamlet (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1980), and Harold Jenkins (ed.), Hamlet (London: Methuen, 1982) place the entry stage direction at the same position as Q2. Harold Jenkins thinks it unnecessary to see the arrival of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern as motivating Hamlet’s laugh. See Jenkins (ed.), Hamlet, p. 306 n. 3. See, for example, John Dover Wilson (ed.), Hamlet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1934), p. 206; Edwards (ed.), Hamlet, p. 165 n; Hibbard (ed.), Hamlet, p. 265 n. 4. Gloucester has to change costumes for the next scene. Gary Taylor argues that an interval between the acts makes F1’s omission of the dialogue of the servants possible. See Taylor and Jowett, Shakespeare Reshaped, pp. 48–9. 5. I am indebted to Raymond Powell for these interpretations. 6. The Oxford Complete Works and René Weis (ed.), King Lear: a Parallel Text Edition (London: Longman, 1993) include texts based upon the Q1 text. The Oxford Complete Works places the stage direction for Gloucester’s blind exit just after Cornwall’s order, whereas Weis places it just after Regan’s command. Jay L. Halio (ed.), The First Quarto of King Lear (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994) puts Gloucester’s exit just after Regan’s command. 7. See Gary Taylor, ‘King Lear: the Date and Authorship of the Folio Version’, in The Division of the Kingdoms, p. 424; Weis (ed.), King Lear, pp. 24–5. 8. See Wells and Taylor, Textual Companion, pp. 281, 284. 9. For a similar view, see Holland (ed.), A Midsummer Night’s Dream, pp. 179–80 n, pp. 212–13 n. 10. See Peter W.M. Blayney, ‘The Book of Sir Thomas Moore Re-Examined’, Studies in Philology, 69 (1972), 177–8. See also Scott McMillin, The Elizabethan Theatre and ‘The Book of Sir Thomas More’ (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), pp. 136–7. 11. See Giorgio Melchiori, ‘Hand D in “Sir Thomas More”: an Essay in Misinterpretation’, Shakespeare Survey, 38 (1985), 101–14. 12. For a similar example in Romeo and Juliet Q2, see Gurr and Ichikawa, Staging in Shakespeare’s Theatres, p. 118. 13. The Oxford Complete Works gives the plebeians an entry at line 4. There are some entry stage directions including the names of characters who should enter a few lines later: for example, ‘Enter King of Fairies, and Robin goodfellow’ (A Midsummer Night’s Dream Q1, D4r; 3.2.0); ‘Enter Hamlet, Rosencraus, and others’ (Hamlet Q2, K1v; 4.2.0); ‘Enter Leantio, and a Page’ (Women Beware Women Octavo, N1r; 4.2). ‘Enter Edmund with his rapier drawne, Gloster the Duke and Dutchesse’ / ‘Enter Bastard, Cornwall, Regan, Gloster, Seruants’ (King Lear Q1, E1r; Sc.7.40 / F1, TLN 1117; 2.2.41) may also be such examples. In either version the Bastard would surely rush in ahead of the other characters, although it is not certain whether they should enter at the point where the stage direction indicates or three lines later when Gloucester first speaks. 14. For a similar view, see Styan, ‘Stage Space and the Shakespeare Experience’, p. 202.
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176 Notes
15. Michael J. Warren, ‘Textual Problems, Editorial Assertions in Editions of Shakespeare’, in Textual Criticism and Literary Interpretation, ed. by Jerome J. McGann (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), p. 29. See also Halio (ed.), King Lear, p. 96 n. 16. John C. Adams, ‘The Staging of The Tempest, III. iii’, Review of English Studies, 14 (1938), 414–15. 17. Orgel (ed.), The Tempest, p. 164 n. See also Irwin Smith, Shakespeare’s Blackfriars Playhouse (London: Peter Owen, 1964), p. 412. 18. Hattaway (ed.), 1 Henry VI, p. 128 n. 19. Dessen and Thomson, Dictionary of Stage Directions, p. 233. 20. Adams, ‘The Staging of The Tempest, III. iii’, pp. 416–19. See also Peter Holland, ‘The Shapeliness of The Tempest’, Essays in Criticism, 45 (1995), 214–15. 21. In some performances of the 1994–95 RSC production, Simon Russell Beale’s Ariel spat at Prospero and then disappeared. See V.M. Vaughan and A.T. Vaughan (eds), The Tempest, p. 285 n. 22. For a useful discussion of this question, see Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Vocabulary, pp. 213–15. 23. Through his research at the new Globe, R.B. Graves has observed that although the amount of light on various parts of a well-shaded stage like the Globe’s is relatively uniform, the stage is brightest at its front and grows darker towards the tiring-house wall. He has established the fact that the centre of the front part of the stage always remains the brightest location. See Lighting the Shakespearean Stage, 1567–1642 (Carbondale and Edwardsville: South Illinois University Press, 1999), p. 107. 24. See Scott McMillin and Sally-Beth MacLean, The Queen’s Men and Their Plays (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 139–40. 25. For similar comments, see David Bevington (ed.), 1 Henry IV (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 169 n, 179 n. 26. See R.B. Parker (ed.), Coriolanus (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 297 n. 27. It is very likely that the Lord Chamberlain’s Men performed Romeo and Juliet first at the Theatre and then at the Curtain. However, since Shakespeare may have written this play before joining the company, he may not necessarily have expected it to be performed at the Theatre. For an important discussion of this question, see Gurr, ‘The Date and the Expected Venue of Romeo and Juliet’. 28. The F2 text of the play gives exit stage directions when Paris’s page and Balthasar should move to side or distant positions. 29. The corresponding stage directions in the F1 text of Bonduca are: ‘Enter 2d Daughter and a Servant’ (4G4r); ‘Enter Judas and his people to the door’ (4H3v); ‘Enter Drusus and Regulus, with souldiers’ (4H4v). 30. Jill L. Levenson thinks it possible that the Nurse actually enters onto the stage at the moment indicated by the entry direction. See Levenson (ed.), Romeo and Juliet (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 277 n. 31. In the Q1 text of Othello, the entrance of a ‘Messenger’ precedes the shout of ‘One within’: ‘What ho, what ho, what ho?’ (C1v; 1.3.12). It is almost certain that the entering ‘Messenger’ is the ‘Sailor’ who introduces himself as ‘A messenger from the Galley’ (C1v; 1.3.13). However, the
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Notes 177
‘Messenger’/’Sailor’ and the ‘One within’ may or may not be the same character. See E.A.J. Honigmann (ed.), Othello (Walton-on-Thames: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1997), p. 135 n; Scott McMillin, ‘The Othello Quarto and the “Foul-Paper” Hypothesis’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 51 (2000), 79–80. Other possible examples include ‘Enter Cassandra rauing’ / ‘Enter Cassandra with her haire about her eares’ (Troilus and Cressida Q1, D2v / F1, TLN 1082–3; 2.2.95). For a useful comment on this example, see Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Vocabulary, pp. 72–3. 32. In this scene, unlike Luce and Adriana, Dromio of Syracuse is given no entry when he begins to speak behind the door at TLN 653 (3.1.32). However the dialogue suggests that Luce and Adriana join Dromio there. For some other possibilities, see Foakes (ed.), The Comedy of Errors, p. 44 n; Dorsch (ed.), The Comedy of Errors, p. 67 n. 33. See Dessen, ‘“Taint Not Thy Mind …”’, pp. 154–6; Dessen, Recovering Shakespeare’s Vocabulary, pp. 103–5. 34. It must be noted that when in Macbeth, 3.3 Banquo makes his pre-entry shout ‘Giue vs a Light there, hoa’ (F1, TLN 1229; 3.3.9), F1 specifically directs him to speak within and provides no entry direction for his pseudoentrance. In a similar way, when in Measure, 1.4 and 4.3 Lucio and Isabella make their pre-entry calls, respectively, ‘Hoa? peace be in this place’ (F1, TLN 355; 1.4.6) and ‘Peace hoa, be heere’ (TLN 2192; 4.3.103), the F1 directions place them within. The use of stage directions in Elizabethan playtexts is by no means consistent.
Conclusion 1. See Dessen and Thomson, Dictionary of Stage Directions, pp. 84–6. 2. Robert Weimann, Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and Function (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), p. 212. 3. In his recent book, Weimann develops further his distinction between locus and platea, and considers not only contrariety but also liminality between the imaginary space in representation (stage-as-fictional-world) and the material space of theatrical (re)presentation (stage-as-stage). See Author’s Pen and Actor’s Voice, chapter 7. 4. Gay McAuley, Space in Performance: Making Meaning in the Theatre (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999), p. 29. 5. Whether the observer speaks or not is a very important factor of the audience’s experience of the main stage action. For a discussion of the effect of the spatial relationship between the observer and the observed on the audience response, see Michael W. Shurgot, Stages of Play: Shakespeare’s Theatrical Energies in Elizabethan Performance (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1998), chapter 7. 6. For example, when in Othello, 2.2 Othello’s herald reads a proclamation, he would address the audience. The Knight of the Burning Pestle provides a unique case where actors make their first appearances in the pit among the audience and then climb up onto the stage: ‘Wife below’ (Q1, B1v); ‘Rafe below’ (Q1, B1v). Pauline Kiernan, Staging Shakespeare at the New Globe
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178 Notes
Notes 179
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(Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999 – now Palgrave Macmillan) contains a detailed discussion of ‘dramatic illusion in the open playhouse’ (chapter 3). 7. Ros King, ‘Staging the Globe’, Shakespearean International Yearbook, 1 (1999), 130. 8. See Dessen and Thomson, Dictionary of Stage Directions, pp. 13–14.
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Plays and editions cited Abbreviations EEB: Early English Books (Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International) MSR: Malone Society Reprints (Oxford: Oxford University Press) Revels: The Revels Plays (Manchester: Manchester University Press) RRD: Regents Renaissance Drama Series (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press) SPF: Scolar Press Facsimiles (Menston: Scolar Press) TFT: Tudor Facsimile Texts, ed. by John S. Farmer (Edinburgh and London) Armin, Robert, The Two Maids of More-clacke (TFT, 1913). Bale, John, 1 & 2 King Johan, ed. by John Henry Pyle Pafford (MSR, 1931). ———, Three Laws of Nature, Moses, and Christ, Corrupted by the Sodomites, Pharisees, and Papists (TFT, 1908). Barnes, Barnabe, The Devil’s Charter (TFT, 1913). Chapman, George, Caesar and Pompey (EEB). ———, The Conspiracy and Tragedy of Charles Duke of Byron (EEB). ———, The Gentleman Usher (EEB). ———, May Day (British Library, Ashley 379). ———, The Revenge of Bussy D’Ambois (SPF, 1968). ———, The Widow’s Tears (EEB). Chettle, Henry, The Tragedy of Hoffman, ed. by Harold Jenkins (MSR, 1951). Clavell, John, The Soddered Citizen, ed. by John Henry Pyle Pafford (MSR, 1936). Clyomon and Clamydes (TFT, 1913). Cooke, J[oshua?], Greene’s Tu Quoque, or The City Gallant (TFT, 1913). Dekker, Thomas, Dramatic Works, ed. by Fredson Bowers, 4 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1953–61) [1 & 2 The Honest Whore, If This Be Not a Good Play, the Devil Is in It, Patient Grissil, The Shoemaker’s Holiday, The Virgin Martyr, The Whore of Babylon]. ——— and John Ford, The Spanish Gypsy (EEB). ——— and John Webster, Northward Ho (EEB). ——— and John Webster, Westward Ho (EEB). Eastward Ho (British Library, Ashley 371). Edmond Ironside, ed. by Eleanore Boswell (MSR, 1927). Edwards, Richard, Damon and Pythias, ed. by Arthur Brown and F.P. Wilson (MSR, 1957). The Fair Maid of the Exchange, ed. by Peter H. Davison and Arthur Brown (MSR, 1963). The Famous Victories of Henry V (EEB). Field, Nathan, A Woman is a Weathercock (EEB). Fletcher, John (and Francis Beaumont), Bonduca, ed. by Walter Wilson Greg (MSR, 1951). 180
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Bibliography
———, Comedies and Tragedies Written by Francis Beavmont and Iohn Fletcher (F1, 1647) (British Library, C.39.k.5) [Bonduca, The Double Marriage, The Honest Man’s Fortune, The Island Princess, The Loyal Subject, The Mad Lover, The Sea Voyage, The Woman’s Prize]. ———, The Dramatic Works, ed. by Fredson Bowers and others, 10 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966–96) [A King and No King, The Little French Lawyer, The Noble Gentleman]. ———, Fifty Comedies and Tragedies Written by Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher (F2, 1660) (British Library, C.45.i.7) [A King and No King, Philaster]. ———, The Honest Man’s Fortune (Victoria and Albert Museum, MS. D.25.F.9). ———, The Knight of the Burning Pestle (EEB). ———, The Maid’s Tragedy Q1 (EEB). ———, The Maid’s Tragedy Q2 (EEB). ———, Philaster Q1 (EEB). ———, Philaster Q2 (British Library, C.34.c.4). ———, The Woman’s Prize (Folger Shakespeare Library, MS. J.b.3) [By permission of the Folger Shakespeare Library]. Ford, John, ’Tis Pity She is a Whore (EEB). ———, ’Tis Pity She is a Whore, ed. by Derek Roper (Revels, 1975). Fulwell, Ulpian, Like Will to Like (TFT, 1909). Garter, Thomas, The Most Virtuous and Godly Susanna, ed. by B. Ifor Evans and W.W. Greg (MSR, 1937). Ghismonda (British Library, MS. Additional 34312). Gough, John, The Strange Discovery (EEB). Greene, Robert, Alphonsus, King of Aragon, ed. by W. W. Greg (MSR, 1926). ———, James IV, ed. by A.E.H. Swaen (MSR, 1921). ———, 1 Selimus, ed. by W. Bang (MSR, 1908). Heywood, John, A Play of Love (TFT, 1909). ———, The Play of the Weather (TFT, 1908). Heywood, Thomas, The Captives, ed. by Arthur Brown (MSR, 1953). ———, Dramatic Works, ed. by R.H. Shepherd, 6 vols (1874, repr. New York: Russell & Russell, 1964) [The Four Prentices of London]. ———, The English Traveller (EEB). ———, The Fair Maid of the West (EEB). ———, The Golden Age (EEB). ———, The Silver Age (EEB). ———, A Woman Killed with Kindness (EEB). ———, A Woman Killed with Kindness, ed. by Brian Scobie (London: A & C Black, 1985). Hughes, Thomas et al., The Misfortunes of Arthur (TFT, 1911). Ingelend, Thomas, The Disobedient Child (TFT, 1908). Jonson, Ben, The Case Is Altered (EEB). ———, The Complete Plays, ed. by G.A. Wilkes, 4 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981–82) [Epicoene, Sejanus, Volpone]. ———, Cynthia’s Revels (EEB). ———, Every Man In His Humour (SPF, 1972). ———, Every Man Out Of His Humour, ed. by F.P. Wilson and W.W. Greg (MSR, 1920). ———, Poetaster (EEB).
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———,The Workes of Beniamin Jonson (British Library, G.11630) [The Alchemist]. July and Julian, ed. by Giles Dawson (MSR, 1955). Kyd, Thomas, 1 Jeronimo (EEB). ———, The Spanish Tragedy, ed. by Philip Edwards (Revels, 1959). ———, The Spanish Tragedy (1592), ed. by W.W. Greg and D. Nichol Smith (MSR, 1949). ———, The Spanish Tragedy (1602), ed. by W.W. Greg (MSR, 1925). Lodge, Thomas and Robert Greene, A Looking-Glass for London and England, ed. by W.W. Greg (MSR, 1932). Lower, William, The Phoenix in Her Flames (EEB). Lupton, Thomas, All for Money (TFT, 1910). Lyly, John, Alexander and Campaspe, ed. by W.W. Greg (MSR, 1933). ———, Gallathea and Midas, ed. by Anne Begor Lancashire (RRD, 1969). ———, Sappho and Phao, ed. by David Bevington (Revels, 1991). The Maid’s Metamorphosis (TFT, 1912). Marlowe, Christopher, The Complete Works, ed. by Fredson Bowers, 2 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973) [Dido, Queen of Carthage, 1 & 2 Tamburlaine the Great]. ———, Edward II, ed. by W.W. Greg (MSR, 1925). ———, The Jew of Malta (EEB). ———, Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus 1604–1616: Parallel Texts, ed. by W.W. Greg (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950). ———, The Massacre at Paris, ed. by W.W. Greg (MSR, 1928). The Marriage of Wit and Science, ed. by Arthur Brown (MSR, 1961). Marston, John, Antonio and Mellida & Antonio’s Revenge, ed. by W.W. Greg (MSR, 1921). ———, Antonio’s Revenge: the Second Part of Antonio and Mellida, ed. by G. K. Hunter (London: Edward Arnold, 1966). ———, The Dutch Courtesan (EEB). Massinger, Philip, Believe as You List (TFT, 1907). ———, Believe as You List, ed. by Charles J. Sisson (MSR, 1927). Medwall, Henry, 1 & 2 Nature (TFT, 1908). ———, The Plays, ed. by Alan H. Nelson (Woodbridge: D.S. Brewer, 1980) [1 & 2 Fulgens and Lucrece]. Merbury, Frances, A Marriage between Wit and Wisdom (TFT, 1909). Middleton, Thomas, A Chaste Maid in Cheapside (SPF, 1969). ———, A Game at Chess, ed. by J.W. Harper (London: Ernest Benn, 1966). ———, A Game at Chess, ed. by T.H. Howard-Hill, John Creaser and H.R. Woudhuysen (MSR, 1990). ———, A Game at Chess Q3 (EEB). ———, A Mad World, My Masters (EEB). ———, The Second Maiden’s Tragedy (British Library, MS. Lansdowne 807). ———, The Second Maiden’s Tragedy, ed. by W.W. Greg (MSR, 1909). ———, The Second Maiden’s Tragedy, ed. by Ann Lancashire (Revels, 1978). ———, The Witch, ed. by W.W. Greg and F.P. Wilson (MSR, 1950). ———, Women Beware Women (EEB). ——— and William Rowley, The Changeling (EEB). ——— and William Rowley, A Fair Quarrel (EEB). Munday, Anthony, The Book of Sir Thomas More, ed. by W.W. Greg (MSR, 1911).
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———, ‘Textual Problems, Editorial Assertions in Editions of Shakespeare’, in Textual Criticism and Literary Interpretation, ed. by Jerome J. McGann (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), pp. 23–37. Weimann, Robert, Author’s Pen and Actor’s Voice: Playing and Writing in Shakespeare’s Theatre (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). ———, Shakespeare and the Popular Tradition in the Theater: Studies in the Social Dimension of Dramatic Form and Function (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978). Wells, Stanley, ‘Editorial Treatment of Foul-paper Texts: Much Ado about Nothing as Test Case’, Review of English Studies, 31 (1980), 1–16. ——— and Gary Taylor with John Jowett and William Montgomery, William Shakespeare: a Textual Companion (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987). Werstine, Paul, ‘A Century of “Bad” Shakespeare Quartos’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 50 (1999), 310–33. ———, ‘Narratives about Printed Shakespeare Texts: “Foul Papers” and “Bad” Quartos’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 41 (1990), 65–86. ———, ‘Plays in Manuscript’, in John D.Cox and David Scott Kastan (eds), A New History of Early English Drama (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), pp. 481–97. ———, ‘The Textual Mystery of Hamlet’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 39(1988), 1–26. ———, ‘Touring and the Construction of Shakespeare Textual Criticism’, in Laurie E. Maguire and Thomas L. Berger, Textual Formations and Reformations (Newark: University of Delaware Press,1998), pp. 45–66. Wickham, Glynne, Early English Stages: 1300 to 1660, 5 vols (London: Routledge, 1959 ). ———, Exeunt to the Cave: Notes on the Staging of Marlowe’s Plays’, Tulane Drama Review, 8 (1964), 184–94. ———, ‘‘‘Heavens’’, Machinery, and Pillars in the Theatre and Other Early Playhouses’, in Herbert Berry (ed.), The First Public Playhouse: the Theatre in Shoreditch 1576–1598 (Montreal: McGill-Queen‘s University Press, 1979), pp. 1–15. William, George Walton, ‘Early Exits: an Open Letter to Editors’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 51 (2000), 205–10. ———, ‘‘‘Time for such a Word’’: Verbal Echoing in Macbeth’, Shakespeare Survey, 47 (1994), 153–9. Wilson, Jean, The Archaeology of Shakespeare: the Material Legacy of Shakespeare‘s Theatre (Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1995). Wright, Peter M., ‘Jonson‘s Revision of the Stage Directions for the 1616 Folio Workes’, Medieval & Renaissance Drama in England, 5 (1990), 257–85.
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192 Bibliography
act-intervals, 12, 67, 121, 164 Adams, J.C., 125, 126 Admiral’s Men, 3, 16, 18 ‘afar off’, 29 Alabaster, William, Roxana, 17 ‘aloof’, 29 Armin, Robert, The Two Maids of More-clacke, 33 asides, 32, 53, 161 Astington, John H., 16, 17, 114 authorial revision, 11, 12, 22, 38, 119, 121 ‘bad quartos’, see memorially reconstructed texts Bale, John 1 & 2 King Johan, 151 Three Laws of Nature, Moses, and Christ, 151 Barnes, Barnabe, The Devil’s Charter, 14, 29, 75–6, 87 Beckerman, Bernard, 4, 14, 32, 42, 62–3, 74, 87–8, 164 Beeston, Christopher, 18 Bell Inn, 18 Bentley, Gerald Eades, 12 Bevington, David, 151, 168, 171, 172, 175 Birde, William, 12, 155 Blackfriars playhouse (first), 17 Blackfriars playhouse (second), 12, 17, 30, 43, 67, 68, 79, 126, 173 Blayney, Peter W.M., 122, 123 Boar’s Head playhouse, 13, 16 book-keepers, 6, 9, 10, 24–4, 35–6, 63, 64, 110, 119, 163 Bowers, Fredson, 36 Bradley, David, 109, 165 Brayne, John, 13 Bull Inn, 18 Burbage, James, 13
Capell, Edward, 106 chair of state, 4, 41, 96, 112, 173 Chamberlain’s–King’s Men, 5, 6, 12, 18, 106, 158, 175, 177 Chambers, E.K., 150 Chapman, George, 9 Caesar and Pompey, 94, 169 The Conspiracy of Byron, 158 The Gentleman Usher, 157, 167 May Day, 96 The Revenge of Bussy D’Ambois, 170 The Widow’s Tears, 173 Chettle, Henry, 8, 162 The Tragedy of Hoffman, 14, 171 Clavell, John, The Soddered Citizen, 33 ‘clear’, 6, 63–4, 163 Clyomon and Clamydes, 2 Cockpit playhouse (Phoenix), 6, 17, 18, 42, 63, 64, 102, 155 Cockpit-in-Court playhouse, 42 compositors, 9, 26, 27, 98, 122 Condell, Henry, 10 Cooke, J., Greene’s Tu Quoque, 16 costume changes, 67, 164–5, 176 Crane, Ralph, 6, 58, 61, 65 Curtain playhouse, 13, 15, 16, 175, 177 Dekker, Thomas 1 The Honest Whore, 96, 167, 170 2 The Honest Whore, 14, 170 If This Be Not a Good Play, 10 Northward Ho, 26, 79, 165 Patient Grissil, 14, 79, The Shoemaker’s Holiday, 92, 93 The Spanish Gypsy, 81 The Virgin Martyr, 17, 127 Westward Ho, 160 The Whore of Babylon, 109 Dessen, Alan C., 3, 4, 10, 48, 52, 125, 131, 133, 162, 170
193
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Index
Dorsch, T.S., 85, 115 doubling, 3, 74, 151, 161 Eastward Ho, 17, 33–4 eavesdropping, 29–30, 98, 106, 107, 122–4, 127–8, 136 Edmond Ironside, 108, 114, 174 Edwards, Richard, Damon and Pythias, 2 Egan, Gabriel, 173 entr’acte music, see act-intervals entrances delayed entrances, 66, 123, 124, 164 double entrances, 121–3 early entrances, 36, 47–9 ‘enterers’, 159 entry announcements, 9, 35–6 fast entrances, 8, 133 immediate re-entrances, 35, 37, 40, 42, 67, 81–2, 167 interrupted entrances, 28, 48, 133, 161 late entrances, 3, 27–8 quasi-entrances (invisible entrances), 129–31, 133 simultaneous entrances (split entrances), 63, 66, 68, 73, 75–6, 78–9, 108, 112, 114, 116, 170, 171 slow entrances, 48, 133, 161 triple entrances, 14, 15, 17, 18, 103, 156 wording for entry directions, 1–2 Evans, G. Blakemore, 8 excursions, 66, 79, 94–5, 108, 169, 170 exits delayed exits, 108 double exits, 26 early exits, 3, 22, 25, 26 exit cues, 9, 22, 35, 51, 89 ‘exiters’, 159 fast exits, 25, 33, 34, 134 interrupted exits, 8, 22, 26, 31, 32, 58, 60, 116, 134, 158, 159 quasi-exits, 127–9 ‘re-exit’, 82, 167
simultaneous exits (split exits), 63, 66, 68, 73, 77–9, 108, 112, 116, 163, 172 slow exits, 24–5, 33, 54, 62, 134 triple exits, 19, 103, 163, 166 wording for exit directions, 1–2 Fair Maid of the Exchange, The, 127 Famous Victories of Henry V, The, 2, 128 Field, Nathan, A Woman is a Weathercock, 25 Fitzpatrick, Tim, 88 Fletcher, John (and Francis Beaumont) Bonduca, 130 The Double Marriage, 158 The Honest Man’s Fortune, 2, 129 The Island Princess, 166 A King and No King, 163, 167 The Knight of the Burning Pestle, 87, 178 The Little French Lawyer, 167 The Loyal Subject, 80 The Mad Lover, 167 The Maid’s Tragedy, 92, 109, 158, The Noble Gentleman, 106 Philaster, 106, 172 The Sea Voyage, 160, 166 The Woman’s Prize, 103, 158 Foakes, R.A., 105 Ford, John, ’Tis Pity She is a Whore, 42 Fortune playhouse, 13–14, 16, 96, 97, 171 Fulwell, Ulpian, Like Will to Like, 2 Garter, Thomas, The Most Virtuous and Godly Susanna, 151 Ghismonda, 64 Gibbons, Brian, 153 Globe playhouse, 4, 8, 13–16, 22, 29–31, 43, 62, 68, 69, 73, 75, 79, 93, 95–8, 102, 104, 110, 125, 126, 137, 158, 175, 177 new Globe, 96, 98, 136, 177 Godly Queen Hester, 175 Gough, John, The Strange Discovery, 162 Graves, R.B., 177
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194 Index
Index 195
Halio, Jay L., 157, 172 Harper, J.W., 166 Hattaway, Michael, 125, 168 Heminge, John, 10 Henslowe, Philip, 155 Henslowe’s Diary, 3, 12, 15, 156, 163 Heywood, John A Play of Love, 151 The Play of the Weather, 151 Heywood, Thomas, 155 The Captives, 6, 7, 63 The English Traveller, 18, 79 2 The Fair Maid of the West, 79 The Four Prentices of London, 15 The Golden Age, 103 The Silver Age, 16, 103 A Woman Killed with Kindness, 52 Honigmann, E.A.J., 53, 154 Hope playhouse, 13, 17 Hosley, Richard, 42, 160 Humphreys, Arthur, 150 Ingelend, Thomas, The Disobedient Child, 151 Inner Temple, 167 Irace, Kathleen O., 11 Jenkins, Harold, 176 Jones, Inigo, 17, 18, 42 Jonson, Ben, 6, 9, 10, 12 The Alchemist, 2 The Case Is Altered, 152 Cynthia’s Revels, 152 Epicoene, 174 Every Man in His Humour, 152, 175 Every Man out of His Humour, 10, 152 Poetaster, 152
Sejanus, 167 Volpone, 96 Jowett, John, 162, 164 July and Julian, 150 King, Ros, 136 King, T.J., 102, 161 King Leir, The True Chronicle History of, 94 King’s Men, see Chamberlain’s–King’s Men King’s Revels Men, 17 Kyd, Thomas 1 Jeronimo, 91 The Spanish Tragedy, 2, 12, 16, 70, 81, 92, 93, 119, 120 Lancashire, Ann, 167 Levenson, Jill L., 177 locus and platea, 135 Lodge, Thomas, A Looking-Glass for London and England, 2, 163 Long, William B., 153 Lower, William, The Phoenix in Her Flames, 158 Lupton, Thomas, All for Money, 151 Lyly, John Alexander and Campaspe, 150 Gallathea, 2 Midas, 2 Sappho and Phao, 150 MacLean, Sally-Beth, 128 Maguire, Laurie E., 12 Mahood, M.M., 85 Maid’s Metamorphosis, The, 18, 103 marches, 60, 66, 91–3, 163 see also processions Marlowe, Christopher Dido, Queen of Carthage, 2 Doctor Faustus, 12, 15, 78, 102, 155–6 Edward II, 94 The Jew of Malta, 15, 57–8, 155–6 The Massacre at Paris, 131 1 & 2 Tamburlaine the Great, 2 Marriage of Wit and Science, The, 150 Marston, John Antonio and Mellida, 63–4
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Gray’s Inn, 85, 115 Greene, Robert, 5, 125, 152 Alphonsus, King of Aragon, 2, 5, 125, 152 Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay, 12 James IV, 158 1 Selimus, 167 Gurr, Andrew, 4, 18, 175
Antonio’s Revenge, 90, 111 The Dutch Courtesan, 30 ‘massed entry’ technique, 6, 58, 61 compare neo-classical scene division Massinger, Philip, Believe as You List, 6, 36 McAuley, Gay, 135 McJannet, Linda, 150 McMillin, Scott, 128 Medwall, Henry 1 & 2 Fulgens and Lucrece, 151 1 & 2 Nature, 151 Melchiori, Giorgio, 122–3 memorially reconstructed texts (reported texts), 5, 7–9, 11–12, 22, 38, 155 Merbury, Frances, A Marriage between Wit and Wisdom, 2 Middleton, Thomas, 12, 13 The Changeling, 81 A Chaste Maid in Cheapside, 15 A Fair Quarrel, 158 A Game at Chess, 15, 78, 174 A Mad World, My Masters, 165 The Second Maiden’s Tragedy, 129, 130, 167 The Witch, 13 Women Beware Women, 76, 99, 176 Misfortunes of Arthur, The, 150 Muir, Kenneth, 170 Munday, Anthony Fedele and Fortunio, 2, 114 John a Kent and John a Cumber, 152, 158 Sir Thomas More, 5, 50–1, 122–3 Nabbes, Thomas, Covent Garden, 102 Neill, Michael, 170 Nelson, Alan H., 4 neo-classical scene division, 1, 2, 6–7, 150, 152 compare ‘massed entry’ technique Newington Butts playhouse, 13 Nicoll, Allardyce, 90, 91, 169 Norton, Thomas, Gorboduc, 150 Orgel, Stephen, 12, 125, 172 Orrell, John, 14, 88
‘parts’, 3 Paul’s Children, 18, 26, 63 Paul’s playhouse, 17 pause, 32–4, 40, 43, 45, 62–3, 111 Peat, Derek, 173 Peele, George The Arraignment of Paris, 2 The Battle of Alcazar, 109–10 Phillip, John, Patient and Meek Grissil, 2 Pickering, John, The Interlude of Vice, 34 platea, see locus ‘plots’, 3, 62, 74, 109–10, 165 Pope, Alexander, 47 Preston, Thomas, Cambises, 2 processions, 69, 91–3, 95–101, 112–13, 134, 170, 171 see also marches Queen’s Men, 128 Rare Triumphs of Love and Fortune, The, 2 Red Bull playhouse, 13, 15–17, 127, 158 Red Lion playhouse, 13 rehearsals, 3, 5, 60, 166 repertory system, 3–4 Revels, Master of the, 3, 6, 10 Revenger’s Tragedy, The, 97, 169 Richards, Nathaneal, Messallina, 17 Rose, Mark, 165 Rose playhouse, 13, 15, 16, 18, 29, 30, 68, 70, 79, 93, 98, 109, 156, 162 Rowley, Samuel, 12, 155, 156 When You See Me, You Know Me, 130 Salisbury Court playhouse, 17 scene-breaks, 62–74, 76, 78, 81, 88, 149, 159, 163, 164, 173 Shakespeare, William All’s Well That Ends Well, 41, 48, 49, 161, 174 Antony and Cleopatra, 19, 37, 38, 44–6, 59, 163, 167 As You Like It, 30–2, 41, 83, 110, 174
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196 Index
The Comedy of Errors, 84–5, 114–15, 131 Coriolanus, 2, 10, 19, 127, 128, 173 Cymbeline, 19, 65, 88–9, 104, 149, 164 Hamlet, 10–12, 19, 21–4, 27–9, 30, 38, 59–60, 70–1, 80, 106, 107, 111, 112–13, 118–20, 157, 159, 165–7, 169, 176 1 Henry IV, 19, 41, 105–6, 128, 152, 164, 165, 167 2 Henry IV, 19, 35, 39, 99, 167 Henry V, 2, 8, 18, 68, 69, 109, 111, 114, 173 1 Henry VI, 18, 94, 100–1, 103, 114, 125, 156, 164–6, 173 2 Henry VI, 18, 39–41, 95, 156, 167 3 Henry VI, 18, 29, 156, 164, 173 Henry VIII, 15, 19, 95, 97, 110, 112, 158, 167 Julius Caesar, 1, 18, 41, 52–3, 76, 82, 100, 112, 124, 164, 169, 174 King John, 18, 19, 79, 106, 108, 173 King Lear, 11, 24–5, 33, 38–41, 50, 56–7, 74, 93–4, 104, 108, 112, 120–1, 123, 124, 164, 165, 167, 176 Love’s Labour’s Lost, 116, 157, 165 Macbeth, 9–10, 12–13, 19, 35, 85–6, 88, 95, 110, 131, 167, 178 Measure for Measure, 48, 49, 65, 131, 161, 178 The Merchant of Venice, 18, 19, 27, 76, 77, 80, 115, 157, 165, 171–2 The Merry Wives of Windsor, 6, 19, 39, 58, 80, 115 A Midsummer Night’s Dream, 12, 66, 71–2, 75, 76, 78, 82–3, 105, 115, 121–2, 128, 167, 174, 176 Much Ado About Nothing, 25–6, 34 Othello, 11, 18, 19, 39, 158, 177, 178 Pericles, 38, 96, 111, 112, 164–6, 173, 175 Richard II, 18, 41, 43, 49–50, 109, 112, 169, 173 Richard III, 39, 40, 51–2, 69, 81–2, 86–7, 100, 174
Romeo and Juliet, 7–8, 10, 11, 18, 34, 41, 42, 47–9, 53–4, 65–6, 80–1, 84, 111, 129, 131, 160, 168 The Taming of the Shrew, 33, 41, 82–4, 149, 160, 164, 165 The Tempest, 19, 67, 84, 104–5, 113–14, 116, 125–7, 174 Timon of Athens, 18, 103, 104, 166, 167, 171, 173 Titus Andronicus, 18, 39, 42, 67, 77–9, 98, 156, 160, 165 Troilus and Cressida, 11, 97, 178 Twelfth Night, 36–7, 112, 165 The Two Gentlemen of Verona, 6, 115, 167 The Two Noble Kinsmen, 19, 101, 103, 163, 166 The Winter’s Tale, 6, 19, 112, 175 Shirley, Henry, The Martyred Soldier, 171 1 Sir John Oldcastle, 29, 170 Smith, Irwin, 165, 173 Smith, W., The Hector of Germany, 15 Smith, Warren D., 159 sound effects (noises), 9, 10, 29, 35, 38, 39, 42–3, 60, 66, 82, 93, 97, 131, 133, 137, 160, 163 Spencer, T.J.B., 161 Spevack, Marvin, 100 Sprinchorn, Evert, 91 stage keepers (stage attendants), 30, 62, 63, 175 Stevenson, William, Gammer Gurton’s Needle, 150 Styan, J.L., 161 Swan playhouse, 13, 15, 16, 98, 173 Swetnam the Woman-hater, 16 Tailor, Robert, The Hog Hath Lost His Pearl, 90 Taylor, Gary, 68, 71, 164, 176 Theatre, The, 13, 14, 16, 18, 31, 68, 69, 73, 129, 177 theatres, component parts of central opening (discovery space), 14–15, 17–19, 30, 79, 86, 87, 100–17, 123, 126, 134, 162, 171–5 descent machine, 16–19, 110, 127, 152, 166
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Index 197
198 Index Trial of Chivalry, The, 103 1 Troublesome Reign of King John, The, 170 Udall, Nicholas, Ralph Roister Doister, 150 Urkowitz, Steven, 11 Wager, Lewis, The Life and Repentance of Mary Magdalene, 2 Wager, William Enough Is as Good as a Feast, 2 The Longer Thou Livest, 151 Wapull, George, The Tide Tarrieth No Man, 34 Warren, Michael J., 124 Webb, John, 42 Webster, John, 10 The Duchess of Malfi, 10, 60–2 The White Devil, 16, 46–7, 124, 131 Weimann, Robert, 135, 178 Wells, Stanley, 105 Werstine, Paul, 8 Wever, R., Lusty Juventus, 2 Whetstone, George, 1 Promos and Cassandra, 150 Whitefriars playhouse, 17, 25, 173 Wickham, Glynne, 155 Williams, George Walton, 52 Wilmot, Robert, The Tragedy of Tancred and Gismund, 167 Wilson, Robert The Three Ladies of London, 2 The Three Lords and Three Ladies of London, 16 ‘within’, 114, 130–1 Woodes, Nathaniel, The Conflict of Conscience, 150
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frons scenae (tiring-house façade), 4, 15, 18, 102, 114, 136–7 hut, 125, 134 lords’ rooms, 173 music room, 125, 126, 174 pit, 17, 90, 91, 169, 178 stage, 13–14, 17, 90, 93, 127, 128, 132, 135–6 stage balcony (upper playing level), 14, 17, 18, 34, 41–2, 97, 108–9, 125, 126, 134, 160, 163–5, 174 stage doors, 4, 14–15, 17–18, 30, 32, 35, 46, 50, 56, 58–60, 62, 70, 71, 73–89, 90–2, 94, 100, 101, 103, 107–11, 113, 115, 116, 126, 133, 134, 137, 150, 158, 162, 163, 165–7, 169–74 stage hangings, 4, 17, 102, 104–11, 129, 133, 134, 166, 172, 174 stage heavens (stage roof), 15–17, 30, 125–7, 134, 152, 166, 173 stage posts, 4, 16–18, 29, 30, 95–8, 127–9, 133, 134 stage rails, 15, 17, 90 stage trap, 13, 14, 17–19, 29, 104, 113–14, 134, 166, 171, 172 tiring-house, 14, 114 tiring-house stairs, 41, 42, 134 turret, 13 yard, 14, 15, 17, 90, 91, 169 Thomson, Leslie, 125, 133 Thomson, Peter, 87 ‘top’, 18, 19, 125–6 Travels of the Three English Brothers, The, 15, 94
